v^ ^i \ ^yr" \jr- ^' ANOTHER ,,- TE^iCHEST THOU NOT' cD?^GOGICAL g)tatc College of aigriculture m Cornell IHniberSitp Stljata, iS. g. Hibrarp D 16 ••50'^°''"*" ""'''^'■^'•y Library Methods of teaching history. 3 1924 014 089 969 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014089969 EDITED BY G. STANLEY HALL. o>«o VOL. I. Methods of Teaching Histoey. A. D. White, W. F. Allen, C. K. Adams, John "W. Burgess, J. R. Seeley, H. B. Adams, B. Emer- TON, G. S. MoRRLS, R. T. Ely, A. B. Hart, W. C. Collar, J. T. Clarke, W. E. Foster, and others. SECOND EDITION, ENTIRELY RECAST AND REWRITTEN. BOSTON : D. C. HEATH & COMPANY. 1896. ^5 COPYKIGHT, 1883, bt ginn, heath, & CO. V^C' o^ A-" COPTKIGHT, 1884, Bt GINN, heath, & CO. CONTEI^[TS. PAGE. Introduction . v By the Editor. Methods of Tbaching American History 1 By Dr. A. B. Habt, Harvard University. The Practical Method in Higher Historical Instruc- tion . '31 By Professor Ephraim Emerton, of Harvard University. On Methods or Teaching Political Economy .... 61 By Dr. Richabd T. Ely, Johns Hopkins University. Historical Instruction in the Course of History and Political Science at Cornell University .... 73 By President Andrew D. White, Cornell University. Advice to an Inexperienced Teacher op History ... 77 By W. C. Collar, A.M., Head Master of Roxbury Latin School. A Plea for Arch^ological Instruction 89 By Joseph Thacher Clarke, Director of the Assos Expedition. The Use of a Public Library in the Study of History . 105 By William E. Foster, Librarian of the Providence Public Library. Special Methods of Historical Study 113 By Professor Herbert B. Adams, Johns Hopkins University. The Philosophy of the State and of History .... 149 By Prof. G-EORGE S. Morris, Michigan and Johns Hopkins Universities. The Courses of Study in History, Roman Law, and Political Economy at Harvard University . . . 167 By HEiniY E. Scott, Harvard University. iv CONTENTS. PAGE. The Teaching of History 193 By Professor J. E. Seblet, Cambridge UniveMity, Eng. On Methods op Teaching Histoey 203 By Professor C. K. Adams, Michigan University. On Methods of Historical Study and Research in Columbia University 215 By Professor John W. Bubgess, Calum'bia University. Physical Geography and History 223 Why do Children Dislike History? 227 By Thomas Wentwokth Higginson. Gradation and the Topical Method op Historical Study 281 Part I. — Historical Literature and Authorities . . 239 n. — Books for Collateral Reading 296 in. — School Text-Books 303 Supplement 309 History Topics 323 By Professor W. F. Ailen, "Wisconsin University. Bibliography of Church History (see special index to this article) 337 By Eev. John Alonzo Fisheb, Johns Hopliiins Univeraity. IIsTTEODUCTIO]^. nnmS book was intended to be the first of a series entitled a Pedagogical Library, devoted to methods of teaching, one volume of which was to be occupied with each of the more important branches of instruction in grammar and high schools. The design and plan of the work was not to pro- duce systematic treatises, and still less to develop anything ultimate or absolute in method ; but to gather together, in the form most likely to be of direct practical utility to teachers, and especially students and readers of history, generally, the opinions and modes of instruction, actual or ideal, of eminent and representative specialists in each department. The present volume has been an unremuner- ated work of love on the part of each writer, and the appear- ance of subsequent volumes in the series is not yet assured. It should be added that the articles are printed in the order in which they were received by the editor. Teachers in whom a methodic interest has been awakened will find many useful hints in the following books, pamphlets, and articles : — Georg Oottfried Gervinus. Grundzuge der Historik. Leipzic, 1837. pp. 95. F. Jacobi. Grundzuge einer neuen Methods fiir den vaterlandischen Geschichtsunterricht in deutschen Schulen. Nurnberg, 1839. Vi INTEODTJCTION. F. Stiehl. Der vaterlandische Geschichtsunterricht in unseren Elementarschulei) . Koblenz, 1842. F. W. Miquel. Beitrage eines mit der Herbart'schen Padagogik befreundeten Sohulmannes zur L^re vom biographischen GescMchtsunterricht auf Gymnasien. Aurich, 1847. Lobell. Grundzuge einer Methodik des geschichtlichen Unterrichts auf Gymnasien. Leipzig, 1847. C. Peter. Der Geschiohtsunterricht auf Gymnasien. Ein metho- disoher Versuch. Halle, 1849. W. Assman. Das Studium der Gesohichte. Braunschweig, 1849. H. V. Sjjbel. Ueber den Stand der neueren deutschen Geschicht- schreibung. Marburg, 1856. /. F. C. Campe. Geschicbte und Unterricbt in der Gesohichte. Leipzig, 1859. Friedrich Karl Biedermann. Der Gesohichts-Unterricht in der Sohule, seine Mangel und ein Vorschlag zu seiner Reform. Braunschweig, 1860. pp. 45. G. Weber. Der Geschiohtsunterricht in Mittelschulen. Heidel- berg, 1864. Ation. Ueber die jSTothwendigkeit einer griindliohen Reform des Lehrplans fur den Geschiohtsunterricht auf Real- und hoheren Biirgerschulfin. Neuwied, 1870. M. Lazarus. Ueber die Ideen in der Gesohichte. Berlin, 1872. J. G. Droysen. Grundriss der Historik. Leipzig, 1868. pp. 38. Rudolph Foss, Realsohule Director. Wie ist der Unterricht in der Gesohichte mit dem Geographischen Unterricht zu verbinden. Dargelegt an der Darstellung der Mark Brandenburg. Eiue Anleitung fiir Lehrer und reiferen Schulern. Mit Karten. Berlin, 1874. pp. 48. K. F. Eberhardt. Zur Methode und Technik des Geschichtsunter- ' riohts auf den Seminarien. Eisenach, 1874. 0. A. Grullich. Beitrag zur Methodik des Geschichtsunterrichtes an hoheren Lehranstalten. Lobau, 1874. C Radenhausen. Osiris. Weltgesetze in der Weltgeschichte. Hamburg, 1875. INTRODUCTION. vii F. Muster, Hauptlehrer in Koln. Die Geschichte in der Volkschule ; eine von der Diesterweg-Stiftung in Berlin pramiirte Concur- renzschrift. Kbln, 1876. pp. 78. F. Krieger. Der Geschichtsunterricht in Volks-, BUrger- und Fortbildungsschulen. Eine Anieitung zur richtigen Ertheil-, ung der Geschichte. NUrnberg, 1876. R. Mayr. Die philosophische GeschichtsaufEassung der Neuzeit. Wien, 1877. F. L. W. Herbst, Recter der Kon. Landeschule Pforta. Die Neure und Neueste Geschichte auf Gymnasien. Mainz, 1877. pp. 40. Otiokar Lorenz, Wirkl. Mitgleid der K. Akademie der Wissen- schaften. Friedrich Christoph Schlosser und ueber einige Aufgaben und Principien der Geschichtschreibung. Wien, 1878. pp. 91. Clemens Nohl. Ueber die Nothwendigkeit einer griindlichen Reform des Lehrplans fiir den Geschichtsunterricht auf Real- und hoheren Burgerschulen. Neuweid. R. Nohascheck. Ueber der Geschichts-Unterricht in einer Volk- schule von acht Klassen. Ein methodischer Versuch. Mainz, 1878. pp. 38. F. Jodl. Die Culturgeschichtsschreibung, ihre Entwickelung und ihr Problem. Halle, 1878. H. Doer gens. Grundlinien einer Wissenschaft der Geschichte. Leipzig, 1878. M. Lazarus. Erziehung und Geschichte. Breslau & Leipzig, 1881. pp. 51. E. F. Oscar-Jager. Bemerkungen ueber den Geschichtlichen Unterricht. Beigabe zur dem "Hilfsbuch fur den ersten Unterricht in alten Geschichte." Fur Lehrer der Geschichte an Hoheren Schulen. Wiesbaden, 1882. pp. 47. Anon. Wie Studirt Man classische Philologie und Geschichte. Leipzic, 1884. Maurenbrecher. Geschichte und Politik. 1884. Ke/erstein. Historiches Wissen und historiche Bildung. Ziller's- pad. Jahrbuch XIII., p. 130, et seg. Viu INTEODUCTION. Zillig. Dev Geschichtliohe Unterricht in den elementaren Erzie- hung Schulen. Ziller's pad. Jahrbuch, XIV., p. 89, et seq. K. J. Eberhardt. Ueber Geschichts-Unterricht in Rein's pad. Studien. Heft 4. , E. Blume. Geschichts-Unterricht auf den Seminarien Rein's pad. Studien. P. Fredericq. De L'enseignement Superieur de I'histoire en Alle- magne. Revue de L'instruction 'publique en Belgique, 1882. pp. 18-79 P. Fredericq. L'enseignement Superieur de I'histoire a Paris. Revue Internationale de L'enseignement, 1883. p. 742. See also, Alte und neue AnSichten ueber die Ziele des Geschichts- Unterrichts. Von F. Noack. " Piidagogisohe Arohiv," 1883, Apr. 6. Der Lernstoff in Geschichtlichen Unterricht. Von E. Stutzer. Ibid. 2 Aug. Seignobos, Revue Internationale, 1881, X., and also in Revue, Internationale de L'enseignement, Tome I., p. 565, and Aug., 1884. Krauth's, Revue d'instruction publique en Belgique, XIX. The Study of History, its Lets and Hindrances, hy E. A. Freeman, 1879. See also his recent inaugural address at Oxford, both of vrhich are, however, little but reiterations of his theory of the unity, through Roman institutions, of Ancient and Modern history. In America nothing has heretofore been published of such value as "Methods of Historical Study," by Dr. H. B. Adams, in the Johns Hopkins University Studies, in " His- torical and Political Science," which he edits. Baltimore, 1884. pp.136. Also C. K.Adams's "Manual of Historical Study." The former work is in part Dr. Adams's contri- bution to the present volume. See, too, Mr. Atkinson's lectures on "History and the Study of History." For teachers of the young Adams's Historical Chart, and for all Tillinghasfs translation of Ploetz's "Epitome of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern History," Boston, 1884, will be use- INTRODUCTION. IX ful. Also, "Instruction in History," by Dr. G. Diesterweg, printed in the first edition of tliis book, but omitted and now published separately- Boston, 1884. Many of the systematic German treatises on pedagogy also contain suggestive chapters or sections devoted to the didactics of history ; of these, Kehr and Schrader may be mentioned as representatives. History was chosen for the subject of the first volume of this educational Ubrary because, after much observation in the schoolrooms of many of the larger cities in the eastern part of our country, the editor, without having a hobbj' about its relative importance or being in any sense an expert in history, is convinced that no subject so widely taught is, on the whole, taught so poorly. Most text-books now in use are dry compilations, and yet are far more closely adhered to than even the best should be in this department. Teachers of history generally give instruction also in several other often unrelated branches ; and, worst of all perhaps, history is crowded into a single term or year. Two radical changes, which have long since been found practicable in schools of coixesponding grades in Germany, are greatly needed here. First, there should be in all the larger towns special teachers, who should go from room to room, or from one schoolhouse to another, and give instruction in history alone. They might quahfy and be ex- amined in higher and higher grades of work, and this would tend to give to their vocation a professional spirit and char- acter. It is not impossible that, eventually thus, the way into X INTRODUCTION. the professors' chairs in our colleges and universities might be as open to teachers here, who have worked their way up through such an apprenticeship, as it is in Germany. The teacher's mind must be kept saturated with its spirit, stored with copious illustrations of its varied lessons, by wide and diligent reading, or history cannot be taught effectively to the young. The high educational value of history is too great to be left to teachers who merely hear recitations, keep- ing thefflnger on the place in the text-book, and only asking the questions conveniently printed for them in the margin or back of the book, — teachers, too, who know that their present method is a good illustration of how history ought not to be taught, and who would do better if opportunity were afforded them. Nowhere is so much of the time spent on text-books by pupils lost on school artifacts, mistaken for perplexities inherent in the subject itself. When we reflect that what men think of the world depends on what thej' know of it, it is not surprising that the wider altruistic and ethical interests, which it is a special function of history to develop, rarely become strong enough to control narrower and more isolated and selfish aims in life. Secondly, the time devoted to historical study in the pub- lic schools should be increased. So slow is historical com- prehension, and so independent of all cram- work, that even the time now given to history would probably be more advan- tageously used if distributed over more months or years, by devoting to it a correspondingly less number of hours per week ; though this could not be said of most studies, and is INTRODUCTION. xi not true of the examinable elements in this. We have not yet in this country considered the problem of adapting his- torical material to the earlier phases of the development of the childish mind from the first years of school life, as Ziller and his pupils, especially Rein, Pickel, and Scheller, have done in their recent Pddagogische Studien. The child's love of stories, they hold, is the earliest manifestation of historic interest, and should be developed by systematic story-telling, which, since the much-lauded invention of Herr Gvittenburg, has become a lost art. So important is this art, that normal schools should give special training in it, and it should be made, with respect to young classes, the culmination of pedagogic skiU. These writers have selected and arranged twelve of Grimm's tales, and would bring nearly the whole work of school the first year about these, upon the principle of the well-known concentration method of the late Professor Ziller. They are to be told and retold, and then reproduced by the children item by item, and moral and religious senti- ments, as well as aU manner of material information and illustrative object-lessons, made to centre about them. The next year connected stories from Robinson Crusoe are treated in the same way, till the child comes to almost identify itself with the hero, and repeat with him the slow progress, not unlike that of the race, from destitution to comfort and com- parative civilization bj' the use of powers which every child feels itself possessed of and as competent as Robinson to put forth under like circumstances for his own amelioration. Later select tales from the Old Testament are made the focal XU INTRODUCTION. points of the school work. Thus the unity of the child's mind is secured from distracting special studies, which with advancing school years become more and more independent and isolated. Selections from the Odyssey, the Norse sagas, tales from Shakespeare, Herodotus, Livy, Xenophon, etc., follow, —all stimulating the historical sense, and creating centres of interest before technical instruction in history begins. A teacher who has a prescribed period of history in which to qualify pupils in a given time should elect a method with the greatest care. For certain periods and for certain ages it may be best to group all the material about the biographies of eminent men ; for others, about important battles ; while a purely pragmatic narrative may again be most effective. With somewhat older children, the investigating method, which follows the order and describes the process of search and discovery of historic facts ; or the discussive method, which applies a body, of historic material to the determina- tion or elucidation of a problem of the present ; or the other presentative methods which Droysen has enumerated, may have peculiar pedagogic merit. No rules can be laid down here or anywhere in pedagogy to be followed blindly. What is essential is that the teacher shall know and ponder many good methods, so that he may have a wide repertory of means from which to choose the best for the attainment of his ends. A purely colorless presentation of facts, such as used to be postulated, is clearly impossible for the average teacher, INTEODUCTION. xiii and, could it be secured, would rob his instruction of most of its value and interest, — and 3-et it is the safest of all ideals. Teachers of the grades here contemplated seem just now peculiarly liable to hobbies which sometimes actually deform the pupil's historic sense, and illustrate the danger of great ideas to minds not well disciplined for them. Some who have very lately caught the national idea of Freeman, Stubbs, etc., do scan tj' justice to Norman influence in English his- tory. Others, who have realized the pregnant sense in which "history is past politics," forget the other sense in which the history of the world has been at nearly every point very different from the history of the conscious purposes of the leaders in its movements, and that " while men thought they were doing this thing by these means, it was later seen that they were really doing quite other things by very different means." Phjsical geography, as impor- tant perhaps for a correct understanding of historic events as some knowledge of the senses ajid the brain is for mental science, is very apt to be too much neglected or, though far more rarely, to be made too prominent. History, a wise teacher has said in substance, is neither a theophanj', or a series of special providences, nor a play of absolute ideas on the one hand, nor the product of material necessity on the other. This dualism is not normal, and a true peda- gogy, like a true philosophy of history, will tend to reconcile and not to emphasize it. If a teacher feels the need of a philosophy of history as a background for his methods and as a safeguard against one-sidedness, he will hardly find a nv INTEODTJCTION. saner one than in the chapters of the third volume of Lotze's Microcosm., which opens up a broad and safe middle way between extremes, like those of Hegel and Helwald ; but let him remember that philosophic ideas, whUe they may often enliven historic work, are dangerous if premature, and should be made centres of historic interest only quite late in the pupil's mental development. The liberality of the publishers has made it possible to eliminate from the second about half the material of the first edition and to substitute new matter to an extent which somewhat enlarges the volume, and of a kind which it is believed so increases its value and utility that readers of the old edition will find this essentially a new work. If the methods detailed in the first edition were mainly for advanced historical training, or for teaching ' ' not so much historj', as how to studj' history," the present collection of essays will, it is hoped, prove of service to teachers of all grades. G. STANLEY HALL. Johns Hopkins University, Dec. 16, 18S4. Methods of Teachim American Histoey. Bt Dr. a. B. Hart, Harvard Univeksitt. CONSIDERING the thought which has been devoted to the deduction of general principles, applicable to historj' as a science, wherever taught, it seems almost presuming to assume that there are any peculiav methods of teaching American history. It is always well, however, to test principles by finding out whether they may be adapted to a particular case ; and if any history meets with special diflBculties, and needs a special treatment, it is that of our own country. In the first place, it is almost always the first, and often the last, branch of the subject to be pursued at all. In the second place, there exists not only a negative ignorance as to the facts on which it is based, but too often a positive misinformation, — a structure to be pulled down before one can begin to build. It is only necessary to turn to the Con- gressional Globe, or to the columns of a newspaper, to find out that public men. know a great many things about the history of the United States which never happened. Where there is good will to learn the truth, there is usually an un- trained helplessness about using books. Where there is discrimination, and a readiness to choose the best, there is a lack of trustworthy authorities in compact form. The luminous brief histories with which the Germans abound simply do not exist in America. After 1820, there is no narrative history which can be used as a college text-book ; and, till Von Hoist wrote, there was no critical history whatever. 2 METHODS OF TEACHING Yet no country can boast of a richer or more instructive past : it is full of interesting detail ; it has, in the slaverj" contest, the most dramatic episode of the century ; it abounds in questions which have nowhere else been worked out ; no other government ever had more revenue than it could spend ; no other country ever disposed of the soil of half a continent ; no other people ever successfully developed a strong federa- tion. To Americans the great questions of national policy are of peculiar interest, because capable of personal associa- tion. To give an exanjple : one of the students at Harvard, who is writing a thesis on the fugitive slave law, has gone for information to a man who had been tried under that law before the student's father. Thus American historj- has, at home, a presumption in its favor. It is important not only to the American, but for any student of political science. It appeals to that practical side of the American character, which is likely to prefer a subject which has an evident use bej'ond collegiate life. Finally, the authorities are easy to find, wherever there is a library ; and there is no lack of interesting questions waiting for investigators. American history will, therefore, be studied more than other history ; it is not learned without study ; it is worth studying for itself; it appeals to Americans ; and the materials are at hand. The next question is. How shall it be studied? The question naturally divides itself into a discussion of general principles, arrangement and division, purpose, point of view, manner of instruction, helps to the student, and tests. First of all, it is necessary to lay down certain fundamental principles in such form as to leave them sharply defined in the minds of the students. They may be so framed as to correct a few of the more dangerous popular errors about the real relations of the United States to other countries. AMEBICAN HISTORY. 3 It might be well to draw up and print some such list as the following : — Fundamental Principles of American History. 1. No nation has a history disconnected from that of the rest of the world : the United States is closely related, in point of time, with previous ages ; in point of space, with other civilized countries. 2. Institutions are a gro'v^th, and not a creation : the Consti- tution of the United States itself is constantly changing with the changes in public opinion. 3. Our institutions are Teutonic in origin : they have come to us through English institutions. 4. The gTowth of our institutions has been from local to central : the general government can, therefore, be understood only in the light of the early history of the country. 5. The principle of union is of slow growth in America: the Constitution was formed from necessity, and not from preference. 6. Under a federal form of government there must inevitably be a, perpetual contest of authority between the States and the general government : hence the two opposing doctrines of States- rights and of nationality. 7. National politicEil parties naturally appeal to the federal principle when in power, and to the local principle when out of power. 8. When parties become distinctly sectional, a trial of strength between a part of the States and the general government must come sooner or later. To descend from the abstract to the concrete, perhaps no better way can be found for suggesting a method for the study of American history than to describe the methods actually in use in Harvard College. It is to be borne in mind that the system is still incomplete and imperfect, and that a part only of the devices to be enumerated have been put into operation. 4 METHODS OF TEACHIKG Beginning with 1884, two full courses, each consisting of three lectures a week, will be given. Together they are to cover the whole period from the earliest settlements to the Civil War ; although intended to form a sj-stematic whole, each is to be complete in itself. The first course (1600-1789) is intended for a small number of students, and will be sug- gestive rather than didactic. The point of view will be: first, the origin of our local institutions; and, later on,, the nature' of the Constitution, as illustrated by the preceding history of the United Colonies and United States. The second course (1789-1861) is one of the larger electives in college ; what follows may be considered as applying more particularly to this course, — the history of the United States under the Constitution. From 1775 down, a course on American history ought to be primarily for instruction. If human nature were otherwise, if the fitting schools gave a diflferent preparation, another method might be followed. As it is, few students know anything positive about institutions ; how should they, with- out any good elementary text-books ? Our political treatises and speeches show the lack of knowledge, and the danger of generalizing without it. Van Buren's "Political Parties" is an example of a book which thus assumes history instead of teaching it. On the other hand, it is quite as undesirable for the student to accept the instructor's generalizations ready-made. With bright students it is perfectly possible, after putting clearly before them the facts and the deductions of both sides, to extract from them an independent judg- ment. They may be required to read specific references, and then to submit, in brief form, a written opinion embodying their own conclusions. It is, of course, essential not to turn the lecture-room into a primary meeting by discussing politi- cal parties as they now exist. Part of the duty of the AMERICAN HISTORY. 5 instructor is to point out the evils in oui- political system ; but having once based his deduction on ascertained facts, he may safely leave the application to the student. The sug- gestive method is not to be left out of sight ; but suggestions must follow and not precede knowledge. In the present state of the preparatory schools, the present want of text- books, the present superficiality of more general works, the present mass of ill-digested material, if the instructor does not himself supply accurate and detailed information, his students will not have it. With all the restrictions thus laid upon him, it is still possible for the instructor to select a point of view which will oblige his students to think, and to see the relation of one part of history to another ; it is, the comparison of the past with the present. No history is better adapted to the method than our own ; no treatment lends more life to a course, or appeals more stronglj' to young minds. The con- nection between a subject under discussion, and the same subject in our present system, is always useful in itself and fructifjdng to the mind. To give a specific instance : After a lecture on Jackson's removals, and the effect of the system thus introduced, the students were last j-ear required to submit a written suggestion for a remedy. The results were crude, but thoughtful, and in some cases shrewd and far- seeing. Care should be taken, however, to preserve the consistency of the course ; it is a mistake to work from the present backward. If each topic, as it comes up in its logical order, is sketched out clear to its present status, the con- nection of events with each other need not be broken. The only practicable form of instruction at Harvard seems to be that of lectures. The classes are too large for recita- tions, even did proper text-books exist. In lectures alone can the instructor arrange the proportions of the course him- 6 METHODS OP TEAOHLNG self. In connection with lectures the student may be led to use many books, instead of two or three, or half a dozen. The lectures are all, or nearly all, delivered by the instructor ; it is only in rare cases that a student may have looked up a subject in such detail that he can profitably lecture (not read a thesis) before the class. The method, in a word, is the topical. The precise scope of the course for the year 1883-84 may be seen by the following : — Topics foe a Course of Eighty-six Lectures on the Pouti- CAL AND Constitutional History of the United States.^ 1. Introductory. — Methods of the course. Suggestions on note- taking and on habits of study. 2. Preliminary Conceptions. — Wliat is history ? What is a Constitution ? What is the United States ? 3. Authorities. — Official publications. Legal. Kewspapers. Biographies. Works of statesmen. Constitutional treaties. Gen- eral histories. 4. Constitution of England at the outbreak of the Revolu- tion. Theoretical. Actual. Conventional: Esprit des Lois, yn., chaps, i.-vi. Institutions of the United States derived from Eng- land. 5. The Colonies. — Government by England. Local govern- ment. Application of English law. The issue in the Revolution. 6. Union of the Colonies. — Early schemes. 7. Colonial Union accomplished. — Difficulties in 1775. Rear sons in 1775. Origin of the revolutionary government. Sovereign powers exercised. Limitations. S.Independence. — Early suggestions. Preparatory steps. Nar ture and bearing. New State governments. Union older than the States. 1 The list is condensed from the " Outline " printed by the class in 1883-84 ; only those required references appear which are appended to the main heads of the lectures ; thfere are many others in the original. The course for 1884-85 begins later, and comes ten years further down. AMERICAN HISTORY. 7 9. The Confederation. — Formation. Powers. Defects : Story, §265. 10. Conflicts of the Confederation. — Theories of power over States. Attempts to assert authority. Violations by States. Vio- lations by Congress. 11. "Weakness of the States. — In their relations to the people. In the relations of people to the States. 12. Proposed Amendment of the Articles of Confederation. — By grants of particular powers. By grants of coercive power. By change in the form of the government. 13. The Constitutional Convention. — Call. Preliminaries. Task. Parties. Sources. Propositions. Development of action on individuals. 14. Scope of the Constitution. — Questions settled. Questions unsettled. Questions imperfectly settled. 15. Origin and Nature of the Constitution. — Ratification. " WTio made the Constitution ? " " "V\1iat is the Constitution ? " 16. The United States in 1789. — Geography, — social, eco- nomic, political. Origm of parties. 17. Organization of the Government. — Expiration of the Confederation : /. C, xiii. 170. Elections : McMaster, i. 525-32 ; Schouler, i. 70-73, 82-85. Congress ; Snow, 13-14. The executive : Snow, 15-17. The judiciary : Snow, 17-18. • 18. Early Constitutional Questions. — Oath. Citizenship. Amendments. Indians. Territories. 19. Acts for putting into Effect Clauses of the Constitution. — Revenue : McMaster, i. 544, 55 ; Schouler, i. 86-93, 187. Naviga- tion and commerce. 20. Same, continued. — Defence and preservation of order. General welfare of the United States. ' 21. Questions relating to the States. — Assumption and capi- tal: McMaster, i. .574-85; Von Hoist, i. 80-89. Apportionment: Hildreth, iv. 303 ; Schouler, i. 188-89. 22. Same, continued. — Slavei-y : Von Hoist, i. 272-309. Fugi- tive slaves : Von Hoist, i. 309-15. New States : Hildreth, IV. 147, 209, 268, 326. Suits agauist States : -Schouler, i. 273-74. 28. Constitutional Questions of National Policy. — Protec- 8 METHODS or TEACHING tion : Hildreth, iv. 65-76 ; Schouler, i. 87-90. National bank : Schouler, i. 159-62 ; Snow, 24-27 ; Story, §§ 1231-66. 24. "Washington's First Administration. — Appointments : Schouler, i. 93, 107-9. Washington's character and policy : Von Hoist, II. 80-83. Quarrels in the cabinet : Morse's Jeff., 96-145 ; Lodge's Ham., 140-48. Investigation of Hamilton : Lodge, 148-52 ; Schouler, i. 175, 216-20. 25. Foreign Relations : France and England. — Neutrality question: Von Hoist, I. 106-12 ; Lodge's Ham., 153-66. Complica- tions with France : Schouler, i. 246-55, and Lodge, 166-75 ; Morse's- Jeff., 146-65, and Von Hoist, I. 113-18. Complication with Eng- land : Hildreth, iv. 440-43. Preparations for war : Schouler, I. 266-73 ; Lodge, 175-80. 26. 'Whiskey Rebellion. — Causes : Adams's Gallatin, 86-93. Constitutional question of coercion. Suppression. Effects. 27. Jay Treaty. Legislation. Election. — Conclusion of a treaty with England : Von Hoist, i. 122-28 ; Schouler, i. 308-18. General legislation. Retirement of Washington : Schouler, i. 327- 31 ; Von Hoist, i. 32-37. 28. Foreign Affairs : Spain and France. — Relations with Spain : Hildreth, iv. 134-36, 569 ; v. 238-39. X. Y. Z. affair : Oil- man's Monroe, 44-68 ; Schouler, i. 317-26, 345-51, 374-91. 29. Alien and Sfcdition Acts. — Third naturalization act: Schouler, i. 393; Hildreth, v. 218-14, 216. Alien Act: Story, §§ 1293-94; Schouler, i. 394-99. Alien Enemies Act. Sedition Act : Schouler, i. 396-404 ; Von Hoist, i. 141-43 ; Hildreth, v. 225-32. Application of the acts : Schouler, i. 420-21, 448-50 ; Hildreth, v. 247-50, 352, 365, 368. 30. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. History. — Origin. Kentucky Resolutions : Von Hoist, i. 143-45 ; Hildreth, v. 272-76 ; Jeff., XI. 464-69. Virginia Resolutions : Schouler, i. 422-24 ; Hil- dreth, V. 276-77. Action of other States: Hildreth, v. 296-97. Second Kentucky Resolutions : Hildreth, v. 319-20. Madison's Report : Hildreth, v. 319-21 ; Von Hoist, i. 147. Was forcible resistance intended? Von Hoist, i. 156-58. 31. The Supreme Arbiter. — Necessity of some final tribunal. Distinction between judicial and political cases. Controversies AMEEICAN HISTORY. 9 between departments of the general government. Controversies between citizens. Conti-oversies to which States are parties. S'2. Interposition as a Remedy for Usurpation. — Other remedies. Interposition as a remedy : Von Hoist, i. 150-69 ; Madi- son, IV. 95-106. 33. Fall of the Federal Party. — Unpopularity of the admin- istration. Unpopularity of Congress : Hildreih, v. 414. Dissen- sions within the party : Lodge's Ham., 188-236 ; Sckouler, i. 466- 75. Election of 1801: Lodge, 194-201; Von Hoist, i. 168-78. Triumph over federal principles : Von Hoist, i. 178-83 ; Hildreih, V. 415-18. 34. Policy of the Republican Party. — Administrative : Snow, 69-76; Cook's Notes, 1-18-02; Sckouler, ir. 2-15. Legisla- tive : Snow, 76-79 ; Cook's Notes, 163-68 ; Sckouler, ii. 15-26. TripoUtan war: Cook's Notes, 167-88; Sckouler, ii. 16-18. 35. The Public Lauds. — Jurisdiction before the Revolution: H. B. Adams, in Maryland Historical Society Fund Publication, No. 11; Blunt's Historical Sketck. Question of national jurisdiction. Administration before 1789. Alienation before 1789. Land sys- tem of the United States. 36. The Louisiana Annexation. — Previous changes of owner- ship : Morse's Jeff., 231-39. Negotiations ;• Morse's Jeff., 239-46 ; Oilman's Monroe, 74-85; Sckouler, ii. 37-51; Adams's Randolpk, 75-81. Treaty of cession completed : Oilman's Monroe, 85-93 ; Stevens's Oallatin, 201-2. Constitutionality of the treaty : Story, §§ 1277-83. 37. " New England Plot of 1803-4." — Early suggestions of separation. Causes of dissatisfaction. Evidences of a " plot " : Adams's New England Federalism; Von Hoist, i. 193-95. Effect of the "plot ": Von Hoist, i. 197-99. 88. Republican Legislation and Administration. — Impeach- ment of the judges : Hildreth, v. 511-12, 540-44 ; A dayns's Randolpk, 131-53. Election of 1804: Sckouler, ii. 59, 66; Morse's Jeff., 268-71. The Territories. Finance and defence : Adams's Oallatin, 348-49, 352-55. Internal improvements: Stevens's Oallatin, 300; Adams's Gallatin, 852-54. 10 METHODS OF TEACHING 39. Burr's Conspiracy. — Burr's plans: Hildreih, v. 594-603; Randall's Jeff., m. 173-78. The expedition: Hildreih, w 608-24; Randall's Jeff., iii. 179-86. Habeas corpus cases : Hildreth, v. 612-13 ; Randall's Jeff., in. 194-98. Prosecution for treason : Hil- dreth, V. 668-73 ; Story, §§ 1790-97. Enforcement Act. 40. Neutral Trade and the Embargo. — Foreign aggression : Hildreth., v. 646-49; Schouler, ii. 151-56. Jefferson's policy: Hildreth, Y. 653-65, 674-86; Schouler, ii. 133-51. The embargo: Schouler, ii. 156-65; Hildreth, vi. 35-44. 41. Failure of Jefferson's Policy. — Enforcement: Schouler, II. 185-94; Hildreth, vi. 108-24; Von Hoist, i. 209-13. Eepeal : Morse's Jeff., 310-20; Schouler, ii. 194-98; Hildreth, vi. 124-36; Von Hoist, I. 214-25. Result of Jefferson's administration : Schouler, ii. 198-204; Hildreth, vi. 138-43. 42. Madison's First Term. — General policy : Schouler, ii. 279- 81 ; Steretis's Gallatin, 305-11. Foreign relations. Impending war : Von Hoist, i. 225-30. 43. Review of the First Half Year. 44. "War of 1812. — Preliminaries : Von Hoist, i. 226-30 ; Snow, 100-103 ; Von Hoist's Calhoun, 12-26 ; Schouler, ii. 345-47. Declar ration of war: Von Hoist, i. 230-42 ; Schouler, ii. 348-56. Progress : Snow, 103-108 ; Schouler, ii. 356-75 ; Roosevelt. The militia ques- tion : Dwight, 233-57 ; Story, §§ 1204-10. 45. "War of 1812. — Unpopularity in New England : Von Hoist, I. 243-54. Hartford convention: Von Hoist, i. 254-72; Adams's New England Federalism, 245. Close of the war: Schouler, ii. 402-19, 438-44 ; Hildreth, vi. 545-66. Martial law : North Ameri- can Review, xciii. 486, 501-504. 46. End of the War of 1812. — Peace of Ghent: Schouler, ii. 431-38. Results of the war: Von Hoist, i. 273-77. The bank: Snow, 109-10, 124-25 ; Bolles's Financial History, ii. 278-82, 817- 29; Sumner's American Currency, 68-79; Von Hoist, i. 382-88. 47. Monroe's Administration. Internal Policy. — "Era of good feeling:" Schouler, ii. 458-63; Oilman's Monroe, 125-40. Tariff of 1816 : Snow, 118-24 ; Von Hoist, i. 396-400 ; Bolles, ii. 359-74 {Protectionist view). Internal improvements. Constitu- tional question : Von Hoist, i. 388-96. AMERICAN HXSTOBY. 11 48. Relations with Spain. — West Florida question : Hildreth, VI. 223-28, 310. East Florida question : Sumner's Jackson, 49-72. Texas question : Von Hoist, u. ri-18-5S. 49. Slavery (1789-1820). Remedies. — Emancipation: Goodell's Slavery and Anti-Slavery : Von Hoist, i. 273-300. Colo- nization : Von Hoist, i. 329-33. Abolition. 50. Regulation of Slavery.— Fon Hoist, i. 302-39. Slave- trade : Von Hoist, i. 315-28. Growth of slavery. Fugitive slaves : Von Hoist, i. 310-15. Petitions. Territories. 51. The Missouri Question. — Rivalry of North and South: Von Hoist, I. 340-56. Status of Jlissouri. Arkansas Territorial Act : Von Hoist, i. 372-74. First Missouri debate. 52. Missouri Compromise. — Second debate, Hildreth, vi. 682- 98. The compromise : Von Hoist, i. 370-81 ; Benton's View, i. 5. Nature and effect of the compromise: Adams's Memoirs, v. 3-13; Benton, i. 8-10. The Missouri Constitution : Hildreth, vi. 703, 706-12. 53. Constitutional Decisions. — McCullough v. Maryland : Marshall, 160-87 ; Van Santvoord's Chief Justices, 459-65. Dart- mouth College case: Marshall, 188-220; Van Santvoord's Chief Justices, 450-55. Cohens v. Virginia : Marshall, 221-61 ; Van Santvoord's Chief Justices, 466-69. Effect of the decisions. 54. American Policy of European States. — Colonies. Revolt of the Spanish Colonies. Schemes of foreign intervention. 55. Monroe Doctrine. Occasion. — European intervention in Spain. English proposition for joint declaration. Plan of a European Congress. Cuban question. Republican spirit. Rus- sian complications. Traditional foreign policy of the United States : Oilman's Monroe, 162-66. 56. Monroe Doctrine. Enunciation. — Preliminary discus- sion : Oilman's Monroe, 167-74. The declaration : Oilman's Mon- roe, 156-62; Von Hoist, i. 419-21. Effect of the declaration. Exposition of the declaration. Historical development. 57. Tariff, and Election of 1824. — Tariff : Von Hoist, i. 396- 404. The election : Von Hoist, n. 1-9. 58. Adams's Administration. Opposition. — Opposition formed: Sargent, Public Men and Events, 106-14. Panama mission: Von 12 METHODS OF TEACHING Hoist, I. 409-33. Amendment for Presidential elections : Benton, I. 37, 78-80. Attempt to control patronage: Benton, i. 80-87. Anti-Masonic party. Attack on the expenditures. General inter- nal policy of Adams : Morse's Adams, 199-213. 59. Creek Controversy. — Early difficulties. Negotiations with the Creeks : Von Hoist, i. 433-35. Controversy about the survey : Von Hoist, I. 435-43 ; Benton, i. 58-60. Second controversy, : Von Hoist, I. 444-48. 60. Accession of Jackson. — Tariff of 1828 : Von Hoist, I. 459-63. Election of Jackson: Sumner, 114-18. Jackson's policy : Von Hoist, ii. 9-12. Internal events of Jackson's first administration : Sumner, 139-63 ; Von Hoist, ii. 27-31. 61. Removals. Internal Improvements. Public Lands. — Removals : Von Hoist, ii. 13-27. Internal improvements : Sumner's Jackson, 191-94 ; Von Hoist, i. 389-96. Public lands : Sumner's Jackson, 109, 184-91. 62. Cherokee Controversy. — Origin of the difficulty : Sumner, 49, 179. Conflict -with Georgia : Von Hoist, i. 448-49. Georgian encroachments permitted : Sumner, 180-81 ; Von Hoist, i. 449-51. Conflict with the supreme court: Von Hoist, i. 452-58. 63. The Bank Controversy. — History of the bank : Sumner's Jackson, 224-36. Hostility of Jackson : Von Hoist, n. 31-36 ; Sumner's Jackson, 2SQ-i4: ; Benton, i. 229-29. Struggle for a char- ter : Von Hoist, II. 36-43; Sumner's Jackson, 244-49, 258-74. Jackson's veto : Von Hoist, ii. 48-55 ; Sumner's Jackson, 274-75. 64. Distribution. — Dickerson's distribution bills. Proceeds of public lands scheme. Clay's distribution bill : Benton, i. 275-78. Clay's bill revived : Benton, i. 362. Pocket veto : Benton, i. 365-69. Calhoun's scheme : Von Hoist, ii. 187-88. Constitutional question. 65. The Nullification Movement. — Precedents : Sumner's Jack- son, 212-16. Agitation by Calhoun : Von Hoist, i. 459-75 ; Sumner's Jackson, 216-22. Tariff of 1832 : Von Hoist, i. 471 ; Sumner's .'o'-k- son, 222. Action of South Carolina : Von Hoist, i. 475-77. Action of the Executive of the United States. 66. Nullification Crisis and Discussion (1832-33). — Issue joined. Is nullification constitutional ? Von Hoist, i. 463-75. 67. Nullification. Force Bill and Compromise. — Principle AMERICAN HISTORY. 13 of Coercion. The Force Bill : Von Hoist, i. 484-90 ; Sumner, 285-87. The compromise : Von Hoist, i. 490-02, 497-501. The settlement : Von Hoist, I. 501-503 ; Sumner, 288-90. 68. The Deposits. — Attack on the bank renewed: Benton, I. 86-89, 294-96; Sumner's Jackson, 291-94. "Removal of the deposits " : Von Hoist, ii. 51-55 ; Sumner's Jackson, 294-309. Con- stitutionality of the removal : Story, Life and Letters, ii. 155-58 ; Von Hoist, II. 55-68. 69. Censure and Protest. — Censure of the President : Sumner's Jackson, 309-11. Jackson's protest : Sumner, 311 ; Von Hoist, ii. 70- 76. Expunging resolutious: Sumner, 313-14; Von Hoist, ii. 68-70. Bank controversy continued: Sumner, 309, 310, 312, 314-21. 70. Anti-Slavery Agitation. — Agitation in the North : Von Hoist, II. 80-87. Opposition in the North: Von Hoist, ii. 97-110. Opposition in the South : Von Hoist, ii. 110-121. The mails : Von Hoist, II. 121-36. Petitions. 71. Finances and Deposit. — Banks and currency. Deposit act. French indemnity. 72. Texas. — Boundaries: Von Hoist, n. 548-51. Importance to slavery: Von Hoist, ii. 551-58,569. Independence: Von Hoist, 11.558-85. Recognition by the United States : Von Hoist, ii. 685-88. 73. End of the "Reign of Jackson." — Judiciary in Jackson's administration. Election of 1836. Jackson's influence : Sumner's Jackson, 277-80, 385-86. 74. Van Buren's Administration. — Character and policy: Von Hoist, II. 147-72. Panic of 1837. Public Funds. Caroline affair: Lodge's Webster, 247-49, 252,255. 75. The Whigs and Tyler.— Election of 1840 : Von Hoist, ii. 360- 405. Harrison's policy : Von Hoist, ii. 406-12. Tyler and the bank : Von Hoist, II. 412-26. Breach with Tyler : Von Hoist, ii. 426-89. Finances : Von Hoist, ii. 440-51. Tariff of 1842 : Von Hoist, ii. 451-64. 76. North-Bastern Boundary. — The dispute. Negotiations. Northern boundary. Treaty of Washington : Lodge's Webster, 253-60. 77. Slavery : International and Interstate Status. — Legal aspect of slavery. Restriction of the slave-trade. International status of slaves in the United States. International status of slaves on the high seas. Interstate status of slavery. 14 METHODS OF TEACHING 78. Polk's Election and Administration. — Election of 1844. Polk's internal administration. Tarifi of 1846: Von Hoist, iii. 270-81. 79. Northwestern Boundary. — Conflicting claims : Von Hoist, III. 29-36, 39-40. Joint occupation with Great Britain : Von Hoist, III. 36-44 ; Barrows, 67-76. American settlements established : Von Hoist, III. 44-53. " Fifty-four forty or fight." Treaty of Washington. 80. Annexation of Texas. — Jackson's policy. Recognition only: Lecture 72. Van Buren's policy: Von Hoist, ii. 599-612. Tyler's policy: Von Hoist, ii. 612-14, 625-43. Annexation in the campaign of 1844 : Von Hoist, ii. 677-90, 702-709. Annexation by joint resolution : Von Hoist, ii. 709-14 ; Greeley, i. 171-73. 81. Causes of the Mexican War. — Breach of neutrality by the United States : Von Hoist, ii. 571-85. Recognition of Texas : Lecture 72. Question of claims : Von Hoist, ii. 592-601, 604-606, 627, 634-36, 681. Jones's attack on Monterey : Von Hoist, ii. 615-20. Annexation of Texas : Von Hoist, ii. 680, iii. 80-82. Occupation of Texas: Von Hoist, in. 93-99. Claim up to the Rio Grande: Von Hoist, III. 84^93 ; Gal. iii. 574-79. Greed for California : Von Hoist, III. 108-13. 82. Mexican 'War. — Preliminaries. Military operations. Peace of Guadeloupe Hidalgo : Von Hoist, in. 83. Territorial Slavery. — Comparison of North and South. Constitutional question of territorial slavery. Application to new territory. 84. The Crisis of 1848-49. — Election of 1848. Status of the slavery question. 85. Compromise of 1850. — Compromise proposed. Attitude of public men : Greeley, 203-207. Compromise carried : Von Hoist, HI. 545-61. AVho won the victory? Von Hoist, in. 561-62. 86. Revie-wr of the Second Half Year. It will be noticed that there are but few distinctively bio- graphical sketches in the course just outlined. The deficiency is supplied in part by constant reference to the character and motives of the actors in the historical drama : it is further AMERICAN HISTORY. 15 supplied by references to brief biographies, particularly the excellent American Statesmen Series. Nevertheless, the course might be improved by systematically taking up one man after another, in connection with some eveut in which he was particularlj' concerned. Such a plan has been elab- orated in the following Topics fok a Course of Twenty Lectures.' 1. The United States in 1789. 2. Organization and consolidation of the government. — Hamilton. 3. Foreign relations and neutrality. — Washington. 4. Fall of the Federal party. — John Adams. 5. Public lands and the annexation of Louisiana. — Gallatin. 6. Neutral trade and the embargo. — Jefiei'son. 7. War of 1812 and its results. — Madison. 8. Slavery and the Missouri Compromise. — Monroe. 9. Florida purchase and the Monroe doctrine. — John Quincy Adams. 10. Jackson's election and the spoils system. — Van Buren. 11. The United States Bank and the Sub-treasury. — Jackson. 12. Conflicts with States, and nullification. — Calhoun. 13. The tariff, surplus revenue, and internal improvements. — Clay. 14. The anti-slavery movement. — Giddings. 15. Annexation of Texas, and the Mexican War. — Polk. 16. Completion of the boundaries of the United States. — Benton. 17. Compromise of 1850. — Webster. 18. Kansas-Nebraska struggle. — Douglas. 19. The slavery issue, and election of 1860. — Seward. 20. Causes of the Civil War. — Jefferson Davis. In connection with the lectures several aids for the student have been put in operation. The chief ones are : a printed 1 This course has been arranged for the Swain Free School of New Bedford, Mass. 16 METHODS OP TEACHING "outline"; helps on note- taking ; maps; diagrams; and helps on thesis writing. The " outline," of which a sample follows, is prepared by the instructor, and printed, at the expense of those of the class who choose to subscribe for it, under the direction of a committee of their own number. The cost has been about a dollar and a half a page. It is printed in paragraphs, so as readilj- to catch the ej'e ; it is printed on one side, so that the successive lectures may be detached and put among the students' notes, each in its proper place ; it is printed in advance, so that the student may have it before him while he listens. The following is the outline for the first four lectures of the course for 1884-85 : — Note. — Opposite each heavy-face heading are noted several brief references, any one of which is sufficient for a general outline of the topic taken up in that section ; the more detailed references, in the body of the text, are intended for the convenience of those who desire to go deeper into the history of the period. I. Provincial Government and Colonial Union (1612-1765). Introduction. The Federal building as 'we find it. 1. The site — territory. 2. The builders — "the people." 3. Materials — institutions. 4. The plan — the Constitution. 5. The agent — a personified head. 6. The purpose — government. I. The Land : Frothingham, Rise of the Republic, 1-5. 1. In 1620 : the wilderness and its inhabitants. Map. 2. In 1765 : the British Colonies. Map. 3. Who owned the land? Story's Commentaries, §§ 1-88. II. The People : Lodge, English Colonies in America, ch. ii., ch. xviii. ; McMaster, History of the People of the United States, I., ch. i. AMERICAN HISTORY. 17 1. The race : sturdiness of the Anglo-Saxons. 2. Immigration : causes and distribution. Map. 3. Population : increase and settlement. Diagram. m. Free Institutions : Frothingham, ll-3"2 ; Bancroft, ii., ch. xvil. 1. Rights of Englishmen : Story, §§ 146-58. 2. English representative institutions. 3. Principle of self-government : Porter, Outlines of the Constitu- tional History of the United States, 1-36. 4. Special Colonial Institutions : Story's Commentaries, §§ 159- 67. a. "Provincial governments." b. " Proprietary governments." c. " Charter governments." 5. Control by the home government : Lecky, History of the Eigh- teenth Century, ii. 2, iii. 272,299 ; Bancroft, iii. 1-12, 100-108; Story, §§ 188-97. IV. Attetapts to form Colonial Unions : Porter, 36-37. 1643. " The United Colonies of New England " : Lodge, 351-58. 1696-1752. Various English and American plans : Frothingham, 111-16. 1754. Congress of Albany — Franklin's scheme : Frothingham, 132-40. 1765. Informal union in the Stamp- Act Congress : Frothingham, 177-89. Why union was difficult. II. Revolutionary Union and Independence. (1765-1776.) I. Union Accomplished : Von Hoist, History of the United States, I. 1-20. A. The "Way Prepared : Frothingham, 266-86, 320-39 ; Lodge, 476-91. 1. Wliy union was possible. 2. Effect of the Stamp-Act Congress. 3. 1772-73. Committees of Correspondence. 4. 1774. First Continental Congress, union still voluntary: Journals of Congress, i. 3-67. 18 METHODS OF TEACHING B. 1775-81. A General Government in the Second Conti- nental Congress : Lodge, 498-500, 510-21 ; Frothingham, 466-90. "The form of the structure." 1. What was Congress? Story, %2(il; Frothingham, i2Q. 2. What was Congress authorized to do ? Journal of Congress, I. 73-78. 3. What did Congress do? Story, ^%202-205,2U-n ; Diagram. Conduct of the war — Foreign affairs : Hildreth's United States, 111. 76-98. General governing powers. Direction of the States. 4. What Congress could not do. II. Independence Aoooniplished : Von Hoist, i. 20-35 ; Hildreth, III. 124-39. A. The Way Prepared : Frothingham, 496-539 ; Bancroft, viii. 384-93, 434-62. Early predictions and suggestions. Loyalty at the beginning of the Revolution. 1775. May 31. Mecklenburg resolutions. Nov. 3. N. H. advised to form a government. 1776. March-June. Instructions of the States. May 15. Congress votes for independence. B. The Declaration of Independence : Frothingham, 539-60 ; Morse's Life of Jefferson, 26-40. 1. Who made it? Jefferson, i. 9-26. 2. By what authority? Story, §§ 205-13. 3. Its influence. 4. Its nature and bearing : Bancroft, viii. 462-75. 5. Who was made " independent " : Story, § 213. III. State Governments and Imperfect Unioit. (1776-1786.) I. The States. A. What is a State ? Story, §§ 207-209. B. Birth of the States: Hildreth, in. Z7 4^-96; Curtis, History of the Constitution of the United States, i. 87, 116-20. Colonies left without government. a:viekican histoby. 19 1775-76. Advice of Congress : Frothingham, •Wo-44, 117-51. Adoption of State constitutions : Frothingham, 491-96, 500, 563-68. C. Is the Union Older than the States ? Von Hoist, i. 7-11 . Star;/, §§ 210-13 ; Curtis, i. 37-10, 122.' State rights view. Calhoun's Works, i. 190. Temporary purpose view : Jefferson in Von Hoist, i. 7 n. National vievv' : Lincoln's Message, July i, 1861. II. The Confederation: I'on Hoist, i. 20-16; Story, §§ 218-42. A. Articles of Confederation. " The plan of the structure " ; Hildreth, iii. 39.5-410. 1775-77. Suggestions and drafts : Curtis, i. 104, 124-30. 1777. Xov. 15. Congress adopts the Articles : Frothingham, 569-79. The Territorial dispiitcs : H. B. Adams in Maryland Historical Society Publications ; Curtis, i. 131-40; Map. 1731. Marcli 1. The Confederation in effect. Map. Powers granted — Powers withheld : Curtis, i. 140-49. B. Defects of the Confederation : Story, § 265. 1. In form. 2. In powers granted. 3. In means of carrying out its powers. 4. "Weakness and timidity. C. Violations of the Articles of Confederation : Elliot De- hates, V. 207-208. 1. The States do not perform their duties. Diagrams. 2. Congress oversteps its powers : The Federalist, No. 39. 3. The States quarrel with each other : McMaxter, i. 210. in. Union of States in a Confederation a Failure : McMaster, I., ch. III. ; Schouler, History of the United States, i. 19-84 ; Story, §§ 243-71. Debts .unpaid ; Newburg Addresses : Bancroft, History of the Constitution of the United States, i. 76-101 ; Curtis, i. 155-74. Commerce unprotected: Curtis, i. 276-90. Treaty unfulfilled : Curtis, i. 249-59. State governments oppressive : Bancroft, Constitution, i. 228-41. 20 JtETHODS OF TEACHING The people rebellious : McMaster, i. 294-354. "Western territory ungoverned : Curtis, i. 291-308. Threatened withdrawal of the West : Curtis, i. 309-27. Tlie plan must be altered or the building abandoned. IV. A Xatioxal Government and the Union. (1781-1789.) I. Attempt to Improve the Articles of Confederation : Curtis, I. 328-79. A. By granting Particular Powers. 1781. Five per cent scheme : Bancrnft, Constitution, i. 34^-45. 1783. Eeyenue scheme : Curtjs, i. 233-48. 1784. Commercial scheme : Curtis, i. 276-90 ; Bancroft, Constitution, I. 184-209. 1787. iSTorth-west Ordinance. B. By granting Po'wers of Enforcement. C. By altering the Form of the Government. 1. To a monarchy. (Morris.) 2. To a centralized government. 3. To a closer federal government : Bancroft, Constitution, I. 146-G7. II. The Philadelphia Convention : Von Hoist, i. 47-53 ; Froth- ingham, 589-97 : Hildreth, in. 182-520 ; Bancroft, Constitution, II. 3-222 ; Curtis, Constitution, ii. 3-487 ; McMaster, i. 438-53. Early suggestions of a Convention: Bancroft, Constitution, I. 11-76. Annapolis Convention and formal call : Curtis, i. 340-79. 1. Powers of the Convention : Curtis, ii. 3-17. 2. Its task. 3. Its difficulties. 4. Its compromises. 5. Its product, — the "New Roof"- Von Hoist, i. 64-79; Frotliingham, 597-610. a. A " government " established : in practical form. b. A government with power over individuals. c. A government with power to protect itself. d. A government which could govern; purpose of the structure. AMEEICAN HISTORY. 21 IV. Acceptance of the Constitution : Von Hoist, i. 53-63 ; McMaster, i. i.)^.501 ; Curtis, ii. 491-604 ; Bancroft, Consth iution, II. 225-350. 1. Process. (17S7-8S.) 2. Who ratified it? Elliot, i. 319-35. 3. AVho were the people of the United States ? Federalist, No. 39 ; Calhoun's Works, vi. 151-52 ; Elliot, iv. 499-510 ; Story, §§ 362, 463. 4. 1789. April 6. The new government in effect. Map. As will at once be seen, the outline is meant to guide, and not to be memorized. Indeed, it is purposely cast into a negative form, which shall not convey too much direct information. The advantages of the system are many. It is an aid to intelligent note-taking : the references are veri- fied by the committee, and annoying errors in getting down the references given by the lecturer are a-\'oided ; and since most of the citations are thus before him, the student may follow the lecture more closeh'. A convenient means of reference and cross-reference to the notes themselves is jjro- vided. The lecturer is saved the necessity of i)utting tables and chronologies on the board, and the arrangement and sequence of his thought is made perfectly clear. To the student it is a skeleton readj' to be clothed from his own reading, or always at hand hereafter for a more elaborate study of any topic that may become interesting to him. A further advantage is, that it is possible, together with the out- line, to have printed other helps or suggestions, such as do not strictly fall within the scope of the lectures. Such are the Principles of Constitutional Discussion. I. Distinguish clearly into which of the following departments of Controversy the question falls. 1. Origin of the Constitution : including the question of its form. 2S METHODS OF TEACHING 2. Scope of the Constitution : usually, but not always, a dis- cussion of the extent of legislative powers. 3. Interpreter of the Constitution : always involving the judi- ciary powers and the jurisdiction of the United States Courts. 4. Execution of the Constitution: particularly relating to the executive powers, but including others. II. Observe the t-wo aspects selected by the two great schools of Constitutional exposition, — the loose constructionists and strict constructionists. 1. Origin, a. Did " the people " form-the Constitution ? b. Is it a " Compact "? Discussed particularly in 1791 and 1830. 2. Scope, a. Are there " Constructive powers " ? h. Are powers limited to " express grants " ? Discussed particularly in 1791, 1799, 1803, 1819, 1833, 1842. 3. Interpreter, a. Is the Supreme Court the "Common arbiter"? 6. Can States " interpose " to make acts void ? Discussed particularly in 1799, 1815. 4. Execution, a. Can the United States " coerce " the execution of its acts? h. Can States by " secession " make themselves independent ? Question raised in 1861. It involves the question of allegiance. III. Draw arguments from four sources. 1. Nature of government in general. 2. Words of the Constitution. 8. Opinions. a. Testimony of " the fathers." h. Views of statesmen and jurists. t. Decisions of the Supreme Court. 4. Usage, as shown in the history of the United States. IV. Keep in mind and avoid certain difficulties. 1. Confusion of arguments among the different departments of controversy. 2. Possibility of bringing strong proofs of contrary aspects. 3. Change of party views and party arguments. AMERICAN HISTORY. 23 The main purpose of the " outline " is, however, to direct, or rather to suggest, the reading of the students. The range of references in any of the larger courses in history is re- stricted by three difficulties : one mechanical, one temporal, and one general. In the first place, no library has a snf- flcient number of copies of original sources to furnish fifty or a hundred men with working materials ; recourse must therefore be had to easily accessible books, which the stu- dent may own or borrow. In the second place, allowing a fair proportion of study hours to the subject of American histoi'y, there is time for reading, but not for research, col- lation, and selection of authorities. The diflncult}- is made greater by the overwhelming mass of undigested details : the instructor owes it to his students to select the really sig- nificant events for them, and to send them direct to a pas- sage where these events may be found described. If time is to be found for origina'l investigation, the field must be restricted. Here comes in the third difficulty. To refer a student in a general way to a library or an alcove, or a work, or even a volume, for information, is, in average cases, to make sure that he will get none : the moral repug- nance to deciding what to do first and where to begin, is great enough, without adding the discouragement of having to select one's materials. It is, of course, a good thing for a man to read books which are not verj- useful, and to handle and recognize many that he cannot read. But, as a practical matter of fact, ordinary students cannot be got to investigate in a course covering so much ground ; and, indeed, where there is so much trash, it is unfair to turn them into an intel- lectual cornfield, to help themselves. The references there- fore should be specific and limited : there should be no excuse for not taking hold somewhere. The first class of references in the outline is made up of those opposite the sub-headc; of 24 METHODS OF TEACHING the lectures ; many are given in the list of topics quoted above. Thej- are to common books ; they are precise ; they are limited ; the student is held responsible for one, at least, on every sub-topic. The second class of references, in the body of the outline, is intended for the more ambitious stu- dents, or for special work ; the references are chiefly to the sources. In arranging the references, care is taken to introduce the reader to a variety of authors, and to refer often to books which take a different view from that presented in the lec- tures. The whole plan rather takes for granted some system of "reserved books," by which the books most often cited are kept altogether for use in the library, or may be drawn out only over night. The one book on which most reliance is placed is Von Hoist's. No writer has so thoroughly studied and digested the enormous mass of material ; no writer searches more carefully for the hidden springs of action ; none is so suggestive. He assumes, however, a general knowledge of the history of the country, which must be supplied by other reading or from the lectures. Neither the outline nor the study of the references is con- sidered sufficient. Students are expected to take careful notes, and to complete them out of their own reading. As an assistance to the somewhat difficult labor, a system is recommended : it is designed to spare as much time from the manual labor of writing as may be, and thus to leave as much as possible for study. Suggestions for taking Notes. 1. Have a regular system. 2. If you have worked out a system of your OTwn which satisfies you, do not change it. 3. Shorthand is not a great convenience, unless the notes arc afterwards put into a form v/hich may be read by any one. ABIEEICAN HISTORY. 2iJ 4. A system of recognizable abbreviations is desirable. 5. Take notes all the time during the lecture. 6. A ■word-for-word reproduction of what you hear is much less valuable to you than your own condensed form, embodying the lectm-er's ideas. 7. Distinguish in your own mind the heads of the lecture as it proceeds, and paragraph your notes accordingly. 8. Aim to set down the substance of general statements, in your own words, rather than to note a part of each sentence. 9. Practise getting the exact words of significant phrases or quotations. 10. If you miss something important, ask to have it repeated. 11. If you lose a lecture, fill up the blank immediately, from the note-book of a fellow-student. 12. After each lecture, go over your notes, and clearly indicate the heads : (a) by catch-words in the margin ; or (V) by under- lining words. 13. Once a week revievc the notes taken since the previous review. 14. Make out a brief table of contents, as you go along, refer- ring to pages of your note-books. \For courses, in any subject, made up chiefly of lectures with parallel readings, the following specific system, is recom- mended.^ 1. Use a note-book ruled in three vertical columns : a narrower one next the outer edge ; the remaining space on each page equally divided. Let there be a broad horizontal line an inch or more from the top. 2. Enter your notes in the middle column; dates and headings (if desired) in the outer column. 3. Do not rewrite the notes taken in class. 4. Enter abstracts or quotations from your later readings in the inner column, each opposite the passage in the notes which it is meant to illustrate. 26 METHODS OP TEACHING 5. Across the top of the page write a running heading in two, three, or four members, summarizing the matter on the page ; e.g., " History, — Methods, — Note-Taking." 6. Begin to write on the right side of the opened book, and begin each distinct general head on a new^ leaf. 7. Each leaf being thus complete in itself may at any time be detached and used in another connection ; or others may be inter- leaved, without disturbing the logical connection. 8. Copy or reproduce tables, diagrams, or maps before the succeeding lecture. One of the most important aids to the study of American history is the use of maps. A large outline map should be painted on a movable blackboard ; it is sufficient to indicate the coasts, and a few great water-courses, and the State boundary lines. Bj' using colored crayons, it is easy, in a few minutes, to present any desired general maps, on a scale large enough to be seen at a distance of fortj' feet. Where a larger scale is desired, or the field is out of the limits of the United States, sketches may be made on the blackboard, or permanent maps on thick paper. It is much simpler than it seems to draw rough maps on a large scale : oven those who are not draughtsmen will find no difficulty. A roll of strong manila paper, a few colored craj-ons, or, better stUl, water colors, a yard-stick, and a small map on which rect- angles may be lightly ruled, are all the materials necessary. For the student's use, the signal-service weather-map, which costs eighteen cents a dozen, is exactly what is needed: with a few colored pencils he can reproduce the large map ; and, at the end of the j'ear, he will have a historical atlas of his own. The first use of the maps is to illustrate the territorial development of the country, by bringing before the eye the successive cessions and purchases. At the same time, the AMERICAN HISTORY. 27 perplexing boundary controversies may be made clear. The close connection between annexations and the inner political liistory of the couutrj' is often brought out in startling relief, when presented to the eye. Next comes the internal devel- opment of the country. Successive maps, dated saj- ten years apart, may show the extent of settlement, and the formation of Territories and States. Even political affairs may sometimes be strikingly mapped out : thus, a series of maps showing the distribution of the Presidential vote in each succeeding election wiU forever fix in the mind the slow growth of sectional parties. Special maps may be used for a variety of purposes. The theatre of wars and cam- paigns, detailed boundary controversies, proposed sites for the national capital, schemes of internal improvements, — these and many like subjects may be made to appeal to the ej'e. Another form of illustration, equally useful, and much less generally known, is the use of graphic charts. A set of coordinate lines, ruled on a blackboard, or perhaps on the back of the movable map, and a dozen colored crayons, are all that is necessary. The student can use cross-section paper and a few colored pencils. All the various forms of graphic charts can be put in use : curves, blocks, squares, triangles, circles, or shaded maps. The easiest subject to illustrate is the growth of population : a curve may be drawn in five minutes which will leave on the mind a clearer notion of the progress of the United States than could half a dozen pages of print. Two similar curves wUl show inefFaceably the comparative growth of the sections ; another diagram may show a comparison between the population of this and of other countries : and the student will never forget how the United States has outstripped most European powers if he has once seen its rocket's path plotted out. In like man- 28 METHODS OF TEACHING ner, the apportionment of representatives to the States and sections may be represented, or the status of political parties in Congress. A most suggestive diagram may be made of the changes in the rank of States, reckoning by population. Then come revenue, expenditure, and debt : they may be compared with each other, or with similar statistics in other countries. By the same system may be shown the territorial extension of the United States, and the division of the acqui- sitions between the sections. The depreciation of paper cur- rency, the number of banks, and other economic phenomena may be clearly shown. The sales of the available public lands, appropriations for internal improvements, are exam- ples of similar possibilities. In the census atlas of 1874, and the census reports of 1870 and 1880, may be found a variety of such charts. It is even possible to represent cer- tain great political doctrines by diagram : thus the different theories as to the ratification of the Constitution may be defined from each other by a few simple drawings. Only one aid for the student remains to be described. To require theses is to expect more than the average student can give, in time and thought. It is well, however, to encourage them ; and it will almost always be found that the best writer has also the best general knowledge of the course. The only general instruction given in connection with the course is summed up in the ' Hints to Thesis Writers. 1. Be sure you are willing to do the necessary work. 2. Select a subject which interests you, if possible in a limited field, but over a long period. 3. Begin by noting the chief authorities. a. Furnished by the instructor. b. In Poole's Index and the Q. P. Indexes, t. In the Subject Catalogue. AMEKICAN HISTORY. 29 d. In other classified library catalogues. e. In accessible bibliographies. Write the title, author (with initials), place, and date. 4. Have a system of note-taking. a. Note only one subject on each piece of paper. 6. jSTote the authority, volume, and page, for each quotation or abstract. C-. Preferably use loose sheets, arranging as you go. 5. From the general authorities, make out a synopsis of the chief points -n'hich are to be studied, observing : a. iSTew authorities and references for extension of details ; 6. Chronological development ; t. Salient sub-heads of your subject. 6. Extend the details which appear to you to need further exam- ination. If necessary make synopses of the sub-heads. Make references for other sub-heads, but abstract them later. 7. Arrange your sheets of notes in a logical form, sub-heads under main heads. Choose between chronological or topical arrangement, or a combination. 8. Compose the thesis. a. First settling the proportions. 6. Introducing striking quotations. t. Giving exact references for all important statements of fact. 9. 'Write only on one side of your paper, and leave space for your foot-notes on the same page as the text which they illustrate. 10. Do your work throughout as though it were to appear in print. 11. Add a bibliography of authorities, with brief remarks on the bearing of the most important. The value of the work to the student needs no argument ; and the results at Harvard have been such as to justify the system. Those who engage in it find their interest in the whole field aroused ; they are quicker to seize on the great principles of the subject, and, in some cases, they do work of real scientific value. 30 METHOD OP TEACHING The means employed to keep students up to their work may be very briefly described. The first is, a series of writ- ten exercises. Perhaps the most helpful are the brief written suggestions on questions raised in the lectures, to which ref- erence has already been made. They can be arranged so as to call for a little original thinking. The second test is a system of brief examinations, — perhaps ten or fifteen min- utes, once a week ; they may be contrived to require the application of principles, developed in the lectures, to new specific cases. A third means, the recitation or quiz, takes time from the lectures, and is nearly impossible in a large class. The main dependence is on the regular examinations, twice a year. Questions can always be so framed as to call for tliought rather than for a memory of details ; and an opportunity maj- be given to put most of the time on two or three general questions, testing the knowledge of the whole subject. Note to the Third Edition. — Useful as is the system of special maps and charts for .graphic illustrations of his- tory, and stimulating to the students as they prove, in prac- tice it is found somewhat irksome to prepare the same series over and over again on the blackboard. An outline on a large scale is hence a great convenience where a large num- ber of charts or maps of the same region is necessary. The first copy may be enlarged from any small map by a simple process. Divide the small map into squares (by pencil lines on its surface or on oiled paper stretched over it) , lay out the large paper in proportional squares, and strike up the outlines by hand : the form will he nearly enough correct for the purpose. To reproduce the large outline thus drawn is a matter of some difficulty. Perhaps there is no better way than to prick through the principal angles, though it is at AMEK1CA>,- HISTOUY. 