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THE 
 
 MARTIN P. CATHERWOOD 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
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 RELATIONS 
 
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REPORT 
 
 SOCIAL ECONOMY SECTION 
 
 (fa^~ Universal International ExliiMtion of 1889 at Paris 
 
 PREPARED BY 
 
 JULES HELBRONNER 
 
 Member of the Royal Labor Commission 
 
 Requested by the Honorable Secretary of State 
 
 PRINTED BY ORDER OF PARLIAMENT 
 
 I 
 
 'OTTAWA: 
 
 PRINTED BY BROWN CHAMBERLIN, PRINTER TO THE QUEEN'S MOST 
 EXCELLENT MAJESTY. 
 
 1890. -'•■'*■ '•f#'^ 
 
 , I , i. I. I- V 
 
HP 
 ^^7 
 
 To the Hon. J. A. Chapleau, 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 
 Sir, — I have the hoaor to submit to you the report which I was entrusted to 
 make on the Social Economy Section of the Universal International Exhibition of 
 1889 of Paris. 
 
 The pi'omoters of that section had taken for their motto : " To point out to masters 
 and workmen who, so far, had done nothing, the example of those who know how to act, 
 and had acted with success." 
 
 I have endeavored to attain that end. 
 
 Believe me, Sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 JULES HELBEONNEE. 
 MoNTBEAL, 31si March, 1890. 
 
 Property ot 
 MARTIN P. CATHERWOOD LIBRARY 
 
 20-Ai NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL 
 
 INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS 
 
 Cornell University 
 
Department of the Secretary of State, , 
 
 Office of the Minister, Ottaava, 20tli May, 1889. 
 
 My dear CoJimssioNER General, — I have the honor to introduce to you Mr. 
 Jules Helbronner, one of the Commissioners of the Labor Commission created by the 
 Government of Canada in 1886, to study the relations between capital and labor. 
 Mr. Helbronner has applied himself to the study of these questions, and he goes to 
 Paris with the intention of following the labors of the Social Economy Section of the 
 "Universal International Exhibition, now held there. 
 
 The Government, not being authorized thereto, has not thought expedient to 
 give to Mr. Helbronner an ofiicial mission, but we have taken advantage of his 
 visit to Paris to entrust him with a preparation of a report on the labors of the 
 Social Economy Exhibition which he is to present to the Department of the Secretary 
 of State, and which we will submit later on as an appendix to the Eeport of the 
 Labor Commission. 
 
 Please give to Mr. Helbronner a cordial welcome, and introduce him to the 
 commissioners and oflElcers of the Exhibition, so that he may obtain access' to the 
 documents he may need, and which will be of use to him in his undertaking. 
 
 I doubt not but that your relations with Mr. Helbronner .will be agreeable, and 
 that you will make his visit to Paris both pleasant and useful. 
 
 Believe me, dear Commissioner General, 
 
 Your devoted, 
 
 J. A. CHAPLEAU. 
 
 The Hon. H. Fabre, C.M.G., 
 
 Commissioner General of Canada, 
 10, rue de Eome, Paris. 
 
UNIVERSAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF 1889. 
 
 SOCIAL ECONOMY SECTION. 
 
 REPORT. 
 
 The Social Economy Section did not at first form part of the programme for the 
 Exhibition of 1889. It was only created in 188Y, and though the last, it was not the 
 less noticed nor the less remarkable. 
 
 It did not, however, possess a brilliant exterior, nor anything to divert the 
 attention from the mai-vellous spectacles presented by the other sections. 
 
 A few workmen's houses forming a modest little street ; a few pavilions erected 
 singly or in groups ; an economic restaurant, a dispensary ; a rotunda serving as a 
 committee-room, and a little corridor of a few hundred feet dimensions, enclosed all 
 the treasures of this section. 
 
 And what treasures ! Books, documents, graphic pictures, the monotony of 
 which was only varied by some plans in relievo, or the works of a training or profes- 
 sional school. 
 
 There was nothing there, in this corner of the Esplanade of the Invalides, or 
 very little, to attract the attention of the great crowd of visitors; however, this little 
 space was one of those frequently visited, much admired and much studied. 
 
 It was here, in this corner, that were deposited documents illuminating the 
 social question with a new departure, demonstrating that accord of capital and 
 labor was no Utopian scheme, nor an impossibility, and that the workman was more 
 than he is generally regarded to be, capable of creating permanent assurance com. 
 panics, provident, co-operative and educational institutions. 
 
 In adding the Social Economy section (the eleventh group), to sections created 
 in the first place, the object was to group and reward — 
 
 " All the institutions created either by the employers of labor, in favour of 
 the workmen themselves, or by the State, or by cities, to ameliorate the moral and 
 physical condition of the citizens, to accustom them to habits of economy, to 
 acquaint them with the advantages of cooporation, to stimulate enterprise, and in 
 procuring for them healthy dwellings, to facilitate their opportunities for becoming 
 proprietors. Useful examples will be given to the public, and by the efficacious 
 results of acquired experience and well-proved facts, harmony will be developed 
 among those working at similar occupations." Ministerial resolution of dth June, 1887. 
 
 From the month of, June 1887, committees were formed in Prance, as well as 
 elsewhere, to organize the new section ; these committees proceeded to make a. 
 
vni 
 
 thorough enquiry on economic questions, a methodical enquiry based on a well- 
 selected list of over 200 questions. The documents collected by the committees 
 were classed as follows : — 
 
 Number of 
 exhibitors. 
 
 Section I. Ecmuneration for labor 24 
 
 — II. Profit-sharing — Cooperative production societies.... 88 
 
 — III. Pjofessional syndicates 61 
 
 — IV. Apprenticeship '78 
 
 — V. Mutual benevolent societies 154 
 
 — VI. Pension funds and life pensions 67 
 
 — VII. Accident and life insurance companies 36 
 
 — VIII. Savings '. 45 
 
 — IX. Consu mens' cooperative association 37 
 
 — X. Cooperative credit associations 13 
 
 XI. Workmen's dwellings 51 
 
 — XII. Workmen's clubs. — Games and recreations 86 
 
 — XIII. Social hygiene 44 
 
 — XIV. Patronal Institutions 72 
 
 — XV. Grande ot Petite Industrie. — Agriculture 49 
 
 — XVI. Economic intervention in public government 29 
 
 Section of Fiench cities 10 
 
 — of Belgium 99 
 
 — of Great Britain 45 
 
 — of Italy 28 
 
 Total 1,116 
 
 These documents describe the efforts made by employers who believed that 
 there were between themselves and their employees other sympathies and relations 
 than those of merely master and servant, and give a history of the institutions 
 established by the workmen, either by their own efforts, or assisted by their em- 
 ployees er by the State, to ameliorate their moral and physical condition. 
 
 Some of these documents are remarkable productions, veritable essays, review- 
 ing all the social questions in connection with the different sections of the Social 
 Economy Exhibition. 
 
 The reports of the Belgian section (a large volume of 1,100 pages, accompanied 
 with maps, plans and pictures), those of the departmental committees of the Eh6ne, 
 the Gironde and the Sarthe, and the volumes edited by the large companies, indus- 
 trial or financial, merit special attention from all who are interested in questions of 
 social economy. 
 
 The employees have been at great pains to present suitably, and in a style clear, 
 precise and scientific, the functions of the institutions they had founded, and the results 
 obtained. We find in these latter documents a description of most remarkable insti- 
 tutions, as well from the report of the idea which originated them, as for that which 
 placed them>in operation. 
 
IX 
 
 Whatever- be the value of the documents exhibited, it was quite impossible to 
 review them all and do justice to them in a single report. Further, a reporter is 
 not &jury, and has not the duty to judge of the merits, great or little, of the ideas 
 advanced, but simply to describe those the application of which might offer special 
 interest in Canada. This is what we have endeavoured to do. 
 
 To attain this end we have omitted from our description every document, what- 
 ever its value, which treats of institutions already established on this continent. 
 The documents retained have been classed not altogether on account of their im- 
 portance, but from the interest they possess from a Canadian point of view. Thus, 
 a considerable space has been given to the participation in profits, to pension funds and 
 cooperative asssociations, &c., whilst details concerning other sections have been made 
 as brief as possible. Wo have besides made a point of giving complete documents 
 that is, of publishing on each project, on each class of institution, a risumi containing 
 all the essential elements for employers, for workmen, or for statesmen, who wish to 
 establish in Canada any of thejse institutions. And to arrive more easily at this 
 end, we have united all these documents in one group, contenting ourselves with 
 preceding them by a few general remai-ks on the Exhibition of Social Economy and 
 adding some of the reports presented at three of the principal Social Congresses 
 which met at the Exhibition. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF LABOR. 
 
 Section I. — Payment of labour. 
 Section II. — Profit-sharing. 
 Section III. — Apprenticeship. 
 Section IV. — Patronal institutions. 
 
 APPRENTICESHIP. 
 
 Apprenticeship in the strict sense of the word, that is, apprenticeship served at 
 the workshop, is gradually disappearing. The perfection of machinery, the division 
 of labour, the necessity for rapid and large production, the disappearance of a great 
 many small workshops and employers incapable of competing with the large establish- 
 ments and powerful joint-stock companies, are so many causes which have brought 
 about the suppression of apprenticeship. 
 
 Children are no longer required to give a few years of their time in exchange for 
 initiation into the mysteries of the trade which they wish to learn ; there is no longer 
 time to instruct them. Production is necessary, the machine must be tended, a work 
 which is learnt in a few days, or a few weeks at most ; and the apprentice has 
 disappeared before the child-workman. 
 
 So long as the old apprentices of fifty years ago continued at work, manufacturers 
 and industry suffered but little from the more or less complete suppression of 
 apprenticeship. But one day the fact became apparent, now in one country, now in 
 another, that certain industry could not compete with foreign importations, that the 
 latter were better made, better finished, more salable in a word, than national pro- 
 ducts, and the prospect was alarming. The question was considered and it was 
 recognized that manufacturers the best equipped for competition were those who 
 knew how to preserve the traditions of appi-enticeship. 
 
• 
 The question has become in Europe a national one, and in all laboui' districts^ 
 attempts are nor being made to re-establish apprenticeship in another form, undei* 
 the title of professional instruction. 
 
 It is thus that a large number of employers have formed in their establishments,, 
 either collectively, or under control of their managing boards, professional schools, 
 in which the apprentice is instructed in the theory of the ti-ade which is practically 
 learnt at the workshop. Good results have so far been obtained; the child is really 
 an apprentice, living the life of the workshop, under the direction, almost the pro- 
 tection, of skilled workmen who learn them their trade. Here is again found, with 
 but little difference, that old system of apprenticeship, when the apprentice, rather 
 strictly trained perhaps, learnt thoroughly his trade at the side of, and in the same- 
 establishment with, the workman to whose care he was confided. 
 
 These individual efforts of employers have been limited enough and were insuf- 
 ficient in many cases to revive or maintain the supremacy which some countries had 
 acquired in some branches of industry. It is thus that the public authorities in 
 order to lessen the consequences attending the disappearance of apprenticeship hava- 
 created a complete system of professional instruction. 
 
 This system, quite recently applied, takes, so to speak, the child at his first 
 entry into school. As soon as his little hands can hold a tool, he is instructed how to 
 use it ; not for the purpose of making a workman of him on his leaving school, but 
 mainly to suppress the disagreeable period of apprenticeship which lasts as long 
 as the apprentice is unable to make use of his tools, and also to discover the apti- 
 tude and taste of the child, and make him select, when satisfied on this point, tha 
 trade offering him the best chances of success. 
 
 These schools, with very rare exceptions, have been much appreciated by work- 
 men from various countries, who send their children to them in preference to the 
 ordinary primary schools. 
 
 On leaving one of these schools, the pupil who knows the first practical elements 
 of the trade he intends to learn, is not altogether useless to the workman under 
 whose orders he is placed ; and the latter, finding baside him, instead of a useless 
 encumbrance, who can only make him lose a portion of his time, a little workman 
 who will prove useful to him under his guidance and counsel, does not withhold 
 from him instruction from which he will be the first to profit. 
 
 It was to interest workmen as much as apprentices in the development and per- 
 fection of apprenticeship, that the competition of apprentices was instituted, and that 
 rewards were given not only to the latter, but also to the workmen who had taken 
 the trouble to instruct them. 
 
 Besides the manual schools we find the apprentice schools, schools professional, 
 municipal or syndical, into which pupils enter on leaving the primary school to learn 
 theoretically and practically any particular trade. 
 
 These are veritable schools provided with workshops, giving diplomas of capacity ; 
 the instruction is generally gratuitous, and thus, in many cases, the pupils receive a 
 salary equal to that they might obtain in an ordinary workshop. 
 
XI 
 
 The exhibition of work executed by the pupils of these schools has surprised 
 many visitors ; it is irresistible proof of the necessity for similar establishments. 
 
 It is proper to remark that the establishment at Paris of these municipal appren- 
 tice schools has been opposed by the Workmen's Associations; but those who, at 
 first, were adversaries, having been able, like competent men. to appreciate the worth 
 of workmen who left these schools, have become their most' ardent advocates, and 
 have recognized their usefulness by granting prizes to their most deserving scholars. 
 
 The establishment of these schools has always answered a necessity, and they 
 have frequently saved from ruin the industry of a locality ; the Municipal Weaving 
 School of Sedan (p. ]89) is a most convincing proof of the part which these schools 
 are called upon to perform. 
 
 The most serious criticism made upon these institutions was, +hat being expen- 
 sive and consequently restricted in number they are of no value to the great mass 
 of workmen. This criticism is worth considering. 
 
 But there must be a commencement to all things ; and these schools only estab- 
 lished a few years ago are multiplying every day ; the primary object of those 
 schools is the formation of an industrial staff ; the instruction of apprentices, 
 who, after a more or less prolonged course at the workshop, are called to become 
 foremen or superintendents of labor. 
 
 These preparatory schools while favoring a certain number of young people, sons 
 of workmen, in nowise prevent apprentices to labor from having opportunities for 
 attaining first-class positions. 
 
 In all countries whefre apprentice schools exist there are evening schools for 
 technical instruction, where workmen of any age may acquire the knowledge which 
 they cannot receive at the workshop. The lessons are given by the most competent 
 teachers of the country, and it is rare to find in Europe a young foreman who does 
 not owe his position to the evenings passed in the night school. 
 
 To well understand the revolution brought about by technical instruction, refer- 
 ence must be made to the results obtained in Germany from the country-people's 
 museums (page 209). The creation of rural industries is a most interesting subject 
 for Canadians. The city workmen suffer from tiie immigration of country artisans, 
 and emigration to the United States is due, in great measure, to the scarcity of 
 employment and the poor remuneration which workmen receive outside the cities. 
 
 Why not, under these circumstances, create rural industries? Not those 
 which would attract the farmer to the workshop and remove him from the fields, 
 but some of these industries, which the machine has not invaded, and the workman 
 or working-woman could practise at home when at leisure from other occupations, 
 and thus profit by it during periods of enforced idleness. 
 
 About twenty years ago, for example, there were made, in many Canadian 
 villages, straw hats, of which one kind, named " chapeaux de foin,'" was very fine 
 and handsome. This industry has disappeared, because it was not known how to 
 modify it. It could have suflSced to have transformed it, and to manufacture tresses 
 or plaits, to establish an important article 'of commerce. The English manufacturies 
 of Luton and of St. Albans, those of the canton of Argovie in Switzerland, whose 
 
xu 
 
 productions have taken the place of Italian fabrics, are of recent creation, and their 
 manufacture is in no way superior to that of the straw hats of the Province of 
 Quebec, a manufacture which can be revived in a better and more perfected form. 
 
 The industry of wood-carving, a veritable source of wealth in some agricultural 
 and wooded districts in Germany, Switzerland and Italy, would admirably suit the 
 capacity of Canadian eouutry-people, and could be established at a trifling cost in 
 several countries. Many other rural industries coiild be successfully introduced in 
 Canada; there only needs, to introduce them, a little energy and some techninal 
 experts. This a simple question of apprenticeship. 
 
 The modern apprentice is not abandoned, as he was at the beginning of the 
 century, to the mercy of his employer or the workmen. Numerous societies, 
 protecting, supervising, and encouraging, have been founded, and at present the 
 material conditions of apprenticeship have been much ameliorated. 
 
 This amelioration could alone induce young people to find their way to the work- 
 shop ; and industrial recruitment is thus a little less difl&cult than for several years 
 past. The shortening of the time for apprenticeship, the facilities granted tor 
 theoretical study, the encouragements of various kinds granted to apprentices, have 
 induced workmen to make apprentices of their sons, instead of sending them to 
 work as assistants in some other workshop. The efforts made to re-establish 
 apprenticeship and to instruct the workman are necessary ; because, in spite of the 
 machine, the industrial force of a nation rests more than ever on the skill of the 
 workman, a skill dependent almost enti^-ely on the apprenticeship, and without 
 which no country can defend itself against foreign products. 
 
 Salaries. 
 
 In order to judge of the real value of salaries paid in foreign countries, it will be 
 necessary to consider the cost of living ; statistics are very diflB.cult to obtain to 
 any reliable extent. In giving the average of salaries in France and Belgium, we 
 have only in view a basis for establishing the custom's tariffs. 
 
 In France the day-work isontheaverageof ten hours. InBelgiumitismuchlonger; 
 being more than 12 hours for the majoi-ity of workmen. To this length of the 
 working-days there is a corresponding diminution of the average salary; this aver- 
 rage, for men, is 62f cents in Belgium, and 80 J cents in France. These figures 
 amply justify the assertion of workmen that the longer the day the lower is the 
 salary. 
 
 The increase of the rate of salaries shown by the statistics is partly due to the 
 diminution in the value of money ; but it must be admitted, on the other hand, that 
 the artisan lives better than formerly, and the amount of their savings proves that the 
 vehement recriminations heard in certain g[uarters are not always well founded. 
 
 All trades have not however, benefited by the movement for increase of salaries. 
 Thus in the case of potters (page 11) : "The salaries are such as might suit an artisan 
 with a family of two children; above that number he would be inconveniently straitened." 
 
 Examples of this kind are rare, and i» general, the documents, as a perusal will 
 convince, indicate that the salaries have increased in a proportion greater than the 
 cost of living. 
 
xni 
 
 As a reference, we give the advance of rate of salaries in France, as published 
 in the official statistics. 
 
 Increase in rate of salaries in France. 
 
 The following rates represent the average of the increase in salaries for the 
 whole of the sixty-two classes of trades for which the respective salaries are indi- 
 cated on pages 3 and 4 : — 
 
 Average salary of workmen in Total 
 Paris. 1853. 1885. increase. 
 
 $ ots. $ cts. % 
 
 Average salary for men 0,762 1,172 0,41 54 
 
 do women 0,424 0,598 0,17 41 
 
 Other Cities. 
 
 Average salary for men 0,412 0,692 0,28 67 
 
 do women 0,214 0,364 0,15 70 
 
 In skilled labour the comparisons are given on the 32 industries indicated on 
 pages 5 and 9, and only comprise the years from 1881 to 1885. 
 
 Average daily salaries of the "grande Industrie." 
 
 Foremen 
 
 Time-keepers 
 
 Workmen /°^«'' ^^ y^^ of age 
 
 (.from 15 to 21 years of age. 
 Women 
 
 chiidren..{gs^v::;;;;;.:::::::;::::: 
 
 Engineers, pressmen, &c 
 
 Laborers, porters, carters, &o 
 
 Department of the Seine. 
 
 1881. 1883. 
 
 1885. 
 
 S cts. 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 1,390 
 
 1,490 
 
 1,106 
 
 1,132 
 
 1,054 
 
 1,066 
 
 0,700 
 
 0,706 
 
 0,534 
 
 0,536 
 
 0,356 
 
 0,396 
 
 0,290 
 
 0,324 
 
 1,122 
 
 1,146 
 
 0,838 
 
 0,924 
 
 1,426 
 1,106 
 1,070 
 0,696 
 0,532 
 0,370 
 0,304 
 1,144 
 0,936 
 
 Other Departments. 
 
 1881. 1883. 
 
 1885. 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 1,080 
 
 1,088 
 
 0,828 
 
 0,850 
 
 0,708 
 
 0,710 
 
 0,470 
 
 0,486 
 
 0,356 
 
 0,360 
 
 0,266 
 
 0,270 
 
 0,216 
 
 0,220 
 
 0,812 
 
 0,812 
 
 0,588 
 
 0,596 
 
 1,086 
 0,858 
 0,710 
 0,490 
 0,356 
 0,^66 
 0,214 
 0,812 
 0,590 
 
 In addition to his regular salary, there accrues to the workman, in a great 
 number of establishments, a source of profit omitted in the statistic.'', consisting of 
 prizes or pi-emiums on salaries. Some of these accumulated premiums procure<for 
 the workman, upon his retirement — a pension which places him beyond the 
 reach of want, the highest premium enregistered is that of the perfumery Pinaud 
 (page 21), ensuring to the workman who has entered the establishment at the age 
 of 21 a capital of $4,372 at the age of 65. 
 
 These premiums were established long ago, and have nothing in common with 
 the ordinary premiums arising from savings in general cases. Some branches of in- 
 dustry have, however, replaced these last premiums by a system aggravating still 
 further the disadvantages under which woi'kmen suffer when working by the piece. 
 In these establishments, the salary by the piece leaves the workman responsible for the 
 material which ho uses ; this organization of labour should certainly realize notable 
 economies, but it can neither improve the quality of the work, nor ameliorate 
 the relations between employers and workmen. 
 
XIV 
 
 The objection of workmen against piece-wcfrk is as marked in Europe as in 
 America. Work by the piece is there generally adopted; however, the establish- 
 ments whose work requires skill and precision reject absolutely work by the piece, 
 and pay their employees by the day. In general, these employers are those who 
 grant premiums to their workmen, which proves that the best paid work- 
 men are not always the most expensive. 
 
 Messrs. Piquet & Co., (page 20) constructors of machinery, have adopted a 
 system as ingenious as it is equitable, although paying their employees by the 
 hour, yet they obtain the same if not more good work that a workman paid by the 
 piece is capable of turning out. 
 
 Among the number of complaints made by the workmen before the Labor Com- 
 mission, one were more frequent than those concerning that intervening party, 
 who was designated by a term as offensive and brutal as his functions — the runner 
 of team. This functionary exists also in Europe, but instead of being a charge on 
 workmen whom he employs, diminishing their salary to his profit, he can, on the 
 contrary, when ho is capable, increase the men's wages to a large extent. (Pages 13 
 and 16.) 
 
 In some large establishments, the reduction of salaries, when it is necessary, 
 oecomes the object of special arrangements, made in view of avoiding some difficulty. 
 At the glass works of Baccarat, for instance, the management gives a potice three 
 months in advance of a reduction in wages ; the Company of the Champagne Foundries 
 explains to its workmen the causes necessitating the reduction, and furnishes to a 
 delegation of workmen all the necessary explanations on the industrial situation. 
 
 How many troubles arise, not from the temporary reduction of salaries, but 
 from the suddenness, the roughness and haughtiness accompanying them, and the 
 absence of all explanation. 
 
 This reduction of salary is severely felt if it takes place at the com- 
 mencement or in the course of a cold season ; it is the more irritating to a workman 
 when it is not justified by a superabundance of demand for employment, due to the 
 regular stoppage of industries entirely foreign to that in which he is engaged, and 
 not caused by the diminution in value of manufactured products. 
 
 * This is the application of the theory of supply and demand, in its most unjust 
 and cruel aspect, and the evidence received by the Labor Commission, proves that 
 this application is unfortunately too frequent in Canada. 
 
 At Bordeaux, in France, discussion on this point has been for a long time sup- 
 pressed. 
 
 The price paid for a day's work is the same in summer as it is in winter, whatever be 
 the number of hours of the day {pages 6 and 21). 
 
 " The Joint-Stock Company of Lumbermen and Workshops of the Gironde " em- 
 ploys 800 workmen, working 11 hours daily in summer, and receiving a uniform 
 salary from one year's end to the other ; its manager says on this subject in his re- 
 port to the exhibition : — ' 
 
 " This system, which we consider proper, and which we would like to see estab- 
 lished everywhere, has been in force for a long time at Bordeaux, and I have con- 
 
XV 
 
 «idered it right to preserve it, principally from a humanitarian point of view, for 
 ■winter is the time when wants are most pressing ; it is not then, at the time when 
 the workman stands most in need of his resources that he should be given a lower 
 flalary ; it suits better to give him a uniform day's pay, for experience proves that 
 it is only a few who economize when earning large wages, to provide something for 
 hard times." 
 
 With a working population more or less nomadic, and more or less day-laborers, 
 this system would be inapplicable ; but it can be applied without danger in all cir- 
 cumstances when the employer has known how to create a staff of workmen certain 
 of finding with him steady employment and equitable remuneration. 
 
 Bules of the Workshops. 
 
 The rules of the workshops on the continent are very strict, and the fines very 
 numerous. But, contrary to what has been found in certain factories in Canada, 
 faults, subject to fines, are in Europe fully specified^(page 23), and if the foreman 
 can be proved to exercise excessive severity, he can but rarely commit an abuse of 
 authority. 
 
 One point struck us in Paris, however, which was that, however severe, how- 
 ever arbitrary, were the rules in force in some workshops, not one of them, contained 
 clauses so strict and tyrannical as those in force in the workshops of workmen's co- 
 operative societies. 
 
 That associated members should submit to a Draconian set of rules, drawn up 
 with a view of maintaining each co-operator within the limits of his duty, and to 
 serve in the absence of directing authority, is quite fair ; but that these rules should 
 apply to auxiliary workmen, having no interest in the establishment, and only 
 working for a salary, is to impose on others that which one would not wish to see 
 done to himself 
 
 Fines. 
 
 "The system of fines has been the subject of bitter complaints before the Labor 
 Commission ; it is impossible not to recognize a certain foundation for these com- 
 plaints, existing, also, up to the present; it is unpleasant to be obliged to make 
 deductions from the salary of a workman, to punish him with hunger in a degree, 
 for infraction of regulations, and we are convinced that no employer of labor would 
 long apply this system if he could replace it with some other."* 
 
 This refers to the Belgian Labor Commission, which proves that everywhere 
 workmen complain of the injustice of fines. A regulation may be quite fair, prepared 
 by conscientious men, and be applied by foremen or other functionaries in a manner 
 quite contrary to its purport and object. 
 
 After a serious strike, in ISTS-'ze, due principally to the rigor of some regulations, 
 the system of fines was discontinued in several coal mines of Belgium, and replaced 
 by a contingent right to a profit, and since 1877, the period at which the change 
 was made in the operations of the Societies of Mariemont and Bascoup, never 
 have the regulations been better observed.f These regulations, it is true, were not 
 the work of a single man, more or less well acquainted with the workmen whom he 
 
 * Note on Boards of Explanations, by A. Demeure, engineer. 
 
 + Belgian section. Patronal institutions. Report by M. E. Vandervelde, p. 111. 
 
XVI 
 
 employed, but they were prepared by those remarkable Boards of Explanations^ 
 (page 29), which have done such good service in Belgium, and finally revised by a 
 Council of Arbitration and Conciliation. That which renders a system of fines, as 
 it is administered in Europe, less odious and intolerable than m America, is that the 
 amounts thus received are invariablj' deposited in a mutual benevolent society's 
 for the benefit of the workmen. 
 
 In two manufactories, the managers, to thoroughly prove to their employees 
 that in their opinion fines were necessary; that they were only imposed for the 
 good of the service, pay from their private funds, in the bank of the Mutual 
 Benevolent Society of their workmen, an amount equal to that of the fines paid by the 
 latter. (Sieber, Seydoux & Co., pages 24 and 423., Solvay & Co., pages 426 and 613.) 
 
 In spite of these amendments, of this return to the fund of sums nearly double 
 the fines imposed, the system of fines should be condemned and its suppression 
 ordered by law. It is adangerous weapon which is placed in the hands of super- 
 intendents and foremen, and which many make use of in such a way as that while 
 injuring the workman, it recoils at the same time on the employer. 
 
 This unhappy interference of the foreman in the relations of master and work- 
 men is much dreaded by the employers of labour, and the uneasiness which they 
 experience is expresseJ in the documents exhibited. 
 
 Thus Messrs. Piquet & Co., of Lyons, in describing the system of remuneration, 
 they have adopted, say : — 
 
 " Thanks to this ingenious combination, there is n& need of a foreman, or at all 
 events his authority is diminished, and what was irritating in his functions has 
 entirely disappeared. The foreman has no longer to reform the lazy ones, for the 
 excellent reason that there are none, and occasions of difficulty no longer arise." 
 
 "To avoid the strikes and misunderstandings which frequently occur, the 
 surest method is to suppress the intermediaries between employer and workman, 
 to multiply the points of contact, to convince the workman that at the workshop 
 all interests are identical. Holding these opinions, Messrs. Piquet have long since 
 taken away from the foremen the right of engaging and dismissing the employees.. 
 The staff is placed under their personal direction, and possessing the qualities 
 necessary for exercising their authority with delicate tact, they avoid the frictions 
 which frequently gives rise to great embarrassment." 
 
 Eesults of this system : no strikes and an absolute stability of the staff. 
 
 Other manufacturers, Messrs. Pleyel Wolf & Co., of Paris, have also foreseen 
 the causes of contention attributable to the foremen, and have taken to avoid them 
 the following plan : 
 
 " We require on the part of foremen, and it goes without saying, on the part 
 of the management, a correct treatment of the workmen ; we do not tolerate 
 any improper language, we see that there is nothiiig arbitrarj^ in the establishment ; 
 and finally we demand that any instructions given must be made in language correct, 
 concise, and withal friendly, showing to the workman, that whilst we consider him 
 an intelligent being, something above a machine, — a fellow-laborer, we can require 
 from him, good-will, honesty and devotion." 
 
 But of all the regulations, the most practical, the most equitable, is, beyond 
 doubt, that introduced by Leclaire, and still in force with his successors. (Pages 
 67-70). 
 
xvu 
 
 In reading this regulation, we perceive that it is the work of a workman who 
 has became employer, and who either in the one position or the other, has under- 
 stood his duties and obligations. This ohef-d'ceuvre of good sense, equity and charity 
 is worthy of the man who has originated the participation of employees in the profits, 
 of the employer. 
 
 Arbitration, — Conciliation. 
 
 The study of the documents in the Social Economy section of the Exhibition hag 
 not bj' any means modified the opinions which we advance, oa these grave questions, 
 in the report of the Labor Commission. 
 
 More than ever we believe that obligatory arbitration on the question of salary is 
 an Utopia which even those who demand it cannot defend with any valid arguments. 
 
 The idea of fixing the salaries by obligatory arbitration, that is to say, to com- 
 pel the master to offer work, and the workman to execute it, at a price which neither 
 of them could or would accept, is so impracticable and so unrealizable, that we won- 
 der that it has ever been discussed. 
 
 On every other subject obligatory arbitration would be possible, just as possible 
 as it would be for the employer to close his establishment, and for the workman not 
 to go to it. 
 
 To legally impose obligatoi-y arbitration would destroy entirely the right of the 
 workingman as to the price of his labor, for which w oi'kmen have contended during 
 many years. 
 
 The question of salary will always be a cause of strikes, a cause which will only 
 disappear with the modification of the mode of remuneration for labor, and which 
 the law is powerless to suppress. 
 
 But besides the difficulties of salary, strikes arise from a great variety of 
 troubles, which are only dissensions in workshops caused by vexatious regulations 
 or modifications demanded in the conditions of labor. 
 
 All strikes of the latter class could be avoided, and are in fact avoided in great 
 measure by the intervention, in England, of committees for arbitration, created by 
 Mr. Mundella; in France by the (7oftsei7s de Prud'hommes, and in Belgium by the 
 Conseilsde Prud'hommes, the Boards of Explanations and the Boards of Arbitration and 
 Conciliation.* 
 
 The Mundella Committees of Arbitration and the " Gonseils de Prud'hommes" 
 are too well known in Canada to require a desci'iption of their composition and 
 functions. 
 
 As for the Boards of explanations (page 29), established after a serious strike in 
 ISTT, they have had the effect: — 
 
 * An idea may be formed of the influence of these institutions of conciliation by comparing, for 
 example, the statistics of strikes in France and in the United States :— 
 
 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 
 
 Number of strikes in Prance 182 144 90 108 
 
 do United States... 454 478 443 645 
 
 The average per strike, of the number of strikers, was 323 in France and 367 in the United States. 
 
 20— B 
 
xvui 
 
 Ist. Of settling special disputes at the workshop itself. 
 
 2nd. Of informing the employer of the whole details relative to his employees, 
 and the workmen of the real intentions of their mastei's, thus making all misunder- 
 standings impossible. 
 
 3rd. To ensure, while reconciling, good feeling between employers and 
 employees. 
 
 4th. To establish control over intermediaries between master and workmen, in 
 order to prevent their severance in an arbitrary and unjust manner, and the perver- 
 sion of the intentions of the employers, or the complaints of the workmen. 
 
 It is easy to recognize in all the combinations for arbitration the same object: 
 to place the employer in sympathy with his workmen, to reform injustice committed 
 by intermediaries, and to create a council in which capital and labor are rej)resented 
 by their delegates, and where debates may be calmly held and dae consideration 
 given to the cause of their respective grievances and claims. 
 
 It is intended to supplement and complete this institution by the creation of an 
 Appeal Board whose members will be elected by the several Boards of Explana- 
 tions of the same industry. 
 
 Besides the Gonseils de Pried' hommes there was created in Belgium in 1887, a 
 Board of Arbitration and Conciliation. This Board was intended to deliberate on 
 the general interests of employers and workmen, to prevent, and when necessary, to 
 reconcile any differences which might arise between them. 
 
 These Boards are established by a royal edict, either officially, or on demand of a 
 commercial council, or of interested emploj'ers of labor. 
 
 The decree fixes the extent and limits of their jurisdiction, and determines the 
 number and nature of their sections. 
 
 Each section is composed of an equal number of employers and workmen. The 
 minimum is six and the maximum twelve. 
 
 The workmen and'employers choose their delegates in the manner of the rule 
 at the Prud' hommes. The duration of the mandate is for three years; the section 
 meets, at least, once every year. 
 
 When circumstances require, the Governor of the Province, or the burgomaster 
 convokes on demand, either the employers or the workmen of the section in which 
 the dispute arises. The section endeavors to find means of conciliating and allay- 
 ing the difficulty. If no agreement can be effected, the deliberation is resumed 
 under a proces-verbal which is made public. 
 
 The King can summon the Council of the District to a general assembly, to 
 give advice on questions or projects of general interest in relation to industrial or 
 labor questions which he may think proper to submit. 
 
XIX 
 
 The royal edict convoking a general assembly, as also the edicts of the Governor 
 or the permanent deputation convoking a section, indicate the order of the day, and 
 fix the duration of the session. ISTo question foreign to the oi'der of the day can 
 be submitted for deliberation. 
 
 The Government can name a commissioner to attend the general meeting, to 
 make there any communications he thinks necessary, and to take part in the 
 debates, if required, on the questions submitted or the measures projected. 
 
 These are the great objects of this institution up to the present time ; its appli- 
 cation has only been once made, in the commencement of 1889, upon a strike of 
 quarry men, at the initiative of Government. These institutions have not suppressed 
 strikes altogether, but they have considerably diminished and lessened their effects ; 
 they have had the effect, in the case of a conflict of restricting the influence of those 
 dangerous beings who through greed or ambition, are an obstacle to a good under- 
 standing between capital and labor. 
 
 The payment of salaries. 
 
 In France and England, salaries can only be paid in specie or bank notes ; truck- 
 payment is prohibited by law. Salaries are paid every week or fortnight in 
 the greater number of industrial concerns. 
 
 In -Belgium the workingman was long the victim of numerous abuses — abuses 
 not unknown on the continent. To put an end to which the Belgium Government 
 promulgated a law in 188Y, which assured to the wage-worker : — 
 
 The payment of salaries in species or notes of legal tender. 
 
 The master has the right, however, to furnish as equivalent to salary as follows : 
 
 1. Lodging, 
 
 2. The'use of a piece of land. 
 
 3. The tools or instruments necessary to the work, as well as the keeping of 
 these in order, 
 
 4. The materials or stock necessary for their work which the workman has to 
 furnish, according either as admitted by custom or hj the terms of their agreement. 
 
 5. The uniform or particular dress which the workingman would be obliged 
 to wear. The articles named under Nos. 3, 4 and 5, cannot be placed to the working- 
 man's account, except at cost price. 
 
 The permanent committee* appointed by the Government can authorize the 
 masters to supply their workmen as equivalent to salary, food, clothing or fuel, on 
 the sole condition of their being furnished at cost price. ■ 
 
 Salaries cannot be paid in taverns, saloons, stores or any place in connection 
 with them. 
 
 Salaries not above $1 per day must be paid at least twice a month, at sixteen 
 days interval at longest. 
 
 Piece work, made-up work, or contract work, a partial or full settlement must 
 be made at least once a month. 
 
 It is strictly forbidden to make agreements which would prevent the workman 
 from disposing of his salary as he saw fit. 
 
 Salaries can only be stopped for the following causes : 
 
 * Appointed by the State, 
 
 20— Bi 
 
XX 
 
 1. For fines incurred ; 
 
 2. For goods furnished on conditions stated above ; 
 
 3. For assessments due to the benefit and provident funds. 
 
 4. For advances made in money, but only to the extent of one-fifth. 
 
 In 1887 the Belgian Grovernment, to exempt fi-om seizure the amount of salary 
 necessary to maintain the family, created the following law : 
 
 Law concerning the untransfer ability and immunity from seizure of the salary of working- 
 men and employees. 
 
 Art. I. — Not more than two-fifths of the sum to be paid to the artisans or per- 
 sons in the employ of the principal can be transferred or one-fifth seized. All 
 other stipulations are null and void. 
 
 Aet. II. — The same shall hold good as regards salaries of clerks or employees 
 receiving not more than $240 per annum. 
 
 Many different schemes have been tried in all countries in order to prevent the 
 workingman from spending his wages on pay day in drink, but so far every device 
 to prevent this has failed. This is of course unnecessary as regards the sober and 
 industi'iouB artisan. No matter what day of the week salaries are paid, the one will 
 I'egularly carry his earnings to the saloon and the other to the savings bank. 
 
 Female and Child Labor. 
 
 Looking at the protestations against abuses concerning female and child labor, 
 protestations made by the masters, one can safely say that the time of radical reform 
 and protection by law has arrived. 
 
 The managers of the " Soci^t^ de la Vieille Montague," say : 
 
 "Woman's place is not in the factory but at home, and the ''Vieille Montague" 
 does not encourage the employing of women and girls in its works." 
 
 Married women are not allowed to work in the " Compagnie des Mines de 
 Blanzy." They keep the house, and attend to their household duties and their 
 children. 
 
 Much has been done for the married woman, but apart from the obligations set 
 forth by law, little or nothing has been done as regards children. The first question 
 is one of public interest: the employment of manied women in mills tends to lower the 
 moral standard and industrial strength of a nation. 
 
 The man who has no household, whose wife works inthemill, whose children are 
 left to run wild and take care of themselves make bad workmen and useless citizens. 
 
 The results of the work of the married woman soon manifested itself, especially 
 in the agglomerations of working people near large manufactures, and it has been 
 suppressed, as much through necessity as through humanity. 
 
 In most factories where married women are employed, the rules and regulations 
 are modified in their favor, so as to allow of their working without completely giving 
 up their duties as mothers of families. At the works, of Messrs. Mame & Sons, Tours, 
 the married woman is not bound down to the regular working hours ; it is only 
 
XXI 
 
 necessary to make a request, fixing the number of hours possible to work, and an 
 exception is immediately made in her favor. Thus married women -yithout children, 
 or those having a grown-up family, are permitted to begin work one hour later, and 
 leave off one hour sooner than the regular hands, thus allowing Ihem time to look 
 after their households. Those with young children are allowed to come and go as 
 necessary. 
 
 In other factories the masters allow a certain amount in cases of sickness, and 
 give help to the women during confinement, making it obligatory that they should 
 take care of themselves and not return to work till after a certain number of weeks. 
 
 Some factories have opened day nurseries where the mothers can leave their 
 children on their waj'to work in the morning and call for them on their way home 
 at night. 
 
 These humanitaiy measures are most praiteworthy, but unfortunately they only 
 tend to prolong the work of married woman, by alleviating in some degree, the dis- 
 tress and troubles which surround them. 
 
 The employing of women in factories has been denounced in all ages. The 
 book by Jules Simon called " I'Ouvri^re " has called forth as much indigna- 
 tion as " Uncle Tom's Cabin ;" the pictures he draws of the consequences and results 
 owing to the absence of the wife and mother, are and always will be true, no matter 
 what balm is poured over it. 
 
 It has been said that it was necessary for the maintenance of the family that the 
 woman should work; that is true, but for how long has this been necessary? Only 
 since the women and children have been put in competition with the men, thus lower- 
 ing the wages earned by the father to such a point that he was no longer able to main- 
 tain his family. 
 
 It is not the intention to entirely suppress female labor. In all times, long 
 before the iiscovery of steam, women worked ; but what should be suppressed is the 
 employing of women in mills, which kills, destroys all family life, without even 
 helping its members to live ; the wages are not equal in a pecuniary sense to the 
 benefits derived by the presence of the wife at home. 
 
 Mr. Gladstone has said on this subject : — 
 
 « 
 
 " The greatest benefactor to his country will be he who discovers out some 
 industry which will enable the married women to earn something without being 
 obliged to leave their firesides." 
 
 These industries exist, it is suflScient to look for them and to teach them. 
 
 The use of machinery has not invaded everything, there are many trades where 
 skill and knowledge are more necessary than strength ; these trades should be looked 
 into, and the same should be done for the women in cities, in order to keep them as 
 much as possible out of factorifis as that which we proposed in order to suppress 
 emigration from the agricultural districts : trades should be developed for the 
 employment of women in which the work is purely manual . 
 
 The labor orato7-s has often been accused of trying to gain an unhealthy 
 popularity by describing, in too sombre hues, the moral consequences following the 
 employing of women and girls in factories. The contrary is true; the workingman 
 
xxu 
 
 in general, through a feeling of pride, easily understood, refuses always to expose to 
 view the immorality which exists in certain factories. 
 
 It was not the artisan but the moralist who accused the mills of depraving the 
 women. 
 
 Le Play has written : — 
 
 "I have often noticed during my travels, the moral tortures suffered by poor 
 mothers through their daughters having to seek work outside their homes ; they 
 have often confided in me the hatred engendered to the wealthy who use their riches 
 to seduce these girls, and ever since I have ceaselessly endeavored to stamp out this 
 disgraceful state of things." 
 
 One of Le Play's disciples writing on " Les ouvriers et les riformes nicessaires," 
 has shown us the condition of the artisan as follows : — 
 
 " When the woman works outside, comes home at night tired, to an ill-kept 
 house, home life is no longer possible; there is no longer a wife, a mother, or a 
 woman, there is no family ; the working woman has killed it, 
 
 " The employing of women in factories is a blight, which demoralizes the child, 
 takes away all charm from the fireside, all good and happiness from the home circle. 
 
 " Not only do women, reduced to work in mills, deprive the home circle of the 
 good her presence would do; is not able to attend to her household duties, but only 
 too often, she loses in the factory that which is essential in a woman, her modesty. 
 She becomes corrupted through contact with other artisans, or those of her own sex 
 already debauched." 
 
 The Count de Mun, in one of his speeches (1885) on social questions made the 
 following statement : — 
 
 "In the mills of the Ard^ohe (Fiance), unfortunate children work from four in 
 the morning till half-past seven at night, in the woollen mills of Fourmies, Anor and 
 Trelon, from fourteen to eighteen hours per day." 
 
 '"According to an account of M. Janjoul, inspector in the Department of Trades 
 and Manufactures, Eussia, on the condition of the working classes in the districts of 
 Moscow and Vladimir, some terrible things are brought to light; in the 180 mills he 
 visited he found 8,112 children of from nine to fourteen years old working; children 
 ten years old, working as many as thirteen and eighteen hours per diem." 
 
 In Austria, the " Eevue Autrichienne " gives an account of 111 textile mills, 
 especially those in lower Austria and Moravia; women are mentioned as working 
 from six in the morning till ten at- night, and even later in drying rooms, in a 
 temperature of 122° Ft. At Piesting pregnant women work till their confinement. 
 
 The same review has published the recent works of the Eev. Abb^ Eichborn, on 
 the miserable condition of the working classes in the suburbs of Vienna ; the details 
 fairly make one shudder; hundi-eds of children growing up without parents to look 
 after them, the father and mother away working in the mills all day, these children 
 are left to roam about, dressed in rags, ill-fed, debauched at an early age, the sexes 
 living promiscuously together, in a state of immorality impossible to desci'ibe." 
 
 The Governments, under the pressure of public opinion, were obliged to come 
 forward and do something to put a stop to this state of things. In nearly all countries 
 of Europe laws were passed regulating the employment of children in factories, the 
 age of admission, the number of working hours and prohibiting night work nearly 
 everywhere. In England it was made illegal for women to work at night. 
 
XXlll 
 
 England is of all countries the one where the law is the most respected, and is 
 almost the only one where the inspection of mills is thoroughly and rigorously carried 
 out. In other countries these law are enforced only in the principal centres. 
 
 There is no subject causing more ill-feeling between employers and workmen 
 than the employment of women and children. And it is useless to look for a better 
 understanding till this question is solved in »• satisfactory way. 
 
 Profit-sharing, 
 
 In his work entitled " Be la situation des ouvriers en Angleterre," * the Comte 
 de Paris states that : 
 
 " Salaries under the actual system and guided by the law ot supply and demand 
 follow almost constantly the price of living, so that the workingman never earns 
 more than is absolutely necessary for subsistence, competition always forcing the 
 price of labor back to the minimum, below which it is not obtainable." 
 
 The law of demand and supply unjust though it be in its application to human 
 beings, might have been accepted, had it been limited to work done by the male, 
 and if in order to lower the wages earned by the father, work had not been offered 
 to the woman and children. 
 
 It is in order to re-act against this reduction of pay, caused by the bringing of 
 women and children into the labor market, that the greater number of the working- 
 men's associations, have adopted the principle of equal rates of payment, which they 
 are striving to secure and maintain. 
 
 The question of equal rates of payment has always been a source of trouble 
 between the artizan and employers; the latter urging that they were compelled to 
 pay a poor workman the same as a good one ; ihe artizan retorting that the wages 
 were based on the lowest possible rate at which subsistence could be maintained, 
 that consequently it was not the master who suffered, but the capable artizan who 
 thus bore the burden of the incapable workmen. 
 
 To equal rates, piece work was opposed, which overworks the artisan, after oblig- 
 ing him to give a maximum amount of work for a minimum amount of wages, 
 or contract work, which creates competition between the workmen. 
 
 Whilst all these combinations and systems were being tried, a simple workman, 
 E. J. Leclaire, becoming an employer of labor, put into operation, in spite of the law 
 of his country, a system which will do much to establish peace between capital and 
 labor. This system is that of " The participation of employees in the profits. " 
 
 In 1842 Leclaire inaugurated in his firm the system of participation of profits, in 
 spite of the law, the government and his men. When he made known to his hands 
 in 1841 that he would give them an interest in the year's profits, the workmen, 
 excited by the articles appearing in the paper " V Atelier, " wliich accused Leclaire 
 of manceuvering to lower wages, not believing the promises of profit-sharing, ques- 
 tioned his sincerity. In 1842 Leclaire by a coup de tMdtre dispersed all there false 
 impressions. The stock-taking for 1841 being finished, he assembled all his hands 
 together, threw a bag filled with gold on a table before them and then gave each 
 
 * Edition of 1884. 
 
XXIV 
 
 one his share. The amount divided was |2,3Y'7.* The workmen were convinced but 
 not the Government. 
 
 In 1842 the citizens of France could not hold any meeting without the authori- 
 zation of the Prefect of Police. This authorization was I'efused to Leelaire, and the 
 oflScial papers setting forth this incident are worthy of being reproduced in order to 
 show that narrow-mindedness and administrative ignorance are often the most 
 formidable barriers that progress has to overcome, f 
 
 " Paeis, September 18, 1843. 
 " To THE Prefect of Police, 
 
 " Monsieur le Pr^fet, — The difficulties to be overcome to successfully carry on the 
 business which I am in, have decided me to organize my firm in such a manner, as 
 to simplify my work and make it pay well nofonly for the present, but to preserve 
 that which has cost me many j^ears of hard and steady work to build up. The means 
 I use to reach this end are set forth in the small volume I send you with this, in 
 which you will find a summary of all my firm's transactions for the year 1842. 
 
 "The results having fully reached my anticipations it will be necessary for me to 
 call a meeting in my works, four or five times a year, of those employees and hands to 
 whom I shall distribute their proportionate share of the profits of the business. Those 
 meetings will have but one aim, namely, to explain to those present what each one 
 should do, how they should hold themselves towards those who honor me with their 
 trust, with one another, and give them instructions how to execute the orders given 
 me for execution. In one woi'd, it means to hold a course of lectures on ethics, prac- 
 tical painting, and management. 
 
 " The respect in which I hold the laws of the country prevent me from doing any 
 thing in an underhand way, even to convening my employees in my own works , 
 without being projoerly authorized by the authorities. 
 
 " May I aslj you, Monsieur le Pr^fet, to be good enough to grant me a hearing ? T 
 will then explain to you my reasons for this favor which I hope you will grant me. 
 
 " Believe me, 
 
 " Youi-s very respectfully, 
 
 (Signed) ' "LECLAIRB." 
 
 Instead of being granted a hearing, Leelaire received a notice on the 12th of 
 October forbidding him to hold the said meeting unless duly authorized. This refusal 
 was founded on the following report : 
 
 Prefecture de Police — Secretary general's Office — Office No. 2.— Analysis— It is 
 a danger and abuse to the working class to authorise the meetings of employees 
 of Mr. Leelaire, contractor and painter, in order to agree upon the share of pro- 
 fits to be divided, resulting from the operations of his business. On the margin 
 was the following decisio7i : 
 
 Write to Leclair and refuse the authorisation asked for. Signed : A. D. 
 ♦Paris, 21st September, 1843. 
 
 Eeport. 
 
 Leclairc's painters are formed into a mutual benevolent society. 
 
 A ministerial decree of the 28th September 1838, authorises their association and 
 approves their rules. 
 
 The said Leelaire, contractor, is the honorary president and treasurer. 
 
 The rules of this society have no clause authorising the employees to share in 
 the profits of work undertaken by Mr. Leelaire. 
 
 * Biographie d'un Homme Utile, par Charles Robert, 
 t Documents exhibited by the French Government. 
 
XXV 
 
 Before this, and in March, 1842, the said Leclair, solicited fi'Om the Prefect, per- 
 mission to hold a meeting in his works of from 60 to 80 of his hands in order to share 
 with them the profits arising from his business. 
 
 Acting on the regulation as to the wages of artisans, and the rates governing 
 piece work between employer and employee, the Prefect i-efused or i-ather forbade 
 the meeting ; the said Leclaire abided by the decision, and the meeting did not 
 take place, with the purpose set forth in his petition presented this year. 
 
 Nevertheless the said Leclaire divided in the year 1842, a sum of 11,866 francs 
 between 44 of his hands, the product of profits arising from the operations of his 
 business. It is this kind of a mutual society, which he wishes to renew this year; to 
 gain this end, he petitions to be allowed to hold meetings in his .works, of his hands 
 numbering more than twenty. 
 
 We consider that under the cii'cumstances the intentions of this contractor are 
 to entice artisans to engage with him, by holding out to them the chance of sharing 
 in the profits he derives, and thus assure the extension of his business. This is a 
 question bearing on the rules concerning the wages of artisans, which we do not con- 
 sider, should be encouraged, and which is forbidden by law ; the artisan must be 
 " entirely free to fix his salary, and must not covenant with the master which is the 
 said Leclaire's aim to-day. 
 
 Under this head, the permission he asks for should we think be refused, if one 
 considers that in order to share in the pi'ofits, the artisans contract to work for a 
 period greater than one year, which is forbidden by article 13, law of 22nd Ger- 
 minal, year XI (12th April 1804.) 
 
 For these reasons, we consider and propose to refuse the authorisation solicited 
 by the said Leclaire. The Chief. (Signature illigible.) 
 
 It was only in 1848, after the revolution which overthrew the government of 
 Louis-Philippe, that Leclaire was able to divide the jDrofits of his firm with his 
 employees. 
 
 Leclair always denied being governed by any philanthropic ideas ; his theory 
 was that profit-sharing apart from other advantages, was a source of profit to the 
 manufacturer who adopted it 
 
 He confirmed his theory with striking examples. In 1869 he convened his 
 hands and explained to them how he came to see that by applying the principal of 
 profit-sharing between master and man, he could serve his own ends and benefit his 
 workmen and emj)loyees who connected themselves with him. 
 
 His reasoning, as clear as it is practical, deserves to be brought imder the notice 
 of both masters and men : 
 
 " I reason thus and havestated it often at our meetings ; all trades v.^hich depend 
 on work done by the day, may vary greatly ; when one operates on a large scale, 
 the results are considerable. 
 
 " Can an artisan in our trade (painting), by his activity, good will and a more 
 intelligent use of his time, produce in the same space of time (one day) an increase 
 of work equal to one hou]-, that is to say $0.12, which is the actual rale per hour? 
 
 " Can he besides, save $0.05 per day by avoiding waste in the materials given 
 him, and by taking care of the implements of his trade? 
 
 " They all answer in the aflirmative. 
 
 "If one artisan can realize for the contractor $0.17 per day, for 300 working 
 days, this will equal $51, and supposing the firm employs an average of 300 hands, 
 an annual saving of $15,300 is thus obtained. 
 
 " It is by this saving that on one hand our mutual benevolent society increases 
 every year its capital and can pay pensions to the aged workingmitn, and on the 
 other hand, can distribute profits to those who help to produce them." 
 
XXVI 
 
 Mr. Ara Cushman, president of the " Ara Cashman Company " of Auburn, Me. 
 the largest boot and shoo factory in the State of Maine, gave out to his employees 
 in 1886 that he would inaugurate in his factory the system of Profit-Sharing between 
 employer and employees : 
 
 " If a man in cutting grain leather uses one foot more for a case of slippers than 
 is absolutely necessary, the loss on his work is from 50 to 60 cents a day. Such a 
 I'esult might easily happen, and be hardly perceptible to a looker-on, or even to the 
 cutter himself. If a cutter of calf skins fails to put every part of the skin whore it 
 will count for the most, or in the place to which it is best adapted, and thereby 
 makes his shoe vamps cost a half cent a pair more than they otherwise would, the 
 loss on his day's works amount to at least a dollar." Specifying other openings 
 for economy in material and in the care of machines, Mr. Cnshman answers affirma- 
 tively his own question : " Could not the savings in all the ways I have indicated be 
 made to amount to a sum which, if divided to all the employees would be equal to 
 2^ or 5 per cent increase in your pay ? " 
 
 The systemof Profit-Sharing was introduced in the Springfield Foundry in 1887, ■ 
 and in 1888 the directors said to the workmen : — 
 
 " Some men have been careless and made imperfect castings, fit only for scrap 
 iron. Such castings constitute the w^rst " leak " in ail foundries It may sur- 
 prise you to know it, but it is nevertheless true, that our average loss per pound on 
 bad castings (day work,) is over seven times the average profit on good castings! 
 Even on piece work, we lose five times as much on an imperfect casting as we gain 
 on a good one. In other words, when you lose a casting which requires one hour to 
 mould, it takes you all the rest of the day to make good castings enough to cover the 
 lossf * " . 
 
 As a last example we will cite the case of the Parisian lithographer who proved 
 that from the day on which he gave 33 per cent, of the profits to his hands no more 
 lithographic stones were broken in his establishment. These stones were worth 2-t 
 francs. One day he overheard one of his hands say to another : " Break no more stones, 
 its cost us 8 francs." 
 
 Eeduced to these proportions the profit-sharing would only be a sharing of sav- 
 ings, and would in no ways constitute a rise in salary deducted from the owner's 
 profits; this is really what it is in many firms, but is useful to the employee even in 
 these proportions, it gives him a larger amount of revenue without augmenting his 
 work. 
 
 Again in a great number of factories, the share allotted to the hands is in reality 
 composed of a part of the profits coming from savings realized in the work. 
 
 The different systems adopted by firms worked on the profit-sharing prineipls 
 can be divided into 3 classes : 
 
 1. Profit-sharing with co-proprietorship in the undertaking. 
 
 2. Profit-sharing without co-proprietorship in the undertaking. 
 
 3. Premiums, gratuities, and ]iatronal institutions. 
 
 As regard the distribution of the profits it is made on many different bases ; each 
 firm adopts the form best suited to its business and wants of its employees. 
 
 The resolutions passed by the Congress on profit-sharing sum up the benefits to 
 be divided from this partnership of the workers with the results obtained by the firm 
 
 * Profit-sharing between employer and employees.— "N. P. Gilman. 
 
xxvu 
 
 who employs them. The reports presented at this Congress and documents shown 
 by manufacturers permit to judge both from a theoretical and practical stand- 
 point. We have, however, only to inquire which of all these systems is most suitable 
 for Canada. 
 
 This system should admit of no forfeiture, and should leave the artisan the free 
 disposal of his share in the profits. • 
 
 Forfeiture, that is to say, confiscation of profits acquired by the artisan, even 
 when made for the advantage of the whole, is always an injustice, and would prove 
 on this continent an insurmountable obstacle to the profit-sharing system. 
 
 To exact from a hand that he must remain, 5, 10, 15 or 20 years in a firm before 
 giving him the right to hold the sums carried annually to his account, and confiscate 
 this on his leaving his employer for some one or other reasons, is in every case to 
 exactfrom the employee a sacrifice out of all pioportion to the advantages given him. 
 
 Either profit-sharing is or is not advantageous to the employe.". If it is not 
 productive of some benefit to him, if the sums he yearly divides amongst his 
 employees represent a philanthropical act and not a commercial combination, let 
 him strike out the word profit-sharing from his rules and replace it by the word 
 donation. 
 
 "When the employer makes a donation, founds an institution with his own 
 moneys for the benefit of his hands, he has an absolute right to dispose of and share 
 it with whomsoever he likes ; this is a patronal institution. But when he institutes 
 profit-sharing with his hands, when these last to increase these profits give more 
 care to their work, intelligence and use eveiy means within their reach to this end, 
 they have the right to exact the whole amount promised. 
 
 Here is what an English member, Mr. David Schloss, said at the Profit-sharing 
 Congress : 
 
 " In England, where as yet, we have not had your experience in the profit-shar- 
 ing system, it has been recognized that one should win over the artisans by bene- 
 volent means, but never by retaining the money they have earned. 
 
 " In England where the Trades Unions have solved many difficulties, the 
 artisans will never allow their rights to the profit-sharing to be taken away, and if 
 you voted for the forfeiture of the rights of those who left the firm for which they 
 had been working, you would have every Trades Union against you. 
 
 " I have always done my utmost to recommend the profit-sharing system to my 
 friends in the English workmen's unions, but this sharing of profits should be 
 established according to rules of equity. 
 
 " I have not authority enough here to discuss this point, but can say as "far as 
 England is concerned, if you vote for forfeiture, if you do not leave the workingman 
 free to claim his share, profit-sharing will never be established in England." 
 
 It will be t'-e same with Canada, the employers who introduce profit-sharing in 
 their factories, should strike out all clauses referring to forfeiture, if they wish to 
 better the understanding between the employer and employee by this means. 
 
 But some have said, that to suppress forfeiture is to recognize the absolute 
 right of the workingman to profit-sharing ; to give him in consequence the 
 right to control the operations of the firm, verify the books, which he has no claim 
 
XXVlll 
 
 to do as he only shares ia the profits, not in the losses ; this is to transform a liber 
 ality into an obligation. 
 
 Profit-sharing is not a liberalitj', but an obligation which the employer is free to 
 assume, and under the same laws as other contracts. The principle of profit-sharing 
 if recently admitted in trade, has long existed between employer and clerk. The 
 right of verification»and control has never been stipulated between employer and 
 clerks interested in the business, inasmuch as the former knows it is I'ecognizcd 
 by the courts. Why should it be otherwise between masters and workingman ? 
 
 The right of control and verification, has moreover been sanctioned by the Profit- 
 sharing Congress, which recognized that an employer keeping his accounts straight 
 would have no objection to having them audited. 
 
 Without the power of control, profit-sharing could be carried on to the detriment 
 of the employees, and might cause the intentions of the employer to be suspected, 
 even when he was justly sharing the profits. 
 
 This auditing loses much of its importance when one realizes that the 
 accountants are themselves interested in the profits, constituting thus the best check 
 possible on all transactions. The right of auditing should be exercised in the most 
 disci'eet manner possible, by a delegate chosen by the hands, and should neither give 
 them the right to know the operations of the firm nor its private business, nor of 
 interfering with its management. 
 
 Profit-sharing does not in the least diminish the rights or authority of the 
 master, except when the employee is co-proprietor, and it is because the employer 
 is absolute master and alone responsible, that the employee cannot be called upon 
 to share in the losses. The employee should not share in the losses for a very good 
 reason ; he cannot occasion any. Capital and labor can cause no loss, they sustain 
 it. It is the management, which discharges the task of placing on the market and 
 turning to account the goods created by capital and labor which is the only cause 
 •of loss ; and which also, securing the greater part of its profits, should guard 
 against such loss. For this reason reserve funds were created, deducted before 
 1;he profits were divided, and on which neither capital nor labor have any claim, 
 although both contributed to their formation. The Eeserve Fund constitutes the 
 due share of capital and labor in the losses resulting from the operations of the firm. 
 
 Objection is made lo profit-sharing in certain circles on these grounds : 
 
 Profit-sharing, it is urged, will lower wages, will create a certain class of work- 
 ing m%n, separate from the great mass, and who by their steady work, will, by 
 making strikes impossible, prevent their fellow workmen from improving their con- 
 dition. Hitherto facts have contradicted this assertion. Firms worked on profit- 
 sharing principles are those that pay the highest wages. There is no wish on 
 the employers' part to confound wages with profits; this is what the founder of the 
 Guise Familist^re said to the members of the Workingmen's Association, at Paris : 
 
 " For the implements of work one must have coal to make the engine work, oil to 
 lubricate the machinery, and you cannot ask the machine to return what you have 
 given it, the same applies to the working man ; theoil and coal represents the wages, 
 profits iire outside of that." 
 
XXIX 
 
 Another objection is, that profit-sharing will not prevent strike;; ; to-day strikes 
 are organized for an increase of salary, to-morrow we shall hear of them for an 
 increase of the quantum of profit-sharing. 
 
 Mr. Charles Eobert, au authority on the question, has said : — 
 
 " This objection does not appear to me to be well founded. I do not pretend 
 that there is anything magical in profit-sharing, and I cannot say that anyone can 
 boast of having fulfilled the wants and desires of the woi-kingman by putting this 
 system in practice. It might possibly happen, if profit-sharing was very small, 
 taking into consideration the zeal shown and the benefits obtained, that a strike 
 should take place against the quantum of profit-sharing, as happens to-day as j-egards 
 wages. But one must take a broader view of things. Come back to the experimental 
 method, which rests on established facts. I think 1 may say that no strike has taken 
 place in those firms that have adopted the profit-sharing system, in order to obtain a 
 larger share. On the contrary, in France, this system has prevented strikes for 
 higher wages in many firms. Profit-sharing is condusive to a better understanding 
 between employer and employee. The two opposing interests become reconciled, 
 and consequently chances of strikes are much less. This is so much gain for public 
 security and general oi-der in the country." 
 
 There is in profit-sharing an element over which strikes and the workingmen 
 have no power : enterprise and commercial intelligence. The quantum of profit- 
 sharing has no other value than that which it produces ; it matters little if it be high 
 if the undertaking produces small profits. The hands will not ask, before engaging 
 with the factory, what is the quantum of profit-sharing, but how much is the share, 
 and that this should be his first thought will not be one of the least results of the 
 system ; it will accustom the workingman to take into account this element of pro- 
 fits, which a certain school does not recognize to-day, pretending that labor has a 
 right to the whole surplus drawn from the sale of the article produced. 
 
 To make profit-sharing efflcacious, and give the maximum amount of advantages 
 moral and material, the employer who adopts it must apply it in general to all his 
 hands. He can apportion the shares in proportion to the time the artisan has been 
 in his employ, but he must entitle all his employees to participate, unless he wishes 
 to lose a great part of the profits he hoped to make by adopting this plan. 
 
 In instituting profit-sharing in his firm, Leclaire had limited it to the nucleus 
 of his hands, later he admitted the auxiliary hands, and according to one of the 
 heads of his firm this is how he decided to change his plans:— 
 
 " After the events of 1870 a workingman, a stranger to the firm, said one day to 
 to Mr. Leclaire, " your house is nothing but a collection of small employers, because 
 a part of them only share in the profits." This criticism struck Leclaire, who from 
 that time decided that all should share. At that time there were 350 hands, of 
 whom 150 shared in the profits. 
 
 " When one of those who formed the nucleus spoke to one not sharing in the pro- 
 fits, he was answered by, " Do you think lam going to kill myself in order to make 
 profits for you." Now that all share in the profits, all are united ; there is no more 
 jealousy and all do the utmost amount of work." 
 
 One of the most serious questions employers have to consider is that of the use 
 to be made of the sums accruing from the profit-sharing system. 
 
 This may seem strange, and to well understand how it came about, one must 
 remember that at the beginning the aim of the employers was to interest their 
 
XXX 
 
 employees in their work and better their position. Prom this arose all those com- 
 binations of paying part in money, part in pension check-books ; the founding of 
 mutual benevolent societies, savings banks, &c. All these combinations in which the 
 employers have no pecuniary interest and which bring them in nothing are with 
 a view to keep the employees from want in their old age. 
 
 No objection can be urged to such exercise of foresight, nevertheless, we cannot 
 defend the principle of jDutting the employee under guardianship. On being ques- 
 tioned on this point Mr. Laroehe Joubert, director of the Angouleme Paper Works, 
 
 said : 
 
 " There are so many benevolent societies around us that we did not think it 
 necessary to have one especially for our firm." 
 
 " This is contrary to our principles, as attacking the workingman's liberty, who 
 see withheld without his permission a part of his profits, and paid into the benevolent 
 fund, it goes to make him doubt the principles of mutual aid. 
 
 " This question will come up again some day, if the conditions of life continue 
 to become worse, as they have done for some time past." 
 
 And on the same theme this manufacturer stated before the Profit sharing 
 Congress : — 
 
 " When we started the profit-sharing system we said to the workingman : You 
 shall have your share of the profits. But we did not add : You shall not have the 
 right to dispose of them." 
 
 " But the firm does not consider its duties finished with the payment of the 
 share ; it advises the workingman, and encourages economy by giving certain 
 privileges to the thrifty." 
 
 This question of using the funds has always been an objection advanced by 
 the opponents of the system. Already in 1872, Leclaire, to defend his work, thus 
 replied on this subject to a correspondent : 
 
 " As regards the bad use the workingman would make of his share, has an 
 inquiry ever been held in the matter ? The workingmen of Lyons are 
 most likely much the same as those of Paris. The majority hardly earn 
 enough to buy bread for their families. All these poor households are in a 
 most destitute condition. But if by receiving some extra help outside their 
 salary, they are enabled to take their miserable rags out of pawn, where is the 
 harm ? Can it be said that there are no unfortunates driven to drink through want, 
 despair and domestic troubles ? Far from it, for in our own house some have fallen 
 into it. But to take the present generation, just as it is, and from that to argue 
 that demoralization must be perpetuated is an excuse with many for continuing to 
 do nothing." 
 
 Leclaire was right. The most ardent adversaries of profit-sharing are those who ' 
 without looking into it, refuse to practise it. 
 
 Of all the different systems of profit-sharing, we think the one adopted by the 
 Angouleme Co-operative Paper Company (page 55) most suitable for Canada. 
 
 This system, established on a just basis, takes into account the aptitude of the 
 employee, the length of time he has worked in the firm, and pays him yearly in 
 money his share of the profits. It also allows the employees, who have confidence 
 in the future of the firm, to invest their money in it,- and become shareholders. 
 
XXXI 
 
 The foundation of the Guise FamilisUre, one of the most remarkable works 
 ever produced, oould not be repeated on this coniinent, the collective principle 
 on which it was founded and worked has no root in America.* 
 
 Profit-sharing has been the subject of much discussion, enthusiastic approbation, 
 and bitter criticism. In such a matter the opinion of experts should carry more 
 weight than that of theorists. And to show the good results obtained by the appli- 
 cation of profit-sharing it is only sufficient to know the opinion of those who have 
 tried it. 
 
 Opinions of a few manufacturers on profit-sha7'ing with their employees, and the 
 
 results obtained.f 
 Baebas, Tassart and Balas (see page 33.) 
 
 Extract from Monf. Bai-bas' deposition before the Commission of Enquiry. 
 
 " We consider that, as in the Maison Leclaire, a large portion of the success of 
 our house is due to the institution of profit-sharing, as well as to our Mutual Aid 
 Society and to the professional school which we established at a suitable time. 
 
 '■ Profit-sharing possesses a merit that we place in the first rank : that of ensuring 
 stability in the staff; it is not the rolling stones that become profit-sharers, and 
 when these same workmen own a bank book showing a saving of $600 increasing 
 from year to year by an annual share in the profits added to the interest at 5 per 
 cent. ; when apart from these advantages they are pretty sure of work all the year 
 round ; when in the same house they find a mutual aid society ready organized, a pro- 
 fessional school for their children, either workmen or employees ; finally an insurance 
 against accidents the premitim of which is entirely paid by the house, these workmen 
 are perforce respectable and steady. 
 
 Extracts from the documents exhibited by the firm. 
 
 " Our personal experience therefore proves that profit-sharing is not only an 
 economy in production, but an essential element of prosperity for all and for the firm. 
 
 " Moreover to whatever point our glance is directed this assertion is confirmed 
 by facts ; in fact we see nothing but prosperity in all the establishments practising 
 profit-sharing, and it has been proved that all those that have adopted it in France, 
 save one, preserve it carefully. 
 
 " Profit-sharing offers many advantages, it encourages apprenticeship, it develops 
 industrial qualities the most essential to workingmen ; knowledge, stability and 
 devotedness; itis an economy of production, a sonroe of profit for workmen and master, 
 a means of prosperity and a method of transferring a business to other hands. 
 
 " So much for the purely industrial view of the question. Fi'om another point of 
 view profit-sharing develops the dignity and the morality of workmen, it is an 
 education in economy to them, it corrects many errors in regard to labor, it destroys 
 all pretexts for strikes, and may be used as an initiation into cooperation. It draws- 
 workmen more closely together, and it draws the master nearer to the work- 
 men, it binds them with a bond 'of interest which sooner or later is transformed into 
 a bond of sympathy which destroys all antagonisms. It satisfies a legitirilate am- 
 bition, brightens the future, and for the bittei- thoughts born of prospective misery 
 substitutes gentleness and sympathy. 
 
 * In his treatise on Social Hygiene — 1888 — Doctor Eochard said in speaking of the Guise FamilisUre 
 
 " This life in common, unfortunately forces the head of the family, always to remain tenant of a small 
 fireside, which he can never acquire and hand down to his children. The savings, the profits are con- 
 centrated into a common fund, and take all the risks run by an individual enterprise. An unlooked-for 
 event, a war would give an irreparable blow to the works, the workingman, possessing nothing outside, 
 would lose his all. 
 
 " The manner of educating the children results in taking away all family individuality. 
 
 " All are educated in common. They pass from the nursery to the infants school, thence to the school 
 belonging to the factory. They remain there all the year round, and have not a fortnight's holiday. 
 
 The right of choosing other schools is denied the parents. In point of law, the family is perfectly 
 free, it nevertheless undergoes a ijressure at the Famiiistire, which, though slight in appearance, does not 
 leave it master of its moral and religious life. ' 
 
 LiJ iv| Extracts from the evidence taken before the extra-parliamentary commission of the Prench Working- 
 men's Association. Documents exhibited by the French Government. 
 
xxxu 
 
 " Finally, it is well to note that in case of accident or of death which frequently 
 deprives a house of its head, profit-sharing may be the salvation of the family by 
 preserving the life of the establishment and preventing a ruinous liquidation. 
 
 " In a letter to the Chairman of the Commission of the Labor Associations, Mr. 
 GoflSnon, who is the founder of profit-sharing in the establishment of Barbas, Tassart 
 and Balas, says : — 
 
 -" As a principle, we rank profit-sharing as an institution oi economic production, 
 and not as it has been too frequently styled an act of philanthropy the eflFoct of 
 which would have been to lower the workmen, instead of raising him to a higher 
 level as has been our intention. 
 
 " We have stated that profit-sharing must not be considered a universal panacea ; 
 but we may be permitted briefly to point out some of the advantages realized by a 
 great number of houses in which it has been adopted : — 
 
 " 1st. In my opinion, there should no hesitation in giving the first rank as a 
 means of economic production ; in support of this opinion I may state that all the 
 establishments that have adopted this system in a determined and methodical 
 manner have succeeded and that not one has abandoned it ; 
 
 " 2nd. Profit-sharing binds together capital, direction and labor which form a 
 great power and raises the level of professional knowledge by means of a more 
 thorough apprenticeship now too much overlooked ; 
 
 " 3rd. This organization admits of mutual aid societies being formed in each es- 
 tablishment which awakens strong and sincere brotherly feeling among the 
 members ; ' 
 
 " 4th. It is possible to obtain on very advantageous terms collective life and acci- 
 dent insurance, retiring funds for old age, etc., etc. ; 
 
 " 5th. Is not profit-sharing destined sooner or later to become the kernal of pro- 
 ductive cooperative societies, as has been the case in several houses, notably in that 
 of Mr. Leclaire ? The success of the latter establishment leads us to hope that it. 
 will have many imitators. The future belongs to all ; none may be sure of it, but 
 all are allowed to hope ; profit-sharing will be the preliminary stage of cooperation. 
 
 MoNS. BEssELiijvRE (see page 35.) 
 
 '' We are, above all, convinced that if the law cannot oblige a master to share his 
 profits with his workmen, his interest should lead him them to do so. 
 
 " What I wish to prove is that in the larger industries where superintendence is 
 less active than in the lesser industries, it is to the master's interest to associate his- 
 workmen with him : 
 
 " 1st. Such a measure will cost him nothing. The workman knows that he is 
 working for himself, and that his eai'nings will increase in proportion as his work is 
 well and quickly done, and will therefore exert all his powers, and so increase the 
 profits of the establishment. 
 
 " 2nd. The great difiiculty of the fixed salary is that it creates an antagonism 
 between workmen and master, the former having a tendency to demand the highest 
 possible amount for the least woik, and the latter to exact the largest possible 
 amount of work for the smallest pay. 
 
 " This situation must of necessity lead to conflict. Now, without wishing to deny 
 a right to strikes it should be thoroughly understood and recognized, that the part 
 they play in industry is the same as that of war between nations, leaving behind 
 them bitter feeling and empty purses. Experience has proved that where profit- 
 sharing is practised, there are no strikes and that in these establishments the rela- 
 tions between masters and workmen are constantly improving. 
 
 " 3rd. Finally, the capital workmen will amass, will permit of their giving their- 
 children a better education, and it is certain that an uneducated workman does less 
 good service than one whose intelligence has been developed by study. As a State- 
 is benefited by the education of all, so the industrial family must profit by the edu- 
 cation of all its members. 
 
XXXlll 
 
 " The parents having, mareover, effected some savings have less need of the 
 earnings of their children and are therefore not obliged to force them to any work 
 prejudicial to the natural development of their powers. 
 
 The Bon Maroh^ (see page 37). Me. Fillot. 
 
 " This organization is greatly in the employees' interest, for the share of profits 
 given over by the house to its co-operators creates an exceptional position for them. 
 Many of our heads of departments being interested in the profits of the house are 
 anxious to make advantageous purchases, and to superintend the conduct of the staff 
 under them, and strive to economise as much as possible for the benefit of the house, 
 and in this respect, I repeat, we have every reason to be satisfied with our organiza- 
 tion. We have reason to congratulate ourselves on our Provident Fund ; it provides 
 for the least fortunate among our people, a certain security for the future, and it 
 binds them to the house. All our people are interested in the smooth working of the 
 business, which is the reason such good results are obtained. 
 
 " Strikes are an impossibility in our house, because the heads of the department 
 and of counters are all interested in the profits realized. Moreover, the employees 
 who belong to the Provident Fund have too large a capital invested in the fund, to 
 allow of their doing anything whatsoever that might be the cause of their losing it, 
 and besides the amount they receive in salary binds them still more to the establish- 
 ment. 
 
 Mr. Buttner-Thiekry (see page 39). 
 
 " As regards the workmen, their savings invested in the insurance company 
 enables them to face the future with tranquillity. As these savings increase they 
 exercise their influence on them even outside the workshop, as I have frequently 
 had occasion to remark. As for myself, profit-sharing has surrounded me with a 
 certain number of empfoyees and workmen more desirous than heretofore of pro- 
 ducing good work. The relations between us are those of affection and mutual trust. 
 We have gained in security and our every-day life is more easy. I am encouraged 
 by their cordial attitude, which is a support to me in the trials inseparable from any 
 industry, and am thus led to hope that by a loyal and continued understanding 
 between them, I may be spared, if not the inevitable business cares, at least labor 
 troubles since they will be in the enjoyment of as large an amount of well-being as 
 the state of my business will permit." 
 
 Mr. Chaix (see page 39.) 
 
 " I believe profit-sharing to be a mixed system between patronal institution as it 
 now stands and the cooperative association ; it deserves to be encouraged. The work- 
 man specially will profit by it ; he will learn independence, and to form labor associ- 
 ations for which he is not yet sufficiently prepared, because he does not possess the 
 qualities he acquires in meetings, such as are held in our establishment, and where 
 he sees what we are doing for the children, for himself, and for the old people. If 
 profit-sharing were encouraged, if this programme of union were inscribed on the 
 banner of the Eepublic, I believe that within ten years, the workman, from an 
 economic point of view, would have made immense progress." 
 
 " In 1848 my father wished to establish profit-sharing and failed. He had decided 
 to give 10 per cent, of the profits to be divided among the workmen, but the latter 
 were not prepared for such a measure, their mindEf wei-e not developed as are those 
 of our workmen of the present day, and they demanded that the profits be divided 
 every month ; several meetings were held, my father insisted that the division 
 should only be yearly, but the workmen who had no idea of economy, who did not 
 understand the requirements of an industry, persisted in their demand, and the pro- 
 ject fell through. 
 
 " Our workmen of the present day may still retain some false ideas, but they will 
 be educated through profit-sharing. As far as my proceeding is concerned, if it had 
 still to be done, I would not change. Our position is open to improvement, and by 
 20— c 
 
XXXIV 
 
 common consent it is modified every year. "Wheij a workman comes into our 
 establishment we give him a book in which the results obtained from profit-sharing 
 are entered, and the amount of the ten assemblies that have so far been held. 
 
 " We are about thirty masters in Prance who practise profit-sharing ; if our ex- 
 am pie were followed a great step would be taken on the way towards uniting masters 
 and workmen, capital and labor. 
 
 " As for the amount to be divided, that I cannot state; perhaps some day one- 
 third will be awarded to intellect ; one-third to capital ; one-third to labor. I am 
 convinced such will be the case, but for the present, I believe, that each one must 
 be left at liberty to establish profit-sharing according to his judgment, and the re- 
 quirements of the industry in which he is engaged." 
 
 CoMPAGNiE G^NfiBALE Transatlantique (scc page 44), Mr. BuGiiNE Peeeiee. 
 
 " One of these great advantages is to consolidate the personal interest of the 
 employee and the general interest of the society : that is capital, above all for enter- 
 prise, which, like the Transatlantic Company who have a portion of their staff work- 
 ing in a foreign country, and who cannot, therefore, exercise over them a direct 
 and immediate superintendence. 
 
 " Thus it is, that the system of giving premiums as practised by the company, 
 is much superior to the system of the giving of regular or accidental gratuities of 
 which it took the place. In this way the employees can understand perfectly the 
 share coming to them, the exact amount, and it is a powerful stimulus of which the 
 whole society profits. The specialisation of premiums was suggested to us parti- 
 cularly by this observation, that the more insignificant the employee, and the more 
 limited his intelligence and education, the less he understands the general results of 
 an enterprise ; but what he can understand clearly are the economical results which 
 are produced in a way under his very eyes, and to which he personally contributes. 
 
 " The system of premiums has been in operation in the General Transatlantic 
 Company for the last five years, and each year I am in a position to show notable 
 improvements that have resulted therefrom. A very apparent decrease in the ex- 
 penses, and a large increase in the receipts are produced without effort, and without 
 trouble, and a sort of rivalry exists among those who have produced this state of 
 things, and as a general result, in the interest of the employees ; I am able to 
 estimate the sums distributed among the staff in premiums at about 15 per cent, of 
 the salaries and payments." 
 
 La Compagnie Univeeselle du Canal de Suez (see page 45) — Mr. Feedinanb de 
 Lesseps. a 
 
 "We must congratulate ourselves on the system of profit-sharing that we 
 have adopted Our employees form one family. Thus, every day the telegraph 
 indicates th,e receipts of the day previous, and all the employees applaud when the 
 receipts are large. In all respects the profit-sharing has been useful to us, and I 
 have never found the least resistance to it on the part of my staff." 
 
 Maison a. Debeent (see page 46) — Mr. Tuleu, partner. 
 
 " Profit-sharing has attracted and retained in our establishment the best workmen 
 of the place. 
 
 " The workmen, seeing that their interest is directly associated with that of the 
 house, are more careful with their work. 
 
 " In an industry where the- models are very minute, bad modelling is almost 
 unknown. 
 
 "These advantages — it is very difS cult to estimate them — have, in our eyes, a 
 greater value than the so-much-per-cent. on the profits by which we secure them. 
 
 " We would add that if the pro*fits are not allotted directly to each worker as they 
 were before, in 18Y2, it is because, after an experience of twenty-four years of the 
 system of direct distribution, it was seen that it did not respond to the end Mr. 
 Deberny had in view. He was desirous that the workmen should assure themselves 
 by saving against sickness or old age ; but too small a number had such forethought, 
 and Mr. Deberny considered himself morally bound to be so for all. 
 
XXXV 
 
 " The profit-sharing establishes between the workmen and master such a union 
 that the question of salaries with us is settled in the most simple way. The work- 
 men, certain of them at least, understand perfectly what their rights are and know 
 well how to enforce them ; they are naturally very strict, sometimes even somewhat 
 rigorous. All questions are discussed amicably and without irritation. There took 
 place last year most disastrous strikes of workmen, but nothing of the kind occurred 
 with us. When the strike first occurred our workmen hastened to assure us that 
 they would not join any such movement. It is a great advantage to be able to sleep 
 calmly, knowing that we have workmen on whom we can rely. The work cannot be 
 badly done in our establishment ; it is culled by workmen who know their business 
 and are able to examine it." 
 
 Cooperative Paper Works of ANGOULijiE — ^Mr. Laroche-Jotjbert, manager (see 
 page 55). 
 
 The results of proftt-sharing. — " Profits have largely increased during times of 
 prosperity, or have been stationary during the serious crisis felt in our industry, 
 while some of our confreres are losing money, and some too many alas ! are forced 
 to stop work or to go into liquidation. 
 
 "This result i& due to the stimulus of cooperation, which prevents any 
 attempt or thought of strike among our staff, which maintains a unity of interest 
 among us ; so that, thanks to profit-sharing, the production in our factories has 
 increased ; our products are very perfect ; our cost of production much reduced ; 
 our waste is less, and finally our staff is more steady and stationary, in so much 
 that it includes an ever-increasing member of families whose members belong to 
 the house, children, parents and grandchildren. 
 
 ■' Finally, without profit-sharing the zeal of our staff' was not sufficient to allow 
 us to attempt the undertaking which has so well succeeded since, to give our 
 primitive industry, the simple manufacture of paper, the development derived 
 from the addition of the supplementary industries. 
 
 " By the establishment of cooperation, the greatest service is rendered to all; 
 to those who give it and to those who receive it. 
 
 " Would I have been able to consent to become a member of parliament had I not 
 established cooperation in our hill of workmen? And had not mj son, thanks 
 to cooperation, as many assistants as there are workmen employed, would he be 
 able to bear the heavy burden I have left to him? 
 
 "With cooperation there is no possibility of waste without the workmen 
 themselves suffering for it ; workmen near by who see the waste and are also to 
 suffer for it, cry : Stop that 1 
 
 "If I am at peace in parliament, if I have rio distracting subject of thought, 
 it is thanks to cooperation, it is because I know that our business is most carefully 
 attended to. 
 
 " K I knew that my workmen rob me and destroy my goods without being them- 
 selves the first to suffer tor it I could not possibly retain this position. But the unity 
 created by profit-sharing induces my workmen to watch over each other, and is the 
 reason why this superintendence is more thorough than that of any paid superin- 
 tendent could possibly be who was not personally interested in the results of the 
 
 ■'i^'^ork. ^ , . 
 
 " There is an instance which clearly shows the advantages of profit-sharing. 
 
 " Two factories are established in the same place, cooperation is organized irl one 
 but not in the other. They both manufacture the same goods ; they have the same 
 hydraulic power or the same steam power. Employees and workmen are paid the 
 same wages in both ; in the factory practising profit-sharing 25 per cent, of the 
 profits over and above the wages are reserved to be divided at so much in the dollar 
 amono- employees and workmen ; in the other they, are paid the amount of wages 
 
 20— ci 
 
XXXVl 
 
 agreed upon. To which of these two factories do you think workmen would go by 
 preference ? Evidently to the factory practising profit-sharing. 
 
 " It has been asserted that workmen are not at all interested in the question of 
 profit-sharing, and that they say: "It is all theory, there is no result." 
 
 " ISTone but fools would say such a thing. The best proof is that our workmen 
 rarely leave us, whilst every day we are asked for situations from workmen from 
 other factories, drawn to us by the hope of a share in the profits. 
 
 "I return to my example of the two factories. I said that workmen would engage 
 by preference in the cooperative factory. It is most certain, for it would be more to 
 their interest; and then what would the manufacturer do? He would choose from 
 amongst the 2^000 workmen, whom I suppose have applied, 1,000 of the best work- 
 men, and the other 1,000 would go to work in the other factory. 
 
 " Do you suppose the quality of the goods produced would be the same in both ? 
 In one the workmen will say : we work well enough for the pay we get, and they 
 will talk of the sweat of their brow shed for their master's profit; always the same 
 old story I have heard so often. In the other factory the men will work hard and 
 much ; they will be careful that there is no waste in order that at the end of the 
 year the profits may be the larger, and competition then becomes an impossibility 
 for one of those factories; one will produce three or four times more than the other, 
 which can now be proved by more than one of our cooperative factories. It must 
 not be believed that the master, in establishing cooperation, gives away a part of his 
 profits, not at all; he does a very good stroke of business, and that is what those who 
 do not practise it must be made to understand. 
 
 " Mr. Leclaire, a contractor in house painting, declared that he had had no 
 philanthropic motive in establishing co-operation. 
 
 " I admit that, for my part, it I am a philanthropist, I am one without knowing 
 it. When I act as a man I follow the impulse of my heart, but when I act as a 
 managei-, I am guided by the interest of my society. 
 
 "When I wished to establish profit-sharing in our house I met many obstacles 
 against which I had to struggle; amongst others my eldest brother left me. He 
 opened a factory and took his two children with him. He did not adopt profit- 
 sharing. Well, he did not succeed, and I helped him out of his difficulty by admit- 
 ting him again to our cooperative association. I also took his factory into the 
 system of cooperation, which, without it, had met with nothing but lo?ses, and which 
 now is making money like the others, among which it has been long in existence. 
 
 " If, therefore, we wish there to be an end of strikes and violent revolutions, if, 
 in a word, we wish to destroy the weapons most used by professional agitators, we 
 must do away with any legitimate cause of discontent among workers. 
 
 " Cooperation, that is to say, profit-sharing by the workmen is alone capable of produ- 
 cing the desired result. In fact not only does cooperation improve the material condi- 
 tion of the workman, i^ raises him in his own esteem; nothing indeed can so well 
 satisfy the legitimate self-esteem of the workman as to feel himself a little more on an 
 equality with his master, as is the case when he shares in the latter's profits. Agita- 
 tors lose their time when they apply to workmen of this kind, when they try to excite them. 
 
 " Cooperation is the most powerful lever that can be imagined to increase the amount 
 of production (for a stated work) in agricultural as well as in industrial matters. 
 
 Mr. Piat (seepage 66). 
 
 " As an index of the results that profit-sharing can give, I would state that last 
 year my foundry was subjected to a labor crisis, and my workmen founders went on 
 two months strike with their comrades. This undoubtedly, was very annoying ; but 
 it must bo gaid in extenuation that though profit-sharing existed it may be said it 
 was only in theory, for they had not yet received any of the money, and besides they 
 wore afraid of their comrades who were very violent and who intimated them. The 
 proof that they were not of the determined and bad-intentioned strikers, that are 
 found in all labor strikes, was that they were spoken against in all the meetings and 
 
XXXVll 
 
 considered as false brethren, they too were the first to return unconditionally to the 
 workshop and their example was followed by all of the workmen-founders. The 
 strike virtually ceased the day they recommenced to work, 
 
 "Last year at a like period some of them seemed to care or to think of profit- 
 sharing. To-day they both care and think a great deal of it. The workman who is 
 about to leave theTvorkshop for any cause whatever, thinks twice before doing so; 
 two years more of this system and these ideas will certainly increase in intensity; 
 the workman will become more and more attached to his factory, and irom that 
 time from doing more careful work, losing less time and being more saving of goods 
 and materials there is but one step and I am sure he will take it, and profit-sharing 
 will have this desirable and logical result: that wherever it is applied the workmen's 
 well-being and future security will be increased without impoverishing the master. 
 
 Former Maison Leclaire (see page 6*7). 
 
 Mr. Marquot. — " The results obtained are of two kinds : material and moral, the 
 workmen, being more comfortable at home, remain more within doors and thus 
 economise and some become small proprietors. On the other hand the workmaa 
 conducts himself better and never loses his Monday ; he feels that he has a mission 
 and that he should by his bearing and his politeness towards the customers, repre- 
 sent a house, in the prosperity of which he has every interest. 
 
 "We have frequently men working in the country, on whom we have no kind 
 of control or supervision and nevertheless we receive nothing but the least I'eports 
 of theia- good conduct and of the careful way they perform their Avoi-k, ftom those 
 with whom they are working ; these results aie due to profit-sharing, for the work- 
 man knows that it is entirely to his interest to give satisfaction to the customers 
 which insure him work. Our workmen employ their time usefully, because thej' 
 know that at the end of the year, the better they have conducted themselves and 
 the better results they have attained, the more thej' will have earned. 
 
 "If sometimes during a press of work a black sheep should mingle with our 
 flock, he never remains more than forty-eight hours, he is at once dismissed. 
 
 " According to statistics which we have made regarding our house only, before 
 the sharing of profits was definitely established by Notarial Act, the number of 
 working painters who did not work on Monday and kept drinking, was 40 per cent. 
 Since 1863 the number has decreased and for the last ten years we have not had 
 more than one per cent ; and during the last five years we have not been called upon 
 to punish any. The moral results that we have obtained are of the highest import- 
 ance. The workmen who work with us seek to remain. There is one important 
 point that I would submit to the commission, which is that workmen under forty 
 years are much better able to understand the advantages and the benefits of profit- 
 sharing than the workmen who are over forty years of age. These latter are almost 
 indifferent. 
 
 " This indifi'erence without doubt, is caused by the difficulty of obtaining a retir- 
 ing pension; and because men over forty years have not before them the hopes of 
 youth, and they work without thought of the future, whilst we find that the heads of 
 the workshop, the men of ti-ust are the young people who display an ability and 
 devotedness without bounds. 
 
 " As to the superintendence of work, we are perfectly quiet. During the press of 
 work we take all the workmen who come, without choosing. There are some who 
 work badly; well, the workman who works badly does not remain more than two 
 days in the house, because he is at once pointed out by the other workmen. If a 
 foreman does not perform his duty, we are immediately informed of it by 
 letter. If anything irregular takes place in the workshop we are informed of it, 
 and after notification we act as required. In case of an infringement of the rules, 
 we pass judgment. There is a committee who admit to the noyau, and a committee 
 that judges matters and that judges of them rigorously." 
 
XXXVUl 
 
 Society of the FAJiiLiSTiRE de Guise. (See page 75.) — Mr. Godin, Manager. 
 
 " It is my opinion that the Society of the Familist^re will eventually realize 
 great profits ; and suppose that in my old age I decide upon retiring from active 
 life, my capital is secure. This sounds rather egotistical, but is not that the tone of 
 our period? My business capital brings me $46,000 interest per annum, and I receive 
 about 116,000 as manager, being a total of about $60,000 per annum. I find this 
 a large sum, enormous; and yet the Society is doing good business. At the proper 
 time I shall receive my capital in full, the workmen will have taken my place; 
 but the statutary dispositions are such that the payment of capital will continue 
 indefinitely and be applied to the more ancient claims, consequently the establish- 
 ment will be in the hands of workmen in active business. From an economic point 
 of view I consider this to be an important result." 
 
 Finally, as an answer to the objection raised, that young America could not 
 adopt the idea of the old world, we will cite the opinion of M. Carroll "Wright on 
 the question ; this opinion demonstrates in a few words the advantages derived from 
 the application of profit-sharing: — 
 
 " From the data gathered from all sources we derive these cardinal principles 
 of industrial partnership : 
 
 " Participation by workmen in profits in addition to wages is a true harmo- 
 nizer of the interests of capital and labor. It does in fact identify the interest of 
 the employ^ with the interest of the employer. It converts the industrial associar 
 tion of employer and employes into a moral organism, in which all the various 
 talents, services, and desires of the component individuals are fused into a commu- 
 nity of purpose and endeavor. 
 
 " The dividend to labor is not usually an increase of pay, services remaining the 
 same, but a form of extra pay for extra services and an inducement calling them out. 
 
 " The extra services called out, and the manner in which they are called out, 
 constitute an invaluable educational discipline. They develop the whole group of 
 industrial virtues : diligence, fidelity, caretaking, economy, continuity of effort, will- 
 ingness to learn, and the spirit of cooperation." (Profit-sharing, 1886.) 
 
 Fatronal Institutions. 
 
 These institutions may be divided into two classes : those created wi th a really 
 philanthropic object, being a concession on the part of the employer, and those 
 which the employer is required to create, and which form only a necessary addition 
 to the general wages, given in a collected form to compensate for the insufficiency 
 of the individual wages. 
 
 In the first category must be put the bonus allowed in the shape of interest on 
 the workmen's savings by the employers savings bank ; the sums given workmen to 
 insure them a pension ; the gratuitous assurances against accidents ; the establishment 
 of schools at the works; loans, &c., when these institutions 'are founded in populous 
 centres, and that the employer pays the regular rates of wages. But when these 
 institutions are created in districts removed from cities or villages, in the midst of 
 a working population, bound to the soil, to the works, and receiving wages barely 
 sufiicient for existence, and consequently not permitting of the creation of the main- 
 tenance of societies of mutual aid, of schools, of pension funds, &c., it may be said 
 that the necessity of establishing such provident institutions is imposed on the 
 employers. This statement in no sense diminishes the merits of these institutions, 
 of which a large number, and not the least expensive, are beyond the actual obliga- 
 tions that are imposed upon employers. 
 
XXXIX 
 
 These institutions, apart from those to whom the administration was wholly, or 
 in part,entrii8t6d to workmen,have almost always beenlooked upon with disfavor by the 
 workmen, however well they may have succeeded. They are, nevertheless, useful and 
 necessary in certain districts, and in certain industries, where ignorance, alcohol and 
 indifference render the population entirely unfit to conduct them. 
 
 If incapables wev^ abandoned to their fate, they would be born, would live 
 and would die in poverty, however high the rate of their wages. They require 
 a guide ; if the employer abstains, others, more or less well intentioned, will take 
 his place, will get control of these simple but honest laborers, and will transform 
 them into such as committed the excesses in Belgium in 1886 : — the Jacquerie^ 
 
 ±5ut when the workman is in a large centre, where schools, mutual aid societies, 
 cooperative societies, and other free institutions, are offered to him, the employer's 
 institution may become a source of danger if it be imposed upon the workman, and 
 if it interferes with his personal liberty. It is thus that employers, acting in the 
 belief that it was in the best interests of their workmen, have been astonished to 
 find some day that they had succeeded only in raising the animosity of their em- 
 ployees to such a degree that they went out on a strike in order to do away with 
 these institutions. 
 
 These institutions have been severely condemned by more than one aathor. 
 
 The Belgian reporter, Mr. M. B. Yandervelde, for example, describes these em- 
 ployer's institutions in Belgium in the following manner : — 
 
 " "When we consider how often Oaisses de Fabrique are found under the direction 
 of workmen that use them as instruments of domination, one is led to consider the 
 bitter words of Henry George : ' The protection that certain employers give their 
 workmen is the same as that afforded by man to his brutes, which they protect in 
 order that they may make use of and devour them.' " 
 
 But of all the opinions on the subject, that which can and ought to have the 
 most weight on the mind of employers, and convince them of the Antiquity and the 
 inefSciency of these institutions, is, without doubt, that of the directors of the Mining 
 Company of Blanzy, a company spending annually more than $200,000 for the carrying 
 on of these institutions, (p. 395.) 
 
 Here we have the opinion extracted from the remarkable report presented by 
 the company to the Jury of the Exhibition of Social Economy :— 
 
 " The employer's institutions," says the report, " while rendering great services, 
 have not, perhaps, given results commensurate with the sacrifices made by the com- 
 
 "One is generally apt to lightly appreciate what has cost us but little 
 trouble ; and accustom ourselves to consider favors as our due. We readily believe 
 that those who do us a kindness are acting from self-interest. Worse yet; when 
 a sort of providence provides for all his needs, without exacting any effort, tJie 
 workman ceases to rely upon himself— he loses the gift of forethought, economy; 
 because he feels these are no longer a necessity; his efforts relax, his dignity 
 diminishes, he is ripe for socialism. 
 
 " These effects, that are the consequences of too great a patronage, began _ to 
 be felt at Monceau some years ago. On the other hand, by a kmd of reaction 
 natural enough in its way, the spirit of association began to revive. Bakers 
 cooperative societies, mutual aid societies, and syndicates were formed m the 
 
xl 
 
 country. In truth the new movement was directed into a revolutionary socialistic 
 channel rather than a philanthropic one ; but finally there existed, and wan displayed, 
 a certain kind of spirit with which it was necessary to reckon. 
 
 ''The Blanzy Company understood the situation. While preserving these 
 employer's institutions, all of which were deserving of it, at least until they 
 were replaced by something else, they resolved to utilise this movement of asso- 
 ciation; to encourage it, and to direct it within reasonable bounds. For some 
 years it has entered into an entirely new path, and certainly a good one. They 
 are besides not alone in following it. 
 
 " To excite the initiative in the workman: to make his economical education; 
 to habituate him to depend more upon himself and less upon his employer; to 
 teach him to direct his own aifairs ; this is preferable to that species of tutelage 
 to which we are otherwise led by pure benevolence, in treating the workman as 
 if he were incapable of comprehending his own interests. 
 
 " The employer should not hesitate to have recourse to association when it is 
 possible. With this system, he is no longer solely responsible for the happiness 
 of his workman. These being associated with him in his efforts, partake of res- 
 ponsibility with him, and, indeed, assume the greatest portion of it." 
 
 " This, moreover, does not prevent the employer interesting himself as much 
 as he desires, in the material and moral well-being of his workman and in 
 making all the sacrifices he may judge proper. But it does more ; what he gives 
 is better appreciated,. because, to his own efforts, to his own sacrifices, are joined 
 the efforts and sacrifices of those interested, who bring into practice the old 
 precept: — "Help yourself and God will help you." 
 
 " Many employers are hostile to workmen's associations, because they have no 
 confidence in them; in them they see the focus of disorder, and an evil spirit. 
 Strictly speaking, we could understand their manner of receiving them, if the 
 movement towards association could be arrested ; but the current is irresistible. 
 Something is wanted to distract the workman; a change from his habitual work; 
 he has a certain amount of intellectual activity to dispose of; he must dispose of 
 it well or ill, and the associations founded with an economical object, social or 
 moral, or simply established to jirocure for their members honest relaxation, are 
 really the best aliment that can be offered to such a craving ; they are besides a 
 resource, the best valve of safety against, popular passions. 
 
 " Well-directed associations, contribute, moreover, powerfully to consolidate 
 social peace, 'because they teach brave men to reckon with themselves, to know 
 themselves, to appreciate themselvep. They afford the means of more readily 
 unmasking the intriguers, and useless noisy fellows. 
 
 " Finally, there is the solid fact that governs the whole matter ; the current 
 exists, associations are established, and if they are not with us, they are against 
 us. One need not therefore hesitate. 
 
 " At Montceau, we have reason to congratulate ourselves on the new path 
 which we have entered. The initiative of workmen, has surpassed our hopes. 
 Associations have increased, and it is believed that, some day, they will replace, 
 everywhere, the employer's institutions, or at least, that these will be so modi- 
 fled that the workmen's efforts will, everywhere, be associated with those of 
 the employer ; but such a change can only occur in course of time : time does not 
 consecrate what is attempted without its aid." 
 
 This is the condemnation of the patriarchal r^ime pronounced by those who 
 have practised it, and the justification of workmen's associations. 
 
 Mr. de Molinari, an economist, well known in Canada, wrote in the " Journal des 
 Economistes " in November 1882, regarding the employer's institutions of Montceau- 
 les-Mines : 
 
xli 
 
 " The defects of institutions, more or less philanthropic, that companies or 
 simple individual contractors establish in favor of their workmen, are to complicate 
 their relations with them, and, consequently, to increase the occasion of disagree- 
 ment. They also, in fact, diminish the liberty of the workmen, who find them- 
 selves bound to the workshops or the mine, notwithstanding that a higher rate of 
 wages is offered them elsewheie ; by their paj'ments towards the purchase of a 
 house ; the obligatory participation in the pension bank ; and the debts that they 
 have contracted at the provision stores. The result is a state of subjection that does 
 not fail to become insupportable when the employer attempts, according to the ex- 
 ample of the manager of the Company of Montceau-les-Mines, to prevent all mani- 
 festations against his personal opinions. 
 
 " This conditions of affairs, between the Company and its workman perfectly ex- 
 plains the success of the " mouvement coUectiviste anarchiste " of Montceau." 
 
 The principal defect of employer's institutions, necessary during a certain time, 
 and in certain districts, is, in not transforming themselves into free institutions, as 
 soon as the workmen, having become more independent, more confident in them- 
 selves and better informed, are capable of undertaking their administration. 
 
 The largest strikes, these of Creusot, and of Montceau-les-Mines and the Belgian 
 Coal Miners, were due, almost entirely, to difficulties with the patroual institutions. 
 
 Some large concerns not wishing, or not being able, to alter their employer's 
 institutions, profiting by the experience acquired in studying the causes of these 
 great strikes, have modified their rules of administration, and adopted those which 
 have, for many years, been in force in the workshops which have escaped 
 strikes of this character. Among the number of the establishments which 
 never have had diflculties with their workmen, in connection with employer's 
 institutions, may be cited the "Soci^t^ de la Vieille Montague." This society 
 explain in their pamphlet " SocUti de la Vieille Montague a VExposition de 
 1889," the reasons that render the employer's institutions useful and necessary to 
 the workmen, and the conditions indispensable for their proper working. It says : 
 
 " 1. The best mode of remuneration for workmen, is that which interests them, 
 not in the general advantages of the enterprise, but in industrial results on which 
 they can exercise a direct personal influence. 
 
 " 2. The wages, to be sufficient, must permit of the workman not only to live, 
 but also to save, that is to say, it must secure not only present but future wants. 
 
 "3. Even on receiving such wages, the workman will not save nor acquire pro- 
 perty save under exceptional circumstances, if the employer aftbrds him no oppor- 
 tunity, either by the establishment of savings banks, or by advances made with a 
 liberal prudence. 
 
 " 4. Even with these advantages, only a minority of skilled workmen are able to 
 profit by such institutions. The majority require to be protected against the re- 
 suits of sickness, infirmities, and old age, by employer's institutions, banks of relief, 
 provident societies, &c. 
 
 " 5. Two conditions, too often neglected, are absolutely necessary for the proper 
 working of these banks and to avoid their ruin. 
 
 " (a) The first consists in rendering an exact statement of their present liability 
 and especially of their future calls and to well establish their resources and the 
 necessary reserves. 
 
 " (&) The second consists in doing away with the two systems of administra- 
 tion, either of the employer solely or the workman alone, and by adopting a mixed 
 system. 
 
 " Thus only can we interest the workmen in the proper management while 
 retaining the necessary control by the employer." 
 
xlii 
 
 Whether these institutions are necessary or not to the workmen ; whether or 
 not they be administered by them in whole or in part, the workmen will have none 
 of them whenever they contain the slightest cause of forfeiture, or whenever they 
 encroach on their liberty. 
 
 Workmen will no longer consent to be connected with any establishment by 
 pecuniary questions other than that of wages ; they desire liberty, and the multi- 
 plicity of provident societies enables them to secure their wants. They often con- 
 sent to a compulsory saving, but they wish' the funds they deposit or that are 
 deposited for them, to be placed out of reach of all intervention by the employer, in 
 a state bank or a free society, and fully secured against loss or confiscation. One 
 cannot blame them for assuring at once their liberty of action and the security of 
 their savings. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL SYNDICATES. 
 
 The legal recognition of workmen's unions in France is quite recent ; it dates 
 from 1884. Before that period the French workman was in a very strange posi- 
 tion ; as a laborer he was absolutely free, but he had not liberty to meet with his 
 companions for discussing his interests or ameliorating his condition. 
 
 This supression of the right of association — " a natural gift that should remain 
 free in a free country" — was all the more remarkable in France, from having been 
 the consequence of the application of laws passed for protecting laborers and assur- 
 ing the absolute liberty of labor. It is important, at the time that Canadian work- 
 men's associations demand amendments to the " Combines Act," to show in a few 
 lines, how a law, made with a view of protection, should become a law of oppres- 
 sion. 
 
 The wardens and free corporations, abolished the first time under Louis XVI, 
 in 1776, was re-established the same year, and done away with at last, by the law 
 of 14th-27th June, 1791, which, made free to workman, delivered them, duiing a 
 century, without defence to all the demands of capital. 
 
 This law, repealed in 1884, enacted : — 
 
 " Art. 1. The extinction of all kinds of corporations of citizens of the same con- 
 dition and profession, being one of the fundamental supports of the French Consti- 
 tution, it is forbidden to re-establish them under any pretext or form whatsoever. 
 
 " Art. 2. Citizens of the same condition or profession, contractors, those having 
 open shops, the companions of any art whatever, cannot, when they meet, name a 
 president, nor secretary, nor syndic, hold registers, take records or deliberate, or 
 make rules for their pretended common interest." 
 
 This law acknowledges the right of the workmen to become employer, capitalist, 
 but deprived him of the means of ameliorating his condition, as long as he 
 remaifled a laborer. 
 
 Some years afterwards, in 1803, still to assure liberty to the laborer, they passed 
 that famous law of 22 Germinal, in the year XI that forbade any understanding, 
 even temporarily, between employer and workman — an agreement that they quali- 
 fied as a coalition. 
 
 It was in virtue of this law that an attempt was made to prevent Leclaire 
 dividing his profits with his workmen. 
 
xliii 
 
 Finally, article 416 of the penal code, also repealed in 1884, by the law of Syndi- 
 cates of workmen, punished by fine and imprisonment : — 
 
 " All workmen, employers and contractors of work, who by means of fines, 
 expenses, proscriptions, interdictions, pronounced in consequence of a concerted 
 plan, have interfered with the free exercise of industry and labor." 
 
 This denied to workmen the right to consult each other with a view of arriving 
 at any common understanding — it was suppressing the right to strike. 
 
 The consequence of these laws was disastrous to the workman ; they isolated 
 him at the very time when the progress and development of industry caused the 
 coalition of capital, and left him alone and weak in face of the great enterprises and 
 tho' joint stock companies. 
 
 These laws were not the lees disastrous to the employers, whose position was 
 constantly menaced by the^ demands of the workmen. 
 
 " Nothing remains, wrote Mr. Leroy-Beaulieu, in this society, but a mass of 
 people, living side by side in most unequal conditions, strangers to one another, and 
 nourishing in regard to their neighbor only feelings of indifference, contempt, or 
 envy." 
 
 These laws, far from preventing strikes, increased and envenomed them, and 
 made of every workman, ill-treated by his employer, an enemy of social order. 
 
 Nor did they prevent the creation of workmen's societies ; they only succeeded 
 in giving them the stamp of secret societies, and in transforming them into more or 
 less political associations. 
 
 The liberty of association, the recognition of the right to concert, to unite for 
 the purpose of protection, would have had in France, the same result as in England : 
 the workman, becoming strong by union, would have brought less bitterness, less 
 animosity into their contest with capital. 
 
 Association, in giving the workman the means of protecting himself and 
 ameliorating his condition, makes him an adversary of State socialism. 
 
 The trades unions, for example, demand but one guarantee from the law, that of 
 individual liberty, and energetically opposes every measure that seeks to infringe it. 
 
 The declaration of this principle was made very clear during the course of 
 an enquiry held in England in 1887. A witness, being consulted on what he thought 
 of the rights and duties of workmen and employers, relating to accidents, sickness, 
 pensions, and how the working class regarded the laws that obliged employers to 
 participate in a certain measure, and pecuniarily, in the results of accidents, 
 sickness, etc., replied : — 
 
 " We do not admit that the law can ask nothing of employers on these different 
 points ; we desire to owe them nothing on this score, and it would be unjust that 
 anything should be imposed upon them. We know how to unite to obtain from them 
 the maximum of wages according to the condition of the commercial market, and 
 once this maximum is obtained, we consider the employer owes us nothing more." 
 
 They added, that the pecuniary sacrifices that could be' exacted from the 
 employer by the law, would, in the end, be paid by the workman, and represented 
 
xliv 
 
 by an evident, or concealed diminution of wages; that they would prefer receiving 
 their wages intact and aiterwarde themselves relieve, as they might determine, the 
 results of accidents, of sickness or of old age. * 
 
 The legal existence of workmen's unions, not under the form of a Provident 
 Society, but as a professional union, is recognised in all countries. Belgium, which 
 has suffered so much from strikes during late years, acknowledged it, and its Labor 
 Commission after its enquiry has, in its report, elaborated a project of law that may 
 serve as an example for similar legislation, and whose Article 2 ought to be intro- 
 duced in all charters of workmen's societies. 
 
 The principal articles of this sriheme are the following : — 
 
 Art. I. The acknowledged professional unions are composed of Belgian citizens 
 iictually exercising the same profession. 
 
 They comprise either workmen, employers or workmen and employers combined, 
 and have for their object the study, development, and defence of their professional 
 interests. 
 
 Art. 2. The unions declare, in case of dispute relative to the conditions of labor, 
 to accept, at least in principle, an effort at conciliation by councils of arbitration 
 before adopting the exercise of the right to strike, which they retain. 
 
 Art. 3. It is understood by professional interests : — 
 
 Courts of conciliation. 
 
 Labor exchanges. 
 
 Expenses of information, of I'emoval, of emigration. 
 
 Assistance in case of a justifiable strike and in case of necessity. 
 
 Technical education, courses of apprenticeship, libraries, exhibitions. 
 
 Questions regarding the conditions of labor, the inspection and control of works, 
 workshops, manufactories, workmen's lodgings. 
 
 Organisation of relief, in case of sickness, accident, death, incapacity to work. 
 
 Art. 8. Every partner has, notwithstanding any clause to the contrary, the right 
 to retire at any time from the union, which can reclaim from him his assessment 
 then due. 
 
 If he has made any payments into the relief bank, he has the power either to 
 remain a member or to receive for the payments made, an indemnity to be deter- 
 mined on. 
 
 The by-laws ought to bo filed with the Minister of Commerce. They can be 
 annulled by the tribunals in case of violation of the law. 
 
 Employers have profited as much, if not more by the liberty of association, 
 either by forming syndicates of employers, or by forming mixed syndicates of 
 «mployers and workmen. Among the number of the last named, we must cite, as 
 the most useful, the labor exchanges. 
 
 These exchanges have for their object the facilitating the exchange of labor by 
 bringing into communication the demand and supply; their creation is demanded 
 by Canadian workmen's societies, and the notice concerning "Labor Exchange of 
 Li^ge " (page 160) is sufacient to show that they can be installed and administered 
 at but little cost. 
 
 Congr^s international des accidents dn travail. Raj^port de M. Rene Jourdain. 
 
xlv 
 
 Finally, it may be affirmed that the legal existeDce of workmen's unions has. 
 facilitated arbitration and the settlement of difficulties between employers and work- 
 men ; has ameliorated the conditions of apprenticeship, stimulated professional in- 
 struction and permitted the creation of numerous employers' and workmen's socie- 
 ties favorable to the development of industry. 
 
 PROVIDENT INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Section 5 — Mutual Benevolent Societies. 
 Section 6 — Retiring funds and annuities. 
 Section 7 — Life and Accident Assurance. 
 Section 8 — Savings. 
 
 The absence of Canadian statistics renders it difficult to state positively as to • 
 the sickness and mortality of Canadian workmen. 
 
 In France it is estimated that among the mass of workmen of 12,000,000 per- 
 sons, 2,600,000 are annuallj' afflicted with sickness, and that 80,000 fathers and 34,000 
 mothers die prematurely. 
 
 In studying the figures of the census of 1881, it can be established that the mor- 
 tality of workmen's families in Canada, is nearly in the same proportion as it is in 
 France, with this difference, that death overtakes the fathers and mothers nearly 
 equally, there being a slighter deviation between the ages of the married couple. 
 
 Sickness, death, either natural or by accident, and old age, are the causes of 
 misery which the workman can now considerably diminish the effects. 
 
 Against sickness he has the Mutual Aid Societies. 
 
 Against old age he has the Life Annuities Funds. 
 
 Two institutions that completely shelter him from distress and exacts but few 
 sacrifices. 
 
 Against death resulting from accidents arising from his work, he has insurance 
 which is not costly. There remains but the consequences of natural death against 
 which he is yet unable, without great sacrifices, to efficaciously protect his family. 
 
 Provident societies are yet little developed in Canada, and against unforeseen 
 distress the Canadian workman has no other protection than the Mutual Benevolent 
 Societies. 
 
 It is true that these societies are established on broader foundations than those 
 adopted by European societies, and some of them are veritable assurance in case of 
 death, paying considerable indemnities to the families of their deceased members. 
 
 Against State socialism, which, from Germany, has spread to Austria and 
 Switzerland and menaces an extension to other countries, the economists oppose the 
 propagation of free provident institutions and see their efforts sedonded not only by 
 the employers, but also by numerous workmen's associations, at the head of which 
 
xlvi 
 
 must be placed the powerful Trades Unions. The study of the three hundred docu- 
 ments figuring in the sections of the " Pr^voyance," at the " Exhibition of Social 
 Economy," furnishes a subject of great interest, not from their number, but from the 
 conception and application of ideas whence have issued various institutions being 
 able to serve, and having in fact already serve i, as types to a great number of 
 others. 
 
 The study of the documents referring to these model societies was all that was 
 needed, so that these documents are the only ones that were reproduced. 
 
 Mutual Benevolent Societies. 
 Mutual aid societies in Prance and Belgium are under the wing of the Govern- 
 ment; in return for the protection and aid that they receive, they are compelled to 
 submit their by-laws for approval and to furnish a report of their operations. 
 
 Nevertheless, there exist mutual aid societies outside of the protection of the 
 Government — those in France which are simply authorized, and those in Belgium 
 which are not recognized. 
 
 In Prance the licensed mutual aid societies are administered under the decree 
 of 26th March, 1852, and are benefited by an endowment created in their favor by the 
 State in 1856 (page 21'7). 
 
 In Belgium the Government has established a permanent commission of mutual 
 aid societies, charged with discovering the means of extending and multiplying 
 mutual institutions, and to distribute to societies the rewards, decreed at the triennial 
 competition established by the Government, to those which in a special manner, 
 signalised themselves by their progress, management, and the results obtained. 
 
 The average accounts of the mutual aid societies in Prance shew the following 
 results: (Tables pages 218-220). 
 
 Societies. 
 
 /■ ^^^^~^ — — ^ — ^-^^— ^ — «. 
 
 Per active member. Approved. Authorised. 
 
 Total payment for sickness: — 
 Physician, medicines,pecuniary 
 
 indemnity $2 31 $2 60| 
 
 Cost of managment 18^ ^ 26^ 
 
 do funerals 18^ lOf 
 
 Statutory expenses §2 67f $3 06f 
 
 Assessments 2 89|- 3 29|- 
 
 Surplus 22 23| 
 
 Aid to widows and orphans $0 09^ $0 22|- 
 
 Aid to infirm old men and incur- 
 ables 19| 33f 
 
 Various expenses 34^ 434- 
 
 Managing expenses 63 63 99f 99| 
 
 Annual deficit $0 41 $0 Y6f 
 
 Assessments of honorary mem- 
 bers 1 65f 2 11^ 
 
 Actual surplus $1 24| $1 84|. 
 
xlvii 
 
 The entire economy of the French Mutual Aid Societies is recapitulated in this 
 table; the assessments of active members suffice to cover the expenses of sickness, 
 but the extraordinary aids and pensions can only be taken from the assessment of 
 honorary members. 
 
 Nearly all the French societies accord aid to their sick members during only 
 three to six months ; the establishment, " Caisse G^u^rale de Edassurance," how- 
 ever, continues by the means of a small assessment to furnish aid to the sick 
 during five years. (Pages 222 and 228.) 
 
 These banks of reassurance of mutual aid societies must assist in their pro- 
 per working and development. Sicknesses that are prolonged beyond six months 
 are rare, but unfortunately they do occur, and there is nothing so fatal to a mutual 
 society as the example of sick persons whom they have been compelled to abandon. 
 
 The discussion of their interests; the settlement of accounts; the ajpplication 
 of the by-laws, and too often the animosity that some members feel towards others, 
 are obstacles lo the prosperity of societies, if not the causes of their ruin. It is to 
 do away with these dangers that mutual societies of certain districts have united, 
 and have formed a sort of court of appeal before which are brought all causes of 
 difference that may arise between the members of a society, either between each 
 other, or between them and their society. The " Grand Conseil des Societ^s de Secours 
 Mutuels des Bouches-du-Eh6ne " (page 221), and the " Comity G^n^ral des Soci^t^s 
 de Secours Mutuels et de E^traite de Lyon " are the most perfect types of tl^ese 
 institutions. 
 
 The creation of similar councils would be advantageous in Canada. Apart 
 from their conciliatory influence these councils study the march of these societies, 
 and by their wise advice, save them from deficits arising from financial methods 
 established, too often, on erroneous principles. 
 
 In Belgium, the Mutual Aid Societies have formed a central association, under 
 the name of "National Federation," whose working expenses are covered by an 
 annual assessment of $0.01 paid by all the members of the affiliated societies. The 
 National Federation has for its object the tightening of the bonds of confraternity 
 between the mutualists, in order the discover the means of assisting the Mutual Aid 
 Societies. In 1887 they founded a " Fund of Eeassurance," similar to those existing 
 in France. 
 
 We must also observe, in Belgium, the notable progress that has been realised 
 in the direction of mutuality : 
 
 1. The " Fidiration libre des SocUtis de secours mutuels de Braxelles et de ses 
 faubourgs " furnishes the members of the affiliated societies, by the means of an 
 annual assessment of $0.36, a gratuitous medical service. This mutuality of societies 
 has permitted of the obtaining a complete service, embracing 13 doctors for ordinary 
 service and special services for diseases of the eyes, of the throat, the nose, the ears; 
 baths, &c. 
 
 The wives of the members, and their children under 18 years, enjoy the same 
 privileges. 
 
xlviii 
 
 2. The " Popular Druggeries," established by the cooperation of the Mutual 
 Societies, allows the Mutual Aid Societies of Brussels to furnish gratuitous medicines 
 to their sick members while realising a considerable annual profit. 
 
 These two institutions are administered by Boards formed of delegates named 
 by the afllliated societies. The advantages that they furnish to their members are 
 considerable. The first and most positive is, to fix, in an absolute manner, the 
 expenses or the care of the sick; the second, to diminish those expenses. Thus, at 
 Brussels, thanks to the "Free Federation," the mutualists covered their medical fees 
 by the means of a fixed expense of $0.36 a year per participating member, while at 
 Paris the average of these fees is $0.46 per active member, and it is $0.50 for the 
 whole of France. 
 
 With regard to pharmaceutical fees, which average per participating member 
 $0.88 at Paris and $0.67 for all France, they are completely suppressed at Brussels, 
 Liege and Verviers, thanks to the establishment of the "Popular Druggeries."* 
 
 The study of these institutions is the duty of" Canadian Mutual Aid Societies. " 
 
 In Italy, the " Mutual Aid Societies" are numerous and prosperous ; they have 
 given birth to various institutions, and from some among them have arisen popular 
 banks, mutual assurance companies, building societies, &c. 
 
 A large number of European Mutual Aid Societies accord their members other 
 advantages than assistance in case of sickness. Some have established libraries and 
 professional lectures; others registry offices; a few assist embarrassed tenants, and 
 never abandon either their unfortunate members or the young orphans they may 
 leave after them. (Page 226). 
 
 The European societies have a strong tendency of attracting towards themselves 
 the mothers and children. The moral and financial results obtained by this special 
 recruitment are very satisfactory. 
 
 Some societies, that of " Instituteurs des Basses Pyr^nfes '' (page 223) for 
 example, assure the member's whole family, and the subdivision of relief is made 
 annually and by family. This system, as we can easily understand, may cause 
 some disappointments at the subdivision, especially as it does not permit of the 
 creation of any capital, any reserve fund, and of that a member having paid his assess- 
 ment during many years, may, in a year of epidemic, for example, not obtain the 
 assistance that bis previous payments have permitted him to hope for. 
 
 The Ward societies (page 226) are eminently suited for large cities. This 
 system is also in vigorous operation in some Canadian cities, possessing societies 
 having a central ofiice and ward branches. 
 
 * The " Popular Druggeries ''are cooperative societies, of which the ' ' Mutual Aid Societies " are the share- 
 holders. These last pay a hxed fee of S3.00 per society, and a subscription of §0.30 per active member • 
 the paid-up capital receives interest at 4 per cent. At the end of each six months the participating socie- 
 ties receive an invoice of the medicines furnished to their members, and should pay the amount The 
 "Popular Druggeries" also sell to the public, and realize from this source considerable profits. In 1888 the 
 affiliated societies, thanks to the profits reahzed, received gratuitously, the medicines furnished to their 
 members, and received besides a bonus of 20 per cent, of the amount of their purchases of these medi- 
 cines. At Brussels, for example, the net profits realized by the ' ' Popular Druggeries " amounted to $10 868 • 
 the medicines furnished to the members amounted to .$8,898, which gave a profit on the year of $1 970 Oo' 
 independent of the gratuity of the medicines. At Verviers the results are still more remarkable ' ' ' 
 
xlix 
 
 The societies have not all adopteid the same principle in the matter of assessment ; 
 we have reproduced, in the documentary portion of this report (pages 217 to 228), 
 the types of the different systems in active operation. On the other hand, all the 
 societies, save one, reduce and suppi'ess the assistance they accord to their sick at 
 the end of a more or less long period. 
 
 The " Association amicale des Pastes et Tiligraphes " (page 224) arenotsatisfied 
 ■with having a very original system of assessment ; it augments the quota of pecuniary 
 aid which it accords to its sick in proportion as the malady is prolonged. 
 
 This gradation in importance of the aid, is equitable and charitable. 
 
 The effects of sickness of a short duration may easily be supported by the suf- 
 ferer without great sacrifice of money. The family is in possession of all its moral 
 and physical forces, and the economies, even credit, supplemented by a small pecu- 
 niary indemnity, are sufficient to enable them to meet expenses. Quite otherwise 
 is the situation of the family whose bread-winner is bedridden for six months, the 
 extreme term accorded for assistance in cash. The suppression of this aid occurs just 
 at the most critical moment, when the supplies are eaten, credit gone, the family 
 prostrated by vigils and anxiety, and less capable to produce the necessary effort to 
 make up by their labor, if possible, the wages lost by the head of the family. 
 
 The unfortunate position of workingmen's families overtaken by sickness, and 
 the anomaly of the distribution of aid in cash, diminished or suppressed when they 
 become the most necessary, has not failed to attract the attention of certain em- 
 ployers and a good number of European mutualists. 
 
 These last, to remedy the evil, have created Banks of Eeassurance ; some of the 
 first named have created Provident Banks. 
 
 In this manner, the Provident Bank of the Maison Piat (419) pays the sick 
 members of the Mutual Aid Society, indemnities augmenting in proportion to the 
 diminution of the indemnities paid by this last. 
 
 In the Maison D^beruy, (page 49) the aid afforded to the sick augments from the 
 forty-first day of sickness. 
 
 The workmen forming the nucleus of the Maison " Eedouly et Cie " (page 
 68), notwithstanding their two Mutual Aid Societies, belong to a third society, 
 which maintains their daily pecuniary indemnity at f 1.00, whenever it is reduced by 
 the prolongation of the sickness beyond the three months. 
 
 An employer's Mutual Aid Society, established by Messrs. Waddington & Co. 
 (page 428), classify their maladies by categories and allow different indemnities 
 according to the categorj^ — that is to say, according to the gravity of the malady. 
 
 In accordance with an article of its by-laws, this society, on the advice of the 
 doctor, allows a nurse to its bedridden members. This most humanitarian course, 
 which is also found in the by-laws of other societies, should be adopted in the con- 
 stitutions of all Mutual Societies. Far from being a chai-ge, this outlay, in augment- 
 ing the chances of recovery and by producing them, is ti'ansformed into an economy. 
 Even if this expense augmented the charges of these societies, nothing could more 
 strongly justify the necessity of these institutions, the family being often less ruined 
 by the sickness than by the forced destitution of all remunerative woi-k, to which is 
 condemned that one of the married couple who is obliged to nurse the other. 
 20— D 
 
The " Soci^W des Sauveteurs du Midi," of Marseilles also allows the service of 
 nurses and in addition authorises, in serious cases, the consultation of several doctors. 
 
 Though the Employers' Mutual Aid, Societies depend on Section XIV and not 
 Section V, we cannot, before terminating the examination of the latter, omit the 
 following paragraph of the Aid Society of the Western Eailroad Company of Paris, 
 (page 374). 
 
 " Art. 17 — " Every workman leaving the Company, owing to suspension of em- 
 ployment, cessatioiTi of the works, or for any other cause independent of his own will, 
 but without implying any demerit on his part, shall receive, on leaving, an indemnity 
 of $6.00 after two years service; of $8.00 after three years; and of $10.00 after four 
 years ; and thus accordingly, increasing at the ratio of $2.00 for each year of service." 
 
 This payment I'ests upon an equitable principle. Desertion must not be eacour- 
 aged, nor abandonment of the society; but it is unjust that a member, having regu- 
 larly paid his assessment, without, perhaps, having received any benefit therefrom, 
 completely loses the advantages of the sacrifices he had made for assuring him- 
 self against sickness and old age, if he be forced, for a cause independent of his own 
 will, to abandon the Society to which he belongs. 
 
 In all well-administered Mutual Aid Societies the members have their individual 
 account. It is therefore easy to establish the profit or the loss resulting from the 
 presence of each member, and to grant to the member forced to quit the society a 
 certai n indemnity, if entitled to it 
 
 In according this indemnity the Mutual Aid Societies would considerably augment 
 their salutary influence ; a large number of workmen abstain from joining them, 
 fearing that the change of residence to which they are so often subjected should 
 cause them to lose, at the age when they are in most need, the benefits of mutuality. 
 
 Life Annuities. 
 
 To furnish workmen the means of creating for themselves, by the aid of small 
 savings, a pension placing them beyond the reach of want in their old age, is to do 
 an eminently philanthropic work. The French Government has been the first to 
 establish a National Life Annuities Fund for old age, a bank rendering important 
 services to workmen and playing a considerable part in employers' institutions. The 
 object, the nature, the working of this institution, which to-day numbers nearly 
 800,000 depositors, are explained in the documentary portion of this report (pages 
 231 to 239). 
 
 Belgium has also a National Annuities Fund, based on the same principles as 
 the French one. 
 
 In England the Government accord annuities nearly on the same conditions as 
 the French and Belgian Governments, in virtue of an " An Act to grant facilities for 
 the purchase of small Government annuities, and for assuring payment of money 
 at death." (14th July, 1864, 27 and 28 Victoria, 43.) 
 
 Numerous pension societies have been formed in France ; they naturally offer 
 greater advantages than the government institution — that is to say, that they 
 grant a larger annuity for the same annual assessment. 
 
li 
 
 It would be difl3.cult to make a complete and absolute comparison of the advan- 
 tages offered by the different societies of the types cited in this report, the assess- 
 ments and the times of enjoyment of the pension being different. It is, however, pos- 
 sible to establish a comparison between the two institutions granting the smallest 
 and the largest pension. 
 
 Amgunt of Retiring Pensibns granted for an Annual Deposit of $12, made from 25 years 
 
 of age,at alieneted Capital. 
 
 Age when 
 pensioned. 
 
 Belgian National 
 Pension Funds. 
 
 50 years $ 36.28 
 
 55 do 58.51 
 
 60 do 97.40 
 
 65 do It2.30 
 
 French National 
 Pension Funds. 
 
 $ 46.29 
 
 74.44 
 
 123.24 
 
 216.24 
 
 230th Society 
 (page 253). 
 
 I 129.60 
 216.40 
 372.70 
 685.10 
 
 These considerable differences, for the same deposit, are the result of the basis 
 adopted by different institutions — that is, the mortality tables which each makes use 
 of, and the rate of capitalized interest which they grant. The tables and rates are 
 as follows : — 
 
 Mortality Table 
 used. 
 
 Rate of 
 Interest 
 granted. 
 
 3 p. c. 
 
 4 p. c. 
 
 5 p. c. 
 
 Belgian National Pension Bank Quetelet 
 
 *French do do Special table 
 
 230th Society for assistance to old age Duvillard 
 
 To fully appreciate the influence of the tables of mortality, it is suflScient to cite 
 some of their figures. 
 
 Comparison of the Bate of Mortality. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Quetelet 
 Table. 
 
 Deparoieux 
 Table 
 
 French Table 
 O.R. 
 
 Duvillard 
 Table. 
 
 
 4-62 
 0-50 
 1-50 
 1-69 
 2-26 
 3-32 
 5-.S6 
 913 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 6 
 14 
 
 00 
 79 
 98 
 09 
 06 
 72 
 80 
 12 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 2 
 5 
 13 
 
 70 
 26 
 75 
 71 
 86 
 41 
 60 
 71 
 54 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 4 
 8 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 10 do 
 
 76 
 
 20 do 
 
 17 
 
 30 do 
 
 54 
 
 40 do 
 
 89 
 
 50 do 
 
 59 
 
 60 do 
 
 30 
 
 70 do 
 
 13 
 
 80 do 
 
 76 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Up to 1888 the French Administration made use of Deparoieux's table. In 1888 they replaced it with 
 a mortality table resulting from the experience also of the National Pension Fund. This table gives a 
 mortality at a slower rate than that of Deparoieux, and is nearly similar to the English table Hmf. Its 
 application has thus the effect of reducing the amounts of pensions. 
 
 The tariffs published on pages 235 to 238 are calculated from this new table, called Table C. R. 
 
 20— D^ 
 
lii 
 
 Probable or Average Life-time according to Tables of — 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Quetelet (1856.) 
 Years. Months. 
 
 Deparcieux (1746.) 
 Years. Months. 
 
 DuviUard{1806.) 
 Years. Months. 
 
 American (1868.) 
 Years. Months. 
 
 3 years, 
 
 10 do 
 
 20 do 
 
 30 do 
 
 40 do 
 
 50 do 
 
 60 do 
 
 70 do 
 
 80 do 
 
 46 
 44 
 37 
 31 
 25 
 19 
 13 
 7 
 5 
 
 7 
 3 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 51 
 44 
 36 
 29 
 21 
 14 
 7 
 
 4 
 10 
 
 2 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 45 
 42 
 35 
 29 
 23 
 16 
 11 
 6 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 1 
 10 
 2 
 7 
 5 
 
 48 
 42 
 35 
 28 
 20 
 14 
 
 9 
 2 
 4 
 2 
 11 
 1 
 6 
 4 
 
 The tables generally used by the European assurance companies (except in 
 England) are those of Deparcieux and Duvillard. 
 
 That of Duvillard, of which the mortality is the most rapid, is used in case of 
 insurance payable at death, as it calls for a higher premium ; and that of Deparcieux, 
 of which the mortality is slowest, is applied to life pensions, in order to reduce the 
 amounts of annuities payable. 
 
 In using Duvillard's table, the 230th Society did not forget that it based its 
 operations on a too rapid scale of mortality.* 
 
 To this increase ia the rate of mortality, the 230th Society adds, to raise the 
 amount of pension, a capitalized interest of 5 percent., whilst the Belgian and French 
 pension banks grant but 3 and 4 per cent, respectively. 
 
 With a capital producing scarcely 4 per cent, it is dififtcult to understand this 
 capitalization at 5 per cent. The Eeport of the Commission of Enquiry on Pensions 
 of the 230th Society justifies it whilst naming the six economic clauses permitting 
 this interest. Five of these reasons are as just as equitable ; the first only is ques- 
 tionable, as can be easily seen : 
 
 1st. A portion of the sums left by those whose names are struck out, and those 
 who have resigned (the other portion is employed in disposing of charges made 
 from the use of the Duvillard table). 
 
 The names struck out and resignations are numerous, as may be judged from the 
 extract on the fluctuation of the roll, published in the Eeport of the Board of 
 Management, dated Januaj-y 1, 1889 : 
 
 Statement, 3lst December, 1888. 
 
 Participating members 21 441 
 
 Supplementary inscriptions 6 857 
 
 Honorary members 241 
 
 Total 28,539 
 
 Pensioned members ,... 1,800 
 
 30,339 
 
 * Circular No. 26.— Report of the Commission of Enquiry into Pensions. (Page 4.) 
 
liii 
 
 No. of Members Total of Sums de- 
 Struck Out, posited by these 
 Resigned or De- Members, and re- 
 ceased, verting to the Society. 
 
 Prom 1st April, 1875, to Ist January, 1888... 8,268 $53,197 
 
 Prom 1st January to 31st December, 1888... 630 7,583 
 
 $61,780 
 
 The deaths are included in the above figures, but as they do not represent, after 
 the Society's own calculations, more than 1 death in 55 participating members, and 1 
 death in 30 pensioners, we can thus conclude that 80 per cent, at least of this sum 
 of $61,700 accrues from resignations or names struck out. 
 
 But the assets of the 230th Society being $529,851 on the Slst December, 1888, 
 the profits arising from names struck out and resignations represented more than 
 10 per cent, of the capital. This society can thus, thanks to this surplus of receipts, 
 pay to its members an interest of 5 per cent, on deposits ; but it must be admitted 
 that if the parties who had resigned or had their names struck ofi' had not been 
 fascinated by the higher amount of pensions promised by the tariff of the 230th 
 Society, they would have been satisfied with the pensions granted by the State 
 pension fund, and would not have lost their savings. They have lost the substance 
 for the shadow. 
 
 This system of cancellation is an absolute necessity for every pension society 
 baeing its operations on abnormal probabilities. 
 
 Thus, the Fraternal Association of Employees in French Jlailroad Companies (page 
 250), whilst considering it advisable to use Deparcieux's mortality table, has, on the 
 ■contrary, capitalized the interest on deposits at 6 per cent. 
 
 We see from its i-eport foi- 1887 it pays this rate of interest of 6 per cent, only 
 by means of sums arising from cancellations, as the following statement will show: — 
 
 The credits of participating members to 
 Slst December, 1887, amounted to 
 $834,705, having produced $29,276, or per cent. 3,267 
 
 Cancellations and resignations have fur- 
 nished a sum of 22,320 do 2,674 
 
 The assessment of honorary members 
 
 had furnished a sum of. 918 do 0,130 
 
 Total per cent 6,0 71 
 
 The cancellations being absolutely necessary for the prosperity of the society 
 must be made with excessive rigor — rigor which we cannot avoid thinking precon- 
 ceived in view of a dividend promise!, which could not be realized without the con- 
 siderable means furnished by a rigorous application of the statutes. 
 
 In the eight years, from 1880 to 1888, 19,410 members had their names struck 
 
 off more than one-fourth of the number admitted ! This proportion of cancellations 
 
 was alone sufficient to condemn the system. 
 
liv 
 
 The Commercial Provident Society (243) has adopted a most rational financial 
 system ; but there again we find a high rate of cancellations, which have produced 
 $21,970, or 8 per cent, of the net capital. 
 
 The injustice of these excessive cancellations is denounced even by those who 
 profit by them. One of the members of the Commercial Provident Society thus 
 expressed himself in the General Assembly of 1888, in regard to these cancellations : — 
 
 " I cannot sincerely ratify this decision, and am conscientiously opposed to it. 
 There may be found among names erased those of persons unable to pay their assess- 
 ments from want of employment or infirmities, and this is why I cannot approve a 
 measure which seems to me inhuman, and contrai-y to the object of the Commercial 
 Provident Society." 
 
 The Mutual Provident Retiring Society of Eeims (page 261), was instituted by a 
 workman, Mr. Lesage, who alone, without assistance, created in his city a com- 
 plete system — mutual, cooperative and provident. 
 
 The financial principles of this association are simple, give good results, and 
 assure a reasonable pension ; but that which is most remarkable in this society is 
 the exoneration fund (page 262) not existing in any other society, and permitting the 
 father of a family to insure, from its birth, a retiring pension for his child. 
 