31 best unsatisfactory. For his owu classes, the writer has had drawn and printed an outline map of the United States, 62x88 inches, in fonr sectious. It has proved so easj- to make permanent colored maps upon this outline, and the system has been so useful, that permission has been given for its reproduction and improvement ; and it is now issued by the publisher of this book. Coordinate paper in size and ruling suitable for a class- room is nowhere to be had unless specially ordered. It may, of course, be ruled off by hand. Appended is a speci- men, in reduced size, of a chart designed by the writer, and found interesting by students. In the original the lines of curve are colored, and therefore much easier to separate from each other. For class use, the small outline maps of the United States, from the plates of the census report of 1880, have been found better than those of the signal service mentioned above. They are 10x16 inches, and cost about two dollars and a half a hundred. They may be had through the publisher of this book. ~ '~~ ■jo y / / / ^ a / / fri r/j i<^ n. i'n /°- ^ / / 1 M / ! J y " . ■^' ■• / ^ ' ;v ^ -H '•^ .... .-•' J vj •••■ 85 / ,J •^ r-:* s== ** \ P / y ^ ^• \ y > .^1 / ^ / / ., .«• J / .^ / ff <.- *■*■ i f ^-' 80 A «■■■■ y /' ■*1 y / ^ i^ i." i w- ^ -- -■' ' '^ X' / =:<*' ^^ / I _ r- .^ =s= ^' ^^ y -^ I \ V X ^ ^ 1 -" \ 1 / K' y ' 1 \ -.^ / / Vi 'V 20 ll V , r C / 'i P %^ r" w ^j^ y. A ij^ ^J /' i't ^ ■^ '/ ^ X / ,5^ -' — 15 / ^ -^ / ^ y •/ -" ?** J "i -' ••• '■■ 1^ f ,^ ..- 10 ^ f i' )U l- / / ,p >» s ^ / -1 y 1 ^ ■ir 1 ^ .1 ' Pr (SS tf 1 1 . , 1 1 |_ 1 _ I 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 Drawn by Albert B. Hart: From LaughHn's Mills' Po'Uir-al Ectmomi/, Appletone'. The Pkactical Method in Higher Histoeical Instruction. Bt Ephkaim Emerton, of Harvard University. IN the academic teaching of history three possible methods of instruction suggest themselves at once : the recitation, the lecture, and original work. We maj' assume for the present that the discussion as to the value of recitation from a book is practically at an end. While admitting that the power of accurate re-statement of a thing learned is valuable to the student, the common sense of most has concluded that the time spent by an educated man in listening to such repetition is an actual loss to science, and that the brighter students of a class can employ themselves very much more profitably than in hearing the mistakes of their duUer mates. Adding to this that the learning of what is contained in any one book, especially on a subject admitting wide difference in point of view, can go but little way toward widening or deepening a man's mental capacity, and remembering that such acquisition is usually easiest to shallow minds, we may at once relegate recitations to their proper place, namely, in elementary instruction, where they ought to be insisted upon with unbending severity. The historical lecture, while liable to great abuses, has certainly its well-defined use, and, therefore, its right to be. It should not be designed to convey definite and detailed in- 32 THE PKACTICAL METHOD IN formation. Tliat is the evil in Germany. Men of mediocre — even men of splendid talents often commit the glaring mistake of spending four or iive hours a week in the dreary recitation of facts which their hearers could gather in one- tenth of the time from printed books. Perhaps the book might even be the work of the very lecturer who is now making his capital pay him a double interest. I recall a course of lectures on German History given by a man whose name, standing among the very highest in Germany, served to fiU his auditorium with a keenly-expectant audience. In the course of a fortnight a dozen hearers might have been counted, scattered about among the nearly empty benches. The instinct of the students had shown them that he was not offering them anything which they could not gain more easily elsewhere. The justification of academic lectures on history, is that they shall contain suggestion, which shall enable students to do their own reading intelligently, and, therefore, profitably. They should contain the result of varied reading and re- search, summarizing the outcome of long controversies, showing how events of one period explain and are explained by those of another. It would take the inexperienced student weeks of reading to grasp the meaning of men and events which his instructor may present to him in a paragraph. Not that this presentation can ever be accepted as a substi- tute for the student's own reading, but that it forms the almost indispensable condition of a wise and profitable use of historical works. Reading alone soon becomes repulsive and wearisome because one sees no way out of it. All books seem alike dreary and stale ; but let the living word of a living man once illumine the whole study with its in- vigorating rays, and the student finds his reading filled with a meaning he never dreamed of. HIGHER HISTOKICAL INSTRUCTION. 33 The danger here I have akeady hinted at. Goethe saw it clearly enough : " Derm was man schwarz auf weiss besitzt Kann man getrost nach Hause tragen,'' says the already half -conventionalized scholar to his infernal counsellor. The scholar cannot be wiser than his master. If a mere unthinking note-taking be accepted as sufHcient effort on his part, he would be more than human if he made a greater one. Doubtless the result will disappoint him. He win find himself at the end of his studies wretchedly equipped for any scholarly work ; he will wonder why this is so, but he cannot be expected to reach the reason. Let him be assured that the reason is a very simple one ; his mind has never been caUed upon for independent, individual effort, and it is only the mind of a rare genius which worlts without being called upon. It would seem an astonishing proposition at this day that chemistry or physics could be taught without a laboratory, and yet it is not so very long since laboratories were either not used at all, or so very little as to be scarce worth mentioning. Experiment and demonstration by the instructor to his class go very little way. The student must have his chemicals and his apparatus in his own hands before he can have any realizing sense of the meaning of his science. yien have learned this in regard to physical study. In every new school of learning a well-equipped laboratory is as much a necessity as a well-trained teacher. It remains to apply the same method to other branches of education. Here we are concerned with history only, and the conclusion is inevitable, that historical teaching, to be effective, must not confine itself to lectures, but must supplement these by the method of original work. Attention has recently been called to this subject by two 34 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN articles^ by Professor Paul Fr6d6ricq, lately of Li^ge, now of Ghent, who, in the years 1881 and 1882, visited the principal universities of Germany, and the various schools Of Paris, to observe the methods of higher instruction in history. These articles are, as the author informs us, merely a traveller's notes, without any pretence at completeness or profundity. I have made use of them for certain statistical information not elsewhere easily accessible. Their grace of style and amiability of tone make them altogether quite attractive reading. The phrase employed by Professor Fr6d6ricq for the pecu- liar institution he was observing is the " cours pratique " as opposed to the usual lecture-course, which he calls the " cours thiorique." The term " Practice-course" seems to me reaUy an improvement upon the various originals employed in the different German universities, though these original terms have each an historical significance which the men who made them and have handed them down would doubtless be sorry to lose. The " Gesellschaften " (societies), "Seminaria" (training schools) , and "Uebungen" (exercises) of Germany appear aU together in M. Fr^d6ricq's report as " cours pra- tiques " (practice-courses) . His word expresses the actual fact that these classes now form a regular part of the univer- sity work ; are numbered among its published courses of instruction, and are counted as such, to the credit of both professors and students. The German terms, on the other hand, express the fact of their development out of originally voluntary and, one may say, extra-academic exercises. The Gesellschaft implies a society of students grouped about a 1 " De rEnseiguement Superieur de I'Histoire." Gand, 1882, pp. 49. In the "Revue de I'lnstruetion publique en Belgique." "L'Enseignement Superieur de I'Histoire k Paris." Paris, 1883. pp.61. In tlie ' ' Revue International de TEnseignement." July 15, 1883. HI6HBK HISTOKICAL INSTKtTCTION. 35 professor, and working with him in hnes of special research, and under conditions hot imposed by academic rules, but growing out of the common enthusiasm for the study in hand. Their relation to their teacher reminds one of the early medieval relation of the university student to his lec- tiu-er. It is personal, feudal almost, for there is a bond of mutual service here which adds its force to distinguish these classes from their contemporaries, grouped in the ordinary lecture-room, and learning from the spoken word. While there a certain tradition, if not fixed statute, has determined the attitude of the student to the imposing being who talks at him ex cathedra, here all is voluntary, free, uncon- ventional. This is a society, a club, presided over by a professor, but composed, not of subject students, but of "members," of whom the guiding scholar, chancing to be a professor, is the chief. The word "Seminarium" brings us to another phase of the institution we are studying. The primitive society became a training-school. The German, with his hard-headed prac- tical sense, having allowed university teaching to crystallize into the form of a lecture-system, saw an escape from its deadening influence upon the mind in this new form of instruction. This enthusiasm of the individual student was now to be made practical. The name " Seminarium" denotes the fertilizing power of the historical " Gesellschaf t " on the intellectual life of Germany. Out of these training-schools came the men who gave to historical science in Germany, and through Germany to the world, the impulse under which it is now moving. But by this time the voluntary association had become a recognized feature of university life. The professor con- ducted a Seminarium as a matter of course, and the' student who meant to distinguish himself in the department entered 36 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IK one or more seminaria equally as a matter of course. And now comes the third of the distinctive names — the oldest in point of time — to express sharply the marked difference in kind of work done here from that of the ordinary class- room. " Uebungen" still denotes the practical character of the Seminar work, and is the one term from which M. Fi&- d^ricq has derived his " cours pratique." Its meaning is that uppermost in the student's mind. Elsewhere he is a listener, here he is a worker ; no longer a mere receiver of another man's thought, he becomes an investigator, a dis- coverer, a creator. The founder of practice-courses as an adjunct to higher historical instruction is the veteran professor Leopold Ranke, now, in his eighty-ninth year, laboring with juvenile enthu- siasm and power on his crowning work, a History of the World. As early as 1830 Ranke began to gather about him such students as desired to learn the method of historical investigation, inviting them to a weekly meeting at his house. These meetings appear upon the Berlin university programme of that day as " exercitationes historicae." This private class in Ranke' s study became in the truest sense of the word the seminarium for all future historical work in Germany. Among its early members were Waitz, Duncker, Giesebrecht, Sybel, Adolf Schmidt, Wattenbaeh, and many others whose names have become synonyms for powerful and honest work in opening up the record of the past. These men, called to various universities, carried with them the practice-course as their chief instrument in spreading the doctrine of true historical method which the great master Ranke had taught them. They have now be- come veterans in their turn, and their pupils, an army of still younger men, have carried out still more widely the theory of the practical method. HIGHEK HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 37 At first the subject most often treated was the history of Germany s heroic age, the mediseval empire ; but soon, under the leadtjrsliip of the elder Droysen, modern history found its place, and at present no department of historical research is without its practice-course as a supplement to theoretical teaching. At Berlin there are regularly six or eight such courses, led by men like Mommsen, Droysen, Wattenbach, AVeizsacher, Bresslau, and Hassel. Other um-\'ersities foUow with a number of courses proportioned to theii' sti'ength in the department of history. Any one familiar with the inner working of these classes feels at once that here is the true life of the historical de- partment. Here it is that the professor reveals himself to his select pupils as a fellow- worker with them. He is at work upon inquiries which are to bear fruit in his own publi- cation, and these young men are made to feel that they are contributing personally, by their researches, to the comple- tion of these works. The method of procedure is pi-actically the same in the A-arious universities and under the various teachers. Indeed, it is but one method employed with endless di^-ersity, according to the character of the man in whose hands it may be. The essential principle of the practice-course is to lead the student back from the ordinary presentation of history as a completed whole in standard nan-atives to the original sources from which these narratives have been composed. To the ordinary student, higher as well as lower, the study of history means the reading of narratives describing men and events in the form of more or less entertaining stories. He fancies that he has passed from elementary to higher study when he reads somewhat biggei books and more of them. Even the German " Gym- nast " is liable to this eiTor. He may bring it with him to the university ; he may even retain it there so long as he 38 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN confines himself to the hearing of lectures and collateral reading, — but the moment he passes the door of the semi- narium his error falls from him as hj' magic. The charm which has heretofore surrounded the names of great histo- rians vanishes. He learns to accept nothing on their word. He demands the proof of every assertion, or if, as is often the case, proof be impossible, he demands at least evidence as to degree of probability. And this he does not blindly, not in the spirit of mere carping criticism, but intelligently, under the guidance of men who are themselves makers of books, and who are on the watch at every step to detect a flaw in his argument, an error in his judgment, or a gap in his powers of perception. Thus he becomes trained, not merely learned, as we use that phrase to describe a man who has taken in an enormous amount of material, without regard to his ability to use it. The German Seminarist is armed at all points to grapple with his material wherever he may find it. The ordinary course of the Seminar work is somewhat as follows. The professor assigns to each member some topic for investigation, usually some controverted point upon which various opinions may be possible. Often these topics are selected from a limited period, so that the various re- searches will cross each other at many points. Thus each student becomes familiar with the authorities used by all the others, and is able to form an intelligent judgment of their work. As the term progresses, any student may be called upon to criticise the work of every other. Ordinarily the result of each investigation is presented in the form of a written dissertation, which is read by its author, and publicly criticised, first by a member of the class selected beforehand for the purpose, then by other members at their pleasure, and finally by the professor himself. It is evident that this HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 89 criiicism is by no means the least useful part of the worlc. It is dealt out witli an unsparing hand. Indeed, M. Fri^^- d^ricq informs us that Professors Droyseu and IMommsen refused to admit him to the exercises of their Seminars, ex- cusing this apparent want of courtesy by saying that the presence of a stranger might be a check upon the unlimited criticism which was there the rule. I had the good fortune to be, during one year, a regular member of the practice-course of the elder Droysen in Berlin, and can thoroughly confirm the impression received by M. Fr6d6ricq. The criticism was free and um-estrained to the verge of savagery. I well remember one unhappy youth, who ought never to have been there, whose productions were received with a mixture of derision and scathing logical analysis which, to a member of a less thick-skinned race, would have been torture. At the same time, I cannot help bearing testimony to the uniform consideration which I, as a stranger and a foreigner, received from students and profes- sor alike. The inspiration of the Saturday evenings spent amidst that vigorous intellectual jousting has entered into every moment of subsequent study, and been a constant support in the effort to carry on the impulse there received. The papers thus produced, especially by students who have been for several terms members of the Seminar, are often of more than passing value, are actual contributions to historical science. The younger Droysen began some time since to publish the more important papers contributed in his class at HaUe, and an association of university professors is now carrying on a similar work, with a larger scope, and a wider promise of usefulness. One can weU understand that the prospect of such distinction must be a keen spur to the diligence and activity of mind of many a student, who, under the ordinary conditions of the lecture-room, would never lu'.\- ■ risen above his fellows. 40 THE PEACTICAL METHOD IN Within a few years a distinction has arisen between what we may call private and public practice-courses. The former are such as I have been describing, in which the membership is determined by the professor's judgment as to the capacity and promise of the individual student. The public courses mark an innovation upon the original plan. Certain professors, strongly impressed with the abso- lute importance of the practice-course as an agent in in- struction, and wishing to extend its advantages to as many students as possible, obtained from their governments suf- ficient appropriations of money to provide working-rooms for their classes, to furnish these rooms with reference libra- ries, and with all necessary appliances for study, and also to establish scholarships for regularly enrolled members. This system, while offering great attractions to a large body of students, has met with violent opposition from the more conservative professors to whom the traditions of the practice- course, as established by Ranke, had become especially dear. To their minds, the substitution of state control for the per- sonal relation of the instructor to the student must endanger the essential and vital principle of the GeseUschaft. In short, they believed that the very nature of the association implied the membership of picked men only, and more espe- cially of such as proposed to make historical work the business of their lives. However this may be, the two systems are now in operation side b}' side, and the future must determine which is based upon the truer foundation. Thus far, I incline to believe that the conservatives have the best of the argument. But it must not be supposed that the practice-course in its essential theory has escaped criticism and opposition. The point is made, and with much show of reason, that German historical writing has within the last two generations steadily HIGHEK HISTOEICAL INSTEUCTION. 41 lost in breadth of view and in power of effective presenta- tion, while its gain has been steadily in the direction of minute and careful investigation of narrow and narrowing details. Perhaps the most striking illustration of the truth of tlr.s criticism is the fact that we are still without a satis- factory treatment of the history of Germany as a whole, while the number of treatises, large and small, upon detached periods or single institutions is simply distracting. There is scarcely a point in the whole range of German history which has not given rise to at least a Gymnasium-program or a Doctor-dissertation. It seems as if the very minuteness of the research into the records of the Fatherland had frightened everyone away from the task of moulding this whole mass into an available and comprehensive form. Now the charge is made that the cause of this deficiency in graphic power among German historians to-day is the belittling influence of the training in the Seminar. Certain it is that both leaders and followers in the work of disin- terring the German record from its long burial, and of preparing it for use in the world, have been the men who organized and developed the practice-course. We may admit further, that if the practice-course had not been, the Monumenta of Pertz, and the host of investigations leading up to and based upon that colossal undertaking, could scarcely have been produced. But I incline to thinlt that this character of minute investigation does not imply the entire absence of graphic skill or breadth of historic insight. It is rather the evidence of a deeply-felt reaction from the false methods, — the dramatic form, the partisan purpose, the rhetorical elaboration, which mark the historical writing of the eighteenth century. The falseness of that method was so strongly felt that men avoided consciously any ap- proach toward brilliant presentation. Germans especially 42 THE PEACTICAL METHOD IN did not care to cultivate a kind of ability which seemed to them of questionable value. Before philosophizing about the record, the record must be had ; and so the last half century has been a time of accumulation and preparation of material upon which future philosophies of history may, if one pleases, be constructed. The distinctive character of German historical science has been an absolute devotion to the discovery of historical documents ; to comparing them, and thus ascertaining their value ; and then to publishing them in a form convenient for the use of scholars. If one must choose between a school of history whose main characteristic is esprit, and one which rests upon a faithful and honest effort to base its whole narration upon the great- est attainable number of recorded facts, we cannot long hesitate. This character of diligence and honesty of research into the actual story of the past has been stamped upon Germany by the work of the sepiinary. Training has taken the place of brilliancy, and the whole civilized world is to-day reaping the benefit. Doubtless, if this mechanical skill were to be the sole object of instruction, the result would be most unsatisfactory. After all, it is the power of arranging and combining his material which makes the great historian. Ranke himself is the triumphant vindication of his system. Let one but read the modest words of his preface to the German History, where he speaks of mastering the contents of something like a hundred folio volumes of proceedings of the Diet in one library, and as many more in another, before putting pen to paper, and then let one turn to his narrative, m which the spoils of this gigantic research are utilized with telling power, and one sees how in the hands of the master these two elements — minute research and gift of presenta- tion — are combined to produce a truly great historical work. HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 43 So it must be with instruction, — the training of the hand must not exclude the culture of the mind. Nor does this seem to be, even in Germany, a threatening danger. A\''ith Treitschke, lecturing in an improvised auditorium to seven hundred students ; with Droysen, holding three hundred to a course of lectures on modern European history ; with Georg A'oigt deUghting a crowded audience in Leipzig with his brilliant picture of the French Revolution, — there can be no fear that the student will be left without inspiration to broad and Uberal reflection upon the great movements of history. Admitting a certain tendency to narrowness in the technical training of the seminary, there is the widest oppor- tunity for counteracting it and making it effective by the broader view and the more comprehensive range of the public lecture. The following table, compiled from the " Deutscher Univer- sitats-Kalender," shows the amount of historical instruction offered in 1883-4 by the seven German universities which pay most attention to the subject. The proportion of prac- tice-courses to theoretical teaching may easily be perceived. ci ■a rri o 1 ■3 a o i •3 > s '■3 a O ft d ■6 o s o 6f) i 0) o o i > g ■s S •o ^ a ■3 3 rt M ^ y 8 a s •S rt a fc! f-i r, m a « .tr 03 J h a> 1 O 1 2 T i a 1 2 1-1 IPr. ta W 1 03 1 CD 3 QPh o 8 H 26 O Behlin 4 Leipsic .... 1 4 1 2 4 IPr. 1 2 1 8 25 4 Halle 3 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 4 21 2 Beeslatj .... 1 1 2 1 2Pr. 1 1 5 14 1 GOTTINGEN . 2 2 4 1 1 4 14 2 Bonn 3 2 1 2 1 4 13 2 Heidelberg . . fr^ 1 3 1 __ _ _ 1 an _ _ 2 S _„ 44 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN But perhaps the best proof of the value of the practical method in historical teaching is its progress and its success ill countries outside of Germany, notably in France.^ Until ivithin twenty years, there had scarcely been such a thing as real historical instruction in France. There were, to be sure, at the ancient College de France, courses of history, held bj' men of distinguished excellence as historians and lecturers ; but, strange as it sounds to our ears, these lectures were not addressed to students at all. They were held in open haUs, where all the world might come, and the audience, varying with each lecture, was composed of women, travellers, and old men, of whom many chose this opportunity for their afternoon nap. If here and there a young man was seen, he was in no relation to the lecturer. He had only to take his notes, and do the best he could with them. It is evident that this sort of historical treatment of any subject must be wholly wanting in every element of fruitful- ness. It could never produce men, who, in their time, should become effective teachers and writers. The glaring absurdity of such a system was visible to all the rising generation of scholars, but the method of reform was doubtful. The pro- cess finally adopted was to go around the ancient forms, and to establish new schools upon a different basis. This process has now been going on, with interruptions, from the time of the first Napoleon. The final result is a complex of schools, ciich with a certain purpose, with a separate government support, its own buildings or rooms, and its own pupils. And yet, so often do the purposes of these schools cross each other, that their separation cannot be kept complete, and simply causes a vast and inexcusable waste of money, 1 The details of the French system are taken mainly from Professor Frederick's article. HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 45 time, and energy. No less than five different schools in Paris are devoted wholly or in part to the study of history. 1. The College de France, dating from the time of Francis I., continues, almost unchanged, the ti'aditions of the past. M. Fr6d6ricq heard some of the most distinguished scholars of France lecturing in enormous halls to a score or so of chance hearers, of whom scarce one could have had any serious scholarly purpose. 2. The Faculty des Lettres, the successor of the ancient Sorbonne, occupies the building which still perpetuates the name of that venerable institution. Here, too, until within a few years, the instruction was mainly intended for hearers rather than for pupils; but now, mainly through the energy of Victor Duruy, as minister of public instruction under Napoleon III., the substitution of pupils for hearers has be- come almost complete, and many of the more serious courses are now designated as cours fermes, to which admission can be had only on the written order of the Dean. The same general purpose has been followed in the appointment of promising young scholars as mattres de confirences, a posi- tion corresponding somewhat to that of the privatdocent in the German University. Students under the Faculty des Lettres are in training for a special diploma as teachers of history. This diploma has existed only since 1880, and marks the recognition of history as one among the sciences demanding trained teachers. 3. The £cole des Chartes was founded in 1821, but lived a precarious existence until 1847, when it was provided with sufficient quarters and a competent staff of instructors. Here we may learn especially the method of historical research. Instruction is given in palaeography, romance languages, bibliography and classification of hbraries and archives, diplomatics, political, administrative, and judicial institutions 46 THE PliACTICAL METHOD IN of France, the civil and canon law, and the archaeology of the middle ages. Here is to be found at least as great, if not a greater opportunity, for preparation in the art of writing history, than can be obtained at any German university. The excellent " Biblioth^que de I'lficole des Chartes " con- tains the worlt of professors, pupils, and graduates. 4. The £cole Nbrmale Supdrieure dates baclj beyond the Ee volution, but was also first placed upon a sound working basis in 1847. History enters here as part of a general course for all students during two years, and may be made a specialty during the third and final year. During this third year, pupils may attend courses in the other schools. The distinct purpose of the ificole Normale is the preparation of teachers. Only a limited number of pupils can enter each year, ^ perhaps one in every six or seven appUcants, — a curious instance of protecting industry. 5. The ificole Pratique des Hautes Etudes was another creation of Minister Duruy in the year 1868. The condition of French advanced teaching, even as late as that, was such that M. Duruy, in presenting his plan to the Emperor, was forced to say that a student in Paris, however able lecturers he might hear, and however many and excellent books might be accessible to him, was left altogether without the personal guidance necessary to apply his study most effectively. This was true of all subjects. The remedy suggested by the minister was to offer, in addition to aU the valuable and in- teresting instruction then given, a series of practice-courses, which, taken together, should form the ificole Pratiques des Hautes Etudes. One of the four branches of this school was that of history and philology. Beginning with but few pupils, the historical and philological branch of the Hautes ifitudes now numbers twenty -five professors, and offers more than fifty practice-courses. Before presenting the plan for HIGHER HISTOKICAL INSTKUCTION. 47 this new departure, a systematic study of methods in use in other countries was made, and, of course, one sees clearly where the real model was found. The Conference of France is the " Seminar" of Germany. The most prominent leaders in the new movement have themselves studied in Germany. M. Alfred Maury is director of this department, aided by M. Gabriel Monod, known to all the world of scholars as the editor, first of the " Eevue Critique," and afterwards, of the ••Revue Historique," altogether the leading historical periodi- cal of the world. From the beginning, the administration has been largely in the hands of young and comparatively little known men, who were in sympathy with the practical method, and had no ambition to become historical orators in the grand style of the previous generation. Thus, to the brilliant and vivacious Frenchman, as well as to the more stolid and plod- ding German, it has become clear, that to make a science fruitful, productive of new work and new men, it must be made practical. The record of the past, as it Ues there in inscrip- tions, institutions, legal records, names of places, coins, systems of chronology, as well as in consciously written histories, must be put into the hands of students, and they must be trained in the waj' to use them. There is something positively pathetic in the words of M. Lavisse, in the year 1880, to the pupils of the Facultd des Lettres.^ " I recall the time when I was a candidate for the histori- cal diploma, and, better still, the time, far less remote, when I watched the third-year pupils of the Ecole Normale at their work. At the beginning of the year they set them- selves bravely at their task, without a breathing-space from 1 Quoted by M. Fredericq, from the "Revue Internationale de I'En- seignement" for February 15, 1881. 48 THE PBACTICAL METHOD IK morning till night. They helped each other, but each did the burden of his work for himself. The study-room was fiUed with books borrowed from the emptied shelves of the hbrary. The drawers were filled with well-arranged piles of notes. Their comrades, who were preparing for other exami- nations, especially in philosophy, where the demand was less burdensome, made fun of the unhappy historical students, whom they considered as mere day -laborers. But they held out bravely. History, thank God, has so potent a charm that it helps one to bear fatigue, as the hope of discovering a vast new horizon sustains the weary traveller who climbs painfully the steep mountain side ! But some of the travel- lers give out, and I have scarce known one of our future his- torians who was not overcome by discouragement on his way. It comes when one has passed over the grand ques- tions which attracted him at first, and finds that he has barely glanced at their surface, while he is already pressed upon by a throng of new ones, less important, but any one of which may, as we say, ' be given.' ' Do you think, sir,' they say to the tutor, ' that we shall have this question ? or this?' and the tutor cannot always say ' No.' There comes a moment when the student feels that he is going to drown himself. He loses his head, and begins to draw up lists of the kings of Egypt, the sultans of Turkey, or the Hansa cities, and rushes feverishly from the successors of Alexan- der to those of Charlemagne, from the Samnite war to the wars of the Roses, from the tributaries of the Danube to those of the Mississippi, from Hanno and Pytheas to Living- stone and Nachtigal, taking Marco Polo on the way. He comes down from books to outlines, and from outlines to manuals. He keeps before Mm the lyceum program ; he divides it into numbers, and marks off twenty or thirty num- bers on which he is prepared. There remain a hundred HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 49 about which he knows not a word. He comes up to his examination jaded out, and, what is worse, trained to wi'etched habits, whicli may lead his mind astray forever, and disgust him with all honest work." Out of this slough of despair and self-deception French students have been rescued through the influence of the Ger- man Seminar system, applied with that wider tact which might have been expected from a people more susceptible to general ideas, and less in danger of becoming mechanical in their methods. We are thus brought to the point toward which all that I have said thus far has been tending, — the possibility of use- fulness for the historical practice-course In America. It will be generally admitted that our historical instruction is at least in an undeveloped condition. "Whether as a reflection of the ultra- American notion that we here are independent of all tradition, have nothing to learn from the experience of the past, or for whatever reason, the fact is that history forms an extremely unimportant element in our plans of education. The New England colleges require for admission only a nodding acquaintance with Greek and Komar history, an amount of knowledge which may be readily taken in through the pores while "reading" classic authors. Of European and American history the ordinary Freshman has a colossal ignorance. Within these Eastern colleges them- selves the situation is not very much better. It would be idle to assert that history has as yet reached anything like an equaUty with classics, mathematics, or science, either in the amount of time devoted to it or in the character of the men to whom its teaching is entrusted. As to the average 50 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN Western college, the attention paid to history is simply in- finitely small, and may be neglected. Until within a few years snch a thing as a special preparation for teaching his- tory had not been heard of. Any classical instructor could teach the history of Greece or Rome, no matter if he had never in his life looked into his classics with any other pur- pose than to solve grammatical puzzles. Any " cultivated gentleman " could teach European history ; and as for America, one might suppose a knowledge of its history to form a part of those innate ideas some philosophers tell us about, for all the effort visible to compass it by way of education.^ Within these few years a very great change has taken place. The leaven of the German method has begun to work among us. Young Americans at German universities, be- coming impressed with the value of the system of instruction there, saw the hope of occupation and usefulness in trans- planting this method to our shores. They threw themselves with a new energy into the study of history as a science by itself, and their enthusiasm was rewarded by finding on their return that the leading colleges of their own land had kept pace with the demand of the time and were ready to employ them. The number of these younger scholars is not very great. The road is an arduous one ; the rewards tardy and never dazzling. But, in spite of obstacles, the number of devoted scholars in this field is increasing. They are reason- ably certain of finding employment. The lesser colleges must follow in the footsteps of the greater ; where classes of history do not exist, they will be created. The elementary 1 Since the above was written, attention has been called to the defects in American historical teaching by President Eliot of Harvard University, in an address at Johns Hopkins University, printed in the ' ' Century ' ' maga- zine for June, 1884. HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRTJCTION. 51 teaching must become better and more widely diffused as the students of our colleges go out from under enthusiastic teach- ers to become teachers in their turn. So far as quantity goes, we may well believe that the future of historical teach- ing in our country is secure. It is now with quality that we are concerned. As soon as a branch of science takes a rec- ognized place upon the college programme, the question of method becomes of the first importance. If my argument as to recitations and lectures shall have been approved, it follows that the method of origiual work remains as the indispensable supplement to whatever other means of instruction the wise teacher may employ. I am aware that there is an intelligent opposition to this view. There are educators who maintain that the original work of college students is in itself of so little value that it is a mere waste of time. These youngsters cannot be expected to produce anything better tlian what now exists, and would much better spend their time in learning the best of what has been done. "As well advise students of Shakespeare," said an accomplished professor of English, " to practise themselves in composing plays, in the hope of some day producing sometliing better than their master." But this line of argument whoUj' misses the point at issue. It is not for the sake of the immediate results that the prac- tice-course is to be commeuded. The student in chemistry does not expect to gain from his own early and awkward experiments any new or startling results. He onh' aims to comprehend, as one can only do by personal experiment, those laws of chemical action already laid down by previous investigation. So the student of history may not expect to arrive at new results during the time of his apprenticeship, but he will certainly learn how other men have arrived at their results, and will thus know how to measure these at 52 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN their true value. We may even go a step further. Just as here and there a rarely gifted mind, working patiently through hands and eyes in the chemical laboratory, may strike out a truth which has escaped the experience of the past, so the vigorous mind, working out by means of origi- nal investigation problems of history, may here and there light upon a conclusion which shall at once elevate his work to the rank of distinguished excellence. In natural science we have come to recognize the absolute necessity of practical methods, and the expression of this is found in the countless chemical, physical, zoological, and geological laboratories now used even in the most element- ary scientific instruction. But, now, are not these illustrations of a great general law of education ? Do they not declare that in moral science, as well as in physical, the practical method of instruction is the only effectual method ? I believe that underneath all schemes and devices and systems and theories of education there lies one single great principle, — that one learns, in any true sense of the word, only that to which he puts the whole force of his own mind. We might throw away all our machinery, and still the man who should put the force of his mind upon the similarities of structure in flowers could produce a system of botany. Without a laboratory or a book the human mind would be capable of results, great because original, if it should turn itself with single devotion to dissecting animals, breaking and comparing stones, watching the developments of foetal life, or following out any otlier of those processes by which our present knowledge of the material world has been gained. And, conversely, given all our magnificent machin- ery of instruction, and the mind which does not apply itself to the problems before it, which is content to simply absorb wbat is offered to it without vigorous action of its own, may HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 53 pass through the mill from hopper to biu without any change, excepting that, like the grain, it has grown smaller in the pro- cess. I take it that one very strong reason for the popu- larity of physical science in these latter years is found in its method of study. The senses are reached more easily than the reflecting powers. Minds to which history, philosophy, law, seem mere accumulations of learning in books, — learn- ing which is to be got at only by years of reading and remem- bering, — are attracted instantly by the manual processes which introduce them into the study of natural law. And until lately they have been justified in supposing that all those branches of study which they somewhat sneeringly, perhaps, designate as culture studies, were nothing but masses of fictitious learning, founded upon nothing, and leading to nothing. If we think for a moment of the slough into which the study of language had fallen twenty-five years ago, and out of which it has not yet wholly freed itself, we can understand why the phi-ase " classical study " had come to be almost a reproach. What has redeemed linguistic study from its downfall has been the use of new methods, practical methods in acquiring language, and the application of this acquired knowledge to the discovery of new truth in archaeology, ethnology, and in every other branch of human learning. Now, instead of aimlessly cramming a Greek grammar into their pupils, enlightened teachers are teaching them to read and write Greek, then to use Greek, and thus to love and appreciate Greek. Or, if we glance at political science, we find that where twenty-five years ago there was one teacher, now there are a dozen, and we see again that men are learn- ing no longer by studying so many pages a day out of a book, but by putting their own powers of mind upon ques- tions whose solution can be reached by no other process. 54 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN Wise teachers of philosophy are forcing their students to grapple with problems of the mind, and so giving them power to follow and appreciate the work of those who have gone before. Thus everywhere we see the conviction gaining ground that the method of practice is indeed the only effectual method. Laboratories in natural science, the "natural method "of learning language, instruction by topics instead of by text- books, — all these are parts of one movement towards a higher and more effectual standard of instruction. How does it stand now with history? Perhaps more than any other study, history has suffered, and is suffering, from that misconception I have alluded to, that it means only a dreary mass of facts, dates, and events, strung along like so many beads on a chain, and with no more distinction in value or meaning. It is the rarest thing to find a man who has any idea whatever about the materials of historical writing, or of the methods used in dealing with these materials. Even educated men are inclined to regard history as a collection of stories merely, more or less entertaining to read, but not having any really serious bearing upon the present active life of men. That there is a science of history, with its apparatus, its schools, its devotees, and its great results ah'eady reached, is an extremely unfamiliar fact. A professor of chemistry once asked me to explain what original work in history could mean. He had supposed that all history was in the books, and that all one had to do was to read these. One could not, he fancied, make new history as one made new experiments and discovered new relations in his own science. The answer made to him may be in place here. Original work in history consists in an inquiry into the sources of authority for a given period or for a given statement or series of statements. Every conscientious his- HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTEUCTIOK. 55 torian of to-day goes through such a process iu preparing his narrative, but tliis process is not final. The mass of material for any period or for any series of events is so great that the powers of one man in one lifetime are not sufficient to grapple with it. There must still be a multitude of special investigations which he cannot pursue, a multitude of points still left obscure. These furnish the subjects for the original work of the future. A history of the world, for example, is to the historical scholar not a final account of what has hap- pened since the world began, but rather a vast encyclopedia of problems awaiting solution. He cannot meet them all; he must content himself with selecting one or two upon which he shall spend the labor of a life. Now the practical question is, how can this original work be made a fruitful means of instruction in our higher schools? In answering this question, we may be guided bj- the expe- rience of Gennany. It is our problem to secure the advan- tages and avoid the dangers to which I have already called attention. Emphasis was laid, it will be remembered, upon the voluntary character of the various associations which were classed together under the name of practice-courses. This voluntary character must be retained whenever the practice-course is made at home among us. It is inconceiv- able that whole classes of students should be called upon to do original work in any subject with any prospect of success. The practiee-com-se is not designed to replace more ordinary methods of instruction but to supplement them. It presupposes an election of studies Ijy which it should be possible to bring only devoted students under its influence. With these conditions, it should be the duty and the pride of every historical instructor to conduct, at the side of his theoretical courses, another for practice in the especial line of work he is engaged upon. Supposing there 56 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN be at a given college no professor of ancient history, then classical instructors should make it their business to guide their most promising pupils in historical research, using as materials the classic authors, who -would thus become living sources of knowledge to them, instead of being, as they too often are, mere collections of grammatical puzzles. History and literature would lioth be the gainers, each lighting up the other and filhng it with unthought-of meanings. As to mediaeval history, botli of England and the conti- nent, its materials lie before us almost complete. The in- dustry of the recent awakening has turned with especial interest to this iield. It would be possible for any American teacher to put before his students the volumes of original mediaeval sources from which all existing histories have been written, and to guide them into independent use of these materials in the criticism of written books and in preparing dissertations of their own. In modern European history, the case is somewhat more difficult, the mass of material increasing enormously, and far surpassing the powers of printing to place it all before the reading public. But here, too, very much has been done. The chief reports of am- bassadors, correspondence of princes, pamphlets, literatiu-e of the time, can be procured, and its complicated story be unravelled. But the field which should prove most attractive and remunerative to the American scholar is the growth and development of our own institutions. Here the material, ponderous as it is, lies all within our grasp. The same hunting-grounds invite us as those which led on European scholars of an earlier day. In every corner of America are to be found documents of every description bearing upon the foi-mative period of our national life. Here are prob- lems not beyond the strength of any vigorous student. Be- HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 57 sides hearing lectures and reading books, let such students as can be convinced of its usefulness be brought together into a practice-course where they shall be brought face to face with actual records, and be called upon to solve a few of the unsolved problems which confront the future historian of America, "\7hat a mass of eonflicling evidence will gather about the case of Fitz-John Porter ! The historian of the next generation will stand appalled before it ; but it will be his duty, and that of the student also, to analyze the con- flict of motives which has produced this conflict of evidence. Now the past is full of such cases. The " rights " of scarce any historical question are fully understood. It is not enough to say to students, Bancroft or Hildreth or Von Hoist is right or wrong on this point. To impress them with the fact, we must put into their hands the very docu- ments from which these authors drew their argument, and let them draw their own. For the lecture to a large class, the statement might be enough, all that a majority of the hearers might be able to assimilate, but there should be among them some few capable of being inspired to more thorough work. These few should be encouraged. They should become the intimates of their instructor. He should see in them the companions of his own researches and the sure reward of his own industi-y. They should see in him their leader in a road which is to take them up out of a boyish way into a manly way of study. And what is more, they will and do come to look upon each other, teacher and scholar, in this manly way. The work of the teacher is relieved of its worst element of drudg- ery, and the work of the student loses Us worst element also, — that of mere memorizing and repeating. Both enter together, out of the realm of pedagogy into the world of let- ters. Nothing impressed M. Fr6d6ricq so much, both in 58 THE PKACTICAL METHOD IN Germany and France, as the free and familiar footing upon which professor and student met in the practice- courses. There was no mj'sterj- about it. Both were, for the time, upon the same level. In America, the same result will be more easily attainable. I can recall only with gratitude the inspiration which came from the generous enthusiasm of those young men who have sat with me about the green table in the Harvard College library, working over, with a pure scholarly spirit, the dusty record of the middle ages. What a sense of discovery when they found themselves touching the very thought of the men who lived thi-ough the events they describe ! What a triumph when they proved this book, bearing the imposing name of some famous scholar of our daj', to be a tissue of gaps and errors ! Nor could a scholar ask for any ampler reward than the repeated assurance of these young men that this power of independent thought was the best fruit of their student lives. One apparent obstacle to success in America lies in our almost universal system of grading students, by which all efforts, after a true scholarly standard, are hampered, and many of them wholl}^ defeated. It may well be imagined, that, to very many persons controlling our higher education, it would seem like dangerous favoritism for a professor to surround himself with picked students for a definite purpose. How shall these especial students be rewarded in marks? How can we measure their work so that neither they nor their fellows shaU suffer bj' the comparison ? It would not be surprising if such petty considerations as these should actually prevent the adoption of the method I am suggesting. The hope is that the distrust of all individual rank in college, which has now become evident in several of our leading insti- tutions, wiU spread so widely that this primal curse of our whole educational system will soon disappear. HIGHER HISTOKICAL INSTRUCTION. 59 Another obstacle, greater still perhaps, lies in the deep- seated dread of putting pen to paper, which generally marks the American student. Writing appears to him oftenest as a kind of extra work. It suggests compositions with all their ti-ain of absurdities. It is to him a thing apart from his or- dinarj- studies, instead of being, as it should be, an instru- ment, the most useful instrument, in pursuing those studies. Our boys, for instance, may be forced to study Latin for years without writing one Latin sentence. The young Ger- man, on the other hand, must write constantly, so that form becomes a thing of nature to him, and writing is only what it ought to be, a means of education. The practice-course, to be successful, must be reinforced bj' earl}' training in similar kinds of practice, and by the presence of similar exercises in related fields of study. If the time spent in what is called "English" in colleges were spent upon the use of English in the pursuit of other studies, the results could hardly fail to benefit immensely both the studies and the English itself. In a word, the time must be hoped for when in all the moral sciences as well as in the physical, practice in production shall supplement the reception of information. The man to whom Harvard College owes an impulse in this direction, which has never been lost, used to say, "If there is any one thing I despise more than another, it is information." Another man, who is now giving his life towards stamping upon a great American university this character of independent, original investigation, said to me, " Our young men make a mistake in not writing. "What if their productions are immature? They are at least production, and their very immaturity wiU be of service in pointing the way to better things." What the laboratory is to physical science, that the library must be to moral science. The library must become, not a store-house of books, but a place for work. Books must 60 HIGHEB HISTORICAL INSTEUCTION. exist not so much to be read as to be studied, compared, digested, made to serve in the development of new truth by the method of practice with them. One unfamiliar with student life would be surprised at the unwillingness to use other books than those presented bj^ their instructors. Num- bers of students pass through college without knowing how to consult the hbrarj' catalogue. Instruction by means of text-books, even with wide suggestion of collateral reading, can bring a student into relation with but few minds, can give him almost no power of getting out of books the mate- rial wanted for a given purpose. The practice-course alone, calling upon a student to use dozens of books, though prob- ably never to read one, must go far toward giving him right ideas about their value. He sees how men before him have gone to work, and his inevitable loss of faith in the infaUi- bilit^- of printing may be counted as liis greatest gain. The danger pointed out in Germany, that a wholly practi- cal method must lead to a loss in breadth and vigor of grasp upon the whole broad subject of history, is one we are not like!}' to fall into. Our danger lies rather in the opposite direction, and it is from this danger that we must look to the practice-course to relieve us. M. Fr6d6ricq laments the entire absence of practice-courses in Belgium. We are some- what better off than that. Johns Hopkins is not the only American university which has taken a step in the right direction. In all, perhaps a half-dozen have done some- thing alread}-, so that it seems not without reason to hope tliat before very long every historical professor in America will consider his practice-course as much an essential to suc- cessful work as his lecture or recitation. On Methods of Teaching Political Economy. By Richard T. Ely, Johns Hopkins University. IT is easy to compress into the compass of a single sen- tence all the information needed to qualify any man of fair native ability and liberal education to teach political economj' as it was taught eight years ago in one of the proudest institutions in the United States. The information in ques- tion is this: Buy Mrs. Fawcett's "Political Economy for Beginners " ; see that your pupils do the same ; then assign them once a week a chapter to be learned ; finally, question them each week on the chapter assigned the week before, using the questions found at the end of the chapter, and not omitting the puzzles which follow the more formal ques- tions ; as it is a test of the academical learning and grasp of economic science of a senior to have a puzzling problem like this hurled at him : " Is the air in a diving-bell wealth ; and, if so, why?" Let no one suppose this description satirical or exag- gerated. It is the literal truth ; and the hour a week for a part of a year of such insti-uction was absolutely all the teaching of political economy done in any department of the rich and powerful college. It is scarcely necessary to de- scribe the state in which the students' minds were left. They learned by heart a few truisms, as, e.g., that it is a 62 ON METHODS OP TEACHIISTG good thing to be honest, diligent, and frugal ; that products are divided between capitalists, laborers, and landlords ; and that valaes being defined as certain relations of things to one another, there cannot be a general rise or a general fall in values ; and thej' acquired an imperfect comprehension of certain great fundamental facts, like the Ricardian theory of rent and the Malthusian doctrine of population. This, with not a very high opinion of political economy, was the sum-total of results for the student, and prepared him for the degree of A.B. first, and afterward for that of A.M. In our national banks we have a wonderful and unique economic institution, but they were not once mentioned, nor was a single allusion made to the financial history of this great country. And yet this instruction was to fit the 6Kte of the youth of the land for the duties of citizenship ! This is a true picture of one way to teach political econ- omy, aud it is a method of instruction for which a high salary was paid. Is it a state of things entirely exceptional? It is to be feared not. A preface to Amasa Walker's "Science of Wealth," edited 1872, contains these words, which seem to have met with very general approbation: "Although desirable that the instructor should be familiar with the subject himself, it is by no means indispensable. With a well-arranged text-book in the hands of both teacher and pupil, with suitable effort on the part of the former and attention on the part of the latter, the study may be profitably pursued. We have known many instances where this has been done in colleges and other institutions highly to the satisfaction and advantage of all parties concerned." The writer holds that better things than this are possible, even in a high school ; and it is certain that political econ- omy ought to be taught in every school of advanced grade POLITICAL ECOKOMY. 63 in the land.i The difficulties are by no means insuperable.* It is, in fact, easy to interest young people in economic discussions which keep close to the concrete, and ascend only gradually from particulars to generals. The writer has indeed found it possible to entertain a school-room full of boys, varying in age from five to sixteen, with a discourse on two definitions of capital, — one taken from a celebrated writer, and the other from an obscure pamphlet on socialism by a radical reformer. As the school was in the country, illustrations were taken from farm Ufe, such as corn-planting and harvesting, and from the out-door sports of the boys, such as trapping for rabbits. Some common famiUar fact was kept constantly in the foreground, and thus the attention of the youngest lad was held. Perhaps money is as good a subject as any for an opening lecture to bright boys and girls, and the writer would recom- mend a course of procedure somewhat like this : Take into the class-room the different kinds of money in use in the United States, both paper and coin, and ask questions about them, and talk about them. Show the class a greenback and a national bank-note, and ask them to tell you the difference. After they have all failed, as they probably will, ask some one to read what is engraved on the notes, after which the difference may be further elucidated. Silver and gold cer- tificates may be discussed, and the distinction made clear between the bullion and face value of the five-cent piece, etc. Other talks, interesting and famihar, about alloys, the extent to which pennies and small coins are legal tender, the char- 1 In Belgium it has been proposed to introduce political economy even into the elementary schools; and in view of the immense importance of the economic problems which will one day be pressing for solution in the United States, it is to be hoped that such a proposal at some future time will not be Utopian in our country. 64 ON METHODS OF TEACHING . acter of the trade -dollar, etc., etc., will occupy several hours, and delight the class. ^ The origin of money is a topic which will instruct and entertain the scholars for an hour. Various kinds of money should be mentioned ; and it is possible you may find examples of curious kinds of money in some hill town not very remote, e.g. , eggs, and you are very likely to find several kinds of money in use among the boys and girls, e.g., pins. In one boarding-school, near Baltimore, bits of butter, served the boj's at meals in quantities less than they desired, passed as money, and quite an extensive use of bills and orders, " negotiable instruments," was established.^ After this, a work like Jevons's " Money and the Mechanism of Exchange," ' or at least parts of it, will interest the pupils. Banking very properly comes under the head of political economy, performing as it does most important functions in industrial life ; and the most prominent banking institutions in this country are the national banks, which have also played an important r61e in our history. There is likely to be one in every town where there is a high school, and it is well to continue the course of instruction with the village national 1 The teacher will find the necessary information in the Revised Stat- utes of the United States (Government Printing Oflfiee, Washington, D.C.), which should be in the school library. It is contained in more convenient shape in the " Laws of the United States relating to Loans and the Cur- rency" and "Instructions and Regulations in Relation to the Transaction of Business at the Mints and Assay Ofiices of the United States." These pamphlets, like most other government publications, can be obtained gratis of the congressman of the district in which the school is situated. They are kept on sale by various book-dealers in Washington. 2 Cf. Mr. John Johnston's instructive paper, ' ' Rudimentary Society among Boys," published in the "Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Sciences," second series, No. XI., edited by Dr. Herbert B. Adams. s This is published in paper covers in the Humboldt Library for forty cents, as well as in the " International Scientific Series " of D. Appleton & Co. POLITICAL ECONOMY. 65 bank. Procure for this purpose "The National Bank Act,'" and study it with your class in connection with reports and advertisements and circulars of the village bank. You will find a certain minimum number of directors prescribed by law : ascertain the number in the bank in question, and their functions. Some members of the class will be acquainted with them, and all the class will know of them, and this will give a personal interest to the study. Then compare the amount of capital required with the actual amount, and have the class ascertain from the law the amount of bank-notes which the bank could receive from the comptroller of the currency, and the actual circulation. After the various feat- ures of the bank have been examined, it is desirable that some bright boy should write a history of the bank, to read before the class, and afterwards, perhaps, to publish in the village paper. Files of the paper, to which the editor will doubtless give access, will contain all the published reports of the bank, as well as the proceedings and the village talk about the bank at its foundation. If officers of the bank are properly approached, they will assist with hints and informa- tion. In this way the pupils will acquire a new interest in banks ; and when they pass by the national bank, it will never again seem quite the same lifeless institution. From the history of one national bank it is easy to pass over to the history of national banks in this country, and to a descrip- tion of the State banking systems, which preceded the national banking system.^ Then the student may be glad to read what General Walker says on banks, in his " Politi- 1 A government publication ; also published by the Romans Publishing Company, 251 Broadway. Care should he taken to secure the latest edition, as there have been various changes in the banking laws. 2 For this purpose the teacher should consult the reports of the comp- troller of the currency, especially for the years 1875 and 1876. 66 ON METHODS OF TEACHING cal Economy," and in his "Money, Trade, and Industry,'" and a work like Bagehot's "Lombard Street" will not be without attractions.^ Taxes can be studied in the town or village. The pupils can learn from their fathers what the taxes are, how they are assessed and collected, and what part of the revenues is used for village purposes, what part for schools, what part for the county, and what part for the State. In any vil- lage it cannot be difficult to induce one of the assessors to explain before the class in political economy the principles upon which he does his work. All the pupils can then write essays about taxation in the said place, and perhaps one of them will be able to write a financial history of the town. In this way the pupils will be prepared for the perusal of a work like the "Report on Local Taxation," prepared by Messrs. Wells, Dodge, and Cuyler.^ It may be learned from the reports of the Secretary of the Treasury ■* how the ex- penses of the federal government are defrayed. In this way a complete view of taxation in the United States is ob- tained, ° and in many respects a small town or village offers better facilities for such a course than a large city, where manners are less simple, and where city officials for well- known reasons often show a manifest unwillingness to impart information. This course will teach pupils to observe eco- nomic phenomena, will impart to them an interest in financial questions, and will prepare them in later years to deal with large problems. As Carl Hitter prepared himself for his 1 Published by Henry Holt & Co., New York. 2 Published by the Scribners, New York. 3 Published by Harper & Brothers, New York. * Government publications. 5 The United States Census Reports contain valuable information, and every high school should be provided with copies. POLITICAL ECONOMY. 67 great geographical work by the stuclv of the geography of Frankfort,^ so bright pupils, beginning with the study of local finance, will learn how to deal with even the difficult problems of war finance when they arise. The two great impelling causes of economic study have ever been financial difficulties of government and social problems, or discontent with the condition of social classes, coupled with a desire to improve this unsatisfactory condi- tion, and it is with these two kinds of topics that political economy chiefly deals. In a manner similar in principle to that described, the administration of public charity and its relation to private charity may be studied in the town and county. If poorhouses, insane asylums, hospitals, etc., are in the vicinity, and can be visited, so much the better. The manner of caring for the criminal classes may be studied locally. Reports of State boards of charities will enable the pupils to connect local with .State charities.^ Then there is the ordinary laborer. Let the pupils de- scribe his manner of living, his wages, etc. If the school is a mixed one, some young girl of sufficient tact wiU be found to visit the ordinary laborers in their homes, to talk with them, and obtain theu- ideas. In some towns a real laboring population can scarcely be said to exist ; but factory towns afford favorable opportunities for studies of this character. Many a Massachusetts factory town furnishes an excellent field for such study, and the reports of the Massa- chusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics wiU be found helpful. 1 This illustration is taken from Dr. Adams's paper, v. p. 161 of first edition. 2 Teaeliers and pupils will find much useful information in the large work of Dr. Wines, entitled "The State of Prisons and of Child-Saving Institutions in the Civilized World," Cambridge (Mass.), 1880. 68 ON METHODS OF TEACHING A book like " Work and Wages," by Thorold Rogers,' will then be enjoyed by many of the class. ^ After part or all of this ground has been gone over, it will then be time to take up the more systematic study of politi- cal economy. The work described might be gone oyer in exercises once a week, extending thi-ough one year, and the second year a systematic course might follow ; and this is not too much time for so all-important a study in a high school. There are few good text-books of political economy, but for the English-speaking student the writer would rec- ommend Francis A. Walker's " PoUtical Economy," or Lave- leye's "Elements of Political Economy," with additions by Taussig.^ Here is an admirable high-school course sketched out. AU the works referred to ought to be accessible to the teacher, and sJiould be mastered before he begins to teach.* This may seem like requiring a great deal ; but preparation is as necessary in a teacher of pohtical economy as in a teacher of mathematics ; and it is as absurd to ventm-e to teach political economy, without a knowledge of the subject, as to teach trigonometry without a knowledge of trigonome- try. It is because this has been attempted that such con- tempt has been thrown on the study of political economy, and that the science is in such a sad condition. 1 Published by G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. - In his "French and German Socialism" (Harper & Brothers), the writer has attempted to give a brief sketch of the more prominent Utopian theories in a manner adapted to school and college use. Albert Shaw has described admirably an American communistic society in his "Icaria: A Chapter in the History of Communism." Published by G.P.Putnam's Sons. 3 If there is sufficient time, Walker's larger work is preferable; if less time can be devoted to the study, Laveleye's is better. The teacher should have both. Laveleye's " Political Economy " is published by the Putnams, New York. * Let one who proposes to teach political economy master, first of aU. F. A. Walker's "Political Economy." POLITICAL ECONOMY. 69 For a more advanced course, a preliminary training in logic is advisable, as the discussion of deductive and in- ductive methods, of conceptions and definitions, etc., will otherwise hardly be intelligible.' Besides this, the training ^)ne obtains in the study of logic is excellent preparation for much of the work required in political economy. It teaches students to analyze conceptions, to combine elements, and to reason closely. The writer has often felt that a want of this training in his pupils was an obstacle in his way. The more profound one's knowledge of history the better for teacher in high school or college. This economic life, this working, buying, selling, this getting a living, is only one part of the historical life of a people ; and the more that is known about the whole, the better will each part be understood. For the advanced investigation, a knowledge of foreign languages, especially of German, is indispensable. Roscher,' Wagner,^ Knies,* Schmoller,^ Schonberg,^ and Leroy-Beaulieu'' should be studied. Colleges and universities ought also to provide periodicals like the " Jahrbiicher f iir Nationalokonomie uud Statistik," ' ' Jahrbuch fur Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung und VoUiswirth- schaft," the "Tiibinger Zeitschrift fiir die Gesammte Staats- wissenehaft, " the "Journal des jficonomistes," the English "Economist," " Bradstreets," and the " Banker's Magazine." 1 The two little works by Thomas Fowler, "Deductive Logic" and " In- ductive Logic," published in the Clarendon Press Series, Oxford, are recommended. 2 System dsr Volkswirthschaft. 3 Lehrbuch der politischen Oekonomie. " Die politische Oekonomie vom geschichtlichen Standbuhkte, and his "Geld und Credit." 5 Ueber einige Grundfragen des Eechts und der Volkswirthschalt. s Handbueh der politischen Oekonomie. ' Traite de la science des finances. 70 ON METHODS OF TEACHING The teacher of college students, who ought always him- self to be an original worker, sJwuld be perfectly independent. It is doubtless owing largely to a lack of independence on the part of the teacher that political economy has not made more progress in this country. Men are too often employed to teach free trade or to teach protection, — and as usually taught, it is difficult to tell which of the two is more unscientific, — or to teach Henry C. Carey's system, or teach monometallism or bimetallism, whereas the teacher should be encouraged in the pursuit of truth, regardless of where it strikes. Independence is nowhere more necessary than in the study of economies. A new theory of the iota subscript does not move the mass of men profoundly, but a new theory of taxa- tion is bound to call forth from some one the cry " heresy." In fact, as there are always large and powerful classes in- terested in the present condition of things, every change proposed, no matter what it is, is certain to meet with a storm of opposition. Ignorance, prejudice, and selfishness have always combined in their attacks on every political economist who has contributed to the advance of his science. The political economist requires likewise, if he is to do his best work, a salary which shall enable him to mingle with the world, to become, to a certain extent, a man of the world, in order that he may the better understand the world with which he deals. He ought further to be able to travel and conduct investigations in industrial regions at home and abroad. So important is travel, indeed, that one great French school, that of Le Play, has made travel the chief method of investigation.^ 1 The following note on Le Play may be Interesting in this connection: In 1829 Le Play began a series of journeys, which continued for over fifty years, and extended themselves into all parts of Europe, and even into the regions of Asiatic semi-civilization. These travels have borne plenteous POLITICAL ECONOMY. 71 The thoroughly equipped teacher of political economy ought, in addition to his qualifications in history and philos- ophy, including chiefly logic, to be a careful student of the principles of law. Evidence and practice, and the formal dietails of law, are not of great importance to him ; but real- estate law, the law of contract and of banking, etc., are. The political economist lays the basis for legal study, he tells the reason why such and such legal institutions, e.g., private property in land, exist, and should exist ; but he can - manifestly lay a much better basis if he knows the superstruc- tm-e which is to be erected thereon.' A legal friend, at the same time a political economist, recommends the following course in law for advanced stu- dents of political economy : " Blackstone's Commentaries,"^ fruits, of which the most prominent are the following: the publication of numerous works, the establishment of a method of study in social science, and the foundation of a school. Le Play's method, which he calls " La Me'thode social, ' ' centres in what may be called the doctrine of travel. The quintessence of his theory is, that it is as essential for the economist to observe economic phenomena as for the mineralogist to observe minerals. The economist, however, not being able to gather together and arrange in a laboratory manufactories, laborers' quarters in cities, agricultural villages, extensive mines, and the commercial phenomena of a great port, must travel to them, observe the manifestations of social and individual life which are there to be seen, and classify the results thus obtained in such manner that instructive and useful generalization may be drawn there- from. The most important among the works of Le Play bears the title "les Ouvriers Europe'ens," in which the author describes from actual obser- vation the minutest details of separate laborers' households in every part of Europe. The third service to science, which these journeys enabled Le Play to render, consists in the foundation of a school, called ' ' L'Ecole de la Paix Soeiale," which manifests its activity in various ways, of which the most striking is the publication of their semi-monthly organ, " La Re'forme Soeiale." 1 In many German universities every law-student is obliged to take a course in political economy. The study of political economy is likewise obligatory in French law-schools. ^ " Chase's edition is one volume. 72 ON METHODS OF TEACHING POLITICAL ECONOMY. wMch should be thoroughly digested; Parson on "Con- tracts " ; Washburn on " Real Estate," Benjamin on " Sales of Personal Property," and Bispham on " Equity." I would add, at least, Morse on "Banks and Banking," Cooley on " Taxation," and Morawetz on " Corporations." Only one point more remains to be mentioned. The best original economic work is, for the most part, expensive. Laws, government reports, as blue-books and financial statements, and all sorts of original documents are required. Much economic work can be done onl}' in connection with a • learned institution or a government oiHce, or by a very wealthy person. Any university which would have good work on the part of its teachers of political economy must not begrudge the expense of material as necessary to the economist as chemicals to the chemist. Of course, it cannot be expected that an American college will provide the poli- tical economist with a special library of seventy thousand volumes, like the Library of the Prussian Statistical Bureau ; but it is doubtful whether a fair working university library of political economy can be produced for less than five thousand dollars.^ 1 It will readily be understood that a university library, designed to aid original research, is something quite different from a high-school library. One hundred dollars would purchase economic books which would answer fairly well the needs of a high school. Historical Insteuction in the Course of History and Political Science at Cornell University. Bt Andrew B. White, Cornell University. THE theory and practice of historical instruction in Cor- nell Unirersitj' may be outlined as follows : — 1 . The basis of historical study among university students is to be found in the necessities of their general development as men, and of their special development as citizens prepar- ing to take positions of influence among the civilizing activi- ties of their land and time. 2. As to the general system upon which a course extending through four years is conducted, the first step is to enable the student to secure some adequate general knowledge of the simpler fundamental facts in that evolution of man and of society in the past which best aids in solving the problems regarding the evolution of both in the future. This is done, as regards ancient history, by a rapid survey of the main ancient nations ; as regards mediaeval history', by a study of the general transition from the ancient to the medieval period, and of the more important and fruitful elements, institutions, and men developed in medifeval life ; as regards modern history, bj' a study of the transition from the medi- aeval to the modern period in leading modern nations, and 74 HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE especiallj' hy attention to the movements, phases of thought and action, institutions, epochs, and men in these which throw most light on the evolution of existing societj-. 3. As to special work, having in view the education of the student as a man and citizen, there naturallj' comes next the more careful study of such nations, epochs, movements, systems, phases, or tendencies as bear most directly on the world of thought and action in which the student is to live and move and have his being. These subjects for special study are frequentlj* found in ancient, mediaeval, or general modern history-, but students are especiallj- encouraged to devote their most careful labor to subjects which have to do most directly with thought and action in their own country. 4. As to the practical plan pursued, the general knowledge of ancient and mediaeval history, and of the history' of Eng- land, — considered as a typical example of a great modern state, — is given in the lower classes by text-books, with supplementary lectures by the resident professors, and occasional courses of lectures by others. This elementary knowledge is afterward developed in the advanced classes by various courses of lectures upon the more important nations and periods, supplemented by recommendations as to the examination of authorities and general reading, and by " seminar}- exercises" calculated to increase the famil- iarity of students with important sources, and to stimulate their investigation of these. 5. As to methods of teaching, it is taken for granted that the student must be directly interested in his work, and that he is not to be considered a passive recipient of facts and ideas flung at him by his instructors. Efforts are constantly made to trace back important events and institutions through the various stages of their development, and to make sug- gestive comparisons between different phases of progress AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 75 in the same nation, and between similar phases in different nations. In general modern history and in American his- torj^, while pains is taken to present the framework and connections historically, the fiUing-in is largely biographi- cal. It is believed that histor3- is thus more surelj^ made living and real, that the development of principles and events is more firmly planted into the thinking of stu- dents, and that the ethical content of events may be grasped as it can be in no other way. 6. The importance of leading the student to make indi- vidual investigation iuto original sources is fully recognized ; but it is felt that such special investigations are likely to be narrow and poor, in fact, to be simply those of an attorney's clerk preparing a case, unless there has been some large pre- liminary study of human events, and some good philosophical conception of the values and relations of these ; that to pro- mote special investigation among young men not matured by broad historical studies, and by thought upon these, is simply to train up annalists or historical special pleaders. To guard against this danger, it is thought best to advise, first, that such individual investigations be made as a rule in the latter years of the course ; and, secondly, that they be made upon points of permanent and direct interest in the history with which American citizens have most directly to do ; more especially in the constitutional history of England, and in the general, political, and constitutional history of the United States. 7. During the entire course of four years efforts are made to .keep up the interest of the student, and to increase his power of looking upon historical events and developments from various points of view. It is for this reason that such special lecturers as Gold win Smith, James Anthony Fronde, Hermann von Hoist, Edward A. Freeman, George "W. 76 HISTORY AJSnO POLITICAL SCIENCE. Greene, Charles Kendall Adams, and others have at various times been called to supplement the work of the resident professors. 8. Instruction in political science, international law, and the great literatures, ancient and modern, is brought as far as possible into connection with histgrical study. As to litera- ture, courses of general reading are suggested which shall aid in making history a living study, and not a mere " swallowing of formulas." 9. As to the philosophy of history, efforts are made from the first to stimulate the student to find in the progress of the world's affairs philosophical principles and underlying laws, and toward the end of the course a special series of lectures on the subject is delivered for the benefit of those thus matured in general and special historical work. 10. To sum up as regards the connection of theory with method, the effort is, first, to proceed from the simple to the complex by the survey of single nations in ancient history and single elements in medifEval history before taking up with more minuteness the complicated history of the modern world ; and, in modern history, to study nations and even individuals separately before grouping all together ; secondly, to proceed from the concrete to the abstract hy a large use of the biographical method before presenting extended chains of historical events ; and, thirdly, to proceed from the empirical to the rational by encouraging students to draw philosophical principles out of events before any connected discussion upon the philosophy of history is given as a whole. Advice to an Inexperienced Teacher of History. By W. C. Collar, A.M., Head Master or Roxbury Latin School. YOU contemplate your task with a kind of despairing shudder, and it is not strange. If we except the in- structors in a relatively small number of city high schools, the American teacher who is a college graduate is supposed to be equipped for instructing in most branches of human knowledge, or, to speak guardedly, at least in languages, ancient and modern, physical and natural science, mathe- matics, historj-, and English literature. Histor}- has been with you a favorite pastime rather than a subject of severe, absorbing, protracted study. You have read a good number of standard histories of ancient and mod- ern times without attempting to make a careful and minute study of any one nation or period, and this j-ou rightly feel is a very slender preparation for the weighty responsibilities that you are now to assume. For you have not to teach a definite portion of a well-defined subject in accordance with tried and accepted methods, or even under the guidance of certain established principles of historical instruction. The teaching of history has hardly j'et reached the scientific stage. Both the "What and the How are to be largely of j-our own invention. The subject itself is vast. It opens in many and far-reaching vistas that lose themselves in a tortuous complexity. Where is a clue to be found? Evidently time, reading, observation, experiment, reflection, judgment will all be needed. 78 ADVICE TO AN INEXPEEIENCED Then what of the class of minds to be taught? For in- struction must be adapted to the condition and needs of your pupils, or it will count for little. It is said that " the German pupil at the age of fifteen or sixteen has been able to complete two distinct surveys of universal history." It will not be safe to assume any such amount of knowledge and training in the case of high-school scholars of that age with us. Their acquaintance with history is most likely limited to a meagre outline of facts in English history, and such a knowledge of United States' history as may be got from the study of a manual like Anderson's or Berard's. It is hardly necessary to say that the imagination has not probably been cultivated by their contact with history, still less have- they any developed historical sense, any notion of the continuity of history, and most likely no love whatever of historical reading. It is fortunate if thej- do not think of history as a mere collection of dry facts, without interest or significance, — a dreary, barren study, to be cast aside and done with as soon as possible. How often does one hear from children the exclamation, " Oh ! I hate history ! " Or from grown persons, " I never could get interested in history." Finally, account must be taken of the school time allotted to history. This reveals perhaps the most discouraging feature of all. I have found three hours a week for a year too little time for Greek and Roman history alone ; but that, I am sure, would seem in most high schools a liberal, if not excessive, allowance of time for a much wider range. The statement made in another essay in this volume, that "In America, history is generally crowded into one or two terms, or at most into a single year," is probably within the mark. Such, then, are some of the conditions under which you must work. A consciousness of inadequate preparation, TEACHER OP HISTORY. 79 insufficient time, and pupils without historical training. The situation is not exhilarating ; but neither is it without hope. Certainly it is of the utmost importance first to appreciate clearly under what limitations one must work, and then to conceive definitely the kind and amount of work to be done. To supply your own lack of knowledge and training will be the slow task of years ; but nothing is so satisfying and stimulating as the consciousness of progress. This is the one of the conditions enumerated that it lies in jour own power to change, and you may be sure that on the increasing depth and fulness and freshness of your own knowledge will depend in large measure the interest and progress of your pupils, that is, the power and success of your instruction, and accordingly your own satisfaction in 3'our work. Let us suppose the subject of ancient history is assigned to you. The field is immense, and the time is absurdly in- adequate. But it is only the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans, whose history and literatures are of great interest and importance to us ; and many as are the points of con- tact of these nations with Egypt, PhcEnicia, Assyria, Persia, and a few other oriental peoples, some incidental notice only of these relations will suffice. Thus, the area is at once greatly circumscribed. And even Hebrew history must not be per- mitted to occupy a relatively large place ; partly because a considerable portion of it is not important ; partly because what is of the greatest value to us requires, for its compre- hension and appreciation, a degree of mental training and maturity. The Hebrews have transmitted to us their con- ceptions of God, of religion, and of morality. Their thoughts, beliefs, aspirations, emotions, have entered into our inmost being, and constantly affect our outward life and conduct. Their ecstasy of joy, of triumph, of hope ; their passion of remorse, of sorrow, of despair, have been embalmed in our 80 ADVICE TO AN INEXPEEIEIS'CED sacred music, and hallowed by the most tender and solemn associations of religion. Their language and their imag- erj' have permeated our literature and color our daily speech. But it would be vain to attempt to show a class of begin- ners the immensity of the influence for good, and likewise for evil, that has been wrought upon us through the ages, by the faith, the ethics, the laws, the literature of that strange people. Of these things, a partial, fragmentary, or even incidental treatment must suffice . But to be more precise. As a basis for such instruction, as circumstances allow, it is enough to read with a class, first, the life and work of Moses, contained in the first twenty- four chapters of Exodus, and the first three and the thirty- fourth chapters of Deuteronomy ; second, the first eleven chapters of Joshua ; and, finally, the life of David. It is necessary to assume some familiarity with Bible stories ; though how so many intelligent boj's and girls, accustomed to attendance at Sunday-schools, grow up with- out such familiar knowledge is something of a mystery. The discovery, some years ago, that in a class of thirty bright boys of about fourteen years of age, only three understood an allusion to the story of Ruth and Boaz, led to my laying out a course of Bible reading in my own school for each year of a six years' curriculum. Thus far, we have considered the nature and scope of your work, and have pointed out some of the limitations imposed by circumstances for which you are not responsible, but which 3-0U must not disregard. It is time to speak of the method of teaching. But the method must be determined in the main by the object aimed at. If the object is to deposit in the mind the greatest number possible of historical facts, there is perhaps no better way than to confine the instruc- tion to drill upon the contents of a mantial by question and TEACHER OF HISTORY. 81 answer, with frequent examinations in writing. Such a method would probably be effective in two ways : it would give learners positive knowledge, or the semblance of it, and it would pretty certainly make them hate history. I do not hesitate to say that the ultimate purpose of school instruction should be to incite an interest in historj-, and to create a love for historical reading. If this is a correct view, it gives the key to right methods ; and, from other essays in this volume, you will gather many useful suggestions. Only consider well what hints you can use. Remember that your task is not that of a college professor. It is very different, and it is much more difficult. Therefore, many excellent methods described by eminent teachers of history in the preceding essays you may be unable to put in practice. You have to deal with minds less mature and less capable of independent study ; and you cannot probablj' send yom- pupils to a well-furnished library- for reading and research. Perhaps what is contained in this volume, in answer to the question "Plow shall history be taught?" is most directly helpful. Let me try to add some suggestions derived from my own experience. I will suppose that your pupils have some brief manual of Roman or Greek history, like ' ' Creighton's Primer of Roman History," or "Smith's Smaller History of Greece." First read over the lesson assigned for the nest day, or portions of it, with the class ; indicate briefly' what is of greater and what of less importance ; make such explanations as are needful for an intelligent comprehension of the text, and indicate what dates should be committed to memorj'. A word may be here most conveniently said on the sub- ject of chronology. A few dates should be well fixed in the memorj- ; they should be carefully- selected by the teacher, and some explanation given of their significance. But " a few," you wiU say, is a little indefinite. Of course, opinions 82 ADVICE TO AN INEXPERIENCED will differ as to the number of indispensable dates in any history, though there might be a general assent to the prin- ciple of requiring the pupil to commit as few as possible. Of the two hundred and fifty dates given in " Smith's Smaller History of Greece," I insist on fifteen, and I think the number might be reduced to ten. But if learners are prop- erly taught, they will, of course, be able to determine a great many dates approximatelj'. For example, a boy who has clearly understood the cause, purpose, and results of the Confederacy of Delos could not possibly place it in time far wrong, with reference to great events before and after it ; and a single important date in the century well remembered would enable him to fix very nearly its absolute time. Remembering that you must make history interesting, to that end use all available means to produce vivid impressions. This is a trite remark, but it will bear repeating. Casts, models, coins, photographs, relief maps, may not be at j-our command ; but maps of some sort you must have. Historical instruction, without the constant accompaniment of geography, has no solid foundation, — "is all in the air." The imagination must be stirred ; the sympathies must be quickened. How ? I answer, first, by drawing with judgment from your own stores of knowledge. An interesting, but perhaps not historically important, incident is merely alluded to, or not mentioned at all in the manual used by the class. Tell the story in all its details. You might read it in a form more perfect from a literary point of view, but you ought to be able to tell it in a way far more impressive, and that is the main thing. For events of a different class, I should, following sugges- tions more than once made in this volume, read from original, and, if possible, from contemporary records. What a vivid idea, for instance, will be got of the plague at Athens from the reading of a few pages from "Thucydides," with a word TEACHER OF HISTORY. 83 or two added from modern medical studies of that scourge. The opportunity and the advantage of studj'ing history from original documents is one strong reason why I have advised the study of a small portion of Hebrew history, though I am not ignorant what modern criticism has established regarding the age and authorship of those writings. It is not necessary, however, to communicate to a class knowledge for which they are not prepared. But for awakening the sympathies and moving the imagi- nation of children, I attach greater importance to the aid to be derived from imaginative literature, particularly poetry. Poetry gives life and reality to history. History describes, poetry paints ; and this is often true of poetry that ranks neither in the first nor in the second order. For j'ears I have found it very useful to have Macaulay's " Laj's of Ancient Rome " read in connection with the mythical part of Roman History. There is nothing like the magic charm, whether of sublimity or pathos, that poetry lends to historical events, persons, and places. "Who can read Jlilmau's mag- nificent ode on the Israelites crossing the Red Sea without a consciousness, if he reflects upon it, of a fresh and more vivid realization of a scene familiar to his imagination from childhood? How Scott's beautiful hymn, sung by Rebecca in "Ivanhoe," makes us see, as the Scripture narrative never did, the slow onward toiling of the Israelites through the rocky fastnesses and over the sandy deserts of Arabia, guided by the pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night ! At the distance of forty years I recall the emotion, the tears, with which I read in our country school reading-book a poem which I have never since seen, entitled " Jugurtha in Prison," beginning, " Well, is the rack prepared, the pincers heated ? " 84 ADVICE TO AN INEXPBEIBNCED I knew nothing of Jugurtha, neither when he lived nor in what part of the world, nor what he had done that he was to he starved to death in prison. It is true, in this particular case, that if I had known what a scamp Jugurtha was, my sympathies for him would have been considerably less ardent ; but in that case they would only have been transferred to his brothers, whom he had so foully murdered. With what a swell of patriotic pride, too, did I use as a boy to recite, — "Departed spirits of the miglity dead, Ye that at Marathon and Leuctra bled." "Marathon and Leuctra" signified nothing to me. I had not the remotest idea who the "mighty dead" were who had fallen there, but I felt as if it would have been a joy to have shed my blood with them. Do not make the mistake, which I am afraid is a common one, of teaching the history of one ancient nation as if it had no relation to that 'of any other. To point out relations, to contrast and compare times, institutions, events, men, is one of the most delightful and most useful parts of the teacher's work. To encourage pupils to discover likenesses and differences is to promote thinking, to enlarge the mental horizon, to induce a habit of mind of inestimable value. Take, for example, the fundamental laws of the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans ; their constitutions, which embodied and expressed their most striking and distinctive national characteristics. It would be easy to show, how on the one hand the Mosaic constitution, the Decalogue, aimed to make men moral and religious; while on the other the Greek and Roman constitutions sought to form men into soldiers, and to make them into members of a body politic. Hence the importance of private conduct under the one, and its relative unimportance under the other, with all the far-reaching TEACHER OP HISTORY. 85 consequences that followed. In the study of Greek historj' a comparison of the two rival states, Athens and Sparta, in spirit and policy, and the tracing of the immediate and remote effects on themselves and all Hellas, will not only impart increased interest, by bringing into clearer relief the essential characteristics, the heroism, the selfishness, the hardihood, the cruelty, the narrowness of the one, and the intelligence, love of knowledge and beauty, but also, alas ! the sensualit}-, levity, and weakness of the other ; but it will suggest many an important lesson, and will be an excellent preparation for the reading of modern history with a more intelligent observation and reflection. Again, how interesting is the comparison in detail of the growth of the Athenian constitution under Solon, Cleisthenes, and Pericles, with that slowly evolved among the Eomans after the beginning made bj' Servius TuUus, by the struggle for two centuries between the patricians and plebeians. There is the same exclusive possession of political rights on the part of the nobles, and accordingly the same control of government by the few for their own benefit and pleasure ; the same misery, poverty, and indebtedness of the lower classes ; the same struggle to escape from intolerable burdens, and then to share equally with the more fortunate the rights of citizenship, that meant so much in ancient times ; the same shifting of the basis and condition of political privileges from birth to wealth, estimated, observe, in both cases, by the amount or income of property in land ; and finally the same issue, the turning of the tables, the ultimate predominance of the people, and the transference of the sceptre of power from the noble bj' birth to the rich. And can there be a more interesting lesson in history' than to continue this analogy, and trace the upward struggle of the common people in England? There the same contest 86 ADVICE TO AN INEXPERIENCED has been going on for six hundred years ; the same forces are at work, and there are many signs that the same results will follow. I have anticipated in the last few sentences the only additional suggestion that I can now permit myself to make. I mean the comparison of ancient with modern history. According to Herbert Spencer, there is no thinking without a consciousness of similitude, and no knowing without a perception of relation, difference, and likeness. If, then, comparison, conscious or unconscious, is a necessary con- dition of knowledge, is one in danger of pressing the com- parative method of historical study too far? Explicit comparisons at every step are not necessary, and the strict limitations of time must not be forgotten. I have never failed to awaken interest by such comparisons, whether in the study of ancient or modern historj-, even when the basis of knowledge on the part of pupils was of the slenderest. But a striking parallelism pointed out here and there will be enough to give direction to the thoughts in reading history, to lead pupils, as has already been observed, to see and follow out analogies themselves, to bring home to the consciousness what is far away, and to recognize in what appears new and strange what is known or even familiar. Let me illustrate. Suppose the topic for a lesson has been the Sicilian Expedi- tion. There is hardly to be found a more thrilling narrative than that by the great Greek historian, and the reading of some pages from Thucydides may well occupy a half-hour. A class wUl hardly find in their course in ancient history so conspicuous an example of the utter disastrous failure of an important undertaking through the irresolution and incapa- city of a leader. Let the teacher now tell the story of the Peninsula Campaign of McClellan in our late Rebellion, to illustrate how history is repeated in events and in the TEACHER OF HISTORY. 87 characters of men. Nicias was a man of upright character and respectable talents, but as a general cautious to timidity, and in a pinch incapable of coming to a decision. He was one of those men who are always thought to be sure to do great things, without its being possible to tell what inspires such confidence. He had the resources of the state at his back, and to support him the unflinching determination of his countrymen to win. He was ably seconded by his subordinates, and he almost achieved a great success. But at the last moment victory slipped from his grasp, and the hopeless ruin of all his plans quicklj- followed. Such, at least in the opinion of manj-, was McClellan, and so ended disastrously his strategy of the spade. As the elder Nicias barely missed capturing Syracuse, so did the modern Nicias all but take Richmond. Again, at first, a boy or girl would not see much likeness in the characters of the Romans and the English. But refiec- tion, aided by the hints and questions of the teacher, would bring out a surprising number of points of resemblance, and it would appear that the English might be fairlj- called the Romans of the modern world. There is at bottom the same solidity, massiveness, and sobriety of nature. The same indomitable will and tenacity of purpose is characteristic of the two peoples. They are alike in their respect for woman, their domesticity, their love of old-fashioned ways and things, their arrogance, their dislike of foreigners. They have above all other nations a genius for law and govern- ment. Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento, Hae tibi erunt artes ; pacisque imponere morem, Parcere subjectis, et debellare superbos. In many ways their defects and limitations are the same. The brusqueness, harshness, and indifference to the rights 88 TO AN INEXPERIENCED TEACHEE OF HISTOEY. and feelings of others which foreigners complain of in the English, seem to have been traits of the Romans. Cato, a typical Roman, was willing that the prayer of the Achaean exiles should be granted that they might return to their own country after having languished seventeen years in prison, but he gave his consent in these gracious words : " Have we nothing better to do than to sit here all daj- long debating whether a parcel of worn-out Greeks shall be carried to their graves here or in Achaia?" Both are incapable of the highest excellence in certain forms of art. Matthew Arnold is fond of repeating of a large part of his countrymen, that they are characterized by "a defective type of religion, a narrow range of intellect and knowledge, a stunted sense of beauty, a low standard of manners." This seems to be equally true of the Roman Philistine, and, I imagine, true of a far larger part of the whole body of the Romans than of the English. Our aim has been to show how to give life and reality to history, and we have seen that the methods by which this end may be reached are also those by which the greatest benefits are to be derived from historical study ; I mean the culture of the imagination, the quickening of the sympathies, the elevation of the moral nature, the forming of mental habits of observation, comparison, and reflection, and finally an increased interest in history and general literature. A Plea for Aech^ological Insteuction. By Joseph Thacher Clarke. '■'■Die Werkstdtte ei'nes grossen KUnstlers entwickelt den Jcetmenden Philosophien. den keiTnenden Dichter, meJir als der Horsnal deft Weltweisen und des Kritikers." — Letter of Goethe to Oeser, 1768. IT has long been evident that, as matters now stand, a living interest in classical antiquity is difficult to in- troduce in the studies of youth, and almost impossible to maintain in the busj* life of later jears. To some men of acknowledged intelligence it appears inadvisable to devote even that attention to classical attainment hitherto customary in our educational systems. Such complaints that the study of the ancient languages is not productive of adequate results are not new, and unfortunately are not without foundation. Teachers of long experience in the Universitj- of Cam- bridge tell us "it is quite usual to find among advanced classical students so complete an absence of the feeling of the reality of ancient life that they will sometimes in constru- ing put into the mouth of one of the characters of history or Action a sentiment in ludicrous disaccord with his position and with what might have been expected, and will do so without the slightest sense of incongruity." If the case elsewhere is otherwise, it certainly is not more favorable than with so great and so typical an institution. 90 A PLEA FOE This absence of the feeling of reality, this want of acquaint- ance with the actual circumstances of the life of the Greeks and Romans, touches the secret of the entire matter. We must admit that, in this regard, there is indeed the need of improvement, almost of a revolution, in the presentation of the classics to the student and to the public if these branches are to hold their own against the pressure brought to bear upon them by the absorbing utilitarianism of our age. Such an improvement can only proceed from a rejuvenation of philological studies by that living knowledge of antiquity gained by practical archaeology. A means of adapting class- ical instruction to the needs and tastes of present generations has long been sought, and has gradually become more and more needful. An increase of the direct studj^ of ancient life, which unites the advantages of philological scholarship and the exact research of natural science, is the only satisfac- tory resort in the present emergency. Archasology is that combination of tangible acquisition with intellectual attain- ment which is the ideal compromise between the conflicting principles. Not long ago a prominent statesman spoke of archaeology as a "great and healthgiving " science. In this application it may trulj- bear out his curious characterization. It is not difficult to demonstrate that the real disease of modern classical instruction, — notably in our own country, which is entirely without archaeological study, — is this very want of the sense of realit}', resulting from the omission of what Boeckh has termed the material discipline of the science of antiquity. The historj- of classical learning, during the last four centuries, shows clearly that, without frequent and sys- tematic research among the material remains of earlier life, the real intercourse of modern generations with antiquity steadily declines. The want of archaeological investigations during the ages succeeding the first great impulse of the AECH^OLOGICAL INSTETJOTION. 91 Renaissance, and of that intelligent understanding only to be derived from discoveries thus made, resulted in the stagnation and pedantic lifelessness of all classic learning which is so characteristic of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The promising beginning of antique research made in the Quatrocento, by Italian architects and travellers, — Brunel- leschi, Braccioliui, Squarcione, and particularly Cyriacus of Ancona, — did not meet with encouragement sufficient to insure the position of archaeological investigations during the following ages. Even as late as the time of Millin, scholars did not generally recognize the fact that the studj' of ancient monuments of art is the study of one of the chief expressions of human genius and attainment ; did not perceive that a knowledge of the monuments alone could lift the veil by which the earlier civilizations were shrouded. This inability to recognize and enter into the actual life of the ancients led to the appearance of that great and yet deplorable race of scholars who. Cyclop-like, lacked the eye of practical acquaintance with the material remains of those civilizations to whose literary vestiges they devoted an erudition not since surpassed. Philologists and phil- osophers stretched and contracted the few facts of antique civilization known to them until they fitted as best they might the Procrustean beds of their preconceived theories. In all branches of intellectual attainment there was a lack of practical knowledge which it is difficult to comprehend. Erasmus, besides his mother tongue, could only speak Latin, and did not even understand the languages of France, Italy, or England, although he had lived long in those countries. Duval, at the court of Francis I. of Austria, could repeat the names and alleged dates of all the rulers of Egypt, Greece, and Eome, but could not tell how many Imperial Electors were living, and did not even know the beautiful sisters of 92 A PLEA roE the Emperor Joseph, — who himself excused the scholar with the explanation: "But then my sisters are not antiques." Perhaps the greatest corypheus of this school of pedants was, however, one Hermann Conring, who wrote something over two hundred "opera" and "opuscula," and whose epitaph in the little churchyard of Helmstadt, after enumerat- ing his man J' attainments and more titles, concludes : " miil- tus putes conditos? Unus est, Conringius, Saeculi Miraeu- lum ! " But who to-day gives a thought to this Wonder of his Centurj-, with all his learning ? The study of the classics with these men of the schools, even more than with our own, was dominated by a purely philological and literary spirit, to the exclusion of practical, that is to saj- of archaeological and definite Iiistorical concep- tions. Scholars had come to regard the words of the ancients more thau their meaning, even as style rather than matter still generally decides the choice of classical reading. In their limited minds they were always ready to measure the importance of archaeological study by the meagre informa- tion they had concerning its mateiials. One of the first effects of this misjudgment was the neglect and decay of the ill-arranged collections of antiques then existing. The lamentable fate which befell so many of the Arundel marbles is a striking instance of the lack of general interest in archaeological studies at the time. Earlj- in the seventeenth century the collection had been brought from the Cyclades to England b^- a fortunate chance ; but its value could not then be worthily appreciated. The influence of this unrivalled accession of antiques to one of the chief cen- tres of European thought is hardly perceptible in the intel- lectual life of those times. The statues and reliefs in vain appealed to the learned world : "Be not so blind ; we, too, are that Hellas which ye seek." aechjEological insteuction. 93 The continental museums of this period, while accumulating worthless curiosities and bric-i,-brac of all kinds, dwindled in character to the discouraging cabinets of varieties which were the idle delight of everj- petty potentatu. There was no conception of the great value of such collections as indices of former development. A representative work of this mis- directed antiquarianism is Martorelli's notorious volume of 800 quarto pages on an antique ink-stand found at Portici, in which bulky work there is nothing of practical importance, nothing definite, even in regard to antique ink-stands. When a superficial kLowledge of Greek antiquities or costume was acquired, it was onl^- to play an ignoble part in the masquerades of Louis Quatorze. Even as late as the time of Gessner, in the first years of the eighteenth cen- tury', these branches of learning were generallj' held in such low esteem, that he, the learned Rector of the Thomas- Schule, Gottingen Professor, and President of the wisest existing Academy of Sciences, seriously recommended a study of the classics to the Jiomines elegantes of his daj' ; that they might thereby be enabled rightly to comprehend the elaborate displays of fire-works then in vogue, and dilate with learned emotions before the complicated and tasteless structures of white-of-egg and tinsel placed by the sugar bakers upon the tables of the great ! Such was the debased state of classical instruction, which resulted from a neglect of that material discipline of anti- quity, assured by the researches of the archaeologist and by the practical investigations of the explorer. The rise of Iiumaniora in Germany and France is due to the more just recognition of the unity of classical studies. Apart from the futility of such comparisons, no archseolo- gist would go so far as to maintain that the group from tlie eastern gable of the Temple of Zeus, at Olympia, is more 94 A PLEA FOR majestic than a Pindaric ode ; that the Victory from Samo- thrace is a more spirited creation than the warlike chorus of Oidipous at Kolonos ; or that, for instance, the agora and fortifications at Assos convey a higher conception of the civic and militarj' life of Greece than do the works of Xenophon. But it is right to insist upon the fact that the thoughts of the Greek poets and historians are presented in a difficult lan- guage, — the full force and delicacy of which are only to be appreciated after years of devoted study, — while the un- rivalled monuments of art of that people speak directly to the intellect and heart of the modern observer. It would be wrong indeed to assert that the language of Greek architect- ure and sculpture, and of all other archeeological materials as well, speaks alike to all ; for archaeology also has its grammar and lexicon. Still, it remains true that its interest is more immediate and more accessible. Every teacher of the classics knows how much a refer- ence to an antique monument, or a description d propos of an otherwise obscure passage, increases the interest and realitj', even of the driest author. Such explanations awaken attention, and give that vivacitj- of conception so dependent upon the imagination. A line of Pindar or Theokritos thus acquires the living and picturesque value of modern verse. Names of things not in use to-day are met with frequently in the usual school authors, and may be, in fact generally are, mechanically translated, without conveying even the most vague idea of their real signification. But let the objects, or even an adequate representation of them, be shown to the class, and, thenceforth, the pupil will see in the word the thing itself, — its shape, color, and, above all, its character. Now, archaeology stands in the same relation to all antique literature as does the object to the word in the case referred to. Such brilliant discoveries upon ancient sites, as the last AECH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 95 generation has witnessed, give us that feeling of the inade- quacj' of our theoretical information, which is the greatest stirBulant to advance. They open new and far-stretching regions, and maj- be pronounced the only specific for that common and most dangerous tendency of the human mind to form a system from a few facts accidentally known, and then lapse into self-satisfied sterilitj'. Another reason why the position of archseologj- should become important in our modern plans of study is to be found in the fact that, although political research attained the full perfection of its a[i[)ai;iliis in antique fields, histo- rians have long been inclined ti) relinquish the prosecution of Greek and Roman history to classical, and particularly to archaeological specialists, who are better prepared to con- sider the monumental and eijigraphical testimonj- afforded by the remains now daUy brought to light. The present representatives of classical science cannot be too thankful that so man}' great masters of historical induction have bestowed upon it the comprehensiveness of their methods. In return for this, it now devolves upon epigraphists and archaeologists to increase the supply of materials for the determination of the political and social relations of ancient life. What better illustration of the brilliant advance of the wealthy cities on the Lydian and Mysian sea-board during the latter half of the fourth century B.C. have we than the appearance and peculiar transformation of Attic architecture and sculpture in Asia Minor during this period ? And how could the political union of the small autocratic states to one vtovld-wide dominion be exemplified and defined without an understanding of the art and material culture of the Hellen- istic and earlier Roman epochs ? In view of these tasks it almost appears that, as Littre has said, the true end of all 96 A PLEA FOK erudition is to furnish materials for the science of history. Our age has no greater honor than the zeal with which all branches of learning work in concert to recover the riches of the past from the shadow of oblivion ; recognizing the intellectual physiognomy of extinct races by the traces of its material expression. It is by the acquirement of such knowledge that we are put in full possession of the attain- ments of previous generations, and become capable of in- creasing and improving this inheritance. In this regard, archaeology, though late, is not least in ranli among the sister sciences. Not one fm'nishes to this grand history more varied and more solid materials, or adds to the picture of former greatness firmer outlines and brighter colors. Indeed, as a handmaid of History, Archseology is more trustworthy than Literature. A monument of assured authenticity is the most indisputable witness to the con- temporary fact which it asserts. An author, on the other hand, may have been content to follow a groundless tradition, to speak on hearsay, sometimes even may have knowingly mis- represented the truth. Moreover, the date of a document does not necessarily indicate either the age or the general accept- ance of the fact recorded, still less of the idea which inspired it ; while a work of art involuntarily and unconsciously furnishes us with this information. The artist of a complex and imitative age may, it is true, attempt to mislead his gen- eration in regard to the spirit of his design. As we see, to- day he may even succeed with many of those before whom he displays his archaistic or foreign work. But he cannot deceive the trained discrimination of the later historian of art. Every form given to a material by man is the envelope or sign of a thought. Thoughts thus expressed are translated by archaeology, which science may consequently be defined AECH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 97 as the study of all visible monuments of early human activity ; it excludes from its limits only the spoken and written lan- guages of the past. It is thus the science which alone can teach us the most remote history of the race ; for, while man has not always ^Yritten, he has, from the first days of his existence, fashioned the materials which surrounded him to accommodate them to his needs, unconsciously impressing upon them the evidence of his conceptions and abilities. Hence, no object, however insignificant it may appear to un- trained eyes, is deemed by the archteologist unworthy his study. He regards, with a respectful and almost tender curiosity, the smallest vestige of an earlier age, for in it he recognizes some human thought. The minutiae of archaeological methods are often ridiculed by the vulgar ; nothing is more easy than to jest at an uncomprehended activity of any kind. The justification lies in the result. Those researches are surely not in vain by which we are enabled to decipher a single line of the nearh' obliterated pages of early human history. It is owing to those self-sacrificing explorers who for the last hundred years have followed in the footsteps of Stuart and Revett, that we have to-day in archaeology a new science, which, in perfection of apparatus and results, may be proud- ly ranked with comparative anatomy : that branch of re- search which practical archaeology most closely resembles in point of method. For, as the naturaUst from a handful of bones can present the image and describe the very habits of an animal which for thousands of years has had no repre- sentative on earth, so can the classically educated architect reconstruct the buildings of extinct civilizations by study of their overthrown and widely scattered stones. And as the anatomist sees in the varieties of species certain stages of advance dependent on environing conditions, — so does the student of antique sculpture note in the monuments of the 98 A PLEA FOE Asiatic sea-board, of ^gina, and of Attica, the develop- ment of artistic conceptions and teclinical execution. Tliese observations gradually grow to a history of a perfectly parallel human advance, a warning and directing guide. The great advantage of archaeological studies in peda- gogical respects lies in the fact that, although the ultimate subject of research is the human mind, it deals primarily with the tangible facts and institntions of antiquitj'. For the purposes of instruction it has all the advantages of the concrete over the abstract. Non scJiolae, sed vitae. Any man who builds a house, or drives a horse, will do it the better for knowing how houses were arranged, or horses trained, in the antique world. This must surelj' be the manner in which the out-of-door Greeks would themselves have desired to be studied. It has often been remarked that no race has ever lived upon whose life external sur- roundings worked with deeper effect. More than any other people the Hellenes had a highly developed sense of the, beautiful, and they found the delights to be derived from this appreciation as much in their works of art as in their poetry and eloquence. Certainlj' no people was ever so surrounded by works of its own hands, and these works influenced most decisively the great body of the Greek public, for whom the scrolls which contained the writings of their comparatively few authors were far out of reach. It was not merely a literary education which raised the citizens of Athens to the eminence of the Pheidian age ; it was not the wisdom of their writers, but of their artists which occupied the most prominent place in the minds of the Greek people. Archaeology and the history of art teach us to comprehend Hellenic genius as expressed in these most characteristic works, which may be of a like beneficent influence upon our receptive and cosmopolitan generation. AECH^OLOGlCAi INStEtTCTION. 99 To study exclusively the literan- aspects of Greek life, to refuse classical archseolog}- its high place in the unity of Hellenic studies, is to refuse to profit bj' those lessons of antiquity most needed by modern civilization. In consideration of these many and varied advantages, — I may even say of this imperative necessity, — it is certainly most deplorable that there is to-daj- absolutely no recognized archaeological instruction in the United States. A barrier like the Chinese "STall seems to separate those who study antiquity in its written works from those who seek its genius in material creations. One American uuiversitj' has, in the strength of its youth, lifted itself upon tip-toe to glance over the wall ; but from one domain to the other there is no regularly established communication, no widely open gates. With this state of things the verdict of the most enlight- ened minds concerning the results of our pedagogical systems ought not to surprise us. What M. Renan has said is only just: " The United States has created considerable popular instruction without any serious higher instruction, and will long have to expiate this fault by its intellectual mediocrity, its vulgarity of manners, its superficial spirit, its lack of general intelligence." Our own Lowell has stated the fact more tersely: "Americans are the most common-schooled and the least cultivated people in the world." The gradual advance of archaeology in the academical in- struction of Europe during the last hundred years indicates one of the most important lines of improvement. The six- teen most prominent universities of Germany, for instance, have regular chairs of archaeology, and there are doubtless others which have escaped the inquiry of the present writer. Even ten years ago, when Meyer and Stark were complain- ing so bitterly of the history of art, ' ' that Cinderella among 100 A PLEA FOE modern sciences," being neglected by native universities, there were independent professorsliips of this branch, in addition to the regular archaeological instruction, at Berlin, Bonn, Konigsberg, Leipzig, Munich, Strassburg, Prague, Tubingen, Vienna, and Zurich. France, England, and Ital}- follow this example. There exist no better arguments concerning the importance of archaeological studies in the higher curriculum than those delivered by M. George Perrot upon accepting the newly created chair of archaeology at the Sorbonne, and by Mr. Percy Gardener upon being called to a similar position at Cambridge. Even so small a university as that of Bucharest has a chair of archaeology. The fifteen lectures delivered by Professor Odobescu on the pedagogic importance of this science and its history up to the time of Montfauconi are well worthy the attention of those interested in the sub- ject. The Roumanian language — though it presents no serious difficulties to one acquainted with the other daugh- ters of the Latin — has not hitherto been much needed by scholars for purposes of reference ; the appearance in it of such a work indicates the rapid advance of archaeological studies beyond the narrow limits to which the last generation saw them confined. In view of this example, given by a state which until so very recently was between the upper and nether millstones of Oriental misrule and disturbance, we must cease to lay that flattering unction to our American souls which has too often been found in the ' ' newness " of our country and its institutions. The decree which founded the JEcole d'AtMnes gave a 1 A. L. Odobescu, Istoria Archeologiei, Studiu Intraduotiou la Ac^sta Sciintia. Bucharesci, 1877. AECH.EOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 101 great and enduring impulse to these studies in France ; let us hope that our new American School at Athens may be- come something more than a philological seminary, and develop the broad interests of its well-arranged predecessors. For it is in Greece itself, amongst the vestiges of Hellenic civilization, that the study of its antiquities is pursued to the greatest advantage. Indeed, the chief difficulty of archae- ological studies lies in the fact that, in order to enjoy and fully to understand the material remains of antiquitj', it is necessarj- to see them often, and to study them closely. By the magic of a few lines of Homer, of Euripides, of Catullus, the master of ancient languages carries his hearers on the wings of imagination to the classical world. But the archaeologist and the historian of art are less free from the material. The thoughts which they study are embodied in a tangible form, of which a mere description is necessarily insufficient. It is not difficult to lay out a plan of arciise- ological study, aided by that admirable scheme of acade- mic instruction founded by Hermann ' upon K. O. Miiller's great work, b}' Gerhard's similar schedule of lectures, ^ and by useful hints to be derived from later pedagog- ical treatises. 3 The difficulty lies rather in providing adequate illustrations for the historical and descriptive course determined upon. Hence an imperative requirement is the formation of a collection of antiquities, which is to archse- 1 Schema akademischer Vortrage iiber Archaologie, oder Geschichte der Kunst des klassischen Alterthums. Von Dr. K. Fr. Hermann. GiJttin- gen, 1S44. - Grundriss der Archaeologie, fuer Vorlesungen, nach Mueller's Hand- buch. Von Ed. Gerhard. Berlin, 1853. ^ One of many : Vorschlage zu einer Methode des asthetischen Unter- richts, nebst Beispielen. Mit besonderer Hervorhebung der Griechen. Von Eudolf Menge. In the Padagogische Studien, Von Dr. Wilhelm Kein. Heft XH. Eisenach. 102 A PLEA FOK ology what a laboratory is to chemistry. In this respect also the example is given by European countries. As late as 1850 Gerhard could scarcely find material in Berlin for the illustration of his lectures ; but in 1873 only, five of the German universities (the inferior establishments of Erlangen, Giessen, Marburg, Miinster, and Rostock) were without archaeological collections intended for the purposes of instruction. Many of these have gradually grown to great importance, Bonn, Breslau, and Wiirzburg possessing antiques of inestimable value. Even the preparatory schools of Germany often have admirably complete collections of casts, — as, for instance, that in the little town of Schulpforta, the catalogue of which, by Benndorf, is a work of independ- ent scientific interest. For the illustration of the historj- of classical sculpture such a collection should consist of types chosen to represent the characteristics of different centuries and of various schools, rather than of those elegant and familiar figures which please at first sight. These examples should be arranged as far as possible in chronological order, so as to exhibit the modifications of technical methods and style, the gradual development of artistic means, the advance from the archaic to the highest perfection, and, finally, the aflec- tation and insincerity of work which led to the decadence. Without such collections, or the far less trustworthj' aid of engravings and photographs, the history of antique art and archaeology can only be pursued at the expense of laborious journeys, impossible to most students, which even the pro- fessional explorer has continually to recommence. Much has already been done in Europe to give to classical studies their true importance and to enable them to exercise their peculiarly salutary influence upon our generation ; but far more remains. We have improved, it is true, upon the AKCH.EOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 103 narrow pedantry of Conring and Gessner, to whom the texts were everything. The science of antiquity has become something more than that suffisance purement livresque ridi- culed by Jlontaigne. But practical explorations are still not sufficiently encouraged, and archaeological instruction as yet has not attained its worthy place. The great Winckelmann stood on the portal between the past and the present of classical learning. It was the sug- gestiveuess of his historical methods that first pointed out the way which has led from the tasteless and unprofitable collector's mania of the Roccoco to the eminence of true archaeological science. But even in his exposition much was empirical, disconnected, and hopelessly entangled. The purely literary accounts of artistic development in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, and Greece obscured rather than enlightened the scholars of the last century, and were ever before their eyes like distorting fogs. As late as the time of Zoega and Visconti the field of archaeology was a promised land, — seen by them with much the feelings of Moses upon Mount Pisgah. It has first be- come possible to the younger generation of to-day to enter into full possession of the milk and honey of Greek perfec- tion. And this possibility is almost wholly due to the investigations of practical workers upon classic soil, and to those archaeological scholars who have taught the world the true value of the materials thus obtained. Tie Use of a Public Library in the Study op History. By Wm. E. Fostee, Liekakian of the Providence Public Libeart. IT would be a mistake to assume that the usefulness of such an institution ;us a public library is manifested ex- clusively, or even chiefly, in connection with any one hne of investigation. On the contrary, the demands made upon it represent the widest variety of studies and researches. At the same time, some of its methods have been found to adapt themselves with peculiar directness to the requirements of historical studj. For the sake of brevity, the instances cited below aie drawn in every case from the experience of a single library ;' yet many of the phases of the work here indicated may no doubt be met with in other hbraries ; and there would seem to be no inherent reason why they are not apphcable to libraries in general. From the outset there has been a definite purpose to main- tain a concert of action, and a mutual understanding, between this library, on the one hand, and, on the other, such institu- tions and agencies as a local historical society, courses of study in college and in the pubhc schools, private schools, local debating societies, private historical classes, and bodies 1 The Providence Public Library. 106 THE USE OF A PUBLIC LIBRARY of students pursuing the admirable courses of the Society to Encourage Studies at Home, and similar plans of study. In the college just ref en-ed to — Brown University — topics are regularly assigned for theme-writing, not only in the depart- 'ment of history, but in that of English literature and English composition. In one of these departments from the outset, and in the other during a great portion of the time, a memo- randum of the topics assigned has been invariably sent to the public library ; and carefully prepared lists of references to authorities have thereupon been made. Naturally a large share of the topics in both the departments above mentioned may be described as distinctly historical ; in many cases, however, biographical or literary. The lists of references thus prepared have not merely been forwarded to the college class, but have also been placed on file at the library, for the use of the students. Gradually, moreover, an extension of this system to the requu'ements of the other readers and students named above — those of the public and private schools, etc. — has grown up, in which tlie same method is followed with greater or less elaborateness. The aim has been, in short, to observe dihgently the nature and extent of the actual demands upon the library for specific assistance of this kind, and then to meet it in the fullest possible manner. But this is only one phase of the work ; for the aim has been not merely to meet such a demand, but to create it as well. For instance, it has been the unbroken practice, from the very first day on which the library was opened,^ to post a series of "daily notes" on current events and topics. A newspaper slip, cut in nearly every instance from the morn- ing palmer of the current date, is posted on the bulletin-board in the public portion of the library ; and under this are 1 In 1878. rSf THE STUDY OF HISTOEY. 107 grouped references to authorities, — in many instances citing volume and page, — wliich illustrate, or supplement, or in some way bear upon this topic. Opposite each entry, more- over, the reader finds the book-number, by which to apply for the work in question ; and this he is ^•ery likely to do. It is, in fact, a slice out of the catalogue which is thus pre- sented to the attention of readers each morning, but the references are on a much more minute plan than would be possible in any ordinary catalogue. What relation, it may be asked, has this to the study of history? In the first place, most of the topics thus presented, distinctly illustrate Mr. Freeman's suggestion, that "History is past pohtics ; and politics present history " ; and during the past six years cases in point have been the "Berlin Congress," " jSTilnlism in Russia," the "Operations in Egj'pt," etc. In the second place, it has been found that the works in the library, to which the references ha^e thus been made, are, in a very large percentage of instances, works of standard history. The most significant fact in connection with this system of suggestions and assistance is the completeness with which it has been recognized and used by the readers. These daily notes, hanging always in a well-recognized place, near the entrance, have from the first been regularly scanned ; and the extent to which the suggestions have actually been put in practice has been at aU times an appreciable feature in the intelligent use made of the library. But this " daily " sj'stem, though the earliest of the library's schemes of suggesting lines of reading, has not been the only one. From it, as a basis, have been developed several very interesting outgrowtlis, in some instances unforeseen. (1) It was found that these daily hsts had, in the eyes of the readers, a more than ephemeral value. They were not merely examined on the day when posted, but were consulted weeks after, by those 108 THE USE OF A PUBLIC LIBEAEY who remembered having seen on a given day a list on a given subject. So many, moreover, were the instances in which a desire was expressed to malce copies of the more extended lists, that the copying process known as the hektograph was introduced, and thus a number of copies could be supplied to those who desired them. (2) To the surprise of the librarian, the number of readers who could thus be supplied (70 or 75) was soon found to be too limited, and resort was had to printing them. At first this was only at rare intervals, and in special cases, but in 1880 the practice was begun — and since continued without interruption — of regular weekly printed lists in each of two local daily newspapers. This has proved an eminently practical and successful measure. The library's " constituency," so to speak, consisting of the local public, has, placed under its eyes each week, whetlier visiting the library in person or not, a memorandum of read- ing, iu certain specified lines. As a matter of fact, it is noticed that in a large number of instances readers come to the library with these weekly lists in their liands, which they have cut from their newspaper, and which they plainly use as a species of order-list. (3) The next step is of curious interest as illustrating the repeatedly demonstrated fact, that the usefulness of such an institution is not limited by the district or municipality in wliich it is situated. In response to numerous requests, several of the more extended lists were printed in the "Library Journal" (New York), and else- where, in 1880. In 1881, however, was begun the regular monthly issue of the periodical entitled the " Monthly Eefer- ence Lists." This periodical, published at a specified subscription-price, began with a subscription -list which was chiefly local, but whicli has gradually widened to include readers in all parts of this country, and several in Europe. Among the historical . IN THE STUDY OF HISTORY. 