 The Fraternal Association of Employees in French Railroad Companies, and the 
 Pension Fund of Workmen, under the patronage of the Municipal Council of the City of 
 Sedan, have adopted principles less egotistical than those followed by other asso- 
 ciations. 
 
 These two societies have extended to the whole family the benefits arising from 
 economy, while in other societies the pension ceases on the death of the incumbent. 
 This last system is bad, for the widow or the children of a pensioner, whose pension 
 was not revertible, will find themselves in a situation more precarious than they 
 would be if the head of the family had not been a member of a provident society, as 
 the deposits paid in are lost. 
 
 We cannot help objecting to the egotism which prompts men to insure only their 
 ease and requirements, whilst the family which is called upon to support part of the 
 sacrifices necessary to create this insurance are prevented from participating in its 
 profits. 
 
 The Grain de BU, a very prosperous society, and whose organization merits the 
 consideration of Canadian mutual society members, grants also certain advantages 
 to the widows of deceased members (page 258). 
 
 Considerable mention has been made, for some time past, of a pension fund of 
 recent creation, which, in the opinion of its founders, should aid in extinguishing 
 pauperism, and assure to the laboring man a pension at the period when his strength 
 is exhausted. This society bears the name of " The Pi'ovideuts for the future " (page 
 241). 
 
 It is conceived in a liberal spirit, and could be fruitful in good results, but its 
 financial system cannot be approved. 
 
 The disillusions which many pensioners will experience when entering upon 
 enjoyment of pension should then, we fear, have the effect of turning away many 
 young workmen from provident societies. 
 
Iv- 
 
 Hei'e is the opinion of a Biathematician, Mr. Joseph Bertrand, secretary of the 
 Academy of Sciences, on the financial system of this society : — 
 
 " The consequences of this combination is the enormous amount of advantages to 
 the first subscribers. Take, for example, the society at its origin, and suppose 
 it to be composed of 1,000 members of 15 years of age : Each one of them deposits 
 during 20 years a sum of $2.40 annually, or $48.00 for those who attain the age of 
 36 yeai-s, in all $48,000, which must be decreased by the deposits from those deceased, 
 and which accrue from annual interest. But this is not the limit of income to the 
 society. A new influx of members takes place every year ; the $2,40 required from 
 each one every year increases the capital stock, The members of the first year 
 share the total revenue during the 20 years existence of the society. During the 
 twenty-first year the number of claimants will be doubled, inasmuch as the two first 
 series of promotion will be called to divide, and so on in the future succeeding. The 
 result is that, with the most plausible provisions, the founders, in return for their 
 deposits, equal in all to $48, and will have a right, at the end of the twentieth year, 
 to a dividend of at least $200. This dividend on the following year is reduced to $120 ; 
 and afterwards successively to $46.40, to $19.60, and at last, the progress of the 
 society being supposed to be regular, to $2.80 for the fortieth year. Such are the 
 evil effects of the constitution." 
 
 The deductions of this learned academician are certainly under the reality. It 
 is sufllcient proof hereof to read the official figures published by the Society: — 
 
 Members. Capital. 
 
 On January 1, 1882 757 $ 1,343 
 
 ' 1883 1,432 4,738 
 
 1884 3,769 13,092 
 
 1885 8,980 c5,143 
 
 1886 15,008 72,212 
 
 1887 25,678 134,653 
 
 1888 47,460 253,372 
 
 1889 74,301 437,669 
 
 On August 1, 1889 94,448 598,685 
 
 Thus in August, 1889, each one of these 757 founders, or members enrolled in 
 1882, had, in 1887, deposited $20.40, while the interest at 4 per cent, on the bank 
 capital, assui-ed already, to every one of them, a dividend equal to $31.60. In 1902, 
 the survivors of these 757 members of 1882 would have to divide among them the in- 
 terest of a considerable capital, and the dividends, would be much above $200, as fixed 
 by Mr. J. Bertrand. 
 
 At all events it was so understood by the founders of a concurrent society 
 established in France: La France privoyante (page 240). 
 
 The founders of this society have adopted the system of division used in, "The 
 Providentsfor the future " ; but in order to invite subscriptions, they have suppressed 
 cancellations, fixed the duration of premiums at 15 years, instead of 20, and limited 
 the pensions to $400. So that, for the surviving founders after the period for deposits 
 — 15 years — the first dividend may amount to $400, for a total payment of $36.00. 
 
 This society has had quite as much success at its predecessor. We give its record 
 since its foundation : — 
 
 Yeai- Members. Shares. Capital. 
 
 1886 500 1,250 $1,073 
 
 1887 3,109 8,766 12,997 
 
 1888 6,436 14,313 32,848 
 
Ivi 
 
 Eeprosni ag already in 1888, for each founder's share, a dividend of $10.50, for 
 a total pay.nsj l. of S7.20. 
 
 It was n'.i/cessary to dwell at some length on these several combinations ; to 
 show the advantages and utility of some, and the dangers of the others. The work- 
 ing classes, who are not very familiar with financial questions, are easily dazzled 
 by promises based on theories the value of which they cannot very well appreciate, 
 more especially when those theories are backed by the capital of the promoters who 
 are in a positioa to profit by their own scheme. 
 
 Life and Accident Insurance. 
 
 Life. — Of all classes of society, workmen and minor employees, who should, 
 above all others, derive benefit from the advantages of life insurance, profit the least 
 from them. 
 
 Why? It is certainly not because they do not appreciate their usefulness; 
 for a long time past, the truth of the scientific principle on which life insurance is 
 based has been recognized and admitted, even by those who do not understand 
 it ; and it is not mistrust which keeps employees from insuring. 
 
 The employee seldom or nevei- insures, because he cannot pay the high pre- 
 miums demanded bj^ the companies, and besides, he cannot engage to pay them at 
 the dates rigourously fixed for their falling due. 
 
 Life insurance companies have established their tariffs to suit a rich class of 
 customers, or enjoying at least a certain competence. These tai-iffs allow an extra 
 premium, which is returned to the insurer in the shape of benefits; an extra charge 
 easily borne by the usual class of customers, but which, added to the general expenses) 
 bring up the price of premiums to a rate inaccessible to workmen. 
 
 The obligation to pay pi-emiums at fixed periods is again one of the reasons 
 which keep workmen from insuring ; the sums placed abide with difficulty to meet 
 the premiums, being often, between the maturity of each, absorbed by unforeseen 
 expenses, or employed in providing for the family during a stoppage of employment. 
 
 Life insurance also on the workman constitutes what is called a " bad risk," on 
 account of the hygienic conditions under which he lives, and the accidents to which 
 he is exposed at his work. 
 
 Life insurance on the workman can thus only be effected by a company specially 
 founded in view of it, having tariffs established according to the risks to be taken, and 
 collecting the premiums in weekly payments. 
 
 The Prudential, an English company, is, perhaps, the most perfect type of this 
 class of insurance. It insures workmen by premiums varying from 2 cents to 25 
 cents weekly, and counts to-day more than 5,000,000 persons insured, representing 
 risks amounting to $230,000, or an average of $46 per each policy, which is, it must 
 be admitted, iusufl8cient to place the family above want. The danger to these com- 
 panies of petty insurance is, that to attract customers and receive weekly- premiums, 
 they must undergo considerables expense, which must be provided for when estab- 
 lishing tariffs, and results in that, for a fixed premium, the employee receives a 
 policy which is of much less value than that granted, for the same premium, when 
 insuring in companies whose customers are recruited from other classes of society. 
 
Ivii 
 
 This question of petty insurance, as it is called, has received the attention of 
 more than one government ; and, as far as 186-1, Mr. Gladstone presented, and had 
 voted on by the British Parliament, a law creating a State life insurance, granting 
 policies the maximums of which was $500. 
 
 The operations of this State insurance have always been limited enough, but it 
 has fulfilled its intended r6ie, remedying the frauds ov im])vndenceB oS friendly societies 
 of the time, of which 269 out of 283, founded from 1850 to 1860, have failed. 
 
 The Government of New Zealand has exceeded the limits fixed by the English 
 <3-ovei'nment, and has established under the control, and with the guarantee of the 
 State, an actual Life Insurance Company, in good operation, accepting all risks with- 
 out a maximum, and granting profits, whilst charging a rate of premium much 
 lower than that demanded by ordinary companies (page 271;) 
 
 In France, the Government established, in 1868, an " Insurance in case of death " 
 (pages 265 to 268), the maximum of sums insured on one person being $600. This 
 law (Article 7) grants considerable advantages to approved mutual benevolent 
 societies ; it permits them to grant insurances called collective, contracted for one 
 year only by a special tariff. 
 
 The mutual benevolent society of the establishment of Eedouly & Co. has 
 operated since 1880, in the name and for the benefit of its members, a collective insur- 
 ance, with the State, which allows of the payment to the widow or children of a 
 deceased member of the sum of $200. (The results of this institution are indicated 
 on page 72). Upon paying an annual premium from each member varying from 
 $20.85, in 1880, to $22.00, in 1888, this mutual society has cashed 34 policies of $200 
 ■each, or a total amount of $6,800 for a total payment in premiums of $6,160, or a 
 loss to the State and a benefit to the society of $640. 
 
 This system of collective insurance, establisded by the French Government in 
 1868, is an actual encouragement, a prize in reality, granted to the mutual benevo- 
 lent societies. The following extract from the official report on the operations of 
 mutual benevolent societies furnishes sufficient proof of it : — 
 
 " The law of July 11, .1868, which permits, by Article 11, approved mutual bene- 
 volent societies to contract collective insurance in case of death, up to an amount of 
 4200 for each member, is not put in practice as it should and might be. Eighty only 
 of these societies have up to the present time made use of the powers granted them 
 by this law. There is occasion for surprise at this, for the insurance offers to societies 
 real advantages, and foi'ms one of the characteristics of provident societies. 
 
 " The societies insured have as a rule taken a policy of $20 on each one of their 
 members. It is calculated that the average of premiums for insurances of $20 is 
 53 cents for each member. Let us take for example the Paris Typographical Society, 
 which stopped paying its premium in 1887, and which was composed of 1,400 mem- 
 bers. Its collective insurance was $26.00, for which it paid on an average 37 cents 
 yearly for each membei-. 
 
 1,400X0.37 = $518.00. 
 The society paid in all $518.00. It showed an average of 60 deaths yearly. 
 
 60X26=$1,560. 
 
Iviii 
 
 The difference between $518 and $1,560 is $1,042, the profit of which it deprives 
 itself. 
 
 However, the Typographical Society grants from its funds $16 on each death. 
 
 60X16=$960. 
 
 The surplus of $960 over $518 is $t42, which it can make available in paying 
 premiums of insurance. Thus, $1,042 of profits of which it is assured on the one 
 part, and $442 which it pays in addition to the premiums of insurance on the other, 
 constitute a loss of $l,042-(-442=$l,484 per annum.* 
 
 Accidents. — All comment is superfluous on the question of accidents during work: 
 after the report containing the remarkable communications which Messrs 'N. Droz, 
 O. Keller and E. Cheysson have presented to the Congress on accidents inherent to 
 labor. "We will content ourselves with remarking the considerable diminution in the 
 number of accidents in workshops forming part of the " Association for prevention of 
 Accidents," and which adopt the measures of precaution prescribed by the regulations 
 of these associations. The accidents are equally less numerous under employers 
 who form part of a syndicate, and have established foi' their workmen an 
 employers' insurance against accidents during work. Among the number of mea- 
 sures adopted in some factories for the diminution of accidents, we may specially 
 notice as very original and productive of good results the two following -regulations: 
 
 1st The coal-mining company of Bess^ges pay a thirteenth month's salary to all_ 
 superintendent minei-s in their employment, if a fatal accident has not occurred 
 during the space of one year — -that is, during twelve consecutive months. This pre- 
 mium has been paid four times in fifteen years. 
 
 2nd. At the workshop of Messrs Piquet & Co., mechanical constructors at Lyon,, 
 accidents are ve.-y rare, and this comes from the employment of a method which 
 cannot be sufaciently commended. The premium of insurance paid to the company 
 comprises two elements : one which is definitely its own, and another to which is 
 credited the sums paid to workmen as a provision for suspension of work caused 
 by accidents. By the terms of this contract, the surplus of the second division is 
 divided among the contracting parties. Instead of retaining these profits, Messrs 
 Piquet present them to their foremen. As the quota increases in proportion as acci- 
 dents are rare, these are interested in employing all their vigilance to prevent every 
 danger. The foremen personally take every precaution to protect the lite of the- 
 workmen. 
 
 Savings. 
 
 The most interesting portion of the exhibition in Section VIII was that of the 
 Schools Savings' banks, of which the School Savings' Bank of Le Mans might justly 
 be considered the most perfect type. 
 
 In the report published by this bank (pages 278 to 284) the managers have 
 described in the most lucid manner all the operatioiis of this institution, and the 
 methods employed to stimulate habits of economy among children and to assist the- 
 managers in developing the practice of it among their pupils. 
 
 To be regular, and attain its best proportions, economy should be rendered easy 
 to the depositor ; the bank should be a convenience at the time that saving is easy 
 
 *The Parisian Typographical Society has coptracted a new insurance in 1888. 
 
lix 
 
 for him — that is, when he finds himself in the possession of money. This is the eeci-et 
 of the development of employers' savings banks: the workman finds the bank in his 
 workshop, and deposits, without effort, without displacing, the portion of his pay he 
 wishes to economize. If he has a long d'stance to go in order to deposit his money, 
 he nearly always neglects doing so, and this is so much lost to him. Without the 
 tenacity and self-sacrifice of laborers' wives, the deposits in savings banks would be 
 considerably lessened. 
 
 It is not always prudent for the workman to place his money in the bank of his 
 employer; and so, in view of encouraging economy among workmen and minors, 
 savings cards have been issued, to which are afiixed either ordinary postage stamps 
 or stamps ad hoc which can afterwards be deposited in the savings bank to which 
 they belong, in the same way as when cash is deposited. (Page 281.) 
 
 The operations of European savings banks offer nothing particularly-worthy of 
 special remark, except the tendency which they exhibit to employ the savings of 
 workmen for the profit of the workmen. The Italian savings banks are also 
 remarkable from this point of view. In France, some savings banks employ with 
 success a portion of their reserve fund in the construction of workmen's dwellings. 
 (Page 276.) 
 
 The savings banks, whether independent or under State control, are content 
 with receiving deposits, and make no effort to encourage in the laborer, by any 
 inducement, a taste for economy. 
 
 It is in Section XIY, of the. employers' institutions, that search should be made 
 for combinations used for initiating and encouraging habits of economy ; liberal com- 
 binations, expensive to the employer, not requiring any sacrifice of self-respect or 
 liberty on the part of the workman, and notwithstanding this, often repulsed or des- 
 pised by the latter. 
 
 Cooperation. 
 Section II. — Cooperative productive societies. 
 Section IX. — Cooperative consumers' associations. 
 Section X. — Cooperative credit associations. 
 
 An economist* has defined cooperation as : — " An association of persons with a 
 view of evading the deductions caused by intermediaries." 
 
 " The aim of cooperation, adds the author, is to reduce the number of middlemen 
 to the minimum ; to make the workers their own purveyors, and thus retain the 
 major part of the product of their labor. To this end it says of them : " Asso- 
 ciate yourselves, produce, buy, borrow conjointly, and divide among yourselves these 
 purchases and loans. You will no longer have to pay for the services of the con- 
 tractor, the merchant and the banker. Hence arise the three great divisions of co- 
 operation — the cooperation of production, the cooperation of consumption, and the 
 cooperation of credit." 
 
 What is remarkable in putting this theory in practice is, that the first three 
 countries doing so have chosen one of three kinds, developing it almost to the detri- 
 ment of the other two. 
 
 * Workmen's credit organization, by M. L. Hiernaux. 
 
Ix 
 
 England has established consumers' cooperative societies ; Germany societies 
 of mutual credit, and France cooperative productive societies. This division of the 
 ■different branches of cooperation is not due to chance, or to the preference which 
 one or the other country gives to one of these systems, but to industrial condition 
 of the counti-y. In England, the impetus given to industiy, the creation of large 
 companies, the abundance of money, render useless all contention with capital, and 
 the laboring classes, renouncing the idea of bettering their condition by participat- 
 ing in the profits of production, leagued themselves together to suppress the profits 
 which the middlemen collected from consumers, by abolishing the middlemen them- 
 selves. They established the consumers' cooperative societies. 
 
 In Germany, money being less plentiful, and consequently less powerful than in 
 England, the large manufactories were less developed, the workmen were independ- 
 ent — working for the most part at home with their families — and there were more 
 petty employers and contractors than salaried employees. That which was lacking 
 was not the capital, but the credit permitting them to buy material at favorable rates 
 to finish their work, and wait ior the pi'oceeds, without having recourse to the usurer. 
 From these requirements there arose the establishment of mutual credit associations 
 and people's banks. 
 
 In Prance the working classes tried to establish cooperative productive societies, 
 with a view of thus finding a means to free the workman from the master and sup- 
 press the wages' system. 
 
 Consumers' Cooperative Societies. 
 
 The history of these associations, their success in England, the facility with 
 which they can be established, developed and maintained in operation, are facts too 
 well known to require description. 
 
 With the example of these flourishing societies existing in Europe, in all the 
 great centres, we may well be surprised at the want of success of the majoritj^ of 
 ■consumers' societies founded in Canada, and their almost entire disappearance. 
 
 Coopei-ative consumers' societies are as flourishing in France, in Italy, in Ger- 
 many as in England, although less numerous, less rich and less powerful. They are 
 just beginning Two points are necessary to their success: a fair working capital, 
 easily formed, and a good administration, confided to a manager experienced and 
 honest. With these two elements of success, Canadian workmen would succeed like 
 their European comrades in reducing their exnenses, this reduction being equivalent 
 to an increase of salary. 
 
 Cooperative Credit Associations. 
 
 Germany is the cradle of mutual credit societies. The first of these was estab- 
 lished at Delitsh in 1850, by Mr. Schulze, whom his fellow-countrymen justly esteem 
 as one of their greatest men. 
 
 The popular banks of Germany only make advances to their shareholders, and 
 owe their success to the adoption of the principle of the absolute responsibility of 
 shareholders, a principle borrowed from the banks of Scotland, and the facilities 
 granted to all respectable people to become shareholders. 
 
Ixi 
 
 To become a Bhareholder it is only necessary to sign the statutes, and be accepted 
 by a committee of admission. Once admitted, the new member becomes entitled to 
 all the rights, on paying an entrance fee of 1 thaler (74 cents) in one or several 
 terms, and a subscription of 40 thalers, which may be made in monthly payments of 
 5 silbergros (12 cents). * 
 
 This is an accession not only to the capital, but to all the advantages which can 
 be obtained from it, placed in the possession of those with the most limited means. 
 
 The capital of these popular banks is formed by the accumulation of assets 
 gradually collected by the members themselves, and by borrowed capital assumed 
 on common credit and common guarantee. 
 
 It is the capital thus formed, partly by the savings of the shareholders, and 
 partly by the guarantees offered to the collective responsibility, which permits 
 workmen and small producers to obtain the credit which they need without having 
 to pay too high a rate for it. 
 
 The advantages of such a system are easily recognized. 
 
 To complete it, Mr. Schulze established at Weimar a Central Agency charged withi 
 the grouping of information, the assistance of new societies, and of creating a nucleus 
 of establishment. 
 
 In 1861 he founded 14 Provincial Unions, to serve as intermediaries between 
 the central agency and the banks, and transformed, in 1864, the agency into the 
 Federation of German Cooperatives. Finally he founded, in 1864, a Central Bank. 
 
 Substantially assisted by the German Government, which passed a law, in 1867, 
 regulating the indefinite variation of capital, the number of members, the responsi- 
 bility for the contraction of debts (but with calls proportionate to the bonuses of 
 members), and the diminution of fiscal charges, these banks multiplied rapidly. 
 
 On Januaiy 1, 1888, there were in Germany 2,200 popular banks, numbering 
 more than a million of shareholders ; 886 of these banks furnished a report of their 
 condition to the Erfurt Congress (1888), and one can form an idea of the importance, 
 the extent of these combinations of petty savings, by the figures given by these 886. 
 banks : 
 
 Statement of Position of 886 German Popular Banks in 
 
 1859. 1887. 
 
 Number of shareholders 18,676 456,276 
 
 Advances to shareholders $3,061,491 $395,658,727 
 
 Eeserves 22,856 5,988,523 
 
 Deposits 751,479 105,499,940 
 
 And this refers to only 886 banks among 2,200. Schulze-Delitsch's work had 
 been imitated in Italy* and in Belgium with these modifications : that the unlimited 
 liability had been replaced by a more or less limited liability, and that the share- 
 holders could subscribe for more than one share. 
 
 * Statutes of the Credit Society of Delitsh. ,. . , ,. . 
 
 * The promoters of Italian popular banks always professed themselves to be disciples and imitators of 
 Schulze ; the by-laws of the popular bank of Milan, page 313, are the same as those of the German banks, 
 with this important difference, that the liability of the shareholder is limited to the amount of his shares, 
 
Ixii 
 
 These modifications did not interfere with the development of the German or 
 Italian popular banks — quite the I'everse; but they will, sooner or later, deprive 
 them of their popular character, and will injure their credit, if in the event of any 
 crisis the limited liability prove insufficient to secure from loss the creditors of the 
 first bank that may suspend payment. 
 
 In a remarkable report, made at a congress of French po^iular banks, held at 
 Marseilles in 1889, M. H. G. Eostrand described, as follows, the principles on which 
 are based the organization of banks of the Schulze type, and the results produced by 
 such institutions. 
 
 Fundamental principles. 
 
 I 
 
 " 1. The wages of the manual laborer furnishes, whatever may be said to the con- 
 trary, and if he courageously wills it, once that his legitimate expenses are satisfied, 
 a surplus, which, by savings and fructificalion of savings, enables him to accumulate 
 a capital, resulting in the improvement of his material condition by better living, 
 and his moral condition by greater dignity, independence and mental culture. 
 
 " 2. Morality, labor, skill, form a spiritual capital, but a sure and safe one — the 
 aim is to bring it out : 
 
 " 3. The tool required is association, mutual help, cooperation, borrowing, the 
 security for which is the wage, the partners retaining for themselves the profits 
 arising from the transactions they engage in. 
 
 " 4. To raise themselves in this manner, the manual laborers should rely upon 
 themselves alone, and bind together equal associations that the cooperation may 
 recruit. 
 
 " Economic Mesults — In 1887, I find in 886 Schulze banks (and there are many 
 more, as we shall see) $120,000,000 of current accounts — more than is shown by the 
 balance sheet of the Bank of Prance on 25th April last. It is therefore an immense 
 extension of credit placed at the disposal of the humblest class, the economical edu- 
 cation of poor people by personal experience, that nothing can replace — a fecundation 
 by a thousand rivulets of productive forces. 
 
 " Moral Jtesults — In the Schulze banks, the noble acceptance of union has raised 
 the average morality of artisans, of cultivators, of small employers, has rendered 
 them prompt in the fulfilment of their engagements. A constant appeal has multi- 
 plied savings ; the demand on individual energy has accustomed each one to rely 
 upon himself alone, to act, not to wait on State providence, or to indulge in idle 
 dreams. By the EaiflFeisen Banks, ties of attachment and esteem have brought 
 together the rich agriculturists and the paysans in the commune. A Hungarian 
 deputy in a trip through the valley of the Ehine, speaking of these institutions, has 
 declared that they had " revealed to him a new world of Chiistian fraternity and 
 peace." 
 
 " Social Results. — If I consult the most recent statistics of the Schulze banks I 
 discover the following classification of members : — 26 per cent, of cultivators, for- 
 estei-s, fishermen, gardeners, 3 per cent, of their workmen : 29 per cent, of small 
 employers, 4'8 per cent, laborers of small industries, 9-5 per cent, merchants, 5 per 
 cent, carriagemakers, sailors, hotel-keepers, coffee-house keepers, 2 per cent, employees 
 in post-offices, telegraphs and railroads. The shareholders consist, therefore, nearly 
 all of the lowest class of wage-earners, to whom is afforded a constant opportunity 
 of becoming employers. It is not a question of transforming the social organization, 
 but of reducing its inequalities. Besides, it is quite evident the union, bred of these 
 associations, is an active agent in consolidating the union of classes. Finally, and 
 above all, they are opposed to " coUectiviste " tendencies, which would cause the 
 world to return to its primary condition — a very active element in individual 
 development." 
 
Ixiii 
 
 As regards the Raiffeisen banks, they are philanthropic institutions, rather 
 than financial societies, to which the "Credit mutuel et populaire" of Paris (page 
 (305) very nearly approaches. These banlfs are also established in Italy. 
 
 There is a type of mutual assistance, of aid afforded bj' those possessing an over- 
 abundance to those who lack means, which is most remarkable, and that the author 
 that we have just quoted describes as follows in his report : — 
 
 " Schulze did not wish to depend on any other than the personal energy of the 
 Avorkmen and on the mutual love of laborers among themselves. Eaiffeisen was 
 possessed of another idea — mutual assistance, the love described by the evangelist, 
 patronage. In his view the popular banks are not ordinary associations: they are 
 social works. The dividend, the profit, is eliminated. The difference is profound. 
 "There is something which, in certain aspects, recalls the enterprise in France of the 
 noble P. Ludovic de Bresse. 
 
 " Patronage in rural life is its origin. The Eaiffeisen banks lend to cultivators to 
 ■enable them to purchase their seed grain at wholesale, cattle, agricultural instru- 
 ments, the construction of buildings. It is understood that in country life such 
 institutions are more easily developed. They are, above all, agricultural banks of 
 mutual credit, and they were established in the valley of the Rhine. This is why 
 they are sometimes styled the Schulze country banks. 
 
 •'As regards Darlehnkassen-Raiffeisen, the object is not legitimate gain; it is 
 social duty, patronage. They consist of groups of persons, some of them rich or in 
 •easy circumstances, others possessing little or nothing, within the bounds of the 
 <;ommune. The first of these help the second, assuming the risk, of which they limit 
 the importance. There is no actual capital. The subscriber has only a claim for 
 his investment and interest, limited, by philanthropy, to 4 per cent. The profits 
 Kjonstitute an alienable reserve, that is never divided ; in case of liquidation the sub- 
 scriptions are returned, and the surplus goes to the State, to serve as foundation of 
 another similar bank. They receive savings deposits. The loans, being principally 
 agricultural, are at long dates, as long as five years and more ; whence a danger, 
 which they seek to avoid by stipulating that the reimbursement be made at some 
 weeks after previous notice. The new subscribers are elected, and there are no assess- 
 ments. The treasurer alone is remunerated." 
 
 In 1888 there were 310 Raiffeisen banks in Germany, of which 245 having 
 reported, declared that there were 24,466 subscribers, and that they did a business of 
 $4,446,000 ; in 1889 it was estimated that there were 500 to 600 of such banks. 
 They are encouraged by a slight Grovernment subvention. 
 
 In Italy, where the paysan and the small proprietor pay as high as 100 per cent, 
 interest to usurers, who grant them loans, there already exist 40 rural banks, and 
 where tJjey exist the usurer is rapidly disappearing.* 
 
 Of the number of institutions permitting salaried persons, employes and work- 
 men to quickly arrive at independence, to the position of employer, by the creation 
 of a social capital, we know of none that has attained a more practical realisation 
 than the " credit mutuel," such as is described in the report of Mr. Luneau to the 
 i-enth section " d'Bconomie Sociale " page 309, which stf.tes and solves this problem 
 that presents itself to every workman who wishes to escape from the salaried condition: 
 Form yourself your initial capital, and when that is established credit will come to you. 
 
 * Report of Mr. Leone WoUemborg, at the Exhibition of Social Economy. 
 
Ixiv 
 
 Cooperative Associations op Pboduction. 
 
 After having proved the absolute and complete success of cooperative associations 
 of credit and consumption, it is sad to state the almost total check that cooperative 
 associations of production have received. 
 
 The reason is that the problem to solve, concerning these, is more difficult, more 
 complicated, than for the first, and those who have undertaken the solution have too- 
 often gone astray in pursuing the object they wish to attain. 
 
 The first aspirations of workmen as to cooperation in production manifested 
 themselves in France on the day after the Eevolution of 1848; they were encouraged 
 by the Government, who granted them, under the'name of a loan, $600,000, to be 
 divided among the cooperative associations, created by workmen or by workmen 
 and employers jointly.* What was the result of the governmental assistance ? It 
 is not very easy to define, for the Imperial Grovernment suppressed the workmen's 
 associatious ever since 1852, leaving only about twenty subsisting. In 1851 there 
 existed in Paris only 250 cooperative associations of production working under excel- 
 lent conditions. 
 
 It was not until 1857, and particularly in 1864, that the cooperative movement 
 was taken up again by the workmen. In the meantime the great industry had made 
 its appearance in Prance ; the relations between workmen and employers was embit- 
 tered, and the new movement resembled rather a declaration of war against capital 
 and employers than an attempt at economic reform. 
 
 This tendency has become still more accentuated since that epoch, and in 
 France, as in America, the word cooperation signifies abolition of wages.f 
 
 In principle this is true, but in practice it is not applicable. In principle the 
 true cooperator should furnish his share of cooperation without remuneration up 
 to the division of profits ; this is what occurs in cooperations of credit and con- 
 sumption. In practice, the workman, whose share iu the cooperation consists of 
 labor — capital being a tool — cannot wait without a withdrawal for the day of the 
 partition of profits, and should receive a portion — the portion often being greater 
 than the whole — in the form of wages. 
 
 It matters little, it may be said, that the workman receives his share in profit 
 under the form of wages. It matters a great deal, for'this payment, this advance, is 
 the actual negation of the cooperative principle. The workman adds no more to 
 the mass by his labor, since he receives payment in proportion as he furnishes it, 
 and when such payment necessitates 'an advance of capital greater than the por- 
 tion he has contributed, he ought, to procure that wage, to have recourse to a capi- 
 talist to advance it to him, and who, to guarantee himself against any loss, directs the 
 company, procures the labor and sells with profit the products of the manufacture — 
 that is, the employer. It is only when the capital paid by the associated workmen 
 
 *Proposition of M. Michel Aloan, deputy, 30th May, 1848. 
 
 Decree of the National Assembly of 5th July, 1848, in favor of associations between workmen or 
 between employers and workmen. Instructions concerning this decree. 
 Documents exhibited by the French Government. 
 tBy-laws of General Association of Cabinetware of Paris, page 109. 
 
Ixv 
 
 is sufficient to cover the cost of the materials used, and the amount of wages that' 
 they will receive, before realizing in cash the product of their labor, that the associa^ 
 tion is really cooperative. 
 
 Capital and labor being found, it remains to make them available, and to givtf 
 the manager, who profitably developes them, the remuneration to which he is entitled 
 aad the authority necessary for conducting the business. 
 
 These are the two rocks on which most cooperative associations of production 
 have stranded, which would not recognise either the claims of the manager to 
 superior wages, nor accord him an authority that the cooperators claim for them- 
 
 It is only in resigning themselves to a very severe discipline, all the details of 
 which are minutely defined in the by-laws, in appointing managers invested with 
 real and serious authority, and remunerated in proportion to the responsibility laid 
 upon them, that some of the cooperative societies of production have succeeded. 
 Workmen are w^ll acquainted with these elements of success, and this is how one of 
 the administrators of the " Cooperative Association of Working Carpenters of La 
 Yillette," one of the most prosperous Parisian societies, expi'esses himself on the 
 subject, before the Commission of Enquiry of associated workmen : — 
 
 "The manager is named by the General Assembly. We have inserted in our 
 by-laws a clause that makes a change of manager very difficult ; for the change of 
 management is the danger in all societies. The manager can be displaced only by a 
 meeting composed of at least two-thirds of the members of the society, by a majority 
 of two-thirds of the vote. We were subjected also to some rough handling, but this 
 soon calmed down, thanks to the above clause and the council of administration; ten 
 persons agree better than three hundred who commence shouting and end by 
 making fools of themselves. 
 
 " The council of administration is elected for three years. It is renewable by 
 thirds ; there remains, accordingly, always some of the old stock. The manager is 
 elected for life, so to speak, considering the conditions required to displace him. 
 
 " The President : — Therefore the manager reigns and governs ? — Yes, it is simply 
 an autocratic Eepublic. 
 
 " The President : — Do you find it satisfactory ? — Yes, since, in short, it is the only 
 possible course. This is why we exist. People who have money to spend are not 
 anxious to seek for anarchists." 
 
 This was to abandon the principles adopted by certain schools, and consequently, 
 to raise the animosity of their adepts. 
 
 The cooperative societies of production, in adopting different modes of assess- 
 ment, different systems of cooperation, and often rules for their workshop of a 
 severity exceeding that of other workshops rendered themselves obnoxious to 
 criticism and very oftenjustiiied the attacks to which they exposed themselves. 
 
 The cooperative societies of production lack that unity of principle, of plan and 
 idea, which presided at the foundation of cooperative societies of credit and con- 
 sumption. In_^tudying the by-laws of these societies, we search in vain for the 
 parent idea whence they issued. Some, forgetting that they are cooperations of 
 workmen, divide their profits on a purely financial basis; others overlook, with the 
 20— E 
 
Ixvi 
 
 "object of protfction, the freedom of labor :;nd. forbid during a certain number of 
 _years, under severe penalties, to their resigned or excluded members, to work at 
 
 their trade as employer or partner. Some, scorning capital, accord uniform divi- 
 'dends to shareholders who work, as well as to those who do not, and that without 
 jfegard to the capital paid up. Others, on the other hand, accord to capital a 
 
 greater share than to labor, or suppressing the dividends pay to the partners only 
 
 their simple wages, and apply their profits to the increase of the collective property. 
 
 Finally, we find among them those who, scorning the principles they profess, refuse 
 
 to admit their auxiliary workmen to a share of their profits. 
 
 Some of these societies have raised, by their workshop rules, more animosity 
 than the hardest employers. We can easily understand this hostility on reading some 
 of the rules published in this report rules, the application of which will cause daily 
 strikes in Canada. 
 
 The few cooperative societies, established in the United States, those of 
 Massachusetts, for example, have nothing cooperative but the name. They are stock 
 companies, of which the shares are partly or wholly held by the workmen, but divide 
 their profits, in the shape of a dividend on the capital, excluding the labor from 
 such repartition, exactly the same as done by societies of capitalists. \ 
 
 This tendency of cooperators not to treat auxiliaries according to the principles 
 they profess, seems to be general. 
 
 Thus, when, in England, the workmen in the cooperative manufactories of 
 " Wholesale Stores," of the cooperative societies of consumption demanded, in virtue 
 of the fundamental principles of these societies, that they divide the ordinary profits, 
 realised on the manufacture, the " Wholesale Stores " opposed it, alleging that the 
 manufactories worked on the common capital, and that, besides, the workmen had no 
 right to the profits, these profits being made, not by workmen, but by the consumers. 
 It is the old theory of the middlemen, adopted by the very men who declared them- 
 selves their adversaries. 
 
 Notwithstanding their economical errors, we must not condemn the cooperative 
 societies of pioduction, especially those who treat their auxiliary workmen as they 
 treat their own members. Some of them have succeeded in improving the condition of 
 their membei-s, and in giving the workmen examples of independence, of courage 
 and perseverance, while teaching them how they can create a capital without other 
 resources than their wages. 
 
 Cooperation in production is the question of the future; it alone maj' bring com- 
 plete social peace. For this reason it must not be compromised. Every unsuccessful 
 effort diverts the workman from the object he seeks to obtain; they must not there- 
 fore be incited or urged to try their strength in this direction before they are ready 
 for the contest, and they will not be ready until the day when they have found the 
 fixed and stable basis for cooperation in production as they had been established for 
 cooperation in consumption and credit. Until then workmen will do better to direct 
 their efforts to arrive, when is possible, at the participation of profits, much broader 
 and much more equitable than most of the systems followed by cooperative societies. 
 
Ixvii 
 
 and which will lead them with more or less delay to the veritable cooperation of 
 workmen. 
 
 Here, nevertheless, is the opinion on the CLuestiori by the manager of one of 
 the most important cooperative societies, that of "The Spectacle Makers :" 
 
 "The moment you become of member of this association of Variable capital 
 and membership, you really are, by the interest derived from it, and the possible 
 access to its divers intricacies and hierarchies, somewhat of a patron, and in 
 that sense you become better. If the system of association permits of advan- 
 tages which unfortunately cannot be attained by all, the differences of natui-e, of 
 character, are so many obstacles that cannot be overcome, this cannot be said of the 
 profit-sharing system which does not impose the same obligations as associations and 
 which can more easily be applied. This remedy is the one that must be applied ; 
 it is a step necessary before entering into cooperations. Some large establishments 
 have put it in practice and are satisfied with the results. This expedient does not 
 require further proof. It remains with those withholders of well-being to learn, 
 by a generous relinquishment, that in interesting their individual members in their 
 prosperity they work at the same time towards social peace." 
 
 Workmen's Dwellings. 
 
 A French savant. Dr. DuMesnil, terminated a report on small lodgings thus : — 
 " It is not simply virtue ; it is absolute heroism that is required by all these people, 
 not to contract, in those hovels, a hatred of society." Lord Beaconsfield had, in 
 another form, expressed the same idea in stating that " The best guarantee of civili- 
 zation is the dwelling." 
 
 Not much attention was paid to small lodgings in the early part of this centuryi 
 until the time when it was perceived that they form dangerous agglomerations to 
 health, morality and public security. Then began, in nearly all the large cities and 
 in many industrial centres, a campaign, having in view an improvement in the 
 hygienic conditions of workmen's dwellings and to render it easy for workmen to 
 acquire property. The hygienic conditions of workmen's lodgings, in certain cities, 
 were such that the mortality reached disquieting figures. 
 
 Thus, in Paris, in -1883, it was stated that the mortality was but 14 in 1,000 
 inhabitants in a rich quarter, embracing but 9 per cent, of lodgings paying under $60 
 rental, and that it was 39 per 1,000 in a workmen's quarters, containing 54 per cent, 
 of lodgings under $60 rental. The tenants of small lodgings are no better lodged in 
 the large Canadian cities. At Montreal only 14-9'7 persons die per 1,000 in the 
 rich ward of St. Antoine, while in the workmen's quarters of Ste. Marie and St. 
 Gabriel the mortality is 36-38 and 40-66 per l,000**=i=. In England the average 
 length of life among the rich class is 53 years ; it is 41 years for the general popu- 
 lation and 29| years only for the laboring class.* 
 
 It is estimated in France and in England, the loss in wages, expenses in treat- 
 ment and funeral and maintenance of widows and orphans, that results from 
 premature deaths of workmen caused by unhealthy lodgings, amount to over 
 $100,000,000 annually in each of these countries.** 
 
 ♦■** Report of Dr. Laberge 1889. *The Metropolitan, No. 731. 
 ** Revue d'Hygiene, page 765. 
 20— eJ 
 
Jxvni 
 
 This figure is certainly not exaggerated, in viev\( of the facts established by recent 
 official enquiries. ' 
 
 At London, for example, the enquiry revealed that among the poor, the family, 
 in the majority of cases, live in one room. They found houses of six rooms occupied 
 by six families, and as many as eight persons lived in the same room. In Hambury 
 street, Spitalfields 63 persons lived in a house of nine rooms. 
 
 At Glasgow, 180,000 persons lived in 40,000 lodgings of one room. At Dundee, 
 22,877 persons in 8,221 rooms ; at Dublin, they found 1,074 families occupying 175 
 houses containing 1,483 rooms. 
 
 In France, in 1881, 219,270 houses occupied, according to deputy Martin 
 Nadaud, by 1,300,000 persons, had no windows. At Paris, 39,600 poor families, 
 forming a population of 100,000 souls, had but one room for each families. At 
 Brussels, one-third of workmen's households live in one room. At St. Petersburgh, 
 75,055 persons live in 16,505 rooms. They found as many as 50 tenants in the same 
 room. 
 
 In 1880, at Berlin, in 3,230 lodgings they could not have a fire ; they sheltered 
 10,000 persons ; in 127,509 lodgings of one room, harboring 478,000 persons, they could 
 not light a fire ; 67,000 lodgings, where 302,000 persons lived, containing each two 
 rooms capable of being heated and 100,000 persons lodged in 23,000 cellars.* 
 
 At New York, the crowding is still greater than in the old world. For example, 
 while in London theie are about 45 persons to the acre, in New York there are in 
 certain quarters 300 to 750. In 1885 there was, in the last named city, 26,859 tene- 
 ment houses, harboring 1,300,000 persons. 
 
 In one of these houses was found 32 rooms, having no communication with the 
 outer air. 
 
 How has it happened that cities have allowed such focuses of epidemics to become 
 established? How have they permitted generations of children to grow up, in such 
 a promiscuous manner that nothing can be looked for to issue from such centres but 
 corrupted souls and dangerous citizens. 
 
 Men of courage, philanthropists, patriots, have for long years denounced the 
 hygienic conditions and morals of lodgings in which the workman was too often, 
 alas, forced to live. 
 
 For a long time these protestations have been met by the argument of a free 
 contract, to live where one chooses. Nobody, it was said, compels the workman to 
 live in such lodgings ; if he does not like them, let him go elsewhere. 
 
 But when these unhealthy lodgings became dangerous to the healthy quarters, 
 and in the time of an epidemic death dealt with, the tenants of these as well as the 
 former, it was admitted that the protestators had good reasons to object, and that 
 something must be done to improve the workmen's lodgings. 
 
 Inspection laws were made. They serve more in admitting the extent and nature 
 of the evil than in suppressing it. They were even incapable of checking it ; the 
 crowding increased with the development of industry in the large cities. 
 
 * Le logement de I'ouvrier et du pauvre, par A. Raffalovieh. 
 
Ixix 
 
 It was then that the Government and municipalities created laws and regula- 
 tions permitting, to a certain degree, the sanitation of populous quarters. These 
 laws are all recent, the oldest dating less than twenty years back, and their applica- 
 tion has given satisfactory results. 
 
 But the evil has, during the last few years, taken such proportions that they can 
 succeed in making it only slowly disappear. 
 
 The real and serious improvements made in workmen's lodgings have been 
 realized by private initiative. 
 
 Generous benefactors, of whom Peabody is the best known, have constructed 
 healthy lodgings and leased them to workmen at very low lates. Others have 
 founded societies for the construction of buildings destined for workmen, contenting 
 themselves with receiving a ridiculous small interest on the capital employed, or 
 have, like Miss Octavia Hill, transformed hovels into habitable lodgings. 
 
 The workmen in large manufactories established outside of cities have been, in 
 regard to their habitation, more favored than their confr6i'es in large centres. The 
 employers, or the companies for whom they work, enable them either by loan^, or 
 by selling on long terms, to become proprietors without incurring heavier charges 
 than an ordinary lodging would impose upon them.* 
 
 But the greatest progress realized in the habitation of the workman ia the work 
 of " Building Societies." In England, in the United States, in Italy, in Belgium, and 
 in many other countries, they have obtained the greatest success, and give tine divi- 
 dends to their shareholders, while enabling the employees and workmen to easily 
 acquire, at a low price, the ownership of his house. 
 
 This transformation of the laborer, the prol^taire, into proprietor, of the crowded 
 tenant of an unhealthy lodging into a proprietor, living comfortably in a healthy 
 dwelling, is perhaps the most important fact that can be made to intervene in the 
 solution of the social problem. 
 
 In his opening address, the President. of the "Congress of Cheap Dwelling 
 HoQses," summarized the results of this transformation : — 
 
 " The proprietor workman* said M. Siegfried, is the laborer frugal, cautious, 
 cured of his Utopian ideas of revolution and socialism; it is the workman snatched 
 from the tavern. " 
 
 In the pamphlet " La SocUU de la Vieille Montague a I'Exposition de 1889," 
 this company, which embraces in its organization 1,000 workmen proprietors, being 
 20 per cent of its statf, gives the following description of the workman proprietor : — 
 
 "There is not in any State a more meritorious and more useful citizen, there is 
 not in an industrial society an element more efficacious and more reliable than the 
 workman arrived at the ownership of property by labor and by saving. It may be 
 said that the power and the progress of a people or of a company may be measured, 
 not by the importance of its territory or its capital, but the proportion of the labor- 
 ing proprietors that constitute their numbers. 
 
 isTothing is more favorable than the possession of the domestic hearth, to the 
 growth of morality and the dignity of the workman, and at the same time of his 
 
 * See Section XIV, Institutions Patronales, page 383. 
 
l/CH 
 
 independence. This transformation of the pi'oldtaire into the proprietor, constantly 
 introduces into society elements of order and of peace.'' 
 
 To this influence of proprietorship on the citizen must be added that of the 
 lodging on the father of the family. This influence is very considerable in counter- 
 balancing that of the tavern. The city of Mulhouse furnishes a convincing proof of 
 it. Since the magnificent creation of M. Jean DoUfus, " La SocUU Mulhousienne 
 des Citis Ouvrieres,'' in which the shareholders deny themselves any profit what- 
 ever, this city has always been cited as one of the manufacturing cities exempt 
 from troubles of every nature, and its working population give good reason for the 
 following words that one of the promoters of that woi'k pronounced before an assem- 
 bly of citizens whose concurrence he was seeking: — 
 
 " The convenience, the neatness of a lodging has a greater influence than might 
 perhaps be at first supposed, on the morality and well-being of a family. The man 
 who, on entering his home, finds but a miserable hovel, dirty, in disorder, where he 
 respires nauseous and unhealthy air, cannot content himself in it, and flies to the 
 tavern to pass a great portion of the time he has at his disposal. Thus he becomes 
 a stranger to his home, and soon contracts there disastrous habits of expenditure, 
 which his family feel too soon, and that almost always ends in poverty. If, on the 
 contrary, we could offer these same men clean and bright homes; if a small garden 
 is given each, where he would find an agreeable and useful occupation, where, in his 
 modest attempt at culture, he would learn to appreciate at its just value that instinct 
 of cleanliness which Providence has given ns, would we not have solved in a satis- 
 factory manner one of the most important problems of social economy ? Would wo 
 not have contributed to strengthening the sacred ties of the familj'', and to render a 
 Veritable service to the class so intei'esting as our workmen, and of society itself." 
 (LesCitis Ouvrieres de Mulhouse). 
 
 In presence of the considerable advantages that building societies afford to 
 the working classes, we have reason for surprise at the small number of associations 
 of this character existing in Canada. 
 
 This almost total absence of an institution prosperous in every country is due 
 to a well-known cause. 
 
 Some building societies established in Canada nearly all failed ; some hon- 
 estly, because they had been liianaged by incapables ; others, because they had been 
 administered by people that were more capable than honest. 
 
 The first building societies inserted in their by-laws the principle of cancellationfor 
 non-payment. This principle drives away and will always drive away a large num- 
 ber of workmen, who will not run the risk. It is true that a society cannot exist 
 without funds, and that it contracts engagements which it must fulfil, but it is 
 equally true that the workman being able to place his capital in a way so as not to 
 lose any portion of it, pi-efers to renounce the advantages offered, by no matter what 
 financial combination, rather than see himself deprived of his savings, just at the time 
 when he may most need of them; at a time of lock-out, of sickness, or to remedy the 
 consequences of any other unforeseen event. 
 
 ]Sro confiscations, then ; they are neither just nor necessary. " La Solidarity," 
 (page 328) for example, is a building society that does not admit them ; this does not 
 prevent its working. It is erased from the by-laws of the majority of joint stock 
 companies, founded for the construction of workmen's dwellings; and the regula- 
 
IXXl 
 
 tions of employers' building societies, as well as the documents of Section XI (page 
 323) indicate the measures taken by the founders of European building societies for 
 assuring to workmen the re-imbursement of sums paid in, in case that death or sick-- 
 ness, or lock-out, should prevent the laboi-ing shareholder from falfilling his engage- 
 ments.* 
 
 Every one cannot become proprietor, and tenants form not the least interesting 
 portion of the working population. For them, societies of a character essentially 
 philanthi'opic have been created ; they build tenement ho uses, or cottages, under 
 the most hygienic conditions, and which they lease at a figure giving a very 
 small interest for the capital engaged. 
 
 The. rents of the small lodgings are relatively very high ; they bear, unfor- 
 tunately, an additional charge put by the proprietor to cover risks of losses. To 
 lower the rent of small lodgings, while guaranteeing their payment by the aid of any 
 combination whatever, is a problem that merited the attention of economists, and 
 that M. Coste solved by his remarkable conception, the " Epargne Locative" that 
 he explains as follows, in his book, " Les Questions Sociales Gontemporaines " : — 
 
 " JL'Epargne Locative " is the progressive acquisition of shares conferring the 
 right of lease and promise of sale of the immoveable occupied by the tenant with 
 progressive reduction of the rent. 
 
 Let us suppose twenty small workmen's dwellings of Sl,200, or ten clerks' 
 houses of $2,400, or one single large dwelling of $24,000, containing from 80 to 100 
 rooms, leased at attics as simple rooms, in the higher stories as lodgings of three 
 or four rooms, in the lower stories as apartments of six or seven rooms ; and 
 let us take as the average unity the family house or the lodgings of four 
 or five rooms, representing a capital invested of $1,200.00. Lodgings of this char- 
 acter, rented to unknown persons, more often to workmen or to employees without 
 resources, will yield a gross rental of $96.00 to $120.00, say at a rate of 8 or 10 per 
 cent, necessary to cover the expense of maintaining the immovable, as well as the 
 risks of deficiency, of non-payment, of expulsion of tenants, and repairs, which 
 are considerable for the kind of tenant we are considering. But the proprietor 
 would be well contented with a revenue of 5 to 6 per cent, if he were sure of being 
 regularly paid. 
 
 The whole problem consists in constituting a guarantee for the rent, by deter- 
 mining the tenant to devote his savings to it. 
 
 Let us consider with this view the value of the house or block as repre- 
 sented for one half, by 600 hypothecary obligations of $20 each, and for the othei 
 half by 600 ordinary shares also of $20 ; each household or each lodging of 4 or 5 
 rooms would have a value of 30 obligations and of 30 shares, in acquiring 
 successively at first the 30 obligations, then the 30 shares, he would become succes- 
 sively owner of a corresponding value of the capital invested in the house or lodging 
 
 *We shall find in the documents of Section XI numerous combinations against the delays resulting 
 from sickness or lock-out. Against death we find only the resiliation of contract with complete or partial 
 re-imbursement to the widow. To assure the transmission of the property, free from all charges, 
 to the widow and children of the workman, dying before the complete execution of his contract, in assuring 
 his life, is an idea that commences to press itself on the attention of economists. The note sent on this 
 subject to the " Conffris des Habitations Ouvriires " by M. Cheyson (460) contained a project in every 
 point identical to that proposed by the " Royal Labor Commission." (Report, page 30.) 
 
Ixxii 
 
 that he occupies. Once in the possession of the 60 certificates, he would have, to 
 become proprietor of the house or lodging, but to remit the certificates into the hands 
 'of the vendor society to be annulled at its pleasare. Up to this, the obligations 
 purchased by the tenant could be deposited in a public bank, to be held subject to 
 payment and guaranteed by his rent. And thus, the savings of the tenant would be 
 found to be doubly secui'ed : On one side, the interests due on his obligations would 
 be compensated by one portion of his rent; on the other the rate of his rent would 
 progressively decrease, because the proprietor would find himself more and more 
 guai-anteed by an increasing security. 
 
 Wow, in this double reduction of rent we see developed a sufficient advantage 
 for inciting the tenant to the acquisition of hyj)othecary obligations on the immov- 
 able, even if he has no intention of acquiring it ; and this renders thg combination 
 applicable to tenants of all categories, even to those who occupy but a very small 
 fraction of a considerable immovable, of which he could never dream of becoming 
 the proprietor. 
 
 Such is the principle of " L'Upargne Locative " in all its simplicity ; this, then, 
 is how we are able to calculate the results. 
 
 
 Giving right 
 
 to a 
 
 lease of 
 
 Kent. 
 
 Interest 4 > 
 
 on Obligations 
 
 going in 
 
 reduction of 
 
 rent. 
 
 Balance 
 
 to pay. 
 
 
 
 Security 
 
 of 
 
 Obligations. 
 
 f 
 
 Rate > 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Progressive 
 reduction. 
 
 $ ots. 
 
 
 
 8 cts. 
 
 S ots. 
 
 S ots. 
 
 S cts. T 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 8.00 
 7.66 
 
 96 00 
 92 00 
 
 
 96 00 
 88 00 
 
 
 = .^ 
 
 100 00 
 
 1 years 
 
 4 00 
 
 8 00 
 
 ° 3 
 
 3^ % 
 
 200 00 
 
 2 " 
 
 7.33 
 
 88 00 
 
 8 00 
 
 80 00 
 
 16 00 
 
 
 300 00 
 
 3 " 
 
 7.00 
 
 84 00 
 
 12 00 
 
 72 00 
 
 24 00 
 
 
 400 00 
 
 4 " 
 
 6.66 
 
 80 00 
 
 16 00 
 
 64 00 
 
 32 00 
 
 
 500 00 
 
 5 " 
 
 / 6.33 
 
 76 00 
 
 20 00 
 
 56 00 
 
 40 00 
 
 600 00 
 
 6 " 
 
 6.00 
 
 72 00 
 
 ■ 24 00 
 
 48 00 
 
 48 00 
 
 ^."S 
 
 n 
 
 " Thus in this system, which in all its lines, is modifiable, the mass of tenants, 
 that is to say everybody, will find in their savings a well determined and 
 vejy concrete object — stability of lodging, guarantee against the caprices of the 
 proprietor, long lease and the right of purchase. The investment will be more 
 remunerative than in no matter what eventual entei'prise; the security will 
 be complete since the irivestmeut will be hypothecary ; finally, the immobility 
 of the savings will never be final, the permanent tenant 'always having the 
 right to withdraw his certificates from the bank of guarantee, to treat with third 
 parties, thus involving for them the application of the common right, that is to say, 
 the raising of the rent, the cancellation of the lease and forfeiture of the right of 
 purchase. 
 
 " This combination of " tenant savings " would have all the advantages of the 
 ordinary savings banks, with many others besides, and would constitute a very effi- 
 
Ixxiii 
 
 cacious stimulant to the accumulation of savings. If it became universal it would 
 render certain the payment of rents of small houses, and would lower the rent of 
 modest tenements. Finally, real-estate societies would find, in the application of 
 the foregoing, new facilities for the sale of their property or at least the stability of 
 their invested capital." 
 
 What is the best system to adopt in the construction of workmen's dwellings ? 
 The solution of this question varies with the climatic condition of each country, and 
 the habits of the working population. In Canadian cities, tenements, constructed 
 under hygienic conditions, heated by steam, lighted by gas, would offer great econ- 
 omic advantages, but these advantages would be far from compensating those which 
 the family draws, in a moral point of view, from the isolation that can alone be pro- 
 cured by the separated house or the cottage. The tenement is almost unknown in 
 Canada; one meets with but few specimens of them in some of the large cities, and 
 the development of this system of construction is not desirable. 
 
 The collective house, which is called "tenement," "barrack," " phalanst^re," 
 is a hindrance to the transformation of the tenant into a proprietor. 
 
 Scotland offers the spectacle, almost unique, of houses sold in detail and occupied 
 by several tenant co-proprietors whose rights and duties are perfectly limited by 
 the law. It was tried to import the system into England ; Parliament with this view 
 enacted a law in 1881, " The Chambers and Office Act," but up to the present, work- 
 men have preferred the isolated house to that of the lodging, forming a portion of a 
 great building. 
 
 Attempts at dealing with collective property, represented by shares acquired by 
 the workman, at his convenience, up to the amount of the estimated value of his 
 lodging, were made, without success, in France, in England and in Germany. 
 
 This collective property combination, is highly praised by the socialists, who 
 affirm that the system of small houses attaches the workman to the land, prevents 
 him from moving, and interferes with his liberty, nevertheless this combination 
 while being very practical, has never enjoyed any favor among workmen. It does 
 not stimulate the desire to save, engenders no idea of sacrifice to attain an object, 
 just because this object is deprived of that fascinating reflection made by joys, of 
 liberty and comfort that the workman foresees in laboring,suffering and economising, 
 to possess his house. 
 
 The comfortable house, the " home " especially when the tenant foresees the 
 possibility of becoming proprietor, is the most redoubtable adversary of the tavern. 
 To increase the number of woi-kmen's cottages, to construct them under the best 
 hygienic conditions, outside of the cities, in quarters conn ected to the city by railways, 
 and to rent them at rates that, while assuring the invested capital a remunerative 
 interest, will permit of the tenants acquiring the property, by degrees and without 
 apparent sacrifices, is a work that merits the attention of all citizens that believes 
 with the president of the " Congress of cheap dwelling houses." 
 
 " That here there is a great work to accomplish, a work of moral renovation 
 and social preservation, that is worthy of inspiring those who think that the enjoy- 
 ment of life consists in the good that we can do, and who are convinced that in 
 creating man and endowing him with moral and intellectual faculties, whose limits 
 
Ixxiv 
 
 are infinite, God has wished to associate him in His work and permits those who 
 comprehend the wisdom of His conceptions to work with Him in the amelioration 
 of the conditions of human life." 
 
 Social Hygiene. 
 
 Dwellings — Workshops. 
 
 Notwithstanding the arrangements made by the various authorities of large 
 European cities, the sanitation of workmen's lodgings has made but very slow prog- 
 ress. On the other hand, the sanitary conditions of workshops, during late years,, 
 have been considerably improved. This rapid amelioration is due, in a great mea- 
 sure, to the efficacious inspection of manufactories. 
 
 In view of the results obtained by the inspection of woi-kshops, we have reason 
 to ask why the inspection of houses which exist in Prance and in England, for 
 ©xample, does not in a short time cause the disappearance of unhealthy lodgings ? 
 It is because we have here a complex problem, that the causes of insalubrity are 
 manifold, and that it proceeds as much from the condition of the property as from 
 the conditions of existence of those who occupy the property. 
 
 The measures to take against overcrowding are most delicate and very difficult 
 of apj)lication. The family cannot be subjected to them, whatever may be the 
 promiscuous nature of the life in the midst of which its members may be living, 
 except by assimilating its residence to that of an hotel where they take 
 boarders. From this it follows, that to avoid over-crowding it is absolutely 
 necessary to establish means of rapid communication at cheap rates, thus enabling 
 the working population to live out of the city, to spread themselves in the country, 
 instead of crowding themselves into tenement houses. Even if living in the 
 country or in a well-aired suburb, the small tenant, by necessity or eagerness of 
 gain, takes boarders in a dangerous proportion for the health of his family, we 
 have reason to hope that the evil would not extend beyond the infected housed 
 
 "With air, verdure and sunlight, regions where sickness continually decimated 
 the population have been transformed into habitable quarters. 
 
 To regulate the height of houses, to open large avenues, to create squares and 
 parks, have been the principal measures adopted in the large cities for doing away 
 with the effects of overcrowded lodgings. 
 
 It is in England that the most energetic measures have been taken for the 
 sanitation of cities. As soon as the mortality of a quarter surpasses a certain 
 proportion the quarter is expropriated, it is cleared, and on the ground they I'aise 
 healthy houses. The results obtained by this system are considerable. For example, 
 at Birmingham the mortality in a district thus rebuilt decreased from 62-5 per 
 thousand to 219 per thousand, and in another from 97 per thousand to 25'6 per 
 thousand. 
 
 The means taken in regard to sewage, the demoliiion of insalubrious quarters, 
 the improvement in the system of drains, and the distribution of water, have been 
 completed by the establishment of baths and public laundries. The public baths 
 have rendered great services to the European working population ; in England they 
 are established under special laws which fix also the price of the bath. (Page 
 443). 
 
Ixxv 
 
 The public laundries are unknown in Canada. They are establishments 
 where the housekeeper or washerwoman goes to wash her linen. The linen is at 
 first automatically washed in lye, then delivered to the washei'woman, who has 
 nothing more to do than to soap and rinse it. These laundries are divided 
 into stalls provided with hot and cold water taps, soap, &c. The operation 
 is a rapid one and the linen is afterwards dried by steam dryers. There are in 
 Paris about 500 public laundries ; the linen is washed in lye for 2, 3 or 4 centimes 
 the package, according to its volume, and the stalls are rented at 3 centimes per 
 hour. These establishments are very useful to the working population ; they 
 diminish the expenses of the family and economise the strength of the mother, for 
 whom, too often, the washing is a cause of exhaustion and sickness. 
 
 Manufacturers have also erected baths in their mills, for the use of their workmen 
 or open to the public. These hygienic measures cost so little to take, where there is 
 no lack of hot water, that we have cause for surprise that they are not more generally 
 taken by the proprietors of large manufactories. 
 
 To the overcrowding and insalubrity of lodgings we must, in order to explain 
 the mortality that reigns in the agglomeration of large cities, add alcoholism. 
 
 Alcoholism. 
 
 Alcoholism is a scourge that flourishes, more or less, in all classes of society, but 
 which, in Europe, attains its maximum of intensity in the workmen's class. 
 
 Do they drink because they are in poverty, to stupify themselves, to forget 
 their troubles, as some affirm ? Or are they in poverty because they drink ? — are the 
 questions that are discussed with equal success by economists who have studied the 
 question. , 
 
 M. A. Coste, in " Les Questions Sociales Contemporaines," shows by irrefutable 
 statistics*, that, alcoholism increases with the activity of trade and the ease which 
 follows it, while it decreases in times of crises and of strikes.'' In consulting these 
 statistics we find that alcoholism augments in times of good harvests, and diminishes 
 in bad years. We see it also rise and fall according as workmen are more or less 
 occupied, and follows in. its oscillations the height or the fall of the deposits in 
 Savings Banks, as are proved by the following figures : 
 
 
 Deposits, 
 
 Savings Banks 
 
 of Paris. 
 
 Proportion of alcoholic patients per 100 admissions 
 at I'asile Ste. Anne. 
 
 Yeae. 
 
 Men. 
 p. 100. 
 
 Women, 
 p. 100. 
 
 Total 
 p. 100. 
 
 1868-69 
 
 10,498,400 
 
 7,090,800 
 
 11,459,600 
 
 21 to 24 
 13,50 
 20,97 
 
 4 to 6 
 3,33 
 3,81 
 
 25 to 30 
 
 1872-73 
 
 16,83 
 
 1878-79 
 
 24,78 
 
 
 
 The author adds : 
 
 "It seems plain enough that alcoholism, in a usually prosperous ooiyitry, should 
 be considered as a manifestation of public well-being rather than as a manifestatioa 
 of want. 
 
 * Hygiene sociale contre le pauperisme. 
 t L'Asile d'alienes h, Paris. 
 
Ixxvi 
 
 "All this is very instructive. As alcoholism is the outcome of plenty as well 
 as want, aud also (as mental pathology shows) of intellectual weakness and melan- 
 colia, it has evidently numberless causes, both of the moral and of the material 
 order. 
 
 "Wants, over-work, we will only get the better of them with progress in pro- 
 duction and division of wealth; but of what use will they be if, on the other hand, 
 it allows ennui to exist and morbid dispositions to increase ? All increase of wealth 
 not accompanied by co-relative increase in artistic tastes and moral and intellectual 
 aptitudes will naturally tend to an increase of drunkenness ; so that, for a people 
 behind the age, for a nation of parvenus, alcohol will be the thermometer of the 
 fortune of the people. 
 
 "Fi-ance feels dull, said Lamai-tine. Woe to the nations who feel dull — they will 
 become drunkards. 
 
 "What are the cures for this? Education, intellectual culture, the taste for 
 reading and serious occupations ; but before everything, more immediate means, a 
 more active influence on the masses. As regards permanent resources, an interest 
 in their occupation, a small property, two things which imply the family life, urgent 
 motives to a constant occupation, which prevents intellectual idleness; as accessory 
 resources, but not less useful, artistic pleasures, concerts, plays, exhibitions, lectures; 
 physical exercise : walks, open air games, etc. 
 
 " It is better to cultivate flowers, play ball, join gymnastic societies, dance, make 
 love, sing, without prejudice to more serious occupations, than to become degraded 
 at the tavern." 
 
 Economists, scholars, doctors, manufacturers, all agree on this subject. In all 
 ■classes of society the opinion is, that in order to stamp out alcoholism, one 
 must give the workingmen intellectual pleasures, shorten the hours of work, 
 pay sufficient wages, encourage economy and the taste to become property-owners, 
 and, above all, reduce the number of taverns. 
 
 V 
 
 In a work on pauperism M. A. Baron has demonsti-ated with great lucidity that 
 <3rime and poverty are in direct ratio to the multiplication of taverns. 
 
 He has taken two districts in France, quite separate, each having the same 
 number of inhabitants (3,000,000), and has obtained from oflScial statistics the follow- 
 ing table :^ 
 
 
 NUMBER or INHABITANTS. 
 
 DiSTBIOTS. 
 
 Taverns. 
 
 Sentence 
 
 to 
 Prison. 
 
 Destitute 
 helj)ed. 
 
 By Mutual 
 Benefit Society. 
 
 
 134 
 
 105 
 
 59 
 
 626 
 336 
 269 
 
 30 
 12 
 
 29 
 37 
 46 
 
 Whole of France 
 
 North 
 
 
 There were in the whole of France (1878) 350,697 taverns ; the south-west dis- 
 tricts, 28,474 ; northern districts, 63,963. 
 
Ixxvii 
 
 The moral remedy is excellent, but whilst waiting for it to work there is one 
 urgently asked for : the i-educiug of the number of taverns. 
 
 There is in England 1 tavern for 145 inhabitants. 
 France 1 do 100 do 
 
 Holland 1 do 88 do 
 
 Belgium 1 do 44 do 
 
 Belgium of all European countries is the most ravaged by alcohol. The average 
 consumption of alcohol is 2f gallons per annum per inhabitant, or more than 12 
 gallons per annum per familj^ One is then not surprised at the consequences 
 which follow such a consumption of alcohol, as set forth and denounced in the 
 following document, by the Ligue patriotique contre I'alco^lisme (Patriotic Ligue 
 against alcohol). * 
 
 Alcoholism in Belgium. 
 
 The country consumes 15,220,000 gallons of alcohol per annum. 
 Our hospitals are full of victims, to alcohol. 
 Our prisons are full of victims to alcohol. 
 Our mad houses are full of victims to alcohol. 
 Our poor houses are full of victims to alcohol. 
 The consumption is on the increase. In fifteen years the population has only 
 increased 14 per cent. ; the consumption of alcohol has increased 37 per 100, and 
 The Cases of lunacy increases, 45 per cent. 
 The Crimes increases, 74 per cent. 
 The Suicides increases, 80 per cent. 
 Paupers and vagabonds, 150 per cent. 
 The country spends in strong drinks $25,000,000 per annum. The State 
 only spends $3,200,000 on public instruction. 
 
 There are 5,500 schools and 136,000 taverns. 
 Never has the evil influence of liquor and the inciease in the number of taverns 
 been shown in such a conclusive manner. One cannot too urgently insist on havirig the 
 number reduced, and to demonstrate the influence they exert it is only necessary to 
 compare their increase with that of ci'ime and poverty and other evils they entail. 
 The Official Reports of the Communal Council of Brussels 1868-1883 give on this 
 question the following statistics : — 
 
 Comparative Statistics — Brussels. 
 
 Years. 
 
 PopulatioQ. 
 
 Taverns. 
 
 Crimes 
 
 and 
 
 Offences. 
 
 Pawn. 
 
 Prostitution 
 clandes- 
 tinely 
 carried on. 
 
 Cruelty 
 
 to 
 Animals. 
 
 1868. 
 1871. 
 1874. 
 1877. 
 1880. 
 1882. 
 
 165,098 
 167,313 
 171,249 
 173,670 
 162,498 
 166,351 
 
 2,458 
 2,588 
 2,741 
 2,823 
 3,268 
 3,412 
 
 4,168 
 5,528 
 6,691 
 8,207 
 9,338 
 10,179 
 
 779,200 
 875,900 
 999,200 
 945,500 
 943,900 
 1,072,600 
 
 731 
 1,257 
 1,000 
 1,387 
 2,757 
 2,973 ' 
 
 133 
 111 
 252 
 314 
 
 * This is 51 Belgium league, and the document was published in Belgium. 
 
Ixxviii 
 
 The population of Brussels was about the same in 1882 as in 1868, and one 
 can easily discern by the above statistics the moral and material consequences of 
 an augmentation of one thousand taverns between the one period and the other. If we 
 consider the general situation in Belgium we become aware of a state 
 of things still more sombre than that even presented by the capital. 
 
 Belgium. — Alcohol and Grime.* 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 TaverriB. 
 
 Suicides. 
 
 Insane. 
 
 Sentences. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Assizes. 
 
 Police. 
 
 1850 
 
 4,426,202 
 4,607,066 
 4,731,957 
 4,984,351 
 5,087,826 
 5,336,634 
 5,519,835 
 
 53,097 
 55,899 
 74,940 
 91,527 
 100,763 
 
 246 
 245 
 220 
 267 
 367 
 336 
 533 
 
 
 183 
 
 21,445 
 
 1855 
 
 4,278 
 5,170 
 5,612 
 6,481 
 7,236 
 8,250 
 
 
 1860 
 
 186 
 133 
 105 
 134 
 137 
 
 18,794 
 16,350 
 19,498 
 23,569 
 36,121 
 
 1865 
 
 1870 
 
 1875 
 
 1880 
 
 125,000 
 
 
 But one would say, a man can only drink a certain amount; onoo drunk or 
 satiated he is forced to stop, and the increase in the number of taverns diminishes 
 the tavern-keepers' profits without increasing the number of drunkards or the amount 
 of drink. The statistics answer equally to the partizans of absolute liberty for the 
 taverns, and the following table proves that in Belgium consumption per head 
 increases with the number of taverns. 
 
 Table of the Annual Consumption of Beer, Wines and Liquors per Inhabitant 
 
 each year. 
 
 1851-1854. 
 1864-1866. 
 1870-1872. . 
 1873-1875. 
 1879-1881. . 
 1884 
 
 France 
 
 Germany . . . 
 England .... 
 
 Austria 
 
 Russia 
 
 Italy 
 
 Switzerland . 
 
 Years. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 1S84. 
 
 Number of 
 Taverns. 
 
 53,097 
 
 91,527 
 
 100,763 
 
 125,000 
 140,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 24,293 
 
 Beer, 
 gallons. 
 
 30,05 
 32,11 
 34,56 
 38,47 
 34,65 
 36,82 
 
 4,59 
 14,13 
 31,28 
 6,19 
 1,00 
 0,01 
 8,15 
 
 Spirituous 
 
 Liquors over 
 
 12-proof, 
 
 gallons. 
 
 1,27 
 1,68 
 1,66 
 1,91 
 2,12 
 2,12 
 
 0,84 
 1,87 
 1,16 
 1,25 
 1,75 
 
 2,02 
 
 Wine, 
 gallons. 
 
 0,05 
 0,06 
 0,07 
 0,08 
 0,08 
 0,08 
 
 25,91 
 1,30 
 0,04 
 4,86 
 
 18,69 
 7,60 
 
 ''Documents.— jlnmumVes Officiels of the Kingdom, 1840 to 1882, and statistics of the Minister of 
 Justice, 1875-1880. General state of the Kingdom, 1851 to 1875. 
 
Ixxix 
 
 In 1886 the English Ambassador of Brussels, after the sanguinary strikes which 
 had taken place in Belgium, addressed to his Government a report, in which he says : 
 
 "The traflSc in liquor, which is immense in Belgium, has exercised a most per- 
 nicious influence in the social and moral progress of the nation, and produces habits 
 of intemperance and improvidence which pi'epare the people for strikes and riot." 
 
 In a pamphlet issued by the Patriotic League against drunkenness: "Drunken- 
 ness in Belgium," the following occuis : — 
 
 " During the years 18Y3-1876 the salaries paid in Belgium exceeded a sum which 
 has been valued at over $100,000,000, the regular amount paid during the same period 
 ■of time before this date ; the official figures of the excise establish that, during 
 this time of extraordinary prosperity, the consumption of liquors had increased by 
 .about $85,000,000." 
 
 And in presence of this unheard — of fact, the discouraged author asks if it is neces- 
 sary to increase the salaries, and if it is not in vain that the country is prodigal in 
 ■efforts and expenditure to instruct generations of drunkards and idiots on whose 
 depraved instincts instruction can have no influence whatever. 
 
 The other countries of Europe, without being so seriously affected by that 
 •which Doctor Lefebvre of Louvain styles "the alcoholic barbarity," experience 
 however, an inci'ease in the average consumption of liquors, and a great portion of 
 i;he salaries of workmen goes to the tavern. 
 
 In England, the budget for liquors is $65,000,000, and $60,000,000 in Prance. It 
 is estimated that in England an adult spends $7^4 annually on liquor, and that a 
 workman who drinks moderately spends between the sixth and the fourth part of 
 Tiis wages at the tavern ; * also, it need not astonish us to learn that in England 
 among 910,000 poor people, we may count 800,000 drunkards. It has been proved 
 that in Belgium a person eaj-ning from $160 to $240 per year spends really $43 
 in liquor, and in France, among 100 demented people, there were 14'36 per cent, 
 drunkards, and 13-14 per cent, suicides. 
 
 No government, except that of Switzerland, does anything to diminish the evil. 
 In Switzerland, there is a law which reserves and distributes 10 per cent, of the 
 •excise, about $176,000 per annum, to associations the object of which is to contend 
 .against the traffic and use of intoxicating liquors. Besides Switzerland, opposition 
 to the traffic is made, as in Canada, by the temperance societies. 
 
 These societies, while fully advocating the principle of total abstinence, attack 
 mainly alcohol, their motto being — ^not teetotalism, but war on alcohol. In Europe, 
 ■everywhere on the continent, the natural wine, product of fermentation, not of distil- 
 lation, has never been regarded as a scourge. It intoxicates, but it does not poison. 
 It degrades the drunkard morally and physically, but it does not kill; it does not 
 ■destroy the race like alcohol. Thus the temperance societies of Europe having 
 proved that the consumption of alcohol increased in direct ratio with the diminution 
 in the consumption of wine, do not at all endeavor to condemn the use of wine. It 
 is the stand taken by one European society, " The Blue Cross, of Geneva " (page 
 -363), and the successes which attend it every day prove that for Europe at least 
 wine is the gi'eat enemy of alcohol. 
 
 * Report of the Committee to enquire into the condition of the Bristol poor— 1886. 
 
Ixxx 
 
 I'hilanthropic Societies. 
 These societies, especially those which prevent men from succumbing to misfor- 
 tune, sustaining him, assisting him to contend with hardship, are powerful 
 auxiliaries in the contest against alcoho^. Among the typical societies whose 
 statutes and labors are mentioned in this leport (page 353 &c.), some are peculiarly 
 remarkable, whose good deeds are performed in a considerate manner, thus 
 increasing their value, assuring a good effect, and demonstrating the extreme honestj^ 
 existing among these who struggle earnestly with misery. (Condition and situation of 
 gratuitous loans, page 358.) 
 
 workmen's clubs — GAMES AND RECREATIONS. 
 
 The number of workmen's clubs, gymnastic companies, archery and shooting 
 galleries, choral societies, dancing-berths, and especially public libraries, existing in 
 all European countries, are matter for astonishment to visitors. 
 
 These associations are often maintained, in whole or in part, by the employers or 
 the municipalities; but the greater number, except libraries, are supported by active 
 members, nearly all workmen, or employees, assisted by honorary members. 
 
 Public libraries have multiplied in a remarkable degree ; the most frequented 
 are the municipal or communal libraries, whose, regulations, extremely liberal, 
 render the taking out of books for perusal quite convenient, and those who contain 
 books on the industries established in the neighborhood. 
 
 At Paris, the number of books lent from the municipal libraries has been as- 
 follows : — 
 
 Number of Books Lent in 
 
 1888. 
 
 1887. 
 
 Sciences, Arts. 
 
 Instruction 
 
 History 
 
 Geography, Travels 
 
 Literature. 
 
 Poetry, Voyages 
 
 Fiction 
 
 Foreign Languages 
 
 Music 
 
 Total number of books lent 
 
 121,934 
 113,120 
 162,345 
 
 187,404 
 
 625,489 
 
 7,387 
 
 59,757 
 
 117,556 
 111,112 
 149,366 
 
 173,235 
 
 580,,'?94 
 
 6,403 
 
 55,322 
 
 1,277,436 
 
 1,193,388 
 
 The loan of engravings, plans, industrial designs, can be made for a period of 15' 
 days. 
 
 In Belgium,* out of 2,595 districts, 442 contained in 1887, 446 libraries,, 
 established under the patronage of the communal administration. Their catalogues 
 contain altogether 1,243,489 works; they were visited by 97,110 readers, and count 
 122,601 subscribers. 
 
 * From the archives of the Administration of General Statistics (Minister of the Interior and Public; 
 Instruction.) 
 
Ixxxi 
 
 The loans of books during the year were as follows : — 
 
 Commerce and industry 19,833 
 
 History and geography 95,1S8 
 
 Fiction and literature 561,845 
 
 Moral science, political, &c 42,558 
 
 Natural science, mathematics, &c 142,239 
 
 Miscellaneous 100,106 
 
 Total number Ijooks lent 992,344 
 
 The people seek instruction, and the public authorities rival private enterprise 
 in catering to these aspirations. Besides national, provincial, municipal or com- 
 mercial libraries, the workmen's societies, the syndicates of employers or 
 workmen, and the industrial societies have founded libraries open free to all, 
 or at a very moderate entrance fee. Wherever there is a library, one may be 
 sure of finding a liberal supply of programmes of the courses or conferences, thanks 
 to the attention of the managing committee, and all persons connected with it 
 generally. In England, France, Switzerland, Belgium, Germany, you can hardly 
 find a town, even a village, without its regular evening lectures, or at least a society 
 of lecturers whose services are given gratuitously. We can afiirm, without fear 
 of contradiction, that in countries where the hours of labor are reasonable, 
 the employees can, with very little effort, acquire instruction which many young 
 people do not receive at school. 
 
 After reading, music suits the taste of workmen. While the choral societies in 
 Prance only numbered 100 in 1840, there ai'e now 7,000, counting their members 
 by hundreds of thousands, and their expenses by millions. We must admit generally 
 that choristers and musicians are bad customers for the wine-shops. 
 
 What are the results of these institutions ? We find them indicated in a strik- 
 ing manner in the report of the Belgian Commission of the Xllth Section.* 
 
 The social question, we are convinced, reduces itself to a system of education. 
 Let us place men of good charactor in the different positions of superintendence, and 
 soon all will lend assistance, and associate fraternally to raise those who are in lower 
 state and thus ensure the welfare and happeness of all. Bat those who are doubtful of 
 these educational institutions, which we have passed rapidly in review, may refer 
 to the opinion of Mr. Bmile de Laveleye,* an eminent social economist. 
 
 " Twenty years ago, in the industrial centres of Verviers, Hadimont, Dison and 
 Bnsival, numerous gi-oups of workmen were to be met with, openly declaring war 
 on property, constituting themselves judges of all .actions of their employers, pro- 
 nouncing against them, without listening to them, terrible sentences, which they 
 postponed until the first day of revolution. They passed under the name of Francs- 
 Ouvriers, and their number increased from year to year. Every Sunday they held 
 their meetings in the public halls of the vicinity, every district was covered by their 
 clubs and every one of these vied with each other in violent denunciations. The 
 women also, as in the Eeign of Terror, abandoned themselves to even more extrava- 
 gant declarations than the men. Strikes also broke out in establishments where the 
 employees could not find any serious cause of giievaiice. The employers and judges 
 
 * Belgian Section.— Extract from report of Mr. Ernest Gilon : Workmen's Gluts. 
 
 * Moniteur ^rf^c— Official, 1888. 
 20— P 
 
Ixxxii 
 
 were openly insulted in broad day-light. The conflicts between the police and the 
 Francs-Ouvriers were of frequent occurrence. In consequence of their enmity, all 
 attempts made by the city authorities to preserve the peace were entirely futile. 
 
 " The situation must become worse, we must suffer still more," they said " so 
 that the agitation will become greater, more general, and force the more moderate 
 among us to revolt with us against the upper classes." An interdict was passed upon 
 the Privoyante, a Cooperative Consumers' Society, founded in the interest of the work- 
 ing-classes, to furnish provisions at a moderate rate. This society had been flourish- 
 ing till then, but afterwards no woj'kman dare make his p.uichases there. A news- 
 paper, le Mirabeau, which demanded the violent destruction of existing social order, 
 was sold at Vervais at 5,000 copies, and forced L'Ami du Foyer, founded and edited 
 by the Pastor Bost, to disappeai- through want of readers. The agitation increased 
 daily, and extended thence to Li6ge, and throughout all the valley of the Meuse. 
 The principal headquarters of the " International " was at Verviers. 
 
 To-day all this is changed. The turbulent working classes are the most peace- 
 ful in the country. They are also the best instructed, if we are to believe the physi- 
 cians established at Yerviers, after having resided elsewhere, and the superintend- 
 ents of workshops, who can establish comparisons between the intellectual condition 
 of the local workmen and those of other industrial centres. Tjhey have successfully 
 opposed the excitement caused by agitatoi's, who have come to them in vain, 
 endeavojing to lead them away, two years ago, since the terrible scenes which 
 troubled Li^ge, Charleroi and Borinage. 
 
 The Annual Eeport of the Chamber of Commerce of Verviers speaks of the new 
 situation in the following terms : — 
 
 " The good sense of our workmen, their love of order, the ideas which by means 
 of many conferences, certain institutions really popular, have sown in abundance, 
 the education they have given, all have contributed to prevent contagion, and while 
 other centres of workmen were agitated we are able to state that no spark from the 
 disturbance had alighted in our city. At no time was the calmness and moderation 
 of the population of our workshops at all destroyed." 
 
 This is an indication of the important change for the better eiTected in senti- 
 ments since 1870, and it is only fair and proper to congratulate those who, by unre- 
 mitted efforts, have effected this improvement, and those who also know how to 
 profit by their excellent advice. 
 
 As the reporter says : these facts are convincing. 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 
 The XYth section, grande et petite industrie, — agriculture — contained manuscript 
 documents on very interesting questions, but of a purely local interest, hardly going 
 beyond the limits of the districts occupied by the writers, and for that reason, we have 
 not thought expedient to cite or make a review of them. 
 
 ENGLISH SECTION. 
 
 Except France, Belgium is the only country whose Social Economy Exhibition 
 was complete. The other countries sent only a few papers, altogether insufficient 
 to give a just idea of the position occupied by social questions at home. 
 
 The exhibiting nations had no intention whatever of keeping aloof; but the 
 novelty of this exhibition, of a purely moral order, had somewhat put out the class 
 of expositors it was intended to attract, and it was only on visiting the exhibition, 
 and seeing the documents exposed, that they understood what was wanted of them. 
 
 Great Britain had merely sent forty-five documents to the Social Economy 
 Exhibition. About twenty of these documents wore descriptions, plans, photographs 
 of schools, workingmen's bouses, &c. The remainder, besides the annual statements 
 
Ixxxiii 
 
 of the Order of Foresters aud Oddfellows, was principally composed of the reports of 
 some professional schools, and ofBcial statistics, of no interest to Canada. 
 
 All the documents exposed in that section relating to a project or to an idea 
 little known in Canada have been reproduced in the report. 
 
 Moreover, being aware of the influence of English ideas and legislatioQ on this 
 continent, we have extracted from foreign reports, all the statistics respecting Great 
 Britain, and applicable to its economic legislation. 
 
 We have thus been able to publish a very complete risumi of British laws on 
 capital and labor, and of writings on profit-sharing, cooperative societies, technical edu- 
 cation, employers, responsibility in the case of accidents, sanitary laws, inspection of 
 factories, &c., the whole giving an exdct idea of the state of those ques- 
 tions throughout England. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 The Social Economy Exhibition of 1889 will be fraught with good results. 
 
 It had the effect of grouping and showing to interested parties what could and 
 should be done, to lossen the ill-feeling existing between employers and workmen. 
 
 It has proved beyond possible dispute, that profit-sharing, the first step towards 
 coperative production, was as beneficial to the employer as to the workman, and 
 that it was the only means to put an end to the dissensions which disturb 
 the manufacturing industries. 
 
 It has shown that women's and children's labour should be regulated, and even 
 discountenanced; that the industrial strength of a nation depended on the degree of 
 theoretical and practical instruction of its apprentices and workmen, and that the 
 greater the number of property-holding workmen, the greater was its wealth. 
 
 It has caused to be recognized the principle of the professional risk, which 
 charges on the products, that is, on the general expenses, the consequences of acci- 
 dents due to the nature of the work, and it has established that victims of accidents 
 were legally entitled to receive an indemnity for injuries sustained. 
 
 It has demonstrated that the acquiring of capital and property was not impos- 
 sible, even in the present state of things, for the provident workmen, and that the 
 advantages of insurance, in all its phases, could be extended to the working classes. 
 
 It has also shown that the greatest enemies to social peace were crowded and 
 unhealthy tenements, and alcoholism. 
 
 It has demonstrated, established and proved those things, among the most impor- 
 tant, by means of experiments, essays and facts, dating back half a century and 
 over. 
 
 The record of the struggle carried on for many years against the selfishness of 
 employersand the distrusts of workmen, by employers and workmen really anxious 
 to secure social peace, is contained in the papers sent to the Social Economy Exhi- 
 bition. 
 
 Imbued with their importance, we have compiled these documents with fair- 
 ness and have made them as complete as possible, so that the legislators, employers 
 and workmen of Canada could appreciate them at their real woi'th, and so that the 
 teachings they contain could be of some benefit to the country. 
 
SECTIO]Sr I 
 
 REMUNERATION FOR LABOR. 
 
 20—1 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 The ordinary Daily Wages of Minor Industries (*). 
 
 
 
 Paeis. 
 
 Othbk Towns. § 
 
 INDUSTRIES. 
 
 Usual 
 Wages. 
 
 The usual 
 duration 
 
 of 
 appren- 
 ticeship. 
 
 Customary 
 prices paid to 
 masters for 
 apprentice- 
 ship. 
 
 Usual 
 Wagesi 
 
 The usual 
 duration 
 
 of 
 appren- 
 ticeship. 
 
 Customary 
 prices paid to 
 masters for 
 apprentice- 
 ship. 
 
 
 $ ots. 
 
 1 20 
 
 80 
 
 1 20 
 1 40 
 1 00 
 90 
 
 60 
 
 1 00 
 1 20 
 
 t 1 00 
 
 * i'so" 
 
 1 70 
 1 20 
 1 20 
 
 Months. 
 
 48 
 30 
 24 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 84 
 .36 
 64 
 72* 
 69* 
 61* 
 34* 
 65 
 74 
 56 
 61 
 73* 
 80 
 70* 
 71* 
 54| 
 57 
 61 
 35 
 63| 
 37 
 80? 
 35| 
 42* 
 73* 
 68* 
 
 42 
 
 78 
 36| 
 84 
 78* 
 • 60* 
 32* 
 731 
 65* 
 72 
 33* 
 60* 
 77 
 56* 
 361 
 73* 
 75* 
 62* 
 62 
 73* 
 
 71° 
 
 Months. 
 
 37 
 
 18 
 18 
 17 
 22 
 21 
 20 
 18 
 30 
 
 1 ots. 
 75 60 
 
 
 
 17 20 
 
 Butchers 
 
 
 35 00 
 
 Bakers 
 
 
 31 20 
 
 Brewers 
 
 
 
 60 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 19 00 
 
 
 
 
 Coach makei^ 
 
 48 
 
 
 40 60 
 
 Charcoal burners 
 
 
 Pork butchers , 
 
 24 
 6 
 
 
 22 
 21 
 25 
 27 
 31 
 17 
 23 
 26 
 22 
 31 
 25 
 23 
 20 
 20 
 34 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 22 
 36 
 30 
 18 
 21 
 21 
 25 
 30 
 25 
 26 
 29 
 25 
 18 
 29 
 32 
 26 
 30 
 16 
 36 
 29 
 30 
 
 36 00 
 
 Hatters 
 
 20 00 
 
 45 00 
 
 
 38 60 
 
 WTieelwrierhts 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 
 36 00 
 
 
 
 41 40 
 
 Stocking makers 
 
 
 21 00 
 
 Rope makers 
 
 80 
 70 
 
 40 
 
 1 20 
 1 40 
 1 55 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 1 55 
 1 00 
 1 00 
 
 60 
 
 1 20 
 
 60 
 
 1 20 
 1 30 
 
 
 
 27 40 
 
 
 36 
 24 
 36 
 36 
 36 
 24 
 48 
 48 
 36 
 
 1 .36 
 
 
 26 00 
 
 
 
 26 40 
 
 Cutlers 
 
 
 43 80 
 
 
 
 20 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 80 
 
 
 
 19 20 
 
 
 
 45 20 
 
 Tinsmiths and lamp makers 
 
 Artificial flower makers, men 
 
 
 38 00 
 
 
 27 60 
 
 do women, . . 
 
 
 30 80 
 
 
 24 
 48 
 36 
 
 
 16 00 
 
 
 
 63 40 
 
 
 
 41 60 
 
 
 
 25 80 
 
 
 40 
 
 1 60 
 1 20 
 1 50 
 
 II 
 
 1 00 
 1 50 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 1 20' 
 1 40 
 1 00 
 1 10 
 1 50 
 1 40 
 
 90 
 
 1 30 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 
 18 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 00 
 
 
 24 
 24 
 36 
 36 
 
 koto l' 20 
 
 37 00 
 
 
 24 40 
 
 
 45 40 
 
 
 
 31 60 
 
 
 
 38 40 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 13 00 
 
 
 
 37 00 
 
 Stove makers & chimney repairers. 
 Potters 
 
 
 
 35 00 
 
 
 
 45 80 
 
 36 
 8 
 48 
 48 
 36 
 
 
 30 20 
 
 
 
 
 Sculptors 
 
 SnHHlPTR .... 
 
 
 55 20 
 
 
 43 00 
 
 
 
 43 00 
 
 
 
 
 * General Statistics of France, Vol. XV., Year 1885, published in 1889, by the Minister of Commerce 
 
 and Industry and of the Colonies. 
 + The unloaders of vessels work by the job and earn from $1.20 to $1.60 a day. 
 J Are boarded and paid by the month ; the average monthly wages, |9.00 
 § Chief Towni of the Department. 
 
 II Are boarded and paid by the month ; average monthly wages, $12.00. 
 20— li 
 
The ordinary Daily Wages of Minor Industries — Concluded. 
 
 
 Paeis. 
 
 Othee TOWNS.f 
 
 INDUSTRIES. 
 
 Usual 
 Wages. 
 
 The usual 
 duration 
 
 of 
 appren- 
 ticeship. 
 
 Customary 
 prices paid to 
 masters for 
 apprentice- 
 ship. 
 
 Usual 
 Wages. 
 
 The usual 
 duration 
 
 of 
 appren- 
 ticeship. 
 
 Customary ' 
 prices paid tO' 
 masters for 
 apprentice- 
 ship. 
 
 Tailors 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 1 00 
 1 70 
 1 00 
 1 00 
 
 90 
 
 1 00 
 
 77 
 
 1 00 
 1 00 
 1 40 
 
 90 
 
 1 00 
 1 10 
 
 Months. 
 48 
 
 S cts. 
 
 ,S cts. 
 
 67i 
 80i 
 66 
 81 
 63f 
 561 
 52f 
 67 
 70 
 781 
 74 
 85f 
 76* 
 
 Months. 
 
 27 
 24 
 22 
 31 
 26 
 
 $ cts. 
 30 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Upholsterers . 
 
 42 
 42 
 
 
 39 40 
 
 
 47 60 
 
 
 
 
 "Weavers ... 
 
 24 
 24 
 36 
 36 
 
 
 11 
 25 
 27 
 31 
 23 
 
 22 00 
 
 Coopers 
 
 37 00 
 
 Turners in wood 
 
 
 35 20 
 
 
 
 36 80 
 
 Tiasket makers 
 
 
 33 40 
 
 Night men 
 
 Glaziers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § Chief Towns of the Department. 
 
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 lOOOlOOOlOlOOlOOOOO 
 
 Oi-ib-i>.oocociooc:o5co<;o 
 
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 111 
 
 S CO f:^ 2 M 
 
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In these large industries the wages of foremen vary according to the following 
 
 table : 
 
 Department of the Seine. Other Departments. 
 
 Highest wages 11.40 to $2.50 
 
 Average do $1.10 to |2. 00 0.98|to 1.62f 
 
 Lowest do 0.50 to 1.20 
 
 Wages of overseers : 
 
 Highestwages $1.00 to $2.40 
 
 Average do $0.93 to $1.30 0.70 to 1.65 
 
 Lowest do 0.40 to 1.30 
 
 Wages of workmen charged with care 
 of machinery : 
 
 Highestwages $0.80 to $1.50 
 
 Average do $1.00 to $1.40 0.Y3 to 1.00 
 
 Lowest do 0.40 to 1.00 
 
 Wages of assistants, carters : 
 
 Highestwages $0.60 to $1.00 
 
 Average do $0.80 to $1.12 0.54fto 0.65 
 
 Lowest do , 0.30 to 0.50 
 
 Departments exclusive of the Seine. 
 Lowest daily wages paid to men over 21 years of age, are : 
 
 Men working in felt hats $0.39 
 
 Marble, flour mills, lime kilns, spinners of all kinds 0.40 
 
 Lowest daily wages paid to men of from 15 to 21 years of age, are : 
 Marble works, brick works, porcelain, and wax candle 
 
 works $0.20 
 
 In the other industries, the lowest rates of wages vary between $0 . 30 and $0.40. 
 The lowest for looking-glasses is from $0 . 48. 
 
 The lowest daily wages paid to women, are : 
 
 Marbles, limekilns,flour mill, spinning, shawl manufactories, 
 
 from $0.10 to $0.19 
 
 In the other industries the lowest wages vary from $0.20 to $0.30 
 The lowest daily wages paid to boys, are : 
 
 Marbles, limekilns, brickworks, sawmills, tanneries, spinn- 
 ing factories $0 . 10 
 
 In the other industries the lowest wages vary from $0.12 to $0.20 
 The lowest daily wages paid to girls, are : 
 
 Grimp and bonnet trimmings $0.06 
 
 Shawl making 0.08 
 
 Marbles, limekilns, brickworks, porcelains, looking-glasses, 
 sawmills, tanneries, paper and pasteboard factories, 
 gas fiactories, wax candle factories, spinning factories, 
 
 weaving, dyes and preparations 0.10 
 
 In the other industries the other wages vary between $0.15 and $1.00 
 
 BOEDEAUX.* 
 
 At Bordeaux, acccording to a report of the Departmental Committee of the 
 Gironde, the wages in the building industry, for a day of ten hours, are as follows : 
 
 1889. 
 
 Terrace-makers $0.76 to 0.80 
 
 Masons 1.00 to 1.00 
 
 Stonecutters 1.00 to 1.20 
 
 Plasterers 1.20 to 0.40 
 
 Hodmen 0.70 to 0.76 
 
 Carriers 1.00 
 
 1857. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 $0.50 to 0.55 
 
 50 p.c. 
 
 0.75 to 0.85 
 
 37 p.c. 
 
 0.70 to 0.80 
 
 37 p.c. 
 
 0.90 to 1.00 
 
 47 p.c. 
 
 
 * Of all the towns of France is that which in its population and situation most resembles Montreal. 
 
Paviers. 
 
 The price of their day's work is, on an average, $1.00 The duration of their day's 
 work varies according to the season; 10 hours in summer, and from 8 and even 7 
 hours in the depth of winter. The price of their day's work is the same in winter as 
 in summer, no matter how many hours in the day's work. To encourage the work- 
 men they are often given work by the job with a settled price for so many square 
 yards of paving, and any workman working over hours has the right to claim wages 
 for the surplus of time which varies from $0.20 to $0.60 according to his ability and 
 quickness. 
 
 LYONS; AVERAGE WAGES. 
 
 1857. 1887. 
 
 Masons $0.75 $1.10 
 
 Turners 0.80 1.10 
 
 Blacksmiths 0.95 1.00 
 
 Cabinet makers 0.65 1.00 
 
 Printers 0.90 1.10 
 
 FARM WAGES. 
 
 Department of Sdrthe. 
 
 They vary according to the seasons and they are as high again in summer as in 
 winter. There is a little difference in the different cantons. As for example. 
 
 Men hired by the day. 
 
 Canton. Winter. Summer. 
 
 Vitray per diem 25 to 30c. 80 to $1.00 
 
 St. Calais per diem 30c. 60c. 
 
 North and West 30 to 35c. 60 to 70c. 
 
 When the workman is given hie board the rates are lowered from 20 to 30c. 
 Servants hired by the year are paid : 
 
 Waggoners, $55 to $60 ; valets, $50 to $53, cow-herds, $25 to $50, maid ser- 
 vant, $30 to $35. These servants get their board. 
 
 During the last twenty years the condition of the farm servant has been greatly 
 ameliorated. His dwelling is more comfortable, his food more wholesome and his 
 clothing better. This improvement in his general well being has, as a consequence, 
 given rise to an increase in wages, and, among a certain number of them, has encou- 
 raged habits of economy. 
 
 STEIKES m FEANCE PEOM 1874 TO 1885. 
 
 I^umber of strikes oflcially reported fron 1874 to 1885, (the year 1881 excepted). ■ 
 
 ' Year. Strikes. 
 
 1874 : 21 
 
 1875 27 
 
 ,1876 50 
 
 1877 30 
 
 1878 34 
 
 1879 53 
 
 1880 65 
 
 1882 182 
 
 1883 144 
 
 .1884 90 
 
 1885 108 
 
 Total 8"04 
 
Causes of the Strikes. — The workmen's grievances. 
 
 1874-1885. 
 
 Causes. Number. 
 
 Demand for increase of wages 364 
 
 Reduction of wages 182 
 
 Different grievances concerning conditions of labor 93 
 
 De m and for reduction of number of work hours 46 
 
 Demand for dismissal of foreman or other employee 25 
 
 Dismissal of workmen, foremen 16 
 
 Eeduction of work hours 13 
 
 Delay in payment T 
 
 Demand for new rules '7 
 
 Inferior quality of the raw material 6 
 
 Manner of payment 5 
 
 Eetention for accident insurance fund 5 
 
 Introduction of improved machinery 4 
 
 Refusing new rules 4 
 
 Demand for dismissal of foreign workmen 4 
 
 Establishing a tax on bread (master-bakers) 3 
 
 Demand for posting up of tariff. 3 
 
 Severity of masters or foremen 3 
 
 Regulation for fines 3 
 
 Demand for the withdrawal of payment for tools 2 
 
 Relieved from obligation of belonging to board of syndicate 2 
 
 Change of locality 2 
 
 Refusing to work on Sundays 1 
 
 "Workmen's projected plan of forming a syndicate (masters 
 
 refusal) 1 
 
 Competition between two rival houses 1 
 
 Introduction of work women 1 
 
 Demand for work to be done by the job 1 
 
 Refusal to work by the job 1 
 
 Demand for work to be done by the day 1 
 
 Demand for wages to be fixed by the syndicate 1 
 
 Refusal to work at night in winter 1 
 
 Establishing a co-operative society 1 
 
 Refusing to subscribe to superannuation fund 1 
 
 Unreliability of a master 1 
 
 Defective tools 1 
 
 About the matter of meal hours 1 
 
 Total 813 
 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 Demand for increase of wages 44 p. c. 
 
 Reduction of wages 22 p. c. 
 
 Divers grievances not specified concerning the labor 
 
 societies 11 p. c. 
 
 Demand of reduction of hours of labor 5-6 p. c. 
 
 Demand for the dismissal of a superior 3p. c. 
 
 Other causes.... 14-4 p. c. 
 
 100 p. c. 
 
Number of men on strike. 
 
 Ybab. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Strikes in which 
 
 the Number of 
 
 Workmen 
 
 was known. 
 
 Total Number 
 
 of 
 Men on Strike . 
 
 Average 
 Number of 
 
 Men 
 on Strike. 
 
 Number 
 
 of Female 
 
 Strikes. 
 
 1874 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 36 
 
 59 
 
 136 
 
 140 
 
 90 
 
 108 
 
 2,730 
 
 8,544 
 
 7,173 
 
 4,662 
 
 6,207 
 
 *43,283 
 
 28,526 
 
 42,156 
 
 32,908 
 
 23,702 
 
 16,671 
 
 257 
 387 
 239 
 259 
 269 
 1,200 
 485 
 311 
 235 
 263 
 154 
 
 2 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1877 
 
 1878... . 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1879 
 
 
 1880 
 
 4 
 
 1882 
 
 1 
 
 1883 
 
 8 
 
 1884 
 
 2 
 
 1885 ■ 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Total and average 
 
 673 on 804 
 
 216,662 
 
 323 
 
 27 
 
 * Strike of 20,000 joiners in Paris. 
 
 Duration of strikes. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Strikes 
 
 the Duration of 
 
 which 
 
 is known. 
 
 Total Number 
 
 of 
 Days of Strike. 
 
 Average 
 Duration of 
 
 Strikes. 
 
 1874. . . . . . . '. 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 36 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 42 
 
 54 
 
 157 
 
 141 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 218 
 
 371 
 
 537 
 
 566 
 
 183 
 
 659 
 
 848 
 
 3,696 
 
 1,442 
 
 1,455 
 
 1,056 
 
 Days. 
 
 12 
 
 1875. . . 
 
 14 
 
 1876 
 
 15 
 
 1877 
 
 30 
 
 1878 
 
 11 
 
 1879. ... 
 
 16 
 
 1880. 
 
 16 
 
 1882. 
 
 23 
 
 1883. 
 
 10 
 
 1884 
 
 16 
 
 1885 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Total and averasre 
 
 700 on 804 
 
 11,31 
 
 16 
 
 
 
10 
 
 Number of days lost by strikers. 
 
 
 
 Yeah. 
 
 Number of 
 Strikes of which 
 
 it has been 
 possible to learn 
 
 the Duration 
 
 and the Number 
 
 of Workmen. 
 
 Total Number 
 
 of 
 
 Work Days 
 
 Lost. 
 
 Average Number 
 
 of 
 
 Days' Work Lost. 
 
 
 By Strike. 
 
 Per 
 Workman. 
 
 1874 
 
 11 
 21 
 25 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 49 
 
 138 
 
 138 
 
 91 
 
 100 
 
 27,120 
 
 *263,875 
 
 99,355 
 
 26,072 
 
 +196,360 
 
 Jl, 956, 992 
 
 362,621 
 
 868,553 
 
 598,212 
 
 §930,280 
 
 189,927 
 
 2,455 
 
 12,550 
 
 3,580 
 
 2,000 
 
 13,100 
 
 69,850 
 
 7,382 
 
 6,300 
 
 4,340 
 
 10,220 
 
 1,899 
 
 10 
 
 1875 
 
 32 
 
 1876 : ..... 
 
 1877 : 
 
 15 
 8 
 
 1878. . .,-....... 
 
 48 
 
 1879 
 
 •58 
 
 1880 ; 
 
 1882 
 
 15 
 20 
 
 1883 
 
 19 
 
 1884 
 
 39 
 
 1885 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 Total and average 
 
 629 on 804 
 
 5,509,367 
 
 8,664 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 The number of strijces and strikers dwided according to the nature of the industry (1873-1885). 
 
 Number 
 of Strikers. 
 
 Textile industries 
 
 Mineral and metallurgical industries. 
 
 Clothing 
 
 Leather and hides 
 
 Building and furniture making 
 
 Terrace makers (lawn makers) 
 
 Other industries 
 
 77,922 
 42,045 
 12,683 
 
 7,547 
 39,013 
 
 1,253 
 36,199 
 
 Total. 
 
 216,622 
 
 Mesult of the strikes during the period from 1874 to 1885. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Favorable to the 
 
 Workmen. 
 
 Satisfaction given to 
 
 the Strikers. 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1882 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 Total, 
 
 4 about 18 p.o. 
 
 4 
 14 
 4 
 5 
 10 
 17 
 50 
 60 
 27 
 21 
 
 14 
 31 
 16 
 22 
 29 
 27 
 29 
 35 
 30 
 19 
 
 206 about 27 p.o. 
 
 Transaction. 
 
 Satisfaction given, 
 
 in part, 
 
 to the Strikers, 
 
 after having come to 
 
 an understanding 
 
 with the Masters. 
 
 6 about 27 p.'c. 
 9 " 33 ■• 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 29 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 16 
 22 
 18 
 21 
 17 
 11 
 3 
 17 
 
 120 about 16 p.o. 
 
 Unfavorable. 
 
 Workmen being 
 
 Replaced or having 
 
 Resumed Work 
 on Former Condi- 
 tions. 
 
 Total 
 Number of 
 
 Strikes 
 of which the 
 Results are 
 
 Known. 
 
 12 about 55 p.c. 
 
 15 
 20 
 17 
 13 
 18 
 33 
 93 
 76 
 61 
 69 
 
 53 
 44 
 68 
 56 
 53 
 52 
 54 
 54 
 67 
 54 
 
 427 about 57 p.c. 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 45 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 34 
 
 63 
 
 172 
 
 142 
 
 91 
 
 108 
 
 753 
 
 * Among which is included the strike of Quiltmakers at Cours (Rhone). 3,000 strikers ; duration, 63 days. 
 
 + " " Typographers of Paris 2,000 " " 90 " 
 
 J " " Viennese Weavers 4,000 " " 148 
 
 " " Joiners of Paris 20,000 " " 46 
 
 Bakers of Paris 3,500 " " 71 
 
 " " Miners of Anzin 10,150 " " 59 
 
11 
 
 Attacks on the liberty of labor and trade. 
 
 Accused. 
 
 1875 95 
 
 1876 118 
 
 1877 114 
 
 1878 : 279 
 
 1879 106 
 
 1880 132 
 
 1881 ; 89 
 
 1882 162 
 
 1883 147 
 
 1884 117 
 
 1885 17 
 
 Total 1,376 
 
 MESSES. BBSSELl£]VEB, SONS. 
 
 Calicoes. 
 
 Maromme, (Seine Inf.) 
 
 Men earn $0.60 per day, and the women $0.36 per ten hours' work. The emolu- 
 ments attached to certain special positions increase the daily wages of the greater 
 number of the workmen by $0.20 to $0.40, and those of workwomen from $0.10 to 
 $0.20. 
 
 HOUSE OF FONTAESTB BESSON. 
 Manufactory or Musical Instruments. 
 [Paris, — London.] 
 Organisation of work. 
 The ordinary day's work is of 10 hours. It begins at 6 o'clock in the morning, in 
 summer, at 7 o'clock in winter. No workman works by the piece and overhaste 
 does not therefore exist in our establishments, such a thing would, besides, be incom- 
 patible with our system of work which is, above all things, to attain perfection. Pay 
 day is every Saturday. Lack of work is unknown in our establishments. 
 
 Increase of pay and premiums. 
 
 The increase of pay is always progressive and consistent. Firstly, with the abi- 
 lity of the workman, secondly, with his length of service. 
 
 At the expiration of 10 years' service in our establishments, the workmen receive 
 at the end of each quarter a premium which we call a chevron. This premium of 
 work is from $10 per each quarter and it increases progressively for the best work- 
 men and the foremen. 
 
 One fourth of the number of our workmen receives this chevron, the^other work- 
 men receive an annual gratuity in accordance with their handiwork. 
 
 ME. CHAEDON. 
 
 Common Pottery. 
 
 Malicorne {Sarthe). 
 
 Our staff of workmen consists of turners and assistants. 
 
 The turners work alone in separate workshops, the women are allowed to help 
 their husbands prepare the material, having in winter the heat from the stove for 
 themselves and children.* 
 
 *Turners of earthenware are thus isolated in the twenty potteries in the department of Sarthe. 
 
12 
 
 The wages represent 38 per cent, on amount of income from pottery, and from 
 21 to 30 per cent, from delf. 
 
 There are few good turners, a good turner is a kind of workman hard to find. 
 
 A turner and his wife earn from 70 cents to 80 cents a day, that is, from $200 
 to $220 a year. An assistant gets 45 cents a day all the year round, that is, from 
 $140 to $150 a year. 
 
 The turner's work is not regulated, if he work at night he supplies his own light. 
 
 The day laborers work from 5 o'clock a.m. to 7 p.m. in summer and in the win- 
 ter during the hours of dayligh t, yet the pay is the same. Tb e wages of a turner are 
 such that he can support suitably two children, but should his family be larger his 
 circumstances would certainly be straightened. 
 
 Eents average from $12 to $15 a year and include house and garden. In fine 
 the position is not a bad one for industrious and careful persons. 
 
 THE COMPANY OF THE lEON MILLS OP CHAMPAGNE AND OE THE 
 CANAL OP ST. DIZIEE, AT WASSY. 
 
 Organization of Labor. 
 
 This company employs in its different branches of industry, 1,760 workmen 
 •divided as follows : 
 
 Men, 1,573; women, 49; boys, 129; girls, 9. 
 
 Women and young girls. — ^Women and young girls are employed in the brick- 
 yard to place bricks on the dryers. In the mines, women help their husbands work- 
 ing by the job. they watch the shifting of the earth and equalize the size of the heaps 
 of minerals. In work on the canal, they attend to the bridges and flood gates. In 
 boat work they help their husbands to guide and take care of the boats. As regards 
 age, young girls may be divided as follows : 3, of 17 years of age ; 5, of 16 years ; 1 
 -of 15. Total 9. 
 
 Children. — Young boys who work in factories or mines are classed in the follow- 
 ing manner: 13 years of age, 22 ; 14 years, 43; 15 years, 48; 16 years, 16. They 
 are mixers and straighteners of small irons, 6 are pounders, 8 work in the mines 
 with their parents, 4 are employed in loading and sending off the minerals, 1 is 
 -engaged at the stables. 
 
 Different modes of fixing wages are followed in these establishments ; by the 
 month, by the job, by the quantity produced ; certain classes of workmen receive a 
 premium on extra wages. 
 
 The notes on wages and the rules of the workshops published by the company 
 are too long to reproduce, we will only give the following passage : — 
 
 "When it has become necessary to reduce wages, the management has taken 
 the precaution to explain the measure by means of affixed notices, and to furnish all 
 information on the industrial situation to members of benefit societies elected by the 
 workmen. This mode of action has been the means of preventing disorder, strikes 
 and insubordination." 
 
 •COMPANY FOE LIGHTING^ BY GAS THE CITIES OF MANS, VENDOME 
 
 AND VANNES. 
 
 Number of workmen, 92. 
 
 The monthly wages of the workmen vary from $17 to $36. The average is $22 
 a month ; it was $18 in 1878 and has therefore increased 22-2% per cent. About 10% 
 per cent, of the workmen have, through their saving, been able to build or buy small 
 •dwellings with gardens. 
 
 The yearly savings of a steady man after having brought up his family may be 
 estimated at from $40 to $48, as during the last ten years wages have risen from 
 $216 to $264, and during the same space of time the cost of living has scarcely 
 altered. 
 
13 
 
 GLASS FACTOEY OF BACCAEBT. 
 
 (Established in 1765.) 
 
 Baccarat — (Metjrthe and Moselle.) 
 The staff is thus divided : — 
 
 1878. 1889. 
 
 Men by the month 991 992 
 
 Boys or apprentices , 359 2*70 
 
 Women (apprentices included) 500 487 
 
 Assistants and workmen by the day) 261 199 
 
 Employees, foremen, watchmen YT 77 
 
 2,186 2,025 
 
 In this industry that has increased more than a tenth in m oney, and whose 
 operations have extended in much larger proportion, the staff which regulates the- 
 amount of production has remained the same, while the occasional help is less. 
 
 This is a circumstance on which there is all the more reason for congratulation, 
 as there is a consequent increase of the average wages. 
 
 Average daily wages. 
 
 1878. 1889. Increase. 
 
 Workmen of age 10.64 $0.80 23 p. c 
 
 do 15 to 21 years of age... 0.45 0.50 11 p.c 
 
 do 12 to 15 do ... 0.20fv 0.23 12 p.c, 
 
 Women 0.31f 0.45 42 p.c 
 
 Girl apprentices 0.20f 0.20 
 
 Assistants 0.44 0.44 
 
 Employees 1.00 1.40 40 p.c 
 
 These figures prove that the workmen, as well as these master, have profited by 
 this progress in trade. 
 
 While the average wages increased in this way, the cost of provisions has dimin- 
 ished in proportion : Bread, 12 p.c. ; meat, 29 p.c. ; fresh pork, 12 p.c. ; butter, 8 p.c. ;. 
 and firewood, 4 p.c. 
 
 The cost of clothing, boots and shoes, and other manufactured articles has, 
 during the same period, diminished in excessive proportion. 
 
 There is no night work ; a staff of workmen comprising only the number abso- 
 lutely required are employed as night watchmen, and to attend the fires. 
 
 The day's work is ten hours, the glassmen alone, who form one-fourth of oui*^ 
 staff, work ten hours and a-half per day. ^ 
 
 Organisation of the Work. 
 
 Workmen paid by the month, and women, are generally formed into bands, each 
 composed by a head-workman, a certain number of blowers, and boys attending on 
 the glassmen, of journeymen and apprentices for the other workmen. Among the 
 women there is also a mistress journeywomen and apprentices. 
 
 The earnings of each band is calculated by the piece at the end of each month, 
 according to the rates of work in use for all branches of the business that allow of 
 this manner of computation. , „ , ^ , 
 
 The members of the band deduct from this total the fixed wages ol each work- 
 man, according to his grade, and the balance is divided among them as a gratuity 
 in graduated proportion. 
 
 The fixed rates of wages is the minimum guaranteed to each workman, no- 
 matter what may be the monthly amount of work done by each band. 
 
14 
 
 For glassmen the fixed rate for the head of the 
 
 band is from $28.20 per month* 
 
 Of the Ist blower 19 20 do 
 
 Of the 2nd blower 14.80 do 
 
 Among the cutters of rich pieces of work, our 
 most numerous class of workmen, the 
 
 wages of the head of the band is 18.00 do 
 
 1st journeyman 13.00 do 
 
 2nd do 11.00 do 
 
 It is an exceptional case, and one of very rare occurence, when there is no 
 surplus to divide, and the men receive only their guaranteed minimums. 
 
 This was the reason why the head glassmen's actual earnings, in 1888, were 
 from $47.20, some even earning more than $60, whilst its head cutters earned $34.20, 
 and some more than $40. 
 
 It frequently occurs that the gratuity is larger than the fixed wages. 
 
 Among cutters the surplus is divided in the following proportion, 4 parts for 
 the head, 3 parts for the first journeyman and 2 parts for the second. The formation 
 of bands is, from the nature of their work, more uncertain among glassmen, and the 
 basis upon which they are formed is more complicated. 
 
 Among women working in bands, the guaranteed wages of the head woman, are 
 generally about $6, but she actually receives from $10 to $18 per month. 
 
 Promotion, increase. 
 
 The difference above noted among the journeymen of different classes, and be- 
 tween the head man and the first journeyman show the importance that those inter- 
 ested necessarily attach to their advancement. The head man, on his part, cannot 
 watch with too great care that each man's work shall reach the highest pointpossible 
 to his ability, not alone in his own interest but in that of the band in general. 
 
 Nominations to a higher grade when occasions occur, are made by a council 
 composed of the head men of the factory and of the employees ; those interested 
 being heard. The applicant's length of service is taken into consideration, but much 
 more his ability in his business. 
 
 Once every year, the journeymen of each class compete for rank on the list. 
 They are ranked according to the excellence of the piece of work done by each for 
 the occasion. 
 
 This classification is given on a table or list for promotion, much importance 
 being attached to it by the council when occasion arises. 
 
 Premiums in money are granted to those standing first on the list, posted in all 
 the workshops, having been awarded with all possible guarantees of impartiality. 
 
 The increase of the fixed wages, as far as the established maximum, are made 
 half-yearly by the council above mentioned, on suggestion made by the manager. 
 
 The settled tariffs. 
 
 The settled tariff that determines the actual wages of the workmen is known to 
 all. It cannot be diminished without a previous notice of three months to those in- 
 terested, whilst an inci-ease in the rates is calculated from the date of its publication. 
 The notice of reduction is not usual until after a previous understanding. In any 
 case, the workmen who refuses to work at the new rates has three months in which 
 to seek another place. ' 
 
 There is no instance where a workman has taken advantage of this notice, to 
 leave the factory. He fully understands that such changes have not "been made with- 
 out careful consideration and that his ultimate gain rarely suffers from them, the 
 increase in the production being now given an impetus which had been previously 
 wanting. In any case this matter has never given rise to any serious trouble. 
 
 * Men working by the month are lodged, rent free, in cottages having gardens attached. 
 
15 
 
 Each band of workmen has its own book, in which is entei-ed the daily amount 
 of work done by each band. Each individual concerned may consult the book at 
 will, verify the amount entered, and, if need be, discuss the entries with his superior, 
 a permission of which he does not fail to avail himself. 
 
 Bach one having thus a full knowledge of this daily account, and in case of error 
 or omission rectifying it at the moment, is not subject to disappointment at the final 
 monthly settlement at the central account office. As a consequence there are no 
 disputes about the monthly earnings, no trouble concerning the application of the 
 tariff, which is known and accepted iDy all 
 
 CEOCHAED & SONS. 
 
 SHOE FACTORY AT MANS. 
 
 The annual output of this house is 80,000 pairs of boots and shoes, representing 
 a value of $160,000. The wages paid represent about 25 per cent, of the amount of 
 production. 
 
 The working staff is composed as follows : 
 
 In the establishment: '75 men, 10 women, 5 children. 
 Outside the establishment 60 men, 30 women. 
 180 workpeople in all. 
 
 30 to 35 persons work by the day, earning, in a day of 12 hours, from 70 to 90 
 cents, and 10 women work 11 hours a day for 40 cents. The others work by the 
 job and earn, on an average, as follows : — 
 
 The men from 80 cents to |1 per day. 
 The women from 40 to 45 cents per day. 
 f. Children (13 to 16 years old) 15 to 30 cents per day. 
 
 ,^ During the past 20 years the rate of wages has increased from 20 to 25 per cent. 
 
 A workman earning, on an average 80 cents a day, if he be married, has no more 
 than is needed to bring up his family. If his wife works also he may be able to put 
 in the savings bank $3 or $4 each month. 
 
 ' During the last twenty-five years, wages have increased at. a greater ratio, than 
 
 the] cost of living, notwithstanding which fact the workmen save no more than 
 formerly. 
 
 FAMILISTEEB DE GUISE. 
 
 HEATING APPARATUS, STOVES, &C 
 
 Wages of the ten best workmen. 
 
 1879-1880 
 
 1883-1884 
 
 1887-1888 
 
 1888 
 
 Highest day's work . 
 Average do 
 Lowest do 
 
 Moulders. 
 
 Fitters. 
 
 General average 
 
 of 
 
 each individual 
 
 workman. 
 
 11.23 
 
 Sl.OlJ 
 
 «0.86i 
 
 1.52* 
 
 1.111 
 
 0.94t 
 
 1.64 
 
 1.421 
 
 1.061 
 
 Women 
 
 Children 
 
 
 $0.67 
 
 10.43 
 
 
 0.55i 
 
 0.36 
 
 
 0.38f 
 
 032. 
 
 
16 
 
 Fay of workmen. — ^The pay-list is made in alphabetical order without regard 
 either to the business or the shops in which the men work. 
 
 The list is then divided into four equal sections, two of which are paid on the 
 Tuesday and Friday of each week, and the two others on the Tuesday and Friday 
 the following week, each section and each workman being thus paid every fifteen 
 days. 
 
 The sections are divided as follows : 
 
 From A to C ai-e paid on Tuesdays. ' 
 
 From D to Gr are paid on Fridays. 
 
 From H to L are paid on Tuesdays. 
 
 From M to Z are paid on Fridays. 
 
 HOUSE OF LBCOEUE. 
 
 JOINERS — (Paris.) 
 Organization of the work. 
 
 The Lecceur establishment was already in existence in the middle of the last 
 century. In ordinary times it employs about 400 workmen at 113 benches. For a 
 long time past the establishment has had in operation a system of remuneration for 
 work by the piece, which seems to us excellent and which the " Bulletin de la parti- 
 cipation " thus describes : — 
 
 " The men are formed into bands of seven or eight under the direction of one 
 foreman or chief who directs the work and lends his tools. They work by the day,, 
 and on doors, window frames and other articles a uniformity of price is established. 
 The account of each band is settled fortnightly. A minimum salary of $1.20 a day 
 is guaranteed to each workman of the band, but the work done is very much over 
 the minimum and has never given to each, as a total, less than $1.56 per head. 
 The foreman's wages are twenty cents extra. During a recent visit to the woi-kshops 
 of Miss Lecceur, we established the fact that, a band of seven men earned in their 
 fortnight 11.146.11, of which $90.23 was day's wages and $55.78 was in excess of the 
 days' wages. The excess is equally divided among the band." 
 
 LBTHDILLIBE AND PINBT. 
 
 ENGINEERS — MECHANICS. 
 
 [Eouen.]* 
 Extracts from the Rules of the Workshop. 
 
 Art. 5. — Work is done by the piece or by the hour according to the orders given, 
 the workmen having nothing to say in the matter. * * 
 
 The number of working hours is fixed by us and posted up on the 1st of each 
 month. 
 
 The hours in excess of 132 hours of actual work per fortnight, will be paid for 
 as follows : 
 
 One hour and a quarter per hour during the week. 
 
 One hour and a half per hour on Sundays and holy-days, also for work at night. 
 
 "Work at night is calculated from eight o'clock in the evening. 
 
 No fines are imposed. * * * 
 
 Art. 10. — ^Every workman who has worked in our shop for three consecutive- 
 years shall receive a premium of $14.00 on the 31st of December of the third year. 
 
 This premium increases every year until the thirty-fifth inclusive, as is shown 
 by the following table ; 
 
 * A maritime and manufacturing town, with a population of 107,000. 
 
 * * Nearly all the work is done by the hour, work by the piece being only given to very young persons- 
 as encouragement to work. ° ^ 
 
 *** "The system of fines is frightful."— (Master's note.) 
 
17 
 
 
 
 
 Table of Premiums. 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Years 
 of Service. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Premiums 
 
 Annual 
 Premium. 
 
 Total Number 
 
 of 
 
 Premiums, 
 
 with Interest. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Years 
 of Service. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Premiums 
 
 Annual ■ 
 Premium. 
 
 Total Number 
 
 of 
 
 Premiums, 
 
 with Interest. 
 
 
 
 $ ets. 
 
 1 cts. 
 
 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 1 cts. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 30 00 
 
 463 38 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 31 00 
 
 508 28 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 14 00 
 
 14 00 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 32 00 
 
 555 53 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 15 00 
 
 29 42 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 33 00 
 
 605 19 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 16 00 
 
 46 30 
 
 23' 
 
 21 
 
 34 00 
 
 657 35 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 17 00 
 
 64 68 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 35 00 
 
 714 07 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 18 00 
 
 84 62 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 36 00 
 
 769 43 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 19 00 
 
 106 17 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 37 00 
 
 829 31 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 20 00 
 
 129 35 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 38 00 
 
 892 40 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 21 00 
 
 154 23 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 39 00 
 
 959 17 
 
 H 
 
 9 
 
 22 00 
 
 180 86 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 40 00 
 
 1,029 95 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 23 00 
 
 209 29 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 41 00 
 
 1,104 85 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 24 00 
 
 239 56 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 42 00 
 
 1,183 99 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 25 00 
 
 271 75 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 43 00 
 
 1,267 52 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 26 00 
 
 305 90 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 44 00 
 
 1,355 54 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 27 OO 
 
 342 09 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 45 00 
 
 1,448 21 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 28 00 
 
 380 35 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 46 00 
 
 1,545 65 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 29 00 
 
 420 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 These premiums will bear interest at the rate of 3 per cent, per annum. 
 
 They will be represented by a non-negotiable title, called a premium bulletin. 
 
 Every workman of sixty years, or has been employed in our workshops during 
 thirty-five consecutive years, has the right to be reimbursed in cash, the total number 
 of his premiums with the interest. 
 
 He may continue, with our consent, to form part of our establishment, in which 
 case he will have no right to any further premium. 
 
 If a workman voluntarily leaves our employ, or is dismissed, he cannot demand 
 the number of premiums to which he is entitled, until the expiration of five years 
 to be computed from the Slst December of the year of his departure. 
 
 Any workman who leaves our employ and afterwards returns, will bafVe no right 
 to any premium until he shall have worked anew for two full and consecutive years ; 
 and this premium shall be equal to that of the last bulletin. "QilT 
 
 In case of death, the premiums acquired are paid to the widow or to the direct 
 heirs ; \ at once and f on the Slst December following. 
 
 Art. 11. — All the workmen are insured by us against accidents. 
 
 MOJSrSIBUE MAEQUBT. 
 
 COTTON SPINNING AT CBOUSILLES, NEAR CHAETRE-ON-THE-iOIRE. 
 
 This factory employs 9,200 spindles ; the working staff is composed, as follows : 
 40 men, 40 women and 40 children over 13 years of age. The wages paid represent 
 •^ of the value of the production. 
 
 The working day is of twelve hours, and the wages are as follows : 
 
 Spinners, (men) from $0.70 to $0.80 per day 
 
 Spinners (women) from 0.36 to 0.48 do. 
 
 Children from 0.15 to 0.40 do. 
 
 Women by the day 0.28 to 0.24 do. 
 
 The wages have increased 40 p. c. since 1840. 
 
 A spinner earns from $200 to $240 per year, and some families of four members 
 earn $500 per year. 
 
 Old workmen of steady habits possess a capital of from $800 to $1,200, being 
 partly in real estate and partly in money. 
 20—2 
 
18 
 
 The months' wages are paid on the 12th day of the following month. 
 
 A workman leaving without notice forfeits the amount that may be due since 
 his last pay ; otherwise he must give due notice. 
 
 Work has doubled in quantity since 1850, the cost of living not increasing in 
 proportion, but a love of luxury has sprung up and needs have gone with it. 
 
 THE MOUTIEE ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 WORKS FOK BUILDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 (Saint Germain-en-Laye.*) 
 
 Locksmiths Work and etallic Gontrivances a, Specialty. 
 
 With the exception of employees, foremen, chief mechanics wages and of bellows- 
 blowers who may be paid by the month, work is generally paid by the hour and 
 always according to the ability of the workman, taking the following table as a 
 basis : — 
 
 Cts. 
 Foremen — 
 
 For heavy work 13 
 
 For light work 12 
 
 Adjusters, carpenters, rivetters — 
 
 Very skilful, being capable of executing a work from plans... 12 
 
 Very skilful 11 
 
 Skilful 10 
 
 Ordinary capability 9 
 
 Beaters — 
 
 Capable when required of forging irons for plastering 9 
 
 Of ordinary capability 8 
 
 Blacksmiths — 
 
 Knowing how to design on sheet iron 14 
 
 Very skilful 13 
 
 Skilful 12 
 
 Of ordinary ability 10 
 
 Men working in the town — 
 
 Very good iron workers having a knowledge of bell hanging 
 
 and banister making 12 
 
 Very good iron workers 11 
 
 Iron workers 10 
 
 Of ordinary ability , 9 
 
 Borers — 
 
 Borers knowing how to set and sharpen gimlets 9 
 
 Ordinary borers 8 
 
 Pay -Days. 
 
 The first and sixteenth day of each month are pay-days. 
 
 Workmen encumbered with large fanfilies or those who are the support of their 
 parents may receive money on account in the interval between pay-days . 
 
 No allowance of time or money is made for those who have to go or come from 
 shanties within a two mile limit. 
 
 Allowance of half an hour morning and evening, being an hour for the day, is 
 made for those working in shanties at from two to four miles distance ; the work- 
 man being expected to leave and arrive at the supplementary hours. 
 
 Beyond four miles, the journey to and fro, made outside the regular hours is 
 allowed to the workman in full. 
 
 *Saint Germain-en-Laye is a city of 16,000 inhabitants, situated 8 miles from Paris. 
 
19 
 
 The establish ment pays the expense of the journey for all woi'k done in the Pro- 
 vinces, and a daily allowance of 50 cents besides, to pay for expense of board and 
 lodging. 
 
 All work that obliges the workmen to sleep away from home is considered as 
 done in the Provinces. 
 
 Premiums, or Over-Wages. 
 
 General Idea. — ^When a valuation has been established by the board of account 
 for handiwork, the attempt may be made to lower the amount by premiums granted 
 to the staff by whom the work may have been done. 
 
 Division. — ^Previous to the division of the premiums 10 per cent, will be allowed 
 to the House in order to present a proportionate division between the head fore- 
 man and all the staff, and 10 per cent, will be withdrawn for the foreman ; the 
 remainder will be divided as follows : — 
 
 Chief of the staff 4 parts 
 
 Director 3 
 
 Workmen 2 
 
 Auxiliaries 1 
 
 The premium will be paid on the completion of the work. 
 
 Control — Beceipts. — No premium will be granted if the time has not been kept 
 by the chief of the staff and the accountant. 
 
 The value of any work imperfectly done requiring to be completed or repaired 
 will be deducted from the amount of premium. 
 
 Bules of the Workshop. 
 
 As nearly as possible the workshop will be opened at : 
 
 In summer from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. 
 
 In winter from the beginning of daylight to its close. 
 
 No work is done on Sundays or holy-days, nor on the Monday or Tuesday of the 
 feast of lodges (a local feast.) 
 
 Whenever a workman, from lack of work, has to be dismissed, notice is given 
 him of it a few days previously. Any workman leaving the establishment of his own 
 free ■will is expected to give the same notice. 
 
 Misconduct, impropriety and the non-observance of any of the rules are causes 
 of instant dismissal. The account of the person thus dismissed is settled the same 
 
 day. 
 
 All tools are supplied by the establishment, but those using them are respon- 
 sible for them. 
 
 On Saturday when the day's work is finished, the workmen are bound to place 
 the benches in order and to clean the vices. 
 
 The workshops are to be kept in a daily state of cleanliness by the beaters and 
 
 borers. 
 
 When the engine has stopped work, the apprentices are obliged to clean the 
 machines, and are under the supervision of the engineer. 
 
 THE SONS OF PEUGEOT BEOTHEES. 
 
 HARDWARE AND VELOCIPEDES. 
 
 Valentigny {Doubs.) 
 
 The works of this establishment are represented by these factories in which are 
 employed 1,900 workmen. Nine-tenths of the workmen work by the piece, and 
 
 one-tenth by the day. . •, .^ ^ x -^ j xi. 
 
 Work is paid for by the piece whenever it admits oi a tariti, and the rate is so 
 fixed that the workmen are charged with the furnishings and heating required in 
 20— 2J 
 
20 
 
 their work, and, when possible, with the waste conBequent on their work ; a con- 
 siderable saving has thus been realized, both in means of heating and in raw 
 material. 
 
 The working day is ten hours. 
 
 The rates for piece work, and for day work often hours : 
 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Average. 
 
 In 1863 
 
 the average 
 
 rate was 
 
 In 1858 
 
 the average 
 
 rate was 
 
 
 1 cts. 
 1 60 
 
 80 
 
 40 
 
 1 20 
 50 
 25 
 
 $ cts. 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 30 
 16 
 
 S cts. 
 1 00 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 40 
 20 
 
 % cts. 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 20 
 12 
 
 1 cts. 
 40 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 12 
 
 By the day. 
 Men 
 
 30 
 
 
 15 
 
 Children 
 
 08 
 
 
 
 The annual earnings of an ordinary workman are $260. Those of a family of 
 four people working in the shops, say, two men, one woman, and one child, are 
 from $760. 
 
 Wages are paid monthly in cash, and are paid to every woi-kman in the shops. 
 
 THE FACTOEY OF PIQUET & CO. 
 
 DRIVING ENGINEERS. 
 
 (Lyons.) 
 
 * The harmony that prevails in this factory, the permanent nature of the work- 
 men's engagements, and the absence of strikes is a proof of its superior organisation. 
 
 By what means have these results been obtained? 
 
 In the first place, Messrs. Piquet have granted their workmen the highest rate 
 of wages possible, consistent with the proceeds of the business assuring them a 
 sufficient commercial profit. The men are paid by the hour, at an average rate of 
 15 cents per hour. This is a mode of payment little approved of by political econo- 
 mists who are under the impression that, for a workman to be assui-ed of a certain 
 amount, no matter what his application is, is to insure idleness and loss of time. It 
 has, however, been adopted in this factory on account of its superior results in the 
 quality of work produced. 
 
 When an order is received it is opened at the office where the prices are settled, 
 a particular account, the real backbone of the concern, is opened, composed of three 
 separate accounts, relating one to raw material, the other to the handiwork, and the 
 third to general cost. In the account for material the foreman enters all the goods 
 manufactured or in the rough that leave it ; the account for handiwork remains 
 open during the whole length of time required for each piece of work, and every 
 day the number of hours spent on the work are entered in it. Finally, the third 
 account includes the many elements which cannot be valued with the exactness of 
 the two others ; the hourly waste on the use of tools which is a proportionate part 
 of the general expenses of the factory. 
 
 When an order has been executed it is an easy matter by means of simple addi- 
 tion of these accounts in a strictly mathematical manner to ascertain the amount it 
 has cost and to add to it the amount of profit allowed by the state of the market. 
 
 * Exhibition of 1889. Report of the Departmental Committee of the Rhone. 
 
21 
 
 This means of compilation which Messi-s. Piquet have had in use for many years 
 has been of great advantage to them. By referring to the record of former orders 
 which are carefully filed, they have a sure basis on which to regulate their prices. 
 It also affords them an excellent substitute for pay by the day. If at any time, a 
 workman grows careless or idle, his want of energy is the immediate cause of a rise 
 in the price of returns. Thus automatically warned of the increase in such price, 
 the master searches for the cause of it, without requiring to examine any one he can 
 ■discover the real culprit. By means of this ingenious contrivance he can dispense 
 with the services of a foreman altogether, or if there be one, the disagreable and 
 irritating duties peculiar to his ofiice, are entirely removed. It is no longer neces- 
 sary for him to reprimand idlers there being none, and collision between him and the 
 workmen, is thus avoided. The workman knowing himself to be thus watched by a 
 silent automatic overseer works more assiduously, and moreover his ambition and 
 his pride are aroused to maintain his standing up to his past record. 
 
 PINAUD'S PERFUME FAOTOEY. 
 
 [Paris.] 
 Extract from the Rules of the-Factory. \ 
 
 Article 5. — Any workman or woman having been employed in the factory during 
 5 consecutive years, receives over and above his or her wages a yearly gratuity of 
 ^10 in a saving's bank book or in the torm of French bonds. 
 
 After 10 years of service, this yearly gratuity is raised to ... $20 
 After 15 do do do ... 30 
 
 After 20 do do do ... 40 
 
 The workmen are bound to preserve these amounts intacT, whether in bank or in 
 bonds, under penalty of losing all right to any future gratuity. 
 
 To this rule is attached a table demonstrating how an apprentice beginning work 
 at the factoiy at 15 years of age, the usual age, will become possessed of the follow- 
 ing amounts at the ages mentioned. Interest is calculated at 5 per cent. 
 
 At 15 years of age, the first year he will receive a premium of $ 10 
 
 At 26 years do do of $20 Y8 
 
 At 31 years do do of 30 220 
 
 At 36 years do do of 40 456 
 
 At 41 years the amount of premium does not change after 36 years 804 
 
 At 46 years do do 1,247 
 
 At 51 years do do 1,812 
 
 At 56 years do do 2,554 
 
 At 61 years do do 3,445 
 
 At 65 years when the man retires from woi'k 4,372 
 
 A workman leaving the establishment is at liberty to dispose of his capital. 
 
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES OF LUMBEEIKG AND WOEKSHOPS OF 
 
 THE GIEONDE. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDING. 
 
 [Bordeaux.] 
 
 The number of workmen employed is 800, of which 35 are children, of from 14 
 to 15 years of age. 
 
 Wages are calculated by the day, and the price varies according to the nature 
 of the work ; thus assistants are paid $0.65 and even $1.00 per day for carpentering 
 and caulking. Children receive $0.30 per day. 
 
 The work day is 11 hours in summer and 8 hours in winter. The wages per 
 ■day remain the same in winter as in summer, although the working hours are one- 
 third less. 
 
22 
 
 JOINT STOCK COMPANY OF THE COAL PITS OP MONTEAMBEET AND 
 
 OP B:^EAUDli]EE. 
 
 Basin of the Loire. 
 
 Rate of Daily Wages. 
 
 1888. 
 
 Overseers 
 
 Time-keepers 
 
 Woodworkers 
 
 Miners 
 
 Carriages 
 
 Levellers , . . 
 
 Divers 
 
 Average for the interior. 
 
 Machinists 
 
 Receivers 
 
 Assistant levellers 
 
 Forgers 
 
 Measurers 
 
 Sorting 
 
 Divers 
 
 Average for outside 
 
 General average 
 
 Mines of Boche-la-MoUire and Firmvny. 
 
 Average daily vrages for the interior . 
 do outside. . 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 1291 
 113t 
 1 05i- 
 1 10 
 79 
 76f 
 86 
 96 
 75* 
 59i 
 6& 
 77 
 85 
 431: 
 61 
 59 
 86. 
 
 1888. 
 
 94i- 
 058g 
 
 SEYDOUX SIEBBE & CO. 
 
 CARDING, SPINNING AND WEIGHING. 
 
 [Le Coteau, Bousies, Maurois.] * 
 Number of Workers. 
 
 Le Cateau. Bousies. 
 
 Men 752 475 
 
 Women 480 290 
 
 Girls from 16 to 21 years 153 150 
 
 Girls under 16 years 155 
 
 Boys under 16 years 150 
 
 Boys from 16 to 21 years 160 
 
 Totals 1,690 1,075 
 
 Total number of workpeople, exclusive of hand weavers, 2,765. 
 Amount of yearly wages, $600,000. 
 
 Daily Wages. 
 
 1863. 1888. 
 
 Daylaborers $0.50 $0.60 
 
 Daylaborers, average men in the shops. 9.55 0.75 
 
 Wool sorters 0.,33 0.40 
 
 Engine drivers 0.70 0.90 
 
 Wool cleaners 0.45 $0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Wool dressers (cardirig and spinning) . 0.30 0.45 
 
 Spinners $0.73 to 0.86 $0.90 to 1.00 
 
 Weavers 0.55 to 0.75 0.70 to 0.90 
 
 Mechanics 0.70 to 1.20 0.90 to 1.60 
 
 The work day is llf hours. 
 