109 lists which have appeared in this, from month to montli, have been references on sucli current topics as ' ' The Stability of the Freueh Eepublic," '• The German Empire," " European Interests in Egypt," "Indian Tribes in the United States," etc. At the same time a very general demand for references in connection with topics which may be called standard, rather than current, has led to the furnishing of lists on such subjects as " The Unification of Italy,' '" The Closing Years of the Eomau Republic," "The Plantagenets in England," and "Tendencies of Local Self-government in the United States." Other topics again, like "Elements of Unity in South-Eastern Europe," stand for the interest awakened by historical lectm-es like those of Mr. Freeman ; while still others, like "Torktown," plainly connect themselves with the recurrence of some anniversary. Certainly not the least noteworthy of the phases of recent historical research has been the newly-awakened interest in the study of American historj', and very naturally the read- ing and study connected with public libraries have reflected this fact. Four years ago the librarian prepared for use in connection with several of the schools, a series of lists on American history, covering (1) the early stages of colonial history, (2) the adoption of the constitution, and (3) United States history since 1789. The first set of these lists (on the colonies) has been printed, in part, in the " Library Journal"; the second (on the constitution), in "Economic tract. No. 2," issued by the Society for Political Education, in 1881 ; whQe the third (on the administrations since 1789), has for the past year been published, month b}' month, in the "Monthly Reference Lists"; a separate list being devoted to the administration of each successive president. In thus re-issuing them, the librarian has wished to render them as distinctly adapted to the use of readers as possible ; 110 THE USB OF A PTJBLIC LIBKAEY and the proofs have accordingly passed, month by month, under the eyes of accomplislied historical investigators at Cambridge, New Haven, Ithaca, Princeton, Baltimore, Ann Arbor, and jMadison. Perhaps there is no more significant feature connected ■with an institution like a public library, than the fact that its service is rendered alike to the intelligent reader and to the untrained mind ; to the specialist and to the general reader. What has been the fact in connection with the class last named? Greatly to the librarian's satisfaction, it has been found that one of the results of this systematic plan of assist- ance and suggestions, is actually to awaken an interest where none existed, and to supplj' a clue to historical researches, which may be followed out, with greater or less comprehen- siveness, by the reader himself. In repeated instances com- ing under the librarian's own observation, this result has been noted, and it is of course impossible to say in how many other instances it maj' have been the case. And, in truth, it is not at all strange that it should be so. These daily, weekly, and monthly references, on topics of current interest, are precisely in the line of what is at the time uppermost in the thought of the public ; and it is for this reason that they appeal to the interested attention of a very wide circle of readers with so much more than ordinary directness. A study of library methods like these, moreover, reveals the very marked extent to which a public library becomes almost of necessity an agency in the diffusion of knowledge. Given a certain portion of the library's constituency who are known to be desirous of certain aids to advanced research ; given also the desired aids. Who is to say that the only ones who will avail themselves of these aids are the skilled students for whom they are primarily supplied? The reverse has, in fact, been found to be the case, by actual observation. The IN THE STUDY OF HISTORY. Ill i-eferences in connection with college themes, for instance, placed on file at the library, where they may be used by any one, have indeed been constantly used by the students them- selves ; but they have also been used to a very marked extent by the general public. There should be observed, of course, on the one hand, a caution against ' ' shooting above the heads of tlie public " ; but there is a no less important necessity, on tlie other, for not undervaluing the intelligence of readers, and for supplying what may even be regarded as a mental stimulus or impulse. In historical studies, as in other fields of investigation, there can be little doubt that a public library may so ally itself (to quote from Mr. Charles Francis Adams, Jr.) with certain " wide, deep currents of popular taste," and with the pervasive spirit of the time, as to become a constant force in the progress towards better results. Special Methods or Histoeical Studf AS PDESUED AT THE JOHNS HOPKINS DNIVERSITT AND FORMERLY AT SMITH COLLEGE. Bt Pkofessoe Herbekt B. Adams, Johns Hopkins University. THE main principle of historical training at the Johns Hop- kins University is to encourage independent thought and /esearch. Little heed is given to text-books, or the mere phraseology of history, but all stress is laid upon clear and original statements of fact and opinion, whether the student's own or the opinion of a consulted author. The comparative method of reading and study is followed by means of assign- ing to individual members of the class separate topics, with references to various standard works. These topics are duly reported upon by the appointees, either ex tempore, with the the aid of a few notes, or in formal papers, which are dis- cussed at length by the class. The oral method has been found to afford a better opportunity than essays for question and discussion, and it is in itself a good means of individual training, for the student thereby learns to think more of sub- stance than of form. Where essays are wi'itten, more time 1 This article contains extracts from a, paper on "History: Its Place in American Colleges," originally contributed in October, 1879, to The Alumnus, a literary and educational quarterly then published in Phila- delphia, but DOW suspended and entirely out of print. A few extracts have also been made from an article on "Co-operation in University Work," in the second number of The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science. But the body of the article is new, and was written by request, for the purpose of suggesting to teachers how the study of His- tory might be made more interesting and vital by beginning upon home ground, with the investigation of local life and its widening relations. 114 SPECIAL METHODS OP is usually expended on style than on the acquisition of facts. If the student has a well-arranged brief, like a lawyer's, and a head full of ideas, he will express himself at least intel- ligibh', and clearness and elegance will come with sufficient practice. The ex tempore method, with a good brief or abstract (which may be dictated to the class) is one of the best methods for the teacher as well as for the student. The idea should be, in .both cases, to personify historical science in the individual who is speaking upon a given topic. A book or an essay, however symmetrical it may be, is often only a fossil, a lifeless thing ; but a student or teacher talking from a clear head is a fountain of living science. A class of bright minds quickly discern the difference between a phrase-maker and a. man of ideas. As an illustration of the kind of subjects in mediaeval his- tory studied in 1878, independently of any text-book, by a class of undergraduates, from eighteen to twenty-two 3-ears of age, the following list of essay-topics is appended : — 1. Influence of Roman law during the middle ages. (Savigny, Sir Henry Maine, Guizot, Hadley.) 2. The kingdom of Theodoric, the East Goth. (Milman, Gibbon, Freeman.) 3. The conversion of Germany. (Merivale, Milman, Trench.) 4. The conversion of England. (Bede, Milman, Freeman, Mont- alembert, Trench.) 5. The civilizing influence of the Benedictine Monks. (Montalem- bert, Gibbon, Mihnan.) 6. Cloister and cathedral schools. (Einliard, Guizot, Mullinger.) 7. The origin and character of mediaeval universities. (Green, History of England ; Lacroix; various university histories.) 8. Modes of legal procedure among the early Teutons. (Waitz, J. L. Laughlin, 'Lea.) 9. Report of studies in "Anglo-Saxon Law." (Henry Adams et al.") HISTORICAL STUDY. 115 10. Origin of Feudalism. Feudal rights, aids, and incidents. (Guizot, Hallam, Stubbs, Digby, Maine, Waitz, Roth.) 11. Evils of Feudalism. (Authorities as above.) 12. Benefits of Feudalism. (As above.) 13. The Saxon Witenagemot and its historical relation to the House of Lords. (Freeman, Stubbs, HaUam, Guizot.) 11. Origin of the House of Commons. (Pauli, Creighton, and authorities above stated.) 15. Origin of communal liberty. (Hegel, Stiidteverfassung von Italien ; Testa, Comnnmes of Lombardy ; Wauters, Les liber- tes communales ; Stubbs, Freeman, Guizot, et al.) At Smith CoUege, an institution founded at Northamptou, Massachusetts, by a generous woman, in the interest of the higher education of her sex, the study of history- is pursued by four classes in regular gradation, somewhat after the col- lege model. The First, coiTespouding to the ' ' Freshman " class, study oriental or ante-classic history, embracing the Stone Age, Egypt, Palestine, Phcenicia, the empires of Meso- potamia and ancient India. This course was pursued iu 1879 by dictations and ex tempore lectures on the part of the teacher, and by independent reading on the part of the pupils. The first thing- done bj- the teacher in the introduction to the history of any of the above-mentioned countries, was to ex- plain the sources from which the history of that countr3- was derived, and then to characterize briefly the principal literary works relating to it, not omitting historical novels, like Ebers' "Egyptian Princess," or "Uarda." Afterwards, the salient features, in Egj-ptian history, for example, were presented by the instructor, under distinct heads, such as geography, re- ligion, art, literature, and chronology. Map-drawing by and before the class was insisted upon ; and, in connection with the foregoing subjects, books or portions of books were recom- mended for private reading. For instance, on the ' ' Geography 116 SPECIAL METHODS OF of Egypt," fifty pages of Herodotus were assigned in Rawlin- son's translation. Tliis, and other reading, was done in the so-called " Reference Library," which was provided with all the books that were recommended. An oral account of such reading was sooner or later demanded from each pupil by the instructor, and fresh points of information were thus con- tinually brought out. The amount of positive fact acquired by a class of seventy-five bright young women bringing to- gether into one focus so many individual rays of knowledge, collected from the best authorities, is likely to burn to ashes the dry bones of any text-book, and to keep the instructor at a white heat. As an illustration of the amount of reading done in one term of ten weeks by this class of beginners in history, the following fair specimen of the lists handed in at the end of the academic year of 1879 is appended. The read- ing was of course by topics : — EGYPT. Unity of History (Freeman). Geography (Herodotus). Gods of Egypt (J. Freeman Clarke). Manners and Customs (Wilkinson). Upper Egypt (Klunzinger). Art of Egypt (Liibke). Hypatia (Kingsley). Egyptian Princess (Ebers). PALESTINE. Sinai and Palestine, 40 pages (Stanley). History of the Jews (extracts from Josephus). The Beginnings of Christianity, Chap. VII. (Fisher). Religion of the Hebrews (J. Freeman Clarke). HISTORICAL STUDY. 117 PHCENICIA, ASSYRIA, ETC. Phoenicia, 50 pages (Kenrick). Assyrian Discoveries (George Smith). Chaldean Account of Genesis (George Smith). Assyrian Architecture (Fergusson). Art of Central Asia (Liibke). In the Second, or ■■Sophomore" class, classic history was pursued bj- means of the Historj- Primers of Greece and Rome, supplemented by lectures and dictations, as the time ^\ould allow. The Junior class studied mediaeval history- in much the same way, by text-books (the Epoch Series) and by lectures. Both classes did excellent work of its kind, but it was not the best kind ; for little or no stimulus was given to original research. And yet, perhaps, to an outsider, fond of old-fashioned methods of recitation, these classes would have appeared better than the First class. Thej- did harder work, but it was less spontaneous and less scientific. The fault was a fault of method. With the Senior class the method described as in use at the Johns Hopkins University was tried with marked suc- cess. With text-books on modern history as a guide for the whole class, the plan was followed out of assigning to indi- viduals subjects with references for private reading and for an oral report of about fifteen minutes' length. The class took notes on these reports or informal student-lectures as faithfully as on the extended remarks and more formal lectures of the instructor. This system of making a class lecture to itself is, of course, very unequal in its immediate results, and sometimes unsatisfactorj- ; but, as a S3-stem of individual training for advanced pupils, it is valuable as a means both of culture and of discipline. Contrast the good to the individual student of any amount of mere text-book 118 SPECIAL METHODS OF memorizing or idle note-taking with the positive culture and wide acquaintance with books, derived in ten lueeks from such a range of reading as is indicated in the following bond fide report by one member of the Senior class (1879), who after- wards was a special student of historj- for two years in the "Annex" at Harvard College, and who in 1881 returned to Smith College for her degree of Ph.D. First are given the subjects assigned to this young woman for research, and the reading done by her in preparation for report to the class ; and then is given the list of her general reading in connec- tion with the class work of the term. Other members of the class had other subjects and similar reports : — I. SUBJECTS FOR RESEARCH. 1. Anselm and Roscellinus. Milman's Latin Christianity, Vol. IV., pp. 190-225. Ueberweg's History of Philosophy, Vol. I., pp. 271-385. 2. Platonic Academy at Florence. Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo di Medici, Vol. I., p. 30 et seq. Burokhardt's Renaissance, Vol. I. Villari's Maehiavelli, Vol. I., p. 205 et seq. 3. Colet. Seebohm's Oxford Reformers. 4. Calvin. Fisher's History of the Reformation (Calvin). Spalding's History of the Reformation (Calvin). D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation, Vol. L, book 2, chap. 7. 5. Frederick the Great. Macaiilay's Essay on Frederick the Great. Lowell's Essay on Frederick the Great. Ency. Brit. Article on Frederick the Great. Menzel's History of Germany (Frederick the Great). Carlyle's Frederick the Great (parts of Vols. I., IL, III.). 6. Results of the French Revolution. French Revolution (Epoch Series). HISTORICAL STUDY. 119 II. GENERAL READING. Roscoe's Life of Leo X. (one-half of Vol. I.). Mrs. Oliphanf s Makers of Florence (on cathedral builders, Savo- narola, a Private Citizen, ^lichel Augelo). Symonds' Renaissance (Savonarola). Walter Pater's Renaissance (Leonardo da Vinci). Hallam's Middle Ages (on Italian Republics). Benvenuto Cellini's Autobiography (about one-half). Burckhardt's Renaissance (nearly all). Vasari's Lives of the Painters (da Vinci, Alberti). Lowell's Essay on Dante. Carlyle's Essay on Dante. Trench's Mediaeval Church History (Great Councils of the West, Huss and Bohemia, Eve of the Reformation). Fisher's History of the Reformation (Luther). White's Eighteen Christian Centuries (16th). Macaulay's Essay on Ranke's liistory of the Popes. Lecky's European Morals (last chapter). Seebohm's Era of the Protestant Revolution. Fronde's Short Studies on Great Subjects (studies on the times of Erasmus and Luther, the Dissolution of the Monasteries) . Spalding's History of the Reformation (chapter on Luther). Cailyle's Essay on Luther and Knox. Hosmer's German Literature (chapters on Luther, Thirty Years' War, Minnesingers and Mastersingers). Gardiner's Thirty Years' War. Morris's Age of Anne. (Jeorge Eliot's Romola (about one-half). Hawthorne's Marble Faun (parts). It is but fair to say in reference to this vast amount of reading, that it represents the chief vrork done by the above- mentioned young lady during the summer term, for her class exercises were mainly lectures requiring little outside study. The list will serve not merely as an illustration of Senior work in history at Smith College, but also as an excellent 120 SPECIAL METHODS OF guide for a course of private reading on the Renaissance and Reformation. No more interesting or profitable course can be followed than a studj- of the Beginnings of Modem History. With Symonds' works on the " Renaissance in Italy," Burck- hardt's " Civilization of the Period of the Renaissance" (Eng- lish translation) , and Seebohm's ' ' Era of the Protestant Revolution" (Epoch series) for guide-books, a college in- structor can indicate to his pupils lines of special investiga- tion more grateful than text-book "cramming," more inspiring than lectures or dictations. The latter, though good to a certain extent, become deadening to a class when its members are no longer stimulated to original research, but sink back in passive reliance upon the authority of the lec- turer. That method of teaching history which converts bright young pupils into note-taking machines is a bad method. It is the construction of a poor text-book at the expense of much valuable time and j'outhful energy. Goethe satirized this, the fault of German academic instruction, in Mephistopheles' counsel to the student, who is advised to study well his notes, in order to see that the professor says nothing which he hasn't said already : • — Damit ihr nachher besser seht, Dass er nichts sagt, als was im Buche steht; Doch euch des Schreibens ja befleisst, Als dictirt' eucb der Heilig' Geist ! The simple-minded student assents to this counsel, and says it is a great comfort to have everything in black and white, so that he can carrj' it all home. But no scrap-book of facts can give wisdom, any more than a tank of water can form a running spring. It is, perhaps, of as much consequence to teach a young person how to study history as to teach him historj^ itself. The above notes were written in the summer of 1879, and HISTORICAL STUDY. 121 were published in October of that ^-ear, after the author's return to Baltimore. Subsequent experience at Smith Col- lege, in the spring terms of 1880 and 1881, when the lec- turer's four years' partial connection with Smith College terminated, showed the necessity of a reference librarj- for each class, the resources of the main collection in the reading-room having proved inadequate to the growing his- torical needs of the college. Instead of buying text-books, the members of each class, with the money which text-books would have cost, formed a librarj- fund, from which a book committee purchased such standard works (often with du- plicate copies) as the lecturer recommended. The class libra- ries were kept in places generally accessible ; for example, in the front halls of the " cottage " dormitories. Each class had its own system of rules for library administration. Books that were in greatest demand could be kept out only one or two days. The amount of reading by special topics accomplished in this way in a single term was reallj- most remarkable. Xote-books with abstracts of daily work were kept, and finally handed in as a part of the term's examina- tion. Oral examinations upon readmg, pursued in connection with the lectures, were maintained throughout the term, and, at the close, a written examination upon the lectures and other required topics, together with a certain range of optional subjects, fairlj- tested the results of this voluntary method of historical study. The amount of knowledge acquired in this waj- would as much surpass the substance of anj' system of lectures or any mere text-book acquisitions as a class librarj' of standard historians surpasses an individual teacher or any historical manual. This method of study is practi- cable in any high-school class of moderate size. If classes are generous, they will leave their libraries to successors, who can thus build up a collection for historical reference 122 SPECIAX, METHODS OP within the school itself, which will thus become a seminary of living science. A development of the above idea of special libraries for class use was the foundation in Baltimore, at the Johns Hop- kins University, in 1881-2, of a special library for the study of American Institutional History by college graduates. There was nothing really new about the idea except its application. German universities have their seminarium libraries distinct from the main university library, although often in the same building. In Baltimore the special library was established in the lecture-room where the class meets. The design of the collection was to gather within easy reach the chief authorities used in class work and in such original investiga- tions as were then in progress. The special aim, however, was to bring together the statutory law and colonial archives of the older States of the Union, together with the journals of Congress, American StS,te papers, and the writings and lives of American statesmen. The statutes of England and parliamentary reports on subjects of particular interest were next secured. Then followed, in December, 1882, the acqui- sition of the Bluntschli Library of three thousand volumes, with many rare pamphlets and Bluntschli' s manuscripts, in- cluding his notes taken under Niebuhr the historian, and under Savigny the jurist. This library of the lamented Dr. Bluntschli, professor of constitutional and international law in Heidelberg, was presented to the Johns Hopkins Univer- sity by German citizens of Baltimore ; and it represents, not only in its transfer to America, but in its very constitution, the internationality of modern science. Here is a library, which, under the care of a great master, developed from the narrow chronicles of a Swiss town and canton into a library of cosmopolitan character, embracing many nations in its scope. Into this inheritance the Seminary Library of Ameri- HISTOEICAL STUDY. 123 can Institutional History has now entered. Although the special work of the Seminar}' will still be directed toward American themes, j'et it will be from the vantage-ground of the Bluntschli Library, and with the knowledge that this great collection was the outgrowth of communal studies similar to those now in progress in Baltimore. A word may be added in this connection touching the nature of graduate-work in history at the Johns Hopkins University. "What was said in the early part of this article applied only to undergraduates, who develop into the very best class of graduate students now present at the University. The idea of a co-operative study of American local institutions, by graduate students representing different sections of country, evolved very naturally from the Baltimore en\ironment. Ger- minant interest in the subject originated in a study of New England towns, in a spring sojourn for four j'ears at Smith College, Northampton, Mass., and in summer tours along the New England coast ; but the development of this interest was made possible by associations in Baltimore with men from the South and the West, who were able and willing to describe the institutions of their own States for purposes of compari- son with the institutions of other States. Thus it has come about that the parishes, districts, and counties of ilarjiand, Virginia, and the Carolinas are placed historically side by side with the townships of the West and the towns and par- ishes of New England ; so that, by and bj', all men will see how much these different sections have in common. There is a great variety of subjects pertaining to American local life in its rural and municipal manifestations. Not onlj' the histor}' of local government, but the history of schools, churches, charities, manufactures, industries, prices, eco- nomics, municipal protection, municipal reforms, local taxa- tion, representation, administration, poor laws, liquor laws, 124 SPECIAL METHODS OP labor laws, and a thousand and one chapters of legal and social history are j'et to be written in every State. Johns Hopkins students have selected only a few topics like towns, parishes, manors, certain state systems of free schools, a few phases of city government, a few French and Indian villages in the North-west, certain territorial institutions, Can- adian feudalism, the town institutions of New England (to a limited extent) ; but there is left liistorical territory enough for student immigration throughout the next hundred years. Tlie beautj' of science is that there are always new worlds to discover. And at the present moment there await the student pioneer vast tracts of American institutional and economic histor}- almost as untouched as were once the for- ests of America, her coal measures and prairies, her mines of iron, silver, and gold. Individual and local effort will almost everywhere meet with quick recognition and grate- ful returns. But scientific and cosmopolitan relations with college and university centres, together witli the generous co-operation of all explorers in the same field, will certainly yield the most satisfactory results both to the individual and to the community which he represents. It is highly important that isolated students who desire to co-operate in this kind of worli should avail themselves of the existing machinery of local libraries, the local press, local societies, and local clubs. If such things do not exist, the most needful should be created. No community is too small for a book club and for an association of some sort. Local studies should always be connected in some way with the life of the community, and should always be used to quicken that life to higher consciousness. A student, a teacher, who pre- pares a paper on local history or some social question, should read it before the village lyceum or some literary club or an association of teachers. If encouraged to believe his work HISTORICAL STUDY. 125 of any general interest or permanent value, he should print it in the local paper or in a local magazine, perhaps an edu- cational journal, without aspiring to the highest popular monthlies, which will certainly reject all purel}- local contri- butions by unknown contributors. It is far more practicable to publish by local aid in pamphlet form or in the proceed-* ings of associations and learned societies, before which such papers may sometimes be read. From a variety of considerations, the writer is persuaded that one of the best introductions to history that can be given in American high schools, and even in those of lower grade, is through a study of the community in which the school is placed. Histor3', like charity, begins at home. The best American citizens are those who mind home affairs and local interests. " That man's the best cosmopolite who loves his native country best." The best students of universal history are those who know some one country or some one subject well. The family, the hamlet, the neighborhood, the com- munity, the parish, the village, town, city, county, and state are historically the ways bj- which men have approached national and international life. It was a preliminarj- study of the geography of Frankfort-on-the-^Iaiu that led Carl Ritter to study the physical structure of Europe and Asia, and thus to establish the new science of comparative geog- raphy. He says : " Whoever has wandered through the \al- leys and woods, and over the hills and mountains of his own state, will be the one capable of following a Herodotus in his wanderings over the globe." And we maj' sa}-, as Ritter said of the science of geography, the first step in history is to know thoroughly the district where we live. In America, Guyot has represented for many years this method of teach- ing geography. Huxley, in his Physiography, has introduced pupils to a study of Nature as a whole, by calling attention 126 SPECIAL METHODS OF to the phj'sical features of the Thames valley and the wide range of natural phenomena that may be observed in any EngUsh parish. Humboldt long ago said in his Cosmos : ■ ' Every little nook and shaded corner is but a reflection of the whole of Nature." There is something very suggestive and very quickening in such a philosophy of Nature and his- tory as regards every spot of the earth's surface, every pebble, eyerj form of organic life, from the lowest mollusk to the highest phase of human society, as a perfect micro- cosm, perhaps an undiscovered world of suggestive truth. But it is important to remember that all these things should be studied in their widest relations. Natural history is of no significance if viewed apart from Man. Human history is without foundation if separated from Nature. The deeds of men, the genealogy of families, the annals of quiet neigh- borhoods, the records of towns, states, and nations axe per se of little consequence to history unless in some way these isolated things are brought into vital connection with the progress and science of the world. To establish such con- nections is sometimes like the discovery of unknown lands, the exploration of new countries, and the widening of the world's horizon. American local history should first be studied as a contri- bution to national history. This country will yet be viewed and reviewed as an organism of historic growth, developing from minute germs, from the very protoplasm of state life. And some day this country will be studied in its international relations, as an organic part of a larger organism now vaguely called the World State, but as surely developing through the operation of economic, legal, social, and scien- tific forces as the American Union, the German and British Empires are evolving into higher forms. American his- tory in its widest relations is not to be written by any one HISTOEICAL STUDY. 127 man nor by any one generation of men. Our history will grow with the nation and with its developing consciousness of iuternationality. The present possibilities for the real progress of historic and economic science lie, first and fore- most, in the development of a generation of economists and practical historians, who realize that history is past politics and politics present history ; secondly, in the expansion of the local consciousness into a fuller sense of its historic worth and dignity, of the cosmopolitan relations of modern local life, and of its own wholesome conservative power in these days of growing centralization. National and international life can best develop upon the constitutional basis of local self-government in church and state. The work of developing a generation of specialists has already begun in the college and the university. The devel- opment of local consciousness can perhaps be best stimulated through the common school. It maj- be a suggestive fact that the school committee of Great Barrington, Mass., latelj- voted (^Berkshire Courier, Sept. 6, 1882) to introduce into their village high school, ^ in the hands of an Amherst grad- uate, in connection with Nordhoff's '' Politics for Young Americans" and Jevons' "Primer of Political Economy," the article upon ' ' The Germanic Origin of New England Towns," which was once read in part before the Village Improvement Society of Stockbridge, Mass., Aug. 24, 1881, and published in the Pittsfield Evening Journal of that day. Local demand reall}- occasioned a university supply of the article^ in question. The possible connection between the 1 The catalogue of the Great Barrington High School (1882) shows that the study of history and politics is there founded, as it should be, upon a geographical basis. 2 Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, II. "The Germanic Origin of New England Towns." (Now out of print, 1884.) 128 SPECIAL METHODS OF college and the common school is still better illustrated bj' the case of Professor Macy, of Iowa College, Grinnell, who is one of the most active pioneers in teaching ' ' the real homelj- facts of government," and who in 1881 published a little tract on Civil Government in Iowa, which is now used by teachers throughout that entire State in preparing their oral instructions for young pupils, beginning with the town- ship and the county, the institutions that are "nearest and most easily learned." A special pupil of Professor Macy's — Albert Shaw, A.B., Iowa College, 1879 — is now writing a similar treatise on Civil Government in Illinois, for school use in that State. There should be such a manual for every State in the Union. But the writer would lOie to see a text-book which not only explains, as does Prhacipal Macy, " the real homelj' facts of government," but which also suggests how those facts came to be. A study of the practical workings of local govern- ment and of the American Constitution is the study of poli- tics which every young American ought to pursue. But a study of the origin and development of American institutions is a study of history in one of its most important branches. It is not necessary that young Americans should grapple with "the Constitution" at the very outset. Their forefathers put their energies into the founding of villages, towns, and plantations before they thought of American independence. Their first country this side of the Atlantic was the colony ; in some instances, the county. It is not unworthy of sons to study the historic work of fathers who constructed a nation upon the solid rock of local self-government in church and state. If young Americans are to appreciate their religious and political inheritance, they must learn its intrinsic worth. Thej' must be taught to appreciate the common and lowly HISTORICAL STUDY. 129 things around them. They should grow up with as profound respect for town and pai'ish meetings as for the State legis- lature, not to speak of the Houses of Congress. They should recognize the majesty of the law, even in the parish constable as well as in the high sheriff of the count}'. They should look on selectmen as the head men of the town, the survival of the old English reeve and four best men of the parish. They should be taught to see in the town common or village green a survival of that primitive institution of land-com- munity upon which town and state are based. They should be taught the meaning of town and family names ; how the word "town" means, primarily, a place hedged in for pur- poses of defence ; how the picket-fences around home and house-lot are but a survival of the primitive town idea ; how home, hamlet, and town live on together in a. name like Hampton, or Home-toion. They should investigate the most ordinary things, for these are often the most archaic. For example, there is the village pound, which Sir Henry Maine says is one of the most ancient institutions, "older than the king's bench, and probably older than the kingdom." There, too, are the field-drivers (still known in New England) , the ancient town herdsmen, village shepherds, and village swine- herds (once common in this country) , who serve to connect our historic life with the earliest pastoral beginnings of mankind. It would certainly be an excellent thing for the develop- ment of historical science in America if teachers in our pub- lic schools would cultivate the historical spirit in their pupils with special reference to the local environment. Something more than local history can be drawn from such sources. Take the Indian relics, the aiTow-heads which a boy has found in his father's field or which may have been given him by some antiquary : here are texts for familiar talks by the 130 SPECIAL METHODS OF teacher upon the "Stone Age" and the progress of the world from savage beginnings. Indian names still linger npon our landscapes, upon our mountains, rivers, fields, and meadows, affording a suggestive parallel between the "exter- minated " natives of England and New England. What a quickening impulse could be given to a class of bright pupils hj a visit to some scene of ancient conflict with the Indians, like that at Bloody Brook in South Deerfield, Mass., or to such an interesting local museum as that in Old Deerfield, where is exhibited, in a good state of preservation, the door of an earljf settler's house, — a door cut through by Indian tomahawks. A multitude of historical associations gather around every old town and hamlet in the land. There are local legends and traditions, household tales, stories told by grandfathers and grandmothers, incidents remembered by "the oldest inhabitants." But above all in importance are the old documents and manuscript records of the first settlers, the early pioneers, the founders of our towns. Here are sources of information more authentic than tradition, and yet often entirely neglected. If teachers would smiply make a few extracts from these unpublished records, they would soon have sufficient materials m their hands for elucidating local history to their pupils and fellow-townsmen. The publication of such extracts in the local paper is one of the best waj-s to quicken local interest in matters of history. Biographies of "the first families," of the various mmisters, doctors, lawyers, "Squires," "Generals," "Colonels," college graduates, school-teachers, and leading citizens, — these are all legitimate and pleasant means of kindliug his- torical interest in the community and in the schools. The town fathers, the fathers of families, and all their sons and daughters will quickly catch the bearings of this kind of his- torical study, for it takes hold upon the life of the community HISTORICAL STUDY. 131 and quickens not onlj- pride in the past but hope for the future. In order to study history it is not necessary to begin with dead men's bones, with Theban dynasties, the kings of Assyria, the ro3"al families of Eui'ope, or even with the presi- dents of the United States. These subjects have their im- portance in certain connections, but for beginners in history there are perhaps other subjects of greater interest and vital- ity. The most natm-al entrance to a knowledge of the history of the world is from a local environment through widening circles of interest, until, from the rising ground of the pres- ent, the broad horizon of the past comes clearly into view. There is hardlj' a subject of contemporary interest which, if properly studied, will not carry the mind back to a remote antiquity, to historic relations as wide as the world itself. A study of the community in which the student dwells will serve to connect that eommunitj- not only with the origin and growth of the State and Nation, but with the mother- eountrj-, with the German fatherland, with village commu- nities throughout the Aryan world, — from Germanj' and Russia to old Greece and Rome ; from these classic lands to Persia and India. Such modern connections with the dis- tant Orient are more refreshing than the genealogy of Darius the son of Hystaspes. I would not be understood as disparaging ancient or old- world histor}-, for, if rightly taught, this is the most interesting of all history ; but I would be understood as emphasizing the importance of studying the antiquit}' which survives in the present and in this country. America is not such a new world as it seems to many foreigners. Geologists tell us that our continent is the oldest of all. Historians like Mr. Freeman declare that if we want to see Old England we must go to New England. Old France survives in French Canada. 132 SPECIAL METHODS OF In Virginia, peculiarities of the West Saxon dialect are still preserved. Professor James A. Harrison, of Lexing- ton, Virginia, writes me that in Louisiana and Mississippi, where upon old French and Spanish settlements the English finally planted, there are " sometimes three traditions super- imposed one on the other." Men like G-eorge W. Cable aud Charles Gaj-arr^ have been mining to good advantage in such historic strata. If American students and teachers are equally wise, they will look about their own homes before visiting the land of Chaldaea. The main difficult}- with existing methods of teaching his- tory seems to be that the subject is treated as a record of dead facts, and not as a living science. Pupils fail to realize the vital connection between the past and the present ; they do not understand that ancient history was the dawn of a light which is still shining on ; they do not grasp the essen- tial idea of history, which is the growing self-knowledge of a living, progressive age. Etymologically and practically, the study of history is simplj' a learning by inquiry. According to Professor Droysen, who was one of the most eminent histo- rians in Berlin, the historical method is merely to understand by means of research. Now it seems entirely practicable for every teacher and student of history to promote, in a limited way, the ' ' know thyself ' ' of the nineteenth centurj^ by orig- inal investigation of things not yet fully known, and by com- municating to others the results of his individual study. The pursuit of history may thus become an active instead of a passive process, — an increasing joy instead of a depressing burden. Students will thus learn that historj' is not entirely bound up in text-books ; that it does not consist altogether in what this or that learned authority has to say about the world. What the world believes concerning itself, after all that men have written, and what the student thinks of the world, HISTORICAL STUDY. 188 after viewing it with the aid of guide-books and with his own eyes, — these are matters of some moment in tlie developmental process of that active self-knowledge and philosophic reflec- tion which make history a living science instead of a museum of facts and of books "as dry as dust." Works of history, the so-called standard authorities, ai-e likelj' to become dead specimens of humanity unless they continue in some way to quicken the living age. But written historj- seldom fails to accomplish this end, and even antiquated works often con- tinue their influence if viewed as progressive phases of human self-knowledge. Monuments and inscriptions can never grow old so long as the race is young. New meaning is put into ancient records ; fresh garlands are hung upon broken statues ; new temples are built from classic materials ; and the world rejoices at its constant self-renewal. Since the publication of the foregoing pages, in tiie first edition of this book, I have elsewhere described, in greater detail, certain special methods of historical study. The following abstract is taken from the "Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science," Second Series, Numbers I. and II. "Methods of Historical Study," page 137 : — 1. Tlie Topical MetJwd. — If there is any guiding prin- ciple in the study of historical as well as of natural science, it is "The way to that which is general is through that which is special." It makes Uttle difference with what class of facts the student begins, provided they are not too com- plex for easy apprehension. The point is that universal history may be approached in a great variety of special ways, any one of whiph may be as good as another. They are like the Brahminical philosopher's idea of different religious revelations, — gates leading into the same city. All roads 134 SPECIAL METHODS OF lead to Eome, and all roads lead to history. But while this general truth remains, it also remains true that there is a certain practical advantage in beginning historical stud}' with that which is nearest and most familiar. A man's own family, community, country, and race, are the most natural objects of historical interest, because man is born into such associations, and because an historical knowledge of them will always be the most valuable form of historical culture, for these subjects most concern our own life, our past, pres- ent, and future. In history, as in biologj', live specimens are usually better than dead ones. Life is of supreme interest to history, as it is to biologj' ; hence those nations and men that have made the present what it is will always be the best topics for historical study. I should be inclined to recommend, in beginning the study of history by any special method of approach, like the his- tory of America or the history of Egypt, that teacher and class begin work upon the geography of the United States, or of the Nile valley. Then, after a thorough consideration of the lay of the land, comes naturally the topic of the people, the first inhabitants. After the topics of a chosen land and of a chosen people should come the subject of the sources of that people's history. What memorials of them- selves have the primitive inhabitants of America or of Egypt left behind them? It is of great importance in the pedagogical process of teaching history that the student should learn the origin of written historj', how manuals and standard histories are constructed ; otherwise, the student will look upon the book or manual as a final authority. He should, on the contrary, look at all written history as simply a current, more or less colored by human prejudice, a cur- rent which has come down, like the Nile or the Mississippi, from some higher and more original source than the passing HISTORICAL STUDY. 135 stream. Such a consciousness leads the student to further inquiry, to a habit of mind like that of explorers who sought the sources of the Nile or of the Congo. Professor Moses Coit Tyler, of Cornell University, has prepared the following brief account of a special class- course, which admirably illustrates the topical method : " Perhaps it may be a peculiarity in mj- work as a teacher of History here that I am permitted to give my whole atten- tion to American history. At anj- rate, this fact enables me to organize the work of American historj' so as to cover, more perfectly than I could otherwise do, the whole field, fi'om the prehistoric times of this continent dowu to the present, with a minuteness of attention varying, of course, as the importance of the particidar topic varies. I confess that I adopt for American history the principle which Pro- fessor Seeley, of Cambridge, is fond of applying to English history, namely, that while history should be thoroughly scientific in its method, its object should be practical. To this extent I believe in history with a tendency. My in- terest in our own past is chiefly derived from my interest in our own present and future ; and I teach American historj-, not so much to make historians as to make citizens and good leaders for the State and the Nation. From this point of view, I decide upon the selection of historical topics for special study. At present I should describe them as the following : The native races, especially the Mound-builders and the North-American Indians ; the alleged Pre-Colum- bian discoveries ; the origin and enforcement of England's claim to North America, as against competing European nations ; the motives and methods of English colony-plant- ing in America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ; the development of ideas and institutions in the American colonies, with particular reference to rehgion, education. 136 SPECIAL METHODS OF industry, and civil freedom ; the grounds of inter-colonial isolation and of inter-colonial fellowship ; the causes and progress of the movement for colonial independence ; the historj' of the formation of the national constitution ; the origin and growth of political parties under the constitution ; the history of slavery as a factor in American polities, cul- minating in the civil war of 1861-65. On all these subjects, I try to generate and preserve in myself and my pupils such an anxiety for the truth, that we shall prefer it even to national traditions or the idolatries of partj'. " As to methods of work, I doubt if I have anything to report that is peculiar to myself, or different from the usage of all teachers ■^o try to keep abreast of the times. I am an eclectic. I have tried to learn all the current ways of doing this work, and have appropriated what I thought best suited to our own circumstances. As I have students of all . grades, so my methods of work include the recitation, the lecture, and the seminary. I have found it impossible by the two former to keep my students from settling into a merely passive attitude ; it is only by the latter that I can get them into an attitude that is inquisitive, eager, critical, originating. My notion is that the lecturing must be recip- rocal. As I lecture to them, so must they lecture to me. " "We are all students and all lecturers. The law of hfe with us is co-operation in the search after the truth of his- tory." 2. Tlie Comparative Method. — A great impulse was given to the historical sciences by the introduction of the compara- tive method into the study of philology, mythology, religion, law, and institutions. It seemed as though the horizon of all these fields suddenly widened, and as if the world of human thought and research were expanding into new realms. "Before the great discoveries of modern science," HISTOKICAL STUDY. 137 says Freeman, "before that greatest of all its discoveries wMeli has revealed to us the unity of Aryan speech, of Aryan religion, and Aryan pohtical life, the worn-out super- stitions about 'ancient' and ' modern' ought to pass by like the spectres of darkness. . . The range of our political vision becomes wider when the application of the compara- tive method sets before ns the ekklesia of Athens, the comi- tia of Rome, as institutions, not merely analogous, but absolutely the same thing, parts of the same common Aryan heritage, as the ancient assemblies of our own land. ^Ve carry on the tale as we see that it is out of those assemblies that our modern parliaments, our modem courts of justice, our modern public gatherings of every kind, have grown." ("On the Study of History," Fortnightly Review, March 1, 1881.) It would be a fine thing for American students, if, in studying special topics in the history of their own country, they would occasionally compare the phases of historic truth here discovered with similar phases of discovery elsewhere ; if, for example, the colonial beginnings of North America should be compared with Aryan migrations westward into Greece and Italj-, or again with the colonial systems of G-reece and of the Roman Empire, or of the English Empire to-da}', which is continuing in South Africa and Australia and in Manitoba, the same old spirit of enterprise which colonized the Atlantic seaboard of North America. It would interest young minds to have parallels drawn between English colonies, Grecian commonwealths, Roman prov- inces, the United Cantons of Switzerland, and the United States of Holland. To be sure, these various topics would require considerable study on the part of teacher and pupil, but the fathers of the American constitution, Madison, Hamilton, and others, went over such ground in preparing the platform of our present federal government. 138 SPECIAL METHODS OF But my special plea is for the application of the compara- tive method to the use of historical literature. Students should learn to view history in different lights and from various standpoints. Instead of relying passively upon the ipse dixit of the school-master, or of the school-book, or of some one historian, pupils should learn to judge for them- selves by comparing evidence. Of course some discretion should be exercised by the teacher in the case of young pupils ; but even children are attracted by different ver- sions of the same tale or legend, and catch at new points of interest with all the eagerness of original investigators. The scattered elements of fact or tradition should be brought together as children piece together the scattered blocks of a map. The criterion of all truth, as well as of all art, is fitness. Comparison of different accounts of the same his- toric event would no more injure boys and girls than would a comparative study of the four gospels. On the contrary, such comparisons strengthen the judgment, and give it greater independence and stability. In teaching history, altogether too much stress has been laid, in many of our schools, upon mere forms of verbal expression in the text- book, as though historic truth consisted in the repetition of what some author had said. It would be far better for the student to read the same story in several different forms, and then to give his own version. The latter process would be an independent historical view based upon a variety of evidence. The memorizing of "words, words," prevents the assimilation of facts, and clogs the mental processes of reflection and private judgment. The prosecution of the comparative method in the study of history requires an increase of facilities beyond the meagre text-books now in use. While by no means advo- cating the abolition of all manuals, chronologies, and gen- HISTOKICAL STUDY. 139 eral sketches of history, I would strongly urge the estab- lishment of class-libraries for historical reference. This special practice would be quite in harmony with the growino- custom of equipping public schools with special libraries. It is a practice which the interest of publishers and the good sense of all friends of education would tend to foster. At Smith College, Harvard College, and at the Johns Hop- kins University, the comparative method of studj^ in history and other subjects has long been in operation. In Cam- bridge and in Baltimore, certain books are reserved from the main library of the university for class-use. In Balti- more, such reservations are occasionally supplemented by drafts on other libraries in the city, and by private contri- butions. The books are read in the university reading- room, but are taken out by special arrrangement, for a Umited time, when there is no other demand. 3. The Co-operative Method. — It is not possible, within the limits of this paper, to describe the development of that new system of writing history, which is based upon the economic principles of division of labor and final co-opera- tion. The time was when individual historians, monks and chroniclers, grappled boldly with the history of the whole world. There are still compilers of text-books for schools and colleges who attempt to epitomize the deeds of men from creation down to the present clay. Indeed, the great- est of li^-ing historians, Leopold von Ranke, is now rapidly reviewing universal history in a work which already em- braces several volumes, and which he hopes to finish soon, being now at the age of eighty-nine, so that he may resume more special work. But, in spite of this extraordinary example, which seems to defj' the weakness of age and the will of fate, it may be said with confidence that the day of universal histories by individual men is past. The day for 140 SPECIAL METHODS OF the special and co-operative treatment of history by coun- tries, epochs, and monographic themes is already here. "We see a co-operative tendency in the best school-books. The history even of a single nation is now recognized as too vast a thing for one man to handle in a truly scientific manner, although special results of individual research are still co- ordinated in popular ways. The most notable example of the co-operative method in universal history is the new mon- ographic history of the world, edited by Professor Wilhelm Oncken, but composed by the most eminent specialists in Germany. One man writes the history of Egypt in the light of modern research ; another that of Persia'; a third reviews the history of Greece, giving the latest results of Grecian archaeological investigations ; others revise Eoman history and the earlj- history of Germanic peoples. This co-operative method has lately been applied in Schonberg's great work on political economy, and was applied manj' years ago to a dictionary of political science by the late Dr. J. C. Bluntschli, of Heidelburg. Under his editorial guidance, contributions were made b^' Frencli and German specialists to a great variety of subjects relating to European historj' and politics. Bluntschli's example has been followed in this country by the publication of Lalor's " Cj'clopeedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and of the Political History of the United States." In America, the co-operative method of writing history has long been in quiet operation. Perhaps one of the earliest and most fruit- ful examples was that of the Massachusetts Historical So- ciety, which, in the latter part of the last century, began to encourage the writing of New England town historj' upon principles of local co-operation. The contributions of parish ministers and local antiquaries were published in the pro- ceedings of the society, and proved the humble beginnings HISTOKICAL STUDY. 141 of that remarkable aeries of town histories, which have now specialized the constitution of New England into a vast number of village republics, each one thought worthy of independent treatment. Co-operation has entered even the local domain, e.r/., the history of Boston, after passing through various individual hands, has lately been rewritten by a gi-oup of specialists, working under the editorial direc- tion of Professor Justin Winsor, of Harvard College. This method is now proposed in Providence and other cities. It has been extended by Justin Winsor to the whole country, for the '• Narrative and Critical History of the United States," which he is now editing, is made up of monographs by the best specialists that the country affords. The m-gent plea, then, for the co-operative method which I would make is this : apply it to the study of general historj- in classes. Experience at the Johns Hopkins University and at Smith College has shown the advantage of this method for classes with a short period of time at their com- mand, who nevertheless desire to cover a goodly stretch of historical territory. The method, in its practical operation, consists of a division of labor in a class guided by an instructor, who undertakes to direct special work into co- operative channels. The student, while to some extent upon the common ground of text-books, or prescribed authors, and while taking notes upon class-lectures, of a special character, carries on investigations in close connec- tion with the general course. "Written reports are submitted to a critic for correction, are read before an elocutionist for the sake of training in the art of presentation, and are then finally presented, either wholly or in part, to the class, who take notes and are examined upon these co-operative studies in the same way as on material presented by the instructor. An interesting and valuable practice has gradually grown 142 SPECIAL METHODS OT up among students of historical and political science at the Johns Hopkins University, namely, that of students lectur- ing to their own class upon subjects connected with the course. The practice originated several years ago among undergraduate students of history and international law ; it was the natural outgrowth of the topical method of study. It is a practice considerably different from that of reading formal essays, which often prove very burdensome to a class of intelligent pupils. The idea of oral reports with the aid of a brief or of a few notes, or, best of all, of an analysis written upon the blackboard, led the way to the preparation of a regular course of co-operative lectures bj' members of a class working conjointly with the instructor. Greater dignity was given to the efforts of students by asking them in turn to come to the front, to the map or blackboard, or else to the instructor's chair. For the time being the stu- dent became the teacher. Pretensions were seldom made to original investigations in preparing for such a class-lecture. The understanding was that students should collect the most authoritative information upon a given subject, and present it to his fellows in an instructive way. This naturally impUed the selection of the best points of view, and the omission of all irrelevant matter. The success of the lecturer turned, not upon his occupying the time by reading an encyclopsedic article, but upon his kindling the interest of his classmates, and keeping their attention to the end. 4. The Seminary Method. — The Seminariiim, like the college and the university, is of ecclesiastical origin. His- toricalljr speaking, the seminarj' was a nursery of theology and a training-school for seminary priests. The modern theological seminary has evolved from the mediaeval institu- tion, and modern seminary-students, whether at school or at the university, are only modifications of the earlier types. HISTORICAL STUDY. 143 The Church herself early began the process of differentiat- ing the ecclesiastical seminary for the purposes of secular education. Preachers become teachers, and the propaganda of religion prepared the way for the propaganda of science. The seminary method of modern universities is merely the development of the old scholastic method of advancing philosophical inquiry by the defence of original theses. The seminar}- is still a training-school for doctors of philosophy ; but it has evolved from a nursery of dogma into a laboratorj' of scientific truth. The transformation of the Seminarium into a laboratory of science was first accomplished more than fifty years ago by Germany's greatest historian, Leopold von Ranke. He was born in the year 1795, and has been Professor of Historj- at the University of Berlin since 1825. There, about 1830, he instituted those practical exei'cises in historical investigation (exercitationes historicae) which developed a new school of historians. Such men as Waitz, Giesebrecht, Wattenbach, Yon S^-bel. Adolph Schmidt, and Duncker, owe their meth- ods to this father of historical science. Through the influ- ence of these scholars, the historical seminary has been extended throughout all the universities in Germany, and even to institutions beyond German borders. It is easy to outline a few external characteristics of the seminary at the Johns Hopkins University, but difficult to picture its iuner life. Its workings are so complex and varied, that it cannot be confined within walls, or restricted to a single library. Its members are to be found, now in its own rooms, now at the Peabody Institute, or again in the library of the Maryland Historical Society. Sometimes its delegates may be seen in the libraries of Philadelphia, or in 144 SPECIAL METHODS OP the Library of Congress, or in some parish registry of South Carolina, or in some town clerk's office in New England. One summer the president of the university found a Johns Hopkins student in Quebec studying French parishes and Canadian feudalism. The next summer, this same student, now a teacher in Washington, D.C., was visiting lona, and tramping through the parishes of England. He called by the wayside upon the English historian, Mr. Freeman, at his home in Somerset. Once the seminary sent a deputy in winter to a distant village community upon the extreme eastern point of Long Island, East Hampton, where he studied the history of the common lands at Montauk, with the queen of the Montauk Indians for his sovereign pro- tectress and chief cook. Half a dozen members of the seminary have gone off together on an archeeological excur- sion, for example, to an old Maryland parish, like St. John's, where lies the ruined town of Joppa, the original seat of Baltimore county ; or again, to North Point, the scene of an old battle-ground and the first site of St. Paul's, the original parish church of Baltimore ; and still again, to Annapolis, where, with a steam launch belonging to the Naval Academy, and under the guidance of a local anti- quary, they visited Greenberry's Point, upon the river Severn, the site of that ancient Puritan commonwealth which migrated from Virginia, and was originally called Providence, from which sprang the Puritan capital of Mary- land. Eeports of these archseological excursions, written by members of the seminary connected with the Baltimore press, found their way into the public prints, and were read by manj' people in town and country, who thus became more deeply interested in the history of Maryland. The scientific sessions of the seminary, two hours each week, are probably the least of its work, for every member HISTORICAL STUDY.. 145 is engaged upon some branch of special research, which occupies a vast amount of time. Researches are prosecuted upon the economic principles of division of labor and co- operation. This co-operation appears not merely in the inter-dependence of student-monographs, but in every-day student-life. A word is passed here, a hint is given there ; a new fact or reference, casuallj' discovered by one man, is commuuicated to another to whom it is of more special interest ; a valuable book, found in some Baltimore library or antiquarian bookstore, is recommended, or purchased for a friend. These things, however, are only indications of that kindly spirit of co-operation which flows steadily on beneath the surface of student-life. One of the most interesting, if not the most valuable features of the seminary library, is the so-called newspaper bureau. This consists primarily of an oflBce wherein the newspapers of the day are reduced to their lowest terms for purposes of historical and political science. Certain flies are preserved for future reference ; but the gi-eat majority of papers are cut to pieces for scientific purposes. A compe- tent force of graduate students work an hour or two each day, under direction, and mark superior articles upon eco- nomic, political, social, educational, legal, and historical subjects. These marked papers are excerpted during the succeeding week by an oflBce-boy, pasted upon thick sheets of brown paper, octave-size, indexed at the top, and arranged alphabetically in the so-called Woodruff File- holders, which are also used for the pamphlet collections of the seminary. The choicest extracts from a few leading papers, which are clipped almost as soon as they come, are placed upon special bulletin-boards devoted each to some 146 SPECIAL METHODS OP HISTORICAL STUDY. one department. The sub-headings under which the various clippings are grouped are changed from week to week, when the old material is cleared ofif and a new lot tacked up. The idea is to exhibit the current topics for a week's time, in so far as they relate to the interests of the seminary. The young men who attend to these bulletin-boards for their fellow-students are learning not only critical and orderly methods, but also the potential process of making up a jour- nal of historical and political science. They are learning to be journalists and editors. Without professing to be a school of journalism, the seminary has furnished writers for each of the prominent papers in the city of Baltimore, and for some journals at a distance, while several of its members have secured editorial positions. , In addition to its newspaper bureau, which is a valuable auxiliary in the study of contemporary politics, economics, socialism, etc., the seminary has devoted especial attention to the collection of statistical materials, documents illustrat- ing local, municipal, state, and national institutions ; also to the collection of maps, works of historical and political geography. The beginnings of an historical museum have also been made, so that students of history find themselves surrounded b}' evidences of human progress from the stone age to the newspaper. SEMINAEY OF HISTORICAL AND POLITICAIi SCIENCE. 147 ^ 3 <3> I , I , K L ^ L M O s N lm A. Seminary Table with new books and current periodicals. — B. Lecture Rooms. — C. History Office. —D. Ncwspiiper Bureau. —E. Economy Office.— F. Map Bureau, Historical and Physical Geography. — G. Statistics, Lavatory, Lift, Stairway to Library. —H. Bluntschli MPS. and Portrait; LieberMSS.— I. Stairway to Library and Hopkins Hall.— J. Alcove of Ancient History. — K. Alcove of General His- tory. —L. Alcove of Economics. — M. Alcove of Adminis- tration. — X. Alcove of Political Science. — O. Alcove of International Law. — P. Alcove of State Laws and State His- tory. — Q. .ilcovc of Engliiib, German, Swiss, French, and Roman Law.— R. Librarian's Desk. — S. Desks of Fellows and Graduate Scholars.- T. Revolving Cases. — U. Library Bureau, Journals, bound vols. — V. Church History. — W. Hat and Cloak Room. — X. PubHc Documents, U.S. — T. His- torical Museum. — Z. Pamphlets, Miscellany and five Bulletin Boards. — a. Bulletin Board for Clippings. — b. Card Cata- i.'ijii-llJ01ilnjJ"1 '"ihoi;6). The Philosophy of the State and of History. Geokge S. Mokkis. THE ancient philosopher Heraclitus, in the fragmentary expressions of whose opinions, which alone are pre- served for us, the modern speculative philosopher and the physical evolutionist alike find so many germs of the com- monly received wisdom and of the scientific opinion of to- day, has left behind him one aphorism, the perception of the truth of which is the beginning of all wisdom for the student of history : 7ro\v/j.aOir] voov ov SiSdcTKu. " Multifarious learning does not instruct the mind." Nay, more, " much learning," taken merely by itself, is not only without educational or truly didactic value ; it not only fails to endow the learner with real understanding ; but, as was rightly implied in the address of the Roman governor to St. Paul, its tendency is to make one truly " mad." The first impression that the world of history produces in the mind of the learner is that of an indefinite multitude of different events. One event is not another. Each is a separate fact. Each has its separate place in space or time, or both. Each is what the others are not. To be cognizant of some or all of these facts, each in its own peculiar place in space and time, and with its own peculiar individuality, is unquestionably the first mechanical condition of the ac- quisition of historical knowledge or science. Moreover, the circumstance that the facts in question are indeed different, that each new fact to be learned is indeed a novel fact, or, in some respect, sui generis, contains in part the secret of 150 THE PHILOSOPHY that necessary charm by which the mind of the student is led on from fact to fact, like the bee from flower to flower, and so is armed with endurance to continue till the end of the tale of "facts" is reached. But, to stop short with this cognizance of the multitude of facts in their separation and difference, not to see them in the unity of their relations, is not to learn the lesson of history. The mind thus simply filled, or crammed, is not instructed. Its sight is super- ficial; it is not insight. And the world of history, thus viewed, is not comprehended as an orderly world. It is not a "rounded world" and "fair to see." It puts intel- ligence to confusion. It is, indeed, my masters, "a mad world " ! History is not simply (multifarious) events. It is the logic of events. Historic intelligence is not merely informa- tion respecting events. It is the comprehension of their logic. Philosophy may be fitly described as the science of wholes. In the last resort it is the science of the whole, as such, or of the one universal drama of existence in the midst of which man is placed, and in which he actively participates. Now, history, according to the familiar aphorism, is "philosophy teaching by example." Not the " example," taken by itself as an isolated fact, is history. Thus taken, it is only a brute fact divested of relations, and offering neither attrac- tion nor support to intelligence. History is the example, plus that which it exemplifies. It is the example, plus its teaching. It is the " fact " seen in the relations which alone render it comprehensible. It is the fact seen as part or mem- ber of an organic whole, and, consequently, as exemplifying in its place and measure the law, idea, or life of the whole. It is, in short, the fact seen as the illustration and phenom- enal incarnation of a universal and livingly operative reason, OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 151 Logos, or logic, which, interior to the fact, is the ground of its reality-, and, transcending the particular fact, connects it with all other facts, and so is the ground of its intelligi- bilitj'. History-, taken in its broadest sense, is the object- lesson of philosophy. It is the subject-matter of philosophy's demonstrations. It is the test of the correctness of her con- clusions. And true " history," in the narrower or more com- mon sense of this word, is nothing if not philosophical. Every successful teacher of liistory, even with the youngest pupils, teaches in something of the philosophical spirit, and with a method more or less philosophical. He does not, indeed, neglect to insist on the acquisition, by patient mnemonic exercise, of exact information regarding parti- cular facts ; but he manages, at the same time, to engage the learner's imagination for the perception of groups of facts viewed as wholes, and having, as such wholes, to some degree, a specific character, coloring, or significance. He makes the pupil exercise, with himself, the artistic faculty of inward picturing. "With immature students this is all tliat is possible, and it is enough. (I place under the safeguard of a parenthesis the ominous and perhaps irritating question. How many really " successful teachers of history, even with the j-oungest pupils," have we?) Ordinarj- college students, or undergraduates, who, in our commonly recognized dis- tinction of educational grades, are treated as not yet wholly mature and independent, but as on the highway and in the doorway to such maturity, maj' justly claim something more. In addition to the faculty of abstract understanding, exer- cised in the exact and reflective discrimination and memor- izing of facts, and the faculty of picturing imagination, which groups facts before the eye of the mind, as it were in larger visible wholes, that higher potenc}' of imagination, which may be most exactly described as the synthetic reason, and 152 THE PHILOSOPHY for which the pictures of history possess not merely the ex- ternal unity of visible wholes, but also the inward, dynamic unity of self-realizing law, idea, purpose, should be ap- pealed to, and so, at least in some measure, trained in the appreciation of what we will here call historic truths (note the plural). Just how, and in what measure, this should be done, I will not and need not now attempt to determine. But I do not in the slightest hesitate to declare my conviction, that the university student — the graduate student, or he who, if not technically a graduate, is held to be sufficiently advanced to be permitted to pursue his studies under the specifically university r4gime — should, on the one hand, be privileged and assisted, and, on the other, required to exer- cise his faculty of ' ' sj'nthetic reason " in the fullest possible degree. In other words, in whatever department the special subject of his studies may lie, whether history, language, literature, mathematics, or the physical and natural sciences, he should be expected to accompany his study of and search for particular truths and orders of truths (the truths belong- ing to his " special subject ") with the study of and search for the truth, the universal truth, to which all special orders of truths or " sciences," and orders of " science," are organ- ically related ; in which, as in an universal organism, they are all concretely one, "members one of another," and in the light of which alone the science of each becomes com- plete. Otherwise expressed, the university student should pursue, and should be taught and aided to pursue, his sub- ject, however "special" and, at first sight, remote from philosophy it may seem to be, philosophically. And by this I mean that he , should pay, and be directed and aided to pay, express and prolonged attention to the specific and universal problems of philosophy, considered both in them- selves and in their relation and application to the subject of OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 153 his special studies. He sliould, in the broadest and strictest sense, comprehend the philosophy of his subject. He who does less than this is a " university student" only in name and outward appearance, no matter where or how long he may have been enrolled as such a student, or amid what plaudits he may have been crowned with the (in this case deceptive) degree of "Doctor of Philosophy" ... I do not, of com-se, stop to point out in detail how the require- ment just insisted on is involved in the very conception of a university, as indicated among other things by the name " University " itself. The justice of the requirement above mentioned is a thing which it should be easy enough to demonstrate in its relation to any of the departments of university work. It is particu- larly obvious in its relation to the department of history. What is the universal truth ; the ti'uth of aU truths ; the truth in which all truths are united, and which reveals and realizes itself in them aU ; the truth of which all other truths are, in their place and kind, the concrete manifestation and evidence, and of which philosophy is the universal science ? The answer that philosophy, in its most substantial and com- plete forms, whether ancient or modern, gives to this ques- tion, is perfectlj' expressed in the words of one of those writers whom the Christian world has termed sacred, "The Spirit is truth." All truth is truth of spirit. All reality is spiritually conditioned. All being has its roots in a spiritual life by which its form and nature and substance are de- termined. Spirit is universal, self-conscious reason. ""What- ever," therefore, "is real is rational." Spirit is dynamic, living, concrete, and is the source and soul of law. What- ever is real, therefore, bears the same marks and illustrates the " reign of law" or of reason. The spirit, or living self-conscious reason, which is the 154 THE PHILOSOPHY universal truth, is not the human spirit, but it is, if this ex- pression may here be allowed, the truth of the human spirit. The latter " lives, moves, and has its being " in the former. The spirit of man realizes its own essential nature only so far as it realizes in itself the " image " of the absolute spirit. The reason of man accomplishes its normal function in the knowledge of the truth only so far as, to use Kepler's grand expression, it " thinks the thoughts of God," and that by a process whereby it illustrates and actualizes its organic de- pendence upon, and so far its organic unity with, the uni- versal spirit. The sufficiency of the individual to think, to think truly, to think and know the truth, is of God, of that absolute and concretely universal or omnipresent "spirit," which of all things is " the truth." This relation is, of course, not one in which the activity of the individual reason is suspended or rendered useless. It is the rather condi- tioned on the fullest and freest activity of the individual. It will now be seen how philosophy, which is defined as the science of the universal truth, can also be called the science of self-conscious reason. It may well be considered as a common-place of philosophic science, that the fund- amental, or "ground-laying" part of philosophy, is the science of intelligence or knowledge. Philosophy demon- strates that the essential and all-determining nature of intelligence is to be self-conscious reason. And it also demonstrates that true self -consciousness is something that transcends the individual, being realized only through the "objective" consciousness and progressive knowledge of the whole universe of dependent existence, and in organic dependence on an universal and absolute self -consciousness. The universal self -consciousness, or reason, of man, which is the characteristically spiritual side of man's being, is also the essential side. It is by this and in this that man is OF THE STATE AXD OP HISTORY. 155 truly man. Viewed on this side of his being, man is not a wholly completed actuality. He is not fully himself. He has not realized in full all the potentialities of his nature. He is to himself an ideal, a problem. In the progressive, active approximation to the ideal in question, or solution of the problem, man first comes to himself, and, in a measure, truly is himself. The activity by which he accomplishes this end is two-fold, theoretical and practical ; theoretical, consisting, through the development of universal science, in the augmentation of his knowledge of himself and of his own possibilities ; aud practical, consisting in activities con- ditioned by this knowledge, and directed toward the use of the powers of nature and the ordering of human relations, in magna and in parvo, so that the possibilities mentioned may be more fuUy actualized. These activities now are the immediate substance or the present active factors of historj-. The growingly self-con- scious intelligence, which conditions and du-ects them, is the soul of history. Their end is the erection on earth of a realm of the spirit, which is a ti-ue "kingdom of heaven" or of God, and in which man gradually comes into the in- dependent possession of his true and substantial freedom tlu-ough the theoretic apprehension and practical realization of " the truth." History is the realm of man, and the realm of man is the realm of the spirit. How, then, shall not history be philosophical? How shall it not be " philosophy teaching by example " ? Aud how shall he be pronounced a " Doctor" of history who has not comprehended history as philosophy thus teaching? In the college, let the student, by all means, study and learn "histories"; and in the university, let not these be forgotten or neglected. But, above all things, and as the one thing indispensably needful, let the student here study 156 THE PHILOSOPHY and learn histoi-y. Let him see and know man in history, and through this knowledge let him see the absolute spirit in history. But, it may be said, there are many well-known and not uninfluential philosophizers who contend that a true science of knowledge reveals man as possessing no other and higher categories with which to proceed to the comprehension of the whole world of reality, whether natural or moral, than the purely mechanical and sensibly conditioned ones of ab- stract mathematical and physical science, and that he is incapable of possessing any others. The interpretation of history then becomes for them simply equivalent to the solu- tion of a problem in "moral" mechanics. History is, indeed, held to be one whole and a moving whole ; but it is a whole, all of whose strictly knowable and scientifically determinable attributes really belong to the physical order of things alone ; and it is a whole which, both as a whole and in all its parts, moves on automaticallj- and without freedom according to simple mechanical laws, following everywhere the line of least resistance and greatest traction, and exemplifying some such general law as (say) that of universal evolution and dissolution ... In reply, I say that I am unable to perceive that the champions of the foregoing theory are acquainted with the whole science of knowledge, or that they have once profoundly and faithfully studied the chief works which now belong to the history of philosophic science, and comprehended the lesson they contain. In so far, if my perception is correct, their opinions are deficient in value. But, supposing them to be wholly in the right, it must be allowed that they are but fulfilling an intrinsic and inde- feasible requirement of historic science in seeking to found, on the basis of their mechanical conceptions, a philosophic interpretation of universal history. And, on the same OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 157 supposition, it would be the duty of the university student of history to follow in their steps. The undergraduate student of history, for example, might conceivably be one of those accumulators who bring statistical gi-ist to Mr. Spencer's mill. But it would be the duty and privilege of the university student to raise himself to the intellectual plane of the gi-eat miller himself; he should, iu spirit, be a Spencer or a Buckle. Philosophy of some kind there must be ; for philosophy is, in conception, nothing but the science of the whole, and, without such science, all other science — the science or knowledge of parts — remains incomplete, lack- ing connection, and confused. And if the philosophy that one tave, or that one find current, be unfortunately one- sided, abstract, and inhospitable toward certain sides of that whole world of actuality, which it is the sole business of philosophy to comprehend, yet one must accept it, and apply it as far as it will go, and so make the best of it. Of course, it is the business of a university to see to it that philosophy is, within its precincts, comprehended, prose- cuted, and taught without such defects as those just named. I hasten to add that, when this is done, the relative truth, and, within its peculiar bounds, the important truth of the mechanical philosophy in its application to the moral world, which includes the world of history, will be fully recognized. No one can shut his eyes to the mechanical aspect which be- longs to all events, whatsoever, that occur within the bounds and under the forms of space and time, including, there- fore, the events of history. But the eye of really concrete, catholic, and aU-embracing philosophic science, sees that the mechanical aspect of events is only an aspect ; that the whole event, in any case under consideration, includes more than this aspect; and that the science, or "philosophy," which regards only this aspect, is abstract ; that it abstracts 158 THE PHILOSOPHY from something else in the event which is essential ; and that it is, therefore, from the point of view of complete philosophy, fragmentary, partial, " one-sided." True philosophy per- ceives that, throughout the universe of living existence — and this, subject to exact definitions, must be conceived as equi- valent to the whole actual universe — the mechanical is con- ditioned by and logically posterior to the organic ; the dead is the product of the living, the phenomenal of the noumenal. I trust I have made it sufficiently evident that the ex- pression ' ' philosophj- of history " points to a real problem of essential importance for the student of history, and that I have sufficiently indicated what the true scope of the problem in general is. I have said nothing of the great advance made by historians during the last century in the philosophic treat- ment of their subjects, nor of the pains which great his- torians have thought it not unimportant to take to equip themselves for their work by careful training in specifically philosophic studies. There are many signs that the times are ripe, or ripening, for a more extensive introduction of the philosophic element into the treatment of history in this country. The most obvious of these is perhaps to be found in the rapid development and adoption of university methods at a number of our educational centres during the last ten or a dozen years. The true " university conception," if I may so express it, has but recently made its appearance among us ; and it has evidently come to stay. And this phenomenon, by what cannot be considered as an accidental coincidence, is accompanied by (or shall I rather say accompanies ?) a new and growing sense of the nature of the problems which are strictly peculiar to philosophy, and of their essential connec- tion with that true and complete ideal of a scientifically cul- tured intelligence, which must serve as lodestone and guid- ing-star to aU "higher education." Further, we have now OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 159 passed the boundary of the first century of our existence as an independent nation. We are, as a people, now engaged in a confused struggle with the problem of our own national self-consciousness. AVe want to know what is the spirit that is in us as a nation. We must know this, in order to be properly master of ourselves and of our destiny. We must know this, in order to know our place in universal history, in order to appreciate the special task that falls to us in the solution of that universal problem of the full realization of man, of humanity " standing complete and wanting nothing," at which, whether blindly or consciously, all nations and peoples are at work, and their work upon which constitutes the living and essential substance of history. Our politicians need this, that thej- may become statesmen. And both states- men and people need this, the former, in order that their labor may be truly constructive and enduring ; and the lat- ter, in order that thej' may willingly cooperate in the pursuit and realization of true political ideals. Here, then, is a a place where theory, in the broadest sense of this term, or the best work of intelligence, comes in contact with actuality. Here is a " living question" imperatively demanding prac- tical solution, and where none but the best and broadest and deepest intelligence can safely serve. And it does seem as if the time had come when the university, conceived in the most liberal sense as the home and the seat of the activity of the highest intelligence, should become the radiating source and centre of ideal, and so of most truly practical, influences, by which the constructive work of the nation shall be posi- tively furthered, and the ideal substance of the national hfe enriched. That our university workers in political science and history, applying themselves to their task with philo- sophic spirit and method, will contribute to the realization 160 THE PHILOSOPHY of a state of things, so much to be desired, no one should have any doubt. And now for a few practical suggestions. For how, an interested party will naturally ask, shall I go about to study and teach the philosophy of history ? I confess freely that the bank-account of my own experience in this matter is not plethoric, and that of my observation of others' work is still less so. Such as I have, with some diffidence, I will attempt to give. It will be noticed that I have placed at the head of this article, as its title, "The Philosophj- of the State and of History.'' Every one will readily perceive the reason for this. For though, as Droysen says, and as I have otherwise substantially expressed it in the foregoing essay, "the sub- ject of history is the universal Ego of humanity," or " his- tory is the yvuiOi. a-avTov of humanity, its moral self -conscious- ness " ; yet the concrete form in which this subject lies before the historian and student of history is that of social organ- izations or of states. Of course, nothing can take the place, in the outfit of the student of the philosophy of the state and of history, of a previous course of careful training in the several "disci- plines," or " subjects " (logic, both " formal " and " real," psychology, ethics, etc.), which belong to philosophy proper, and in the history of philosophj' ; and, in agreement with the views above expressed, such training, in an university com- pletely organized and educationally equipped, would have to be insisted on. But now we will not, for we cannot, presup- pose that this requirement has been fulfilled. As a substi- tute, I would propose to a student that he read carefully (say) the little book by Edwin Wallace, entitled " Outlines of the Philosophy of Aristotle " (Cambridge and London, third ed., 1883 ; pp. xi., 130). This work gives an epitome, OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 161 with proof -texts in Greek, of logic, metaphysic, philosophy of nature, psychology, moral philosophy, political philosophy, and philosophy of art, in as many different chapters, and ac- cording to the best and ripest conceptions of ancient thought. Of all of these conceptions, that is true which is commonly said of Aristotle's logic in particular, viz., that, though an- tique, they can never become antiquated. The student gets, from the perusal of this epitome, a correct notion, as far as it goes, of the relation of political philosophy to philosophy in general, or of its place in the organism of philosophic science. I say " as far as it goes," for, as will be observed, no place is given in Aristotle's scheme to the philosophy of history, a subject to which the philosophy of the state is most inti- mately allied, but which, for obvious reasons, could scarcely be developed as a distinct discipline before modern times. In the same spirit, I would heartily recommend the " Essays in Philosophical Criticism," edited by Seth & Haldane (Lon- don, 1883). This book, in my judgment, must be a great help to those who would get their bearings with reference to most of the leading subjects of philosophy, in the light of the best modern discussion. The student of the philosophy of the State and of history will be specially helped by the essays on "The Historical Method," by W. E. Sorley ; "The Rationality of History," by D. G. Ritchie ; and " The Social Organism," by Henry Jones. Commendation no less hearty is to be given to the " Grun- driss der Historik," von Job. Gust. Droysen (Leipzig, third ed., 1882 ; pp. vi., 44). To this are added, as an appendix, two essays on the "Elevation of History to the Rank of a Science," reviewing Buckle's "History of Civilization in England," and on "Art and Method," by which the num- ber of pages is increased to 90., A good translation of the " Grundriss " into English would, I should think, be one of 162 THE PHILOSOPHY the best services that could be rendered for the promotion of the philosophical study of history. In teaching, now, the subjects we are considering, I would begin with the philosophy of the state. And in treating this topic, my method is to begin with the consideration of that order of theories which is apparently simplest, and which also, in the order of development of theories in modern times, stands conspicuously first in time. All theories of the state may be philosophically classed in two groups. The one of these contains those theories which contemplate the state, either exclusively or prevailingly, from a physical or " natural " point of view, in accordance with a purely mechanical conception of the universe, or of omne scibile. The other will include theories which regard the state primarily and fundamentallj' from a spiritualistic and ethical point of view. Or, briefly, in the theories of the one group a mechanical and phj'sical conception of the state is represented ; and in those of the other, an organic and idealistic. The former conception has, at first sight, the apparent advantage in respect of simplicity and intelli- gibility. From the first group, then, and for the purpose of first studying and illustrating the mechanical conception, or "philosophy," of the state, I select the "Civil Philo- sophj'" of Thomas Hobbes ("De Give" and "Leviathan") and the politico-philosophical writings of Mr. Herbert Spen- cer (chiefly his " Social Statics" and "Principles of Socio- logy ") . In what respects the work of Hobbes is cruder and ruder than that of Spencer, how abhorrent to the latter are some of the positions of the former, and what concession Mr. Spencer himself makes in his own works, at least in appearance, to the demands of the organic conception of the state, is well known, or maj' be easily learned, and has, OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 163 of course, in the progress of our study or teaching, to be duly recognized. It still remains that the lines of fun- damental, or of quasi-philosophical agreement, are such as are implied in the classification of these two theorizers in the same group. From the works named I select such prin- ciples, or statements of principles, as are fundamental, and then seek to exhibit them, and to engage my students to study and comprehend them, both in themselves and in their collective relation to the subject-matter — the state — which they are invoked to explain. If it then appears, as I think it must, that these principles are essentially inadequate, we are prepared to go forward and try whether the theories of the other group are any more complete, and so nearer to the whole truth. For those who are inclined to go further in the direction previously considered, and study the mechanical conception of the state in the light of modern socialistic theories founded upon it, the literature at command is abundant. The press, in certain quarters, teems with it. And one will be sure to find appropriate material among the books and pamphlets included in the " Biblioth^que Socialiste," published at Paris by Henry Oriol. From works belonging to the second group, I am accus- tomed to select for consideration and study Aristotle's " Politics " and Hegel's "Philosophic des Rechts." These two works maj-, I think, justly be regarded as representing the high-watermark — the one in ancient times, and the other in modern — in the treatment of the philosophical conception of the state. Aristotle, certainly, cannot be wholly antiquated, for so true a child of the modern en- lightenment as Mr. Frederick Pollock, has recently, in rela- tion to this very matter of political philosophy, raised the very sane cry, " back to Aristotle." And of Hegel's work, 164 THE PHILOSOPHY that remains true, in spite of all its unquestionable infirmities, which is said of it by Adolf Lasson in his own recently- published "System der Eeehtsphilosophie " (Berlin, 1882, p. 104), that its plac6 is in " the foremost rank of the class- ical productions of the science of all times." Of the several translations of Aristotle's " Politics," the latest one, by J. E. C. Welldon (London : Macmillan & Co., 1883), is most at- tractive. Mr. A. C. Bradley has an essay on "Aristotle's Conception of the State," in " Hellenica," edited by E. Ab- bott (London, 1880) . Hegel's "Philosophic des Kechts" has not been translated into English. An essay entitled ' ' Hegel's Philosophy of Right" was published in the volume of " Ox- ford Essays" (1855). In vol. VI. of the "Journal of Specu- lative Philosophy," edited by W. T. Harris, will be found a translation of the brief summary of the Philosophy of Right, as contained in Hegel's " Philosophic des Geistes." A criti- cal exposition of Hegel's "Philosophy of the State and of History " will be published in the series of ' ' German Philo- sophical Classics for English Readers and Students," pub- lished by S. C. Griggs & Co., Chicago, The dynamic con- ceptions of Aristotle and Hegel, being much less abstract and, in this respect, simple than those of Hobbes and Spencer, require, for their adequate appreciation, longer study and a greater amount of time devoted to the detail of didactic exposition. In cases where German cannot be used, the work entitled "The Nation," by Elisha Mulford, LL.D. (New York, 1877), may be employed as a substitute for Hegel's "Philosophic des Rechts." In any case, the study of Dr. Mulford's book is to be most strongl}- urged. On the history of political philosophy I name the following works : — Paul Janet, ' ' Histoire de la Philosophic morale et poli- tique dans I'antiquit^ et les temps modernes" (Paris, 1860; OP THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 166 second edition, revised and enlarged, under the title " His- toire de la science politique dans ses rapports avec la mo- rale," 1872) . This book is clearly written, with an abundance of French bon sens, and from the point of view of the best French type of philosophical spiritualisme. The author con- siders no TVTiter after the time of Kant. Frederick Pollock, ' • The History of the Science of Poli- tics " (New York, 1883 ; No. 42 of the " Humboldt Library" ; reprinted from the "Fortnightly Review," Aug., 1882, to Jan., 1883). This little work will be of value in enabling the student to familiarize himself with a considerable num- ber of names prominently connected with the development of political philosophy in ancient and modern times. It is most valuable for its very sympathetic exposition of the doctrine of Aristotle and its account of the gist of Eng- lish discussions. Spencer is excluded from the survey, and so are all Continental writers of the last hundred years. J. C. Bluntschli, " Geschichte der neueren Staatswissen- schaft. Allgemeines Staatsrecht und Politik seit dem 16. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart" (Leipzig & Munchen, third ed., 1881). This book, as the title indicates, deals only with the political philosophy of modern times. In ti-eating of Hegel's " Philosophie des Rechts," the author is so stern to point out its confessed limitations, that the reader is in danger of being blinded to the fact of the far-reach- ing identity, in point of substantial content, which subsists between the fundamental conceptions of the critic himself and of him who is the object of his criticism. Passing now to the philosophy of history, I am unable to give any counsel founded on personal experience or observa- tion. If one were disposed to repeat or imitate the method suggested above, one might, I should suppose, well begin with Buckle's "History of Civilization in England." Though 166 THE PHILOSOPHY OP STATE AND HISTORY. the field chosen for consideration in this work is restricted to England, yet this need not be a drawback. It may the rather be even an advantage, since it enables the student to judge the value and adequacy of the purely ' ' mechanical concep- tion" for the philosophic comprehension of history, applied in a field with which he is likely to be more familiar than with any other outside his own country. I name as a work, in which the whole course of human history is treated from the materialistic point of view, F. von Hellwald's " Culturgeschichte in ihrer natiirlichen Entwicke- lung bis zur Gegenwart." Advancing now to the other, and, as I call it, larger point of view, to that of the organic conception of human history, I should take up the " Philosophic der G-eschichte " of Hegel. Of this work a fairly good translation has been furnished by J. Sibree, A.M. (" Lectures on the Philosophy of History," in Bohn's "Philosophical Library," London, 1861). The most considerable systematic elaboration that the subject, so far as I have noticed, has received since the time of Hegel, is contained in Conrad Hermann's ' ' Philosophie der Geschichte" (Leipzig, 1870). A work of still broader scope and treatment is M. Carrifere's " Die Kunst im Zusammer- hang der Culturentwickelung " (Leipzig, 1863-1871). Robert Flint, in "The Philosophy of History in France and Germany" (London, 1874), gives a critical review of French and German works relating to our subject. He is, in my judgment, most successful in his appreciation of the efforts of the French and of some of the earlier Germans. The best German philosophy is beyond him. THE COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY, ROMAN LAW, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY, AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY.^ Bt Henry E. Scott, Harvard University. A DESCRIPTION of the ground covered and of the methods used in the various courses in History and Political Science at Harvard must necessarily be preceded by a brief statement of the circumstances under wliich these studies are pursued there. In the first place, all the courses offered in these branches — and in almost all other branches as well — are purely elec- tive. The University requires each year a certain amount of work from every undergraduate who is a candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts ; but, with the exception of about two-fifths of the work of the Freshman year, and certain prescribed written exercises in English in the Sophomore, Junior and Senior years, the undergraduate has fuU liberty to select any course in any subject which his previous train- ing qualifies him to pursue. The courses in History and in Political Science may therefore be elected by any under- graduate, by the Freshman as weU as by the Senior ; and they are also, it may be added, open to the students of the various professional schools embraced in the University, to resident graduates, and to special students whether graduates or not. ' In the preparation of the following article, the writer lias been greatly assisted by the instructors in the several courses described, and their state- ments have been incorporated in the tejct with but little change. 168 COTTESBS OF STtlDY IN HISTORY In order to provide suitable recognition for those students who have confined their college work to one or two special fields, Honors of two grades — Honors &ndi Highest Honors — are awarded at graduation in almost all brandies in which instruction is offered. The candidate for Honors in Historj- or in Political Science must have taken in the department selected six full courses or their equivalent, i.e., he must have devoted to it about one-half of his last three years as an undergraduate, four full courses or their equivalent being the amount of elective work required each year of Sopho- mores, Juniors, and Seniors ; and he must have passed with great credit the regular examinations in those courses, and also, shortly before Commencement, a special examination covering all the six courses in question. Students who do not care to specialize to the extent necessary to obtain Honors can yet, by doing creditably about one-half as much work {i.e., by taking three full courses) in any oue subject, receive at graduation Honorable Mention in that subject. To pursue with advantage studies in History or in Political Science, the student must have easy access to books ; and, in order to place within his reach the principal sources, au- thorities, and other helps necessary for the study of a given course, the system of "reserved books" was established some years ago in the Harvard College Library. The in- structors in the various departments request the Library authorities to place upon the shelves of certain alcoves, as- signed for this purpose in the reading-room of the Library, the books used by their classes for collateral reading and reference. The books thus reserved can be taken from the shelves by the students themselves without the formality of oral or written orders, and can be consulted in the Li.brary during the day. At the close of library hours, they may, if properly charged, be taken out for the ensuing night only, AT HARVARD TJNIVERSITY. 169 the borrowers promising- to return them at 9 a.m. the next day. The right to use the reserved books is not limited to those students who take the particular course for which cer- tain books have been reserved, but all persons entitled to the privileges of the Library are Ukewise entitled to use all the reserved books, the purpose of the system being not to with- draw the works from general use for the benefit of a narrow circle, but rather so to regulate their use that the greatest possible number of students may be able to consult them. Persons engaged in special in^-estigatious can, if necessary, obtain cards of admission to the shelves where the material they wish to use is stored ; but, for the ordinary student, the reserved books, together with those ordered from the Library in the usual waj^ are sufficient. The courses of instruction which are now to be described are classified — as are all courses offered in the College — as courses or half -courses, according to the amount of work re- quired of the student and the number of exercises a week, a course having either three or two exercises a week, a half- com'se either two or one.' Some of the courses are given every year, others every two years, others twice in three years. The more advanced coiirses can be taken only by special permission of the instructors, to obtain which stu- dents must give evidence of their ability to do the work expected of them. There are announced this year (1884- 85) in the official pamphlet sixteen courses and two half- courses in History, one course and two half -courses in Roman Law, and four courses and four half-courses in Political Economj-. There are actuaU}- given this year eleven courses and two half-courses in History, one course in Roman Law, and four courses and three half-courses in Political Economy, ^ In the following description the half-courses are especially designated as such. 170 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY the remaining courses being omitted in accordance with the arrangements mentioned above or for special reasons. The average number of hours of instruction per week devoted this year to History is thirty ; to Roman Law, three ; to Politi- cal Economy, fifteen. THE COURSES IN HISTORY. • The courses in History are not laid out on the assumption that any one student will elect all or even the greater part of them. They are themselves an historical growth rather than the result of a scheme. New courses have been added from time to time as the needs of the students and the means of the CoUege warranted, each course as a rule covering a field which some unity of interest or some series of related movements seemed to mark out as suitable ground for con- nected study. Courses so built up must inevitably cross each other at various points, with an appearance of more or less confusion ; nevertheless it is believed thej' are better adapted to the needs of the students than a more systemati- cally arranged list would be. History 1 (Mediasval and Modern European History, two hours a week, Assistant-Professor Macvane) is an elemen- tary course serving as an introduction to Courses 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 , and covering the history of Europe from the fall of the Roman Empire. In so wide a field, the work is necessarily of a very general character, the principal aim being to trace as clearly as possible the changes and stages thi'ough which Europe has passed in reaching its modern condition. The only countries for which a connected outline of political his- tory is attempted are England, France, and Grermany. The course is designed for two classes of students : first, for those who intend to give a considerable amount of atten- tion to history while in college ; for these it serves as an AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 171 introduction, as a general view of the whole field of medias- val and modern history ; they are enabled to enter later on the study of selected portions or periods with some feel- ing of acquaintance with the surroundings. They also get some practice in using historical books and in dealing with historical terms and ideas. Secondly, the course is designed for students whose serious college work lies in other depart- ments, who yet wish to acquire some general knowledge of history. There is, for the most part, no text-book, nor is there any attempt at recitations. Several books are usually designated for each country or period ; and each student is allowed to choose from these the one best suited to his aims or to the amount of time at his disposal for the work. A certain portion of ground is laid out in advance for each ex- ercise ; and the instructor goes over this in a general way with the class, answering questions, pointing out relations and connections, explaining terms, and bringing into promi- nence the more important points of the narrative. A good deal of attention is given to historical geography. History 2 (Constitutional Government in England and the United States, three hours a week for the first half-year, counting as a half -course, Assistant-Professor Macvane) is designed as an introduction to Courses 12, 13, and 14, i.e., to the study of modern constitutional government. Atten- tion is chiefly directed to the present condition and prac- tical working of English and American institutions ; but the more prominent features of the French and German constitu- tions are also noted. The comparative method is followed wherever possible. The work done in the class-room is a combination of lecture and conference. Each member of the class is expected to procure either Amos's "Primer of the English Constitution" or Fonblanque's "How we are Governed " ; and a pamphlet is printed for the use of the 172 COUESES OF STUDY IN HISTOKY class, containing a syllabus of the course, together with the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution, and a number of selectigns from books, magazine articles, etc. The main objects in view are to prepare students for the profitable study of American and of modern European histor}-, and to awaken an intelligent interest in the problems of constitu- tional government, both here and in other countries. History 3. Roman History to the Fall of the Republic, with especial reference to the Development of Political In' stitutions in Greece and Rome, two hours a week. HiSTOKY 4. Later Roman and Early Mediaeval History (from Augustus to Charlemagne) , with especial reference to institutions, two or three hours a week (at the pleasure of the instructor). History 8. Constitutional and Legal History of France to the Sixteenth Century, two or three hours a week (at the pleasure of the instructor) . These courses (all of them given by Professor Gurney) , while covering each a period having a distinct and independ- ent interest of its own, are designed to furnish in their se- quence a study of the development of society, of political, legal, and economic institutions, and in outline, too, of moral and intellectual conditions as manifested in religious beliefs, philosophy, and literature, from the cradle of patriarchal existence among the ancestors of the Greeks and Italians to the old age of a Byzantine civilization ; and, again, to the repetition of this development under the greatly changed con- ditions produced by the legacies of Mediterranean civiliza- tion, from the primitive German society described by Caesar and Tacitus to the reflection of imperial Rome which may be traced in the administration, law, literature, and art of France in the time of the early Renaissance. In Course 3 this development is followed for the Roman AT HAEVAED UNIVERSITT. 173 state from the first glimpses which we obtain, by the aid of philology, of its Indo-European ancestors to the point at which, after the conquest of the ancient world, the overtaxed energies of municipal government succumb, and the repub- lican type of rule begins to merge in the imperial. Though the history proper of Greece forms no part of this course, the political and legal institutions of the Greeks, especially the Spartan and Athenian constitutions, and, at a later day, the first serious efforts of men at federation in the Achaean League, are all treated in detail for the light they throw upon the parallel Roman development. A secondary object of Com'se 3 is to qualify a student of the classics to read a book of Livy, or a public oration of Demosthenes, with somewhat the same background of information with which he would take up Bancroft or Burke. Course 4, which deals with the whole period from Au- gustus to Charlemagne, falls naturally into two parts ; in one of which, ending perhaps as well at the death of Theo- dosius the Great as at any other point, the interest continues predominately Roman, and the development of society is in every sense the sequel of Course 3 ; in the other the interest is predominately German ; the subject of study is German institutions, and the processes and results of the combina- tions of these with existent Roman institutions and tenden- cies within the territories of the Empire, and especially in Gaul. Either half of this com-se may easily be pursued separately. In Course 8, an investigation is made of the centrifugal forces which led to the disruption of the Carolingian Empire, and to the dispersion of authority which we know as the Feudal System. Upon a study of the institutions and work- ing of that system in France, follows naturally the main subject of the course, the gradual reassertion of the royal 174 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY authority over ever wider territory, and to ever more complete exclusion of all other authority, until the irresistible control of Louis XI. and his successors is reached, and, in large measure on the lines of Koman models, the framework is erected for the still more perfect structure of absolutism of the seventeenth century. As these courses cover long periods of time — some seven hundred years each — the student is not expected to acquire a detailed knowledge of events. An account is given him of the best books accessible, great and small, upon the whole period and parts of it ; but the scale on which he conducts his reading is left to his taste and discretion. The instructor, from time to time, tries to aid the student in acquiring a just historical perspective by remarks upon the relative import- ance of events, and upon such connections between them as might easily be missed ; but, otherwise, he does not concern himself with .the narrative history, except when consulted. The chief original authorities are mentioned and character- ized, but no investigations in them are demanded. The history of institutions, on the other hand, is given by the instructor in informal lectures, with constant opportunity and encouragement for interruption on the part of the stu- dent for questions and discussion. The best works on the subject are described and reserved in the Library for the student's use ; but for this part of the course he may, if he chooses, rely on the lectures alone. As these courses are conducted for the general student of history, no work upon the sources, Greeli, Latin, or old French, could wisely be exacted. It is hoped, however, that subsidiary half-courses may be connected with them, so that properly qualified students may have opportunity and encouragement to be- come themselves investigators. In History 7 (The General History of Europe from the AT HARVARD TINTVERSITT. 175 beginning of the Ninth to the end of the Thirteenth Centurj', two hours a week, Mr. Scott) the title does not state cor- rectly the chronological limits of the course, or the ground covered by it. It really deals with the political and consti- tutional history of Continental Europe from the rise of the Carolingian line of Frankish kings to the fall of the emperors of the House of Staufen, England being omitted entirelj-, and France, too, receiving but little attention in comparison with Germany and Italy, since both England and France are provided for in special courses. As a necessary introduction, a rapid survey is taken of the institutions of the primitive Germans ; and this is followed by a more detailed account of the constitutional and legal system that arose from the mixture of German and Roman elements in the kingdom of the Merovingians. With the Carolingian period the real work of the course begins, the Frankish Monarchy and the Mediaeval Empire forming naturally the centres of interest around which the remaining historical phenomena are grouped. In the class-room, the instructor endeavors to call attention to the points of view from which the events under considera- tion may be most advantageously studied, and to the relation in which these events stand to those that have gone before and to those that are to follow ; but the details of political history are usually left to be worked out by the students them- selves, while, on the other hand, the development of institu- tions is treated at length by means of lectures. An account of the principal sources for the history of each period is given, the most valuable modern works are mentioned, and specific references are made, from time to time, to these works and to important historical articles in periodicals. The students are questioned frequently and encouraged to ask questions, in order that the instructor ma}' satisfy him- self of the nature of their work, and that any special difH- culties which they meet may be, if possible, removed. 176 COUESBS OF STUDY IN HISTORY History 9 (three hours a -week, Assistant-Professor Yotme) takes up the Constitutional and Legal History of England to the Sixteenth Century. The work in the class-room con- sists of lectures by the instructor, and of translations and explanations of extracts from Stubbs' " Select Charters," which, together with Stubbs' ' ' Constitutional Historj-," may be said to serve as a text-book. Students are also encouraged, but not required, to write theses on special topics. The lecturer treats the whole subject by periods (Primitive Germany ; the Anglo-Saxon, Prankish, Norman, and Anglo- Norman periods ; Henry II. to John ; Magna Carta ; Henry III. and Edward I. ; Edward I. to Henry VII.) and by topics within each period, the study of each period being preceded by a general bibliography of that period, and of each topic by a special bibliography of that topic. The references for collateral reading are of two sorts, those which every student is expected to read as a preparation for examination, and those designed for students who take a special interest in any topic, and wish to make it the subject of special study. The object of the lectures is (1) to give a more detailed account of some subjects than is to be found in the ordinarj- text-books (for example, of the institutions of the primitive Germans ; the classes of society and influence of the land- system on the social development in the Anglo-Saxon period ; the Prankish and Norman development ; the legal reforms of Henrj'II. ; the reception of the Eoman law in England, etc.) ; (2) to give a different view of some subjects from that taken by the English writers (for example, of the effect of the Nor- man Conquest on English constitutional development) ; (3) to arrange the subject-matter in a more convenient form. Of the documents contained in Stubbs' " Charters," sub- stantially all to the close of the reign of Henry II. are read (some of the special customs, some of the historical extracts and the Dialogus de Scaccario are omitted), together with AT HAEVAKD UNIVERSITY. 177 selections from the documents of the reigns of Richard I. , John, Henry III., and Edward I. History 6 (The Legal Institutions of the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, two hours a week, Assistant-Prof essor Young) , an advanced course in mediaeval institutions, is designed (1) to teach the student the methods, and to acquaint him with the results so far attained of the new science of " Earlj' Comparative Jurisprudence " ; and for this purpose the fol- lowing topics are studied : Origin of the family, of the state, of law, of courts, of judicial procedure, of criminal law, of property, and of contract ; (2) to show the results so far attained by students of early German and Frankish law, and the methods used to attain them. In this connection, a study is made of legal sources, com-ts, procedure, criminal law, family law and law of inheritance, law of property, and law of contract; the Frankish legal sources, and especiallj' the Lex Salica and the Oapitula legi Salicae addita being critically examined in the class ; (3) to apply the knowledge thus ob- tained of methods and results to the study of the Anglo- Saxon law. As this is a course for advanced and special study, every student is required to write a thesis on some topic of Anglo-Saxon law, a thesis based upon an inde- pendent examination of Anglo-Saxon legal sources. It is hoped that the course may some time be extended to include the Norman and the Anglo-Norman institutions. It is given from a conviction that English legal history is yet to be written, that this cannot be done until many special investigations have been made, and that these can profitably be made only by those familiar with the methods and results of the Germanists. History 5 [Church History 1]. The Conflict of Chris- tianity with Paganism to the Eighth Century, two hours a week. History 10 [Church History 2]. History of the Pro- 178 COUESES OP STUDY IN HISTOEY testant Reformation aud the Roman Catholic Reaction, two hours a week. Church History 3. History of Christian Doctrines, two hours a week. History 1 7 [Church History 4] . Practice in the Study and Use of Historical Sources, ouce a week (two hours) . These four courses, given by Professor Emerton, are, in so far as they deal with ecclesiastical history, arranged with a view (1) to separate as far as possible the History of Doctrines from that of the outward life of the Church, and (2) to bring out into prominence the critical moments in this outward life rather than to attempt anj- comprehensive review of the whole subject. Course 5 deals with the formative period of Christianity. The purpose here is to show how the church organization grew up with the empire until the two became co-extensive, then to connect the G-ermanic in- fluence in the empire with the form taken by the Church in the life of the Middle Ages. The reign of Charlemagne, in which these various tendencies reach the form the}- were to maintain during the whole following mediaeval period, properly closes this course. Course 10 treats of the second great critical period, when the forms of mediaeval are changing to those of modern society. Beginning with the awakening energ\- of the indi- vidual mind in the fourteenth century, the various phases of this revival in literature, art, law, commerce, politics, and religion are treated as preparing the way for the protest of Luther. The religious re-\'olt is traced from its earliest signs in the Italian Humanists, through Wiclif, Hus, Savonarola, and the Mystics, to Luther and Calvin. Finally, the reac- tion of Rome against the Reform, as shown in the Order of Jesuits, the Inquisition, and the Council of Trent, is followed to the point where the conditions of modern Church History appear firmly established. AT HARVARD UKIVEKSITY. 179 Church History 3 is confined sti'ictly to the history of doc- trines, presupposing a general knowledge of the progress of the Church as an organization. But as in the earlier courses frequent reference to the doctrinal development was neces- sary, so here the student is constantly reminded of the reac- tion of politics upon the docti-ine. It is believed that in this way a more thorough understanding of the essential connec- tion between these two phases of church life can be gained than by attempting to treat them both at once, with the risk of continual confusion. The system of doctrines is con- sidered as a development through the efforts of men to reach a solution of the problems suggested or revived by the teach- ing of Jesus. All of these courses are conducted by means of lectures with occasional oral reviews, and, in Courses 10 and Church History 3, with the writing of theses upon topics connected with the course, selected by the student and approved Ijy the instructor. History 17 is a practice-course on the principle of the German Seminarium. Its purpose is to introduce the stu- dent into the methods of historical investigation and com- position. The work consists mainly of inquiry into points of historical detail from original sources, together with the interpretation of some original document before the class. In HiSTOEY 11 (European Historj- during the Seventeenth Century and the first half of the Eighteenth, three hours a week. Assistant Professor Macvane) attention is mainly confined to England, France, and Germany. English affairs occupy about half of the time. jSTo uniform method of in- struction is followed in all parts of the course, the instructor holding that, in teaching history, method must depend partly on the nature of the period and topic under treatment, partly on the quality of the books and other helps available for the students, partly on the size and character of the class. 180 COUESBS OF STUDY IN HISTORY 111 the main, the class-room exercises in this course are designed to open up the field, to bring into relief the more important features of it, and to aid the members of the class with suggestions as to their reading. An effort is made to show the significance of the great social, political, and relig- ious movements of each period, to bring historical events as far as possible into living connection with their causes, and to point out from time to time the manner in which the move- ments of one country have reacted on the affairs of other countries. Special study is given to the growth and working of institutions, especially in England, Hallam's "Constitu- tional History" (beginning with Chapter VI.) forming an integral part of the course. References are given from time to time to the most notable passages in the works reserved in the Library for the use of the class, the aim here being as much to beget an acquaintance with historical literature and a taste for the stud\' of it, as to aid in the present acquisition of historical knowledge. History 12 (European History from the Middle of the Eighteenth Century, three hours a week, Assistant Profes- sor Macvane) is, in all essential respects, a continuation of Course 11, and is conducted on the same general plan. The proportions are different, however, considerably more time being devoted to Continental history than is the case in 11. The institutions of the Old Regime in France ; the causes and course of the French Revolution, and of the later changes in France ; the effects of the French Revolution upon the other countries of Europe ; the German Federation, and the recent reorganization of Germany under Prussia's leader- ship ; the consolidation of Italy into one kingdom, and the changed position of the Papacy ; the growth of Russia, and the varying phases of the "Eastern Question"; — these, and many other topics, claim attention in the attempt to treat the recent history of the Continent. Time, however, AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 181 is found to deal with the chief incidents of English histoiy since the accession of George III. The attempt by George III. tia revive personal government, the character and histor}- of the various ministries, the full development of cabinet government, the reform of Parliament, the reform of the criminal laws and of the judicial system, Catholic Emanci- pation, the Ii'ish land question, and other similar topics, are studied witli more or less thoroughness. In History 14 (Forms of Government and Political Con- stitutions, particularly- in Continental Europe, since 1789, two hours a week, Assistant-Professor Macvaxe i) the various constitutions are studied in connection with the circum- stances under which they were adopted. Attention is given to the composition of the representative bodies ; the relations between the legislative bodies and the executive ; the methods and extent of popular control over the government ; the posi- tion of the ministers ; the progress of cabinet government ; parliamentary procedure ; the relations between local and central authorities ; the federal systems of Europe ; the composition and jurisdiction of the chief courts, etc. The method of comparative study is followed ; the institutions of each country being brought into comparison, or contrast, with the corresponding institutions of other countries. [For the courses in American History, numbered 18 and 13, see the separate article by the instructor on pp. 1-31.] History 15 (Elements of Public International Law, two hours a week. Professor Tokkey ; Periods and Leading Events in Diplomatic History, one hour a week. Dr. Channing) con- sists of two distinct parts, — neither of which can be taken without the other, — and is designed for those students only who have shown creditable progress in their previous 1 For the year 1884-35 only. The course is regularly given by Professor TOBBBT. 182 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY studies. As the classes are small, a close personal relation is established between teachers and students. In the former part of the coui-se, the lectures take largely the shape of a free commentary on Woolsej^'s ' ' International Law " ; but the bibliography of the subject is treated at length; and, in dealing with the principles, the important points are illustrated by references to leading writers, — such as Wheaton, Twiss, Hall, and Bluntschli, — and by extracts from their works. Particular attention is paid to weighty decisions (especially of English and American courts) ; questions in which the United States have been involved are discussed, the manner of dealing with concrete cases under the Constitution and laws is explained, and the bearing of the rules of International Law on questions of present interest is pointed out. The second part of the course deals with the leading events in the diplomatic histor3- of the last two hundred and fifty years. An analysis of each period, with a limited number of specific references, is written on the board as a foundation for the student's reading. The lecturer narrates the events leading to each important treaty, gives a bibliography of the treaty itself, together with some biographical account of the negotiators, and takes up in detail its chief provisions ; con- siderable use being made of Woolsey's valuable sj'nopsis of political treaties. From the beginning of the course geo- graphy receives especial attention, and a thorough knowl- edge of the physical conformation of Europe is insisted upon. The last four lectures are devoted to the territorial develop- ment of the United States, and are given in the College Library, where contemporary maps and other material can be used for purposes of illustration. HisTOEY 16 (Studies in the Comparative History of Reli- gions, — particularly the Vedic, the later Brahmanic, the Buddhist, the Mazdean, and the Chinese ; two hours a AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 183 week, counting as a half -course, Professor Everett), al- though properlj- classified as an historical course, might as properly- be called philosophical ; for it is really a study of the philosophy of religion. It begins with a brief study of the reUgion of savages ; then certain religions are treated that have in a marked degree a philosophical basis, and these are grouped according to psychological relations. The at- tempt is made to bring out the philosophical significance of each religion, special attention being given to Hindu philos- ophy. On the other hand, the outward form, and, to some extent, the histor}' of the different religions, must be pre- sented ; and this involves historical detail. The instruction is given by means of lectures, supported at ever}- point by reference to translations and other author- ities ; the most important of the works referred to being placed in the reference-room of the Divinitj'-School Library. THE COURSES IN ROMAN LAW. Roman Law 1 (History and Institutes of Roman Law ; Institutes of Gains and Justinian, omitting the Law of In- heritance ; three hours a week, Assistant-Professor Young) is an elementary course, covering the whole body of Roman private law, with the exception of the Law of Inheritance (see Roman Law 3) , and mainly designed to give to the historical student some familiarity with fundamental legal notions (a familiarity, the need and value of which will be recognized by every teacher of history) . After a brief ac- count of the history of the legal sources, and of the general course of Roman legal development, the instructor, follow- ing the arrangement of topics adopted by Gains and Justin- ian, describes, the historical development of each legal institution, and states the principal rules of law relating to it. The passages in the Institutes of Gains and Justinian which bear on the subject are then translated and discussed 184 COURSES OV STUDY IN KOMAN LAW in the class (Gneist's " Institutionum et regularum juris Romani syntagma " being used as a text-book) , and refer- ences, which every student is expected to read, are occasion- ally made to the Digest. Every student is expected to follow the course in some elementary treatise on the subject, and for this purpose the following books are recommended : — in English, Moyle's "Institutes" (much the best), Poste's " Gaius," or Hunter's " Roman Law" ; in French, the trea- tises of Maynz (the best). Van "Wetter, or Demangeat; in German, Puchta or MarezoU. Roman Law 2 (The Law of Property ; selections from the Digest ; one hour a week counting as a half-course, Assistant-Professor Young) is intended for advanced study in some special department of the law. The subject of the course maj' be varied from year to year, so that a student may elect it in successive years, studj'ing, for example, in one year the Law of Obligations, and in another the Law of Property. In Roman Law 3 (The Law of Inheritance ; Institutes of Gaius and Justinian ; selections from the Digest ; three hours every two weeks, counting as a half-course. Professor Gurney) the principal features of the Law of Inheritance are studied, especial attention being given to the Roman Law of Wills. The portions of the Institutes of Gaius and Justinian bearing on the subject are first gone over in the class-room, and after the outlines of the subject are thus fixed, select passages from the Digest are assigned to be read by the class for the purpose of filling up the outline to the extent that time permits, the more difficult passages being inter- preted by the instructor, and the hours of meeting being devoted to informal lectures on the part of the teacher, and to questions and discussions on the part of the students. AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 185 THE COURSES IN POLITICAL ECONOMY. Political Economy 1 (Mill's ' ' Principles of Political Eeonomj' " ; Lectures on Banking and the Financial Legis- lation of the LTnited States ; three hours a week, Professor DujTBAR and Assistant-Professor Laughlin) is designed (1) to provide for those students who intend to continue their economic studies for more than one year a suitable introduc- tion to the elementary principles of the science, and their application to questions of practical interest ; and (2) to furnish students whose time is chiefly devoted to other departments of stud^- with that general knowledge of and training in Political Economy which all men of liberal educa- tion should desire. It has, therefore, its theoretical and its practical side. In the present year (1884-85) the new edi- tion of Mill, prepared by Professor Laughlin, serves as a text-book for the main part of the course, and the remaining time is occupied by lectures on the elements of banking and the public finance of the United States (especially in the last quarter of a century) . The instructor holds that for a course in the elements of Political Economy, where it is eminently desirable that the student should assimilate principles rather than memorize explanations of each subject, neither the reci- tation system nor the lecture system is best fitted, but that a judicious mixture of both is necessary ; for the object of the instruction is in general not merely to give men facts, but to lead them to think. The text-book is supposed to furnish to the student a clear statement of the principles that are to be taken up at a given exercise. Then in the class-room the instructor, by questions, and by drawing the men into dis- cussion and the free expression of difficulties, endeavors as much as possible to fix the knowledge of principles in the mind of the students, and to direct their attention to the workings of these principles in concrete cases. Graphic 186 COTJESES OP STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOMY representations of facts (such, for example, as are given by the charts in the text-book referred to) are often used to make the relation between theory and practice still clearer ; and statements from the newspapers in regard to economic matters are sometimes read in the class-room, in order to test the student's ability in applying abstract principles to the affairs of every-day life. To give the students practice in making accurate statements, questions are now and then written on the blackboard and answered in writing within fifteen minutes, and at the next hour these answers are criti- cised and discussed. In the lectures on the elements of banking and finance in the latter part of the year, the three functions of banking — deposit, issue, and discount — are illustrated by references to the system of National Banks, of the old United States Banks, and of the Bank of England ; and the sub-treasury system, the national debt, the methods of raising revenue during the war, the issue of legal tender paper, the resump- tion of specie payments, etc., are some of the topics dis- cussed, Professor Dunbar's pamphlet entitled "Extracts from the Laws of the United States relating to Currency and Finance " serving as a basis for the lectures on finance. Political Economy 2 (History of Economic Theory — Examination of Selections from Leading Writers, three hours a week. Professor Ddnbak) was in former years con- ducted by taking up, in the earlier part of the year, Cairnes's " Leading Principles," and, in the later part, some book of which the discussion and criticism would bring out more clearly the meaning of the generally accepted doctrines. Carey's "Social Science," George's "Progress and Pov- erty," Shadwell's "Principles" — books which put the ' ' orthodox " student in a defensive attitude — were used for this purpose. In addition, lectures were given on the history of political economy, and on examples of the work- AT HAEVAKD UNIVERSITY. 187 ing in practice of its principles, such as the worldng of the principles of international trade in the pajment of the Franco-German indemuity in 1871-73, the commercial crisis of 1857, etc. For the present j-ear (1884-85) the course is remodelled. Nothing in the nature of a text-book is used. The subject is treated by topics. Such questions as the wages-fund con- troversy, the theory of international trade, the method of political economy, the theory of value, are to be taken up in succession. On each topic references to leading writers will be submitted to the students for examination and discussion. On the wages-fund question, for example, MiU's retractation iu the "Fortnightly Review" of his original views, Cairnes's restatement of the theory, F. A. Walker's position as found in his "Wages Question" and his •■Political Economy," George's criticism of current views in "Progress and Pov- erty " will be read and discussed. The history- of political economy is to be taken up in a similar way, by reference to characteristic extracts from the writings of the Physiocrats, Adam Smith, Malthus, Ricardo, Senior, Say, Basti^t, and their successors and critics in England and on the Con- tinent. These extracts, read beforehand by the students and discussed in the class-room, will be supplemented by the comments and explanations of the instructor. By this method it is hoped that some familiarity with the literature of the subject wUl be obtained, as well as a more exact comprehen- sion of its doctrines than can come from an elementary study like that of Course 1. In Political Economy 3 (Discussion of Practical Eco- nomic Questions — Lectures and Theses, three hours a week, Assistant-Professor Laughlin) it is expected that the stu- dent, who is supposed now to have grasped firmly the general principles of political economy by at least one year's previous study, will apply these principles to the work of examining 188 COTJKSES OP STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOMY some of the prominent questions of the day, such as the navigation laws and American shipping, bimetallism, reci- procity with Canada, government and national bank issues, etc. At the beginning of each topic a general outline of the subject and its principal divisions is given by the instructor, together with more or less particular references to the most important authorities ; but a complete list of books is not always furnished, the student being rather encouraged to hunt for material himself. The exercise in the class-room takes the form rather of a discussion than a formal lecture, references to authorities being given previous to each meet- ing, as the following examples will show : — Standards of Value, see Jevons, " Money and the Mechanism of Exchange," chaps, iii, xxv; S. Dana Horton, "Gold and Silver," chap, iv, p. 36; F. A. Walker, "Political Economy," pp. 363-368, "Money, Trade, and Industry," pp. 56-77; Wolowski, "L'Or et I'Argent," pp. 7, 22, 207 ; Mill, " Principles of Political Economy," book iii, chap, xv; Walras, "Journal des Economistes," October, 1882, pp. 5-13. The third hour of the week (and also the mid-year ex- amination) can be omitted by men who promise to prepare one considerable thesis (due in April) on a subject connected with some practical question of the day which has not been discussed in the class-room. Examples of such subjects are : the warehousing system ; a commercial treaty with Mexico ; the public land system ; the remedy for our surplus of reve- nue ; municipal taxation ; characteristics of socialism in the United States ; co-operation in the United States (productive and distributive co-operation, industrial partnerships, and co- operative banks) ; advantages and disadvantages of small holdings. Political Economt 4 (Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years' "War, thi-ee hours a week. Professor Ddnbae) serves to connect Political Economy with AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 189 History. It requires no previous study of Political Economy, although some historical knowledge of the period is presup- posed. Among the more prominent subjects taken up are : the rise of the modem manufacturing sj'stem, more particu- larly in cottons, woolens, iron ; the steam engine ; the eco- nomic effects of American Independence and of the French Revolution ; the factory system ; the migration of labor ; improved transportation by railroads and steamships ; the application of liberal ideas to international trade ; the new gold of California and Australia ; the economic effects of the Civil War in the United States ; American grain in Europe ; the Suez Canal ; the crisis of 1873, and commercial crises in general ; the development of banking ; and the resumption of specie paj-ments in the United States. The course is chiefly narrative, and is carried on by lec- tures, supplemented by references for collateral reading. A printed list of topics is distributed to the students, containing a summarj- of the lectures and references to books reserved in the Library. An extract from this list will most clearlj' indicate its character and purpose. It gives the topics and references for the first lecture on the new gold supply : — Lectuke XL VII. — The discovery of gold m California : "Robinson's California" (see Larkin's and Mason's Reports, pp. 17, 33); also Exec. Doc. of U. S., 1848, i, 1. — The discovery in Aus- tralia : Westgarth, " Colony of Victoria," 122, 315. — Establishment of miners' customs : "Wood, " Sixteen Jlonths in the Gold Diggings," 12-5 ; Lalor's " Cyclopaedia," ii, 8.51. — Increased supply of precious metals in sixteenth and seventeenth centuries small in proportion to that in nineteenth century : Soetbeer, " Edehnetall-Production " (in Petermann's " Mittheilungen "), Plate 3 ; "Walker on Money," Part I, chaps, vii, viii. — The discoveries of 1848 and 1851 needed to give effect to influences already stimulating trade and commerce. Similar topics and references are given for each of the eighty or ninet}- lectures. 