 *Villages in the northern department. 
 
23 
 
 Premiums for assiduity. — If a workwoman does not leave herwork except for legi- 
 timate purposes, foreseen by the rules, she has a right, at the expiration of three 
 months, to a premium for assiduity, amounting to $2.40. The total amount of pre- 
 miums thus allowed amount to a yearly sum of about $2,400. 
 
 Premiums for production. — ^The minimum amount of the production is fixed by 
 the rules, and a premium is granted to the workman for anything over that amount 
 produced by him. This premium may amount to $2.20 each quarter for each loom. 
 The total amount of these premiums represent an annual sum of $2,400. 
 
 Share in the profits. — ^Employees and foremen are alone permitted to share. 28 
 per cent, of the net profits being allowed them. 
 
 Savings. — ^From the above mentioned wages the workmen have put in the 
 savings bank the sum of $600,000, divided as follows : — 
 200 deposits of under $200. 
 325 deposits of over $200. 
 
 Fines. — Fines are imposed for infraction of the rules of the factory. They amount 
 to a yearly sum of about $416, and are applied to the funds of the Mutual Benefit 
 Society of the workshops. 
 
 Messrs. Seydoux, Sieber & Co. themselves give the Mutual Benefit Fund an annual 
 sum equal to the amount of fines levied. 
 
 Strikes. 
 There have never been any. 
 
 THE ESTABLISHJIENT OF DECATJVILLE, SE., AT PBTIT-BOUEG. 
 
 RULES OF THE WORKSHOP. 
 
 Article 1. — Journeymen's Assistants. 
 
 Every workman hired by the management is considered to have taken cognisance 
 of the present rules and to have bound himself to conform to them. 
 
 Article 2. — Entrance. 
 
 The workmen must enter the workshops in the morning and at half-past twelve 
 noon 
 
 The factory whistle will give warning fifteen and five minutes previously and at 
 the time of entry. 
 
 The door will open at the second whistle and will close three minutes after the 
 third. 
 
 Any workman arriving late will enter by the director's oflSce where note will be 
 taken of the reason of his want of punctuality, and of the time to be deducted. 
 
 Article 3. — Fodt. 
 
 The workmen will leave at half-past eleven, and at night at the signal given by 
 the whistle. 
 
 They must not stop their machines nor prepare to leave before the sound of the 
 whistle. 
 
 Any workman remaining in the workshop five minutes after th e sound of the 
 whistle will pay a fine of 20 cents. 
 
 Article 4. — The Doors. 
 
 Door Hfo. 1 is the only one by which the workmen must enter or leave. 
 
 Every time they enter or leave by any other door they will pay a fine of $0.40. 
 
 Article 5. — Absence. 
 
 Any workman requiring to absent himself must ask his foremen for a ticket on 
 which will be marked the hour he is to leave, and which he will give to the door- 
 keeper. 
 
24 
 
 Any workman who, without previous permission, loses a half day on Monday 
 or any other day of the week will lose $0.04, and be refused any sum on account 
 during the month. 
 
 If he be absent a second time during the month he will be reduced by a total 
 sum of $0.01. 
 
 Article 6. — The Befectory. 
 
 There is a refectory for the foremen and a refectory for the workmen. 
 
 Any workman entering the foremen's refectory will be fined $0.40. 
 
 The workmen's refectory will be open in the morning at the first whistle, that 
 is fifteen minutes before the entrance hour, and will close at the third sound of the 
 whistle. 
 
 All the workmen should place their baskets in the refectory, and the dishes they 
 desire to keep hot on or in the owens. 
 
 Any workman bringing his basket into the workshop will pay a fine of $0.40. 
 
 The baskets must bo taken away at the latest ten minutes after leaving work at 
 night for ordinary days, and twenty minutes after leaving work on days of dis- 
 tributing. 
 
 Art. 7. — Bestowal of Counters. 
 
 Workmen may take amounts on account in provisions (bread, wine, coal &c.) 
 by means of counters. 
 
 Counters are distributed several times per week, at the oflS.ce of the workshops, 
 when the workmen leave at night. Any workmen leaving the workshop, before 
 the whistle sounds, in order to get to the oflace, will pay a fine of $0.20. 
 
 Art. 8. — Amount on Account. 
 
 Sums in money on account which must not exceed $8.00 each individual, will be 
 given fifteen days before pay-day to workmen who have not missed one day during 
 the month. 
 
 These amounts on account cannot, in any case, exceed in counters the amount 
 already earned. 
 
 Art. 9. — Fay-Days. 
 
 The pay for work done in the month is given at the ofSce of the workshop the 
 first Saturday following the 5th of the next month. 
 
 All claims must be made at the office of the workshops during the five days 
 following pay-day. After which period no claims will be allowed. 
 
 Art. 10. — Machines. 
 
 Any workman who wipes his machine, even if it be unhanded, whilst the wheel 
 is in motion, will pay a fine of $1.00, and if under these circumstances any accident 
 occurs to him he will be considered to have brought it upon himself voluntarily, and 
 will have no claim to any indemnity. 
 
 Art. 11. — Smokers. 
 
 It is only allowed to smoke a j)ipe. 
 
 Any workmen found smoking a cigar or cigarette will be fined $0.20. 
 
 Art. 12.— Closets. 
 
 Closets and urinaries being provided for the use of workmen, any one committing 
 a nuisance other where will be fined $0.20. 
 
 If he commit the nuisance against a pile of rails or metallic obiect, he will be 
 fined $0.40. ^ i j . 
 
25 
 
 Art. 13. — Electric Wires. 
 
 The cuiTent ■which passes over the wires is strong enough to kill a man. 
 
 Any workman touching the wires will be considered as wishing to commit suicide. 
 
 Art. 14. — Writing on the Walls. 
 
 Any workman writing on the wall, doors, &c., will be fined |0.20, and will pay the 
 expense of painting over such wi-iting. 
 
 Art 15. — Distribution of the Fines. 
 
 The total amount of fines imposed will be made over to the Mutual Help Society 
 of Petit-Bourg. 
 
 Art. 16. — Wounds, Accidents. 
 
 In case of a workman being wounded or meeting with an accident sufficiently 
 serious to incapacitate him for work, he shall immediately give notice of it to the 
 physician of the establishment, and before resuming work shall present at the office 
 a certificate from the same physician stating that he is fit for work. 
 
 This certificate is indispensable, in order to claim the indemnity of $0.30 per 
 week day given by the insurance company. 
 
 Art. IT — niness. 
 
 The Mutual Selp Society of Petit Bourg was founded in ISBY to provide medi 
 cal aid and medicines for sick members, and to pay a daily indemnity during their 
 illness. 
 
 The workmen are strongly urged to become members of this society, the regula- 
 tions and rules of which will be communicated to them by the secretary. 
 
 Those not belonging to this society can, iii case of illness, receive gratuitously 
 the care of the physician of the establishment, but must pay for their own medicines, 
 and will receive no indemnity. The physician will visit the workshops every Tuesday 
 and Friday, and any workman wishing to consult him must give his name at the oflBce. 
 
 Art. 18. — Military Service. 
 
 Any workman called to the 28 days or to the 13 days' service will be granted 
 the following inmdemnity by the establishment : — 
 
 1st. $0.40 a day (Sundays included) if he has been more than two years in the 
 workshops. 
 
 2nd. $0.20 a day, if he has been a year in the workshops. 
 
 No indemnity will be allowed any one who has been less than a year in the 
 workshops. 
 
 Art. 19. — Savings Bank. 
 
 Workmen desiring to trust their saviugs to the care of the establishment, can 
 place their money in the Savings Bank at the rate of six per cent, interest per annum. 
 
 Art. 20. — Reduction of Bents. 
 
 The rents of the houses let by Mons. Decauville, senior, have been reduced $0.10 
 per month per child under 13 years of age attending school. 
 
 The rents are also reduced $0.20 per month for each year of service with Mons. 
 Decauville, senior, counting from the third year of service. 
 
 The years are calculated dating from the 1st of the next January following the 
 workman's engagement. 
 
 Art. 21. — Superannuation. 
 
 When a workman has reached the period when he has no more rent to pay, he 
 is considered to be the proprietor of his house until his death, on the sole condition 
 that he works for no other master. 
 
26 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 Average daily wages of Laborers in 1887. * 
 
 INDCSTEIES. 
 
 Working of mines of pit coal 
 
 do slate and stone quarries 
 
 do metallic and mineral mines 
 
 Metallurgical industry 
 
 Siderite industry (preparation and treatment of the smelt- 
 ing of iron and steel 
 
 Manufacture of castings of all kinds 
 
 Illuminating gas 
 
 Manufacture of coke 
 
 do bricks of coal 
 
 do lime 
 
 do cement and articles in cement 
 
 Ceramic industry, pottery, porcelain, delf, bricks, pipes, &c. 
 
 Manufacture of chemical products 
 
 Salt refinery 
 
 Glass factories 
 
 Boilers and brazier's wares 
 
 Bridges and iron timbers 
 
 Manufacture of needles and pins 
 
 Mintage 
 
 riax industry 
 
 Hemp do 
 
 Cotton do : 
 
 Grist mills 
 
 Grinding mills 
 
 Rice mills 
 
 Brewery 
 
 Alcohol distillery 
 
 Sugar factory 
 
 Sugar refinery 
 
 Manufacture of glucose 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 Bleachery of thread and cloth 
 
 Starch factory 
 
 Preparation of tobacco 
 
 do vegetable oils 
 
 Manufacture of rubber goods 
 
 do pasteboard 
 
 do paper 
 
 do wall paper 
 
 Woollen industry 
 
 Slaughter of cattle for food 
 
 Tanneries and currier shops 
 
 White leather trade 
 
 Hosiery in wool and cottons 
 
 Steam machinery, looms, &c 
 
 Agricultural implements 
 
 Musical instruments » 
 
 Weights and measures, &o 
 
 Manufacture of fire-arms 
 
 Powder factory 
 
 Railroad materials 
 
 Boat-building 
 
 Carriage factories 
 
 Printing 
 
 Building contractors 
 
 Manufacture of cloths 
 
 do oil cloth 
 
 do wax candlery 
 
 do matches 
 
 do soap 
 
 do artificial manures 
 
 Average wages of 
 workmen. 
 
 Under 
 
 14 years 
 
 of age. 
 
 ^cts. 
 28i 
 21f 
 
 m 
 
 24f 
 
 29i 
 21* 
 15 
 21J 
 18t 
 28J 
 26J- 
 27f 
 19 
 
 From 14 
 
 tol6yrs. 
 
 of age. 
 
 27* 
 19f 
 24* 
 18f 
 
 171 
 14f 
 18f 
 234 
 15 
 
 17* 
 17 
 271 
 
 15 
 
 16f 
 15 
 14* 
 24§ 
 15 
 15* 
 214 
 16* 
 25* 
 15 
 15* 
 19f 
 14i 
 23t 
 20* 
 15* 
 17i 
 25S 
 
 25S 
 16i 
 16 
 22 
 30 
 17t 
 15 
 22% 
 16 
 13t 
 212 
 
 lets. 
 37* 
 28* 
 33* 
 35* 
 
 42f 
 35* 
 35* 
 32* 
 27* 
 38* 
 42 
 38 
 36* 
 31* 
 45* 
 37* 
 37* 
 35 
 
 28* 
 26* 
 321 
 37* 
 35 
 51 
 34* 
 39 
 36* 
 46* 
 
 Over 
 
 16 years 
 
 of age. 
 
 35 
 31* 
 ,32* 
 27* 
 .38 
 29* 
 29 
 35* 
 24* 
 37* 
 32* 
 034* 
 36 
 29| 
 38 
 30 
 49i 
 38| 
 35J 
 
 41* 
 39J 
 31 
 Zll 
 421 
 30* 
 45 
 42i 
 261 
 32g 
 38S 
 
 $cts. 
 66* 
 67* 
 54* 
 68* 
 
 76* 
 74 
 70* 
 59 
 62 
 63* 
 61* 
 62* 
 63* 
 48 
 94* 
 69 
 71* 
 65* 
 85 
 43* 
 44 
 51* 
 53* 
 48* 
 67 
 58* 
 55* 
 58* 
 65* 
 62* 
 54* 
 48* 
 45* 
 60* 
 52 
 68* 
 52* 
 55* 
 60* 
 60* 
 60* 
 .58* 
 67 
 50 
 74 
 53J 
 94 
 74J 
 69g 
 65S 
 75* 
 82 
 71 
 751 
 681 
 49i 
 67 
 58J 
 52J 
 581 
 59? 
 
 Duration of daily 
 work of workmen. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Hours. 
 
 7 to 12 
 6 to 14 
 
 8 to 13 
 
 5 to 14 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 6 to 12 
 2 to 15 
 8 to 12 
 
 7| to 12 
 
 5 to 14 
 10 to 14 
 
 4 to 16 
 
 10 to 13 
 
 4 to 14 
 
 4 to 12 
 
 8 to 14 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 2 to 14 
 
 4 to 15 
 
 6 to 14 
 2 to 16 
 6 to 12 
 
 10 to 13 
 
 4 to 17 
 
 4 to 18 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 10 to 13 
 
 10 to 13 
 
 4 to 14 
 
 8 to 15 
 
 6 to 12 
 
 2 to 13 
 
 2 to 16 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 6 to 12 
 
 8 to 12 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 6 to 16 
 
 ltol4 
 
 2 to 15 
 
 8 to 13 
 6 to 13 
 
 6 to 12 
 
 3 to 15 
 
 7 to 12 
 
 7 to 13 
 
 9 to 16 
 10 to 12 
 10 to 12 
 
 8 to 12 
 
 6 to 13 
 
 2 to 15 
 
 7 to 14 
 
 6 to 14 
 10 to 12 
 10 to 14 
 
 7 to 12 
 
 3 to 14 
 
 8 to 13 
 
 Night. 
 
 The night, 
 
 7 to 12 
 9 to 12 
 
 8 to 10 
 5 to 12 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 7 to 14 
 lOJ to 12 
 
 11 to 12 
 10 
 11 
 
 8 to 12 
 8 to 12 
 
 4 to 13 
 
 8 to 12- 
 12- 
 
 7tol2 
 
 8 to 12 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 11 
 
 9 tola" 
 
 10 to 12 
 10 to 12 
 
 8tol2 
 
 8 to 10 
 
 8 to 12 
 
 10 to 11 
 10 
 
 16 
 12 
 
 10 
 9 to 12 
 
 * Report of the Belgian section, group XI, sec, 1, by Mr. A. Soupart. 
 
27 
 
 All these industries together employ : 
 15,508 directors and employees. 
 
 24,109 workmen under 14 years of age, earning an average of $0.24|- per day. 
 38,336 do from 14 to 16 years do 0.36 do 
 
 321,020 do over 16, earning an average of 0.62|- do 
 
 Goal Industry, Bassin de Sainault. 
 
 Production, number of tons 
 
 Number of workmen 
 
 Average daily wages 
 
 do wages, per ton 
 
 Cost of mining, per ton 
 
 Average cost of flour, per 100 lbs . 
 
 do butter, per lb ... . 
 
 do meat, per lb 
 
 1850. 
 
 4,420,761 
 46,895 
 $0 361 
 75J 
 25J 
 
 19t 
 09 
 
 1870. 
 
 10,196,530 
 90,958 
 $0 581 
 ■ 1 18§ 
 17 
 4 031 
 261 
 131 
 
 1887. 
 
 13,470,060 
 98,087 
 $ 57 
 88 
 09g 
 2 41 
 251 
 15 
 
 Duration op the day's work in Belgium. 
 
 According to the last census taken for the information of workmen, it was shown, 
 that there were : 
 
 p. c. 
 
 2,790 workmen, working less than 8hours, about 0.73 
 
 5,817 do do 8 do 1.51 
 
 12,071 do do 9 do 3.14 
 
 161,193 do do 10 do 41.97 
 
 54,717 do do 11 do 14.25 
 
 133,431 do do 12 do 34.74 
 
 14,646 do more than 12 do 3.66 
 
 Industries having the greater number of workmen working 10 hours. 
 
 Average 
 duration of a 
 day's work. 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Working of coal mines 
 
 do slate and stone quarries 
 
 do mines 
 
 Metallurgio industry 
 
 Illuminating gas 
 
 Manufacture of coke 
 
 Glass industry 
 
 Manufacture of sugar 
 
 do paper 
 
 do engines, &c 
 
 do railway supplies 
 
 Printing 
 
 Building contractors 
 
 53,843 
 12,014 
 2,743 
 3,424 
 1,116 
 1,028 
 6,598 
 11,150 
 2,916 
 4,255 
 3,390 
 3,396 
 3,355 
 
 on 94,757 
 
 " 17,458 
 
 " 3,346 
 
 " 5,193 
 
 " 1,834 
 
 " 2,069 
 
 " 10,603 
 
 " 22,634 
 
 " 5,884 
 
 " 7,857 
 
 " 7,722 
 
 " 5,318 
 
 " 5,943 
 
 ■37 
 ■01 
 •02 
 ■80 
 ■69 
 •90 
 ■50 
 ■97 
 ■78 
 ■46 
 ■65 
 ■34 
 
 Industries having the greater number of Workmen working 1 1 hours. 
 
 Builders of bridges and metal timbers . 
 Starch factory 
 
 694 on 1,855 
 471 " 630 
 
28 
 
 Industries having the greater number of Workmen working 12 hours. 
 
 Siderite industry 
 
 Manufacture of bricks 
 
 Ceramic industry 
 
 Linen industry 
 
 •Cotton industry 
 
 Brewing 
 
 Woollen industry 
 
 Manufacture of mixed fabrics 
 
 Chandlery 
 
 Manufacture of foods 
 
 8,891 
 
 on 18,272 
 
 
 413 
 
 717 
 
 11-39 
 
 7,829 
 
 " 19,477 
 
 11-41 
 
 21,367 
 
 " 33,048 
 
 11-53 
 
 9,238 
 
 " 16,654 
 
 11-45 
 
 4,231 
 
 " 9,857 
 
 11-63 
 
 13,322 
 
 " 23,359 
 
 11-70 
 
 8,403 
 
 " 11,940 
 
 
 596 
 
 915 
 
 12-21 
 
 513 
 
 912 
 
 
 Industries having the greater number of Workmen working over 12 hours. 
 
 Makers of arms and fire-arms . 
 
 1,358 on 3,536 
 
 12 -03 
 
 Bates of wages for agricultural laborers. 
 
 Yeaes. 
 
 Without Board. 
 
 With Board. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 1850 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 23t 
 271 
 401 
 48 
 
 $ cts. 
 151 
 
 m 
 
 241 
 25 
 
 $ ots. 
 
 13i 
 154 
 2SI 
 24J 
 
 $ ots. 
 08 
 
 1856 _ 
 
 09 
 
 1874 
 
 13| 
 
 1880 
 
 141 
 
 
 The report gives for 1887, the average -wages -without classification, for the -whole 
 3jingdoin, as follo-ws : — 
 
 Men $0.40f a day 
 
 Women 0.24f do 
 
 COAL COMPANIES MAEIBMONT AND BASCOUP. 
 
 [Belgium.] 
 
 These companies employ over 6,000 persons of the -working class. They have 
 •established in favor of their staff numbers of institutions for their benefit, and none 
 •of these institutions pj-esent any distinctive characteristic from others of the same 
 nature, -with the exception of their remarkable chambers of explanation. 
 
 Organisation of work. 
 
 In the work of mining the system of sale and that of premiums have been in use 
 for the last fourteen years and have proved eminently satisfactory to the interest of 
 both master and -workman. 
 
 Sales. — Certain kinds of -work -with mines, the condition of which rarely change, 
 may be put up to auction, Herein the workman finds many advantages, a settled 
 price for his work during a certain period of time agreed upon, the security it gives 
 him, the power of choosing as partners in his work, workmen of the same ability as 
 himself, and the chance of his wages increasing in proportion to the work done, 
 provided work is regular and favorable, &c. 
 
 Bargains. — The care of the underground ways, the different repairs to be made 
 and especially the cutting of coal are all subjects of bargaining ; that is the price 
 ■discussed between the engineers or their assistants and the workmen. 
 
 Premiums. — Since the system of premiums has been introduced for all workmen 
 (loading, driving or drawing the coal from the pits, their wages now consist of one 
 •fixed part, and of one proportionate part in accordance with the number of cars that 
 
29 
 
 have passed through their hands, or with the quantity of coal taken trom the pits. 
 This system is a real stimulus for the workmen, and a certainty for the owner, of 
 coal being mined with regularity. 
 
 Contracts. — In dealing out the material from the repair shops, stores, &c., the 
 organisation of work by the job has been extended to all workmen without distinction, 
 although in certain classes of work, such as drawing up coal, and repairs difficulties 
 are incontestably met with. Its results are an increase of wages of 20 per cent, 
 with a proportionate decrease in the price of returns. The greater part of the yearly 
 work, such as the driving of machines, the repair and the care of the material are all 
 contracted for, the contracts not extending over a year. They are signed by the 
 coal companies and the bands of workmen who accept them. The amount for which 
 they are accepted is frequently based on the quantity of coal extracted. All the 
 risks of the work, which very often varies in quantity, are accepted by the workmen. 
 Past experience shows that, though the coal company may at times advance money, 
 and at others, the workmen may advance work, in the end the compensation is about 
 equalized. Besides, the profits made by the contractors show that the confidence in 
 the results was not misplaced. They have, in fact, signed new contracts under con- 
 ditions entailing reductions of 20, 30 and even 40 per cent, in favor of the companies. 
 If, therefore, their wages have not diminished it must be because they have worked 
 harder, or they have improved their manner of working, making it more intelligent 
 and have thus seconded the efforts made by their superiors in providing improved 
 implements. 
 
 NOTES ON THE WORKMEN'S CHAMBER OF EXPLANATIONS FOR THE DIVISION OF 
 
 MATERIAL.* 
 
 The Chamber of Explanations, instituted for the workmen employed at the coal 
 mines of Mariemont and Bascoup (45 in number), is divided into two sections : one 
 for the workshops, and one for the extraction of coal and for the machines. 
 
 Bach section is divided into as many committees as there are different kinds of 
 work. 
 
 The committees are delegates chosen by the workmen, and a chief elected by 
 the delegates themselves. 
 
 They meet once every quarter the agents under whose orders they work. The 
 meeting is presided over by the chief engineer of the divisions for the material. The 
 meetings are held during work hours. 
 
 The committees enquire into all matters, differences, disputes, &c., that may 
 have arisen between the workmen and the master (here represented by the com- 
 pany) ; they interpose also in settling the rate of wages, and in all difficulties con- 
 cerning the regulation of the work. 
 
 The following is given as an instance of the importance of those chambers of 
 explanations and of" their working ; the case was brought before the chambers for the 
 blacksmiths of the shops : — 
 
 A working blacksmith had to do from plans given him, and at a rate settled by 
 the chief of the shop, certain difficult pieces of work, which had never heretofore been 
 attempted in the shops. When the woi-k was received, it was noticed that the pieces 
 were not made in accordance with the plans, and the workman who had made them, 
 having fallen ill, the correction of the work was entrusted to another blacksmith 
 who undertook the work under reserve, the hammer, according to his opinion, not 
 being strong enough ; the result proved him to have been right. An adjuster was 
 then charged with the correction and succeeded in arranging it. "When it was pro- 
 posed to deduct the price of the work done by the adjuster &om the amount agreed 
 upon by the first blacksmith, the latter protested against such a course, pleading : 
 
 1st. That the iron used for the work was not large enough. 
 
 2nd. That the hammer was not strong enough. 
 
 3rd. That the correction of the work was given to another person and of a 
 different trade. 
 
 ' Group TK.—See The Trades Associations of Belgium, Appendix VI. 
 
30 
 
 In reply it was argued that : — 
 
 Ist. That he was in no way obliged to make use of the iron in question, and the 
 proper iron was to be had in the store. 
 
 2nd. That he had made no protest as to the insutficiency of the hammer. 
 
 3rd. That the correction of the work could not be confided to him, he being sick 
 at the time. 
 
 All the members present and the complainant himself accepted the correctness 
 of these explanations, on condition that for the future, in similar cases, it should be 
 clearly understood that, reservations being made in time, the workman should not be 
 held responsible. 
 
 LA VIEILLB MONTAGNE COMPANY. 
 
 Established in 183*7. 
 
 ZiNO Mines and Founderies. 
 
 [Angleur, Belgium.] 
 
 Organization of Wages* 
 
 All those employed in the Vieille Montagne factories, from the directors down 
 to the smallest assistants working at the ovens, are, according to their degree, inter- 
 ested in producing good work. This end has been attained by the bestowal of over- 
 wages or premiums, the regulation of which we will explain. The one is the real 
 wages and is fixed; the other, what is called the premium, is variable and incidental. 
 The first is designed as a payment for the time devoted to the company's service, 
 the other as a reward for the workman's individuaVexertion, the success attained 
 by exceptional assiduity and intelligence. 
 
 The basis for the workmen's premium is determined by the kind of work at 
 which they are employed ; it varies according to the relative importance of the 
 work, but the workman is always acquainted with the rates, and can himself every 
 day, by the results obtained, calculate the amount. 
 
 The premiums ar& granted proportionately for the amount of mineral manufac- 
 tured, for economizing the raw material, and in particular, the materials for fire, for 
 good work and the quantity produced in a given time. 
 
 In a word, they are regulated according to the- personal care and ability of the 
 workman. 
 
 The premium account is settled at the same time as those of the fixed wages, 
 every fortnight or every month, as the case may be. 
 
 Half the amount of the bonus is paid and constitutes an addition to his salary, 
 and of which he is given possession. The other half is carried to the credit of an 
 account which is opened for each workman ; it is paid to him in full at the end of 
 each year, if during that time he has fulfilled all the moral and material obligations 
 of his engagement. In case of death the bonuses that have been retained are paid 
 over in full to the workman's heirs. 
 
 The average rate of wages paid by the Vieille Montagne Company has since its 
 foundation followed a scheme of progression as follows : — 
 
 183Y to 1847 $ 0.27 to $ 0.2y | 02 
 
 1847 to 1857 0.29 to 0.44f 0.154 
 
 1857 to 1867 0.44f to 0.50| 0.06 
 
 1867 to 1877 0.50f to 0.62| 12i 
 
 1877 to 1888 0.62f to 0.63| O.OOf 
 
 Total $ 0.36f 
 
 In fine the average wages of a workman in the Vieille Montagne Company since 
 
 1837 have gradually increased by about 140 per cent. 
 
 In the average wages of 1888 of $0.65f, the amount of the bonus varies from 25 
 
 per cent, to 10 per cent., according to the workman's rank. 
 
 *The Vieille Montagne Company at the Exhibition of 1889.— Labor Societies. 
 
SEOTION^ II. 
 
 PROFIT SHARING. 
 
 CO-OPERATIYE ASSOCIATION'S. 
 
33 
 
 PROFIT-SHARING. 
 
 BAEBAS, TASSAET BT BALAS. 
 1804-1888. 
 
 ROOFING, PLUMBING AND HEATING. 
 
 Participation in profits was introduced into this establishment by Mr. Ed. 
 Goffinon, the predecessor of the present partners. 
 
 In 1862 Mr. G-offinon granted to his staff a share in the profits. This share 
 was given in money, in the form of a bonus, and was distributed after each stock- 
 taking. 
 
 In 18*72 Mr. G-offinon inaugurated a new system of profit-sharing, a system which 
 with certain improvements, dictated by experience, is at present followed by his 
 successors and may be described as follows: — 
 
 All the workmen of this establishment are not allowed to participate in the 
 profits. 
 
 To be admitted as a participant, the workman must be French, must have 
 worked three consecutive years in the establishment, and have given proof of his 
 industry and capacity. 
 
 Every candidate for admission as a participant must make application in writ- 
 ing to the heads of the house, and inclose a copy of his cahier judiciaire and a health 
 certificate from the doctor of the Mutual Aid Society. He must also pass an exam- 
 ination by the Consultative Committee,* who, according to rule, may postpone the 
 admission of the candidate if he does not possess sufficient capacity for his woi'k. 
 
 Besides the participants, there are " aspirijig participants " who may enjoy a part 
 of the privileges of profit-sharing. 
 
 The Consultative Committee each month determines the extent and importance 
 of the advantages to be accorded them. 
 
 After a year of probation these aspirants, on the advice of the Committee, may 
 become real participants. 
 
 Apprentices of the house are admitted as participants from the first January 
 that precedes the end of their apprenticeship. 
 
 The amount to be distributed among the staff of this house is fixed at five per 
 cent, of the net profits of the business. 
 
 The distribution of this dividend is made among the participants ^ro rataon the 
 sums they receive in the year as fixed sams allowed, or as wages, without counting 
 gi-atuities or other variable allowances. Prom the sum apportioned to each parti- 
 cipant, two equal parts are taken ; 
 
 The one which is paid him in cash each year after the settlement of accounts, 
 at stated periods. 
 
 The other which is placed to the employees' credit in the Provident and Eetiring 
 Fund. 
 
 Participants cannot withdraw their deposits until after twenty years con- 
 secutive service in the establishment, or after having attained the age of fifty years. 
 In either case the participant may demand the amount entered to his credit in his 
 little book if he continues to work in the establishment; his new account of partici- 
 pation cannot be closed by reason of long service, or of age, but he must await his final 
 leaving before he can demand a settlement of his account. Eveiy participant who 
 leaves the house of his own free will, without having concluded the length of service 
 above mentioned, is considered to have been dismissed and is deprived of all rights, 
 
 *I9 composed of the managers, the chief overseers, the two oldest employes and the fiv^ldest workmen. 
 20—3 
 
34 
 
 even tho8e in the Provident Fund. The amount to his individual credit is, on the 31st 
 December after his leaving, divided among all the accounts of the participants, in 
 proportion to the amounts already to their credit. 
 
 All persons dismissed for sei-ious reasons are in a similar position. 
 
 Every participant, on leave of absence, is bound to return to his work if he is 
 recalled, within the month. If he does not return to his work within eight^ays after 
 notice to do so, he is considered as having been dismissed and he is deprived of his 
 rights ; if the house allows him to remain away over a month, he then has the right 
 to demand the settlement of his account. 
 
 When a participant dies, while in the employ, the sums to his credit are given : 
 1st to his wife if she be not divorced, nor separated from bed and board, nor as to 
 property. 2nd to his legitimate children or children legitimized by subsequent 
 marriage, to his abopted children and his grandchildren. 3rd to ascendants. 
 
 In default of the above mentioned, the sums resulting from the settlement of the 
 deceased participant's account are divided among the other participants fro rata to 
 the sums entered to their credit. 
 
 If it is shown that a participant has become so infirm as to be unable to work, 
 the total amount to his credit may be paid to him should the committee consent. 
 
 As long as the sums mentioned in the account books of the participants are 
 deposited with the house, 5 per cent, interest will be granted. 
 
 A general meeting of the staff and participating workmen takes place every 
 year after the closing of the stock-taking, to receive an account of the operations of 
 the year, to ascertain the sum to be divided and to approve, if necessary, the changes 
 in the regulations, &c. 
 
 This meeting every year names an arbitrator, an expert duly authorized to 
 examine into the accounts with the partner or partners. The object of the report 
 prepared by the arbitrator is to ascertain and state : 
 
 Ist. If the inventory or stock-taking was made in conformity with the stipula- 
 tions of the general agreement. 
 
 2nd. If the participation of 5 per cent, on the net profits of such stock list was 
 duly applied to the staif of workmen in conformity with the regulations. 
 
 This meeting also decides on the advice of the Consulting Committee whether 
 it would be advisable to leave their capital with the house, or whether the amount 
 should be invested with an Insurance Company, a Trust Society, or a Public Treasury. 
 
 The participants should belong to the Society of Mutual Aid of the house. 
 
 Besults of the organization. 
 
 Prom 1872 to 1884, total amount of wages amounted to $162,306.'73 
 
 The 5 per cent, on the profits produced 17,140.00 
 
 Which gives in regard to wages a proportion of 10'55 per cent. 
 The wages paid are the same as those paid in other houses. 
 A workman with $1.50 a day (the tariff of the City of Paris) and who works 
 300 days in the year, receives as a bonus at the end of the year . 
 
 In cash $23.75 
 
 ' To be entered in their books 23.75 
 
 Ei'om 1872 to 1888, 117 workmen were admitted as participants, of which 
 number : 
 
 14 became masters. 
 
 5 retired. 
 
 2 entered military service. 
 
 6 returned to the house after voluntarily leaving it. 
 10 died. 
 
 4 were dismissed. 
 2(5 left voluntarily. 
 
 67 
 
 50 were participants in 1888. 
 
35 
 
 Mr. BBSSBLlilVEB, Junior* 
 
 AT MAROMEB (Seine Infdrieure). 
 
 • The question of the participation of the workmen in the profits of the employer 
 is not a new one ; but it has never been put into practice in our locality, and it was 
 considered that it would not be uninteresting to describe the trial we have given the 
 system in our calico establishment at Maromme (Seine Inferieure). About 250 
 workmen and employees are employed in our establishment. The day's work of 
 ten hours varies from 3 francs for the assistant workmen to 7 and 8 francs for 
 the workmen and foremen. The women earn from 1 franc 80 to 2 francs per day. 
 
 Since 1877, with the desire to increase the well-being of our fellow laborers and 
 to strengthen the bonds between them and us, we have inaugurated the system of 
 profit- sharing. However, in fear of making a step backward after making a step 
 forward, we did not wish, at present at least, to assure the participants a fixed 
 percentage in advance on the annual profits. We granted this as a gratuity over 
 and above the regular wages, and we reserved the right to determine each year, 
 after the closing of the stock list, the sum to be allowed the participants. 
 
 The work-people (men and women) admitted to participation are not chosen 
 arbitrarily by the master ; certain conditions of age (25 years), and of length of 
 service (5 years), give them the right to be participants. We may add that the 
 young men called away at twenty-one years for military service do not lose the 
 rights they have already acquired. An account is kept of the time they worked in 
 our establishment before the twenty-first year, the time of their sojourn in the army 
 being alone deducted. 
 
 The bonus allowed to each in proportion to his annual wages is divided into two 
 parts. The first part is paid to the participant in cash. He has the immediate 
 enjoyment, or at least the immediate disposal, of part of his acquired savings. This 
 immediate payment seemed indispensable in order that the system might be 
 appreciated. Human nature is so constituted that it prefers some enjoyment in the 
 present to giving all to the future. Moreover, the workmen can put this amount to 
 profitable use, and he is also encouraged to increase his wages by economy. 
 
 The second part, the other half of the bonus coming to the workman, forms the 
 provident fund. It is entered in the provident book of account and yields a fixed 
 annual interest of 4 per cent. The completion of the system is the payment of this 
 sum, which strictly should not be in the hands of the employer, but in a special 
 provident fund which will certainly be established when thfr system of participation 
 will have progressed and be adopted by a certain number of factories. The time 
 will come when the workman will receive the sum due him. A clause of the regula- 
 tions determines the cases when payment shall be made of the sums entered in the 
 small account book, viz., at the death of the participant ; in case of incurable illness ; 
 at the age of sixty years, and after twenty years of service in the house and forty- 
 five years of age. There is no danger of the money being spent in the tavern. 
 
 The owners of these books never lose their rights, not even when they leave the 
 establishment. The sums entered in their books belong to them and will be paid 
 them with interest in the cases of settlement provided by the regulations. A consult- 
 ing committee, composed of six co-laborers already interested in the business of the 
 house and of six delegates named by the workmen, is appointed to manage the 
 distribution of the bonuses allotted to the participants. This committee acts as an 
 intermediary between the employer and workman in any diflculty that maj?^ arise. 
 The participants cannot be dismissed except on the advice of this committee. 
 
 *Notice given to the jury. 
 20—31 
 
36 
 
 This participation, organized under these conditions, gives the results shown in 
 the following table : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Amounts 
 
 to be 
 
 Shared. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Participants. 
 
 Share 
 Proportioned 
 
 according 
 
 to amount of 
 
 wages. 
 
 1878 
 
 S 
 
 2.000 
 3.000 
 3.000 
 3.000 
 3.000 
 2.000 
 4.000 
 2.000 
 2.000 
 2.000 
 2.000 
 
 96 
 96 
 99 
 128 
 118 
 116 
 116 
 120 
 126 
 132 
 1.31 
 
 11>67\ 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 17,36 
 16,71 
 
 1881 
 
 1882 
 
 11,29 
 11,77 
 
 1883 
 
 8,17 
 
 1884 
 
 16,35 
 
 1885 
 
 8,07 
 
 1886 
 
 7,63 
 7,26 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 : 
 
 7,26 
 
 
 The workmen thoroughly undei-stand the advantages of this system. 
 
 They quite appreciate the material help this increase is to them, an increase 
 which, in good yeai's, has reached as high as 16 to 17 per cent. One old woman 
 working in the factory declared that with her share and that of her husband who 
 works in the same establishment, she was able to pay her rent and taxes. 
 
 The subscription of a part of their profits to the provident fund has taught the 
 sharers habits of economy, and as a consequence the greater number of sharers, of 
 their own free will, deposit every year the amount of their shares over and above 
 their wages, in the Savings bank of the establishment. 
 
 Looked at from a higher point of view the workmen who are already attached 
 to the establishment by strong ties feel that participation will draw master and men 
 closer together by uniting them in a common work. They have by their watchful- 
 ness and care, been able to save both material and time for the benefit of the house, 
 and the bonds between them and their chief are such that they speak of our factory, 
 our calico, and no event can occur either happy or otherwise in which the workmen 
 do not enter, sharing in the joy and mourning of the head of the establishment as 
 though they were but one family with their master. 
 
 This is a real advantage to all, and the experience of eleven years allows us to 
 add that the employer himself has an interest in associating his workmen in his 
 profits, above all in great industries, where superintendence is less direct and leakage 
 more easy. Under organized participation the workmen themselves exercise this 
 superintendence, and we may cite the example of that participating workman in one 
 factory charged with oiling the machinery, who economized in one year an amount 
 of oil of greater value than the bonus he was to receive. 
 
 It is our hope that the system of participation will ever be better understood 
 and that heads of establishments will ever give more and more attention to its appli- 
 cation'. But let there be no mistake: there is no ready-made form for applying the 
 system. Bach one must apply it in his own particular way, according to the work 
 he is engaged in, taking into consideration the workmen he employs, the country 
 they live, and their surroundings. There is but one thing about the system that is 
 common to all, and that is good will, the wish to lend a helping hand to the work- 
 men, rating them at their worth, and as they deserve. " Our workmen are not our 
 slaves, our machines are our slaves, our workmen are our fellow-laborers! " These 
 words spoken by Mons. Steinhel of Eothans, at the banquet given by the Industrial 
 Society of Mulhouse in 1876, are fresh in our memory, nor have we forgotten the 
 system of participation established in Alsace by Messrs. Schaeffer & Lalance, suc- 
 cessors to Mons. Haeffely, We have borrowed more than one idea for our organiz- 
 ation from this system. 
 
37 
 
 To the future belongs associated work. An extra-parliamentary commission 
 associated with the Minister of the Interior has been occupied in gathering all the 
 documents relating to this subject of those who have interested themselves in this 
 matter, and who have practised the system. 
 
 The results we expect from the system of participation cannot be more aptly 
 given than in the words of Richard Cobden (1861) : " T view with pleasure every 
 measure that tends to fill up the abyss that separates the two classes of capitalists 
 and laborers. I wish these two classes to understand the difficulties of their mutual 
 position. I would wish the workmen to understand that capital is nothing more 
 than accumulated labor, and that labor itself is only the seed grain of capital ; that 
 these two, the capitalist and the laborer, concerned in a common work, should see 
 that what is to the profit of one is to the benefit of the other, and that both are 
 equally interested in the success of the enterprise." 
 
 To masters belong the realization of these wishes, to masters belong the right 
 to support and help their fellow-laborers, so that there may be established between 
 them real parental relations, that to them may be applied the words: "We are but 
 one family, and with us, as with the workingman's family, some members are older 
 than the others, and bear the younger ones in their arms." 
 
 THE BON MAECH^. 
 
 HOUSE OF ARISTIDE BOUOIOAULT. 
 
 Co-operation. 
 
 In the year 1880 Mde Boucicault, widow, passed a notarial deed with 96 of 
 her heads of departments, by which the Bon MarcM became a co-oporative associ- 
 ation. Mde Boucicault took as co-partners, in two-fifth parts of her business, a num- 
 ber of her employees, who were already the owners of a saving or capital sum with 
 which they bought shares and became sleeping partners. The total capital was 
 fixed at 2,000,000 francs, of which Mde. Boucicault held 12,500,000 francs and the 
 associates 7,500,000 francs. The society is a collective name as regards Mde. Bouci- 
 cault, the other parties interested being merely sleeping partners.* 
 
 The business has been divided into 400 parts of $10,000, in order that the lesser 
 employees may be permitted to purchase a share or to join together to raise the 
 necessary capital. Cash boys, drivers, saleswomen have joined together to purchase 
 shares, but all heads of departments or of counters have at least one share in the 
 business.* * 
 
 It had been provided in the case of Mde Boucicault's death that the society 
 should continue under a collective name as i-egarded the agents named by her, or 
 failing such, by agents named by the associated partners, and remain a sleeping 
 partnership for the representatives of Mde Boucicault and the other partners. But, 
 by the mere fact of her death, the company, fi-om being one of sleeping partnership, 
 became a joint stock company with shares of $10.00 francs as capital. 
 
 Mde Boucicault died in 1887, and, according to the act of the society, new agents 
 were named. Thanks to the co-operative system introduced in the establishment, 
 though the management was changed, in spite of the importance of the business 
 none of its interests suffered. The Bon MarcM is now doing business under the 
 name of Plassard, Morin, Pillot & Co., as appears by tke following extract from a 
 notice at the Exhibition : 
 
 " By the constitution of the Society of Veuve Boucicault & Co., founded in 1880, the entire commercial, 
 •capital, divided into 400 shares of eights parts each, that is 3,200 parts, has beerL divided successively among 
 a large number of the employees of the house, who are thus partners in the profits. " 
 
 Frofit-Sharing. 
 A certain number of the superior employees in the Bon Marchihave an interest 
 either in the profits or in the business of the establishment, or in the general sales 
 in their department. 
 
 * Profit-sharing, &c. — Dr. Bohmest. 
 
 * * Examination of the labor societies — Mr. Fillot'a deposition. 
 
38 
 
 In 1876 Mods. Aristide Boucicault, founder of the Bon MarcM, established a 
 Provident Pund, in order to interest, besides his superior employees, all his staff in 
 the profits of the business. The shares apcording to the regulations of this Provident 
 Fund were : ' 
 
 All employees who had been in the house for five years or more (with the 
 exception of those already interested in it). 
 
 A personal account was opened for each participant. 
 
 The division is made proportionately to the amount received by each employee 
 calculating on a basis of $600 for the lowest amount received, even though 
 the employees may earn less than that sum, and on a basis of $900 for the 
 largest amount, although the employees may earn more. The amounts carried to 
 the names of each individual are bonused by an annual interest of 4 per cent. 
 
 The right to share in the Boucicault Provident Fund is given: 
 
 1st. For one-third part to the employees, men, having served ten years in 
 the house. 
 
 2nd. For two-thirds, employees, men or women who have served fifteen years 
 in the house. 
 
 3rd. For the total amount, employees, women having served fifteen years in the 
 house. 
 
 4th. For the total amount to employees, men, having served twenty years in 
 the house. 
 
 5th. For the total amount, equally among the employees, women, who have 
 attained the age of forty-five years, or of employees, men, who have attained the age 
 of fifty years and over. 
 
 An employee having attained the limit of the age may remain in the house, and 
 draw the interest accruing to him as shown by his book, but he can draw the 
 capital sum only on his leaving the establishment. 
 
 In case of the death of a participant his share is paid over to the heirs. 
 
 In case of infirmity or any sickness incapacitating^ the participant from work, 
 the agents may make over all or part of his share to himself or his family. When 
 the participant is given an interest in the house, he no longer belongs to the Bouci- 
 cault Provident Fund, his account is stopped and put aside to be liquidated under 
 the same conditions as for the other participants. 
 
 When a participant leaves the house of his own free will or is dismissed, he 
 loses his rights, and his share is divided among the other accounts. 
 
 The agents, however, having enquired into his reasons for leaving, or for his 
 dismissal, may remit to him the whole or part of the amounts carried to his account. 
 
 Any lady participant contracting marriage, no matter what may have been the 
 length of her service in the house, and even if she leave the house, has a right to- 
 the payment of the amounts due to her account, and the whole sum is given to her 
 on her wedding day. 
 
 Progression of the Boucicault Provident Fvnd. 
 This fund is maintained by an annual sum taken from the profits of the house. 
 
 Years. 
 
 • 
 Capital. 
 
 Number of 
 Sharers. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Number of 
 Sharers. 
 
 1876 
 
 $ 
 
 12,404 
 24,016 
 40,148 
 57,785 
 75,444 
 93,114 
 113,567 
 
 128 
 199 
 275 
 351 
 443 
 515 
 592 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 $ 
 
 132,267 
 152,766 
 177,189 
 201,826 
 230,077 
 248,735 
 
 699 
 
 1877. 
 
 738 
 
 1878 
 
 1885 
 
 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 851 
 
 1879 
 
 995 
 
 1880 
 
 1,250 
 1,383 
 
 1881 
 
 1888 
 
 1882 
 
 
 
 
89 
 
 On the Slst of July, 1888, there were therefore 1,383 sharers in the Boucicault 
 Provident Fund, possessing a capital of $248,735 ; besides the sums distributed since 
 the founding in 1876, amounting to $Y0,365. 
 
 M. B. BUTTNEE-THIEEEY. 
 
 LITHOGRAPHER. 
 
 [Paris.] 
 
 After deducting from the gross sales, losses, failures in production and breakage 
 of material, Mons. Buttner-Thierry grants 1 p. c. to his employees. To this grant 
 established by statute, he adds a bonus proportionate to the amount of profit made. 
 One-third part of the annual dividend is paid in cash to the participant, the other 
 two-thirds are deposited to the workmen's account in the Union Insurance Company 
 at compound interest, payable after his death to his wife or children, or to the parti- 
 cipant after 20 years' service in the house, or when he is 60 years of age. The 
 employee may add to this deposit the third he has at his disposal, and in that case 
 Mons. Buttner-Thierry increases it by 5 p. c, as an encom-agement to thrift. Pour 
 of the twenty-six participants have so far profited by this advantage offered them. 
 
 CHAIX PEINTIlsTG ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 Participation was established in Chaix in 1872. • 
 
 Since that date 15 p. c. of the net profits has been divided among the workmen 
 participating, fro rata on each man's regular earnings. 
 
 \ of the part of each participant is paid in cash. 
 
 \ is credited to his account on the books of the retiring and provident fund, 
 which the participant can receive only on quitting the establishment, or, in case of 
 his death, while still employed by the house, it is paid. over to his heirs. 
 
 \ is paid into the same retiring and provident fund, but which he cannot touch 
 until he is sixty years old, or has worked twenty consecutive years for the firm. 
 
 Any employee, workman or workwoman can after three years service in the 
 house, become a participant on condition that his competence and zeal in work has 
 been manifest, and he must make application in writing to Mons. Chaix. 
 
 The amount of profits allotted in 1872 represented 10 p. c. of the wages ; in 1873, 
 7 p. c. ; IQ^ p. c. in 1874 ; 7 p. c. in 1885. The average proportion from 1872 to 1888 
 was 6 p. c. of the wages. 
 
 Remits of the Organization. 
 
 The results are given in the following table exhibited by the Chaix printing 
 establishment : 
 
 Share allotted to the staff every year : — 15 p. c. of the profits. 
 
 Amount distributed from 1872 to 1888:— $180,669.20 divided by means of the 
 individual books. 
 
 Member of participancy admitted : — 871 workmen, workwomen and employees. 
 
 Average rate of the division : — 6 p. c. of the wages. 
 
 Amounts 
 
 in 871 individual hooks. 
 
 1 of $5,480 
 
 
 9 of $600 to $700 
 
 1 of 4,500 
 
 
 14 of 500 to 600 
 
 1 of 3,500 
 
 
 20 of 400 to 500 
 
 5 of 2,000 to $3,000 
 
 
 30 of 300 to 400 
 
 37 of 1,000 to 2,000 
 
 
 42 of 200 to 300 
 
 20 of 800 to 1,000 
 
 
 89 of 100 to 200 
 
 7 of 700 to 800 
 
 
 595 of 100 and under. 
 
 * No application has bo far, been refused. 
 
40 
 
 Profit-Sharing by Apprentices. 
 
 A special fund has been opened by the Chaix house in favor of compositor 
 apprentices, to divide annually among them a part of the profits procured by their 
 work * 
 
 The amounts proceeding from this fund are divided as follows : 
 
 -|- is immediately entered on the book of the fund belonging to the party interested. 
 
 ^ is retained in the house to be remitted to the parents at the expiration of the 
 term of apprenticeship. 
 
 ^ is reserved for distribution every five years among the apprentices then present 
 in the establishment. 
 
 The apprentices are thus, at the expiration of their apprenticeship, in the pos- 
 session of a small capital, varying from $100 to $120. 
 
 On the first of January previous to the termination of their apprenticeships, the 
 apprentices share in a division of 15 per cent, of the profits among the staff. 
 
 From 1869 to 1888 the number of apprentices sharing in the profits for appren- 
 tices was 618, and the amounts paid over to the fund by the house, were altogether 
 $4,548. 
 
 GEISTBEAL INSUEANCB COMPANIES. 
 • 
 
 This Assurance Company founded in 1850 a Pension Fund which later on was 
 changed into a Provident Fund. In 1850 the Board of Administration contributed 
 to this fund $30,000, and every year it adds five per cent, of its profits. 
 
 All the employees of the company, excepting outside agents, experts and door- 
 keepers, are allowed to participate on the 1st of January following their admission 
 into the company's service. 
 
 The sums paid into the Provident Fund are divided among the sharers, j»ro rata 
 the amounts received by each employee during the year. An individual account is 
 opened for each participating employee ; the accounts are capitalized and accumulate 
 at 4 per cent, per annum. 
 
 The employee cannot touch this amount until after twenty-five years in the 
 service of the house, when he has attained the age of 65 years. He can then 
 purchase with the amount set to his account an annuity in the office, transfer- 
 able to his heirs, or he can invest the money in railway or government securities, 
 the company then keeps possession of the stock certificates and pays him his divi- 
 dends, the certificates being paid over to the persons named in his will. 
 
 The employee whose account has been settled can remain in the company's 
 service, and continue to share in the profits ; but he cannot enter the service of any 
 other insurance company without the written authorization of the company under 
 penaltj', if the council so orders, of forfeiting all the sums or annuities to his account, 
 which will then be returned to the Provident Fund. 
 
 Employees who have resigned, or been removed or dismissed, have lost all right 
 to the Provident Fund, unless the council decide Otherwise. 
 
 The amounts forfeited are divided among the individual account, in proportion 
 to the amounts already inscribed in them. 
 
 In case of death the amounts in the sharer's books are paid over to his family. 
 
 If an employee be afflicted with any infirmity by which he is incapacitated for 
 work, the council may dispose of all, or part of, the amount to his account for his 
 benefit. 
 
 If an employee be named a director his account is settled on the day of his 
 nomination, and he can receive in cash and in full the amount inscribed in his book. 
 
 If a participating employee should, with the consent of the council, undertake 
 some employment excluding him from participation, he may by permission of the 
 council receive all or part of the amount credited in his book. 
 
41 
 
 Eesults of the organisation. 
 
 $ 
 Since 1850 the company has paid over to the 
 
 Provident Fund 1,324,329 
 
 Interest at 4 p.c 481,893 
 
 1,806,222 
 Amounts paid to retiring employees or to their families 
 
 amount to 979,668 
 
 Amount in full in the Fund on the 31st December 1887.. 826,554 
 
 Shares in this company are very high, there are superior employees whose books 
 at the age for retiring carried amounts of 820,000, and ofl&ce boys who, after 25 years 
 service, find themselves in |)Osse8sion of a capital of from $4,000 to $7,000. 
 
 THE NATIONAL. 
 
 FIRE AND LIFE INSURANCE COMPANIES. 
 
 [Paris.] 
 
 The National Insurance Company divides every year a cash dividend of 2^ p.c. 
 among its employees, the division being based on their salaries. Directors and ins- 
 pectors do not share in this division. The division has been made annually since 
 1837. 
 
 THE SUN AND EAGLE. 
 
 FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 
 
 These Companies founded in 1881 a Provident Fund, based on the principles of 
 the Provident Fund of the General Insurance Company. The only ditfercnce of any 
 importance between the two systems is in the manner of division which in these two 
 companies is based not only on the amounts received, but on length of services. 
 
 Every year these two companies give to the Provident Fund 3 per cent, out of 
 the sums set aside as dividends tor the shareholders. 
 
 75 per cent of this annual allowance is divided as follows : 
 
 50 per cent pro rata of the wages. 
 
 25 per cent, pro rata the number of years service. 
 
 The other 25 per cent, of the sum remaining at the disposal of the managing 
 council to reward exceptional services, to aid certain employees and to add to the 
 account of the participant's interest at 4 per cent. 
 
 COMPANIES FOE ILLUMINATING BY GAS THE TOWNS OF MANS, 
 VENDOME AND VANNES. 
 
 CENTRAL COMPANY OF ELECTRICITY OF THE TOWN OF MANS. 
 
 The workmen and employees receive every year a gratuity proportionate to the 
 services rendered. Every two years a sum is taken from the company's profits and 
 divided between the workmen and employees in proportion to salaries. This sunt, 
 which represents an increase of about 10 per cent, of the allowances and wages, is 
 placed in the Savings Bank, and books are given on which the credit is entered. 
 
 An annual sum of $10.00 is levied on the profits for the benefit of the work- 
 men meriting it, and who have worked over five years in the house ; and this sum 
 is placed to the credit of the workmen in a special account. At the end of ten years 
 this allowance is raised to $15.00 a year. 
 
42 
 
 The total bears interest at 5 per cent, 
 
 In 1888, at the inauguration of the new factory of Mans, the company gave to 
 each of the children of their workmen a book for the Retiring Fund for old age, with 
 a entry of credit of $4.00. 
 
 From that time the workmen are obliged to pay annually to the credit of their 
 children at least |2.00 until such time as the children are able to earn their 
 livelihood ; the company place a similar amount to the credit of each child. The 
 capital is reserved for the parents. 
 
 With the object of assisting workmen with large families, the company them- 
 selves pay the subscription for the children, counting from the fourth. 
 
 RAILWAY FROM PARIS TO ORLEANS. 
 
 REGULATION ON THE PARTICIPATION OF EMPLOYEES IN TIIE ANNUAL PROFITS OF THE 
 
 RUNNING OF THE ROAD. 
 
 Extract from the Statutes of the Orleans Company. 
 The Administrative Council, see article 54 of the new statutes : 
 
 Art. 54. After the different asRessments mentioned in Articles 50, 51, 52 and 53 
 above referred to, and those to which may be applied the guarantee of interest 
 granted by the State, and to the future division with the State of a part of the profits, 
 the net proceeds of the enterprise will each year be divided among the shares at the 
 rate of the six hundred thousandth, per share, with the exception made in Article 10 
 above mentioned concerning new shares. 
 
 However, when there is added to the total shares as interest and dividend a sum 
 of $4,000,000 there is made on the surplus of the proceeds a deduction of 15 per cent., 
 which amount shall be distributed by the Board of Directors among the employees of 
 the Company, in proportion to their wages, or by reason of their services, on 
 principles to be determined by regulations which shall be submitted for the approval 
 of the next general meeting. 
 
 When, by application of the preceding dispositions, the total of shares has 
 amounted to a sum total of $5,800,000, the assessment to be levied on the net pi-oceeds 
 shall be reduced to 10 per cent. 
 
 When, by application of the preceding dispositions, the total of shares has 
 amounted to $6,400,000, the assessment to be levied on the proceeds shall be reduced 
 to 5 per cent. 
 
 In accordance with the resolution of the general meeting of the Slst March, 
 1863, which gives power to the Board of Directors to modify the by-law of the 30th 
 March, 1854, in accordance with the by-law of the 30th March, 1854, it is decided : — 
 
 Art. 1. When, in carrying out Aritcle 54 of the Statutes, there is made, on 
 the annual proceeds, deductions of the sum to be divided among the employees of the. 
 Company in proportion to the wages, and to their services, this sum shall be divided 
 according to the following dispositions by the decision of the administrative council, 
 rendered on the propositions of the Directors : — 
 
 Art. 2. Each year, before any division be ma le, there shall be deducted, for the 
 aid and encouragement fund, a sum which, in any case, shall not exceed 15 per cent, 
 of the amount to be divided, and which shall not be more than the sum needed, with 
 the full disposable amount of the previous year, to make up the maximum of $50,000. 
 Special decisions of the administrative council, rendered at the request of the 
 directors, have decided what sums shall be taken from the aid or encouragement 
 fund, either during the year, or at the end of it, to be given : — 
 
 1st. To the employees who, in the performance of their duty, have been wounded, 
 have contracted illness, or suffer from infirmities that render it impossible for them 
 to continue their employment. 
 
 2nd. To the families of those who have died under similar circumstances, or by 
 reason of some extraordinary ailment. 
 
43 
 
 3rd. To employees in want. 
 
 4th. Finally, to employees who distinguished themselves in the service. 
 
 Art. 3. The assessment prescribed by Article 2, above mentioned, having been 
 made, the surplus of the sum to be determined is divided among all the employees, 
 in proportion to the wages which each has received during the course of the year. 
 
 Art. 4. Those employees alone are included in the division, whose wages are 
 fixed by the year, saving the exceptions established, or to be established, by special 
 decisions of the administrative council. 
 
 Every employee entering the service of the company is admitted to the division, 
 dating from his nomination. 
 
 Every employee who leaves the service of the company during the year, for any 
 cause whatever, ranks at the division only on the portion of the annual wages which 
 he has drawn. 
 
 All employees attached exclusively to the first establishment, that is the con- 
 struction or working of sections, of which the proceeds and expenses were carried to 
 the account of the first establishment, were not allowed to share iii the division in 
 any case. 
 
 Those employees are admitted who, though placed under the conditions of the 
 preceeding paragraph, are at the same time preforming duties in regard to the general 
 working of the road. 
 
 Art. 5. The bonus allowed to each employee, to the extent of 10 per cent, on his 
 wages, is placed to his credit in the retiring fund for old age, instituted by the State 
 under conditions of Article 7 following. 
 
 The surplus of the bonus is, to the extent of 7 per cent, of his wages, paid to 
 the employee in cash. 
 
 Finally, after these two deductions (amounting to 17 per ceat. of his salary), the 
 balance, if any exist, is placed to the account of the employee in the savings bank of 
 Paris on the conditions in Article 8 following. 
 
 Art. 6. The sums carried to the account_of each employee either in the retiring 
 fund or in the savings bank are given by the company as a voluntary gift, not trans- 
 ferable and not seizable. 
 
 Art. 7. The subscriptions to the retiring fund for old age, given before the 
 employee has reached the age of fifty years, are made on condition of its being made 
 a life rent to him at that age, either as a sinking fund or as reserved capital, as he 
 may wish, the whole in conformity to the plan and regulations of the fund. 
 
 When an employee has reached the age of fifty years, if he remains in the service 
 of the Company, the subscription to the retiring fund of the amount conveyed to him 
 for the year in which he will have reached his fiftieth year is given to him with 
 the life rent due at 51 years. If he remains in the service of the company when he 
 is 51 years the new subscription is given him with the enjoyment of the life rent 
 when he is 52, and so on, from year to year. As to the rent acquired at 50 years, 
 at 5i years, &c., by reason of the subscriptions made anterior to these ages, the 
 enjoyment is sent back a year as the employee commences a new year of work after 
 50 years, after 51 years, &c. 
 
 The subscriptions to the retiring fund cease at the moment when the life rent 
 attains the maximum fixed by law. In such case the extra subscriptions as well as 
 the arrears of the liquidated rent is placed in the name of the employee in the Sav- 
 ings Bank of Paris until such time as he will sever his connection with the company. 
 
 Art. 8. The subscriptions to the Savings Bank are made on condition that they 
 can only be withdrawn by the employee, in virtue of a special decision of the admin- 
 istrative council rendered at the request of the director. 
 
 The subscriptions are suspended when the credit of the employee to this fund has 
 reached the maximum determined bylaw; if, moreover, his subscription in the retir- 
 ing fund for old age has not reached the maximum fixed by the law which regulates 
 the latter fund. In that case that part of his contribution which should have been 
 given to the Savings Bank is made over to the retii-ing fund to supplement the maxi- 
 mum fixed by Sec. 1 of Art. 5 above given. The contributions to the Savings Bank 
 recommence when the maximum of the life-rent acquired by the retiring fund has 
 
44 
 
 reached the maximum. Then the sums which ought to be contributed to the retiring 
 fund as well as the arrears on this liquidated rent of such fund are paid to the 
 Savings Bank, on condition that it shall invest such sums in State rents not to 
 exceed the maximum determined by law, until such time as the employee severs his 
 connection with the Company. 
 
 Art. 9. Every employee has the right to increase from his own resources the 
 contributions made on his account according to the foregoing dispositions, either to 
 the Savings Bank or the retiring fund. 
 
 Art. 10. The book of accounts of each employee in the retiring fund or Savings 
 Bank fund is taken care of by the Company. These books are given up, with the 
 right of disposing of them, either to the owner in case of his dismissal, or to his heirs 
 or assigns in case of his death. 
 
 Art. 11. Every year after the work of division is accomplished a bulletin is given 
 to employees on which is stated : 
 
 1. The amount of the sums to his credit in the retiring fund, with the indicar 
 tion of the life-rent to which these sums give the right. 
 
 2. The amount to his credit at the Savings Bank. 
 
 Art. 12. At the end of the grant, as vrell as in the case provided for by Art. 37, 
 on the bill of charges, the part of the aid or encouragement fund, formed as stated 
 in Art. 2 above given, which has not been disposed of by the administrative council 
 shall be distributed among the employees in service, according to the rules prescribed 
 by Articles 4, 5, Y, 8 of the present by-law. 
 
 Art. 13. Any anterior clause contrary to the present by-law is repealed. 
 
 THE PIVES-LILLB COMPANY. 
 
 MACHINISTS AND BUILDERS. 
 
 [Fives-Lille (Nord).] 
 
 This company supports a Provident Fund for its workmen of Fives & Grisors 
 (between 2,500 ana 3,000) upon the following basis : 
 
 The subscription to the fund are : 
 
 1st. A sum equal to 8 per cent, on the net proceeds of the workshop. 
 
 2nd. The disposable balance on a sum equal to 2 per cent, of the same net pro- 
 ceeds, after deduction of amounts for medical attendance in the factory, miscellaneous 
 aid, and judicial indemnity amounts which may have been paid in bonus during the 
 year. 
 
 The participant must be 22 years old, and have served for three consecutive 
 years in the establishment. 
 
 The amounts paid in to the Provident Fund are divided among the participants 
 pro rata the wages they have received during the year. 
 
 The individual accounts bear interest at the rate of 4 per cent. 
 
 After twelve years' service, dating from the day he was admitted to participa- 
 tion (about fifteen years' service in the factory), the participant's account is settled, 
 and the amount due him is placed in his name in the retiring fund for old age as a 
 reserve capital, or as an alienated capital if he asks for it. 
 
 The participant whose account has been settled may continue to work for the 
 company, and the part coming to him is then paid over to his account in the retiring 
 fund. 
 
 Settlement in case of death or sickness, etc., forfeitures are defined and provided 
 for as in other provident institutions of like nature. 
 
 COMPA&]SriB GENE RALE TRANS ATLANTIQUE. 
 
 PROFIT-SHARING. 
 
 It is the principle of the Compagnie Gdn^rale Transatlantique (Ocean steamers) 
 that every employee of the company, from the General Manager down to the lowest 
 
45 
 
 workman should receive, besides his monthly dues, a* share or bonus on the whole 
 or part of the amounts accruing from the business. 
 
 The shares of the administrative staif are provided for by statute, and are voted 
 every year by the shareholders at a general meeting. The shareholders also vote 
 an amount of so much per cent, on the profits to be divided among the head 
 officials and other stationary employees. The share for the head officials is deter- 
 mined by a certain number of shares, varying in number according to the status of 
 each. These shares are invariable so long as the dividend remains the same. An 
 amount of so much per cent, of the profits voted by the shai-eholders is then deducted 
 from the total amount of the head officials and divided as a general bonus among the 
 stationary employees in sums proportioned to the amount of wages. This general 
 bonus represents about 10 per cent, of the salaries. 
 
 The watchful care of the administration is brought to bear also on the sailing 
 portion of the staff — on the officers as well as on the crew. The bonuses are con- 
 sidered as commercial drafts. On the other hand, captains and other officers of 
 packets are responsible for losses, averages and harbor dues. A regulated system of 
 bonuses and penalties has, therefore, been established, so calculated that by good 
 management the bonus exceeds the penalty by a great deal, and increases the 
 amount in full by about 14 per cent. 
 
 The margin allowed for bonus and penalties is broad enough to allow a deduction 
 of 10 per cent, on the difference for the sailing staff, and 5 per cent, for the 
 stationary staff working in the ports. 
 
 These deductions form a capital, which is divided every year among the 
 stationary employees under the name of special bonus. 
 
 The division is made in all branches of the service under the advice of the head 
 officials among the most worthy employees, who thus receive a supplementary sum 
 of about 5 per cent, on their wages in addition to the general bonus of 10 per cent. 
 
 THE SUEZ CANAL COMPANY. 
 
 The Suez Canal Company established a system of participation when it began 
 its operations in 1855. The following articles are from its statutes : — 
 
 Article 13. — The net proceeds or profits of the enterprise are divided as follows : — 
 
 4. 2 per cent, for the formation of a retiring and aid fund, for indemnities or bonus granted to the 
 employees as the council may deem advisable. 
 
 Mons. Charles- Aim6 de Lesseps explained the company's system in the following 
 way before the Commission of Enquiry on Labor Societies : 
 
 In establishing an annual division of a part of the profits, our general idea has been to associate our 
 staff in a real manner to the enterprise, to its profits, its prosperity in proportion to the services rendered 
 by each employee. 
 
 From the time an employee has reached the retiring age he receives a pension proportionate to the 
 number of his years of service, and to the amount of his salary. There are two proportions which combine 
 to form the retiring fund . When an employee is retired at the end of one year's service only, with a salary 
 of $360, he can receive but a very small amount of pension ; but if he has served thirtjr years, with a salary 
 of $5,000, when he retires he will receive $2,400. He is, moreover, associated with the profits of the 
 business, even when he no longer belongs to the acting staff. The period for retiring is therefore not 
 restricted. 
 
 The following is our manner of proceeding : 
 
 We find ourselves this year with a profit sharing of $120,000. We will first allow the retiring fund a 
 sum in proportion to half the amount of the salaries of those retired. Then we will also give half in pro- 
 portion to tneir salaries to acting agents ; the remainder will be divided among the rest of our staff pro rata 
 the wages and years of service of each. 
 
 These explanations will enable us to understand the rules for retiring and the 
 eventual division of 2 per cent, granted in 18Y6 by the administration. 
 
 Article 1. — The right to retire is given all employees classified by the company, after thirty years of 
 active service, calculating from the date of their classification.* 
 
 *Mons. de Lesseps in his deposition before the Commission gave the following explanations in regard 
 to the classifications : — " Our agents are all taken on trial for a certain length of time, and they are classi- 
 fied, that is put in a position to admit of retiring, after they have served two years in Egypt and a certain 
 time in France. . , , , . . , , 
 
 Article 2. — The right of retirement for years proportioned to the years of active service, counts from the 
 date of classification and is granted— 
 
46 
 
 1st. To employees havinpr served twenty years in Egypt. 
 
 2nd To employees having served the company part of the time in France and part in Egypt, during a 
 space of time, which, allowing fifty per 100 for services in Egypt, will give a total of thirty years' service. 
 
 3rd. To all licensed employees for stoppage of work, re-organization, or any other administrative 
 measure which does not partake of the nature of dismissal. 
 
 4th. To all employees afflicted with certified maladies which incapacitate them for active service. 
 
 5th. Employees having attained sixty years of age. 
 
 Articles. — By special agreement between the company and the employee the right to retire does not 
 prevent continuation of actice service. 
 
 Articles 4 and 5 give the reversion of half the pension of a deceased retired 
 employee to his decendants or heirs, or to such persons whose support the deceased 
 has been. 
 
 Art. 6. Any employee who has been dismissed or whose appointment has been revoked loses a right 
 to retire, or to any amends whatsoever. 
 
 However, in the case of a dismissed employee being reinstated in the classified staff, his former years 
 of service will be admitted in the calculations. 
 
 Art. 7. Licensed employees readmitted to the company's service, and whose licenses have been granted 
 them, may calculate the whole of their service as classified employees for the right to retire and to 
 the bonus. 
 
 Those employees whose licenses have not been returned on returning to the company's service, as well 
 as all those who may in the future be re-admitted, will calculate their services only from the date of their 
 new classification. 
 
 Art. 8. The minimum amount for retiring employees who have given thirty years' active service is 
 rated on their average salary during their last three years of service. A proportionate minimum is granted 
 the other employees retired. 
 
 Art. 9. 'The amount required for the retiring fund is provided by the proceeds of the 2 per cent, on 
 the profits reserved for the staff. 
 
 Art. 10. § 1 . Whenever the proceeds of the 2 per cent, is more than sufficient to cover the minimum 
 for retiring employees a deduction of 10 per cent, will be made on the total amount of proceeds to establish 
 a reserve fund to provide for deficits, and for aids voted by the Council in favor of workmen in adversity 
 or for their families. 
 
 § ;'. The amount deducted may be modified, suppressed or established at any time the Council, may see 
 fit to do so. 
 
 § 3. A current account producing interest at 4 per cent, per annum will be opened by the company for 
 the employees' reserve fund. 
 
 Art. 11. When from the proceeds of the 2 jier cent, deducted from the minimum for retiring employees, 
 provided for by Art. 8, and the deduction provided for by Art. 10, there remains a sum in excess, this sum 
 will be divided among those employees retired in proportion to the average amount of their wages for the 
 last three years of their service multiplied by the total number of years they have served the company as 
 classified employees, the multiplier never to exceed 30. 
 
 But this privilege will cease when the amount to be distributed shall reach half the average amount of 
 the retiring employee's last three years' salary, he having served the company for thirty years, and it shall 
 be proportionately smaller for those who have served the company less than thirty years. 
 
 Art. 12. When, after deducting the 10 per cent, provided for by Art. 10 from the amount for retiring 
 carried to the maximum as provided by Art. 11, the annual proceeds of the 2 per cent, still leaves an excess, 
 this excess will be divided entirely among all the classified employees in service in porportion to their 
 salary on the 31st December of the previous year, multiplied by the number of the employees' years of actual 
 services, the multiplier never to exceed 30. 
 
 Art. 13. The number of years' service of the classified working staff having a share in the division 
 provided by Art. 12, will count from the 1st of January. 
 
 No employee classified after the 1st of January shall share in the division of profits for the year in 
 which he is classified ; but the year of his retirement shall in any case be counted in compensation as entire, 
 for the division of profits. 
 
 Art. 14. When the division provided for by Art. 12 has produced for the working staff a part 
 equal to that granted by Art. 11 for the retiring employees, that is, a part equal to half the salary of 
 employees of thirty yea,rs of services, the surplus of the proceeds of the 2 per cent, will be divided among all 
 the staff generally acting or retired, according to the provisions of Art. 12. A last settlement for the 
 retired employees will be based the same as for the settlement at the period of their retirement. 
 
 Art. 15. 'The annual amount to be given retiring employees, shall in no case exceed Sl,600 for those 
 employees whose average salaries during their last years of service shall have been $3,000 and under. 
 
 And in like proportion for those whose salaries have exceeded $3,000, the amount of $2,400 remaining 
 as a last maximum whatever may have been the amount above $5,000. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF A. DeBEENY 
 
 Type Pottndrt. 
 
 (Paris.) 
 
 RULES FOR PROFIT-SHARING AND FOR THE FUND OF THE FOUNDRY. 
 
 Introduction.* 
 Mons. DeBerny introduced profit-sharing in 1848 ; this was the fourth trial of 
 this system of remuneration. (* *) 
 
 * Notice returned to Jury. 
 
 (* *) The first application of the system was by Leclaire in 1842, the second by Laroche- Joubert in 1843 
 and the third by the Orleans Company in 1844. 
 
47 
 
 The first Mods. DeBerny based his system on the relative value of capital and 
 labor, uniting in a more complete way than had ever been done before tnese two 
 factors for production. 
 
 The system he has used since 1848 is a proportionate division of the profits (and 
 the losses) between capital and labor. 
 
 The same rule is applied to the division of the profits accruing from labor among 
 the workmen. 
 
 Mons. DeBerny was therefore inspired, above all, by a sense of distributive 
 justice. He had the honor to be the first to make use of this manner of profit-sharing, . 
 in which capital and labor are associated on a footing of entire equality. 
 
 The form he chose, free from all idea of despotism, shows the workmen clearly 
 that their share in the profits depends upon and is entirely measured by their work. 
 This, therefore, was well adapted to encourage them, and to create and develop mutual 
 confidence, without which experience teaches, any system of participation is preca- 
 rious. 
 
 Wot only was Mons. de Berny guided by a sense of justice in his system of 
 profit-sharing, but he was moved by a desire to provide a provident fund and one 
 for mutual help. This was how he became inspired to establish the fund for the 
 foundry. Since its establishment this fund has been not only an aid fund, but also a 
 fund for mutual credit. The loan society was established, and it is not the least ori- 
 ginal nor the least useful fund in the establishment. 
 
 The fund was, for a long time, supported by little else than subscriptions from 
 the wages ; but in 18Y1 Mons. de Berny, not satisfied with the small amount of 
 foresight shown by his workmen, and deeming that too small a share of their profits 
 were devoted to thrift, decided to make a change, and devote that portion of the pro- 
 fits heretofore paid to the men to a foundry fund. 
 
 This fund has flourished, and has since extended its operations, and pension funds 
 have been created for retiring workmen, as well as a pension fund for acting employees 
 subject to certain conditions regarding age and length of service, which adds 
 materially to their usual wages. 
 
 Profit-sharing and the foundry fund are therefore two dependent institutions 
 which support and assist each other. They cannot be considered separately. 
 
 Charles Tuleu. 
 
 BASIS FOR PARTICIPATION OP LABOR IN THE PROFITS. 
 
 The profits are divided proportionately among the amounts in wages and allow- 
 ances and with Capital. 
 
 The first of these two parts represents Labor's share ; it is given to the Foun- 
 dry Fund.* 
 
 The Foundry Fund shares in the losses in the same proportion.* * 
 
 REGULATIONS OF THE FOUNDRY FUND. 
 
 Management. 
 
 The Foundry Fund will be managed by a council composed of members named 
 by the direction, and of members periodically elected by the workmen. 
 
 The council will give out the work in the shops. It will study artd regulate all 
 matters relating to the management of the interests of the fund. 
 
 Rules for Admission. 
 To become a participating member of the Foundry Fund, it is necessary that 
 eveiy workman should : 
 
 1st. Have worked 180 days in the establishment. 
 
 2nd. For men, be 18 years of age and earn at least 80 cents per' day. 
 
 (*) This share has been devoted to the fund since 1871.— From 1848 to 1870 the share of the profits 
 belonging to labor was divided among the members of the fund pro rata of their work. 
 (* *) A case occurred in 1852. 
 
48 
 
 3rd. For women, be 16 years of age and earn at least 40 cents pei*"day. 
 
 All participating members shall, on their pay-day, be subject to a retention of 
 2 per cent, on their wages in favor of the fund. 
 
 Every member is bound to belong to some recognized mutual aid society. 
 
 Members on leave of absence are not subject to the retention when their absence 
 is not for one month. When their leave exceeds one month, a monthly tax of 60 
 cents for men and of 30 cents for women is demanded. 
 
 Military service is considered as leave of absence, and is fi'ee pf the monthly tax. 
 
 A workman re-admitted to the workshop after having left it may be received 
 as a participating member without any further probation, provided he refunds the 
 share drawn when he left. 
 
 Monies of the Fund. 
 
 The Foundry Fund is provided for : — 
 
 1st. By an assessment of 2 per cent, on the wages and allowances. 
 
 2nd. By interest on money lent and invested. 
 
 3rd. By the shares of the profits granted to labor. 
 
 The accounts of the fund are kept by a special accountant, as well as by the 
 accountant of the establishment. 
 
 They are inspected every year by the Council of Administration. 
 
 The fund has a reserve fund, the amount of which is regulated every year. 
 
 The monies of the fund are deposited in the Banque de France, in Mons. Tuleu's 
 name, the directing proprietor of the foundry. 
 
 Contingent Shares. 
 
 The monies of the fund are common property during the lifetime of the work- 
 men. Bach one's shares are determined at the expiration of each year as follows : — 
 
 Half the actual amount, reduced by the amounts to be paid in pensions the com-, 
 ing year, is divided proportionately among the number of days' service ; a woman's 
 day is considered as f of a man's ; 
 
 The other half is divided proportionately among the wages ; 
 
 The days and the wages are calculated from entering the foundry. 
 
 The shai-es remain in the fund to each one's name. They serve to determine 
 the amount of aid fund for sick members and the loans which the fund makes to its 
 members. 
 
 In this division the days and the wages of the working pensioners are reduced 
 by ior ^ or^ or by f, according as their amount of pension is \ or \ or J orf of the 
 entire pension. 
 
 Eetired pensioners have no contingent share in the fund. 
 
 The contingent shares are liquidated only in case of death, or of leaving the 
 foundry. They are then subject to a reduction of: 
 
 The total amount previous to 900 days work. 
 
 The -jSj after 900 days work. 
 
 A 
 
 do 
 
 1,200 
 
 do 
 
 A 
 
 do 
 
 1,500 
 
 do 
 
 ^ 
 
 do 
 
 1,800 
 
 do 
 
 A 
 
 do 
 
 2,100 
 
 do 
 
 4 
 
 do 
 
 2,400 
 
 do 
 
 A 
 
 do 
 
 2,700 
 
 do 
 
 A 
 
 do 
 
 3,000 
 
 do 
 
 The council is the only judge of the dispositibn of the contingent share in case 
 of death. 
 
 The fund is allowed two years for the payment of the shares. The division of 
 the amount in the fund will be made in accordance with the same regulations in case 
 of the establishment being in liquidation. 
 
49 
 
 joans. 
 
 The fund loans to its members the amount of their liquidated shares as long aS' 
 such shares have not reached one-third the amount of their entire contingent share.- 
 It may lend another third as an encouragement to thrift ; this second third must be' 
 used to buy Freuch life-rents, the deeds remaining on deposit in the fund until the' 
 loan is paid up. 
 
 The loans bear interest at 6 per cent, per annum, and are payable every fort- 
 night at the rate of 
 
 $0.80 the least up to % 25 
 1.20 do do 40 
 
 1.60 do do 60 
 
 2.00 do do 140 
 
 2.40 do do 200 
 
 ?i.80 do do 240 
 
 3.00 do do 300 
 
 Aid. y 
 
 The fund allows aid in case of sickness to all workmen who have worked 180 
 days in the foundry. The length of time in which aid may be given is restricted to 
 one year. 
 
 The tariff is as follows : — 
 
 $0.40 per day for 40 days, and $0.45 for the remainder of the year, for men who 
 have served 900 days; and $0.20 per day during 40 days, and $0.28 during the 
 remainder of the year for women who have served at least 900 days. 
 
 Or of $0.45 per day during 40 days, and $0.50 during the remainder of the year 
 for men who have served more than 900 days ; and of $0.23 during 40 days, and 
 $0.26 during the remainder of the year for women who have served more than 900 
 days. 
 
 Over and above these aids, a supplementary allowance is granted of $0.05 per 
 $20 of the contingent shares in the fund, over $80 for men, and $40 for women. 
 
 Chronic diseases, and those of more than one year's duration, are subject to 
 particular regulations. 
 
 !N"o greater number of days of sickness is paid for more than the number of days' 
 work given. An illness of one day is not paid for. 
 
 Aid in case of sickness is paid for only from the time notification has been given 
 of the sickness. 
 
 Non-working days are paid for in case of sickness ; nevertheless, if the first day 
 of sickness occurs on a Sunday or non-working day it is not paid for. 
 
 Women in childbed, members of the fund, or wives of members working or not, 
 are gi-anted $10, provided they refrain from work in the shop during one month. 
 Women members receive, moreover, the usual help during sickness for the thirty 
 days following their confinement. 
 
 The fund shares in the funeral expenses of its members or of their spouses, or 
 of a retired pensioner. Its share of the funeral expenses is $10 in any case. 
 
 Apprentices may be admitted to the fund for aid in case of illness, provided the 
 boys have not reached 18 yeai-s of age, nor the girls 16 years of age, on condition of 
 a deduction of 2 per cent, on their wages. The aid is proportioned to the amount of 
 their wages. 
 
 The funds allow men belonging to the reserve and the local service an allowance 
 per day of 20' cents for themselves, and 20 cents for their wives, and 10 cents for 
 each child or parent dependent on him. 
 
 Fensions. 
 
 The fund allows pensions to the workmen in cases of infirmity or old age, with 
 
 the privilege for the pensioners of allowing their pensions to accumulate with wages 
 
 if they continue to work in the foundry. 
 
 20- 
 
50 
 
 Pensions are regulated on the number of days work done, on the amount of 
 wages earned by the workman since his entrance in the foundry, on the amount 
 disposable in the funds, deducted fi'om the reserve fund. 
 
 The pension is entire or partial. 
 
 The partial pension is of the fifth, the third, or the half or the three-fourths of 
 the entire pension. 
 
 A pension of anj' kind can be granted in case of infirmity, or after a long illness, 
 after 1,800 days work in the foundry. 
 
 After 55 years of age a man who has worked 7,500 days in the establishment, 
 and a woman who has worked 6,200 days, have a right to — 
 
 A partial pension equal at first to one-third the amount of the entire pension, 
 and four years afterwards to one-half, and finally four years later still to three- 
 fourths of the entire pension, still continuing to work in the establishment. 
 
 Or else to the entire pension on retiring. 
 
 After 60 years of age the men who have worked 6,000 days, and women having 
 worked 5,000 have a right to — 
 
 A partial pension, equal at first to one-third of the entire pension, then four 
 years later to the half, and four years later still to the three-fourths of the whole 
 pension, still continuing to work for the establishment. 
 
 Or to the entire pension on retiring. 
 
 The pensioner may forego the fifth or the third, the half or the three-fourths, or 
 the whole of his co-property in the fund, in proportion to the amount of pension 
 granted him. 
 
 The rates for partial pensions are regulated every year. 
 
 The retiring pension does away with the right to aid in case of sickness. 
 
 The widow of a pensioner who had a right to an entire pension has a right to a 
 pension of : 
 
 The -^ of the entire pension to which her husband had a right, after '30 years of 
 married life ; 
 
 The -^ of such after 25 years ; 
 ■^ do 20 years ; 
 
 ^ do 15 years ; 
 
 -^ do 10 years. 
 
 ^Entire Pension. 
 
 The entire pension is regulated as follows : — 
 
 5 cents per day for men and 3 cents for women ; 
 
 1 per cent, on the wages for men and women ; 
 
 With an increase when the funds in hand, after deducting the amount for the 
 reserve fund, are more than $10,000, of 1 per cent, per $200 put aside. 
 
 Or else with a reduction, when the amount in the fund diminished by the reserve 
 fund is less than $10,000, of 2 pei'cent. per $200 difference. 
 
 The retiring pension once determined is fixed as long as the amount in the fund 
 is over flO^OOO. 
 
 roUNDRY FUND ACCOUNTS.* , 
 
 Forty-first Division — 1888. 
 
 Receipts for the year. Francs. 
 
 2 per cent, retained on wages and allowances 5 182 20 
 
 Exterior taxation 106 50 
 
 Interest on loans 6*74 35 
 
 Interest on invested fund 4 996 90 
 
 Bonuses 9 60 
 
 Receipts belonging to the fund 10,969 55 
 
 *In consequence of the complicated system adopted for determining contingent shares, we have thought 
 proper to calculate by francs. 
 
51 
 
 Share of profits granted labor for work on letters in 1887 and 
 
 made over to the fund 22,024 00 
 
 21.330 80 
 
 Total amount of receipts 32,993 55 
 
 Expensesfor the year : 
 
 Aid in cases of sickness : men 3,095 YO ) aaao m 
 
 do do women 1,346 40 ( *.**^ ^" 
 
 JRetiring pensions at a fixed rate 11,571 
 
 Pensions for workers at a variable rate 9,759 
 
 Funeral expenses, 3 deaths, 4 crowns 240 50 
 
 Temporary aid 130 00 
 
 Orants for 8 births 400 00 
 
 Indemnities to those on reserve or local service 52 00 
 
 lighting furnaces 42 00 
 
 Xiquidating contingent share 1,818 15 
 
 28,455 55 
 
 Excess in receipts over expenses 4,538 00 
 
 Amount in fund the 31st December, 1887 141,175 40 
 
 Amount in fund the 31 st December, 1888 145,713 40 
 
 Of which amount 14,000 francs are granted to the reserve fund. 
 
 SETTLING CONTINGENT SHAEES OF MEMBERS OE THE FUND ON THE 31ST DECEMBER. 1888. 
 
 Amount in hand being Pr. 145,713 00 
 
 and the amount for pensions for 1889 21,330 00 
 
 The amount to serve as a basis for division is 124,383 00 
 
 The half of this amount, 62,192 fr., is divided proportionately among the days of 
 the members since their entrance into the establishment, the days of the women 
 being calculated as f of the men's day, and the other half is divided proportionately 
 among the wages. 
 
 The men's days amount to 249,436 
 
 The women's, 179,263 reduced to f 107,558 
 
 Total number of days for division 366,994 
 
 The amount for each day is therefore ^%Yi%\ ^^- =0' ^o^' ^^® ™®'^- 
 And of 0, 174 fr. X f = 0' 104 for the women. 
 
 The amount to be divided on all the wages of all members since their entrance 
 into the establishment is 62,192 francs. 
 
 The men's wages are 1,871,863 
 
 The women's do 646,797 
 
 Total amount of wages 2,518,660 
 
 The amount of wages is therefore ^|f^||o fr. O' 0247 for the men and women. 
 
 ACCOUNTS OP THE FUND SINCE 1871. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Amount on 31st December, 1870 24,179 45 
 
 Meceipts since 1872 : 
 
 Detained on wages 72,42S 00 
 
 Profits granted the fund 199,303 55 
 
 Interest on loans 7,402 20) ok^irr oe, 
 
 do invested funds 57,853 05 | ''^'^''^ "^^ 
 
 20—4* 
 
52 
 
 Receipts since 1872 .- 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Various receipts 7,115 10 
 
 Legacy from Miss Huet in 1872 20,000 00 
 
 Legacy from Mons. DeBerny in 1881 10,588 00 
 
 Total amount of receipts since 1871 398,864 35 
 
 Expenses since 1872 : 
 
 Aid in cases of sickness 54,778 65 
 
 Pensions to actual workers 94,598 55 ~) 
 
 do to retired do 59,314 80^157,843 35 
 
 do to widows of pensioners 3,930 00 J 
 
 Funeral expenses 4,066 10 
 
 Various expenses 7,445 25 
 
 Liquidation of contingent shares of property on account of 
 
 leave or death 29,017 60 
 
 Total amount of expenses since 1871 253,150 9i> 
 
 Difference in amounton hand 31st December, 1888 145,713 40' 
 
 LOANS SINCE 1871. 
 
 Loaned in the foundry $45,158 40 
 
 Paid back 42,610 80 
 
 Eemainsdue $2,547 60 
 
 Loans due 31et December, 1884 $2,673 20") Roifi an 
 
 Loans for the year 2,583 40 J ^''*^° "" 
 
 Paid during the year $2,769 00 
 
 Ballance due as above 2,547 60 
 
 Profits shared from 1848 to 1888 $60,619 8S 
 
 DOCUMENTS OF STATISTICS. 
 
 Participation of the staff in the profits is given in different ways : 
 Either as a division of profits between work (represented by wages) and capital. 
 By grant of so much per cent, on the profits. 
 By grant of so much per cent, on the wages. 
 These different ways have no connection with each other. 
 
 To attain a practical knowledge of a system of participation, it would be well to 
 study one of these types of the system by calculating how much per cent, of the 
 profits' are due to labor. 
 
 The relations the profits granted labor bear to the value of the labor. 
 These three points, in the DeBerny & Co.'s foundry, and for the last five 
 divisions, are : 
 
 So much per cent, on the profits due labor 18 per cent. 
 
 Relations of labor to capital 23 do 
 
 Eelations of profits granted labor to the value of labor 8 do ^ 
 
 MAISON DOG-NIlSr, 
 
 LACE AND TULLE MANUFACTURER 
 
 [Lyons]. 
 
 All the workmen and employees of this house have an interest in the net profits- 
 of the concern. The division is not made on the general profits, but on the amount 
 
53 
 
 of profit realized by each department in the factory. The workmen in the 
 mechanical depai-tment of the factory were first admitted to ehare in the profits of 
 the factory in 1882, on the following basis : — 
 
 The workmen are divided into seven classes, according to their years of service. 
 The annual wages of each (the fixed wages, or the total amount of piece-work) is 
 multiplied by the number of workmen, and the product serves as the basis of the 
 division. Thus, the share of a workman who has served thirty years, for an equal 
 salary, is seven times as great as that of the young journeyman in his first year of 
 service in the house. The bonus to be divided is so much per cent, on the special 
 profits of the shop; the amount is not made known. This allotment, has for the 
 last six years, given the following results : — 
 
 For the 1st class, 0-90 to 1-25 per cent, of the wages, 
 do 2nd do 1-30 to 1-60 do do 
 
 do do 
 
 do do 
 
 do do 
 
 do do 
 
 do do 
 
 The division of these amounts is not made by the house. It is made at the 
 Lyons Savings Bank. The parties interested are notified by letter of the amount 
 coming to them. It is immediately paid to them in cash, if they request it, or it is 
 entered to their account in a savings bank book. 
 
 The distribution being made by the savings bank has) as a result, the opening 
 of many accounts there, which otherwise would not likely be opened. 
 
 It is a beginning of thrift. The first year (1882) 40 per cent, books were 
 opened. 
 
 do 
 
 3rd 
 
 do- 
 
 • 2-70 to 3-95 
 
 do 
 
 4th 
 
 do 
 
 3-60 to 5-25 
 
 do 
 
 5th 
 
 do 
 
 4-65 to (J-50 
 
 do 
 
 6th 
 
 do 
 
 5-45 to 7-80 
 
 do 
 
 7th 
 
 do 
 
 6-35 to 9-20 
 
 OISSBL SPINNING MILLS. 
 
 [Oissel.] 
 
 A provident fund was established in 1877 by Mons. Pauquet, the founder of the 
 mills. 
 
 The fund was started by a donation of $6,000 (1877) ; by an annual assessment 
 of about 5 per cent, on the net profits ; by the profits realized on provisions bought 
 at wholesale and sold to the workpeople at a small profit ($300 to $540 per annum). 
 The funds of the grant ($6,000) are divided into 600 shares of $10 each, and divided 
 among the participants in proportions of one or ten shares to each individual, 
 according to merit. Each annual assessment is likewise divided into 600 shares and 
 •distributed in the same way. 
 
 The basis of the division is not the amount of wages but the services rendered. 
 Every year the sui-plus is added to a disposable amount, from which the house allows 
 pensions to a certain number of aged workmen. 
 
 For admission to participation the applicant must be at least 18 years old and 
 have served continuously in the house for five consecutive years. The participant 
 has the right to be paid one-third his annual portion in cash ; after 10 years service 
 he is at liberty to dispose of half the amount in his book ; but the entire amount is 
 paid him only after he has served 20 years in the house, or is 55 years of age. The 
 reserved sums bear 4 jjer cent, interest. 
 
 A participant leaving the establishment of his own free will, or who is dismissed 
 for any reason other than a reduction of the staff, cannot claim any of the amounts 
 to which his claim has not already been established. 
 
64 
 
 LA GIEONDB FEINTING OFFICE. 
 
 G. QOUNOUIIiHOU, DIREOTOE. 
 
 [Bordeaux.] 
 
 Mons. Gr. Gounouilhou introduced participation in the profits of his establishment 
 in 1885. 
 
 All the employees, workmen and workwomen, after a five year's service in the 
 house, have a right to a share in the net profits of the year. 
 
 The staffs share in the pi-ofits is at the least 15 per cent., of which two-thirds 
 is divided among the employees, workmen and workwomen who have served five 
 years in the establishment, and the other third among those who have served twelve 
 years. The share of the first participants is entered to their names in the retiring 
 fund for old age, with the right to enjoyment of the fund at 55 years of age. The 
 second share is given in cash to the participants. 
 
 In order to avoid the difi'erence in the division being too great, the amount of 
 allowances and salaries has been rated at $200 for the minimum and $1,000 for the 
 next maximum. 
 
 The participants have no right to control the management of the shares, but 
 the management is given to a committee comjjosed of a director, two of the oldest 
 editors, two of the oldest workmen, five of the oldest foremen; and five participants 
 elected in secret ballot by the participants at a general meeting. 
 
 RESULTS OF THE ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Years. Profits divided. Number of 
 
 $ sharers. 
 
 1885 4,800 141 
 
 1886 4,800 162 
 
 1887 4,800 174 
 
 1888 3.400 176 
 
 KBSTNEE & CO. 
 
 BELLEVUB, NEAR GIROMAQNT (UPPER RHINE). 
 
 From the year 1851 to 1872 Messrs. Kestner & Co. granted bonuses to their 
 workmen ; in 1872 the bonus was replaced by a participation of 10 per cent, on the 
 profits. 
 
 To provide this 10 per cent, of the profits a calculation by the following rules 
 had first to be made. The rules were formerly applied for the calculation of the 
 bonus, and the amouunt is corrected by taking the entire participatory part of the 
 profits as given by the inventory, and granted by the statutes. 
 
 DIVISION. 
 
 Art. 2. — The bonus will be given according to salary, and will be increased 
 according to the number of years' service. It will date on the 1st of April following 
 the foreman's or workman's entrance into the establishment ; it will rate at 3 per 
 cent, for the first five years, and 4 per cent, for the second five years, and so on, 
 increasing by 1 per cent, every five years. 
 
 Art. 6. — Bonuses capitalized will bear interest at 5 per cent, per annum, but 
 may not be withdrawn before the expiration of three years, except in cases of death of 
 the owners, or of their leaving the establishment, with exception for cases provided 
 for by Art 7. 
 
 Art. 7. — Foremen and workmen desirous of investing their savings in the 
 purchase of immovable property, or in building a house, are authorized to dispose 
 of their capital produced by premiums. 
 
55 
 
 RESULTS OF THE ORGANIZATION. 
 
 The system of bonuses, or premiums, and of participation, gives the following 
 results : — 
 
 1851 to 1861 — 5-41 per cent, of the wages. 
 1861 to 18Y1 — 4-3^ do do 
 
 1871 to 1881 — Y-15 do do 
 
 1881 to 1888 — 6-00 do do 
 
 In 1887 participation of workmen in the profits gave the following results : — 
 1 workman received a premium of $58.57, 40 years' service. 
 8 workmen do between $20 and $40, 15 to 33 years' service. 
 17 do do do $10 and $20, 3 to 38 do 
 
 16 do do do $8 and $10, 3 to 7 do 
 
 The other workmen received at least $8.00 ; those who had not worked, two 
 years received no share in the profits. 
 
 Example of the manner of calculating a share in the profits ; — 
 
 Name. 
 
 Years 
 
 of 
 Service. 
 
 Wages. 
 
 Rate 
 
 of 
 Bonus. 
 
 Bonus. 
 
 Majority. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 $ ots. 
 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 X 
 
 30 
 
 165 00 
 
 8 p. v;. 
 
 13 44 
 
 n 19 
 
 30 63 
 
 Y 
 
 16 
 
 205 40 
 
 6 p. i;. 
 
 13 53 
 
 17 31 
 
 30 84 
 
 Z 
 
 5 
 
 132 60 
 
 3 p. c. 
 
 3 98 
 
 5 09 
 
 9 07 
 
 COOPERATIVE PAPEE WOEKS OP AJSTGOULllMB. 
 
 LAROCHE-JOUBERT & CO. 
 
 Participation was established in the firm of Messrs. Laroche-Joubert & Co., 
 (Co-operative Paper Works of Angoulgme) under several different forms, not includ- 
 ing wages by the piece and monthly gratuities on the selling prices of manufactures," 
 which constitute one particular form of participation much in use, and which was 
 employed in the beginning by this firm. 
 
 The large staff of these works is divided into groups called "works" or 
 "enterprises," and each group of the house foriiiing in combination a sort of society, 
 each engaged on a special kind of work for the general good of the house, and each 
 possessing its own set of books and its own inventories, so that each workman 
 understands and feels in a tangible way the results alike of his negligence and his 
 assiduity, results less likely to strike him were he lost among the large staff of the 
 establishment. 
 
 There is assessed on the profits of each group : 
 
 Ist. A share allotted to labor, that is to say, the wages at so much in the franc. 
 
 2nd. A share allotted to intelligence, that is, to the head men and foremen, and 
 divided among them according to merit by the chiefs of the establishment. 
 
 3rd. A share allotted to capital as represented by the firm. 
 
 The proportion to be reserved in each group for these three elements, labor, 
 intelligence and capital, is settled according to the relations existing between 
 possible profits, the amount of salaries, the necessary capital, and finally the duties 
 and influence of the heads of the business, a proportion which varies sensibly from 
 group to group as may be seen by the accompanying table, as it varies from one 
 business to another. 
 
56 
 
 Table of the Division of ISTet Profits in each Work or Enterprise. 
 
 Wages. 
 
 Heads of 
 Depart- 
 ments. 
 
 Superior 
 Work- 
 men. 
 
 Share 
 
 in 
 General 
 Profits. 
 
 Department of making paper 
 
 Glazing, finishing and ruling department, and general ware 
 
 houses 
 
 Envelope and mourning paper department 
 
 Cardboard department 
 
 Account book and cigarette paper department 
 
 Packing department 
 
 Paris warehouses 
 
 *10 
 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 35 
 10 
 
 to 
 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 **25 
 ***30 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 40 
 50 
 
 These departments form, as we have said, really separate factories, and the net 
 profits of each, after deduction being made for general expenses and wages, gives an 
 interest of 5 per cent, on the capital employed in that department. All the costs 
 of each department are set forth in the most precise manner in the regulations of 
 the house. 
 
 The division of the general profits is made in the following manner : — 
 
 Before the closing of the books a deduction is made of $6,600, i-epi-ese^ting the 
 salaries of the managers, plus 1 per cent, on the amount of the bills of sale of the 
 Paris warehouse, and 5 per cent, interest is allowed to those who share in the capital. 
 
 Of the remaining profits is allowed : 
 
 30 per cent, to the president of the council, and to the five managers about 5 per 
 cent, to each. 
 
 8 per cent to the superior employees. 
 
 12 per cent, to the customers of the house. 
 
 50 per cent, falls, so much to the franc, to capital ; the participating depositors 
 and the wage-earners of the whole active personnel not admitted to a share in the 
 special profits of any department.f 
 
 To be admitted to participation, it is necessary to have a book of wages. Such 
 book is given to each worker of 15 years old who was in the employ of the firm 
 for over a year at the time of the stock-taking, in which he participates, and there 
 must be no serious charge against him. 
 
 The oldest workers, men and women, as regards the division of profits reserved 
 as wages, receive a share which is larger in proportion to the number of years they 
 have been in the house. 
 
 The wages of workers having been 5 years in the employ, and being atleast25 years 
 
 of age are counted for li 
 
 Having been 10 years in the employ and 30 years of age 1^ 
 
 do 15 do 35 do l| 
 
 do 20 do 40 do 2 
 
 The share of profits is paid the worker in cash after each stock-taking. A savings 
 fund was established for the savings of the staff, and great advantages were extended 
 
 * Plus a prize or gratuity to interest the workmen in seeing that there be the least possible quantity 
 of damaged work, and that the greatest quantity is produced with the least amount of labor. 
 ** Given to the chief packer and principal workmen. 
 
 *** Given to the managers and employees. 
 
 + This division of the balance of the general profits, which we take from " Participation in Profits," by 
 Dr. Bohmert, was slightly modified ; the share granted to the superior employees being increased to 10 per 
 cent, by the regulation of 1883. This part is added to the percentages on the table of the divisions of the de- 
 partments and the sum total is divided as follows ; 
 
 10 per cent, to the management. 
 
 35 per cent, to the travellers. 
 
 20 per cent, to the heads of divisions. 
 
 25 per cent, to the employees. 
 
 10 per cent, to the workmen. 
 
57 
 
 to the depositors, who, besides receiving 5 per cent, interest, were entitled to a share 
 iu the 1 per cent, of general profits allotted to deposits. 
 
 Every depositor who has worked for the firm for two years, and has been noted 
 for his application and zeal in the department, may convert his deposit into the share 
 of a sleeping partner and into actual participation in the profits of the establishment. 
 
 In 1885 the amount of capital belonging to the workmen and employees, as sleep- 
 ing partners, was $269,000, and eight old workmen and employees possessed $(J2,000 of 
 the capital stock. 
 
 To prove the complete success of the system of participation as adopted by the 
 the firm of Messrs. Laroche-Joubert & Co., we content ourselves with publishing 
 the following document, which was handed to the jury, and of which they kindly 
 gave us communication : — 
 
 ANaotTL^ME, 15th May, 1889. 
 
 The results shown in the following table are the most eloquent commentaries. 
 
 It shows that notwithstanding the crisis in the paper trade of France generally, 
 and in that of Charente in particular, the efforts of the cooperators in the Cooperative 
 Paper Worlfs at Angoulgme were such as to destroy the effects of saeh crisis. The 
 heads of our house will be encouraged by these figures to learn all the improvements 
 of which our work is susceptible and to apply them without hesitation. 
 
 Table of Results obtained since the Year i87'9 to 1888, inclusively. 
 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 . 1882. 
 
 Total. 
 
 J 
 
 1. Profits of participation granted by the 
 by-law of the co-operators to the em- 
 ployees, superiors, heads of depart- 
 ments, foremen, chief workers and 
 
 Francs. 
 
 61,463 02 
 18,857 97 
 
 10,363 50 
 19,872 99 
 
 Francs. 
 
 68,078 74 
 22,351 70 
 
 12,743 77 
 21,112 80 
 
 Francs. 
 
 71,053 68 
 28,626 93 
 
 14,410 79 
 28,840 92 
 
 Francs. 
 
 109,368 96 
 37,448 40 
 
 16,366 36 
 32,522 72 
 
 Francs. 
 309,964 40 
 
 2. Dividend on salaries 
 
 3. Dividend paid over and above the 5% 
 interest on the capital possessed by the 
 employees or workmen of the house, 
 either as depositors, co-operators, sleep- 
 ing partners or participants of not less 
 than 20,000. 
 
 107,285 00 
 53,884 42 
 
 4. Dividend of co-operators to customers. 
 
 102,349 43 
 
 Total 
 
 110,557 48 
 $22,111 -50 
 
 124,287 01 
 24,857 40 
 
 142,932 32 
 28,586 46 
 
 195,706 44 
 39,141 29 
 
 573,483 25 
 
 
 114,696 65 
 
 
 1883. 
 
 1884. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1. Profits of participation granted by the 
 by-law of the co-operators to the em- 
 ployees, superiors, heads of depart- 
 ments, foremen, chief workers and 
 
 Francs. 
 
 89,653 53 
 32,172 65 
 
 8,986 90 
 ,18,409 10 
 
 Francs. 
 
 83,121 14 
 47,908 28 
 
 10,239 27 
 21,477 28 
 
 Francs. 
 
 58,870 34 
 30,670 78 
 
 4,100 78 
 6,818 18 
 
 Francs. 
 
 48,424 04 
 27,656 12 
 
 3,911 25 
 6,930 10 
 
 Francs. 
 284,069 05 
 
 
 138,487 83 
 
 3. Dividend paid over and above the 5% 
 interest on the capital possessed by the 
 employees or workmen fof the house, 
 either as depositors, co-operators, sleep- 
 ing partners or participants of not less 
 than 20 000. 
 
 27,2^8 20 
 
 4. Dividend of co-operators to customers. 
 
 53,634 66 
 
 Total 
 
 149,222 18 
 $29,844 43 
 
 166,745 97 
 33,349 19 
 
 100,460 08 
 20,092 01 
 
 86,921 51 
 17,384 30 
 
 503,349 74 
 
 
 100,669 95 
 
58 
 
 Table of Eesults obtained since the Year 1879 to 1888, inclusively. 
 
 
 1886. 
 
 1886. 
 
 1887. 
 
 1888. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1. Profits of participation granted by the 
 by-law of the co-operators to the em- 
 ployees, superiors, heads of depart- 
 ments, foremen, chief workers and 
 
 Francs. 
 
 58,870 34 
 30,670 78 
 
 4,100 78 
 6,818 18 
 
 Francs. 
 
 48,424 04 
 27,656 12 
 
 3,911 25 
 6,930 10 
 
 Francs. 
 
 67,078 96 
 38,235 19 
 
 11,638 03 
 8,323 62 
 
 Francs. 
 
 61,415 26 
 34,720 24 
 
 12,659 00 
 9,318 08 
 
 Francs. 
 235,788 6a 
 
 2. Dividend on salaries 
 
 3. Dividend paid over and above the 5% 
 interest on the capital possessed by the 
 employees or workmen of the house, 
 either as depositors, co-operators, sleep- 
 ing partners or participants of not less 
 than 20,000 
 
 131,282 33 
 
 32,309 06 
 31,389 98 
 
 4. Dividend of co-operators to customers. 
 
 Total 
 
 100,460 08 
 $20,092 02 
 
 86,921 51 
 $17,384 30 
 
 125,275 80 
 $25,055 16 
 
 118,112 58 
 $23,622 51 
 
 430,769 97 
 $86,153 99 
 
 THE LECCEUE HOUSE. 
 
 joiners' 'WORE. 
 
 [Paris.] 
 
 Participation in profits on 1st July, 1885. The amount allotted to the staff was 
 10 per cent, on the net profits. The oldest and most worthy of the workmen or 
 employees formed the first, class of participants. For later admissions the by-law 
 requires from the candidate three years probation. The division of profits are 
 made in proportion to wages. The half at least of the amount allotted to each parti- 
 cipant is placed in the retiring fund for old age (on reserved capital) ; the surplus 
 may, on demand, be paid in cash. 
 
 Miss Lecoeur has adopted a system of accounts similar to that of the house of 
 Barbas, Tassart & Balas. 
 
 BY-LAW ON THE PAETICIPATION OF PEOFITS OP THE LOMBAET 
 
 CHOCOLATE WOEKS. 
 
 [Paris.] 
 
 The -participation in profits was put in force about thirty-three years ago by 
 Mr. Lombart, who, in order to accomplish hiff object of making these profits unassign- 
 able and inalienable, credited the account of each workmen, each year, with a sum 
 
 of'-_ and the accumulation of interest due to invest later on these savings- 
 
 which he thus put aside for him. 
 
 These workmen knew that a certain sum was safely laid aside for them, but they 
 did not know the amount, so that in 1884 it was a great surprise to them when their 
 master informed them he was about to realize the aim of his commercial life: 
 "That of giving to each of his workers, men or women, whom he considers his- 
 fellow-workers, a book on the retiring fund for old age." And on the 1st January,. 
 1885, at the meeting which takes place every year in the factory, Mons. Lombart had 
 the satisfaction of presenting 159 of his workmen each a book, in which was entered the- 
 amounts placed to his personal account, and which he had saved during twenty-seven 
 years. A large number of books having an equal right to this gift had to be suspended 
 on account of difSculty in procuring certificate of birth and the number now 
 sharing is 223 on a total of 279 depositors. 
 
59 
 
 It was at this same meeting, on the Ist January, 1888, that Mons. Lombart 
 announced to his staff, that all, without distinction, were for the future admitted to- 
 share in the regular participation under the followjng conditions, imposed by himself 
 alone, when studying the organization of his plan of work, as in accordance with each 
 workman's work, and also to secure stability in his staff. 
 
 Mons. Lombart determines the amount of the bonuses or prizes every year dur- 
 ing the month of December. At each period of settlement a certain sum is assessed,, 
 in accordance with what amount of profits is not specified, but varies from |12,000 
 to $20,000, and is divided among the employees and workmen. The division for the- 
 workmen is made — first, according to seniority ; 2nd, earnings; 3rd, merit. 
 
 The basis of the division is as follows : the individual's worth, as shown by three 
 notes, the Ist from the head of the house, the 2nd fi-om the foreman, the 3rd from 
 the head of the department. The three notes are expressed by points or marks, the 
 total number is divided by 3, and gives an average of merit. By multiplying this 
 average by the number of points corresponding to his notes- and his years of service,, 
 the result is a number of points which gives the proportion of the yearly wages in 
 which the workman is to share in the profits. 
 
 Thus, the workman whose note is very good (5), and who has served 3 years (or 
 the corresponding number 60), takes part in the division as -j^ of his wages, and he- 
 who has 120 points shares after a number equal to \^ of his wages, etc. 
 
 The following table shows this basis : — 
 
 Number of 
 Years of Service. 
 
 Value of the Note. 
 
 5 
 Very Good. 
 
 4 
 Good. 
 
 3 
 Pretty Good. 
 
 2 
 Passable. 
 
 1 
 Bad. 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 140 
 
 160 
 
 180 
 
 200 
 
 220 
 
 240 
 
 % 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 48 
 
 64 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 112 
 
 128 
 
 144 
 
 160 
 
 176 
 
 192 
 
 % 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 72 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 108 
 
 120 
 
 132 
 
 144 
 
 % 
 8 
 16 
 24 
 32 
 40 
 48 
 56 
 64 
 72 
 80 
 88 
 96 
 
 % 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 16 
 
 5.. 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 12 .... 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 The foremen of the workshops receive : 
 
 80 over if they direct more than 30 workmen. 
 40 do do 20 do 
 
 20 do less than 20 do 
 
 Workmen not occupied in the manufacture of chocolate, such as carpenters,, 
 machinists, painters, masons, tinsmiths, &c., receive one-half less than the chocolate- 
 makers. 
 
 Mons. Lombart has taken as a basis the note very good, and a service of 5 years.. 
 The workman whose record includes these two conditions shares to the exact amount 
 of his salaiy. The other shares are more or less, according as their numbei-s are 
 higher or lower than the amount of their salary, and their service is more or less 
 than 5 years. The amount of profits to be shared is divided by the total number 
 of participants calculated as above, and there is obtained the individual amounts of 
 the division. This multiplied by the number of points of each one gives the sum 
 coming to each. 
 
 The shares are capitalised to form a retiring fund, to which each interested 
 party has a right at 50 years of age. An exception is made in favor of young girls, 
 who, on their marriage, receive, according to the importance of the sums to their 
 credit, all or part of their account; the other part of it is paid over to the retiring.- 
 
on the 1st January, 1889. 
 
 60 
 
 fund for old age established by the State. However, whea the shares amount 
 to more than $20 the owner can collect ^ in cash, and the other |- are paid over to 
 the retiring fund. 
 
 These amounts are paid, as desired by the owners, either as reserved capital or 
 alienated capital. Some have thus alienated their capital in order to secure them- 
 aelves a higher income ; but, as a fact, it is those alone who, being married, have no 
 ■children, or those who have decided to remain unmarried, who have done so. 'No 
 single subscription has been entered in the books which does not bear mention of its 
 being inalienable and unseizable. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1889, the participation showed the following results : — 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Amount paid to the retiring fund 86,210 00 ) 
 
 do in cash from 1856 to 1875 42,000 00 I rp .. ^ . , „„o„j,t „f giog . 
 
 Amount to the credit of the workmen who left prior to 1884. . . 7,540 90 I %r !;:°„ w^™ T^^iTit- 
 
 Amount paid to employees on stafiE 375,289 75 r 186 ?iven bj Mons. Lombart 
 
 do from 1884 to 1889 on occasion of marriage 4,195 40 
 
 do to young military men in adversity 8,287 00 
 
 Supplementary Note. 
 
 To make the matter clearer to the jury, Mons. Lombart thinks proper to add 
 the following as supplementary information : — 
 
 That the reason for the retiring fund not having been applied to, is that when 
 he started business in 1856 he began by giving his employees a present on the first 
 of January of each year; but having had occasion to remark that in many cases his 
 generosity was of no benefit to the recipient's family, it being spent solely for the 
 recipient's gratification, to the exclusion of his family, he decided to change the 
 manner of the gift, and to establish the nucleus of an account for each one, which 
 should be increased by his yearly gift and the accumulated interest. In the begin- 
 ning these gifts were in proportion to the profits of the business, which at that time 
 were very small, the establishment having to re-establish its former reputation. 
 ■Since then the shares have increased in ratio with the profits of the business. 
 
 Six years ago a certain number of participants having expressed a desire to 
 start an establishment of their own, Mons. Lombart approved of the idea most 
 highly, and gave them every assistance to free themselves from the associated 
 amounts. For this purpose he paid the necessary amount to secure them the sums 
 carried to their credit in the participation. 
 
 The heads of the Lombart factory are given the whole amount of their shares 
 in cash, and thus they receive from those shares amounts varying from the J, the f, 
 the f and sometimes double and treble the amount of their yearly salaries. 
 
 ALFEBD MAME & SONS, TOUES. 
 (1'796-1889.) 
 
 PRIiSTTEES, BINDERS AND PUBLISHERS. 
 
 In 1874 Messrs. Alfred Mame & Sons established a participatory and provident 
 fund, of which the following is a risumi of its organization and working : 
 
 This fund is supplied by amounts which the Messrs. Mame have engaged to give 
 the 1st of January of each year, from a sum calculated as follows : — 
 
 Ist. For employees in the publishing department, $0.60 per 1,000 on total 
 amount of sales effected during the past year. 
 
 2nd. For workmen and employees in the printing and bindery departments, 
 $5.00 on e-vwj 1,000 of the proceeds of each department. 
 
 The third of the sum total of this amount is immediately distributed in cash 
 -among the employees of each class who are 21 years of age, and have been 
 at least one year in the emj)loy of the establishment, and that in proportion to their 
 Allowances or salaries; the two-thirds are destined, and go, to form a provident fund 
 in their own favor, under conditions to be hereafter mentioned. For this purpose a 
 book of participation is given to each individual member of the staff who is 21 years 
 of age, and who has been at least one year in the employ of the house. 
 
61 
 
 Two-thirds of the amount for participation given by Messrs. Mame are thus 
 divided among the proprietors of books in proportion to the allowances or salaries of 
 each. 
 
 Bach one is allowed an interest of 5 per cent, on the amounts in his book, which is 
 calculated on the 31st of December ot every year on the amount already entered, 
 and is added to that amount as an increase of capital. 
 
 The amounts entered in each book do not become the holder's personal property 
 until he has been a participant for 20 consecutive years. 
 
 When a workman or employee has completed his twenty-first year of service he 
 has a right to receive the amount entered in his book. 
 
 In the case of the death of a workman or employee while still in the firm's 
 employ, the amount carried to his account on the Slst December preceding his death 
 is paid over to his widow, or his children or grandchildren, or to his ascendants. 
 
 In any case of dismissal, apart from a reduction of the staff, or from infirmity or 
 suppression of any branch of employment, in any case of absenteeism or of being 
 turned off, the workman or employee loses all i-ight to the amount entered in his 
 book. 
 
 The amount entered to his individual account is divided on the Slst Decem- 
 ber following his departure, among the accounts of the remaining participants in his 
 department, in proportion to the sums already entered in their books. 
 
 Eesults of the Organizations. 
 
 Ybaes. 
 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 1887 
 1888 
 
 Dividend of the Staff 
 ■OWNING Books. 
 
 Amounts 
 Entered in 
 the Books. 
 
 Frs. 
 
 28,961 
 29,396 
 29,087 
 29,996 
 22,923 
 20,940 
 18,907 
 19,137 
 18,844 
 19,657 
 22,186 
 20,779 
 19,151 
 19,060 
 20,097 
 
 339,130 
 
 $67,826 
 
 Amounts 
 
 Paid 
 in Cash. 
 
 Frs. 
 
 14,480 
 
 14,696 
 
 14,539 
 
 15,001 
 
 11,456 
 
 10,570 
 
 9,453 
 
 9,568 
 
 9,419 
 
 9,828 
 
 11,092 
 
 10,388 
 
 9,575 
 
 9,530 
 
 10,049 
 
 169,551 
 $33,910.20 
 
 Dividend 
 Paid 
 
 to Staff. 
 
 Frs. 
 
 11,679 
 14,493 
 11,463 
 12,112 
 14,054 
 15,994 
 17,856 
 17,897 
 17,875 
 17,935 
 18,360 
 
 169,723 
 $33,944.60 
 
 Total 
 
 Amount^ 
 
 Paid in by 
 
 Messrs. 
 
 Mame & 
 
 Son. 
 
 Annual 
 Value of the 
 Capital, In- 
 terest and 
 Dividends of 
 the Year 
 inclusive. 
 
 Frs. 
 
 43,442 
 44,093 
 43,627 
 44,997 
 46,059 
 45,904 
 39,824 
 40,818 
 42,318 
 45,480 
 51,136 
 49,065 
 46,603 
 46,526 
 48,507 
 
 678,406 
 $135,681.20 
 
 Annual average, francs, 45,227 = $9,045.20. 
 
 Frs. 
 
 30,409 
 62,488 
 91,394 
 123,559 
 111,366 
 133,518 
 140,030 
 156,958 
 161,762 
 175,997 
 188,341 
 189,664 
 199,765 
 206,371 
 217,263* 
 
 The division of 1888 was made among 322 participants. 
 ' The amount of participation in Messrs. Mame & Co.'s establishment amounts to 
 to about 10 per cent, of the salaries. The average wages of a workman in this 
 establishment being |1 per day. The amount of bonus in cash coming to a workman 
 at the end of an ordinary year of 300 days is |10, and another of $20, which is 
 entered on his book of participation. After twenty years' service the workman will 
 find himself possessor of a capital of at least $800, which will be paid to him in cash. 
 
 *A sum of about $43,452.60 carried to the credit of the workers in the books of Messrs. Mame & Co., 
 on 1st January, 1889. ■ 
 
62 
 
 G-. MASSON. 
 
 BOOKSELLEE AND PUBLISHEK. 
 
 [Paris.] 
 
 Mods. G. Maeson admitted his employees to a share in the profits of the estab- 
 lishment in 1871 on the following basis : 
 
 The amount is calculated from the figure of the net sales rather than on the 
 profits; the allowance consists of a bonus of $0.60 on every $1,000 up to one million, 
 and of $1.00 on every thousand above a million. 
 
 Mons. G. Masson has alone the right to calculate and determine the amount of 
 net sales in his house during a period of not less than one year. 
 
 The division is made among the participants in proportion to the amount 
 received, as salary, by each. 
 
 One-third the amount is given in cash to the participant. 
 
 The other two-thirds are entered in each participant's book. These sums bear 
 interest at 5 per cent., and the participant can enter into his capital only after 
 twenty years' service in the establishment. 
 
 In case of death the amount entered in his book is paid over to the participant's 
 heirs. 
 
 Any employee absent or dismissed forfeits the amounts entered in his book. 
 These are divided among the books of the other participants, in proportion to the 
 iimounts therein inscribed. 
 
 a 
 
 Eesults of the Organization. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Number 
 of Partici- 
 pants. 
 
 Amounts 
 given in Cash . 
 
 Sums 
 
 Entered 
 
 to Individual 
 
 Accounts. 
 
 1871-1872. 
 1872-1873. 
 1873-1874 
 1874-1875. 
 1875-1876. 
 1876-1877 
 1877-1878. 
 1878-1879. 
 1879-1880. 
 1880-1881. 
 1881-1882. 
 1882-1883. 
 1883-1884. 
 1884-1885, 
 1885-1886. 
 1886-1887. 
 1887-1888. 
 
 5 
 7 
 10 
 12 
 14 
 12 
 12 
 13 
 16 
 12 
 14 
 14 
 23 
 26 
 24 
 21 
 27 
 
 Francs. 
 
 348 35 
 
 596 65 
 
 646 75 
 
 882 CO 
 
 995 90 
 
 1,185 55 
 
 1,117 25 
 
 1,161 75 
 
 1,242 50 
 
 1,379 05 
 
 1,660 10 
 
 1,741 65 
 
 1,960 45 
 
 1,859 45 
 
 1,690 75 
 
 1,929 95 
 
 1,778 90 
 
 22,176 90 
 $4,435 38 
 
 Francs. 
 
 697 30 
 1,327 86 
 1,422 75 
 1,953 70 
 2,293 96 
 2,694 70 
 2,641 76 
 2,942 50 
 3,519 60 
 3,900 30 
 4,214 90 
 4,420 35 
 4,930 20 
 5,115 20 
 5,028 30 
 5,311 75 
 5,266 25 
 
 57,681 38 
 $11,536 37 
 
 Or a total of $15,971.60 given by the establishment, 
 
 JMOTA. — During a period of seventeen years twenty-two employees have left the 
 establishment, abandoning a sum of $1,876.61, which was divided among the other 
 workmen!^ 
 
 Bight employees have died, or left the house on account of sickness, and they or 
 their widows have had a right to a total sum of $3,604.53. 
 
63 
 MONDUIT. 
 
 ROOFER AND PLUMBER. 
 
 [Paris.] 
 
 Ten per cent, of Ihe annual profits is divided among the workmen and employees 
 who have been employed by him over two years. The division is made on the basis 
 of their wages and allowances. 
 
 Half the annual share is given to the retiring fund, and the participant enters 
 into his capital after 20 years' service, or at 55 years of age. 
 
 As long as the funds belonging to the retiring fund are left with the establishment, 
 they receive an annual interest equal to that borne by the master's capital. 
 
 Whenever an employee leaves the establishment before having fulfilled the 
 requirements of service or age stipulated in the regulations, his account is liqui- 
 dated and the amount is paid over to the retiring fund of the State. 
 
 Before any division is made, an assessment is made to form a reserve fund of 
 ■$20,000, of which nine-tenths belongs to the establishment and one-tenth to the par- 
 ticipants. 
 
 MOTJTIBE ESTABLISHMENT. 
 (Pounded in 1819.) 
 
 HARDWARE MANTTPACTURER, SPEOIALTT IN LOCKS AND METALLIC CONTRIVANCES. 
 
 Megulations for Participation in the Profits. 
 
 Art. 1. Participation in the profits by the workmen of the Moutier Establish- 
 Mient dates from the Ist of April, 1881 ; it is conducive to friendly relations between 
 capital and labor, to a moral and actual union, which tends to an increase m pro- 
 ■duction. 
 
 The workmen and employees share in one-fourth part of the annual profits. 
 
 Mules of Admission. 
 
 Art. 2. The following conditions are imposed on workmen and employees de- 
 tsiring to participate in the profits : — 
 
 Three years consecutive employment in the establishment. 
 
 To be of French origin. 
 
 To be no more than 55 years of age. 
 
 To be accepted by the mastei- and the committee of improvement. 
 
 To belong to the Mutual Aid Society of the establishment. 
 
 To reserve as a saving $0.01 for every ten hours actual work. 
 
 Control of Accounts. 
 
 Art. 3. To guarantee the rights of participating workmen and employees, an 
 ■expert-accountant may be named, accredited by the Tribunal of Commerce. This 
 accountant, named in secret ballot by the participants, will have charge of the books, 
 together with the book-keeper and the master. 
 
 The office of the expert will be to verify the accounts, and to see that the yearly 
 amounts are duly entered, and that one-quarter of the netprofltsof the inventory has 
 'been entered to the credit of the participating staff. 
 
 The expert's allowance will be assessed on the part for participation, before any 
 ■share has been distributed among the participators. 
 
 Art. 4. Apart from this measure, dictated by a perfect sense of equity, the master 
 recognizes no one's right to criticise or interfere with his management, any one not 
 .approving of it being at liberty to leave the employment. 
 
64 
 
 Division. 
 
 Art, 5. Previous to aay division, an assessment of 10 per cent, will be made, to 
 be paid over to the retiring fund. 
 
 Art. 6. The division will be made in proportion to the salaries. 
 
 Art. Y. Any part awarded becomes finally the property of the one to whom it 
 is awarded, without restriction or reserve. 
 
 Destination oj the Participation. 
 
 Art. 8. Each participant will be given a book in the National Betiring Fund to 
 form an nccount as reserved capital for him, to become an inheritance for his family. 
 The amounts thus paid over in favor of the employee or -vi'orkman, are destined as a 
 life-rent when he shall have attained 55 years of age. 
 
 Art. 9. Any individual shai-e of less than $20 is to be paid over in its entirety, 
 in the owner'n favor, to the National Eetiring Fund. 
 
 When the individual share is over $20, and not more than $40, the owner is at 
 liberty to dispose of the sum in excess. 
 
 Any individual share over $40 is divided into two equal parts ; one is paid over 
 to the participant, and the other is entered in his book. 
 
 Art. 10. All amounts awarded to the participants, and paid over to the National 
 Eetiring Fund, ai-e inalienable and unseizable. 
 
 Duration of the Participation — Modification of the Rules. 
 
 Art. 20, and last. The master is not to be bound by any engagement for a 
 period of over one year; a right to profit-sharing being voluntarily given by him, he 
 reserves the right to suppress it by giving six month's notice in advance. 
 
 Modifications considered useful will be applied to the rules only after communi- 
 cation to the General Assembly. Such modification will never be retroactive in effect. 
 
 The Master, 
 
 Paul Moutier. 
 
 Eesults of the 
 
 Organization 
 
 
 
 
 Labor's Share. 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Amounts 
 paid over in Cash 
 
 or entered on 
 the Books of the 
 National Fund. 
 
 Keserve. 
 
 Total 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Participation in 
 
 proportion to 
 
 Salary.* 
 
 1881 
 
 Francs. 
 
 517 00 
 4,037 00 
 4,642 00 
 3,944 00 
 3,900 00 
 1,011 00 
 1,715 00 
 
 Francs. 
 
 172% 
 
 5 94'* 
 
 6 50" 
 5 35" 
 5 87" 
 
 1 64" 
 
 2 49" 
 
 1882 
 
 379 00 
 447 20 
 400 88 
 446 16 
 128 18 
 188 11 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 
 
 19,766 00 
 $.3,963 20 
 
 1,989 53 
 $397 90 
 
 * The number 
 of participants 
 represents % o 
 the staff. 
 
 
 The participants have shared in 
 $4,351.10 in excess of their wages. 
 
65 
 
 The interest of the amounts inyested, and some few gratuities donated by cus- 
 tomers, are paid over to the reserve fund. 
 
 The small results of the past years are due, not only to the reduction in the sales' 
 prices by competition, but also to an increase of capital destined to the building of 
 new shops and the purchase of more perfect machinery and tools. 
 
 It is right to add that the most enei-getio efforts have been made to give coil- 
 stant employment to the participating staff. 
 
 MOZET & DBLALONDB. 
 
 MASONS. 
 
 [Paris.] 
 
 Profit-sharing was established in this firm in 1885, and was fixed at 10 per cent, 
 of the net profits. 
 
 Workmen and employees named by the masters were immediately admitted to par- 
 ticipation. 
 
 After 1885, to be admitted as a participant, it was necessary that the workman 
 or employee should have been employed at least two years by the firm, that a request 
 in writing should be addressed to the masters, and approved of by them after having 
 been discussed by a consultative committee composed of masters, two head men irom 
 the yards and three workmen. 
 
 Messrs. Mozet & Delalonde, however, reserve to themselves the right of 
 admitting as a participant, without any of these formalities, any workman or 
 employee they may judge worthy of the favor. 
 
 The division of the interest of the participation is made among the participants 
 in proportion to the amounts they have received during the year as settled allow- 
 ances or wages. 
 
 Half the amount of interest is every year paid over to the participant in cash, 
 and the other halt is paid to his account in the retiring fund for old age. 
 
 If the participants wish they can have the books of the house verified by an 
 expert accountant, whose business it is to see that the books are regularly kept, and 
 the division of 10 per cent well applied, according to the regulations. 
 
 There has been no case of forfeiture, but it is written in Article 10 : That any 
 workman or employee leaving the employment of the house, or who has been dis- 
 missed, shall in future lose all right to participation. 
 
 Results of the Organization. 
 
 1885-1886 the division represents 8-2'7 of the salaries. 
 
 1886-188*7 do 8-70 do 
 
 1887-1888 do Y-25 do 
 
 1888-1889 do 10-09 do 
 
 HOUSE OP PEENOD SONS. 
 
 DISTILLERS. 
 
 [Pontarlier. Doubs.] 
 The firm of Pernod Mis every year deducts a part of its profits, which it divides 
 
 among its workmen. ., , „ . 
 
 The amount thus divided remains in the firm, which is responsible for it, and it 
 bears intei-est at 4 per cent. 
 
 Every workman, after one year's employment, becomes a participant. 
 
 The amount divided is entered in a book given to each of the workmen. 
 
 If the workman leaves the house, the amounts entered in his book are given to 
 him in full. In case of death these amounts are paid over to his heirs. 
 20—5 
 
In return for this payment, the workman on leaving, binds himself not to work 
 for any competing house for a period of one year from the date of his departure. 
 
 In case of sickness the workman is paid an indemnity of $0.30 per day. This 
 indemnity is drawn fi-om the interest on the retiring fund for a space of three months, 
 after which it is drawn from the participant's book. 
 
 In 1888 the firm of Pernod Fils did business to the amount of $965,000 ; they 
 employed 64 workmen, who were paid $11,675 in wages, and $6,700 as their share 
 of the profits. 
 
 A book presented with the report to the jury shows that a workman who had 
 shared in the profits since 1872 had in his book in capital and intei-est the sum 
 of $1,764.34. 
 
 Mutual Aid. — The firm pays their workmen's subscriptions to a Mutual Aid 
 Society of the city, by which they receive medical attendance gratis, also drugs, and 
 a daily amount of $0.20 ($0.30 at most) paid from the retiring fund. 
 
 Accident Insurance. — The firm insures its workmen, and pays the premiums, 
 without deduction from the the wages. 
 
 A. PIAT. 
 
 IRON FOUNDRY AND BUILDING. 
 
 [Soissons — Paris.] 
 
 Mons. Piat established participation in the profits in 1882 on the following 
 basis : 
 
 Art. 1. Dating from 1st April, 1881, a portion of the net profits of the year will be divided, as a gratuity, 
 among the employees having worked for five consecutive years in the establishment, and who belong to the 
 Mutual Aid Society. For the first year employes or workmen having worked ten years in the establish- 
 ment, consecutive or not. 
 
 The obligation to belong to the Mutual Aid Society will not be exacted from the 
 old employees or workmen of the firm, who, for sound reasons, could not become 
 members in the past. 
 
 Art. 3. The rate of participation in the profits will be fixed by Mons. Piat, every year after the closing 
 of the inventory, which takes place annually on the 31st March. 
 
 Art. 4. The amount of the share coming to each participant will be found by multiplying the amount 
 ■of wages or allowances by the above rate. For workmen, the annual salary will be the price of an hour 
 multiplied by ten hours and by 300 days' work, whether the workman works by the piece or by the day. 
 
 Example : Granting the fixed rate to be 8 . 50 per cent, of the wages, a work- 
 -man earning $0.12 per hour will receive : 
 
 $0.12 X 10 X 300 = $3.60 X 8.50 per cent.= $30.60. 
 
 Art. 5. The amount thus awarded will be divided into two equal parts : 
 
 One to be given him in cash every year, at a certain date. 
 
 The other to be paid over to the Retiring Fund as reserved capital. 
 
 Eesults of the Organization. 
 
 
 Number of Participants. 
 
 Amount % in 
 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Soissons. 
 
 proportion to Salary. 
 
 1882 
 
 145 
 146 
 141 
 150 
 
 168 
 180 
 182 
 
 
 8.50 
 
 7.00 
 6.00 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 4 00 
 
 1883 
 
 
 1884 
 
 
 1885 < 
 
 
 1886 
 
 
 1887 
 
 10 
 16 
 
 1888 
 
 
 
 The total amount divided is $28,154.00. 
 
67 
 
 EEDOULY & Co., FORMER MAISON LBCLAIRE. 
 
 PAINTERS, DECOEATORS, GILDEfts, TINTERS AND GLAZIERS 
 
 AND 
 
 PROVIDENT AND MUTUAL AID SOCIETY FOR THE WORKMEN OF THE 
 
 MAISON LBCLAIRB. 
 
 Founded by Mons. Leelaire in 1826. 
 Changes in the Name of the Firm. 
 
 Prom 1826 to 1854 Leelaire. 
 
 do 1854 to 1869 Leelaire & Co. 
 
 do 1869 to 1872 Leelaire, A. Defournaux & Co. 
 
 do 1872 to 1875 A. Defournaux & Co. 
 
 From 1875 Redouly & Co. 
 
 EDME-JEAN LEOLAIEE.* 
 
 Leelaire was born at Aisy-sur-Arman^on (Yonne), the 2-lth Flor^al, year IX 
 (15th May, 1801.) He left the primary sehool at ten years of age to herd swine, 
 sheep and eows, and eame to Paris without money or friends at 17 years of age, and 
 entered as apprentiee in the shop of a house-painter. He was foreman at 20 years 
 of age, and married at 22. At 26 years of age he set up for himself in a modest 
 shop. In 1829 he ventured to eontract for large works, and offered his workmen 
 ^1 per day, instead of the usual 80.80. His success led him to think of the fate of his 
 less fortunate fellow-workmen. 
 
 Afflicted by the sight of his workmen suffering and dying from lead eolic, he 
 founded- in 1838 a Mutual Aid Society for them, but relief and help did not content; 
 lie wanted to eradicate the evil entirely. He studied chemistry in order to find a 
 substitute for white of lead, and in 1844 discovered a means of utilizing white of 
 zinc, a perfectly innocuous substanue. By this means he saved and prolonged many 
 an existence. The Society for the Encouragement of National Industi^y awarded 
 him a gold medal for this discovery, and the Monthyon prize. In 1849 he received 
 the cross of the Legion of Honor. 
 
 But Leelaire's great work was the establishment in his house of participation of 
 the workmen in the profits. The system was adopted and put into practice iu 1842. 
 After numberless difficulties, his perseverance and his continued efforts were crowned 
 with success. 
 
 Wishing to prove that this success did not depend upon his influence and 
 presence, but that the institution he had founded could walk alone, he withdrew from 
 active business in 1865, leaving the entire management of the concern to his partner 
 Alfred Defournaux. He, however, came forward again in 1869 to establish his system 
 of participation more completely and on a firmer basis. 
 
 After the war he retired to his property at Herblay (Seine-et-Oise), where he 
 ■died of congestion of the brain in July, 1882, having won the veneration and grati- 
 tude of all the workmen and employees of his house. 
 
 By means of the institutions established by his house, Leelaire desired to assure 
 to his workmen greater well-being, for the present and security for the future, and to 
 this end strove to interest his men personally in their work, to stimulate their intel- 
 ligence, their wisdom and their energy. In 1864 he addressed to them the words 
 that are- engraved over his bust : 
 
 " If you wish that I should leave this world with a contented heart, you must 
 have realized the dream of my whole life; after a career of orderly conduct and 
 assiduous labor the workman and his wife must have the wherewithal to live in 
 peace in their old age, without being a burden on any one." 
 
 *We believe it to be advisable to publish this short biography of Leelaire the father of profit-sharing. 
 
 20— 5i 
 
68 
 
 It was only after much study, and having given a practical trial to many sys- 
 tems, that he succeeded in establishing the simple, clear and practical system of par- 
 ticipation now existing in the house ho founded in 1827. 
 
 Mons. Leclaire died in 1872, but he had taken care that his work should not die 
 with him, by means of a notarial act which went into effect on 5th January. 1869, and 
 by which the workman's interests were bound up in those of the enterprise, and by 
 which he was assured a share in the profits with joint ownership in the capital of 
 the establishment (Mons. Leclaire had previously conferred with his fellow-work- 
 men on the best means to be adopted, in a list of questions on twelve principal points, 
 to which two hundred workmen sent answers). The clauses of the contract were 
 ratified by Mons. Leclaire's death in 1872, and after the death of his successor, Mons. 
 Alfred Defournaux (in 1875) by new notarial deeds bearing date of the 6th of Sep- 
 tember, 1872, and the 24th December, 1875. 
 
 According to these deeds the business capital of the house was $80,000, with a 
 reserve fund of $20,000 furnished by the two managers, and a sleeping partnership 
 of $40,000 by the Provident and Mutual Aid Society of the workmen and employees 
 of the Maison Leclaire: — 
 
 25 per cent, to the managers. 
 
 25 per cent, to the Mutual Aid Society. 
 
 50 per cent, to the workmen and employees working in the house in proportion 
 to their salaries and wages. 
 
 Every workman, apprentice or employee of the establishment, even if he has 
 worked but one day, has a right to share in the profits. 
 
 When Mons. Leclaire established participation in 1842 he at first admitted 
 only a certain number of workmen, to whom he gave the name of the Nucleus (Noyau) 
 and this nucleus is in reality the proprietor of the establishment and of its forma- 
 tion. Their number is recruited as follows, according to the rules of the house : — 
 
 The Noyau and its Organization. 
 
 The noyau of an industrial establishment is composed of intelligent workmen of good moral character ; 
 it is by their means that satisfaction is given customers, and that great perfection in work is attained. It 
 is by the help and co-operation of these devoted fellow-laborers that it becomes possible to undertake large 
 works, and to contro' a great number of workmen. 
 
 Rules for admission to the Noyau and the Advantages derived. 
 
 Art. 12. Seniority does not give a right to admission to the noyau ; merit is the first recommendation ; 
 nevertheless, none can be admitted, whatever their talent, whose habits and moral character are not above 
 reproach. 
 