190 COUBSBS OF STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOMY In Political Economy 5 (Economic Effects of Land Ten- ures in England, Ireland, France, and Germany — Lectures and Theses, one hour a week, counting as a half-course, Assistant-Professor Laugi-ilin) a branch of the science that has been but slightly considered in Course 1 is taken up, and, as in the other practical courses, an attempt is made to apply principles to facts. The following extract from the official pamphlet, describing the courses of study in Political Economy, will indicate the ground covered : — " This course covers the questions now of political importance in England, Ireland, France, and Germany in their economic aspects, and embraces the following subjects : — In England : the land laws ; relative position of landlord, tenant, and laborer in the last one hundred years ; tenant-right ; leases ; prices and importation of grain ; repeal of the corn-laws ; American competition ; peasant proprietorship. In Ireland : the ancient tribal customs ; English conquests ; relations of landlord and tenant ; security of tenure ; Ulster tenant-right ; absenteeism ; parliamentary legislation ; acts of 1869, 1870, 1881, 1882 ; population ; prices of food and labor. In France : feudal burdens on land ; relation of classes, and con- dition of peasantry and agriculture before the Revolution ; small holdings and the law of equal division ; present condition of peas- antry and agriculture ; growth of population ; statistic^ of produc- tion, wages, prices ; peasant proprietorship. In Germany : reform.* of Stein and Hardenberg ; condition of agriculture; peasant pro- prietors ; statistics of wages and prices." A subject taken up (for example, English land tenures) is divided into topics, some of which are treated by the instruc- tor by means of lectures, others are assigned to the indi- vidual members of the class, who are expected to present the results of their study in writing. These short theses are criticised and discussed by the instructor and the class, authorities that have been overlooked are pointed out, and suggestions are made as to the way in which the question can be better handled. Perhaps five or six of these papers AT HAEVAUD UNIVERSITY. 191 are required from each student during the year, the intention being that at least one shall be handed in each week. As the natural tendency of such work is to " compile," much more consideration is given to the quality than to the quan- tity of the thesis. In Political Economy 6 (Historj- of Tariff Legislation in the United States, one hour a week, counting as a half- course, Dr. Taussig) the history of tariff legislation from 1789 to the present day is studied. The method of instruc- tion is by lectures and collateral reading, specific references being given beforehand on the subjects to be taken up ; for example, the references on the tariff act of 1789 are as fol- lows : Hamilton's "Life of Hamilton," iv, 2-7; Adams, " Taxation in United States," 1-30, especially 27-30 ; Sum- ner, " History of Protection," 21-25 ; Young's " Report on Tariff Legislation," pp. iv-xvi. Similar references are given when the economic effects of the tariff, more particu- larly in recent years, are discussed. The class-room work is based on the assumption that the passages referred to have been read by the students, and, though mainly carried on by lectures, includes questioning and discussion on the refer- ences. The economic principles bearing on tariff legislation are taken up in connection with the more important public utterances on the subject, such as Hamilton's " Report on Manufactures," Gallatin's " Memorial of 1832," Walker's " Treasury Report of 1845," and the speeches of Webster, Clay, and others. These are read by the students, and dis- cussed in the class ; and at the same time with them are considered the views of writers on the theory of economic science. In the course of the year the various arguments pro and con in the protection controversy are, in one shape or another, encountered and discussed. Towards the close of the year lectures are given on the tariff history of Eng- land, France, and Germany. 192 COTTBSE OF STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOMY. Political Economy 7 (Comparison of the Financial Sys- tems of France, England, Germany, and the United States, one hour a week, counting as a half-course, Professor Dun- bar) deals with the principles of finance, and with the financial systems of the more important civilized countries. The budgets of France, Germany, and England are exam- ined and compared, the financial methods of the United States are noted, and the principles of finance and the advantages and disadvantages of different taxes are dis- cussed. The instruction is mainly by lectures. The course is not given in the present year (1884-85), and may be omitted in future years, though it will be retained on the elective list. In Political Economy 8 (History of Financial Legislation in the United States, one hour a week, counting as a half- course. Professor Dunbar) the funding of the Revolutionary debt, the establishment and working of the first Bank of the United States, the financial policy of Hamilton and Gallatin, the effect of the War of 1812 on the finances and the cur- rency, the establishment of the second Bank of the United States, the fall of the bank in Jackson's time, and the years 1836-40, the independent treasury, the State banking sys- tem, the growth of the public debt during the Civil War, and its reduction and conversion since, the establishment and working of the National Bank system, — are the topics succes- sively considered. The method of instruction is by lectures and by reference to the public documents and other writings bearing on the subject. It is advised by the instructors that Courses 6 and 8 in Political Economy be taken together ; and this advice has been followed, most students who take one of these courses being also members of the other. The Teaching of Histoey. Bt Peofessok J. R. Seelet. I MUST ask you to be content with a few large afHrma- tions, which may be sufficient to provoke discussion, but which, in the paper itself, can be but very inadequately sup- ported. Perhaps .you will agree with me that histor3% as an educational subject, is not yet past the stage at which large affirmations are necessary, that conscientious and exact research ought to prevail in historj', as in other serious de- partments of study, that we can no longer be content with the showy, semi-fictitious narratives that satisfied a former gen- eration, is a proposition upon which a great reform in the teaching of history has been based. We all know what has been done in this direction among ourselves ; in Germany the reform was made long ago ; in Paris it has, in recent years, proceeded rapidly, thanks to the exertions of the Minister Duruy and such professors as Monod, Sorel, and Lavisse. On the principle itself I shall have nothing to say, because I do not suppose that among serious men there is any difference of opinion about it. If we set out in pursuit of truth, evidently we cannot be content with anything short of truth ; and we all of us by this time have enough familiarity with the rigor of scientific methods to be convinced that the discovery of truth is no child's play, no mere amusement. But, though the principle seems indisputable, I find that the application of it in education arouses much opposition, more opposition 194 THE TEACHING OP HISTOBY. than I for a long time understood. It is allowed that such vigor of research is indispensable in the best kind of historical study, that those who intend to devote their lives to history should study it in this spirit. But the principle is of wider application. It affects also the historical studies of those who give less exclusive attention to history ; in short, of the mass of students ; and, further still, it affects popular views of history and our notions of the manner in which history should be written. These more indirect results of the prin- ciple of thoroughness arouse, I find, much opposition, and, when such opposition seems likely to be vain, a very sincere feeling of dismay. For this principle makes havoc of more cherished opinions than we might at first have expected, and, as it proceeds, seems to take all the poetry and all the charm out of history in such a waj- that we find ourselves at last asking for what purpose history so studied can serve. The admiration of great men, the elevating contemiDlation of noble examples, is the reward most of us expect to receive for the trouble we bestow upon history ; but the principle of thoroughness soon sets us doubting whether any great men will come safe out of the critical crucible ; whether the historical record is com- plete enough to have preserved any -trustworthy memory of great men ; nay, whether public affairs are not for the most , part under the empire of routine, and seldom much affected by the especial qualities of an individual. Scepticism invades this department of knowledge too, and we begin after a time to perceive that another class of opinions, viz., our opinions on politics, were far more involved than we at first imagined with those opinions on historical events and historical char- acters about the soundness of which we have begun to feel . a misgiving. Hitherto, those who have sought to elevate the minds of students and give them a noble enthusiasm by means of books, have looked mainly to historical books. It THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 195 is a result of the reform in historical method, which has made it so much more rigorous, that historical books henceforth will be less available for this purpose. But, if so, it will begin to be asked what is the use of them to the majorit}- of students. I do not myself think that such extreme scepti- cism with respect to history, as that which Mr. Herbert Spencer professes, is likely to prevail. I am not afraid but that history will continue to be thought important, and I be- lieve that in the form of serious research it will flourish more and more for a long time to come. But in this form wiU it not be a study onlj- adapted for the few? Ought we not, therefore, to lay it down as a fundamental rule of the teach- ing of history that the subject is to be struck off the general educational list of subjects ? I have remarked with anxietj- of late years that some distinguished teachers appear inclined to hold this opinion. History was the favorite subject of Arnold and Temple, but some at least of those who now hold the same sort of dis- tinguished position in the educational world, profess that they do not know how to teach historj-, and that there is no subject which baffles them so much. The solution of this difficulty I seem to myself to see very distinctly, and, if I seem to any to state it here indistinct^, I must ask them to impute it to the hurry in which I write, and at the same time refer them to several essays printed at different times in "Macmillan's Magazine," in which I have stated it more fully. That historical investigations ought to be thorough is of course true, but by itself the proposition can hardly be called a truth ; it is at best a half-truth. If we borrow from science its rigorous method, let us borrow at the same time what science has else to offer. History which is scientific in its exactness, but in nothing else, is a middle thing between 196 THE TEACHING OF HISTOKY. science and literature, and will attain the ends of neither ; it will be only dull literature and abortive science. Science, when it has with such exemplary care collected and verified its facts, proceeds to generalize upon them, and thus to establish principles. It is only for the sake of such principles that science considers facts worthy of collection and exact verification. But history, when it has made its investigations, contents itself with arranging and recording the results in stately narrative composed with literary art. The historian usually asserts that the results thus recorded are of great value ; he seems to assume that general princi- ples might be deduced from them, but he professes at the same time that his business is only with the facts, and that his work is done when a narrative has been composed exactly true, and at the same time well written. The reform of which I have spoken has scarcely touched this curious division of labor. It leaves the historian in the condition of a mere investigator and narrator of facts, asserting only that of these two functions the former is far more important and more difficult than the latter. To whom, then, does it fall to deduce conclusions from the materials furnished by the historian ? To a wholly different class of persons, who at present have scarcely a name or recognized position among us, — those philosophers who are attempting to build up a system of sociology. But their speculations, being kept wholly separate from history, do not enter into the teaching of history. In education, there- fore, this subject is left as a mass of building materials, out of which no edifice is ever constructed. So long as the mere literary view of the subject prevailed, this did not seem absurd ; political truth was supposed to have been discovered independently by some ti, priori method, and historical exam- ples were adduced chiefly by way of illustration ; but the ab- THE TEACHING OF HISTOKY. 197 surdity springs to light ;is soon as histoiy begins to be classed under science rather than under literature, so soon as politi- cal truth is understood to be discovered through history, and not merely to be illustrated by it. I should like to argue at length that it is in itself an unsound method to assign the investigation of facts to one set of workers, and the reasoning upon the facts so discov- ered' to another class. I should like to show that if the historian is not himself a sociologist, he will not know what facts are worth investigating, and still less in what degree facts are worth investigating. I should like to call attention to the vast waste of labor on the one side, and the vast defi- ciency of labor on the other side, which actuallj' arise from the fact that historians under the present system are scarcely sociologists, and therefore do not altogether know for what purpose they investigate. But I must be content to point out the bad effects which the system has in education. Under this system facts are grouped, not according to resemblance in kind, but simply in a chronological series. What may be called a biography of some famous state is written. Such a state biography may be made very impres- sive by a writer of imagination, especially if he does not hamper himself with too minute research. But what can the student do with it? He can scarcely treat it as a poem, and learn it by heart. Under the reformed system he analyzes it, criticises it, traces it back to its source ; a process under which most of its poetical impressiveness is likely to disap- pear. In return, he gets exact knowledge of important occurrences, but he does not get this in the form in which he can use it for the purpose of establishing general conclu- sions, for the facts of which he thus gets exact knowledge are heterogeneous. They do not belong together by their nature, but only happen to be connected chronologically. 198 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. A single example will put before you the very obvious, yet, as I think, all-important fact to which I draw your attention. Let us think of the agrarian legislation of Tiberius Gracchus, which occupies the first striking chapter in the history of the fall of Rome. What subject can be more instructive to a student, both from its own importance and from the admira- ble manner in which it has been treated by modern scholar- ship? True, but educationally it is out of its place when it comes before the student as a mere occurrence of the second century before Christ. For thus presented it stands among facts with which it has no resemblance, and which throw no light upon it, — military facts concerning the conquest of Carthage, Spain, and Greece by the Romans, facts of culture history concerning the influence of Greek literature and Greek philosophy upon the conquerors of Greece. To studj' it prop- erly, we must take it out of its chronological connection and put it among facts of its own kind. It is a land question ; it has nothing to do with war or with literature. It must be studied first in connection with the land system of Rome in earlier and later times ; secondly, by comparison with the land systems and land revolutions, of other states, both ancient and modern. In short, science brings together phenomena of the same kind, but history brings together phenomena of different kinds, which have chanced to appear at the same time. We have given to history the conscientiousness of science, but we have not j-et given it the arrangement of science. We still arrange historic phenomena under periods, centuries, reigns, dynasties, but what is wanted is a real rather than a temporal classification. The phenomena should be classed under such headings as Constitutional, International, Eco- nomical, Industrial, etc. Nor should each state be studied by itself, but aU states together, the comparative method THE TEACHING OP HISTORY. 199 being constantly employed, and much attention being given to the classification of states. It will be seen that this principle would be almost revolu- tionai'y, if it were at once and without reserve applied to the teaching of history. I am sensible that it needs to be ex- plained at great length, and I am quite aware how many objections might be urged against it. But I have not time either for fuller exposition or for dealing with objections, and therefore in the remainder of this paper I shall deal with an intermediate system which might, without too great difficulty, be adopted at once. The essential point is this, that we should recognize that to study history is to study not mereh- a narrative, but at the same time certain theoretical subjects. Thus, industrial facts cannot be understood without political economy, nor military facts without military science, nor legal facts without legal" science, nor constitutional and legislative developments with- out political science. I have gone further, and laid it down that these theoretical subjects are the real object for which historical facts are collected and authenticated. But for the present it is enough that they should be recognized as insep- arabl}' connected with historical study. It has alwajs been tacitly assumed that the historian is also an economist, an authority on constitutional law, on legislation, on finance, on strategj'. Let us, then, go a single step further, and recognize that, as the historian is all this, the student of his- tory must prepare himself to be aU this — in other words, must master all these subjects. These are the great subjects of public life ; these are the studies which make the citizen and train the statesman. All the poetic charm which history is losing would be amply compensated if it should acquire in exchange the practical interest that is associated with these studies. 200 THE TEACHING OP HISTOKY. First, then, let the most important of these subjects be taught theoretically along with history, and for the benefit of historical students. Some of them, of course, are much more important than others. I place in the foreground what we may call political philosophy (Allgemeine Staatslehre) . After this may come that comparative study of legal institutions of which we have such excellent specimens in the works of Sir H. Maine. Next will come political economy, which in the hands of an able teacher will probably assume a some- what new shape when it is treated from the historical point of view. International law should be added, in order to accustom the student to contemplate the mutual relations of states. It may be said that enough would be done if the teacher or lecturer, in treating a historical period, entered fully into the economical, or juridical, or political principles suggested by the narrative. This is precisely what I wish to deny. It seems to me that in history, as hitherto written and taught, a quantity of theory has been, as it were, held in solution ; I wish to see it precipitated. Whereas the investigation of historical facts has lately been made honest and careful, the reasoning about historical facts is stiU, it seems to me, oracu- lar and unsatisfactory' ; I wish to make this, too, honest, methodical, explicit. For this end it seems to me necessary that what reallj' is theory should be called theory and studied as such. If it be asked by what practical measures such a change could be introduced ; if it be urged, for instance, by a school- master, that there is no room in the school-day for lessons on three or four new subjects, and that masters to teach them are not to be found in sufficient number, I should reply, that I have been discussing the teaching of history in general, not the teaching of history in schools. "What I my- THE TEACHING OE HISTORY. 201 self know practically is the teaching of history in universi- ties, and I suppose it may be laid down as a general principle that reforms in education must begin at the university. The school is fettered to the university, since to the university the boys go, and from the university the masters come. Xow, in the universities it is not very difficult to arrange the teaching of history on this principle. Since in a univer- sity the theoretical subjects I have mentioned are already taught, all that is required is to bring them into more direct, more formal connection with history, and to abolish that vicious division of labor under which the historian imagines that he has nothing to do with sociology, and the sociologist that he can dispense with history. When this has once been done, each university will create a school of historians who will be as strong on the theoretical side as on the side of mere research. Thej' will be sociolo- gists, economists, jurists, as well as chroniclers and antiqua- rians, and, as at both our universities the historical school is alread}- large, a good many of such historians will be formed. These will carry the method from the universities to the schools. They will be the masters of the future historical classes at Harrow and Rugby. From them wiU proceed the text-books which will, as it were, fix the method and bring it within the reach of less able teachers. They, too, will decide whether historj- taught in this way is to be considered as an advanced subject, fit only for the highest classes in schools, or whether it may be possible to introduce even younger boys to it. Lastlj', they will help to clear up the confusion as to the nature and objects of history which now exists in the public mind. They will separate it from biographj' and from mere curious information about piast times. They will separate it from romance, and they will explain in what sense and in 202 THE TEACHING OF HISTOEY. what degree it may properl}' be made interesting, and in what sense also it cannot be interesting without ceasing to be true. They will assert the seriousness of historj^, and make it the lesson-book of politics ; no longer a record which partisans may garble at their pleasure, but a record of truth, not to be altered and not to be evaded, written to correct our prejudices and rebuke our party rancor. — Lon- don Journal of Education. On Methods of Teaching History. By Professok C. K. Adams, Michigan University. THE teaching of history, in common with instruction in all other sj-stems of organized knowledge, should be carried on with three more or less distinct objects in view : the nature of the facts involved, the relations of those facts, and the proper methods of investigation. Though it is not possible in practice to separate these three objects completely one from another, 3-et each should receive its due proportion of attention, and should receive that attention in its appro- priate place. First of all, therefore, the teacher of history is called upon to decide which of these three objects he ought with any given class to keep most prominently in view. The answer of this question involves nothing less than a deter- mination of the proper succession of historical studies. This order of succession would seem to be iixed by nature. It is certain that we must know something of the existence, if not, indeed, of the nature, of any given order of events before we can apprehend very clearl}' the relations of those events to one another. Indeed, it may be said that the begin- ning of all organized knowledge is the acquisition of a certain number of facts and truths. These facts, moreover, must not be limited in range to a single portion of the subject we are to study. They must be comprehensive in their scope. We must know something of the heavens as a whole before we can well understand the double stars or even the moon. We cannot appreciate the significance of a missing link until we have learned something of the chain of which that link is 204 ON METHODS OF supposed to form a part. We shall be unable to explain the jubilant prosperity of a great and growing city unless we have acquired considerable knowledge of the region of which that city is the political and commercial centre. Thus we see that there is a certain necessary order of succession, an order which seems to be founded in the law, so well formulated by Herbert Spencer, "there can be no correct idea of a part without a correct idea of the correlative whole." It is of course true that we learn something of individual facts before we can advance to a comprehension of a series. In a certain sense, therefore, we must proceed from the indi- vidual to the general. But it is also true that before our knowledge of the individual can be complete, we must have acquired some knowledge of the series of which the individ- ual forms a part. The proper order of study, therefore, would seem to be definitely fixed at our hand. We should begin with such individual facts as form the strategic points of liistorical progress, and should dwell upon them only so far as to fix their general character and importance in the attention of the pupil. We should then proceed to a study of the relations of those facts in the development of society. This done, we are ready to advance to the third stage of our study, — a more careful investigation of the individual elements of social and political life, with a view to revealing the sources of their influence and power. Having determined so much in regard to the proper order of studies, we are ready to address ourselves to the question of methods. But at the very outset we are confronted with a somewhat formidable difficulty. In the present condition of schools in the United States, there is actually, and per- haps necessarily, a broad distinction between what is desir- able and what is practicable. It is probably not too much to say that the introduction of methods of ideal excellence TEACHING HISTORY. 205 in the teaching of history would involve a revolution in our schools which the public at present is scarcely ready even to consider. But however much we may be obliged to fall short of what we could desire, we shall always find it profitable to keep our eyes fixed upon the highest ideals. First of all, then, let us provide a standard of measurement by inquiring what is desirable. In a school where all branches of instruction are properly distributed and organized, the pupil may profitably receive his first lessons in history when he is nine or ten 3-ears of age. But a careful distinction must be made between re- ceiving the first instruction in history and beginning the study of it. At this age the pupil acquires information, not through his own unaided effort, but almost exclusively through the effort of the teacher. A mother has no difficulty in teach- ing her child the story of Joseph or Samuel, and a teacher properly qualified for his vocation ought to have no more difficult}" in teaching the story of Pj-rrhus or Martin Luther. Indeed, it may be said that there are only tw« requisites of success. The teacher must know the storj^, and he must understand the art of telluig it in such a waj- as to make an impression by it. That such methods, under favorable cir- cumstances, are entireh' practicable has been clearly demon- strated in the German gymnasia. In these schools, where history has been taught with greater success than anywhere else in the world, a teacher who has been especially trained for his work takes the lowest grade of pupils over the whole range of general history in this way. The course is almost exclusively biographical. Indeed, it is little more than a succession of stories told with the especial aim of making a deep impression upon the mind of the child concerning some of the most important of the great characters of history. Such a course, continuing for two years at the rate of two 206 ON KETHODS OF lessons a week, will be found to have given the pupil consid- erable knowledge of a vast number of valuable facts. And, best of all, the method by which this information has been acquired, so far from taxing the strength or wear3-ing the attention of the scholar, has been to him a positive source of recreation and pleasure. At the age of about twelve the pupil is ready for a more substantial diet. The teacher now takes him once more over the same ground, but with a somewhat different object in view. The scholar can now put facts together, and can understand something of the relations of cause and effect. In the former course he listened to the story of Hannibal : now he is readj^ for the story of the Second Punic "War. A little pamphlet, usually prepared by the teacher and made up almost exclusively of names and dates, is put into the hand of the pupil merely- to assist him in recalling what the teacher has said. Here, as in the former course, the knowledge acquired comes chiefly from the teacher. The system keeps clearly in view fflie fact that the pupil is not yet ready for that development which results from hard study. It never ceases to remember that at least three-fourths of all the time spent by a boy of twelve in trying to learn a hard lesson out of a book is time thrown away. Perhaps one-fourth of the time is devoted to more or less desperate and conscientious effort ; but the large remaining portion is dawdled away in thinking of the last game of ball and longing for the next game of tag. A true system must make a constant endeavor to turn these demoralizing moments to profitable account. In this effort the German system is the most successful for the reason that instead of leaving the pupil to the meagre resources of his own thoughts, it occupies his attention with direct instruction in the form of attractive and profitable nar- ration. The result is that, through a judicious exercise of this TEACHING HISTOBY. 207 kind of economj-, the German pupil at the age of fifteen or sixteen has been able to complete two distinct survej-s of uni- versal history. In the two or three j'ears following, he is able to supplement the knowledge already- obtained in a variety of waj's. He may be directed in a careful studj' of the history of his own country, an outline of which he has abead}- obtained ; or may make an elaborate examination of some important period like that of the Reformation or the French Revolution. Such, stated in general terms, is the preparation in history which the German student receives before going to the uni- versity. It is founded in a philosophical appreciation of the needs and the capabilities of the pupil, and is undoubtedly the best that has ever been devised. It is equally adapted to the wants of those two classes of pupils into which every secondarj- school is divided. It is the best preparation for those whose scholastic studies are to terminate with the pre- paratory school ; and the best for those who are to carry for- ward their studies in a university course. The student who has received this preparation goes to the universitj- at about the age of nineteen. He is now ready for the more careful and philosophical study of individual nations and of individual periods. In his future studies he will devote himself chieflj- to the relations and significance of facts rather than to the mere existence of facts themselves. Two ways are open to him : he can attend courses of lectures, and he can become a member of an historical seminarj-. But, wherever he goes, he will usually find that the object is to make a verj' careful study of some limited period, or of some limited phase of historical development. In the lec- ture-room he will find that the work done by the professor has for its highest object the opening of avenues of research and the guiding of the student in certain methods of thought 208 ON METHODS OF and investigation. In the seminary, the student will be di- rected here and there by the professor, with a view to avoid- ing gross errors, but the investigator will be left to work out his results mainly in his own way. Before he has advanced very far in carrying on his investigations, he will almost in- evitably arrive at the conclusion that the historical seminary is to the study of history, what the laboratory is to the study of the natural sciences. But as soon as we attempt to compare this ideal with the methods that now generall3' prevail in the United States, we find more points of difference than points of similarity. In the preparatory schools of Germany, every teacher of history is required to have received especial training hj thorough courses of historical study, such as those given in the gym- nasium and in the university. In the best of the preparatorj^ schools in America, on the other hand, history is often taught by persons that have received no especial training for the work whatever. Not onlj- have the teachers, as a rule, re- ceived inadequate outfit, but they are generally so burdened with other work, and so wearied by it, that they are quite incapable of repairing any defects that under more favorable circumstances might be removed. In Germany, moreover, history is made a constituent part of the regular intellectual nourishment of the pupil during the whole of the time of his preparatory work. In America, on the contrary, it is gener- ally crowded into one or two terms, or, at most, into a single year. There is a strong analogy between the proper methods of feeding the body and the proper methods of feeding the mind. The arrangement of the studies in many of our schools suggests the propriety of eating roast beef and plum pudding five days in a week for six months, and then ab- staining from it altogether for five or six years. The effect of such a system upon the appetite and the digestion would TEACHDSra HISTORY. 209 doubtless be very much like the effects of a similar policy in matters of education. Moreover, the teacher in America is often expected to teach not less than twenty-five or thirty hours a week, while, of the teachers in Germany, scarcely more than half of that number is required. But, if we de- mand twice as man}- hours of the teacher, we strike the bal- ance bj' requiring only half as many hours of the pupil. In America, the number of lessons per week for each pupil is about fifteen ; while in G-ermany the number regularlj- re- quired is from thirty to thirty-five. Thus, in the fashion of Charles Lamb, we preserve the equation bj- multiplying the lessons of the teacher and dividing the lessons of the scholar by two. These comparisons are enough to show that nothing less than a revolution will make our teaching of history equal to that which we find in Germany. Such a revolution we may not look for at present. But we can at least inquire what improvements are practicable without interference with the general organization of our schools. In the first place, some amelioration is possible in the use of the ordinary text-book. In many schools the so-called teaching of history is literally a mere hearing of recitations. I have heard of a person, by courtesy called a teacher, who habitually kept his finger upon the line in the text-book before him, and limited his instruction to the work of correcting the trifiing variations of the pupil from the phraseology of the text. Here, the function of the teacher was merely that of a watchman ; though this method prevailed in a school that called itself a university. I have no hesitation in expressing the opinion that the total result of such an exercise on the mind of the pupil is more injurious than beneficial. The mere memorizing of dry facts and assertions affords no intel- lectual nourishment, while it ia almost sure to create a dis- 210 ON METHODS OF taste for historical study, and, perhaps, will even alienate the taste of the scholar forever. The first of all endeavors, therefore, should be to put life and action into what, as it stands, is a mere bundle of dry bones. This can be done in two ways. The information of the teacher may be used to illustrate what is set before the class as a lesson. Questions hinted at in the lesson may also be assigned the class for personal investigation. The first method will alwaj-s be used to some extent by every efficient teacher ; but it will not ordinarily be found sufficient. A far more helpful reliance is the method of personal research. The nature of the questions assigned must, of course, depend on the intelligence and advancement of the class. But even with a class of beginners, more is likely to be accomplished by assigning certain topics than by assigning certain lessons. Questions selected with due reference to the resources of the school library are likely to prove a far more profitable means of real advancement than any slavish dependence on even the best of text-books. The most successful instruction I have ever known in any preparatory school was carried on without any text-book whatever. But if these methods are the most efficient in the prepara- tory schools, they are even more emphaticalh' to be recom- mended in our colleges and universities. Perhaps in neither grade of instruction would it ordinarily be quite safe to aban- don the text-book altogether. But the text-book should be looked upon as an assistance, rather than as a means of sup- port. The student ought not to be encouraged to rely on anjr one book as an unquestionable authority. The habit of con,sulting different authors on every question of importance should be early acquired and should be constantly stimulated. For the accomplishment of these ends it will ordinarily be found, I think, that the most successful instruction is made TEACHING HISTORY. 211 up of a judicious combination of the text-book, the lecture, and the method of personal research. "When the college student is ready to begin his studies in history, he is not yet prepared for the most advanced work. He is deficient in two very important qualifications. In the first place, he is not in possession of a sufficient number of important historical facts ; and, in the second, he is not yet sufficiently familiar with what may be called the methods and laws of historical development. To supply these deflciences should be the object of the earlier historical studies during the undergraduate course. At the outset the student may be presumed to have some knowledge of general history, and of the history of his own country. This ma}- be a somewhat violent presumption : but it is probably not wise to occupy the time of the under- graduate with such elementary studies as are taught in all the best of our high schools and academies. Better results are likely to follow from devoting our energies to an examina- tion of such selected periods and nationalities as hold out the most credible assurances of profit. But what periods shall be selected, and how shall the instruction be given ? Studies in the history of our own country and in the his- tor3' of England should doubtless occup}^ the foremost place ; but they should not crowd out studies of a more general na- ture. I cannot better point out what I think these studies should be than by indicating what is done at the present time in the University of Michigan. Some j-ears ago a course was provided for, bj- means of which two lessons a week for one year are devoted to a study of the Political and Social History of England before the close of the Napoleonic Wars. Another course of two lessons a week, for half a year, is devoted to a study of the Reforms in the English Government during the 212 ON METHODS OF present century. This is supplemented by a course of two Jectures a week, for half a year, on The Theories and Meth- ods of the English Government. In American History, a course on The Political and Social Development of the Colo- nies is followed by two courses on The Constitutional History of the United States since the close of the Revolutionary War. These courses in American History occupj^ the stu- dent once a week during half a j'ear, and twice a week dur- ing a whole year. Of a more general nature, and for the purpose of giving broader views of the laws of historic devel- opment, one course is given on The History of Political and Social Institutions, one on The G-eneral History of Europe from the Reformation to the French Revolution, one on The History of Civilization in the Middle Ages, and one on The Rise and Development of Prussia. Not all of these courses are absolutelj' prerequisite for admission to the more advanced work of the historical and political seminaries, but they may all be regarded as preliminary to it. Crown- ing the work of the whole are three seminaries, one being devoted to a study of the Political Institutions of England, one to those of America, and one to Comparative Methods of Local Administration. What has already been said will afford sufficient answer, perhaps, to the question of method. But a single illustra- tion will probably give a more definite idea. The lecture of to-day, in the course on the History of Institutions, happens to be devoted to a study of Roman Provincial Administra- tion. The following topics were assigned to the several groups of the class for the lessons of next week : ' ' What light is thrown on Roman Provincial methods by Plutarch's Life of Lucullus?" "What by Cicero's oration against Verres?" "WTiat by Guizot's essay on the Regime Munici- pal?" "What by Arnold's chapter on 'The System of TEACHING HISTORY. 213 Taxation?'" In this manner a class maj' easily be led through their own researches to see how completely the sys- tematic practice of injustice iinally dissolved all the bonds that bound the Roman provinces to the general government. This accomplished, the downfall of the Empire is no longer a question that will give any difHcultj' to the student. The work of the historical seminary is of a higher order. Each class consists of not more than about ten members, and each meeting is not less than about two hours in length. Each of the questions given out for investigation is such as to occupy the attention of the student during at least half a year; and all of the questions are designed to be of such cognate significance as to be of interest to all the members of the class. At the weekly meetings each member gives an account of his own investigations, and listens to such inquiries and sugges- tions as may be made by the teacher and the other members of the class. The titles of two or three jjapers prepared dur- ing the present semester will be enough to indicate the nature of the work done. Among others, essays founded on origi- nal research have being written on "A Historj^ of the Appointing Power of the President " ; "A History of the Land Grants for Education in the North-west" ; and " Crim- inal Legislation in New England during the Colonial Period." It need not be added that this is true university work of a high order. Of course such studies are impracticable, except in an institution where large liberties in the way of elective courses are given, and where preliminarj- historical studies are begun early in the student's collegiate career. But my own experience leads to the belief that if the student enters upon the proper antecedent studies in the second year of his course, he may be brought in the fourth j-ear to a grade of work which need not shrink from comparison with that carried on in the universities of the old world. The Methods of Historical Study and Eeseaech in Columbia College. By Professor John "W. Burgess, Columbia University. IN order to a clear presentation of this subject, one which shall escape the possibilities of a misunderstanding, it will be necessary to describe briefly the general peculiarities of the educational system of that complex of institutions to which the name Columbia College is now attached. The most general principle of that system distinguishes the Col- lege into two parts ; viz. : the Gymnasium, the College accord- ing to the old signification of that name in the United States, — as we term it here, the School of Arts, and the graduate and professional courses, the University. This distinction, however, is, without further explanation, liable to a miscon- ception ; for the last year of the School of Arts, what is gen- erally known as the College senior year, is counted to the University in the non-professional courses of the University, — those courses which, in a German University, would be placed under the Faculty of Philosophy. It is at this point, viz., the beginning of the senior 3'ear in the School of Arts, that the courses of study become purely and wholly elective, and the methods of instruction purely and distinctively those of the University. This year, with two graduate years, forms the University period for the students who pass from the School of Arts into the University, or who come from other Colleges at the end of their junior year. If, however, they be graduates of other Colleges, in which the courses of the senior year correspond to, or are an equivalent for. 216 METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY the courses in the School of Arts, they are admitted to the second j'ear of the University. If, now, the reader will keep this distinction and these explanations clearlj- in mind, a full comprehension of the methods of historic study and research at present followed in Columbia College will be easily and rapidly attained. In the Gymnasium, — the first three years of the School of Arts, — the method is, of course, the gymnastic method, and the purpose sought the gymnastic purpose : that is, the daily drill upon text-books and hand-books of history by recitation, question and answer, as required studies, for the purpose of fixing and classifying in the mind of the student the elements of historical geography, the chronology and outward frame of historic events, the biographies of his- toric characters, and the definitions of historical terms and expressions. This is, of course, the indispensably neces- sary preparation for every student who would come with a properly disciplined historical memory-, stored with a suflS- cient amount of elementary historical data, to the work of the University in this branch. If this be not properly ac- complished, the foundation for everything further is want- ing, and the instruction received in the University will be to a large degree unappreciated, to say the least. I would venture to assert that to all persons who have taken any part in the attempt to develop a Universitj^ in the United States the want of a true gj-mnastic training in the eleinents of knowledge has appeared a most crying one. And if, while so many of our Colleges, both great and small, are affecting to despise their gymnastic calling, and seeking to become Universities through the fallacious process of simply making their gymnastic studies elective and optional, some Apostle of the Gymnasium would arise and found Academies which would stand true to the gymnastic method and pur- IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE. 217 pose, such an one would do for the development of the true University a far greater work than the College which ceases to be the one thing without becoming the other. On the other hand, the methods pursued and the purposes aimed at in the University courses of history are more com- plex, as well as different, and therefore require a more mi- nute presentation. In the first place, attendance upon these courses is purelj- optional with the student. There would be a great loss both in the quantity- and qualitj' of the instruc- tion were the professor obliged to accommodate himself to the level of hearers whose tastes and talents were not in the line pursued ; and, on the other hand, it would be an unnat- ural limitation upon, if not a total destruction of, individual genius, were the student of the University not permitted to construct the combination of his studies for himself. The discipline and general elementarj' instruction of the Gymna- sium ought to have developed in his own consciousness a better knowledge of his own intellectual peculiarities than any other person or body of persons can have. If it has not, then it will not matter much, as a general rule, where he may fall. Consideration for him who has no genius at all must never lead us to abandon the method in the University for the cultivation of a true intellectual peculiarity ; for without such a development there can be no advance in the discovery of new truth or in a fuller comprehension of old ti'uth. It is this consideration which has led the authorities in Columbia College to permit the University students of history not onlj- to select what courses they maj' choose in historj', but also to combine therewith such courses in phi- lologjs literature, philosophj', natural science and law as they may desire. Our experience in the working of the method has hardly yet been long enough to pronounce with confi- dence upon results. So far as my own observation reaches. 218 METHODS OF HISTOEICAL STUDY however, I feel entirely satisfied that the comprehension of history has been greatly broadened and deepened by the variety of combinations into which it has thus been brought, and I cannot but believe that the other elements of the com- binations have experienced a like advantage. In the second place. The method of instruction in the University branches of history is chiefly by original lecture. And this for two reasons : the one relating to the professor, the other to the student. The University professor must be a worker among original material. He must present to his student his own view derived from the most original sources attainable. He must construct history out of the chaos of original historic atoms. If he does not do this, but contents himself with simply repeating the views of others, it is probably because he is not capable of it ; in which case he is no University professor at all, but at best only a drill master for the Gymnasium. "While the University student must learn among his first lessons that truth, as man knows it, is no ready-made article of certain and objective character, that it is a human interpretation, and subject therefore to the fallibilitjf of human insight and reasoning, — one-sided, colored, incomplete. Unless this thought be continually im- pressed upon him by the method of the instruction which he receives, he will, to a greater or less degree, make dogma of his learning, and this is the negation of progress in the wider and more perfect comprehension of truth. Now instruction by means of the text-book in the University has always the tendency to the production of this result, — unless, per- chance, the professor uses the text more for the purpose of confuting than teaching, in which case he is reallj' lecturing and not hearing recitations. What is contained in a book which has been studied by classes gone before has, in the mind of a student not yet accustomed to sharp criticism, too LN COLUMBIA COLLEGE. 219 large a presumption ini its favor. He is too ready to acqui- esce in its propositions, and let memory act where the more difficult processes of criticism and judgment should be called into plaj'. On the other hand, when he has the person of his author always before his eyes, observes his weaknesses as well as his strength, then the true scholastic skepticism and beUigerencj- will be aroused, and criticism, judgment, reasoning, insight, be developed. Third. But this is only what might be termed the outward form of method generally. As to the internal principles or purposes of our method of historical instruction in particular, we seek to teach the student, first, how to get hold of a his- toric fact, how to distinguish fact from fiction, how to divest it as far as possible of coloring or exaggeration. We send him, therefore, to the most original sources attainable for his primarj- information. If there be more than one original source upon the same fact, we teach him to set these in com- parison or contrast, to observe their agreements and discrep- ancies, and to attain a point of view from which all, or if this is not possible, the most of the evidence may appear recon- cilable. And we warn him not to accept a statement not well authenticated for a fact, upon the principle that it is far better for the historical investigator to think that he does not know what he may know than to think he knows what he may not know. We undertake, in the second place, to teach the student to set the facts which he has thus attained in their chronological order, to the further end of setting them iu their order as cause and effect. And we seek to make him clearly comprehend and continually feel that the latter pro- cess is the one most delicate and critical which the historical student is called upon to undertake, in that he is continually tempted to account that which is mere antecedent and conse- quent as being cause and effect. It is just in this process. 220 METHODS OF HISTOEICAL STUDY of course, that the true historical genius most clearly reveals itself. It is just in this process that genius is most neces- sarj' to accomplish anything valuable. It is therefore most difficult to formulate rules upon the point for the direction of the historical student who may have no genius for his work. What we most insist upon, however, is a critical comparison of the sequence of facts in the history of different states or peoples at a like period in the development of their civiliza- tions. If this be done with patience, care, and judgment, the student who possesses a moderate degree of true logic will soon learn to distinguish, to some extent at least, ante- cedent and consequent merelj^ from cause and effect. Fourth. After the facts have been determined and the causal nexus established we endeavor to teach the student to look for the institutions and ideas which have been developed through the sequence of events in the civilization of an age or people. This I might term the ultimate object of our entire method of historical instruction. With us history is the chief preparation for the study of the legal and political sci- ences. Through it we seek to find the origin, follow the growth and learn the meaning of our legal, political, and economic principles and institutions. We class it therefore no longer with fiction or rhetoric or belles-lettres, but with logic, philosophy, ethics. We value it, therefore, not by its brilliancy, but by its productiveness. Lastly. We would not consider the circle of our method as complete, did it make no provision for the public practice of the students. To this end we have established an Academy of the historic, jural, and political sciences, composed of the graduates of the University in these branches. Before this body, in its regular weekly meetings, each member has the opportunitj' and assumes the duty of presenting one original work each year. The work is then the property of the Acad- IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE. 221 emy to publish or presei-ve in its archives as it wUl. The best production of the year in the Academy, as adjudged by the University Faculty in these departments, is rewarded by a prize lectureship in the University. In this manner we seek to make our students not simply pupils but co-workers, not simply recipients but givers with interest upon what they have received and to open the way for genius, talent, and industry in these branches to positions from which they may be employed in the further development and expansion of these departments. As I indicated above, we have hardly yet had sufficient experience with our method and system to pronounce defi- nitely and finally upon results. They have not j-et made their cycle. But we are satisfied with the progress, and encouraged by the prospects. CoLTiMBiA College, April 27, 1883. Physical Geogeaphy and History. A KNOWLEDGE of the structure of the earth on which we dwell should underlie and precede all our studies of history and political science. We ha^e been accustomed to study mind psychologically, without studying the body in which the mind dwells. So we have considered the historical movements of man without considering the theatre on which he moves. Edition after edition of the historical atlases of the learned German, Von Spruner, was published, with most elaborate and exact maps of Greece, of the Roman Empire, of mediaeval Europe, Germany, Italj^ etc., but not a single map showing geological formations. A clearer understand- ing of the importance of the phj'sical structure of the earth would have made his maps much better than they are. It is needless to say that in any exposition of these rela- tions, constant use must be made of maps ; in fact, the work cannot be carried on without them. The difficulties in the way of preparing such representations are great, for we need to exhibit each portion of the earth'a surface as something cut out by the hands of a sculptor, which has a distinct phy- siognomy, to be recognized and Isnown as definitely as our own physiognomies are known. The most direct method is by the relief map or atlas. But the difficulty of repre- senting a solid upon a plane surface has been to some extent overcome, different elevations being represented by different colors. 224 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY AND HISTOBY. Observe some of the things which a good physical map of the United States tells us. You see a long extent of sea- board, with mountains receding from the coast. When the first settlers landed, they found a wall, from 3500 to 7000 feet high, hemming them in. We see here the door through which the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad goes west ; also the path of the Erie Canal. We see where the Pennsyl- vania people found a path over the mountains, and others after them. Without a phj'sical map of North America, the unitjr of the French dominions, Canada and Louisiana, would hardly be discerned ; with such a map, this unity is made strikingly- evident, and the process of acquisition becomes clear. A glance at the broad basin of the Mississippi, as rep- resented upon such a map, will show that it was predestined to become one of the greatest granaries of the world. The history of the peculiar attitude of California during the civil war can be studied onlj' in the light of its physical relations to the rest of the Union. Thus, the history of this country was largely written before man came here. It is written on the map, and every citizen ought to have it written on his mind. Every student of political history or political economy should understand these great physical features of his coun- try, not only in broad outline, but in detail. As examples of exposition of our physical geography, one may mention Professor Shaler's chapter in Winsor's forth- coming Narrative and Critical History of America, the prefatory chapter in Palfrey's New England, and Professor Whitney's chapter in the Guide-Book to the Tosemite, and in Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States, whose maps also are highly useful. If we turn to Europe, the connection between physical geography and history is presented in the same striking way, and in even greater variety. Observe on any relief map how PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 225 manifestly the plain of Lombardy and Venetia, carved out at the base of the enormous wall of the Alps, seems formed to be the garden of Europe and the theati-e of wars. As for Greece, it is no exaggeration to say that he who does not understand its physical conformation can have no proper conception of its political history. The connection between the two is admirably displayed in the opening pages of Curtius' History of Greece, and in a delightful chapter in Taine's Lectures on Art, in which book a similar service is also done for' Flanders. Also of note is Professor Conrad Bursian's essay, Ueber den Einjluss der Natur des Griechischen Landes auf den Oharakter seiner Bewohner, in the Jahresherichte of the Geographisclie Gesellschajl in Mun- chen, 1877. Further west, notice the remarkable cut from the Mediterranean to the North Sea (the valleys of the Rhone and Rhine) , which made a Lotharingia possible. A relief map of France makes clear the reasons for the direc- tions taken by the several invading tribes in 406 a.d. The position of Belfort, commanding the upper Rhine vallej', explains the vigor with which it was defended in 1870 ; we see, too, why G-ermany fixed her boundary where she did. Again, ia England, who does not know, to mention one illustration only, how decisive was the influence of such geographical features as the great forests upon the course of the English conquest of Britain? (See Guest's Origines Celticae, 1882, Green's Making of England, and Professor Pearson's valuable Historical Maps.) For similar illustra- tions, one may consult with profit Professor Archibald Geikie's paper on The Geological Influences which ha,ve affected English History, in MacmUlan, March, 1882. If we turn to Asia, the connection between its great plains and the careers of its great conquerors could scarcely be more evident than it is. 226 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTOET. All these are isolated and random illustrations. Indefi- nitely multiplied, as they might easilj'be, they would irresist- ibly force the conviction that the influence of physical geog- raphy upon history is a matter which no one can afford to neglect, and that a teacher of history who does not make fre- quent use of phj'sical maps commits a grave error. It may not be amiss to mention that prominent among the standard works of general scope which may be used in such studies are, beside the books of Eitter and Peschel, Professor Guj'ot's Earth and Man, G. P. Marsh's The Earth as Modi- fied by Human Action, and Frederick von Hellwald's Die Erde und ihre Volker. Into the rninor literature it is impos- sible here to enter (an important specimen is Wilhelm Ros- cher's Betrachtungen iiher die geographische Lage der grossen Stddte, in his Ansichten, I., pp. 317-363), but it can be found, clearly arranged, in the bibliographical lists in suc- cessive volumes of Petermann's Mittheilungen, the best of geographical journals. An index to the maps in Petermann is now appearing in the Harvard University Bulletin. As to wall-maps, the most useful are perhaps the new Kiepert series and Professor Guyot's. Why do Childeen Dislike Histoey? Bt Thomas Wentwokth HiGGiNaou. IT has always seemed to me creditable to the brains of children that thej" dislike what we call the study of history. It is surely unfair to blame them, when they cer- tainly like it quite as well as do their parents. The father brings home to his little son, from the public library, the first volume of Hildreth's United States, and says to him, " There, my son, is a book for you, and there are five more volumes just like it." Then he goes back to his Sunday Herald, and his wife reverts to But Yet a Woman, or Mr. Isaacs; both feeling that they have done their duty to the child's mind. Would they ever read through the six volumes of Hildreth consecutively for themselves ? Yet it needs but little reflection to see that no study is in itself — apart from the treatment — so interesting as history. For what is it that most interests every child? Human beings. What is history ? The record of human beings, that is all. We are accustomed to say, and truly, that every child is a born naturalist. But where is the child who would not at any time leave the society of animals for that of human beings ? Even the bear and the raccoon are not personally more inter- esting to the country boy than to hear the endless tales of the men who have trapped the one and shot the other. The boy by the seaside would rather listen to the sailors' yarns than go fishing. Even stories about animals must have the human 228 WHY DO CHILDREN DISLIKE HISTORY? element thrown in, to make them fully fascinating ; children must hear, not only about the wolf and his den, but about General Putnam, who went into it ; and they would rather hear about Indian wars than either, because there all the par- ticipants are men. The gentlest girl likes to read the Swiss Family Robinson, or to dress up for a " centennial tea-party.'' But early Puritan history is all Swiss Family Robinson with many added excitements thrown in ; and the colonial and revolutionary periods are all a centennial tea-party. If we could only make the characters live and move, with their own costume and their own looks, in our instruction, they would absorb the attention of every child. It is idle to saj^, "But children prefer fiction to fact." Not at all ; they prefer fact to fiction, if it is only made equally interesting. The test is this. Tell a boy a story, which he supposes to be true, and then disclose that it is all an invention. If the boy preferred fiction to fact, he would be pleased. Not at all ; he is disapjpointed. On the other hand, if, after telling some absorbing and marvellous tale, you can honestly add, " M3' dear child, all this really hap- pened to your father when he was little, or to your respected great-grandmother," the child is delighted. In truth, the whole situation, in respect to historj'', is described in that well-known conversation between the Eng- lish clergyman and the play-actor. "Why is it," asked the clergyman, " that you, who represent what everybody knows to be false, obtain more attention than we who deal in the most momentous realities ! " "It is," said the actor, "because you represent the truth so that it seems like fiction, while we depict fiction in such a manner that it has the effect of truth." The moral of it all is, that the fault is not in the child, but in us who write the books and teach the lessons. History WHY DO CHILDEKN DISLIKE HISTORY? 229 is but a series of tales of humau beings. Humau beings form tlie theme which is of all. things most congenial to the child's mind. If the subject loses all its charms by our handling, the fault is ours, and we should not blame the child. Geadation and the Topical Method op HiSTOEicAL Study. Bt Professor W. F. Allen, WiscoNStN University. FOR instruction in historj', as in other branches, there are three distinct periods to be considered : childhood, school-life, and college-life. For the first of these I have nothing to offer beyond the excellent remarks made by om* author on page 139. What the chUd needs is to have the imagination quickened, and the memory stored with incidents and associations. It is not so necessarj' that there should be any definite plan or order in the acquisition of these interesting stories, great names, and important events. The mind merely needs to have associations and memories of these ; their arrangement will come later. Formal instruction in history, he goes on to say, may begin at about the age of ten ; but the length of time that it is to be kept up differs very greatly with different pupils, and it is obvious that we cannot advantageously lay out the same course for those who are to go to college, those who are to pass through the high school merely, and those who have to be satisfied with a grammar-school education. The begin- ning, however, must be nearly the same with all, and it will be found that the longest course will, in the main, coincide with the shorter ones, so far as they go. All alike must begin with the history of their own country, and with this a considerable proportion of the pupils must be content. So far there is no difference of opinion. When, however, we pass to the next stage, and ask what branch of history should follow that of the United States, the answers 232 GBADES AND TOPICS IN would be various. The usual practice is to take up General History at this point ; but I think the practice is not a wise one. Very few pupils at this age have a sufficiently devel- oped historical sense to follow intelligently the fortunes of several nations side by side, now studying the separate his- tory of each country independently, then passing to the com- plicated international relations, which make up the current of modern history. In antiquity there was but one empire at a time. General history is, therefore, the separate histo- ries of Egypt, Assyria, Persia, etc., taken up successively. In inodern times these separate histories have to be taken up contemporaneously. There is no one thread to be followed, but a multitude of threads to be woven into a connected whole ; and my experience is, that an attempt to do this, with only the preparation that the study of United States history gives, results, for most scholars, in a bewildering confusion. Our author laj's down the correct principle on page 146 : ' ' The way to that which is general is through that which is special." General history cannot be profitably studied until, first, the historical imagination has been trained and the his- torical sense developed by abundance of stories, and by instruction in national history ; and, secondlj^ at least one of the separate threads has been traced by itself, and a cer- tain degree of familiarity thus gained with the leading events which are to come under consideration. The separate annals of at least one country should be studied before general his- tory is begun. Which country should be selected for this purpose for American schools can, of course, be no question. American citizens need to know the history of England next to that of their own country. I should even desire that a second thread should be taken up by itself — in the history of France or Germany — before general history is studied; but this is not essential. HISTOBICAIi STUDY. 233 Further details must depend upon the extent of the course and its object. If there can be but one term's work, besides United States history-, I would have the history of England. If there is plenty of time, I would have ancient history, English history, and French history all precede general his- ■ tor^-, or, if need be, take its place. But I can conceive of something better even than this. To go back to our first question : What does the American boj" reallj- need, who is to have only one term of history before he goes out into the world, and becomes an American citizen ? Would not everybody admit that, while the Plan- tagenets are of more importance for him than the Hohen- staufen, and Oliver Cromwell than Gustavus Adolphus, the events and personages of the last hundred years are of more importance than either? Let us pass now to the college course. Only a verj' small proportion of our people go through a college course, and of these onlj' a small proportion — under our present system of elective studies — take anj- extended course in history. Here, too, I have tried a good many experiments, and have arrived at a scheme which appears to answer my require- ments very well. The field of history is so vast and varied that it is impos- sible, in any college course, to treat all the subjects that deserve to be taken up. All that we can do is to lay out a course, or a number of courses, which appear to meet, as a whole, the needs of the largest number, and which will allow selection, in accordance with tastes, to those who do not care to take it as a whole. We require for admission, in the classical courses of this University, ancient history, the historj'^ of the United States, and the history of England. We are able, therefore, to take for granted something of an acquaintance with the leading 234 GBADES AND TOPICS IN events and characters of ancient and modern times. The only histor}' which is required in our curriculum is a term of United States history for the juniors of the classical depart- ment. Besides this, there are three elective courses, each carried through the year : one as a full course, the others as half courses. In laying out this work, we are not limited, as in the common schools, by the necessity of considering what is most essential for those who are soon to leave school. We are not to lay out a single course which all must follow, but a series of courses, which may be taken either in whole or in part, according to individual tastes. Even here, however, ' there is a natural order which should be insisted on, so far as possible, for those who take the whole course. We must begin with what is most indispensable. It is all very well to say that dates and dynasties are of only secondary importance, and that it is the history of ideas and of social progress that we want. There can be no history with- out dates and dynasties. Thej' are to the nobler parts of history" what the skeleton is to the body. All the beauty of the bodj' and all its seeming energy are in the external parts ; but what would they be without the framework of bones ? So, in history, we can have no sure and adequate comprehension of the movement of the great forces of society, without the skeleton of the history of events. Now, aU events take place in two relations, — time and place. The indispensable foundation of history is, therefore, a knowledge of chronol- ogy, — of historical distances, — and of historical geography, in connection with the changes of empire. Territorial and dynastic history — the study of the successive empires and dynastic powers of the world — forms the first course, which should precede the others. Next to the knowledge of empires, the most necessary, HISTORICAL STUDY. 285 if the least important branch of history, comes the study of the organized action of mankind. The study of institu- tions, of their organic relation to one another in constitu- tions of government, and of the political conflicts that have grown out of these, forms naturally the second course. After this, and not till then, the history of thought, of soci- ety, of ideas, can be profitably taken up. We have thus three independent courses, affording an approximately com- plete survey of the field of history, or at least preparation for further independent study. But although this is the nat- ural order of stud}', it is not necessary to adhere to it over- scrupulously. The student has ahead}', in a general way, studied the dynastic historj' of Greece, Rome, and England ; has thus acquired a consecutive, if partial, view of ancient and modern times. He is, therefore, prepared to take up the special stud}' of the institutions of Greece and Rome, with which, moreover, he is already somewhat familiar from his classical studies, without waiting for the extended course in dynastic history. He may even, without great disadvan- tage, pass at once to the study of mediaeval and modern institutions. As to method, I have also experimented a great deal. For college classes — elective classes especially — nothing seems to me a greater waste of force than to spend the hour with a text-book in my hand, hearing the students repeat what is in the book. Lecturing, however satisfactory in the German universities, I do not find suited to the wants of my students q,s a regular mode of instruction. For suggestion and for review it may be employed with great advantage ; and for regular instruction in fields in which there is no suitable text- book, I am often obliged to have recourse to it. But it requires, to be efficacious, constant questioning, thorough examinations, and occasional inspection of note-books. 236 GRADES AND TOPICS LN In the method which I have at last settled upon, my aim has been to get some of the benefits which students in the natural sciences acquire from work in laboratories. Stu- dents of the age and maturitj' of juniors and seniors can get the greatest advantage from historical study by doing some independent work akin to laboratory work. I would not be understood as claiming that this is original investigation, in any true sense of the term. Laboratory work in chemistry or physics is not original investigation, neither is the study of topics in history. The object, it must be remembered, is education, not historical investigation ; and the object of the educational process is not merely to ascertain facts, but even more : to learn how to ascertain facts. For the student, as a piece of training, historians like Prescott and Bancroft may stand in the place of original authorities. To gather facts from them, reallj' at second hand, has for the student much of the educational value of first-hand work. Of course, there is a difference in students, and the work done by some is of a, much higher grade than that of others. For the best students it easily and frequently passes into the actual study of authorities at first hand. In studying hy topics I alwaj's desire ihat the class should have a text-book — a brief compendium — upon which they are liable to be questioned and examined, and which will serve at any rate as a basis and guide of work. My method is then to assign for every day — as long beforehand as pos- sible — special topics to two or three students, which they are to ^tudy with as great thoroughness as possible in all the works to which they have access, and present vrally in the class, writing out a syllabus beforehand upon the blackboard. If they write out the topic, and depend upon a written paper, they are much less likely to be certain of their ground and independent in their treatment. HISTORICAL STUDY. 237 The topical method here described is successful in propor- tion to the abundance and accessibility of books of refer- ence. In American history it works best, and here I employ no other. In the dynastic history of ancient and modern times, it is satisfactory in most cases. I combine with it constant map-drawing, and the preparation of a synchron- istic chart. In the more advanced courses, owing to the deficiency of good books of reference, it is necessary to abandon the method, or combine it with lectures, recitations, and written essa3'S. It is, of course, impossible to assign topics which cover the whole ground. It is possible, how- ever, to select for this purpose all the names and events of first importance, and it is one of the advantages of the topi- cal method that it thus affords an opportunity to emphasize those facts of history which most need emphasis. It is the special function of the teacher to supplement the topics, to point out their relative importance and their connection with one another, and to help the students in acquiring a com- plete and accurate general view. PART I. HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 1. Primitive Society. C. F. Keary. The Dawn of History : An Introduction to Pre- historic Study. L.* Mozley & Smith. $1.50. XE. G. Tylor. Early History of Mankind. N.Y. Holt. $3.50. tid. Primitive Culture. 2 v. JST.Y. Holt. $7.00. Xld. Anthropology. N.y. App. $2.00. Mr. Tylor's books present the best picture of primitive society, and summary of the present condition of the inquiry. %Sir John LuhhocTc. Pre-historic Times. N.Y. App. $5.00. Chiefly devoted to archseology. Id. Origin of Civilization. N.Y. App. $2.00. XH. Spencer. Ceremonial Institutions. App. $1.25. Xld. Political Institutions. App. $1.50. These works describe the evolution of governmental institutions. * In this list only books in the English language are given, with the exception of a few of prime importance. Works written in a foreign lan- guage, whether in the original or translated, are indicated by a dagger (t). Books of especial importance are indicated by the double dagger ((). Abbreviated titles are given, except where the full title contains a descrip- tion of the book. In the abbreviations, App. stands for Appleton; B., for Boston; Ber., for Berlin ; C.,. for Cassell ; C. & H., for Chapman & Hall ; Ch., for Chicago; E. & L., for Estes & Lauriat; Ed., for Edinburgh; H., for Harper; L., for London; Lip.,for Lippincott; Longm., for Longmans; Lp., for Leipsic; L. & B., for Little, Brown, & Co.; L. & S., lor Lee & Shepard; JI., for Murray; Macm., for Macmillan; 0., for Osgood; P., for Paris; Ph., for Philadelphia ; Put., for Putnams ; E., for Roberts ; Scr., for Scribner ; S. & E., for Smith, Elder, & Co.; W. & N., for Williams & Norgate. E.S. stands for Epochs Series (Scribner) ; and Soc, for Society for the Diffusion of Christian Knowledge (Young) , 240 HISTORICAL LITEEATTJRE AND AUTHORITIES. XL. H. Morgan. Ancient Society. N.Y. Holt. $4.00. The best analysis of the structure of primitive society, based upon an intimate knowledge of the institutions of the North American Indians. The later portions less reliable. /. F. McLennan. Studies in Ancient History. L. Quaritch. Controverts Mr. Morgan's theories, and finds the origin of the family in marriage by capture. W. E. Hearn. The Aryan Household. L. Longm. $6.40. The most complete treatise upon the structure and development of primitive society. tFustel de Coulanges. The Ancient City.f B. h. & S. $2.00. A remarkable book, affording the best key to the origin and much of the history of the Greek and Roman institutions. tSir H. S. Maine. Ancient Law : its Connection with the Early History of Society, and its Relation to Modern Ideas. N.Y. Holt. $3.50. Invaluable as an introduction to the history of institutions. Id. Village Communities. N.Y. Holt. $3.50. This work introduced the theory of village communities to the English public. %Id. Early History of Institutions. N.Y. Holt. $3.50. Devoted especially to the early institutions of Ireland. Id. Dissertations upon Early Custom and Law. N.Y. Holt. A collection of essays and lectures. +-B. de Xiaveleye. Primitive Property. -f L. Macm. $8.50. The most complete elaboration of the theory of primitive com- munity of property. Sir A. C. Lyall. Asiatic Studies. M. Papers fuU of valuable observation and study. E. Nasse. Agricultural Community of the Middle Ages.f W". & N, The theory of village communities applied to England. D. W. Ross. Early History of Land-holding among the Germans. B. Soule & Bugbee. Controverts the theory of village communities. HISTORICAL LITEEATUEE AND AUTHOEITIES. 241 John Fenton,. Early Hebrew Life. L. Triibner. A. F. Bandelier. On the Art of War and Mode of Warfare among the Ancient Mexicans. — On the Distribution and Tenure of Land, etc. — On the Social Organization and Mode of Govern- ment, etc. Three papers of great value, reprinted from the reports of the Peabody Museum of Ethnology for 1877-8-9. /. /. Bachofen. Das Mutterrecht.f Stuttgart. 1861. A pioneer work ; treats of inheritance in the female line, as an institution of primitive society. See also the following articles : by E. Nasse, in Cont. Rev., May, 1872, upon Village Communities ; by /. F. McLennan, in Fortn. Rev., 1866, upon Kinship in Ancient Greece, and in 1869-70, upon Worship of Animals and Plants [theory of totems] ; by F. H. Gushing, in the Atl. Monthly, Sept. and Oct., 1882, upon the Nation of the Willows [the Zunis of New Mexico] ; by W. F. Allen, in Penn Monthly, June, 1880, upon the points at issue between Mr. Morgan and Mr. McLennan. Authorities. Books of travel, etc., containing graphic and accurate accounts of savage and barbarous society. Herbert Spencer. Descriptive Sociology. — Div. 1 : Uncivilized Societies ; Div. 2 : Ancient Mexicans, etc. 8 parts, each $4.00. A classified collection of facts. L. H. Morgan. Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family. Vol. XVII. (1870) of the Smithsonian Contributions. A very extensive and remarkable collection of facts. Id. League of the Iroquois. Rochester. 1851. XF. Parkman. The Oregon Trail. B. L. & B. 12.50. Perhaps the most vivid picture of Indian life. XDavid Livingstone. Missionary Travels and Reseaichea in South Africa. H. $4.50. 242 HISTOKICAl, LITBEATUEB AJSTD ATJTHOKITIES. H. M. Stanley. Through the Dark Continent. 2 v. B,. 110.00. G. Schweinfurth. The Heart of Africa. 2 v. H. $8.00. tW. G. Palgrave. A Year's Travel in Arabia. Macm. f2.00. /. A. McGahan. Campaigning on the Oxus. H, $3.50. Contains an excellent account of nomadic life. %Lord Pembroke. Old New Zealand. L. Bentley. Contains a forcible picture of the evils worked by contact with civilization. H. Rink. Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo. Ed. Blackwood. JG. W. Dasent. Story of Burnt Njal. Ed. Edmonston. $7.50. Presents a vivid picture of early German society. XHomer's Iliad, translated in prose by Lang, etc. ; and Odyssey, by Butcher and Lang. Each, $1.50. A portrayal of early Greek society and institutions. D. M. Wallace. Russia. Holt. $2.00. Contains the best account of the Mir, or Russian village com- munity. A. J. Evans. Through Bosnia and Herzegovina. Longm. Contains a description of the Slavonian family communities. J. W. Probyn. Systems of Land Tenure in Various Coimtries. C. $1.75. The essays upon India, Germany, and Russia, describe systems of land community. Sir J. B. Phear. The Aryan Village in India and Ceylon. Macm. $2.25. See also the publications of the American Bureau of Ethnology, the Peabody Museum, the American Archaeological Institute, and kindred institutions; and the list of books upon the Indians of America. HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 243 2. Mythology. XA' IX Mailer. Chips from a German Workshop. .5 v. N.Y. Scr. 810.00. These essays laid the foundation for the study of comparative mythology and folk-lore. XC.F.Keary. Outlmes of Prmiitive Belief. N.Y. Scr. i52..50. Especially of the Greeks, Hindoos, and Scandinavians. J. A. Hartung. Die Religion und Mythologie der Griechen.f 4 v. Lp. Engelmann. The first volume contains perhaps the best introduction to the study of mythology. Sir G. W. Cox. Introduction to Science of Comparative Mythology and Folk-lore. Holt. $2..50. %Id. Mythology of the Aryan Nation.s. Longm. .|4..50. A comparative view of the Indian, Greek, and German systems of mythology. John Fiske. Myths and Myth-Makers. Houghton. !if2.00. A popular account of the way in which myths are formed. A. S. Murray. Manual of Mythology. N.Y. Scr. .^2.2.5. Chiefly devoted to that of Greece : with illustrations. %L. Preller. Griechische Mythologie.-f Ber. Weidmann. Xld. Eomische Mythologie.f Ber. Weidmann. PreUer's are the best and most compendious treatises. J/. Grimm. Teutonic Mythology.f 2 v. L. Bell. An exhaustive and invaluable treatise. R. B. Anderson. Norse Mythology. Ch. Griggs. $2.50. D. G. Brinton. Myths of the New World. Ph. Watts. $2.00. Ethnic Religions. C. P. Tiele. History of Religion. Houghton. $3.00. The best work of a general character. /. F. Clarke. Ten Great Religions. Houghton. $3.00. A popular comparative view of the principal ethnic religions. 244 HISTOEICAl LITBKATTJEE AJSTD ATJTHOEITIBS. tHibbert Lectures : — 1878. Max Mailer. The Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the Religions of India. Scr. 1879. P. Le Page Renouf. Id., Ancient Egypt. Scr. 1881. T. W. Rhys- Davids. Id., Buddhism. Put. 1882. A. Kuenen. National Religions and Universal Religions. fNon-Christian Religious Systems. Soc. Monier Williams. Hinduism. T. W. Rhys-Davids. Buddhism. R. K. Douglas. Confucianism and Taouism. J. H. W. Stohart. Islam and its Founders. Sir William Muir. The Coran. XS. Johnson. Oriental Religions : I. India; II. China; III. Persia. Houghton. 15.00. A. Earth. Religions of India. Houghton. 0. Keitner. Buddha and his Doctrines. L. Triibner. /. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism. Houghton. J. Legge. Life and Teaching of Confucius. M. Haug. The Religion of the Parsis. Houghton. $4.50. JC p. Tiele. Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopo- tamian Religions. Part I. : Egypt. L. See also articles by Monier Williams, on Indian Religious Thought, Cont. Rev., 1878, and on Religion of Zoroaster, 19th Cent., Jan., 1881 ; by W. F. Allen, on the Religion of the Ancient Greeks, N. Am. Rev., July, 1869 ; and the Ancient Romans, July, 1871 ; by Jos. Darmesteter, in Cont. Rev., Oct., 1879, on Supreme God in Indo-European Mythology; by J. N. Hoare, in 19th Cent., Dec, 1878, on Religion of Ancient Egyptians ; in Edin. Rev., Oct., 1881, on the Koran ; by K. Blind, in N. Am. Rev., Oct., 1872, on the German World of Gods ; by F. Lenormant, in Cont. Rev., 1880, on the Eleusinian Mysteries ; by C. T. Newton, in HISTORICAX, LITERATUEE AND AUTHORITIES. 245 19th Cent., June, 1878, on the Religion of the Greeks as IHus- trated by Inscriptions. For the truest conception of Greek mythology : Buskin's Modern Painters, Part IV., Chap. 13. Authorities, Sacred Books of the East. 11 vols. Macm. The Elder Edda. L. Trubner. The Younger Edda. Ch. Griggs. 3. History of Society. tH. Spencer. The Study of Sociology. App. $1.50. W. Bagehot. Physics and Politics. §1.50. Analyzes the causes of progress. iA. C'omle. The Positive Philosophy. f 2 v. App. The second volume contains an application of the positive philos- ophy to historical phenomena. F. Schlegel. The Philosophy of History.f Id. Lectures on the History of Literature, Ancient and Modem. f These old works are still unsurpassed in their field. R. Flint. The Philosophy of History in France and Germany. Baron de Montesquieu. The Spirit of Laws.f Cincmnati. A work of great insight, first published m 1748. %J. W. Draper. The Intellectual Development of Europe. 2 v. H. S3.00. XH. T. Buckle. Introduction to History of Civilization in England. 2 V. App. f4.00. Draper and Buckle write from the point of view of the control- ling influence of physical causes. G. P. Marsh. Man and Nature. Scr. .f2.00. Treats of the influence of man and the earth upon each other. A. Blanqui. History of Political Economy in Europe.f $3.00. Sir T. E. May. Democracy in Evu-ope. 2 v. Longm. E. VioUet-le-duc. The Habitations of Man in all Ages.f L. Low. 246 HISTOKICAL LITBKATUEE AST) AUTHOKITIBS. 4. General History. W. Oncken. Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen.f Ber. G. Grote. 300 marks. A series of works by writers of high authority. The following are already published: G. F. Hertzherg, HeUas und Rom; Das Komische Kaiserreich. F. Dahn, Urgeschichte der Germani- schen und Romanischen Volker. M. Philipp.ion, Zeitalter Lud- wigs XIV. A. Stern, Revolution in England. A. Bruckner, Peter der Grosse. W. Oncken, Zeitalter Friedrichs des Grossen. E. A. Freeman. General Sketch [in Freeman's Hist. Series]. Holt. 11.00. The best brief outline of general history. XTd. Historical Geography of Europe. 2 v. [vol. ii., maps]. $12.00. An elaborate and accurate work ; the best there is. XLeopold von Ranke. Weltgeschichte.f 3 vols, already published. A summary of the best results of scholarship by the greatest living master. Translation of Vol. I. H. K. von Spruner. Handatlas der Geschichte.f In three parts. 1. Atlas Antiquus. 2. Europa. Revised by Th. Menke. [English edition by W. & N., £4 14s. 6(f.] 3. Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. Altogether the best and completest historical atlas. %N. Bouillet. Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire et de Geographie. P. Hachette. Xld. Atlas Universel d'Histoire et de Geographie. These works of Bouillet are the best books of reference. /. Haydn. Dictionary of Dates. App. $6.00. The best brief compendium of chronology, revised to 1883. H. B. George. Genealogical Tables. Macm. $3.00. The best in English. XS. Willard. Synopsis of History. App. Chronological and genealogical tables of the highest merit. HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 247 C. K. Adams. Manual of Historical Literature. H. $2.50. The best guide to historical reading. W. F. Allen. Reader's Guide to English History. B. Ginn, Heath, &Co. With a supplement giving brief references to the history of other countries and periods. See also articles by E. A. Freeman, in Fortn. Rev., May, 1881, on the Study of History ; by /. Gairdner, in Cont. Rev., Oct., 1880, on Sources of History. Periodicals. JHistorische Zeitschrift. By H. von Sybel. Miinchen (bi-monthly). The oldest and leading historical periodical. JRevue Historique. By G. Monod and G. Fagniez.^ P. (bi-monthly). Esi)ecially valuable for its survey of current historical literahire. MittheUungen aus der Historischen Literatur.f By F. Hirsch. Ber. (quarterly). Consists exclusively of book reviews. Jahresberichte der Gieschiohtswissenschaft. Ber. An annual review of historical literature. Das Historische Taschenbuch. Lp. An annual collection of historical essays. The Antiquary. Published by Elliot Stock. L. (monthly). Devoted to antiquities rather than history. {The Magazine of American History. (Monthly.) N.Y. Barnes. A periodica] of high excellence. The American Antiquarian. By S. D. Peet. Ch. (quarterly). Devoted to the entire field of antiquities. Besides these, several of the State Historical Societies publish periodicals or regidar volumes of Transactions. 248 HISTOEICAL LITERATUEE AND AUTHORITIES. 5. Ancient History. XPhilip Smith. A History of the World. Ancient History. 3 v. App. $6.00. The best English history of antiquity. A.H.L. Heeren. Historical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity.f 6 v. Ox. An old but valuable book. %G. Rawlinson. A Manual of Ancient History. H. $1.25. A careful and accurate compendium, with abundant references to authorities and special treatises. P. V. N. Myers. Outlines of Ancient History. H. 1882. |1.75. A good compendium for non-classical readers. E. A. Freeman. Historical Essays. Second Series. Macm. $3.50. This series is devoted to ancient history. J. J. Winckelmann. History of Ancient Art. 2 v.f O. $9.00. The starting-point of study in the history of ancient art. XF. von Reber. History of Ancient Art.f H. $2.50. An excellent compendium, well illustrated. G. G. Zerffi. Manual of the Historical Development of Art. L. Hardwicke. XS. R. Koehler. Illustrations of the History of Art. Series 1 : Ancient Architecture, Sculpture, etc. B. Prang. 1879. Series 5 contains the History of Painting. K. O. Mutter. Ancient Art and its Remains. L. Quaritch. The German edition is accompanied by two vols, of illustrations. W. C. Perry. Popular Introduction to the History of Greek and Roman Sculpture. Longm. $12.00. A. S. Murray. History of Ancient Sculpture. M. Jam£s Fergusson. History of Architecture. 2 v. M. $24.00. HISTOEICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 249 Ancient Classics for Modern Readers. Lipp. $1.00. Twenty-eight small volumes, containing excellent short accounts of the principal authors. Classical Writers. Edited by /. R. Green. App. 60 cts. A similar series, containing fewer treatises, but of the highest excellence. IF. C. Wilkinson. Preparatory Greek Coiirse in English. N.Y. Phillips & Hunt. Especially adapted to non-classical readers. W. Smith. Dictionary of Antiquities. M. $6.00. Id. Dictionary of Classical Biography and Mythology. 3 v. M. $18.00. Id. Dictionary of Classical G^eography. 2 v. M. $12.00. Id. Classical Atlas. M. $40.00. The most complete works of reference. Smaller works are : — A. Rich. Dictionary of Antiquities. W. Smith. Classical Dictionary. H. E. Guhl and W. Koner. The Life of the Greeks and Romans. L. Chatto & Windus. $4.00. 6. Oriental History. XM. Duncker. History of Antiquity. 6 v.f L. Bentley. $50.00. Covers only the oriental period, hut is the best compendium for this period. F. Lenounant and E. Chevallier. Manual of the Ancient History oftheEastt 2 v. L. Asher. 1869. $5.50. F. Lenormant. The Beginnings of History, f Scr. $2.50. 250 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHOEITIES. G. Rawlinson. The Origin of Nations. Ser. fl.50. XI d. The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World [Chaldaea, Assyria, Babylon, Media, and Persia]. Dodd, Mead, & Co. $6.00. Id. The Sixth Great Monarchy [Parthia]. Dodd, Mead, & Co. ,|2.00. Id. The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy [Sassanidse]. $4.00. Id. History of Ancient Egypt. 2 v. B. Cas-sino. $4.00. All Canon Eawlinson's works are marked by learning and ability. They are written from the point of view of the absolute authority of the Hebrew scriptures. XH. Brugsch Bey. Egypt under the Pharaohs. 2 v. M. $12.00. The best history of Egypt, by one of the most distinguished Egyptologists. XSir J. G. Wilkinson. The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. 3 v. M. $33.00. The standard work upon the subject. XH. Ebers. Egypt. C. An illustrated work of the highest excellence. XH. Ewald. History of Israel. 5 v. Longm. $26.00. By the greatest authority upon Hebrew history. H. H. Milman. History of the Jews. 3 v. N.Y. Widdleton. |5.25. A popular work. /. H. Allen. Hebrew Men and Times. K. $1.50. E. H. Palmer. History of the Jewish Nation ; from the earliest times to the present day. Soc. $1.50. C. R. Conder. Life of Judas Maccabeus [New Plutarch]. Put. $1.00. XA. P. Stanley. History of the Jewish Church. 3 v. Scr. $7.50. /. Kenrick. Phoenicia. L. Fellowes. See also series of articles by R. Stuart-Poole in Cont. Kev., 1878-79, on Ancient Egypt. HISTOEICAI; LITEKATUKB AND AUTHORITIES. 251 A uthorities. Records of the Past. 6 v. L. Bagster. iglS.OO. Ancient History from the Monuments. 6 v. Soc. Each, 75 cts. /. P- Cory. Ancient Fragments. L. Reeves. 7. History of Greece. tGeo. Grote. History of Greece. 12 v. H. $18.00. The most complete history ; from a liberal point of view. Connop Thirlwall. History of Greece. 2 v. H. An excellent and scholarly work. %Ernst Curtius. History of Greece. 5 v.f Sor. iBlO.OO. The best German history ; a book of eloquence as well as scholarship. Sir G. W. Cox. General History of Greece. H. $1.25. The best short history. Wm. Smith. History of Greece. B. Ware. |2.00. The American edition, edited by Pres. Felton, contains important additions, bringing it down to the present century. Id. Smaller History of Greece. H. 60 cts. T. T. Timayenis. A History of Greece from the Earliest Times to the Present. 2 v. App. $3.50. Interesting as the work of a native Greek, and covering the period of modern history. C. C. Felton. Greece, Ancient and Modern. 2 v. Houghton. ij^o.OO. The best popular work on the history, literature, etc., of Greece. E. A. Freeman. History of Federal Government. Vol. I. Macm. $7.00. This, the only volume published, is chiefly devoted to the Achaean League. W. W. Lloyd. The Age of Pericles. 2 v. M. $6.00. Id. History of Sicily to the Athenian War. M. 252 HISTOEICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. The following belong to the series of Epochs of ancient history : S. G. W. Benjamin. Troy. fl.OO. Sir G. W. Cox. The Greeks and the Persians. $1.00. Id. The Athenian Empire. $1.00. C. Sankey. The Spartan and Theban Supremacies. fl.OO. A. M. Curteis. Rise of the Macedonian Empire. $1.00. C. Peter. Chronological Tables of Greek History. Maom. $3.00. /. P. Mahaffy. Social Life in Greece. Macm. W. A. Becker. Charicles. L. $3.00. A tale illustrating manners and customs. W. Mure. Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece. 5 v. Longm. $85.00. This is the principal work ; a good short one is — J. P. Mahaffy. History of Classical Greek Literature. H. $4.00. 8. Roman Histoky. XTh. Mommsen. History of Rome, iv.f Scr. $8.00. The best history of Rome ; reaches B.C. 46. W. Ihne. History of Rome. 5 v.f Longm. $30.00. Gives less attention than Mommsen to legal and economical causes; is also more favorable to the Carthaginians. Reaches B.C. 78. Thos. Arnold. History of Rome. App. $3.00. Of high literary merit, but based upon Niebuhr in its view of Roman institutions, and therefore largely superseded by later researches. Reaches B.C. 202. Chas. Merivale. General History of Rome. App. $1.25. The best short history of Rome, reaching to the fall of the western empire, a.d. 476. HISTOKICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 253 H. G. Liddell. History of Rome. H. $1.25. Of a good deal of literary merit, founded chiefly upon Niebuhr. Reaches b.c. 30. W. Smith and E. Lawrence. Smaller History of Rome. H. 60 cts. An excellent sketch, reaching a.d. 476. A. Schwegler. Romische Geschichte. 2 v.f Tiibingen. 1853-58. $4.70. An exhaustive cyclopaedia of Roman history, indispensable for the student ; reaches b.c. 390. A fourth volume, by O. Clason (Ber., Calvary), reaches B.C. 328. T. H. Dyer. The History of the Kings of Rome. Lip. $5.00. Maintains the traditionary view, against Niebuhr. The same view is presented with great learning and brilliancy by Fr. Dor. GerlacTi and /. /. Bachofen. Geschichte der Romer.f Basel. 1851. Vol. I., .«2.60. The first volume, containing the history of the kings, is the only one ever published. V. Duruy. History of Rome. 6 v.f L. Kelly [now publishing]. Magnificently illustrated ; a work of high merit. %Geo. Long. The Decline of the Roman Republic. 5 v. L. Bell. $28.00. An exhaustive collection of facts from B.C. 154: to 44, accom- panied with acute criticism. XChas. Merivale. History of the Romans under the Empire. 7 v. App. $14.00. New edition, 4 v., $7.00. From B.C. 60 to a.d. 180. The best account of the period between Mommsen and Gibbon. R. Congreve. The Roman Empire of the West. L. Parker. $1.75. By an eminent positivist. %3. R. Seeley. Roman Imperialism. R. $1.50. Three lectures on the establishment and decline of the empire. %Edw. Gibbon. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 6 v. Lip. $12.00. The Students' Gibbon. H. $1.25. Gibbon is an indispensable guide for the twelve centuries from the accession of Commodus to the fall of Constantinople. 254 HISTOEICAIi LITEEATTJEE Am) AUTHOEITIES. A. J. Mason. The Persecutions of Diocletian. L. Bell. $3.50. An attempt to vindicate Diocletian. t Thos. Hodgkin. Italy and her Invaders. 2 v. Macm. $8.00. A liistory of the Visigotlis, Vandals, and Huns. C. Kingsley. The Roman and the Teuton. Macm. $1.75. ir. E. H. Lecky. History of European Morals, from Augustus to Charlemagne. 2 v. App. $3.00. JThe following belong to the series of Epochs of Ancient History : — William Ihne. Early Rome. $1.00. R. Bosworth Smith. Rome and Carthage. $1.00. A. H. Beesly. The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla. $1.00. Chas. Merivale. The Roman Triumvirates. $1.00. W. W. Capes. The Early Empire. $1.00. Id. The Age of the Antonines. $1.00. % W. S. Tevffel. History of Roman Literatiure.f $7.50. Tlie best German worlc. The best English works are : — XG. A. Simcox. History of Latin Literature. 2 v. H. $4.00. %C. T. Crutwell. History of Roman Literature. Scr. $2.50. An excellent short manual is L. Schmitz. History of Roman Literature. $1.25. XTh. Mommsen and J. Marquardt. Handbuch der Rbmisohen AlterthUmer. 7v.t Lp. Hirzel. Vol. I., $4.40; Vol. IL, Aleth. 1, $4.80, Aleth. 2, $3.30 ; Vol. III., not out yet ; Vol. IV., $3.30 ; Vol. v., $4.05 ; Vol. VI., $4.05 ; Vol. VII., $6.60. Mommsen's partis Staatsrecht; Marquardt's, Staatsverwaltung. Neither is yet complete. This is the greatest work on Roman antiquities, superseding the earlier work by Becker and Mar- quardt (5 v. Lp.). W. A. Becker. GaUus. $3.00. A treatise on antiquities in the form of a tale. HISTORICAL LITEKATXJKE AOT) AUTHORITIES. 255 L. Lange. Rbmische Alterthiimer. 3 v.f Ber. Weidmann. |8.45. This work, which is rather historical than systematic, reaches B.C. 30. W. Ramsay. Manual of Roman Antiquities. L. Griffin. 13.00. Excellent when written, but now antiquated in many parts. J. R. Seeley. First Book of Li-s'y. Macm. fl.50. The introduction to this work contains the best discussion in English of the institutions of the period of the kings. F. W. Newman. Regal Rome. N.Y. Redfield. 1852. 63 cents. Contains much interesting matter. R. F. Leighton. History of Rome. N.Y. Clark & Maynard. $1.44. A school history, but contains the most complete statement in English of the latest results of scholarship. W. T. Arnold. The Roman System of Provincial Administration. Macm. $1.75. V. Rydberg. Roman Days. $2.00. Art and life under the empire. Wm. Forsyth. Life of Cicero. Scr. $2.50. A good work ; even better is that by XAnihony Trollope. 2 v. H. $3.50. It is distinguished for vivid and correct portraiture. Its view is favorable to Cicero. /. A. Froude. Caesar. Scr. $2.50. Brilliant, but not always accurate. It presents the most eulo- gistic view of Caesar's character and career. The same view is presented in the Life of Julius Caesar ascribed to the Emperor Napoleon in. [2 v. Scr.] E. S. Beesly. Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius. L. C. & H. $2.00. Able and interesting, by a distinguished positivist, in defence of these three characters. Tiberius also finds a defender in F. Huidekoper. Judaism in Rome. [Note G.] N.Y. Francis. $2.25. Tkos. De Quincey. The Caesars. Houghton. $1.50. An entertaining sketch. Earl Stanhope. Life of Belisarius. L. $3.50. 256 HISTOKICAL LITERATURE AJSTD AUTHORITIES. Montesquieu's Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, translated by Jehu Baker. App. $2.00. An old work of much value. See article by Goldwin Smith in Cont. Rev., May, 1878, on the Greatness of the Romans. Authorities. Translations of the classic authors may be found in Bohn's Classical Library, republished by Harper ; besides these, we wUl mention Herodotus, — Oriental history, and the Persian wars, — translated by Geo. RawKnson. 4 v. 110.00. Thucydides, — Peloponnesian War, — translated by B. Jowett. Macm. $8.00. Xenophon, — continuation of Thucydides, and expedition of Cyrus theYoimger., $2.00. Livy, — Roman history, — [to 390] translated by Geo. Baker. N.Y. Worthington. $7.50. Finely illustrated. Polybius, — tie chief authority for the Second Punic War, — trans- lated by Hampton. Sallust, — Jugurthine War and Conspiracy of Catiline, — translated by A. W. PoUard. Macm. $1.60. Cmsar, — civil and foreign wars, from b.c. 58 to 45. $2.00. Tacitus, — the Roman empire, a.d. 14 to 70, with some interrup- tions, — translated by Church and Brodribb. Macm. $2.00. Suetonius, — lives of the Csesars, — translated by Thomson, $1.75. Plutarch, — biographies, — translated by A. H. Clough. L. & B. $3.00. Josephus, — Jewish wars. $2.00.' HISTOEICAI, LITERATUEE AND AUTHORITIES. 257 9. Medieval and Modern History. tH. Hallam. Middle Ages. 3 v. N.Y. $5.25. A sound and scholarly work, Incomplete in certain parts (e.g., the north of Europe), and superseded in others by recent in- vestigations, but stiU indispensable. %F. Guizot. Lectures on tlie History of Civilization in France and in Europe. 4 v. App. $5.60. Likewise indispensable, and stUl containing the best view in English of feudal society. /. Balmes. European CivUization.f Baltimore. Murphy. |3.00. A comparison of Protestantism and Catholicism in their rela- tion to civilization, by a Catholic writer. F. Ozanam. History of CivUization in the Fifth Century.f Lip. $3.50. A work of eloquence and spiritual power. C. J. Stille. Studies in Medieval History. Lip. $2.00. An excellent course of lectures ; especially good in the history of civilization, less satisfactory in that of institutions. tA. M. Curteis. History of the Roman Empire. Lip. $1.50. From A.D. 395 to 800; with good maps. The best brief sketch of this period. tR.W. Church. The Beginnings of the Middle Ages. [E.S.] $1.00. Covers a somewhat later period; from a.d. 500 to 1000. P. Lacroix. Manners, Customs, and Dress in the Middle Ages.-f App. S12.00. Id. The Arts in the Middle Ages.f App. $12.00. Id. Science and Literature in the Middle Ages.-f L. Bickers. $12.00. Finely illustrated works, of the highest value. E. L. Cutis. Scenes and Characters in the Middle Ages. L. Virtue. $5.00. With good illustrations of manners, customs, etc. /. /. Sheppard. The Fall of Rome and the Rise of the New Nationalities. N.Y. $2.50. A good manual for students. tE. A. Freeman. Historical Essays. Series 1 and 3. Macm. $3.00. Series 1 treats of mediaeval history ; Series 3, of Eastern Europe. 258 HISTOKICAL LITEEATUBE AND AUTHORITIES. r. Rydberg. Magic of the Middle Ages.f Holt, fl.75. %H. von Syhel. History and Literature of the Crusades.f C. & R, 10s. M. J. F. Michaud. History of the Crusades. 4 v.f N.Y. Redfleld. 13.75. Sir G. W. Cox. The Crusades. [E.S.] fl.OO. G. Z. Gray. The Children's Crusade. Houghton, f 1.50. Michaud's is the standard history of the crusades ; Cox's, the best short sketch ; Sybel's work presents the best results of scholarship. C. Mills. History of Chivali^. 2 v. Ph. Carey & Lea. $1.25. The standard work upon the subject. E. Viollet-le-duc. Annals of a Portress.f B. $5.00. By a distinguished architect and historian. E. L. Cutis. Constantine. Soc. $1.05. Id. Charlemagne. Soc. $1.05. F. C. Woodhouse. Military Religious Orders of the Middle Ages. Soc. $1.05. Excellent books of a popular character. A. L. Koeppen. The World in the Middle Ages. 2 v. App. $3.00. A thorough and accurate geography of the middle ages, with an atlas. F. de Coulanges. Institutions Politiques de I'Ancienne France, f 2 V. P. Hachette. $5.25. A brilliant but not always trustworthy description of political society in the beginning of the middle ages. W. Smyth. Lectures upon Modem History. B. Mussey. %T. Arnold. Lectures on Modern History. App. $1.50. These courses of lectures are old, but valuable. T. H. Dyer. History of Modern Europe. 5 v. Bell. $22.50. The best work, extending from 1453 to 1871. C. D. Yonge. Three Centuries of Modern History. App. $2.00. A popular and interesting sketch. HISTOKICAX LITEBATUEB AXD AUTHOEITIES. 259 James White. Eighteen Christian Centuries. App. §2.00. An entertaining popular outline of history from the Christian era. %A. H. L. Heeren. Manual of the History of the Political System of Europe and its Colonies.f #1.50. Id. Historical Treatises.f 85.00. Heeren's writings are of the highest excellence. E. J. Payne. History of European Colonies. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] Holt. §1.10. F.C. Schlosser. Histoiy of the Eighteenth Century. f 8 v. C. &H. 10. Ecclesiastical History. %H. H. Milman. The History of Christianity from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire. 3 T. N.Y. Armstrong. H^.25. Xld. History of Latin Christianitj-. 8 v. N.Y. Armstrong. 814.00. The best general history of the church in the middle ages ; Teaching the end of the pontificate of Nicholas V., 1455. J. C. L. Gieseler. A Text-book of Church History.f 5 v. H. $5.25. The standard complete history of the church. J. Alzog. Manual of Universal Church History.f 3 v. Cincinnati. Clarke. $15.00. From a Catholic point of view; fair and learned. J. J. Dolling er. The First Age of Christianity. 2 v. •'S6.00. Also by a Catholic of great learning and reputation. E. Renan. [Hibbert Lect., 1880.] The Influence of the Institu- tions, etc., of Eome upon Christianity. W. & X. $3.50. F. D. Maurice. Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First and Second Centuries. Jlacm. $3.50. /. H. Newman. Historical Sketches. 3 v. L. Pickering. $6.00. Chiefly connected with church history. R. C. Trench. Lectures on Mediseval Church History. Scr. $3.00. A good popular sketch. 260 HISTOEICAX, LITEEATTJEE AND AUTHOBITIES. C. Hardwick. A History of the Christian Church. Middle Ages. Macm. 12.25. Id. The Keformation. Macm. |2.25. Excellent oompendiums of handy reference. A. R. Pennington. Epochs of the Papacy. L. Bell. 10s. 6rf. A book of much merit; from the point of view of the Church of England. J. F. Clarke. Events and Epochs of ReKgious History. Osgood. $3.00. J.H.Allen. Christian History in its Three Great Periods. 3 v. R. $3.75. Academic lectures. Early Christianity ; the Middle Ages ; Modern Phases. H. C. Lea. A History of Sacerdotal Celibacy. Houghton. $3.75. Id. Studies in Church History [Temporal Power ; Benefit of Clergy ; Excommunication]. Ph. Lea. $2.75. Id. Superstition and Force [Wager of Law and Battle ; Ordeal ; Torture]. Ph. Lea. $2.50. Books of sound and independent scholarship. T. Greenwood. Cathedra Petri. 6 v. L. Dickinson & Higham. $3.00. A political history of the Papacy, ending 1420. M. Creighton. The Papacy during the Reformation. 2 v. Houghton. $10.00. The two volumes published extend from 1378 to 1464. Sir J. Stephen. Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. Longm. 7«. 6rf. A. F. Villemain. Life of Gregory Vll.f 3 v. Bentley. 26s. /. C. Morison. Life and Times of St. Bernard. Macm. $2.00. Baron Hubner. Life and Times of Sixtus V.f Longm. 24s. The Fathers for English Readers. Soc. 10 v. Each, 75 cents. The Conversion of the West. Soc. 5 v. Each, 60 cents. Two series of small works of merit. HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 261 The Reformation Period. G. P. Fisher. History of the Reformation. Scr. $3.00. An excellent ivork. XL. Hausser. Period of the Keformation.f N.Y. $2.50. A course of lectures of high scholarship and historic insight. .1/. J. Spalding. History of the Protestant Reformation. Baltimore. Murphy. $3.50. By the Catholic archbishop of Baltimore. See also his Miscel- lanies. 2 V. tF. Seehohm. History of the Protestant Revolution. [E.S.] $1.00. A compendium of great accuracy and value. /. H. Merle D'Auhigne. History of the Reformation.! 5 v. N .Y. Carter. 84.50. Ultrar-Protestant in tone. %L. von Ranke. History of the Popes.f 3 v. L. Bell. §3.75. The best history of the period of the Reformation, from a politi- cal point of view. C. Beard. [Hibbert Lect., 1883.] The Reformation of the 16th Centmy in its Relation to Modern Thought. W. & N. 10s. Qd. J. H. Treadwell. Martin Luther and his Work. [jSTew Plutarch.] Put. 81.00. R. B. Drummond. Erasmus, his Life and Character. 2 v. S. & E. D. Strauss. LTiich von Hutten.f L. Daldy. 10s. Qd. H. Morley. Clement Marot. 2 v. C. & H. 18s. K. Benrath. Bernardino Ochino of Siena.f L. Nisbet. 9s. R. C. Christie. Etienne Dolet. Macm. $5.00. These are persons whose lives illustrate some special phase of the Reformation. P. Sarpi. History of the Council of Trent. Ranked by Macaulay with Thucydides. J.A.Wylie. History of Protestantism. 3 v. C. $15.00. See essays on Luther by Stephen, Carlyle, Froude, and Mozley ; also his Table Talk, and Erasmus' Colloquies. A life of Luther, by Peter Bayne, is in preparation; also a translation of Kostlin's popular work, to be published by Scribner. 262 HISTOBICAL LITBBATUKE AJsTD AUTHOEITtBS. For Reference. W. Smith. Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. 2 v. M. $7.00. ■ Id. Dictionary of Christian Biography. 2 v. M. $11.00. P. Schaff. Religious Encyclopaedia [based on that of Herzog]. 3 V. " N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. $6.00. 11. History of England, Ireland, and Scotland. David Hume. History of England. 6 v. Lip. $6.00. In elegant style, with strong Tory bias ; is excellent in social history, but lacks accurate scholarship. /. Lingard. History of England. 13 v. $20.00. A Catholic worit, able and scholarly. This, like Hume, comes down only to 1688. C. Knight. The Popular History of England. 8 v. Ph. $10.00. Liberal in tone, with abundant illustrations. XJ. R. Green. History of the English People. 4 v. H. $10.00. The best history of England ; its fault is in disregarding too much the chronological order. Id. A Short History of the English People. H. $1.75. An earlier work of similar character. XJ. F. Bright. English History for the Use of Public Schools. 3 v. N.Y. Dutton. 17s. An excellent work; especially good for reference. Both Bright and Green have numerous maps and genealogical tables. J. S. Brewer. The Student's Hume. H. $1.25. More than an abridgment. The editor has added accuracy and liberality of tone. The Pictorial History of England. 8 v. £5. A work of solid merit, with numerous illustrations. Sir James Mackintosh. History of England. In Lardner's Cyclopaedia. Miss E. Thompson. History of England. Holt. [Freeman's Historical Series.] 80 cents. HISTORICAL LITERATUKE AND AUTHORITIES. 263 XJ. H. Burton. History of Scotland. 8 v. and index. Ed. Blackwood. Each, 7s. Qd. The best history of Scotland. 3Iiss M. Macarthur. History of Scotland. Holt. [Freeman's Historical Series.] 80 cents. E. M. Robertson. Scotland under her Early Kings. 2 v. Ed. Edmonston. 36«. Beaches the end of the thirteenth century. Ahle and scholarly, but confused in arrangement. W. F. Skene. Celtic Scotland. 3 v. Ed. Edmonston. Each, 15s. The most complete work upon Scottish antiquities. %C. G. Walpole. The Kingdom of Ireland. H. §1.75 An excellent history of Ireland, with very good maps ; reaches 180O. W. Dolby. History of Ireland. N.Y. Virtue. $10.00. /. H. McCarthy. Outline of Irish History. Baltimore. Murphy. 75 cents. tMrs. E. S. Armitage. The Childhood of the English Nation. Put. 81.25. An admirable sketch; reaches 1199. %E. A. Freeman. Old English History. JIacm. $1.50. The Anglo-Saxon period ; originally written for the young. Id. Short History of the Norman Conquest. Macm. 60 cents. %Id. History of the Norman Conquest. 5 v. and index. Macm. $20.00. Mr. Freeman's greatest work, and the best history of the period. Id. History of WiUiam Rufus. Macm. $8.00. A continuation of the above. A. Thierry. History of the Norman Conquest.f 2 v. L. BeU. Each, 3s. M. Brilliant, but resting upon unsound theories. C. Elton. Origins of English History. L. Quaritch. $8.00. A work of great learning and research ; embracing the Celtic period and the Anglo-Saxon conquest. 264 HISTOBICAL LITEEATXJKE AND ATJTHORITIBS. XJ- Rhys. Celtic Britain. Soc. 75 cents. By an eminent Celtic scholar. It gives a history of the Celtic nationalities of Britain through the eleventh century. XGrant Allen. Anglo-Saxon Britain. Soc. 75 cents. The author opposes Freeman's view of an exclusively Teutonic character of the English nationality. tJ. R. Green. The Making of England. H. $2.50. Describes graphically and in detail the events of the Anglo-Saxon conquest and the Heptarchy. /. M. Ketnble. The Saxons in England. 2 v. L. Quaiitch. 24s. Old, but full of valuable material. Thos. Nicholas. Pedigree of the English People. Longm. 16s. Argues for a large Celtic element in the English people. E. Guest. Origines Celticae. 2 v. Macm. $9.00. An unfinished work containing papers of remarkable merit, especially in relation to the Anglo-Saxon conquest. /. M. Lappenherg. History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings. 2 V. L. Bell. Each, 3s. M. Id. History of England under the Norman Kings. 15s. Scholarly works, but partly superseded by later writers. W. Longman. Lectures on the Early History of England. Longm. 15s. C. H. Pearson. England during the Early and Middle Ages. 2 v. L. Bell. 14s. Reaches death of Edward I.; of great value in political and constitutional history. Id. Historical Maps of England. L. Bell. £1 lis. Qd. Illustrates especially the social and political condition of the middle ages. Contains material not to be found elsewhere. W. H. Blaauw. The Barons' War. L. Bell. 10s. 6d. An excellent monograph on the times of Montfort. Greatest of all the Plantagenets. L. Bentley. 12s. A history of Edward I. ; very eulogistic, but on the whole sound. % W. Longman. History of the Life and Times of Edward HI. 2 v. Longm. 28s. The most important work for the history of England in the fourteenth century. HISTORICAL LITEEATtJRE AND ATJTHOEITrES. 265 XC. H. Pearson. English History in the Fourteenth Century. L. Rivingtons. 3s. 6rf. An excellent short history. G. M. Toicle. History of Henry V. App. $2.50. Miss C. A. Halsted. Richard III. Ph. Carey. An attempt to vindicate his character. Jas. Gairdner. Life and Reign of Richard the Third. Longm. 10s. M. Sustains the traditionary view. XJ. A. Froude. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth. 12 v. Scr. $18.00. Reaches only 1688. A fascinating narration, friendly to Henry Vni.; deficient in judicial qualities. Miss Lucy Aikin. Memoirs of the Court of Queen Elizabeth. LongTU. 3s. 6d. An old hut valuable book. XL. von Ranke. History of England.f 6 v. Macm. $16.00. A work of the highest value and importance ; embraces the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. XS. R. Gardiner. History of England : 1. From the accession of James I. to the disgrace of Coke, 2 vols. ; 2. The Spanish marriage ; 3. Under the Duke of Buckingham and Charles I., 2 vols. ; 4. Personal government of Charles I., 2 vols. ; 5. Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I., 2 vols. Longm. Each, 12s. Mr. Gardiner is the highest authority upon this period. A new and cheaper edition of the combined work is now publishing. Earl of Clarendon. History of the Rebellion. 6 y. Ox. £1 2s. The author, as Sir Edward Hyde, was a leading actor in the events. XB. M. Cordery and J. S. Phillpotts. King and Commonwealth. Ph. Porter & Coates. $1.75. An excellent sketch ; from 1603 to 1660. F. Guizot. 1. History of the English Revolution of 1640 ; 2. England under Oliver Cromwell, 2 v. ; 3. Under Richard Cromwell, 2 v. ; 4. History of Monk.f L. Per vol., 3«. M. 266 Hisa^OEicAL liibkatitiib and atithokities. A. Bisset. History of the Struggle for Parliamentary Government in England. 2 v. 24s. Id. History of the Common-wealth of England from the Death of Charles I. to the Expulsion of the Long Parliament by Crom- well. 2 V. 30s. An able exposition of the parliamentary side. /. Forster. The Arrest of the Five Members by Charles I. M. 12s. Id. The Grand Remonstrance. M. 12s. XF. von Raumer. The Political History of England during the 16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries. 2 v.f £1 10s. By a distinguished German historian. %T. B. Macaulay. History of England. 5 v. H. $2.50. Strongly Whig; a brilliant work; unfinished; covers the reigns * of James II. and William III., with a general sketch of that of Charles n. XSir James Mackintosh. History of the Revolution of 1688. An able work; also Whig., Unfinished. C. J. Fox. History of James H. Scr. $1.25. /. H. Burton. History of the Reign of Queen Anne. 3 v. Sor. 113.50. Whig; by the author of the history of Scotland. Earl Stanhope. History of the Reign of Queen Anne. 2 v. M. 10s. Id. History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles [1713 to 1783]. 7 v. M. These two works give the history of the eighteenth century from a Tory point of view. % W. E. H. Lecky. History of England in the 18th Century. 4 v. App. 19.00. Not yet finished ; from a Whig point of view. J. Ashton. Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne. Scr. $9.00. Graphic and accurate. J.A.Froude. The English in Ireland in the 18th Century. 3 v. Scr. 13.00. Written with a strong English bias. /. Adolphm. A History of England from the Accession of G«orge m. to 1803. 7 V. Each, 14s. mSTOEICAL LITBEATtJEB ANB AtJTHOElTlES. 267 W. Massey. A History of England during the Reign of George the Third. 4 v. Each, Qs. Massey is Whig ; Adolphus, Tory. Miss H. Mariineau. History of the Peace [to 1854]. 4 v. B. Walker. $10.00. S. Walpole. History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815 to 1841. 3 v. Longm. £2 14s. W. N. Molesworth. History of England from 1830 to 1874. 8 v. C. & H. §6.00. tJ. McCarthy. History of Our Own Times. 2 v. H. $2.50. H. M. Hazier. Invasions of England. 2 v. jMaom. $8.00. }S. R. Gardiner. Introduction to English History. [In English History for Students.] N.Y. Holt. 80 cents. JR. Pauli. Pictm-es of Old England.f ilaom. 6s. Belonging to mediaeval history. Miss C. M. Yonge. Cameos from English History. Macm. $5.00. Four series, covering mediaeval history. /. Gairdner and J. Spedding. Studies in English History. Ed. Douglas. 12s. Belonging to the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. A. C. Ewald. Stories from the State Papers. Houghton. $3.00. Belonging to the same period. T. B. Macaulay. Essays. 4 v. Houghton. $5.00. Devoted chiefly to modern English history. /. S. Brewer. English Studies. M. 14s. XJ. E. T. Rogers. History of Agriculture and Prices. 4 v. Macm. $23.00. Covers the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. F. Seebohm. The English Village Community. Longm. W. Cunningham. 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[New Plutarch.] Put. 11.00. Sir Walter Raleigh. By E. Edwards. 2 v. Macm. $9.00 tBacon. By J. Spedding. 2 v. Houghton. fS.OO. For the Period of the English Revolution. Strafford. By Miss E. Cooper. 2 v. L. Tinsley. 30s. EUot. By J. Forster. 2 v. C. & H. 14s. tCromwell. By Thos. Carlyle. [Letters and Speeches.] 5 v. Scr. $18.00. tid. Bj J. A. Picton. C. $2.50. Id. By Paxton Hood. N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. $1.00. /. B. Mozley. Essays. [Strafford, Laud, CromweU.] 2 v. L. 24s. Three English Statesmen. By G. Smith. [Pym, Cromwell.] H. $1.50. Statesmen of the Commonwealth. By /. Forster. $2.25. Chief Actors in the Puritan Revolution By P. Bayne. L. Clarke. 12s. JMilton. By D. Masson. 6 v. Macm. $34.00. Contains a minute history of the times. W. Carstares. By R. H. Story. Macm. $3.00. A prominent actor in the Scotch union. Marlborough. By W. Coxe. 3 v. L. BeU. Each, 3s. 6d. 270 HISTOEICAL LITEEATTJEE AND ATJTHOKITIES. Sir K. Walpole. Bj A. C. Ewald. C. & H. 18s. C.E. Stuart. 'BjA.C.Ewald. 2 y. 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An excellent short sketch. Cunningham Geikie. The English Reformation: How it came ahout, and why we should uphold it. App. $2.00. A popular and rather one-sided work. W. Cobbett. History of the Protestant Reformation in England and Ireland. N.Y. Sadlier. 75 cents. A violent attack upon the English Reformation, by a nominal Protestant. For the Catholic view, see Lingard and Spalding. F. Seebohm. The Oxford Reformers. Longm. 14s. Diocesan Histories [Canterbury, Durham, etc.]. Soc. HISTOBICAL, LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 271 Constitutional History. XW. Stubbs. Constitutional History of England. 3 v. Macm. $7.80. Jiy. Hallam. Constitutional History of England. 3 v. N.Y. Arm- strong. So. 25. %T. E.May. Constitutional History of England. 2 v. N.Y. Arm- strong. 82.50. These three works form a connected series, Hallam beginning l4So, where Stubbs ends, and ending 1760, where May begins. Sheldon Amos. Fifty Years of the English' Constitution. L. & B. T.P. Taswell-Langmead. Constitutional History of England. $7.50. The best compendium of the subject. P. V. Smith. History of English Institutions. Lip. fl.50. A good short work, with a peculiar arrangement. E. A. Freeman. Growth of the English Constitution. Macm. $2.00. H. Adams [and others]. Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law. L. & B. $4.00. M. M. Bigelow. History of Anglo-Norman Procedure. L. & B. 85.00. Sir Jos. Stephen. History of the Criminal Law of England. 3 v. Macm. See also the following articles : by /. E. T. Rogers, on The Black Death, Fortn. Kev., 1866 ; the Peasants' ^Var, id. ; History of Rent in England, Cont. Rev., April, 1880 ; by F. Seebohm, on The Black Death, Fortn. Rev., 1865-66 ; by Ch-ant Allen, Are we English? in Fortn. Rev., Oct., 1880 [presenting Celtic argu- ment] ; by F. Harrison, on Law of Treason, in Fortn. Rev., Sept., 1882 ; by Goldwin Smith, on the Greatness of England, in Cont. Kev., Dec, 1878; by F. Seebohm, Historical Claims of Tenant Rights, in 19th Cent., Jan., 1881 ; also on Land Tenures in England and in Ireland, in Fort. Rev., 1870 ; by R. D. Osborn, Another Side of a Popular Story [India], in Fort. Rev., Aug., 1882. 272 HISTOBICAL LITEEATUEE AND AITTHORITrES. Authorities. XJ. Bass Mullinger. Authorities [in English History for Students]. N.Y. Holt. $1.80. A compendious view of the principal authorities. %C. K. Adams. Questions and Notes on English Constitutional History. Ann Arbor. Sheehan. A complete and accurate guide to the authorities. A less full guide will be found in Prof. Short's Reference Lists, referred to elsewhere. Jas. Gairdner. Early Chroniclers of Europe. England. Soc. $1.20. An interesting account of the English chronicles. Translations of most of the chronicles will be found in Bohn's Library. Bell. Froissart's Chronicles [fourteenth century] . N.Y. Leavitt & AUen. fl2.00. /. E. T. Rogers. Loci e libro veritatis. Macm. $2.75. Belongs to the fifteenth century. Id. The Paston Letters. 4 v. L. Arber. A collection of family letters, of the time of the War of the Eoses. D'Ewes' Autobiography and Correspondence. 2 v. L. Bentley. £18s. The Fairfax Correspondence. 4 v. L. Bentley. £3. S. Pepys. Diary and Correspondence. Scr. $2.00. /. Evelyn. Diary and Correspondence. Scr. $1.75. These two works present a vivid picture of society in the last haU of the seventeenth century. H. Walpole. Letters. 9 v. Scr. $33.75. Full of information for the middle of the eighteenth century. Coibett's Parliamentary History, continued in Hansard's Parlia- mentary Debates. Rymer's Foedera [collection of treaties]. The publications of the Master of the KoUs. The publications of the Camden Society, and similar societies. HISTORICAL LITEEATTJEE AND AUTHORITIES. 273 12. History op France. tF. Guizot. History of France.f 8 v. f40.00. Handsomely illustrated. The best large history of France in English. tG. TF. KitcUn. History of France. 3 v. Macm. $7.80. The best English work. H. W. Jervis. Student's History of France. H. $1.25. An excellent small work, with instructive illustrations. /. Michelet. History of France. 2 v.f App. 84.00. Very learned, and very brilliant, but too abounding in theory. F. Guizot and G. Masson. Concise History of France.f E. & L. 8.3.00. XP. Lacombe. The Growth of a People.f Holt. $1.00. An admirable work, descriptive of the development of the nation. Parke Godwin. History of France. Vol. I. H. $3.00. An excellent history of the period before Charlemagne. No other volumes were published. H. Martin. History of France (during the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV.). 3 v.f B. E. & L. $16.50. Martin's is considered the best history of France. Sir Jas. Stephen. Lectures on the History of France. H. $3.00. An admirable commentary upon French history. Miss C. M. Yonge. History of France. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] Holt. 80 cents. F. Guizot. St. Louis and Calvin. [Sunday Library.] Macm. -D. -F. Jamison. Life and Times of Bertrand du Guesclin. 2 v. Lip. $14.00. Janet Tuckey. Joan of Arc. Put. [New Plutarch.] $l.pO. Harriet Parr. Life and Death of Jeanne d'Arc. 2 v. S. & E. 6s. T.Willert. The Reign of Louis the Eleventh. Put. $1.50. %H. M. Baird. History of the Rise of the Huguenots. 2 v. Scr. $5.00. The best history of the subject. W. Besant. Coligny and the Failure of the French Reformation. rNew Plutarch.] Put. 274 HISTOBICAL LITERATUKE AND AUTHOHITIES. Ducd'Aumale. History of the Princes of the House of Conde.f 2 v. L. Bentley. 30s. L. Ranke. Civil Wars and Monarchy in France.f H. $1.50. Lady Jackson. The Old Regime. Holt. |2.25. A vivid picture of society under Louis XV. Due de Broglie. The King's Secret (Louis XV.).t 2 v. C. $5.00. Has special reference to Polish affairs. G. Masson. Early Chroniclers of Europe. Eranoe. Soc. $1,20. Memoirs of Commines (Louis XL), Sully (Henry IV.), and others. Revolutionary Period, etc. A. Young. Travels in France during the Years 1787-89. 2 v. The best contemporary picture of the condition of France before the Eevolution. A . de Tocqueville. The Ancient R^gime-f H. $1.50. An analysis of the political condition of France at the same time. C. D. Yonge. Life of Marie Antoinette. H. $2.50. A popular work. H. Vizetelly. Story of the Diamond Necklace. Sor. $2.25. A vivid picture of society under the Old Regime. See also Carlyle's essay upon the same subject. C. K. Adams. Democracy and Monarchy in France. Holt. $2.50. An excellent sketch of recent French history. H. A. Taine. The Ancient Regime.f Holt. $2.50. Id. The French Revolution. 2 v.f Holt. |5.00. Not so much history as commentary ; very unfavorable to the revolutionists. %H. V. Syhel. History of the French Revolution, i v.f M. 48s. The best and most important history. T. Carlyle. History of the French Revolution. 3 v. Scr. $2.40. Remarkable for graphic power. Edmund Burke. Reflections on the French Revolution. 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Bell. $4.20. The best large work in English. /. Sime. History of Germany. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] 80 cents. Bayard Taylor. History of Germany. H. $1.75. C. T. Lewis. History of Germany. H. $1.50. Both these short histories are based upon that of Miiller. % W. Coxe. History of House of Austria. 3 v. Bohn. A hook of great accuracy and value. T. L. Kington-Oliphant. History of Frederic H. 2 v. Macm. A valuable contribution to the history of the thirteenth century. HISTORICAL LITERATTIEE AND ATTTHOEITIES. 277 T. Carlyle. History of Frederick the Great. 6 v. H. 17.50. A work of great industry, but in Cariyle's worst style, and unduly laudatory. Due de Broglie. Frederic the Great and Maria Theresa. f L. Low. 30s. In the time of the First Silesian War, 1740-42. W. Spalding. Hist, of Italy and the Italian Islands. 3 v. H. $2.25. A good compendium ; more recent is — W. Hunt. History of Italy. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] Holt. 80 cts. J. C. L. de Skmondi. History of the Italian Republics. 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History of Naples. 2 v. Ed. Edmonston. 24s. W. C. Hazlitt. History of the Venetian Republic. 2 v. L. 28s. /. T. Bent. Genoa. L. Paul. 18s. An interesting work, but badly arranged. 278 HISTORICAL LITEEATUKE AND AUTHORITIES. /. A. Wylie. History of the Waldenses. C. $1.25. A good popular work. J. Bigelow. Molinos the Quietist. Scr. fl.25. Episode of religious history in the seventeenth century. Count Balzani. Early Chroniclers of Europe. Italy. Soc. |1.20. S. A. Dunham. History of Spain and Portugal. 5 v. H. |3.75. An old but good work. /. A. Harrison. Spain. B. Lothrop. $1.50. Excellent in parts, but of unequal merit. %H. Coppee. History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors. 2 V. L. & B. 15.00. An excellent history of Spain during the middle ages. Miss C. M. Yonge. Christians and Moors in Spain. Macm. $1.25. A sketch of a popular character. /. A. Conde. History of the Arabs in Spain. 3 v. Bohn. 14.20. An old standard work, but of little value. Life of Saint Teresa. Macm. $2.00. 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Willis. 36s. /. Geddes. Administration of John De Witt. Vol. 1. H. $2.50. The period of the invasion of Holland by Louis XTV. XG. Finlay. History of Greece, from its Conquest by the Romans (B.C. 146) to the Present Time (1864). 7 v. Macm. $17.50. A work of the highest merit and authority. L. Sergeant. Xew Greece. C. $3.50. Sir E. Creasy. History of the Ottoman Turks. Holt. $2.50. E. A. Freeman. The Ottoman Power iii Europe. Macm. $2.00. Freeman's view is less friendly than that of Creasy. /. Blochwitz. Brief History of Turkey. 0. 50 cents. There is a history of the Turks iu Vol. IT. of /. H. Newman's Historical Sketches. %Sir W. Muir. Life of Mahomet. S. & E. 14s. Id. Annals of the Early Caliphate. S. & E. 16s. W. Irving. Mahomet and his Successors. 2 v. Put. $2.00. %R. Bosworth Smith. Mohammed and Mohammedism. E. A. Freeman. History of the Saracens. Macm. $1.50. A book of merit, but old. S. Ockley. History of the Saracens. Bohn. $1.40. A fascinating narrative. R. B. Osborn. Islam under the Arabs. Longm. 12s. Id. Islam under the Caliphs of Bagdad. Seeley. 10s. 6d. 280 HISTORICAL LITBBATUEE AND ATJTHORITIES. E. H. Palmer. Haroun al Raschid. [New Plutarch.] Put. $1.00. A . Crighton. History of Arabia. 2 v. H. |1.50. James Mill. History of British India. 9 v. £2 16s. The standard work. Excellent short ones are — tW. W. Hunter. Short History of India. $6.40. tJ. T. Wheeler. Short History of India. Macm. $3.50. L. J. Trotter. History of India. Soc. 10s. M. R. G. Watson. History of Persia. S. & E. 15s. H. H. Howorth. History of the Mongols from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. 3 v. |28.00. D. C. Boulger. History of China. 2 v. L. Allen. $14.40. 14. Nineteenth Century. R. Mackenzie. The Nineteenth Century. L. Nelson. $1.00. An excellent general sketch. Memoirs of Prince Metternich. (1773-1815.)t 2 v. Scr. $5.00. Valuable in the diplomatic history of the time. Sir A. Alison. History of Europe from 1815. 4 v. H. $8.00. 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[Bismarck and Gortschakoff.] Houghton. 132.00. W. BageJiot. Biographical Studies. Longm. 12s. Lord Stratford de Redcliffe. The Eastern Question. M. 9s. A. W. Kinglake. The Invasion of the Crimea [1854]. 4 v. H. $8.00. H. M. Hozier. The Seven Weeks' War. [1866.] Macm. $2.00. A. Borhstaedt and F. Dwyer. The Eranco-Grerman War [1870]. L. Asher. 21s. A military history ; popular illustrated works are — Edmund Oilier. The Franco-German War. 2 v. C. $7.50. Id. The Russo-Turkish War. 2 v. C. $8.00. F. V. Greene. The Russian Army and its Campaigns in Turkey in 1877-78. App. $6.00. "With atlas of maps. T. W. Higginson. Brief Biographies. Put. $1.50 a vol. 1. English Statesmen. By T. W. Higginson. 2. English Radical Leaders. By R. J. Hinton. 3. French Political Leaders. By Edw. King. 4. German Political Leaders. By Herbert Tuttle. See also lists 11 and 12, England and France. 282 HISTOKICAL LITBKATURE AND AUTHOEITIES. 15. History of the United States. XGeo. Bancroft. History of the United States. 10 v. (to 1783), $25.00 ; two additional vols, to 1789, $5.00. The standard work ; democratic in tone. Centenary edition (to 1783) in 6 v., 113.50; complete edition now publishing in 6 v., $15.00. JiJ. Hildreth. History of the United States. 6 v. (to 1820). H. $12.00. Sound and generally accurate; Federalist in proclivities. Geo. Tucker. History of the United States. 4 v. (to 1841). Lip. $10.00. A Southern view; begins with the Revolution Wm. C. Bryant and S. H. Gay. Popular History of the United States. 4v. Scr. $24.00. Handsomely illustrated. The early parts are the best. B. J. Lossing. Cyclopsedia of United States History. 2 v. H. $12.00. A valuable book of reference, but badly arranged. S. G. Drake. Dictionary of American Biography. Houghton. J. J. Lalor. Cyclopaedia of Political Science. 2 v. Ch. Gary. Each, $6.00. /. Winsor. Memorial History of Boston. 4 v. O. $25.00. A collection of monographs by various writers. Mrs. Martha J. Lamb. History of New York. 2 v. Barnes. $20.00. A work of very great merit. J. C. Ridpath. Popular History of the United States. Cincinnati. Jones. $3.00. The best history of an intermediate size. S. Eliot. History of the United States (to 1850). B. Ware. $1.35. Very judicious and accurate, but dry. J. A . Doyle. History of the United States. [Freeman's Historical Series.] Holt. $1.00. An excellent English work. HISTORICAL LITEEATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 283 R. Mackenzie. America. L. Nelson. $1.00. Another good English work, embracing all America. /. T. Short. Historical Reference Lists. Columbus. Smyths. 40 cts. Chiefly having reference to American history. /. T. Short. North Americans of Antiquity. H. §3.00. The best book upon the ethnology, etc., of the Indians. /. W. Foster. Prehistoric Races of the United States. Ch. Griggs. §3.00. The best work upon .American archaeology. G. E. Elm. The Red Man and the White Man. L. & B. $3.50. F. A. Walker. The Indian Question. $1.50. G. TV. Manypenny. Our Indian Wards. Cincinnati. Clarke. $3.00. Mrs. Jackson {H. H.) . A Century of Dishonor. H. $1.50. XH. H. Bancroft. Xative Races of the Pacific States. 5 v. San Francisco. Each, S1.50. A cyclopaedia of information. H. R. Schoolcraft. Indian Tribes of the United States. 6 v. Lip. 875.00. Contains much information, with much useless matter. G. W. Williams. History of the Negro Race in America. 2 v. Put. $7.00. Colonial Period. 1607 to 1763. Jas. Grdhame. History of the United States of North America. 4 v. L. £2 10s. A fair and friendly English accoimt, reaching 1776. E. D. Neill. The English Colonization of America. L. 14s. Of especial value for the Middle States. tH. C. Lodge. Short History of the English Colonies. H. $3.00. An excellent compendium, arranged by colonies. tJ. A. Doyle. English Colonies in America. Vol. I. Holt. $3.50. Vol. I. contains the Southern colonies. It is a very good work. F. F. Charlevoix. History of New France.f 6 y, N.Y. $45.00. 284 HISTOEICAL LITEEATUKE AND ATJTHOBITIES. XF. Parkman. France and England in North America. 7 v. L. & B. Each, $2.50. 1. The Pioneers of France in the New World. 2. The Jesuits in North America. 3. The Discovery of the Great West. 4. The Old Regime in Canada. 5. Count Frontenac and New France. The Conspiracy of Pontiac. 2 v. A series of the highest excellence. T.Mante. History of the Late War in North America. L. 1772. An authentic account of the French and Indian war. %J. G. Palfrey. History of New England. 4 v. L. & B. 114.50. The best history of New England. Massachusetts and her Early History. L. & B. An Instructive series of lectures by different persons. Peter Oliver. The Puritan Commonwealth. L. & B. $2.50. Hostile to the Ptu:itans. J. H. Trumbull. The True Blue Laws of Connecticut and New Haven, and the False Blue Laws, invented by the Eev. Samuel Peters. Hartford. Am. Pub. Co. XR. Frothingham. Rise of the Republic. L. & B. $3.50. A history of the growth of the sentiment of union. E. G. Scott. The Development of Constitutional Liberty in the English Colonies of America. Put. $2.50. J/. G. Shea. Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. $6.00. Indispensable to the student of western history. R. Blanchard. Discovery and Conquests of the Northwest. Ch. MacCoun. $3.00. Mrs. Anne Grant. Memoirs of an American Lady. Albany. Munsell. $3.00. A graphic picture of life in Albany before the revolution. See also articles by T. W. Higginson, John Fishe, and Edw. Eggleston in Harper's Monthly and the Century for 1882 and 1883. HISTOKICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 285 Revolutionary Period. 1763 to 1789. XJ. Winsor. Handbook of the American Revolution. Houghton. $1.25. An exhaustive list of authorities. /. M. Ludlow. The War of American Independence. E. & L. $1.00. An English work belonging to the Epochs Series. XG. W. Greene. Historical View of the American Revolution. Houghton. $1.50. Aq instructive series of lectures. Id. The German Element in the War of Independence. Houghton. $1.50. tB. J. Lossing. Field-book of the Revolution. 2 v. H. $14.00. A description of the battle-fields, etc. H. B. Carrington. Battles of the Revolution. Barnes. $6.00. By an army officer; with plans of battle-fields, etc. Thos. Jones. New York during the Revolutionarj' War. 2 v. App. 115.00. By a Tory; its unfairness shown by H. P. Johnston. L. C. Draper. King's Mountain and its Heroes. Cincinnati. Thomson. $4.00. A valuable monograph. W. L. Stone. Border Wars of the American Revolution. 2 v. H. $1.50. C. W. Butterjield. The Washington-Irvine Correspondence. Madi- son (Wis.). Atwood. An important work for the history of the North-west. W. H. Trescot. Diplomacy of the Revolution. App. 75 cents. A. S. Bolles. Financial History of the United States. (1774-1860.) 2 V. App. $6.00. tG. T. Curtis. History of the Constitution. 2 v. H. $6.00. L. Sabine. History of the American Loyalists. 2 v. L. & B. $7.00. A work of great merit and value. Familiar Letters of John and Abigail Adama. Houghton. $2.00. 286 HISTOEICAL LITEKATTJKE AND AUTHORITIES. Period of the Republic. iJ. B. McMaster. History of the People of the United States. App. 12.50. Only one vol. published; gives special attention to social history. Jas. Schouler. History of the American Republic. Washington. Morrison. $5.00. Two volumes published, reaching 1817. W. R. Houghton. Hist, of American Politics. Indianapolis. Neely. With numerous illustrative diagrams. A. W. Young. The American Statesman. N.Y. Goodspeed. 15.00. Contains a good summary of congressional debates, etc. E. Williams. Statesman's Manual. N.Y. XAlex. Johnston. History of American Politics. Holt. |1.00. A brief compendium of high merit. J. Marshall. Life of Washington. 2 v. Ph. Claxton. $6.00. Contains the best political history of Washington's administra- tion. W. H. Trescot. Diplomatic History of the Administrations of Washington and Adams. L. & B. 11.25. %H. von Hoist. Constitutional History of the United States. Ch. Callaghan. $11.50. The three volumes published reach 1850. H. Adams. Documents Relating to New England Federalism. $4.00. Throws much light upon the history of the party. B. J. Lossing. Field-book of the War of 1812. H. $7.00. G. W. Cullum. Campaigns of the War of 1812-15. N.Y. Miller. $5.00. By an army officer. R. Johnson. History of the War of 1812. Dodd, Mead, & Co. $1.25. A shorter and popular work. % Theodore Roosevelt. The Naval War of 1812. Put. $2.50. An accurate and impartial account. R. S. Ripley. The War with Mexico. 