 For admission, the workman must be at least 25 years of age and 40 years at the most ; he must have a 
 knowledge of reading, writing and arithmetic. 
 
 There may be admitted to the noyau : 
 
 1st. Workmen house painters having a knowledge of painting, panneling, varnishing and polishing. 
 
 2nd. Classified glaziers. 
 
 3nd. Gilders, being p,ble to paint. 
 
 4th. House painters having a passable knowledge of imitating wood, marble, and of graining. 
 
 5th. Those having a knowledge of painting and lettering, and who are classified. 
 
 6th. Workmen knowing how to glue and paint and glaze. 
 
 7th. Rubbers who know how to paint, or who have been appointed foremen. 
 
 8th. Men having no special trade, but who have made themselves useful. 
 
 9th. Finally, all workmen who have been employed in the house for less than twenty terms, and who 
 answer to the conditions imposed above, may be admitted to form part of the noyau. 
 
 Art. 13. All workmen fulfilling the conditions of Art. 12, and forming part of the noyau, will be paid 
 wages $0.05 per cent, over the wages granted by the Paris schedule. This will be decided every year by the 
 General Assembly ; the $0.05 allowed a workman will be paid him only at the end of the year. During 
 the winter, if they desire it, an advance of SIO will be made, which is to be repaid during the summer 
 months ; this advance may be more than doubled, but in that case two workmen belonging to the noyau or 
 two classified employees must become security for the amount so advanced. 
 
 Finally, any workman having worked for the house continuously for a period of five years, and who 
 belongs to the noyau, may be admitted to the Mutual Aid Society of the workmen and employees of the 
 Maison Leclaire, provided he fulfills all the conditions. 
 
 To become a member of the noyau, application to that effect must be made to the 
 two managers, who refer the matter to the conciliativje committee, * who make 
 enquiries, and refer their report to the General Assembly, * which has the right to 
 accept or reject the applicant. 
 
 *The tariff of 1881 gives $1.50, with an over pay of from $0.10 to $0.30. 
 
69 
 
 The business is managed by two persons nominated by the General Assembly. 
 These two managers form a partnership or association under one collective name, 
 and are responsible for all the transactions of the house. 
 
 Each of these managers receives a yearly salary of $1,200, and must bring into 
 the concern a capital of $20,000. If a manager be named, in place of one leaving or 
 having died, who has not the necessary capital, two-thirds of his annual shares will 
 be retained until that amount is made up, and the manager leaving, or his heir in a 
 ■case of death, can di'aw the capital coming to them only little by little, and in pro- 
 portion as the new manager pays his amounts in. 
 
 A manager has the right to withdraw from the concern whenever he chooses, 
 but none can be dismissed except at the request of the other manager, supported by 
 the president of the Mutual Aid Society, and by the advice of the two commissioners 
 named every year by the workmen to verify the accounts. 
 
 A manager leaving the fiim, or the heirs of one deceased, have no claim on the 
 ■custom, the material or the reserve fund. 
 
 General Assemblies.. 
 
 Workmen who form the noyau meet in a general assembly at least once a year, 
 in the month of February; there is then a secret ballot for 
 
 Ist. The nomination of two commissioners, chosen from amongst the members, 
 to inspect the business accounts of the year. 
 
 2nd. To elect foremen for the workshops for the year. 
 
 3rd. For the admission of workmen to the noyau. 
 
 4th. For the nomination, for the space of a year, of the members to compose the 
 conciliative committee. 
 
 The General Assembly also discuss questions referred to them by the conciliative 
 committee. 
 
 Conciliative Committee. 
 
 Art. 75. A conciliative committee is elected by the members of the noya u and classified workmen. 
 
 This committee is composed of nine members, of which five are workmen or foremen of shops, three 
 .are employees, and the master, who is president by right. 
 
 Art. 77. There may be called before the committee all workmen members of the noyau, apprentices, 
 and classified employees who have neglected their duty during work hours ; also as regards any matter relat- 
 ing to immorahty, dishonesty, drunkenness, or to the interests of the establishment. 
 
 The penalties imposed are according to the seriousness of the fault : 
 
 1st. Advice. 
 
 2nd. Warning. 
 
 3rd. Suspension for three months. 
 
 4th. Dismissal from the house. 
 
 In the latter case, the expelled workman may appeal to the General Assembly, but the committee'.? 
 decision will be carried into force notwithstanding. 
 
 The dismission is decided only by secret ballot, and only by a decisive majority. 
 
 Employees — Classification of Advantages granted to Employees. 
 
 Art. 17. The house, desiring to encourage and make known all talent, recruits, as far as possible, its 
 employees from the noyau and the master from among the employees, a.nd that according to a competition 
 which shall be organised by the general assembly of the OToy/aK. 
 
 Finally, in order to place workmen according to their talent, classes have been established in each 
 special department of work and direction. To the master alone belongs the right to classify the employees, 
 directors and foremen. 
 
 The foremen are classed for a year, the classification to take place at the end of every year after they 
 have examined the productions of the workshops. 
 
 No workman can be admitted to a class if he has not shown himself fitted for it. 
 
 The master may make an exception in favor of a workman or employee whether classified or not, who 
 either by zeal or assiduity has rendered important service to the house. 
 
 Qualifications required of a foreman, his duties and his responsibilities. 
 
 Art. 44. There are three classes of foremen in the establishment. The foreman of the 1st class is paid 
 ■every year, for ten hours work, the high rate of $0.10 over and above his day's wages of S1.20,* one of 
 the second class $0.15, and of the third class $0.20. 
 
 The foremen or heads of the workshops are elected by the workmen, and forming the noyau and the 
 •classified employees. 
 
 They are elected and classed every year. ... . , 
 
 A foreman whose appointment has been revoked on account of immorality, dishonesty or misconduct 
 insij be re-elected. 
 
70 
 
 Foremen whose appointments have been twice revoked cannot be re-elected. 
 
 AH workmen and employees, when a foreman is to be nominated, should remember that a person can 
 have no influence over those he is called upon to direct without he is of irreproachable morality ; that he is. 
 to set the example ; that he is to be the first and the last in the breach ; that in his daily relations with 
 others he is respected only so far as he respects others. Finally, 'all who obey or command should be gov- 
 erned by a feelmg of good-will towards each other, and the rememberance that the ^ood conduct and 
 devotedness of each tends to serve the interests of all. 
 
 Art. 47. Any disagreement between comrades to be brought no further than the door of the workshop. 
 It is the foreman's duty to act with the utmost justice in regard to everyone, to consider neither a man's 
 nationality, district nor character, but only his good conduct and ability ; in giving his orders he must- 
 avoid wounding any one's sensibilities ; he must request rather than command. 
 
 An injustice on the part of the foreman injures the interests of all. A just man does unto others as he- 
 would hare them do to him. 
 
 The foreman knows by experience that it is not pleasant to be given imperious orders publicly ; he is 
 moreover aware that with our civilization men are not ruled by fear but by reason. 
 
 Finally, when a workman is sent to work in a shop for a few hours, the foreman should, by preference, 
 give him the least disagreeable tasks. 
 
 Art. 49. The foreman being bound to worthily represent the dignity of the house, must behave accord- 
 ingly ; even while at work he must always respect his position. 
 
 As he is charged with the directions of the workshop, he alone is responsible ; all faults committed by 
 the men under him are morally considered as his own. In a word, he should remember that he has been 
 elected by his fellow-laborers, and that he is bound to worthily represent them. 
 
 The foreman is also responsible for breakage and loss of tools, and for goods injured. 
 
 Art. 50. When a foreman happens to be working in a workshop not under his direction, his duty is to- 
 leave the best work to the foreman in whose shop he happens to be momentarily placed. 
 
 Art. 51. Any order given by the master and clearly understood by the foreman should be carried out- 
 with exactness, without regard to the results ; otherwise, all resulting defects will be remedied at the 
 expense of those violating the order. 
 
 Art. 62. The foreman must not forget that the men all look to him, and that at the elections his- 
 aotivity, the trouble he has given himself, and his endeavors for others will all be taken into account. 
 
 PROVIDENT AND MUTUAL AID SOCIETY OP THE WORKMEN AND EMPLOYEES OP 
 
 THE MAISON LEOLAIHE. 
 
 1838. — formation of the Provident and Mutual Aid Society. 
 
 1864. — The Mutual Aid Society hecarae a sleeping partnei'ship in the Maison 
 Leclaire, with a capital of 120,000. It had a right to f of 50 per cent, of the net 
 profits of the house. 
 
 1869.— The liability of the Society is $40,000. It has a right to 25 per cent, of 
 the profits of the house. 
 
 The Society's Means. 
 
 The means of the Society consist of: 
 
 1st. Interest of 5 per cent, on its liability ($40,000). 
 
 2iid. Its share in the profits of the house (25 per cent.) 
 
 3rd. The $4.00 paid by each member as entrance fee to the Society. 
 
 4th. The gratuities kindly given by customers to the Society. 
 
 5th. Fines imposed upon the members for infringement of the rules. 
 
 Funds of the Society on 1st May, 1889, $451,403.00. 
 
 Rules for Admission. 
 
 To be admitted to the society it is necessary to be a member of the noyau,. 
 having served five years in the establishment, to be of good moral conduct and 
 . character. 
 
 The members have to pay no subscription. 
 
 Benefit of the Society. 
 
 The members when sick have a right to medical attendance, medicine, and an- 
 indemnity of 70 cents per day. 
 
 The wives of members, retired members and their wives, have a right to medical, 
 attendance and medicines. 
 
 The children of members have a right to consult the physician of the house,, 
 and to the drugs he orders. 
 
 Any member being 50 years of age, and having served 20 years in the Maisoa 
 Leclaire, has a right to a life rent of $240.00 per annum. 
 
71 
 
 The widows of members, and their orphan children, until they are 21 years of 
 age, have a right to one-half the above named pension. 
 
 Workmen, not membei-s, wounded while at work, or incapacited from work, 
 bave a right to a pension of $240.00. 
 
 The widows of workmen killed while at work, and their orphan children, bave a 
 right to a half pension. 
 
 All the claimants by right above mentioned are, at their death, interred at the 
 society's expense, in accordance with a five year's concession. 
 
 Assurances. 
 
 All the members of the society have a life insurance, in virtue of the Act of 11th 
 July, 1868, in the Life Insurance Fund, established under the State for a sum of 
 $200 each. 
 
 This assurance is for the benefit of the widows and orphans of members. 
 
 Eesults of the Organization. 
 
 
 Number 
 of Workmen 
 
 and 
 Employees. 
 
 Participation in the Profits. 
 
 Amount 
 
 of Wages for 
 
 the year. 
 
 Proportion 
 
 Years. 
 
 Amovmts 
 
 paid to 
 
 the United Aid 
 
 Society. 
 
 Amounts 
 
 paid in Cash 
 
 to 
 
 the Staff. 
 
 Total. 
 
 between the 
 
 Amount 
 
 in Profit 
 
 and 
 
 the Wages. 
 
 1845! to 1864 
 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 460,000 
 
 50,088 
 
 80,000 
 
 64,867 
 
 100,000 
 
 135,000 
 
 92,437 
 
 101,250 
 
 132,375 
 
 96,750 
 
 118,500 
 
 150,000 
 
 168,750 
 
 172,500 
 
 195,000 
 
 240,000 
 
 285,000 
 
 322,500 
 
 361,125 
 
 337,500 
 
 345,000 
 
 273,750 
 
 273,750 
 
 Francs. 
 
 % 
 
 1865 
 
 
 25,233 
 48,470 
 38,832 
 73,975 
 45,000 
 30,812 
 33,750 
 44,125 
 32,250 
 39,600 
 50,000 
 56,250 
 57,000 
 65,500 
 80,000 
 95,000 
 107,500 
 120,375 
 112,500 
 115,000 
 91,250 
 91,250 
 
 24,855 
 
 31,530 
 
 26,035 
 
 26,025 
 
 90,000 
 
 61,625 
 
 67,500 
 
 88,250 
 
 64,5C0 
 
 79,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 112,500 
 
 115,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 190,000 
 
 215,000 
 
 240,750 
 
 225,000 
 
 230,000 
 
 182,500 
 
 182,500 
 
 
 
 1866 
 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 
 
 
 1868 
 
 
 558,628' 
 
 406,414 
 556,495 
 695,429 
 508,167 
 600,293 
 696,569 
 689,575 
 645,484 
 713,644 
 867,870 
 972,424 
 1,068,607 
 1,069,975 
 966,908 
 967,606 
 869,050 
 869,001 
 
 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 780 
 
 758 
 
 1,039 
 
 976 
 
 633 
 
 827 
 
 1,052 
 
 1,081 
 
 826 
 
 1,032 
 
 1,125 
 
 949 
 
 1,125 
 
 998 
 
 838 
 
 824 
 
 710 
 
 716 
 
 16,13 
 
 14,337 
 
 12,129 
 
 12,31 
 
 12,692 
 
 13,14 
 
 14,35 
 
 16,31 . 
 
 17,81 
 
 18,216 
 
 18,435 
 
 19,53 
 
 20,11 
 
 22,50 
 
 23,27 ■ 
 
 23,77 
 
 21,00 
 
 21,00 
 
 The total amount of the sums paid in cash to the United Aid Society and to the 
 workmen increased, from 1842 to 1886, to $911,228.40. 
 
 All the workmen and employees share in the profits in proportion to their wages. 
 Thus in 1881 a workman having worked for the house 4^ hours work, at the rate 
 of 15' cents per hour, and was paid 68 cents, had, at the end of the year, a right to 14 
 cents bonus. And again, a workman having 2,'750^ hours in a year, at the rate of 
 18 cents an hour, received a bonus of $100. During the same year the smallest 
 bonus received by any employee of the house was $3 . 13, and the highest $201. The 
 division is based on the amount of the regular wages ; over hoars, night hours, gra- 
 tuities work done on Sunday and holidays are not counted in the workman's wagea. 
 for the division of profits. 
 
72 
 
 The Mutual Aid Society had, on the 1st May, 1889, available funds to the amount 
 of $451,403. 
 
 The society had paid out, apart from aid given to its members in cash and in 
 goods, from 1862 to 1889, 120 pensions, to wit : 29 pensions to widows, 2 pensions 
 to orphans, and 89 pensions to worl<men over 55 years of age, and having served 20 
 consecutive years in the establishment. Since 1881 the pension of retiring is $240 
 a year ; those for widows and orphans $120 a year. 
 
 Finally, the collections of the life insurance in favor of its members gave from 
 1879 to 1888 the following results :— 
 
 
 Yearly 
 
 Premiums 
 
 paid by the 
 
 ^Society. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Members insured 
 
 for 1,000 frs. 
 
 each. 
 
 Number 
 of Members de- 
 creased during 
 the Year. 
 
 . 
 
 Year 
 
 ending Slat 
 
 July. 
 
 Paid to 
 
 Widows and 
 
 Children. 
 
 Inherited 
 by the Society 
 
 in default 
 of Direct Heirs 
 
 Total. 
 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 
 Francs. 
 
 2,814 15 
 2,891 07 
 3,292 80 
 3,184 39 
 3,262 85 
 3,534 75 
 3,740 35 
 4,047 78 
 4,032 72 
 
 135 
 136 
 155 
 157 
 160 
 167 
 171 
 
 3 
 3 
 10 
 5 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 4 
 2 
 
 Francs. 
 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 6,000 
 3,000 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 4,000 
 2,000 
 1,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 10,000 
 5,000 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 
 1886 
 
 1,000 
 2,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1887 
 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 
 4 000 
 
 1888 
 
 183 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 30,800 86 
 $6,160,172 
 
 20,000 
 84,000 
 
 14,000 
 $2,800 
 
 34,000 
 $6,800 
 
 The workmen and employees in the Maison Leclaire who belong to the noyau 
 and to the Mutual Aid Society share in the following privileges : — 
 
 1st. They are paid wages at least equal to those paid by any other establishment. 
 
 2nd. They are given a share in the profits, which, from 1870 to 1886, increased 
 their wages from 12 to 23 per cent. * • 
 
 3rd. In cases of sickness they are given medical attendance and medicines free 
 of charge, and a daily aid of 70c. 
 
 Members' wives and children have a right to medical attendanca and drugs. 
 
 Members' wives receive for the first born child a premium of $10, for the second 
 $14, and for the third and others $20. 
 
 4th. Workmen who have served 20 consecutive years in the house, after 50 years 
 of age are paid a pension of $240. 
 
 Widows of members and their orphan children, until their majority, receive a 
 pension of $120. These pensions are granted to the heirs of members killed while 
 at work. 
 
 5th. In case of death, the workman's direct heirs receive a sum of $20, and the 
 funeral expenses are borne by the society. 
 
 Workmen and the employees not belonging to Vn^noyau, and therefore disquali- 
 fied for admittance to the society, are granted the following advantages : — 
 
 Ist. A share in the profits, calculated from the same basis as "for members of 
 the noyau. 
 
 2nd. A yearly pension, of $240 if they are wounded at work or incapacitated 
 for work. 
 
 3rd. A yearly pension of $120 granted to the widow and orphans of workmen, 
 not members, killed at work. 
 
 * In 1882 the bonus received by every ordinary workman who had worked regularly 300 days in the 
 year was as high as $80, over and above his wages. 
 
73 
 
 SAUTTER, LEMONNIER & CO., 
 
 LIGHTHOUSES, &C., PARIS. 
 
 Participation in the profits was introduced in 1877, established under the form 
 of prizes or supplementary allowances granted by the masters. 
 
 Employees and workmen are engaged at stated and fixed wages. Afterwards, 
 according to their ability aud the services rendered by them they are awarded a 
 share greater or less in the supplementary allocation. 
 
 A part of the profits is allotted as remuneration for capital ; another, varying in 
 amount according to the business done, is divided among the staff. 
 
 The employees, after their third year of service, are given a proportionate share 
 of this gratuity. Workmen are admitted after five years' service ; forced loss of time 
 from want of work or other cause not attributable to them is deducted from that 
 time. Their share varies according to their services and their intelligence. 
 
 To prevent the amounts thus awarded to the workmen, which are frequently 
 discounted and mortgaged in advance, from being wasted at once, a portion only of 
 the amount granted is paid to each workman. The surplus, which, according to cir- 
 cumstances, may amount to half the entire sum, is placed in the National Eetiring 
 Fund for old age, a book on the fund being given the workman. This precaution is 
 not required of workmen of thrifty habits, and belonging to savings societies or 
 others of like nature. To those the gratuity is given in full. Participation, which 
 was begun in 1877, included in one year 11 employees. In 1880, 11 employees 
 and 23 workmen shared in this supplementary remuneration. In 1884, 24 em- 
 ployees and 38 workmen shared. The number increased yearly, and at the present 
 90 workmen and 30 employees share in the gratuity. The amounts paid are always 
 increasing, and now vary between 8 and 10 per cent, on the wages. For employees 
 it even amounts to 60 per cent, of their salaries. 
 
 The amounts paid to participants had, in the year 1889, reached the sum of 
 $66,000. 
 
 G. STEINHIEL, DIETEELEN & Co. 
 (Eothau, Alsace.j 
 
 NOTICE OF FORTY-TWO TEARS' EXPERIENCE IN PARTICIPATION OF THE WORKMEN IN 
 THE PROFITS OP A COTTON MANUFACTORY.* 
 
 Statutory Dispositions. 
 
 The limited liability company of G. Steinheil, Dieterlen & Co., at Eothau was 
 established in 1847. In its deed of partnership it engages itself to pay 10 per cent, of 
 the net profits to the credit of a Workman's Account, and that, for years in which 
 losses are sustained, 10 per cent, of the said losses will be debited to the same account. 
 This was a beginning of an attempt at collective participation of the workmen in 
 the profits of the factory, as had been practised before us by our neighbors, Messrs. 
 LeCrand Bros,, at Fouday. , . 
 
 The amounts were to be managed by us and used for endowing institutions tor 
 the advancement of intellectual, moral and physical development, as well as to afford 
 aid to families in distress. 
 
 In 1868 we raised the rate for participation to 12 percent, for losses as well as 
 profits ; this 12 per cent being divided into 7 per cent, for the collective participation 
 and 5 per cent, for individual participation. But instead of realizing the amount of 
 requisite profit to carry out our scheme, the period from 1868 to 1872 was one indus- 
 trial crisis, followed by a war in which Alsace became part of the German Empire. 
 We sustained immense losses and were obliged to reconstruct our establishnient on 
 a new basis. We suspended individual participation for awhile, but maintained in 
 the deeds of our new partnership, collective participation under the following condi- 
 tions : — 
 
 * Report given to the jury. 
 
74 
 
 10 per cent, was put in the manager's hands to be, in part, a maximum of 4 per 
 cent, appropriated to their employees, in conformity with the provisions of Article 23 of 
 their statutes, and in part to their workmen's account, as a subsidy to the Mutual Aid 
 and Eetiring Fund and to the Widows' Fund, in order to meet the demands made for 
 aid in cases of necessity, and to provide for the adult course, and the expenses of" 
 the library. 
 
 If, after the society is dissolved, there remain any balance, the general assembly 
 will decide on the use to be made of it. If, on the contrary, there be a deficit, it will 
 be carried to profit and loss. It is of course understood that the above rules give 
 no right to employees or workmen to interfere in the affairs of the society. On the' 
 contrary, they have to rely on the accounts approved by the general assembly. 
 
 By this means we have managed to maintain a pretty regular supply for our 
 workmen's account, by placing it beyond the extreme fluctuations resulting from 
 the alternate states of profit and loss peculiar to the cotton business. 
 
 Disposal of the Funds of the Workmen's Account. 
 
 During the forty-four years intervening between ISiT and 1888 the entries on 
 this account have been $61,158.60, or an annual average of $1,516. 
 
 Mutual Aid Society, Fund for Widows, and Retiring Fund. 
 
 These funds have been principally employed since the date of the society's- 
 foundation, in 1849, in succoring workmen in cases of sickness. Since 1866 the fund 
 has also supplied a pension for widows, heretofore a deficiency in our organization^ 
 By means of our subsidies the workmen's subscriptions have been small, and at the 
 same time, savings of a certain importance have been effected. 
 
 The following figures give the receipts and expenses of the Mutual Aid Society. 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 Amount supplied by the masters $26,148 19' 
 
 Workmen's subscriptions 42,809 2& 
 
 Interest on invested capital and fines imposed 16,871 20 
 
 $85,428 6T 
 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 Aid in cases of sickness in cash $19,056 93 
 
 Eetiring pensions 28,028 92 
 
 Medical attendance, drugs and funeral 19,81Y 59 
 
 Aid to widows 6,458 60 
 
 $73,361 99 
 Excess of receipts $12,066 68 
 
 Loans for the Purchase or Building of Houses. 
 
 The surplus amount of the receipts of the Mutual Aid Society have been wisely- 
 loaned on mortgage at 5 per cent, interest to members desiring to purchase or build 
 houses for themselves, and by means of these loans, and to a capital which is con- 
 stantly renewed by the payment of the loan, 140 families have been able to become 
 owners of their own dwellings. 
 
 We consider it of the utmost importance that the workmen should be proprie- 
 tors of their houses, rather than in the unenviable position of being without home or 
 fireside. 
 
75 
 
 Supplementary Aid. 
 
 Whenever the population of the working class is large there are always some 
 families more or less numerous that, notwithstanding the help of mutual aid societies,, 
 require supplementary assistance. Prolonged illness, the death of the father, a large 
 family of children too young +o work, and other causes, necessitate assistance more 
 or less continued. Thanks to our workman's account, we are enabled to come to the 
 assistance of such families. 
 
 FAMILISTEEB DE GUISE. 
 
 A COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION OF CAPITAL AND LABOE. 
 
 GODIN & COMPANY. 
 
 HEATING APPARATUS. 
 
 The Pamilist^re founded in 1860 to serve as a dwelling to the workers in the- 
 factory and to their families is not a city of workin'g people, but a lai-ge edifice, a 
 palace capable of holding nearly 1,800 persons. 
 
 Article 89 of the regulations of the society gives in a few words the object that 
 the creator of this institution had in view. 
 
 Art. 89. The Social Palace (Familist^re) and its dependencies have for their 
 object the wellbeing and moral development of its inhabitants, and the desire to 
 facilitate and put Id practice the aims of the association. 
 
 The Social Palace being near the workshops, offers rest to the workman after his 
 day's labor. 
 
 With a desire of affording every comfort the Pamilist^re possesses — 
 
 Ist. Stores of general supplies, a bakery, a butcher shop, a pork butcher shop,, 
 vegetable store, a clothing, grocery and mercer stores, a liquor store, &c, 
 
 2nd. Laundiies and washrooms. 
 
 3rd. Baths and open baths. 
 
 It contains also, with the view of supplying the intellectual and moral demands — 
 
 4th. School rooms, which are for the education and instruction of children, from 
 their birth to the time they become apprentices. 
 
 5th. Meeting halls for adults, a theatre, library, casino, &c. 
 
 The Familist^re being an actual member of the society, all the profits realized 
 from the dwellings and provision and other stores, are all put together, and then 
 divided among the associates. 
 
 Mr. Godin inaugurated the system of participation into his establishments in 
 1877, but it was only in 1880 that lie organized it in a stable manner. 
 
 In 1880 he founded a company of sleeping partners, the capital of which was 
 entirely composed of gifts of the founder — about $920,000. The company included — 
 
 1. Associates. 
 
 2. Societaries. 
 
 3. Participants. 
 
 4. Interested parties. 
 
 The managing director is named for life by the council of administration, and 
 cannot be removed, except in the five cases set forth by the regulations — 
 
 1st. Not being able to secure any interest on capital for two consecutive years, 
 
 2nd. Losses exceeding $10,000 on operations made contrary to the advice of the 
 General Assembly, or the council of administration. 
 
 3rd and 4th. Non-observance of the regulations. 
 
 5th. Having taken or preserved any personal interest whatever in any transac- 
 tion or sale made on account of the Association, or having perverted or employed to 
 his own use the funds of the association. 
 
76 
 
 The managing director is assisted by an administrative council, composed of 
 •directors, heads of the various departments of the industry, and three associates, 
 elected by secret ballot at the general assembly. The duties of this council include 
 all the affairs of the association. There is also a council Familist^re, and a labor 
 council, and, finally, a council of superintendence, named by the general assembly, 
 for the verification of books. 
 
 The general assembly is composed of associates. The associates must have 
 resided in the Pamilist^re for over five years, and must own, at least, $100 worth of 
 stock. They must also have attained the age of 25 years. These associates have 
 priority in case of a scarcity of woi'k. They take part in voting at the general 
 meetings, those among them who by age, sickness, or infirmity, are forced to cease 
 work, still continue to reside in the Familist^re, and to sit and vote at the general 
 assemblies. 
 
 The societaries must have worked for the Association for at least three 
 years; they must also reside in the Social Palace, but it is not necessary that 
 they should possess any share of the stock. They should be 21 years of age at least. 
 
 The participants must have worked for the Association for at least a year, but 
 they are not obliged to reside in the Familist^re, and are not bound to own any 
 stock. 
 
 The interested persons are only members of the Association, because they possess 
 by inheritance, purchase or otherwise, shares on the stock; they have no right to 
 assist at the general meetings. 
 
 The Association also employs employees and workmen as auxiliaries. 
 
 Division of Profits. 
 
 After having made the necessary deduction of 5 per cent, for depreciation on 
 immovable property, 10 per cent, on the value of the movable property, interest on 
 ■capital, the costs of education and instruction, the mutual insurances, of which we 
 will speak hereafter, the net profits are divided according to the following 
 scheme: — 
 
 25 per cent, is allotted to the reserve fund, the object of which is to meet losses. 
 When this fund has reached a sum equal to a tenth of the capital stock the 25 per 
 cent, is applied to the purchase of shares on account of the association. Shares thus 
 bought bear no interest. 
 
 50 per cent, is allotted to capital and labor; the first is represented by interest, 
 returns and savings ; the second by allowances and wages received during the year, 
 which are added together. The proportion each sum bears to the total amount 
 determines the shares of capital and labor. The 50 per cent, is divided, so much in 
 the franc, between these two productive elements. The dividend to capital is paid 
 in cash ; the bonus to the workmen is capitalized and applied to the purchase of 
 shares in the business. In the division of the bonus each participant can claim one 
 part, each societary one part and a-half, and each associate two parts, in proportion 
 to theii' respective wages. The part allotted to the labor of the auxilaries is placed 
 in the fund for securing pensions and necessaries, the working of which we will 
 explain later. 
 
 Finally, the 25 per cent, remaining is allotted as follows : under the name of 
 savings but according to capacity : 4 per cent, to the managing director : to the 
 general council as many times 1 per cent., not to exceed, 16, as there are coun- 
 cillors doing duty; 2 per cent, to the councillors of supervision. (These amounts 
 are, of coui-se, independent of the sums that may be due the parties named from 
 the share allotted to labor) ; 2 per cent, to the Council of Management, to be divided 
 in the course of the year among the employees and workmen who may have distin- 
 guished themselves by some exceptional service ; 1 per cent, for preparation of 
 admission to the State schools, and for the support at these schools of one or more 
 pupils from the schools of the Familistere. 
 
77 
 
 We give below a practical demonstration of the division. * 
 We suppose, as is actually the case, that the reserve fund 
 
 is complete and that the net profits to be divided are. $60,000 
 From which must be deducted 25 per cent, for the share 
 
 to be allotted to ability 15,000 
 
 There consequently remains to be divided among the 
 
 workers at so much in the franc 45,000 
 
 1. The salary of capital repi'esented by interest at 5 per 
 
 cent, is fixed, and amounts to 46,000 
 
 2. The salaries paid the associates, supposing a sum of 
 
 $48,000 multiplied by two 96,000 
 
 3. The wages paid the members should be multiplied 
 
 by 1.5, supposing a sum of $86,000 + 1.5 129,000 00 
 
 4. The salaries paid participants is entered at its 
 
 value say 135,000 00 
 
 5. The wages of outside help also at its value 94,000 00 
 
 The union of capital and labor is represented by a total 
 
 of 500,000 00 
 
 and it is on this basis of salaries that the division is made. 
 The percentage is given by the following formula: — 
 Profits + 100 45,000 + 100 
 
 = = 9 per cent. 
 
 Salaries 500,000. 
 
 In consequence, the dividends and the profits amount to :^- 
 
 1. Capital, 46,000 X 9 per cent $4,140 00 
 
 2. Associates. 48,000 X 2 X 9 8,640 00 
 
 3. Members, 86,000 1.5 X 9 11,610 00 
 
 4. Participants 135,000 X 9 12,150 00 
 
 5. Assistants to be paid for insurances, 94,000 X 9 8,460 00 
 
 Equal total $ 45,000 00 
 
 Thus capital receives 9 per cent, on its interest, either in a dividend of: — 
 
 4,140 X 100 _ Q^g cent., which, considering interest as the salary of capital,. 
 
 920,000 f ' > 
 
 makes the division of profits as follows : — 
 
 To capital, 0.45 of its salary (in all 5.45 per cent.) for capital. 
 
 To each associate 18 per cent, of salaries and allowances for the year. 
 
 To each member 13^ per cent. do do 
 
 To each participant 9 per cent. do _ do 
 
 To the insurance fund 9 per cent, of the wages paid assistants. 
 
 The Familist^re has established the following institutions : — 
 
 Labor Syndicate.— TMb syndicate is composed of elected members, and attends 
 
 to matters pei'taining to labor and salaries. 
 
 Conciliative Committee is nominated to settle trouble or differences of opmion 
 
 that may arise between the Association and its members. ilih^ii 
 
 Assurances for pensions and the necessaries of life. The fund for this assurance 
 
 1. By a subsidy equal to 2 per cent, of the salaries and appointments paid by the 
 association and carried to the account for general expenses. 
 
 2. By a dividend in proportion to the assistant's work. 
 
 A pension is granted to all persons attached by long service to the, establish- 
 ment and clearly incapable of work. The pension is fixed, — 
 
 *Le Familistere de Guise, pstge 81. 
 
78 
 
 1. For associates, men and women, at -f of their allowances, not to be reduced to 
 less than $15 per month for the men, or to less than $9 per month for women, 
 
 2. For members (socUtaires), men and women, at \ of their allowances, with 
 ■an assured minimum of $12 per month for men, and $7 tor women. 
 
 3. For participants and assistants at : 
 
 Men. Women. 
 
 f After 15 years service $0.20 $0.15 
 
 -D . do 20 do 0.30 0.20 
 
 Per day.j ^^ ^^ ^^ ^ ^0 25 
 
 1^ do 30 do 0.50 0.30 
 
 A workman wounded while at work and incapacitated for work receives the 
 pension given after 20 years service, if he has worked 15 years for the society; 
 and the 30 years' pension if he has worked more than 15 years for the society. 
 
 This assurance completes for associates and members invalided more than 
 three months, the amount necessary to maintain duiing one year at the primitive 
 rate the daily allowances granted by the mutual insurance in cases of sickness. 
 
 This assurance assures the associates, members, and other inhabitants of the 
 Familist^re and to their families, a minimum of subsistence, when their resources do 
 not reach the minimum rate fixed by the statutes.* 
 
 Mutual Assurances in case of Sickness' — The funds of this assurance is maintained 
 by an assessment of IJ on the salaries, the fines, and a subsidy by the association. 
 The society's functions are those of an ordinary Mutual Aid Society. 
 
 Cooperative Societies for provisions and a bakery are established in the Familis- 
 t5re. 
 
 Institutions for the education and instruction of children in the Familist^re de 
 Guise include : — 
 
 The nursery, which helps mothers in the care of children up to two years of 
 age. 
 
 The play-room, where the amusement of childhood is cared for, children of from 
 2 to 4 years of age being admitted. 
 
 The infant school, (mother's schools include two classes), in which the child's 
 education is begun ; children of from 4 to 6 years of age are taught instructive and 
 recreative exercises. 
 
 The schools, six classes in which the children of the Familist^re, up to at least 14 
 years, receive a good primary instruction. 
 
 The association moreover supports courses of superior instruction, intended to 
 develop the talents of those children who seem specially gifted. 
 
 Results of the Organization. 
 
 There were in 1888 : 102 associates, 250 members, 464 participants, 256 inter- 
 ested persons. 
 
 From 1879 to 1888 there was distributed : — 
 
 To the associates $215,568 
 
 To members 70,361 
 
 To participants 176,495 
 
 Total for actual members $462,424 
 
 To persons interested 32,784 
 
 To assurances 134,921 
 
 Various accounts 29,000 
 
 Amounts for education 51,396 
 
 $710,525 
 
 * This rate is fixed as follows by Article 11 of the statutes : Tor husband and wife, 50 cents per day ; 
 a widower and a widow head of a family, 30 cents ; a widow without family, 20 cents ; an invalid (man) 
 without family, 20 cents ; a woman, 15 cents ; for young men over 16 years of age, 20 cents ; from 14 to 16, 
 15 cents ; children from 2 to 14 years, 10 cents ; under 2 years, 5 cents. In the account for calculating the 
 resources of a family, in order to settle the amount required to form a minimum rate of subsistence, the 
 earnings of the members of the family or the allowances of the different assurances are first counted. 
 
79 
 
 The original capital was $920,000, lepreeenting the real amount of the associ- 
 ation in 1879. In 1888 this amounted to $1,738,475. Thanks to Mons. Godin's 
 legacy the association, that is, the workers, owned over 90 per cent, of the capital 
 shares, and $20 shares were in 1888 worth $35.71. 
 
 According to the published calculations of the Association of the Pamilist^re de 
 ■<xuise, the minimum pecuniary position of four retired workmen, one of each class, 
 vwould be as follows : — 
 
 Owners. 
 
 Associate . 
 
 Member . 
 
 Participant . 
 
 Assistant. 
 
 Years 
 
 of 
 Service. 
 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 
 Income. 
 
 Pensions and 
 
 Interest 
 
 under the name of 
 
 Savings. 
 
 250 72 
 268 13 
 289 55 
 308 97 
 332 38 
 203 71 
 225 12 
 246 55 
 304 36 
 327 78 
 124 44 
 182 25 
 240 27 
 298 09 
 319 50 
 73 00 
 109 50 
 146 00 
 182 40 
 182 40 
 
 Value 
 
 of 
 
 Savings.* 
 
 1,152 71 
 1,536 50 
 1,920 30 
 
 2.304 10 
 2,687 90 
 1,034 36 
 1,418 16 
 1,801 96 
 2,185 76 
 2,169 36 
 
 901 88 
 
 1.305 08 
 1,689 52 
 2,073 28 
 2,457 08 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 THOMAS BUSHILL & SONS. 
 
 PAPER MAN0FAOTUKERS, OOVENTRT. 
 
 Participation in the profits was established in this factory on the 1st September, 
 1888. 
 
 Ail undetermined amount is divided every year on the 1st day of September. All 
 the workmen who have served at least one year in the establishment are participants. 
 The division is made in proportion to the salary or wages earned. 
 
 Half the amount to be divided is given them in cash, and the other is credited to 
 each individual's personal accountinaprovidentfund established bythe firm. Thepar- 
 ticipants can touch this amount only after 25 years' service in the house, or when 
 they have attained the age of 65 years. 
 
 These funds bear interest at 4 per cent., and are secured by a mortgage on the 
 property of the establishment. 
 
 Amounts forfeited are divided among the participants. 
 
 *The value of the savings (titres d'epargne) is established according to the ascending scale of the 
 sa%'ino's of three members of the association whose wages amount to $330 per annum, and who begin either 
 as ass'ociates, or members, or participants, and pass successfully from one class to the other. The division 
 is made according to the average of the division from 1877 to 1888. 
 
 Mons. J, B. A. Godin died in 1888 and bequeathed to the Pamilistire de (Jwise and Lacken, that is, to 
 their workmen and employees, the half of his fortune, all the French law allowed him to dispose of. 
 
80 
 
 When a workwoman marries and leaves the factory she can claim the amounts 
 entered in her book. 
 
 An employee sick or in any way incapable of working can likewise claim his 
 amounts. 
 
 In case of death, the participant's heirs receive the amounts in his books. 
 
 CASSBLL & CO. (LIMITED). 
 
 PRINTERS AND PUBLISHERS, LONDON. 
 
 In 1883 the firm of Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co. was changed into a limited 
 liability company, under the name of ''Cassell & Co.," with a capital of £500,000. 
 
 £'70,00'iO of its stock was reserved for its workmen. The Belle Sauvage Share 
 Investment Company is an organization to membership in which all the employees of 
 the house are eligible for the purpose of acquiring shares. All the members may, 
 by a subscription of a shilling a week per share, for three years and a-half. become 
 owners of one share.* 
 
 One share is worth £9 ; and have borne 10 per cent, interest for the last six 
 years, and are valued at £15 10s. The employees had 7,500 shares.** 
 
 A provident fund was established by the firm. Its manner of working is explained 
 in Section XIV. 
 
 HAET & Co. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL PARTNERSHIP (LIMITED.) 
 
 [London.J 
 
 This establishment was founded by Miss Mary Hart, with a nominal capital of 
 £10,000 in £1 shares. 
 
 5,000 shares have been subscribed and paid for. It must be observed that these 
 shares have not been taken by capitalists with a view to speculation, but by persons 
 desirous of introducing Mons. Leclaire's ideas to British soil. 
 
 The division is made on the same plan as in the Maison Leclaire, and is regu- 
 lated by identical rules. 
 
 5 per cent, for capital. 
 25 do to management. 
 25 do to a Mutual Aid Society. 
 20 do to a reserve fund. 
 25 do to the workmen. 
 The workmen's share in the profits is given to them in the shape of stock. Since- 
 its establishment the house has done some £55,000 worth of business, and paid 
 £23,000 in wages, and up to 30th June, 1886, had paid the interest on capital. 
 
 THOMPSON & SOKS (LIMITED). 
 
 WOOLEN AND WORSTED GOODS. 
 
 [Woodhouse Mills, Huddersfield, England.] 
 
 Notice given to the Jury. 
 
 " Permanent Union between Capital and Labor." 
 
 The popular vote in agreement with administrative stability changed to a 
 co-operative enterprise according to Act of Parliament, for the formation of indus- 
 trial companies. 
 
 *The great English publishers, 1885. Cassell & Co. (Limited.) 
 **E;eport of a meeting of employees. Cassell & Co. (Limited. ) 
 
81 
 
 This house was established forty-seven years ago at Woodhouse Mills, Hudders- 
 field, England, for the manufacture of woolons, known throughout the entire world 
 for excellence. It is the object of this firm to supply its customers with reliable 
 goods, and to unite the two indispensable factors of enterprise, capital and labor, in 
 a durable union based on the system of the late Mons. Leclaire, of Paris, and of the 
 late Mons. G-odin, of Guise. The following are its principles : — 
 
 (1) Having deducted interest on capital, the company divides the remaining^ 
 profits among the workmen in proportion to their wages. 
 
 (2) This division is effected by granting the workmen shares in the stock at £X 
 each. Thus, the workman sharing in the profits, shares also in the losses ; and„ 
 as the business advances and enlarges, it raises the workman by the results of 
 his own labor. 
 
 (3) The statutes give the workman, by his right as a shareholder, a voice in 
 the management of the business, without, however, any right to change the manage- 
 ment, except in cases provided for, and for well grounded reasons. The statutes 
 will be found among the documents of the present exhibit. We would call to them 
 the attention of all persons desiring peace between the two classes now at war with 
 each other — ^the poor and the wealthy — a peace solidly founded on equity. 
 
 Mr. George Thompson, in 1886, having always devoted himself to the study of 
 co-operative enterprises, changed his manufactory at Huddersfield, of old and well- 
 established reputation, into a co-operative institution. 
 
 A strict valuation of the machinery, stock in trade, book debts, matei-ial, etc., 
 on the premises, the amount being valued at £19,173, represented by stock shares to 
 a like value, in shares of £1 each. 
 
 The net profits are divided as follows : — 
 
 5 per cent, interest on stock. If the profits of the year do not admit of this 
 amount of interest being paid, the difference is carried against future profits. 
 
 10 per cent, at least as a reserve fund, until such fund amounts to 10 per cent, of 
 the capital. 
 
 These amounts deducted, -| of the balance in profits will be divided among all 
 persons having worked for the firm during a space of six months, in any capacity 
 whatsoever. 
 
 The remaining f are to be used, as decided by the committee, either to reward 
 special services or to develop the enterprise by concessions to customers, or other- 
 wise. 
 
 The share of the profits divided among the staff is not paid to them in cash, but 
 is carried to their personal accouiits and paid in shares. 
 
 The business is managed by a committee of three representatives of the District 
 Co-operative Association, two members of the Huddersfield Trades Council, and three 
 workmen of the mill. Three members of this committee retire at each annual meet- 
 ing, and their successors are elected according to ordinary rules. 
 
 The founder of this co-operative Association shall, during the continuance of his 
 appointment (for life), control all business carried on by the society and engage, 
 remove or discharge all assistant managers, salesmen or employees of every discrip- 
 tion; fix their duties, salaries or other remuneration. He is accountable to the com ■ 
 mittee alone. 
 
 The statutes provide for a successor in case of Mr. Thompson's death or resigna- 
 tion. He has, however, reservea the right to indicate his successor. In default of such 
 nomination the new manager shall be elected by the members of the association. 
 
 86 workmen are now shareholders. 
 
 20—6 
 
82 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 DB NABYBE & Co. 
 
 WILLEBROECK, BELGIUM. 
 
 Notice and Information on the means applied to give Fishermen the Ownership of 
 
 their Boals.* 
 
 In the month of August, 1887, we had occasion to study the question of fisher- 
 men's interests. 
 
 We had just witnessed at Ostend the disputes and brawls which occurred at that 
 time between English fishermen and those of Ostend, and to which we need refer no 
 further. 
 
 The letters we published in August, 1887, and the contract between the fisher- 
 men, of which copies will be found further on, give the details of the agreement. 
 
 We began by buying boats, and building others, many of which latter are already 
 in use, and others will soon be rigged. 
 
 Although our experience has not yet been long, and although we began operations 
 under disadvantageous circumstances, on account of the small number of boats at 
 our disposal (12), everything indicates that the final result will be favorable. We 
 must however add that much remains to be done to improve the moral condition of 
 the fisherman. It will only be great progress has been made in the respect, and 
 when fishei'men will come to fully understand the advantages this agreement will 
 procure for them, that it will begin to produce effect. 
 
 The sloops we furnish our fisherman, with a steam apparatus for raising the 
 nets. This apparatus is built in our own shops, and is delivered at a cost of 30 per 
 cent, less than demanded by other makers. 
 
 We ourselves manufacture our artificial ice, which is absolutely of equal value 
 with natural ice, and delivered to our boats at $2.00 per ton instead of 14.00, the 
 price of natural ice. 
 
 In our workshops, at Willebroeck, we admit young cabin-boys in order to 
 instruct them in the managemeut of the boilers and machines of which we have 
 spoken, to teach them how to put them up and to take them down. As soon as they 
 have learned to manage the apparatus they are sent to sea in charge of the engines 
 on the new sloops we send out. Those amoug them who have a taste for the life, 
 may remain on board at first as sailors, to become captains later on. Those who 
 have no taste for sea life remain on board until they have taught one of the crew 
 to manage the engine, when they may return to Willebroeck to complete their 
 technical education as working mechanics. 
 
 Agreement between Louis de Naeyer, Trader, residing at Willebroeck, and 
 
 1st Master, 
 
 2nd Sailor, 
 
 3rd - do 
 
 4th do 
 
 5th do 
 
 It is agreed as follows : — 
 
 The party of the first part leases for a term of three years renewable tri-annually, 
 with a right of purchase, to the party of the second part hereby accepting the sloop, 
 of the value of gear included. The price of the location is 3^ 
 
 per cent, per annum, part payable at each return from the voyage. 
 
 There will also be retained on the returns of each catch, a sum of 36 per cent, 
 for insurance expenses, wear of nets, cordage and the depreciation of the boat. It 
 is understood that the amounts so retained, which are carried to account of the 
 
 *Notioe given to the Jury. 
 
2nd. 45 
 
 do 
 
 3rd. 40 
 
 do 
 
 4th. 35 
 
 do 
 
 5th. 30 
 
 do 
 
 6th. 25 
 
 do 
 
 7th. 20 
 
 do 
 
 8th. 15 
 
 do 
 
 83 
 
 fishermen, are only appi-oximate, and that every year a calculation with be made of 
 the amounts really expended as also of the actual value of the depreciation of the 
 boat. 
 
 The difference will be accounted for to whom it may concern and carried to the 
 account of the sinking fund. 
 
 The remainder will be divided in the following manner:- - 
 
 Ist. 50p.c. to the sinking fund if the catch is of less value than... $200 
 
 ~ ■ " ' do do ... 180 
 
 do do ' ... 160 
 
 do do ... 140 
 
 do do ... 120 
 
 do do ... 100 
 
 do do ... 80 
 
 do do ... 60 
 
 If the value of the catch is less than $60 no sum will be retained. 
 
 The remainder is divided among the parties of the second part in the following 
 proportion : — 
 
 ■^ for the master ; 
 
 y2_ for each of the crew. 
 
 It is understood that if the catch is so poor as to realise less than $60, it will be 
 taken as a proof of bad work, and in that case the party of the first part will have a 
 right to cancel the agreement. A valuation will be taken of the sloop, and the differ- 
 ence in value retained from the sinking fund. 
 
 The remainder, if there be any, will belong to the parties of the second part. 
 
 If one or more men leave the sloop voluntarily, and without good cause, their 
 share will revert to those who remain, and these will be obliged to provide other men 
 to be agreed to by the party of the first part. 
 
 If on the contrary the men are thrust out by superior numbers, they may name 
 their successors, who must also be agreed to by the owner. 
 
 If none are named by them, the man first named would act to the best of his 
 ability in the interests of all, as circumstances admit. Differences will be settled by 
 arbitrators, one being named by the owner and the other by the crew of the sloop, 
 and in case of disagreement a third will be named by the president of the Tribunal 
 of Commerce. 
 
 The party of the first part insures the sloop, attends to the repairs considered by 
 both parties to be necessary, and keep the accounts according to the conditions 
 stipulated above. 
 
 In case of accident or the loss of the sloop the proprietor will receive the amount 
 of the insurance, and the amount of the sinking fund will be used for the purchase of 
 another sloop, which will be put at the fishermen's disposal, unless they have decided 
 to abandon the fishery, in which case the whole of the sinking fund will be paid to them 
 in cash, and the agreement between them terminate. 
 
 "When the sinking fund is complete, the sloop becomes the exclusive property of 
 the parties of the second part, to dispose of as they may deem proper. 
 
 The' shares in the property will be divided as follows : — 
 Jj- for the master ; 
 ^ for each sailor. 
 
 Finally, it is moreover agreed between the parties if one or more of the men of 
 the crew give themselves up to drink, either on land or on sea, they may be fined, 
 and the fine applied to the sinking fund. 
 
 This fine will be to the amount of $1.00, and one-twentieth of the money coming 
 to them at the end of each voyage during three months, and this every time the case 
 
 occurs. 
 
 This made in as many duplicates as there are parties to the deed. 
 
 20— 6J 
 
84 
 
 Letter to the Newspapers, August, 1887. 
 
 WlLLEBROECK, 
 
 Mr. Editor, — I was present at the first strike that occurred in Ostend. I was 
 greatly impressed by it, and was lead to study the question of fisheries. 
 
 It has been published by certain newspapers that these fishermen are paid but 
 one-third of the catch, and that the remainder belongs to the owner of the boat. 
 
 The statement is erroneous. The fishermen receive two-thirds of the net pro- 
 ceeds and one-third only is reserved for the owner. It is truly stated, however, that 
 the latter possess some further small advantages which help to raise the sum total 
 of their share. Under these circumstances, capital is not so exacting as has been 
 said; besides, were the facts as stated, the position of an owner would be too good, 
 and competition would soon step in to modify this state of things. 
 
 However, I am of opinion that in all justice the workman ought to, as far as 
 possible, to be given the larger share in the production he has secured. 
 
 "With the projected Building Society fo]- the erection of workingmen's houses, of 
 which I spoke last year, and of which an example has been given by the paper works 
 of Willebroeck, it would be very easy to provide boats for good fishermen in a very 
 short time ; I wish to give the same practical example in favor of fishermen as I 
 have done for workingmen's houses, and to this end I have already purchased boats, 
 and am on the point of buying others, besides having opened negotiations concerning 
 the building of new boats. 
 
 The following is the translation of a circular in Flemish which I had posted in 
 Ostend : — 
 
 Did the matter concern provident and educated persons the information in the 
 circular would be sufficient, that is the circulation of 3J per cent, interest or $140 
 for a new boat costing $4,000, and about $400 sinking fund; but in the beginning 
 I think it would be more prudent to lead and encourage them, like children or 
 minors, and, therefore, in their own interest, bo it understood, to insert a number of 
 stipuliiting clauses in the agreement. As for instance : — 
 
 1. The account should be made provisionally by the person representing capital, 
 of course with the consent of the interested parties, I say provisionally, because I 
 am of opinion that after a certain time the whole may be given over to the fisher- 
 men, when the sinking fund is large enough and when they shall have given proofs 
 of assiduity and good conduct. 
 
 2. A certain amount retained on each catch, representing: 
 
 (a.) The expense of the boat's insurance. 
 (6.) Those for wear of nets, cordage, sails, etc. 
 (c.) The lowest value of the boat. 
 This can evidently only be done approximately, and for this reason the amounts 
 retained should be only provisionally so. Moreover, they are retained entirely on the 
 fishermen's account, and every year an addition will be made of the amounts really 
 expended and the valued depreciation of the boat. The difference will be carried to 
 the credit of those to whom it may belong and added to the sinking fund. 
 
 The part of this amount so retained may be increased or reduced after a first 
 discount when the true amount has been obtained. 
 
 From the remainder will first be taken the share for the sinking fund, as I have 
 said, much, if the catch be good, little or nothing if it be bad. For instance : 
 
 50 per cent, if the value of the catch is over $200 
 
 45 do do under 200 
 
 40 do do do 180 
 
 35 do do do 160 
 
 30 do do do 140 
 
 25 do do do 120 
 
 20 do do do 100 
 
 15 do do do 80 
 
 nothing of it is less than $60. 
 
85 
 
 Under these conditions the fishermen's share will be considerably more than 
 what it is now ; and besides, with the steam apparatus which is to be put in all the 
 boats, the results must be much better than they generally are at the present time. 
 
 It should also be stipulated that if one or more of the men leave the boat of their 
 own free will, and without good reason for so doing, their share will belong to those 
 .who remain, and these will have to provide other men accepted by the capitalist ; if, 
 however, these men have, on the contrary, been put out of the boat by superior force, 
 they may indicate other men to replace them, provided they also are accepted by 
 the capitalist. In case of accident to, or loss of the boat, capital will receive the 
 amount of insurance, and the amount of the sinking fund will be used to provide 
 another boat for the use of the fishermen, unless they decide to abandon fishery. In 
 that case the entire amount of the sinking fund will be paid to them in cash and the 
 agi-eement with them cease to exist. When the sinking fund shall have reached the 
 amount required the boat shall become the exclusive property of the fishermen, who 
 may dispose of it as they choose. 
 
 I have thought it right to give you my views concerning this question of the 
 fishermen, and what is to be done to ameliorate their condition. 
 
 Moreover, the question is so important as to demand the attention of all to 
 insure the success of the enterprise. 
 
 Believe me. Sir, yours, &c., 
 
 PILOTAGE IN THE ESCAUT. 
 
 An interesting example of participation, not only in the profits but in the 
 receipts also, is given by the organization of pilotage. 
 
 Pilotage in the Hscaut, and in its mouths, of sea-going vessels bound for Belgian 
 ports or sailing from Belgian ports outward bound, is much practised in Belgium 
 and the Netherlands {Pays JBas). Captains are free to choose between Belgian 
 pilots and Nether land pilots. 
 
 There is consequently competition between the two in serving vessels, and both 
 boards have been obliged to remunerate their pilots in proportion to the receipts, in 
 order to excite their activity. 
 
 Therefore all the Belgian agents are paid according to the variable amount of 
 the receipts, and the agents are consequently directly interested in the work. 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 NBTHEELANDS YEAST AND SPIEIT MANUPACTUEB. 
 
 Delft. 
 1st Participation in the Profits, established in 1879. 
 
 10 per cent, of the net profits of each year (that is to say, after an assessment of 
 5 per cent, dividend for the shareholders) is put in the hands of the directors and the 
 Committee of Management, to be used to the best of their ability in the interest of 
 the employees and workmen of the establishment, having consulted with them, should 
 they request it, without in any way being bound to give an account to anyone out- 
 side the general assembly of shareholders, of the use to which the money is put. 
 (Extract from the Statutes of the Company, Art. 26.) 
 
 The total amount from. 1879 to 1888 was $16,100. Up to 1886 apart of the 
 profits was first deducted for a retiring fund, and a sum of 110,558 was applied to 
 that purpose. Since 1887 the amounts so applied have been applied to the general 
 expense account. 
 
 The share of the profits in 1887 amounted to $5,642. This amount was divided 
 in proportion to the wages, and gave to each employee and workman the right to a 
 
86 
 
 dividend equal to 9 per cent of his salary for the year. These dividends were paid 
 to the fathers of families in ready money, to bachelors half in cash, and half carried 
 to their personal account in the Premium Savings Bank.* 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 FELICE G-ENEVOIS & SONS. 
 
 SOAP MANUFACTURERS. 
 
 Naples, 17th August, 1889. 
 
 MoNS. Jules Helbronner, — Acknowledging the receipt of your favor of the 9th 
 instant, 1 hasten to send you the documents as requested, but these documents are in 
 Italian. I will, therefore, offer you a translation, should you require it; and more- 
 over enclose you the principal articles of our statutes. 
 
 Admission to participation is not limited, but exclusively at the will of the man- 
 agement. Every person presented by the management must be accepted by the 
 general assembly of participants. 
 
 The capital of each participant is formed exclusively from his portion of the 
 profits as shown by the annual inventory, and can reach to $6,000. When it reaches 
 $400 he is not obliged to leave his profits in an entire sum ; he may bank the one- 
 half and carry the balance to his capital as participant. 
 
 The division of profits is made pro rata of the capital of the participant, as 
 increased by his annual salary. 
 
 By profits we understand net profits, the excess of the assets over the liabili- 
 ties after the deduction of the general expenses, the losses and the intei-est of 5 per 
 cent, levied for the capital stock. 
 
 Each participant, after 20 years of active service, may j-etire, and leaving his 
 capital as participant, has a right in the division of the interest as if he, the partici- 
 pant, was still an active member of the society. This, then, is the pension assured to 
 them for their old age. These dividends are guaranteed to be never less than 5 per 
 cent. 
 
 Messrs. Gervais, Bros. & Husaut, the managers, formed alone their capital, 
 each in a single payment, which constitutes the foundation of the capital of partici- 
 pation, to which is every year added the shares of the profits divided among the 
 participants, the capital stock, or $90,000 furnished by the same managers, and 
 represented by immoveble property, material, etc., has alone a right to the annual 
 interest of 5 per cent. 
 
 The general feeling of the Neopolitan population, and of the workmen in parti- 
 cular, has so far prevented us from establishing profif>sharingon a broad basis. Up 
 to the present time we have been forced to be satisfied with a chosen few, who recog- 
 nize the benefits of profit-sharing, and are full of zeal in spreading the knowledge. 
 Their example appears to have somewhat interested others in it, as we now begin 
 to notice an increased assiduity in some, which seems to indicate a desii-e to be 
 admitted to profit-sharing. 
 
 Profit-sharing suggested to us the idea of establishing an aid fund among our 
 workmen, in cases of accident, such as may occur during work, and for cases of sick- 
 ness among the employees and workmen of our establishment. The funds for this 
 aid are supplied by a subsidy granted by the managers, by the amount of the fines 
 imposed on the staff, by monthly contributions instituted as follows : the employees 
 $0 . 20 per month ; the workmen $0 . 10. 
 
 Both employees and workmen have a right. 
 
 1st. To medical attendance and medicines prescribed by the physician. 
 
 * See section XIV. 
 
87 
 
 2nd. Invalids unable to be present at the time of the physician's visit will be 
 visited at his own home by the physician, as will also his wife and children the cost 
 of such visit by the physician will be reduced to $0 . 20. 
 
 I remain, Sir, 
 
 Your most obedient, 
 
 JULES HUSAUT, 
 Partner and Manager of the firm of Genevois & Son. 
 
 P.S. — Apart from the managers, we number 6 participants, and expect to 
 admit 6 more at our next general meeting, which will bring our number up to 16 
 participants. 
 
 Our firm employs from 180 to 200 persons of both sexes. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 X. 0. NBLSOlsr MAiSIUFACTUEING Co. 
 
 STEAM AND WATER BKASS WORKS, ENGINES, BOILERS, ETC., 
 
 St. Louis Missouri. 
 
 Mr N. O. Nelson instituted profit-sharing in his business in 1886, on the princi- 
 ples of Leclaire and G-odin. The first division gave a sum of $4,828, to be divided 
 among all persons who worked for them during at least six months in the establish- 
 ment. The number of participants was 150, and the individual shares of the wage- 
 earners varied from $27 to $46, representing 5 per cent, on the wages earned. 
 
 More than two-thirds of the men left their dividends in the business. 
 
 The division of net profits is made between capital and labor in accordance with 
 the Godin system, capital having first received interest at 7 per cent. 
 
 In 1887 Mr. Nelson modified his original plan by adding the following clauses :-— 
 
 Ist. 10 per cent, of the profits for an aid fund for the disabled and sick, and their 
 
 families. . j- -j a 
 
 2nd. 10 per cent, for a provident fund, for meeting losses and paymg dividenas 
 
 in unfavorable years. 
 
 3rd. 2 per cent, for a library. . .aon a- -a a 
 
 4th. That all employees who had taken a certificate for their 1886 dividena 
 should receive a bonus of 25 per cent. . 
 
 5th. That the required term of service in the establishment should be raised 
 from six to ten months. 
 
 In 1887 the amount divided was $30,000. 
 
 $3,000 were set aside as a relief fund. 
 
 $3,000 for a provident fund. 
 
 $600 for a library fund (400 volumes). 
 
 After all these deductions there remained a dividend of 10 per cent, on the pre- 
 ferred class namely, those who had earned a dividend in 1886, and had left it m the 
 business, received a dividend of 10 per cent., and the others a dividend of 8 per cent, 
 on the amount of the wages earned during the year. ,,..-,, 
 
 Those who held dividend certificates for 1886 received 15 per cent, dividend on 
 that certificate, representing 7 per cent, interest and 8 per cent, dividend for 1887. 
 
 In 1887-80 per cent, of the participants left their dividends m the business. 
 
 In 1888 and 1889 the preferred class of participants received a dividend of 8 per 
 cent. 
 
PEACE DALE MA]SrUFACTUEI]Sr& COMPANY. 
 Peace Dale, Bhode Island. 
 
 In 18*78 this company decided to divide annually a share in the profits among 
 the workmen; the management reserved the i-ight to determine the percentage of 
 the dividend whenever one ia to be declared. The division of a declared dividend is 
 made among the persons employed during the month of January that precedes the 
 payment, and who had been at least seven months in the company's employ on the 
 first of the proceeding February. 
 
 All employees dismissed, and who have not worked at least seven months during 
 the year ending Slst, January or who have of their own free will left the company's 
 service previous to that date, lose all right to a share in the dividend. 
 
 The division is made pro rata the wages earned by each workman during the 
 twelve months proceeding 1st February. 
 
 Remits of the Organization. 
 
 18Y9 — JanaurySlst ^ No dividend 
 
 1880 do Dividend 5 p. c. $5,842.40 
 
 1881 do do 5p. c. 5,999.65 
 
 1882 do do 3p. c. 3,Y60.14 
 
 1883 do do 3p. c. 3,760.35 
 
 1884 do No dividend 
 
 1885 do do 
 
 1886 do do 
 
 1887 do No circular * do 
 
 1888 do do 
 
 1889 do do 
 
 * The company issues a circular to its workmen explaining the causes of the increase allowing a divi- 
 dend, or those which prevent it. 
 
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 CO-OPERATIVE PRODUCTIVE SOCIETIES. 
 
 L. COUME'S ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 VILLENOY. 
 
 In forming a co-operative society the chief ends in view are : 
 
 1st. The existence of a professional school, whose duration is limited only by 
 that of the industry which gave it being. 
 
 2nd. To assure the future of the workmen leaving the school, as they are certain 
 to secure a salary in the association besides a notable share in the profits. 
 
 3rd. A continuity and completion of apprenticeship, which were heretofore 
 unknown in this branch of business, and consequently a more thorough development 
 of the French manufacture of hats by the suppression of the tax for foreign manu- 
 factures, especially English. It is to be noted that the results actually obtained at 
 Meaux-Villenoy are due to means employed which French workmen — Parisians in 
 particular — had not sufQciently appreciated. Thus, our better educated WQrkmen 
 understand more clearly than the others and will profit by their acquired experience. 
 
 As to the financial part of the project, improvements and gradual enlargement 
 by means of increased- capital and the possibility of loaning; the co-operative mode, 
 in fine, enables the society to participate in the subsidies of che State, of the city of 
 Paris, and in special endowments, such as the Eampal legacies, etc. An important 
 innovation exists in the division of the profits by halves, between labor and capital, 
 and we may remark that the interest on capital cannot be assessed unless the profits 
 are sufficient. The basis on which the division is made is in the workmen's favor, 
 so that in the end labor is better remunerated than capital. 
 
 The innovation of the general co-operative account, with its special provisions, 
 will be to the advantage of the apprentices as regards subsidies and particular gifts. 
 This account also has for its object, thanks to the successive retirement of the 
 original partners, the progressive transfer of the capital to the associated workmen ; 
 these latter, in consequence of their co-operative activity, will within a very short 
 delay become the proprietors of the common capital, and thus meet the demands of 
 social progress. 
 
 (Signed) L. COUMES. 
 
 December, 1884. March, 1889. 
 
 STATUTES. 
 
 First Article. — There is formed, between the undersigned and all those who may 
 become parties to these statutes, a co-operative society, which has for its object the 
 manufacture and sale of hats, and particularly of silk hats. It shall take the name 
 of the Joint Stock Co-operative Society of Parisian-made Hats. The society has for 
 its object the bringing to perfection the French industry of hat, making and the 
 improvement of professional instruction for apprentices. 
 
 Art. 2. The duration of the society is fixed at thirty years, to date from the time 
 of its formation. 
 
 Art. 3. The capital is fixed at 50,000 (fifty thousand francs) and divided into 500 
 shares of 100 francs each. It is composed 1st of goods, material and other articles 
 mentioned in the annexed statement, of the value of twenty-five thousand francs of 
 stock in trade ; 2nd, of twenty-five thousand francs subscribed in cash. The 250 
 shares are delivered at the time of subscription, for payment of half their cost. The 
 two other quarters of 25 francs each shall be paid on calls, from the council of 
 management, who notify the shareholders by letter one month in advance. 
 
 The council or commission of management has the right, after a decision to that 
 effect by the majority of the shareholders representing more than half of the capital, 
 to increase the capital by successive additions of (5,000 francs) five thousand or ten 
 thousand francs. 
 
99 
 
 Art. 5. The capital is foi-med by the original founders and the associate workmen 
 who share in the profits in different proportions, as is shown by Article 21 and the 
 following articles. The original founder only shares in the capital which is dimin- 
 ished later. The associate workman participates at the same time in the capital 
 and in the labor and should be owner of at least three shares. (Art. 25.) 
 
 All the shares are, and remain, in the name of the owners ; mention of " original 
 founder " or "associate workman" is placed on each certificate. 
 
 Each share gives the I'ight, without distinction (according to law) to an equal 
 share in the capital stock, except in case of an excess, after liquidation, and the pay- 
 ment at par of all the shai-es, this excess will then be divided according to the mannor 
 adopted for profits. (See Articles 21 and 22.) 
 
 Art. 6. The Society is managed by a council or commission of management 
 composed of six members, two of whom belong to it it by right, the chief manager 
 and accountant (le chef du service commercial et de comptabilit^), and the head of 
 the manufactory ; the others are elected annually at a general assembly of the 
 associates, who should choose two workmen and two associate founders. The pre- 
 sident of the council has the casting vote. 
 
 Art. 7. The members of the council should each be the owners of at least five 
 shares and the chief manager often shares. These shares remain as a guarantee of 
 the proper fulfilment of their duties and are deposited with the firm and are inalien- 
 able. 
 
 Art. 8. The Assembly nominates for a period of three years the two chiefs of 
 management and manufactory, who may, however, be re-elected the same as other 
 members. 
 
 Art. 9. The council has the most extensive powers over the goods and affairs of 
 the society. 
 
 The signature to drafts, commercial paper and agreements, as well as to docu- 
 ments and papers to be fyled in court, must be that of the chief manager. Neverthe- 
 less, any document that binds the society for more than a thousand dollars should be 
 signed beside by a second member. 
 
 Ai"t. 10. — The members of the council arrange among themselves the order of 
 their deliberations and the duties to be performed l)y each; they appoint and 
 dismiss the employees ; they fix the wages of the workmen and of all the staff, bear- 
 ing in mind that all the workmen should be "associates." The council may grant 
 to the workmen and apprentices, proportionately to each section of work, a supple- 
 ment to the wages under form of " sharing by workshops." This assessment is 
 taken from the price of the hats, but cannot exceed one franc per hat. These gifts 
 are distributed fortnightly either in cash or in shares bought from the co-operative 
 mass. 
 
 The council guarantees the entry of all shares to the proper owner and of all 
 transfers. 
 
 Art. 11. Each year the general assembly confers upon one of the associate 
 founders, the office of auditor (commissaire-censeur) to verify all accounts. 
 
 Inventory — Division of Profits. 
 
 Art. 20. The council of management, every two weeks, prepares a summary 
 statement of affairs showing the assets and liabilities. Moreover, at the end of each 
 year, on the Slst December, an inventory is made in detail of the goods, material, 
 stock assets and liabilities of the society. The inventory, balance sheet and account 
 of profit and loss are laid before the general assembly. Eveiy associate can, within 
 eight days at least of the general assembly, take communication of the balance sheet, 
 inventory and list of the associates. 
 
 Art. 21. The net proceeds, deduction having been made for expenses, constitute 
 
 the profits. 
 
 The expenses include all the necessary annual outlay, salaries, general expenses, 
 assessments, &c., with the exception of interest on capital. (See Profits.) 
 
 20—7* 
 
100 
 
 The assessments include : 1st, the "tool and material" account, on which an 
 annual assessment ot at least 10 per cent, is made for wear and tear ; 2nd, the 
 account " the first opening," when the cost of forming the society, the expenses of 
 installation and of agencies are entered ; this account is assessed by the twentieth, 
 to date from 1890. 
 
 After deducting the legal reserve of 5 per cent, (law of 1886) the profits are 
 divided into two equal parts: the first is entered to capital, the other to labor, as 
 follows : the portion set aside for capital serves, first, to complete the interest account 
 limited at 4 per cent, per annum; the balance, after an assessment of 15 per cent, 
 for the reserve fund, is divided, one-half to the capital's dividend (See Art. 24) and 
 one-half to the co-operative body's account (Art. 25 and 26). 
 
 Art. 22. The shavo in the profits due to labor, that is to say, to the co-oporators, 
 outside of all relation to capital, is thus divided : f to Co-operatioe Labor, f to Sav- 
 ings and ^ to the entire Co-operative body (See Art. 25) viz. : 
 
 Each associate workman receives over and above his wages by the piece (rate 
 fixed by the Board of Management) a share, independent of the shares he owns in 
 the business. This profit-sharing is given equally to the workmen, to the perfection- 
 nants and to the apprentices of the higher division in the co-operative work account, 
 which is divided thus: 65 per cent, to the workmen, of which : 
 
 35 per cent, for the account of the working staif, dividend to be distributed per 
 head, that is to say, equally among the associate participants ; 
 
 30 per cent, for the account of time in the association ; the division is made pro- 
 portionately to the number of years of service, computed from the admission 
 of the 'apprentice into the higher division, in such a way, for instance, that 
 a workman who has been a member six years receives three times as much 
 as one whe has only been two years on the other hand. 
 
 35 per cent, for the account of Management dividend, to be divided among the 
 members of the council, giving a doable share to heads of departments. 
 
 100 per cent, total amount of equal shares which correspond to J of the profits. 
 
 The name of perfectionnant is given to an apprentice who has left the professional 
 school of hat-making and while being a workman, is bound to follow the course, 
 and in certain way is considered as an apprentice. 
 
 Art. 23. The portion of,two-sixths intended for the Savings account or the co- 
 operators is divided equall7 among all the ^n'DtVejreii shares, even if they are owned 
 by apprentices. 
 
 Each workman at the time of his admission into the society should obtain three 
 privileged shares of 100 francs, or bind himfelf to obtain them within a maximum 
 delay of two years ; if he doos not deposit suf&cient saving the co-operative body 
 assist him in the purchase of one share by means of a loan with interestat 3 per cent. 
 Such loan must be returned within one year. It is the same for every apprentice of 
 eighteen years of age. 
 
 Art. 24. The Dividend on Capital account is divided pro rata among all the shares 
 without distinction after deduction of J (one-fourth), reserved for the chief of the 
 factory and one of the founders. This assessment rule may be annulled if the said co- 
 founder ceases his co-operation, and the dividend thus being uncalled for returns to 
 the Go-operative body, to be applied to the purchase of shares (See Art. 26) in favor 
 of " perfectionnants " and of the most worthy apprentices of the higher division. 
 
 Art. 25. The account of the Co-operative Body is particularly intended for the 
 purchase, at the rate of 100 francs each, of the capital shares of the associate founders, 
 which shares, from the time of their transfer to the co-operative body, acquire the 
 name and advantages of priviliged workmen's shares. 
 
 A drawing by lot determines the number of founders' shares thus subjected to 
 forced sale, in proportion to the sums at the disposal of the body. At the start of 
 the society the number of workmen's shares was limited to two hundred; the others 
 were the shares of the associate founders. 
 
 The Co-operative body account is formed not only of the division of profits 
 provided by Articles 21, 22 and 24 above mentioned, but also of particular gifts and by 
 the special subsidies in favor of apprentices. 
 
101 
 
 Tlie Co-operative body account is owner of all unsold shares, receives the 
 interest and dividends on them, which increases the fund for buying others. 
 
 Art. 26. The Go-operative body should each year keep in reserve a sufficient 
 number of associate workmen shares to enable new workmen or new apprentices to 
 acquire them. 
 
 The shares of associate workmen can only be obtained by workmen or appren- 
 tices of the trade; the admission of a new co-operater only takes place on the vote of 
 three-fourths of the associate workmen (exception being made in favor of the 
 apprentices from the schools), and on the production of a certificate of ownership of 
 three shares, or on the promise indicated in Article 23. 
 
 The Co-operative body should buy back all the shares of workmen who have 
 died 01- who have been dismissed from, or left the society the purchase only takes 
 place after a month's delay, in which a right of preference is given to the associate 
 workmen in the order of seniority in the association; none of the co-operators, how- 
 ever, can possess more than the third of the privileged shares, nor a sixth of the 
 capital. 
 
 Art. 27. The shares possessed by a dismissed or excluded associate return to the 
 Co-operative body, who pay for them according to the associate's choice, either at par 
 of 100 francs or over 100 francs in accordance with a rate of capitalization cori'es- 
 pondingto4per cent.; calculated from the profits as shown by three last inventories. 
 If, however, the share is one that has been given as a prize or rewai-d to an appren- 
 tice, the latter foriets all right to it, and the amount goes to the technical school, to 
 form part of the Apprentices' Reserve Fund. 
 
 Sentence, dismissal or exclusion of a member is pronounced by the Board of Man- 
 agement after both sides of the question have been heard by them, against any 
 associate workman who has abused his professional responsibility, or who has been 
 guilty of any dishonorable action, or who has been sentenced in the correctional or 
 criminal courts, so long as his offence has not been in any way of a political charac- 
 ter ; the person dismissed has a right of recourse to the ordinary general Assembly; 
 but this recourse does not suspend the sentence. 
 
 Art. 28. The Reserve Fund provided for by Article 21 is intended to meet any 
 special emergency or demand for extra expense, especially to supply any deficiency 
 of net profits after an inventory, in order to provide 40 per cent, interest to capital. 
 The reserve fund may be increased by decision of the general assembly by assess- 
 ment of part of the dividends of capital, or by the income from unappropriated privi- 
 leged shares in the account of the Co-operative body. 
 
 Art. 29. — The payment of " participations, dividends and interests," will be 
 made in the month of February, after close of the inventory which determines the 
 amount, and also after the general assembly has examined into the matter. How- 
 ever, if the payment of profit allows it at the close of the first half year, the council 
 may, in September, distribute, on account, 2 per cent, for interest on capital. 
 
 JOINT-STOCK AND CO-OPBEATIVE DAIEY COMPANY OP LESCHBLLB.* 
 
 [Aisne.J 
 
 For many years the production of milk and butter has been one of the principal 
 agricultural industries of the department of Aisne. 
 
 The meadow lands in the northern part, more particularly those of the canton 
 of Nouvion, rival the famed meadows of Normandy. 
 
 The milk industry has been, up to the present time, a means of money-making 
 to the inhabitants, but this, like other industries, was affected by the general crisis ; 
 sales of butter were less ready, and owners of grass lands were forced like other agri- 
 culturists, to seek means of improving their situation. 
 
 It had been the general custom to sell the butter once every week, either on the 
 markets of the small towns near at hand, or to wholesale merchants, mostly Belgians, 
 who by mutual agreement gave lower and lower prices for butter. 
 
 * Notice given to the Jury. 
 
102 
 
 Until that time, it must be admitted that the ease with which sales were 
 effected prevented the farmers from seeking other markets for their goods, or from 
 trying to improve their methods of producing butter. It now became necessary, 
 to improve this unfavorable state of affairs, to find new markets for their butter, and 
 to make use of the newest and most improved methods of treating milk. 
 
 Count Cafferelli then called together the principal farmers of the district or 
 commune of Leschelle, which is situated in the most fertile part of the canton of Nou- 
 vion, and proposed to them the formation of a co-operative society in the milk 
 industry. His proposition was adopted, and in March, of 1887, the Joint Stock Co- 
 operative Dairy Company of Leschelle was established. 
 
 We will give in a few words the daily working of this milk-factoiy, and state 
 the results as shown by two years' experience. 
 
 The association started with a capital of $10,000. 
 
 The buildings include, the butter factory proper, the butter cellars and two 
 piggeries able to contain four hundred hogs. 
 
 The motive power is furnished by a steam engine of fifteen horse power, heated 
 by a generator of fifty horse power; a generator of this power is required to heat by 
 steam, during the winter months, the cellars andcertain rooms of the factory, and to 
 provide the large quantity of hot water required in the factory. 
 
 The milk is brought to the factory three times a day in summer, and twice a 
 day in winter ; it is brought by the co-operative milkmen; it is skimmed at once by 
 means of centrifugal creamers. The cream is placed in the butter factory and kept 
 at one certain invariable temperature, and has to undergo a certain amount of 
 fermentation before being churned. 
 
 Churning itself requires great care, especially as regards temperature, which is 
 kept at the required degree by means of hot water or ice, according to the season. 
 
 Butter is churned every day ; the washing, the beating and the forming into 
 rolls or pounds are all done by machinery. Ice is used in large quantities ; it is 
 furnished by a Eaoul-Pictet machine, which is also employed to keep one special 
 cellar cool, the temperature never being allowed to rise above 46° Fahr. The butter 
 is kept in this cellar until it is sent to market, and consignments are sent out every 
 day. 
 
 The staff is composed of six persons, besides an accountant. The milk is paid 
 for every fortnight, and the price varies according to its richness and the amount of 
 butter it renders ; the association consequently is not exposed to the risk of losing 
 money on the price of purchase. 
 
 The figures we are about to give will afford an idea of the progress made by the 
 Co-operative Dairy Association of Leschelle in its two years of existence. The figures 
 are taken from the report to the shareholders on 1st April, 1889, by the Board of 
 Management. 
 
 During the period fj'om the 31st of March, 1888, to the 1st April, 1889, the 
 Association received from its cooperators 343,200 gallons of milk, for which they paid 
 $38,896. 
 
 139,310 lbs. of butter were manufactured and sold for $10,400. During the 
 months of June and July 2,200 gallons of milk were brought each day to the factory ; 
 this year 3,300 will be brought daily during the same months. 
 
 Tie net profits of the commercial year 1888-1889 were $2,860 after deduction 
 of 5 per cent, interest on shares of $100 ; this amount was given partly to a sinking 
 fund, partly as dividends. 
 
 According to the rules of the association, and in order to confirm the spirit of 
 cooperation among the members the dividends are distributed according to the 
 quantity and quality of milk furnished by each member, and not according to the 
 number of shares. 
 
 The milk of three hundred and seventy-five cows was brought to the factory. 
 
 The profits for the first year were $1,600, and we have just seen the increase in 
 the second year of working. This increase is a sufiicient proof that productive co- 
 operation is in every way the best remedy for the depression from which the owners 
 of grass lands suffer. 
 
103 
 
 The Agricultural Society of Prance in 1888 awarded a gold medal to the Dairy 
 Association of Leschelle. 
 
 When the association first started critics were not wanting, and failure was 
 predicted by many ; at the present time new outlets are found, enlargements are 
 being provided for, and many improvements are made each day. 
 
 WOEKINGMBN'S CO-OPBEATIVB PEODUCTIVB ASSOCIATIONS OP 
 
 PAEIS. 
 
 GENERAL ASSOCIATION OF PARISIAN CABINETMAKERS, 
 
 Jmnt Stock Company — Variable Capital. 
 
 In the preface to the statutes of this association it is stated that: In banding 
 themselves together for all work pertaining to cabinetmaking, the end the cabinet- 
 makers have in view is not only to create a capital, but also : 
 
 1st. To guarantee an equality of right to work. 
 
 2nd. To possess in the use of machinery and improved tools a powerful help, 
 that will lessen physical labor, and by shortening the length of time required for any 
 certain woi-k reduce its cost. 
 
 3rd. To improve the manufacture of furniture by means of good workmanship, 
 sound dry wood, and a superior quality of furnishings. 
 
 4th. To affoi-d a retiring pension to its members and to those injured at work. 
 
 The capital stock, shares, transfers and obligations are thus established by 
 Articles 6, 7 and following. 
 
 Art. 6. The capital stock is provisionally fixed at $14,000. * * 
 
 The capital may not be reduced, authorized by Chapter III, below $12,600, which 
 is the unreducable capital of the Association. 
 
 If the capital stock be increased, this unreducable capital is to be increased in a 
 like proportion, so that at all times it shall represent nine-tenths of the capital. 
 
 Art. 7. It is divided into 140 shares of $100 each. 
 
 The amount of each share is payable as follows : 
 
 $1.00 on subscribing ; 
 
 $1.00 every month, dating from the time of subscription, and the balance by 
 the following means : Ist, the interest on the sums paid (interest will date from the 
 payment of every $20) ; 2nd, from share of dividends. 
 
 In order to assist workingmen having large families to support, the treasurer is 
 authorized to receive sums on account, provided that during the past month the sub- 
 scriber has paid $1. 
 
 It is allowed to make payments in advance. 
 
 Art. 8. None but a cabinetmaker belonging to the Board of Syndicates is allowed 
 to subscribe. No one belonging to any society relating to cabinetmaking is allowed 
 to subscribe. No one has a right to subscribe for more than one share. 
 
 Art. 9. In case of delayed payment the management will adopt every legal 
 means, even to taking execution against the subscriber, and under reserve of exclus- 
 ion as authorized by chapter III. 
 
 Art. 10. Until the opening of the associated workshop the funds are placed at 
 interest by the management, $60 only being disposable by them. 
 
 Art. 11. Bach share gives the right: 
 
 1st. To interest at 5 per cent., which will begin to bear only from the time the 
 associated workshop is opened ; 
 
 2ud. To dividends; 
 
 3rd: To a proportionate share in the reserve fund ; 
 
 4th. To a retiring pension, on conditions provided for in Chapter VIII. 
 
 * Extract from documents exhibited by the French Government— Enquiry of the Extra-Parhamentary 
 Commission named by the Minister of the Interior— National Printing Office, 1888. 
 ** The paid up capital in 1884 was $7,000. 
 
104 
 
 Art. 12. The claim to shares is only nominal ; no shares belong to the bearer. 
 The shares are indivisible ; the Association recognizing but one member for all and 
 each of them. Provisional receipts are given until $20 per share has been paid up. 
 Other payments are definitive. 
 
 Ai-t. 13. The transfer of shares is accomplished by means of a declaration of 
 such transfer, signed by transferer and transferee or their proxies, and entered in 
 a register for this purpose. 
 
 The transferee must, under penalty of the transfer being nullified, be accepted 
 by the general assembly of members. 
 
 Art. 14. The shareholders are responsible only for the amount of shares held 
 by them, or in their name. 
 
 Art. 15. The rights and obligations of the share follow the share, whoever 
 may be the owner; the possession of a share entails strictly, observance of the 
 statutes, and of all the decisions of the general assembly. 
 
 Art. 16. Neither the heirs nor creditors of a deceased shareholder may, under 
 any pretext whatsoever, cause seals to be aflSxed to the goods and valuables of the 
 Association, nor demand the sale nor division of the said goods and valuables, nor 
 interfere in the management ; in order to claim their rights they must rely entirely 
 on the inventories, and the decisions of the G^eneral Assembly. 
 
 The heirs or other claimants of a shareholder not included in the conditions 
 specified in Article 8, should, within a month of the death of the deceased shareholder, 
 either transfer their share to a third party, agreed to by the management, or be 
 subject to the right of pre-emption. The Association reserves to itself to prevent its 
 shares passing into the hands of persons not connected with cabinetmaking. The 
 right of pre-emptions exercised by the Association obliges it to pay to the heirs or 
 other claimants the amount of each share, as rated by the last inventory. The pay- 
 ment should be made six months after notification, as given by the claimant, on the 
 presentation of the certificate of share and other proofs of right to the property. 
 
 Art. lY. The Board of Management may issue bonds as required, and at rates 
 most advantageous to the Association, which will by preference be offered to share- 
 holders. 
 
 Art. 18. Eeimbursement will be made by means of drawing by lot. 
 
 The management determines, at the occasion of every issue, the date of reimburse- 
 ment. 
 
 The date cannot in any case be delayed over three years. 
 
 Matters relating to admission, resignation and exclusions are provided for by 
 Chapter III. s ' s i' :f 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Admission, Retiring, Exclusion. 
 
 Art. 19. New members may be admitted on the decision of the Board of Man- 
 agement, the admission to be ratified by the General Assembly. 
 
 Art. 20. Any member has the right to retire, provided he gives one month's 
 notice to the Board of Management. 
 
 Art. 21. The General Assembly may exclude any member of the association for 
 reasons that to it seems justifiable. Such exclusion is not final until after two deli- 
 berations, but at one month's interval, and at which the member to be excluded has 
 a I'ight to a personal hearing. 
 
 Members who are three months in arrears in their monthly payments may be 
 excluded. 
 
 Art. 22. The amounts coming to a member retiring, or who is excluded from 
 the association, will be paid according to the rates of the last inventory; the pay- 
 ment will be completed in five years, that is \ each year, with interest at 5 per cent, 
 per annum. 
 
 Chapter IV refers to management and direction. They are determined as 
 follows : — 
 
105 
 
 Art. 23. The business of the Association is managed by a Board of nine members, 
 whose nomination may be revoked, and who may be re-elected, chosen from among 
 the members, four of whom must be chosen from the members working in the work- 
 shop of the association, and the five others from outside. 
 
 Art. 24. Thej' are nominated for eighteen months, renewable by three every six 
 months ; the three members going out of ofiB.ce are drawn by lot for the first two 
 changes, and then by length of service. 
 
 Art. 25. The right of revoking one or more members of the Board of Manage- 
 ment belongs to the General Assembly. The Board of Management, or, in default, 
 the Committee of Control, are bound to call a special meeting of the General 
 Assembly, in order to submit to it the proposed revocation, provided it be demanded 
 by one-tenth of the whole number of members. 
 
 Art. 26. The share possessed by each member of the board is affected as 
 warranty of his management. It is inalienable, stamped with a seal noting its 
 inalienability, and it is deposited with the association. 
 
 Art. 27. The members of the Board of Management who have left office, as soon 
 as they are replaced, may obtain from the General Assembly the remission of their 
 warranty, provided that no mismanagement or responsibility is imputed to them. 
 
 Art. 28. The members of the Board are given counters for attendance, the value 
 of which is fixed by the General Assembly. 
 
 Art. 29. The board is vested with the most extensive powers of administrating 
 and managing the Associabion. It has, notably, the following powers, which are 
 declarative and restrictive : 
 
 It does all the commercial and banking business of the Association, makes all the 
 purchases, concludes all bargains concerning the association, makes promissory 
 notes, discounts and endorses them, opens credit accounts, even on security provided 
 either by the association itself, or by the members acting individually in the interest 
 of the association. 
 
 It regulates and checks the general expenses of the Association, and finds invest- 
 ments for disposable funds. The investment may be made either in Government 
 bonds, or in shares in some popular centi'al bank, as may be approved of by the 
 General Assembly. 
 
 Every six m.onths it checks the accounts, and states the position of affairs, which 
 statement is submitted for verification by the commissioners. 
 
 They check the inventory every year, the balance sheet and the accounts which 
 are to be submitted to the commissioners and the General Assembly, and it proposes 
 the amount of dividends to be divided. 
 
 Art. 30. The Board of Management, besides the powers above mentioned, has 
 full authority in everything concerning manufactures and sales : it attends to the 
 purchase of all movable and immovable property necessary to the interests of the 
 association, under advice of the General Assembly. 
 
 Art. 31. The Board of Management may delegate part or all of its powers, under 
 what conditions it may judge proper, to a director, whose appointment is revokable, 
 and who may be re-elected, whom it nominates for one year, and whom it chooses 
 from among the entire number of shareholders. The choice must be confirmed by 
 the General Assembly, which settles the amount of salary. 
 
 Art. 32. The director acts in the name of the Board ; he is bound by the 
 powers delegated to him, to conform to all the directions given him by the 
 Board. He is bound to attend all the board meetings, but has only a consultative 
 voice in their deliberations. 
 
 Art. 33. The director may not, after the expiration or revocation of his powers 
 of office, for a term of five years, work in the department of the Seine, either on his 
 own account or for any one else, at any of the goods manufactured by the Associa- 
 tion, under penalty of twenty thousand dollars. 
 
 Chapter V treats of the control : 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Commission of Control. 
 
 Art. 34. All the business operations of the Association will be subjected to the' 
 examination of a Commission of Control, composed of seven members, nominated by 
 the General Assembly for the space of six months, and part renewable every three 
 months. That is, three months after the nomination of this commission, four mem- 
 bers will, by drawn lot, resign their positions, and three months later three others 
 will also be replaced, and so on according to length of nomination. Members leaving 
 office are re-eligible only three months after. 
 
 Art. 35. The Commission of Control is charged with the duty of overseeing the 
 operations of the Board. It has the right to verify the books, examine correspon- 
 dence and all business documents in general whenever it deems it advisable. 
 
 It can at any time whatsoever verify the conditions of the assets. 
 
 It reports to the General Assembly on the situation of the Association, on the 
 statement of affairs and on the accounts presented by the Board of Administration. 
 
 It gives advice as to management of affairs. 
 
 It may convoke a special meeting of the General Assembly, after notice given 
 to the Board of Management. 
 
 The regulations of the workshop are treated in Chapter VI, as follows: — 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Of the Workshop, the Foreman, of the Commission of Experts. 
 
 Art. 36. Admittance to the workshop of the Association will be allowed accord- 
 ing to requirements of work, and as the Association may become developed. Share- 
 holders alone have a right to admittance; they will be chosen and nominated by the 
 General Assembly to the number of fifty. After this number is chosen the next ten 
 will be chosen by their rank on the subscription list ; the following ten will be drawn 
 by lot, and so on. Any shareholder who has been drawn by lot or by rank on the 
 subscription list, and who does not accept his right to admittance to the workshop 
 of the Association, may not compete for admission until the list of shareholders not 
 drawn at the time of his election has been exhausted. He will then follow in turn. 
 
 Art. SY. Work will be done by the piece, under the direction and orders of the 
 foreman of the workshop, who is named by the Board of Management, and whose 
 nomination should be ratified by the General Assembly. 
 
 The foreman's pay will be settled by the Management. 
 
 Art. 38. The price of work by the piece will be in accordance with the tariffs 
 of the principal establishments in Paris. Before determining the rate, the Board of 
 Management will consult with a commission of experts. The same thing will be 
 done for all work, the price of which can only be settled according the plans. 
 
 Art. 39. The commission of experts is composed of seven members, two of 
 whom will be chosen from among the shareholdei's working in the Association 
 workshop, and the five others from outside. The members of this commission will 
 be named for six months by the General Assembly ; they are re-electable. 
 
 Art. 40. All difficulties arising about the price of handwork must be submitted 
 to arbitration by three experts from the chamber of syndicates, and of two named 
 by the Board of Management. The decision of these five experts will be final. 
 
 Chapter VII regulates the length and date of meetings, as well as the powers of 
 the General Assembly. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 General Assemblies. 
 
 Art. 41. The ordinary General Assembly has full right to meet every three 
 months, the first "Wednesdays of January, April, July and October. 
 
 Art. 42. The special General Assemblies are for the purpose of determining 
 enactments on the following matters : — 
 
107 
 
 1. Eevocation of nomination of members of the Board of Management. 
 
 2. The purchase of tools, immovables, and the opening of new workshops. 
 
 3. Modification of the statutes, and the anticipated dissolution of the Association 
 from any cause whatsoever. 
 
 4. Reduction or reducing of the business capital. 
 
 5. Fusion or union with other societies, and, in general, for all matters of 
 interest to the Association, and with which the General Assembly has not power to 
 deal. 
 
 Art. 43. In special meetings of the General Assembly two-thirds of the share- 
 holders must be present to form a quorum. 
 
 Art. 44. At each meeting the ordinary General Assembly will nominate a 
 president and assistants ; the secretary will be chosen from the managers. 
 
 Art. 45. Any shareholders having paid -ji^ of their share, that is, $10.00 ; may 
 vote at any of these meetings those not having paid that amount will have no consul- 
 tative vote. 
 
 Chapter YIII is the crowning point of the Association : 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Inventory, Benefits and Sharing, Superannation Fund. 
 
 Art 46. An exact inventory of the assets and liabilities is prepared on the 31st 
 January of each year by the council of management, and is presented by the Gene- 
 ral Assembly 15 days before the meeting of that body. A copy of the statement con- 
 taining a summary of the inventory is sent to each shareholder, with the ordei'S of the 
 day of the meeting. 
 
 Art. 47. The general expenses and the interest on the amounts paid by the share- 
 holders, are deducted and the net profits are divided as follows : — 
 
 1st. 50 per cent, to the shareholders, per head as dividend. 
 
 2nd. 25 per cent, as a reserve fund. 
 
 3rd. 25 per cent, to the retiring fund. 
 
 Art. 48. The shareholders will only have a right to dividends on the second 
 inventory after their admission, on establishing that they have regularly paid their 
 calls. 
 
 Art. 49. Those shareholders who have not paid up their calls within three 
 months of the inventory will not receive their dividends for the year when such 
 delay has occurred, without prejudice to Article 9 of these regulations. 
 
 Art. 50. The share corresponding to the reserve fund belongs to the share- 
 holders, in proportion to the sums paid in by each on their shares ; a distinct account 
 will be kept of the amounts paid in on the shares. No interest on the reserve fund 
 will be paid. 
 
 Art. 51. Bach shareholder, after being ten years in the association and being of 
 the age of sixty years, has the right to a retiring pension, to be regulated according 
 to the conditions of the fund destined for that pui-pose. 
 
 Art. 52. The transferee will not have the right to the retiring pension, unless 
 he personally fulfils the same conditions. 
 
 Art. 53. The retiring fund is considered as a sleeping partner of the society, and 
 an annual interest of 6 per cent, is allowed it. 
 
 Art. 54. Bach shareholder who is injured in the exercise of his trade, or who 
 cannot longer work, has the right to an allowance or a pension, to be fixed by the 
 Council of Management and ratified by the general assembly. 
 
 If the accident has caused the death of the member of the society, his widow 
 and children, to the exclusion of all heirs or assigns, have the right to an indemnity, 
 to be paid by the General Assembly. 
 
 But if the accident is caused by the member's own negligence or fault, the 
 General Assembly may decide that no damages are due by the association. 
 
 Finally, the Ninth chapter examines cases of instability and decides upon them. 
 
108 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Art. 56. The General Assembly may modify or revise the statutes on the sugges- 
 tion of the Board of Management, or by a written request to that effect by the said 
 Board, and signed by twenty-five shareholders, one month previous to the General 
 Assembly. 
 
 In such a case, the convocation for a general assembly should point out the 
 modifications proposed. 
 
 The Assembly's power is sovereign ; it is at liberty to revise and modify the 
 statutes as it may deem advisable, on the sole condition that it shall in no wise 
 change the nature of the association. 
 
 Art. 57. In the event of a loss of three-quarters of the business capital, the 
 managers are obliged to convoke a meeting of the General Assembly to decree on the 
 dissolution of the association. 
 
 Ai't. 58. At the expiration of the society, or in the case of anticipated liqui- 
 dation, the Assembly will, on proposal of the council of management, regulate the 
 mode of liquidation and name a commission of liquidation with most extended 
 powers, even that of amalgamating with other societies. 
 
 Art. 59. During the liquidation the powers of the General Assembly'will con- 
 tinue during the existence of the society ; it has especially the right of approving 
 of the account of the liquidation and the giving of an acquittance. 
 
 Art. 60. The nomination of liquidators puts an end to the powers of adminis- 
 trators or their representatives. We have thought proper to enter into all these 
 statutory details, because the Society of Parisian Cabinetmakers is formed as ajoint- 
 stock company, with a variable capital, and that these statutes or regulations, with a 
 few important changes that -Ve will notice, are those of all associations of a similar 
 character and form. There will, therefore, be no necessity to refer to these funda- 
 mental points in classifying documents of other joint stock companies having a 
 variable capital. 
 
 PIAlSro MAKUPAOTUEIKG ASSOCIATION.* 
 
 UNLIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY. 
 
 The Association of Piano Manufacturers is formed under. We herewith give 
 their statutes, in order to point out the difference existing between this and the pre- 
 ceding association. 
 
 The law considers the members of a joint-stock company liable only to the 
 amount of their subscribed capital, whilst the members of an unlimited liability 
 company are all severally liable to the third party for all the operations done by 
 their company, so that their creditors have the right to sue them — each one — until 
 the entire sum of their indebtedness is paid. We, the undersigned (here follows the 
 names of the members of the company), agree as follows : — 
 
 Art. 1. Formation, Nature and Object of the Company. — There is formed by 
 these presents among the above-mentioned an Unlimited Liability Company, the 
 object of which is the manufacture and sale of pianos. Bach member agrees upon 
 honor, never during the continuance of these presents, to take an interest in any 
 association of the branch of industry which forms the object of this present act, not 
 to assist with his name, nor his advice, nor by an co-operation whatsoever; and 
 finally, neither directly or indirectly, in his own or others' account, to engage in the 
 sale of pianos. 
 
 Art. 2. Duration and Headquarters of the Association. — The duration of the asso- 
 ciation has been fixed at ninety years, dating from the 1st of July, 1852, and termin- 
 ating 30th June, 1942. 
 
 * This company is in an exceedingly flourishing condition. It numbers 18 members. It was estab- 
 lished in 1849j and created its capital from its own resources. The subscribed capital, $47,442, is entirely 
 paid up, and it possess besides a rolling capital of $40,000 to $45,000, also created by means of retentions ; 
 finally, it owns the property it occupies. It employs from eight to twelve assistants not interested in the 
 coiapsmj, but who have the right to become members. We have thought proper, in view of its success, to 
 give its statutes in full, and its workshop rules alike remarkable for detail and strictness. 
 
109 
 
 The headquarters of the association are situated in Paris, at 1^0.54 Poissonniers 
 street, but may be changed to any locality preferred by the majority. 
 
 Art. 3. The Firm and its Name. — The firm is Hanel, Ansel & Co. 
 
 The association is known as the Piano Manufacturing Association of Paris. 
 
 For the entire dui'ation of the company or association, and for two years after 
 its dissolution, Messrs. Hanel & Ansel bind themselves not to allow their names, 
 either collectively or separately, to be used as the business name of any company 
 doing the same business. 
 
 Art. 4. The business contribution of each member is variable) and to be paid as 
 follows : — $300 on entrance to the association ; $300 by $20.00 to be retained on the 
 proceeds of the work, plus the interests and dividends, up to $1,000 ; and $200 by 
 $20.00 to be retained also with interest and dividends up to $2,000. When the last 
 sum, $2,000, has been paid, there will remain only the dividends, which will be added 
 to the capital or business fund. 
 
 These business contributions bear interest at 5 per cent, per annum; expired 
 interest will be paid to whomever due. 
 
 Art. 5. Administration, Management. — The company is under the direction of a 
 manager. 
 
 The- manager is nominated for one year by the General Assembly, and may be 
 re-elected indefinitely ; his nomination may, however, be revoked on decision of the 
 General Assembly. 
 
 The manager is assisted in the performance of his duties by the keeper of the 
 seal and the casliier ; they meet every morning to deliberate on the business of the 
 company, to take knowledge of the correspondence, and to distribute and receive 
 work — in fact, they assume all management allowed by the law. 
 
 The manager may resign his offlce by giving three months' notice. 
 
 Art. 6. Business Signature-^Business Engagements. — The manager alone may make 
 use of the business signature, and that, foi' the business or affairs of the association 
 alone, under penalty of nullity in regard to the society, and of a third party, of all 
 the engagements signed with the company's signature which have no connection 
 with the business of the company, and this without prejudice to the right of the 
 company for damages and interest against the manager, and of his dismissal from 
 the association or company if he contravenes this most rigorous clause. Moreover, 
 no ducument or engagement bearing the business signature of the company will bind 
 the company, if it is not at the same time sealed with the company's seal. 
 
 Art. 7. Board of Superintendence. — The board of superintendence is composed of 
 five members; the two partners whose names form the firm are members by right. 
 The three other members are named by the General Assembly. 
 
 The Board meets every fifteen days ; it verifies and controls all the transactions 
 of the management, and gives account of them to the members of the association. 
 
 Art. 8. Meetings — General Assemblies. — The members have a right to meet every 
 three months to enquire into the affairs of the business. They meet, moreover, in 
 special assembly every time the members of the management or the Board of Super- 
 intendence judge necessary. 
 
 Absent members will be summoned by mailed letters. 
 
 The assembly examines into and discusses all matters and proposals in the com- 
 pany's interest, submitted to it by the members. 
 
 It nominates the Board of Management and the Board of Superintendence when 
 required. 
 
 In conclusion, their decision is final on all affairs of the company. The decisions 
 are given by the majority of members present; nevertheless, the admittance or 
 exclusion of a member, the revision of the rules of the shops, are decided by two- 
 thirds of the votes. 
 
 Art. 9. Salaries — Profits. — Each member will be allowed for his personal requii-e- 
 ments an assessment as a salary, the amount to be in accordance with a tariff pre- 
 viously accepted by all the members. 
 
 The amounts thus assessed will be entered to the account especially opened for 
 each member to this purpose. 
 
no 
 
 After deduction of general expenses, and expenses of working, the profits ^i e 
 divided into two parts, at so much in the franc of the production by members and 
 by assistants. 
 
 The part produced by the members will be divided proportionately to the work 
 of each one, and that produced by the assistants in the same way. 
 
 Losses which may chance to occur will be borne in like proportion. 
 
 Art. 10. Of Assistants. — The Association may, if necessary, accept and employ 
 assistants, M'hose rights will be defined by the regulations. 
 
 Art. 11. Accounts, Inventory, Balance-sheet. — The accounts of the Association will 
 be kept by double-entry. 
 
 Every year, on the 30th June, a statement will be given of the assets and 
 liabilities of the Company. The general balance-sheet will be prepared. 
 
 The inventories and the balance sheet will be entered in a book for the purpose, 
 which, at each entry, will be signed by all the associates. 
 
 Art. 12. Admittance of New Members. — The Association may admit as associates 
 as many new members as it may deem advisable. 
 
 The charges for entry and for striking out of names are due by members enter- 
 ing, and of those resigning or deceased. 
 
 Art. 13. Retiring, Expulsion, Deceased. — Any ofthe members may retire from the 
 association whenever they choose. 
 
 Anyone of the members who shall contravene the present agreement, the orders 
 of the regulations, or other conditions imposed by equity, law or usage, may be 
 expelled from the association, without prejudice to damages and interests, if there 
 be any. 
 
 The expulsion shall be pronounced in General Assembly, according to the form 
 prescribed by the regulations. 
 
 By the voluntary resignation, expulsion, or decease of a member, the force of 
 these presents shall cease in his regard and in regard to his heirs of claimants, but 
 they shall not afiect the dissolution of the Association, which shall continue in exist- 
 ence among the remaining members. 
 
 Art. 14. Repayment of Business Shares. — In the cases already foreseen, the Asso- 
 ciation shall pay claimants by yearly payments and quarterly payments, at intervals 
 of three months, the twentieth part of his business capital divided in equal parts 
 among the members leaving. 
 
 Art. 15. Modification of the Company's Deed of Agreement. — ^The General Assembly 
 may modify the present deed as may be necessary. To that effect all power is hencefor- 
 ward given to the General Assembly by all and each of the parties interested at the 
 present time or in the future, as an essential condition of the present agreement. 
 Nevertheless, the revision can only be made on a majority of two thirds ofthe mem- 
 bers present. Absent members will be, notified by letter indicating the object ofthe 
 meeting. 
 
 Art. 16. Regulations and Tariffs — A regulation adopted by all the members, 
 and having among the same force as these presents, will rule all the conditions and 
 lesser details of the management, and of the interior government. 
 
 Proportonal tariffs adopted by the parties will determine the price of work. 
 
 Art. 17. Dissolution. — In case of the dissolution or the expiration of the pre- 
 sent society one or more liquidators will be nominated by the General Assembly. 
 
 Art. 18. Ceding Interest. — No member may cede all or part of his rights with- 
 out the unanimous consent of his fellow-members. 
 
 Art. 19. Disputes. — In case of dispute concerning these presents, the subject will 
 be submitted to arbitrators, whose decision on the matter will^ be final and without 
 recourse. 
 
 Art. 20. Publications. — Ad extract of these presents will be published and 
 deposited in accordance with the law ; and for this purpose all power shall be given 
 to the bearer of a true copy hereof 
 
 This done in Paris the 
 
 The following are the principal clauses of the regulations referred to in Article 
 16 of the statutes : — 
 
Ill 
 
 Art 3. Remuneration. — The members belonging to the management and to the 
 Board of Superintendence will be remunerated for their loss of time according to 
 what they earn at work by the piece. 
 
 The subsidy for the cashier will be counted only for the morning meetings, and 
 the pay on Satui'day's ; any other disturbance from his ordinary duties will be paid 
 him, beside an indemnity for his responsibility, which will be determined by the 
 Association. 
 
 Art. 6. General Meetings. — The meetings will take place every three months, 
 but the Board of Management and the Board of Superintendence may meet the fol- 
 lowing days or, if need be, immediately. There will be a roll-call at every meeting 
 and mention of absent members made in the minutes. Every member is bound to 
 attend ; but in any case the assembly will proceed without the absent members, who 
 will be subject to a fine of 10 cents for the first call, and of 20 cents for the second. 
 Cases of illness will alone exempt from a fine. Absent members who have not been 
 notified will not be liable to a fine. 
 
 Art. T. General Dispositions. — The president will allow discussion only of such 
 matters as are on the orders of the day, and will see to it that the discussion does 
 not wander from the question. No one has a right to interrupt, except the presi- 
 dent to call a member to order. Any member called to order by the president 
 will be fined 20 cents for the first time, 40 cents for the second, and 60 cents for the 
 third. If he continues to disturb the meeting the president will order him to be 
 expelled. 
 
 The orders of the day for the meetings will be deposited in the of&ce at 10 
 o'clock in the morning of the previous day, and remain there until the next day at 
 the same hour. Any members who have the right may, during that time, cause 
 anything they choose to be inserted. All personalities, and all signs of approbation 
 or of disapprobation, are forbidden. 
 
 Art. 8. Any member convicted of insubordination will be fined from 20 cents 
 to $2. Any misdemeanor inside or outside the shops will be punished by a fine of 
 $0.60 to $3.00. The fines will be determined by the management, but will be entered 
 in the delinquent's book only after a meeting of the Board of Superintendence, who 
 will take cognizance of the offence, and after the delinquent has been called into the 
 office to explain his conduct. 
 
 Art. 9. Injuries. — Any member having injured one of his colleagues will be 
 punished by a fine of $0.20. to $2.00. An injury to any office-bearer will be fined 
 from 0.60 to $3.00. 
 
 Art. 10. Violence. — A fine of from $2.00 to $6.00 will be imposed on any mem- 
 ber who has been guilty of violence to one of his colleagues ; for the first offence the 
 Assembly may impose a fine of from $0.60 to $3.00. Any member who provokes a 
 scuffle by bitter humor will be fined according to Article 9. 
 
 Art. 11. Loss of Time. — The day is ten hours' work. The management and the 
 Board of Superintendence are to judge of ill-use and loss of time, and may impose 
 fines according to the loss caused by the member. The hours of work may be 
 increased. Any member refusing to comply with this increase of work may be fined 
 $0.20 and his work completed at his expense. No member may work beyond the 
 time prescribed by the management. 
 
 Art. 12. Loss of Time in the Workshop. — It is not sufficient to be present in the 
 workshop ; the time must be employed at work, in order to meet the engagements 
 entered into. The management is considered competent to judge of the time required 
 for the execution of any piece of work ; any one exceeding that time is liable to the 
 fines mentioned in Article 11. 
 
 Art. 13. Absence. — Any member obliged to be absent must ask leave and explain 
 the reasons requiring his absence ; if his absence exceeds the time asked for, and his 
 request for leave is not renewed, he is liable to a fine of 60 cents per day of absence. 
 
 Art. 14. Incapacity. — The incapacity of a member entails change of employ- 
 ment and obliges him to accept work more in accordance with his ability. 
 
 The management and the Board of Superintendence will decide if the change be 
 necessary ; nevertheless, if the member refuses to accept of them as judge, he may 
 i-efer to the General Assembly. 
 
112 
 
 Art. 15. Drunkenness. — Any member arriving at the workshop in a state of 
 drunkenness, and disturbing others at their work, will be fined for the first offence 
 20 cents and for the second 40 cents, for the following |1 ; he will, tnoreover, be 
 responsible for any damage he may have done or caused. 
 
 Ten convictions of drunkeaness during the space of one year will entail a fine of 
 $20.00. Cases of expulsion are provided for by Article 13 of the deed. 
 
 Art. 16. Defamation. — Any member who, by any means whatsoever, shall 
 lessen the reputation of the establishment by attacking its interests, its honor, or 
 that of a manager, or of any member, may be condemned by the management and 
 the Board of Superintendence to a fine of $1 at the least, and of $4 at the most; a 
 member convicted of such an ofl'ence may appeal to the General Assembly. 
 
 Art. lY. Indiscretion. — All members should avoid divulging outside what he 
 may know of the affairs of the Association ; any such want of discretion prejudicial 
 to the interests of the Society will be punished by a fine of 20c. to |1 ; if there be 
 any repetition of the offence the penalty will be doubled ; five convictions for this 
 offence will entail a fine of $10 to $20. 
 
 Art. 18. Interference. — It is the duty of each member to give information to all 
 persons desirous of speaking to the Manager or others in charge of the sales and 
 business of the Association, to conduct them to the persons inquired for, but he must 
 avoid joining in the conversation without being requested to do so, and will return 
 to his work ; infringement of this article will be punished by a fine of 10c. at least, 
 and 60c. at most.* ' 
 
 Art. 19. Cleanliness, prudence. — The workshops must be swept every Saturday, 
 and cleared of chips, the ends of wood carried to the garret and piled according to 
 their length, fires carefully extinguished, the pails filled with water, and the windows 
 closed in wet weather. Poi'getfulness of any of these matters will entail a fine of 
 $0.10 on the guilty party. Any member leaving matches lying about on his bench 
 or elsewhere will be punished by a fine of $0.20. Any member smoking in the 
 workshops or in the wood stores will be punished by a fine of $1.00. 
 
 Art. 20. Mght Watchmen. — A watch will be established to make sure that all 
 fires have been carefully extinguished and the windows closed ; it will be kept by 
 each member in turn, in accordance with a card given him the night before. Any 
 member neglecting to keep watch in his turn without providing a substitute will be 
 fined $0.20 ; if the offence be repeated he will be fined $1.00. The member on guard 
 must warn the members fifteen minutes in advance in order that all fires may be 
 quite out at 8 o'clock. Any member who refuses to leave when warned by the 
 watchman will be subject to a fine $0.20. Any member who, being absent during the 
 evening, leaves his lamp or candle burning for longer than a quarter of an hour, will 
 be fined $0.20. 
 
 Art. 21. Sunday Watch. — ^Willbe the same as at night, a card of warning having 
 been given eight days in advance. The member on guard is obliged to be at the 
 workshop at 9 in the morning, in all seasons, until 4 o'clock in the evening ; he is at 
 liberty to work, but will be careful to notify the doorkeeper (concierge) of his arrival 
 in the morning, that he may be warned if any person should happen to come in. The , 
 agent should moreover make arrangements with him the previous evening, in case he 
 should have anything particular to communicate to him. Any member guilty of 
 an infringement of these regulations will be subject to the same fines as the night 
 watchman. 
 
 Art. 22. Fines of the Management. — Members belonging to the management 
 will be liable to the same fines, excepting that the fines will be doubled, because they 
 will be doubly guilty in want of respect to the members. 
 
 Art. 23. Chiefs of Sections. — Chiefs of sections will superintend the work in 
 their sections, and see that nothing is wanting in their sections ; they share in the 
 management, so far as to examine the work, and see that it is fit to be delivered ; 
 their judgment is suflficent authority ; they may order a piece of work to be repaired 
 or altered if they deem it necessary. 
 
 * Article 18 is exactly similar to article 57 of the regulations of the Maison Leclaire. 
 
113 
 
 The chiefs of sections who are the first to see, and to judge of the state of the 
 work, are bound to prevent these diflBculties by their watchfulness. 
 
 Art. 24. Tools. — The society provides all the tools, except drawer tools ; mem- 
 bers are bound to range their tools on their benches once every month ; the chief of 
 the section or foreman will then examine and compare them with the list in the 
 inventory, and note what tools are missing ; all missing tools must be replaced at 
 the member's expense. Any wedge, or wood used at the bench burnt by the work- 
 man or his assistant must be straightened; if it is altogether past repairing it must 
 be replaced at the expense of the person who burned it. 
 
 Art. 25. Pay-day. — The pay-day will be every fifteen days, each chief of a sec- 
 tion will, after having examined the work done in his section, give his report in a 
 bulletin, which he will place in the men's books, and send them to the office at nine 
 o'clock. The management will settle the amounts at their meeting ; the books will 
 be returned in the evening with the pay enclosed, which will be in proportion to 
 the work done. All certificates of work must be signed by the chief of the section, 
 and the chief's signed by one of the men in his section. 
 
 Art. 26. Interdicted Commerce and Work. — All members are forbidden to do 
 business, or to practice any trade that may be undignified or liable to diminish the 
 credit or reputation of the association ; he is at the same time strictly prohibited 
 from working on his own personal account, and from trading in pianos under penalty 
 of a fine of $20 ; all members are likewise forbidden to accept any remittance or gift, 
 either from dealers or customers, under a penalty of $20. The dooT--keeper (concierge) 
 alone is exempt from the fine imposed by the last paragraph. 
 
 Art. 27. Debts. — All bills or seizures addi-essed to the association will entail a 
 fine of $2 against the debtor. All claims for indebtedness, either by letter or ver- 
 bally, addressed to the association, will entail a fine of $1 for the debtor. 
 
 Art. 28. Order of Work and the Furnishings. — The chief of each section will 
 determine the amount of work to be done by each man in his section, and members 
 ai-e not allowed to take wood from the garret, unless they are accompanied by the 
 agent, or the chief of the section, under a penalty of $1. It is also forbidden under a 
 penalty of $0.40 to carry away chips or any other material or thing from the work- 
 shops without leave from the agent. Members are warned that the furnishings will 
 be distributed from 9 to 10 in the morning. 
 
 Art. 29. Application of the Rules. — The management and the Board of Superin- 
 tendence are bound to see that the rules are enforced. The assembly may modify 
 the rules when it sees fit. It receives claims and rights them. The manage lAent 
 and the Board of Superintendence impose all the fines, and may, in case of repetition 
 of the offence, double the amount of fine. The fines paid are given to the Aid Fund. 
 The members of the Piano Manufacturers Association have instituted among them- 
 selves an aid society, of which all are members by right and by compulsion. The 
 object of the society is to provide medical attendance and aid in case of illness. We 
 give the following clauses from the regulations of this society : — 
 
 The society gives aid in cases of sickness only when the sickness is such as to 
 necessitate at least four days' rest. 
 
 The sick person has a right to 60 cents per day for the first six months of sick- 
 ness and to 40 cents for the next six months. In case of a member having j'esumed 
 work, and suffering a relapse of the same sickness during his first month of work, 
 the days of his sickness will count from his first attack up to three hundred and 
 sixty-five days. 
 
 If the sick person be able to walk he must report himself at least twice a week 
 to the president or one of the members of the office, bearing the doctor's authority 
 for going out. 
 
 The society will give no aid for syphillitio sickness nor for any caused by fool- 
 hardiness or fighting, unless they are caused by an unforeseen or natural accident, 
 and above all, if it is proved that the member was nol the aggressor; in contrary 
 cases the society extends no assistance. 
 20—8 
 
114 
 
 Any member who has been declared to be sick and who shall be discovered at 
 work in a state of drunkenness will deprived of his allowance and fined from $1.00 
 to $3.00. 
 
 All sick members have a right to assistance, no matter where their real domicile 
 may be situated ; he is forbidden to' leave it without the authorization of his physi- 
 cian, otherwise he will lose all right to assistance. 
 
 Any sick members found out of dool-s or in a public place after nine o'clock at 
 night will be subject to a fine of $1.00, to be doubled in case of repetition. 
 
 The fund will be supplied by the amount of fines imposed by the Productive 
 Association and by the Aid Society, and by a tax of $0.10 on each pay until the 
 funds amount to $20.00, of which amount the fund should always be possessed. 
 
 ASSOOIATIOlSr OF WOEKING ARM-CHAIE MAKEES. 
 
 UNLIMITED LIABILITY SOCIETY. 
 
 This association was established in 1849. It is one of the few associations of 
 that period which has survived the 2nd of December 1851. 
 
 The Association of Arm-chair Makers is just completing its third reconstitution, 
 the two first agreements having expired by lapse of time. It has always been an 
 unlimited liability company from the first. Its last deed of association, which dates 
 from the 28th March, 1881 and whose appointed duration is fifteen years, states that 
 it owned at that date $4,444.30, divided as follows : $1,996.07 from the undivided 
 capital, and $2,448 . 15 belong to the members. The capital proceeds from amounts 
 retained from wages. Besides this amount, each member is bound to pay $20.00, 
 also retained in instalments from his wages, in a proportion of 20 per cent. 
 
 The general clauses of the agreement of the working arm-chair makers resemble 
 those of the piano manufacturers given above. They differ on special points relating 
 to the reserve fund and the management and direction. 
 
 Art. 6. of their statutes says, in regard to the reserve fund : 
 
 The business fund will be supplied and increased by means of a portion of the 
 profits coming to each member being retained until each member has furnished a 
 yearly amount of the wages. This yearly sum of the wages will be calculated from 
 the average of the three first yeai's of the society's existence, including that of 
 liberation. 
 
 This augmentation of the business capital will be called the reserve fund. 
 
 At the completion of each inventory, all the amounts in profits coming to each 
 member, and which are retained to complete the amount of the year's wages each is 
 obliged to furnish, will be entered in a book kept for the purpose. The share of each 
 member in the business capital and in the reserve fund will bear interest at a rate 
 starting from 4 per cent, per annum, dating from the day when each amount will be 
 stated to form part of the reserve fund following the inventory of the 30th June of 
 each year. The amounts of such interest will help to complete his part in the 
 reserve. After that amount has been completed and he is free, the interest will be 
 paid him every six months. 
 
 If the reserve fund be found to be insufi&cient, it may be increased by a further 
 retention on the profits in accordance with the decision of the General Assembly. 
 
 Art. 7. The division of profits, and the share in losses, will be calculated for each 
 member in proportion to the wages of each. In all that relates to the agent and to 
 the members of the board of management that may be injurious to the association, 
 either by leaving it or beginning a business of the same nature, or by giving their 
 assistance to another master or by belonging to another association within two years 
 of their quitting the present association, the damages-interest are thus settled by 
 Article 6 of the statutes : — 
 
 The offender will be bound to pay $2,000 to the association as damages-interests. 
 
 The same penalty is applied to the agent or to any member of the Board of 
 Management who has resigned, or who has been dismissed or expelled, who may be 
 
115 
 
 tempted by whatever means to draw to himself any or all of the custom of the asso- 
 ciation, either for his own profit or for that of a third party. 
 
 The preceding rules are also applicable to a simple member of the association. 
 
 The allowances and wages are established by Article 17, as follows : — 
 
 Art. IT. The agent's services arc remunerated at the rate of $400 per annum, 
 payable monthly in equal parts. 
 
 He is besides allowed $120 for representing the establishment, which is paid in 
 the same way. 
 
 If the board of management or the committee of control decide to lower or to 
 increase the price of work the agent's pay is increased or lowered in proportion. 
 
 The foremen and employees' wages will be determined by the agent, together 
 with the Board of Management and the Committee of Control. 
 
 Finally, the workmen will be paid by the piece according to the tariffs in use in 
 the business, and will be paid every fortnight. 
 
 We must also cite Articles 21 and 22 of the statutes on the use to be made of the 
 reserve fund, and the claims of families of deceased members : — 
 
 Art. 21. The reserve fund is intended to cover business losses; it will be used, 
 as decided by the Board of Management, to pay in advance debts that are not 
 exigible, for the increase of material for the society, for the acquisition of raw 
 materials for fabrication, and finally for means to extend the operations of the 
 association. 
 
 In case of an assessment on the said fund for business losses, the amount must be 
 made up by sums retained on the profits until it has attained again, for each member, 
 the amount of a year's wages. 
 
 Bach member's share in the reserve fund will be paid him only at the expiration 
 of the association. 
 
 All amounts assessed for the reserve fund must be considered as the debts of the 
 association, and as such, when the association is dissolved, are consequently to bo 
 paid before any division is made of the profits. 
 
 Art. 22. In case of a member's death the value of his share, and the part belong- 
 ing to him in the reserve fund, will be paid in full to his heirs, but only at the 
 expiration of the association; until that time the share and part of the reserve fund 
 will bear interest at 4 per cent, per annum ; the interest will be paid every three 
 months, the 1st of February, the Ist of May, the 1st of August and the 1st of Novem- 
 ber of each year. 
 
 The value of such rights will be determined by the first business inventory 
 occurring after the death of the member. 
 
 During the interval between the death of the member and the said inventory, 
 the heirs can only claim interest calculated at the last inventory. 
 
 FUTUEE ASSOCIATION (L'AVBNIE) OF FUENITUEE MAKEES. 
 
 JOINT-STOCK COMPANY,' VARIABLE CAPITAL (LIMITED). 
 
 This association is instituted in the form of a joint-stock company with a vari- 
 able capital and membership. The peculiarities of its statutes bear principally on 
 points referring to trade. The whole statutes are similar to those of other co-oper- 
 ative joint-stock companies. 
 
 The business capital is constituted'in accordance with Articles 6, 1 and 8, fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 Art. 6. The business capital from the foundation of the society was fixed at 
 $1,200, represented by 60 nominal shares of $20 each, of which 35 are entirely paid 
 up, and also one-fourth part at least of the remaining 25. 
 
 The balance sheet will, each year, mark the fluctuations of the capital. 
 
 Art. Y. The amount of shares are payable as follows : $5 on subscribing and $1 
 at least each month, until the share is paid up, payments in advance being per- 
 missable. 
 
 20— 8^ 
 
116 
 
 Art. 8. Shares in material, consisting of tools, raw materials and other valuables, 
 may be accepted as part or entire payment of subscribed shares, after valuation by 
 the Board of Management. 
 
 Admittance and the rank cf members are decided according to the provisions of 
 the following articles : — 
 
 Ai't. 13. A permanent committee of admission, elected bj'' members of each 
 branch of the business, will give the Board of Management their opinion on the 
 ability and morality of each candidate. 
 
 Art. 14. The association employs no outside help of any kind, except provision- 
 ally. 
 
 Any temporary assistant may become a member by conforming to the present 
 statutes. 
 
 Art. 16. Legally constituted societies are allowed to subscribe in the same way 
 as other persons. 
 
 Minors and married women presenting the necessary authorization may also 
 subscribe in the same way. 
 
 Art. lY. In order to become a member of the association it is necessary to engage 
 to subscribe and acquire successively five shares. 
 
 The matter of the reserve fund is resolved as follows : — 
 
 Art. 50. When the balance sheet shows a surplus, the amount will be entered 
 ia the ledger to the reserve fund to the amount of a third of the subscribed capital. 
 
 Art. 51. The reserve fund completed as has been said above, the balance of the 
 surplus, or what remains, will also be entered in the ledger, to the funds of the fol- 
 lowing institutions: — 
 
 25 per cent, to the Members' Reserve Fund, in proportion to their co-operation 
 during the last term ; 
 
 75 per cent. : 
 
 1st. To technical instruction and apprenticeship ; 
 
 2nd. To federal insurance, which may be contracted with other co-operative 
 associations ; 
 
 3i'd. To a provident fund, in case of accident and sickness; 
 
 4th. To a retiring fund. 
 
 The General Assembly, on the proposition of the Board of Management, may 
 determine the quota of the Y5 per cent, to be given the preceding institutions as well 
 as those they may consider it useful to found and to endow later on. 
 
 The provisions of the present article may be modified only by a majority com- 
 prising two-thirds of the active members of the association. 
 
 Article 56 treats of the foundation of a trade library and of the nomination of a 
 librarian. The following is the text of the article : — 
 
 Article 56. In order to preserve and classify documents of any nature, such as 
 drawings, plans, manuscripts, account books and other printed books, correspond- 
 ence, invoices, tariffs, statutes, regulations, treaties and bargains, indentures, leases, 
 patents, assurances, title-deeds, balance-sheets, reports, process-verbal, inventories 
 and other titles, such as photographed, or moulded models, and in general all that 
 may be or may become useful to the association, or for the instruction of the mem- 
 bers, as also for instruction and professional education, a librarian-keeper of the 
 records, together with an assistant, has been named by the General Assembly. 
 
 Members of each branch of the profession are allowed to nominate a candidate. 
 
 CABIlSrBTMAKBR'S ASSOCIATION. 
 
 UNLIMITED LIABILITY SOCIETY. 
 
 We now come to an association established on the most elementary princi- 
 ples possible to bind several persons together in a common work and in some sort 
 known and settled. * 
 
 * This association is most simple in its nature ; it is really an unlimited liability company of temporary 
 duration ; members leaving are still responsible. It started with a capital of $20.00, and has included 12 
 members. It now numbers four, possessing together a paid up capital of $1,000. 
 
117 
 
 The following is the entire text of its statutes : — 
 
 The undersigned (here follow the names of the members) have, by these 
 presents, settled in the following manner the basis of the association they have 
 formed among themselves for cabinet-making, under the business name of : ' Girard, 
 Elias, Schmaltz. 
 
 1st. Each member will pay, on the day he signs, a contribution to the funds of 
 $80, to form a business capital fixed at |240. 
 
 2nd. The management of the association will be directed by all the members in 
 common. 
 
 3rd. All expenses, rents, taxes, insurances and patents will be borne in thirds by 
 the members. 
 
 4th. The yearly or half-yearly profits will be divided in equal parts between the 
 three associates, with a deduction of a fifth part, retained to form a reserve fund 
 destined to meet emergencies. 
 
 5th. A monthly allowance will be granted each member, according to conditions 
 settled among themselves. 
 
 6th. Each member is in possession of the business signature, but he cannot make 
 use of it without having previously been authorized to do so by his partnei-s. 
 
 7th. Any member having paid more than $80 has a right to 5 per cent, per 
 annum for the supplementaiy amount, and has a right to its repayment after three 
 months' notice. 
 
 8th. 'No member has a right to resign his rights in the association without the 
 consent of his co-associates. 
 
 9th. In ease of the death of a member the present association will continue 
 to exist among the surviving members, and the heirs of the deceased, who will name 
 one of themselves as a delegate to assist in the inventory and the liquidation of the 
 assets and liabilities of the association, as well as at its dissolution, if it occurs. 
 
 10th. The duration of the association is triennial, to be renewed every three 
 years, and to terminate on the expiration of the lease. 
 
 11th. It is ruled by the Code of Commerce. 
 
 12th. An inventory will be taken every six months, counting from the 1st of 
 January, 1883. 
 
 13th. The accounts will be kept by an accountant chosen by the members, and 
 the funds managed in common. 
 
 SYNDICAL ASSOCIATION OP THE CARPENTEES OF THE SEINE.* 
 
 JOINT-STOCK COMPANY, WITH VARIALE CAPITAL. 
 
 The association of the working carpenters of the Seine was established after the 
 strike which occurred in this business in 1880. It styles itself a syndical associa- 
 tion, because it recruits its members exclusively from the syndical chamber of work- 
 men in the trade. Therefore, a member who ceases to belong to the syndical 
 chamber ceases thereby to belong to the association. As may be seen, there exists 
 very close bonds between the two associations. The following articles from the 
 statutes mention the points to which we have referred, and also points relating to 
 the business capital : — 
 
 The undersigned working carpenters, members of the syndical chamber of work 
 ing carpenters, unite for the foi'mation of a co-operative productive association, for 
 which they have resolved the following regulations : — 
 
 Art. 4. The headquarters of the business will be in Paris. 
 
 Art. 5. The business capital will, for the present, be $2,000, which may be 
 hereafter increased as the business of the association may develop. 
 
 * Subscribed capital, $3,000 ; |2,459 paid. A very prosperous association. The rolling capital formed 
 by the savings of the members amounts to $10,000. No distribution of profits has been made, but the 
 .shares of $20 (paid) were worth $80 after three years' existence of the association. 
 
118 
 
 It is divided into 100 shares of $20.00 each, the fourth of which amount must 
 be paid at the time of subscription and the remainder by instalments of $1.00 per 
 month for each share, until they are paid up in full. 
 
 In case of non-payment on call, and three months after a fruitless demand of 
 payment is made, the association is authorized to take legal proceedings against the 
 indebted mem ber, or, if it prefer, it may resume possession of the shares and transfer 
 them to a new member ; the amount paid is made over to the dispossessed member ; 
 if there be any surplus it belongs to him, and, on the other hand, if there be a deficit 
 he is obliged to make it good. 
 
 Any member ceasing to belong to the syndical chamber is thereby excluded from the 
 association. 
 
 Art. 6. No one may subscribe for more than six shares ; but, as the association 
 is for the good of all workers, and as it should be open to all such, if it occurred that 
 the assembly deemed it advisible, the capital being judged sufQcient for the needs of 
 the association to suspend the issue of new shares and that none were disposable, 
 the General Assembly would have the power to reduce the number for the future to 
 five shares only. 
 
 Art. 9. An expelled member may, after three months' delay, sell his shares, 
 and his successor be accepted. After the expiration of three months the association 
 will itself transfer the shares at the risk and peril of the expelled member. 
 
 Art. 10. Every member who retires from the society or is excluded therefrom 
 is forbidden for the spaoe of five years to act as master or associate in any lumber 
 cutting enterprise within the department of the Seine. 
 
 This last clause is more vigorous than those relating to the same object in the 
 regulations of other societies. 
 
 Art. 16. The profits are divided in the following manner : — 
 
 One-third to the capital, in proportion to the sums paid on the shares. 
 
 One-third to labor, in proportion to the wages paid during the course of service. 
 
 One-sixth to form the reserve fund. 
 
 One-sixth to form a retiring fund, according to a by-law to be made by the 
 General Assembly. 
 
 Art. 17. In the case when the capital will reach the sum of $40,000, the shares, 
 according to law, shall be rated at $100, of which one-fourth shall be considered paid. 
 
 Those members who will not submit to this increase will be reimbursed by the 
 society, who will dispose of their certificates at their own risk and peril. 
 
 The details of work in the shanties are regulated by the following articles regu- 
 lating the interior management of the association :— 
 
 Art. 6. As soon as there is work to do the society will meet in general council 
 to declare the number of persons who shall take part in the work. 
 
 Art. 7. In order to form a shanty, a list of all the members of the society who 
 requested work from the association is prepared by the Board of Management. This 
 list shall be sent to all the members, to enable them to vote for the formation of a 
 shanty and for the number of members who shall compose it. 
 
 At this same meeting lots will be drawn to decide the rank at the work of each 
 member. 
 
 The assistants, who come after, take rank as their names are entered. 
 Art. 8. E"o member can refuse to work when his turn comes. He may, howevei-, 
 exchange with another member. 
 
 If the turn of the member who has exchanged has arrived, and he cannot find 
 anyone to replace him, he must seek the one with whom he has exchanged. 
 
119 
 
 CO-OPEEATIVE ASSOCIATION OF WOEKING CAEPBNTEES OF 
 
 YILLBTTE* 
 
 JOINT STOCK COMPANY (LIMITED), WITH VARIABLE CAPITAL. 
 
 The Association ofWorking Carpenters of Villette is based on journeymanship. 
 One must be a journeyman to form part of itf Though this clause is not statutory, 
 it is nevertheless rigorously applied. 
 
 Its capital, which was previously fixed at $6,000, divided into 300 shares of $20 
 each, was raised to $16,000, without reckoning a reserve fund of $4,000. The pay- 
 ment of the shares is subject to the following conditions contained in Articles 7 and 
 11 of the Statutes : 
 
 Art. 7. The shares are issued on payment. The amount of each share is pay- 
 able as follows : Half at the time of subscription and the other half on the receipt of 
 the certificate, which will be given one month after subscription. The subscribers 
 may pay in advance. 
 
 Art. 11. Each new subscriber, besides the amounts already paid by the first 
 shareholders, in subscribing eifects an amount equal to a proportionate part of each 
 share in the reserve business fund. 
 
 The member retiring or expelled is subject to only one year's interdict regarding 
 his co-operation in other firms engaged in carpentry. 
 
 In the course of the deposition of the representative of this association given 
 before the Commission of Enquiry, mention was made of the extensive powers of the 
 director.J These powers are established by the following articles : 
 
 Art. 22. The Board may delegate its powers to a committee of direction, com- 
 posed of three members, or to one sole director, elected from among its own members. 
 It may also delegate them for specified purposes for a limited time to one or more 
 members of the Board. 
 
 Art. 24. The director or directors chosen from its members by the Board of 
 Management is or are bound to obey the decisions of the Board. 
 
 Art. 25. They are under the authority of the Board of Management, and their 
 nomination may be revoked at the suggestion of the Board by the General Assembly, 
 on a majority of two-thirds of the members present, and the Assembly should consist 
 of two-thirds of the shareholders. If, however, the Assembly does not consist of two- 
 thirds of the shareholders a second meeting will be convoked, the object of the meet- 
 ing being specified, and the vote will be taken in the same way. 
 
 Art. 26. The director represents the Board of Management in regard to third 
 parties, in all business of the association. 
 
 Art. 27. Besides the rights and powers conferred on the director by the Board, 
 he directs all manufacturing operations, all the the sales and purchases of the Asso- 
 ciation, distributes work in the workshops of the association, arranges and formu- 
 lates, in concert with the Board of Management, the regulations for the workshops, 
 
 *The capital, $16,000, is entirely paid up. The rolling capital varies between $4,000 and $9,000. The 
 shares were paid by a call of $5 per month. The association realized large profits while paying to its mem- 
 bers a salary of 20 per cent, above the general tariff. The wood in stock is valued at $16,000, and the tools 
 
 at 88,000. , , , . n I, 1 J 
 
 +To be a journeyman one must have been {renard) a fox. A fox la a young man who has already 
 worked as a (lapm) rabbit in a shanty. When a boy at the age of fourteen or fifteen begins to work m a 
 shanty he is a rabbit ; the rabbit gathers up the chips, sharpens up the tools, holds the string for measurmg. 
 At the end of four or five years he becomes a fox, and begins to earn $1 or $1.20 a day. When one has 
 worked five or six years in this position he is received as a journeyman. 
 
 J See "Supplementary Notes." ., ^, ^ „^ . ^, 
 
 (*) In 1889 the subscribed capital was $4,000, of which $3,020 are paid. The pr9fits of the year 
 amounted to $1,920. Net assets, capital deducted, amounted to $3,410. This Association undertook a 
 contract for Buenos- Ayres. This is, we believe, the first engagement of the kind entered into by a working 
 co-operative society. In the statement of accounts for 1889, presented to the Association by the director, 
 Mr. H. Buisson, in referring to the Association's prosperity, he says :— . .. , 
 
 We alone know the difficulties we had to overcome in order to attain this success. How otten have 
 we not sent away our assistants, some of whom were but too disposed to criticise our endeavours, on pay 
 night with full purses, whUst we have gone to our homes with empty packets, having given up all to make 
 up the sum of their wages. 
 
120 
 
 introduces all modifications judged necessary, subject to notification by the General 
 Assembly, hires all workmen required to fulfil orders received by the Association, 
 but only when it has been proved that the members are insufficient to execute the 
 work. 
 
 Workmen thus hired have no right to be considered as belonging to the associ- 
 ation . 
 
 LB TEAVAIL. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF HOUSE-PAINTERS. 
 
 Joint Stock Company, with Variable Capital. 
 
 This assc ciation dates from December, 1882. It was established in an unpre- 
 tentious way, with a capital of $1,280, of which one-tenth only was paid on subscrib- 
 ing, about $180, scarcely sufficient to pay expenses of constitution. Nevertheless, it 
 undertook comparatively lai-ge jobs, and its steady progress up to the present gives 
 reason to hope that its intelligent direction will enable it to surmount all the diffi- 
 culties inevitably to be met with by any newly started enterprise of this nearly 
 unknown kind. 
 
 The admission of these new members is subject to the statutory provisions of 
 Article 4, of which the following is the text: — 
 
 Art. 4. 1^0 one is allowed to subscribe unless he is a working painter, or exer- 
 cises one of the branches similar to this industry. In order to be admitted as mem- 
 bers, the candidates must conform to the following conditions: — 
 
 1st. To subscribe for at least four shares, and to pay, when subscribing, at least 
 one-half 
 
 2nd. To pay the admission fee of $3. 
 
 The amount of each share must be paid at the rate of $0.40 a month each share, 
 without any interruption. 
 
 The admission is declared in General Assembly by the majority of two-thirds 
 of those present. 
 
 Article 11 fixes the rights of shareholders at General Assemblies. Each mem- 
 ber has as many votes as he has a quadruple of shares, without exceeding four votes. 
 
 The retiring fund is established in the following manner : — 
 
 Art. 16. Each member has a right to the retiring fund after twenty years of 
 service in the Association. Temporary relief may be given to sick members, or to 
 wounded members unable to work at painting, 10 per cent, of the fund constituting 
 the retiring fund specially set aside for this purpose. 
 
 Finally, the question of division of profits is settled by Article 14, and is thus 
 stated : — 
 
 Art. 14. Each year the net profits resulting from the company's operations are 
 divided according to the following proportions : — 
 
 1st. 5 per cent, to constitute the legal reserve fund, 
 
 2nd. 5 per cent, on the interest of capital paid in. 
 
 The surplus of benefits shall be divided as follows : — 
 
 25 per cent, among all the workers employed by the day or the hour pro rata 
 for the time given by them for the good of the Association. 
 
 25 per cent, for the creation of an extraordinary resei've fund. 
 
 35 per cent, to all the shares. 
 
 15 per cent, for the retiring fund. 
 
 Nevertheless, the members that have not paid up their shares in full will not 
 touch the interest of the capital paid in by them, nor the 35 per cent, awarded to 
 each share. 
 
 These sums are taken in deduction of the calls to be made, by each on their 
 shares. 
 
121 
 
 THE LABOUR 
 
 GENERAL ASSOCIATION OF CEMENT MAKERS. 
 
 Joint Stock Company (Limited) with Variable Capital. 
 
 The existence of this Association only dates back to the 22nd August, 1881. 
 
 Their regulations are somewhat similar to societies of the same nature. Among 
 the differences bearing on special points we remark the following : — 
 
 Art. 9. No one can possess more than nine shares. 
 
 Art. 10. No one who is not a cement-maker can subscribe. 
 
 Every member who shall undertake work after the formation of the society shall 
 be struck from the roll of the society, and what he has paid in shall go to- the forma- 
 tion of the society. 
 
 Article 9 and the fir»t paragraph of Article 10 evidently refers to the fear that 
 workmen in general, who join in a productive association, expei'ience of seeing their 
 business absorbed by capitalists. Therefore they forbid themselves from accepting 
 money elsewhere than from the members of the trade to which they belong. 
 
 This precaution would be of use if the capitalists put much faith in these work- 
 men's associations, but until now it has been unnecessary, because capitalists have 
 not shown any desire to rule these societies by placing their capital in affairs of this 
 sort. Nevertheless, they deserve to be aided and encouraged. 
 
 Thus, there is mistrust on both sides, and it will probably require many years 
 more before it can be effaced. 
 
 The second paragraph of Article 10 ie, in our opinion, somewhat out of place, and 
 we do not think that the law would permit the confiscation, by the society, of the 
 capital invested by a member, because such member should disobey the rules on the 
 point indicated. Besides this paragraph is contradicted by Article 17, which reads as 
 follows : — 
 
 On the retirement, dismissal or death of the shaieholders, the society should 
 reimburse him or his heirs : 
 
 1st. His invested capital. 2nd. His share of the reserve fund. 3rd. His share 
 of the profits, as shown by the last inventory. 
 
 If there are losses, the reimbursement only takes place aftei- reduction of his share 
 of the loss. 
 
 The sum to be reimbursed may (in virtue of the law) remain in the Society, for 
 five years from the last inventory, to insure the Society against any claim that may 
 arise from such inventory. 
 
 In consequence a special account of the liquidation is kept and a regulation made 
 defining the rights the member will enjoy at the expiration of these five years. 
 
 Until the reimbursement, the member has the right to 5 per cent, interest. 
 
 At the same time, should the society, for some good reason, acknowledged by 
 the General Assembly, decide upon reimbursements during the year it is d,emanded, 
 then no interest is allowed for that period. After the first year it is calculated at 5 
 per cent. 
 
 In the chapter on the General Assembly a clause reads that " each member has a 
 right to one vote only, no matter how many shares he may own." 
 
 The net profits are divided in the following manner, in conformity with 
 Article 50 : 
 
 1st. 5 per cent, for the establishment of a legal reserve fund. 
 
 2nd. 25 per cent, for the creation of an extraordinary reserve fund. 
 
 3rd. 70 per cent to all the shares. 
 
 Nevertheless, the members who have never paid their statutoi-y calls or pay- 
 ments, will only share in the division of 70 per cent, awarded to shares. 
 
 The reserve fund is the subject of the four following articles : — 
 
 Art. 57. On the net profits an annual assessment is made of a twentieth at 
 least, to be applied to the formation of a reserve fand, in conformity to Article 50 of 
 the present statutes. 
 
122 
 
 This assessment ceases to be obligatory when the reserve reaches a tenth of the 
 capital. 
 
 Art. 52. The extraordinary reserve fund is formed : — 
 
 Ist. From the fees of admission. 
 
 2nd. From the 25 per cent, which is awarded here according to Article 50. 
 
 The assessment levied for the formation ceases wheu the fund shall have 
 reached double the capital. 
 
 Art. 53. At the expiration of the society and after the liquidation of its affairs, 
 the two I'eserve funds shall be divided among all the shares. 
 
 Finally, the responsibility of the management is provided for by Article 62 
 following : — 
 
 Art. 62. The members representing the twentieth at least of the capital may, for 
 tjie common interest, at their own cost, authorise one or more agents to take action 
 against the administrators for their mismanagement, without prejudice to the action 
 which each member could constitute individually in his own name. 
 
 CO-OPEEATIVB ASSOCIATION. 
 
 sculptors' union. 
 
 Anonymous partnership, variable capital. 
 
 The object of the Sculptors' Union of Paris is the general advancement of deco- 
 rative sculpture, both in stone and in wood, in marble and plastei-, as well as in the 
 different specialties belonging to them. "^ 
 
 The business capital is fixed at 14,900, in 490 shares of flO each. 
 
 In order to become a member it is necessary to subscribe for at least ten shares, 
 of which the tenth part is payable at the time of subscribing, in conformity with the 
 law, and the other nine-tenths at the rate of $0.40 per month. 
 
 The division of profits is made in the following order : — 
 
 5 per cent, as interest on the subscribed capital ; 
 
 5 per cent, to form a reserve fund ; 
 
 20 per cent, to outside assistants employed in the works of the Association, to be 
 paid proportionately to the work done by each. 
 
 '75 per cent, to the shareholders in proportion to the number of shares possessed 
 b;^each. 
 
 GBNBEAL ASSOCIATION OF THE PAVIOES OF THE SEINE. 
 
 JOINT STOCK COMPANY, VAEIABLE CAPITAL. 
 
 The end the Pavior's Association has in view is, as indicated by its name, the 
 general work of paving and all that pertains to the construction and care of public 
 roads. It also undertakes private contracts. Its constitution bears date the 12th 
 of February, 1883. 
 
 The first payment to capital is heavy. Membership is subject to the conditions 
 contained in the following articles : — ■ 
 
 Art. 6. The business capital is provisionally fixed at the sum of $3,360. It may 
 not be reduced by restitution or refunding of shares below $3,360, which is the 
 unreducible capital of the Association. 
 
 Art. Y. It is divided into 84 shares of $40 each. 
 
 The amount of each share is payable in the following manner: — $12 on sub- 
 scribing and $2 every month from the date of the subscription, and the balance by 
 amounts retained : 1st, by the interest on amounts paid, the said interest to begin 
 after each payment of $12 ; 2nd, a share of dividends. 
 
 To enable workmen with large families dependent on them, to become members, 
 the treasurer is authorized to receive sums on account, provided that the month 
 previous the member has paid $2. It is permitted to pay amounts in advance. 
 
123 
 
 Art. 8. No one is allowed to subscribe if he be not a working pavior and does 
 not belong to the syndical chamber ; no one belonging to any other society in the 
 paving interest is allowed to subscribe. No one may subscribe for more than three 
 shares. Every subscriber engages himself to become the owner of three successive 
 shares, and pays a minimum sum of $12 on entering the Association. 
 
 Art. 9. However, a convocation extraordinary of the General Assembly, in order 
 to increase the funds of the association, may issue a second series of shares, equal in 
 number to the shareholders then existing. 
 
 The new shares will also be $40 each ; the tenth part at least to be paid during 
 the month in which the assembly decided upon this increase of capital. The balance 
 will bo paid as may be decided by the Assembly. 
 
 Art. 10. In case of delay in payment, the management may take all legal 
 proceedings — even to execution — against the subscriber. 
 
 Art. 11. Bach share gives a right, 
 
 Ist. To interest at 5 per cent., which it bears only from the opening of the 
 Association workshop ; 
 
 2nd. To dividends ; 
 
 3rd. To a proportionate share in the reserve fund. 
 
 Art. 12. The shares are in the name of the owner ; no shares belong to bearer. 
 The shares are indivisible; the association recognizes but one member foi- each 
 share. 
 
 Provisional receipts are given until $40 has been paid on each share. The 
 receipt then becomes final. 
 
 Art. 15. The rights and obligations of a share follow the name in which it 
 is taken, no matter who may hold it ; the ownership of a share entails adherence 
 to the rules and to all decisions of the General Assembly. 
 
 Art. 21, § 2. Subscribers three monthly payments in arrears may be expelled. 
 
 Art. 22. Amounts coming to a member who has resigned, or been expelled, or 
 to one deceased, are paid in accordance with the last inventory ; the payment is 
 completed in three years, or one-third every year, with interest at 5 per cent, 
 per annum- 
 
 The following are the rules relating to work : — 
 
 OF THE WORKSHOP, OF THE FOREMAN. 
 
 Art. 37. The members are employed in turn ; in case of refusal they are placed 
 at the foot of the list ; in case of need, workmen not belonging to the Association 
 may be employed. 
 
 Art. 38. Work is done by the hour, under the orders of the foreman nominated 
 by the director. 
 
 The powers of the foreman are settled by the rules of the interior. 
 
 Att. 39. The price for work is settled according to the city of Paris list. 
 
 The question of profits is thus arranged : — 
 
 Art. 48. The general expenses and interest on amounts paid by shareholders 
 being deducted, the net profits are divided as follows : 
 1st. 80 per cent, to shareholders as dividend ; 
 2nd. 20 per cent, to the reserve fund. 
 
 The statutes are followed by rules of the interior. The principal clauses are :— 
 
 Art. 3. At every meeting of the board of management, a ticket will be given 
 its members entithng them to an indemnity of $0.20. 
 
 In case of non-attendance, they are fined $0.60. 
 
 The fines are to paid at the general meetings. 
 
 Art. 6. A shareholder arriving at work fifteen minutes later than the hour 
 prescribed is fined $0.10. 
 
 If he be half an hour late one hour is deducted from his day's work. 
 
124 
 
 In case of the offence being repeated four times in one month, the delay being 
 fifteen minutes each time, the fine is raised to $0.20 for each delay, and an hour de- 
 ducted for the repetition. 
 
 Art. 7. — In case of a shareholder making himself disagreeable to employees of 
 the city or others, to the extent of prejudicing them against the Association, the 
 director must take measures to change him to another locality or to replace him by 
 another. 
 
 Art. 8. — Tbe director has a right to replace any shareholder who refuses to 
 obey his orders given in the interests of the Society, subject to the approval of the 
 board of management. 
 
 Art. 9. — Shareholders must be notified when their numbers are to be drawn. 
 
 The president, who is named by the General Assembly, draws for absent 
 members. 
 
 Art. 10. — Numbers 1 and 2 are reserved for the two shareholders who are 
 named for adjudications. 
 
 The other numbers go on the road (marchent) in turn. 
 
 If one or more members refuse to accept their numbers they are placed at the 
 foot of the list ; they are the last to walk (mai-oher). 
 
 Art. 11. — Beginning, the first numbers are placed for three months, the first of 
 April, May and June. 
 
 The first of July begins the replacing of the two numbei's which continues every 
 month ; two going out and two coming in. 
 
 The numbers to go on the road must make their demand eight days in advance. 
 All demands to be made of the director. 
 
 If no demands are made, the numbers whose turn it is to go out continue their 
 duties. 
 
 Art. 12. — If orders come in during the month and the director is obliged to hire 
 paviors from outside the Association, he is bound to notify the first shareholders 
 having a right to go on the road and should in no case hire other paviors before hav- 
 ing received the acceptance or refusal of shareholders. 
 
 Anytime that shareholders offer themselves for work, outsiders are discharged, 
 replaced by shareholders. 
 
 GBNBEAL ASSOCIATION OF WOEKING OPTICIANS. 
 
 ANONYMOUS PARTNERSHIP — VARIABLE CAPITAL. ^ 
 
 In the preface to the rules of the Association it is stated that : 
 The end the Association always has in view (the Association has been changed) 
 is the encouragement and development of the industry among all and each of its 
 members, and especially manufacture and sale, and in general all transactions con- 
 cerning optical instruments and all other articles relating to the said business, or 
 which the Association may undertake in the future. 
 
 The capital is formed in accordance with the following articles : 
 
 OF THE CAPITAL AND ITS FORMATION. 
 
 Art. 6. — The business capital fixed at 13,800 on 25th December, 1864, raised to 
 $5,600 on the 1st October 1865, and to $22,000 in July, 1868, is now at the mini- 
 mum $24,000 ; it may in the future be brought $32,000. 
 
 This business capital may be increased by the admittance of new members and 
 by the decision of the general assembly. 
 
 Ai-t. 7. — Business contributions are fixed at $3,000 fixed shares and $4,000 pos- 
 sible, which will be represented by named shares of $100 ; for this purpose each 
 member will be subject to retention of a certain amount on his work and on the pro- 
 fits in the following proportions : 
 
 Until the sum of $1,000 has been reached, $0.60 at the least, and $1.00 at the 
 most, every week, and the entire profits ; from $1,000 to $2,000, the entire profits, 
 
125 
 
 the member may leave a maximum of $0 . 60 per week, and from |2,000 to $3,000, 
 half the profits. From $3,000, the member may, if he choose, leave half his profits 
 until he has attained the possible capital, $4,000. As many actual shares of $100 will 
 be given the shareholders as may be necessary to represent the share in the capital 
 they have realized. 
 
 Art. 8. The business capital may never be reduced below the tenth part of its 
 value as realized at the preceding inventory. 
 
 Art. 9. An account book will be given each member in which will be entered his 
 payments and his weekly tax. 
 
 The rights and duties of members are settled as given below : 
 
 RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF MEMBERS. 
 
 Art. 12. Every member is bound to devote his work, his diligence and ability to 
 the Association ; he binds himself to give all the care and assiduity to the work en- 
 trusted to him ; to give his regular and continuous assistance in all the transactions 
 and undertakings of the Association ; he is bound to conform and submit to all the 
 rules established, either by the present deed of the Association, or by the workshop 
 regulations accepted by the General Assembly. 
 
 Art. 13. Members to be successively or alternately employed in the co-operative 
 workship will be named by the board of management. Any member leaving his 
 employment in the Association to work elsewhere, not being duly authorized so to do, 
 will be asked by the Board to resume his work, and if within eight days he does not 
 respond to this first request which must be made by letter handed to him, he will be 
 summoned by a bailiff to resume his work within eight days, failing to do so within 
 the time mentioned, he will be considered as having resigned his membership, and 
 will be proceeded against in consequence. The costs arising from his unwarranted 
 absence will be laid to his 'charge. The same will be done in regard to a member 
 authorized to work elsewhere for a time, and who fails to return at the expiration of 
 the leave granted by the Association. 
 
 Art. 14. Members employed in the co-operative workshop will work more parti- 
 <!ularly by the piece, according to a tariff proposed by the Board of Management and 
 approved by the Assembly. 
 
 Profits and the division of profits are settled as follows : — 
 
 Art. 33. The amount of assets in excess of the liabilities represent the profits of 
 the business, which will be divided among the members in proportion to amount of 
 work done by each, in addition to the amount of capital paid. 
 
 "When the profits are divided the members are bound, until the sum of $200 has 
 been attained, to leave two-tenths per cent, of their dividends to form a reserve fund ; 
 a special account will be kept for each member. 
 
 Art. 34. Any member having paid the exigible capital of $3,000 and who has 
 been a member of the Association for more than twenty years, may retire as an actual 
 worker, and continue, by leaving his capital, to receive his dividends during his life. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF SPECTACLB-MAKEES, GENEEAL AND LIMITED 
 
 PAETNEESHIP.* 
 
 At the head of the statutes of the spectacle-makers, we read the following : 
 In the beginning of the year 1848, the manufacture of spectacles in Paris was 
 still in its infancy; the largest establishment employed no more than twelve or 
 fifteen workmen and did business to the extent of $8,000 or $10,000 at most. 
 
 In the third flat of a house in St. Martin Street a small business in spectacle- 
 making was done by Messrs. Daez & Duri^. This small shop was the cradle of what 
 
 * This association being one of the oldest, wealthiest and most important, we consider it proper to give 
 the most complete details concerning it. , , ^ 
 
 In 1884, the society possessed besides its paid up capital ($226,312) a stock valued at $40,000 and tools 
 valued at $120,000. , 
 
126 
 
 was afterwards the associated spectacle-makers. In a meeting of the majority of the 
 trade, the question of association, to which the political events of the times had given 
 rise, was first debated. 
 
 Muneaux and Delabre, both workmen, consulted Messrs. Duez & Duri6, whom 
 they knew were not unlikely to share their views, and after a few meetings and some 
 discussion the Association was decided upon. Appeal was made to working spectacle 
 makers but without result, for to the greater number the Association was still a 
 Utopian idea. 
 
 JSTevertheless, neither Muneaux nor Delabre were idle, they managed to convince 
 four 01- five other workmen who decided to join them. They went again to Messrs. 
 Duez & Duri^ who cordially gave them the use of their small establishment, and 
 their materials were then valued at $130. 
 
 Neither of them being possessed of money, this was therefore $130 of debts, and 
 with their hands as their only resource and hope for the future the Association began 
 March the 19th, 1849. The first statutes were arranged as well as could be man- 
 aged ; the contribution of each member was fixed at $60 ; the profits were equally 
 divided among the members, giving each at least $120 for their year's labor, after 
 an assessment of 8 p.c. to form a retiring fund for old age. 
 
 Membership was still small, for on the 16th of August of the same year but 
 twelve members signed the statutes at Mr. Dumas' residence. The statutes were 
 published and the association legally started under the name o? Brotherly Association 
 of working Spectacle-makers. The business name for the first year was Duez, Duri^ 
 & Co. Muneaux named as third agent, waited while still working till the affairs of 
 the Association should require his help in the management. That first year, in spite 
 of lack of money and of credit, the members worked zealously and the Association 
 found a market for over $4,800 of its goods, with a yearlj^ increase, until in 1867 the 
 proceeds amounted to $153,100, aji immense result the founders of the Association 
 had never foreseen. 
 
 In 1852 the events of the time and the exigencies of trade obliged the Association 
 to modify and revise its statutes; it changed its name from Brotherly Association to 
 that of Industrial and Commercial Society of working spectacle-workers. 
 
 The staft' then numbered twenty members, quite insufficient to meet the orders 
 which were then more than they could fill, and for the same season the pecuniary 
 resources were insufficient for the demands. The contribution of each member was 
 then raised to $200, with a certainty that still the realized capital would be insuffi- 
 cient ; but it was pretty generally agreed that it should be increased as often as the 
 requirements of the business demanded it. This possible increase of each member's 
 contribution suggested a serious consideration to the Society, that of providing for 
 the old age of its members. This was the reason why it was decided that capital 
 and labor should have an equal share in the profits, that is to say the members shared 
 in proportion to the amount owned by them in the business capital, added to the 
 amount of work done by them duj-ing the year. In fact, capital successively aug- 
 mented, and using its rights, could alone in a longer or shorter period of time, come to 
 the assistance and make up the deficiency caused by the extinction of the workman's 
 productive power. 
 
 This new combination destroyed all need for a retiring fund, which was there- 
 fore suppressed as well as the equal division of profits, and all else likely to be pre- 
 judicial to the progress of the Association. Then still pursuing the end in view, the 
 Association on the 9th of January, 1855, in general assembly, raised the contri- 
 bution to $400, and on the 28th January, 1857, to $1,000. At this meeting it was 
 decided that assistant workmen would be engaged with the right to subscribe a con- 
 tribution of from $200 to $400 each ; that the amounts so contributed, added to the 
 profits, would warrant their share in the profits in equal rate to those of actual 
 members. 
 
 In 1860, in spite of the satisfactory results obtained, the business still continued 
 to extend, and the management not wishing to dispossess itself of its capital by 
 paying dividends to members whose contribution was complete, convoked a general 
 assembly for 17th July. At this meeting the contribution of each member was 
 
127 
 
 raised to $2,000, obligatory with power to increase it to $3,000. It was also resolved 
 and adopted that member's widows should leave their husbands' shares in the Asso- 
 ciation, at interest of at most 10 per cent., and 6 per cent, at least, per annum. 
 
 On the 24th March, 1878, the Association convoked in general assembly, raised 
 the contributed share of each member to $5,000, and that of assistant members to 
 $1,000, and adopted unanimously the revised statutes shown hereafter. 
 
 During that period, twenty-five years, we had to regret the death of five of our 
 ■colleagues ; the resignation of twenty-one members, and of twenty assistants (or 
 adherents), the loss of whom reduced the business capital by $18,600. 
 
 This Society is a general partnership as regards its agents, and a limited partner- 
 ship as regards the other members. It has no shares, but portions in the interest 
 which are not transferrable. 
 
 Admittance of new members is established by articles 8, 9 and 10, in the follow- 
 ing manner : 
 
 Art. 8. A member is accepted only for the special branch in which he is versed ; 
 in case there be no work to be done in that particular branch, the Association is not 
 bound to procure him employment. In such event, if he has been less than ten 
 years a member, he has a right to rank with other members, being placed under 
 article 40, as regards his maximum or minimum rate. But beyond that period he 
 has a right to the dividends pertaining to his capital. In either case he may no 
 longer join in the business of the meetings, but preserve his right to assist at the 
 rendition of the accounts of the inventory at the end of the year, having a consti- 
 tutive voice and the same powers as adherents. If the cessation of that branch of 
 the business, special to him, is caused by his fault, he may be expelled from the 
 Association by decision of the Assembly. 
 
 Art. 9. In extraordinary cases, or to add to itself a new branch of industry, the 
 Association may receive a member with his capital complete, either in specie, 
 material or goods, and without noviciate. But members received with the advan- 
 tages of the present article can, in no way, share in the management without their 
 admittance has been considered in the light of that of a worker. 
 
 Art. 10. Members have no deliberative voice under one year's membership, and 
 a contribution to capital of $200. 
 
 The rights of members' widows are provided for by article 13 here given : — 
 
 Art. 13. The association recognizes as forming part of its staff, members' 
 widows without distinction. 
 
 They will have the power, by certifying to it within one month of the member's 
 decease, to remain members for their husband's entire portion, if they have the right 
 to it, or to the part only that remains to them after division with the other heirs. 
 They must prove their right within a year. 
 
 A member's widow marrying again will be considered as having resigned, and 
 ber capital will be paid back to her. v 
 
 The formation of the capital is provided for by Articles 18, 19 and 20, as 
 follows : — 
 
 Art. 18. The capital is exclusively formed, except in the case provided for by 
 Article 9, of amounts retained on work done, and on profits and dividends in the 
 manner herewith indicated. 
 
 Each member will contribute a capital of $6,000, to be divided into six parts of 
 $1,000 each. 
 
 JFor this pm-pose the entire amount of profits coming to him will be retained 
 until they amount to $1,000, and he is given the right to leave 10 per cent, on his 
 W^ork, if he choose. 
 
 Prom $1,000 to $2,000, the amount retained on profits is three-quarters; the 
 member may, if he choose, leave the remaining quarter as representing part of the 
 10 per cent, on his work. 
 
 Prom $2,000 to $5,000, he will leave one-half his profits. 
 
 Prom $5,000 to $6,000, he will leave but one-fourth part of his profits. 
 
 Besides this amount of fixed capital, every member still actively engaged in the 
 J\.ssociation has the right to raise his capital to $8,000 by means of a retention of 
 
128 
 
 one-fourth of his profits, he having, however, previously declared his intentions 
 within the fortnight following the inventory. 
 
 This allowed capital will bear interest at 10 per cent, for the maximum and 6 
 per cent, for the minimum, as is stated in article 41 in regard to members' widows. 
 
 This capital, quite distinct from the fixed capital, is guaranted in same way as 
 widows' capital in accordance with the meaning of article 41, and will only be paid 
 back after fixed capital. - 
 
 This capital, which may be styled allowable, will not be merged into fixed capi- 
 tal, and will be payable only at the death, resignation or expulsion of the member, 
 and that in the manner and as is stated in the chapter on re-payments. 
 
 Dividends proceeding from this allowable capital will be paid each year at the 
 period fixed by the General Assembly, and may not go to add, to nor to increase the 
 said capital. 
 
 A member who retires either from old age or by placing himself within range 
 of the advantages ofi'ered by article 40, is not allowed to increase his capital; he 
 receives the profits accruing from it under articles 39 and 40. 
 
 Art. 19. — Each adherent must furnish to the Association a capital of $1,000, 
 formed as follows : he will submit to a retention of 10 per cent, on his work and of 
 the entire amount of his profits up to $200 ; from $200 to $1,000, half his profits will 
 be retained, with the power given him to leave the whole and 10 per cent, on his 
 work. 
 
 Any adherent having become possessed of $1,000 in the Association and leaving, 
 will submit for the period of one year to the interdictions given in article 44. The 
 Association has, however, a right to make any special agreement it may choose with 
 any adherent. 
 
 Art. 20. — The capital originally fixed at $60 per member of the thirteen found- 
 ers, by act of the 6th August, 1849, has been increased several successive times, by 
 retentions on work and on the profits of the business. 
 
 It is susceptible of increase and diminution, but may not be reduced below the 
 sum of $80,000. 
 
 The division ef profits is regulated as follows : 
 
 Art. 36. — Capital and labor have each a proportionate share in the profits; yet 
 no member can, as regards work, count at so much in the franc for this division 
 higher than the sum of $520. If the work done during the year is valued beyond 
 this amount, the surplus is considered as allowed wages. 
 
 Art. 37. — Adherents filling no administrative office in the Association do not 
 share in the profits for more than a proportionate amount of their business capital. 
 
 Art. 38. — Dividends are paid by twelfth parts month by month. The first pay- 
 ment is fixed, on proposal of the Boards, at the statutory meeting for settling accounts. 
 
 Art. 39. — ^A member or adherent, in a case of infirmity which incapacitates him 
 for work, may only receive his dividend at the rates of realized profits and an account 
 of his capital whatever the amount may be, in so far as he has been periods of ten 
 years a member. If the infirmity incapacitating for work occurs previous to the 
 lapse of the ten years mentioned he can rank only with members included under the 
 provisions of article 40, unless the injury or infirmity incapacitating for work is the 
 result of an accident which has been met with during work done for the Association. 
 In case of the said member resuming his regular work, without interruption for one 
 year, he may again become a member with equal rights. 
 
 Any member or adherent having been twenty years in the employ of the Associ- 
 ation, may retire, no matter what his age or his share in the capital ; in that case he 
 receives all his dividends. 
 
 Any member fifty years of age who has been fifteen years in the employ of the 
 Association has a right to the advantages. 
 
 Any member or adherent having paid all his business capital and been fifteen 
 yeai's in the employ of the Association may retire and receive all his dividends. 
 
 In regard to any member, employee or foreman fifty-five years of age, the As- 
 sociation reserves to itself the right to dismiss said membei", by giving him six 
 
129 
 
 months' notice in advance of the cessation of his engagement, and that without in-- 
 demnity. 
 
 The Association fixes sixty as the extreme limit of the age of activity, and has^ 
 settled that any member or adherent who has arrived at that age, must by right 
 retire whatever may be the position, whether administrative, commercial or indus-- 
 trial, he may hold in the Association, and that without indemnity. 
 
 Art. 40. — Any member or adherent, whatever may be the amount of his paid 
 capital, who has spent at least ten years in the Association may, if he choose, retire, 
 that is, cease to take an active part in the business of the Association ; but can 
 receive but 10 per cent, as the maximum interest of his capital. In case the amount 
 of profits should be insufficient, or not reach this figure, he will receive dividends in 
 the same rate as other mjembers, never, however, receiving less than 6 per cent. 
 
 Art. 41. — "Widows of members having no deliberative voice, nor holding any 
 office, will be paid, as long as they remain widows as provided for by article 13, 10 
 per cent, dividends. These dividends may be reduced to 6 per cent, under the condi- 
 tions stipulated in the preceding article. 
 
 The Association of spectacle-makers num.ber 53 members, contributing each 
 $1,000 These latter have no vote in the General Assembly. 
 
 The association has prepared a set of rules for the interior, of which we give 
 the most important points : 
 
 Preface. 
 
 The working spectacle-makers, associated commercially and industrially, con- 
 sider that harmony and agreement are the first conditions necessary for the exist- 
 ence of a society, having laid the foundation of their statutes, have adopted this 
 present regulation to prevent any discussion that may disturb the harmony so 
 essential to the prosperity of an establishment. Thp members having adopted these 
 regulations of their own free will and without mental reservation, jbind themselves 
 to observe and to enforce them. They urge the different councils named by them to 
 avoid ill-will in their application, as the penalties named are imposed to preserve 
 order and not as means of revenge. 
 
 Three agents are named, one agent for the interior, one for outside and one for 
 settling contracts. The following are their respective powei's : 
 
 Agent for the Interior. — This agent is charged with the superintendence of the 
 foremen, their accounts, and the verification of their several expenses during the 
 week. He must settle all differences and disputes that may arise between the fore- 
 men and the workmen under them. 
 
 Agent for the Exterior. — This agent is charged with placing the goods of the 
 Association and with all that relates to giving publicity to the productions of the 
 Association. He must make himself acquainted with all appliances and all novelties 
 relating to the business of the Association. 
 
 He is, moreover, charged with settling all disagreements that may arise between 
 customers and the Association, and bound to discover the cause of such ill-feeling. 
 
 Agent for Contracts. — This agent is charged with the drawing up of all contracts 
 and commercial treaties entered into by decision of the councils ; he is responsible 
 for all commercial documents, and should see that extracts are made of all accounts, 
 and that payment is made in concert with the agent of the exterior, charged with 
 their receipt. He is, moreover, charged with the banking, with all dealings with 
 furnishers, and with the correspondence. 
 
 All matters relating to travellers are under his direction. 
 
 The opening and closing of the workshops take place as follows : 
 
 Prom the 1st of April to the 30th of September, from six in the morning to eight 
 at night. 
 
 From the 1st of October to the 15th of November, from seven o'clock to nine 
 o'clock at night. 
 
 From the 16th of November to the 15th of February from eight in the morning 
 to nine at night. 
 
 20—9 
 
130 
 
 From the 16 th of February to the 31st of March, from seven in the morning to 
 eight at night. 
 
 On Mondays at all seasons the workshops close at seven at night. 
 
 The shops are opened for sale as follows : 
 
 From the Ist of April to the 30th of September, from seven o'clock in the morn- 
 ing to eight o'clock at night. 
 
 From the Ist of October to the 31st of March, from eight o'clock in the morning 
 to nine o'clock at night. 
 
 Any infraction to the above article is subject to the following penalties : 
 Fifteen minutes late, $0.05 fine; 
 Thirty minutes late, $0.10 tine; 
 Sixtj"- minutes late, $0.20 fine ; 
 
 All members must give ten hours work. 
 
 The price of work is settled by the Assembly and entered in a tariff book for the 
 purpose, which can always be consulted by the members; these prices can be defini- 
 tively modified by the Assembly alone. 
 
 In any case in which the agents may be obliged to change any of these prices, 
 they must be authorized by the board of management; such change, although made 
 immediately, will be final after it has been sanctioned by the Assembly. 
 
 Membei'S, on entering, bind themselves to undertake any kind of work without 
 distinction or regard to ability, if the need should arise ; any infraction of this article 
 is' punishable as follows: for a first refusal, $0.40 fine; for second refusal the fine 
 will be I'ai.sed to $1.00, and if need be, the councils may suggest the expulsion of the 
 offender to the General Assembly; this article is applicable in its entirety to beginners 
 and to adherents. 
 
 The Association may give members le^e to work at home; they remain subject 
 to the same duties as those who work in the shops, and they may be recalled to the 
 workshop when there is need; a deduction of 10 per cent, will be made on their 
 work, they not being liable to be disturbed as are those who work in the workshop. 
 
 Members working at home have no right to employ assistants or apprentices 
 without authorization from the Association, and they may not, in any case, work for 
 others under penalty of being expelled. 
 
 A Commission consisting of three members will be named for each branch of the 
 business, and it is their duty to meet once a week under the agent for interior's 
 presidency. 
 
 The duties of this Commission will be to report on the moral condition of the 
 workshops, and to assure themselves that the work is developing. This committee 
 will be called upon to give advice on the tariflf for work, and on the management of 
 their shops. They will draw up a report of their proceedings and observations to be 
 submitted to the Board of Management. 
 
 A slate will be hung in each workshop, on which the men will each day write 
 the time of their arrival and the time they leave, as well as the time they have lost; 
 the foreman superintends this and copies it, every day, into a special book; infringe- 
 ment of this rule entails a fine of $0.05. 
 
 Any employee accepting goods not suitable as regards manufacture, will be sub- 
 ject to a fine of $0.05. 
 
 Any member coming to the shop in a state of intoxication and refusing to leave 
 when told to do so, will be subject to a fine of $0.05 to be retained in one sum on 
 the following Saturday. 
 
 Games and songs liable to disturb order are forbidden in the workshops ; those 
 refusing to obey when once bidden to cease by the foreman or a member, will be 
 subject to a fine of from $0.05 to $0.20. 
 
 Finally the Association of spectacle-makers states that it will open a provident 
 fund to which all the employees and workmen employed at the shops for one year 
 wil have a right to belong. They will claim an indemnity of three francs per day 
 during illness, for a space of six months. 
 
131 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF WOEKING TINSMITHS, MANUFACTUEEES OF LAN- 
 TEENS AND GAS METBES. 
 
 GENERAL AND LIMITED PARTNERSHIP. 
 
 The business capital of the Association of working tinsmiths is fixed at $10,000, 
 which may be increased. It is permanent and movable, and proceeds from contri- 
 butions of the members, whose share in the capital is each $400, payable $0.20 per 
 week. 
 
 The profits are thus divided : 
 
 25 per cent, to the reserve fund and to the indivisible amount retained; 
 
 25 per cent, to the retiring fund ; 
 
 50 per cent, dividend to be divided among the members. 
 
 Members who have been unable to secure work share equally with those who 
 have worked for the collective fund, unless they have refused work from the Associa- 
 tion. 
 
 The Association has a retiring fund to which none have a right but such as have 
 been ten years a member. 
 
 The last article of the statutes is devoted to an object we have never before seen 
 in the statutes of any other productive association. It reads thus : 
 
 Ai-t. 58. As immorality proceeds from lack of instruction every member who is 
 the father of a family is bound to give them an education in accordance with his 
 means, under penalty of being expelled, after two successive warnings to be given 
 within three .months. 
 
 GENBEAL ASSOCIATION OF WOEKING TAILOES. 
 
 ANONYMOUS PARTNERSHIP, VARIABLE AND UNREDUCIBLE CAPITAL. 
 
 The statutes of the working tailors' Association are prefaced by a expos^ of their 
 principles and a note of their history. 
 
 The following is the expos^ of their principles : 
 
 Why should even the beet paid workman and 
 the one most valued by his employer, still pre- 
 fer the Association ? _ 
 
 We hope to be able to explain in a few words why the productive Association is 
 destined to ameliorate the workman's lot, and why, above all, the principle it con- 
 tains should draw to it all the most moral, most intelligent and most industrious 
 men of every trade. 
 
 And, in fact, the object of every productive association is the improvement of 
 the lot of the greater number of workmen in each trade ; they demand the active 
 and devoted co-operation of all its members. In order to secure the success of an 
 association self-abnegation, perseverence and honesty are indispensable qualities 
 required in its members. 
 
 Their mission is, above all, to suppress the abuses practiced in the greater 
 number of houses, to the workman's disadvantage, whether they are caused by the 
 routine or by the pride of the master which prevents his making any change in his 
 ways. Another certain result is to repress the feeling of antagonism which exists 
 in a latent state between workmen and masters, because practice better than precept 
 demonstrates the wrongs that exist on one side and the other. They tend to make 
 the workman more pliable and conciliatory in regard to details, and not to maintain 
 any grievance unless it has a real foundation, and he can support it by sufiicient 
 Droof to censure his enforcing his rights. 
 
 * This society is very prosperous. Besides its paid up capital it owns a rolling fund of $40,000 formed 
 from the reserve and retiring funds, materials worth |8,000 and a deposit in the retiring fund of $6,600. 
 
 This prosperity is due, in a great measure, to the ease with which new members are admitted and to 
 the advantages given them. The new members are not required to contribute any capital, and by a reten- 
 tion of $0.20 they share, at the end of the year, equally in the profits, equally with the others who have 
 paid their $400. Thus, in 1884, the profits amounted to $71.50 each, and those who had paid but one year, 
 about $10.40, nevertheless received the entire amount of their dividend, only it was paid to their sleeping- 
 partnership . 
 20—9^ 
 
132 
 
 They encourage a sense of dignity in the workman who, hencefoi-ward, feels him- 
 self to be a man, and not a machine, because with the rights promised for him by 
 the Association are also the duties imposed by it ; for he is now as responsible for 
 losses as he has the right to share in the profits, and if bad business is done, he has 
 only himself to blame. 
 
 In order to ensure a beneficial result we would point out a few of the principal 
 rules which must be obeyed from the beginning : — 
 
 1st. The formation of a capital in accordance with the first requirements of the 
 business, it is intended to follow, and which should always be increased as needs 
 require. 
 
 2nd. The creation of current accounts at the business headquarters, that is, its 
 own Savings' Bank. 
 
 3rd. Establishing a library for the use of its members, in order that their intelli- 
 gence be more and more developed by study. 
 
 4th. To establish, as soon as possible, a retiring fund to which by more than one 
 regular tax, which cannot be too high, must be developed the greater part of the 
 acquired profits, especially after the business capital has been all paid, and being 
 careful to mention that the amounts in the retiring fund will be placed at the current 
 accounts of the Association, which will increase its rolling fund. The object of this 
 fund is to assure a suificient provision for the old age of each member, in order that 
 they being exempt from care for the future may during their youth devote all their 
 intelligence to assure the success of their Association. 
 
 The following is the historical account of tbe Association : — 
 
 Filled with the ideas we have just expressed, sixteen young tailors on the 15th 
 of October, 1863, agreed that now was the time to put into practice the principles 
 they had long studied in theory. They were so fortunate as to succeed, and not with- 
 out personal merit, for at that time nothing was heard in the trade but " the tailors 
 will never succeed." Eeceiving but little encouragement from those in their own 
 business, they were still worse treated by others, and, a thing which to-day may seem 
 incredible, they were obliged to choose between removing from their quarters in the 
 street called GrenelIe-Saint>IIonor^, six months after their installation, or to take 
 down their sign bearing the name " General Association of Working Tailors."* 
 
 They determined to move rather than lower their flag, but they spoke to seven- 
 teen proprietors before finding one willing to consent to give them a lease, although 
 it was known who they were, and they offered to pay in advance. They took up their 
 quarters at No. 27 Fontaine-Moli^re Street, and they discovered that they had been 
 well inspired to resist the persecution, for their resistance earned for them the 
 sympathy of a large number of customers, who testified their feeling by giving them 
 more work. We will not dwell on the difficulties of all kinds met with during the 
 first year; suffice to say, that all the capital contributed by each was $10 and that 
 even these $10 were completed by some by the sums earned by their first piece of 
 work. 
 
 However, the membership was increased to 53, and the amount of capital was 
 raised to $3,400. It was only later, after renewed success, and after the strike of 
 ISeY, that the number of members amounted to 220 and the capital $10,000, repre- 
 sented by 500 shares of $20 each. Since that period all possible development has 
 been given the work, especially by doubling the capital, which raises it to $20,000 
 at the present time ; and our strength lies in the fact that we have declared it to be 
 unreducible. At the present day our Association has a variable capital, but it is in 
 amount alone ; once a share has been subscribed it may be transferred to another, but 
 never reduced in value. 
 
 This is the best security that can be offered our contractors and the only means 
 of establishing credit. 
 
 The principal clauses of the statutes declare: — 
 
 *Th6 other tenants of the house forced the proprietor to give them notice to quit, unless the Association 
 would consent to substitute for its title of working Association, that of any business firm whatsoever such as 
 "So-and-So&Co." 
 
133 
 
 Art. 1. The Association of Working Tailors established 15th October, 1863, 
 under the form of a simple partnership, transformed later into a company of limited 
 liability, and now existing under the form of a joint-stock company with a variable 
 and unreduciable capital, whose object is the opening of oae or more establishments 
 for the Paris trade, for exportation and for importation and all that relates to the 
 business. 
 
 Art. 6. The business capital is fixed at a minimum figure of $20,000, represented 
 by 1,000 shai'es of $20 each ; it may be increased according as the Association may 
 require, and after decision by the General Assembly. 
 
 It will also be increased by a sum of 5 per ceat., retained on work done by the 
 members for the Association of whatever kind the work may be ; the proceeds of the 
 amounts thus retained are carried to the account of the coatributors, to be converted 
 into shares when the amounts will have reached a sufficient figure. 
 
 Art. 7. Shares are payable as follows : One-tenth on subscribing, and the 
 balance by monthly sums of, at least $1, whatever may be the number of shares sub- 
 scribed. 
 
 R is sufficient to subscribe, or to acquire, one single share in order to become a 
 member; yet members being bound to contribute a business share of $100, the 
 interest and dividends coming to each of those who have not fulfilled this obligation, 
 will be retained and carried to their am-onnt, until the whole is paid up. E%'ery 
 share is and remains in the name of the subscriber. 
 
 Art. 12. Women are allowed to become members under the same conditions as 
 men. A wife must, however, be authorized by her husband. 
 
 Art. 38. A jury is instituted, consisting of nine members, named by the 
 Assembly. 
 
 They are elected for two years, and half their number renewed every year ; 
 they are re-eligible. 
 
 Art. 39. The jury is specially charged with the duty of judging all disputes 
 relating to the price of work, either by the piece or by the day, with receiving work, 
 and with all infractions of the statutes and regulations. 
 
 Art. 40. It will also decide, as a last resort, and as a friendly arbitrator, all 
 differences that may arise between the workmen and the Association, or between 
 workmen themselves, in all matters concerning the Association. 
 
 Art. 59. There will be an annual assessment, after deduction, for all costs, on all 
 kinds of productions of: — 
 
 1st. Two-tenths, of which the first goes to form a reserve fund, and the second 
 to be given in the form of certificates of attendance, which amount cannot surpass 
 the sum of $0.40. 
 
 2nd. The amount required to pay capital a dividend, which must not exceed 5 
 per cent. 
 
 The balance, if there be any, will be divided between labor, capital and 
 economy. 
 
 Art. 60. The Association may, in case of need, employ outside help, the price 
 to be agreed upon by mutual consent. 
 
 The Association of working tailors possesses, moreover, a provident fund, the 
 object of which is to provide its members with a retiring pension. Its fundamental 
 ■capital is $12,600. 
 
 ASSOCIATION" OP ARTIST DECOEATIYB PAINTEES. 
 
 GENERAL PAKTNERSHIP. 
 
 The Association of Decorative Painters consists of sixteen niembers ; they have 
 signed among themselves a temporary agreement in regard to the execution of a 
 •certain quantity of decorative work to be done in the City Hall {Hotel de Ville). 
 It is a type of those temporary contracts entered into for certain specified works. 
 
 Note. — The members over sixty years of age are not subject to this retention. 
 
134 
 
 The object of the Association is veiy explicitly given in their statutes, as will be seen 
 by articles 2 and 4, herewith given : 
 
 Art. 2. The object of the Association is the execution of the decorative paint- 
 ing to be done in the City Hall of Paris. (Hotel de Ville de Paris). 
 
 Art. 4. The duration of the Association will be limited to the entire completion 
 of the work undertaken or to be undertaken by the members of the Association in 
 the City Hall of Paris. (Hotel de Ville de Paris), which is the object of the Associa^ 
 tion. 
 
 The business capital is a secondary matter. The artist decorative painters have, 
 it may be stated, neither materials nor primary matter to provide. A few brushes, 
 a ladder, and a little color are the only advances necessitated by the business. And, 
 therefore, the Association has limited its subscribed capital to $32, or $2 per member. 
 
 In the event of the work contracted for requiring more time for their execiition 
 than was foreseen by the contracting parties, they may, according to their agree- 
 ment, surmount the difficulty by employing outside hired help who are not to be 
 considered members, as is stated in the following article : — 
 
 Art. 9. If the number of members prove too small to execute the work, the 
 Association may engage assistants who are not to interfere in any way with its 
 accounts. 
 
 Article 10 regulates the work in the following terms : — 
 
 The work done by the associated members is calculated by the hour. A com- 
 mittee of three, chosen from among the members, will regulate the wages of members, 
 each woi'king at his special branch, the latter being consulted. 
 
 Liquidation is provided for in the following manner : 
 
 Art. 11. At the expiration of the Association, when the work submitted has 
 been delivered and paid ; account will be taken of each one's contribution ; all debts 
 contracted by the Association will be first paid. This payment made, the share con- 
 tributed by each member will be paid him, and the profits realized by the Association 
 will be divided among the members in proportion to the time each has spent at work 
 without any loss of time whatsoever. 
 
 The members are then disbanded, being free from all obligations one towards the 
 other, and are at liberty to engage in any other occupation without liability to 
 damages and interest prescribed by other joini>stock companies of long duration. 
 
 OFFICIAL JOUENAL ASSOCIATION. 
 
 TYPOGRAPHICAL LIMITED PARTNERSHIP.* 
 
 Anonymous partnership — variable capital. 
 
 This typographical limited partnership has for its object the composition, print- 
 ing, dispatch and distribution of the Official Journal of the French Eepublic. 
 
 The business capital is fixed at $1,000, which is simply a guarantee for the 
 execution of the work, besides a certain sum retained on the salaries.* * The $1,000 
 are divided into one hundred share of $10 each. 
 
 The first paragraph of article 7 of the statutes says : 
 
 IsTo one is allowed to subscribe for shares in this Association but the members of 
 the Parisian syndical typographical chamber. 
 
 The object of this precaution is to prevent all but syndicate printers from belong- 
 ing to the commandite, and also those belonging to the syndicate seceded from that 
 which treated for the undertaking. 
 
 Article 13 declares that no one can own more than five shares. 
 
 * This association is established without either capital, materials or tcols ; it furnishes the work only, 
 the material being provided by the State. The work represents about $120,000 per year, on which the 
 Association realizes about 10 per cent, profit. On the other side, the Government has declared! that by this, 
 arrangement it saved, in 1881, $120,000, as against $240,000 paid in 1882, on private contracts previously 
 entered into. The members of the Association have bound themselves in regard to the State, to avoid all 
 strikes, under definite penalties. 
 
 * * This amount is represented by the salaries for the first two weeks in the year, and reaches the sum 
 of 12,800. 
 
135 
 
 Art. 28. The director * is charged with execution of all the decisions of the board 
 of management of which he may be a member ; he superintends aud directs the com- 
 position, printing, expediting and distributing of the Official Journal; he signs all 
 correspondence within his authority ; he appoints and dismisses all outside assistants, 
 and determines their allowances and wages. 
 
 The protfis are thus divided : 
 
 The net proceeds, deduction made of all expenses, constitute the profits. 
 
 Then the profit is assessed : 
 
 1st. 5 per cent, to form the legal reserve; 
 
 2nd. The amount necessary to pay shareholders 5 per cent, on the amounts paid 
 by them. 
 
 The remainder of the net profits after the above assessments will be divided as 
 follows : 
 
 1st. 10 per cent, deducted for establishing a provident fund ; 
 
 2nd. 5 per cent, paid to the retiring fund of the Parisian TypograBhical Asso- 
 ciation. 
 
 3rd. The balance will be divided among the shareholders and typographical 
 cooperators under the conditions and in the proportions fixed by the annual general 
 assembly. 
 
 NEW PEINTESTG ESTABLISHMENT— L'IMPEIMEEIB NOUVELLE. 
 
 CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATION OP WORKING PRINTERS. 
 
 Anonymous partnerships, variable capital. 
 
 This Association was definitively established on the 10th of May, ISTO, after five 
 years previous payments, with $16,000 subscribed, and more than $6,000 paid. The 
 Association has been altered several times, and in the beginning met with great 
 diflSculties.f 
 
 To be noted in its statutes are the following articles : — 
 
 Art. 6. The business capital is fixed at $20,000. It may be increased. 
 
 "When the Association was constituted in 1868, the numbei" of subscribed shares 
 did not permit the business capital to be fixed at more than $10,000. It was succes- 
 sively raised to $16,000 in, 1870, and to $20,000 in 1873. 
 
 Art. 7. It is divided into shares of $20 each, which are to be paid in sums of 20 
 cents per week, with the right to pay in advance. 
 
 Art. 8. No one is allowed to subscribe except he be a working compositor, a_ 
 revisor-compositor, manager of a printing machine or printer, and he does not belong' 
 to the corporate .society for the specialties above mentioned. 
 
 No one is allowed to subscribe for more than six shares. 
 
 The commentary says : The excluding of any workman not belonging to the 
 syndical chamber of his branch may, it is true, appear to be a severe measure ; yet 
 it is but a very legitimate warranty against any trouble that might arise from 
 workmen holding themselves apart from their fellow-laborers, and whose conduct, 
 in consequence, might lead to the supposition that the Association is but a trading 
 concern, and not a means of arriving at the solution of a social question. 
 
 Art. 48. The workshop is under the immediate management of the director. 
 No one is allowed to disobey his orders. 
 
 Art. 49. The director names the foreman and the head men. He is not bound, 
 in this case only, to observe the rules for entering, spoken of in article 53. 
 
 Art. 51. The foreman and the head men answer to the dii-ector, and without 
 appeal, for all that concerns their duties. 
 
 Art. 52. The work will be done by bands or groups, the number of which will be 
 settled by the director. Each group will name its page-setter, and will be given free 
 choice as to the following : 
 
 * Nominated for three years. 
 
 fThe amount of subscribed and paid up capital in 1884 was $40,000, and the Company owned material 
 valued at $120,000. 
 
136 
 
 Whether the group will be paid equal wages ; 
 
 "Whether the group will he paid pro rata. 
 
 In any case the groups will themselves settle, and by ballot, the division of their 
 fund. 
 
 Art. 57. All difficulties concerning the price of work will be submitted to the 
 axbitration of the Parisian Typographical Mutual Aid Society. Their decision will 
 be final. 
 
 Art. 58. 30 per cent, of the profits will be consecrated to forming a reserve fund 
 which must never exceed the capital. 
 
 Art. 59. The balance of the profits, interest being paid, will be used to enlarge 
 the workshop of the Association, or to the purchase of other printing machines. 
 
 Art. 60. Nevertheless, when the reserve fund is complete, and all the members 
 employed by the Association, the General Assembly may decree payment of dividends. 
 The division will be made according to the number of members and not according 
 to shares. 
 
 Art. 61. Tfotwithstanding if the compositor-staff does not necessitate the 
 employment of all the other shareholders, proof-readers, or printers the Assembly 
 may, in such case, order the payment of dividends. 
 
 Art. 62. Shareholders having refused work from the Association will have no 
 right to dividends. They will, however, still preserve their right to interest, and 
 may claim their right to return to the workshop when they choose. "When a mem- 
 ber is dismissed from the workshop of the Association, he thereby, from the date of 
 his dismissal, loses all right to dividends. 
 
 Any shareholder, drawn by lot, who refuses to work in the workshop when first 
 called to do so by the directer, is debarred from drawing again, until the entire list 
 
 of members has been drawn. 
 
 \ 
 
 COLLECTIVE ASSOOIATIOK OP PILE-MAKEES. 
 
 In their principal points the statutes of this Association differ in no way from 
 those of other associations in nom collectif. The association was established in 1848, 
 under government patronage, with |2,000 subsidy. 
 
 Articles 9, 10 and 11 determine the amount of business capital and contribu- 
 tions, in the following manner : 
 
 Art. 9. The capital of the Association is formed from obligatory contributions 
 from the members. 
 
 Art. 10. The business contributions for each member, are limited to $1,600, obli- 
 gatory and $2,000 optional The contribution of $2,000 gives a preferential right 
 to payment of dividends, before the $1,600 contribution. 
 
 Art. 11. Every member is bound to leave his profits and interest until they 
 reach the sum of $400 ; beyond that amount he may receive interest on his capital ; 
 but his profits are left to increase his business capital. Cash payments may also be 
 made, and payments in tools, after valuation, and if the Association requires them. 
 
 The division of profits is thus regulated : 
 
 Art. 38. Members whose contribution has reached the sum of $400 have a right 
 to be paid their interest when the General Assembly has voted its payment ; their 
 profits go to increase their business capital. The profits are shared and the losses 
 divided among the members in proportion to the total amount of wages received by 
 each during the year. 
 
 CO-OPEEATIVE ASSOCIATION OP WOEKING JBWELLEES IN EOLLED 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 ANONYMOUS PARTNERSHIP WITH VARIABLE CAPITAL AND MEMBERSHIP. 
 
 The Association of Working Jewellers in Eolled Gold was established on 25th 
 August 1881, and its future seems already secure. Its membership is now 160 who 
 have paid $3,800. It has done suflacient business to realize profits. 
 
137 
 
 In the preface to its statutes it is stated that : 
 
 In order that it be clearly understood by workers that the object of this Asso- 
 ciation isnot to promote any personal and particular interest, and that it is based 
 on the principle of the broadest freedom from mastership. 
 
 The fundamental rule of the present statutes is : 
 
 1st. Eefusal of all mastership; 
 
 2nd. The form of a joint stock company with variable capital and membership ; 
 
 3rd. Eespect due to the right of every one to belong to the Association with like 
 advantages ; 
 
 4th. Eefusal to admit or employ as assistants men from outside, except in certain 
 cases provided for by the statutes ; 
 
 5th. Equal vote by member, and not by number of shares ; 
 
 6th. The right of each member to vote for or against office-holders; 
 
 Yth. The right to oppose a demand for dissolution unless th£ statutes on such 
 point have been observed. 
 
 Article 5 provides that the balance of each $10 share, of which the tenth part 
 was paid at subscription, be paid at the rate of $0.25 per week. 
 
 Admittance forms the subject" of the two following ai'ticles : 
 
 Art. 1. "Workmen are admitted into the Association on the same footing as the 
 men; they may have a consultative and deliberative voice in the assemblies, but 
 may not form part of the management. 
 
 Art. 8. Master jewellers are not admitted into the Association. 
 
 Apprentices are subject to the provisions of article 12 as follows : — 
 
 Art. 12. Although the intention of the Association be to employ as workers only 
 such as are members, an exception is made in favor of apprentices of the business 
 establishment of the Association, who, in the interval between the completion of their 
 apprenticeship and their twenty-first birthday, may remain as workmen ; after that 
 age they may only remain as subscribers. 
 
 The organization of labor in the workshop of the association is the subject of 
 the following articles : — 
 
 Art. 20. Members are admitted to work in the business workshop according as 
 their special branch of work is required, and according to their numerical order. 
 
 Art. 21. In the event of working members not responding to the call made from 
 the workshop, the management is authorized to hire temporarily, workmen from out- 
 side the association who must be dismissed, or the association must cease to hire 
 them, when members in the same branch of work, offer themselves for employment. 
 
 Art. 22. "Work which may be as well done outside the business workshop may be 
 60 given to members at their request, and at the same rate as if done at the work- 
 shop, as long as such a manner of proceeding causes neither loss nor ti-ouble to the 
 Association, and that the management have sufficient reason to be assured that the 
 member employs neither apprentices nor assistants outside the members of the Asso- 
 ciation. 
 
 Art. 23. For designs and models not the property of the Association, a commis- 
 sion of 1 per cent, on the sales of the copies, will be allowed the authors if members. 
 The division of profits is made as follows: — 
 
 Art, 32. The Board of Management supervised by the Board of Superinten- 
 dence will, every six months, take an inventory and draw up a balance-sheet of the 
 affairs of the Association. 
 
 The net profits resulting will be divided into five parts. 
 The first to be distributed as dividends among the shareholders. 
 The second to be paid to the reserve fund. 
 
 The third to the formation of an Aid and Provident Fund for the shareholders of 
 the Association. 
 
 The fourth to increase the material and for improved means of working. 
 The fifth to pay for certificates of attendance for the administrative committees. 
 Art. 33. Of these five parts, the reserve fund is the only one to which a member 
 has any right in case of death or retiring. 
 
138 
 
 Art. 34. Members may subscribe for any number of shares, but the first is 
 exigible entirely in specie, according to article 5. The said share is productive only 
 after complete payment. 
 
 Art. 35. Tne reserve fund may be put out at interest by the management, or it 
 may be employed in the rolling funds of the establishment. 
 
 CO-OPEEATIVB ASSOCIATION OF WOEKING LITHOGEAPHEES, 
 
 GENERAL PARTNERSHIP — LIMITED PARTNERSHIP. 
 
 The Association of Working Lithographers has been 17 years in existence, dur- 
 ing which period its actual business capital has been considerably increased, not 
 only as regards material and tools, but also as regards the rolling fund, which must 
 always be larger in accordance with the larger amount of work done. 
 
 The business capital is fixed at $40,000, and the contribution of each member 
 is $200, which gives a membership of 200. The rules for payment are as follows ; — - 
 
 Ist. $2 for the first payment, plus $0.40 per week. 
 
 2nd. Profits retained. 
 
 The founders, who were thirty in number, each paid $50 immediately. By this 
 means their weekly payments to make up the sum of $200, was reduced to $0.20. 
 
 The following are among the special articles of the statutes: — 
 
 Art. 11. The Association should, as tar as practicable, give each of its members 
 a share in the work to be done in its shops, accoi'ding to each one's specialty. 
 
 Art. 12. The Association does not engage outside help except accidentally, and 
 in the event of not being in a position to admit new members on account of un- 
 certainty as to the duration of orders received for work. 
 
 Art. 15. Work is paid by the piece, the day or the month ; its remuneration 
 represents an actual salary, and is given to each in periodical payments; this remu- 
 neration is settled for each one, according to the custom of business, by the three 
 united commissions who will apply the tariff without appeal, and settle the rate for 
 work not included in the tariff. 
 
 Art. 16. Working members are not responsible for debts or for losses beyond 
 the amount contributed. 
 
 Art. 39. The division of profits is made as follows : — 
 
 One-twentieth to each agent as a first share in the profits. 
 
 Two-tenths to the reserve fund until it has attained half the amount of the busi- 
 ness capital. 
 
 One-tenth will be paid to the retiring fund, the rules of which will hereafter 
 settle its disposal. 
 
 Profits will be shared in proportion to the amounts paid. 
 
 The statutes also establish an industrial committee whose powers are thus 
 defined : 
 
 Art. 50. An industrial committee will be established in order to examine all 
 models of inventions or improvement applicable to the productio^is and tools or 
 machinery of the Association which may be offered by the members or by any other 
 persons, and to decide upon their acceptance or rejection. 
 
 This committee is charged as follows ; — 
 
 To verify the execution of the work undertaken by the Association and to report 
 on it at all the ordinary assemblies. 
 
 If there be occasion, to take out all patents in the name of inventor and of the 
 Association. 
 
 In each case the Association will pay all expenses of the said patent, and the 
 inventor will be paid a minumum of 10 per cent on the net profits proceeding from his 
 invention ; the amount of such profits will be calculated for each inventory, by the 
 industrial committee; the inventor's share in the profits will be paid him as long as 
 the patent lasts; in case of death it will be paid to his heirs or claimants. 
 
139 
 
 To determine, in accordance with the advantages the Association may derive 
 from it, the amount of premium to be awarded the inventor of any improvement in 
 the productions or tools of the association. 
 
 To determine which of the productions of the Association may be sent to different 
 industrial exhibitions. 
 
 This committee consists of five actual members and of two supplementary mem- 
 bers ; they are named for one year, and are re-eligible. 
 
 Art. 52. The election is made by ballot of the entire membership at a period 
 determined by council of superintendence, and fifteen days, at least, previous to the 
 expiration of the powers of the preceding committee. 
 
 Art. 53. No one may become a member of any commission who is employed in 
 the workshop of the Association; if one of them were voted to a commission, that 
 fact would alone place him in the position of having resigned, and the first substi- 
 tute become an active member. 
 
 HACKMBN'S ASSOCIATION. 
 
 ANONTMOTJS PARTNERSHIP WITH VARIABLE CAPITAL. 
 
 The capital of this association is formed as follows : — 
 
 Art. 4. The business capital is fixed at $24,600 ; it may be increased by the 
 admittance of new members. It may also be reduced by the resignation or exclu- 
 sion of some of the menibers, but in neither ease is the capital to be reduced below 
 the sum of §10,000. 
 
 Art. 7. To become a member a minimum sum of $400 must be paid, and six 
 shares subscribed, and the would-be member also binds himself to complete the 
 amount in the manner prescribed by the General Assembly. 
 
 Admittance and dismissal are determined as follows: — 
 
 Art. 29. Candidates must, in order to have their names inscribed, pay a sum of 
 $20 at least. 
 
 In case of non-acceptance this sum is returned to them within the three months 
 following their rejection. 
 
 Art. 30. An expelled member's current account will be settled within three 
 months ; a sum of $50 will be repaid him within five days of his expulsion. 
 
 The profits that may revert to him will be paid after the close of the next 
 inventory; he has the right to present a successor to whom he transfers his shares, 
 the successor to be accepted at the next General Assembly; in the event of non- 
 acceptance the Association will pay his shares at par, within a year's delay. These 
 conditions of payment are applicable to members resigning and also to heirs in case 
 of decease. 
 
 No member may send in his resignation if his resignation reduces the business 
 
 capital below $10,000. 
 
 The following articles relate to the profits : 
 
 Art. 35. A sufficient amount of the profits will be assessed to serve as interest 
 at 5 per cent, on the paid up capital. 
 The balance will be thus divided : 
 
 To actual shareholders 2 tenths. 
 
 To labor, ^romto the number of days 6 do 
 
 To the reserve fund 1 do 
 
 To the aid fund and gratuities 1 do 
 
 Total _10 do 
 
 When the two-tenths awarded capital have produced a new dividend of 5 per 
 cent., making 10 in all, the balance may be used for increase or improvement in 
 material. 
 
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14« 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 The absence in Belgium of a sufficiently extensive legislation, granting a civil 
 status to professional syndicates is an obstacle, that may be termed insurmountable, 
 to the establishment of working productive co-operative associations. As a conse- 
 quence, associations of that nature are very scarce in Belgium. 
 
 The Natie of Antwerp, associations of carriers between the city and the port. 
 
 The Porters and Beer-carriers found in several towns. 
 
 The Agricultural Society of Saint-Trond, established in 18Y4 for the use and 
 preservation as common property, in consideration of a tax, of improved farm imple- 
 ments. 
 
 The Newspaper "The Co-operator (Le-Cooperateur') of ISTamur. The Popular 
 Printing Establishment (L' Imprirnerie jPopulaire) at Brussels. The Typographical 
 Alliance (^L' Alliance Typographique) at Brussels. The Tailors Co-operative Society 
 at Ghent. The newspaper ie Peuple. 
 
 THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT IN ITALY.* 
 
 The co-operative movement in Italy, both for consumption and for production, is 
 most remarkable. It is well sustained by the popular banks established by Profes- 
 sor Luzzatti, which now number 400. 
 
 The associations claim four newspapers in their interest, and the movement is 
 supported by all classes. The Italian Parliament recently took up the matter and 
 legislated on contracts to be granted working co-operative associations, and the ex- 
 emption from taxation to be granted them. 
 
 In 1887 there were 42 productive co-operative societies in, Italy with a member- 
 ship of 9,865; their subscribed capital amounted to $192,000, the paid up capital 
 being $139,000, a net profit of $44,500 having been realized during the year. 
 
 THE ARTELES AND THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT IN ETJSSIA.f 
 
 In Russia the name of Arteles is given to working co-operative associations. 
 These societies are of ancient date, and are divided into three very dis+inct types. 
 
 Fur hunters and fishermen nearly all -work in co-operation ; they generally 
 form themselves into bands of about 20 each, each member furnishing an equal 
 share of work and capital and sharing profits equally. 
 
 In certain fishing associations, the boat, engines and provisions are supplied by 
 one member, who takes one-half the profit for his share. 
 
 Some of these Arteles have charters dating from 1040 ; from the end of the 
 XVII century we find Arteles provided with a system of assurances against accidents 
 and a mutual aid society. 
 
 We also find charters for co-operative productive associations granted to masons, 
 blacksmiths and carpenters, dating from the year 1500. 
 
 There have been and there still are arteles of forest-clearers. They band 
 themselves together in cutting down trees, burning the trunks and roots, ploughing 
 and sowing, the harvest being shared equally. This end attained, they draw lots 
 as to which of them shall have the land they have cleared, and the art^le disbands to 
 I'eform again in some other locality. 
 
 These arteles are a very simple organization ; no statutes are written, there is 
 no administration, no capital. An equal contribution, and an agent, named by the 
 members, who is in possession of very extensive powers, even that of punishing the 
 members. 
 
 A quite different kind of association was started, at the time St. Petersburg was 
 founded. 
 
 * Professor Ugo Eabbens. 
 t M. Longuimne. 
 
147 
 
 The enormous quantities of goods passing through the customs of the newly 
 established cities, demanded many hands in their transfer to the holds of foreign 
 vessels. Other workmen being required to open and close the packages when 
 inspected, and St. Petersburg then possessing no working population, men were 
 brought from the depths of Eussia, who brought with them the organization of 
 ai't^les. They formed themselves into associations of packers and porters. 
 
 According to the last accounts published there are twenty-seven of these art^les 
 in St. Petersburg, with membership of 3,000 persons, or about 110 members to each 
 association. Their net profits amount to about $900,000 or $300 per member. The 
 total capital of these associations is $66,000. There areartMes of packers and porters 
 recognized by the State, who have the monopoly of the handling of all goods in 
 nearly every customs port ia Eussia. 
 
 In the more important towns, there are also porters' associations with colrec- 
 tive liability. 
 
 It may be asserted that the co-operative spirit invades all Eussian life. The 
 traveller will there be astonished to learn that news-dealers, bath-boys, waiters in 
 restaurants, all belong to a co-operative association, and that the book-store, the bath- 
 ing establishment and the restaurant are the common property of those who work in 
 them. 
 
 In 1866 an attempt was made to establish cheese factories, but this manner of 
 co-operating being beyond the experience of tradition, did not succeed. 
 
 Attempts were also made ia co-operative nail-making and in shoe-making, but 
 these establishments although often assisted by subsidies were unable to exist; they 
 also were beyond ti-adition. 
 
 THE CO-OPBEATIYE MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 According to the last report of the Society of Sociology of the United States, 
 there ivere in 1888, 107 co-operative productive associations in the United States, 
 divided as follows : — 
 
 Maine 1 . 
 
 New Hampshire 1 
 
 Yermont 1 
 
 Massachusetts 37 
 
 Ehode-Island 
 
 Connecticut 3 
 
 New York '. 7 
 
 New Jersey H 
 
 Pennsylvania 6 
 
 Yirginia 3 
 
 Illinois 9 
 
 Ohio 12 
 
 Michigan 2 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Minnesota 10 
 
 Wisconsin 9 
 
 Texas 
 
 Utah 1 
 
 Total 107 
 
 20— lOJ 
 
SECTIO]Sr III. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL SYNDICATES. 
 
PROFESSIONAL SYNDICATES. 
 
 LAWS EELATIVB TO THE CEEATION" OP PROFESSIOI^AL SYNDICATES 
 
 IN PRANCE. 
 
 Avt. 1. Are repealed, the law of 14-27 June, 1791, and article 416 of the Penal 
 Code. 
 
 Articles 291, 292, 293, 294 of the Penal Code, and the law of 10th April, 1834, 
 are not applicable to professional syndicates. 
 
 Art. 2. Syndicates or professional associations of even over twenty persons, 
 practising the same profession, similar trades, or similar professions working con- 
 currently for the establishing of certain defined productions, may be freely established 
 without government authorization. 
 
 Art. 3 The object of professional syndicates is exclusively the study and 
 defence of interests of economy, industry, commerce and agriculture. 
 
 Art. 4. The founders uf any professional syndicate should deposit the statutes, 
 and the names of those who have any share whatsoever, and they will be chai-ged 
 with the administration or direction. 
 
 The deposit must be made at the Mayor's office (Mairie) of the locality in 
 which the syndicate is established, and at Paris at the office of the prefect Ipre- 
 fecture) of the Seine. Such deposit must be renewed at every change in the direc- 
 tion, or of the statutes. 
 
 Communication of the contents of the statutes must be made by Mayor or by 
 the Prefect of the Seine to the Attorney of the Republic. 
 
 The members of any professional syndicate charged with the management or 
 direction of a syndicate, should be French and in the enjoyment of their civil rights. 
 
 Art. 5. Professional syndicates regularly constituted in accordance with the 
 prescriptions of the present law, may freely agree together for the study and defence 
 of their interests, either economical, commercial, industrial or agricultural. 
 - • These unions should publish, in accordance with the second paragraph of Article 
 4, the names of the syndicates of which tney are composed. 
 
 They neither possess immovables nor appear personally in a court of justice. 
 
 Art. 6. Professional syndicates of masters or of workmen, have the right to 
 appear personally in a court of justice. They may make use of the amount arising 
 from taxation. However, they may not become possessed of other immovables 
 than those necessary for their meetings, for their libraries and the courses of 
 professional instruction. 
 
 They may, without authorization, but in conformity with other dispositions of 
 the law, institute among their members special funds for mutual aid and retirement. 
 They are free to establish and to manage intelligence office for woi-k or of workers 
 wanted. 
 
 They may be consulted on all variances and questions relating to their specialty. 
 
 The opinion of the syndicate on disputed questions will be free to all wishing to 
 consult it and to take a copy. 
 
 Art. 7. Any member of a professional syndicate may retire from the association 
 at any moment, in spite of any clause to the contrary, but without prejudice to the 
 right of the syndicate to claim the taxes for the current year. 
 
 Any member retiring from the syndicate preserves his right to remain a 
 member of the societies for mutual aid and the retiring fund for old age, to which he 
 has contributed by means of taxes or contributions to the capital. 
 
 Art. 8. When property has been acquired contrary to the dispositions of 
 article 6, the nullity of tJhe acquisition or of the gift may be demanded by the 
 Attorney of the Republic, or by the parties interested. If the property is given in 
 
152 
 
 trust, the immovables will be sold and the price deposited in the fund of the 
 association. 
 
 In case of a gift, acknowledgment of the value will be given to the donors or to 
 their heirs or claimants. 
 
 Art. 9. — Any infringement of Articles 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 of the present law will be 
 prosecuted by the directors or managers of the syndicates and punished by a fine of 
 $3.20 to $40. The courts may, beside, on prosecution by the Attorney of the 
 Eepublic, decree the dissolution of the syndicate and the nullity of the acquisition of 
 immoveables made in violation of the provisions of article 6. In the event of a 
 false declaration in regard to the statute and to the names and powers of managers 
 or directors, the fine will be raised to flOO. 
 
 Art. 10. The present law is in force in Algeria. It is equally applicable in the 
 colonies. Foreign workmen engaged under the name of immigrants cannot form 
 part of the syndicate. 
 
 March 21, 1884. 
 
 AGRICULTDEAL SYNDICATE OF THE DEPAETMENT OF THE JUEA. 
 
 EXTRACTS TROM THE STATUTES. 
 
 Constitution and objects of the Syndicate. 
 
 Art. 2. This Association has assumed the name of The Agricultural Association of 
 the Department of the Jura. 
 
 Its headquarters are at the chief town of the department. 
 
 The number of its members is unlimited. 
 
 Art. 3. The general object of the syndicate is the study and defence of agricul- 
 tural economical interest ; which comprehends as well the interests relating to the 
 culture of arable lands or meadows, those of grape culture, wood culture and horti- 
 culture, the cheese interest, and allother cultures or agricultural industries. 
 
 Its special objects are : — 
 
 1. To maintain, before the public powers, and at need to insist on the reforms 
 or measures the legitimate agricultural interest requires or may ultimately require, 
 especially in the matter of contributions and of similar taxes, of customs duties, and 
 of transport by railways, and of commercial treaties ; 
 
 2. To become intermediary for the purchase of seeds, manures, cattle, imple- 
 ments or machines, materials or different objects useful in agriculture, in order that 
 the members may profit by any advantages it may obtain ; 
 
 3. To ' superintend their deliveries to members of the Association in order to 
 ensure the due and faithful observance of bargains and agreements ; 
 
 And to take any legal proceedings necessary concerning such delivery, if 
 required, with the consent and in the name of the purchaser, but at the cost and 
 expense of the syndicate ; 
 
 4. To facilitate the sale of the agricultural products of the members ; 
 
 5. To extend the knowledge and practice of good methods of cultivation ; 
 
 6. To establish and manage intelligence offices for demand and supply of seeds, 
 manures, cattle, instruments or machines, materials and different objects useful in 
 agriculture, and for supply and demand of agricultural products and for farm work ; 
 
 And generally to afford information, advice and consultation on all questions of 
 interest to farmer's ; 
 
 7. To provide arbitrators and experts when required for disputable questions 
 concerning agriculture ; 
 
 8. To encourage useful attempts and experiments; 
 
 9. To prepare and encourage, not alone among the supporters of the syndicate 
 but among all other persons, the establishment of societies of agricultural credit, of 
 production, of sale and consumption, of aid and sick funds, accident societies, and 
 insurances against death of cattle, and against hail, and of all other societies useful 
 to farmers. 
 
153 
 
 AGEICULTUEAL SOCIETY OF THE DISTEICT (AERONDISSEMENT) 
 
 OP SENLIS (OISE). 
 
 Anonymous Pabtneeship Joint-stock Company with Variable Capital. 
 
 extract fkom the statutes. 
 
 Art. 1. There is formed by the parties to this deed and by all others who may 
 ultimately be admitted, an anonymous partnership joint-stock with variable capital, 
 its object being : 
 
 1. The purchase, on its own account or for its members, of manures, seeds, agri- 
 cultural implements, coal, cattle, and, in general, all articles and materials relating 
 to agriculture. 
 
 2. To analyse manures and to have them analysed, to discover fi-auds existing 
 in the trade, to give all required information on the use of manures according to the 
 nature of the land, and to recommend manufacturers and dealers ; to analyse land 
 also, and to have it analysed, to become acquainted with their chemical composition, 
 and all commodities such as food for cattle, considered for its nutritive qualities. 
 
 3. To become security for its members in their purchases, in order to procure 
 larger credit for them. This credit should be equal to the rights of the members; 
 it cannot in any case exceed the amount of the nominal value of the shares owned, 
 by the member ; thus the member owning five shares has a right to $500 security, 
 the member owning ten shares has a right to $1,000 security. 
 
 All purchases are made by the intermediary of the society. 
 
 All orders must reach the sum of $20 at least and purchasers should, as far 
 as possible, give their orders in advance in order that being grouped in as large a 
 number as possible, they may secure the lowest terms both for purchase and transport. 
 
 In virtue of the secui'ity given to members by the society in regard to dealers, 
 it claims the commission generally given by dealers, and allows the buyers the bene- 
 fit of it to save a small sum retained, the amount of which is fixed by the Board of 
 Management and is intended to meet the general expenses of management. 
 
 The Board of Management also settles the rate of discount and the commission 
 to be taken off the notes presented by the members for its endorsement. 
 
 This retention or discount is immediately payable. 
 
 The Society takes care to do business only with well established and responsible 
 firms, of honorable repute, in order to secure goods of the best possible quality ; it 
 however refuses to be held responsible for any matter concerning the purchases 
 it has made at the request of its members, who will be substituted in all its rights : 
 it assumes no I'esponsibility in the dispatch and delivery of its goods. 
 
 Art. 2. The Society assumes the name of Agricultural Society of the District 
 (arrondisseinenf) of Senlis {Oise) Joint Stock Company in shares, variable capital. 
 
 ISTATIONAL ASSOCIATIOIST OF PEENOH MILLS, 
 
 SYNDICATE OF THE MILLERS OF FRANCE. 
 
 The National Association of French Mills, Syndicate of the Millers of France, 
 was founded lYth November, 1886. 
 
 It is represented throughout all France, and in the colonies ; foreigners are 
 admitted as corresponding members. 
 
 It was established in conformity with the law of 21st March, 1884, on profes- 
 sional syndicates, and all millers, grist and flour owners, or working tenants, the 
 directors or agents of mills, representatives of mills, such as engineers, builders, 
 brokers, commission merchants, dealers in grain or flour, and the members of all 
 other kinds of business in any way connected with mills, may belong to the Associa- 
 tion. T J n ■ 
 
 Its statutes, which have been deposited according to law, thus define its 
 
 object: — 
 
154 
 
 " To regulate the relations, and to draw the closer bonds of brotherhood between 
 the members of mill industry ; 
 
 "To advance its moral and material progress; 
 
 " To encourage the improvement of its economical system, and to the advance- 
 ment of its methods of production ; 
 
 " To incite and promote all reforms and measures of general interest. 
 
 " To study all means of improvement in transportation, and the question of 
 insurances ; 
 
 " To obtain freedom and alleviation from all public and private charges ; 
 
 " To spread instruction on means of manufacture, and to facilitate the enlarge- 
 ment of its staff, by securing them means of instruction ; 
 
 " To render the propagation and study of reforms accessible to all." 
 
 The Association consists of active members, corresponding members, and 
 honorary members. 
 
 To become an active member, it is necessary to be French, to be a miller, flour or 
 grist, to own or lease a mill and work it, to be a director or agent of a mill situated 
 in France, or in a Fi'ench colony. 
 
 Active members share in the work of the Association with deliberate voice. 
 
 Corresponding members are divided into four classes : — 
 
 1. Engineers, builders, mechanics, dealers in mill supplies: 
 
 2. Dealers, commission merchants, flour and grain brokers, and corn chandlers ;. 
 
 3. Owners of mills not working, former millers, manufacturers of grain food, 
 foreign millers, correspondents and representatives of mills, bakers, and all those 
 whose interests are connected with mills ; 
 
 4. Employees, foremen, mill watchmen, working millers, and the entire staff of 
 mills. 
 
 Corresponding members may attend meetings and assemblies having a consulta- 
 tive voice. 
 
 Honorary members are chosen from among persons who are most distinguished 
 for services to the mill industry or who, by whatever means, have a claim on the 
 gratitude of the Association. 
 
 Women under any of the above mentioned conditions are admitted to the syn- 
 dicate. 
 
 Each member, with the exception of honorary members, pays an annual sub- 
 scription of $2.40, whether he be an active or cori-esponding member. 
 
 The Association has organized an annual congress styled the " Flour and Grain 
 Industrial and Commercial Congress, " which is held after the harvest. Itlast three 
 days and deals with : 
 
 1. Theoretic and practical discussions of all questions and matters pertaining to- 
 the industry and the commerce of grain and flour; 
 
 2. Of conferences ; 
 
 3. An exhibition of mill and bakers' materials; 
 
 4. Of commercial meetings where ideas on the general progress of the business- 
 will be exchanged, and relations established. 
 
 The labors of the Congress were in ISSY and in 1888, divided into six sections 
 comprising : 1st. The propaganda ; 2nd. Commercial and Industrial questions ; 3rd.. 
 Custom-house duties; 4th. Transportation; 5th. Professional instruction ; 6th. In- 
 surances. 
 
 Bach section has a president and a reporter chosen from among the members of 
 its Board of Management. 
 
 The suggestions made at the meeting of the Congress serve as a basis of work 
 to be done by the Association in the intervals between the meetings. 
 
 The work is done at the secretary's office (secretariat) of the Association, in a 
 special locality where all the branches of the syndicate's work are centralized. 
 
 At the present time these branches of the service consist of: 
 
 A mutual insurance society against fire, special to the mill industry ; 
 
155 
 
 An insurance oflBce for the preparation and revision of accident policies, for 
 accidents that may occur to the workmen while they are at work, aud against alt 
 other risks, in any company the member may choose ; 
 
 An office for situations vacant in mills ; 
 
 An intelligence and bargain office. 
 
 The Association owns one newspaper in its interest, " La Meunerie Frangaise, "' 
 a general review, issued monthly, in which are published all communications from 
 members, and the reports of the Association of affiliated societies. 
 
 This publication is sent to all members ; all matters of interest to the mill in- 
 dustry are treated in it ; all industrial improvements and novelties are given with, 
 illustrations, plans, drawings, and diagrams, in oi-der that its readers may have a 
 constant knowledge of all matters of reform and progi-ess. 
 
 Every number of the review is specially devoted to a detailed report of the- 
 congress ; discussions and conferences are given in extenso. 
 
 Besides this special order all the members receive every year I'Annuaire de la.' 
 Meunerie Frangaise, published by the Association. In this work is found all the 
 information required in daily use in the grain and flour trade, and industry. 
 
 Moreover there has been published by the Board of Management of the Associa- 
 tion, and distributed to the members, separate works of a special character, such as- 
 the patent laws for patents, relating to the industry and trade of grain and iiour, the 
 discussion in the chamber of deputies of the revision of the duties on the enregis- 
 tration of assurances, the reform of which is urged, the detailed account of the 
 meetings of syndical chambers, the establishing of which is encouraged by the 
 Association, and of information on the state of provisions and harvests. 
 
 By means of its national organization, the Association has notably been enabled 
 to supply the state with information, and to intervene in many questions of general 
 interest, such as the duties on wheat and flour, and provision supplies in the event 
 of war. 
 
 A permanent office of information on harvests is, by the assistance of the 
 members, in full opei-ation ; in the interval until a larger number of syndical 
 chambers is formed, in which such information will be classed by departments. 
 
 Five departmental chambers have already been established by the Association's 
 means, and two previously formed have asked to be affiliated. Other chambers are 
 already in process of formation. 
 
 The object of the departmental syndical chamber is : 
 
 "The study of all questions relating to the object of the llfational Association of 
 French Mills, has in view to assist in all necessary proceedings, to take all useful 
 measures to support, if need be, the corporation's interests before a court of justice ;. 
 
 To judge as arbitrators all differences submitted to them by members ; 
 
 To assist at the courts as experts." 
 
 The 1,827 active members of this Association represent a capital amounting to- 
 $65,000,000. 
 
 BUILDING- UNION OF THE CITY OF PAEIS AND OP THE DBPAETMENT" 
 
 OF THE SEINE. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL SYNDICATE. 
 
 (Extract from the Statutes.) 
 
 Art. 1. A syndicate is formed among those subscribing to the present statutes,. 
 with the object of supporting the interests of builders in general. 
 
 Art. 3. All architects, engineers, contractors, manufacturers and dealers in 
 supplies may belong to it. 
 
 Art. 4. The contribution is $2.40 per year, and the entrance fee $0.60. 
 
 *The " Annuaire de la Meunerie Frangaise " for the year 1889 is a volume of 616 pages. 
 
156 
 
 Mules. 
 
 Art. 33. The membership of the syndicate is divided into six sectfons as follows : 
 
 Section 1. Technical knowledge and practice, sub-divided into ten committees 
 concerning the different branches of the building industry. 
 
 Art. 35. The ten committees must attain a knowledge of the questions relating to : 
 
 (a.) The revision of tariffs and price lists and the study of book-keeping ; 
 
 (6.) The organization of a permanent exhibition ; 
 
 (c.) Boards of examiners of productions presented by the syndicate ; 
 
 (d.) The organization of the distribution of prizes, and of rewards, to inventors 
 and to the exhibitors of the most remarkable productions, or of inventions calculated 
 to advance the building interest. 
 
 Art. 36 — Section 2. With the organization and grouping of the building staff, in 
 regard toHhe execution of the work of keeping in repair, and of sanitation, as pre- 
 scribed by superior authority by districts and divisions, with the protection of the 
 interests of proprietors whose property is situated on streets not yet classified. 
 
 Art. 37 — Section 3. Of the adjudication of public or private works in their rela- 
 tions with financial societies and capitalists to procure the indis^^ensable security 
 required by the recipient. Protection of the interests of members of the syndicate 
 in case of disagreement. 
 
 Art. 38 — SectHbn 4. Commercial information given to members of the Union. 
 
 Art. 39 — Section 5. Of the credit and establishing of a mutual bank, proceedings 
 to facilitate the relations and transactions between members of the syndicate and 
 credit societies. 
 
 Art. 41. The Council names, every year, a judicial council to which all legal 
 questions will be referred that are of interest to the syndicate in general. A bargain 
 •agency will give members of the syndicate all necessary information on their private 
 business. 
 
 Art. 42. A professional library will be established. 
 
 Art. 43. The Council may organize courses of technical and practical or profes- 
 sional instruction to pupils or apprentices. 
 
 SOCIETF OF PEE]SrCH GLASS-WOEKBES OP THE SEINE. 
 Extract from the Statutes of the Syndical Union of French Glass Makers. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Considering that up to the present time the corporation of glass-makers have 
 been isolated one from anothei-, and that each worker's relations with contractors are 
 ■extremely difficult on this account, at a first meeting, held 11th October, 1886, about 
 40 members of this corporation resolved to form a syndicate chamber in order to 
 band themselves together, without distinction of class, and to make common cause. 
 
 That any Prench glass-worker may belong to this syndical chamber. 
 
 The object of the syndical chamber is to work against foreign competition, and 
 to establish constant relations between the workmen of the corporation, to permit of 
 their coming to an understanding on the relations they are compelled to have with 
 contractors, and in some sort to give each other mutual support to ward off the diffi- 
 •culies arising from lack of work. Pinally the syndical chamber will study the laws 
 ■of which the knowledge is necessary to prepare its supporters to fulfill the serious 
 and delicate functions of adviser. 
 
 Art. 1. There is formed by the parties to this deed, and by those who may 
 belong to it, a corporate association under the name of Syndical Union of Prench 
 Glass-Makers, of the Department of the Seine, having its headquarters at No. 13 
 ■Cav^ Street. 
 
 Art. 2. In order to become a member of the Syndical Union, it is necessary- to 
 be a glass-worker and to reside in the Department of the Seine. 
 
 Its duration is unlimited, as is also the number of its members. 
 
157 
 
 Art. 3. The Syndical Union has, as its object, the protection of all moral and 
 material interests of the working corporation ; it will devote its attention to the 
 matter of salaries, that they may always be remunerative and in accordance with 
 the progress of civilization, and that its rate may correspond as exactly as possible 
 with the actual value of the work. It opposes itself as far as it is able, and in 
 accordance with the law to all attacks on the business. 
 
 Art. 4. In the event of any difficulty between a master and a member on any 
 q^uestion of work or of wages, the Syadical Union will assume the cause of its mem- 
 ber, if it is proved well-grounded, and will make use of every means to come to an 
 amicable settlement. 
 
 If the trouble is of a kind to require to be definitely settled by the courts, the 
 syndical fund will assume the cost of the litigation ; it may even advance the work- 
 man, as a loan, the whole or part of the amounts in litigation. In that case the 
 member who has received the necessary sums in' advance, must give all power into 
 the hands of the arbitrative committee of syndicates, who alone will have the right 
 to receive in his stead the amounts due him, and which will be returned to him as 
 restituted, after deduction of the amount advanced to him with the consent of the 
 Syndical Union. 
 
 Art. 5. The Syndical Union of French Glass-Makers will use all its influence 
 to prevent entire or partial strikes, by proposing to masters the establishment of a 
 committee of arbitrators, consisting half of masters and half of workmen, who will 
 rule on all questions likely to lead to conflicts of that nature and avert them. 
 
 Art. 7. In order to meet business expenses, each member binds himself to pay : 
 
 1st. An entrance fee fixed at $0.20. 
 
 2nd. A monthly subscription of $0.10. 
 
 The entrance fee may be paid in two instalments. 
 
 The amount of the monthly subscriptio:! may be increased or reduced according 
 to the requirements of the Society. 
 
 Art. 8. The business capital will be formed by the excess of receipts of any 
 kind, over expenses. 
 
 Art. 9. The share in the business capital claimed by any member who has 
 resigned, or been dismissed, for any cause whatsoever, will remain the property of the 
 Union, his heirs or claimants having no right to reclaim the same from the Society. 
 
 Art. 10. The business headquarters may not be changed, unless by deliberation 
 and decision of the General Assembly. 
 
 A member of the Syndicate should be present at the business headquarters every 
 night between the hours of 8 and 10, Sundays and holy-days excepted. 
 
 Any member of the Syndicate who fails to attend to his ofSce in the permanent 
 service unless he pro^des a substitute, will be subject to a fine of $0.20, unless he 
 can prove that some sudden cause prevented his doing so. His absence being liable 
 to seriously injure the Society. 
 
 Nomination to a committee does not exempt from the permanent service. 
 
 Art. 11. A register is kept at the headquarters, in which is entered all demands 
 and offers for work. 
 
 Members may consult it at will. 
 
 Art. 12. Any member who may attack the reputation, or even the interests of 
 the society, may be expelled. 
 
 Any member four months in arrears in his subscription will be considered as 
 having resigned, and his name be erased (except in case of sickness). 
 
 Art. 16. The Assemb/y will rule on all quotations of the orders of the day, and 
 whose urgency is acknowledged. 
 
 Art. 17. The syndical board will meet every fortnight at the business headquar- 
 ters, the day and hour named (if need be). 
 
158 
 
 MIXED SYNDICATE OF THE SHOEMAKERS OF THE GIRONDE. 
 
 BORDEAUX. 
 
 The object of the Syndical Chamber is to unite in intimate and brotherly bonds 
 masters, employees, workmen and apprentices, and in a word all the members of the 
 shoe-making trade, and of the trades connected with it, in order to study in perfect 
 harmony, the means of defence of their common interests, to raise the professional, 
 moral and intellectual tone of each of its members and supporters, and to endeavor 
 to increase the well-being of each. 
 
 To attain this result thei-e are two theories: that of antagonism which, to the 
 detriment of the general interests, separates into two armies masters and workmen, 
 and keeps both in a state of constant conflict and suspicion. 
 
 This system which tends infalibly to weaken the industry is one we thrust aside, 
 and turn to that theory an eminent economist so well defines (1) : 
 
 " It is the theory of the natural harmony of legitimate interests, and of the 
 identity of justice and prosperity, of material-and moral progress. It is the theory 
 that teaches men, and not men alone, but societies and nations that there is more 
 profit in helping one another than in mutual annoyance, in loving each other than 
 in mutual hatred, it is the theory that asserts that prosperity spreads and that adver- 
 sity is shared; to give it its proper name, it is the theory of harmony." 
 
 It is for the purpose of putting this theory into practice that the Syndicate, 
 appeals to all generous feeling and to the good-will of each, that according to his 
 knowledge, his heart and his expei-ience, he may assist the limit of his means, in 
 ■ensuring the prosperity, and fruitfulness of the humanitarian and social work we 
 wish to establish. 
 
 SYNDICAL CHAMBER OF ACCOUNTANTS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE 
 
 SEINE. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL SYNDICATE. 
 
 Art. 1. There is formed among the accountants of both sexes of the Department 
 of the Seine who subscribe to the present deed, & prof essional syndicate in conformity 
 with the law of 21st March, 1884. It assumes the name of : 
 
 Syndical chamber of accountants of the Department of the Seine. 
 
 Art. 2. The object of the professional syndicate thus formed is to give the 
 corporation all the moral and material development of which it is susceptible, and 
 notably to : 
 
 1st. Establish and codify the general principles which are to serve as a practical 
 basis for the managing of accounts ; 
 
 2nd. To form a programme of the branches of knowledge necessary to the prac- 
 tice of the profession of accountant ; and to spread the knowledge ; 
 
 3rd. To define the position, the duties and rights of accountants, notably in 
 regard to the discretion and responsibility of the profession. 
 
 4th. To study all questions of interest to the corporation, to seek their solution, 
 to encourage the study of such matters by the publicity and popularity of its work 
 from different points of view, such as ; 
 
 First. The practice of the profession ; 
 
 Secondly. The customs of the place ; 
 
 Thirdly. Jurisprudence and commercial geography ; 
 
 5th. To interview, legally if need be, for the protection of its corporate interests ; 
 
 6th. By constant endeavor to secure the improvement of accountant's position, 
 and to amicably settle all differences likely to be of interest to members of the 
 corporation ; 
 
 (1) Mr. Frederic Paasy. , 
 
159 
 
 tth. To provide, in the character of experts and a'-bitrators, an enlightened 
 assistance to couj-ts of justice, to finance, to commerce, to manufactures, agricul- 
 ture as well as to individuals ; 
 
 8th. To establish within its own limits, a superior professional group, a sort of 
 independent areophagus controlling with authority ; the opinions deferred, to it, and 
 to offer all required warranty in professional matters. 
 
 9th. To establish or assist in establishing institutions of all kinds likely to be 
 useful to the corporation. 
 
 Art. 3. The headquarters of the Syndical Chamber is in Paris. Its membership 
 is unlimited. 
 
 The subscription is $2.40 per year and the entrance fee is $0.60. 
 
 SOCIETY OP LABOR 
 
 BUSINESS SEAT — MAYOR'S OFFICE OF THE XI DISTRICT (ARRONDISSEMENT) PARIS. 
 
 The object of the Society of Labor is to procure work for those who require it. 
 
 Its assistance, which is absolutely gratuitous and disinterested, is offered to all 
 without distinction ; one sole condition is imposed on those asking support — proof of 
 their respectability. 
 
 The committee is composed of notable persons belonging to the most diverse 
 social ranks ; the labor element is represented. The Society of Labor was established 
 25th June, 1871, and at the date of 30th April, 1889, it counted a total number 
 ifteen thousand and eighty persons who had secured employment by its assistance (1); 
 of this number employees rate at 35 per cent. 
 
 The total amount of salaries and wages calculated at an average of $3.40 per 
 head, gives a revenue of nearly $5,200,000. But the Society does not limit its ambi- 
 tion to such material results, it aims higher, it would contribute its share to diffusion 
 of principles of fraternity and solidarity, superior and essential elements of social 
 progress. 
 
 At each of its general assemblies a lecture is read by a master of the science 
 on some subject of social economy such as " The History of Labor, Association, Profit- 
 sharing, Leclaire's Work, Social Eeform, the Biographies of Bastiat and de Laboulaye. 
 
 CBNTEAL SOCIETY OF PEOFBSSIOKAL LABOE. 
 
 PARIS. 
 
 The object of the Central Society of Professional Labor, founded in 1887, by a 
 number of engineers, manufacturers and dealers, is : 
 
 To study and solve all questions relating to professional labor ; 
 
 To secure to all workers the means of completing their professional education, 
 and to keep themselves at the level of the progress made in their art. 
 
 The members of the Society are divided into two classes : 
 
 1st. Engineers, heads of industries, merchants, lecturers and all others interested 
 in the study and discussion of questions relating to the organization of professional 
 
 work. 
 
 2nd. "Workers of any class who need to make themselves acquainted with the 
 •progress made in their art or industry, not only in Prance but in foreign parts ; to 
 be warned of threatened competition, and to complete their technical instruction. 
 
 The first, who include masters, members and the active members, the number 
 of whom is limited, join together to study the questions submitted to them, hold 
 technical conferences, guide visitors through factories, agricultural establishments, 
 .industrial exhibitions, commercial museums &c. ; when required they organize a 
 
 (1) The numerous engagements secured by the Society, and of which the interested parties have given 
 inrine are not included in this total. 
 
 ,110 notice are not included in this total, 
 
160 
 
 congress or exhibition, and publish their ideas in articles sent to the bulletin of the 
 Society which appears monthly under the title of " Le travail professional " (Profes- 
 sional Labor) . 
 
 Those who form the second class are called adherents, their number is not 
 limited; they are invited to assist at conferences, at congresses, at technical inspec- 
 tions organized by the Society. 
 
 The master members pay an annual subscription of $20 and may become life 
 patrons on payment of |200. 
 
 The active members and the adherent members pay a susbcription of $2 per 
 annum, and may become life members on payment of $20. 
 
 Measures in favor of Workers. 
 
 The Central Society of Professional Labor distributes medals to those who have 
 contributed to the organization of professional labor, and to workmen who have 
 specially distinguished themselves by knowledge acquire in the professional courses, 
 conferences &c., or who have effected improvements in their art. 
 
 It sends professors and speakers to the syndical chambers. 
 
 During the years 188Y and 1888, the Society distributed seven medals. 
 
 It devotes its attention to establishing for the profit of the working class, a 
 series of technical conferences for members of diflfei-ent syndical associations; to 
 establish at the seat of these associations, libraries containing works of particular 
 interest to their members ; finally to establish after the exhibition a commercial 
 museum, exhibiting productions and samples offered them by the exhibitors. 
 
 FEBE ASSOCIATION OF TYPE-SETTEES AND PEINTEES OP BEUSSBLS. 
 
 The object of the Association is to assist its members to procure employment, 
 and to maintain the rate of wages by legal means. The subscription is 50 cents per 
 month. 
 
 Members involuntarily deprived of work are allowed $4.20 per fortnight after 
 two years' participation, after thi-ee years, $4.80 ; after four years, $5.40 ; after five 
 years, $6.00. 
 
 For Brussels and the environs, the Association has a detailed tariff for hand- 
 work, which has been agreed to by all the principal master printers of Brussels. 
 
 It regulates the conditions for apprenticeship, and only accepts its members after 
 they have passed a severe theoretic and practical examination. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF LITHOGEAPHIC PEINTEES OF BEUSSELS. 
 
 There belong to this Association a professional syndicate and a mutual aid 
 society. 
 
 It has one peculiarity, which is, that in order to maintain itself, as a body, at a 
 certain level of ability, it admits only workmen earning, at least, $1 per 10 hqurs, 
 work. 
 
 It grants an aid of $2.40 per week, for want of work, to each of its members, who 
 are obliged to sign every day a book, for entering the number of days without work 
 (livret de ehdmage) ; this book may be consulted by masters requiring workingmen. 
 
 THE LABOE EXCHANGE OP LI^GB.* 
 Its Origin and Organization. 
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 The idea of organizing Labor Exchanges is born of the need proved to exist, of 
 equalizing, as far as possible, the balance of the demand and supply of labor ; thus to 
 
 *131,000 inhabitants. 
 
161 
 
 increase social improvement, and afford heads of industries the means of supplying a 
 vacancy in their staff whilst carefully guarding the interests of both parties. , • ,. 
 
 The first attempt at an institution of this nature dates from 1846, it was, first 
 started by Mons. de Molinari. 
 
 The first system of organization differed materially from later attempts.' Jt was 
 rather a sort of messenger of work, to which all the different corporate, bodies of the 
 city of Paris co-operated, and a report of which was weekly given to the public by 
 means of the press. Mons. de Molinari began the movement by putting the columns 
 of the Oourrier Frangais, then edited by him, at the service of the different, cor- 
 porations. The corporations misunderstood the proposal made them, audrefttsed to 
 profit by it. This refusal was based on the fact that " Parisian workmen feared that 
 by making known the rate of their wages to workmen from the provinces and foreign 
 ports, they would draw to Paris a more lively competition." (Eepprt of Mr. Heet. 
 Denis, professor in the Polytechnical School at TBrussela). 
 
 This check did not discourage Mr. de Molinari ; with his brother Eugene's assist- 
 ance he started in Brussels the newspaper the iaftor Exchange — La Bourse du Travail, 
 and resumed his self-appointed task with renewed ardor. But Mr. de Molinari's work 
 was no more understood in Brussels than in Paris. The woi'kmen offered the same 
 objections, and refused to co-operate, thus compelling the first promoters of the labor 
 market to abandon their project after five months' persevering and unheard of efforts 
 to bring their intended measure to a happy conclusion. 
 
 Mr. Max Wirth in 1856 resumed in Germany Mr. de Molinari's. idea and strove 
 to give it substance. The German economist met with no better success than his 
 predecessor, having been unable, as he acknowledges in his treaties on political econ- 
 omy, to succeed in efRciently extending the bounds of his enterprise to enable him to 
 attain the end in view. The two learned economists sought a solution of the ques- 
 tion by almost identical means ; both hoped for Government intervention and publi- 
 city. The sole difference we discover in their manner of viewing the subject was, as 
 Mr. Denis says in the report above mentioned, that Mr. de Molinari was satisfied to 
 establish the Labor Exchange by localities, while Mr. Wirth's object seemed particu- 
 larly to be giving publicity to the statistics by means of the state journals. " Only, 
 " adds the same reporter " Mr. de Molinari who held himself much aloof and was too 
 antagonistic in regard to Government intervention, gave more of his attention, and 
 with reason, to the establishment of intermediary organs between the Government 
 and the press on the one part, and the workmen individually on the other. 
 
 The idea of a Labor Exchange is so utilitarian in its nature that it has been 
 brought forward at different times even in Paris, and in spite of the deception and 
 disappointment to which its author, the first who attempted to put it in practice, was 
 subjected. 
 
 By decree of the Provisional Government of the French Eepublic, in 1848 an 
 institution of this nature was established. This decree, dated the 8th and 10th of 
 March, commanded that an intelligence office for labor should be opened in, every 
 mairie of Paris. It was put into effect unfortunately, but for a very short period. 
 
 In 1851 Mr. Ducoux, of Paris, grafted on Mr. de Molinari's first project another, 
 whose organization was more in confoi-mity with that adopted at the present time, 
 especially in the city of Li^ge. It consisted in the establishment of a central hiring 
 depot, where masters and workmen might meet at any time. This project was sub- 
 mitted to the iN'ational Assembly, and rejected 15th February, 1851. This rejection 
 was in no wise on account of the inutility of the establishment, but was founded on 
 the essentially communistic nature supposed to be discovered in it. 
 
 Apart from some few organizations in the interest of special trades, and which 
 were of no advantage to any but to those trades or associations which gave rise to 
 them we find no trace, whatsoever, of Labor Exchanges proper until 1875, when the 
 municipality of Paris itself took up the idea. But it was long before the principle 
 was fully understood. It was not until 11th February, 1883, that a commission 
 named by the prefect of the Seine was charged with the study of the question. , 
 
 20—11 
 
162 
 
 The extent of the work taken at one time, and the amount of capital required 
 for the projected organization, were perhaps the two primary causes why so small 
 a result was obtained. Yet some attribute the want of success to other causes. 
 
 Up to 1888 attempts were still made in Belgium, one at St. Giles, where the 
 registers were deposited at the Communal Hall, in which demands for and offers of 
 employment were entered; another at the Democratic Union, which has on its 
 programme the establishment of a Labor Exchange. 
 
 As Mons. Ducoux in 1851 took up Mons. Molinari's idea, so did Mons. Burgo- 
 master Buls in 1888 in Belgium. 
 
 In order to arrive at a happy solution of the question, Mr. Buls convoked differ- 
 ent meetings of delegates of labor societies, who were requested to give their views on 
 the matter. Mons. Gr. de Molinari also went to Brussels to ventilate his project. 
 But in spite of all the efforts made by the honorable burgomaster, in spite of his 
 excellent work on the question which has been published,. Brussels has not even to 
 the present time been able to establish a labor market on any secure foundation. To 
 What are We to attribute such a state of things ? The answer would be difficult had 
 not experience taught us that for all created things a period of incubation is 
 necessary, if we had not seen for ourselves that the necessity of establishing, at first 
 on very modest foundations, any institution that has not been yet adopted by custom. 
 Although much within the exaggerated limits of the organization of the Paris 
 Exchange (Bourse de Paris), Mons. Buls' institution seems to us still too complete 
 a project to be established at one effort. It is only progressively, and little by little,, 
 that masters and workmen will come to understand all the advantages to be derived 
 from the lauded system, or that we may hope to see accepted by them all the prin- 
 ciples which should co-operate to found a well-organized Labor Exchange. 
 
 As will be seen further on, the origin of the Li^ge Labor Exchange was of the 
 most unpretentious kind. In reality, it was in the beginning a simple intelligence 
 office, in which, we may easily believe, masters had not too much confidence. Small 
 attempts, but giving the best results, put an end to the fears and want of confidence, 
 and encouraged a more frequent application by masters and heads of industries. An 
 existence of a few months have sufficed to give our Labor Exchange the assurance 
 of a secure future. Our work has now entered upon a new phase, and that without 
 in any way having openly sought it. Certain houses which, for some time past, have 
 made use of our agency, now not only address themselves to us for all their wants, 
 but often apply to us themselves, or send their foremen to our Exchange to hire the 
 hands . they require ; others send us a ligt of the wages they intend to give. These 
 two classes of demand insensibly lead our work to the true end it aims at, to respond 
 to its name of Labor Exchange or Market. 
 
 There is another element which may also be considered as an assurance of the 
 vitality for institutions such as ours, is the entire exclusion of any political charac- 
 teristic. These institutions which are essentially humanitarian need the assistance 
 of all ; it is only by joining all forces that it can hope for an assured future. It is 
 for this reason that our Exchange has decided to establish its organization on all sides. 
 
 The following exposition of its methods will show whether or not they are well 
 founded. 
 
 II. — CONSTITDTION OF THE LABOE EXCHANGE OF LliOE. 
 
 I. Creative Institutions, Means. 
 
 The Labor Exchange of Li6ge was first started by the (EuvredesGhauffoirs publics 
 of the same city. The latter institution having, by means of circulars, assured itself 
 the welcome it was likely to meet from masters in establishing an institution to form 
 a centre for demand and supply of labor, submitted to the Board of Trade of Li^ge a 
 project calculated to supply the want. 
 
 The plan met with the entire approval of the Board of Trade, who voted a sub- 
 sidy to forward its execution. Encouraged by this support, the authors of the pro- 
 ject next appealed to the Stock Exchange, to the Provincial Council, to the Commer- 
 cial Council and to the Government for assistance. 
 
163 
 
 The Stock Exchange, the Provincial Council and the Commercial Council gave 
 favorable ansWers ; but, so far, the Government has not seen fit to grant any assistance. 
 The annual subsidies granted the Exchange are divided as follows : — 
 
 Subsidy from the Stock Exchange $ 20 00 
 
 do L'CEuvi-e des Chauffoirs Publics 60 00 
 
 do Board of Trade of Li^ge 20 00 
 
 do the City 200 00 
 
 do the Province 100 00 
 
 Total «400 00 
 
 Apart from these subsidies the CEuvre is allowed by the Commercial Museum 
 its place of business, the site of which is valued at $100. It is evident that with such 
 small means at its disposal the Exchange is not able to satisfy all its requirements, 
 but its present step towards prosperity ensures the confidence that it will eventually 
 meet with an increase of generosity from the authorities under whose protection it 
 has placed itself. 
 
 II. Its progress. 
 
 The usefulness of the Labor Exchange is now indisputable. A glance thrown 
 over the rate of progress it has made since the date of its establishment will prove 
 the fact. The demands for work, which, in February, 1888, amounted to 384, 
 increased in the following months as follows : 615, 882, 803, 735, 434, 336, 388, 641, 
 779, 328, 297, 160, 214. 
 
 Offer of work is as much in need of the Exchange as demand for the same. 
 
 In February, 1888, 11 masters only applied to the Exchange; in the months 
 from March to December, 1888, the figures rose successively from this to 36, 71, 111, 
 123, 98, 82, 178, 94, 111, 85. 
 
 In 1889 the months of January, February and March gave the following result: 
 126, 130, 162. 
 
 These offers of work were met by situations given to 27, 70, 144, 250, 315, 122, 
 97, 356, 107, 237, 175, 310, 280 and 407 workers, which gives a total of 2,897 situa- 
 tions filled. 
 
 At first, certain individuals raised doubts concerning the moral or industrial 
 worth of persons applying to the Exchange. A few months' experience sufiaced to 
 show how little foundation there was for such fears. Numbers of firms, some among 
 them of the first standing in the city, are so well satisfied with the results of the 
 Exchange that they have made it their special agency, as we have already stated, 
 for supplying the work-people required for their business. 
 
 Under these circumstances, the Labor Exchange may be said to be more than 
 an attempt; it is an established institution, carrying the assurance of a certain 
 future. 
 
 III. Organization and Mechanism. 
 
 "We have in the preceding chapters given the history of our Labor Exchange, 
 and related the means by which it came to be established in Li^ge ; also the end it 
 has view and the means at its disposal ; its progress shows its usefulness and the 
 important part it is called upon to play in the future. We will now examine it from 
 a third point of view — that of its organization and mechanism. 
 
 The committee of organization of the Labor Exchange was at first composed of 
 seven members, of whom five are named by the Board of Trade and two by the 
 CEuvre des Chauffoirs publics. The committee has now admitted four members from 
 the working-class, chosen from the more important trades ; the Commercial Board, 
 on the other side, delegates one representative. The Board of Management is thus 
 . definitely settled at twelve members. 
 
 20— llj * 
 
164 
 
 The Board of Management has charge of the general management of the 
 Exchange; the mechanical work and the accounts are entrusted to two employees, 
 one of whom bears the title of " director." The committee nominates from among its 
 own members a president, a vice-president, secretary and treasurer. 
 
 The material is composed principally of two special registers for entering offers 
 of and demands for work. The registers are divided into columns, containing, first: 
 the number of the order, its date, the name and surname of the worker, his trade, 
 residence, date and place of birth, civil status, length of service, the duties he is able 
 to fulfil, besides those certified to in his papers, the places to which he has been sent, 
 note of the places aad any necessary observation. 
 
 To these two registers is added another book to be used as an index to the pro- 
 fessions classified alphabetically. 
 
 To facilitate business the office issues three cards. The first (Card A*) is 
 double; it is entrusted to the workman, who hands it to the master. It gives in- 
 formation on the first side concerning the bearer's number on the books, his name 
 and surname, the year and place of his birth, the mention of whether or not he has 
 recommendations, and the kind of employment he declares himself fitted for. On 
 the other half, which the master must return to the office, is the number of the 
 bearer's order, notice of the acceptance or non-acceptance of the applicant, as also 
 whether the situation is still open or not. The means by which the office is enlight- 
 ened on these points, consists simply of cancelling or erasing and leaving the re- 
 mainder to give the required information, two of the four lines on the half card to be 
 returned : 
 
 I have hired. 
 
 I have not hired. 
 
 The situation is still vacant. 
 
 The situation is no longer vacant. 
 
 The second card (B*) is used at need, to inform those interested of the establish- 
 ments where they may find employment. The third card (C*) is used to inform 
 the office of the employment the workmen may have found outside the city. This 
 last card which serves a double purpose with the 2nd half of card A, should be mailed 
 by the workman himself; it is franked. 
 
 Having made known these details, we will now proceed to explain the system 
 in use for procuring situations. When a workman presents himself at the office, his 
 name is immediately entered, and his number given him, which corresponds to that 
 in the book, and which he must at least remember. If a suitable situation is vacant 
 he is given a card A which he hands to the master, and half of which, as we have 
 said, must be returned by the latter to the office, after having been marked as before 
 mentioned. If the situation is outside the city limits, the workman receives beside 
 a card B which if he is engaged, he sends to the office by mail. 
 
 Apart from this private distribution, a general distribution of work takes place 
 at about half past twelve, that is to say, after the three principal newspapers of the 
 city have been issued. In presence of the assembled workmen the number of whom 
 on certain days — particularly Thuj-sday and Saturday — is as many as one hundred 
 and fifty, the notices of situations vacant, in the papers and those sent to the office, 
 ai-e read out, and each one chooses the situation likely to suit him and proceeds as 
 has been stated. 
 
 If among the workmen present none are found to correspond to the demands 
 made, reference can be made to the index to discover the residence of those who are 
 supposed to be out of employment, a card B model is then sent them. 
 
 In the beginning, the Labor Exchange made use of the means generally employed 
 to give publicity to any matter, it inserted notices in the newspapers and in public 
 places. This system has, however, its defects, it lacks permanence ; it has since been 
 modified. This means is now replaced by tables of off'er and demand of employment, 
 posted in the different quarters of the city and altered daily according to the books 
 of the Exchange, besides daily publication in the three large newspapers of the city. 
 
 * See page 176. 
 
165 
 
 It was at first feaPBd that this means of publication might arouse the malevolence 
 of employment agencies, but up to the present time nothing reprehensible has been 
 done by them. The system employed, even at the present time, is still open to im- 
 provement. Yet, it must be admitted^ that for an institution so recently begun, the 
 organization of the Labor Exchange is comparatively perfect, and of a nature to 
 meet the general want. This is, an important measure of success, and the success 
 is the more assured that its usefulness is more marked every day. 
 
 It is to be hoped, in the interests of society, that other cities in Belgium ,and 
 elsewhere, actuated by the principles that led to the institution of the Labor 
 Exchange of Liege, will follow the example given by its founders. ' - 
 
 One day, perhaps, will be seen reigning over the continent a real power ready 
 to exercise a beneficial influence on the economical situation. 
 
 (D 
 
 <D 
 
 CAED A.— 1st Side. 
 
 LABOE EXCHANGE. Telephone. 
 Li6ge. 
 LABOE SUPPLY AND DEMAND. 
 
 M No, 
 
 ■a 
 
 a 
 
 sS. 
 
 Wanted 
 
 Bulletin handed Mr. 
 
 born in at 
 
 *-§ bearing cei-tificates. 
 
 fq Li&GE, the 188 
 
 Note. — A ledger, in which are entered certificates, books and recommendations, 
 presented by the applicant, may be consulted by masters. The exchange committee 
 leaves the examination and verification of certificates to those interested. 
 
 CAED A. — ^Postal half. 
 the date of mailing. 
 
 Number came to me. 
 
 I have hired him. (1) 
 
 I have not hired him. (1) 
 
 The situation is still vacant. (1) 
 
 The situation is no longer vacant. (1) 
 
 Signature or seal : 
 
 (1) To be cancelled, as the case may require, any two of the lines, leaving the other two to give the 
 meaning intended. 
 
 The master is requested to tear off this bulletin, to frank it and address it to the 
 
 President of the Labor Exchange. 
 
166 
 
 CAED B, Li£qe the 188 
 
 Labor Exchange, Saint-Barth^lemi place, 100. 
 Sir, — ^We have the honor to inform you that a situation as 
 
 is vacant 
 
 You are hereby requested to offer yourself for it and to give us information if 
 you are engaged. 
 
 We remain Sir, etc., 
 
 Secretary, G. Durand. President, Bdm. Van den Boorn, 
 
 CAED C. — Half of the Postal Card. 
 
 Number has been engaged_ 
 
 N.B. — The bearer of this card binds himself to mail this as soon as he has found 
 employment. « 
 
sectio:n^ IV. 
 
 APPRENTICESHIP. 
 
APPRENTICESHIP. 
 
 HOUSE OP BAEBAS, TASSAET & BALAS. 
 
 ROOFERS, PLUMBERS, &C. . - 
 
 This house has established in its workshops technical schools, in which scholars 
 are taught the trade. The appi:entice or the scholar on his entry, submits to an 
 examination for classification. If his instruction is rjot considered sufficient for the 
 trade, or the calling, which he wishes to follow, he is bound to follow the course 
 pointed out to him. 
 
 A part of the profits of the house are annually distributed among the appren- 
 tices by way of encouragement. When an apprentice does not show any aptitude 
 for the trade, or when he is guilty of some grave oifence, his case is referred to the 
 consultative board for decision. 
 
 Apprentices are admitted as participants in the profits from the 1st of January 
 preceding the end of their apprenticeship. 
 
 The journeymen apprentices, only receive this title after having served as assis- 
 tants to joui-neymen during a year. 
 
 The duration of their apprenticeship is two years. 
 
 They must be introduced by two sponsors, workmen participants, who take 
 them under their care during the term of their apprenticeship. Bveiy three months 
 these sponsors make a report of the conduct of their protigh. 
 
 At the expiration of his apprenticeship, the apprentice must make some work 
 done by hand ; a certificate of ability is not granted him unless the work is perfect. 
 
 The apprentices of the workshops may enter at thirteen years of age. They 
 should have a certificate of primary instruction. Their apprenticeship lasts four 
 years, during which they receive from $0.20 to $0.60 a day, according to their capacity 
 and the time they have served. 
 
 The house grants them, moreover, a supplement to their pay of $0.05 a day, placed 
 in the savings bank to their account. 
 
 The apprentices are obliged to follow the course in the technical school founded 
 by the syndical board of contractors and plumbers. 
 
 THE CHAIZ PEINTIjSTG ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 TECHNICAL SCHOOL. 
 
 The technieal school of young printers was founded in 1863 by M. Napoleon 
 Chaix. Its object is to make good workmen, foremen and employees for the different 
 works in the establishment. The house pursues this end, by giving to the appren- 
 tices a methodical instruction in manual wol-k. It also endeavors to develop their 
 moral education by well regulated discipline, useful lectures, by encouraging their 
 labor and good conduct, in a word by giving them a practical knowledge of provi- 
 dent institutions. 
 
 The apprentices, to the number of about ninety, are divided into two groups, 
 that comprise : the first, the pupil compositors, engravers and lithographers ; the 
 second, the children and young people for the machines and for divers other works. 
 The length of apprenticeship is four years. After six months' trial the pupils of the 
 first group receive a gratuity of $0.10 a day, which is raised successively during the 
 course of the apprenticeship to $0.20, $0.30, $0.40 and $0.50 The gratuity to the 
 children of the second group after fifteen days of trial is from $0.15 a day; it is 
 increased $0.05 every four months. 
 
170 
 
 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Practical Teaching. 
 
 The room used by the apprentice compositors is altogether separated from the 
 other workshops. A foreman, assisted by a sub-foreman and a corrector, superintends 
 and directs the work. 
 
 The teaching is thus divided: 
 
 Ist year. — Exercises In composition from former piints. 
 
 2nd year. — Composition from manuscripts.-^Elementary job work. 
 
 3rd year. — Job work. — Composition in algebra and geometry. — Typographical 
 difiiculties. — First exercises in composition in Latin. Greek, English and German. 
 
 4th year. — Yaried work: framing, vignettes, &c. — ^Putting into pages. — Com- 
 position in Latin, Greek, English and German. 
 
 The work to be done is chosen from the work of customers, according to the 
 aptitude of the pupils. Besides, exercises are given every month by the pupilson 
 progressive models specially made for them. 
 
 The practical instruction in engraving and lithography is taught on the same 
 principles and by the foreman of lithography. 
 
 The apprentices working at the machines, work in the same workshops as the 
 workmen ; they are attached to the staff of a conductor, under the superintendence 
 of the chief of the drawing. During the first and second years the child is occupied 
 in receiving the sheets of paper and feeding the machines ; he learns to margin in 
 white. During the third and fourth years he is taught the working of the press, 
 regulating the margin; he assists the conductor in working the press. 
 
 The children for divers works (paper making, pamphlets, ruling, plates, and the 
 offices) are under the control of the foremen. They receive technical instruction 
 according to an analogous method applied to the wants of their trade. 
 
 School Teaching. 
 
 The school teaching comprises the primary course destined to complete the 
 instruction that the apprentices received before their entry into the house, and the 
 technical course on the theory of their trade. These courses are given by employees 
 and the foremen of the establishment. The school instruction continues two years. 
 The school instruction has two degrees. The apprentice compositors, engravers 
 and lithographers follow the superior course; the children for the machines and 
 for divers other works follow the second course. 
 
 The programme of the superior course comprises : 
 
 Ist and 2nd years. — Special Primary Teaching. — Instruction with examples, 
 writing, grammar and French, arithmetic and geometry as applied to typography, 
 history of France, commercial and industrial georaphy, instruction in the usual 
 sciences. 
 
 Technical Instruction. — Theoretical course of typographic composition, instruc- 
 tion in manuscripts, lessons in grammar applied to typography. 
 
 2nd. and 3rd. years. — Supplementary Instruction. — Sketches of Fi-ench authors, 
 history of printing, elements of physics and mechanics applied to printing, notions 
 on health, principles of social economy and lessons on' provident institutions. 
 
 Technical Instruction. — Theoretical course on composition printing, lessons in 
 grammar applied to printing, reading and writing of manuscripts in Latin, Greek, 
 English and German. 
 
 Two hours a day taken from the hours of work are given to this object. 
 
 The Second Course Comprises Elementary Instruction. — Writing, reading, grammar, 
 arithmetic and sketches of history and geography. The examples and application 
 are taken by preference from typography. During the third and fourth years the 
 pupils on margins have a technical course on the tools and press, supplemented by 
 some ideas of mechanics, as applied to printing machines. 
 
 The class of the second course meets five times a week for one hour after 
 work. 
 
171 
 
 Provident Institutions. 
 
 The provident institutions in favor of apprentices, founded by this establish- 
 ment, is intended as a retiring fund for old age, under form of life-rent on the State 
 Treasury, and is placed to their profit as assurance in case of accident or death. In 
 the organization of this system the house proposes to improve the material condition 
 of their children, and to make of these institutions a means of morail education. 
 Solicited by advice, gifts and rewards being added to his savings, the apprentice 
 contracts habits of order and economy, which will make of him later, a diligent and 
 laborious workman. Moreover, in order to teach pupils the theory of provident 
 institutions and their utility and mode of working, there is included in the 
 programme of instruction a course on provident, saving and working institutions, 
 and another on social economy. 
 
 The following tables give the names of the provident institutions for apprentices 
 specially, that are in force in this house, and indicate the results which they produce : — 
 
 SBTIRING FUND OF APPSENTIOES. 
 
 The retiring fund has for its ob- 
 ject the assurance to those appren- 
 tices who remain with the house 
 fifty-five years of a rente viagire on 
 the State of about $80. Its work- 
 ing is accomplished by means of 
 an annual gift of $i made by the 
 _ house to each apprentice or old 
 aprarentice. 
 
 The sums paid to this fund since 
 1869 amount to $6,560. The num- 
 ber of books on the 31st Decem- 
 ber, 1888, was 234, of which 133 
 were for the old apprentices. 
 
 SCHOLABS' SAVINGS FUND. 
 
 The scholars' savings fund, com- 
 mon to apprentices and old ap- 
 prentices, was established in 1875. 
 It was intended to reserve the sav- 
 ings which the children and the 
 young workmen made from their 
 rewards and salaries. The house 
 thtis appeals to their free will so 
 as to accustom them to practice 
 saving. 
 
 The establishment encourages 
 this institution : 1st, by grantmg 
 a gratuity of 80.40 to each new 
 member ; 2nd, in awarding each 
 year, at the distribution of prizes, 
 savings bank books to those who 
 have the largest savings ; 3rd, in 
 contributing to this fund a portion 
 of the profits given to apprentice 
 compositors on the work of the 
 school, as well a« a special gift at 
 the end of the apprenticeship. 
 
 VOLnNTAKT RETIRING FUND. 
 
 This fund was established in 
 1880 to enable old apprentices, 
 who have become workmen, to de- 
 posit their personal savings. The 
 savings are retained by the house 
 in each bank which pays over the 
 amounts to the State Retiring 
 Fund. All the staff of the estab- 
 lishment is allowed to profit by 
 this system. The capital thus 
 saved amounted on the 31st De- 
 cember, 1888, to «19,70O. 
 
 INSUR.\NOE IN CASE OF AOOIDBNT. 
 
 The object of thei insurance 
 against accidents whilst in the ser- 
 vice of the house is to guarantee to 
 the children and to the young peo- 
 ple engaged at machines a reate via- 
 gire of frcBn $50 to $80 in case of a 
 serious accident occurring during 
 the apprenticeship which will pre- 
 vent him from exercising his trade. 
 The annual premium is $1.60. 
 
 The insurance in case of accident 
 was established in 1868, and was 
 contracted with the State fund. 
 From 1872 it was made collective 
 with clause of substitution. In 186S 
 the number of assessed was 86, and 
 the amount of premiums $59. In 
 1889 it included 74 apprentices 
 and 64 old apprentices ; the pre- 
 miums amounted to . 
 
 INSURANCE IN CASE OF DEATH. 
 
 The insurance in case of death, 
 contracted at the expense of the 
 house with the State Fund, guar- 
 anteed to the parents ofthe chudren 
 deceased a capital of $100. It i» 
 continued in favor of old appren- 
 tices becoming workmen,remaining 
 in the house. The average annual 
 premium is about $1.34. In 1871, 
 at the time of its formation, this 
 institution numbered 25 persons 
 insured, and the amount of pre- 
 miums was $34. In 1889 the num- 
 ber of assessed was 107, the pre- 
 miums amounting to $20.3.40. 
 
 PROFIT SHARING. 
 
 A special fund was created in 
 favor of apprentice compositors to 
 divide annually among them a por- 
 tion of the profits realized on the 
 work they had done. 
 
 The sums arising from this fund 
 are divided as follows : A third isi 
 immediately put to the credit of 
 the party in the smaH bank book ; 
 a third is kept by the house to be 
 given to the parents at the expira- 
 tion of the apprenticeship ; a third 
 is kept to be divided every five 
 years, among the apprentices who 
 then belong to the establishment. 
 
172 
 
 SCHOOL DISOIPHNK. . 
 
 A rule if or the interior management 
 preserves strict discipline and teaches 
 the pupils that they must properly 
 employ the time they< pass in the es- 
 tablishpaent. The parents receiye 
 each month a report of the conduct, 
 work and progress of their children. 
 After breakfast recreation is taken in 
 the most quiet streets of the neigh- 
 borhood, it is watched by one of the 
 employees of the house. Apprentices' 
 always carry a note book containing 
 instructions for the regulation of dis- 
 cipline within the house and without 
 it. 
 
 MEANS OP EMULATION. 
 
 To stimulate emulation among the 
 apprentices the house uses different 
 modes for encouraging them; the 
 gift made to each pujjU who shows 
 himself attentive to his course, of a 
 jeton de presence (certificate of pre- 
 sence)of the value of $0.02 ; by placing 
 his name on the roll of honor ; by the 
 institution of the post of sergeant 
 with certain privileges attached to it, 
 which is awarded to the pupil worthy 
 to help the foremen in their superin- 
 tendence ; by distribution of prizes ; 
 by participation in the school profits ; 
 by increasing the gratuities, &c. 
 
 I As regards health the apprentices 
 are the object of special care, in- 
 tended to develbp their physical 
 powers. The workshops and classes 
 are large and well aired ; in a neigh- 
 boring room is a lavatory and an 
 Arrangement with gas to enable 
 them to warm their breakfast. The 
 children take their meals either at 
 home or at the establishment. Every 
 day one of the teachers inspects the 
 meals to see that they are hot and 
 of, good quality. Once a month the 
 doctor of the house gives them a 
 lesson on healthy and every month 
 also he pi;oce?ds to an inspection of 
 all the apprentices and prescribes to 
 all Tvho i;equire it, at the cost 
 of the house, medicines, tonics and 
 stipaulants. The pupils form part 
 of the mutual society of help of the 
 establishment. 
 
 PROVISION AGADIST ACCIDENTS. 
 
 All the dangerous parts of ma; 
 chines are covered with safety ap- 
 paratus to the. number of four 
 hundred and is intended to protect 
 the staff and particularly the chil- 
 dren from accidents that might arise 
 therefrom. 
 
 M. FANIEN FILS AINE. 
 
 BOOT AND SflOE FACTORY AT LILLERS (PAS-DE-CALAIS)j^ AND PARIS. 
 
 Technical school for apprenticeship. 
 
 The young boys enter the factory at the age of thirteen, and are employed at 
 easy work in all the sections of this establishment, so that there are apprentices in 
 all the workshops. They thus become familiar with all the work which constitutes 
 the making of boots and shoes, the cutting, packing, sorting and classifying oi" goods 
 and the working of a number of small machines. They earn at these light works 
 from $0.10 to $0.20 a da,y, according to their strength and capacity. 
 
 When ,they pass a certain time, doing different duties in the factory, they are 
 placed in the workshop of stitching uppers or under the supervision of a good foreman, 
 where they gradually' learn to do all the work that constitutes stitching the uppers 
 of ladies boots, shoes, and boots generally, jjassing through the shops for preparing 
 and mounting uppers and finishing with the sewing machine ; they earn at this Work 
 from 10.20 to $0.50 a day. 
 
 In leaving this workshop about the age of 14 years, these young men generally 
 know how to stitch, join, sew by hand or by the machine, and manage a number of 
 tools ; they are familiar with the divisions of the work and the nature of the goods, 
 and are sufficiently instructed to enter the technical school properly so-called. 
 
 Here the foremen-instructors teach them to complete the making of shoes by 
 divided labor. The pupil remains about a month in each of the six divisiions required 
 by the work, so that -at the expiration of the six months he has passed through all 
 the sections and is able to make an entire shoe. During this apprenticeship the young 
 man earns from $0.30 to $0.50 a day, so that all the work he does ig paid according to 
 the tariff, per pair, of the house, which furnishes the tools and renumerates the fore- 
 men-instructors from whose work the pupils profit. 
 
173 
 
 When the pupils have terminated their apprenticeship at the technical school, 
 work is given them by the piece, as to the other workmen, to work at, either in the 
 establishment or elsewhere. 
 
 These pupils generally become, in a short time, first-class workmen. There are 
 many who at 16 and lY years of age make sewed boots of first quality at 10.90 the 
 pair, and make a pair a day. 
 
 Having acquired in these several workshops of the factory more extended 
 knowledge than they could acquire by serving their apprenticeship with a workman, 
 working at home, no part of the work is strange to them ; they know their trade from 
 the beginning, and know how to make boots by every system ; to sew, peg, design 
 and sew by machine, which enables them to find work in no matter what country, 
 much more easily than the workman who only knows how to make boots by one 
 system, and it gives them the necessary knowledge to become foremen or experienced 
 masters. 
 
 There are a hundred young men that enter each year into the factory. 
 
 As to the young girls, about 50 annually enter the workshops at the age of 13, 
 and are employed at the beginning at very light and easy work. They advance 
 gradually according to their strength and age to more difficult work, passing through 
 each division of work under the direction of a forewoman, and they soon acquire a 
 complete knowledge of their trade of pegging boots and shoes. They earn on their 
 entry into the workshop a minimum of $0.10 a day, and increase gradually to $0.60, 
 the day being lOJ hours for the workwomen as for the workmen. 
 
 For twenty years past Mr. Fanien has supplied his workmen with a school for 
 boys which is constantly attended by about a hundred pupils of from 7 to 13 years 
 of age. After the passing of the law on obligatory instruction he gave over the 
 school to the town of Lillers. 
 
 Moreover, a building independent from the factory was constructed into a 
 school for girls and was also given over to the town of Lillers. 
 
 These two establishments for schools, are large well aired, and lighted, and can 
 accommodate 150 pupils each in separate class rooms. 
 
 MOUTIBE HOUSE. 
 
 MANUFACTURES OP HARDWARE. 
 
 Contract of apprenticeship. — ^Willingly accepted by the parents without giving 
 rise to the slightest contestation. 
 
 No apprentice has left the workshop before the expiration of his apprenticeship. 
 
 ISTo grave offence was charged to necessitate the dismissal of a child. 
 
 One of the clauses of the contract requires a certificate of primary education; 
 this has been very useful in getting new apprentices. 
 
 Manual teaching. — This instruction decided by progressive exercises, is confided 
 to three foremen. 
 
 Theoretic teaching. — Given by the master and the director of work ; they are 
 delivered so as to develop the intellectual faculties of the children. 
 
 FOEMBE HOUSE LECLAIEE. 
 
 REDOULT & CO. 
 
 Apprenticeship. 
 
 The sons nephews of the foremen of the workshops, of the workmen and 
 employees members of the noyau are received as apprentices in preference to all 
 
 others. 
 
 No contract of apprenticeship is made, the house reserving the right to dismiss 
 the apprentice if he does not do his work, as the latter has the right to leave when- 
 ever he wishes. 
 
174 
 
 The apprentices are paid as soon as they enter as apprentices and each yeai", in 
 the month of April, their pay is increased according to the progress made. 
 
 The house insists that the apprentices should be treated with kindness ; it is 
 prohibited to employ them as message boys , the apprentices are required to be polite 
 to all the workmen and these latter should consider them as tlieir own children. 
 
 The heads of the workshops should exercise all their care in teaching the trade 
 to the apprentices confided to them ; they should encourage them in changing their 
 work and by teaching them what they are ignorant of. 
 
 At the end of each year a competition is held among the apprentices and they 
 are classed according to their years of apprenticeship. 
 
 A jury, composed of a director and three employees of three heads of workshops 
 and four workmen, draws out the programme that each class of apprentices should 
 follow. 
 
 Prizes varying from $5.00 to $40.00 are awarded by the jury to tlie apprentices 
 that have best fulfilled the programme imposed. 
 
 These prizes consist of books on the retiring fund for old age, with enjoyment of the 
 interest accrued at the ago of fifty years, 
 
 According to these competitions and the advice of the chiefs of the workshops, 
 the managers judge the progress of each apprentice and they base then annual in- 
 crease on the results of these competitions. 
 
 The apprentices are only declared workmen after having fulfilled, in a satis- 
 factory manner all the parts of the programme of competition. 
 
 NETHERLANDS YEAST AND SPIEIT MANUPACTOEY. 
 
 DELFT. — HOLLAND. 
 
 Apprenticeship for the sons of workmen. Private school and course of design 
 
 for the apprentices. 
 
 (Institution, founded in 1882,) 
 
 Each apprentice leaving the primary school with an honorable certificate, is put 
 under the special care of a workman of the factory, carpenter, mason, blacksmith 
 cooper, malster &c. The private school (2 hours a day) is placed undei- the direction 
 of a teacher, the course of design under that of the architect of the house. The 
 parents receive a subsidy from $0.20 to $2.00 a week according to the age of the 
 apprentice, of this subsidy the apprentice receives 10 per cent, in pocket money. 
 After an examination at 18 years, the apprentices receive a diploma ; a place is 
 sought for them where they can perfect themselves while waiting for a vacancy in 
 the factory. 
 
 This institution, which has changed hands several times, suffer, from the want of 
 devotedness and teaching talent of the master workmen. — The superintendence of the 
 apprentices is insufficient. The young people consider the subsidy given to their 
 parents as a salary, which — being indispensable for the family and being generally 
 greater than the salaries of young workmen of the same age — keeps them at the 
 factory instead of encouraging them to seek elsewhere the improvement of their 
 education, notwithstanding all this, many excellent workmen are developed from 
 our system of apprenticeship. 
 
 TECHNICAL SCHOOL GUTENBEEG. PAEIS. 
 
 EXTRACT FEOM A NOTICE ON THE GTJTENBURG " SCHOOL," PUBLISHED BY THE BOARD 
 
 OF PRINTERS OF PARIS. 
 
 For some years past a current of irresistible force has driven the boards of 
 masters and workmen to the creation of schools called technical, destined, as their 
 name indicates, to give to the young men who wish to devote themselves to trades, 
 an education commensurate with the increasing exigencies of the demand. 
 
175 
 
 This awakening of the national power, bom of the crisis which weighs on all 
 our markets, is certainly a good omen, but we cannot help regretting that it should 
 have come so late, for it is useless to disguise the fact that, it will require yet many 
 years to recover back the grounds which strikes, routine and our original indiffer- 
 ence have lost to us. 
 
 It would be unjust, doubtless, to attribute to these causes all the ills from which 
 we suffer, but it is not to be contested that they have to this date had a preponder- 
 ating influence in our commercial and industrial decadence. 
 
 Is it not to these strikes, decided upon with so little reflection and consideration, 
 that we muft attribute the departure to foreign lands of a large number of those who 
 formerly worked in our factories ? 
 
 Is it not the routine, to empiricism, that we owe our inferiority in tephnical 
 instruction, manual as well as mechanical ? And is it not also to indifference, carried 
 to the verge of the abandonment of our most cherished interests, that is due the 
 continuation of a state of things declared, by all that are interested, to be disastrous ? 
 
 It was, therefore, necessary that we should take action, that we should make 
 one vigorous effort, and it was with this view that technical schools were established, 
 as an advantage to the different syndicates least open to dispute. 
 
 It was with this object that, in the commencement of the year 1883, the Chamber 
 of Printers settled the constitution of a joint stock society, authorized to establish 
 one or more technical schools destined to raise the level of typographical knowledge. 
 
 The school was established and carried on by a capital from the subscriptions of 
 founders and the annual subscriptions of honorary and working members. It is not 
 for the public use. 
 
 There are admitted gratuitously after examination : 
 
 1st. Children of the age of thirteen years belonging to the printing houses 
 whose patrons are members of the association of the Gutenberg schools. 
 
 2nd. Children of thirteen years past, who are presented by societaries not 
 printers who are adherents to the society. These are admitted, on payment (when 
 there are places to be disposed of). 
 
 Children aged thirteen years past when the parents ask for thoir admission. 
 
 The course of instruction is three years. It is divided in two parts : one for 
 primary instruction, the other for technical instruction, the theory and practice of 
 the trade of compositor and printer, and generally for all that concerns the typo- 
 graphic or graphic arts, and of all matters and things employed for these arts. 
 
 The apprentices sent to the school by their patrons only follow the school course 
 for two consecutive days a week. The days are fixed without any change ; thus, a 
 certain printer who sends several apprentices to the school, reserves Monday and 
 Tuesday for Peter, Wednesday and Thursday for Paul, and Friday and Saturday for 
 Joseph, which does not prevent a number of apprentices from the same printing 
 establishment from taking the same days, if the master who sends them prefers this 
 way. The school is provided with a complete printing workshop. Every year 
 prizes in books, tools and money are awarded to the most desei-ving pupils. 
 
 TECHNICAL SCHOOL OP THE STJSTDICAL CHAMBEE OF THE JVIANU- 
 
 FACTUEE OF PAPEE, PAEIS. 
 
 The work founded by the syndical chamber of paper in favor of apprentices, 
 the direction of which is confined to a commission named by them, comprises three 
 institutions : — 
 
 1st. Encouragement destined as a reward, by means of books on the saving 
 bank, to be given to the most deserving paper apprentices. 
 
 2nd. Gratuitous course of technical instruction, divided into : 
 
 Primary instruction, comprising the French language, arithmetic, correspond- 
 ence and accounts. 
 
 Technical instraction, comprising technical history, industrial geography, 
 elements of science and design. 
 
176 
 
 Special instruction to apprentices, comprising the theoretical and practical 
 course of the manufacture ot ledgers, the shaping of paper, ruling and manufacture- 
 of different kinds of cardboard. 
 
 The course takes place from eight to ten o'clock at night. 
 
 Over and above these three institutions, the Syndical Chamber of paper, insti- 
 tutes annual competitions for apprentices, and at the end of each scholastic year they 
 distribute rewards, consisting of bank books on the savings bank and on the retiring 
 fund, medals, tools and books. 
 
 TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOE TAILOE APPEENTICBS AT PAEIS. 
 
 Founded by the Syndical Chamber of Master Tailors of Paris. 
 
 The school is specially for the tailor trade. 
 
 It has for its object to make good workmen and to elevate the level of handiwork 
 which has much lowered since the invention of the sewing machine, and enable them 
 to become foremen (called cutters.) 
 
 The school was founded on the 1st May, 1881. 
 