2 v. W. G. Sumner. History of American Currency. Holt. $3.00. HISTORICAL LITERATURE AST) AUTHORITIES. 287 The First Century of the Kepublic. 1876. H. f5.00. A valuable collection of essays surveying the period. T. H. Benton. Thirty Years in the United States Senate. 2 t. App. ^6.00. Covering the period from 1821 to 1851. Nathan Sargent. Public Men and Events. 2 v. Lip. Reminiscences from 1817 to 1883 ; Whig in tone. H. Wilson. History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power. 3 v. Houghton. Each, $3.00. W. H. Prescott. History of the Conquest of Mexico. 3 v. Lip. ail.50. Id. History of the Conquest of Peru. 2 v. Lip. $3.00. A. Helps. The Spanish Conquest of America. 4 v. H. $6.00. C. A. Washburn. History of Paraguay. 2 v. L. & S. $7.50. See also Carlyle's article on Dr. Francia. C. R. Markham. The War Between Peru and Chili, 1879-82. N.Y. Worthington. The Civil War. %Comte de Paris. History of the Civil War. 3 v. published. Ph. Porter & Coates. 83.50 a vol. The best history of the war, so far as completed. ^Campaigns of the Civil War. Scr. $1.00 per vol. 1. /. G. Xicolay. The Outbreak of Rebellion. 2. M. F. Force. From Fort Heniy to Corinth. 3. A. S. Webb: The Peninsula. 4. /. C. Ropes. The Army under Pope. 5. F. W. Palfrey. The Antietam and Fredericksburg. 6. A. Doubleday. Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. 7. H. M. Cist. The Army of the Cumberland. 8. F. V. Greene. The Mississippi. 9. /. D. Cox. The Campaign of Atlanta. 10. Id. The March to the Sea. 11. G. E. Pond. The Shenandoah Valley in 1864. 12. A. A. Humphreys. The Campaigns of Grant in Virginia. 288 HISTORICAL LITEEATUKE AOT) AUTHORITIES. The Navy in the Civil War. Scr. $1.00 per vol. 1. /. R. Soley. The Blockade and the Cruisers. 2. Daniel Ammen. The Atlantic Coast. 3. A. T. Mahan. The Gulf and Inland Waters. These fourteen small vols, are all by persons specially qualified to write upon their subjects, and form an admirable condensed history of the war. Supplementary volumes : — F. Phisterer. Statistical Record of the Armies of the United - States. A. A. Humphreys. Gettysburg to the Rapidan. J. W. Draper. History of the American Civil War. 3 v. H. 110.50. With an introduction upon the influence of physical causes upon American history. H. Greeley. The American Conflict. 2 v. Hartford. Case. $10.00. Jeff. Davis. Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. 2 v. App. $10.00. A. H. Stephens. Constitutional View of the Late War between the States. Nat. Pub. Co. $5.50. These two volumes, by the president and vice-president of the Confederacy, present the Southern view. See also — E. A. Pollard. The Lost Cause. KY. Treat. $5.00. and J. E. Johnston. Narrative of Military Operations. App. $5.00. A. Badeau. Military History of U. S. Grant. 3 v. App. $12.00. W. T. Sherman. Memoirs. 2 v. App. $5.50. W. Swinton. Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac. N.Y. Richardson. $4.00. For original documents : — The War of the Rebellion. Published by Congress. Prank Moore. The Rebellion Record. 12 v. Put. HISTOBICAL, UTEEATURE AKD AUTHOEITIES. 289 Histories of the States.* Maine. By W. D. Williamson. 2 v. Hallowell. $9.00. New Hampshire. By Jeremy Belknap. 3 v. B. $7.50. Vermont. By Zadock Thompson. Burlington. $4.50. Massachusetts. By /. S. Barry. 3 v. B. $8.50. Rhode Island. By S. G. Arnold. 2 v. App. $6.00. Connecticut. By B. Trumbull. 2 v. New Haven. $9.00. Id. By G. H. Hollister. 2 v. New Haven. $5.00. New York. By /. R. Brodhead. 2 v. H. $6.00. New Jersey. By /. 0. Raum. 2 v. Ph. Potter. $6.00. Pennsylvania. By Robert Proud. 2 v. Ph. $12.00. Id. By W. H. Egle. Harrisburg. $5.50. Maryland. By J. L. Bozman. 2 v. Baltimore. $5.00. Virginia. By R. R. Howison. 2 v. Richmond. $6.00. North Carolina. By /. W. Moore. 2 v. Raleigh. $5.00. South Carolina. By D. Ramsay. 2 v. Charleston. $4.00. Id. By W. G. Simms. N.Y. Redfleld. $2.25. Georgia. By W. B. Stevens. 2 v. Ph. $5.00. Florida. By G. R. Fairbanks. Lip. $2.50. Alabama. By ^4. J^. Picket. 2 v. Charleston. $7.50. Mississippi. By J. F. H. Claiborne. Jackson. 2 v. $7.00. Louisiana. By C. Gayarre. 3 v. N.Y. $12.00. Texas. By H. Yoakum. 2 v. N.Y. Redfield. $8.00. Tennessee. By J. G. M. Ramsey. Lip. $2.50. Kentucky. By Humphrey Marshall. 2 v. Frankfort. $14.50. Ohio. 'Bj Jos. W. Taylor. [Unfinished; ends 1787.] Cincinnati. $6.00. Id. By J. S. C. Abbott. Detroit. $4.00. Indiana. By John B. Dillon. Indianapolis. $3.00. * Tor this selected list I am principally indebted to Mr. D. S. Dnrrie, Librarian of the Wisconsin Historical Society. 290 HISTORICAL LITEKATUBB A:s'D AUTHOKITIBS. Illinois. By A. Davidson and B. Stune. Springfield. $5.00. Michigan. By Jas. V. Campbell. Detroit. $4.50. Id. By J. H. Lanman. H. 75 cents. Minnesota. By E. D. Neill. Minneapolis. $2.50. Wisconsin. By W. R. Smith. [Unfinished.] Madison. Kansas. By D. W. Wilder. Topeka. $5.00. Jlissom-i. By W. F. Swilzler. St. Louis. Barns. |2.50. California. By Franklin Tuthill. San Francisco. Bancroft. Oregon. By W. H. Gray. Portland. $4.00. {American Commonwealths. Houghton. Virginia. By John Esten Cooke. History of the Pacific States. By H. H. Bancroft [now publishing]. San Francisco. Bancroft. Biographies. George Washington. By W. Irving. 5 v. Put. $5.00. Alexander Hamilton. By /. T. Morse. 2 v. L. & B. $4.50. John Adams. By /. Q. and C. F. Adams. Lip. $2.00. Thomas Jefferson. By H. S. Randall. 3 v. Lip. $9.00. Id. By Jas. Parton. Houghton. $2.00. Benjamin Frantlin (autobiography). By /. Bigelow. 3 v. Lip. $7.50. Id. By Jas. Parton. 2 v. Houghton. $4.00. General N". Greene. By G. W. Greene. 3 v. Put. $12.00. Israel Putnam. By /. N. Tarhox. Lockwood, Brooks, & Co. $2.50. F. W. Steuben. By Fred Kapp. H. Patrick Henry. By W. Wirt. Ph. Claston. $1.50. Timothy Piokeri^ag. By 0. Pickering and C. W. Upham. 4 v. L. & B. .914. JO. James Madison. By W. C. Rives. 3 v. L. & B. $10.50. John Jay. By Wm. Jay. H. Gouverneur Morris. By Jared Sparks. L. & B. AViUiam Pinkney. By Henry Wheaton. $1.25. HISTORICAL LITEKATUliE AND AUTHORITIES. 'I'Jl Albert Gallatin. By H. Adams. Lip. .S-j-OO. George Cabot. By H. C. Lodge. L. & B. 83.50. Aaron Buit. By Jas. Par/on. 2 v. Houghton. S-t.OO. Andrew Jackson. By Jas. Parton. 3 v. Houghton. S6.00 Daniel "Webster. By G. T. Curtis. 2 v. App. 84.00. Josiah Quincy. By Edmund Quincy. 0. ^^-j.OO. W. L. Garrison. By 0. Johnson. B. Russell. W. H. Seward. By F. W. Seward. App. §4.2.5. Charles Sumner. By E. L. Pierce. 2 v. K. 86.00. James Buchanan. By G. T. Curtis. 2 v. H. Abraham Lincoln. By H. J. Roymond. ^.Y. Derby. 81.50. Id. By C. G. Lelund. [Xew Plutarch.] Put. 81.00. Library of American Biography. Edited by Jared Sparks. 10 v- H. 812.50. Theodore Parker. Historic Americans. [Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, Adams.] B. Fuller. •'<1..30. JAmerican Statesmen. Houghton. Per vol., 81--5. Contains : — Alexander Hamilton. By H. C. Lodge. J. Q. Adams. By /. T. iforse. J. G. Calhoun. By H. von Hoht. Andrew Jackson. By 11^ G. Sumner. John Randolph. By H. Adams. James Monroe. By D. C. Gllman. Thomas Jefierson. By /. T. Morse. Daniel Webster. By H. C. Lodge. See also the next list. Autliorities. W. Bradford. History of the Plymouth Plantation. 82.25. Alex. Young. Chronicles of Plymouth. Id. Chronicles of Massachusetts. 2 v. $5.00. Records of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay. Edited by J. W. Thornton. 292 HISTOEICAX, LITEKATTJEB AND ATITHORITIBS. John Winthrop. History of New England. 1630-49. 2 v. $5.00, By the first governor of Massachusetts. Thos. Hutchinson. History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. $4.00. The author was lieutenant-governor of the colony, and a strong Tory. Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New York. 11 V. Albany. Published by the State. American Archives. Edited by Peter Force. American State Papers. Congressional Documents, etc. Elliot's Debates [of the Constitution]. 5 v. Lip. $12.50. Annals of Congress. Archseologia Americana. T. H. Benton. Abridgment of Debates of Congress. 1789-1856. 16 V. App. The Federal and State Constitutions, etc. Compiled by B. P. Poore. Washington. 1878. Treaties and Conventions, etc. Washington. 1871. Life and Writings of George Washington. 12 v. H. $18.00. Life and Works of John Adams. 10 v. L. & B. $30.00. Works of Alexander Hamilton. 7 v. N.Y. Trow. $21.00. Letters and Other Writings of James Madison. 4 v. Lip. $16.00. Writings of Thomas Jefferson. 9 v. Lip. $23.50. Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin. 10 v. Ch. $20.00. Papers of James Madison. 4 v. Ph. $16.00. Works of Daniel Webster. 6 v. L. & B. $18.00. Life and Works of John C. Calhoun. 6 v. App. $15.00. Works of Henry Clay. 6 v. $18.00. HISTOEICAIi LITEEATURE AXD ATTTHOEITIES. 293 16. Selected List of Historical Novels, Poems, and Plays, Arranged Chronologically. A.Lang. Helen of Troy. (Poem.) W. Morris. Jason. (Poem.) Id. The Earthly Paradise. A collection of poems narrating Greek and German legends. C. Kingsley. Andromeda. (Poem.) A. C. Swinburne. Atalanta in Calydon. (Poem.) B.C. 15th century. — Ebers. Uarda [Rameses II.]. 6th centiiry. — Id. Daughter of an Egyptian King. 5th century. — Landor. Pericles and Aspasia. 2d century. — Ebers. The Sisters. 1st century. — Shakespeare. Julius Caesar (Drama). A.D. 1st century. — /. F. Clarke. Thomas Didymus. Philochristus. Onesimus. Bulwer. The Last Days of Pompeii. 2d century. — Ebers. The Emperor [Hadrian]. 3d century. — Cardinal Newman. Callista. Cardinal Wiseman. Fabiola [The Catacombs]. ilrs. Hunt. Tlie Wards of Plotinus. W. Ware. Zenobia. Aurelian. 4th century. — Ebers. Homo Sum [3.30, Sinai]. V. Rydberg. The Last Athenian [361]. 5th century. — C. Kingsley. Ilypatia [Alexandria]. Wilkie Collins. Antonina, or the Fall of Rome. 8th century. — G.Freytag. Our Forefathers : Ingraban. 10th cenbarj. — Scheffel. Ekkehart [The Monks of St. GaUen]. Taylor. Edwin the Fair (Drama) . 11th century. — Bulwer. Harold, the Last of the Saxon Kings. Kingsley. Hereward, the Last of the English. 12th century. — Scott. The Betrothed. The Talisman. Ivanhoe. Lessing. Nathan the Wise (Drama). 294 HISTOEICAL LITEEATTJEE AND AUTHOEITIES. 12th century. — The Luck of Ladysmede. E. E. Hale. In his Name [Waldenses]. 13th century. — Shakespeare. King John (Drama). C. Kingsley. The Saints' Tragedy. O.P.R. James. Forest Days [Simon de Montfort], Mrs. Heinans. The Vespers of Palermo (Drama). 14th centiiry. — Schiller. Wilhelm Tell (Drama). Bulwer. Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes. Taylor. Philip van Artevelde (Drama). Shakespeare. Richard II. (Drama). 15th century. — Id. Henry IV., V., VI. Eichard III. (Dramas). Schiller. Die Jungfrau von Orleans (Drama). Scott. Fair Maid of Perth. Quentin Durnard. Anne of Geierstein. Bulioer. The Last of the Barons [Warwick]. C. Reade. The Cloister and tlie Hearth. Geo. Eliot. Eomola [Savonarola]. 16th century. — Shakespeare. Henry VIII. (Drama). Scott. Marmion. Lady of the Lake. Lay of the Last Minstrel (Poems). —The Monastery. The Ab- bot. Kenilworth. Kingsley. Amy as Leigh, or Westward Ho ! Schiller. Maria Stuart (Drama). Gcethe. Egmont (Drama). 17th centm-y. — Scott. Fortunes of Nigel. Legend of Montrose. Woodstock. Peveril of the Peak. Old MortaUty. — Bolreby (Poem). Manzoni. The Betrothed [ililan, 1628]. Schiller. Wallenstein (Drama). Shorthouse. John luglesant. Browning. Strafford (Drama). The Ring and the Book (Poem). Ainsworth. Old Saint Paul's. Aiterbach, Spinoza. Blackmore. Lorna Doone. 18th century. — Thackeray. Henry Esmond. The Virginians. Scott. Rob Roy. The Heart of Midlothian. Waverly. Redgauntlet. HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 295 18th century. — Browniiiij. King Yiclor and King Charles (Drama). Dicl'ens. Barnaby Kudge (17S0). Miss Burnei/ (Mad. D'Arhlay). Evelina. Revolutionary epoch : — Victor Hugo. Xinety-three. Les Miserables. Mrs. Gaskell. Sylvia's Lovers. Geo. Eliot. Adam Bade. Blackmore . The ilaid of Sker. Alice Lorraine. Dickens. Tale of Two Cities. Erckmann-C/iatriun. The States General. The Country in Danger. ^Madame Therfese. Year One. Citizen Bonaparte. Miss Robe7't$. On the Edge of the Storm. Koblesse Oblige. Fritz Renter. In the Year Tliirteen. Erckmann-Chalridn. The Conscript. The Invasion of France. The Siege of Phalsburg. Waterloo. American History. 17th centuiy. — Longfelloic. The Courtship of Miles Standish. Hawthorne . The Scarlet Letter. Paulding. The Dutchman's Fireside. Miss Sedgicick. Hope Leslie. Whittier. Mogg INIegone. 18th century. — Simms. The Yemassee (S.C, 1715). Longfellow. Evangeline (Poem). Mrs. Stoice. The ^Minister's 'Woomg. /. E. Cooke. The Virginia Comedians. Cooper. Leather-Stocking Tales. Revolution. — Cooper. The Spy. The Pilot. Kennedy. Horseshoe Robinson. Wintlirop. Edwin Brothertoft. Simms. The Partisan, etc. PART II. BOOKS FOK COLLATERAL READESTG IN CONNECTION WITH CLASS WORK.* 1. General History. E. Clodd. The Childhood of the World. App. 75 cents. Id. The Childhood of Religions. App. $1.25. Designed to give children correct notions of primeval times. /. Bonner. ChM's History of Greece. 2 v. H. $2.50. Id. Child's History of Rome. 2 v. H. f2.50. Mrs. C. H. B. Laing. The Seven Kings of the Seven Hills. Ph. Porter & Coates. fl.OO. Id. The Heroes of the Seven Hills. Ph. Porter & Coates. |1.25. These two books contain the legends of early Koman history. Clias. Dickens. Child's History of England. $1.00. J. Bonner. Child's History of England. H. S. R. Gardiner. English History for Young Eolkfe. Holt $1.00. A work of the greatest soundness and accuracy. L. Creighton. Stories from English History. N.Y. Whittaker. J. R. Green. Readings in English History. Macm. $1.50. Sir W. Scott. Tales of a Grandfather. Stories from Scotch and French history. Sarah Brook. French History for English Children. Macm. $2.00. An admirable book with good maps. Miss C. S. Kirkland. Short History of France. Ch. Jansen. $1.50. S. Lanier. The Boys' Froissart. Scr. $3.00. A selection of the best stories from the prince of chroniclers. Belt and Spm-. Scr. $2.00. Stories from the mediaeval chronicles ; excellently illustrated. * In this list I have derived much assistance from "Books for the Yoimg," by Miss C. M. Hewins of the Hartford Library. BOOKS FOK COLLATERAL READING. 297 G. M. Towle. Heroes of History. [Marco Polo, Vasco da Gama, Magellan, Pizarro, Drake, Raleigh.J L. & S. An excellent series of biographies. Each, $1.25. Historical Biographies. Rivington. Each, $1.00: — Simon de Montfort. By M. Creighton. The Black Prince. By L. Creighton. Sir Walter Kaleigh. By L. Creighton. Marlborough. By L. Creighton. M. J. Guest. Lectures on English History. Macm. $1.50. Good for young people above the age of children. Mrs. M. E. Green. The Princesses of England. 6 v. Each, IDs. 6rf. The Young Folks' History. E. & L. Each, $1.50. Includes : — America. By H. Butterworth. Russia. By N. H. Dole. Queens of England. By RosaCie Kaufman. Mexico. Bj F. A. Ober. England, Germany, France, Greece, Rome, and Bible History. By Miss Yonge. A. J. Church. The Last Days of Jerusalem. L. Seeley. $2.00. /. Alhott. Biographies of Famous Persons (about thirty in all). H. Each, $1.00. Brooke Herford. The Story of Religion in England. Ch. Jansen. 11.50. Thos. Archer. Decisive Events in History. C. $1.75. Handsomely illustrated. Mrs. H. R. Haweis. Chaucer for Children. L. Chatto & Windus. $2.25. Id. Spenser for Children. $3.75. Beautifully illustrated ; instructive for manners, costumes, etc. 298 BOOKS FOE COLLATERAL READING 2. American History. iV. Hawthorne. True Stories. [Grandfather's Chair, etc.] Hough- ton. 11.00. The early history of New England. C. C. Coffin. Old Times in the Colonies. H. |3.00. Id. The Boys of 76. H. |3.00. Id. The Building of the Nation. H. fS.OO. Id. The Boys of '61. H. $3.00. A handsomely illustrated series of works. E. Eggleston. Famous American Indians. [Montezuma, Poca- hontas, etc.] N.Y. Dodd, Mead, & Co. Each, |1.25. M.Scheie de Vere. Romance of American History. Put. $1.25. J. D. ChampUn. Young Folks' History of the War for the Union. Holt. $2.75. An excellent hook, well illustrated. J. Bonner. Child's History of the United States. 3 v. H. $3.75. Mrs. A. S. Richardson. History of Our Country. Houghton. $4.50. T. W. Higginson. Young Folks' History of America. L. & S. $1.50. Bonner's is designed for younger children than the others; Mrs. Richardson is superior in narration ; Higginson in com- pleteness of view. Id. Young Folks' History of Explorers. L. & S. $1.50. C. II. Woodman. Boys and Girls of the Revolution. Lip. $1.25. J. K. Hosmer. The Color Guard. B. Fuller. $1.50. Id. The Thinking Bayonet. B. Fuller. $1.75. Belong to the war of the rebellion. C. K. True. Life of Captain John Smith. N.Y. Phillips & Hunt. $1.00. Centenary History of the United States. N.Y. Barnes. $3.00. An excellent family history. IK CO^JNECTION WITH CLASS WORK. 299 3. Myths ajmd Legends. N. Hawthorne. Wonder-book. Houghton. $1.00. Id. Tangiewood Tales. Houghton. Ai.no. Tell the story of several Greek myths in a charming manner. Chas. Kinfi:. The duchy of Florence, 1531. — Map : 1500. 22. The Spanish Supremacy; to 1598. — a. The revolt of the Netherlands, 1572. b. The Invincible Armada, 1588. c. The Huguenot wars, 1562-72. d. The war of the Henries, 1585. e. The annexation of Portugal, 1580. /. Pope Sixtus V., d. 1590. ff. Mary Queen of Scots, d. 1586. h. Henry IV. of France ; a.d. 1600. — !. The battle of Lepanto, 1571. k. Sir Philip Sidney, d. 1586. I. Alexander Famese, Prince of Parma, d. 1592. m. Ivan the Terrible, d. 1584. n. The edict of Nantes, 1598. — Map of the Spanish possessions. Genealogy of the house of Tudor. 23. The Thirty Years' "War; to 1648. — a. The Cleve suc- cession, h. The war in Bohemia, c. Gustavus Adolphus, d. 1632. d. Wallenstein, d. 1634. e. The peace of Westphalia, 1648. / Car- dinal Richelieu, d. 1642. g. The English revolution, h. The house of Romanof. — i. The Donauworth affair, 1607. k. The indepen- dence of the Netherlands, 1609. I. The war with La Rochelle. m. The independence of Portugal, 1640. n. The colonization of America, o. Transylvania. — Map : 1648. II. Period op Dynastic Waks. 24. The Age of Louis XIV.; to 1697. — a. Louis XIV.; A.D. 1700. h. The peace of the Pyrenees, 1659. c. The treaty of Nymwegen, 1678. d. The treaty of Ryswick, 1697. e. The Eng- lish revolution of 1688. /. Frederick William, the Great Elector, d. 1688. g. The treaty of Oliva, 1660. h. The treaty of Carlo- witz, 1699.— i. The invasion of the Netherlands, 1672. k. The devastation of the Palatinate, 1688. I. The triple alliance; Sir William Temple, 1668. m. John Sobieski, d. 1696. n. The war of the Fronde. — Map : The countries about the Baltic, 1660. Genealogy of the house of Stuart. 25. The Eighteenth Century; to 1763. — a. The treaty of Utrecht, 1713. b. The pragmatic sanction, c. The treaty of Aix- MODEKN HISTORY. 329 larChapelle, 1748. d. The treaties of Paris and HubertsbTirg, 1763. e. Charles XII. of Sweden, d. 1718. /. Peter the Great of Russia, d. 1725. g. Frederick the Great of Prussia, d. 1786. h. The English empire in India. — i. Cardinal Alberoni, d. 1752. k. The quadruple alliance. /. The family compact, m. The treaty of Vienna, 1738. n. The treaty of K"ystadt, 1721. o. The kingdom of Prussia, 1701. p. The kingdom of Sardinia, 1720. — Map: The east of Europe, 1750. Genealogy of the Spanish succession. m. Revolutionary Period. 26. The French Revolution; to 1799. — a. The first parti- tion of Poland, 1772. b. The national assembly, 1789. c. The declaration of Pilnitz, 1791. d. The legislative assembly, 1791. t. The national convention, 1792. /. The first coalition, 1793. g. The second and third partitions of Poland, 1793 and 1795. h. The peace of Basle, 1795. — i. Count Mffabeau, d. 1791. k. The battle of Valmy, 1792. /. The American revolution, m. Cather- ine II. of Russia, d. 1796. — Map: Europe in 1789. Genealogy of the house of Romanof . 27. The 'Wars of Napoleon ; to 1815. — a. Napoleon Bona- parte; A.D. 1800. b. The armed neutrality, 1800. c. The treaty of Luneville, 1801. d. The peace of Presburg, 1805. e. The con- federation of the Rhine, 1806. /. The peace of Tilsit, 1807. g. The peace of Schbnbrunn, 1809. h. The peace of Vienna, 1815. — i. The duchy of Warsaw and kingdom of Poland, k. Napoleon's continental system. I. The French annexations in their order. — Map: 1800; 1810. 28. The Period of Peace, 1815-1848. — a. The holy alliance, 1815. b. The French revolution of 1830. c. The kingdom of Belgium, 1831. d. The kingdom of Greece, 1831. e. The extin- guishment of Poland, 1831. /. Mehemet Ali, d. 1849. g. The war of the Sonderbund, 1846. — h. The opium war, 1840. i. The Afghan war, 1839-41. k. The French occupation of Algiers, 1830. I. Prince Mettemich, d. 1859. — Map: Europe in 1820. Geneal- ogy of the Bourbons. 29. The Second Empire; to 1870. — a. The French revolu- tion of 1848. b. The Hungarian revolution, c. The Crimean 330 HISTOBY TOPICS. war, 1854. d. The Sepoy revolt, 1857. e. The Italian war, 1859. /. The Sohleswig-Holstein war, 1864. ff. The seven weeks' war, 1866. h. Count Cavour, d. 1861. i. The revolution in Rome. k. The revolution in Venice. I. The Greek revolution, 1862. m. The Mexican empire, 1863. — Afop; Italy in 1850 and 1870. 30. The German Empire. — a. The Franco-Prussian war, 1870. b. Prince Bismarck, c. The Turko-Russian war, 1876. d. The Afghan war, 1878. e. The Greek question. /. The Spanish republic, 1873. g. The Egyptian troubles, 1882.— A. The Abys- sinian war, 1867. i. The Zulu war, 1878. k. The French in Tunis, 1881. I. The Dalmatian revolt, 1882. — Map: Germany in 1860, 1866, and 1871. AMERICAN HISTORY • * Introduction. 1. The Discovery of America. — a. The fifteenth century; formation of States, b. The renaissance, u. The great discover- ies and inventions, d. Commerce with the East in the middle ages. e. The Portuguese navigators, f. The voyages of Columbus. g. The Cabots. 2. Relation of American to European History. — a. 16th cent. ; rivalry between Spain, France, and England, b. 17th cent. ; ascendency of France and Plolland. c. Thirty years' war ; rise of Sweden, d. The Puritan revolution in England, e. The revolution of 1688. /. 18th cent. ; rivalry of France and England. g. The French encyclopaedists. h. Reaction of America upon Europe, i. Federalist and republican sympathies. 3. Spanish E^lorations and Colonies ■within the Limits of the TTnited States. — a. De Soto's expedition, 1539. b. Coro- nado's expedition, 1540. c. Cabrillo's expedition, 1542. d. ex- plorations and settlements in Florida. 4. French Settlements in North America. — a. Cartier's discoveries, b. The Huguenots in Carolina, c. The settlement of Acadia, 1604. d. Champlain's discoveries and settlements. e. The discovery of the Mississippi, 1673. AMERICAN HISTORY. 331 Period of Colonization. 1607-1688. 5. Virginia and Maryland. — a. The London company and the Virginia charter, b. The Maryland grant, c. The govern- ment of Virginia, d. Bacon's rebellion, 1676. e. The controversy withClayborne. /. The nature of proprietary government, g. The Puritan revolution in Maryland. 6. The Dutch Colonies. — a. The Dutch land grants, b. The Jerseys. c. The Pennsylvania boundary. d. Xew Sweden, e. The controversy with Connecticut. /. The nature of the royal province. 7. Ne'w England. — a. Patents and charters in Xew England. 5. The settlement of ^lassachusetts bay. c. The nature of charter government, d. Territorial history of jNIaine and New Hampshire. e. The Xew England confederacy. /. The Indian wars. g. The Quakers in ilassachusetts. 7i. The blue laws of Connecticut. 8. The Southern Colonies. — a. Locke's plan of government. 6. The colonization of Georgia, c-. The Huguenot refugees. 9. Chronological Revie-w of the Period. — a. Order of settle- ment of the colonies, b. Map of the colonies in 1688. c. History of religious toleration. Period of Colonial Life. 1688-1763. 10. New France and Florida. — a. Extent of French and Spanish occupation, b. Wars of Count Frontenac. c. The North American Indians. 11. The Revolution of 1688. — a. The new charter of Massa- chusetts, b. Leisler's rebellion, c. Salem witchcraft, d. Sir Edmund Andros. 12. King William's and Queen Anne's- 'Wars. — a. The war of the Spanish succession, b. The treaty of Utrecht, 1713. c. Sir William Phips, d. 1695. d. The changes in colonial government. 18. "Wars of George H. — a. The seven years' war. b. The treaty of Paris, 1763. c. Hostilities in 1754 and 1755. d. The campaign of 1758. e. The conquest of Canada. /. Franklin's plan of union,. 1754, g. The conspiracy of Pontiac, 1763. 332 HISTOKY TOPICS. 14. Review of the Period. — a. Map of the colonies in 1763. b. Nationalities in the colonies, c. Education, d. Industry, e. Slavery. /. Literature, g. Church organizations. Revolutionary Pekiod. 1763-1789. 15. 1763 to 1770. — a. The navigation acts and writs of assist- ance, h. The stamp act, 1765. c. The congress of 1765. d. Acts of Grafton's administration, in relation to America, e. Troubles in New York. /. Affairs in the South, g. The British adminis- trations, h. James Otis, d. 1783. 16. 1770 to 1774. — a. Lord North's financial acts and the Boston tea-party, b. The acts of parliament of 1774. c. The Continental congress of 1774. d. The Boston massacre, March 5, 1770. e. The burning of the Gaspe, June 10, 1772. /. Patrick Henry, d. 1799. g. Samuel Adams, d. 1803. 17. 1775. — a. The acts of congress, h. Hostilities down to June. c. The battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. d. The expedition to Canada, e. George Washington, d. 1799. 18. 1776. — a. Acts of independence and union. 6. The siege of Boston, t. Military operations about New York. d. Washing- ton in New Jersey, e. The military organization. 19. 1777. — a. Burgoyne's expedition, h. The occupation of Philadelphia, c. The operations in the South, l774r-77. d. The Conway cabal, e. The finances of the war. y. The treaty with France, Feb. 6, 1778. g. Benjamin Franklin, d. 1790. 20. 1778 and 1779. — a. The battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778. 6. Sullivan's expedition against the Six Nations, 1778. c. The expedition of George Rogers Clark, 1779. d. The capture of Stony Hook, July 15, 1779. e. The operations about Savannah. /. John Paul Jones, d. 1792. 21. 1780. — a. The battle of Camden, August 16. b. The battle of King's Mountain, October 7. c. The capture of Charleston, May 12. d. Arnold's treason. 22. 1781. — a. The battle of Cowpens, January 17. b. Greene's retreat, and the battle of Guilford, March 25. c. Campaign of Gen. Greene after Guilford, d. Campaign of Lord Comwallis. e. The siege of Yorktown. /. Marquis Lafayette, d. 1834. AMERICAN HISTORY. g33 23. Close of the War. — a. The armed neutrality. J. The treaty of peace, c. The Newburgh addresses, d. The formation of state governments, e. The cession of the public lands. 24. The Confederacy, 1781-89. — a. The articles of confeder- ation. ,h. The financial troubles, c. Shay's rebellion, d. The ordinance of 1787. e. The formation of the constitution. 25. The Constitution. — a. The distinctive features of the constitution, h. The establishment of the new government, c. Settlement and early history of Kentucky, d. The Vermont controversy, e. Formation of state government in Tennessee. 26. Review of the Period. — a. Hamilton's theory of govern- ment, h. Madison's theory of government, c. Luther Martin's theory of government, d. Parfy divisions at the close of the period. Period of the Republic. 1789-1876. I. Foreign Relations, to 1820. 27. Washington's First Administration, 1789-93. — a. The amendments to the constitution, h. The legislation of the first congress, u. Hamilton's financial policy, d. The Indian troubles. e. A permanent seat of government. 28. Washington's Second Administration, 1793-97. — a. Jay's treaty, 1795. h. The French complications, u. The whiskey insurrection, 1794. d. Washington's farewell address, e. Alexander Hamilton, d. 1804. 29. John Adams' Administration, 1797-1801. — a. The war with France. 6. The alien and sedition acts. c. The Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, d. The presidential election of 1800-1. e. The schism in the Federalist party; the Essex junto. 30. Jefferson's First Administration, 1801-5. — a. The pur- chase of Louisiana, 1803. h. The war with Tripoli, 1801. c. The north-western territory, d. The amendment to the constitution. 31. Jefferson's Second Administration, 1805-9. — a. Burr's conspiracy, 1806. 6. Relations with France and England, c. The embargo, 1807. 32. Madison's First Administration, 1809-13. — a. Causes 334 HISTOEY TOPICS. of the var of 1812. b. The Indian hostilities; Tecumseh. u. Naval operations in 1812. d. Hull's surrender, August 16. 33. Madison's Second Administration, 1813-17. — a. Cam- paigns on the northern frontier, b. Military operations in 1814. c. Jackson's campaigns in the South, d. Naval operations. e. The attack upon Washington and Baltimore. /. The Hart- ford convention, 1814. g. The treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. k. The war with Algiers, 1815. 34. Monroe's Administration, 1817-25. — a. The Missouri compromise, b. The purchase of Florida, 1819. c. The Semi- nole war. d. The settlement of the northern boundary. 35. Eevieiw of the Period. — a. The era of good feeling. b. The bank of the United States, c. Tariff legislation until 1815. d. Foreign relations, e. Slavery and the slave-trade. II. Economic Questions, to 1845. 36. John Quinoy Adams' Administration, 1825-29. — a. The Panama congress and the Monroe doctrine, b. Georgia and the > Creek Indians, c. The tariff of 1828. 37. Jackson's First Administration, 1829-33. — a. Nulli- fication, b. The anti-Mason party, c. Black-hawk's war, 1832. d. The "kitchen cabinet.'' e. John C. Calhoun, d. 1850. 38. Jackson's Second Administration, 1833-37. — a. The removal of the deposits, b. the anti-slavery movement, c. The farewell address, d. The Seminole war. e. The French spolia^ tion claims. 39. Van Buren's Administration, 1837-41. — a. The sub- treasury, b. The crisis of 1837. c. The repudiation movement. d. The affair of the Caroline. 40. Harrison and Tyler's Administrations, 1841^5. n — a. The Webster-Ashbm-ton treaty, 1842. b. The tariff of 1842. c. The annexation of Texas, 1845. d. Dorr's rebellion, 1842. e. The Mormon troubles in Illinois, 1844. /. Daniel Webster, d. 1852. ni. The Slavery Controvebst, to 1876. 41. Polk's Administration, 1845-49. — a. The campaigns of the Mexican war. b. The occupation of the Pacific coast, c. The AMERICAN HISTORY. 335 treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1848. d. The north-western bound- ary, e. The tariff of 1846. /. The Wilmot proviso. 42. Taylor and Fillmore's Administrations, 1849-53. a. The omnibus bUl, 1850. b. The free-soil party, c. The fugi- tive-slave law. d. The Japan expedition, e. The correspond- ence of Webster and Hiilsemann. /. Henry Clay, d. 1852. g. The Cuban filibusters. 43. Pierce's Administration, 1853-57. — a. The Nebraska bill, 1854. 6. The know-nothing party, t. The Gadsden pur- chase, d. Diplomatic relations with Great Britain, e. The Osteud manifesto. 44. Buchanan's Administration, 1857-61. — a. The Kansas question, b. The Dred Scott decision, 1857. u. The personal- liberty bills, d. The Mormons in Utah. e. The acts of secession. / John Brown, d. 1859. 45. Lincoln's Administration; to July, 1862. — a. The pen- insular campaign, b. Operations in the West until Shiloh. c. The , capture of Xew Orleans, d. The Merrimac and Monitor, e. The arrest of Mason and Slidell. f. The national bank system. g. The policy towards slavery. /;. The constitution of the Con- federacy, i. Operations on the seaboard. 46. Lincoln's Administration; July 1862, to Jan. 1864. — u. Pope's campaign, ft. McClellan's Antietam campaign, c. Fred- ericksburg and Chancellorsville. d. Murfreesboro'. c. Gettys- burg. /. The opening of the Mississippi, g. Chickamauga and Chattanooga, h. The emancipation proclamation. 47. Lincoln's Administration, 1864-65. — a. Grant's cam- paign in Virginia, b. Sherman's campaign in the South, c. Hood's advance into Tennessee, d. The Shenandoah campaign, e. The Confederate cruisers. /. The policy towards the seceded states. g. The sanitary commission . 7i. The Freedmen's Bureau. 48. Johnson's Administration, 1865-69. — a. Keconstruction. b. The impeachment of the president, 1868. c. The purchase of Alaska, 1867. d. The constitutional amendments. 49. Grant's Administration, 1869-77. — o. The Santo Do- mingo treaty, 1870. b. The resumption of specie payments, c. The Geneva congress, 1872. d. The Credit Mobilier. 336 HISTOEY TOPICS. 50. Review of the Period. — a. The tariff question, b. The slavery controversy, c. The public lands, d. The Indian policy, e. The civil service. /. The Pacific railroad, g. The fisheries. — Maps: 1688, 1763, 1783, 1803, 1820, 1850, 1876. List of the states admitted to the union, with dates. List of the vice-presidents, with state, full name, and date. List of the secretaries of state, with same. BIBLIO&RAPHT OF CHUECH HISTOEY. OOI^TElNrTS. PAGE. 1. Intkodtjctort 343 n. General Chukoh History 344 A. Eastern. 1. Armenian 344 2. Coptic 344 3. Georgian 344 4. Graeco-Russian 344 5. Nestorian 345 6. Syrian 345 B. Western. 1. North African 345 2. European 345 III. Earlt Christianity 350 1. General 350 2. Catacombs 354 3. Charity 355 4. Controversies and Heresies 355 5. Patristics 355 6. Persecutions 355 IV. Medljeval Christianity 356 1. General 356 2. Celibacy of the Clergy 357 3. Crusades 357 4. Lollards 357 5. Myths 358 6. Waldensee 358 340 CONTENTS. PAGE. v. Modern Christianity 358 1. General Histories of the Reformation Period 358 2. The Roman Catholic Church 360 I. General 360 n. The Inquisition 361 III. Jansenists 361 IV. Jesuits 361 V. Port Royalists 361 • VT. TJltramontanism and Vaticanism 362 3. Old Catholics 362 4. Modern Ecclesiastical History, by Countries 362 I. Bohemia 362 II. England 362 A. The Church of England established by Law 362 B. Dissenters 363 III. France 364 rv. Germany 365 V. Holland 365 VI. Hungary 365 VII. Ireland 365 Vm. Italy 365 IX. Poland 365 X. Scandinavia .' 366 XI. Scotland 366 XII. Spain 366 Xni. Switzerland 366 XIV. United States of America 366 A. General 366 B. Denominational 367 VI. Special Topics 371 1. Art 371 2. Biography 372 A. BibUcal 372 I. Lives of Christ 372 n. Lives of Apostles 373 B. General 374 I. Collections '. 374 II. Individual 375 CONTENTS. 341 VI. Special Topics — Continued. page. 3. Church and State 377 4. Councils 377 5. Creeds 378 6. Doctrines 378 7. Fiction 379 8. Liturgies 381 % Martyrs 382 10. Miracle Plays and Mysteries 382 11. Missions 382 12. Monastic Orders 383 13. Rationalism 383 14. Reference Books 383 15. Sacred Seasons 385 16. Symbolism 385 Appendix 386 Index to Authors 387 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. App. for Appleton ; B., for Boston ; Ber., for Berlin ; C, for Cassell; C. & H., for Chapman & Hall; Ch., for Chicago; B. & L., for Estes & Lauriat ; Ed., for Edinburgh ; H., for Harper ; L., for London ; Lip., for Lippincott ; Longm., for Longmans ; Lp., for Leipsic ; L. & B., for Little, Brown, & Co. ; L. & S., for Lee & Shepard; M., for Murray; Macm., for Macmillan; 0., for Osgood; P., for Paris; Ph., for Philadelphia; Put., for Putnams; R., for Roberts ; Scr., for Scribner ; S. & E., for Smith, Elder, & Co. ; W. & N., for Williams & Norgate. E.S. stands for Epochs Series (Scribner) ; and Soc ^ for Society for the Diffusion of Christian Knowledge (Yoimg). A Select Bibliography op Ecclesiastical HlSTOEY/ Br JOHN ALONZO FISHER, Graduate Student of Chubch Histobt and Philosophy at Johns Hopkins University. I. INTRODUCTORY. Crooks, G. R., and Hurst, J. F. Theological EncyclopEedia and Methodology. Based on Hagenbach. 8vo. pp. 596. X.Y. PhiUips & Hunt. 1884. 84.00. An admirable introduction to all departments of theological study. It contains valuable bibliographies, German and English. Bowling, John G. An Introduction to the Critical Study of Ecclesi- astical History, attempted in an account of the progress, and a short notice of the sources of the history of the church. L. 1838. Hitchcock, R. D. The True Idea and Uses of Church History. N.Y. 1856. Newton, J. Review of Ecclesiastical History, etc. Works, p. 369 (pp.' 88). Schaff, Philip. General Introduction to Church History, Bibli- otheoa Sacra, v. 6, 1849, p. 409 (pp. 33) ; and ProgTess of Church History as a Science, Bib. Sac, v. 7, 1850, p. 54 (pp. 37). Id. What is Church History ? A vindication of the idea of histori- cal development. 12mo. pp. 128. Ph. Lip. 1846. Smith, H. B. Nature and Worth of the Science of Church History. Andover. 1851. In Bib. Sac, v. 8, 1851, p. 412 (pp. 30). 1 For abbreviations, see opposite page. 344 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF Smyth, Egbert C. Value of the Study of Church History in Minis- terial Education. A lecture delivered to the senior class ot Andover Theological Seminary, pp. 31. Andover. Draper- 1874. Paper, 25 cents. Of practical value to pastors. Stanley, A. P- Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Eccle- siastical History. 8vo. Oxford. J. H. & J. Parker. 1857. Republished as ai^ introduction to the American edition of the author's History of the Eastern Church. 1861. N.Y. : Scr., 1867. Scribner, Armstrong, & Co., 1873, ?2.50. Compare the introductory pages oi the church histories hy the Roman Catholic writers Fleury, Mohler, Alzog, DSlUnger, and Hergenrother, and the Protestant writers Mosheim, Schroeckh, Gieseler, Hose, Niedner, Kurtz, and Schaff. II. GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY. A. Eastern. — 1. Armenian. Davis, (Mrs.') Tamar. A General History of the Sabbatarian Churches. Embracing accounts of the Armenian, East Indian, and Abyssinian Episcopacies. 8vo. pp. 255. Ph. Lindsay & Blakiston. 1851. 2. Coptic. Malan, S. C. A Short History of the Copts and of their Church. 12mo. pp. 115. L. Nutt. 1873. 2s. M. 3. Georgian. Joselan, P. A Short History of the Georgian Church. Translated from the Russian, and edited with additional notes by S. C. Malan. 8vo. L. Saunders. 1865. $1.50. 4. GrCECo-Russian. Neale, J. M. A History of the Holy Eastern Church, the Patri- archate of Antioch, etc. 'Edited, with an introduction, by George Williams. 8vo. L. 1873. $5.00. ECCI^ESIASTICAL HISTORY. 345 Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church. L. &X.Y., 1862. X.Y. : Scribiier, Armstrong & Co., 1873. $2.50. Contains three introductory lectures on Church history. These lectures were delivered at Oxford. Not a continuous and exhaustive history, but, like all of Dean Stanley's writings, fascinating and scholarly. The sections on the Ajian controversy are, according to Dr. Schaff, who also criticizes Stanley's omission to discuss the Nestorian and the other Christological controversies of the Eastern Church, " more brilliant than solid." 5. Nestorian. Badger, Geo. Percy. The Nestorians and their Rituals. Illustrated (with colored plates). 2 v. L. 1852. 6. Syrian. Wortabet, John. Researches into the Religions of Syria ; or, Sketches, Historical and Doctrinal, of its Religious Sects. 8vo. L. Nis- bet. 1860. Cf . paper by H. H. Jessup in Proceedings of the Sixth Session of the Evangelical Alliance. N.Y. H. 1874. B. Western. — 1. North African. Lloyd, Julius. The North African Church. 8vo. With map. L. Soc. 1880. 3s. Qd. 2. European. Allen, Joseph Henry. Christian History in its Three Great Periods. 16mo. 3 V. B. R. §1.25 each. Convenient; liberal; readable. Alzog, John. A Manual of Universal Church History. Translated from the ninth enlarged and improved German edition, and edited and brought down to the present time, by F. J. Pabisch and Thomas S. Byrne. 3 v. I. Early Chui-ch History ; II. The Middle Ages; III. To the Present Time. 8vo. Cincinnati. Clarke & Co. $15.00. At once the latest and the highest Roman Catholic authority. "Alzog aims to be the Roman Catholic Hase as to brevity and 846 A SELECT BIBLIOGKAPHY OF condensation. . . . The American translators censure the French translators for the liberties they have taken with Alzog, but they have taken similar liberties, and, by sundry additions, made the author more Romish than he was." — P. Schaff. Arnold, Matthew. St. Paul and Protestantism ; with an Introduc- tion on Puritanism and the Church of England. 12mo. N.Y. 1875. $1.75. L. Smith, Elder, & Co. 4s. M. Blackburn, W. M. History of the Christian Church, from its Origin to the Present Time. 8vo. pp. 719. Cincinnati. Hitchcock & Walden. 1879. $2.50. Comprehensive and convenient. By a Presbyterian. Bollinger, John Joseph Ignatius. Manual of Church History. Translated from Dr. DoUinger's unfinished Handbook of Chris- tian Church History, 1833, and Manual of Church History, 1836, by Edic. Cox. 4 v. 8vo. pp. 287, 875, 351, 245. L. Dolman. 1840-42. This work extends to the Reformation. Dr. DoUinger, since 1870 the leader of the Old Catholic movement, is the most learned Roman Catholic historian of the nineteenth century. Gieseler, John C. L. Text-Book of Church History. 5 v. Bonn. 1824-56. Fourth edition, 1844 sqq. " Translated into English first by Cunningham, Ph., 1846 ; then by Davidson and Hall in England ; and last and best, on the basis of the former, by Henry B. Smith. 5 v. N.Y. H. 1857-80. The fifth and last volume of this edition was completed after Dr. Smith's death (1877) by Prof. Stearns and Miss Mary A. Robinson, with an introductory notice by Philip Schaff. " Vols. 1, 2, 3, and 4, $2.25 each; vol. 5, $3.00. "Profoundly learned, acute, calm, impartial, conscientious, but cold and dry." — P. Schaff. "The standard complete history of the church." — W. F. Allen. The great merit of this work is its wealth of choice extracts from the original authorities. It is gener- ally considered the best of all the text-books on church history. Guericke, H. E. F. Handbook, etc. Translated, in part, by W. G. T. Shedd. 8vo. 2 v. pp. xvi, 433 ; pp. viii, 160. Andover. Draper. 1857 and 1870. Vol. I. (to a.d. 590), $2.75; Vol. H. (to A.D. 1073), $1.25. The tone of the book is that of a Lutheran polemic. . ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 347 Hardwick, Charles. A History of the Christian Church. 2 v. 12mo. Vol. I. : Middle Ages, with maps constructed for the work by A. Keith Johnson. Vol. II. : The Reformation. 12mo. Cam- bridge and London. 1861-6.5. §3.0(1 per vol. Written for students by a representative of the Church of England. Hose, Charles. A History of the Christian Church. Translated from the seventh and much improved German edition, by C. E. Blumenthal und C. P. Wing. Svo. X.Y. 185.3; 1870. •S3. 50, Since the publication of the translation , the German work has been revised. Condensed, skilfully arranged, and well written. Hurst, J. F. Outlines of Church History. X.Y. Philips & Hunt. 1884. 50 cents. Kurtz, John Henry. Text-Book of Ch. Hist. Tr. from the German. Svo. 2 V. pp. 534, ioi. Ph. Lindsay & Blakiston. 1861-62. 9th ed., thoroughly revised and partly rewritten. 1SS5. ■S3. 00. Concise. By an Evangelical professor in the University of Dorpat. Vol. 1 is a revised reprint of Edershehns Edinb. ed.; Vol. 2 is an original translation by J. H. A. Bomberyer, aided by John Beck. Lawrence, Eugene. Historical Studies. Svo. pp. 508. ISr.Y. H. 1876. Contents : The Bishops of Rome ; Leo and Luther ; Loyola and the Jesuits ; Ecumenical Councils ; The Yaudois ; The Huguenots ; The Church of Jerusalem ; Dominic and the Inquisition ; The Conquest of Ireland ; The Greek Church. Protestant. Clear, strong, and accurate. Lea, Henry C. Studies in Church History : The Rise of the Temporal Power; Benefit of Clergy; Excommunication. Svo. pp. xiii, 518. Ph. H. C. Lea. 1869. •S2.50. Milman, H. H. History of Latin Christianity ; including that of the Popes to the Pontificate of Nicholas V. 8 v. 12mo. pp. 554, 551, 525, 555, 530, 539, 570, 561. N.Y. Armstrong & Son. 1881. $14.00. Of great value alike to students and to general readers. See under Mediaeval Christianity. Milner, Joseph. History of the Church of Christ. L. 1794-1S12. New corrected edition, 4 v., 1847, 1800, etc. L. 1875. ISs. Pletistic; neither scholarly nor polemic. 348 A SELECT BIBLIOaEAPHY OP Mosheim, John Latvrence. Institutes of Ecclesiastical History, Ancient and Modern. A new and literal translation from the original Latin, with copious additional notes, original and selected, by James Murdoch. 3 v., fifth edition, N.Y., 1854 ; 3 V. in one, 8vo, pp. 470, 485, 506. N.Y. Carter & Bros. 1881. $5.00. (There is a translation by A. Maclaine. N.Y. H. $4.00.) The distinguished author, a moderate Lutheran, is " the father of church historiography as an art, unless we prefer to concede this merit to Bossuet." Skilful, clear, impartiaL Mosheim wrote in unrivalled Latin. He died in 1755. Neander, J. Augustus W. General History of the Christian Religion and Church. Translated from the second improved German edition by Joseph Torry. 5 v., Bvo, Boston, 1854 ; also, 8 v., 12mo, L. & N.Y., 1861. Twelfth edition : B. Houghton. 1881. $18.00. , This well-known history is " distinguished for thorough and con- scientious use of the sources, critical research, ingenious combinar tion, tender love of truth and justice, evangelical catholicity, hearty- piety, and by masterly analysis of the doctrinal systems and the subjective Christian life of men of God in past ages. . . . The poli- tical and artistic sections, and the outward machinery of history, were not congenial to the humble, guileless simplicity of Neander. His style is monotonous, involved, and diffuse, but unpretending, natural, and warmed by a genial glow of sympathy and enthusi- asm." — P. ScHAFF, his pupil. Newman, John Henry. Essays Critical and Historical. 2 v., with notes. Poetry ; Rationalism ; De la Mennais ; Palmer on Faith and Unity ; St. Ignatius ; Prospectus of the Anglican Church ; The Anglo-American Church ; Countess of Huntingdon ; Catho- licity of the Anglican Church ; The Antichrist of Protestants ; Milman's Christianity ; Reformation of the Eleventh Century ; Private Judgment ; Davison ; Kemble. L. Pickering. 1872-77. 12s. By the able Roman Catholic prelate, formerly of the Church of England. Id. Historical Sketches. 3 v. Primitive Christianity ; Church of the Fathers ; St. Chrysostom ; Theodoret ; St: Benedict, etc. L. Pickering. 1873 sqq. 18s. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 349 Robinson, James E. History of the Christian Church (a.d. 64-1517). 4 v., 1854 sqq. ; 8 v., 12mo, L., 1874. The best general history yet written from the Anglican point of view. Schaff, Philip. History of the Apostolic Church. 8vo. X.Y. 1853, etc. So .75. Excellent, hut superseded by his magnum opus, History of the Christian Church. Id. History of the Christian Church. 3 v. 8vo. 1859-67. Revised and enlarged, with maps : Vol. I., Apostolic Christianity (a.d. 1-100), pp. 863; Vol. II., Ante-Nicene Christianity (a.d. 100- 325), pp. 866; Vol. III., Xicene and Post^Xicene Christianity (a.d. 311-600), pp. 1039. N.Y. Scr. 1882-84. (Other volumes are promised.) $4.00 per volume. The greatest monument of American scholarship in the field of church history. Orthodox, liberal, readable. Though designed especially for students, it meets the wants of studioils men in all the walks of life. It is peculiarly rich in bibliographies. Smith, Philip. The Student's Manual of Ecclesiastical History. A history of the Christian church from the time of the Apostles to the full establishment of the Holy Roman Empire and the Papal power. Illustrated. 12mo. N.Y. H. 1879. $1.50. An excellent manual. It contains chronological tables, and has an index. Stanley, A. P. Essays on Ecclesiastical Subjects : Baptism and the Eucharist, Absolution, Ecclesiastical Vestments, the Basilica, the Clergy, the Pope, the Litany, the Roman Catacombs, the Creed of the Early Christians, the Lord's prayer, the Council and Creed of Constantinople, and the Ten Commandments. 12mo. N.Y. H. 50 cents. By a feholarly genius. Waddington, George. History of the Church, from the Earliest Ages to the Reformation. 8vo. N.Y. H. $2.00. Washburn, E. A. Lectures on the Apostolic Age, the Nicene Age, the Latin Age, the Reformation, the English Church, the Church of America, the Church of the Future, Richard Hooker, etc. 12mo. pp.400. N.Y. Button & Co. $1.75. 350 A SELECT BIBLIOGEAPHY OF Whately, Richard. A General View of the Rise, Progress,- and Corruption of Christianity. 12mo. pp. 288. N.Y. W. Gow- ans, 1860. N. Tibbals & Sons, 1876. $1.50. White, James. The Eighteen Christian Centuries. 12mo. L. & N.Y. Second edition. 1862. App. $2.00. " Its merit is in the fact that the spirit of each age is generally well apprehended and correctly represented ; while its weakness shows itself in what must be considered an altogether artificial division of history into exact periods of a hundred years each. The author's style is at all times bright and vigorous." — C. K. Adams. III. EARLY CHRISTIANITY. (See Lives of Christ, under Biography.) 1. General. Baumgarten, M. Apostolic History. The Acts of the Apostles; or, the Historj' of the Church in the Apostolic Age. Translated by A. J. W. Morrison. 3 v. 8vo. Ed. 1854. $9.00. Baur, Ferd. Christ. The Christians and the Christian Church of the First Three Centuries. Tubingen, 1853. 2d rev. ed., 1860 (pp. 536). The 3d ed. is a reprint of the second, forming Vol. I. of Baur's General Church History, edited by his son, in 5 v., 1863. T^Y.hy A. Blenzies. 8vo. 2 v. L. W. & N. 1878,1878. IQs.M. "The last and ablest exposition of the Tiibingeu reconstruction of the Apostolic History from the pen of the master of that school. . . . Baur's critical researches have compelled a thorough revision of the traditional views on the apostolic age, and have so far been useful, notwithstanding their fundamental errors." — P. Schafi-. Blunt, J. H. A Christian View of Christian History, from Apos- tolic to Mediaeval Times. 12mo. L. Rivingtons. 1866. New edition, 1872. Is. &d. Delitzsch, Franz. Jewish Artizan Life in the Time of Jesus. Translnted hy Bernhard Pick. 12mo. N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. 1884. Paper, 15 cts. ; cloth, 75 cts. Scholarly; but entertaining as a romance. The author refers, in foot-notes, to his authorities. Well translated. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 351 DSllinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz. The First Age of Christianity. Translated bj- H. X. Oxenliams. 2 y. 8vo. L. 1806. *S.OO. " Dr. DiJUinger has long been held as one of the ablest historians m the Eoman Catholic Church ; and this work may be regarded as the most successful representation of the early history of the Church from the Catholic point of view." — C. K. .\da.-us. Eusebitts. Ecclesiastical History (Greek). Translated by C. F. Cnise; with an Historical View of the Council of Kice, by Isaac Boyle. 8vo. L., 1842. Ph., 1860. Lip. $2.50. -Vnother translation in Greek Ecclesiastical Historians of the First Six Centuries, q.v. Eusebius, " the Christian Herodotus," was intimately associated with Constantine the Great. Died 340. Farrar, F. W. Early Days of Christianity. N.Y. Funk & Wag- naUs. Paper, 40 cts. ; cloth, 75 cts. A standard work. Fisher, George P. The Beginnings of Christianity, with a View of the State of the Roman World at the Birth of Christ. 8vo. pp.580. N.Y. Scr. 1877. $3.00. Scholarly, but popular. In this volume the orthodox but liberal author incidentally discusses the theories of the Tubingen school. Id. Supernatural Origin of Christianity, with special reference to the theories of Renan, Strauss, and the Tubingen school. 8vo. pp. 620. N.Y. Scr. New and enlarged edition, 1870. $3.00. Suited to the needs of aU classes of readers. Clear, strong, readable. Gibbon, Edward. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. See chapters on the Growth of Christianity. Numerous editions. Contains many depreciatory references to the Christian church. "To coimteract the influence of these arguments and insinuations of Gibbon, both Milman and Guizot have edited special editions of this history, with abundant notes. The Student's Gibbon, pre- pared by W. Smith in a similar spirit, is an edition greatly abridged." — N. Poetek. The best edition is Milman's. Hatch, E. The Organization of the Early Christian Churches. Bampton Lectures for 1880. 8vo. pp. 216. Oxford and Cam- bridge. Rivingtons. 1881. 10s. 6d. Learned, eloquent. Shows the development of church polity from a democracy into a monarchy. 352 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF Historians (Greek) of the First Six Centiiries. Translations in Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library. 4 v. 8vo. L. 1851. Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius. 6 v. L. 1843-47. $2.00 each. Cf . Geo. A. Jackson : The Apostolic Fathers of the Second Century, with extracts., pp. 203. N.Y. 1878. Jackson, Samuel M. Lipsius on the Roman Peter-Legend. In the Presb. Quar. and Princeton Rev. (N.Y.) for 1876. p. 265 sqq. A summary of the views of R. A. Lipsius, who has examined "carefully the heretical sources of the Roman Peter-legend, and regards it as a fiction from beginning to end." John, St. The Fourth Gospel. See Baur, Strauss, Renan, and their followers. The genuineness of this Gospel has been defended by Priestley, Andrews MacTcay, R. W. The Tiibingen School and its Antecedents. A Review of the History and Present Condition of Modern The- ology. 8vo. L. W. & X. 1863. Reuss, Edward. History of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age. Translated by Annie Harwood. With preface and notes h^ R.W.Dale. 2 v. 8vo. L. Hodder & Stoughton. 1872-74. 24s. Shedd, W. G. T. A History of Christian Doctrines. 3d edition. 2v. 8vo. pp. viii, 412; vi, 508. N.Y. Scr. 1869. 85.00. Clear, Calvinistic, and vigorous. Dwells on theology, anthropol- ogy, and soteriology, and entirely omits the doctrines that relate to the sacraments. There are other important omissions, which greatly lessen, its value. Tulloch, John. Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the Seventeenth Century. 2 v. 8vo. Ed. Black- woods. 1872. 28s. Wiggers, G. F. An Historical Presentation of Augustinianism and Pelagianism from the Original Sources. Translated from the German, with notes and additions, by Ralph Emerson. 8vo. pp. 383. Andover. Draper. 1840. |1.25. 380 A SELECT BIBLIOGEAPHY OE 7. Fiction. (Illustrating Periods of Church History/.) Anonymous. Arius, the Libyan. 12mo. N.Y. App. 1884. $1.50. Entertaining, but in many historical points inaccurate. See Boston Watchman for Aug. M, 1884. Anonymous. The Days of Knox. L. 1869. 13.00. Banvard, Joseph. Priscilla; or, Trials for the Truth. An Historic- Tale of the Puritans and the Baptists. 8vo. pp.406. B. 1855. Bungener, L. The Priest and the Huguenot. An historical novel of the time of Louis XV. B. Lothrop. 1874. 11.50. Id. The Preacher [Bourdaloue] and the King [Louis XIV.]. $1.50. Carpenter, Boyd. Narcissus. A Tale of Early Christian Times. 8vo. L. Soo. 3s Qd. By the author of " The Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta Family." Charles, (Mrs.) Elizabeth. Diary of Kitty Trevilyan. A Story of the Times of Whitfield and the Wesleys. 12mo. pp. 304. L. T. Nelson & Sons. 1865. N.Y. Dodd. 1864. 11.00. Clarke, James Freeman. The Legend of Thomas Didymus, the Jewish Sceptic. [Life of Christ as it appeard to co-tempo- < raries.] 12mo. pp. 448. B. L. & S. 1881. 11.75. Croly, Geo. Salathiel. Cincinnati. U. P. James. 11.50. Davies, Samuel. From Dawn to Dark in Italy. A Tale of the Reformation in the 16th Century. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.25. Ebers, G. Homo Sum. [A tale of the early Anchorites.] N.Y. Munro. 10 cents. Eliot, George [Marion Evans']. Romola. [Savonorola.] N.Y. Munro. 15 cents. " Deserving all the high encomiums it has received." — N. Pokter. Hale, E. E. In His Name. [Waldenses.] B. 1877. 40 cents. Kingsley, C. Hypatia. [Alexandria.] L. and N.Y. Macm. $1.75. Lockhart, J. G. Valerius. Ed. and L. Blackwood & Son. 1849. 3s. Excellent. Mille,J.de. Helena's Household. 8vo. N.Y. Carter. 1869. $1.50. " Gives an interesting and faithful picture of the workings of Christianity in a Roman household, and interweaves also much of the history of a part of the first and second centuries. " — N. Pobtek. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 381 Newman, (Cardinal) J. H. Callista. 8vo. L. B. & O. 1873. 5s. Qd. Reads, C. Cloister and the Hearth. [Germany, 15th cent.] 2s. Qd. Spindler, C. The Jew. [Council of Constance, 1414-18.] N.Y. H. 75 cents. Wallace, Lew. Ben-Hiir, a Tale of the Christ. N.Y. H. 11.50. Recognized as a work ol unusual worth. Ware, W. Aurelian, Julian, and Zenobia. 3 v. N.Y. Miller. $2.00 each. " Excellent examples of good historical tales of the earlier Christian centuries." — N. Porter. Webb,- (Mrs.). Pomponia; or, the Gospel in Caisar's Household. [Rome, Xero, and Britain.] Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.25. Id. Alypius of Tagaste. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.25. Wiseman, (Cardinal) N. Fabiola. [The Catacombs.] N.Y. Sadlier, $1.50. 8. Liturgies. Hammond, C. E. Liturgies, Eastern and Western : being a Re- print of the Texts, either Original or Translated, of the most , representative Liturgies of the Church from various som-ces. With Introduction, Notes, and a Liturgical Glossary. 12mo. L. Macm. 1878. 10s. M. Humphrey, Wm. G. An Histoi'ical and Explanatory Treatise on the Book of Common Prayer. 12mo, cloth. L. Bell & Sons. 1856, 1875. 4s. Qd. Excellent. Maskell, W. The Ancient Liturgy of the Church of England, ac- cording to the Uses of Sarum, Bangor, York, and Hereford, and the Modern Roman Liturgy, arranged in parallel columns. 3d ed. 8vo. pp. Ixxxiv, 338. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1882. 1.5s. Neale, J. M. Essays on Liturgiology and Church History. 8vo. pp. 527. L. Saunders, Otley, & Co. 1863 and 1867. Scholarly. Dr. P. SchafE says of Neale that he was a " most learned Anglican ritualist and liturgist, who studied the Eastern liturgies daily for thirty years, and almost knew them by heart. . . . The . . . work of . . . the English Episcopal divine, Freeman, . . . treats much of the old liturgies, with a predilection for the West- ern, while Neale has an especial reverence for the Eastern ritual." 382 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OP Neale, J. M. The Liturgies of St. Mark, St. James, St. Clement, St. Chrysostom, St. Basil, or according to the use of the Churches of Alexandria, Jerusalem, Constantinople. L. 1859 (in the Greek original, and the same liturgies in an English ti-anslation, with an introduction and appendices, also in L., 1859). 2d edition. 12mo. L. Hayes. 1868. 6s. Of permanent value. 9. Martyrs. See works by Fox (standard, comprehensive, Protestant ; best edi- tion by G. Townsend, 8 v., L., 1843), Bulkley, Chateaubriand (translated by 0. W. Wight; not critical, very poetical), and Pressense' (translated, L., 1871). 10. Miracle Plays and Mysteries. See Wm. Hone, 182.3 ; /. P. Jackson (Passion Play at Oberammer- gau, historical introduction), 1873, and Marriott (A Collection of English Miracle Plays or Mysteries), 1858. 11. Missions. , Christlieb, Theodor. Protestant Foreign Missions. Translated from the Fourth German edition, by David Allen Read. 16mo, pp. 264, N.Y., Randolph, 1880 ; 16mo, pp. 280, B., Cong. Pub. Soc. $1.00. Compact, but complete. Sufficient for the needs of the general reader. Maclear, G.F. Apostlesof Mediaeval Europe. 8vo. L. Macm. 4s. 6af. Protestant; standard. Merivale, C. Conversion of the West. 5 v. Maps. 16mo. I. The Continental Teutons, by C. Merivale, pp. 180 ; II. The Celts, by G. F. Maclear, pp. 189 ; III. The English, by G. F. Maclear, pp. 186 ; IV. The Korthmen, by G. F. Maclear, pp. 202 ; V. The Sclavs, by G. F. Maclear, pp. ii, 202. L. Soc. N.Y. Pott, Young, & Co. 1879. 60 cts. each. Seelye, J. H. Christian Missions. 12mo. pp. 207. N.Y. Dodd, Mead, & Co. 1876. $1.00. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 383 Smith, Thomas. History of Mediaeval Missions. 12mo. L.Hamilton. 1880. 'Is. Od. Protestant; standard. 12. Monastic Orders. The development of Monastic institutions is impartially and skil- fully traced by Milman, in his History of Latin Christianity. Montalembert, Count de. The Monks of the West, from St. Bendiot to St. Bernard. Translated from the French. 7 v. 8vo. Ed. andL. Blackwoods. 1860-70. Vols. 6 and 7, 25s. B. Noonan. 2 V. $6.00. " The ablest plea that has ever been made for the several orders of monks, being at once scholarly, sympathetic, and conscientious." — C. K. Adams. Cf. Sir James Stephen's Ecclesiastical Essays, and Mrs. Jameson's Legends of the Monastic Orders. Ruffner, H. The Fathers of the Desert ; or, an Account of the Origin and Practice of iMonkery among the Heathen Nations, its passage into the Church ; and some wonderful stories of the fathers concerning the primitive monks and hermits. 2 v. N.Y. 1850. The author, a Presbyterian, is by no means friendly to monastic institutions. 13. Rationalism. Hurst, John F. History of Rationalism. Embracing a Survey of the Present State of Protestant Theology. With appendix of literature. 8vo. N.Y. Scr. 1865. 9th rev. ed. 1875. $3.50. Lecky, W. E. H. History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe. 2 v. 8vo. L. & N.Y. App. 1865. $4.00, "His sympathies are obviously rationalistic, though he usually succeeds in maintaining a moderate and judicious spirit." — C. K. Adams. 14. Reference Books. Abbott, Lyman, and Conant, T. J. A Dictionary of Religious Knowledge, for Popular and Professional Use ; comprising full Information on Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Sub- jects. With nearly One Thousand Maps and Illustrations. Royal 8vo. pp. 1000 -f . N.Y. H. $6.00. Adapted to the needs of general students. 384 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF Bingham,. Joseph. Origines EoclesiasticEe ; or, the Antiquities of the Christian Church. With two sermons and two letters on the Nature and Necessity of Absolution. Edited by R. Bingham. 8vo. L. Macm. Also in 7 vols, in Bingham's complete works. 9 V. 1840. L. W. Straker. 1843. 10 v. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1855. £3 6s. Standard. Blunt, J. H. Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, and Schools of Thought. Imperial 8vo. pp. 648. $10.00. Anglican. Not always unprejudiced and impartial. Edwards, B. B., and Brown, J. N. Encyclopsedia of Religious Knowledge; comprising Dictionaries of the Bible, Theology, Biography, Religious Denominations, Ecclesiastical History, and Missions. Illustrated. Imperial 8vo. pp. 1276. Brat- tleboro, Vt. 1850. " This valuable work comprises a complete library in itself, on the above subjects, from the most authentic sources ; with copious original articles by the ablest American writers, — Episcopal, Con- gregationalist, Presbyterian, Methodist, and Baptist." — Nicholas Tbubnek, in his "Bibliographical Guide to American Literature," published in London, 1859. Now superseded, in most points, by Abbott and Conant, McOlintock and Strong, and Schaff-Herzog. McClintock, John, and Strong, J. A. Cyclopfedia of Biblical, Theo- logical, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Maps. Illustrated. 10 V. 8vo. N.Y. H. 1867 sgj. $5.00 each. Contains many articles on American biography and history, — too large a proportion being upon Methodist subjects, as might be ex- pected from the church relations of its editors. Notwithstanding this imperfection, and the inferior literary qualifications of some of its contributors, it is the largest and most useful work of the kind that has yet appeared in the English language. Schaff, Philip. A Religious Encyclopaedia ; or. Dictionary of Bib- lical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology. 3 v. Royal 8vo. N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. 1882-84. $6.00 each. A condensed and otherwise greatly modified translation of the Eeal-Encyclopadie fiir Protestantische Theologie und Kirche, by Herzoy, Pitt, and Hauck. In the work of translation, Dr. Schaff was aided by his son, D. S. Schaff, and Samuel Jackson. The work is convenient and authoritative. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 385 Smith, Henry B. History of the Church of Christ in (16) Chrono- logical Tables. X.Y. Scr. 1860. 85.00. Useful as an introduction to the study ot church history ; also valua- hle for reference and review. Nowhere can be found so clear and impartial an outline of American church history to a.d. 1858. Smith, William. Bible Dictionarj". 3 v. L. 1860-64. Ameri- can edition much enlarged and improved by H. Hackett and E. Allot. 4:v. pp.3667. :X.Y. Hurd& Houghton. 1868-1870. 120.00. Valuable for topics in early church history. An excellent bibli- ography of ecclesiastical history concludes the article Church. Another standard Bible Dictionary is Kitto's, edited by W. L. Alexander. 3 v. Ed. A. & C. Blacli. 1862-65. £2 2s. Smith, W., and Cheetham, S. A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. The History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Cliristian Church ; Being a Continuation of the " Dictionary of the Bible.'' 2v. Royal 8vo. L. Murray. 1875-1880. 67.00. All that Dr. Smith has edited is valuable. Smith, William, and Wace, Henry. A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects, and Doctrines. 5 v., royal 8vo, L., Murray, 31s. 6d. each. 4 v., B., L. & B., 1877 sgq., $5.50 each. "By far the best patristic biographical dictionary in the English or any other language. A noble monument of the learning of the Church of England, to which nearly all the contributors belong." — P. SCHAIT. 15. Sacked Seasons. Grant, Alex. H. The Church Seasons, Historically and Poetically Illustrated. 2d edition. Revised. 12mo. pp. 506. N.Y. WMttaker. 1881. $1.50. 16. Symbolism. Audsley, W. and G. Handbook of Christian Symbolism. Illus- trated. Small 4to. pp. x, 145. L. Day & Son. 1865. 12s. 6rf. O'Brien, John. A History of the Mass and its Ceremonies in the Eastern and the Western Church. 12mo. N.Y. 4th edition. Revised, pp. xix, 414. Cath. Pub. Soc. Co. 1879. 11.50. More comprehensive than its title would indicate. It aims to point out the symbolical meaning of aU the ceremonies of the eastern and the western churches. APPENDIX. CRUSADES. As originally published, this bibliography contained, under " Crusades " (p. 357), a reference to Professor W. F. Allen's general bibliography, which was included in the same volume. Professor Allen gives the following authorities : — Cox, (Sir) G. W. The Crusades. (Epoch Series.) N.Y. Scr. $1.00- A short history, well written. Gray, G. Z. The Children's Crusade. B. Houghton. 11.50. Michaud,J.F. History of the Crusades. 4 v. N.Y. Redfield. $3.75. Standard. Sybel, H. von. History and Literature of the Crusades. C. & H. 10s. M. Scholarly. INDEX TO AUTHORS. PAGE. PAGE. Abbot, E. 352, .385 Bingham, J. . 384 Abbott, L 373, 383 Bingham, R. . 384 Adams . 371 Blackburn . . 346,375,376 Alger . . 378 Blunt 350, 362, 384 Allen ... 345 Bonliours . 377 Alzog 345 Bossuet . 359 Andrews 352, 373 Brewer ... 363 Anonymous 3j3 376, 380 Brown, J. N. 384 Arnold 346 Browne, G. 1' 375 Atkinson 368 Brownlow 354 Audln . 376 Bryce 356 Audsley, G. 385 Bulkley 382 Audsley, W. 385 Bungener . 377, 380 Aycrigg . . 369 Butler 374 Bacon .... 367 Carlyle . . 361, 376 Backus .... 367 Carpenter 380 Badger . . 345 Caspari . 373 Baird, H. M . 364 Charles (Mrs.) 380 Baird, R. 365, 366 Chateaubriand 382 Balmes . 358 Choules . 364 Banvard 380 Church . 356, 375 Baring-Gould . 358, 374 Christlieb . 382 Barmby 375 Clark, W. R. . 376 Baumgarten . 350 Clarke, J. F. 380 Baur . . 350, 352, 373 Clarke, R. H. 370 Bayliss . . 371 Cobbett 362 Bayne 376 Coleridge . 376, 377 Beard 361 Conant . . 383 Bede 362 Conybeare . . 374 Beecher ... . 373 Cox . 358, 386 Belcher . 366 Creighton . . 356 388 INDEX TO AUTHORS. PAGE. PAGE. Crichton 366 Fleetwood 373 Croly . . . . 380 Fox ... .382 Crooks . 343 Freeman . . 375 Crosby . . . . . 373 Froude . . . . 859,375,376 Cummins (Mrs.) 370 Fuller . . . 362 Cutts . . 375, 376 Geffcken 377 D'Agincourt 354 Geikie . . 363, 372 Dale . . 379 Gerhai '. . ... 370 DAubigne . . 359,365,366 Gibbon ... 351 Davies . 380 Giesele. ... 346 Davis (Mrs.) 344 Gillett . . 362,369,375 Deems . . 373 Gore .... . . 376 Delitzsch 350 Grant . . 385 Demarest . . 370 Gray. . . .386 Dexter 367 Greene . 356 Dixon 362 Grob .... . 377 Dcillinger 346, 351 , 355, 358 Guericke . . . 346 Donaldson . . 355, 378 Guizot . . . 376 Dorner . . . 378, 379 Hackett . . 385 Dowling . 343 Haddan . . . . . 363 Drummond 375 Hagenbach . .bti 379 Eastlake (Lady) . 371 Hale .... 388 Ebers 380 Hallam . 356 Ebrard . . . 372 Hammond . . 381 Eddy . 373 Hampson . . . . 376 Edwards 384 Hanna . . 373 " Eliot, George ' (Marion Hardwick 347, 356, 359, 372 Evans) 380 Hase . 347, 373 Ellicott 373 Hatch 351 Ellis . . 370 Hauck ... 384 Emerson 379 Hausser . . ... 359 Eusebius . 351 Hawks 369 Evans, F. W. . 370 Hazeline ... 368 Evans (Miss) 380 Heaphy ... 371 Evagrius 352 Hefele 377 Ewald . . 372 Herford . . . 363 Earrar 351 372, 374 Herzog ... 384 Fisher . 351, 359 Hitchcock ... 343 INDEX TO AUTHORS. 389 PAGE. PAGE, Hobart .... ... 376 Macaulay 361 Hodge . . 369 Mackay . . .... 379 Hodgson . . . 368 Maclear . . . . 382 Hone . . . .... 382 Malan ... 344 Hook .... ... 374 374 Mansel . 355 Howson .... Mant . .365 Hiibner . . ... 376 Marriott . . 382 Humphrey Hurst . ; 381 Marsh . . . 375 !43, 347, .-Ion, 383 Martyn . 365 Jackson, G. A. ... 352 Maskell . ... 381 Jackson, J. P. . 382 Mason . . . . . 355 Jackson, S. M. 352 Mather . . . 367 Jameson (Mrs.) Jones .•371, 373, 383 . 358 Maurice . . . 352 Mayer . 370 Joselan . 344 McClellan 352 Keim 372 McClintock . :i77, 384 Kettlewell . . 376 McCracken . . 374 Kingsley 380 McCrie . . . . .365,366,376 Kitto 385 Merle, J. H. (E 'Aubigne), Koestlin 376 359, 365, 366 Krasinski 365 Merivale . 382 Kurtz 347 Michaud 386 Landon . . 377 Mille . 380 Lacroix ... . . 356 Milligan . . 352 Lange . . . 352, 372 Milman 347, 352, 357 Lawrence, E. . 347, 366 Milner 347 Lawrence, J. 370 Momsen 354 Lea . .347,357 Montalembert 383 Lechler . . 377 Moore . . . 376 Lecky 383 Mosheim . . 348, 353 Le Clerg 370 Moss . 367 Lightfoot ... 352 Mozley 376 Lipsius . . 352 Murray . . 370 Llorejite . . 361 Neal, D. . ... 363 Lloyd . . . . . . 345, 365 Neale, J. M. 344, 361, 381, 382 Loekhart . . . 380 Neander .348, 353, 372, 375, 379 Lubke . . . 371 Newman 348, 355, 381 Lundy .... 354 Northcote . . 354 390 INDEX TO AUTHORS. PAGE. PAGE. Norton . . . . .352.371 Schliermacher . . Sohmid, C. F. . . . . . . 376 Newton . . . 343 . . . 373 O'Brien . . . . 385 Schenkel . . . . 373 Padre-Marchi . ... 354 Schmucker . . . . . 368 Parker . 354 Schweinitz .... . . 369 Parkman . 370 Scott . . 371 Pearson 374 Seebohm . . . . . 360 Penn . . . . 368 Seeley, J. R. . . . . 373 Perret . 354 Seelye, J. H. . . 382 Perry, G. G. . 363 Seiss .... . 368 Perry, "W". S. . . . 369 Shedd . . . 379 Piper . . . . . 374 Short ... 363 Pitt 384 Simcox . ... 353 Plumptre . . 373, 379 Simpson . . 368 Poole, G. A. 371 Smiles . . . . 364 Poole, E. L. ... 364 Smith, H.B. . 343,379,385 Poriarty . . . 375 Smith, P. . . . . 349 Possidius . . 375 Smith, R. T. . . 375 Pressens^, 353, 364, 372, 375, 382 Smith, T. . . . 383 Priestley . 352, 353 Smith, W. . . 385 Punchard . 367 Smyth, E. C. . . 344 Pusey . 378 Socrates . . . 352 Randall . . 376 Southey . . 376 Ranke . 360 Soyres . . . . . 355 Reade . . . 381 Sozomen 352 Reichel ... 369 Spalding . . 360 Rein 376 Spayth . . . 370 Renari . . 352, 353, 373, 374 Spencer . . . 363 Reuss . . 379 Sprague . . . 367 Robinson . . 349 Spindler . . . . . 381 Rogers . 376, 877 Stanley, 344, 345, 34 9, 363, 366, Rossi . 354 375 Ruffner . . . . . . 383 Stenhouse (Mrs.) . . 368 Rule . 361 Stephen (Sir) J. . . i !61, 375, 383 Rupp . . . 367 Stephens, W. R. W. . . 375 Sanday . . 352 Stevens, A. . . 368 Sarpi 378 Stubbs . ... . . 363 SchafE . 343, 34S ), 375, 378, 384 Stewart . . . 367 INDEX TO ATJTHOIIS. 391 PAGE. PAGE. Strauss .... . 352,373,376 "Waddington . . . 349, 367 Strong .... ... 384 Wadsworth . . . . . . 354 Strype .... .... 363 Wagstaff .... . . 368 SummerlDell . . .... 367 Wallace . . . . . 381 Sybel .... 386 Ware(H. ■?) . . . . 370 Tafel .376 Ware, W. ... . 381 Taylor . . . .... 354 Webb . ... . . 381 Theodoret . . . ... 352 Washburn .... 349 "Theodorus" . . . 362 Watson . ... . . . 376 Tholuck. . . . 374 Weiss, B. . . . 373 Thomas . . ... 371 Weiss, C. . . . 364 Thompson . . . ... 377 Westcott . . 352 Thornton . . . . . . 375 Whately . . 350 Townsend . . ... 382 Wheaton . . . 366 Treadwell . 376 White, H. . . . . 364 Tregelles . . .261 White, J. . . . . 350 Trench . . .... 357 White (Bp. W.) 369 Tucker . 368 Wiggers . . . . 379 TuUoch . . . . 375, 379 Wilberforce 369 Tyerman . . . . 376, 377 Wiseman . . 360, 381 Tyrwhitt . . . . 372 Wood . 368 Uhlhom. . . 355,356,373 Woodhouse . . . 357 Ullmann . . . . . . 357" Worsfold . . . 358 Urlin . .... 376 Wortabet . . . . . 345 Van Oosterzee . . 352 Wratislaw . . . 375 Venn . ... 377 Wycliffe 357 VUlari . . . . 376 Wylie 358 Villemani . . . .375 Young, J. . . . . 373 Wace . . . . .... 385 Yonge (Miss) . . . . . 366