 It commenced with eight apprentices and two professors. To-day it has forty 
 apprentices and eight professors. 
 
 The annual expenses are |6,000 to $6,400, made up as follows : — 
 
 Professors' salaries 13,500 
 
 Breakfasts for apprentices 800 
 
 Bons for apprentices pay 600 
 
 Eent and contributions 500 
 
 Heating and lighting 200 
 
 Director and employee 600 
 
 Material, care and expenses of the office 200 
 
 $6,400 
 
 The resources are composed : 
 
 1st. Of the assessments of acting and honorary members. 
 2nd. Of the subsidy of the Minister of Commerce. 
 3rd. Of the subsidies of the City of Paris. 
 
 4th. Of the subsidy of the Philanthropic Society of the Master Tailors of 
 Paris. 
 
 5th. Of the proceeds of the cutting done in the workshops. 
 
 The average expense is $140 to $160 per pupil for a year. 180 children have- 
 passed through the school since its foundation. The school is only for day scholai-s ; 
 it is free, and it takes, in preference, poor children. Nevertheless, some children of 
 families in easy circumstances are admitted by paying a fee. 
 
 Each pupil receives for his breakfast a plate of meat and a plate of vegetables,, 
 for which no charge is made. 
 
 Every child entering the school is placed under the direction of the professor-in- 
 chief, who teaches him, on pieces of stuff, the first ideas of cutting. When he knows 
 enough to be of service, he is placed with a group, where he helps to make all sorts- 
 of clothing. Only hand work is done in the shop ; the use of the sewing machine is 
 only taught at the end of the third year of apprenticeship. The choice of professors 
 is made trom the old workmen, and from the young men who have served theii- 
 appreuticeship at the school. 
 
 Ten hours a day is given to practical work, and one hour to the elementary 
 course. 
 
 The work is organized in groups, composed of one professor and four or five 
 apprentices of different ability. Each group makes, without distinction, coat, 
 waistcoat, overcoat, &c. The children change groups every six months, so as not to- 
 be always under the same professor. 
 
177 
 
 The school is provided with work by the master tailors, active members, who 
 pay to the school for the making of each airticle according' to the tariff of their 
 establishment. From this source the school receives about $3,000 for making,"^a 
 a year. , ■•■' 
 
 All the ai'ticles of clothing are to order, and delivered by the master tailors to 
 their customers. 
 
 The children receive each week, according to their good conduct, and work, as 
 an acknowledgment of satisfaction, $0.20 the first year, $0.40 for the second year, 
 and $0.60 for the third ; each receives, moreover, each Saturday a gratuity of from 
 $0.05 to $0.15 as encouragement. Each year, bank books on the savings banks are 
 awarded to the pupils who have succeeded best at the annual examination. Every 
 youth on finishing his apprenticeship receives a diploma of ability. 
 
 The pupils work together at all works without distinction! 
 
 The length of their apprenticeship is three years. 
 
 The working time is eleven hours a day except Sundays and holidays. 
 
 The pi'oportion of pupils that leave their apprenticeship upon the expiration of 
 the three years is about 20 per cent. 
 
 To secure the execution of the three years apprenticeship the school keeps the 
 bons of satisfaction awarded each week and only gives them to the owner at the 
 expiration of the apprenticeship. 
 
 The school tries to retain as paid monitors, the children who have finished their 
 apprenticeship. 
 
 Those who will not remain go to work. 
 
 TECHNICAL SCHOOL OP HATTBES. 
 
 Nature of the school. — It was established in 1883 as a private school, by Mr. P. 
 Coumes, sole founder, who continues it with the help of the public assistance of Paris. 
 It has always been approved of by the Syndical Chamber of the Hatters of Paris. 
 
 The utility of the school was acknowledged by subsidies granted for the last three 
 years by the Minister of Commerce and Industry, and for the last two years by the 
 Minister of Public Instruction and the Pine Arts. 
 
 This establishment was founded to receive orphans or abandoned children ; a 
 few paying pupils are also admitted. 
 
 The object of this technical school of hatters is to make at the same time good 
 workmen and good foremen. Its best pupils compete for the (bourses de voyage) 
 allowance tor travel instituted by the Minister of Commerce. 
 
 Historical. — Pounded in 1881 by Mr. L. Coumes, of Trumilly, (Oise),, and attached 
 to an oi-phan asylum the pupils of which were his scholars, this school of hatters was, 
 in May, 1883, transferred to Villenoy, near Meaux. 
 
 From its foundation, this establishment has been, and is now, the only one in 
 Prance which, with a thorough apprenticeship, prepares workmen as hat makers 
 and specially for the making of silk hats. 
 
 Financial condition and budget. — The budget of the Villenoy establishment 
 divided its accounts into two parts : the budget of the school properly so called, and 
 that of the factory. But this last is also a budget for instruction. The pupils, 
 particularly in the beginning, cannot be instructed without spoiling a quantity of 
 material, the factory /of hats, therefore, on which they are taught must necessarily 
 suffer an annual loss so long as its staff is composed of apprentices. 
 
 All the apprentices are boarded and lodged in the school. The daily expense 
 for food, cost of lodging, instruction and superintendence is charged to the pupil at 
 a fictitious rate varying from $0.30 to $0.34 a day, according to the time expired 
 and the division in which he is classed, but this expense in reality is about 50 cents 
 per day. 
 
 Since its opening (May, 1883) the number of pupils who have passed through 
 this school is 50. The average number is 16 or 17 a year. 
 
 20—12 
 
178 
 
 Conditions of Admission and Funds. — They vary according to where the pupils 
 come from. Those who come from the Board of Public Assistance are admitted 
 according to the terms of the contract passed with that Board, which represents an 
 average subsidy of $0.68 a day for each pupil ; those who are placed in the school by 
 families or by societies of patrons bring with them a trousseau (bedding), a dowry of 
 apprenticeship of $40 divided between them the two first years, and they share in 
 the cost of instruction and medical care at the cost of |13 a year during all the time 
 of their apprenticship. 
 
 Notwithstanding these very easy conditions, the school of hat-making has never 
 been able to obtain the creations of pensions, either departmental or syndical, but 
 they are working for them. 
 
 Every candidate should be thirteen or fourteen years of age at least, possess an 
 aptitude for the trade and produce a certificate of primary capacity or equivalent 
 instruction. 
 
 All the pupils are boarders and equally subject to the rules. 
 
 Detailed Course of Study. — The detailed programme of the school comprises : 
 
 Ist. One part, superior primary instruction., civil and moral education, military 
 exercises, gymnastic exercises and swimming; moreovei-, for the pupils of the 
 higher divisions, who are of the age of sixteen years at least, courses of design, of 
 English and of commercial accounts. 
 
 2nd. Another part, technical instruction, theoretical and practical; the theoretic 
 course in existence since 1886, under the superintendence of the Minister of Com- 
 merce, is taught provisionally by the head of the workshop. 
 
 Table of the Employment of Time.— The di'^ision of time given to practical work 
 and to instruction in general, is made in proportion to the age of the pupils and the 
 exigencies of the trade. 
 
 Practical Work. — The apprentice, counting from his second year, is initiated 
 successively into the divers works of the workshop ; to facilitate at the same time 
 the technical instruction and the work of the workshops, the greater number of 
 apprentices are engaged, during eighteen months or two years, in one of the sections 
 of the trade, either at the frame, or mounting, or at turning. 
 
 The beginning of the trade of hatter being somewhat diificult, each new appren- 
 tice is placed under the direction of a skilled workman or of a monitor during six 
 months or a year. It is rare that an intelligent pupil cannot work usefully before 
 the end of the first year, but it is always after the waste of certain material. 
 
 The organization of the workshops with its divisions of labor, is such, that the 
 apprentice could easily devote himself to a special work and perfect himself in one 
 of the four sections cited above ; moreover, he must know them all in order to obtain 
 his certificate of completion of apprenticeship. Whilst fulfilling orders for customers 
 the apprentices are engaged in special kinds of work, with a view to their profes- 
 sional advantage, both as regards the business itself and their general instruction. 
 
 Remuneration. — The work of the pupils is converted by themselves into mer- 
 chandise destined for wholesale customers; the whole manufacture is sold either at 
 Paris or in the provinces in the best retail houses; it amounts on an average to 
 $8,000 a year. The rules of the school provide for a share being allowed to the 
 pupils on the profits of the work of the workshops ; the development of this establish- 
 ment has not yet been sufficient to enable it to make this division. Nevertheless, thanks 
 to the remunerative wages, calculated on the tarifiFof the price per piece, and thanks 
 also to days of extra pay, all the apprentices attaining their fourth year of study, 
 are possessors of a considerable sum. 
 
 Duration of apprenticeship. — The regulation school term is four years for 
 apprenticeship, with one or two years for perfecting themselves. 
 
 We here give the proportion of time of residence of the pupils from the 
 abandoned class (except two), who have passed through the school during the last 
 six j;ears: 36 per cent, from one to six months; 12 per cent, from six months to a 
 year; 16 per cent, from a year to a year and a-half, and so on decreasing, except 5 
 per cent, of six years and six years and a-half. 
 
179 
 
 It is with regret that we have to state that more than two-thirds of the pupils, 
 for causes independent of the school direction, were unable to remain from two to 
 eighteen months. 
 
 To retain the pupils the time required, the school rules provide for extra pay 
 proportionate to the duration of the service, and the professional knowledge of each 
 pupil. 
 
 They pi-ovide, also, technical examinations to permit the pupils to pass into 
 higher divisions, and complete examinations to obtain the certificate of good appren- 
 ticeship at the end of the established four years of study. 
 
 Extra pay. — The system of rewards comprise : — 
 
 1st. Good points of $0.05, paid at the end of each week; 
 
 2nd. Of extra pay, varying from $0.01 to $0.06 a day for the apprentices, and 
 from $0.25 to $0.35 a day for workmen. 
 
 3rd. "Wages by the piece, calculated at the end of each month, the net result of 
 which, after deduction of a part of the expenses, is divided into three accounts 
 (savings, mass, and pocket money). 
 
 Remits and departure. — The apprenticeship, such as is given in the technical 
 school of Villenoy, thanks to the combination of technical and practical elements on 
 the one hand, and thanks to the development and variety of the programme of 
 instruction (see above) on the other, has the effect of exercising on the apprentice 
 the most salutory influences, both moral and physical, and all the pupils who have 
 persevered to their fourth year are proofs of these good results. 
 
 Once clothed with a certificate of good apprenticeship, the old pupil becomes a 
 workman, may exetcise his own choice and go to Paris, to the provinces, or remain 
 in the establishment as a first-class workman. 
 
 Those of the old pupils who have been employed in Paris have obtained, from 
 the age of 19 or twenty years, most j-emunerative wages ; masters commence to 
 appreciate their worth, and there is little doubt but that in a very short time they 
 will be eagerly sought for : one may quote the case of an old pupil, at present in the 
 the House Berteil, who at the end of one year of work, only in that house, receives a 
 monthly salary of from $50 to $60. 
 
 The pupils who choose to remain as monitors in the school realize almost 
 equivalent wages, for two of them, aged 20 and 21 years, can, after payment of their 
 part of the common expenses, save from $140 to $160 a year, this including their 
 pocket money. 
 
 At present (1st February, 1889), the technical school of Villenoy counts among 
 its monitors and pupil-workmen, four of its old pupils, one of whom is sub-chief of 
 the workshop. 
 
 On the other hand, the development of the special studies of the English 
 language, design, and technical instruction, is most satisfactory, as shown at the 
 competition of December, 1888, for the (bourse de voyage) travelling purse of the 
 Minister of Commerce : Prom four pupils who were candidates, two obtained a purse 
 of $360 each. 
 
 NOETH EAILWAY, PAEIS. 
 
 TECHNICAL COUESE FOE THE APPEENTICES. 
 
 With the view of forming instructed and skilful workmen for all the works 
 they are engaged in, the Committee of Directors, in 1882, decided that technical 
 courses for apprentices should be organized at Paris-la-Chapelle, 
 
 The instruction is free; pupils from 12 to 13 years are admitted after 
 examination. 
 
 Eewards are given each year to the apprentices most noted for good conduct 
 and work. 
 
 The term of apprenticeship, is three years. Apprentices who have received 
 their diploma of appreuticeship can remain in the service of. the company or enter 
 trade. 
 
 20— 12J 
 
180 
 
 Any apprentice leaving the school before the expiration of three years will not 
 receive his diploma or certificate of apprenticeship. 
 
 CITY OF HAVEE. 
 
 MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF APPRENTICESHIP FOR BOYS. 
 
 Art. 1. The municipal school of apprenticeship for boys has for its object the 
 formation of skilful apprentices who will afterwards become good foremen. 
 
 Art. 2. The length of study is three years. 
 
 Art. 3. The Ist and 2nd years the pupils have three hours of intellectual work 
 and five hours of manual work. In the third year they^ave one hour of manual 
 labor at most. 
 
 Art. 4. The technical instruction comprises the following subjects: 1st, Lock- 
 smiths; 2nd, Adjusting; 3rd, Forging; 4th, Turning metals; 5th, Founding and 
 Moulding; 6th, Braziers' work; 7th, Turning; 8th, Cabinet-making; 9th, Turning in 
 wood; 10th, Carving; 11th, Modelling. 
 
 Art. 13. To enter the school (at competitions) the pupils must be more than 
 12 and less than 15 years. 
 
 Art. 18. The rewards at the end of the year consist in prizes, medals, tools 
 and diplomas. 
 
 The prizes payable only at the end of the third year are money prizes and vary 
 from |2 to $16 for the first year ; from $6 to $12 for the second year ; and from $12 
 to $24 for the thii'd year. 
 
 Diplomas are given to the pupils of the third year who have shown sufficient 
 theoretic knowledge before a special commission of examination, and who are 
 acknowledged to be able to execute properly the manual work which their calling 
 demands. 
 
 NAVAL SCHOOL FOR ENGINEERING APPRENTICES. 
 
 Art. ]. A school for engineering apprentices is annexed to the school for 
 apprenticeship at IIavre,]iwith the view of giving a certain number of young people, 
 a theoretical and practical knowledge, of a nature to enable them to fulfil the duties 
 of engineer on commercial steamships for the coasting trade, or for long voyages, 
 or to be admitted to the position of engineering pupils in the State Navy. 
 
 Art. 2. The school which is entirely free, only receives day scholars. 
 
 Art. 8. A certain number of scholarships of $100 are created in favor of those 
 pupils whose position necessitates this help. These scholarships are divided by half, 
 and by quarter. Eequisitions should be made to the Mayor of Havre. Parents 
 whose children receive a scholarship or a part of a scholarship should bind them- 
 selves in writing, to leave their children to the end of their studies, or to reimburse 
 the town the amount granted as help. 
 
 Art. 6. The costs of organization and support are paid by the city of Havre, 
 the department, the State and the Chamber of Commerce. 
 
 Pupils between 15 and lY years of age are admitted after having undergone 
 an examination. 
 
 SUPERIOR PRIMARY SCHOOL AND APPRENTICESHIP FOR YOUNG GIRLS. 
 
 Art. 1. The superior school of apprenticeship has for its object the preparation 
 of young girls for the practice of a calling or a trade, and to prepare them for the 
 position of mothers of families. 
 
 Art. 2. The instruction comprises general intellectual instruction, and technical 
 instruction. The general intellectual instruction comprises : — 
 
 1st. A preparatory course. 2nd. A superior course of primary study. 
 
 The technical instruction includes the following specialties : — 
 
 1st. Commercial course. 2nd. Industrial design. 3rd. Drapery and embroidery. 
 4th. Fashions. 5th. Cutting and making. 6th. Ironing. 7th. Practical domestic 
 economy. 
 
181 
 
 Bach pupil chooses her section on her entry into the school. The duration of 
 study and apprenticeship is three years. The pupils of the workshops have three 
 hours of study a day and five hours of manual labor. 
 
 The first year is devoted to the study of sewing, properly so-called. The pupils 
 choose their specialty the second year. 
 
 The pupils are admitted without pay. Eewards are given to the most deserving 
 pupils. 
 
 CITY OP NIMES. 
 
 Art. 1. This institution of competition for apprentices, founded by the council of 
 skilled men of Nimes, the 8th May, 1884, has, for its object, the development of 
 technical instruction. 
 
 Art. 2. The child or individual, girl or boy, who receives instruction from a 
 master, workman or patron, man or woman in any trade whatever, may be an 
 apprentice, on certain conditions ; either by paying a fee or at least by not demand- 
 ing wages. 
 
 Art. 5. The President of the council of skilled men appoints for each appren- 
 tice an adviser specially chai-ged to watch ovei- him during the course of his appren- 
 ticeship and to answer for his skill, his conduct and his progress. 
 
 Art. 6. An examination takes place every year to ascertain the progress of the 
 apprentices and to know what to expect from their work, iheir intelligence and their 
 skill. 
 
 Art. 9. The examination should not end with the mere classification of the 
 apprentices inTihe same industry, but notes should be taken to ascertain the know- 
 ledge of each apprentice in comparison with the length of his apprenticeship. 
 
 Art. 14. Within the eight days after the giving in of the repoi-ts (of the exam- 
 iners) the council of skilled men united in general assembly, shall determine the 
 quantity, the quality and the value of the rewards to be given to apprentices as well 
 as to the workmen who, charged with their technical education, had used all their 
 energy to form good apprentices and had succeeded. 
 
 Their decision is submitted for the approval of the municipality. 
 
 CITY OF PAEIS^. 
 
 MUNICIPAL SCHOOL DIDEROT.* 
 
 The Diderot School situated in the Villette quarter, was founded by the city of 
 Paris and opened in 1873, at an epoch when the attempt was opposed by experts 
 and bodies of tradesmen; in a word, in the midst of considerable difflculties. 
 
 The school has for its objects the formation of workmen for the eight following 
 trades : forging, turning metals, adjusting, locksmith, mechanics, modelling, wood 
 turning, cabinet making. 
 
 It only receives day scholars ; who must be present at the school from seven m 
 the morning until seven at night. The apprenticeship last three years. 
 
 Having in view an apprenticeship similar to that which exists under masters, the 
 organization exerted itself to create for each trade workshops resembling as much as 
 possible, as regards material and the kind of work, those of a private industry. 
 
 With this object the efforts of the apprentices are applied to the production of 
 such goods as can be easily sold. The school of Villette manufactures annually to 
 the extent of about ^2,400. 
 
 During the first year all the pupils passed alternately and without distinction 
 from one workshop to the other. 
 
 It is of advantage to the pupil, no matter what particular trade he may eventu-., 
 ally chose, that he should have a general knowledge of the trades connected with 
 
 *Extract from a report presented to the Scientific Society of Bordeaux, by Mr. E. Buhan, on the 
 "Formation of an apprentice school at Bordeaux," 
 
182 
 
 his own — trades with which, in the exercise of his own, he will frequently come in 
 contact. Finally it is during this first year that his disposition and tastes display 
 themselves, and should decide the choice of a trade in which his tendencies, now 
 ascei'tained, may make him a better workman. 
 
 The greater part of the time (five hours a day, according to the year) is given 
 to manual work, under the direction of a head of workshops, a head being named for 
 each twenty pupils. 
 
 Though the first place is given to manual work, an important place is never- 
 theless, reserved for general instruction, which is necessary, so that the apprentice 
 may be sufficiently instructed to reason on his trade, and to apply methods with 
 . discernment. 
 
 The duration of the classes vary between three and five hours a day according 
 to the years. 
 
 Id principle the classes succeed each other in the morning in such a way that 
 after rest and the recreation that follows, the apprentices can give all the rest "f the 
 day without interruption to manual work. We consider, with reason, that the 
 exercises of the workshops should be continuous to accustom the apprentice to 
 assiduity and tenacity for work, essential qualities for a good workman. 
 
 The two following tables will give a summary idea of the subjects taught and 
 the time given to each : 
 
 DIDEEOT MUNICIPAL SCHOOL. 
 
 . OUKRICULUM OP PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Professions. 
 
 1st Year. 
 
 2nd Year. 
 
 3rd Year. 
 
 Forging 
 
 
 Preliminary exercises, tools, 
 various solders. 
 
 Forging of pieces of ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 
 Turning on metal 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Manufacture of sharpened 
 tools, turning of simple 
 pieces, polishing. 
 
 Axles, wire drawing of 
 screws and of tools, wire 
 drawing. 
 
 Lesser Mechanics 
 
 
 Tools, adjusting and turn- 
 ing of small articles. 
 
 Small machine tools, models 
 for demonstration. 
 
 Decorative Locksmith - 
 ing 
 
 heir studies, i 
 vorkshops of 'l 
 n their ability 
 
 Tools, keys, locks, house 
 locks. 
 
 Ornaments, leaves, flowers, 
 artistic locksmiths' work, 
 joining together. 
 
 
 year of t 
 nigh the 
 y ascertai 
 
 Preliminary exercises, tools, 
 tracing, wire drawing. 
 
 Apparatus for physics and 
 telegraphy. 
 
 
 Modelling 
 
 g the first 
 sively thrt 
 practicall 
 
 Models of the simple parts 
 of engines. 
 
 Machine tools, disposition 
 of wheels, grooved boards, 
 newel boxes. 
 
 Joining 
 
 Durin 
 ass succes 
 1 order to 
 
 Sharpening tools, joining 
 together various frames. 
 
 Doors, windows, furniture. 
 
 
 mountings. 
 
 Turning in Wood 
 
 U-M 
 
 Mounting and sharpening 
 of tools, handles and 
 small articles, wire draw- 
 ing. 
 
 Turning of models for 
 foundry, twisted pieces 
 and frame mouldings. 
 
183 
 
 DIDEEOT MUNICIPAL SCHOOL. 
 
 Curriculum or Instrucion.. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 1st Year, Section A and B. 
 
 2ud Year, Section A and B. 
 
 3rd Year. 
 
 French language . 
 English language 
 Mathematics . 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Natural philosphy 
 
 Technology.. 
 
 Mechanics . 
 History . . . 
 
 Geography 
 
 Drawing , 
 
 Grammar, orthography. 
 
 Reading, writing, elements 
 of grammar, exercises on 
 blackboard. 
 
 Arithmetic, plain geometry 
 (contents of first three 
 books, application). 
 
 Supplement of grammar, ex- 
 ercises in editing. 
 
 Grammar (syntax) transla- 
 tions and exercises, con- 
 versation. 
 
 iupplement of arithmetic, 
 geometry (mensuration 
 and surveying). 
 
 Elements of general chem- 
 istry. 
 
 Elements of natural philo- 
 sophy, general properties 
 of bodies. 
 
 Materials, from whence de 
 rived, their qualities, their 
 use, hand tools. 
 
 Elements of general history 
 up to the modem times. 
 
 Geography of Asia, Africa, 
 America and Oceanica 
 (commerce and industry). 
 
 Free hand drawing, ele 
 ments of graphical draw 
 ing. 
 
 Chemicals in manufactur-" 
 ing, metallurgy. 
 
 Natural philoso()hy in 
 manufacturing applica- 
 tion. 
 
 Elementary parts of ma- 
 chines, process of fabri- 
 cation. 
 
 Elementary mechanics (ap- 
 plication). 
 
 Modem history (scientific 
 and manufacturing dis- 
 coveries). 
 
 Geography of Europe (com- 
 merce and industry). 
 
 Geometrical and industrial 
 drawings, free hand draw- 
 ings from models, archi- 
 tectural drawings. 
 
 Reports of the visits to the 
 workshops or manufac- 
 tories. 
 
 Elements of algebra and of 
 trigonometry, elements of 
 geometry in space (mea- 
 sure of volumes) usual 
 
 Supplement of natural phil- 
 osophy, and of chemistry. 
 
 Description of machines, 
 tools, steam engines, small 
 engines.. 
 
 Supplement to mechanics, 
 resistances of materials^ 
 
 Law 
 
 Free drawings of tools and 
 machinery, free hand 
 drawing from metal and 
 wooden models, architec- 
 tural drawings. 
 
 Elements of laws of custom. 
 
184 
 
 
 
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185 
 
 I should have terminated with the expiration of time by saying that a great part 
 of the recreation time is employed in gymnastics and the working ofa fire engine. 
 
 The ability of the masters is not to be judged by the lists of subjects taught. 
 The mode of collecting pupils has also an influence on the ultimate results, for the 
 age or the degree of instruction required, the gratuity, whether it is, or is not, allowed, 
 modify very perceptibly the staff taught. It is interesting also to note the conditions 
 required , to be admitted as pupils in the school of Villette. 
 
 No pupil is admitted before the age of thirteen years, nor after that of sixteen, 
 so that their new instruction shall follow their first teaching. 
 
 The candidates are admitted on the production of a certificate of study, or in 
 default, after an examination at the school, an examination comprising written and 
 oral proof. 
 
 The written examination comprises : 1st. The usual dictation in orthography. 
 2nd. Sums on the four fii'st rules of arithmetic, and the system of weights and 
 measures. 
 
 The oral examination comprises, reading with the meaning of words, questions 
 in grammar and arithmetic. 
 
 The instruction is entirely free, but the contributions being made in the City of 
 Paris, Parisians are admitted by preference, into the school; in any case, the candi- 
 dates are required, in imitation of the schools of arts and trades, to be French. 
 
 Not only does the school of Villette give free instruction but in an indirect way 
 it gives a small remuneration to its best pupils. 
 
 During the twelve hours that they pass at school, the pupils have a meal to take ; 
 they ca,n take it with them or take it at a canteen controlled by the school boai-d, in 
 consideration of the sum of $0.10, a sum somewhat less than the real value ; tickets 
 for breakfast are awarded to the best apprentices of the second and third year. 
 
 At the end of their third year, a certificate of apprenticeship is granted to the 
 pupils. No certificate even of attendance, is given to those who prematurely leave 
 the school. 
 
 "We are able, however, to prove that this premature departui-e of pupils from the 
 apprenticeship schools, that we have heard designated as stumbling clocks to their 
 future, is not of such proportion as to be alarming^ The following figures will give 
 some idea: 
 
 For the promotion of the third year there were actually 83 pupils, there were 
 110 pupils who began in the school, making a difference of 27 pupils, which is surely 
 not exorbitant, when we reflect that this deficit does not comprise, only those leaving 
 voluntarily, but also those that have left through neces8ity,death,sickness,dismissal,&c. 
 
 According to the books of the school, the annual expenses amount to about 
 $14,000, but these figures are not altogether correct; we must deduct the work of the 
 apprentices, which by reason of the mode of book-keeping adopted in this case by the 
 city of Paris, is not entered as receipts. The school of Villette has not only a good 
 organization, an enlightened direction, it has success which does not always accom- 
 pany the best conducted works. It is above all that which we must endeavor to 
 retain. 
 
 We count 300 apprentices and it is want of space alone, that prevents our giving 
 instruction to a greater number. 
 
 The results given by our teaching can now be appreciated and appear altogether 
 favorable. 
 
 The apprentices, 'from the time of their leaving the school, find work in the best 
 workshops on conditions exceptionally advantageous. They earn, from that time, 
 wages, that may be estimated at ten cents for every hour of work. Some receive as 
 high as $0.15. 
 
 Thanks to an association of old pupils of the school, it is possible to better 
 appreciate the beneficial influence of the instruction given. "We can give an exact 
 statement of the position which the old pupils hold in the trades they have chosen. 
 The school of Villette have produced skilful workmen and good foremen. 
 
186 
 
 The results obtained must have been very remarkable to enable us to report the 
 following fact, which, in its simplicity, has an importance which we do not fail to 
 recognize. 
 
 Those who, from the beginning, showed themselves the most decided adversaries 
 of the schools of apprenticeship, and who were most to be dreaded, are now their 
 protectors. They Syndical Chamber, composed of men who, for some years past, were 
 best able to appreciate the workmen produced by the school of Villette, now give to 
 this institution their strongest support by giving prizes to the most deserving 
 pupils. 
 
 MUNICIPAL SCHOOL ESTIENNE. 
 
 TECHNICAL SCHOOL OP BOOK-MAKING. 
 
 The Municipal School of Estienne has for its object the formation of skilled and 
 able workmen for the book-making industry. 
 
 The instruction is free. Breakfast tickets are given in the school. 
 
 The pupils are day scholars. They go to school at eight o'clock in the morning 
 and leave at six in the evening. The studies last for three years. 
 
 During the first year the pupils go through all the workshops of the, school ; at 
 the end of the first year they are divided according to their ability, known to the 
 Committee of the School, into the workshops where they serve their apprenticeship. 
 
187 
 
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188 
 
 TECHNICAL MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OP FUENITUEB, PAEIS. 
 
 The object of the school is to form, skilled andS educated workmen capable of 
 maintaining, for taste and superiority, French industry. 
 
 The list of studies includes technical and primary instruction. 
 
 The technical instruction comprises the principal trades of furniture making. 
 
 Ist. Cabinet making. 2nd. Upholstering, 3rd. Carving in wood. 4th. Chair 
 making. 5th, Turning in wood, plaster and metal, &c. 
 
 The list of primary subjects comprise : — 
 
 1st. ■ Drawing plans. 2nd. Drawing at sight. 3i'd. Modelling. 4th. History of 
 art. 5th. Technology. 6th. Geometry. 7th. Arithmetic. 8th. French. 9th. History 
 and Geography. 
 
 The pupils are day scholars ; the school gives breakfast and luncheon free ; the 
 instruction is given without charge. 
 
 The time of apprenticeship is four years. 
 
 The iirst year the apprentices pass their time equally among each of the work- 
 ahops. 
 
 The second year they are distributed according to their examinations and 
 aptitude, among the different workshops, where they will finish their apprenticeship. 
 
 A certificate of technical study shall be given to each apprentice who completes 
 his fourth year of apprenticeship and who gives satisfactory proof of his knowledge 
 at the final examination. 
 
 Prizes, on leaving, are awarded to the most skilful. 
 
 Pupils are chosen by means of competition. 
 
 The competition comprises two proofs : — 
 
 1st. A design for an ornament from a relief. 2nd. A composition in French on 
 some simple subject. 
 
 Only candidates between 12 and 17 years of age are allowed to compete. 
 
 CITY OF EOUEK. 
 
 TECHNICAL MUNICIPAL SCHOOL AND HOUSE-KEEPING FOR YOUNG GIRLS. 
 
 The technical and house-keeping school for young girls which was instituted by 
 the City of Eouen, in the building bequeathed for that purpose by Madame de Saint 
 Hilaire, has for its object the instruction of young girls in eveiy branch of sewing, 
 ■cutting and making clothing, and linen garments, ironing and house-keeping. 
 
 The apprenticeship extends over three years. 
 
 Six hours a day are given to workman's work. 
 
 The organisation of the school allows the pupil apprentices to complete their 
 primary education on necessary subjects and to get some ideas of the laws of health 
 and domestic economy. 
 
 They also receive lessons in drawing to assist them in the art of cutting out 
 clothing and linen goods, and some knowledge of lace making and embroidery. 
 
 In order to teach the pupils house-keeping and cooking ten pupil apprentices 
 are chosen in time to prepare and cook the mid-day meal at the expense of the school. 
 
 The technical school and home for young girls is free. 
 
 The workshops of the school can work either for customers, or for the City. 
 
 The mistresses receive no profit from the work. 
 
 The wages paid for the work. shall belong one part to the City, and the other 
 to the pupil apprentices. 
 
 The portion i everting to the City shall be employed for the improvement and 
 development of the institution. The amount coming to the children shall be used, 
 on consultation with the families, towards the personal wants of the children. The 
 division of the wages should be regulated by the mayor on the adaice of the Council 
 of Superintendence. 
 
189 
 
 CITY OF ST. BTIBNNjE* 
 
 The technical school of St. Etienne was established by the City, who paid all 
 the cost, and supports it. It is in reality a school of apprenticeship. 
 
 The trades taught are: 1st. Adjusting. 2nd. Gmnsmithing. 3rd. Forging. 
 4th. Founder's. 5th. Joiner's. 6th. Weaving. 7th. Dyeing. 8th. Modelling and 
 Sculpture. 
 , The school and its outfit cost $115,000. It can hold 200 pupils. 
 
 In 1888 they had 200 pupils, and the expenses came to $14,000, being $50 per 
 pupil. 
 
 The instruction is free and several pupils receive scholarships. 
 
 TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. 
 
 The technical school has for its object the instruction of young girls, and to 
 teach them work suited to their condition — work which they will have to practice 
 later, either in their capacity of housekeeper in the family, or as a means of exist- 
 ence. The curriculum comprises two distinct parts, though slightly connected. 
 
 Ist. A classical instruction intended to complete the knowledge acquired in the 
 primary schools. 
 
 2nd. A special instruction to prepare the pupils for the following trades : — 
 
 1st. For commerce by special courses in French, accounts, commercial law^ the 
 modern languages, and writing. 
 
 2nd. For manual trades for apprenticeship, from which the pupils are dis- 
 tributed among the workshops for dress-making, plain sewing, ironing and embroid- 
 ery. These workshops are directed by special mistresses. 
 
 Moreover, the young girls who are not destined for work girls, are taught each 
 week, during several hours, the usual work necessary to their education, such as 
 dressmaking, mending, ironing, and domestic economy. 
 
 The length of study is two years. 
 
 Only those children who have a certificate of primary study are admitted to the 
 technical school. 
 
 CITY OF SEDAJSr. 
 
 MUNICIPAL SCHOOL 0¥ WEAVING. 
 
 Origin. — In 1881 a crisis fell upon all the manufacturing centres of the woollen 
 trade, of which the consequences were the more disastrous, as they were prolonged 
 for many years. 
 
 The City of Sedan was no exception, but sufifered with the rest. All at once 
 business became paralyzed. The spinning mills were unoccupied, and with them 
 the numerous workmen attached to them. Three-fourths of the weavers by hand 
 were idle, and whole villages were without work. 
 
 It was under these sad circumstances that the municipality called together, at 
 the City Hall, the manufacturers to devise some means to struggle against the mis- 
 fortunes with which our industry was afllicted. 
 
 All answered to the call, the examination into the general causes would have 
 produced no result, and they were compelled to confine their enquiries as to the 
 failure of the local trade. At first Sedan produced large quantities of goods in plain 
 web for which there was no demand, the demand was for (le tissus fagonn^) web of 
 figured surface. At this period the making of web of figured surface was the privi- 
 lege of a few workmen only, who had made special studies, and to a few foremen 
 instructed by them. 
 
 It became necessary to devise some means of extending this branch of instruc- 
 tion, and for this purpose a school was opened free to all, the municipality providing 
 the building and paying all expenses. 
 
 *Chief town of the Department of the Loire, 124,000 inhabitants. 
 
190 
 
 This motion was unanimously approved of, and during the meeting six mem- 
 bers of the commission of direction were elected. 
 
 Opening. — The school opened on the 1st October, 1881, and numbers of pupils 
 entered their names. They imagined that the instruction on weaving required as 
 little application as work, and consequently there were desertions. Twenty-five alone 
 persevered. 
 
 Number of Pupils.— In 1882, 20 ; 1883, 22 ; 1884, 26 ; 1885, 31 ; 1886, 38 ; 188Y, 
 43; 1888, 52; 1889, 50. 
 
 Organization. — The course comprise three years, the theoretic portion is studied 
 in the evening of each day. 
 
 For practice every day the pupils had the choice of twenty looms under the 
 guidance of a special foreman for weaving. 
 
 Competition. — Competitions took place every three months; the work of the 
 pupils was corrected by the professor and examined by the commission of direction. 
 A certain number of points was given to each pupil, and the addition of these at the 
 end of the year, assisted in the preparation of the table of prizes. 
 
 Distribution of Frizes. — The prizes consisted of medals accompanied by diplomas. 
 
 Staff. — A professor, a foreman weaver, a laborer as guardian. 
 
 Expenses. — The amount of expenses varies from $1,700 to $1,800 covered by the 
 municipal budget, which for the last three years receives from the Minister of Com- 
 merce an annual subsidy of $400. 
 
 Results. — The services rendered by the school is shown by the always increasing 
 number of pupils, and by the number of foremen employed by the factoi-y. 
 
 General Considerations. — If we examine the quality of the pupils that follow 
 these courses, we see only the masters and the sons of masters, the very young peo- 
 ple are rare. On the other hand the weaving workmen form the largest number 
 and display diligence, truly remarkable. Many of them after their day's work leave 
 their villages in the evening, to be present at the courses of instruction. Being of 
 the ages from 22 to 25, they generally possess a good primary education. 
 
 On their departure from the school, if a place offers, they are sure to get the 
 preference. If there is not, they return to their trade, but they have not long to 
 wait. 
 
 In conclusion nearly all the plain weavers earning irregularly $15 a month, find 
 employment paying regularly according to merit, $25 30 and gven $60. Thus it is, 
 that while our work benefits the trade, it also contributes to improve the lot of the 
 workman who endeavors to instruct and elevate himself. 
 
 Particular results. — From the industrial point of view, the school, by its method 
 of teaching the making and unmaking of the tissues, prepares good samplers, 
 capable of inventing new stuffs that make the name of a city. The great variety of 
 stuffs displayed, at our exposition, superabundantly show the object we are following. 
 Our work only applies to weaving, but, it is perhaps the most productive. One 
 subject well understood seems preferable to a multitude of sciences, particularly when 
 we have to deal with the working class. If a workman is to become a foreman- 
 weaver, teach him weaving, if he wishes to be a dyer, teach him dyeing and nothing 
 else. Apprenticeship has disappeared before technical instruction. Apprenticeship 
 tends to learning a special branch of a trade. At the beginning we stated that our 
 work was patriotic, to-day we can add that it is essentially democratic. 
 
 SOCIETY OF THE OEPHAIsTAGE OP JEWELLEES. WATCHMAKBES, GOLD- 
 SMITHS, AND INDUSTEIBS CONNECTED WITH THEM. 
 
 Paris. 
 
 The object of the Society is to come to the aid of the children of its titular 
 members, when deprived of their natural protectors. 
 
 They come to their help, they put them to nurse, they support them during 
 their first years, they bind them as apprentices, they exercise over them a care- 
 ful watch, and an assured protection until the end of their engagement. 
 
191 
 
 To be titular members it is necessary : 
 1st. To follow one of the following trades : 
 
 2nd. To be presented by two members of the Society and acceptedby the Council 
 of Administration. 
 
 3rd. To pay a fee of admission of $0.20 and a monthly assessment of which the 
 minimum is $0.10. 
 
 Evei-y member changing his trade may continue to form part of the Society. 
 On the 1st June, 1889, the society numbered : 
 
 Lady patronesses 114 
 
 Honorary members , 304 
 
 Titular members 587 
 
 1,005 
 The receipts in 1888 were $4,100 and the expenses $2,900. 
 The institution raised, instructed and watched over 55 orphans, workingmen's 
 children. 
 
 SOCIETY FOE THE PEOTBCTION OP APPEBNTICBS AND CHILDEBN IN 
 THE MANUFACTOEIES, PAEIS. 
 
 Statutes of the Society. 
 
 Ai"ticle 1. — The object of the society is to improve the condition of apprentices 
 and children employed in the manufactories, and wljilst respecting the liberty of 
 trade and .the authority of parents, to use every means to carry out the spirit of the 
 laws on apprenticeship and the labor of children in the manufactories. 
 
 Ai't. 13. The revenues are applied : 
 
 Ist. In the publication of a paper destined to make known all facts relative to 
 the condition of the labor of children employed in trades in France or elsewhere. 
 
 2nd. To help, encourage, and point out, by rewards, all those who have directly 
 assisted, advised or instructed those children employed in the large and small indus- 
 tries, as well as all those who have co-operated for the same, and by an invention or 
 publication, or by giving a prize to be competed for by appi-entices or by special 
 donation. 
 
 10th feast of the working children. 
 
 I/ist of prizes to be awarded in 1890 — Term 1888-1890. 
 
 The Society for the Protection of Apprentices and Children .Employed in Manufac- 
 tories, in solenan council, reward those persons who, by their solicitude for the 
 apprentices, have aided this work, or foremen or forewomen who have, given their 
 care and attention to the children under their charge, and finally, the apprentices 
 whose conduct and morality are irreproachable. 
 It awards : 
 
 Ist. Special mention of thanks. 
 2nd. Medals of silver-gilt, silver and bronze. 
 3rd. Prizes in money and books on the saving's bank. 
 The different prize winners are grouped tn the following manner : ' 
 
 /. Charitable Institutions. 
 
 FOUNDED FOR THE OBJECT OF INSTRUCTING AND ASSISTING THE APPRENTICES GIRLS AND 
 BOYS, AND OF TEACHING THEM MORALITT. 
 
 Patronage, Orphan Asylums, Technical Schools, Board of Apprentices, &c., and 
 this without distinction of religion. 
 
192 
 
 II. Manufacturing Institutions. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS WHO ARE DISTINGUISHED FOB THEIR CARE OP THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL 
 WELL-BEING OF THEIR APPRENTICES AND YOUNG WORKMEN. 
 
 1st Class — Includes manufacturers and business men who have founded in their 
 establishments, institutions to facilitate apprenticing; to ensure their health and edu- 
 cation, general, special and professional, and also the morality and future of young 
 workmen. 
 
 2nd Class — Including the business men who, without having created institutions 
 or organised in their workshops permanent means of instruction, general or special, 
 are remarkable for personal solicitude and attention with regard to apprentices or 
 young workmen. 
 
 3rd Class. — Including business men and masters by whom the contract of 
 apprcnticship is honestly and usefully carried out for the benefit of the young appren- 
 tices and who carefully watch over the well-being of the young workmen. 
 
 4th Class. — Including the persons and associations not connected with business, 
 who by devotion to children and young workmen, have, as assistants, helped business 
 men with works for the benefit of apprentices. 
 
 III. Foremen or Forewomen. 
 
 WHO HAVE DISPLAYED A HIGH DEGREE OF INTELLIGENCE AND DEVOTION, TOWARDS THE 
 CHILDREN IN THEIR CHARGE, AND TO WHOM THEY ARE BOUND TO TEACH THEIR TRADE. 
 
 Exhibits to be Produced by the Candidates. — 1st A certificate of good life and 
 conduct, issued by the administrative body. 2nd. A statement setting forth the merits 
 of the candidate and the number of years' service, addressed by the master who em- 
 ploys him, or by a member of the Society directly. 
 
 IV. Apprentices and Children Employed in Manufactories. 
 
 BANK-BOOKS OF DIFFERENT VALUE AND MEDALS AND MENTION WILL BE AWARDED. 
 
 1st. To apprentices under the protection of Patronages, Aid Societies, Profes- 
 sional schools and business men, who have distinguished themselves by their ability 
 at their business, and by their constant good conduct. 
 
 2nd. To former apprentices now become workmen in the establishment in which 
 they were apprentices. 
 
 Certificates to be produced. — A certificate of the candidate's merits, his name and 
 surname, age, years of work, &c., addressed to the society by the master to whom he 
 is engaged, or directly by a member ot the society. 
 
 Special prizes awarded by Joint Committees. 
 
 1. PRIZE FOR LEGAL ASSISTANCE BRANCH. 
 
 A medal of honor, in recognition of legal services, given in the interests of children 
 and apprentices employed in factories. 
 
 Protection, in the courts, of the interests of children injured by accidents, &c. 
 
 2. PRIZE FOR THE SOCIETIES OF PATERNAL ASSISTANCE. 
 
 A medal of honor to the Society of Paternal Assistance which has given the most 
 effective help to develop the technical education of apprentices of both sexes. 
 
 3. PRIZE FOR THE ACCIDENT INSURANCE COMMITTEE OF THE ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 Prize No. 1. — A silver-gilt medal and a special mention for a complete study on 
 engines or motive power, in view of the accidents they may occasion and the means 
 of remedying them. 
 
 Prize JSTo. 2. — A silver medal to any manufacturer who, by means of apparatus, 
 or isolation, or coverings, has lessened the chances of accidents occurring through 
 the motive power. 
 
193 
 
 Prize No. 3. — A silver medal to any manufacturer who, during the course of the 
 yeav, has placed guai-ds over the leather bands of the machines in his factory. 
 
 Prize No. i. — A silver-gilt medal and a special mention for any invention, and it» 
 application, by which accidents from circular saws may be prevented. 
 
 Prize No. 5. — A silver medal for a study on circular saws, and on the establish' 
 ments in Paris in which they are used. 
 
 The essay to be divided into two parts : 1st., the technical ; 2nd., the statistical. 
 
 Prize No. 6. — A silver medal to any establishment who, having used circular 
 saws, has, during the year, substituted others less dangerous. 
 
 Prize No. 7. — A silver-gilt medal and mention for any iiwention or improvement 
 intended to prevent accidents in any factory whatsoevei-, in which children are em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Prize No. 8. — A silver-gilt medal with or without a premium in money, to any 
 director of an establishment, foreman, workman or other person by whose means 
 any special improvement for the prevention of accidents, is made. 
 
 Prize No. 9. — A silver medal to all masters who have protected and received 
 into their workshops mutilated children recommended by the accident committee of 
 the establishment. 
 
 Prize No. 10. — A silver medal and special mention for any important improve- 
 ment in agricultural implements by which they become less dangerous. 
 
 Prize No. 11. — A silver medal with special mention for any essay on the nature 
 and frequency of accidents caused by agricultural implements. 
 
 4. prize for female teachers, by charity. 
 
 A medal of honor will be awarded any teacher (female) — laywoman or belonging 
 to a congregation — who is recognized as having especially devoted herself to the 
 primary teaching of apprentices in a workshop course. 
 
 5. Prize of the Library Committee. 
 Silver or bronze medals, with or without gifts in money, will be awarded : 
 
 1st. To works of education or primary and professional instruction for appren- 
 tices and childien employed in factories ; 
 
 2nd. To authors of literary and scientific works written with a view to instruct 
 and elevate the morality of children in workshops. 
 
 Besides the influence the society exercises in virtue of its grants, of the prizes 
 it awards, of its spread throughout all the industries of Fi'ance, improving the 
 physical and moral condition of apprentices and children employed in factories, it 
 has established a number of committees, the list of which we believe it would be 
 useful to place before our readers, giving at the same time a short sketch of their 
 special functions and nature. 
 
 1. Legal committee. 
 
 French and foreign legislation, legal assistance, apprenticeship contracts, civil status, 
 
 guardians, subrogated guardians. 
 
 The Legal Committee offers its services gratuitously to interested parties with 
 a view to conciliation and mediatory intervention between apprentices and masters. 
 Deeds of apprenticeship, and accidents in the factory frequently beget difficulties of 
 this kind. 
 
 It gives a special care to protecting the interests of abandoned children, procur- 
 ing their civil status and choosing guardians, and superintends the forming of 
 family councils for orphan apprentices. 
 
 2. COMMITTEE FOR SOCIETIES OF PATERNAL ASSISTANCE OR INDUSTRIAL PATRONAaES. 
 
 The protection society has already given' rise to paternal assistance societies, for 
 children in many Parisian industries ; it is desirous that no industry, in which 
 20—13 
 
19i 
 
 children are employed, should be a stranger to the movement so happily begun and 
 which has already borne such excellent fruit. Colored paper factories, feathers and 
 flowers, cabinet-making, publishing and printing, jewellery, and packing have 
 all given an example sure to be followed. Careful protection of apprentices, super- 
 intendence of their education, the founding of schools and special courses of study, 
 establishing of competitive examinations with important prizes are among the 
 means made use of by these societies, capable of comprising the most diverse organ- 
 izations ; they unite masters in the same industry, in one same charitable and moral 
 work which, if everywhere practised, would suffice to effect an important improve- 
 ment in the condition of children of the working class. 
 
 3. COMMITTEE OF LIBRARIES, PUBLICATIONS, AND TEACHING. 
 
 Establishment of libraries for apprentices ; exchange of reports between the libraries 
 
 of the work. 
 
 Whilst devoting its attention and care to the physical condition of children, the 
 protection society should, at the same time, watch with the greatest care, over their 
 moral development. It has been proved that very frequently a praiseworthy desire 
 for serious reading exists among apprentices who have no means of gratifying the 
 taste from total want or insufficiency of books. The committee of libraries and pub- 
 lications notes the want, and draws public attention to books written in the interest 
 of the working classes, rewards the author, and by the help of subscriptions, gifts, 
 &c., collects or purchases insti'uctive works, which it distributes everywhere there 
 are apprentices. It has also established many libraries and distributed thousands of 
 good works. There are in Prance numbers of charitable institutions that period- 
 ically publish reports, &c. These publications often contain excellent ideas of a remark- 
 ably practical nature and which it is very important, should be generally known in 
 order to ensure their application. The committee of exchange of pamphlets, reports, 
 &c., strives to centralize these publications, to distribute them afterwards among the 
 institutions. By this, each one profits by the work of all, and useful ideas are spread 
 and applied everywhere. This work has done much to advance institutions estab- 
 lished everywhei'e in France in favor of children of the working class. 
 
 4. COMMITTEE OF ACCIDENTS IN THE FACTORY. 
 
 The committee examines all means and newly invented apparatus noted, in 
 Prance and. in foreign parts, as likely to prevent or lessen accidents from machinery 
 and to spread the knowledge of the process of rendering certain manufactures less 
 dangerous. In the report of its labors given in the bulletin, it states the precise 
 sources of information to be consulted and the information to be sought on any special 
 point. It establishes competitive examinations and rewards for the invention and 
 improvement of means to prevent serious accidents ; besides its special examinations, 
 prizes are also awarded to foremen, workmen and others who nave discovered any 
 means of preventing the cause of accidents. 
 
 The committee assumes the protection of apprentices who are the victims of 
 accidents in the factory or workshop, and who claim its assistance, and constantly 
 maintains a paternal watchfulness over them. In the event of an apprentice I'equiring 
 any artificial help, from the results of an accident, the society procures one for him. 
 Having made enquii-ies as to the ability and education of the apprentice, the com- 
 mittee gives its advice, to the parents or guardians, as to the choice of a trade to be 
 made for him, and it, moreover, assures him its help to complete his elementary 
 studies or to procure him a good place. 
 
 5. COMMITTEE FOR PLACING APPRENTICES. 
 
 (Offer and demands ; help; beds for apprentices, &c.) 
 
 Families may enter at the agency of the society their demands for work, 
 or apprenticing their children. (The children should be provided with the 
 
195 
 
 documents prescribed by articles 9 and 10 of the law of 19th May, 1874; certificate 
 of primary instruction, verified by the mayor and by his book.) Offers from manu- 
 facturers to take apprentices are received with eagerness. (Experience has proved 
 that one of the difficulties met with, in placing apprentices, arises from the matter of 
 the apprentices bed and bedding ; the manufacturer does not want w assume the 
 charge, and the family is often too poor to procure it themselves. In certain cases 
 the society may provide the entire bedding, and thus assist in apprenticing the child, 
 also in improving his physical condition, and frequently — by this means — prevents 
 a poor child fi-om being deprived of apprenticeship in the trade he has cliosen. At 
 the same time the superintendence of the child's bed permits a greater watchfulness 
 over his apprenticeship, which generally produces the best results.) 
 
 6. COMMITTEE OF THE PATRONAGE OF CHILDREN OF FOREIGN BIRTH. 
 
 French industry is justly famous in foreign parts, and children are often sent to 
 France to Berve their apprenticeship and then to carry back the technical knowledge 
 they have acquired. The patronage superinteds and watches over these foreign 
 children, and ensures their learning their trade. 
 
 ASSOCIATION FOE APPEENTICING AND PATEONAGE OF OEPHANS 
 
 OF BOTH SEXES, PAEIS. 
 
 Object of the Association. 
 
 The object of this association is to procure, for pauper orphans of both sexes: 
 1st, apprenticeship to a trade, according to their choice and ability ; 2nd, instruc- 
 tion suitable to their intelligence and in conformity with the law of May 10th, 1874, 
 on the employment of children and girls, minors, in manufactories ; 3rd, a moral 
 and religious education, in accordance with the religion of their parents. 
 
 It patronizes and takes under its direction from the age of twelve, and without 
 distinction of religion or nationality : 
 
 1st, pauper children of both sexes who have lost both father and mother, or 
 their father alone ; 2nd, children who have lost their mother, and whose father has 
 long since abandoned them or who might cori-upt them by his example, or who is 
 unable to bring them up ; 3rd, childreu whose father has been convicted on a serious 
 charge and whose detention will be, at least, as long as the supposed length of the 
 applicant's apprenticeship; 4th, childi-en whose father is acknowledged to be incur- 
 able, and who, as such, is in an hospital or in a lunatic asylum, the mother being 
 dead or in indigence ; 5th, children whose father has for some time disappeared, and 
 of whom nothing has been heard, the mother of his family being in indigence, or 
 when the mother herself has disappeared and the father is unable to bring up the 
 children ; 6th, children who, from peculiar circumstances, may be considered as 
 orphans. 
 
 Any child admitted to the patronage is immediately apprenticed under the 
 direction and superintendence of a member of the association. 
 
 The care of patrons and patronesses is devoted to seeing that : — 
 
 Ist. That their prot^g^s are provided with all necessaries of bedding, clothing, 
 underclothing and shoes ; 
 
 2nd. That they attend school regularly ; 
 
 3rd. That they acquire habits of order, cleanliness and politeness; 
 
 4th. That during the apprenticeship both masters and children fulfil their duties 
 and obligations. 
 
 Besides, commissioners are named by the association, who, tw^ice a week, make a 
 visit of inspection of all the children under its patronage placed by it in apprentice- 
 ship. 
 
 20— ISi 
 
196 
 
 WOEKSHOPS FOE APPEENTIOES, DIEBOTBD BY MONS. L'ABBE 
 
 BOISAED, LYONS* 
 
 The thought that suggested the founding of the workshops for apprentices^ 
 directed by Mons. L'Abb^ Boisard, was inspired by the twofold misery of children 
 of the populace, moral misery and industrial misery. Their moral misery is known 
 to all. A pauper child of thirteen is unable to guide himself, nor to resist the 
 temptations and influence of his wicked companions, nor the example of pei-verted 
 workmen whom he must inevitably meet. He thus loses all idea of religion or 
 morality. 
 
 Industrial misery. There is no more apprenticing. The smaller industries 
 employ message boys, under the name of apprentices message boys, who enter for 
 two years, and see the men work, whilst they put the workshop to rights. They 
 themselves rarely work. 
 
 In the larger industries with their machines, there is scarcely any chance for 
 apprentices, and in any case they can only become specialists when they are any- 
 thing more than simple assistants. 
 
 Mons. L'Abb^ Boisard tries, by every means at his command, to guard against 
 this twofold misery in forming apprentices capable at their business and brought up 
 in a Christian mannei'. 
 
 Means to attain the object first mentioned. Mons. L'Abbd Boisai'd, following 
 religious tradition, has given the children a moral life as strong as it is free. It is 
 precisely this liberty that gives the work the success it has attained. 
 
 For the second object, that is, to impart a complete and thorough technical edu- 
 cation ; thei'e are two workshops where able workmen work with the apprentices. 
 > These latter are emploj^ed at useful work and are constantly striving by the necessity 
 of doing their best ; this necessity imposed by customers and by competition is also an 
 important factor in the education of young apprentices. The best kind of work 
 in each branch taught, is done before and with them. 
 
 It must be noted that about thirty apprentices are given, by the kindness of 
 others, a large remuneration in accordance with their industry and their good-will ; 
 the remuneration is such that after five years apprenticeship they can leave with 
 1200 or $300 savings, their tools and their trade. 
 
 SOCIETY FOE THE PATEONAGE OF APPEBNTICES AND WOEKMBN OF 
 ISEAELITE EXTEACTION OF PAEIS. 
 
 School for Labor. 
 
 The school for labor was founded by the Patronage Society in 1867. It has an 
 indoor school whose object is to elevate the morality of orphans, forsaken children, 
 and those whose parents have no means of existence, in order to teach them a trade, 
 by means of which, they may earn an honorable livelihood, and complete their 
 education by means of a night school which is held throughout the year from eight 
 to ten o'clock. 
 
 Admittance is free, subject to the following conditions : The child must be 13 
 years of age, healthy in body and mind, be possessed of a certain primary education 
 and belong to the class of children named in the preceding paragraph. A generous 
 benefactor donated in 1875 ten pensions intended specially for children of Alsace- 
 Lorraine parentage who fulfil the conditions of admission. 
 
 The number of indoor pupils is sixty, who are lodged, fed, and kept at the 
 expense of the society. To assist in apprenticing other children who do not fulfil 
 the required conditions for admittance as indoor apprentices, or on account of want 
 of space, cannot be admitted; it accepts a number of outdoor pupils, forty-four in 
 number. These latter are given a monthly assistance varying in amount from $1 to 
 
 * Report of the Committee for the Department of the Rhone. 
 
197 
 
 $3, receive a fall suit of clothes, and are apprenticed under the same conditions as 
 the indoor apprentices. They are bound to follow the complete courses of the school 
 of labor. 
 
 The greatest circumspection is observed, the child's physical and moral aptitude 
 taken into consideration, and all possible information collected as to the ability and 
 respectability of the master. The child is taken on trial for a fortnight in order to 
 discover what trade suits him, and what are his abilities for the one chosen. The 
 indentures are signed only after this period. 
 
 The children are not lost sight ot, even when apprenticed ; the director and dele- 
 agates from the committee frequently visit the different workshops. 
 
 Each pupil is provided with a printed account-book, in which, the master enters 
 «very week, notes and observations on the apprentice. This book is presented to, and 
 examined by the director. 
 
 The usual duration of an apprenticeship is three and a-half or four years. 
 
 The young men are not left to their own devices when the apprenticeship is 
 done. The Patronage Society makes it a dut^' to keep sight of them, assist them 
 with advice, and sometimes with its means. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1889, the Committee had apprenticed 104 men, of whom 
 ■60 are indoor pupils, and 44 outdoor. 
 
 PEOTESTANT SOCIETY OP LABOR, FOUNDED IIST 1868. 
 
 TO PROPAGATE THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPPLYING GRATUITOUSLY, SITUATIONS TO 
 EMPLOYEES, WORKMEN AND APPRENTICES. 
 
 [Paris.] 
 
 The Protestant Society of Labor was founded in 1868 by manufacturers, mer- 
 chants, &c. Its object is to intervene in a friendly way between manufacturers and 
 merchants in need of accountants, employees, correspondents, cashiers, agents, gov- 
 ernesses, saleswomen and clerks, workmen, &c.| and persons in search of employ- 
 ment or work. 
 
 The society's intervention is friendly and gratuitous ; it is given irrespective of 
 religion to all requiring it. 
 
 Its aim is specially to secure to masters, respectable and industrious workmen. 
 
 In order to attain this result the Committee exacts from all applicants a certifi- 
 •cate, and proofs of good conduct, from the time of their beginning their career of 
 labor. The information sought from masters concerning the applicants before their 
 names are inscribed on the books, includes their ability, their honestj' and their 
 conduct. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 
 
 TO DEVELOP POPULAR EDUCATION IN PARIS. 
 
 " 59th Year of Existence.'' 
 
 The Polytechnic Association is one of the oldest, due to private enterprise, 
 in France, and devoted to popular gratuitous instruction. In 1816 a small number 
 •of former members of the Polytechnic School, opened a course of public instruction 
 in favor of workmen. In 1824, Baron Charles Dupin inaugurated at the Arts and 
 Trades Conservatory (Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers) " a course of instruction in 
 applied science, in favor of the industrial class, at an hour when they have finished 
 their labor in the workshops." Auguste Comte, in 1825, attempted to establish 
 analogous institutions in the Provinces. In 1826, at Metz again, Messrs. Bergery, 
 Poncelet, Bardin and Woisard, former pupils of the Polytechnic School, organized a 
 night class, in which was taught geometry, mechanics, physics, chemistry, grammar 
 and political economy. 
 
198 
 
 After the Eevolution in 1830 former pupils of the Polytechnic School gave in- 
 instruction at the itinerant hospital of St. Cloud, to the wounded and convalescent, 
 patients of the days of July. Finally, at the orangery of the Louvre, on the occas- 
 ion of a banquet given by the other members of the Polytechnic School to their 
 young comrades, all their isolated efforts were regularly organized as a whole. 
 
 The Polytechnic Association was founded for the purpose of spreading among 
 the laboring population the primary elements of positive sciences, especially in their 
 application. 
 
 Impressed with the insufficiency of public instruction for the working class, and 
 convinced of the beneficent influence of education from a moral, political aud indus- 
 trial point of view, brave and generous men united their resources, their devotedness, 
 their knowledge, and founded the work around which have since gathered so many 
 eminent men. 
 
 Ever since 1830 the Palytechnic Association has pursued its crusade against 
 ignorance, amidst political changes and social crisis, it has ever been faithful to its 
 task and to its noble traditions. 
 
 In the beginning it taught but about twenty courses in one centre, the Cloth 
 Market, and later at the St." Johns Hall in the City Hall (Hotel de Ville) ; it radiates 
 now over many industrial and commercial centres. It counts 21 sections in Paris 
 and several groups in,8uburban commercial districts. It has organized, and patronizes 
 several similar societies in Paris and in the departments. The public and gratuitous 
 night courses are 450 in number, and their object is the spreading of useful, profes- 
 sional, and technical knowledge, and they constitute a complete course of general 
 instruction. They are intended for workingmen, and commercial and industrial 
 employees, for merchants and all who have neither time nor opportunity of studying 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Conferences and popular libraries are the completion of this institution, which 
 has rightly been called the workingman's Sorbonne * 
 
 The professors in the Polytechnic Association are recruited from all professions ; 
 they include engineers, former pupils from the Polytechnic School, or the Central 
 School, advocates, physicians, men of letters, artists, merchants, accountants, lecturers, 
 men in public places of trust, who united in a common devotion to progress bring to 
 this work of social reformation, their contingent of knowledge and devotedness. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION". 
 
 PARIS. 
 
 According to the first article of its Statutes the object of the Polytechnic Associ- 
 ation founded 29th March, 1848, is to give gratuitous instruction appropriate to their 
 professions, to adults of both sexes. 
 
 In this sense, the Association directs its essentially practical teaching and gives 
 certificates of study that are a confirmation of it. The certificates of study relate to 
 1, Commerce ; 2, Indust'-ial Arts ; 3, Mathematical Sciences ; 4, the Building art ; 5, 
 to teaching adult women (1st and 2nd degree) Y, Technical instruction. 
 
 The Polytechnic Association is composicd of professors and directors of courses; 
 of honorary members; of patrons, subscribers of $20 per year, or of one single pay- 
 ment of $200; of adherent members, subscribers of at least $1.00 per year. It is 
 honored by subscriptions from the Minister of Public instruction and Fine Arts, from 
 th e Minister of Commerce and Industry, and from the City of Paris. It includes among 
 its patron members, Mr. Carnot, President of the Eepublic, the Banque de France, 
 the Parisian Company for heating and lighting by gas, the Credit Foncier of France, 
 the Parisian Board of Trade, &c., &c. Certain syndical chambers of masters and 
 workmen give their assistance in the technical courses. 
 
 The Polytechnic Association in 1848 possessed thirteen courses ; in 1857, thirty 
 courses ; 1879 the number reached 220 ; and now (1888-1889) it has 369 courses, to 
 
 * Sorbonne— -An establishment in Paris for public courses of instruction in science and letters. 
 
199 
 
 which may be added 34 supplementary courses. These 403 courses are divided 
 among 35 sections all situated in Paris. 
 
 The following is the average number of attendances for the course of 188'7-1888, 
 of pupils following the courses of the Association ; among this number are not 
 included those who assist at conferences or conversaziones it organizes. 
 
 NUMBER OF THE ATTENDANCE OF SCHOLARS FOR A WEEK. 
 
 8 Sections for adults (male) 
 
 During the 
 first month. 
 
 5245 
 2471 
 2144 
 
 General 
 average. 
 
 3342 
 1910 
 1860 
 
 Number 
 
 of courses. 
 
 158 
 
 7 Sections mixed 
 
 88 
 
 9 Sections for adults (female) 
 
 ]08 
 
 
 
 24 Sections. 
 
 Complementary courses 
 
 9860 
 
 111 
 
 7112 
 610 
 
 355 
 31 
 
 
 
 Total attendance for a week 
 
 1063Y 
 
 7122 
 
 385 
 
 
 
 The association gives certificates of study, to its scholars and school, rewards 
 awarded every year after the examinations at the end of the year. 
 
 PHILOMATHIC SOCIETY OF BOEDEAUX. 
 
 GRATUITOUS COURSES OF APPRENTICES AND OF ADULTS. 
 
 Its origin. — The Philomathic Society of Bordeaux was founded on the 5th 
 August, 1808. It succeeded a Society of the Museum of Public Instruction founded 
 in 1801, and which had been in like manner preceded by the Museum created in 
 1773, by Monsieur Dupr4 de Saint-Maur, intendant of Guinne, with the assistance of 
 the majority of the people of La Gironde. Without subvention of any kind the 
 Philomathic Society had at that time, for sole resource, the assessments of its members 
 fixed at six francs a year. 
 
 Its aim. — It was, from the outset, divided into sections, devoted to literatuie, to 
 the sciences, to music and to archaeology. It was a real academy, remaining strange 
 to none of the great events of its time. It used to organize, to the advantage of the 
 poor, balls and musical entertainments ; it instituted at Bordeaux long before the 
 creation of the present faculties, higher courses in literature and in science ; it 
 founded prizes to reward the authors of scientific discoveries, and of meritorious 
 musical compositions; it busied itself with all the great questions of agriculture, of 
 commerce, and of industry, which interested the Department, and on the subject of 
 of which it was consulted by the Administration, &c., &c. It was this institution, 
 moreover, which established in the Department the first silk-worm nurseries, 
 appointed gratuitous courses for the public in the winding of cocoons of silk, 
 founded classes of adults and of apprentices, which 'have had in our day so great a 
 development, and, in short, organized general exhibitions, of which the last, in 1882, 
 was destined to be the occasion of so brilliant a success. 
 
 Since the foundation, subsequent to its own, of various special societies, viz : 
 The Philharmonic Society, the Society of Agriculture, the Society of the Friends of 
 the Arts, the Philomathic Society has concentrated its efforts on the development 
 of instruction for the people, either by means of its lectures and discussions, or by 
 means of the exhibitions. 
 
 The society counts at the present time over 700 members, paying annually an 
 assessment of $8.00. It is recognised as an establishment of public utility by Imperial 
 decree of 27th July, 1850. 
 
 Its Budget.— The Philomathic Society has a budget of about $10,000. 
 
200 
 
 Independently of the assessment of its members, it has, to meet its expenses, the 
 allowances which it receives annually from the Minister of Commerce, from the 
 Department of the Gironde, from the Town of Bordeaux and from the Chamber of 
 Commerce of Bordeaux. These allowances reach together the figure of $3,600. The 
 Philomathic Society has also the disposal of the revenues from several legacies 
 which have been made to it at different periods of time, either by some of its mem- 
 bers, or by generous benefactors who were strangers to the society. 
 
 Its Glasses. — Pounded in 1839, the public and gratituous lectures of the Philo- 
 mathic Society, at first instituted in favor of adult men, were extended successively 
 to apprentices (1863), and to adult women (1866). Confined in the beginning to 
 to lessons in reading, writing, grammar and reckoning, then to some idea of history, 
 geography and accounts, they soon attained a greater development. 
 
 To-day, the subjects taught are the following : 
 
 1. Primary Instruction. — Beading, writing, grammar and arithmetic. 
 
 2. Commercial Instruction. — Accounts, commercial law, geography, and three 
 languages, English, German and Spanish. 
 
 3. Professional Instruction. — Algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, drawing of 
 machinery, architectural drawing, decorative drawing, designs of coach-building, 
 stone carving, wood cutting, joinery and carpentry, drawing and studies applied 
 to the decorative arts. 
 
 Finally, the Philomathic Society has quite recently instituted (1884) a course of 
 breaming with special application to marine engines, and (1885) a course in the 
 management and running of steam engines. 
 
 The public and gratuitous lectures of the Philomathic Society, the development 
 of which, has been especially directed, for several years,, towards technical and profes- 
 sional training, are at present (1888-9) attended by more than 2,700 pupils, namely: 
 134 apprentices, 1,774 adult men and 830 adult women. These scholars have like- 
 wise the advantage of a special library, the books of which are freely placed at their 
 disposal. 
 
 The professors who, at the outset, gave their co-operation gratuitously to the 
 Society, have, since 1842, received a slight indemnity. They are at present 34 in 
 number, of whom 4 are for the schools of apprentices, 23 for the courses of adult 
 men, and 7 for the classes of adult women. 
 
 The Director of the classes is a member of the Philomathic Society, whose part 
 in the work is entirely gratuitous. The present Director has been fulfilling the duties 
 altogether voluntarily, since 1870. 
 
 With the exception of the women's classes, which take place on Sflnday and 
 Thursday, in the afternoon, the courses are held in the evening at the professional 
 school, which the City of Bordeaux has also placed at the disposal of the Philomathic 
 Society for the courses of the higher school of commerce and industry. 
 
 Although the last institution, which was founded in 1874, by the City of Bor- 
 deaux, the Chamber of Commerce, the General Council and the Philomathic Society 
 has a special budget and a Council of Superintendence and of Improvement, composed 
 of delegates from the four above-mentioned bodies, it is nevertheless, under the direc- 
 tion of the Philomathic Society and managed by its Council. 
 
 Independently of its courses the Philomathic Society publishes an ofllcial report 
 of its labors, and for several years has organized every winter, public and free lec- 
 tures for which it engages the men most esteemed in arts, literature, science and in- 
 dustry, and to which it invites all the public of Bordeaux. These meetings, which are 
 frequently illustrated by means of the electric light,have met with the greatest success. 
 
 THE PHONE SOCIETY OP PPOPESSIOlSrAlj TEAINING. 
 
 This Society was founded in 1864, at Lyons, with the object of establishing 
 courses for adults and especially technical courses for workingmen, apprentices and 
 clerks. 
 
201 
 
 In 1888 the Society organized at Lyons, 291 courses, to wit : 181 courses for men 
 and 110 courses for ladies, and mixed courses. 
 
 These courses were frequented by 5,847 pupils, they took place from 8 to 10 
 o'clock in the evening, and 49 different subjects were taught there. 
 
 The Society's classes are not entirely free, every pupil is obliged to pay an 
 entrance fee of 60 cents. Once admitted the scholar has no more to pay during the 
 year. 
 
 At the end of the year prizes are awarded to the most deserving pupils. 
 
 The expenses for the school year 1887-88 amounted to $17,875. 
 
 "EMULATION DIEPPOISB." ' 
 
 Course in Industrial, Artistic and Professional Drawing. 
 
 STATUTES. 
 
 Gomposition of the Society. 
 
 Art. 1. A society has been established at Dieppe with the object of popularizing 
 the study of professional and artistic drawing, and of causing its principles to be ap- 
 plied to the handiwork of apprentices, in various occupations. This Society takes 
 the title of " Society Industrielle dite Emulation Dieppoise." 
 
 ^:^ Art. 2. It is composed of honorary members, who by their services, gifts or sub- 
 scriptions contribute to the prosperity of the Association without participating in its 
 advantages. 
 
 2. Of associate members participating in the advantages of the society and pay- 
 ing assessment. 
 
 COURSES. 
 
 Art. 7. The classes meet every evening from the first Monday in October to the 
 1 ast Saturday in June, from 8 to 10 o'clock. 
 
 The scholars are admitted at eleven years of age, to the course in drawing, and at 
 thirteen years of age, to the course of manual work, where they can remain to eighteen 
 years of age as apprentices. 
 
 ASSESSMENTS. 
 
 Art. 8. The assessment of honorary members is fixed at $2.40. 
 
 The participant members (i.e., pupils) pay an assessment of 20 cents a month dur- 
 ing the course. 
 
 These associate members are, moreover, obliged to deposit an assessment of 20 
 cents as admission fee. The Society at present possesses a complete organization, and 
 is thoroughly organized, and equipped, for teaching both theory and practice to 
 apprentices in wood and metal working and thus renders effective service. 
 
 The courses work for nine months, from the 1st October to 30th June. 
 
 The courses in drawing take place every day, from 8 to 10 o'clock in the 
 evening, Sunday excepted. 
 
 The technical courses comprising joinery, carpentry, and cabinet work as to 
 wood; the trades of the blacksmith and millwright as to metals, are open every 
 Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday, from 8 to 10 o'clock in the evening. 
 
 The room for drawing contains 48 pupils; the shop for wood working, 19 
 benches ; the shop for the working of metals, an engine of 2 horse-power, 2 furnaces 
 with ventilator, 3 lathes, a boring-machine, a millstone moved by steam, and 20 
 stalls of weighers. 
 
 The teaching staff is composed: — 
 
 1st. Of a director entrusted with the organization of the courses, the admission 
 and classification of the pupils, the communications with parents or third parties, 
 the accounts,with the elementary instruction in framework drawing, for apprentices 
 in metal-working, and with the general supervision. 
 
202 
 
 2nd. Of a professor of drawing entrusted with the courses in professional draw- 
 ing, intended for the apprentices in various handicrafts, and with the course of 
 architectural drawing, Indian ink drawing, etc., adapted to the needs of the pupils 
 not apprenticed to manual trades, or too young to enter upon apprenticeship. 
 
 3rd. Of a professor for wood-working, comprising carpentry, joinery, or cabinet- 
 making. 
 
 4th. Of a professor for the working of metals, comprising the forging of dif- 
 ferent pieces, their shaping, turning and fitting. 
 
 L' Emulation numbers 80 pupils pursuing the courses from 8 o'clock to 10 in the 
 evening, who are divided into 50 apprentice smiths, weighers, turners, carpenters, 
 joiners, cabinet-makers; 50 pupils still attending school and not having manuals 
 trades. 
 
 The course of the technical work is attended by thirty apprentices in iron- 
 working, twenty apprentices in wood-working. 
 
 The pupils have to, study the pieces which they are to make, draw up the plan 
 of each of them separately and to show on their design the sketches quoted or the 
 proofs intended to guide them in the execution of their works. 
 
 The budget of the Society amounts for the year 1888, to the sum of $1,068.50. 
 Upon this budget the assessment of the pupils enters only for $144; the balance is 
 covered by the assessment of the honorary members. The expenses of equipment 
 and repair have been uniformly covered by private subscriptions and by state-grants 
 from the city and from the Chamber of Commerce. 
 
 INDUSTEIAL SOCIETY OP SAINT QUENTIN AND OP L'AISNE. 
 Extract from the "notice for the jury." 
 
 The Industrial Society of St. Quentin and of L'Aisne was founded in 1868, at 
 the suggestion of some generous citizens and thanks to the cooperation of all the 
 merchants and manufacturers of St. Quentin. 
 
 The aim of the founders of the Society has been to develop in the manufiacturing 
 and commercial district where its action extends.the physical and intellectual advant- 
 ages of the various agents of industry, workmen and overseers ; to make technical 
 and professional education entirely free, and in short to form a centre where the 
 chiefs of industry might be able to unite, to come to an understanding upon the 
 general interests of the district, to study the new processes of manufacture etc. 
 
 At the same time that it opened gratuitously the doors of its halls to technical 
 and professional teaching, the Industrial Society busied itself first with the material, and 
 moral situation of the population which asks its help, and favored the erection of 
 institutions which make the workingmen better and happier. It is thus that from 
 its bosom was detached a group of men who have founded at St. Quentin the Society 
 of workingmen's dwellings, at the present* time, in full prosperity. 
 
 Independently of these gratuitous courses, the Industrial Society founded, in 
 1884, a commercial museum and a professional school for the district, giving 
 gratuitously, for three years, to children from 13 to 16 years old, technical instruc- 
 tion in the principal industries of the Department, while completing their instruction 
 in the various courses of the Society. 
 
 1,987 pupils, of both sexes, attended the gratuitous courses in 1888. 
 
 INDUSTEIAL SOCIETY OP AMIENS. 
 
 The Industrial Society of Amiens was founded in 1861. It proposed : 
 
 1. To establish ties of sincere sympathy and harmony among its members. 
 
 2. To collect for their advantage and for the good of local industry, the greatest 
 amount of useful information. 
 
203 
 
 3. To furnish solid professional instruction to clerks and workmen, as well as to- 
 the sons of the manufacturers. 
 
 4. To develop in the working class the taste fop travel, for knowledge, and for 
 morality. 
 
 To attain these different ends, the Industrial Society of Amiens has founded. 
 
 1. Public and gratuitous courses in weaving (iheoi-etical and practical course),, 
 in chemistry as applied to dyeing, in velvet-making, in getting up of pasteboard, 
 in applied mechanics, in mechanical drawing, in the German language, in the 
 English language, in the Italian language, in commercial law, in book-keeping, in- 
 commercial geography. 
 
 Examinations are passed at the end of the year, and rewards granted to the prize- 
 winners. 
 
 Independently of these courses, lectures are given to the public at large. 
 
 2nd.. A school of apprenticeship established in 1 888, immediately after the enquiry 
 on the situation of the art industries in France, had pointed out that a large number 
 of its industries lacked competent workmen, or were on the point of falling short in 
 that respect. 
 
 3rd. Meetings between workmen of a like industry, having in view the mainten- 
 ance of emulation among the workingmen, who attach a very great value to the 
 rewards, medals, diplomas. &c., which are awarded to them. 
 
 4th. Libraries tbr-the people, a lecture hall, workingmen's exhibitions, &c. 
 
 5th. Finally, the creation by an anonymous society of Workmen's dwellings, of a 
 ward, of which the residences are irreproachable as regards health, and with the 
 streets broad, clean and well ventilated. 
 
 All the contributions have been employed to the profit of the inhabitants. 
 
 One portion has served to build a church, and to ameliorate the condition of the 
 city, the other in constructing a school to teach young girls housekeeping. 
 
 The Society enables the workmen to purchase, by annual payments, the houses- 
 which they inhabit. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 Industrial Schools and their Technical Courses. — There are in Belgium 37 indus- 
 trial schools, frequented by 11,822 scholars, having a budget of $113,256. Of this- 
 budget the state contributes $43,000 ; the provinces, $18,000, and the communes, who 
 have the direction of the schools, supply the remainder. 
 
 The courses include a general department, common to all the schools, compris- 
 ing arithmetic, algebra, geometry, chemistry, mechanics, the first principles of 
 physics, of chemistry, of hygiene, industrial economy, drawing ; then a special 
 department, which differs accoj'ding to localities. Of the latter may be given some 
 examples: At Antwerp they teach imitative painting on marble and on wood. At 
 Brussels, drawing the patterns of engines, and drawing for builders. At Charleroi,. 
 the management of steam-engines, the working of mines, typography, metallurgy. 
 At Ghent, weaving and spinning. At Li6ge, the construction of steam-engines, 
 gunsmithing, &c. 
 
 The duration of the studies is generally for three years. The courses are: 
 gratuitous. The age of admission is from twelve to fourteen years of age. 
 
 Workshops for apprentices in Flandres. — ^Established in 1842 after the enquiry by 
 the government had pointed out that the crisis,which had for ten years overwhelmed 
 the industry of Planciers, was due, in a great measure, to the routine chai-acter of the 
 work, and to insufficiency of practical and theoretical knowledge on the part of the 
 workmen. 
 
 En 1884, there existed 44 apprentice shops, containing 865 appprentices, 
 costing each about $30 a year. The production of the shops is handed over to com- 
 merce; the apprentices receive a daily salary of $0,194. 
 
204 
 
 Professional Schools. 
 
 School of Tournay.' — Founded in 1841, to turn out good workmen and capable 
 foremen. 
 
 "Workshop : coppersmith's trade, working in wood, mechanical work 
 
 The age of admission is twelve years ; the work of the shop is of 8J- hours, and 
 theoretical classes are held morning and evening. 
 
 The workshops are carried on by contractors ; the contract specifies the number 
 of apprentices which the contractor shall receive, and the salary which shall be 
 allowed to them. 
 
 The school cost annually $4,400 to the town. 
 
 School of Ghent. — Founded in 188*7. Its aim is not to form workmen, but to 
 prepare apprentices, and to give them the elements of manual labor and the neces- 
 sary instruction, in order that they may become perfected workmen in a very 
 limited time. 
 
 The teaching comprises a literary and scientific course, and a technical and 
 manual course for' work in iron and in wood. 
 
 The equipment has cost $7,000, and the annual budget is $3,500. 
 
 National School of Clockmaking at Brussels. — Created in 1887. It embraces : 
 1. Complete clockwork. 2. Minute mechanics. 3. Instruments of precision. 4. 
 Electricity. Its object is to train up skilfal workmen and overseers instructed in 
 theory and in practice. It counts 38 scholars. Its budget is $3,600 a year. 
 
 School of the Tailors of Liege. — Opened in 1888. It is under the direction of 
 the tailors of the town formed into a syndicate, who direct and supervise the teach- 
 ing. Apprenticeship is the only teaching of the school. The results from the 
 school are excellent. In six months the pupils have produced works which an ordi- 
 nary apprenticeship of two or three years would not have been able to teach them. 
 
 School of Brewing of Ghent. — Founded in 1887 by the association of brewers. 
 
 The school comprises two sections : A first, gratuitous, intended for the theoret- 
 ical and practical teaching of overseers and working brewers. A second, paying, 
 which comprises a complete theoretical and practical teaching for brewers and 
 directors of brewery. 
 
 Professional School of Typography of Brussels. — Founded by the working typo- 
 graphers and the master-printei's of Brussels. 
 
 This is an alliance of workmen and employers united in one and the same useful 
 aim, the turning out of good workmen is the characteristic of this school. 
 
 An equal number of employers and of working delegates direct it. 
 
 The masters can only send to the school apprentices in proportion to the num- 
 ber of workmen which they employ. 
 
 The masters who belong to it are bound to organize the work of the pupils in 
 such a manner that they may be able to follow from year to year the courses of the 
 school. 
 
 The duration of apprenticeship is for five years. 
 
 The classes take place in the evening from 7 to 10 o'clock, every day, excepting 
 Satui-day. 
 
 Each week for each scholar there is at least a technical and school course. 
 
 St. Luc Professional Schools. — They seek particularly to bring up apprentices 
 in one of the local industries. Drawing, stone-cutting, joinery, sculpture, decoration, 
 •ornamentation and building are taught in them. 
 
 The teaching is given by the Brothers of the Christian schools, under the direc- 
 tion and with the aid of a protective committee. 
 
 There arc four of these schools ; one at Ghent, one at Schaerbeck, one at Tournay 
 and one at Li^ge. 
 
 They receive more than 1,000 scholars. 
 
 Training Schools for Young Girls. — They are six in number: two at Brussels, 
 one at Antwerp, one at Mons, one at Li^ge, and one at Verviers. 
 
 They aim at remedying the long, dangerous and difficult apprenticeship which 
 young girls have to undergo, to enable them to contribute to the needs of life by 
 
205 
 
 sufflciently remunerated work, and direct them towards the most easy employment 
 which may be pursued at home. 
 
 The teaching given in all these schools is very nearly the same, and as to their 
 technical character, comprises the following : The making up and cutting out of gar- 
 ments, washing and bleaching, artificial flowers, commerce and accounts, design in 
 lace, painting on porcelain or fan and on glass. 
 
 These schools receive grants amounting to $30,600 and number 1,304 pupils. 
 
 Housekeeping Schools. — These are numerous in Belgium. They reckon at first 
 lY primary schools having a section for housekeeping, then 22 schools of house- 
 keeping properly so-called. 
 
 The pupils are received there at 12 years of age. They have to learn to read, 
 to write, and to calculate. They are taught all the information which a good house- 
 keeper ought to possess : 1. Management of kitchen. 2, Washing and ironing. 3. 
 Sewing by hand, and by machine. 4. Knitting. 5. Medical attendance, dressings 
 and hygiene. 
 
 Patronages. — The patronage societies created specially and solely with the view 
 of placing children in apprenticeship do not exist in Belgium. On the other hand, 
 there exists in Belgium a considerable quantity of Catholic patronages who assem- 
 ble the young apprentices on Sunday and Thursday. Literaiy and scientific lectures 
 and moral and religious instruction are given them. Besides, the directing commit- 
 tees place the young persons in apprenticeship. 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 Technical Training. — The introduction into Japan of technical training dates from 
 the creation of the schools of arts and trades of Tokyo by the Minister of Public 
 Instruction in the fourteenth year of Meiji (1881). Subsequently sprang up the 
 institution for the apprentices in commerce and industry, established under the depend- 
 ance of the higher school of commerce in the nineteenth year of Meiji (1886). In 
 those latter times there were instituted with the aim of developing and encouraging 
 arts and trades, several private training schools intended to give teaching in indus- 
 tries and manual trades. 
 
 The objects aimed at, by the school of arts and handicrafts, of Tokyo, by the insti- 
 tution for apprentices in commerce and industry, dependent on the higher school of 
 commerce and finally by the private training schools for girls, enable us to appreciate 
 the general state of this branch of teaching in Japan. 
 
 The school of arts and handicrafts of Tokyo, has for its aim to teach the various 
 arts and trades necessary, for those who intend to teach themselves, or who desire to 
 become technical agents, overseers or heads of workshops. The teaching is there 
 divided into section of chemical technology, and into section of mechanical technology. 
 The duration of the studies is, in these two cases, of three years. In the interest of 
 the manufacturers, or of their apprentices having worked at least a year, in practice of 
 a certain profession, who would desire to study in particular, one or several subjects 
 necessary to their specialties, there has been organised a coui-se of chosen subjects. 
 
 Further, for the scholars who having completed the regular studies, desire to make 
 research in the profession which they have embraced, there has been established a 
 course of investigations. In these two cases the duration of the studies is fixed at 
 two years at the least. 
 
 The section of chemical technology possesses, outside the classes which are 
 assio-ned to it, a dyer's shop, a manufactory of china, a glass factory and a factory for 
 chemical products, whilst the section of mechanical technology has, aside the classes, 
 a sketch room, a shop for working of timber, a foundry, a furnace, a finishing work- 
 shop and a building for coppersmith's, in order to allow the pupils being exercised in 
 the practice of the arts which they have in view. The objects exhibited are what is 
 owed to manufacture or to forging practically executed by the pupils under the 
 direction of their profe8Sors,or to the manufacture or preparations of these last them- 
 selves, to give models. 
 
206 
 
 (Here follows the list of objects exhibited.) 
 
 Institutions for the apprentices of commerce and of industry dependent on the higher 
 .school of commerce. — Formerly these apprentices of commerce and of industry used to 
 learn, so to speak, by the way of transmission, from those who had taken them to 
 their employment, to exercise in practice the profession which they desii-ed to embrace. 
 There was at that time no school established for that object, that offered them regular 
 teaching. The need of such an establishment having made itself keenly felt long ago, 
 the Minister of Public Instruction has attached to the higher school of commerce, the 
 institution in question, intended to give to apprentices, or to sons of merchants and 
 manufacturers, the scientific teaching which is necessary for them or a lesson in 
 manual industries. 
 
 The objects which are exhibited allow one to prove the general result which has 
 been obtained from this institution. 
 
 In the others, Pu (1) and Ken (2), several projects have been brought forward at 
 the present moment with the view of establishing schools of apprenticeship, but not 
 one has yet been put in execution. 
 
 (The list of the objects exhibited follows.) 
 
 Technical schools for girls. — The technical teaching has ended, during these last 
 years, by attracting the attention of the public, and several private schools have been 
 established with this object. It is important to note, among others, the private pro- 
 fessional school for girls, founded at Tokyo in the nineteenth year of the Meiji 
 {1886). The teaching there is divided into two branches, in one of which are taught 
 sewing, knitting, embroidery, ornamenting of hats, artificial flowers and drawing, 
 and in the other they teach the same subjects, saving drawing. 
 
 Independently of these studies, they have introduced into these two branches 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, housekeeping, and finally the ideas of physical science, 
 reserved exclusively to the first branch. English lessons can likewise be given 
 there at the request of the pupils. 
 
 (The list of objects exhibited follows.) 
 
 TECHNICAL TEACHING IN VAEIOUS COUNTEIES. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OP THE EVENING LECTURES FOR TECHNICAL TEACHING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 In England the child leaves school when he is very young, whilst in Germany 
 •he frequents it up to the age of 14 years. The courses in the evening then become 
 necessary to complete that which the child has not been able to learn at school. 
 
 Besides that, the English artisans work only nine hours and a-half instead of 
 ■eleven to twelve hours a day, which procures for them, after their day's work, the 
 -opportunity of assisting at the regular evening lectures. 
 
 The schools, or evening courses, do not receive any subsidy from the municipality, 
 and the funds which the state does not give are provided by voluntary contributions, 
 and donations, from rich manufacturers and from the friends of education. 
 
 These schools are under the general direction, of a local committee, which is 
 bound to render an account of the expenses. The grants of the state are distributed 
 by a system peculiar to England, and which is known under the name of system of 
 -payment on result. 
 
 The evening courses in science, art and technology are under the direction of 
 two departments, the one is a branch of the education office, and is known under the 
 denomination of Department of Science and Art; the other, which encourages the 
 teaching of the technology of different handicrafts, depends by no means on the 
 Government. This Association is known under the name of " City and Guilds of the 
 London Institute," for the advancement of technical education. 
 
 Under the direction of the Department of Science and Arts, there are two normal 
 ■schools of science, the one at South Kensington, the other at Dublin ; the School of 
 Mines, the School of Decorative Art at South Kensington, as well as the Museum of 
 Industry of South Kensington, and of Bethnal Green. 
 
207 
 
 In 1885-86 this department has received from Parliament a sum of $1,958,000. 
 
 The branches of teaching called on to share in state grants are at the present 
 time twenty-four in number, from six, which they were in 1859. 
 
 The majority of technical institutions which now exist in all the large towns of 
 England, were hei-etofore " Mechanics' Institutes," in which were held, at intervals, 
 popular lectures on literature and science. 
 
 Little by little, however, under the influence of South. Kensington, systematic 
 courses of teaching of diflerent branches of science commenced, and as it was per- 
 ceived that these courses became indespensable, their number was increased. The 
 addition of courses of technology to those of the teaching of the sciences, and 
 the great demand for technical teaching during the last six years, hastened the con- 
 version of these " Mechanics' Institutes " into technical schools. Little by little there 
 were erected with these schools of science and technology, schools of art which pro- 
 duced a much greater effect in the perfecting of manufacture in England than the 
 schools of science. 
 
 There exists at present 1,984 schools under the protection of the state, and in 
 which sciences or art are taught, and the number of scholars for the schools of science 
 is 94,838, and that for the schools of art, 69,837. 208 laboratories for the study of 
 chemistry are attached to the schools of science. They can hold 14,58*7 pupils. 
 
 Apart from these schools of science and art, under the control of the state, the 
 City and Guilds of London Institute, has established others of them intended specially 
 for workingmen desirous of studying only the questions which are directly connected 
 with the branch of industry in which they are engaged. 
 
 This institute has established a technical school for the systematic instruction of 
 the heads of workshops and for the education of boys who leave school towards the 
 age of 15 years. In this school known under the name of Finsbury Technical 
 College, there are evening lectures attended by very near 700 scholars. The Institute 
 has likewise founded a school of decorative arts, in which are taught painting on 
 china, engraving on wood, sculpture, drawing and modelling as applied to other 
 industries. 
 
 Besides the establishing of these schools in London, however, the Institute 
 encourages in all the country the formation of evening courses of technology of 
 various trades. These lectures have reference to 35 different handicrafts. 
 
 The evening lectures in England are not free. 
 
 The contributions payed by the scholars, although very small, help to defray the 
 ■expenses of the school. The opinion prevails in England that the man appreciates 
 what he pays for. My own experience, adds Sir Philip, leads me to believe that the 
 schools where the evening lectures are the most frequented, are those where the 
 instruction is altogether gratuitous, and he ends his report in saying: " That the 
 industrial progress of a nation depends on the excellence and on the perfection of the 
 •organisation of the evening lectures to its artisans." 
 
 TECHNICAL TEACHING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 
 
 Technical education iii New South "Wales, dates only from 1876, when the School 
 of Arts and Mechanics of Sydney founded a workingman's college, and organised 
 several classes for the teaching of mechanics, of applied chemistry, aiid of mechanical 
 and free-hand drawing. In 1863 the Government created a sub-department of 
 -technical education and entrusted its administration to a council. Parliament voted 
 a sum of $100,000 for this important object, and in 1886, the number of scholars was 
 .already 3,000. The lectures are delivered by professors who teach science and by 
 skilful workmen entrusted with teaching the proper application. 
 
 Besides the professors at fixed employment, the Council employs also itinerant 
 professors who go from town to town as they put forth lessons on scientific subiects, 
 .-adapted to the needs of the different districts. Classes for the study of arts and 
 .sciences have been organised in all the principal towns of the Colony. 
 
208 
 
 TECHNICAL TEACHING IN ROUMANIA. 
 
 Elementary technical schools. — These schools are intended to form apprentices 
 and workmen. They have been created and are directed by the communes and by 
 the provinces. The state subsidies them for a sum which does not go beyond the 
 third part of the budget of each school. 
 
 Bach school is provided with one or several workshops for apprenticeship. 
 
 The teaching is gratuitous and costs about $30 a year a pupil. 
 
 The first scholars who have gone forth from these schools are sent with exhibi- 
 tions provided by the communes und the provinces, to the schools of art and handi- 
 craft of the country. 
 
 School of Arts and Trades. — There exists two of these schools in Eoumania, 
 receiving the exhibitioners from 23 elementary technical schools. They are intended 
 to bring up workmen well taught and skilful ; day scholars, however, are received 
 there. The duration of studies is for 4 years; the teaching is theoretical and 
 practical. 
 
 The practical instruction is given in 5 different workshops, to wit : — the forge 
 the lathes and the adjusting, the foundry, the modelling, the carpentry with the 
 joinery and the engraving on wood. 
 
 The school executes work for the public. The revenues realised by these works 
 vary from $1,200 to $1,400 a year. The budget of these schools, amounts to about 
 $200 a pupil. Each school receives 150 boarders and 100 day scholars. 
 
 Bight exhibitions of $240 a year have been created for the sending abroad, each 
 year, of four scholars in order to perfect themselves in their special line. 
 
 TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL TEACHING IN RUSSIA. 
 
 The technical teaching in Eussia comprises 4 special higher technical schools; 
 9 middle technical schools relating to trades; 50 lower technical or apprentice- 
 ship schools ; nearly 1,200 workshops of apprenticeships in handicraft annexed to 
 schools for general elementaiy and primary teaching of towns and villages, and 
 some courses or classes in the evening, and on Sunday for workmen and apprentices. 
 
 Independently of these institutions more or less subsidized by the state, there 
 exists numerous schools of apprenticeship created by the community or private 
 institutions. 
 
 Further, Eussia wanting in mechanics, firemen and overseer excavators for its 
 railways, there were created 30 special technical schools with the view of training 
 these classes of workmen, which they were obliged to go and look for abroad. The 
 companies are compelled to grant to these schools a grant of $12, 1,100 rods of com- 
 monage. There exists 30 of these schools. 
 
 The commercial marine lacking in mates, in pilots, in steersmen and competent 
 mechanics, they created a considerable number of schools of navigation. — It is the com- 
 munes or private individuals who take the initiative in these establishments. The 
 State grants them a subsidy. 
 
 The association for the improvement of national industry in Bussia : — Pounded in 
 1881 by private enterprise, under the patronage of the State, with the aim: 
 
 1st. To undertake the working out, and to propagate among the laboring 
 classes, ideas corresponding to their needs, and local conditions upon correct and law- 
 ful means for the improvement of their industrial and commercial oecupationSj in 
 order to be able to come forth from the painful condition to which they are 
 at present reduced ; and, 
 
 2nd. To grant cooperation to the public institutions, and local corporations, 
 as well as to private individuals, having taken part in the Society, to make easy for 
 them the putting into execution of measures, and the foundation of establishments 
 which aim on the one hand to furnish to artizans the possibility of acquiring ideas 
 necessary to a fitting industry, productive and perfected, in such or such other 
 branch within their reach ; and on the other hand, to render easy for them the eco- 
 nomical conditions of these occupations. 
 
209 
 
 In 4 years and to keep faith, with this progi-amme, the Association has founded 
 15 lower schools of agriculture ; 3 schools of rural economy and of trades; 2 model' 
 farms for the country-folk; an apprenticeship workshop annexed to a model farm ;, 
 has introduced the teaching of gardening in the primary schools, and has oi-ganized! 
 popular courses upon questions agricultural, technical, and trades, for the adults and 
 sctolars. 
 
 It has further founded 35 primary local schools of handicrafts ; a technical 
 school ; 20 workshops for apprenticeship ; acquired models and nominated skilful 
 workmen to teach to the countrymen various branches of domestic rural industry. It 
 has created exhibitions and evening courses and popular lectures for the working- 
 class. 
 
 Schools and Evening Courses for General and Technical Teaching of Workmen 
 and their Children, instituted at St. Petersburg and its outskirts, by the Imperial 
 Polytechnical Society of Russia. — These courses were created in 1869 by the initia- 
 tive of private persons, with ihe aim of bringing up workmen and competent over- 
 seers, and especially of establishing general elementary schools for adult work- 
 ingmen and their children. 
 
 In 1886, this Association, which had commenced to woi'k with a capital of $400, 
 had received into its classes 14,300 pupils, whose instruction had cost |281,600, or 
 about $19.00 a scholar. It had at this period of time : 9 morning classes for chil- 
 dren, 8 classes or evening courses for adult workmen, 2 classes for young 
 apprentices, 3 courses in technical linear drawing, 1 technical school for the over- 
 seers in building, 1 school of apprenticeship for mechanics, and 1 school of typo- 
 graphy. 
 
 THE MUSEUMS OP PEASANTS IN GEEMANY. 
 
 Report of Monsieur Vachon, presented to the National Congress, having for its 
 object Technical Teaching, held at Bordeaux in 1886. — In the last commission jour- 
 ney, which I have had the honor to make, by order of the Minister of Public Instruc- 
 tion and of Pine Arts, in Germany and in Switzerland, I have been enabled to study 
 economical phenomena, which are very little known in Prance. 
 
 These phenomena are : The evolution of urban industry in rural industry, and 
 afterwards, particularly in Germany, the evolution of common production, cheaply, 
 in artistic production. . 
 
 i These two phenomena have been in Germany the object of creating very 
 important institutions. It is upon one of these institutions that I desire to make 
 you a communication, which, I hope, will interest you. 
 
 In Geriiiany, as in Prance, the economical situation is, at the present time, rather 
 critical. The workmen are undergoing a depreciation of salaries, and at the same 
 time an increase in the cost of living. The masters have onerous burdens much 
 more considerable than in the past. 
 
 The intensive production which, since 1870, has taken in Germany considerable 
 extension is attacking the world at large, it has created a tremendous stock of pro- 
 ducts. Thereby, some stoppage or a reduction of the hours of labour in the works 
 and manufactures. 
 
 In the presence of this situation, the patrons have been asked if something could 
 not be done to allay its disastrous consequences. They have ai-rived at this solution, 
 Industry must become rural. It sh'uld become rural for the masters at first, inasmuch 
 as the expenses of installation of works are much less considerable in the country, 
 and afterwards to avoid the duties upon importation of the concessions, which, in the 
 towns, burden the raw materials, firing, &c. _ ^ 
 
 It ought to become rural for the workingmen, because they will have their 
 livelihood from it in a better market. At present the workingman, particularly in 
 Germany is obliged to undergo considerable reductions in work, which come some- 
 times to a standstill for half of the week. Well ; being in the country, he will be 
 able to employ in farming, this useless time in the town, and to thus support his table 
 20—14 
 
210 
 
 frugally, it is true, but economically for certain. They then thought that there was 
 in that a part of the solution of the crisis. Consequently this evolution lakes at the 
 present time an official character. Last year there was organized at Crefeld a very 
 interesting exhibition, an exhibition of motors intended for small workshops. The 
 Government has endowed it with a grant of |25,800. 
 
 Further, the town, which is veiy rich, has organized a universal exhibition of 
 power looms in order to reunite nearly all tj'pes which operate in, the whole world. 
 
 A Eussian loom has been noticed there, of very good action, simple in its con- 
 struction and costing little. It has been officially approved of, I believe, and it is 
 very probable that from this time to some years this loom will be employed in all 
 the workshops of the German countries. 
 
 You see that the Government and the authorities are occupied much with this 
 question. 
 
 The masters continue to produce cheaply and intensely, but now that they have 
 inundated the world with their products, and that thay find evei-ywhere competitors, 
 they are obliged to look for another means of keeping the head of the market, they 
 aspire to artistic superiority. They will not succeed, probably to equal xis on this 
 ground, but they will follow us, in it very near. I derive profit by this circumstance 
 to say to the representatives of all the large towns, who are here, that it is not 
 necessary to make dangei-ous self-delusions at this proposal. 
 
 We live too much on this prejudice, without doubt very agreeable to our 
 national self-love, but very prejudicial to our interests, that we are absolutely invin- 
 cible with regard to taste,- that the strangei-, notably Germany is proof against artistic 
 ideas. 
 
 We shall be greatly deceived from this fact, in a short time. The Government 
 of Germany and the municipalities themselves have foreseen that industry was going 
 to be in quite a new situation in consequence of the emigration of workingmen into 
 the country. In "Westphalia and in the Province of the Ehine, in some lai'ge centres, 
 in the whole of the country, are found already workmen's shops. One can say that 
 rural evolution goes forth from to-day in this countiy as in Switzerland in a nearly 
 general manner ; consequently all are occupying themselves actively in the applica- 
 tion of the means which shall render it fruitful. 
 
 To this end, the manufacturers of the district Called Eh^nane, the most 
 important-district in Germany, from an industrial point of view, decided in 1881 to 
 constitute a vast association for the development of artistic and professional instruc- 
 tion. An industrial exhibition organized the preceding year at Dusseldorf, having 
 given a clear grant of $52,630, it was resolved to lay the first foundation of the 
 Association, the seat of which was fixed at Dusseldorf. 
 
 They put themselves immediately to work to realize this project, long studied 
 in congress, in which representatives assisted from all the great centres of industry 
 and commerce of the province Eh^nane, from Westphalia, from the municipality of 
 Hohenzollern, from the district of Wiesbaden, from the municipalities of Schaum- 
 bourg-Lippe-Lippe-Detmoldt, Birkenfeld and Waldeck. 
 
 Look at the results at which they have arrived at the present time. The central 
 society of art and industry of Dusseldorf comprises "720 members and 36 associations 
 united togethei-, representing a total of 6,955 members distributed in the towns of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, Oberstein, Witten, Barmen, Besford, Emmerick, Gutenhof, Mulheim, 
 Elberfeld, Dormundt, Saint-Johann, Bielfeld, Duisbourg, Siegen, Coblence, Luders- 
 child, Euhrarst, Wiendenbruck, Lennep, Creuznack, Adar, Stolberg, Lunen, Bonn, 
 Newvied, Hamm, Tr^ves-Wimlaken, Essen sur la Euhr, Cologne, Lemgo, Altena, 
 Crefeld and in the country. 
 
 What power of action and of expansion can give to a society a sum total of sup- 
 porters as considerable and a solidity as close of manufacturing interests and of 
 artistic propaganda? I have found bills of the Association right away in the most 
 remote mountains of Westphalia. By the side of important societies, as that of Dor- 
 mundt, which counts 1,200 members, there figure on the registers of the Association 
 those of small villages, in a simple group of ten or twenty persons. 
 
 The Society possesses at this hour as an annual fund, in regular turn, a sum 
 of 114,835. 
 
211 
 
 This vast association has ia object to adorn, in consequence of evolution, wliat I 
 was describing just now. 
 
 But the working people being in the country will not be able to go to the 
 museum to school. Will you reproach me ? In Germany, it was said, we will bring 
 the museum and the school to the workman. The association has, therefore, 
 founded a museum. 
 
 In Germany this word museum has not thfe same signification as with us. When 
 we create a museum, the programme consists in this : to raise up a beautiful building, 
 to adorn it magnificently, to set up beautiful windows, to put there some very artistic 
 objects under key, and especially to regulate the hours for entrance, in a manner that 
 people can visit the museum easily and for a long time. 
 
 In Germany it seems that they proceed in quite another way. Museums at first 
 are erected for the public and not for the conservators ; afterwards they think that 
 a museum intended for the teaching of the public does not fully answer its object, 
 if it is exclusively a place for exhibition ; they much rather make a general emporium 
 for a multitude of small local museums and of district exhibitions for a time, a 
 little everywhei-e. 
 
 Thus the director of the museum of t|ie Association of Dusseldorf has adopted 
 such a system of working the institution, that we can say that his museum is in a 
 hundred different places at a time, and that he has always abroad nine-tenths of his 
 riches. Besides his participation in special exhibitions in the different centres under 
 a syndicate, the museum goes to the house of the associate himself. All the members 
 of the Association have the right to have sent home the objects of the museum and 
 the books of the library, models, drawings, engravings or photographs. You make 
 this reflection without doubt. For the passage of these objects, to have them carried 
 from Dusseldorf 40 or 50 miles, in the mountains of Westphalia, the supporters 
 must pay a very considerable assessment. 
 
 Not at all: the assessment which allows a museum being arranged personally, 
 at home, which has half a million objects of art, a library valued at $20,000, is five 
 shillings, or $1.20 a year. See what are the benefits of the Association ; in 1885 the 
 museum has sent to its members 4,204 objects of art, the library 19,878 works or 
 drawings. What magnificent results ! 
 
 This is not all that I have to tell you of this Society at Dusseldorf, of its oganiza- 
 tion and of its means of operation. The saying is, it is great to put at the disposal 
 of workpeople the piinciples of studying, but it is still better to teach them how to 
 make use of them. And consequently from this beautiful idea, the founders of the 
 museum have organized meetings, for the use of the members of the Society. 
 
 The system of working for these meetings is the same as for the museum. They 
 do not ask, as in Pi-ance, that the audience should come before the chairman ; it is 
 the chairman who goes away to find the persons who want to hear him. Thus these 
 meetings take place specially on fair days and local festivities, because they are thus 
 assured of a greater number of hearers. 
 
 The chairmen are chosen from among the most esteemed directors. 
 
 They are going to evangelize in the ways of the arts the peasants and the work- 
 ing people of the country districts. 
 
 In 1885, 57 meetings have been held in the whole circumference of the society's 
 operation. Thiey are not contented with these results, which are, nevertheless, 
 very satisfactory. They have still conceived a work of artistic propaganda which I 
 would wish to see imitated in France: it would be easy: all the associations after 
 the manner of the Society Philomathic of Bordeaux would be able to realize the 
 same idea. There is a question of organizing an of&ce for inquiries and professional 
 and artistic consultations, at the seat of the Society at Dusseldorf. All the members 
 of the society have the right of sending from their workshops, or from their manu- 
 factories, to this office every sketch, model, plan of drawing, whatever it may be, 
 which is afterwards sent back corrected, completed, improved. I have myself proved 
 how these drawings were cori'ected. This work, however fruitless, was done with 
 extraordinary conscientiousness. 
 
 20— 14J 
 
212 
 
 The Director told me that some workmen send back two or three times, the same 
 drawing,- begging for fresh corrections and that the enquiry office executed them 
 always, with the best grace in the world. 
 
 Last year, after the annual account rendered of the labors of the society, there 
 has not been exchanged less than 600 corrected plans between the office and its 
 supporters. 
 
 But this statistic is not exact, because the majority of consultations were 
 verbally and on the spot. 
 
 This organization with us would render very great service. 
 
 We have all seen, in the country, small manufacturers, joiners, wheelwrights, 
 who, having received only a very elementary education, find themselves very 
 embarrassed when they are asked to execute an object a little outside what they 
 have been accustomed to, and who are obliged, whatever the prejudice they may 
 have, to refuse the order. 
 
 This disagreeable condition of things does not present itself longer at the present 
 time in the country of the Ehine, thanks to this original institution. 
 
 In face of the results obtained, thife Association has thought that if it was 
 adapted to give extension to existing industries, it would be able to arrive at creating 
 some in the districts which are deprived of them. 
 
 " He who is able the least, is able the more " with will and energy. 
 
 When I visited this museum I remarked in it a quantity of irregular objects. 
 There were there, rakes, ploughs, waggons, wicker-chairs, usual objects of the last 
 class. 
 
 I said to the director : "But you do all these handicrafts here? " He said to me 
 in reply: " These are the new industries of the Eifel ; " and he gave the following 
 explanations : — 
 
 In the district which is comprised between Cologne, Crefeld, and the Belgian 
 frontier, there is a province which bears the name of Eifel ; it has been picturesquely 
 called the German Sahara ; there is a little town there well known in Pi-ance by the 
 Grand Duchess, the town of Gerolstein. The country which surrounds it was 
 inhabited almost exclusively by peddlars ; these peddlars had so bad a reputation that 
 they could not get married. It was maintained "that they had travelled too much," 
 as they say in a celebrated opera. 
 
 Struck with this condition of affairs, the government busied itself in modifying 
 it. It wished to civilize these poor people. 
 
 They have spent much money, but without result. The Society of Dusseldorf, 
 one fine day, is angry at the jest, and decides to bring about, with its moderate 
 resources, that which the Government has not been able to effect. 
 
 It B^t to Gerolstein two remarkable professors of arts, who put themselves in 
 correspondence with the inhabitants of the country. 
 
 The mission commenced by ISTeroth ; there were there only some makers of 
 mouse-traps, to the number of 80. 
 
 The professors improved their rough tools ; the anvil and the nippers were 
 unknown there ! A workshop for tinning was organised, as well as a workshop for 
 the manufactuie of various works in iron wire. 
 
 The experiment was crowned with success ; at the present day the inhabitants 
 of Neroth export their products to Cologne, to Dusseldorf, in the towns of the Ehine, 
 and even in Belgium. 
 
 Some wheelwrights of Wa,llenborn, struck with the progress of the manufactur- 
 ers of mouse-traps of Neroth, asked the society to send to them professors and tools, 
 which was done immediately. 
 
 At Heimbach, the peasants had a specialty of chairs for children, for which they 
 only used green beech stolen in the night in the forests, and which they worked 
 with the knife for want of tools. The society obtained from the municipal council 
 
213 
 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle a sum of $516 and $38 from the perfoot, and opened at Heimbach 
 some workshops for joinery. The products of this rural industry have to-day an 
 important sale. 
 
 At Gerolstein, to give work to women, they have imported the manufacture of 
 flligree-work, of embroidery with threads of gold, silver and copper. Two young 
 girls, the most intelligent in the town, were brought to Dusseldorf and apprenticed 
 in a workshop for embroideries ; to-day they are directing at Gerolstein workshops 
 where forty women are employed and are making very interesting embroideiies, 
 specimens of which I have admired at the museum of Dusseldorf. L'Eifel has thus 
 become a manufacturing country and people are convinced that in a few years its 
 population will not be inferior, as far as intelligence and welfare, to the other popu- 
 lations of Germany. 
 
SEOTio:Nr V. 
 
 MUTUAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. 
 
MUTUAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. 
 
 rEANCB. 
 
 EEPORT ON MUTUAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES, MARCH 26, 1852. 
 
 Ar*. 2. These societies are composed of active and honorary members, who 
 pay fixed dues, or make contributions to the funds of the Association,without partici- 
 pating in the profits. 
 
 Art. 6. These mutual benevolent societies have for their object the giving of 
 temporary assistance to members who are sick, wounded or infirm, and of meeting 
 their funeral expenses. 
 
 They can promise retiring pensions if there should be a sufScient number of 
 honorary members. 
 
 Art. 7. The by-laws of these societies will be submitted for the approbation 
 of the Minister of the Interior. These by-laws will also regulate the assessments 
 of each society, in accordance with the tables of sickness or mortality compiled or 
 approved by the G-overnment.* 
 
 Art. 13. "When the told funds in the treasury of a society which numbers more 
 than 100 members, exceed the sum of $600, the amount will be deposited in a sav- 
 ings Bank. 
 
 If the society has less than a hundred members, this transfer should be made 
 when the total funds in the treasury exceed $200. 
 
 By a decree dated 28th November, 1853, a bonus of $2,000,000 has been given to 
 approved mutual benevolent societies, the interest of which is annually distributed 
 to all societies which have created a 
 
 REST FUND 
 
 in accordance with the decree of 2nd April, 1856. 
 
 Art. 1 A sum of $40,000 f deducted from the indisposable interest of the endow- 
 ment to the mutual benevolent societies, is devoted to this formation of a Rest Fund 
 for the benefit of approved Mutual Benevolent Societies, which will engage to devote 
 to this Rest Fund a portion of their reserve capital. 
 
 Art. 4. The Rest Fund furnished by the societies may be banked to the credit of 
 pension fund, either as current capital or as reserve fund. 
 
 The portion of the same capital given by the state remains inalienable. 
 
 The capital from pension fund, rendered available by the decease of pensioners, 
 will be returned to the rest fund of the society. 
 
 Art. 8. No pension will be less than $6 and must not exceed, in any case, ten 
 per cent, of the annual assessment fixed by the by-laws of the society to which the 
 incumbent belonged. J 
 
 * These tables were never made. The Government only required that the rate of quarterly indemnity 
 in case of sickness does not exceed the amount of the monthly subscription. 
 
 t This sum was raised to $165,000 in 1887. 
 
 J If, for instance, this subscription is 25 cents per month', the pension allowed cannot exceed 130.00 per 
 annum. This limit only applies to the reserve funds, the societies having the right, of which they freely 
 avail themselves, to apply the proceeds of the pension itself to their reserve funds. In societies where the 
 legal limit is $30.00, pensions sometimes reach double this amount. 
 
218 
 
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220 
 
 PENSION PDND. 
 
 Number of approved societies 
 
 do do possessing a Pension Fund 
 
 Percentage do do 
 
 jSTumber of members belonging to societies possessing a Pension Fund 
 
 Proportion of members belonging to societies possessing a Pension Fund to the total 
 
 number of members of approved societies 
 
 Total of Pension Funds 
 
 Pension Fund, average each society 
 
 do do member 
 
 Number of pensioners 
 
 Total amount received by pensioners 
 
 Average of pensions drawn from the Pension Fund 
 
 do do Reserve Fund 
 
 Average number of annuities drawn by 100 members. ...... 
 
 General average of annuities granted by approved societies . 
 
 5,969 
 3,334 
 
 56 p.c. 
 
 564,581 
 
 72 p. c. 
 
 $12,898,329.81 
 
 1872 
 $1,567.20 
 
 3,927 
 
 $51,645 
 
 $13.15 
 
 $13,335 
 
 $26.48; 
 
 1886 
 
 $3,868.60 
 
 $22.84| 
 
 21,651 
 
 $316,521 
 
 $14.62 
 
 $26.65 
 
 3.83 p.c. 
 
 841.27 
 
 GBNEEAL EECAPITULATION 
 
 Of the amount of Pi-operty and Finances of Mutual Benevolent Societies approved 
 
 and authorized in 1886. 
 
 Situation at 31st December, 1886. 
 
 Societies. 
 
 Approved. 
 
 Authorized. 
 
 Number of societies 
 
 5,969 
 161,0461 
 651,3331 V 969,222 
 135,274 V 808,176 J 
 21,569j 
 
 $ 3,,580,031* 
 
 3,244,168 
 
 335,863 
 
 ,9,435,900 
 
 12,898,329 
 
 21,651 
 
 $316,521 
 
 $222,334,230 
 
 2,264 
 
 
 '23,9021 
 
 (•'Men 
 
 Number of members participating.-! Women 
 
 1, Children... 
 
 Receipts of societies. . . . 
 
 257,2631 U23,133 
 38,626 ^299,231 J 
 3,342) 
 
 $ 1,541,556 
 
 
 1,346,352 
 
 Excess of receipts over disbursements 
 
 195,204 
 
 
 5,522,226 
 
 Amount of Pension Funds 
 
 
 Number of pensioners ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In these receipts are included the amount of $183,913 coming from subsidies, bequests and legacies. 
 
221 
 
 GEAND COUNCIL OP MUTUAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES OP BOUCHES- 
 
 DU-EHONE AT MAESEILLES. 
 
 ITS ORiaiN, ITS OBJECTS. 
 
 The Grand Council of the mutual benevolent societies of Bouches-du-Ehone, is 
 an assembly composed of the presidents and syndics of societies, who voluntarily 
 perform their duties, and who, says the superior commission in 1859, " have never 
 , ceased, since their organization, to labor for the development of the true j)rinciples 
 of mutual association, for the reform of abuses, for the abatement of contentions 
 between societies and members, and have succeeded in maintaining order, harmony 
 and peace in the midst of all the. societies which are established under the law." 
 
 It resembles the society of experts, and like it, is invested with power to con- 
 ciliate and adjust in all contentions arising among its members. It holds at Mar- 
 seilles a position analogous to that which was given to Prance in general, by the 
 decree of 26th March, 1852, by a High Commission for the establishment and inspection 
 of mutual benevolent societies. The grand council is occupied with the details and 
 daily occurrences in the interior life of societies, and exercises its legitimate influ- 
 ence everywheie as it may produce good results. Its administrative powers are 
 those of a veritable departmental commission, extending its influence through all the 
 department. 
 
 Besides its administrative action, it forms a special jurisdiction, deciding without 
 charge, without loss of time, and with the most simple method of procedure, on ques- 
 tions raised by the application of the statutes, and having the triple advantage of 
 aiding in the development of mutual benevolent societies, of assisting their proper 
 administration, and of maintaining on their staff, order, discipline, and the strict 
 observance of business methods. Their office is always open on the day appointed, and 
 there they examine and give judgment on cases entered, receive complaints, conci- 
 liating the parties, give counsel and advice, and generally occupy themselves with 
 the amelioration of the societies. They are approached with confidence, for it is the 
 petitioners themselves who have chosen the judges. 
 
 The Grand Council had its origin from the need felt of an association among 
 provident workmen, who had already formed a mutual society, desirous of preserv- 
 ing their corporative autonomy, but willing to profit by the experience, foresight 
 and progress of similar societies. It is to the benevolent society of Marseilles to 
 whom is due the formation of this Grand Council. Since 1808 it published its fun- 
 • damental rules, the model statutes of provident societies. " It is," says at this period 
 its president, Mr. Casimer Eostan, '' by the establishment of these societies we can 
 replace suppressed institutions, in favor of the man who has no property but his 
 labor, and for those who possess but a moderate income, sufficient at the period of 
 health and strength, but insufficient at the time of old age and infirmity. 
 
 The bulletin of mutual benevolent societies of the year 1854, page 139, renders 
 the following important testimony : — 
 
 " At Marseilles, in 1821, the benevolent society erected in its quarter, a kind of 
 office, where the mutual benevolent societies could obtain the information they 
 required. This institution still continues its operations under the name of the Grand 
 Council of mutual benevolent societies; but since 1841, -provident societies having 
 made rapid, progress at Marseilles, it has ceased to be connected with benevolent 
 societies and forms a special institution invested with the most extended authority.. 
 Thus it not only administers the affairs of societies placed under its charge, but it is 
 cognizant of all the difficulties which may arise among them, and of which the deci- 
 sion has not been referred to their managers, by their regulations. When a society 
 complains of the violation of a rule, committed to its prejudice, it brings its com- 
 plaint before the Grand Council, which decides the matter authoritatively. A spon- 
 taneous institution, inherent to the wants and interests of the numerous associations 
 which it has created, the work of the Grand Council will always add lustre to the- 
 minds which conceived it, and the men devoted to its patronage. 
 
222 
 
 It would be superfluous here to relate ail that the G-raud Council has done in the 
 interest of the working classes, as to their progress, order and economy. The highest 
 good-will and the best intentions, do not always suffice to administer in good order 
 a society of workingmen. The Council are frequently corbposed of heterogenous 
 elements who decide by a majority against one or several members who may have 
 previously entertained different opinions. The Grand Council, free from all personal 
 influence, decides upon the facts of the case, argued before it on both sides, without 
 being swayed by the antipathies of the suitors. 
 
 The Grand Council of mutual benevolent societies of Bouches-du-Ehone reckons 
 to-day about 140 societies adhering to it, of the 250 which constitute the total strength 
 of this department. 
 
 Its board, renewed every year, in the month of February, but always re-eligible, 
 is composed of a president, two vice-presidents, a general secretary and two assistant 
 secretaries. A committee of eighteen members, half of whom are re-eligible each 
 year, and composed of ten presidents and eight trustees, is formed from the general 
 list of members classed in alphabetical order. This commission is associated with the 
 board, in conjunction with which it composes the administrative council, which is 
 occupied in discussing and investigating needed improvements and reforms in the 
 organization and operation of adherent societies. It is divided into three sub- 
 commissions, and charged in turn, during four months of the year, with judging, with 
 members of the board, all affairs brought before the bar of the grand council. 
 
 GBNEEAL INSUEANCB FUND 
 
 OF MEMBERS OF PROVIDENT SOCIETIES, FOR PENSIONS AND MUTUAL ASSISTANCE, OP THE 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF THE SEINE. 
 
 Extract from the By-laws. 
 
 Art. 1. There is hereby formed, among all the members of mutual benevolent 
 societies of the Department of the Seine, approved, authorized or independent, which 
 are adhering or will adhere to the present by-laws, a fund destined to extend succour, 
 during the term fixed by said by-laws, to sick persons having no longer the right, in 
 whole or in part, to those of their respective societies (after six months). The 
 society does not extend relief in case of stoppage. 
 
 Art. 2. Each adherent will pay to the insurance fund two cents monthly (men 
 and women). 
 
 The payments can be made to the care of the society to which the adherent or 
 adherents belong, at the insurance ofiice. 
 
 Art. 4. Members of societies connected with the insurance fund, will name two 
 delegates to repi-esent them. 
 
 Art. 5. All adherent members will only have the right to assistance from the 
 insurance fund after six monthly payments. 
 
 Art. 6. No sick person will have a right to assistance from the insurance fund 
 unless his illness is subsequent to his enrolment in the society, and unless his assess- 
 ments are paid to date of the commencement of his illness. 
 
 Art Y. Every member adhering to the insurance society will pay his first assess- 
 ment at the time of his enrolment, which will take effect on the first of the following 
 month. 
 
 Art. 8. Each delegate, on payment of his monthly assessment, will hand a list 
 signed by the president, with this memorandum: " certifiad correct," stating the 
 numbers and names of members adhering to the insurance company. It will give 
 notice, quarterly, of any subsequent changes. 
 
 Art. 9. All evasion or infraction of this rule will entail the erasure of names of its 
 adhering members, and the funds paid in, will remain the property of the insurance 
 company. 
 
223 
 
 Art. 10, Each sick member having a right to assistance fi-om. the insurance 
 fund, will receive an indemnity of 20 cents a day (or |1.40 each week) during the 
 whole period of his illness, or incapacity the result of it, which term is limited to 
 five years. 
 
 Art. 11. This indemnity will be paid monthly, to those entitled to receive it, by 
 one of the delegates of the society. These indemnities are regulated by each 
 receipt. 
 
 Art. 12. Any member belonging to several societies can only receive from the 
 insurance fund, one bulk sum, precisely as if he were only member of one society. 
 
 MUTUAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETY ESTABLISHED BY THE SCHOOL 
 TEACHBES OF THE DBPAETMENT OP THE LOWBE 
 
 PYEBNEBS. 
 
 Extracts from the By-Laws. 
 
 Art. 1. This society has for its object: 
 
 1st. To contribute to the expenses which the birth of infants, sickness, or death 
 may bring upon the membei', in re-imbursing to him the greatest possible portion of 
 ■expenses for doctors' fees, medicine, accouchement and funeral expenses. 
 
 The particulars system adopted by this society, in order to assist its members, 
 is defined in the following by-laws : 
 
 Art. 31. The family participating, represented by its head, has the right each 
 year to a pecuniary indemnity proportioned to the expense it has undergone during 
 the preceding year, through sickness or death. 
 
 Those are only considered members of the family who are actually under the 
 ■charge of the head. 
 
 Art. 32. For calculating the indemnity on the one part, the gross amount is 
 taken of all assessments paid by those participating to 3l8t December (less $0.40 from 
 each assessment reserved for general expenses, &c.). It is this sum which will be 
 divided ^ro rata for necessary expenses. 
 
 On the other part, the gross amount is taken of expenses for medical attendance, 
 medicine, accouchement, or funeral expenses incurred during the year by each head 
 ■of a family. (These expenses should be certified by receipts or vouchers.) 
 
 Art. 35. On the 1st of February the board examines the report sent in by each 
 secretary ; it can reject or reduce all expenses not sufficiently justified ; it can also 
 -equally apply to certain items the maximum fixed by the by-laws. 
 
 The gross amount awarded each secretary is diminished by ten per cent., in order 
 that he may not ever be fully reimbursed the total of his expenses, of which a portion 
 remains charged to the member. 
 
 This redu<-tion made, if the capital available is sufficientto defray all the expenses, 
 each society is reimbursed fully, if they are not, he is paid proportionately with the 
 sum of his account. 
 
 Art. 39. An allowance of $12 is given to the widow or orphans of a deceased 
 member. 
 
 Art, 40. Extra assistance may be given to members in urgent or exceptional 
 
 •cases. . ■ a J ■ T 
 
 A retiring pension is given to an aged member, and assistance is ottered, in lieu, 
 
 ■of pension in cases of premature infirmity. 
 
 Article 43 requires that members under 55 years of age, and of 15 years connec- 
 tion with the society, will receive a pension varying from $9.00 to $32.00 per annum, 
 .according to the resources of the society. 
 
 The society admits : 
 
 1st. Active members, prospective members, semi-honorary and honorary. 
 
22-t 
 
 Active members have to pay : — 
 
 ^ Entrance Annual 
 
 Fee. Subscription. 
 
 Up to 25 years of a2;o fl.OO $2.40 
 
 From 25 to 26 years 2.00^ 
 
 26 to 27 do 2.40 1 
 
 27 to 28 do .' 2.80 I- 3.20 
 
 28 to 29 do 3.40 
 
 29 to 30 do 4.00 J 
 
 30 to 40 do 4.00 5.20 
 
 40 to 50 do 4.00 5.20 
 
 Further, to all members joining when over 40 years all arrears will be, as if they had 
 joined when 40 years of age. 
 
 Prospective or intending members do not pay any assessment. Semi-honorary 
 members pay an annual sum of $1,20, or a sum of $30 in one payment, to entitle, 
 them to the benefits of the pension fund. 
 
 Honorary membei-s pay $1 per annum, or can make one complete payment of $20.. 
 
 Only schoolmasters and schoolmistresses can become members of the society.. 
 Either the widow or one of the minor children of a deceased member has an equal 
 right of admission, also scholars of the Normal School, or the children of members 
 who intend to join. 
 
 The Association has founded an orphans' bank, for the purpose of assuring a 
 provision annually, to complete the education of children, in case of premature decease- 
 of their parents. The assessment is 60 cents per annum for each member and child, 
 insured. 
 
 FEIEFDLY SOCIETY OF POST OFFICE, AND TELEGRAPH, EMPLOYEES: 
 
 This Association was founded by the emjiloyees of the Post ' Office and TelegrapKi 
 Companies. 
 
 It has for its object : — 
 
 1. To grant a pecuniary indemnity to members when sick. 
 
 2. To contribute to theii" funeral expenses. 
 
 3. To render assistance to their widows, orphans or heirs. 
 
 4. To found a pension fund for the benefit of its members. 
 Members participating are requested to pay : — 
 
 1. An entrance fee of $1 up to 30 years of age. 
 
 do $2 from 30 to 40 years of age. 
 
 do $4 do 40 to 50 do 
 
 2. A monthly assessment proportioned to the age of the member at the date of 
 his admission, as indicated on the following table : — 
 
225 
 
 Table showing Annual Assessments. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Succeeding Years. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Grand 
 Total. 
 
 Number 
 of Years. 
 
 
 
 
 S ots: 
 
 
 
 1 ots. 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 8 4.80 during 
 
 40 yrs. 
 
 192 00 
 
 
 
 192 00 
 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 
 2 " 
 
 14 40 
 
 "1 
 
 37 yrs. 
 
 177 60 
 
 
 39 
 
 22 
 
 
 4 " 
 
 28 80 
 
 
 34 " 
 
 163 20 
 
 
 38 
 
 23 
 
 
 6 " 
 
 43 20 
 
 
 31 " 
 
 148 80 
 
 
 37 
 
 24 
 
 
 8 " 
 
 57 60 
 
 
 28 " 
 
 134 40 
 
 
 36 
 
 25 
 
 
 10 " ' 
 
 72 00 
 
 
 25 " 
 
 120 00 
 
 
 35 
 
 26 
 
 
 12 " 
 
 86 40 
 
 
 22 " 
 
 105 60 
 
 
 34 
 
 27 
 
 ■S 7.20 during 
 
 14 " 
 
 100 80 
 
 -S 4.80 during 
 
 19 " 
 
 91 20 
 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 
 16 " 
 
 115 20 
 
 
 16 " 
 
 76 80 
 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 
 18 " 
 
 129 60 
 
 
 13 " 
 
 62 40 
 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 
 20 " 
 
 144 00 
 
 
 10 " 
 
 48 00 
 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 
 22 " 
 
 158 40 
 
 
 7 " 
 
 33 60 
 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 
 24 " 
 
 172 80 
 
 
 4 " 
 
 19 20 
 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 
 26 " 
 
 187 20 
 
 
 1 " 
 
 4 80 
 
 -$192 00 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 
 2 " 
 
 19 20 
 
 
 24 " 
 
 172 80 
 
 26 
 
 35 
 
 
 5 " 
 
 48 00 
 
 
 20 " 
 
 144 00 
 
 
 25 
 
 36 
 37 
 
 ■8 9.60 during 
 
 8 " 
 11 " 
 
 76 80 
 105 60 
 
 -$7.20 during 
 
 16 " 
 12 " 
 
 115 20 
 86 40 
 
 
 24 
 23 
 
 38 
 
 
 14 " 
 
 134 40 
 
 
 8 " 
 
 57 60 
 
 
 22 
 
 39 
 
 
 17 " 
 
 163 20 
 
 
 4 " 
 
 28 80 
 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 
 20 " 
 
 4 " 
 
 192 00 
 48 00 
 
 
 
 192 00 
 144 00 
 
 
 20 
 
 41 
 
 
 15 yrs. 
 
 19 
 
 42 
 43 
 
 $12.00 during 
 
 8 " 
 12 " 
 
 96 00 
 144 00 
 
 -$ 9.60 during 
 
 10 " 
 5 " 
 
 96 00 
 48 00 
 
 
 18 
 17 
 
 44 
 
 
 16 " 
 
 192 00 
 
 
 
 192 00 
 
 
 16 
 
 45 and 
 
 
 
 
 over. 
 
 $14.40 during 
 
 5 " 
 
 72 00 
 
 $12.00 during 
 
 10 " 
 
 120 00 
 
 
 15 
 
 At 21 yjears and one day, the assessment of 21 years will be applied, etc. 
 
 The funding will be stopped whenever the sum of $192, entrance fee, not 
 included, has been deposited. 
 
 Art. 33. — The Society allows to its members — after six months' membership, 
 and proportioned to their assessment — an indemnity for sickness duly proved as 
 having occasioned incapacity for work, during a period of over 20 days. 
 
 This indemnity, beginning from the first day of sickness, is paid at the follow- 
 ing rate : — 
 
 From the 1st to the 30th day. inclusive 20c. each day. 
 
 From the 31st to 90th do' do 30c. do 
 
 If, .after 90 consecutive days' illness, the member is placed on half-pay by the 
 Administration, this indemnity will be from the 91st to the 180th day, inclusive, at 
 50 cents per day. 
 
 After 180 consecutive days, if the member is deprived of his salary, the indem- 
 nity will be from the ISlst day to the 270th day, inclusive, at 80 cents per day. 
 
 Every member placed on the pension list by the Administration, without being 
 admitted to the same benefit by the Society, or any member having left the Adminis- 
 tration and proving illness which has incapacitated him from work for over 20 days, 
 will have the right to the following indemnities : — 
 
 20 cents per day during the first 30 days ; 30 cents per day beginning from the 
 30th day until the 180th. 
 
 The Society contributes |40 to the funeral expenses of a member, and gives $60 
 to the widow, to the orphans and the parents of the deceased. 
 
 Every member of 60 years of age, and having belonged to the Society for at 
 ^least 15 years, has the right to a pension from the rest fund, to be fixed by the 
 Council in proportion to the resources of the Association. 
 
 Members in arrears for three months in the payment of their assessments, are 
 subject to the erasure of their names from the lists. 
 
 20—15 
 
226 
 
 . Special Reserve Fund. 
 
 Pounded in order to pay an indemnity for sickness of 20 cents per day, when 
 the duration of statutory indemnity is terminated. 
 
 The assessment at this bank is 5 cents per month, and the duration of this new 
 allowance is— one year until the special fands amount to $2.000 ; two years when it 
 amounts to between $2,000 and |4,000, and -thus, in following proportions, as it 
 increases yearly the duration of the indemnity at each augmentation of $2,000, 
 unless the duration exceeds a maximum of five years. 
 
 The wives and children of members, are admitted as participants in this special 
 fund. 
 
 MUNICIPAL MUTUAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETY OP THE 9th, 
 AEEONDISSBMBNT OP PAEIS. 
 
 Art. 2. The Society comprises all the territory of the 9th arrondissement, and 
 has its tribunal at the townhall. 
 
 Art. 3. It has for object : 1st, to succour participating members in event of sick- 
 ness, accident or infirmity : 2nd, to pension them for life in their old age; 3rd, to 
 give them respectable funerals at their decease : and 4th, the patronage of the Society 
 to their children when admitted into their circle. 
 
 Active members are admitted from sixteen to fifty years. Healthy children 
 from two to sixteen years of age can be admitted, if their parents are members of 
 the Society, or, if they are orphans, on condition that their guardians become mem- 
 bers also. 
 
 Art. 18. The member who wishes to remove his domicile should state his inten- 
 tion of so doing before removing, indicating his new residence, and his intention of 
 remaining in the Society, or of changing to another (municipal society). 
 
 The assessments vary from 10 to 60 cents per month, and the entrance fee is 
 from 60 cents to $3.00, according to age of the new member. 
 
 The nature or kind of assistance afforded, offers nothing particularly necessary 
 of mention. 
 
 Art. 45. Pupils and apprentices, of both sexes, who are members of the Society, 
 are visited in their schools and workshops by members of the Committee named for 
 that purpose. 
 
 Art. 46. Every year, in December, prizes are awarded by the Administrating 
 Council to the best pupils. 
 
 Art. 47. Apprentices distinguished for good conduct, zeal, and application, 
 receive from the Society, at the General Assembly, on the report of the Visiting 
 Committee, testimonials of their approval. 
 
 Art. 50. The Society takes care of children admitted to its circle who, being 
 under eighteen yeai-s of age, lose father and mother, or those among them who are 
 living at the date of their admission, and contribute in whole, or partly, to expenses 
 of their education, suitably to the position of their families. 
 
 CHEISTIAN INSTITUTIONS OP EOUBN. 
 
 MUTUAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETY, FOUNDED IN 1849. 
 
 This Society has for its object : — 
 
 1. To give to all its members who are sick or indisposed, free medical attend- 
 ance and medicine, without limitation of time. 
 
 2. To give, for a period of a year or more, a pecuniary indemnity to sick per- 
 sons, and assistance for their young children. 
 
 3. To grant sick-bed relief to incurables, or those incapable of work, until they 
 fulfil the conditions required to give them a claim to the pension. 
 
 4. To give old men, over 65 years of age, and 20 years membership in said 
 Society, participation in the advantages of the pension. 
 
227 
 
 5. To give women the same privilege. 
 
 6. To assist unemployed members to find work. 
 
 T. To receive for deposit in Savings Bank the savings of individual members. 
 
 8. To instruct and encourage these members by lectures, and, if possible, by the 
 study of selected reading, and by concerts of vocal music. 
 
 9. To reward the most meritorious efforts or works of these members. 
 
 10. To ensure to all, suitable burial, to the expense of which provision is made. 
 
 11. To provide, if possible, by special means, an additional fund, exclusively for 
 the relief of sick persons. 
 
 12. The entrance fee is fixed at 20 cents, from twelve to twenty-one years of 
 age ; at 40 cents, from twenty-one to thirty-five years of age ; and at 60 cents over 
 thirty-five years of age. 
 
 The assessments are for men : — $2.50 per annum, giving a right in ease of sick- 
 ness to 80 cents per week, and 10 cents per week for each child under fourteen years 
 of age ; or $3 per annum, giving the right in case of sickness to $1 per week during 
 three months, and 80 cents per week during nine months, and 10 cents per week for 
 each child ; or $3.72 per annum, giving the right in case of sickness to $1.40 per 
 week during three months, and 80 cents per week during nine months, and 20 cents 
 per week for each child. For women the assessments are from $2.04 to $2.40 per 
 annum. 
 
 After one year the sick person receives an assistance of 10 cents per week, 
 medical care and attendance — the Society paying his assessment. 
 
 The statutes regulate the position of widows and orphans, and the pensions of 
 members. 
 
 PHILAJSTTHEOPIC SOCIETY OP THE CLEEKS AND EMPLOYEES OF THE 
 CITY OP MAESEILLES. ( Pounded in 1848.) 
 
 The Society grants to active members in case of sickness : — 
 
 Ist. Medical care and attendance. 
 
 2nd. Eemedies and medicine delivered by the druggists of the Society. 
 
 3rd. An indemnity specially fixed at 40 cents per day, if the sickness does not 
 exceed in duration six or eight months, according to the case. 
 
 4th. A monthly invalid fund. 
 
 5th. A retiring pension, at the age of 60. 
 
 6th. Funeral expenses. 
 
 Active members have to pay : 
 
 1st. An entrance fee of $2.40, from the age of 25 to 30 ; of $3.60 from 31 to 35 ; 
 of $4.80 from 36 to 39 years of age. 
 
 This entrance fee is transferred to the relief fund, for it represents the value of 
 chances of sickness, apportioned to the most advanced ages. 
 
 2nd. An annual assessment, varying as follows, with the age of the new mem- 
 ber: — 
 
 15 to 20 years $4.80 
 
 21 4.92 
 
 22 5.16 
 
 23 5.28 
 
 24 5.40 
 
 25 5.52 
 
 26 5.76 
 
 27 5.88 
 
 28 6.12 
 
 29 6.36 
 
 In 1888 the retiring pension gi-anted by the Society was $52.45 per annum, the 
 pensioners numbering 180. 
 20— 15 J 
 
 dU years 
 
 31 
 
 $ b.OU 
 
 6.84 
 
 32 
 
 7.20 
 
 33 
 
 7.44 
 
 34 
 
 7.80 
 
 35 
 
 8.16 
 
 36 
 
 8.64 
 
 37 
 
 9.12 
 
 38 
 
 9.60 
 
 39 
 
 10.08 
 
228 
 
 MUTUAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETY OF THE COOPEES AND BOTTLEES 
 
 OF EEIMS. 
 
 This Society, originated and founded by the coopers and bottlers of Eeims, has a 
 just claim to serve as an excellent example of the advantages offered by a mutually 
 co-operative society. 
 
 '• This plan implies more than the ordinary relations of mutual societies — in fact, 
 complete mutual responsibility on the part of the employers and workmen of the same 
 trade, this responsibility being acknowledged by a formal agreement." 
 
 The constitution of this Society offers nothing particularly worthy of remark, 
 except the following clause : "Each member participating (men and women) pays 
 to the insurance fund of the Mutual Benevolent Society of Eeims a supplementaiy fee 
 of 2 cents per month. The fund thus formed is paid over to sick members who have 
 already drawn, during six months, the daily indemnity of their society, 20 cents per 
 day, until recovery. 
 
 THE ANTWBEP FEIBNDLY SOCIETY.* 
 
 Pounded in 1868, this Society has for its object: 
 
 1. To extend the benefits of mutual societies, in case of sickness or infirmity, to 
 Jaborers, agents, brokers, commissioners, commercial travellers, bank and corporation 
 
 clerks. 
 
 2. To establish thoroughly a special fund for the assistance of tenants, their 
 widows, or orphans, in indigent circumstances. 
 
 The annual assessment is |4; entrance fee, $2 from 18 to 25 years of age, and 
 $4 from 35 to 40. 
 
 There is granted to every sick member the sum of $20 per month during six 
 months, and $10 per month afterwards. 
 
 There is granted an allowance of $20 per month to the member out of employ- 
 ment in consequence of the unexpected failure of his employei-, or as the result 
 of fire. 
 
 ' Report presented to the 5th Section, Social Keonomy Exhibition, 1889. 
 
SECTION VI. 
 
 RETIRING FUND AND ANNUITIES. 
 
HETIRIIISra FUND ^ISTD ^DSTISTUITIES. 
 
 FEAlSrCE. 
 
 DEPOSIT AND INVESTMENT FUND. 
 
 NATIONAL EETIEING FUND FOE OLD AGE. 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 The object of the Institution and its nature. 
 
 The National Eetiring Fund for old age, which was established in 1850 and 
 re-organized by the law of 20th July, 1886, and by the decree of 28th December, 1886, 
 acts under warranty of the State, and under the direction of a higher Commission 
 formed under the Minister of Commerce. The object of the fund is to establish a 
 retiring fund, at fifty years of age or more, as the depositor may choose, the maxi- 
 mum amounts of the annuity not to exceed $240. 
 
 The intention of the legislator is to provide for the old age of the workingmen 
 in rural districts and in cities, by means of an assessment on his daily wages. 
 
 "With this object in view, the smallest savings are received in the Fund, where they 
 bear interest and so increase, and the death rate being taken into account. 
 
 All the amounts received from depositors, with the exception of the sums 
 required to meet the daily payments, which are entered in the current account of 
 the Public Treasury, are successively invested in French rents, or other investments 
 guaranteed by the State ; consequently, the Fund has always in its possession deeds 
 representing the number and amount of its transactions. 
 
 The compound interest allowed depositors is exactly the same as that drawn by 
 the Fund itself from the deposits made. No amount whatever is retained or 
 deducted for expenses of administration. These expenses are borne by the Deposit 
 Fund, which has charge of the National Eetiring Fund. 
 
 By means of this institution, any man living on his wages is afforded the possi- 
 bility of providing^ with absolute security and with every possible advantage, an 
 independence for his old age. He is, by this means, assured against the danger 
 of becoming a burden to his children ; and, moreover, if it be his wish, he may, by 
 reserving the capital for them, add to this provident forethought for his own 
 interests, the gratification of knowing that at his death they will inherit a certain 
 amount in money. 
 
 Besides, if the depositor should, previous to the period settled upon for payment 
 of the pension, by some serious accident or premature infirmity, duly certified, 
 become totally incapacitated for work, he is immediately, and before he is 50 years 
 of, age allowed a pension proportioned to his age and the amount he has deposited. 
 This pension may be increased by a sul)pidy from the State, to the extent allowed by 
 the credit entered for such purpose in each year's budget. 
 
 The higher Commission consists of sixteen members, among whom must neces- 
 sarily be two senators, two deputies, two State councillors, two presidents of mutual 
 aid societies and one engaged in industrial pursuits. It decides all matters of improve-i 
 ment and, in general, gives its opinion on all questions concerning the Fund. 
 
 Since its foundation to 31st December, 1885, the Eetiring Fund has received 
 from 694,911 depositors : 
 
 6,4©8,251 payments for alienated capital, amounting to $55,855,174 
 3,809,829 payments for reserved capital, amounting to 62,642,127 
 
 Altogether: 10,308,079 payments, amounting to $118,497,380 
 
232 
 
 It hag established, for the benefit of 278,782 annuitants, annuities to the amount 
 of 17,384,380. 
 
 It has paid for arrears due on these annuities the sum of $48,024,210. 
 
 It has paid to the heirs and assigns of depositors who have made their deposits 
 as reserved capital, the sum of $13,382,327. 
 
 In 1888 the assets of the Fund corresponding to its obligations, in State annuities 
 and in specie, amounted to $143,857,345. 
 
 MANNER OP MAKING DEPOSITS. 
 
 All that is required at the first is a certificate of the depositor's birth on 
 unstamped paper. The depositor receives a receipt, to be afterwards changed for a 
 bank book, given by the Deposit and Investment Fund. This book contains all 
 necessary information concerning fature payments which are received by all account- 
 ants given later (p. 294), on production of the book. 
 
 The deposits may come fi'om the recipient of the annuity, or from a third party. 
 
 The first may be made either dii'ectly by the owner himself, or by an interme- 
 diary. Any person may become the intermediary, may receive the assessments and 
 deposit them to the depositor's account, on producing a memorandum containing the 
 names of the depositors and the amounts paid in to the account of each. The Mayor 
 may make deposits for the members of his district (^commune), a teacher for the pupils 
 of his school, the head of an industry in the name of his workmen, mutual aid soci- 
 eties for their members, etc. 
 
 Special provident societies, established expressly for the purpose of becoming 
 intermediary between their members and the Eetiring Fund, are, by their nature, 
 able to do good service, and greatly assist in developing the system by securing the 
 co-operation of well-disposed persons, by ensuring the regular payment of amounts 
 assessed, and by stimulating the ardor of those in arrears. 
 
 Finally, the private Savings Fund and the National Postal Savings Fund are 
 officially designed to occupy such a position in regard to their depositors. 
 
 As regards payments made as a donation, either by the donator himself, or by 
 verbal mandate, they may be made, by a father for his children, or by districts (^com- 
 munes) by departments, by agricultural committees, by individuals, as prizes or 
 rewards, to scholars or others, by a manufacturer for his woi-kmen, etc. 
 
 This method of benefaction is to be particularly commended ; a means is thus 
 provided a donator which he cannot destroy, and there is also assured the recipient, 
 especially if he be a child or an apprentice, an annuity equal, ani sometimes greater 
 than the amount disbursed. It is also a means of spreading a knowledge of the insti- 
 tution, and to suggest ideas of saving and economy tor the future to families. 
 
 BULLETINS-RETBAITES — CERTIFICATES OE DEPOSIT. 
 
 In order to encourage even the smallest savings, the National Retiring Fund 
 has, since 1st April, 1887, established certificates of deposit (Bulletins-retraites) , similar 
 to those given by the Postal Savings Bank, and permitting, by means of ordinary 
 postage stamps, the minimum deposit of $0.20 (or of $0.40 if there be two depositors) 
 prescribed by law. o 
 
 It is sufficient to stick the stamps to a certificate, which is accepted as money by 
 the Eetiring Fund, provided the stamps have not been altered, nor soiled, nor torn. 
 
 These certificates are very useful to teachers whose pupils wish to share in the 
 advantages offered by the National Eetiring Fund, which are peculiarly large when 
 payments are made lor young children. 
 
 CONDITIONS OP PAYMENT. 
 
 Payments may be made at will. The depositor enters into no engagement, and 
 may discontinue his payments, and begin them again at pleasure ; he may increase 
 or reduce the amount of his annual deposit without in any way interfering with the 
 
233 
 
 results already obtained. Any payment is, in fact, subject to special liquidation 
 effected according to the tariff in use at the time the deposit is made. 
 
 The pension derived in regard to the payment, is entered in the depositor's book, 
 and is thenceforward irrevocable. It can no longer be diminished, except by antici- 
 pated liquidation, nor can it be increased, except by an adjournment of enjoyment or 
 by abandoning the capital. At the time settled for its enjoyment, it will be entered 
 in the ledger of the National Eetiring Fund. 
 
 Payments may be made in the name of anyone 3 years of age. 
 
 It is not required that payments made as a donation should be accepted by the 
 inheritor, nor authorized by the father, if the inheritor be a minor. 
 
 Payments made by means of the savings of minors, under 16 years of age must 
 be authorized by the father or tutor. 
 
 Married women, whatever may be the conditions of their marriage contract, are 
 allowed to make payments without their husbands' authorization. But payments 
 made in the name of married depositors, not separated, as to property, are obliged to 
 be shared by half, unless they are made by donation. In the event of one of the 
 married parties being absent more than a year, the justice of peace may authorize 
 the payments to be made for the exclusive profit of the depositor. 
 
 Payments are received of any amount from $0.20 (or if by a married couple, 
 $0.40). The maximum amount is $200 per annum ($400 for married couple). 
 
 Capital may be either alienated or reserved ; in the latter case they are paid 
 without interest to the heirs and assigns of the depositor at the time of his decease. 
 
 Eesei-ved capital may be abandoned later, with a view to securing a new pension 
 at the age determined by the depositor when signing the abandonment. 
 
 ANNUITIES. 
 
 These annuities are guaranteed by the State, and are entered in the ledger of the 
 National Eetiring Fund, the duplicate being deposited with the Minister of Finance. 
 
 The annuity becomes payable at any age fi-om 50 to 65 years — that is, 50, 51, 52 
 years, etc., as the depositor may choose. After 65 it is payable immediately — that is, 
 it begins from the first day of the quarter term (three months) following the pay- 
 ment. 
 
 The annuities are inalienable and unseizable to the sum of $72. They may be 
 declared inalienable and unseizable in their entirety, by the donator of the capital. 
 
 At the period settled by depositor for receiving the annuity a deed is given him, 
 comprising the whole amount of deposits entered into the book for this annuity. 
 The arrears are payable'quarterly to the financial receiver, or to the tax gatherers. 
 
 TARIFFS. 
 
 The tariffs are determined every year by decree of the President of the Eepublic, 
 on proposition of the Minister of Finance, suggested by the higher Commission of the 
 Fund. 
 
 Account being taken for each payment, they are calculated as regards : 1st. 
 Compound interest on capital ; 2nd. The chances of death by reason of the deposi- 
 tor's age at the time of payment, and the age at which the annuity is to begin ; 3rd. 
 Surrender of capital, if the capital is alienated, or of payment at death, if the deposi- 
 tor has so desired when making payment. 
 
 The oflSlcial tariffs are established from quarter term to quarter term, from 3 
 years of age to 65 years, for payments, and from year to year, from 50 to 65 years of 
 age, for the enjoyment. These tariffs can be procured by the public on payment of 
 $0.02, the approximate cost of printing. 
 
 A special mandate gives information as to the revenue produced either by one 
 sole payment of $20 at the different ages of payment, and of receiving the annuity, or by 
 annual payments of $2.00, begun at a certain age and continued to time of enjoy- 
 ment of annuity. This mandate, in like manner to the present, is both posted and 
 distributed gratuitously, under the form of a notice, in the different Mayors' offices, 
 the offices of the Treasury accountants, the post offices and public schools. 
 
234 
 
 Deposits are received in the Deposit and Investment Fund, and by the treasurers 
 payers general, also by the receiver of finances, and by the tax-gatherers and the 
 postmasters. 
 
 SECOND PART, 
 
 A special notice, posted in the Mayors' offices, in the offices of the direct Treasury 
 accountants, in the post offices and public schools, shows the advantage and manner 
 of proceeding of this provident institution. The tables, Nos. 1 and 2, hereafter 
 given, taken from tariffs in actual use (the interest serving as basis to this tariff is 4 
 per cent.), indicate the amount of revenue produced from sole payments of $100, at 
 different ages, from 3 to 65 years, with enjoyment at 50, 55, 60 and 65 years. 
 
 Tables Nos. 3 and 4 give the annuities produced by annual payments of $10, 
 begun at a certain age, and continued to the age for receiving the annuity. The 
 tariffs are established by taking into account the compound interest on capital, with 
 the chances of death, and the result shown is that the payments are more productive 
 the earlier they are begun. Thus, one sole payment, with alienated capital, for a 
 child 3 years of age, with enjoyment of the annuity at 60 years of age, gives $158, 
 44 per cent, of the capital paid. 
 
 At 20 years of age it gives $74.75 per cent. 
 
 Annual deposits of $6.00, made from the age of 18 to 60 years (or $258 paid), at 
 that age produce : 
 
 1st. With alienated capital, an annuity of $91.55 — that is, 35"48 per cent, on 
 capital paid. 
 
 2nd, With reserved capital, an annuity of $62.73, or 24-31 per cent, on the 
 deposited capital. 
 
235 
 
 TABLE No. 1.— TAEIPF 4 p. c. 
 Annuity procured by deposit of $100. 
 
 ALIENATED CAPITAL. 
 
 Age at which 
 
 Payment is 
 
 Made. 
 
 Enjoyment of Annuity at 
 
 Age at which 
 
 Payment is 
 
 Made. 
 
 Enjoyment of Annuity at 
 
 50 years. 
 
 55 years. 
 
 60 years. 
 
 65 years. 
 
 50 years. 
 
 55 years. 
 
 60 years. 
 
 65 years. 
 
 3 years 
 
 4 " 
 
 5 " 
 
 8 c. 
 
 68 11 
 64 99 
 62 09 
 
 8 u. 
 
 101 16 
 96 51 
 92 21 
 
 1 0. 
 
 158 44 
 151 17 
 144 43 
 
 $ v;. 
 
 267 70 
 255 41 
 244 02 
 
 36 years 
 
 37 " 
 
 38 " 
 
 39 " 
 
 40 " 
 
 $ 0. 
 
 15 03 
 14 34 
 13 67 
 13 03 
 12 42 
 
 22 33 
 21 29 
 20 30 
 19 35 
 18 44 
 
 1 «. 
 
 34 97 
 33 35 
 31 80 
 30 31 
 
 28 88 
 
 $ 0. 
 
 59 08 
 56 34 
 53 72 
 51 21 
 48 80 
 
 6 years 
 
 8 " '.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
 
 9 " 
 
 10 " 
 
 59 38 
 56 85 
 54 46 
 52 19 
 50 03 
 
 88 20 
 84 43 
 80 88 
 77 51 
 74 30 
 
 138 14 
 132 25 
 126 68 
 121 41 
 116 37 
 
 233 40 
 223 43 
 214 04 
 205 12 
 196 62 
 
 41 years 
 
 42 " 
 
 43 " 
 
 44 " 
 
 45 " 
 
 11 83 
 11 27 
 10 73 
 10 21 
 9 71 
 
 17 57 
 16 73 
 15 93 
 15 16 
 14 43 
 
 27 52 
 26 21 
 24 95 
 23 75 
 22 60 
 
 46 49 
 44 28 
 42 16 
 40 13 
 38 18 
 
 11 years 
 
 12 " 
 
 13 " 
 
 14 " 
 
 15 " 
 
 47 95 
 45 94 
 44 00 
 42 11 
 40 29 
 
 71 21 
 68 23 
 65 34 
 62 55 
 59 83 
 
 111 54 
 
 106 87 
 
 102 35 
 
 97 97 
 
 93 72 
 
 188 45 
 180 56 
 172 92 
 165 52 
 158 34 
 
 46 years 
 
 47 " 
 
 48 " 
 
 49 " 
 
 50 " 
 
 9 24 
 8 79 
 8 35 
 7 92 
 7 51 
 
 13 72 
 13 05 
 12 40 
 11 77 
 11 16 
 
 21 50 
 20 44 
 19 42 
 18 43 
 17 48 
 
 36 32 
 34 53 
 32 80 
 31 14 
 29 53 
 
 16 years 
 
 17 " 
 
 18 " 
 
 19 " 
 
 20 " 
 
 38 52 
 36 80 
 35 14 
 33 54 
 32 00 
 
 57 20 
 54 65 
 52 19 
 49 81 
 47 52 
 
 89 60 
 85 61 
 81 75 
 78 03 
 74 44 
 
 151 .S8 
 144 64 
 138 12 
 131 83 
 125 77 
 
 51 years 
 
 52 " 
 
 53 " 
 
 54 " 
 
 55 " 
 
 
 10 57 
 
 10 01 
 
 9 46 
 
 8 93 
 
 8 43 
 
 16 56 
 15 67 
 14 82 
 13 99 
 13 20 
 
 27 98 
 26 48 
 25 03 
 23 64 
 22 30 
 
 21 years 
 
 22 " 
 
 23 " 
 
 24 " 
 
 25 " 
 
 30 52 
 29 10 
 2? 75 
 26 46 
 25 23 
 
 45 33 
 43 22 
 41 21 
 39 29 
 .S7 47 
 
 70 99 
 67 69 
 64 54 
 61 54 
 58 69 
 
 119 95 
 114 37 
 109 05 
 103 98 
 99 16 
 
 56 years 
 
 57 "■ 
 
 58 " 
 
 59 " 
 
 60 " 
 
 
 
 12 44 
 11 71 
 11 01 
 10 33 
 9 69 
 
 21 02 
 19 78 
 18 59 
 17 46 
 16 36 
 
 26 years 
 
 27 " 
 
 28 " 
 
 29 '• 
 
 30 " 
 
 24 07 
 22 96 
 21 91 
 20 91 
 19 95 
 
 35 74 
 34 10 
 32 54 
 31 05 
 29 62 
 
 55 98 
 53 41 
 50 96 
 48 63 
 46 40 
 
 94 59 
 90 24 
 86 11 
 82 16 
 78 40 
 
 61 years 
 
 62 " 
 
 63 " 
 
 64 " 
 
 65 " 
 
 
 
 
 15 32 
 14 31 
 13 34 
 12 41 
 11 51 
 
 31 years 
 
 32 " 
 
 33 " 
 
 34 " 
 
 35 " 
 
 19 03 
 18 16 
 17 32 
 16 52 
 15 76 
 
 28 27 
 26 97 
 25 73 
 24 54 
 23 41 
 
 44 27 
 42 24 
 40 29 
 38 44 
 36 66 
 
 74 80 
 71 36 
 68 08 
 64 94 
 61 95 
 
 Over 65 years of age the annuity is the 
 same as at 65. 
 
 SECOND TABLE No 1.— TAEIFP -1 p. c. 
 Annuity acquired immediately on the payment of $100. 
 
 ALIENATED CAPITAL. 
 
 50 years 
 
 51 " 
 
 52 " 
 
 53 " 
 
 S 0. 
 
 7 51 
 7 68 
 
 7 85 
 
 8 03 
 
 54 years 
 
 55 " 
 
 56 " 
 
 57 " 
 
 22 
 43 
 64 
 
 58 years 
 
 59 " 
 
 60 " 
 
 61 " 
 
 if 0. 
 
 9 13 
 
 9 40 
 
 9 69 
 
 10 00 
 
 62 years 
 
 63 " 
 
 64 " 
 
 65 '• 
 
 10 33 
 
 10 70 
 
 11 09 
 11 51 
 
 Note.— The enjoyment of an annuity dates from the 1st day of the quarter following the quarter corres- 
 ponding to that of birth. 
 After 65 years of age the enjoyment dates from the 1st day of the quarter following the deposit. 
 
236 
 
 TABLE No. 2.— TAEIFF 4 p. c. 
 Annuity procured by payment of f 100. 
 
 RESERVED CAPITAL. 
 
 Age 
 
 Enjoyment of Annuity at 
 
 Age 
 at time ojf 
 Payment. 
 
 Enjoyment os' Annuity at 
 
 AT Payment. 
 
 50 years 
 
 55 years 
 
 60 years 
 
 65 years 
 
 50 years 
 
 55 years 
 
 60 years 
 
 65 years 
 
 3 years 
 
 4 " 
 
 5 " 
 
 $ e. 
 
 56 83 
 54 18 
 51 65 
 
 84 41 
 80 47 
 76 71 
 
 132 21 
 126 04 
 120 16 
 
 S ^. 
 
 223 37 
 212 95 
 203 01 
 
 36 years 
 
 37 " 
 
 38 " 
 
 39 " 
 
 40 " 
 
 S c. 
 
 10 10 
 9 52 
 8 96 
 8 43 
 
 7 92 
 
 $ c. 
 
 15 01 
 14 14 
 13 31 
 
 12 52 
 11 77 
 
 $ u. 
 
 23 50 
 
 22 14 
 20 85 
 19 61 
 18 43 
 
 $ V. 
 
 39 71 
 37 41 
 35 22 
 .'iS 13 
 31 14 
 
 6 years 
 
 7 " 
 
 8 " 
 
 9 " 
 
 10 " 
 
 49 23 
 46 92 
 44 71 
 42 58 
 40 55 
 
 73 12 
 69 69 
 66 39 
 63 24 
 60 22 
 
 114 53 
 
 109 15 
 
 103 99 
 
 99 06 
 
 94 32 
 
 193 51 
 184 41 
 175 70 
 167 36 
 159 36 
 
 41 years 
 
 42 " 
 
 43 " 
 
 44 " 
 
 45 " 
 
 7 44 
 6 98 
 6 54 
 6 12 
 5 73 
 
 11 05 
 
 10 37 
 
 9 72 
 
 9 10 
 
 8 51 
 
 17 31 
 16 24 
 15 22 
 14 25 
 13 32 
 
 29 24 
 27 43 
 25 71 
 24 07 
 22 51 
 
 11 years 
 
 12 " 
 
 13 " 
 
 14 " 
 
 ,15 " 
 
 38 60 
 36 73 
 34 94 
 33 22 
 31 58 
 
 57 32 
 54 55 
 51 89 
 49 34 
 46 91 
 
 89 79 
 85 44 
 81 28 
 77 29 
 73 47 
 
 151 70 
 144 35 
 137 32 
 130 58 
 124 13 
 
 46 years 
 
 47 " 
 
 48 " 
 
 49 " 
 
 50 " 
 
 5 35 
 4 99 
 4 65 
 4 33 
 4 02 
 
 7 95 
 7 41 
 6 91 
 6 42 
 5 97 
 
 12 44 
 11 61 
 10 82 
 10 06 
 9 35 
 
 21 03 
 19 61 
 18 27 
 17 00 
 15 79 
 
 16 years 
 
 17 " 
 
 18 " , 
 
 19 " 
 
 20 " 
 
 30 01 
 28 52 
 27 08 
 25 71 
 24 41 
 
 44 58 
 42 35 
 40 22 
 38 19 
 36 25 
 
 69 82 
 66 33 
 63 00 
 59 82 
 56 78 
 
 117 97 
 112 07 
 106 44 
 101 06 
 95 93 
 
 51 years 
 
 52 " 
 
 53 " 
 
 54 " 
 
 55 " 
 
 
 5 53 
 5 12 
 4 74 
 4 37 
 4 02 
 
 8 67 
 8 02 
 7 42 
 6 84 
 6 30 
 
 14 64 
 13 56 
 12 53 
 11 56 
 10 64 
 
 21 years 
 
 22 " 
 
 23 " 
 
 24 ",:... 
 
 25 " 
 
 23 16 
 21 98 
 20 84 
 19 77 
 18 74 
 
 34 40 
 32 64 
 30 96 
 29 35 
 27 83 
 
 53 88 
 51 12 
 48 49 
 45 98 
 43 58 
 
 91 04 
 86 37 
 81 92 
 77 68 
 73 64 
 
 56 years 
 
 57 " 
 
 58 " 
 
 59 " 
 
 60 " 
 
 
 
 5 79 
 5 31 
 4 85 
 4 43 
 4 03 
 
 9 78 
 8 97 
 8 20 
 7 48 
 6 81 
 
 26 years 
 
 27 " 
 
 28 " 
 
 29 " 
 
 30 " 
 
 17 75 
 16 82 
 15 92 
 15 07 
 14 26 
 
 26 37 
 24 98 
 23 65 
 22 38 
 21 17 
 
 41 30 
 39 12 
 37 04 
 35 06 
 33 17 
 
 69 78 
 66 10 
 62 58 
 59 23 
 56 04 
 
 61 years 
 
 62 " 
 
 63 " 
 
 64 " 
 
 65 " 
 
 
 
 
 6 17 
 5 58 
 5 03 
 4 52 
 4 04 
 
 31 years 
 
 32 " 
 
 33 " 
 
 34 " 
 
 35 " 
 
 13 48 
 12 74 
 12 03 
 11 36 
 10 72 
 
 20 02 
 18 92 
 17 87 
 16 87 
 15 92 
 
 31 36 
 
 29 64 
 27 99 
 26 43 
 24 93 
 
 52 99 
 50 07 
 47 30 
 44 65 
 42 12 
 
 Over 65 years of age the annuity is the same as at 65. 
 
 SECOND TABLE No. 2.— TAEIFF 4 p. c. 
 Annuities acquired immediately on payment of §100. 
 
 RESERVED CAPITAL. 
 
 
 S ^. 
 
 
 8 c. 
 
 
 1 c. 
 
 
 $c. 
 
 50 years 
 
 4 02 
 
 54 years 
 
 4 02 
 
 58 years 
 
 4 03 
 
 62 years..... 
 
 4 03 
 
 51 " 
 
 4 02 
 
 55 " 
 
 4 02 
 
 59 " 
 
 4 03 
 
 63 " ..... 
 
 4 03 
 
 52 " 
 
 4 02 
 
 56 " 
 
 4 02 
 
 60 " 
 
 4 03 
 
 64 " 
 
 4 04 
 
 53 " 
 
 4 02 
 
 57 " 
 
 4 02 
 
 61 " 
 
 4 03 
 
 65 " 
 
 4 04 
 
237 
 
 ■ TABLE No. 3.— TAEIFP 4 p. c. 
 Annuity procured by an Annual Deposit of 
 
 ALIENATED CAPITAL. 
 
 Age 
 
 AT THE First 
 
 Payment. 
 
 EnJOYMBKT OB' THJl ANNUITY AT 
 
 Age 
 
 AT THE FlEST 
 
 Payment. 
 
 Enjoyment of the Annuity at 
 
 50 years. 
 
 55 years. 
 
 60 years. 
 
 65 years. 
 
 50 years. 
 
 • 
 
 55 years. 
 
 60 years. 
 
 65 years. 
 
 3 years 
 
 4 " 
 
 5 " 
 
 136 40 
 129 59 
 123 09 
 
 $ c. 
 
 207 32 
 197 20 
 187 55 
 
 $ c. 
 
 330 25 
 314 40 
 299 29 
 
 $ 0. 
 
 564 66 
 537 89 
 512 35 
 
 36 years 
 
 37 " 
 
 38 " 
 
 39 " 
 
 40 " 
 
 $ c. 
 
 16 40 
 14 90 
 13 46 
 12 10 
 10 79 
 
 S 0. 
 
 29 10 
 26 87 
 24 74 
 22 71 
 20 77 
 
 $ 0. 
 
 51 10 
 47 60 
 44 27 
 41 09 
 38 06 
 
 1 0. 
 
 93 02 
 
 87 11 
 81 48 
 76 11 
 70 98 
 
 6 years 
 
 8 " '..'.'.'.'.'.'. 
 
 9 " •. 
 
 10 " 
 
 116 89 
 
 110 95 
 
 105 26 
 
 99 82 
 
 94 60 
 
 178 33 
 169 51 
 161 07 
 152 98 
 145 23 
 
 284 84 
 271 03 
 257 81 
 245 14 
 233 00 
 
 487 95 
 464 61 
 442 26 
 420 86 
 400 35 
 
 41 years 
 
 42 " 
 
 43 " 
 
 44 " 
 
 45 " 
 
 9 55 
 8 37 
 7 24 
 6 17 
 5 15 
 
 18 93 
 17 17 
 15 50 
 13 90 
 12 39 
 
 35 17 
 32 42 
 29 79 
 27 30 
 24 92 
 
 66 10 
 61 46 
 57 03 
 52 81 
 48 80 
 
 11 years 
 
 12 ■' 
 
 13 " 
 
 14 " ........ 
 
 15 " 
 
 89 59 
 84 80 
 80 21 
 75 81 
 71 59 
 
 137 80 
 130 68 
 123 86 
 117 32 
 111 07 
 
 221 36 
 210 21 
 190 52 
 180 28 
 179 49 
 
 380 69 
 361 84 
 343 79 
 326 49 
 309 94 
 
 46 years 
 
 47 " 
 
 48 " 
 
 49 " 
 
 50 " 
 
 4 18 
 3 25 
 
 2 m 
 
 1 54 
 75 
 
 10 95 
 9 57 
 8 ZI 
 7 03 
 5 85 
 
 22 66 
 20 51 
 18 47 
 16 53 
 14 69 
 
 44 98 
 41 35 
 37 90 
 34 62 
 31 50 
 
 16 years 
 
 17 " 
 
 18 " 
 
 19 " 
 
 20 " 
 
 67 57 
 63 71 
 60 03 
 56 52 
 53 17 
 
 105 08 
 99 36 
 93 90 
 88 68 
 83 70 
 
 170 11 
 161 15 
 152 59 
 144 42 
 136 62 
 
 294 11 
 278 97 
 264 51 
 250 69 
 237 51 
 
 51 years 
 
 52 " 
 
 53 " 
 
 54 " 
 
 55 " 
 
 
 4 74 
 3 68 
 2 68 
 1 73 
 84 
 
 12 94 
 
 11 28 
 
 9 71 
 
 8 23 
 
 6 83 
 
 28 55 
 25 75 
 23 10 
 20 60 
 18 24 
 
 21 years 
 
 22 " 
 
 23 " 
 
 24 " 
 
 25 " 
 
 49 97 
 46 91 
 44 00 
 41 23 
 
 38 58 
 
 78 95 
 74 41 
 70 09 
 65 97 
 62 04 
 
 129 17 
 122 07 
 115 30 
 108 85 
 102 70 
 
 224 93 
 212 94 
 201 50 
 190 60 
 180 20 
 
 56 years 
 
 57 " 
 
 58 " 
 
 59 " 
 
 60 " 
 
 
 
 5 51 
 4 27 
 3 10 
 2 00 
 96 
 
 16 01 
 13 90 
 11 93 
 10 07 
 8 32 
 
 26 years 
 
 27 " 
 
 28 " 
 
 29 " 
 
 30 " 
 
 36 06 
 33 65 
 31 36 
 29 17 
 27 07 
 
 58 30 
 54 72 
 51 31 
 48 00 
 44 95 
 
 96 83 
 91 23 
 85 89 
 80 79 
 75 93 
 
 170 28 
 160 82 
 151 80 
 143 19 
 134 97 
 
 61 years 
 
 62 " 
 
 63 " 
 
 64 " 
 
 66 " 
 
 
 
 
 6 68 
 5 15 
 3 72 
 2 39 
 1 15 
 
 31 years 
 
 32 " 
 
 33 " 
 
 34 " 
 
 35 " 
 
 25 08 
 23 18 
 21 36 
 19 63 
 17 98 
 
 41 99 
 39 16 
 36 47 
 33 89 
 31 44 
 
 71 29 
 66 86 
 62 64 
 58 61 
 54 76 
 
 127 13 
 119 65 
 112 52 
 105 71 
 99 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
238 
 
 TABLE No. 4.— TAEIPF 4 p. c. 
 Annuity procured by an Annual Deposit of |10. 
 
 RESERVED CAPITAL. 
 
 Age 
 
 AT THE FiBST 
 
 Payment. 
 
 Enjoyment oi' the Annuity at 
 
 Age 
 
 AT THE TlEST 
 
 Payment. 
 
 Enjoyment of the Annuity at 
 
 50 years. 
 
 55 years. 
 
 60 years. 
 
 65 years. 
 
 50 years. 
 
 55 years. 
 
 60 years. 
 
 65 years. 
 
 3 years 
 
 4 " 
 
 5 " ......... 
 
 S u. 
 
 104 31 
 98 63 
 93 21 
 
 $ e. 
 
 157 31 
 148 87 
 140 82 
 
 $ c. 
 
 248 83 
 235 61 
 223 01 
 
 $ c. 
 
 422 95 
 400 61 
 379 31 
 
 36 years 
 
 37 " 
 
 38 " 
 
 39 " 
 
 40 " 
 
 1 c. 
 
 10 10 
 9 09 
 8 14 
 7 25 
 6 40 
 
 $ c. 
 
 17 39 
 15 89 
 14 47 
 13 14 
 11 89 
 
 $ 0, 
 
 29 68 
 27 33 
 25 11 
 23 03 
 21 07 
 
 S c. 
 
 52 67 
 48 70 
 44 96 
 41 44 
 38 13 
 
 6 years 
 
 7 " 
 
 8 " 
 
 9 " 
 
 10 " 
 
 88 05 
 83 12 
 78 43 
 73 96 
 69 70 
 
 133 15 
 125 84 
 118 87 
 112 23 
 105 90 
 
 210 99 
 199 54 
 188 62 
 178 23 
 168 32 
 
 350 01 
 339 66 
 321 22 
 303 65 
 286 92 
 
 41 years 
 
 42 " 
 
 43 " 
 
 44 " 
 
 45 " 
 
 5 61 
 -4 87 
 4 17 
 3 51 
 2 90 
 
 10 71 
 9 61 
 8 57 
 7 60 
 6 69 
 
 19 22 
 17 49 
 15 87 
 14 35 
 12 92 
 
 35 01 
 32 09 
 29 35 
 26 77 
 24 37 
 
 11 years 
 
 12 " 
 
 13 " 
 
 14 " 
 
 15 " 
 
 65 65 
 61 79 
 58 11 
 54 62 
 51 30 
 
 99 88 
 94 15 
 88 70 
 83 51 
 
 78 57 
 
 158 89 
 149 91 
 141 36 
 133 24 
 125 51 
 
 270 98 
 255 81 
 241 37 
 227 64 
 214 58 
 
 46 years 
 
 47 " 
 
 48 " 
 
 49 " 
 
 50 " 
 
 2 33 
 
 1 79 
 1 30 
 83 
 40 
 
 5 84 
 5 04 
 4 30 
 3 61 
 2 97 
 
 11 59 
 
 10 35 
 
 9 18 
 
 8 10 
 
 7 10 
 
 22 12 
 20 01 
 18 05 
 16 23 
 14 53 
 
 16 years 
 
 17 " 
 
 18 " 
 
 19 " 
 
 20 " 
 
 48 14 
 45 14 
 42 29 
 39 58 
 37 01 
 
 73 88 
 69 42 
 65 19 
 61 17 
 57 35 
 
 118 16 
 
 111 18 
 
 104 55 
 
 98 25 
 
 92 26 
 
 202 17 
 190 37 
 179 17 
 168 52 
 158 42 
 
 51 years 
 
 52 " 
 
 53 " 
 
 54 " 
 
 55 " 
 
 
 2 37 
 1 82 
 1 31 
 83 
 40 
 
 6 16 
 5 29 
 4 49 
 3 75 
 3 07 
 
 12 95 
 
 11 48 
 
 10 13 
 
 8 87 
 
 7 72 
 
 21 years 
 
 22 " 
 
 23 " 
 
 24 " 
 
 25 " 
 
 34 57 
 32 25 
 30 05 
 27 97 
 25 99 
 
 53 72 
 50 28 
 47 02 
 43 92 
 40 99 
 
 86 59 
 81 20 
 76 09 
 71 24 
 66 64 
 
 148 82 
 139 72 
 131 08 
 122 89 
 115 12 
 
 56 years 
 
 57 " 
 
 58 " 
 
 59 ■' 
 
 60 " 
 
 
 
 2 44 
 1 86 
 1 33 
 84 
 40 
 
 6 65 
 5 68 
 4 78 
 3 96 
 3 21 
 
 26 years 
 
 27 " 
 
 28 " 
 
 29 " 
 
 30 " 
 
 24 12 
 22 34 
 20 66 
 19 07 
 17 56 
 
 ■ 38 20 
 35 57 
 33 07 
 30 70 
 28 47 
 
 62 28 
 58 15 
 54 24 
 50 53 
 47 03 
 
 107 76 
 
 100 78 
 
 '94 17 
 
 87 91 
 
 81 99 
 
 76 39 
 71 09 
 66 08 
 61 35 
 66 89 
 
 61 years 
 
 62 " 
 
 63 " 
 
 64 " 
 
 65 " 
 
 
 
 
 2 53 
 1 91 
 1 35 
 85 
 40 
 
 31 years 
 
 82 " 
 
 33 " 
 
 34 " 
 
 35 " 
 
 16 14 
 14 79 
 13 51 
 12 .31 
 11 18 
 
 26 35 
 24 35 
 22 46 
 20 67 
 18 98 
 
 43 71 
 40 58 
 37 61 
 34 81 
 32 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
239 
 
 Examples drawn from Tables Nos. 1 and 2. 
 
 The father of a family makes one sole deposit of $20 for a son aged 3 years, the 
 annuity so acquired to be enjoyed at : 
 
 Alienated Capital. Reserved Capital. 
 
 50 years of age an annuity of 68.11 x 20 56.83 x 20 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 $13.62 
 
 100 
 
 $11.36 
 
 60 
 
 do 
 
 158.44x20 
 
 31.68 
 
 132.21x20 
 
 26.44 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 65 
 
 do 
 
 26'7.'70x20 
 
 
 223.37x20 
 
 
 
 
 _... — 
 
 53.54 
 
 — 
 
 44.6'7 
 
 100 100 
 
 A prize of $5, awarded by a municipality, a society or an individual to a child 
 10 years of age would produce at : 
 
 Alienated Capital. Reserved Capitali 
 
 50 years of age an annuity of 50.03 x 5 40.55 x 5 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 $2.50 
 
 100 
 
 $2.02 
 
 60 
 
 do 
 
 116.37x5 
 
 
 94.32x5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 80 
 
 
 
 4.71 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 100 
 
 65 
 
 do 
 
 196.62x5 
 
 
 159.36x5 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 9.83 
 
 — 
 
 7.96 
 
 100 100 
 
 The donator may dispose of his deposit if he makes it with reserved capital. 
 He may, for instance, declare that on the death of the person in whose favor it is, the 
 capital shall return to the donator's heirs, which is often done in annuities granted 
 to servants; or if the case be one of a prize awarded a scholar, it may be declared 
 that at the death of the pupil the capital shall return to the school, to be again 
 awarded to another scholar, and thus become a perpetual prize. 
 
 Examples drawn from Tables JVos. 3 and 4. 
 
 A saving of $0.02 per day or $7.30 per year, begun at the age of 16 years, will 
 give at : 
 
 Alienated Capital. Reserved Capital. 
 
 50 years of age an annuity of 67.57 x 7.30 48.14 x 7.30 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 # tn.o^ 
 
 10 
 
 ^ OU.ll 
 
 60 
 
 do 
 
 170.11x7.30 
 
 
 118.16x7.30 
 
 
 
 
 
 12418 
 
 ■ 
 
 86 25 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 65 
 
 do 
 
 294.11x7.30 
 
 
 202.17x7.30 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 207.10 
 
 — 
 
 147.58 
 
 10 10 
 
 Thus a young man who has, from the time he was 16 years of age, deposited 
 $7.30 per year, may, when he is the father of a family and 65 years of age, receive an 
 annuity of $147.58, and at his death the capital saved, that is $365, will return to 
 his heirs. If he is a bachelor, or childless widower, or the father of a iamily all well 
 settled in life, he may increase his annuity by alienating his capital, and will then 
 receive a pension of $207.10 a year. 
 
240 
 
 LA PEANCB PE:^V0YANTE— (PEOVIDBNT FEANOE). 
 
 A civil, philanthropic and national retiring pension society, founded in Paris, 
 1st January, 1886. 
 
 Art. 1. There is established in Paris a civil, philantrophic and national retiring 
 pension society, entitled : '' La France Pr^voyante." 
 
 Art. 3. Its object, which is essentially philanthropic and humanitarian, is to 
 assure each of its members, having paid a monthly subscription during fifteen con- 
 secutive years, of an amount ranging from $0.20 to fl.OO, a pension which will place 
 its recipient beyond the reach of want for the remainder of his life. 
 
 Art. Y. The right to subscribe is given on payment of $0.40 ; the book costs 
 $0.20 ; in case of it being lost, it is replaced and entered in the matriculation book of 
 the archives, on renewed payments of $0.20. 
 
 Art. 9. The monthly tax is from $0.20 each share. One, two, three, four or 
 five shares may be subscribed for at will. 
 
 By allowing members to subscribe for several shares, the Society wishes to 
 ensure them a larger pension by means of which they may live at ease. 
 
 Amount to be Total amount paid 
 
 I paid for Per month Per year. at the expiration of 
 
 15 years. 
 
 One share $0.20 $ 2.4:0 $ 36.00 
 
 Two shares 0.40 4.80 12.00 
 
 Three " 0.60 Y.20 108.00 
 
 Four " 0.80 9.60 144.00 
 
 Five " 1.00 12.00 180.00 
 
 Art. 10. All persons who have subscribed to the present statutes thereby bind 
 themselves to pay a minimum monthly subscription of $0.20 each, by which they 
 acquire the right to a retiring pension after fifteen years subscription. 
 
 Art, 11. Payments may be anticipated. 
 
 Art. 12. In the event of a member delaying his payments, the amount of arrears 
 is increased by 25 per cent. He is obliged to pay the arrears before payment of his 
 subscription for the current month. 
 
 Art. 13. For purely philanthropic reasons, no case of delay in monthly pay- 
 ments entails cancelling; it delays the pension by as many years as the membei" is 
 in arrears, when the member has subscribed for one share. 
 
 Art. 14. Any member who has subscribed for several shares and who has ceased 
 to subscribe for the time being, shall not be delayed in the receipt of his pension, 
 provided that the average amount of his shares already paid, correspond to the 
 annual payment of one share. 
 
 Art. 15. Any member who has paid up one share or who hfis not yet reached 
 the maximum of five shares, may, at will, make up the year of his subscription by 
 partial payments over and above the annual amount to be paid for the number of 
 shares he intended to own of the amounts mentioned above, plus the fine of 25 per 
 cent, specified in article 12. 
 
 From the first to the fifth year inclusive the annual maximum can only be 
 reached by payment of $12 (fines inclusive). 
 
 From the sixth to the tenth year inclusive the annual maximum can only be 
 reached on payment of $10. 
 
 From the eleventh to the fifteenth year inclusive, the annual maximum can only 
 be reached on payment of $8. 
 
 Art. 18. In the event of the resignation of a member, any amounts paid by him 
 becomes wholly the property of the Society. No member who has once resigned can 
 again enter the Society except as a new subscriber. 
 
 Art. 24. The funds are divided into two classes: 
 
 Undisposable funds. 
 
 Disposable funds. 
 
 Art. 25. The undisposable funds comprise : 
 
241 
 
 The monthly subscriptions. 
 
 The fines imposed for delay in payment of monthly subscriptions. 
 
 Art. 26. These funds, which are centralized at the head-quarters by the treasurer^ 
 general and his assistant, are placed eveiy month in the savings bank in the name 
 of the Society, by the treasurer-general and president-general. 
 
 These funds are invested by the savings bank in French rents, the nominative 
 titles in the name of the Society. 
 
 THE TITLES DEPOSITED PERMANENTLY IN THE SAVINGS BANK. 
 
 In no ease can the membei-s of the General Council of Administration decide 
 upon the withdrawal of the undisposable funds, without being authorized by vote of 
 a general assembly, of all the members of the Society specially convoked for this 
 purpose. 
 
 Art. 2'7. It is from the sum total of the interest on the capital of the undispos- 
 able funds that the amount to be allotted per share to each pension, is settled at the 
 end of every year. 
 
 The disposable funds comprise — 
 
 The entrance fees or' right to subscribe ; 
 
 The proceeds from sale of books ; 
 
 Proceeds of meetings, conferences, concerts, theatrical representations and balls 
 given by the Society. 
 
 These are used to meet the office expenses, and those incurred by extending the 
 •Society, brou^h^ bout by its good management, and the constant increase of its 
 membership. 
 
 CHAPTER V — THE PENSIONERS. 
 
 Art. 29. Any member who, during fifteen, years, has paid the subscription 
 determine!* h^y ..^rticle 9, has a right to share in the whole amount of interest 
 accruing frolir .... 'Judisposable funds of the past year, which are to be calculated 
 and divided according to the total number of pensioners- and the number of shares 
 to which each has a right. 
 
 Art. 30. To prevent the amount for pensions being too large during the first 
 years of the Society's operation, as compared to the average of the following years 
 when the membership having increased, will be too large for the capital, the capital 
 will consequently afford a less amount of pensions, — it is determined that the amount 
 of pension per share shall not exceed the sum of $400 ; any excess of disposable 
 interest will be added to the undisposable capital of the Society. 
 
 Art. 31. Should the amount total of disposable interest, be large enough for 
 each member to be insured per share to the full amount determined as above, the 
 entire interest of undisposable capital will be annually divided among all the pen- 
 sioners of the current year. 
 
 Art. 32. Pensioned members continue to pay their montly subscriptions accord- 
 ing to the number of shares they have a rignt to, as a retiring fund. 
 
 The yearly interest accruing to each pensioner is inalienable and unseizable. 
 
 Art. 34. Should a pensioner die, his pension for that year is immediately paid 
 to the heirs of the deceased member, on presentation of the certificate of his death, 
 and his book. 
 
 On the 18th of August, 1888, this Association numbered 6,436 members, owning 
 14,313 shares. At that date the amount of undisposable funds was $32,849. 
 
 LES PE^VOYANTS DB L'AVEJSTIR (THOSE PEOVIDENT FOE THE 
 
 FUTUEE). 
 
 CIVIL SOCIETY FOR RETIRING. 
 
 Preface. 
 
 A practical method has long been sought, by which to remedy the hard fate of 
 those workmen who, having attained the age when physical strength no longer 
 answers to the demands that have been made upon it, are unable to provide for their 
 own needs. 
 
 20—16 
 
242 
 
 A large numbei' of persons have tried 'by different means to prevent pauperism, 
 with the result that there are home for invalided workmen, homes for the aged, etc. 
 But though the theory of all these systems is very fine, the results obtained are next 
 to nothing. 
 
 It is, in our opinion, for the workingman himself to seek and discover the 
 means and resoiirces needed to prevent the misery caused by a premature old age, 
 which itself is the result of too long duration of work. 
 
 We alone know the full extent of our needs, our resources and the means to be 
 adopted to attain the long sought for end, which so far has not been found. 
 
 In the foundation of a retiring fund established on the broadest basis, and invit- 
 ing all workmen without exception to found, if not for themselves at least for com- 
 ing generations, an inexhaustible resource, the members of the Eetiring.y Society, 
 Les Privoyants de VAvenir, have looked for the concurrence of all, and have hoped 
 that the idea they uphold will be understood by all workingmen to whatever class 
 they may belong. 
 
 Let each one thoroughly understand the power, and the efScacy of the benefits 
 conferred by a society whose innumerable members pay a small subscription 
 destined to bear interest in perpetuity, and they may form an idea of the results 
 we may hope to attain. Finally we may assert thatr the future would loom less 
 darkly before many of us, if the society which has just been founded had been 
 established half a century ago. 
 
 STATUTES. 
 
 Object of the Society. 
 
 The object for which this Society is founded is essentially humanitarian. 
 
 It proposes to ensure all members who have belonged to the Society for twenty 
 years, a provision for the fii-st necessaries of life. 
 
 The consequences of labor, together with age, beijig to destroy /''^faculties, and 
 consequently the means of gain, the Society intends by means of association, to sup- 
 plement and, if need be, to supply the salary suppressed by sickness or accidents. 
 
 Art. 10. The entrance fee is |0.40. 
 
 The subscription is $0.20 monthly. 
 
 It is to be payable in advance. 
 
 Art. 11. Members in arrears for amount of subscription will be fined $0.05 per 
 month in arrears. 
 
 A book, containing the present statutes, will be given each member and will 
 serve as a certificate of admittance. 
 
 The cost of the book is $0.10. 
 
 Art. 12. The monthly receipts are deposited in the savings bank by the treasurer 
 and the president. In no event can the funds be withdrawn except by decision of a 
 geueral assembly, extraordinary. 
 
 Art. 13. The funds are entirely invested in Trench rents at 3 or 5 per cent., 
 which investment is made by the Savings Bank. 
 
 Art. 14. Manual gifts may be accepted by the Society. 
 
 Art. 15. Under direction of the office, theatrical representations and concerts 
 may be given for the benefit of the Society. 
 
 IV. — ADMITTANCE . 
 
 Art. 16. Any person of proved respectability can become a member of the Society. 
 
 In order to become a member, the person must be fifteen years of age. 
 
 Women are admitted. 
 
 Being given the same duties they have the same rights. 
 
 Art. 17. Candidates are admitted at the office on receipt of a written request 
 signed by themselves. 
 
 Their final admission will be decided in general assembly. Their request for 
 admission should be addressed to the headquarters of the Society. 
 
 V. — EXPULSION. 
 
 Art. 18. Any member who is six months in arrears in the payment of his sub- 
 scription should be warned by letter from the treasurer, to pay his indebtedness 
 immediately. 
 
243 
 
 At the end of a year, his expulsion will be proposed by the office at the general 
 assembly. 
 
 He may be readmitted, but the time preceding his being expelled will not be 
 calculated for his pension. 
 
 VI. — RIGHTS. 
 
 Art. 19. All members having belonged to the Society for twenty years, have the 
 right to share in the whole amount of interest belonging to the Society, during the 
 preceding year. ^ 
 
 This division is made every three months, according to the inventory for the 
 31st of December, of the following year. 
 
 Art. 20. Pensions begin on the first of January. 
 
 Pensioners are not exempt from payment of their monthly subscription. 
 
 Art. 21. Should a pensioner die, his pension for that year will be paid to his 
 heirs or persons named by the deceased member. 
 
 Art. 22. The Society recognizes no alienation of the pension, it being paid to the 
 heir on receipt of a discharge. 
 
 Pensioners who reside in the provinces should every January send a certificate 
 of life. 
 
 Art. 23. The parents of a deceased member, have no recourse against the 
 Society. 
 
 The amounts paid by him belong to the Society. 
 
 Art. 24. If after five years membership, a member is afflicted by a chronic sick- 
 ness, which prevents him from working and from paying his subscription, he may 
 demand his support from the Society's funds. 
 
 After twenty years' membership he is pensioned. 
 
 Art. 25. A member suffering from sickness may demand a suspension of his 
 subscription: -.The time thus lost does not count for the pension, unless the member 
 pays all arrears. It is understood that a fine may be imposed. 
 
 The same rule follows for a member called to serve his country. 
 
 The officers decides all requests for suspension. 
 
 General Rules. 
 
 Art. 26. The Society can only be dissolved on a unanimous vote of the whole 
 number of members belonging to the society. In the event of dissolution the funds 
 will be paid by order of the general assembly convoked for that purpose, the funds 
 of Society whose object approaches most that of our own Society. 
 
 Art. 27. No change can be made in the object^ and in the fundamental articles of 
 these present statutes, nor to articles 10 and 19. 
 
 Art. 28. All political and religious discussions are interdicted. 
 
 Art. 29. The undersigned subscribers to the articles above set forth, declare 
 their submission to the decisions arrived at by the general assembly, either in the 
 interpretation of the said statutes or in cases not provided for. 
 
 On the 1st of August, 1889, this Association founded in 1880, had established in 
 France 517 sections, comprising 94,448 members, and was possessed of a capital of 
 $598,685. 
 
 COMMEECIAL PEOVIDBNT SOCIETY. 
 
 EETIRING FUND. 
 
 For Employees of both Sexes employed in Commercial Business under the general 
 name of Dry Goods and industries belonging to it. 
 
 [Founded in Paris in 1880.] 
 
 Object. — The object of the Society is to assure its participating members, a 
 retiring pension proportioned to their subscription, and the amount of the business 
 funds of the Society, in accordance with the method of liquidation established by 
 means of regulating tables whose use is ruled by articles 42, 43 and 44 of the statutes . 
 (^Seepages 256, 258, 259, 260.) 
 
 20— 16^ 
 
244 
 
 Composition. — The Society is composed of honorary members, participating 
 members, and pensioned members. 
 
 Admittance. — All employees of both sexes may belong to the Society as partici- 
 pating members, in whatever branch of commerce they may be employed, included 
 under the general name of dry goods, and the industries belonging to it. 
 
 These employees must be at least thirty years of age, and of French nationality. 
 
 Female members have a deliberative voice and the right to vote in the general 
 assemblies, but can in no case belong to the council of administration. 
 
 Subscription. — On entering the Society each member binds himself to pay regu- 
 larly and in advance, at the headquarters or business office, a subscription in pro- 
 portion to his age — according to the share, and for the length of time fixed by the 
 following table : 
 
 Ho would, moreover, have the right to subscribe as many as five times, each one 
 of which would give him a right to a new share of pension. 
 
 The entrance fee is $2. 
 
 Administration. — The affairs of the Society are administered by a council, con- 
 sisting of the president, and of twenty-four other members, elected in general 
 assembly. 
 
 Their services are entirely gratuitous. 
 
 TABLE REGULATING THE MONTHLY SUBSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 Age of Admittance. 
 
 Years 
 
 Number of 
 
 Value of 
 
 Total Amount of 
 
 of Payment. 
 
 Subscriptions 
 
 Subscriptions 
 
 Payments. 
 
 20 yrs. 
 
 25 yrs. 
 
 300 
 
 $0.60 
 
 $180.00 
 
 21 — 
 
 24 — 
 
 288 
 
 0.63 
 
 181.44 
 
 Z2 — 
 
 23 — 
 
 276 
 
 0.67 
 
 184.92 
 
 23 - 
 
 22 - 
 
 264 
 
 0.72 
 
 190.08 
 
 24 — 
 
 21 — 
 
 252 
 
 0.77 
 
 194.04 
 
 25 — 
 
 20 — 
 
 240 
 
 0.83 
 
 199.20 
 
 26 — 
 
 19 — 
 
 228 
 
 0.90 
 
 205.20 
 
 27 — 
 
 18 — 
 
 216 
 
 0.98 
 
 211.68 
 
 28 — 
 
 17 — 
 
 204 
 
 1.07 
 
 218.28 
 
 29 — 
 
 16 — 
 
 192 
 
 1.17 
 
 224.64 
 
 30 — 
 
 15 — 
 
 180 
 
 1.28 
 
 230.40 
 
 31 — 
 
 14 — 
 
 168 
 
 1.41 
 
 236.88 
 
 32 — 
 
 18 — 
 
 156 
 
 1.58 
 
 243.36 
 
 33 — 
 
 12 — 
 
 144 
 
 1.74 
 
 250.56 
 
 34 — 
 
 11 — 
 
 132 
 
 1.94 
 
 256.08 
 
 35 and over. 
 
 10 — 
 
 120 
 
 2.20 
 
 264.00 
 
 Yeai'ly Statement. — On the 31st December of eveiy year there is established the 
 ordinary capital or guarantee funds of the fixed rent, viz. : — 
 
 Ist. Establishing, by means of Tables A, B, C, the capital of actual participating 
 members. 
 
 2nd. By decreasing, by means of Table 0, the capital o? retired members. 
 
 In order to simplify the operations, the actual participating members admitted pre- 
 vious to \st July are considered as having entered on the Ist January of the current year ; 
 and to balance, the members admitted after 1st July date from the ist January of the 
 following year. 
 
 The ordinary capital thus obtained foi-ms the working capital. The working 
 capital taken from the business capital forms the net or capital extraordinary. 
 
245 
 
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246 
 
 BASIS OF THE RETIRING FUND. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM THE STATUTES. 
 
 Art. 42. The retiring pension of each participating member consists of two 
 parts. I 
 
 Fixed Sent and Variable Rents. 
 
 The fixed Eeut represents the interest and the funding of the capital, formed by 
 the monthly subscriptions of the members, by the interest and by the death risk, in 
 accordance with tables A, B, C, annexed, to the present statutes. 
 
 The capital necessary to the formation of the fixed rent, coming to each active 
 or retired member, is calculated from tables A, B, C, to the 31st December of each 
 year, and forms the ordinary capital ; the excess, constitutes the capital extra- 
 ordinary. 
 
 The variable Eent is to the amount of fixed rent on table A what the capital 
 extraordinary is to ordinary capital. 
 
 The fixed Eent is proportioned to the number of shares of each member. 
 
 The variable Eent is equally divided among all the members, whatever may be 
 the number of their shares. 
 
 Art. 43. A member having a right to retire may, if he choose, postpone from 
 year to year the liquidation of th^ pension part, in order to increase the amount 
 according to table B. 
 
 The variable part of tt e pension may not be postponed. 
 
 Art. 44. The retiring pension may be liquidated before the age determined by the 
 statutes, but after two years at least of membership in the Society, for the benefit of 
 those participating members, who may have met with serious 'accidents, or incurable 
 infirmities, incapacitating the members for work, and which have occurred since 
 their admittance to the Society. 
 
 For any member retiring under these circumstances, the fixed Eent granted is 
 liquidated, in proportions to the payments made according to tables A and C; the 
 variable Eent is paid entire as though he had attained the statutory age of a pension.. 
 
247 
 
 METHOD OF LIQUIDATION TOR PENSION. 
 
 Table A* 
 Established for the application of Articles 42 and 43 of the Statutes. 
 
 
 Age of the Member 
 
 AT THE TIME OF HIS ADMITTANCE. 
 
 
 — 
 
 20 Years. 
 
 25 Years. 
 
 30 Years. 
 
 35 Yrs.** 
 
 
 21 Years. 
 
 1 
 
 39? 
 
 81J 
 
 1 251 
 1721 
 
 2 22? 
 
 2 75 
 
 3 315 
 
 3 90t 
 
 4 541 
 
 5 23 
 
 5 951 
 
 6 72 
 
 7 555 
 
 8 431 
 
 9 39 
 
 10 40t 
 
 11 48| 
 
 12 66t 
 
 13 92t 
 
 15 291 
 
 16 781 
 18 351 
 20 07 
 21941 
 
 1 
 
 $ 
 
 $ 
 
 
 22 ' 
 
 23 ' 
 
 24 ' 
 
 25 ' 
 
 26 ' 
 
 27 ' 
 
 28 ' 
 
 29 ' 
 
 30 ' 
 
 31 ' 
 
 32 ' 
 
 33 ' 
 
 34 ' 
 
 35 ' 
 
 36 ' 
 
 37 ' 
 
 38 ' 
 
 39 ' 
 
 40 ' 
 
 41 ' 
 
 42 ' 
 
 43 ' 
 
 44 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 585 
 1205 
 
 1 86 
 
 2 561 
 
 3 311 
 
 4 115 
 
 4 96 
 
 5 871 
 
 6 84| 
 
 7 89* 
 9 02 
 
 10 211 
 11511 
 12 905 
 14 40| 
 
 16 02* 
 
 17 781 
 19 671 
 21 74 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Value from year to year of the proportionate part 
 oi fixed rent, obtained by each participant at 
 the age of ■ 
 
 
 
 921 
 
 4 101 
 
 5 315 
 
 6 615 
 
 8 00* 
 
 9 oil 
 11121 
 12 875 
 14 755 
 16 78* 
 18 985 
 21, 375 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 67 
 
 3 465 
 
 5 391 
 
 7 461 
 
 9 701 
 
 12 125 
 
 14 731 
 
 17 56 
 
 20 63t 
 
 
 45 Years. 
 
 24 00 
 
 24 00 
 
 24 00 
 
 24 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 * We have deemed it unnecessary to publish in full Table A published by the Association which gives 
 the proportioned value of the fixed rent for each year, from 20 to 25 years of age. 
 
 ** Over 35 years of age, members being by statute considered as admitted at that age, the amount of 
 the rents are the same as for 35 years and are determined according to years of membership. 
 
243 
 
 TABLE B. 
 
 This table, which is arranged from the first year for retiring, 45 years, to 65 years 
 inclusive, fixes from year to year, calculating from the cessation of payment of 
 the monthly subscription, the increase acquired by the postponement of the 
 period for the enjoyment of the fixed rent. 
 
 Lowest Age 
 
 of the 
 Claimant. 
 
 Lowest Number 
 
 of Years of 
 
 Membership. 
 
 Number 
 of Years of Post- 
 ponement 
 of Fixed Rent. 
 
 Increase per $ 
 
 of the 
 Acquired Rent. 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 Amount 
 
 of 
 
 Fixed Rent. 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 Years — 45 years. 
 
 10 yeais. 
 
 
 
 24 00 
 
 46 years. 
 
 47 — 
 
 48 — 
 45 — 
 50 — 
 
 11 years. 
 
 12 — 
 
 13 — 
 , 14 — 
 
 15 — 
 
 1 year. 
 
 2 years. 
 
 3 — 
 
 4 — 
 
 5 — 
 
 0692 
 1475 
 2325 
 3250 
 4258 
 
 25 66 
 27 54 
 29 58 
 31 80 
 34 22 
 
 51 years. 
 
 52 — 
 
 53 — 
 
 54 — 
 
 55 — 
 
 16 years. 
 
 17 — 
 
 18 — 
 
 19 — 
 
 20 — 
 
 6 years. 
 
 7 — 
 
 8 — 
 
 9 — 
 10 — 
 
 5391 
 6625 
 7983 
 
 9491 
 
 1 1191 
 
 36 94 
 39 90 
 43 16 
 
 46 78 
 50 86 
 
 56 years. 
 
 57 - 
 
 58 — 
 
 59 — 
 
 60 — 
 
 21 years. 
 
 22 — 
 
 23 — 
 
 24 — 
 
 25 — . 
 
 11 years. 
 
 12 - 
 
 13 — 
 
 14 — 
 
 15 — 
 
 1 3041 
 1 5166 
 
 1 7533 
 
 2 0183 
 
 3 3208 
 
 55 30 
 60 40 
 66 08 
 72 44 
 79 70 
 
 61 years. 
 
 62 — 
 
 63 — 
 
 64 — 
 
 65 — and over. 
 
 26 years. 
 
 27 — 
 
 28 — 
 
 29 — 
 
 30 — 
 
 16 years. 
 
 17 — 
 
 18 — 
 
 19 — 
 
 20 — and over. 
 
 2 6591 
 
 3 0466 
 
 3 4966 
 
 4 0100 
 4 6067 
 
 87 82 
 
 97 12 
 
 107 92 
 
 120 24 
 
 134 56 
 
249 
 
 TABLE 0. 
 
 This table sei-ves to establish and to decrease the capital of fl::od rent. It shows at 
 every age the rate of annuity and the amount necessary to liquidate a rent 
 ofai.OO. J ^ 
 
 Age of 
 the Member. 
 
 Rent 
 
 for a Capital 
 
 of $1.00. 
 
 (a) 
 
 Capital 
 
 for Rent of 
 
 $1.00. 
 
 ib) 
 
 Age of 
 the Member. 
 
 Rents 
 
 for a Capital 
 
 of $1.00. 
 
 («) 
 
 Capital 
 
 for Rent of 
 
 $1.00. 
 
 ib) 
 
 21 years. 
 
 22 — 
 
 23 — 
 
 24 — 
 
 25 — 
 
 $ c. 
 0528 
 0531 
 0533 
 0536 
 0.540 
 
 $ c. 
 18 9394 
 18 8.S24 
 18 7617 
 18 6567 
 18 5185 
 
 61 years. 
 
 62 - 
 
 63 — 
 
 64 — 
 
 65 — 
 
 $ 0. 
 
 1000 
 1033 
 1070 
 1109 
 1151 
 
 $ c. 
 10 0000 
 9 6805 
 9 3458 
 9 0171 
 8 6881 
 
 26 years. 
 
 27 - 
 
 28 — 
 
 29 — 
 
 30 — 
 
 0543 
 0547 
 0551 
 0556 
 0561 
 
 18 4162 
 18 2815 
 18 1488 
 17 9856 
 17 8253 
 
 66 years. 
 
 67 - 
 
 68 — 
 
 69 — 
 
 70 — 
 
 Over 65 years 
 
 the rent is 
 
 the same as at 
 
 65 years. 
 
 8 3542 
 8 0192 
 7 6923 
 7 3692 
 7 0522 
 
 31 years. 
 
 32 — 
 
 33 — 
 
 34 — 
 36 — 
 
 0.566 
 0571 
 0577 
 0583 
 0590 
 
 17 6678 
 17 5131 
 17 3310 
 17 1527 
 16 9492 
 
 71 years. 
 
 72 - 
 
 73 — 
 
 74 — 
 
 75 — 
 
 It 
 
 6 7340 
 6 4267 
 6 1237 
 5 8.309 
 5 5432 
 
 36 years. 
 
 37 — 
 
 38 — 
 
 39 — 
 
 40 — 
 
 0597 
 0604 
 0612 
 0620 
 0629 
 
 16 7504 
 16 5563 
 16 3399 
 16 1290 
 15 8983 
 
 76 years. 
 
 77 - 
 
 78 — 
 
 79 — 
 
 80 — 
 
 (C 
 
 It 
 
 5 2687 
 5 0025 
 4 7461 
 4 5005 
 4 2626 
 
 41 years. 
 
 42 — 
 
 43 — 
 
 44 — 
 
 45 — 
 
 0638 
 0648 
 0658 
 0669 
 0681 
 
 15 6740 
 15 4321 
 15 1976 
 14 9477 
 14 6843 
 
 81 years. 
 
 82 - 
 
 83 — 
 
 84 — 
 
 85 — 
 
 " 
 
 4 0371 
 3 8212 
 3 6179 
 3 4270 
 3 2510 
 
 46 years. 
 
 47 - 
 
 48 — 
 
 49 — 
 
 50 — 
 
 0693 
 0707 
 0721 
 0736 
 0751 
 
 14 4300 
 14 1443 
 13 8696 
 13 5870 
 13 3156 
 
 86 years. 
 
 87 - 
 
 88 — 
 
 89 — 
 
 90 — 
 
 
 3 0902 
 2 9438 
 2 8121 
 2 6911 
 2 5786 
 
 51 years. 
 
 52 - 
 
 53 — 
 
 54 — 
 
 55 — 
 
 0768 
 0785 
 0803 
 0822 
 0843 
 
 13 0208 
 12 7389 
 12 4533 
 12 1655 
 11 8624 
 
 91 years. 
 
 92 — 
 
 93 — 
 
 94 — 
 
 95 — 
 
 
 2 4679 
 2 3557 
 2 2351 
 2 1084 
 1 9658 
 
 56 years. 
 
 57 - 
 
 58 — 
 
 59 — 
 
 60 — 
 
 0864 
 0888 
 0913 
 0940 
 0969 
 
 11 5741 
 11 2613 
 10 9529 
 10 6383 
 10 3199 
 
 96 years. 
 
 97 - 
 
 98 — 
 
 99 — 
 100 and over. 
 
 
 1 8113 
 1 6399 ' 
 1 4438 
 1 1956 
 1 0000 
 
 The variable rent is to the amount of fixed rent inscribed on the table ($24) 
 what the capital extraordinary is to ordinary capital. 
 
 Thus, according to the situation on December 21st, 1888 : 
 
 The variable rent was= 
 
 .24x32,653. 
 
 =$3.26. 
 
 1239,973 
 
 Whence comes the following rule for establishing the variable rent of any 
 calculation : 
 
 Multiply the amount of fixed rent on table A by the capital extraordinary and 
 divide the product by the ordinary capital. 
 
250 
 
 Extract from the Statutes. 
 
 Art. 15. — Any member who is three months in arrears, forfeits all his rights, 
 and his subscriptions revert to the Society. He may be exempted, by the Council of 
 Administi-ation, from the application of this article on his producing justifying reasons 
 for the delay in his payments, which will prove it to have been caused by circum- 
 stances beyond his control. In such a case the member can recover his rights to the 
 benefits of the Society, on payment of the subscriptions in arrears, on each of which 
 he will be charged |0.02 interest per month and per share, and that dating from 
 the first month. The delay granted must not exceed one year. 
 
 Art. 20. — The council of administration can expel a member. 
 
 1st. For bad conduct. 2nd. For injury, wilfully done to the interest of the 
 Society. 
 
 BEOTHEELY ASSOCIATIOJT OF THE EMPLOYEES ON FEBNCH 
 
 EAILWAYS. 
 
 FREE RETIRING AND AID FUND, FOUNDED IN 1880. 
 
 The object of this Association is ; — 
 
 Ist. To ensure to its members a revertible retiring pension to the surviving 
 husband or wife, in case of the decease of one or other, and to the orphans or 
 widowed mother of deceased member. 
 
 2nd. To provide' eventual aid to be assessed on special funds. The Society gives 
 no assistance for want of work. 
 
 It is necessary, in order to become a certified member, to be at least eighteen 
 years of age — and forty-five years at the most ; to be regularly employed by some 
 railway company, in the capacity either of employee or workman. 
 
 The entrance fee is $0.60. 
 
 Members pay a monthly subscription to the retiring fund, varying in amount 
 from $0.20 to $2.00 at will ; and to the aid fund a subscription equal to 10 per cent, 
 of the retiring fund subscription, until the minimum amount of $0.10 per month is 
 attained. 
 
 Extract from the statutes. 
 
 Art. 2. — There is opened for each member an account to order, which shall serve 
 as a basis for-the settlement of pensions or repayments, and for the division of the 
 business capital in case of dissolution. 
 
 There are carried to the credit of this account ; — 
 
 1st. All the payments made by the members. 
 
 2nd. All dividends given to order of each member at the division made every 
 year at the end of the term. 
 
 The division is made in the following manner : — 
 
 1st. Per member ; deduction made of the general expenses; of legacies given j 
 subscriptions of honorary members, and the revenues of any valuables owned by the 
 association. 
 
 2ad. Pro rata the amount of individual accounts for the revenue of the goods 
 and valuables of the Association, and for sums acquired by the death, resignation, 
 dismissal or exclusion of members, deduction bdng made of subscription of re- 
 admitted members. 
 
 Art. 12. The dividend is composed of : 
 
 1st. The subscriptions of honorary members, of gifts destined for this special 
 purpose. 
 
 2nd. Of interest on capital paid for retiring fund. 
 
 3rd. The proceeds from resignations, dismissals, exclusion and death. 
 
 4th. Proceeds of fines. 
 
 Art 13. The retiring fund consists of: 
 
251 
 
 Ist. A pension, based on the rights of the member, and a premium of a sinking 
 fund, proportioned to the age at which the member is to retire, taking as a basis 
 for the probable duration of life, an average between the JDuvillard and the Deparcieux' 
 tables, and reserving one-fifth of the capital for the claimants to the reversion. 
 
 2nd. The annual dividends. 
 
 Alt. 14. Any founder member, or certified member, has a right to retire after he 
 is 50 years of age, and if he has, at the least, paid five years subscription, if he post- 
 pones his right to retire, he is free to continue or discontinue his payments. In the 
 latter case, his amount is increased by the yearly dividend, and when his pension 
 is settled his i-etiring pension is calculated from the account thus accrued. 
 
 Art. 15. The retiring pension may be settled before 50 years of age, but after five- 
 years' membership in the Association for the benefit of members afflicted by wounds 
 or infirmities incapacitating from work. The member retiring under such circum- 
 stances may have carried to his accounts, by giving them up to the Association, all 
 the amounts he may have received because of utter incapacity to work, and in that 
 case his retiring pension will be calculated by taking into account the amounts so 
 accrued to it. 
 
 Art. 16. In the event of the death of a member, receiving a retiring pension, or 
 having a right to it, the surviving wife, not divorced nor separated as to body from her 
 late husband, or in default, the orphans to the age of eighteen, have aright to a pen- 
 sion equal in value to half the pension, that would have been paid the member. If 
 the latter be a bachelor or childless widower, his widowed mother, if dependent on 
 him for her support, has a right to the same advantages. 
 
 Art. 1'7. In the event of a member's death after five year's payments to the Asso- 
 ciation, the persons mentioned in the preceding article, may choose between being- 
 paid half the amount of subscriptions paid to the retiring fund by the deceased mem- 
 ber, and a pension proportioned to half the amount of his account. 
 
 Art. 18. After settlement for retiring pension, the amount due the member is no- 
 longer subject to increase from the dividends. 
 
 Art. 22. The rights of membership are lost : 
 
 1st. By resignation. 
 
 2nd. By dismissal by order of the Council of Administration for default of pay- 
 ment of twelve consecutive months' subscription ; 
 
 3rd. By being expelled for grave causes by the general assembly of delegates, 
 on proposition of a commission of fifteen members taken in turn by order of entrance- 
 in the matficulation-book of the section to which the member belongs. 
 
 Art. 23. Neither resignation, dismissal nor exclusion give a right to the repay- 
 ment of any sum. 
 
 Art 2. Of the rules of the interior. Founder members and certified members who- 
 have left the service of railway companies, may remain members by continuing their 
 monthly payments. 
 
 The aid fund has no peculiarity to be noted. 
 
 On the 30th of September, 1888, the net funds of the Association were 11,060,000. 
 The subscriptions for 188&were $140,000 and the interest on the capital in the fund 
 was $27,000. 
 
 The Association at that date numbered 53,230 actual members, and 305 honorary 
 members. 
 
252 
 
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253 
 
 In this table the subscription of fl.OO is used as a standard, not only because it 
 represents the average' payment* but above all, on account of the facility it allows of 
 calculating a pension. To arrive at the result of any other subscription, it is only 
 necessary to take the number inscribed in regard to age at the fii-st payment, in the 
 column in which is the age at which the pension is to be received, and to multiply 
 by the amount to be paid monthly. 
 
 Thus: 
 
 Ist. A member 18 years of age intends to retire at 50, he pays $0.40 per month, 
 and will by that time have a yearly pension of 104.90 x 0.40=$41.96. 
 
 2nd. A member 40 years of age intends to retire at 65, paying $2.00 per month, 
 he will by that time have a yearly pension of 95 x 2=:$190. 
 
 230th AID SOCIETY FOE OLD AGE, FOE BOTH SEXES. 
 
 FOR THE BENEFIT OF AGENTS AND WORKMEN IN THE RAILWAY COMPANIES. 
 PARIS — LYONS — THE MEDITERRANEAN. FOUNDED IN 1875. 
 
 Extract from the Statutes. 
 
 Art. 1. The object of this Society is : 
 
 1st. To afford a retiring pension to agents and workmen from the age of 50, who 
 have been employed 10 years at least. 
 
 2nd. To grant a premature i-etiring pension to members afSicted through age or 
 by the result of accident, without being in any way to blame for the accident. 
 
 Art. 5. To become a member it is necessary to be at least twenty years of age, 
 to be an agent or workman employed or paid by the said Eailway Company of Paris- 
 Lyons-Mediterranean. 
 
 The wives of the above mentioned members are given the same advantages as 
 well as their sons who are admitted at 14 years of age. 
 
 The entrance fee is $0.20 ; the monthly subscription is $0.20, and the member 
 must, moreover, pay a yearly subscription of $0.20 for general expenses. 
 
 The member will, on entering the Society, have thus to pay : for the first year 
 the sum of $2.80 and for the second and following years the sum of $2.60. 
 
 Members wishing to increase the amount of their retiring pension may subscribe 
 as many times as they choose. 
 
 Art. 6. A member four months in arrears in his payments ceases to belong to 
 the Society. Nevertheless, the member may be exempt from the penalty of this 
 article by decision of the Council of Administration, when he has proved that the 
 delay was caused by circumstances beyond his control. 
 
 Art. 8. Amounts paid by dismissed or expelled members (for stated causes) 
 become the property of the Society. 
 
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256 
 
 To calculate the retiring pension of members ^-ccording to their age at the time 
 of their admittance to the Society, the age at which they intend to retire, and the 
 number ot shares they have paid annually, it is only necessary to multiply the cor- 
 responding figure of the scale by the number of shares paid, and then divide the 
 product by 5. 
 
 Age of member at Age on 
 
 time of admittance. retiring. 
 
 14 years 65 years 
 
 25 years 50 years 
 
 40 years 55 years 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Amount of pension 
 for I share. 
 
 1,440.95 
 
 5 
 129.60 
 
 5 
 
 64 
 
 1288.19 
 $ 25.92 
 
 = $ 12.80 
 
 Amount of pension 
 for 3 shares. 
 
 1440.05 X 3 
 
 $864.67 
 
 129.60 X 3 
 
 5 
 
 64x3 
 
 = $ 11.16 
 
 I 38.40 
 
 GENBEAL EBTIEmG FUND. 
 
 SOCIETY FOR MUTTTAL SAVINGS, PARIS.* 
 
 The General Eetiring Fund was established in order to afford its members, by 
 means of collective savings, a special resource for certain stated periods. 
 
 By means of small sums paid monthly to the business fund, civil and military 
 employees, and even members of the clergy, are afforded an opportunity of increas- 
 ing their retiring pension. 
 
 It puts commercial and industrial employees in the way of securing a pension, 
 and affords a means by whicK fathers may dower their children. Bach member sub- 
 scribes a certain sum, the amount of which is determined by himself, as is also the- 
 time at which he desires to have his account to be settled, in order to enjoy the 
 fruits of his economy. 
 
 The business fund is made up of subscriptions which may, at the subscriber's 
 pleasure, be made annually, quarterly or monthly. The amounts are payable at the 
 residence of the subscriber, and a receipt given which bears the signature of the 
 director of the societj^ and is detachable from the register. 
 
 After the first year, the subscriber may cease or suspend his payments when- 
 ever he may choose, without thereby losing his rights in the Society. His contract, 
 on the contrary, presei-ves its entire value, and he continues to share in the benefits 
 of the Society, in proportion to the sums he has paid. 
 
 An amount of 5 per cent, is assessed on the first payments made by each sub- 
 scriber, for the purpose of meeting the expenses of management. 
 
 All amounts paid afterwards by the subscribers are immediately invested in 
 State rents. 
 
 The rents bought are nominative. They are entered in the name of the Society, 
 which cannot sell them, but only transfer them, when the account is settled, to the 
 members to whom they belong, and the latter alone can dispose of them. 
 
 Every member has always the right to demand from headquarters a statement 
 of the use made of the sums paid. 
 
 This manner of doing business offers complete security since, even supposing 
 the agent to be dishonest, there can be no danger of the title to a nominative rent 
 being stolen. 
 
 Arrears of rent belonging to the Society are immediately invested in the pur- 
 chase of nominative obligations of the Credit Poncier de France, or of the City of 
 Paris, the revenues of which are again used in the purchase of other mortgages, by 
 which means, interest is capitalized from day to day. 
 
 *Notice of the Society. 
 
257 
 
 These obligations sharing in the drawing of valuable lots, may bring important 
 sums to the business fund, which ai'e to be immediately invested in State rents, to be 
 divided among the members in proportion to their rights in the Society. 
 
 At the date fixed by the member for entering into the enjoyment of the fruits 
 of his savings, his account is settled, and the rents that have been purchased with 
 the funds he has paid in, and it. may be, with his share in the proceeds of the lots 
 awarded to the Society in the numerous drawings of the Credit Poncier's obligations 
 and those of the City of Paris, plus his proportioned share in the obligations pur- 
 chased by the Society with capitalized interest. Example: M. X , aged 25, 
 
 subscribes $480 to the General Eetiring Pund, the payments to be made monthly in 
 sums of $2. At the beginning of each month, he will be presented by the Society 
 with a receipt for $2, which amount, joined to the amount paid by the other mem- 
 bers, is invested in State rents. The interest of these rents is capitalized every three 
 months, and is used to purchase obligations, as has been stated. 
 
 At 45 years of age Mens. X will have completed the amount of his subscrip- 
 tions ; his account will be settled and he will find to his credit : — 
 
 Ist. The $480 paid, less $24 for his contribution to the cost of management, 
 leaving $456. 
 
 2nd. The compound interest produced by this amount during its investment, 
 and, it may be, his proportionate share in the lots which may have been drawn by 
 the Society in the many drawings of the Gridit Fonder de France and City of Paris 
 obligations. 
 
 We will admit that the whole amounts to $800.. And it is to be noted that the 
 figures may be considerably larger if the Society be in the least lucky at the draw- 
 ings, but in order to avoid being accused of exaggeration, we prefer to calculate on 
 
 $800 only. Mons. X can dispose of this capital which has been unnoticeably 
 
 created, and make use of it to settle a child in business, to stock a shop, &c., &c., or 
 he may buy an annuity with it, which will be paid him every three months. 
 
 The amount of this annuity will be greater the later he begins to draw it. Thus 
 according to the last tariffs published by the deposit and investment fund, it will 
 amount to $80.88 per annum if he begins to receive it at 50 years of age, to $121.52 
 if it is received at 55 years of age, to $192.24 at 60 years, and to $322.40 at 65 years 
 of age. 
 
 We may add that in the event of the subscriber dying before the period fixed 
 upon for the settlement of his account, his account will be immediately settled and 
 the whole amount paid to his heirs or assigns. This liquidation may be effected 
 even during l^s lifetime if, from any accident or the results of a serious illness, he be 
 incapacitated for work in his profession. 
 
 To sum up, the amounts paid by the members are invested in nominative State 
 rents, thus guaranteeing perfect security against loss whatever may occur ; they are 
 paid back with the addition of profits at the time fixed upon by the subscriber him- 
 self, or sooner, in cases of sickness or infirmity. All reverts to the family in case of 
 disease before the period named for settlement. Consequently no loss is possible. 
 The Society is gratuitously managed by a Council named by the general assembly of 
 the members. 
 
 The Council, at the close of the year, gives to the members convoked for this 
 purpose, in General Assembly, an account of their management. 
 
 The transactions are under the control of two commissioners, also named by the 
 Assembly of members, who each year at the Assembly give a report on the state of 
 the Society, on the balance-sheet and the accounts presented by the management. 
 
 Every half year the Council of Administration or Management gives a detailed 
 statement of the condition of the Society; likewise on the 31st of December of each 
 year it establishes an inventory and a detailed statement of receipts and expenses. 
 
 These documents are shown to any member who requests to see them, at the 
 Society's ofSces.* 
 
 * On October 31st, 1888, the amount of subscriptions was $419,928.00. 
 20—17 
 
258 
 
 80CIETY FOE OLD AGE, CALLED THE SOCIETY OP THE WHEELWEIGHTS 
 AISTD BLACKSMITHS OF THE CITY OP PAEIS. (POUNDED IN 1824.) 
 
 This Society, " La Vieillesse," ensures for such of its members as are 60 years 
 of age, and who have paid their subscription during fifteen years, an annual pension, 
 the amount of which was fixed, in 1871, at 50 per cent, of the amount of subscrip- 
 tions paid. 
 
 A member joining the Society when he is 30 years of age, and paying a sub- 
 scription of $0.02 per day, when he is 60 receives an annual pension of $108. 
 
 All persons, without distinction of sex or of trade, are admitted into the Society; 
 children are also admitted, their parents becoming pecuniarily responsible for them 
 until they have attained their majority. 
 
 The cost of admittance is $1.00 to 40 years, of age, and $2.00 after 40 years. 
 
 The subscription is fixed at $0.60 per quarter. 
 
 Each member has a right to more than one subscription, four being the 
 maximum. 
 
 When a member has been six quarters in arrears with his subscription, he is 
 warned that his dismissal will be proposed at the next general assembly, if he does 
 not pay all or part before the meeting is held. 
 
 The resignation, dismissal or exclusion (for grave causes or for injury wilfully 
 done the Society) of a member, gives no claim to reimbursement. 
 
 On January 1st, 1889, the membership of this Association was 2,317, and in 
 1888 had paid 199 pensions, amounting to $10,605. Its capital was $140,000 on 
 April Ist, 1889. 
 
 LE GEAIN DE BL^ (THE GEAIN OP WHEAT.) 
 
 Betiring Fund established in Paris in 1883. 
 
 Object. — The objeci of the Society, is to establish a fund for annuities or retiring 
 pensions. 
 
 Art. 3. The Society is divided into two classes : Honorary members and parti- 
 cipating members. 
 
 Art. 4. To become a participating member it is necessary to be at least 21 years 
 of age, and to be pi-esented by two members. 
 
 Any woman of 18 years of age nay be admitted on being presented by her hus- 
 band, or her tutor, if he be a member of the Society. 
 
 Children from three years of age will be admitted (as wards of the Society until 
 they are 21 years of age, without distinction of sex, having the same lights and the 
 same obligations). They must be presented by their father, tutor or tutrix, it not 
 being obligatory that the lattej- should belong to the Society. 
 
 The subscription to be paid during membership is fixed at $120 for men and 
 children of both sexes, and at $80 or $120 for women, according to the agreement 
 made when they were admitted. The payments are to iDe made in accordance with 
 the tables annexed to the present statutes. (See pages 272 and 273). 
 
 Members must pay $1 entrance fee. 
 
 Art. 6. Any delay in the payment of the subscription entails a fine of $0.05 per 
 month ; the fine is $0.02 for wards. 
 
 A participating member refusing to pay the fines imposed ceases to belong to 
 the society, unless the General Assembly decides otherwise. 
 
 Besides the amount of their subscription all members are bound to pay annually 
 a sum of $0.20 to cover the general expenses of the Society; wards pay $0.10 to 21 
 years of age. 
 
 Art. 8. Dismissal of members will be proposed by the Council of Administration 
 to the General Assembly, which will decide against members who have ceased to pay 
 their subscription during a period of onS year. 
 
 Dismissal for causes above mentioned may be annulled if the member pays all 
 overdue subscriptions in full, together with the fines incurred. 
 
 Art. 9. The dismissal, resignation or exclusion of a member destroys all claim to 
 reimbursement 
 
259 
 
 Art. 23. In order to have a right to the retiring fund it is necessary to have 
 belonged to the Society during fifteen years at least, and to he 50 years old. The 
 amount of the pension is settled every year by the General Assembly on proposition 
 of the Council ; it is of equal amount for members of both sexes who have paid $120 ; 
 it is f of the amount for women who have paid $80. Example : If a man has $60, 
 the ■woman~(who has paid $80) will receive an annual pension of $40. 
 
 A female participating member whose deceased husband had during his lifetime 
 belonged to the Society during a period of ten years, and whose subscriptions were 
 fully paid, will be given an increase of ^ of her pension when it is settled. 
 
 PEOPOETIONBD SUBSOEIPTIOIfS, 
 CHILDREN. 
 
 $120. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Months 
 
 to 
 
 pay. 
 
 Amounts. 
 
 Partial 
 total. 
 
 Gen- 
 eral 
 total . 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Months 
 
 to 
 
 pay. 
 
 Amounts. 
 
 Partial 
 total. 
 
 Gen- 
 eral 
 total 
 
 3 years. 
 
 564 
 
 60 mos. at 10.05 
 
 108 0.10 
 
 36 0.15 
 
 72 0.25 
 
 168 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 S cts. 
 
 3.00 
 10.80 
 
 5.40 
 18.00 
 58.80 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 11 yrs. 
 
 468 
 
 36 mos. at $0.10 
 
 48 0.15 
 
 72 0.25 
 
 192 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 S cts. 
 
 3.60 
 
 7.20 
 
 18.00 
 
 67.20 
 
 24.00 
 
 $ 
 120 
 
 
 12 — 
 
 456 
 
 24 0.10 
 
 48 0.15 
 
 60 0.25 
 
 204 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 2.40 
 
 7.20 
 
 15.00 
 
 71.40 
 
 24.00 
 
 
 4 — 
 
 552 
 
 60 0.05 
 
 96 0.10 
 
 12 0.15 
 
 108 0.25 
 
 156 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 3.00 
 
 9.60 
 
 1.80 
 
 27.00 
 
 54.60 
 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 
 13 — 
 
 444 
 
 36 0.10 
 
 24 0.15 
 
 36 0.25 
 
 228 0.35 ■ 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.60 
 
 9.00 
 
 79.80 
 
 24.00 
 
 
 5 — 
 
 540 
 
 48 0.05 
 
 84 0.10 
 
 24 0.15 
 
 108 0.25 
 
 156 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 2.40 
 
 8.40 
 
 3.60 
 
 27.00 
 
 54.60 
 
 24,00 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 
 14 — 
 
 432 
 
 48 0.15 
 
 36 0.25 
 
 228 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 7.20 
 
 9.00 
 
 79.80 
 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 
 528 . 
 
 36 0.05 
 
 72 0.10 
 
 36 0.15 
 
 108 0.25 
 
 156 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 1.80 
 
 7.20 
 
 5.40 
 
 27.00 
 
 54.60 
 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 
 6 — 
 
 15 — 
 
 420 
 
 24 0.15 
 
 42 0.25 
 
 234 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 3.60 
 10.50 
 81.90 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 
 516 
 
 24 0.05 
 
 48 0.10 
 
 60 0.15 
 
 108 0.25 
 
 156 ' 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 1.20 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.20 
 
 27.00 
 
 54.60 
 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 
 7 - 
 
 16 — 
 
 408 
 
 96 0.20 
 192 0.40 
 120 0.20 
 
 19.20 
 76.80 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 
 17 — 
 
 396 
 
 72 0.20 
 204 0.40 
 120 0.20 
 
 14.40 
 81.60 
 24.00 
 
 
 8 — 
 
 504 
 
 12 0.05 
 
 48 0.10 
 
 60 0.15 
 
 108 0.25 
 
 156 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 0.60 
 
 4.80 
 
 9.00 
 
 27.00 
 
 54.60 
 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 
 18 — 
 
 384 
 
 48 0.20 
 216 0.40 
 120 0.20 
 
 9.60 
 86.40 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 
 492 
 
 56 0.10 
 
 72 0.15 
 
 108 0.25 
 
 156 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 3.60 
 10.80 
 27.00 
 54.60 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 
 9 — 
 
 19 — 
 
 372 
 
 24 0.20 
 228 0.40 
 120 0.20 
 
 4.80 
 91.20 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 
 480 
 
 48 0.10 
 
 48 0.15 
 
 84 0.25 
 
 180 0.35 
 
 120 0.20 
 
 4.80 
 
 7.20 
 
 21.00 
 
 63.00 
 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 
 10 — 
 
 20 — 
 
 360 
 
 240 0.40 
 120 0.20 
 
 96.00 
 24.00 
 
 120 
 
 20— Iti 
 
260 
 
 PROPORTIONAL ASSESSMENTS, $120. 
 Men and Women. 
 
 PROPORTIONAL ASSESSMENTS, $80. 
 Women. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Months 
 to be 
 paid. 
 
 Sums. 
 
 Partial 
 total. 
 
 Gen- 
 eral, 
 total. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Months 
 to be 
 paid. 
 
 Sums. 
 
 Partial 
 
 total. 
 
 Gen- 
 eral 
 total. 
 
 21 years. 
 
 348 
 
 252 months at W. 40 
 96 0.20 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 100.80 
 19.20 
 
 $ 
 120 
 
 21 years. 
 
 348 
 
 52 months at $0.40 
 293 0.20 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 20.80 
 59.20 
 
 8 
 80 
 
 22 — 
 
 336 
 
 264 0.40 
 72 0.20 
 
 105.60 
 14.40 
 
 120 
 
 22 — 
 
 336 
 
 64 0.40 
 272 0.20 
 
 25.60 
 54.40 
 
 80 
 
 23 — 
 
 324 
 
 276 0.40 
 48 0.20 
 
 110.40 
 9.60 
 
 120 
 
 23 — 
 
 324 
 
 76 0.40 
 248 0.20 
 
 30.40 
 49.60 
 
 8C 
 
 24 — 
 
 312 
 
 286 0.40 
 24 0.20 
 
 115.20 
 4.80 
 
 120 
 
 24 — 
 
 312 
 
 88 0.40 
 224 0.20 
 
 35.20 
 44.80 
 
 80 
 
 25 — 
 
 300 
 
 300 0.40 
 
 
 120 
 
 25 — 
 
 300 
 
 100 0.40 
 200 0.20 
 
 40.00 
 40.00 
 
 80 
 
 26 — 
 
 288 
 
 24 0.60 
 164 0.40 
 
 14.40 
 105.60 
 
 120 
 
 26 — 
 
 288 
 
 112 0.40 
 176 0.20 
 
 44.80 
 35.20 
 
 80 
 
 27 — 
 
 276 
 
 48 0.60 
 228 0.40 
 
 28.80 
 91.20 
 
 120 
 
 27 — 
 
 276 
 
 124 0.40 
 152 0.20 
 
 49.60 
 30.40 
 
 80 
 
 28 — 
 
 264 
 
 72 0.60 
 192 0.40 
 
 43.20 
 76.80 
 
 120 
 
 28 — 
 
 264 
 
 136 0.40 
 128 0.20 
 
 54.40 
 25.60 
 
 80 
 
 29 — 
 
 252 
 
 96 0.60 
 156 0.40 
 
 57.60 
 62.40 
 
 120 
 
 29 — 
 
 252 
 
 148 0.40 
 104 0.20 
 
 59.20 
 20.80 
 
 80 
 
 30 — 
 
 240 
 
 120 0.60 
 120 0.40 
 
 72.00 
 48.00 
 
 120 
 
 30 — 
 
 240 
 
 160 0.40 
 80 0.20 
 
 64.00 
 16.00 
 
 80 
 
 31 — 
 
 228* 
 
 144 0.60 
 84 0.40 
 
 86.40 
 33.60 
 
 120 
 
 31 — 
 
 228 
 
 172 0.40 
 56 0.20 
 
 68.80 
 11.20 
 
 80 
 
 32 — 
 
 216 
 
 168 0.60 
 48 0.40 
 
 100.80 
 19.20 
 
 120 
 
 32 — 
 
 216 
 
 184 0.40 
 32 0.20 
 
 73.60 
 6.40 
 
 80 
 
 33 — 
 
 204 
 
 192 0.60 
 12 0.40 
 
 115.20 
 4.80 
 
 120 
 
 33 — 
 
 204 
 
 196 0.40 
 8 0.20 
 
 78.40 
 1.60 
 
 80 
 
 34 — 
 
 192 
 
 24 0.80 
 168 0.60 
 
 19.20 
 110.80 
 
 120 
 
 34 — 
 
 192 
 
 16 0.60 
 176 0.40 
 
 9.60 
 70.40 
 
 80 
 
 35 — 
 
 180 
 
 60 0.80 
 120 0.60 
 
 48.00 
 72.00 
 
 120 
 
 35 — 
 
 180 
 
 40 0.60 
 140 0.40 
 
 24.00 
 56.00 
 
 80 
 
 Note. — Persons over 35 years of age may become members of the Society, but they have no right to a 
 pension until after they have been 15 years in the Society. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1889, Le Grain de BU numbered 3,1(>4 members, of which 
 12 were honorary. The Society had in hand at that date $101,022.58. 
 
261 
 
 MUTUAL PEOVIDENT EBTIEING- SOCIETY. 
 
 POUNDED AT RHEIMS IN 1849. 
 
 This Provident Society is due to one individual only ; it is the work, the creation, 
 of a workman name Lesage, and though its working is simple, easily applied and 
 easily understood by all, it is nevertheless very remarkable. 
 
 " Its working is comprised in a single article : ' Every workman who puts in a 
 cent a day becomes a member. If he has put in a cent a day from the age of twenty 
 yeai'S until sixty he has the right to a i-etiring pension of $0.20 a day or $73.00 a 
 year. A workman who is over twenty years of age may become a member by 
 putting in the sum which he should have paid, had he paid day by day, with the 
 interest capitalisd, from the age of twenty years to the time of his entry." In this 
 combination- everything is clear and intelligible to the weakest minds.* 
 
 Members have the choice of three ways for the payment of their assessment : 
 
 1st. Pay to the collector each week $0.08; 2nd, or pay an annual sum of $4.16 ; 
 3i"d, or lastly, to deposit with the Society a sum of $100, of which the interest repre- 
 sents the annual assessment. The members who adopt the last mode are exonerated 
 from assessment as long as the deposit remains. If, for one cause or another, the 
 member who has deposited the $100 desires its return, it is given back to him after 
 thi-ee months' notice. 
 
 "When the member who has not exercised his right of taking back his deposit 
 attains the age of retiring (60 years), the pensioned members being exempt from 
 assessment, his deposit is returned to him ; if death overtakes him before that age 
 the $100 is returned to his family. 
 
 Sums to be paid on entering at the ages below mentioned, in order to have the right, 
 at sixty years of age, to a retiring pension of $73 a year, by paying an assess- 
 ment of $0.08 a week from the age of entering, to that of retiring. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Amount to be 
 paid on entrance. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Amount to be 
 paid on entrance. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Amount to be 
 paid on entrance. 
 
 20 years 
 
 i cts. 
 
 3 74 
 
 7 69 
 11 89 
 16 35 
 21 07 
 26 07 
 31 39 
 37 03 
 43 05 
 49 41 
 56 22 
 63 .39 
 71 01 
 79 21 
 
 34 years 
 
 35 " 
 
 36 " 
 
 37 " 
 
 38 " 
 
 39 " 
 
 40 " 
 
 41 " 
 
 42 " 
 
 43 " 
 
 44 " 
 
 45 " 
 
 46 " 
 
 47 " 
 
 S cts. 
 
 87 83 
 97 11 
 
 106 87 
 
 117 26 
 
 148 48 
 
 150 27 
 
 152 82 
 
 166 20 
 
 180 46 
 
 195 66 
 
 2n 88 
 
 209 51 
 
 248 01 
 
 267 77 
 
 48 years 
 
 49 " 
 
 50 " 
 
 51 " 
 
 52 " 
 
 53 " 
 
 54 ■■ . ... 
 
 55 " 
 
 56 " 
 
 57 " 
 
 58 " 
 
 59 " 
 
 60 " 
 
 $ cts. 
 289 31 
 
 21 " 
 
 312 86 
 
 22 " 
 
 338 15 
 
 23 " 
 
 365 92 
 
 24 " 
 
 394 85 
 
 25 " 
 
 428 15 
 
 26 " 
 
 463 82 
 
 27 " 
 
 502 48 
 
 28 " 
 
 544 42 
 
 29 " 
 
 591 08 
 
 30 " 
 
 641 99 
 
 31 " 
 
 698 99 
 
 32 " 
 
 761 58 
 
 33 " 
 
 
 
 
 For the payment of the debt due for difference of age, the council may grant 
 the following delays : 
 
 5 years for members from 21 to 25 years of age. 
 10 do do 25 to 30 do 
 
 15 do do 30 to 40 do 
 
 And until the age of 60 years for those over 40 years of age. 
 
 The debt is thus paid by annuities and bears interest at 5 per cent. 
 
 The members may double their deposits so as to obtain a pension of $146. 
 
 L. Reybaud, La Laine. 
 
262 
 
 The Society also admits members, no matter what may be their age, without 
 compelling them to pay their entrance fee. In such case the amount of the retiring 
 pension at sixty years is proportioned to the deposits made. 
 
 Eveiy member who ceases to belong to the Society, either on account of dismissal 
 or otherwise, loses all his rights, and cannot claim any I'eturn or reimbursement. 
 
 A member in ari-ears with four assessments may be struck off the list by the 
 Council ; the member thus struck off may appeal to the General Assembly. 
 
 This Society has given rise to the Exoneration Fund for Retiring. 
 
 The object of this Fund is to assure to each of its members having attained the 
 age of 20 years the sum of $100, to permit him to enter the Mutual Provident Eetiring 
 Society of Eheims as an exonerated member. 
 
 This sum is acquired by the payment of an assessment of $0 . 06 a week from the 
 birth of the child until he attains the age of 20 years. 
 
 At 20 years this sum is paid into the Provident Society, and secures to the owner 
 an annual pension of $73 at the age of 60 years, without having any assessment to 
 pay. At 60 years he secures his pension and the sum of $100 carried to his account. 
 In case of death the deposit goes to his heirs. 
 
 EETIRING FUND OP WOEKMEN UNDEE THE PATEOKAGB OP THE 
 MUNICIPAL COUNCIL OF THE CITY OF SEDAN. 
 
 FOUNDED IN 1840. 
 
 The assessment is fixed at $0 .40 a month. 
 
 The pension is acquired at the age of 51 past, and after at least 5 years of pay- 
 ment it is equal to 11 per cent, of the amount of the member's account. 
 
 A member entering at 21 years of age, paying $4.80 a year for 30 years, will 
 have, with compound interest at 4 per cent, on a capital of $280, an annuity of $30.80. 
 
 This capital is fixed as the highest attainable, no matter what may be the age 
 of admission. 
 
 In the event of the death of the I'etiring member, half of the pension reverts to 
 the widow or to the orphans of the age of 12 years at least. 
 
 In case of death before 51 years the paid capital is returned without interest, to 
 the widow and orphans. 
 
 The widow has the right to continue the payments to her own profit, but deduct- 
 ing interest on said payments. 
 
 Members in arrears, for more than six months, in the payment of their assess- 
 ments, are struck from the list and have no right to any reimbursement. 
 
 Women are admitted into the Society. 
 
 Members who enter the Society after the age of 21 years, and who wish to enjoy 
 a pension of $30.80 at the age of 51 years, must pay the following annual assess- 
 ments : 
 
 At 21 years $4.80 At 29 years $8.1Yf 
 
 22 
 
 do 
 
 23 
 
 do 
 
 24 
 
 do 
 
 25 
 
 do 
 
 26 
 
 do 
 
 27 
 
 do 
 
 28 
 
 do 
 
 5.284 30 do 8.75|- 
 
 5.60| 31 do 9.40| 
 
 5.94 32 do 10.12 
 
 6.32 33 do 10.91| 
 
 6.724 34 do 11.814 
 
 7.16| 35 do 12.83 
 
 7.64| 36 do 13.98| 
 
 The members of the retiring fund pay, moreover, a sum of $0.02 a month to the 
 mutual fund for the assistance of sick members. 
 
 This Association numbered 853 on the 31st December, 1888. Its assets were at 
 the same date $145,618, and had paid in 1888 to 283 pensioners or half pensioners 
 a sum of $6,865. 
 
SECTION" VII. 
 
 LIFE AND ACCIDENT INSURANCE. 
 
LIFE AND ACCIDENT INSURANCE. 
 
 Ill this section will be found united, statement of accounts, descriptions, etc., of 
 the principal insurance companies for life, accidents, fire, life insurance of cattle, 
 insurance against hail, the bi-eaking of glass and commercial risks. 
 
 All these systems being made known, it is useless to explain them. 
 
 The tariff and conditions of the insurance companies against accidents may be of 
 some interest. Unfortunately, French and Swiss premiums, including the legal 
 responsibility of the master, can in no way serve as an example of premiums 
 demanded on this Continent (Europe.) 
 
 "We must first note that the insurance companies against accidents only insure 
 the workmen collectively, the premiums being paid by the masters. Individual 
 insurance cannot be contracted, except by the masters working by hand with the 
 workmen. 
 
 The premiums are fixed according to the risk, per day of ten hoars' of work, and 
 on so much per cent, of wages.* 
 
 FEANCE. 
 
 LAW AND BECKEE CONOERNIffG THE INSURANCE FUND IN CASE OF DEATH OE ACCIDENT. 
 
 (Law of the 11th July, 1-868.) 
 
 Creating two Funds of Insurance, one in case of death and the other in case of accidents 
 resulting from farming or industrial works. 
 
 Art. 1. It is created under wai-ranty of the State : 1st, an insurance fund, hav- 
 ing for its object the payment, on the death of each member, to his heirs or assigns, 
 a sum to be determined on the basis fixed in Article 2 following : 
 
 2. There is another insurance fund for accidents, the object of which is to 
 provide annuities to insured persons who, in the execution of their duties, either on 
 farm or in factoi-y, are wounded to such an extent as to incapacitate them from 
 work, and to give assistance to widows and minor childreu of persons assured, who 
 have died in consequence of accidents incurred in the discharge of their work. 
 
 FIRST TITLE. 
 
 Of the Insurance Fund in case of Death. 
 
 Art. 2. The participation in the insurance is acquired by the payment of a 
 single premium or by monthly premiums. 
 
 The sum to be paid at the death of the insured is fixed according to the tariff, 
 taking into account : 
 
 Ist. Compound interest at 4 per cent, a year on payments made. 
 
 2nd. Of the death risks by reason of the age of the depositors, calculated accord- 
 ing to the table of M. de Deparcieux. 
 
 3rd. The premiums established according to the tariffs below mentioned shall 
 be increased to 6 per cent. 
 
 virt. 3. Bveiy insurance made within two years of the death of the insured, 
 remains without effect. In such case the payments made are returned to the heirs, 
 with simple interest at 4 per cent. 
 
 * The International Congress for labor accidents having reproduced some of the reports presented to it, 
 permits of our withholding almost the entire risv/mA we should have given of the documents exhibited in 
 this section. Having left Paris at the time the meetings of this Congress took place, we are under obliga- 
 tions to Mons. E. G-riiner, general secretary for the Congress, for these reports — J. H. 
 
266 
 
 It Ib the same when the death of the assured, no matter when he may have 
 insured, results from exceptional causes that will be set forth in the policy of insur- 
 ance. 
 
 Art. 4. The sums insured on one pei'son cannot exceed $600. 
 
 They are inalienable and unseizable to the extent of one-half. This inalienable 
 and unseizable part not to be reduced, however, to less than $120. 
 
 Art. 5. No one can insure under sixteen years of age nor over sixty. 
 
 Art. 6. In default of payment of the annual premium within the year after it 
 becomes due, the contract is rescinded by the mere fact. In such case, the payments 
 made, deduction being had for the risks incuri'cd, are put into one sole payment, 
 which, at his death, entails the liquidation ofthe capital to the profit of the insured 
 person. The deduction is calculated on the basis of the tariff. 
 
 Art. Y. The approved societies of municipal help, in conformity with the decree 
 of the 26th March, 1852, are allowed to insure collectively, a list being made of the 
 names and ages of all the members who compose them, and each member is assured 
 a fixed sum, to be paid after death, and which in no case exceeds $200. 
 
 These insui-ances are made for one year only, and according to the special tariffs 
 taken .from the general rules set forth in article 2* 
 
 TITLE II. 
 
 ' Of the Accident Insurance Fund. 
 
 Art. 8. Insurances, in case of accidents, take place yearly. The insured pays, 
 as he wishes, and for each year $1.50, $1.00 or $0.60c. 
 
 Art. 9. 'Xhe resources ofthe fund in case of accidents comprise: 
 
 Ist. The amount of assessments paid by the assured as stated above. 
 
 2nd. A subsidy from the State set forth in the annual budget, and for the first 
 year is fixed at $200,000. 
 
 3i'd. The gifts and legacies left to the fund. 
 ^ Art. 10. For the settlement of annuities to be granted, the accidents must be 
 sepai-ated into two classes. 
 
 1st. Accidents which have been the cause of absolute incapacity for work. 
 
 2nd. Accidents which have brought on permanent incapacity to work at his 
 trade. 
 
 The pensions granted for the accidents of the second class are only one-half of 
 the amount allowed to accidents by the first. 
 
 Art. 11. The annuity for insured persons, according to the distinction in the 
 preceding article is by the accident insurance company, followed by the capital 
 necessary to constitute the said pension according to the tariffs of the retiring fund. 
 
 Por the pension in cases of accidents of the first class this capital is composed : 
 
 1st. Of a sum equal to 320 times the amount of the assessments paid by the 
 assured. 
 
 2nd. Of a sum equal to the preceding, and which is taken from the sources 
 indicated in Paragraphs 2 and 3 of Ai-ticle 9. 
 
 The amount of pension corresponding to the assessments of $1, and cannot be 
 less than |40 for the first and $30 for the second. The second part of the capital 
 above mentioned is increased so as to attain these minimum8,when they are required. 
 
 Art. 12. The assistance granted in case of death by reason of au-accident to the 
 widow of the insured, or if he is a bachelor or widower without children, to his 
 father or mother, they being sixty years of age, is equal to two years' pension, to 
 which they will have a right according to the preceding article. 
 
 The child or minor children, receive assistance equal to that allowed to the 
 widow. 
 
 The assistance is paid in two annuities. 
 
 Art. 13. The constituted annuities by virtue of Article 9 above mentioned are 
 unseizable and inalienable. 
 
 * They can increase with individual insuraces. 
 
267 
 
 Art. 14. No one can insure under the age of twelve at least. 
 _ Art. 15. Public offices, industrial establishments, railway companies, authorised 
 societies of mutual help, may insure their workmen or members collectively by 
 giving a list of their names as set forth in Article Y. 
 
 The municipal authorities may. in the same manner insure the companies or 
 sub-divisions of firemen against the risks consequent to their employment, as regards 
 this special employment, or to the individual trades of the workmen composing the- 
 fire brigade. 
 
 Each person insured can only obtain one annuity. If, in collective insurances, 
 several subscriptions are made for the same person, they will be united, without the 
 assessment thus formed for the liquidation of the pension, shall exceed the sum of 
 $1.60 or $1.00 fixed by the present law. 
 
 Articles 16, IT, 18 and 19 of the law, as well as the decree of the 10th August^. 
 1868, only concerns the working of the fund and its government. 
 
 LIFE IlSrSUEANCB. 
 Tariff of Premiums for Insurance of $100 payable at death. 
 
 Age of the Insured. 
 
 One Sole 
 Premium. 
 
 Annual Payments to be Paid. 
 
 5 years. 
 
 10 years. 
 
 15 years. 
 
 20 years. 
 
 Whole 
 Life. 
 
 16 to 17 years 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 25,968 
 27,558 
 29,675 
 32,180 
 35,221 
 39,387 
 44,412 
 49,523 
 54,816 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 5,636 
 5,986 
 6,448 
 6,994 
 7,652 
 8,560 
 9,670 
 10,819 
 12,016 
 
 S cts. 
 
 3,152 
 3,a52 
 3,615 
 3,924 
 4,288 
 4,809 
 5,486 
 6,204 
 .6,966 
 
 S cts. 
 
 2,346 
 2,497 
 . 2,695 
 2,924 
 3,199 
 3,612 
 4,163 
 4,757 
 5,419 
 
 S cts. 
 
 1,956 
 2,084 
 2,249 
 2,442 
 2,683 
 3,053 
 3,551 
 4,106 
 4,776 
 
 S cts. 
 1,323 • 
 
 20 to 21 " 
 
 1,432 
 
 25 to 26 " 
 
 1,585 
 
 30 to 31 " 
 
 1,777' 
 
 35 to 36 " 
 
 40 to 41 " . 
 
 2,029' 
 2,411 
 
 45 to 46 " 
 
 2,940 
 
 50 to 51 " 
 
 3,575 
 
 55 to 56 •' 
 
 4,366 
 
 
 
 Pkoceeds of an Annual Premium of $10.00. 
 
 Age -of the Insured. 
 
 Sdm Insured on Payment of $10 Paid During 
 
 1 year. 
 
 5 years. 
 
 10 years. 
 
 15 years. 
 
 20 years. 
 
 Whole 
 Life. 
 
 
 S cts. 
 
 38 51 
 36 29 
 33 70 
 31 08 
 28 39 
 25 39 
 22 52 
 20 19 
 18 24 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 177 42 
 167 05 
 155 09 
 142 97 
 130 68 
 116 83 
 103 41 
 92 43 
 83 22 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 317 24 
 298 29 
 276 63 
 254 84 
 233 21 
 207 95 
 182 29 
 161 18 
 143-56 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 426 31 
 400 45 
 371 05 
 341 97 
 312 62 
 276 89 
 240 23 
 210 23 
 184 53 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 511 15 
 479 81 
 444 59 
 409 46 
 372 69 
 327 52 
 281i 58 
 243 54 
 209 38 
 
 S cts. 
 755 95. 
 
 20 to 21 " 
 
 698 17' 
 
 25 to 26 " 
 
 630 86 . 
 
 30 to 31 " 
 
 562 67 
 
 35 to 36 " 
 
 492 90 
 
 40 to 41 " 
 
 45 to 46 " 
 
 414 83 
 340 14 
 
 50 to 51 " 
 
 279 72 
 
 55 to 56 " 
 
 229 03 
 
 
 
268 
 
 COLLECTIVE INSUEANCBS. 
 
 Tariff of Pi'emiums to be paid by Mutual Aid Societies in the name of their mem- 
 bers to ensure each one a sum of $100 to be paid after death within a period of 
 one year. 
 
 Age of Members. 
 
 Premium. 
 
 Age of Members. 
 
 Premium. 
 
 Age of Members. 
 
 Premium. 
 
 16 to 17 years 
 
 21 to 22 " 
 
 26 to 27 " 
 
 31 to 32 " 
 
 36to37 " 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 0,851 
 1,017 
 1,070 
 1,129 
 1,121 
 
 41 to 42 years 
 
 46 to 47 " 
 
 51 to 52 " 
 
 56to57 " ■ 
 
 61 to 62 " 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 1,104 
 1,335 
 1,983 
 2,508 
 3,103 
 
 66 to 67 years 
 
 71 to 72 " 
 
 76 to 77 " 
 
 81 to 82 " 
 
 86 to 87 " 
 
 S cts. 
 
 4,521 
 
 7,254 
 
 10,611 
 
 16,439 
 
 24,340 
 
 IISrSUEANCB FUND IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS. 
 
 Tariff of Pension allowed at each age for accidents so-called first-class, entailing an 
 absolute incapability to work. 
 
 
 Annuity Granted 
 
 
 Annuity Granted 
 
 
 Annuity Granted 
 
 
 
 for a 
 
 
 
 
 for a 
 
 
 
 
 for a 
 
 
 Monthly Subscription 
 
 
 Monthly Subscription 
 
 
 Monthly Subscription 
 
 Ages. 
 
 
 of 
 
 
 Ages. 
 
 
 of 
 
 
 Ages. 
 
 
 of 
 
 
 SI. 60 
 
 $1,00 
 
 60 cts. 
 
 81.60 
 
 81.00 
 
 60 cts. 
 
 $1.60 
 
 $1.00 
 
 60 cts. 
 
 
 8 cts. 
 
 S cts. 
 
 8 cts. 
 
 
 8 cts. 
 
 8 cts. 
 
 8 cts. 
 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 8 cts. 
 
 $ cts, 
 
 12 
 
 58 00 
 
 40 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 30 
 
 64 00 
 
 40 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 50 
 
 S3 40 
 
 52 00 
 
 31 20 
 
 14 
 
 58 60 
 
 40 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 32 
 
 65 00 
 
 40 60 
 
 30 00 
 
 53 
 
 88 40 
 
 55 20 
 
 33 20 
 
 16 
 
 59 40 
 
 40 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 35 
 
 66 60 
 
 41 60 
 
 30 00 
 
 55 
 
 92 40 
 
 57 80 
 
 34 60 
 
 18 
 
 60 00 
 
 40 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 38 
 
 68 60 
 
 42 80 
 
 30 00 
 
 58 
 
 99 40 
 
 62 20 
 
 37 20 
 
 20 
 
 60 60 
 
 40 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 40 
 
 70 20 
 
 43 80 
 
 30 00 
 
 60 
 
 105 00 
 
 65 60 
 
 39 40 
 
 22 
 
 61 20 
 
 40 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 42 
 
 72 20 
 
 45 20 
 
 30 00 
 
 63 
 
 115 80 
 
 72 40 
 
 43 40 
 
 25 
 
 62 20 
 
 40 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 45 
 
 75 80 
 
 47 40 
 
 30 00 
 
 65 
 
 124 80 
 
 78 00 
 
 46 80 
 
 28 
 
 63 20 
 
 40 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 48 
 
 80 20 
 
 50 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 SBCUEITY OF THE WOEKSHOP. 
 / 
 
 ASSOCIATION TO PREVENT THE ACCIDENTS OF THE FACTORY. 
 
 Founded under the Patronage of the Industrial Society of Eouen. 
 
 It has been acknowledged from all time, that the manufacturer is indebted to his 
 workmen in other things besides wages, and that it is his duty to watch over their 
 
 moral and physical condition It is from the prompting of the heart that we 
 
 must seek such conduct, for admitting "laws the most perfect, responsibilities, the best 
 defined, assurances' against accidents at most moderate premiums, from statutes the 
 most liberally conceived, there will nevertheless remain on the threshold of indus- 
 trial progress a certain number of victims, who, for an instant of inexperience or 
 foresight, or even for a slight infringement of the rules of the factory, have forfeited 
 their limbs and even their lives. If our own vigilance were never in default we 
 could, perhaps, without excluding compassion, allow less solicitude and care on the 
 part of the master. But in the midst of these numerous works, can each one of us 
 afSi-m that there is nothing left for him to do to prevent accidents, that he is familiar 
 with the newest and best methods to attain this result. 
 
269 
 
 In 1867, thus spoke an honorable manufacturer of Mulhouse, Mr. Engel Dolffus, 
 well-known for his numerous philanthropic works, and at his call many generous 
 citizens replied, and united their experience and formed an association with the sole 
 object of discovering and spreading the means of preventing accidents at work. 
 
 After the separation of Alsace, a band of manufacturers, adopting the system of 
 the Society of Mulhouse, have, since 1880, founded at Eouen a similar association. 
 Moreover, for several years the question of accidents from labor has been the study 
 of manufacturers, economists and jurisconsults ; it is on the Orders of the Day of the 
 Chambers, and in many countries it has already received various solutions. 
 
 The industry of this section of the country has the honor, beyond all legal pre- 
 occupation, to have prepared a solution which I consider the most serious and effica- 
 cious remedy for an ill that is complained of every where, and it hopes that very soon 
 this system will be accepted and utilized in all industrial circles. 
 
 The means, par-excellence, to prevent the effects of a misfortune is to reduce its causes. 
 
 CIRCULAR. 
 
 Accidents in factories have more than ever become the subject of thought to 
 manufacturers, regardful of their interests and their responsibilities. In presence of 
 the law of 1874 now being considered, concerning children under 16 years of age, 
 being more vigorously applied, and of the too numerous accidents yet, which draw 
 down on the masters and directors of manufactories, civil and correctional risks, and 
 on the workmen the most painful consequences, we may ask ourselves what measures 
 are sufficient to ward off, from one and the other, such misfortunes. 
 
 Object. — The most efficacious means to prevent accident, is evidently to destroy 
 the causes. It is in order to gain this practical solution to the evil that the Asso- 
 ciation of Eouen was founded to prevent accidents in factories. Its principle object 
 is to ascertain the divers causes of accidents, to classify them, to study the different 
 preventive means employed and proposed, to spread them among the members by 
 visits, special reports and publications. 
 
 Advantage. — Independently of the great advantage of seeing the number of 
 accidents diminish, to insure security and consequently a more rapid and better 
 execution of work, the industrial members are benefited by a reduction in the tariff 
 of the greater number of insurance companies, and in case of accident the presump- 
 tion of their having taken every precaution recognized as neccessary and effectual, 
 is accepted by the courts and the agents of the State. 
 
 Insurance. — Insurance, from a practical point of view, does not relieve from all 
 responsibility. It sometimes only partially covers civil risk and never the correct- 
 ional. Moreover, after the accident, the master, notwithstanding the indemnity 
 paid, often keeps the victim as an auxiliary or help, but it is generally an invalid he 
 keeps, whose services are not in proportion to his salary. These are the charges that 
 an insurance could not take, but which a wise precaution might prevent. Insurance, 
 however useful it may be, is insufficient ; the association to prevent accidents is the 
 necessary supplement. 
 
 The association of Eouen, founded in 1873, after a period of three years' trial 
 that proved its effectiveness, has been in abeyance for 10 years. Already it can, 
 thanks to its numerous members, lower its tariffs, for its object is not to receive any 
 profit. Many establishments among the most important of the surrounding country 
 have joined their ranks; since its origin the Association has increased constantly 
 and no one has ever left it. The rewards which it has received testify to its success, 
 which confii-ms that of the Association founded twenty years ago at Mulhouse and 
 a similar woj'k recently established in Paris. As to statistics, they show that the 
 application of its methods results in a reduction in the number of accidents by 
 26 per cent. 
 
 EXTRACT PROM THE STATUTES. 
 
 Art. 2. The Association has for its object the prevention of accidents in factories 
 by making known to its members the proper means of preventing them. 
 
270 
 
 Art. 2. To attain the result which it proposes, the Association has recourse to the 
 following means : 
 
 It guarantees to all its members the benefit of two inspections a year for each 
 factory or workshop. These inspections are intended to improve the condition of 
 divers machinery and apparatus, as far as concerns the security of workingmen, to 
 study and prepare the means of security, to take notes of all remarks made by the 
 heads of establishments or by the foreman relative to the advantages and disadvan- 
 tages of safety apparatus already in use. 
 
 The inspector is bound, and promises on his honor, only to visit those establish- 
 ments in company with one of their heads, or of one appointed by them, and to 
 abstain from any examinations that are not dictated by the desire to fulfil his duty 
 with discretion. 
 
 He puts down his observation in a special book. This register is not to be 
 made public, but may be communicated to the members of the Association, who are 
 interested in it. In case of accident, the inspector hastens to the place as soon as he 
 hears of it, and after having heard the statements and observations of the directors, 
 foremen and workmen, he prepares a report of the circumstances under which the 
 accident occurred and on the means to prevent a recurrence of it. The examination 
 of witnesses is gratuitous. The accidents are entered in a special register. 
 
 On each visit the inspector leaves at the establishment a note written from his 
 observations. 
 
 Each year he prepares a report setting forth the rules and the safety apparatus 
 the most useful to prevent accidents. He refers to the newest machinery, the 
 searches made, and the results obtained. 
 
 Finially, on the Fridays he remains in his office, at the disposal of all those 
 members who have anything to ask him, or any communication to make concerning 
 the object of the Association. 
 
 The statistics of accidents should be made public, but in no case should the 
 inspector insert in his report the names of the members where the accidents took 
 place. 
 
 The inspector is also forbidden to accept the position of expert or arbitrator in 
 the contestations between mastei's and worlsmen, whether he be chosen by the parties 
 or named by the courts, and no matter what may be the nature of the contestation. 
 
 This last rule, as well as the discretion imposed as above, on the inspector, is 
 common to all the agents of the association. 
 
 Art. 11. Every manufacturer who desires to form part of the Association must 
 make application in writing to the President of the Council of Administration. 
 Within the fifteen days following his workshops will be visited by the inspector, who 
 will send in his report within the shortest delay. Immediately afterwards, if he be 
 accepted, his application for admission will be sent him. 
 
 Art. 16. The assessments of ordinary members are fixed as follows: — 
 
 SPINNING. WEAVING. PRINTING. 
 
 1,000 spindles $ 2 00 1 weaving loom $ 07 1 printing machine.? 5 00 
 
 10,000 do 20 00 100 looms 7 00 4 machines 20 00 
 
 Bachthousandabove 1 00 Bach loom over 06 Each machine over.. 4 00 
 
 20,000 spindles 36 00 200 looms 13 00 8 machines 36 00 
 
 Bachthousandabove 1 20 Bach loom over 25 
 
 30,000 spindles 48 00 300 looms 19 60 We speak of machines for 
 
 Bachthousandabove 80 Bach loom over 04 printing goods. 
 
 40,000 spindles 56 00 400 looms 22 00 
 
 Bachthousandabove 40 Bach loom over 03 
 
 50,000 spindles 60 00 500 looms 25 00 
 
271 
 
 NEW ZEALAND * 
 
 GOVERNMENT LIFE ASSURANCE. 
 
 An Act was passed in 1869 empowering the Governor to grant life assurances 
 and annuities on the security of the colonial revenue, and the business was actually 
 ■commenced in March, 1870. As may be seen by the statement below, from very 
 ■small beginnings the business steadily increased, the total number of policies in 
 force up to the Slst December, 1884, being 28,925, representing an aggregate insur- 
 ance amounting to over £6,300,000, while the amouni of the accumulated funds at the 
 same date was £972,775, and has since exceeded one milliou stei'ling. 
 
 It may be useful in this manual to notice the principal advantages offered to 
 policy-holders by the Government Insurance Association of New Zealand, which is 
 the first British colony that has, by special legislation aud exceptional attractions, 
 stimulated the growth of those self-dependent and provident habits that lie at the root 
 of the life assurance system. These advantages may be briefly stated as follows : — 
 
 1. The inviolable security offered to the assured, the payment of every policy 
 being guaranteed by the colony under a special Act of Parliament. 
 
 2. The division of profits, the whole of which are by law to be divided amongst 
 policy-holders only, who thereby enjoy the advantages possessed by members of 
 mutual companies, in addition to that of having the security of the colony for the 
 payment of claims. The first quinquennial investigation showed a profit of over 
 -£12,000 ; and the investigation which took place on the 30th June, 1880, showed the 
 surplus funds to amount to £77,595 ; but of this sum, £56,000 was divided amongst 
 policy-holders. 
 
 3. The low scale of premiums comes next in order. The premiums are as low 
 as the non-participating rates in other offices, and yet they entitle policy-holders to 
 a. full share of the profits that may accrue. 
 
 4. Policies contain no restrictive conditions as to voyaging, trade or occupation, 
 and are indisputable and unchallengeable after five years' duration, if age has been 
 admitted. 
 
 The subjoined tabular statement will show the remarkable growth of the business 
 of this department : — 
 
 Comparative Eeturn of Policies issued. 
 
 Year ending 30th June 
 
 Number 
 of policies. 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 :1877 
 
 53 
 409 
 1,355 
 1,161 
 1,499 
 1,450 
 1,485 
 1,409 
 
 Sum 
 assured. 
 
 139,000 
 893,370 
 2,281,125 
 2,147,250 
 2,534,550 
 2,493,575 
 2,522,545 
 2,819,640 
 
 Year ending 30th June 
 
 Number 
 of policies. 
 
 1878 
 
 3879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 1882* 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 Totals 
 
 1,991 
 2,057 
 2,274 
 1,790 
 13,259 
 8,718 
 5,988 
 
 44,898 
 
 Sum 
 assured. 
 
 3,403,000 
 3,411,000 
 3,626,270 
 2,751,755 
 6,679,840 
 5,387,285 
 4,107,210 
 
 48,737 415 
 
 *Handbook of New Zealand, by James Hector, M.D., C.M.G., F.R.S., 1886. 
 * In 1882 the end of the financial year was changed from the 30th June to the 31st December. 
 
\ 
 
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27t) 
 
 PEOVIDBNT SAVINGS BANK DBS BOUCHBS-DU-EHONB * 
 
 WORKING children's SAVINGS. 
 
 It was with the view of receiving the small savings of laborious and economical 
 persons that the Savings Bank des Bouohes-du-Ehone was founded in 1820 ; it was, 
 nevertheless, considered that it was beneficial to inculcate in children habits of order 
 and forethought ; without deciding between enthusiasts and sceptics it established 
 in 1875, the scholars fund for the children of both sexes who attended the schools. 
 Without seeking the causes of the opposition, shown in this Department and in this 
 great City, to the development of so interesting a part of this institution ; without 
 examining whether it is overlooked in consequence of the indifference of masters, it 
 must be acknowledged that it never obtained much success, and that each year up 
 to the end of 1887 a marked decline was evident. Then, when other banks, in their 
 annual reports, chronicled the increase of scholars' deposits, the Bank des Bouches- 
 du-Ehone could only deplore the small proportion of deposits it received and 
 endeavor to discover the means of remedying this state of things. With this view 
 it adopted, on 20th February, 1888, various measures, the principle of which was to 
 excite the emulation of masters, on whom depended its success, by awarding each 
 year silver medals with an indemnity of $20 to the first five masters and mistresses 
 of Marseilles on the list, taking into consideration the number of deposits and the 
 number of scholars frequenting the school. 
 
 From the first year success followed — a modest but, nevertheless, a real success 
 was attained, and on the 2l8t February, 1889, the Council of Directors were able to 
 award to three masters and two mistresses the rewards they had merited. From 
 that date the movement has increased ; new bank books have been taken by the 
 children ; the older ones continued to make frequent deposits ; schools which were 
 held long distances from the Savings Bank commenced to join; others remained 
 faithful ; the bank, in its turn, found itself rewarded for the sacrifice it had made, and 
 which its wealth allowed it to make, in inculcating in children habits of economy, 
 saving and foresight, which, without sowing in them the seeds of egotism, without 
 stifling those generous promptings so natural to youth, taught them to make 
 provision for the morrow. 
 
 INTERVENTION ON THE QUESTION OF WORKINGMEN'S HOMES. 
 
 When Benjamin Delessert, in 1818, pointed out to the incredulous the example 
 of England which, twenty years before, had organized the first of those savings 
 banks that already spread widely with success, his confidence was met with smiles 
 and sneers. But already, foreseeing the future, and filled with the thought of one 
 day conferring new benefits on the working class, by means of the wealth which the 
 management of their economies in the savings banks, in. large centres, must neces- 
 sarily realize, he said : " It is to be desired that we build or annex houses wh6re 
 workmen or poor families may find healthy and comfortable homes." 
 
 This wish did not remain fruitless. It was in England that he heard the first 
 echo, now almost 40 years ago ; it was in France, sad to relate, that he had to wait 
 longest for encouragement. When, from private industry and special philanthropy, 
 this question of the building of healthy and convenient houses awakened the general 
 impulses ot the Savings Banks Councils, it was in a city no longer French, but which 
 remains and will ever remain so, in heart and soul. It was in Strasbourg, in 1880, that 
 he first put it into practice. These men his ideas confirmed, that the reserve created 
 by the savings of the people, should as far as possible, be employed to improve the 
 condition of the people, without, however, altering the security of the investment, 
 that the true remedy for the greater number of ills is the union of the family and to 
 unite the family the home must be habitable. Our sister of Strasbourg, from the 
 first, placed a first sum of $75,000 from its reserve on immoveable property for work- 
 men. The success was complete — " none of the diflSculties we feared were met with," 
 says the report of the 17th October, 1888. 
 
 *Extract of the notice on the Provident Bank des Bouohes-du-Rhone. 
 
277 
 
 In 1886 the Lyons Fund imitated the example of the Strasbourg fund in giving 
 aid, by a loan of $30,000, to the formation of a society for economical dwellings, 
 and also in the extension of this society by the subscription of $100,000 shares in 
 the increased capital. The Marseilles fund did not remain behind ; the question was 
 asked whether it was better to allow their capital to remain dormant at interest, or 
 to current account in the treasury, or whether the moment had not arrived to reflect 
 on the origin of this capital, as regards the disinterested object for which it was 
 instituted, and consequently to ascertain the most profitable use that could be made 
 of it to the benefit of honest, industrious and thrifty workmen, its true clients. 
 
 The Council of Directors of the Savings Bank des Bouches-du-Ehone, on the 
 suggestion of its president, opened the way. In three different directions it gave 
 examples of this undertaking; it offered to the families of workmen, comfortable and 
 sanitary dwellings at rates of rent proportioned to their means, it repaired the 
 immorality that proceeds from tiie promiscuous crowding of children of both sexes, 
 rendered home pleasant, and aided in the acquisition of the property. A warm sup- 
 port was given by the Chamber of Commerce of the municipality and by the public 
 powers. The General Assembly of the 23i-d April, 1888, after much consideration, 
 decided, the Government approving, to employ : 
 
 1st. $32,000 in building healthy and economical buildings for working families 
 of French origin, and leasing the same simply under lease, so as to give a revenue of 
 3^ per cent., or with promise of sale at price payable annually. 
 
 2nd. $4,000 to assist special real estate company, offering good security, and 
 which was established at Marseilles with the object of building workmen's dwellings. 
 
 3rd. $14,000 for loans, of which the maximum sum to one person would be 
 $1,200 to $1,400, to be lent on hypothecs to industrious workmen anxious themselves 
 to construct dwellings under the control and oversight of the Savings Bank, and 
 with the view of securing health, morality and permanent work. 
 
 A first decree of the President of the Eepublic of the 13th July, 1888, approved 
 of the first part of the project, a second decree of the 4th Februai-y, 1889, the second 
 and third. 
 
 The Savings Bank did not lose a day in going at the work ; a group of ten 
 houses was built on the land that was bought in the populous quarter of La Chape- 
 lette, and will be disposable at the end of September, 1889; thirteen others followed. 
 Joined together and completed, they form with their streets, their boulevard, their 
 picturesque group of pretty little houses, similar in construction, each being one 
 story with a cellar, built on level ground and having a garden, the whole forming a 
 sort of village. At the Universal Exhibition, in the Section XI, on Social Economy, 
 might be seen the plans and models in relief. Pleased with the appearance of this 
 little town, with the aspect and situation of these dwellings, and the rent demanded, 
 and with the condition of payment, many of the depositors who, on the day the 
 graphic charts and diagrams destined for section YIII, were on public view, exam- 
 ined and discussed these plans and statements of costs, have already subscribed their 
 names to be the first to occupy them. 
 
 Lately an anonymous society has been formed; have prepared their statutes 
 and collected capital, with the assistance of citizens who know how to use their 
 wealth for good objects, and who devote themselves to these social questions which 
 are so interesting. 
 
 The demands for loans on hypothecs are numerous, and already it is easy to 
 perceive how insufficient the small sum is, which the Society, in its prudence, 
 requested to be authorized to apply to loans. 
 
 Its manner of working has, under three forms, given to the capitalists and 
 philanthropists of the great City, the means of realizing a progress more fruitful 
 than it is easy to explain, by reason of the benefit and domestic happiness it gives 
 to working families. These three solutions of the problem have called for the 
 reserves of provident persons and afford a new means of saving. 
 
278 
 
 THE SCHOLAES' SAVINGS BANK ATTACHED TO THE SAVINGS BANK 
 
 OP MANS. 
 
 EXTRACT OF A MEMORIAL ADDRESSED TO MR. LtON SAT, SENATOR, AND TO THE 
 
 MEMBERS OF THE JURY OF THE VIII SECTION OF THE EXHIBITION OF 
 
 SOCIAL ECONOMY BY MR. JULES GASNIER, TREASURER AND AGENT 
 
 GENERAL OF THE SAVINGS BANK OF MANS.* 
 
 The Scholars Fund in Our Day. * * 
 
 To properly define the nature and object of the Scholars' Savings Bank, I cannot 
 do better than borrow the authorized statement, almost ofScial, of Mr. A. de 
 Malarce : — 
 
 " The Scholars' Savings Bank," said Mr. de Malarce, " is to put the savings bank 
 within the reach of children; it affords them the means of depositing their small 
 savings, less than the franc allowed by the ordinary savings bank, and enables them 
 to make the deposit in the school itself, with the aid of the schoolmaster. The 
 scholar can thus save from useless expenditure the few cents that his parents place 
 at his disposal. 
 
 " In this way, moreover, the child serves his apprenticeship in economy, that is 
 to say, he displays good will in his business matters. By this easy means of saving 
 he learns to lessen his artificial wants, to control his will, and regulate his life, and 
 to save many small sums which might otherwise be uselessly and wrongfully spent ; 
 and these small sums have their value as a total, sometimes to relieve want, and often 
 as a start to fortune ; this was known before and since the time of Franklin and 
 Laffite. 
 
 " A cent wasted may open a fissure in a strong box that will ruin a great house ; 
 a cent saved may be the starting point of a well regulated and, perhaps, prosperous 
 life." 
 ' It may be permitted here to state that the conception and creation of a scholars' 
 savings bank, as designed with its immediate and material objects, as well as its 
 moral results, present and future, give a claim to fame, an indisputable title to public 
 gratitude to that man whose heart conceived the idea, in whose brain the scheme 
 assumed shape, and who gave it life, body and soul under the form of an institution 
 now adopted by the two worlds. 
 
 Here again I am happy to borrow the words of Mr. de Malarce, who wrote, in 
 1881, in le dictionnaire de pedagogie et d'instruction primaire, of Mr. Buisson verho 
 Caisses d'Epargnes Scolaire, p. 305, and following : — 
 
 " The ofS.cial reports of the Parliaments of England, of Austrian-Hungary and 
 Italy inform us that the success of the Scholars' Savings Bank of France has aroused 
 in foreign countries the interest and emulation of statesmen and of persons anxious 
 for social progress. In England, the post ofBce in 1876 assumed the cost of printing 
 and spreading notes to propagate it. In Italy, the law of the 27th May, 1875, on 
 Postal Saving Banks granted priyileges and awarded prizes for the directors of 
 schools that have most zealously co-operated with regard to the Scholars Savings 
 Bank, in consideration above all, of the good educational effect produced. In Austria 
 a member of Parliament, Doctor Eoser aiding the work of a general society (Spar- 
 verein fiir Kindern) and devoted himself since 1877 to benefiting the schools of his 
 country with this new institution; and in Hungary the Counsellor Eoyal Franz 
 Weisz, President of the Commercial Academy, is exerting himself in carrying out the 
 testamentary wishes of his friend Franz Deack." 
 
 * It was in the month of May, 1834, and at the Mutual School of Primary Instruction of the City of 
 Mans, that the first Scholars' Savings Bank was organized and worked by Mr. r'ran9ois Dulac, director of 
 the school, who conceived the idea and put it in force a short time after the opening of the Savings Bank 
 of the same city, on the 27th May, 1834. 
 
 * * We have chosen this report from others, not only because it is the most complete, but, moreover, 
 because the town of Mans is the birthplace of the Scholars' Savings Bank, and that it flourished in that- 
 city forty-two years before its introduction into England, the first country that adopted the system after 
 
 ance. 
 
279 
 
 The same movement is going on in Germany and in the other countries of the 
 north, in Eussia and Poland, in Spain and in Portugal. The Sovereign of Brazil 
 took back with him the idea of such an institution, on his recent voyage to Eui'ope, 
 and in the United States Mr, Townsend, of New York, vice-president of the most 
 important of all the Savings Banks of America, stated recently at the Congress of 
 Provident Institutions, how he had introduced the question in America. 
 
 Belgium seems to have surpassed all other nations enumerated above, in the 
 developments made outside of Prance, by the institution of the Scholars' Savings 
 Bank. The table shows that in 1881 and since its publication, that greater progress 
 has certainly been made. The scholars' fund will certainly make new conquests and 
 spread over new countries. 
 
 There do not yet exist very complete or sufficiently certain and authentic statis- 
 tics of Scholars' Savings Banks. The annual reports of the Minister of Commerce 
 a'ad Industry do not give them the prominence they are destined to occupy. These 
 documents do not speak of them regularly. We find, however, in the last published 
 — that on the operations of 1886 — positive and interesting information. 
 
 In 1886, 472,012 accounts in new books were opened, of which 45,183 men 
 opened for the first deposits from scholars, nearly 10 per cent, of the total of new 
 books opened in the year.* 
 
 It is a result not to be despised. It is even extremely good, but still insufficient, 
 I am not afraid to say, for we must not forget that the young customers of the 
 Scholars' Bank become and remain in after life, customers of the real savings bank. 
 And it is equally important to remember this : that the instruction in saving, given 
 at the school, spreads in the families. It is not uncommon that the child taken to 
 the little savings bank by his teacher, ends by leading his parents to the larger one, 
 without being aware of it himself or of their knowing the cause. 
 
 It is a fact that I personally and often observed, and that was remarked else- 
 where (in France and Belgium). This is not one of the least services that has been 
 rendered and will be rendered in always increasing proportion by the development 
 of the institution of the Scholars' Savings Bank. 
 
 Number of Number of small books, Total of amounts 
 
 Years. Scholars' Savings or Scholars' in saving on 
 
 Depositories. these books. 
 
 France — 
 
 1874 7 
 
 1877 8,033 143,272 S 696,870.40 
 
 1880 14,372 804,845 1,280,754.60 
 
 1883 19,433 395,867 1,812,916.60 
 
 1886 23,980 491,160 2,986,853.00 
 
 Belgium — 
 
 1887 4,701 41,361 678,167.00 
 
 England — 
 
 1886 2,105 
 
 HUNGAKT — 
 
 1885.... 517 23,494 76,237.00 
 
 1886 691 
 
 Germany— „ , „„ 
 
 1886 717 54,850 134,730.00 
 
 Italt — 
 
 1886 3,456 
 
 Progress accomplished from 1875 to 1888. 
 
 The diagrams given show the annual progress from 1875 to the commencement 
 of 1889 ; but it is not without advantage to give a synoptic table indicating the suc- 
 cessive increase in the number of scholars' banks, and the number and importance 
 of their operation. 
 
 (1) In 1873, Franz Deack, the great patriot of Hungary, expressed to Mr, de Malarce his admiration for 
 Savings Banks in general and Scholars' Savings Banks in particular. He saw m the first a means of civiliza- 
 tion, and in the second the best means of reforming by means of education of children m morals and thrift, 
 the manners of a people. ,! ^i. a u i . t> , • 
 
 *We will see by the latest oflBcial statistics what has been the progress of the Scholars Banks since 
 their establishment in 1875. 
 
280 
 
 Here is the table : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Number of 
 Funds. 
 
 Number of 
 Deposits paid 
 
 into the 
 Savings Bank. 
 
 Average 
 Number of 
 Payments 
 per Fund. 
 
 Amount 
 
 per 
 Payment. 
 
 Average 
 
 of 
 
 Payments. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1875 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 32 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 63 
 133 
 166 
 184 
 183 
 214* 
 
 122 
 
 557 
 
 422 
 
 551 
 
 767 
 
 557 
 
 1,325 
 
 1,517 
 
 2,693 
 
 8,902 
 
 7,755 
 
 9,188 
 
 8,120 
 
 10,743 
 
 14 
 31 
 22 
 17 
 21 
 14 
 26 
 31 
 43 
 67 
 47 
 50 
 44 
 50 
 
 $ 111.20 
 
 782.30 
 
 893.60 
 
 651.80 
 1,100.40 
 
 774.60 
 1,477.20 
 1,720.60 
 2,224.60 
 5,798.80 
 5,757.20 
 6,860.00 
 6,787.40 
 8,222.40 • 
 
 $0,902 cts. 
 1.404 
 2.118 
 1.182 
 1.434 
 1.390 
 1.114 
 1.134 
 0.826 
 0.652 
 0.742 
 0.742 
 0.836 
 0.766 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877. 
 
 1876 
 1877 
 
 1878. . 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1879 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 1882 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 1885 
 
 1886. 
 
 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 1888 
 1888 
 
 Totals 
 
 
 53,219 
 
 $43,162.00 
 
 
 
 
 SYSTEM ADOPTED BY THE SAVINGS BANK OP MANS (1). 
 
 This system has the double advantage . 
 
 Of exempting the director or directress of the schools from keeping any account 
 or any register whatever. 
 
 And of establishing at the same time a control which guards the interests of 
 the depositors as well as that of the central bank, by placing the teachers beyond 
 any contestation-. 
 
 This system consists in the employment : 
 
 Ist. Of savings-stamps gummed, of the true value of 5, 10, 50 centimes and 1 
 franc; ($0.01, $0.02, $0.10, $0.20.) 
 
 JQ AtSSE D-EPARGN E; 
 
 XPARgNE SCOlXIRE 
 
 2nd. Of account books to receive these stamps delivered by the teacher to the 
 scholar, who deposits, as a substitute and receipt for his deposit. 
 The whole is furnished gratuitously by the savings bank. 
 
 WORKING OE THE SYSTEM. 
 
 I. The master or mistress of the school receives from the savings' bank for 
 deposit, without cost, advance or security, a supply of savings stamps of different 
 value and a number of cash books sufficient for the wants of the school. 
 
 There is also provided gratuitously a drawer or box with two compartments, in 
 one of which are placed the stamps, and in the other the money paid by- the scholars 
 in^exchange for the stamps. 
 
 * There are in the Department of Sarthe, of which Mans is the chief town, 308 boys' schools, 201 
 girls' schools,591 mixed schools, 20 maternal schools, about 710 public schools, frequented by 48,678 children. 
 The 214 schools having scholars banks' representing ; 
 
 35 % of the total population of scholars of the department ; 
 40 / of boys' schools ; 
 25 / of girls' schools ; 
 10 / of mixed schools ; 
 25 ^ of maternal schools. 
 (1) This is only a reproduction of a notice distributed by the Savings Bank of Mans. 
 
281 
 
 II. Every scholai- who would deposit in the Scholars' Savings' Bank receives, 
 gratuitously, from the schoolmaster, a cash book, in which they stick the stamps 
 given to them as an equivalent and as a receipt for their deposits. 
 
 This book is composed of twelve leaves, numbered, and containing on the right 
 and left pages twenty spaces to stick the stamps.* 
 
 Bach of these double leaves can receive stamps representing from $0.20 deposited 
 in twenty deposits of $0.01 up to $4.00 deposited iu one single payment. 
 
 III. At the time of each deposit the schoolmaster gives the pupil stamps for 
 a value equal to the deposit. 
 
 He sees that the scholar sticks the stamp in his book so that the stamps stuck 
 on each page will represent one or more complete francs. 
 
 IV. As soon as a pupil deposits a franc ($0.20) in one or more deposits, or a sum 
 in entire francs, the schoolmaster detaches from the book the leaf containing the 
 stamps representing the amount deposited, and he revises the stock and enters on it 
 the date of the operation and the value of the stamps taken out, and this entry is a 
 receipt to the scholar. 
 
 V . The schoolmaster, within the shortest delay possible, sends the detached 
 leaves and the sums represented by the stamps which he has on hand, either to the 
 nearest succursale, or to the Central Bank, according to his convenience, where the 
 stamps are obliterated. 
 
 Recto. 
 
 Folio : 
 
 School of 
 
 Pol. 
 
 Name and surname of Scholar. 
 No. of Savings' Bank Book. 
 
 a 
 bo 
 
 c5 
 
 < 
 ■Jl 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 VI. Each sending is accompanied with a summary statement of the deposits 
 made by the scholar, which thus become, if they are not already, real depositors in 
 the large Savings Bank. The printed forms of these statements are furnished 
 gratuitously. 
 
 For the first deposits the statement contains the complete and exact description 
 of the depositor and of his domicile. 
 
 For late deposits the name and stirname of the depositor only and the number of 
 his bank book should be put on each new deposit made in his name, that it may be 
 noted. 
 
 VII. The general agent of the Central Bank places in the Savings Bank to the 
 account of the scholars the sums sent in their names, and sends cash to the school- 
 master either directly or by through the medium of the succursales the bank books 
 of each of the depositors. 
 
 VII. He sends back at the same time to each schoolmaster a number of stamps 
 equal in value to those on the pages detached which he received to keep up the 
 amount at first deposited, which should always remain whole or be represented by 
 the same things, or by money, except during the interval of sending the money and 
 the return of the stamps to be replaced. 
 
 Such is the system, the adoption of which has so powerfully contributed, almost 
 instantaneously, to double from 1883 to 1884 the number of scholars' savings banks 
 
 * Model of a leaf with its twenty spaces. 
 
282 
 
 within the range of the savings bank of Mans carrying it from 63 to 133. In 1888, 
 as I have already stated, the number reached 214. The extension and prosperity of 
 the Scholars' Savings Banks in oui- sphei'e of action were, no doubt, also due to 
 some factors of less importance ; the influence of which was advantageously felt in 
 the results obtained. 
 
 I would speak of the bank books distributed to the scholars as prizes or access- 
 ories, and of the rewards awarded to schoolmasters who are most zealous in the 
 propagation of the Scholars' Savings Bank. 
 
 Savings Bank Books given as Prizes. — The savings bank books given as prizes to 
 certain scholars, or added to other prizes, constitute rewards much appreciated by 
 the children and their families. The hope of obtaining these books have a beneficial 
 ' influence on the pupils' work; and their obtaining them almost always determines 
 the young prizemen and often their parents to increase the sum given, particularly 
 when it is stipulated that this sum shall not be withdrawn until after the majority of 
 the winners. 
 
 Mr. Frangois Dulac* recommended this sort of reward ; he understood and 
 explained the advantages in the speeches of which I have given extracts above. At 
 his request the Municipal Government, the Council of Directors of the Savings Bank 
 of Mans, and the benefactors of the mutual school gave savings bank books with 
 deposits in them, on the day of the distribution of prizes, to the most deserving 
 scholars, and it was, perhaps, at Mans, that this system of encouraging work and 
 saving received its first application. I should, in truth, at once add, that these gifts, 
 somewhat small in the first years, totally ceased for a certain period ; the idea, how- 
 ever, was fruitful. It was taken up again and widely spread throughout the congre- 
 gational schools, which owe much of their success to the large distribution of savings 
 bank books, whilst the lay schools were almost deprived of these books. 
 
 On my joining the Savings Bank this state of inferiority of the lay schools struck 
 me and I endeavored to improve matters. During 18'77 I was fortunate enough to 
 collect from the authorities and from the circle ol my personal connections, a sum of 
 about $160, which was divided among the different schools of the city, after convert- 
 ing it into deposits in savings bank books. 
 
 In 1818 a certain number of my friends and I founded a society for the propa- 
 gation of lay education. This Society considered it as an essential part of its mis- 
 sion, and one of its most effectual means of action to procure for lay schools, to be 
 given in prizes, bank books for quantity and value equal in importance to the books 
 distributed in the congregational schools. 
 
 The efforts of the Society were crowded with success. The sums received and 
 applied by it to this object, reached from 1880 to 1888 inclusive, for the City of 
 Mans alone, to the sum of 18.416.00,— of $367.60 in 1880 to $1,238.60 in 1888. With 
 the same index, it also did much for the rural schools. 
 
 The bankbooks distributed in Mans, in 1888, represented a little more than $0.40 
 per pupil. 
 
 In the congi-egational school for boys, the average amounted to $0.60 per pupil. 
 
 The figures I have given, in which are comprised the books given by certain 
 societies or corporations, we must add similiar deposits of parents to increase the 
 books obtained by their children. These deposits, during the last four years, reached 
 the following figures. 
 
 1885, $310,— 1*; 86, $252,— 1887, $372,— 1888, $287. 
 
 The sums entered in the books given by the Encouragement Society lor lay 
 schools (former society for the propagation of lay education) and the Society of 
 Brothers Schools, could not be withdrawn until the majority of the owner. 
 
 This clause not only guarantees the preservation of the sum given ; it ensures 
 the increase by later deposits in the Scholars Bank and in the large Savings Bank. 
 
 Recompense to school-teachers. — Nowithstanding the simple instructions we 
 have given schoolteachers as to their dealing with savings bank, it is impossible to 
 deny that the keeping of the Scholars Bank is not without an increase of work, a loss 
 
 *Founder of savings banks. 
 
283 
 
 of time and an interesting zeal to secure and retain customers among the scholars, — 
 without speaking of the obstacles which must sometimes arise from the apathy and' 
 prejudice of parents which is often hard to combat. 
 
 Moreover the zealous devotion of teachers for the work is the more deserving 
 and purely voluntary, disinterested and without other compensation than the merit of 
 having accomplished a duty. 
 
 It is therefore just — and at the same time useful to the work, that this devotion 
 should not remain without reward, when it is confirmed by success, and should be en- 
 couraged and stimulated. 
 
 It was with this idea that I presented to the Council of the Directors of the 
 Savings Bank of Mans, in the beginning of 1885 a report, of which they accepted 
 the conclusions, and which suggested the creation of annual rewards in favor of 
 teachers who, in the course of the preceding year, distinguished themselves more 
 particularly, by their zeal in instilling into their scholars the taste and habit of. 
 saving, and by the success they have obtained in this branch of moral instruction. 
 
 These rewards consist in medals of silver-gilt, ot silver, small and large size, and 
 medals of bronze. 
 
 Five distributions have already taken place, applying to the results of the years 
 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887 and 1888. 
 
 These medals are given to teachers at the head of the list of classification, for 
 each class of school, according to the average number of deposits per scholai- — with- 
 out taking note of the amount deposited, that is to say, by dividing the number of 
 scholars by the number of deposits sent to the Savings Bank in their name. 
 That is why the schools should be classified, &c. 
 
 I already remarked that the number of deposits per scholar, was in inverse ratio 
 to the number of pupils in each school. The reason is easily understood. 
 
 ■ It is that the less pupils there are, the more intimate is the relation of the 
 teachers, with them and their families and the m^re effectual are his executions in the 
 limited field for its exercise. On the other hand, the schools having the largest 
 number of pupils are situated in cities and in certain centres, where the habit of 
 economy is less understood than in the rural communes — and where the occasions 
 and the temptations for spending are more frequent and more varied for children as 
 well as grown persons. The difficulty of the task of the schoolmaster increases 
 therefore, and his success diminishes in proportion as those around him become 
 more numerous, with whom his relations are less and less intimate to the detriment 
 of his course of action and to the spread of the systems which are necessarily 
 limited disadvantageously. 
 
 Therefore would it not be unjust to class them all on one list only. 
 The directors of the schools having the larger number of pupils find themselves 
 on the last lists and excluded from reward, no matter what may be their good-will 
 and devotion. 
 
 To obviate this inconvenience we have divided the schools into five catagories 
 according to their numbers. 
 
 Ist. School having less than 50 pupils. 
 2nd. do do from 50 to 100 pupils. 
 
 3rd. do do 100 to 150 do 
 
 4th. do do 150 to 200 do. 
 
 5th. do do more than 200. 
 
 Moreover the maternal schools form a class apart 
 
 Since these rewards were established the Savings Bank of Mans has distributed 
 288 medals, awarded to 123 teachers. 
 
 The prize-winners received this year, and will receive in future, the choice, on a 
 special catalogue seen and approved of by the academic authorities, books of the 
 value of the medal, which they can take if they prefer. This year, we have, at last 
 succeeded in obtaining from higher authority new prizes to add to ours. The 
 President of the Council, Minister of Commerce and Industry, granted us three meda,lB 
 and the Minister of Public Instruction sent us two beautiful works to be given in 
 
284 
 
 their name " to the schoolmasters or mistresses whose zeal has been most specially 
 directed to the development of the Scholars' Savings Banks." 
 
 The fifteen prizes of the ministers were awarded, outside of the annual competi- 
 tion, at a sort of competition of honour, for the decision of which an account is kept 
 of the devotion displayed to the advantage of the Scholars Bank since 1874 and the 
 results of this devotion, proved by the awards obtained since 1885 the date of their 
 creation. 
 
 The establishment of these awards, the solemnity and publicity of their distri- 
 bution and the semi-ofScial character given to them, have, on their side, exercised a 
 beneficial influence on the multiplication of our Scholars Banks. 
 
 Dissemination-Awards to scholars. — The Savings Bank of Mans seeks to develop 
 the work of Scholars Banks by the spreading of notices and pamphlets bought or 
 edited by it. 
 
 It gives them to the teachers to distribute them as encouragements and 
 reward to the pupil-depositors, it also gives pictures well executed, black or 
 colo]-ed, reproducing the portraits of celebrated men, memorable events or historical 
 scenes, &c., and on the back of them are generally found an instructive text. 
 
 These pictures are taken from different collections according to the nature of the 
 schools, boys' schools, girls' schools or maternal schools. 
 
 Such were the different means employed by the Savings Bank of Mans to obtain 
 the results set forth in this memoir, results which appeared to the Inspector-General 
 of Primary Instruction to be prodigious. 
 
 It was by the employment of these means that the Savings Bank of Mans suc- 
 ceeded in establishing and working 214 scholars bank in 131 communes of its 
 boundaries. 
 
 The Savings Bank of Paris does not possess more than 246 in the whole Depart- 
 ment of the Seine, and has been able to introduce this institution in twenty-five com- 
 munes only, outside of Paris. 
 
 I confine myself to giving the elements of the comparison, not wishing my- 
 self to draw the conclusion which must redound to the advantage of the Savings Bank 
 of Mans. 
 
 SAVINGS BANK OF CHALOKS-SUE-MAENE. 
 
 scholars' bank. 
 
 The mode of rewarding granted by this Savings Bank difliers from that adopted 
 by the Savings Bank of Mans. 
 
 The schools of the department having a scholars' Bank, are divided into seven 
 sections, and four prizes of $8.00, $6.00, $4.00 and $2.00 (employed in the purchase of 
 books) are awarded to the four teachers of the section, whose scholars have made the 
 greater number of operations. 
 
 As to the pupils we distribute 180 bank books divided as follows: — 
 3 bank books to each school of 100 scholars and over. 
 2 do do from 50 to 100 scholars. 
 
 1 do do of less than 50 scholars. 
 
 THE ANT (LA EOUEMI). 
 
 SOCIETY SHARING THE SAVINGS, FOUNDED AT PARIS, 1879. 
 
 We will only mention this society established on a basis as solid as practical, 
 and which has, within ten years been able to open 27,234 savings accounts and 
 amass by monthly assessments of $0.60, savings amounting together to the sum of 
 $1,600,000. 
 
 Societies sharing the savings, type of The Ant, are established throughout the 
 whole of Prance, in Belgium and in all the large cities of Europe. 
 
285 
 
 The object of The Ant (La Pourmi) is to gathei" together a quantity of small 
 sums which would remain unproductive, by reason of these being so small, and to 
 employ them in the purchase of French obligations on lots, (obligations frangaises £l, 
 lots) in which the subscribers in common run the chances. 
 
 La Pourmi is open to all ; it admits women and children. j 
 
 The deposit is $0.60 a month. ■ 
 
 The money thus saved is represented in parts and series. We call part this 
 monthly assessment of $0.60 that a member binds himself to deposit in the fund of 
 the Association during ton years. 
 
 The series are the catagories of the sharers, whose obligations commence from 
 different dates, for a period often years. They are, so to speak so many little ants 
 in the Ant itself. The series bear interest completely distinct one from another. The 
 administration and the general expenses alone are common. 
 
 At the expiration of a series, that is ten years after the date of its creation, the 
 amount is realized and the amount divided among all the sharers of that series in 
 proportion to the parts subscribed by each of them. The capital thus paid out com- 
 prises : 1st. The assessments paid for ten years past ; 2nd. The interest received by 
 the Ant (La Poui-mi) and capitalized ; 3rd. The amounts of the lots and the pre- 
 miums on the obligations bought ; 4th. The various profits resulting from the rule 
 of the Society itself. 
 
 Such is in short, the working of the system, of which the result is significant and 
 displays its excellence without further commentary. 
 
 The absence of obligations on lots on this Continent renders the application of 
 this system impossible in Canada, but we consider it our duty to explain this co-opera- 
 tion which permits, the smallest savings, to take part in advantages offered to capi- 
 talists by Government issues, or that of large financial companies. 
 
 EULES OP THE SCHOLAES' BANKS IN BEUSSELS. 
 
 1. Saving is completely free ; no constraint can be employed to enforce it. The 
 teacher, however, uses all means of persuasion possible, to urge the children to save. 
 He takes all occasions to inculcate in children, principles of order and economy, which 
 are justly considered as the principal elements of morality of the working class. He 
 attempts to prove that even the poorest scholar can gather together a small sum to 
 meet the wants of hard times, by saving now and then a few cents. It is rare indeed 
 that the children resist this moral advice and nearly all the pupil are depositors. 
 
 2. The teacher receives the savings of his pupils every day, morning and even- 
 ing immediately after class. He never puts off to to-morrow the pupil who wishes 
 to deposit a sum, however small it may be, even a cent, so as not to expose the pupil 
 to spend the money which he wished to deposit, in confectionery and other follies. 
 
 3. The teacher takes advantage of his relations with the parents of the children 
 under his care, to explain to them the operations of the savings bank and the advan- 
 tages that would accrue to them as well as to their children ; he tries to make them 
 understand that the sums deposited in the savings bank are always at their disposal. 
 
 SAVINGS BULLETIN. 
 
 BULLJBTIN D'EPAEGNB. 
 
 In order to make the daily practice of savings easy to all, there was established 
 in Prance in 1882, the {bulletin d'epargne) Savings Bulletin. There is a form which 
 the public can obtain gratuitously in all the post oflSces, by which the savings, how- 
 ever small are represented as they are realized by postage stamps. When the value 
 of the postage stamps aflSxed to a bulletin, reaches the sum of $0.20 the bulletin is 
 received in the National Savings Bank as a deposit in cash. 
 
286 
 
 In Belgium this system was established and put in force in 1881. The royal 
 mandate of the 16th May, 1881, that created it, authorized the postmasters to furnish 
 on credit, to the heads of the primary schools, a first instalment of these postage 
 stamps to be sold to the pupils. By a circular of the 17th January, 1882, the Minis- 
 ter of Public Works, in view of facilitating the duty imposed on countiy school- 
 masters, orders the country letters carriers to go, at least once a week, to each school 
 to offer postage stamps and bulletins for saving, and to collect the deposits. 
 
 Deposits of $0.20 made in the postal savings banks by means of savings bulletins. 
 
 Belgium. France. 
 
 Years. — — 
 
 Number. Number. 
 
 1881 26,107 
 
 1882 279,757 
 
 1883 242,963 70,249 
 
 1884 215,484 112,593 
 
 1885 168,389 98,528 
 
 1886 136,862 98,800 
 
 1887 174,484 86,615 
 
 1888 174,831 
 
 Total $283,775.60 $93,357 
 
 TOUENAI SAVINGS AND AID BANK, FOUNDED AT TOURNAI (BELGIUM) 
 
 IN 1825. 
 
 The bank is managed by the City. 
 
 The depositors must be born and live in Tournai. 
 
 The minimum deposit is fO.lO. 
 
 No depositor can have to his credit a sum over $400 in capital ; the members of 
 the same family living under the same roof cannot deposit more than $800. 
 
 A prior notice of five days is required to draw out any sum less than, or equal to 
 $20. A withdrawal of any sum, above that amount, requires three months notice. 
 
 Depositors belonging to the poorer class who have made deposits in their name, 
 for a year at least, and who find themselves on account of accident or serious illness, 
 unable to work, may have a weekly allowance for three months at most. These 
 allowances are paid from the interest of the capital belonging to the aid fund or 
 charged to unforeseen expenses in the budget ; they are fixed according to the deposit 
 in the following proportions : 
 
 For a deposit of $2.00 $0.10 a day. 
 
 do 4.00 0.15 do 
 
 do 6.00 0.20 do 
 
 do 8.00 0.25 do 
 
 do 10.00 and over 0.30 do 
 
SECTIOISr IX. 
 
 Co-operative Associations for Provisions. 
 
CO-OPERATIYE ASSOCIATIONS FOR PROVISIONS. 
 
 THE CO-OPEEATIVE SOCIETY FOE IMMOVABLES FOE THE WOEKING- 
 
 MEN OF PAEIS. 
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 i ,• 
 
 In 1867, at the exhibition on the Champ de Mars, a number of workiiigtaieti 
 erected, without assistance from either architect or builder, a specimen of working- 
 men's houses to be either let or sold at a low price, to woi-kingmen only. This band 
 of workmen, called the Committee of the Workingmen of Paris, were awarded a silver 
 medal for their exhibit. 
 
 The chief of the state, being struck by the advantages to be afforded by a similar 
 institution, promised a subsidy to a society formed with a capital of |20,000. 
 
 The committee set to work, made out its statutes and collected $20,000, (1,000 
 shares of $20 each.) 
 
 The Emperor then made over to them, as proprietors, a number of wotkingmen's 
 houses situated on Dumesnil Avenue, No. 216 and following. Since that time the 
 Society has made many improvements which have increased the value of the pro- 
 perty, and permitted them to dispose of 161 dwellings. 
 
 The Society thus established borrowed from the GrSdit Fonder a sum of $40,000 
 with which to build two other groups of houses, one of which is situated ia Rigoles 
 street, No. 38, (Belleville,) and the other, place Saint-Charles, at No. 40, in Grenelle. 
 
 The group in Eigoles street comprises 4 large square buildings divided into 24 
 dwellings, rented, and 16 square buildings sold to workmen for $1,240 and $1,260 
 payable in 15 annuities, which has given them an opportunity of becoming proprie- 
 tors. The greater number of these square buildings (pavilions) are nearly paid for. 
 
 The group in St. Charles street comprises two houses, three stories high, divided 
 into 24 dwellings. 
 
 All the dwellings owned by the Society are built and kept in excellent sanitary 
 condition, and are low priced, the average rent in the locality is $40 to $60 for n 
 dwelling containing three apartments, a kitchen and a cellar, and sometimes a gar- 
 den, is attached. 
 
 The directors of the Society might have employed this important gift to benefit 
 the shareholders, but, on the contrary, it has been used to benefit the working-class, 
 since the business capital, now $180,000, brings but about $6,000 in interest, or about 
 3-33 per cent, which figure is much below the ordinary interest on immoveable pro- 
 perty in Paris. 
 
 In spite of the low price of its rents, the Society is prosperous, and if, according 
 to its statutes, its affairs be settled in a few years, its shares will be worth thrice their 
 present value. 
 
 The good results are due to : 
 
 Ist. To the generous gift made to it on its foundation. 
 
 2nd. To the zeal and intelligence of its administrators who are all workmen and. 
 employees. 
 
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 Among all these cooperative societies, The Hive (La Euche) is the most 
 remarkable. 
 
 The shareholders have paid only $5.00 per share ; complete liberation was 
 effected by means of the successive division of profits. 
 
 The division of profits is now made as follows : 
 
 10 per cent, to the special reserve fund ; the statutory amount of reserve fund 
 has been passed. 
 
 54 per cent, reimbursed to purchasers in proportion to their purchase. 
 
 36 per cent, for the foundation of a provident fund, the interests of which are 
 divided every year : to members over 60 years of age, and who have been members 
 of the Society more than 10 years ; to members who, after having been 10 years in 
 the Society, have become blind ; to children of deceased members, who had belonged 
 10 years to the Society, up to 14 years of age. 
 
 The results in 1888 were very remarkable. Purchasers were reimbursed in the 
 sum of $2,194, or 4'89 per cent, on their purchase ; $1,434 were invested in the retir- 
 ing fund; $43 were applied to the renewal of material, and $1,268 divided among 
 retiring members. 
 
 The report, ot the departmental committee of the Ehone, attributes the success 
 of this association to the fact that since its foundation, its council of administration 
 has always been the same. 
 
 PEOYISION SOCIETY OP THE WOEKMEIT IN FOEGES AND STEEL-WOEKS 
 OP TEITH-SAINT-LBGEE (NOETH). 
 
 General characteristics. 
 
 Origin and Formation. — The Provision Society of the workmen in the forges 
 and steelworks of TrithSaint-Leger was founded on the 13th of May, 1884, by the 
 staff of workmen in the factories of the forges and steel -works of the north and east. 
 
 Object and Form of the Society. — The object of the society is the purchase and 
 production, under the best conditions of price and quality, and the taking on con- 
 signment of articles, provisions, mateiials and objects for consumption, to be sold 
 again to its shareholders, to the other employees and workmen directly employed 
 by the anonymous society of forges and steel-works of the north and east, to their 
 families considered as co-operatives from the time they begin to make use of the 
 business store, in order to allow of their sharing in the profits resulting from its 
 transactions. This profit-sharing can in no way be extended to the public who are 
 allowed to purchase provisions in the said store. (Art. 2 of the statutes.) 
 
 The society so far, has purchased only the following articles : 
 
 Groceries, wines, brandy, gin, butter, eggs, cheese, potatoes, pork, bacon, dry 
 goods, linens and manufactured goods, caps, glassware and crockery, wooden shoes 
 and bridles, clogs, flour; for it has obtained, from difi'erent manufacturers and 
 dealers, consignments, for all the counters in their store, of all the goods in wool and 
 cotton necessary for its sales, caps, boots and shoes, household articles, ironware and 
 stoves, &c. 
 
 It manufactures bread. 
 
 It makes up shirts, blouses, jackets, trowsers, &c. 
 
 It manufactures nearly all the knitted goods required by its customers. 
 
 Capital.— Tl)iQ Society was formed with a capital of $2,000, divided into 200 
 shares of $10 each. The capital at the present time is $4,000, divided into 400 
 shares. The shares are limited to two in number for each shareholder. The manner 
 of liberating the shares is left to the taker, they may be paid in one payment, or by 
 sums of $0.40 or $1 every fortnight on account, or by assessments on the profits 
 accruing to the co-operators, at the end of the half year, from the purchases made. 
 
 Number and Position of the Members. — ^The 400 shares forming the capital are 
 in the hands of twenty-four employees, thirty foremen and overseers and of 280 
 workmen. Eight of admittance is given by the council of administration. None 
 
293 
 
 can be admitted if he has not belonged foi- three months, at least, to the staff 
 employed in the factories of the Society of forges and steelworks. 
 
 Direction of the Society. — The affairs of the Society are managed by a council 
 composed of six members elected for three years. The president of the council is 
 the agent of the Society. Three commissioners elected for one year are charged with 
 the control and superintendence. The managers and the commissioners are re-eligible 
 at the expiration of their term. 
 
 The services of the managers are remunerated by a ticket of attendance good 
 for $0.50, and by a grant of 5 per cent, in the division of net profits. The council 
 meets every Sunday at the headqua,rters of the Society. They have made over one- 
 half the amount, granted them by the statutes, to the societies that are connected 
 with the provision society. The commissioners meet as often as the interests of the 
 Society require, und particulary at the time of the inventory. Each of the com- 
 missioners is allowed $4 per six months. 
 
 Situation of the Society. — The stores and the dependencies belonging to them 
 occupy property belonging to the Society of the Forges and Steelworkers of the 
 North and East. The building is erected on 11,000 square feet, representing 
 $8,000.00 ; it is leased at $190.00 per year, for thirty consecutive years. It consists 
 of one large building, in which are the stores, a salesroom and the dwelling of the 
 directress ; a bakery, the stables and sheds for 4 horses and 5 vehicles. 
 
 Bakery. — The bakery occupies a room 2,200 square feet in size. It contains all 
 the latest improvements. It uses a steam engine of 4rhorse power, a boiler, a cylin- 
 drical rotatory kneader, two ovens. This machinery cost $2,000.00, and by its means 
 the bakery can produce 5,000 to 6,500 lbs. of bread in twenty-four hours. 
 
 Working Staff. — The clerks in the stores are young gii'ls, daughtei-s of share- 
 holders, employees, foremen and workmen in the factory. The general expenses are 
 by this means much I'educed, and the stores attended with great caj-e and security. 
 In the bakery alone men are employed, who are taken from families not connected 
 with the factories. 
 
 This staff is paid by monthly amounts proportioned to the person's ability and 
 use, and by 5 per cent, on the net profits, given as a gratuity or reward. 
 
 The amounts thus paid out from 1st July, 1884, to Slst December, 188*7, amounted 
 to $8,400.00. 
 
 The Society's Transactions — Purchases. — The stock in the stores consists of goods 
 which are purchased only when they cannot be procured on consignment. The 
 goods bought at the opening of the store cost $2,430.00 ; goods consigned were 
 valued at $3,114.00. The goods bought have always been paid by the receipts from 
 sales made between time of delivery and the expiration of time on the bills of sale, 
 without touching the capital of the Society. G-oods on consignment have always 
 been paid, without touching the capital, at the end of every menth, according as 
 sales are made. 
 
 Sales. — The Society pays a license, and can sell to any one. It has three different 
 methods of sale : 1st, for cash; 2nd, at a fortnight's credit, with right to detain 
 amount due at factory; 3rd, at a month's credit, to be paid at the store. Whatever 
 may be the manner in which they are effected, the sales are immediately entered in 
 two books, one of which is returned to the buyer and the other remains in the store 
 for the control and keeping of the books. Credit sales are tolerated only within the 
 limit of the wages the purchaser receives at the factory, and which may be detained 
 at the bank. 
 
 All goods, according to their quality, are sold at the same prices as in the stores 
 at Yalenciennes,* which have the reputation of selling cheaply. 
 
 The total amount of sales from 1st July, 1884, to Slst December, 1887, amounted 
 to $196,197.00. 
 
 The number of customers to 31st December, 1887, was 944. 
 
 Its average half-yearly sales per customer were $51.80. 
 
 The store is open every day from seven o'clock in the morning to seven at night 
 on week days, and from eight o'clock to noon on Sundays and holidays. 
 
 * A town of about 27,000 inhabitants, situated about SJ miles from Trith-Saint-Leger. 
 
294 
 
 The sales vary from $200 to $800 per day. The average sales are $300 per day. 
 Material Besults from Sales.— The results from Ist July, 1884, to Slst Deoeml5er, 
 1881, given as an average : 
 
 Eough profits 14"58 per cent, on amount of sales. 
 
 General expenses 3'06 do 
 
 ITet profits ll'SS do 
 
 The net profits divided among the co-operators represent 8 per cent, of their 
 purchases or $13,780.55. The division is given in goods every half year. Customers 
 from outside do not share in the profits. 
 
 The immediate consequences of the formation of the Society and the opening of 
 its stores have, therefore, been to promote order and economy. Being now freed 
 from dependence on retail dealei'S, who charged them the highest prices by their 
 manner of proceeding, the customers' have, by means of the limited credit allowed 
 in the store, been enabled to meet all demands, even in the worst of the crisis which 
 now weighs upon labor, and moreover to effect considerable savings. 
 
 Condition of the Society on Slst December, 1887. 
 
 CapitaJ paid $3,150.90 
 
 Business reserve 1,313 . 75 
 
 Divers 2,750.75 
 
 Aid fund 1,750.70 
 
 $8,966.10 
 
 DISTINCTIVE FEATURES. 
 
 The Provision Society of Workmen in the Forges and Steel works of Frith-Saint- 
 Leger is notable for : 
 
 Stocking its stores by goods on consignment ; 
 
 By the situation of the store, which permits the sale of $800 worth of goods per 
 day; 
 
 By amount of sales effected, which now exceed $100,000 per year, realized with- 
 out drawing on the minimum capital of $4,000 ; 
 
 By the organization of service in its salesroom, by means of young girls who 
 never studied commerce, and who are taken from among the families of the share- 
 holders and co-operators, who are benefited by the $2,000 paid yearly to the staff in 
 wages and graiuiiies ; 
 
 By the good results afforded in every way by the staff thus organized ; 
 
 By the extremely low rate of its general expenses which barely reach 3 per cent, 
 on the total amount of sales ; 
 
 By production in ready-made linen, underwear and clothing of all kinds, in 
 millinery, knitted goods, &c., by which it is enabled to pay $800 per year for work 
 to the families of its co-operators ; 
 
 By the check it is to the lavish expenditure of persons given to extravagance, and 
 by the care with which it gives every one the opportunity of living within their 
 means and without getting into debt ; 
 
 By the establishment of a savings bank to enable its members to save money ; 
 
 By the organization of an aid fund which affords assistance to sick or wounded 
 members and their families ; 
 
 By the moral and material assistance it gives its members on all occasions by 
 means of advice and encouragement, to other societies connected with it by subsidies 
 given on occasions of competitive examinations, feasts, &c. 
 
295 
 
 CO-OPEEATIVB PEOVISION SOCIETY, SO-CALLED, OF THE MINEES 
 
 OP Auzm, 
 
 UNDER THE BUSINESS NAME OP LfiON LEMAIRE AND OOMPANT. 
 
 Auzin (North). 
 
 The Co-operative Provision Society, so-called, with variable capital, of the Miners 
 of Auzin, and whose headquarters are at Auzin, is one of the iSrst of this kind of society 
 establisned in France. 
 
 It was founded in 1865 and is now 24 years in existence. Its object is the pur- 
 chase of goods and provisions for consumption, to sell and deliver them to its members 
 in its stores, in order so far as possible by the suppression of intermediaries, to place 
 the consumer in direct communication with the producer. 
 
 Consequently, it buys goods for the common profit of all its members, and it 
 sells to them exclusively. 
 
 The profits realized on its retail sales are, for the most part, divided among the 
 purchasei-s (1). 
 
 The members of the Society aj-e exclusively enjployees and workmen in the 
 Mining Company of Auzin, and its rule is, as far as possible, to assure itself that those 
 admitted as shareholders are not indebted to any of the merchants or dealers in the 
 neighborhood. If such shojild be the case their admission is delayed until their debts 
 have been paid. 
 
 The Society began in a very small way. The founder members numbered 51. 
 At first one store alone was established, which during the first month of its existence 
 was opened but four days in the week. 
 
 The Society now numbers 3,118 members, and its good soccupy and are sold in 
 fifteen stores opened successively in 14 localities. 
 
 The results of the Society's transactions, since its foundation, to February last 
 (1889) are as follows :- - 
 
 ' Total amount of sales, $7,773,000.. 
 
 And the total of dividends $917,111, divided among its purchasers members, 
 representing 11-80 per cent, on amount from sales. 
 
 It may be admitted that the success obtained was far beyond all expectations, 
 and the future seems to promise even more than the past has given. 
 
 BESSilGB COAL MINE COMPANY. 
 
 STORE BELONGING TO THE WORKMEN OF MOLlljRES. 
 
 {Extract from the notice published by the Company.) 
 
 Besides the aid and provident societies, certain mining companies have estab- 
 lished provision stores, from necessity, in some cases, such as in localities removed 
 from supply centres, in others with a view to providing their workmen with pro- 
 visions at the cheapest possible rates. 
 
 These stores, so generally cried down, have frequently been the cause of much 
 embarrassment to the directors of societies, for the working population of miners 
 are always easily persuaded, by the dealers around, that the Company's stores are 
 intended to fleece them : insinuations of this kind are invariably followed by excite- 
 ment, and as a consequence by strikes which often lead to tragic results. And what- 
 
 (1.) According to the statutes, the profits are to be divided into 100 parts, and divided as follovifs : 
 
 Seventy parts to be divided among the members in proportion to the sales and deliveries made to each. 
 
 Twenty parts to the reserve fund, ten parts to the committee of control, to be employed by it, in the 
 greater part, and in the proportions to be determined by it, for the remuneration of the agent and em- 
 ployees. 
 
 But the amount reserved, having in a few years, formed a reserved fund deemed sufficient, it was sus- 
 pended after the first half year of 1872. 
 
 The twenty parts then put aside were added to the seventy parts allotted purchasers, members. 
 
296 
 
 ever help may be given workmen by means of the concurrence and the credit of 
 companies in such matters, we still find the latter very ill disposed to the establish- 
 ment of new stores of the kind. 
 
 The provision stores of the Best^^ges company date back to 1852. 
 
 There are stores established for the workmen, the company desiring to draw 
 no profit ft'om them. They afford the workmen all the advantages of a co-operative 
 provision society, without exposing to any risk or outlay. Nevertheless, these stores 
 were subjected to the usual assault, and one among them, that of Bess^ges, a town 
 abundantly furnished with dealers, has been suppressed since ISYO, on demand of the 
 workmen under evil influence. The only one remaining is that of Moli^re, which 
 still exists on account of the insufflcient means of procuring provisions in the locality. 
 The following notice was published in January of 1889 : 
 
 Notice to the workmen of the Molieres division. 
 
 The Coal Company of Bess^ges reminds the workmen of the Molieres division 
 that the provision store styled : " Workingmen'e Store," is for the exclusive benefit 
 of the workmen employed by the Company, the customers of the store. 
 
 Entire liberty is given the workmen to purchase at the store or elsewhere. 
 
 They may buy for cash or on credit. 
 
 The public can buy for cash alone. 
 
 The customers, workmen or employees, belonging to the company purchasing 
 for cash or on credit, are provided by the store with an account book in which their 
 purchases are entered day by day. 
 
 The Company retains no amount for the store, nor does it retain any amount for 
 other dealei's. 
 
 Customers buying on credit pay during month (before the 25th) their account 
 for the preceding month. If this amount is not paid without delay, or if they do 
 not prove satisfactorily that it is impossible, for the moment only, for them to do 
 so, they are refused credit until the debt is paid. 
 
 The profits, which are considered free by the company, are divided yearly 
 among the purchasers in proportion to the amounts entered in their books, exactly 
 the same as is done in co-operative societies. 
 
 The Company has decided, after January, 1889, to add to the management of the 
 store, a committee of superintendence, composed of twelve workmen — customers — 
 whose duties it will be to control the sei-vice in the store, to superintend the accounts, 
 examine the excuses offered by creditors, and to decide whether they are to be given 
 further credit or not, and, finally, to take every means to ensure the returns, and to 
 limit the losses. 
 
 The committee of superintendence will be appointed by election, and renewed 
 every year after distribution of the profits from the inventory of the preceding 
 year. 
 
 All customers holding a book on the store have a right to vote. 
 
 Only such as have no overdue accounts in the store, can be elected or remain 
 members of the committee. 
 
 The committee will meet every month to decide uj)on matters submitted by 
 the direction of the store. 
 
 The decisions will be given by secret ballot. 
 
 A ticket of attendance, good for $1.00 per session, will be given, by the store, to 
 each member of the committee. 
 
 Consequently, elections of the committee of superintendence for the workmen's 
 store will take place on 3rd February, 1889. 
 
 The book of the store will serve as the list of electors. 
 
 The vote will be by ballot, that is to say, each bulletin will bear 12 names. 
 
 The members of the committee will be elected by the first vote, by majority of 
 votes, whatever may be the number of voters and of votes given. 
 
297 
 
 The head of the Moli^res store is charged with the duty of making out the 
 electoral lists, and of settling the situation of the polls with the electors in the usual 
 way. 
 
 There were 731 customers inscribed for the elections of the 3rd of February, 
 1889. 
 
 Whether through indifference or bad will, there were but 160 voters. 
 
 Twelve councillors were named by 80 to 83 votes. The relative majority had to 
 suflSce. 
 
 It is to be hoped that in the future, when the workmen thoroughly understand 
 the duties of the committee of superintendence, they will show more regard for their 
 own interests. However that may be, the following is a statement of the business 
 results in 1888 :— 
 
 Total number of sales $59,343 70 
 
 Net profits during the year .*. 5,154 87 
 
 Sales sharing in the division of profits 56,951 97 
 
 Profits divided 4,556 16 
 
 About 8 per cent, on sales 578 92 
 
 Iiosses during the year : — 
 
 About 0'975 per cent, on sales. 
 
 Number of profit-sharing customers 782 
 
 Number of customers paying regularly for their 
 
 goods 648 
 
 Number of customers in ai-rears (1) 134 
 
 Yaluesof arrears 3,000 00 
 
 (1) Of 134 customers in arrears, 75 paid regularly for their purchases in 1888. 
 
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299 
 
 SITUATION" OP THE SOCIETIES PEOM 1861 TO 1887. 
 
 
 
 Societies 
 giving 
 
 a 
 report. 
 
 Members. 
 
 Capital 
 Shares. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 Sales. 
 
 Profits. 
 
 1861 
 
 ' 
 
 48,184 
 91,502 
 108,588 
 129,429 
 148,586 
 174,993 
 171,897 
 208,738 
 220,000 
 249,113 
 262,188 
 300,931 
 387,701 
 411,252 
 479,284 
 507,857 
 528,582 
 560,703 
 573,084 
 904,063 
 642,783 
 654,038 
 681,691 
 849,615 
 803,747 
 835,200 
 945,619 
 
 £ 
 
 333,290 
 310,731 
 573,582 
 684,182 
 819,367 
 1,046,310 
 1,475,199 
 2,027,776 
 2,000,000 
 2,034,261 
 2,305,951 
 2,785,777 
 3,512,962 
 3,903,608 
 4,700,990 
 5,304,019 
 5,487,959 
 5,730,218 
 5,747,841 
 6,232,093 
 6,937,284 
 7,289,359 
 7,500,835 
 8,205,073 
 8,799,753 
 9,297,506 
 10,012,048 
 
 £ 
 
 54; 452' 
 
 73,543 
 
 89,122 
 
 107,263 
 
 118,023 
 
 136,734 
 
 184,163 
 
 190,000 
 
 197,128 
 
 215,553 
 
 344,509 
 
 497,750 
 
 586,972 
 
 844,620 
 
 919,762 
 
 1,073,265 
 
 872,686 
 
 1,495,243 
 
 1,341,290 
 
 1,483,583 
 
 1,463,959 
 
 1,538,544 
 
 1,717,050 
 
 1,827,109 
 
 1,999,658 
 
 2,134,890 
 
 £ 
 
 1,512,117 
 
 2,349,055 
 
 2,626,741 
 
 2,836,606 
 
 3,373,847 
 
 4,462,676 
 
 6,001,153 
 
 8,113,072 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 8,202,466 
 
 9,437,471 
 
 11,388,590 
 
 15,662,453 
 
 16,358,278 
 
 16,088,077 
 
 19,909,099 
 
 21,374,013 
 
 21,128,316 
 
 20,365,602 
 
 23,248,314 
 
 24,926,005 
 
 26,573,551 
 
 28,089,310 
 
 29,295,227 
 
 29,882,679 
 
 31,253,757 
 
 34,189,715 
 
 £ 
 
 1862 
 
 450 
 
 460 
 
 505 
 
 867 
 
 915 
 
 1052 
 
 1242 
 
 1300 
 
 1375 
 
 746 
 
 748 
 
 980 
 
 1026 
 
 1163 
 
 1165 
 
 1144 
 
 1181 
 
 1169 
 
 1183 
 
 1230 
 
 1145 
 
 1165 
 
 1264 
 
 1288 
 
 1296 
 
 1432 
 
 166,302 
 213,623 
 224,460 
 279,226 
 372,307 
 398,578 
 425 542 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1865.. .. 
 
 1866 
 
 1867 . 
 
 1868 
 
 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 500,000 
 555,435 
 670,721 
 807 748 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 1,119.023 
 1,226,010 
 1,425,267 
 1,741,238 
 1,900,161 
 1,817,943 
 1,949,514 
 1,579,873 
 1,979,576 
 2,106,958 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 
 1883 
 
 2,324,031 
 2,658,646 
 2,883,761 
 
 
 1885 
 
 
 1,966,343 
 
 1887 
 
 3,193,178 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 426,748,790 
 
 35,490,464 
 
 The reports sent to the congress of co-operative societies in 1888 for the first 
 time of its occurrence, contained the number of societies selling on credit. These 
 statistics astonished the co-operators, and gave rise to resolutions tending to suppress 
 all credit. 
 
 REPORT BT SECTION OP SOCIETIES SELLING ON CREDIT. 
 
 Number Percentage of Societies. 
 
 Sections. of Societies Selling Selling 
 
 giving a Report. for Cash. on Credit. 
 
 Midland 190 53-78 46-22 
 
 liTorthei-n 120 46-04 53-96 
 
 jSTorth-Western 510 29-02 70-98 
 
 Scottish 300 33-33 66-67 
 
 Southern 167 56-88 43-12 
 
 Western 52 4039 59-61 
 
 The most important question discussed by the members of the 20th Annual 
 Congress of Co-opei'ative Associations, held at De-wesbury in 1888, was that concern- 
 ing the relations to be established between wholesale co-operative societies, and co- 
 operative societies for production. Opinion was very much divided. Some speakers 
 were in favor of the theory of " leave-it-alone," that is to say, to establish no relations 
 between the two branches of co-operation, but business ones based on the principle 
 of supply and demand. 
 
 Others decided in favor of union, that is, the creation and maintenance of pro- 
 ductive co-operative societies, by and with the assistance of the capital of provision 
 co-operative societies. Another question grafted itself on the first : that of the 
 division of profits. 
 
 *No report having been given for 1869, these figures are approximate. 
 
300 
 
 A number of co-operators did not wish to give the workmen any share in the 
 profits realized on the goods they had manufactured ; they demanded that workmen 
 should have no share in the division, except by belonging to the mass of co-operators. 
 To show what the results of such a theory, put into practice, would be for the work- 
 man, it is suflSicient to quote the following passage from the speech addressed to the 
 Congress by Mr. Gr. Y. Holyoake.* 
 
 " There should be an equitable division of profits among the workmen. 
 
 " In 1886 the workmen of the wholesale shoe works at Leicester were 990 in 
 number. The profits realized amounted to £9,500, a sum which would have added 
 £9. 10s. to the workmen's wages. Wow, who got the profits that the workman earned ? 
 They were taken by 970 stores. What did they do with it ? They gave it to 
 650,000 members of co-operative societies. How much did each of these members 
 get? You heard Mr. Copland say, yesterday, that the amount coming to each 
 member was one farthing and a-half; thus you have 650,000 co-operators, honesty in 
 their hearts, and on their faces, who for the miserable sum of one farthing and arhalf, 
 consent to take from 990 comrades the £9. 10s. they had honestly earned by their 
 labor." 
 
 Mr. B. Vansittart ITeale, in his inaugural address, mentioning the difPerent 
 subjects for debate that were to come before the Congress, rose forcibly against the 
 theory of " leave-it-alone," and claimed for the workmen the right to a share in the 
 profits of the work.* 
 
 Before separating the members of the Congress voted the following resolution : — 
 
 Ist. That the Congress recommends that an alliance formed on an equitable 
 basis for the division of profits and loss, between labor and capital, and the consumer, 
 be made with societies of production, whether they be established by wholesale or 
 retail societies (co-operative) or by labor organizations. 
 
 2nd. That the Congress invites the wholesale co-operative societies of England 
 and Scotland, and I'etail societies manufacturing for themselves, to adopt the funda- 
 mental principle enunciated above in the direction of their works, and to assist the 
 Central OflSce by their advice and suggestions in order to perfect the system. 
 
 CO-OPEEATIYB SOCIETIES FOE PEOVISIONS, 1st JANUAEY, 1888. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Eight hundred societies containing from 350,000 to 400,000 members. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Eighty-two societies, having 34,948 members. Of this number sixty-seven had 
 together $175,710 subscribed capital and $415,665 paid. Fifty-five of these societies 
 had realized during the year $25,965 profits. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Report From the Society of Sociology in America. 
 
 State of Maine 18 
 
 New Hampshire 6 
 
 Vermont 1 
 
 Massachusetts 35 
 
 Ehode Island 2 
 
 Connecticut 5 
 
 Wew York 6 
 
 New Jersey 12 
 
 Pennsylvania 5 
 
 Illinois 
 
 6 
 
 Ohio 
 
 18 
 
 Michigan 
 
 1 
 
 Iowa 
 
 2 
 
 Missouri 
 
 1 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 7 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 8 
 
 Texas 
 
 155 
 
 Utah 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 290 
 
 *The 20th Annual Co-operative Congress. Page 90. 
 
 * do do Pages 4 to 11. 
 
301 
 
 SWISS CO-OPEEATIVB SOCIETY, GENEVA. 
 
 This society sells to the public ; its shareholders, however, alone share in the 
 profits. 
 
 The capital is variable. 
 
 It is formed of ordinary shares and of preferential shares. The ordinary shares 
 are unlimited as to number, they are |2.00 each, no member can own more than one. 
 
 The members are allowed one year, in which to pay their share, and their 
 contribution to the reserve fund. 
 
 The preferential shares are nominative and $4.00 per share. They are 2,000 in 
 number. They are privileged, above the ordinary share, in the division of the annual 
 net profits, as far as a dividend not exceeding five per cent, of their value, and in the 
 reimbursement of capital in case of liquidation. 
 
 They can only be subscribed for, and owned by members, but without limit as 
 to number. 
 
 Five per cent, is first assessed on the net profits to serve as interest. 
 
 Then 90 per cent, of the amount remaining, is divided among the purchasers 
 members, in proportion to the amount of their purchases, and 10 per cent, to the 
 employees as a share in the profits. 
 
 The following are the transactions of the society in 1869, the date of its foundar 
 tion, and in 1889 (March 31) :— 
 
 1859. 1889. 
 
 Number of members 430 2.485 
 
 Amountof sales $8,356 $153,020 
 
 Net profits realized Y32 22,202 
 
 Eeserve fund 131 4,846 
 
 Dividend on member's purchabers 5f p.c. 13p.c. 
 
 PHIIAJSTTHEOPIC CO-OPEEATIYE SOCIETY OE SAINT-EEMY-SUErAVEE. 
 
 (Eure and Loire.) 
 
 FOUNDED IN 18Y2. 
 
 The business fixed at $600, may be increased. It is formed by subscriptions, 
 the lowest amount allowed being $4, and the highest $100. Th^ sales are only made 
 to members who have paid the minimum subscription. 
 
 Members may pay their subscription by instalments, which cannot be less than 
 $0.60. 
 
 Capital bears interest at 5 per cent; after the interest is paid, the balance of 
 profits is divided among the members in proportion to the value of the provisions 
 bought by them, during the year. 
 
 The society began operations in 1872 with 160 members and $1,088.20 as capital. 
 
 In 1888 its balance-sheet showed the following : — 
 
 ^embers 1,790 Sales.. $132,465^ ^ ^9^ ^^, g,^ 
 
 ^T^^^ •■■■■ «f '062 Interests 2,991 1 ^^ ^^ 400 for wear 
 
 Total assets^. ... 98,482 Eeserve ^I'lV^Joi movkUes. 
 
 Profits divided among consumers l/,59.i J 
 
 In 1888 the general expenses amounted to $8,215, of which $5,260 were for the 
 salaries of the staff. 
 
 The manager's salary is fixed, and he is given an interest in the profits. 
 
SECTionsr x. 
 
 CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 MUTUAL AND POPULAE CREDIT SOCIETY. 
 
 ANONYMOUS SOCIETY WITH VARIABLE CAPITAL (PARIS.) 
 
 Savings Deposits with Decennial Premium. 
 
 Art. 1. The Mutual and Popular Credit Society receives deposits which share 
 in decennial premium. 
 
 Art. 2. The amount of deposit cannot be less than $2 and is reimbursable only 
 at the time the premium is given. 
 
 Art. 3. A special receipt is given for each deposit, on which is stated the time 
 of its reimbursement. ^ 
 
 Art. 4. The deposits jcceive interest at 4 per cent, which dates from the 1st or 
 the 16th of each month after the deposit is made. 
 
 Art. 5. The interest on the deposits is paid to the depositors during the first 
 two weeks in July. Any interest not claimed during the fortnight, if it amounts to 
 $2 or a multiple of $2, is capitalized and bears interest. 
 
 Art. 6. Any depositor wishing to withdraw all. or part of his deposit during the 
 decennial period, should make his demand in writing, to the director of the Mutual 
 and Popular Credit.. 
 
 Art. 7. The withdrawal is authorized for three months only, and twice only 
 during the year. The amount reimbursed is given as a free loan. The depositor 
 signs a note to order of the Mutual and Popular Credit. If, when the bill becomes due, 
 it^is not paid, the depositor loses all right to the premium. The council is at liberty 
 to make him pay the bill and to refuse to accept any further deposit from him during 
 the decennial period. 
 
 Art. 8. Nine months before the distribution of the decennial premium no fur- 
 ther deposits, sharing in thatpremium, will be received, but a new period of ten years 
 will be begun to receive deposits sharing in the premium for that time. 
 
 Art. 9. Any deposit not claimed during the month following the distribution of 
 the premium, will be entered at the office among the deposits for the new period, but 
 this only refers to sums of $2 or multiples of $2. 
 
 Art. 10. The decennial premium is formed by the tenth part, at least, of the 
 reserve fund extraordinary of the Mutual and Popular Credit. 
 
 It is divided into ten equal parts corresponding to the ten years of the period. 
 
 The part for each year is divided among the deposits made during the first nine 
 months of the year and those of the preceding years. 
 
 The division of each share is made among the different depositors, according to 
 the individual amount of each. 
 
 ENCOURAGEMENT OFFERED DEPOSITS OF SMALL SAVINGS — REGULATIONS. 
 
 I. — Depositors. 
 
 Ai't. 1. Shareholders of the Mutual and Popular Credit Society alone, are allowed 
 to make deposits in the Society's Bank. 
 
 But any shareholder may deposit money to the account of persons placed under 
 his direction, without it being necessary for such persons to become shareholders. For 
 instance a father or a mother may deposit sums to the account of their children, 
 masters for their servants, masters for their workmen, directors of institutions for 
 the members of such institutions. 
 
 20—20 
 
306 
 
 //. — Payments. 
 
 Art. 2. Each deposit of small savings must amount tcf at least $0.02. The entire 
 amount of deposit during One week must not be more than $2.00. 
 
 Art. 3. The credit in a book of small savings must in no case amount to more 
 than $40.00. If a depositor having this amount credited in his book wishes to con- 
 tinue his saving by cents, he must have all or a part of his credit transferred to 
 another account. He is at liberty to choose between deposits on current account, 
 bans with a fixed date, savings deposits with decennial premium, or the purchase of 
 values on exchange, &c. 
 
 Art. 4. Bach depositor receives a book in which are entered all the transactions 
 relating to the savings account. 
 
 The price of the book is entered to the debit of the depositor whose property it 
 becomes. 
 
 Art. 5. The Mutual and Popular Credit refuses all responsibility consequent on 
 loss of the book, without the depositor makes known his loss at its occurrence. 
 
 III. — Interest. 
 
 Art. 6. 6 per cent, interest is paid on all deposits of not less than $0.20. 
 
 Art. 7. Interest is calculated every fortnight. It begins the 1st and the Ifith of 
 the month following the date of the payment and continues to the Ist or the 16th of 
 the day preceding the reimbursement. 
 
 Art. 8. Interest is paid depositors once a year after the 30th June. All unclaimed 
 interest is added to the capital and itself bears interest, dating from the first fortnight 
 of July. 
 
 I V. — Premiums on Small Savings. 
 
 Art. 9, Bach year after the approval of the accounts of the precoeding year, the 
 Council of the Mutual and Popular Credit Society subtracts from the profits, the 
 amounts necessary to the distribution of premiums, in the shape of tickets of atten- 
 dance, to be given depositors of small savings who have deserved them. 
 
 Art. 10. To deserve the premium it is necessary: 
 
 1st. To have made at least three deposits of $0.02, or one payment of $0.10 per 
 week, or else one payment of at least $0.40 per fortnight, or $1.00 per month. 
 
 2nd. To have withdrawn no amount during the year, which would reduce the 
 credit in the book, to less than the total formed by payment of the minimum exacted 
 weekly, fortnightly, or monthly. 
 
 3rd. I'^inally, it is necessary to be present at the General Assembly convoked for 
 the distribution of the premiums. 
 
 Art. 11. The notice of convocation to the Assembly for the distribution of 
 premiums fixes the value of the attendance ticket. During the session of the General 
 Assembly the value of the ticket is entered in each depositor's book. Consequently, 
 each depositor must hand in his book on entering, and receive it back before leaving. 
 
 V.^Beimbursevient. 
 
 Art. 12. Any depositor wishing to withdraw all, or a part, of his deposit exceed- 
 ing $5.00 in amount, must make his demand in writing to the director of the Mutual 
 and Popular Credit, being careful to enclose his address and the number of his book. 
 
 Art. 13. He may be reimbursed one or more times by simple presentation of his 
 book, and proof of his identity to the amount of $5.00 per week. 
 
 Art. 14. Reimbursement may be made to the shareholder who has made deposits 
 for other persons in his charge. In which case the shareholder must present his 
 own collective book, and the book of each depositor who has desired to withdraw his 
 amount. 
 
307 
 
 MUTUAL AND POPULAR CUEDIT. * 
 
 Mutual esteem, confidence, and devotion 
 are the soul of societies. 
 
 L. DK B 
 
 let. What is the Mutual and Popular Credit ? 
 
 It is a society of pei-sons who, in order to have the right to do each other mutual 
 service, legally band themselves together by subscribing to at least one share of $10. 
 
 As it is permitted on subscribing to pay but one-tenth part, with the addition 
 of $1.00 entrance fee, $2.00 in all, the Society is open to persons in the poorest cir- 
 cumstances. It is therefore truly popular. 
 
 Besides, the shares are never to bearer, and can be given only to honorable 
 persons, received by the Council of Management. In case of decease, the share- 
 holder's heir inherits only the value of the share, and has a right to the payment of 
 its value only, unless he is admitted into the Society. 
 
 Finally, the law allows the General Assembly to expel any shareholder who has 
 put himself in a position to warj-ant his exclusion. 
 
 Thus, although the Mutual and Popular Ciedit is of a financial character, it is 
 in ti-uth a society of persons as well as of capital. 
 
 2nd. What is the object of the Association ? 
 
 It is to bind together in harmony those persons who love justice, by giving 
 them an opportunity to escape being victims of their own ignorance or of their own 
 weakness, and by allowing them to mutually assist each in order to ensure prosperity 
 in their affairs. 
 
 3rd. Is it possible to attain such an object f 
 
 "What is impossible to one unassisted person may be done by association. 
 
 A man travelling through a forest infested with robbers would have but a poor 
 chance to escape from them were he alone ; but accompanied by a number of other 
 persons he is no longer in dangei'. In the same way an honest man doing business 
 alone in a large city with persons strangers to him risks being fleeced by them. But 
 by joining a society having many means of imformation at their command, he may 
 easily defend himself against such a danger. 
 
 4th. By what means does the Mutual and Popular Credit protect its members' 
 interests f 
 
 By mutual assistance. First of all, all its credit transactions are done with mem- 
 bers only. Secondly the members are in a position to understand and to bind among 
 themselves the relations of the business; nOw, 1st, the moral qualities, oi the share- 
 holders ; 2nd, their number; 3rd, the variety of their prof essions ; ith ; the information they 
 can furnish for the common profit, all these afford exceptional advantages of which 
 each member may profit. 
 
 1st. Qualities of the Shareholders. — None can be admitted to, nor remain in the 
 society but such as are of undoubted respectability. 
 
 2nd. Their number. — ^They are allowed by law to receive 4,000 shareholders 
 every year. 
 
 3rd. Variety of their professions. — The Mutual and Popular Credit is specially 
 open to merchants, and business men great and small. Trades of all kinds thus meet 
 in the Society in considerable numbers. It is, therefore, possible for shareholders to 
 find among their own number reliable dealers as well as honest customers who pay 
 
 well. 
 
 4th. Information. — Are useful on questions of discount and advance which are 
 the principal transactions of the Society. In order not to invoke the business capital 
 it is necessary to gather precise information concerning all persons both in and out 
 of the Society connected with these transactions. 
 
 Bach shareholder gives what information he can, and may, in his turn, obtain 
 any required information from the Society. Thus light and certainty is given on all 
 points. 
 
 * Explanatory note to the Jury. 
 20— 20^ 
 
308 
 
 5th. Credit being so dangeroue in its nature, does it not become immeasurably so 
 when it is desired to make it popular ? 
 
 It would be so, were it the intention of the Society tol end to workmen for their 
 daily expenses, Or to shiftless and incapable persons. ,But popular banks are not 
 benevolent institutions disguising charity under the name of a loan. 
 
 They are real banks that make loans to labor, to make it more productive. Before 
 making a loan caie is always taken to see that it will really produce the good results 
 expected, and to see how far it is prudent to help in bringing them about. In these 
 institutions, the solvency of the borrower is the more carefully examined that the 
 lender being himself in an humble position and possessed of much means, has few 
 guarantees to offer. 
 
 P"'or instance, the following is a rule among popular banks : No advance is made 
 a member unless he has paid up one share within one or more months. The reason 
 is to discover whether the borrower is of thrifty habits. For if he has not learned 
 to save his own money, it is to be feared he will not know how to save that of other 
 people. Another rule is : To only lend a member on his own signature double the 
 amount he has paid in deposit. And, moreover, he must be worthy of the favor. 
 Lai'ger amounts are only lent to members who has some one to become security for 
 him, who deposit deeds, or who have paper bearing known signatures discounted. 
 
 6th. Is not this security of popular credit Utopian ? 
 
 Innumerable instances given during the last thirty years by all the countries of 
 Europe that its mutual chai-acter gives to popular credit a security which is not 
 possessed by other credit institutions. We will cite but one example. 
 
 The popular Bank of Milan founded in 1867 by Luzzatti and his friends, with a 
 capital of $140, began operations with $6,400 subscribed by 300 members. It has 
 now 15,000 shareholders, $1,400,000 business capital, $100,000 reserve fund and 
 $10,000,000 deposit. It has discounted bills to the amount of $20,000,000 and more 
 during every year and for the last five years has taken but 4^ without commission. 
 It has destroyed usury which was killing the small commercial business of Milan. 
 Only one note on 400 went to protest and its losses scaicely reached lY cents on 
 $1,000 loaned. 
 
 7th. Does the Mutual and Popular Credit limit its transactions to advances and 
 discount ? 
 
 It receives coupons, bills of sales or effects confided to it by its shareholders. 
 
 It accepts deposits to meet checks, and gives a special rate of interest to deposits 
 of small savings. 
 
 It affords an opportunity to effect savings by means of discount on cash pay- 
 ments granted by dealers who are shareholders and who consent to it. 
 
 As it gradually spreads ti nd enlai'ges it will : 
 
 Do all kinds of banking business not foibidden by its statutes. 
 
 It will organize a free service foi' information and investment. 
 
 It will serve as a meeting place for its shareholders who may wish to form pro- 
 fessional associations or co-operative associations for provisions, for sale and pro- 
 duction. 
 
 Finally the funds in the workingman's bank spoken of in its statutes will be 
 used to the benefit of workingmen in all transactions or circumstances that may 
 ensure their real advantage. 
 
 8th. What are the obligations of shareholders ? 
 
 Their first obligation is to pay in fall at least one share of $10, before they can 
 take advantage of the services of the Society. 
 
 The second is to furnish any information in their power and for that purpose to 
 join the group of the locality. 
 
 9th. WMt do you mean by the group of the locality ? 
 
 I mean the neighboring shareholders who meet together at one another's 
 houses, at their convenience, to guard the interests of the Society. 
 
 10th. Hoiv can the groups be useful to one another ? 
 
 By trying to induce all the honest people in their vicinity to join the Society. 
 
 To drive away all persons likely to do injury to the Society. 
 
309 
 
 By assisting in the choice of delegates of the discount Council taken from among 
 the oldest shareholders of the quarter, whose duty it is to give informatioi} to the 
 managers on the value of signatures unknown to them. 
 
 By di-awing together as many persons as possible in the locality in sympathy 
 with the Society, in order to hold private conferences in the locality concerning the 
 Society itself and its transactions. 
 
 By securing the right to represent absent shareholders at the annual General 
 Assembly, and afterwards giving them information concei-ning the business done. 
 
 11th. Do the shares hear interest f 
 
 As neither founders, nor managers, nor commissioners, nor general secretary 
 receive the least remuneration, the general expenses are vei-y low. As often as they 
 happen to be less than the profits, a dividend is declared. It all depends upon the 
 increase in the business which is in proportion to the spread of the Society. In 
 foreign parts these societies of mutual credit, after the preliminary difficulties of 
 starting, distribute a dividend of from 7 to 12 per cent. 
 
 EEPOET 
 
 PBESENTED TO THE IOTH SECTION OF SOCIAL ECONOMY AT THE UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION 
 IN 1889, BY MONS. PIERRE LOUIS LUNEAU, POUNDER OP THE PROFESSIONAL SYN- 
 DICATE, AND OP THE MUTUAL CREDIT, THE " AVENIR DES COMPTABLES.* 
 
 I. GBISTBEAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 My object is to introduce in France the mutual credit system for all working 
 <!lasses and the organization they embrace. 
 
 I include under the name of workingmen every man who has to work for his 
 daily living, that is to say, who owns no capital. 
 
 These workingmen ai'e divided into two classes : 
 
 1st. Those who do physical work and are paid wages. 
 
 2nd. Those who work intellectually and are appointed. 
 
 These appointed persons do no physical work. 
 
 Those who are paid wages, on the contrary, do physical work, which, being 
 -visible, is easily valuated. 
 
 ^^^ Credit (commercially speaking) belongs only to those who are in possession of 
 a'material capital, that is a capital which has in itself an exchange value. 
 °1}Y Appointed persons have never been able to obtain c.edit on their woik, because 
 their work is not visibly a production that can be valuated. 
 
 Persons paid wages, on the contrary, to whom materials ai'e given to be wOrised 
 by them, are able to procure credit, because the exchange value of the material given 
 them to work upon is known, and it is on this valuation that the credit granted him 
 is calculated. 
 
 '. These considerations show that the organisation of credit granted to appointed 
 
 persons, is necessarily different from that granted salaried persons. 
 
 We have said that credit belongs to those who have capital (commercially speak- 
 ing) and, it is, therefore, necessary to secure this capital for workingmen in order 
 that they may obtain the required ci'edit. 
 
 Is it credible that human philantrophy will go to the length of consenting to 
 immobilize the considerable sums necessary to form such capital? Evidontly not. 
 "We then find ourselves confronted by the problem : 
 
 •" FORM YOURSELF YOUR INITIAL CAPITAL AND WHEN THAT IS ESTABLISHED CREDIT 
 
 WILL COME TO YOU." 
 
 We then come to the vital part of the matter, its application. All philosophers 
 .agree in declaring man to be a sociable being. Economists rely upon these philoso- 
 
 » Founded in 1884. 
 
310 
 
 phiual axioms to demonstrate certain commercial facts, and, examining the results 
 produced by this Hociability, they come to the conclusion that what best responds to- 
 this human want is the desire men have of forming associations among themselves. 
 Then, let individuals form associations among themselves, but how is it to be done? 
 
 Is it by binding together those possessed of capital with workers ? 
 
 That cannot be done, for in the end, as in the beginning, the workers would own 
 nothing ; they would only have accoraplihhed one thing : they would have worked 
 with capital not their own. They would certainly have found work which would 
 have assured them a sort of liberty, but they would still have remained dependent on 
 material capital. Now, such is certainly not the object aimed at in association. 
 
 I favor another idea. That is, I hold it as a principle that workmen should form 
 an a-!sociation with the determination of requiring nothing from anyone exceptthem- 
 selves, and to attain this it is an absolute necessity that they should all consider them- 
 selves equal. 
 
 In this way can be applied the formula : 
 
 '■ FORM YOURSELF YOUR OWN CAPITAL AND WHEN THAT IS ESTABLISHED CREDIT WILL 
 
 COME TO YOU." 
 
 Conseqaentljr any group or association of workmen must be constituted on prin- 
 ciples of mutual service, of absolute equality among the members, not only as to theii* 
 riifhts, but as to their duties to one another. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ITS APPLICATION. 
 
 1st Section — Persons in Appointments. 
 1st Phasis. 
 
 Formation of Mutual Credit Syndicates exclusively among persons in appoint- 
 ments in manufacturing and commercial centres. 
 
 Bach syndicate will have its own government and its own distinct direction. 
 
 These syndicates will take as a model the Avenir des Comptahles, a syndicate- 
 already formed in Paris. 
 
 Its transactions will consist of loan>', advances and discount to associates under 
 certain determined foims and conditions. 
 
 The capital, which must be ess-entially variable, from the changes to which the 
 funds of the syndicate must be subjected, will be formed by a subscription of equal 
 amount for all the members. These shares will be paid by means of monthly or 
 other subscriptions. 
 
 The capital will be reimbursable to heirs and to members under conditions to be- 
 settled among themselves. 
 
 To effect this, there can be no question of division of profits, as they must be- 
 employed as guarantee of the reimbursement of capital. 
 
 2nd Phasis. 
 Formation among Syndicates of a Syndical Union. 
 
 This union will be obliged to form a cooperative bank, with variable capital. 
 
 The capital of the Bank will be formed by payments made by the groups, con- 
 stituting subscriptions of shares, in proportion to the number of persons. 
 
 Once established, the Bank will transact all the business of the united syndicates ; 
 these latter will, in regard to the Bank, assume the position of business agents, and of 
 guarantees for the solvency of borrowing members. 
 
 The bank will not necessarily limit its transactions to members of the syndicates ;. 
 being commercially constituted, it will have a right to do commercial business. 
 
 It may, in consequence, do banking business for the groups formed by Section 
 No. 2, salaried persons. 
 
311 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. 
 
 _ From the time that the syndicates of persons in appointments, have paid their 
 capital to the Bank they will be given interest on the amount deposited, and will 
 make use of them in a manner to benefit the profession they represent — that is, by 
 the establishment of libraries, courses of instruction, &c. 
 
 2nd Section— Persons Beoeivinq Wages. 
 
 Preliminary Observations. 
 
 I suppose five groups containing twenty members each. 
 
 The members of each group are of the same trade, but the different groups may 
 represent different trades. 
 
 I suppose that each group requires $400 for the purchase of materials and tools 
 necessary to starting a productive association. If each group were reduced to rely 
 on themselves alone, and each member agreed to pay a subscription of $0.20 per 
 month until the sura of $20, for instance, was reached, it would take 100 months to 
 make up the $400. 
 
 Join their forces, on the contrary, and each group will, in five years, have $400 
 at its disposal, although having paid but $200. 
 
 So that by the principle of associating the funds of the groups we lend 5+400 ; 
 $2,000 in five years, with $1,200 paid monthly. 
 
 The calculations are easily made year by year. 
 
 I must explain that I take into account the interest on capital paid or boiTOwed. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Paid in subscriptions — 
 
 5x20x$2.40 
 
 $ 
 
 240 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 Salauce of disposable capital 
 
 120 
 
 Amount of capital paid during present year. 
 Reimbursement of balance of loan to first 
 
 240 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 The capital, paid is not sufficient to be 
 
 Reimbursement of loan to second group , . . 
 Amount of disposable capital 
 
 200 
 
 loaned. 
 
 760 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 240 
 240 
 
 Disposable balance 
 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 360 
 
 Capital paid during present year 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 Balance of disposable capital 
 
 
 Amount of capital disposable 
 
 480 
 400 
 
 360 
 
 
 Capital paid during present year 
 
 240 
 
 
 80 
 
 Reimbursement in fuU of second group 
 
 do of half of third group 
 
 Amount of disposable capital 
 
 200 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 80 
 240 
 
 200 
 
 1,000 
 
 Thtkd Year. 
 
 Loans made to fourth and fifth groups 
 
 800 
 
 
 200 
 
 Capital paid during the present year 
 
 Reunbursement of naif amount loaned first 
 group. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 520 
 400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !Ra.lance remaininff in bank 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 As we perceive, at the end of the 5th year, they possess the following: 
 Tools completely paid for by two groups. 
 
 One Group its tools half paid for ; and for the two others the $400 each required 
 for the purchase of tools. 
 
 And thus, by this calculation, I determine how the idea can be put into practise. 
 
312 
 
 PEACTIOAL WOEKING. 
 1st phasis. 
 Constitution of the Money Capital and the Purchase of Tools. 
 
 Formation of small bands (about 20 workmen) consisting of workmen of the 
 same trade. 
 
 The amount subscribed must always bo maintained, or else the Syndicate must 
 agree to pay the same sum of monthly subscription. 
 
 Each workman agrees to pay a monthly subscription of say, for instance, $0.20, 
 during a period of ten years. The immediate formation of a syndical union, to be 
 foi'med simultaneously with the bands or groups. The more expensive the tools are 
 the larger should be the groups composing the syndical union. 
 
 The syndical union is formed for the purpose ot giving the groups an opportunity 
 to purchase tools, in order that in the future they may found a productive association. 
 
 From this union there arises, besides the idea of mutual capitalization, that of 
 mutual credit. 
 
 Bach year the group to be benefitted is drawn by lot, unless an agreement is 
 made to the contrary. 
 
 The loan made to each group is to be paid in two years, and the capital is 
 expected to bear interest. 
 
 To meet this engagement the membei's of the group pay, beside their monthly 
 subscription, a supplementary one, calculated in proportion to the amount to be paid 
 back. 
 
 The members composing the group recognize their solidarity, and by this means 
 the entire group guarantee to the Syndical Union the payment of the sum loaned. 
 
 The capital is formed at the same time as each group becomes owner of its tools. 
 
 Observations 
 
 It may be answered that workingmen would find, this system of payment of 
 borrowed capital in two years' time, little in accordance with the amount of money 
 at tJieir disposal. The objection can be easily surmounted by a simple calculation. 
 
 I will suppose that a group of twenty membei'S has to pay $400 in two years 
 time. We find that each member has to pay $20, or $10 per year. It to this amount 
 is added the usual subscription, $2.40 per year, we find that each workman, during the 
 most critical period of the formation of capital, will have to pay $1-2.40 plus the 
 interest. 
 
 Grant the maximum of the monthly subscription to be $1.20 ; where is the 
 workman who, knowing that he is saving for himself, cannot contrive to put by this 
 sum every month ? It being noted, however, that the tools, which are bought on the 
 most advantageous terms, may help him to pay the greater part of this amount by 
 the extra work he is enabled to do. 
 
 In my own opinion, each group could pay for its tools in one year, without any 
 great effort, and, consequently, the five groups could pay for their tools in three years' 
 time. 
 
 2nd PHASIS. 
 
 Formation of Societies for Production. 
 When the membership of these gi-oups, formed into syndicates, is sufficiently 
 large, they limit their respective operations, and the capital is divided in equal shares 
 among the groups. 
 
 Following the instance just given, each group will receive $480, besides interest. 
 Each group will then form itself into a Society for Production, with a capital of 
 represented by : 
 
 Cash -. $480 
 
 Tools 400 
 
 Altogether $880 
 
318 
 
 Thenceforward each syndicate for capitalization, may do commercial busincHS, 
 and credit will be procurable by means of the cooperative bank previously established 
 by the group of persons in appointments. 
 
 For this purpose, or rather from that time, each association for production will 
 deposit its cash in the cooperative bank of the persons in appointments, where, in 
 «onsideration of the 1480 deposited they may open an account for |880, the material 
 and tools bought by the group, serving as security. 
 
 In order to effect this, the groups convert into shares of the cooperative bank a 
 part of their capital, equal in amount to the tools bought^^say, as in oar example, 
 $400. Thus will the question how is credit to be procured for workingmen, 
 be answered, and a practical application given to the formula : 
 
 " Form yourself your own capital, and when that is established, credit will come 
 to you." 
 
 POPULAE BANK OF MILAN.* 
 
 Extract from the Statutes. 
 
 Title I. — Constitution, Object, Duration. 
 
 Art. 1. There is established in Milan an anonymous society of limited liability, 
 under the name of the Popular Bank of Milan. 
 
 - Art. 2. The object of the Bank, is to secure credit for its shareholders by means 
 of mutual savings. 
 
 Art. 3. The duration of the Society is limited to 50 yeai-s, with a right to extend 
 the time : the business headquarters are to be in Milan. 
 
 Title II. — Business Capital and Shares. 
 
 Art. 4. The business capital is formed as follows : — 
 
 (a) By shares bought by the members. 
 
 (6) By the funds of the Society, procured by means of entrance fees, and by the 
 portion of the shares destined for the reserve fund. 
 
 (c) By every kind of annual profit. 
 
 Art. 5. The circulating funds of the Bank may be still further increased, by 
 ■deposits at interest made in the Bank, and by amounts loaned on the security of its 
 business capital. 
 
 Art. 6. Any person wishing to be admitted to the Society must make his 
 demand in writing to the Council of Administration, signed by himself and supported 
 by two associates, in which demand, he agrees to submit to the rules of the present 
 statutes. Anyone refused admittance by the Council of Administration has a right^ 
 to appeal to the Committee of Arbitration. 
 
 Art. Y. Cooperative societies of production, and Mutual Aid and Credit Societies 
 may be admitted in the bank with the same rights and obligations as any other mem- 
 ber, they being represented by a proxy provided with the customary power of 
 attorney. 
 
 Art. 8. Every member binds himself to the following : 
 
 (a) To pay the entrance fee which, for the first year is settled at $0.80, payable 
 $0.20 at least on entering and the balance during the first quarter ; 
 
 (&) To pay at least one (1) share of $10.00, even if it be by small monthly instal- 
 ments of at least $0.20. 
 
 (c) To become responsible to the entire amount of subscribed shares for all obli- 
 gations assumed by the Society. 
 
 Art. 9. The member has the following rights: — 
 
 (a) To vote in the general assemblies and to take part in the deliberations in 
 accordance with Articles 11, 32 and 37. 
 
 'Statutes of the Popular Bank of Milan, translated by Mens. Tranoesco Vigano. 
 
314 
 
 (6) To obtain credit at the Bank within the amount and in the manner estab- 
 lished by Articles 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 and 26. 
 
 (c) To share in the profits of the Society in accordance witli Article 27. 
 
 Art. 10. The shares are personal and nominative ; they can neither be pledged 
 as security nor subjected to any other sort of obligation, neither alienated nor sold, 
 without the authorization of the Administrative Council, being secured in favor of the 
 bank as warranty for its credit transactions, security, &c., which the shareholder 
 may contract with the bank according to Articles 17, 18 and 20. 
 
 Art. 11. 'No member is allowed to own more than 50 shares. No one, even those 
 owning more than 50 shares, has more than one vote in the general assemblies. (1) 
 
 Art. 12. Any shareholder who has completed the payment of one share $10.00, 
 shares in the yearly dividend. Whilst any share of which at least a quarter has been 
 paid at the time of the yearly balance sheet will be given a quarter share in the 
 dividend, and therefore the dividends will be regulated according to the proportion 
 of each payment, and divided into four parts, in accordance with Article 13, following. 
 
 Art. 13. Any subscription or payment of shares made during the year will 
 share in the annual dividend in a like proportion divided into four parts, that is, 
 those paid during the first quarter will share proportionately in the dividends of the 
 three following quarters, and so on, no count being kept of the quarter in which the 
 payment was made. 
 
 Art. 14. Bach year the Administrative Council will settle the course of action ta 
 be settled concerning the participation of new members in the reserve fund. 
 
 Title III. — Transactions of the Bank. 
 
 Art. 15. The Popular Bank of Milan proposes the following :^- 
 (a) To make loans to its members ; 
 lb) To discount bills of exchange of members ; 
 
 (c) To receive deposits and to open current accounts ; 
 
 (d) To bank funds and pay the account of members. 
 During the last two years it also does the following business : — 
 
 (e) Issues savings bank books ; 
 
 (/) Administers values confided to it ; 
 (g) Issues mandates bearing daily interest. (2) 
 Values remaining, after the principal transactions of the jBank have been satis- 
 fied, are employed for amounts preventatively established by the discount Committee, 
 in discounting drafts even of non-members known to be solvent, with at least two 
 signatures for not longer than three months rate, also on the purchase of bans or 
 State Treasury notes, or notes of the municipality. The Bank may, without recourse 
 to the courts, or caii, in case of debts not settled when due, sell, by means of a public 
 official, all articles of any kind left on deposit, as security or pledge, the depositor, 
 , being obliged to consent to this in the deed accompanying his deposit or pledge, 
 until the Bank is satisfied for amount of credit, capital, interest and costs. 
 
 Art. 16. The Society being principally intended to secure credit by means of 
 savings and co-operation, formally binds itself to abstain from any kind of transac- 
 tion relating to exchange. 
 
 (A) Loans. 
 
 Art. 17. A member requesting a loan should : 
 
 (a.) Be free froni any an-ears or past loans, should be free from debt, and 
 have in no way impaired his wari-anty ; 
 
 (b.) Be in a position to assure its payment. 
 
 (1) In order to check the influx of money coming to the Bank in the shape of shares and deposits, it was 
 decided in the Assembly of 1st January, 1872, that no more than five shares per year should be granted to 
 present or future shareholders, and that the shares could not be sold or alienated until one year after their 
 issue. Later on they limited to one share per year, shares to be granted present and future shareholders. 
 
 (2) The Popular Banks of Venetia, particularly that of Padua, discount bills of sale, and notes of 
 dealers either in goods or labor. 
 
315 
 
 Art. 18. The Administrative Committee having taken into consideration the 
 state of the funds, and the position of the borrower, may grant him a loan of double 
 the amount of his paid up shares or of his payments. For larger amounts the 
 security of other membeis, or of third parties of Jinown solvency, or pledges or other 
 sufficient warranty, is required. The Administrative Council, together with the 
 discount Committee, decide upon their acceptance and validity. 
 
 Art. 19. Loans may be effected according to particular circumstances, or as a 
 simple civil obligation, or by means of drafts. 
 
 Loans may be made on deposit of title deeds of public rents, or other public 
 values, and on obligations of commercial associations of industry under the rules of 
 the Statutes. 
 
 (B) Discount. 
 
 Alt. 20. Members of this bank may offer for discount their effects of change, 
 according to the rules established by Articles 17 and 18. 
 
 Art. 21. The smallest loans and discount will be given the preference. 
 
 Art. 22. Members who have been refused credit may, if they wish, appeal to 
 the Council of Ai-bitration, who, together with the Director, will answer all claims. 
 
 Art. 23. Loans should not be given for more than four (4) months. Never- 
 theless, the Administrative Council may, on request of the member, and for loans 
 made on civil obligations, grant one single delay, not to exceed three (3) months. 
 Payments may be made in several instalments, but always in accordance with terms 
 settled beforehand. Drafts becoming due only six months after date of their presen- 
 tation may be discounted. 
 
 Art. 24. The rates of interest and commission on loans and on drafts are deter- 
 mined by the Administrative Committee, in accordance with the general state of the 
 market, and are payable in advance at the time of loan or discount. In the event of 
 delay in payment of the loan or discount, the interest and commission increase in 
 proportion to the delay and attendant circumstances. 
 
 (C) Deposits or Current Accounts, 
 
 Art. 25. The Bank receives cash deposits, with, and without interest, and opena 
 current accounts in favor of depositors. A means will be established in the regula- 
 tions by which to mobilize deposits on current accounts with the system of checks 
 and Bank bans. 
 
 (D) To Eeceive and Pat Monet on Members' Accounts. 
 
 Art. 25. Any member may give the bank a right to receive and pay out sums on 
 his account within the limHs of the city of Milan, on simple payment of the customary 
 costs and expenses. Whenever the Bank is in a position to do business outside Milan,, 
 and does banking businesis in other localities, it will pay, exact and receive. 
 
 TITLE IV. 
 
 Profits and Reserve Fund. 
 
 Art. 27. The profits, as given by the yearly balance sheet, will be divided as- 
 follows : — 
 
 (a) Seventy (70) per cent, to the shareholders, in accordance with Articles 12 
 and 13 ; 
 
 (6) Twenty (20) per cent, to the reserve fund, Article 20. 
 
 (c) Ten (10) per cent, reserved for the employees of the Bank, whenever the 
 Administrative Council may deem proper. The portion not distributed in this way 
 will be added to the reserve fund. 
 
 Art, 28. The reserve fund is formed as follows : — 
 
 (a) By means of entrance fees ; 
 
■316 
 
 (b) By annual assessment on the profits, as stated in the pi-eceding article. 
 
 When the reserve fund has attained the proportions of one-quarter of the amount 
 of business capital, the share in the profits assigned it will be divided amoung the 
 shares (capital), and in the event of a futui-e decrease in the reserve fund it will be 
 ■again increased, as determined by Article 2Y (letter b). 
 
 TITLE Y. 
 
 Jjeaving the Society by being Expelled, or by Sale of Shares. 
 
 Art. 29. Any member who, from any cause not accepted as valid by the Admin- 
 istrative Council, shall have been in arrears with his subscription for three consecu- 
 tive months, will lose his right to membership together with all claims for reinburse- 
 ment on the sums already paid by him; and the Administrative Council will, more- 
 over, have the right to expel any member from the Society who has forced the Bank 
 to take legal proceedings against him, either for debt or foi' his guarantee, or if he 
 has been guilty of dishonorable conduct. However, in such cases, the Society is 
 obliged to reinburse the member to the amount of his shares as given by the succeed- 
 ing balance-sheet. 
 
 A member who has been expelled by the Administrative Council has the right to 
 appeal to the Committee of Arbitration. 
 
 Art. 30. Any member who has contracted neither debts nor obligations as guar- 
 antee in regard to the Bank, is at liberty to alienate or sell to a member, or any 
 othei- person not a member of the Society, provided such action be approved by the 
 Administrative Council. 
 
 Discount Committee. 
 
 Art. 52. The discoijnt committee consists of the Administrative Council and of 
 twenty-six (26) members elected every three months by the G-eneral Assembly ; who, 
 three by three every week, according to the order of their election, together with 
 two administrative Councillors, form the discount Committee. No draft can bo dis- 
 counted by the populai' bank, and no advance can be granted without the approval 
 of the discount Committee, who decide by absolute majority of vote. 
 
 If a member of the discount Committee be unable to serve, he is replaced by the 
 member following in the order of election. The Director and the other members 
 are under obligation to give any information in their power required by the discount 
 Committee. 
 
 Committee of Auditors. 
 
 Art. 53. The auditors are three in number; they are elected by majority of votes 
 of the General Assembly in private ballot ; their election is for one year, and they are 
 ire-eligible ; however, the first election is valid for the space of two years. They see 
 that the Statutes and business regulations are strictly enforced, visiting the Bank in 
 turn every week to learn the state of affairs ; they have a right to demand any infor- 
 mation they may require from the Director and employees of the Bank, such as exam- 
 ining the registers and deeds, and they may, moreover, at any time, inspect the 
 books of the management, verify the stateof the funds, revise the table of transactions, 
 the balance-sheet and all the bank accounts. 
 
 Art. 54. The auditors note down in a book for the purpose, the advice they 
 Jbelieve it their duty to give on the management which they are obliged to superin- 
 tend, and on which they must give a detailed report in writing at the ordinary 
 annual Assembly at which their authority ceases. They may, however, in urgent cases, 
 draw attention to any irregularity in the working of the Bank they may have dis- 
 covered. This they may also do at the quarterly and extraordinary meetings. 
 
 Committee of Arbitration. 
 Art. 55. In the event of any dispute arising between members, and the manage- 
 sment, in regard to matters concerning the Popular Bank, the parties must refer it to 
 
317 
 
 a speoial committee of three arbitrators, chosen every year from the body of the 
 assembly by majority of votes, and always re-eligible. "Nevertheless, if one of the 
 parties is not satisfied with the decision of the arbitratorp the final decision will be 
 given by three other arbitrators chosen by the assembly of members, whose judge- 
 ment will be without appeal. At the first election the arbitrators remain in charge 
 for two years, besides which they possess the ordinary powers of arbitratoi'S. 
 
 EUSSIAN CO-OPEEATIVB BANKS. * 
 
 The statutes of the Russian cooperative banks differ very little, and they all more 
 or less resemble the first bank established in Eussia, that of Eagestwenskoe. 
 The principal features of these Statutes may be resumed as follows : — 
 
 1. Banks whose object is to receive the savings of the peasantry and to lend 
 money to members. 
 
 2. The very great majoi-ity of Banks do business among the rural population. 
 8. Membership is not limited. 
 
 4. New members are admitted by the General Assembly. 
 
 5. Members can leave at will by giving due notice. 
 
 6. A member may be expelled from the Association if he fails to pay his 
 annual subscription or any amount loaned. 
 
 7. The shai e paid to the Bank by members, is equal for every one and does not 
 generally exceed 100 roubles ($75.00.) 
 
 8. Payments mad§ by members on their shares, generally amount to 3 
 roubles ($2.25) per annum, payable monthly, or in one sole payment. 
 
 9. Members leaving the Association or expelled, are paid their share only one 
 year afterwards. 
 
 10. Shares are not transferable. 
 
 11. The reserve capital is formed by a share assessed on the profits (not less 
 than 10 per cent.) ; it is invested in State securities, and bears interest so long as it 
 does not exceed one-third the amount paid by members. 
 
 12. In the event of the Bank going into liquidation, the reserve capital is 
 destined to help popular institutions for instruction. 
 
 13. The Bank receives deposits from its members, as well as from persons not 
 membei's. 
 
 14. The su m total of all the loans and engagements entered into by the Association, 
 should not exceed ten times the amount paid by membeis, and the reserve fund 
 together. 
 
 15. The engagements entered into by the Association are guaranteed, first : 
 
 (a) By the annual profits ; 
 
 (b) By the amount paid by members ; 
 
 (c) By the reserve fund ; 
 
 (d) By the individual property of each member, they being bound together. 
 
 16. The Bank makes loans only to its members ; the maximum of the amount 
 loaned is once and a-half the amount the borrower has in the Bank. 
 
 17. The loans are made at nine months, with the supplementary months 
 allowed. 
 
 18. Members are security for one another for loans. 
 
 19. Each member has a right to become guarantee for half his payments. The 
 fact of his becoming guarantee does not take away from his right to borrow. 
 
 20. The profits of the year are divided among the members in proportion to the 
 amounts paid by them, the amount for the reserve fund and for remuneration of the 
 management having been previously deducted. 
 
 21. The business of the Bank is managed by a Board of direction, consisting of 
 three members, who are generally elected for three years, and are under the control 
 of a council of revision, composed of six members, also named for three years. The 
 council meets once a month ; and also by the General Assembly, that meets once a 
 year. 
 
 * There are about 1,500 co-operative banks in Russia. 
 
318 
 
 THE POPULAR BANKS OP BELGIUM * 
 
 The Popular Banks, or associations of Mutual Credit have been in existence in 
 Belgium for over 25 years. 
 
 There are now 22 Popular Banks actually in existence in Belgium; the oldest 
 among them is that of Li^ge, founded in 1864; the one most lately established is that 
 of Argenteau which was instituted in 1889. 
 
 Since 1889 the Popular Belgium Banks have formed themselves into a federa- 
 tion ; delegates from the banks meet every year in congress to examine and discuss 
 questions of general interest. The condition of Popular Belgian Banks in 1889 may 
 be resumed as follows : — 
 
 Number of members 10,000 
 
 Capital paid I 400,000 
 
 Deposit for current accounts 600,000 
 
 Reserve fund 60,000 
 
 Advances 6,000,000 
 
 Total amount of transactions 30,000,000 
 
 To become a member of a Popular Bank it is required that a sum of $40.00 be 
 paid, but the greatest advantages are offered shareholders in the payment of their 
 share of capital. They are thus allowed to pay the amount in one sole payment, or in 
 several, and notably by monthly instalments of $0.40, or even by weekly payments 
 of $0.10. 
 
 Belgian Popular Banks, which are all established on the suggestions given by 
 Schulze-Delitzsh, are based on the principle of absolute solidarity. But Belgian 
 cooperators, far from seeing in solidarity a necessary condition of their existence, 
 believe it to be a real danger for their members, and that were it generally adopted, 
 would inevitably tend to compromise Belgian institutions of mutual credit. 
 
 At the present time the liability of shareholders in Popular Belgian Banks is — 
 with one single exception — restricted to the following conditions : 
 
 The responsibility is, in one Bank, unlimited. 
 
 In one Bank the liability is limited to $1,000 
 
 In nine do do 200 
 
 In two do do 80 
 
 Inone do do 38 
 
 In eight do do 40 f 
 
 To prove that popular Banks are really democratic institutions, established 
 mainly for that class of citizens who, without the fruitful principle of mutual help, 
 would experience very great difficulty in finding credit, it will sufiEice to the mention 
 the different ti-ades to which its members belong. 
 
 Thus, the 2,706 members of the Popular Bank of Li^ge, on the 1st of January, 
 1887, included 132 distinct trades, among which we note : — 
 
 295 merchants, 240 employees, 214 gunsmiths, 98 tailors, 74 shoemakers, 72 
 professors, teachers male and female, 63 domestic and other servants, 54 carpenters, 
 49 seamstresses, 46 housekeepers, 43 agriculturists, 39 painters, 38 mechanics, 38 
 moulders, 33 cabinetmakers, 29 adjusters, 29 butchers and pork butchers, 29 en- 
 gravers, 28 contractors and masons, 28 railway guardians, 28 bakers, 28 lock- 
 smiths, 28 letter carriers, 27 turners, 25 coffee-house keepers, 24 printers, 23 labour- 
 ers, 20 sculptors, etc. 
 
 As regards the transactions of the Bank, the reporter of the Belgian section 
 thus gives a resum^ : — 
 
 *Extract from Mons. Mioha's report, Le Credit Mutuel. 
 
 t That is to say, the simple amount of the share. 
 
 To show how little shareholders understand the liability they may have assumed by accepting the 
 principle of unlimited solidality, it will suffice to state that the Popular Bank of Liege, modified theirStatutes 
 m General Assembly, and changedtheir unlimited liability to a liability limited of $800 per share, at which 
 more than one hundred shareholders withdrew from the Bank, stating that they would^ not risk such a 
 liability. And yet, up to that time they had been liable to the full extent of their possessions. 
 
319 
 
 " Our Mutual Credit Associatione, do generally all kinds of banking business 
 with their members — discount, commercial values, advances of funds for guarantee, 
 loans on security, hypothecary guarantees, or on deposit of deeds, opening credit, 
 discount, etc. 
 
 "A workingman, an artisan is fired with the noble ambition of mounting step 
 by step the social scale ; he wishes to start in business on his own account ; he is able 
 at his trade and a steady man. He, may with all confidence, apply to a Popular Bank. 
 They will open a small credit account for him, which will freq^uently be a valuable 
 help to him, certainly in the beginning. 
 
 "Has a workingman's household to incur any special expense for provisions, at 
 "the beginning of winter, foi" instance, or to make any exceptional outlay for estab- 
 lishing a son or daughter, an advance can be obtained ft-om the Popular Bank, which 
 will allow them to make their purchases for cash and under advantages as to price. 
 
 "The most ardent desire of a workingman, a foreman or an employee, is fre- 
 quently to own a small home of his own. In this case a Popular Bank can be of the 
 greatest use to him. Let him but go to the Bank and say : ' I have saved a few 
 francs ; I want to buy or to build a small house ; advance me the three or four thou- 
 sand francs I need ; you will enter the amount of my money, and every month, or 
 ■every three months, when I come to pay the interest, I will bring you my further 
 savings to reduce my indebtedness.' 
 
 "Could such a request be unfavorably received? Popular Banks assist every 
 4ay honest, thrifty and industrious laborers to become owners of their houses. 
 
 "These few examples will suflQce, we hope, to show the beneficial influence 
 exercised by our mutual credit associations, as regards improvement in the position 
 of our working classes." 
 
SEOTION^ XI. 
 
 WORKINGMEN'S HOUSES 
 
 20—21 
 
WORKINGMEN'S HOUSES.* 
 
 THE EOUEN SOCIETY OF CHEAP HOUSES. 
 
 The Eouen Society for cheap houses is of recent formation (June, 1887); it is not 
 speculative. The shareholders cannot in any case expect more than 3 per cent, on 
 their capital; it is purely a philanthropic work which has not received from 
 the city or Department of State either subsidy or warranty of interest. The 
 capital shares, fixed provisionally at $21, "700 has increased (Ist January, 1889) to 
 $26,000 divided into 260 shares of SIOO. 
 
 Its object is essentially philanthropic ; it seeks to render property accessible to 
 workers ; with that intention it acquir.ed, at Eouen, on the left bank of the Seine, a 
 piece of land of 55,000 square feet, so arranged as to have twenty-four houses on the 
 street. 
 
 Six sample houses were built in the last four months of the year 1887. They were 
 in such demand that the administrators of the Society considered it necessary, in 
 order to meet the numerous and pressing demands made to them, to build twenty- 
 seven in 1888 and eleven in the autumn of the same year. 
 
 As a means of giving to these prospective buyers the houses they occupy, the 
 Society gives them a lease with promise of sale. This lease is for the space of sixteen 
 years and may be cancelled each year at the request of the occupant; the price is 
 composed : 
 
 Ist. Of the interest at 4 per cent, of the capital employed on the house lot. 
 
 2nd. Of the sum necessary for the payment of this capital during the period of 
 the lease. 
 
 3rd. Of the general expenses of the Society valued at 1 per cent, of the capital 
 unpaid. 
 
 The lessee takes charge of the property from his entry into employment ; he must 
 keep it in order, pay the taxes, insurance, etc., as if he were already proprietor. 
 
 To secure the proper and complete execution of his lease the Society demands 
 from the lessee, on his entry into employment, a payment equal to the tenth of the 
 value of the immoveable ; nevertheless, it comes to the aid of the workingman whom 
 it considers worthy, and who does not possess altogether this sum. It lends to him 
 on a current account, with interest at 4 per cent., to the extent of $45.00, and allows 
 him to relieve himself of this indebtedness by monthly payments of $1.00. 
 
 In April, 1889, the Society made agreements on these terms for 44 houses with 
 workmen of different trades ; 43 of these lessees were married ; 1 was a bachelor ; 14 
 had no children ; 16 had 1 ; 8 had 2 ; 3 had 3 ; 2had 4 ; 1 had 5. 
 
 In all, the number of this group were 141 souls. 
 
 We will now see what the person taking one of these houses must pay in order 
 to become proprietor or to enjoy it as lessee ; let us first see what these houses are : 
 5 are built on a lot of 957 square feet. 
 28 do 1,166 do 
 
 11 do 1,650 do 
 
 The main body of the fii-st 364 do 
 
 do second 363 do 
 
 do last 365 do 
 
 The dependencies of each of thirty-three first cover 9. surface 
 
 , 88 square feet. 
 
 Those of the last eleven 110 square feet. 
 
 The gardens occupy a surface of about : 
 605 fee1>-715 feet or 1,155 of surface. 
 
 ■K" App a,lso Hfip.tii on X I V . 
 
 We have reproduced from samples of workmen's houses, a few chosen from among those best adapted 
 to the custom and climate of the country. The documents were unfortunately burnt at the fire which 
 destroyed a part of the workshops of George Bishop. 
 
 20— 21J 
 
324 
 
 Each house, little or great, has: 
 
 A cellar under ground ; 
 
 A kitchen and a room, with chimneys and fireplace on ground-flat ; 
 
 A room with fireplace, and one or two rooms without, on the first flat ; 
 
 A latindry with furnace and boiler; "i 
 
 A water-closet on a pit of 8 cubic metres deep ; [• At the end of the garden. 
 
 A woodshed. j 
 
 The material employed in the construction of these houses ai-e: stone, brick and 
 rough stones ; the thickness of the walls, of the partition walls, the floors, the plaster- 
 ing, carpenters' work, the roofing, etc, are all of similar quality as those used in 
 building at Eouen and give every guarantee a solidity and durability. 
 
 The height of the ceiling is 8 feet on the ground floor ; 7 feet 8 inches 
 on the first flat. 
 
 The soil is excellent and easily worked ; air and light circulate freely around 
 these houses bounded by the street, which is 32 feet wide, and by the garden. 
 
 The fountains erected by the city uear these houses give them an abundant 
 supply of pure water ; the rain and dirty water are carried to the drains by means 
 of varnished earthenware pipes, at the head of which is placed a siphon ; scavenging 
 is done every day at the expense of the municipality. So that, on the score of health, 
 nothing more can be desired. 
 
 The cost of these houses is as follows : — 
 
 Small, Average, Larpre. 
 
 Land $96 $116 $165 
 
 Main body 400 475 490 
 
 Dependancies 70 70 75 
 
 Walls and fences 40 40 55 
 
 Drainage 15 15 15 
 
 Cost of building 29 35 38 
 
 They ^re thus sold at $650 $751 
 
 ^ payable cash and the balance with interest and costs in 16 years as follows : 
 $54.00 for the small ones. 
 62.00 for the average ones. 
 69.00 for the large ones. 
 The annuities are payable by twelfths of : 
 
 $4.50, $5.20 or $5.40. 
 The final contract of sale may be obtained after the fifth year of enjoyment 
 from the time he has paid, over and above the 10th so-called guarantee payment, a 
 sum equivalent to the payment of five years. 
 
 To facilitate this end the Society receives on current accounts, with interest at 
 4 per cent., the savings of the purchases in sums of $10.00 and over. 
 
 But if the occupant, for reasons of which he is the sole judge, does not wish to 
 buy the property, and asks a resiliation of the lease, allows him to return the pro- 
 perty on condition of his fulfilling his enjoyments with it, and restoring the premises 
 in good condition : 
 
 1st of his payment in warranty. 
 
 2nd of a sum on each annuity paid, fixed at. 
 
 $18.20 for the small dwelling. 
 21.00 for the average dwelling. 
 23.40 for the large dwelling. 
 In such case he will not have paid more for annual rent than : 
 135.80 for the small dwelling. 
 41.40 for the average dwelling. 
 46.20 for the large dwelling. 
 The Eouen Society for cheap houses, does a useful work, as we may see in the two 
 cases. 
 
325 
 
 In tho first, it permits the working-man who has the laudable ambition of possess- 
 ing a home, to do so surely and economically ; surelj'^, because he has only to pay his 
 rent for sixteen years, to become proprietor ; economically, because the rent has not 
 been appreciably higher than what would be paid for a similar dwelling to an ordinary 
 proprietor. 
 
 In the second case it allows him, who cannot, or will not occupy the house, except 
 as tenant, to constitute for himself without, too much, a capital a little more than 
 one third of the annual sums he has paid. 
 
 The buildings of the Society are but finished, and nevertheless already we can per- 
 ceive other advantages than those enjoyed by the occupants. It will oblige the pro- 
 prietors of working-men's houses to take greater care of the sanitary condition of 
 these houses, and perhaps to consent to a decrease in rent, for there are many that have 
 for many years derived a large revenue from these small dwellings. This explains 
 the ease with which the Society collects its tenant-proprietors and foreshadows its 
 great success. As a further guarantee of these results, the Society deals with the 
 -working people, a laborious and honest class, who pay regularly their annuities of 
 twelfths. 
 
 EBAL ESTATE SOCIETY OP OELEAKS.* 
 
 HAVING FOR ITS OBJECT THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SPIRIT OF SAVING BY HELPING IN 
 THE ACQUISITION OF PROPERTY. 
 
 In 1879 two workingmen, intelligent initiators, without any capital and without 
 any other support than the cooperation of a few disinterested men, conceived the 
 idea of establishing a building society, which they called the Eeal Estate Society of 
 Orleans, with the double object of increasing the number of small dwellings, so as to 
 surmount the difficulties arising from the increase in rents, and above all of provid- 
 ing for the workingman, the father of a family, a healthy dwelling, of which he may 
 become proprietor within a short delay, which he can shorten by anticipating pay- 
 ments, according to the payments he has to make and to his habits of punctuality 
 and order. 
 
 The principal object of the society, then, is to give the workingman the oppor- 
 tunity of becoming proprietor of his house. And this purpose it has expressed in 
 the sub-title of the institution. There is printed at the head of its statutes : "To deve- 
 lop the spirit of saving and to help in the acquisition of property." 
 
 The Anonymous Eeal Estate Society of Orleans, with variable capital, has con- 
 stituted a nominal capital of $40,000, and a working capital of $15,380, divided into 
 "769 shares of $20, subscribed in most cases by the poorer class. This capital, 
 originally $40,000, was realized by degrees according to need. It was raised succes- 
 sively from $40,000 to $60,000, and from $60,000 to $80,000, the actual amount sub- 
 scribed and paid. This capital bears interest at the rate of 5 per cent, net interest, 
 without perjudice to the constituting of a reserve fund equal to the tenth of the 
 business' capital. And what may be surprising at first view, these $80,000 were 
 sufficient for the purchase of land, and the erection of 215 houses (203 of one-storey, 
 some of which have mansards, five of two-storey and seven on ground floor), of a 
 collective value (including land) of $440,000. The important difference between the 
 working capital and the sum expended was covered by the sale of lands, the pay- 
 ments of guarantees, the beginning of the sinking fund, the anticipated payments, 
 and above all by the means of hypothecs. These 215 houses built have each a pur- 
 chaser ; the Society does not speculate and does not build in advance ; it deals with 
 a plan and a lump sum. Up to the present time all those who have acquired houses 
 have fulfilled their conti'acted engagements, five or six at most, too indifferent 
 require some slight stimulus. 
 
 The working of the Society is veiy simple; the workman who becomes pro- 
 prietor finds himself in one or the other of the following positions — either he has 
 saved the price of the land, or his resources have not yet permitted him to do so. 
 
 * Notice to the Jury. 
 
326 
 
 In the first case the society sells him a property for which he pays cash, and it 
 makes with him a bargain to build the house to be erected; the plans are sub- 
 mitted to him, the cost settled for the whole, but the buyer has always the right, 
 while the building is in course of construction, to modify, according to his wish, the 
 details of the building and the interior arrangement; what cost he diminishes is 
 taken from the total cost of the plan, and what he adds is added as a supplementary 
 charge. This mode of acting compels the purchaser to give, at his own cost, an 
 hypothec in favor of the Society, on the house built, which remains as a security. It 
 is discharged on paying annually $7.10 per cent, of the total price during twenty- 
 five years, which secures the complete payment of the capital and interest at 5 per 
 cent. He may also, as has already been stated, make at any time payments in 
 anticipation, and thus shorten the time when the property will be free. On the 
 other hand he is allowed to improve the condition just above stated, by securing a 
 Joan, which the notaries of the Society have been able, up to this time, to secure at 
 the rate of 4J per cent, instead of 5 per cent., which reduces the annuity for interest 
 and sinking fund, in that twenty-five years, to $6.75, instead of $7.10 per cent., to a 
 sum equal to at least a half of the price of the immovable. 
 
 This lender takes the first hypothec on the house ; the Society consents to rank 
 after him in the second rank. This advantageous change from the first conditions 
 does not interfere with the conditions of freeing the property in 25 years, when his 
 account with regard to the Society, which is first to be paid, has become the creditor, 
 it receives interest at 4i per cent., equal to thatpaid to the mortgagor obtained by the 
 notary. 
 
 The Society thus becomes a sort of savings bank ot its purchaser ; by accepting 
 on account the sums paid in, it forms the amount due to the hypothecary, which will 
 be thus made up when the loan is due. 
 
 The Society, on its side, reaps an advantage from this mode of proceeding, as it is 
 put into immediate possession of a sum greater than half the cost of building, and 
 which permits it to undertake new operations without being obliged to await for the 
 formation of a capital relatively important. 
 
 Though the workman may not be able to buy the land, the Society is still willing 
 to receive him ; it limits the first payment in cash to the least possible amount. Some- 
 times the man's honesty alone has been accepted as a sufficient guarantee. If the 
 workman is well known to be of steady habits it contracts with him, it rents him a 
 house arranged to suit him, and inserts the promise of sale in the lease ; if the house 
 pleases him he keeps it, and pays for it, as in the preceding case, by an annual amount 
 of $7.10 per cent, on the entire price during twenty-five years. 
 
 The second system binds the Society, but does not wholly bind the workman, 
 who, during the first twelve years of his lease, is at liberty to cancel his lease, not- 
 withstanding the promise of sale inserted. The conditions under which this resili- 
 ation can be effected is set forth at length in the lease. 
 
 The principal samples erected by the Society are the three following : — 
 
 1st. House of two stories of 17 x 23 ; its price, including land, $100, is $900 ; 
 the purchaser has to pay annually whether he has or has not paid for the land (800 or 
 900 X 7.10) from $56.80 to $64.00. Now the renting value of the property is $26 for 
 the ground floor and $34 for the first story, making altogether $60.00. 
 
 2nd. House of two stories, 20 x 26.8, with a kitchen on'the ground floor outside 
 the building ; laundry. This is the type most appreciated by the workman. The 
 value is $1,200 over and above the price of the land, which is supposed to be paid at 
 the time of the purchase ; the annual payment made by the purchaser is (1,200 x 
 7.10) $85.20. The renting value of the immovable represents $84.00 ; $40.00 for 
 the 1st story and $44 for the second. The same house, by means of a supplementary 
 expenditure of $400 at most, can bo enlarged by a mansard; its renting value is thus 
 increased from $36 to $120 ; the amount to pay annually in this last case is (1,600 x 
 7.10) $113.60. 
 
 3rd. Houses also of two stories (26.8 x 28.4). It contains four rooms in each 
 story that can be occupied by one or two families ; its price, with skirting, moulding, 
 and wall paper, which does not exceed, the land being paid for, $2,000, which, for in- 
 
327 
 
 terest and sinking fund in 25 years, necessitates an average annual payment of 2,000 
 X 7.10) $142.00. The renting value of that house is $160, that is $80 a story. 
 
 Having given the actual price of the raw material and of the work, we believe 
 we have reached the extreme limits of low prices in our buildings. The prices which 
 we give as remuneration for the master workman working with his staff would be 
 indignantly refused by contractors of a higher order and would be insufflcient for 
 them. We have also endeavored to avoid these contractors who, in order to secure 
 money too often, allow themselves to waste time on trifling details. 
 
 Moreover, the economic results which we had the good fortune to obtain are 
 due, in a great measure, to the low figure of the general costs which never attained 
 1 per cent, of the works executed. 
 
 The functions of the managers of the Eeal Estate Society are given gratuitously, 
 and, nevertheless, four or five members of the Council of Administration devote daily 
 and regularly several hours of their leisure time to the direction of the Society and 
 the overseeing of the works.* 
 
 On the other hand, the costs of its first establishment was covered from the first 
 series of building, by a profit realized on three corner lots. 
 
 In conclusion, the society was not a burden on the City of Orleans ; it was not 
 exempted from the payment of the road and city taxes, and it was able besides to give 
 to the City the ground for its streets, and to contribute half of the expense of making 
 the road. 
 
 It appears superfluous for us to enter then into longer or more minute details. 
 We believe that we have made it our serious duty to demonstrate to the workman that 
 property can be acquired by him if he be industrious and saving. Our relative suc- 
 cesses have surpassed our expectations. 
 
 * 
 
 The above notice was prepared on the 1st April, 1886. The Society has remained 
 exactly the same in everything relating to its working and its organization. 
 
 The number of buildings is actually 228, and according to all appearance, is not 
 likely to decrease. 
 
 Workingmen's dwellings were extremely scai'ce in Orleans in 1879 ; to-day, by 
 the sole fact of the number of buildings of the Society, and of various buildings, almost 
 equal in number, built in the new quarter of the City, workingmen's dwellings 
 abound, and the rents Thave materially diminished. 
 
 The capital ^of the Society was only raised to $85,180; the actual reserve is, as 
 formerly, equal to the tenth of the business capital. The interest given to the share- 
 holders had to suffer a i-eduction; for two years past the shareholders have been 
 obliged to support the cost of the tax. For the first time this year, that it is to say, 
 for the inventory 1888 closing the 31st December last, the interest allowed on the 
 shares will only be 4,112 per cent, taxed to their charge. We have reason to hope 
 that a large reduction will not become necessary for the future. 
 
 In fact, the general commercial industrial crisis, etc., etc., has weighed and 
 weighs very heavily on the proprietors and tenant-proprietors of the Society; they 
 have more difficulty, by reason of the diminution in the hours of labor and a decrease 
 in wages, to pay their own rent, and moreover, many among them are unable to 
 recover the rent due by their tenants embarrassed by the same causes, that is to say, 
 want of work. 
 
 On the other hand, misfortune, which seems to have fallen in a way really 
 extraordinary, on a great number of householders, customers of the Society; death 
 for the last ten years has not taken less than twenty of the heads of families, leaving 
 widows and orphans in misery and want.f 
 
 In the greater number of these cases the Society has been able to assist these 
 families, but they are compelled to come to their aid in the execution of their 
 engagements, and as to the payment of the capital employed in the construction of 
 the building. 
 
 * The general expenses in 1888 only amounted to ( 
 
 t This unfortunate position of the family should be prevented by Life Insurance. — J. H. 
 
828 
 
 Serious difficulties have arisen from the fact of these unhappy circumstances — 
 industrial crisis, want of funds, expense of assisting families, etc. The administrators 
 were obliged co exercise their wits to meet the difia.culties of this new and unforeseen 
 condition of things. Therefore they suggested the following modifications : — Ist. To 
 cease making obligatory the payment of the hypothecary loans given in substitution 
 for the capital of the Society. 
 
 2nd. To reduce, as far as necessary, to tenant-proprietors weighed down with 
 the payment to the sinking fund of 50 per cent, of the value of the property, it being 
 admitted, that with the worst possible fortune the property cannot in 25 years 
 decrease in value to the amount of half its value, and consequently the Society does 
 not incur any risk. 
 
 This simple modification supplied to inspire hope in the administrators to 
 continue the affairs of the Society to a good ending, in so far as the difference of ^ 
 per cent, not paid by the shareholders, and of the tax charged to these last mentioned, 
 are given to the payment of the rent to the profit of the embarrassed. 
 
 OrUans, lit April, 1880. 
 
 LA SOLIDAEITE. * 
 
 BUILDING SOCIETT AT SAINT PIERRE LES-CALAIS. 
 
 The Solidarity procures for the workman the following different advantages : — 
 
 1st. To be comfortably housed and to become proprietor of the house he occupies. 
 
 2nd. Or to have a dwelling at a low price, and never to have legal difficulties. 
 
 He must pay his rent regularly, but the Solidarity frees him from all the 
 pecuniary adversities of life; the wish to pay his rent which every industrious 
 workman possesses, suffices to enable him to derive a profit from the work. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The philanthropic object of this Association is to enable the working class to 
 obtain comfortable accommodation, in the first place, and then to give the indus- 
 trious workman the means of acquiring one of the first necessities of life; a house 
 where he can with all security find a comfortable though humble roof for his 
 family. The benevolence and great utility of this work cannot, then, be seriously 
 contested. When it is considered that the rents of workingmen's houses are always 
 very high, most frequently from 8 to 10 percent, of the intrinsic value of these houses, 
 at least for those who pay their rent, this revenue is the true basis, for we only 
 concern ourselves with workingmen's houses paying rent, those not paying having 
 nothing to do with our organization ; we only speak of these because it is, the not 
 paying persons, who often double the price of these rents. The Solidarity giving all 
 the credit possible to one or more groups of workmen, each having the wish to 
 possess a house by means of a realized bonus and the; ajDplication of a method which 
 consists in having built, at the same time, many houses contiguous and alike, the 
 materials, by reason of security of payment by the Association, being obtained at 
 first cost, a group of workingmen might thus become, in the space of ten years, by 
 paying a small rent, proprietors of the houses they occupy. This can be done the more 
 easily at Calais, where the wages of the greater number of workingmen who conduct 
 themselves properly, is relatively high. 
 
 To accomplish this we must pay our rent regularly, it may be said, and who 
 can guarantee, that when he least expects it, some unforeseen misfortune so common 
 in life may not come upon him ? Enforced idleness occasioned by some commercial 
 crises, by sickness, by reason of wounds that may entail an incapacity to work, at 
 all times too long ; by death and the thousand other difficulties and social misfortune. 
 
 It is just because we foresee these eventualities that a Society has been established 
 having Statutes guaranteeing against all these troubles of life. For example, you 
 
 * This society is a simple building society, and we publish the statutes to prove that we can establish 
 societies of the nature. Where then is confiscation. 
 
329 
 
 buy a house from a certain speculator, who stipulates, as a condition, the regular 
 monthly payment of a certain sum, and also stipulates that if you fail in any of 
 your payments the sale is null and the instalments already made are forfeited ; this 
 is usury; it is even dishonest; our laws which, alas, are known but to a few, would 
 certainly prevent this kind of robbery, but we must understand how to invoke these 
 laws and possess the necessary funds to obtain justice. 
 
 I do not agree either, with the strictness of the Statutes of the Frevoyances de 
 I'Avenir, that gives to the Society the sums paid by those members who are unable to 
 continue their regular instalments, or who die before they have reached the age at 
 which they might benefit by the sale. I would wish that they would return all or 
 •at least a part of these instalments. 
 
 The Statutes of the Society prevent all these diflflculties and all this injustice, so 
 that nothing remains to the Society which we uphold, nor consequently to its 
 members, but, the advantages to be derived at from any well organized and well 
 regulated association. 
 
 For example : a workingman — member who is overwhelmed with misfortune, and 
 "whose delay in his monthly payments would be excusable, could, at any time, if he 
 saw no way to surmount the difficulties into which successive afflictions had plunged 
 him,, leave the Society, On his written demand in a special register, a commission is 
 named by the Council of Administration, and visits the immovable, makes a report 
 estimating its decrease in value or deterioration if any exist, and presents an account 
 for approval at the next General Assembly, in such a way as not to injure the new 
 member who is called to succeed the retiring one; deduction being made also — 
 or otherwise he would have been rent free — ^not of rent, but of the interest 
 borrowed and affecting the property for the time that the retiring member occupied 
 the house which he left, the balance of the capital paid is returned to him (see 
 following example.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Debit. 
 
 Capital borrowed, due by the 
 shareholder, being the value 
 
 of 4 obligations...' 1400.00 
 
 Interest, 3 months,4 p. c 4.00 
 
 Eepairs (more or less) 10 . 00 
 
 Cleaning scrubbing, painting 
 
 papering, renewing 20.00 
 
 Wear and tear, if any 10.00 
 
 Total $440.00 
 
 Credit. 
 
 The immovable given to each 
 shareholder, comprising the 
 value of the share $500.00 
 
 Monthly payments, 3 months, 
 
 at $5 each 15.00 
 
 Interest pro-rata (1) 0.'75 
 
 Flus value of the property the 
 house having increased in 
 value (if such be the case) 20 . 00 
 
 Total $535.75 
 
 To be reimbursed, $95.75 
 
 Similar proceedings will be adopted for those members who abuse the benevolence 
 of the Society, displaying an unwillingness to perform the duties stipulated by^ the 
 Statutes of the Society; in such case the General Assembly on the suggestion of the 
 Council of administration, pronounces the revocation or exclusion of the unworthy 
 member, and orders that his account be settled has as been setforth in the preceding 
 paragraph. 
 
 And the aid fund itself, or reserve fund, which is increased by the various ways 
 and means which there working Society possesses, inables the Society to allow a small 
 sum, as a consolation, to those members who are considered by the treneral Assembly, 
 to be worthy and who by reason of misfortune are unable to continue their monthly 
 payments- 
 
 (1) This interest will not be exacted if the reimbonrsements of the obligation is made by monthly pay- 
 ments. 
 
330 
 
 As may be seen by the Statutes, the fate of the widow of a member is also reg- 
 ulated in a manner altogether fatherly, whether she marries or, with her children con- 
 tinues to meet the payments ; the delay of her widowhood having expired, her case 
 is considered by the Society, and restitution, as has already been stated, of the sums 
 paid in and exceeding hor debit as indicated by the particular account, set forth and 
 kept day by day, in the individual small book. 
 
 The Society itself manages affairs, and all offices are without pay except, those of 
 secretaries, and these are bound to furnish security when required for the funds pass- 
 ing through their hands ; the architect also receives pay, so much per cent., accord- 
 ing to the importance of the works. 
 
 We can see, at a glance, that the workingman who willingly pays his rent may, 
 by means of this Society, free himself from the troubles which the necessity of obtain- 
 ing a healthy i-esidence creates, and from all apprehension of those acts of inhumanity 
 which certain proprietors do not hesitate to practise on those who do not pay their 
 rent, whether they have or have not a good excuse* for their neglect. 
 
 As for the local societies, of which we will speak in another place, those members 
 who are embarrassed can obtain a loan from the reserve or aid fund in order to enable 
 them to fulfil their engagements. These loans are paid by weekly payments of so 
 much on account — for example, a tenth of their wages. 
 
 The Solidarity, as we may see by the statutes, procures for a group of working- 
 men as solvent a position as any capitalist may possess. It may easily be understood 
 that all the workingmen cannot, at the same time, be unable to pay, we may reckon 
 on the regular monthly payment of a certain sum according to the extent of the 
 capital loaned, and being used for the building of each group of workingmen's houses 
 and it being granted that every workman may be considered industrious when he 
 has saved a hundred francs, and has the wish to pay his rent, he is certain, by means 
 of this Association, to meet others like him, who are certain to carxy out our project 
 to a good ending and to give general satisfaction. He who can save a hundred francs 
 can save a Thousand. 
 
 In conclusion, nothing prevents the shareholding workman or workmen, whom 
 misfortune may have prevented from paying, and who have not been favored by 
 fortune, from succeeding in extinguishing their debt after twelve or fourteen, instead 
 of the ten years that we take as a basis, without injuring thereby their comrades ; 
 each of the members having a separate or particular account, and owing to the 
 Society the amount required to guarantee the borrowed capital for the Society's 
 wants ; the Society may then grant delay, to facilitate the laggards who may, perhaps, 
 be able to free themselves otherwise, and by an individual loan pay' the balance of 
 their debt. 
 
 LEOPOLD Cazin. 
 
 STATUTES. 
 
 Art. 2. The Society, whose object is to enable every industrious workman to 
 become proprietor of his dwelling, will create obligations on lots or otherwise, as 
 may be decided by the Society, reimbursable obligations by means of quarterly draw- 
 ing^; or it can apply to a loan society to secure the capital necessary to carry on 
 the work. 
 
 Art. 5. The Society's capital is fixed at (as many times $100 as there are 
 
 members, the minimum being 20 at least), formed of a $100 share at least for each 
 member. It may be increased according to the wants of the Society, each time that 
 a group of 20 new members subscribe to the statutes. A decision given by the Gen- 
 eral assembly, convoked for that object, will be necessary, in order to increase the 
 Society's capital. 
 
 Art, 6. There is only one kind of share, which is the nominative. These shares 
 are numbered, and form part of a register or book, the stamp of which remains at the 
 head office of the Society ; the shares are signed by the manager, Secretary and the 
 presidents of the councils of administration and superintendence. 
 
.331 
 
 They carry no interest, each member receiving compensation in the occupation 
 of the house entrusted to him by the Society. Shareholders are only responsible to 
 the extent of the shares for which they have subscribed, and no call can be made 
 over and above the $100 shares. 
 
 Art. 7. After the payment of the shares, there will be issued obligations of 
 $100 likewise, (at the rate of four for each share). These obligations will yield annually 
 an interest of $4.00 payable quarterly at the office of the Society, and will be re-im- 
 bursable by means of a drawing by lot during the course of ten years, at the rate of 
 
 (according to the number of the share and the scale established by the General 
 
 assembly) for each year. 
 
 It may be considered as a sort of loan to the shareholders, to each share of $100 
 four obligations of the value of $400 ; which brings up to $500 the capital at the 
 disposal of each workman shareholder owning a share. * 
 
 These $500 cannot be employed except, in the construction of workmen's homes 
 according to the plans hereunto annexed, which the shareholders accept. 
 
 Art. 8. Every owner of a share, or subscriber to obligations, is considered as 
 having taken communication of the Statutes, and he formally binds himself to execute 
 them. 
 
 Art. 9. The amount of the shares and obligations is payable at the head office 
 of the Society in one or more payments, $20 at least on subscribing, and $20 on 
 account, month by month; for the shares the full value should be paid, before the entry 
 into enjoyment of the house, and for the obligations, on the final reception of the 
 works. 
 
 These dates of payment shall be determined by the General Assembly. 
 
 Art. 10. In default of payment, and after demand by letter, acknowledged by 
 the delinquent to have been received, or the non-reception of which is a cause of 
 justification, a decision to recover in law may be decided upon by the Council of 
 Administration. This decision shall be sent to the subscj-iber in arrears, by the man- 
 ager, and also by letter ; if, after the delay of one month, he does not give satisfaction, 
 suit will be take nor the forfeiture pronounced, as the General Assembly, may decide. 
 
 Art. 11. The shares can only be transferred in exceptional cases ; in the case of 
 the decease of the owner, when the widow, the eldest son (being of age), or the tutor 
 to the minor children, have made within the delay of the year which follows the 
 death, the declaration by letter that she cannot continue the obligations entered into 
 by her late husband ; when one of the shareholders, not having done his duty, has put 
 himself in the position of being expelled by the General Assembly or who, on account 
 of his position having become precarious, sends in his resignation. In a word, when 
 for any reason whatever, one of the houses belonging to the Society becomes vacant, 
 and the General Assembly has voted its occupation to any workman making appli- 
 cation for it, and fulfilling the conditions of admission adopted by the Society. The 
 register shall note this change, which will be signed by the new member. This trans- 
 fer includes all the rights and privileges appertaining to the share transferred. 
 
 Art. 12. The obligations may be transferred at will, and, according to the cases 
 above indicated, is the same for shareholders; these transfers maybe made by simple 
 declaration made before the justice of the peace of the canton, who examines the title 
 with the transferrer and transferee at the place reserved for that purpose, the whole 
 with previous consent of the Society. The rights and obligations appertaining to 
 each share follows the share, no matter in whose hands it may pass. 
 
 Art. 14. The widows and orphans may, as has been said in Article 11, remain 
 owners of the shares of their auteurs, if they see their way to fulfil the obligations 
 which these latter assumed. In the contrary case their account will be made in the 
 following manner : to the credit all the sums paid, deduction made of the interest at 
 4 per cent, of the capital ($450) for each share, and capitalised according to the 
 instalments which were paid on the capital ; on the debit side the decrease in value 
 of the house occupied by the shareholder, and the cost of appropriation and of reno- 
 
 * Nevertheless when the price of the immovable exceeds the 1500 foreseen, the balance, which generally 
 s not paid until after the entry into enjoyment of the place, shall be taken from the reserve fund, and 
 the price amounts to ^600 each member will be allowed five obligations instead of four. 
 
33^ 
 
 vation of the said house, the whole according to the account kept in the individual 
 account book, keeping the account by debit and credit, and in such a way that the 
 successor shall not be defrauded when taking the immovables abandoned. 
 
 The procedure is the same with regard to those who, for one reason or another, 
 cease to be members of the Association ; a commission of three merabei-s at least, to 
 which the transferrer or his assign may add an expert, who has a deliberative voice 
 with the said members of the aforesaid commission, whether he be or be not taken 
 into the Society, shall agree as to the estimate of the decrease in value, and the cost 
 of renewing and repairing the immovable abandoned or transferred. 
 
 This commission should always keep an account of the increase or the decrease 
 of the immovable, no matter what may be the cause. 
 
 The amount in excess shall be given to the transferrer on his simple discharge, if 
 he has the power to give it. This discharge should in eveiy case be subject to enre- 
 gistration. On the suggestion of this commission, the General Assembly may, in 
 any state of the case, allow a sum as consolation to the transferrers or assigns, who, 
 by I'eason of successive misfortune, may be considered worthy of this mark of interest. 
 This award shall be taken from the reserve fund, and shall serve above all, in whole or 
 in part, to equalise the debit of the transferrer should it not be equal to the credit. 
 
 Art. 15. The shareholders or mortgagers who lose their ownership should at 
 once make a declaration at the head office, so that the manager may take all necessary 
 measures ; duplicates will be given. 
 
 Art. J.6. For the security of the obligations heretofore created, the Society first 
 mortgages and hypothecs the immovables belonging to it ; moreover, as the partial 
 instalments on the obligations are only demanded in pioportion as the works advance, 
 and when the business capital is employed in the building of the said immovable, 
 and that accordiug to the ordinary custom, the balance for the said buildings should 
 only be paid on the final reception of the work, and when the shareholders, having 
 already paid to the Society, as rent, certain sums ; and when the reserve shall have 
 attained an amount of certain importance, the lenders or bearers of obligations have 
 every required security. 
 
 Art. 17. The immovables of the Society shall be insured against fire in a solvent 
 company ; the premiums are taken, like all other costs and expenses of administration, 
 from the reserve fund. 
 
 Each shareholder shall be bound under penalty of a fine, which the Society shall 
 fix by means of its lesser regulations which the General Constituent Assembly ampli- 
 fies, to keep the house entrusted to him in good order and to make the lessee's re- 
 pairs, and even to make those repairs which are considered in law as lessor's repairs, 
 if they be produced by any negligence whatever on his part. In the contrary case 
 ■(grosses reparations) lessors' repairs are at the cost of the Society, who pays it out of 
 the reserve fund. 
 
 Art. 18. The repayment of the obligations or hypothecs is made in the follow- 
 ing manner: Suppose the Society to be composed of one hundred shares, and that 
 monthly rent is fixed at $5 per house, each month a payment of $5 would be paid — 
 that is to say, in order to pay about $40 interest and to pay back from obligations 
 which are designated by the drawing by lot, we perceive that the interest and capi- 
 tal is thus decreased each month ; or if it be preferred, the society would accept these 
 payments every quarter, then the mode of paying the sinking fund would be ditferent 
 while resting on the same basis. 
 
 Art. 27. The reserve fund or loan fund would be formed by means of special 
 weekly payments, the amount of which will be determined by the General Constituent 
 Assembly; it is made up of public gifts and receipts from fgtes, amusements, small 
 lotteries, etc., which the Society has at its headquarters, whenever the council of 
 administration decide to have them ; also, from fines which each member of the assem- 
 blies must pay for inexcusable absence. 
 
 When the reserve fund shall have reached the fifth of the business capital, half 
 of it may be applied to the payment of obligations. 
 
 Art. 30. Any shareholder may borrow the money necessary to pay his rent or 
 monthly instalment when it is proved that he is temporarily embarrassed and unable 
 
833 
 
 to do SQ. The request should be made by him to the manager eight days before the 
 advance is required, so that the Council of Administration may have cognizance of it ; 
 a particular rule will indicate clearly the necessary formalities to be observed, in 
 order that each member may pi'ofit by the reserve fund or loan fund ; these special 
 loans are paid back to the said loan fund by means of weekly payments, equivalent 
 to about 10 per cent, of the borrowing member's wages. On liquidation the reserve 
 fund is divided in the following manner : 20 per cent, to the manager and 80 per 
 cent, to the shareholders. 
 
 LA SOLIDAEIT:^ DEMOCEATIQUB DBS LOCATAIEBS— THE DEMOCEATIC 
 
 UNION OP TENANTS. 
 
 SAINT-PIEREE-LES-CALAIS. 
 STATUTES. 
 TITLE 1st. 
 
 Art. 2. The object of the Society is to secure alike to proprietors, and to lessees 
 of leasing houses, the regular payment of their rents. This object is attained by the 
 establishment of a loan or reserve fund destined to secure defficiencies by coming to 
 the assistance of tenants unable to pay their rent, by lending them the money 
 necessary for that purpose. 
 
 TITLE 11 — BUSINESS CAPITAL, SHARES. 
 
 Art. 5. The business capital is fixed at , divided in shares of $20.00 
 
 each ; they may be increased according to the needs of the Society and the number 
 of members, by the decisions by the ordinary or extraordinary general assemblies 
 convoked for that purpose. 
 
 Art. 6. There is only one kind of share which is nominative; the rate of interest 
 is fixed at a maximum of 4 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Each shareholder should own one share for each $1,000 or part of $1,000 of 
 the value of the immovable he occupies. 
 
 Art. 13. The duties of the manager consist in keeping the accounts of the 
 Society, collecting the rents, informing the members of the solvency and conduct of 
 their co-tenants,* sueing all tenants in arrears, and, finally, securing vacant houses 
 for members that require them. 
 
 They are also allowed to pass such leases as may be considered necessary, and 
 on the conditions set forth in the forms prepared by the General Assemblies, and 
 without power to alter them, unless duly authorised so to do; the conditions of 
 these leases will be discussed and decided on by common consent with the Society 
 of proprietors. 
 
 He may also exact security from solvent tenants in arrear, and accept from 
 them all pledges given — in a word, he will manage the Society for the general interest 
 and as a good father of a family, and to that end he will consult with the manager of 
 the Society of Proprietors or Lessors. 
 
 The manager will examine each request for a loan from the reserve fund that 
 will be made ''to him by an embarrassed tenant, and will immediately obtain a 
 decision upon such request from the Council of Administration. 
 
 Art. 21. The general expenses comprise the mterest on shares at 4 per cent, of 
 the paid-up capital, rent, and all payments, assurances, heating, lighting, office 
 furniture, &c., salary of manager and other necessary employees, and generally all 
 expenses made in the interest of the Society. 
 
 Art. 22. The profits are divided as follows: 15 per cent, for the creation of 
 a reserve fund; 10 per cent, will be allotted to the manager, and 75 per cent, to 
 
 * That is his behaviour as a tenant. 
 
334 
 
 the shareholders as dividend. The payments of interest and dividend are made 
 at the place of business on the Ist April and the Isf October of each year, on 
 the production of the certificate on which mention is made, by the manager or 
 the administrator of the department, at the same time, of the CLUantity of rent due. 
 
 The reserve or loan fund is made up of a special weekly assessment, the extent 
 of which is determined by the General Constituent Assembly. It is increased by 
 public gifts and receipts from f&tes and amusements, small lotteries, &c., given by 
 the Society at the headquarters of the Society, whenever tbo Council of Administration 
 may decide ; and from fines which each member of the assemblies may incur by 
 inexcusable absence. 
 
 Art. 23. Bveiy shareholder may at some future period, borrow the, money 
 necessary for the payment of his rent or monthly instalment when he is^-for some 
 excusable and well-established reason — unable to fulfil his obligation ; a, -request 
 should be made by him and addressed to the manager eight days in advance, so that 
 the Council of Administration may take cognizance of it; the particular regulation, 
 will clearly indicate the formalities necessary to enable a member to benefit from 
 the reserve fund as a loan fund ; these special loans shall be paid back to the 
 said fund by means of weekly instalments, equal to about 10 per cent, of the 
 salary of the member borrowing. When the reserve fund shall attain the half of 
 the business capital, the special assessment allotted for its creation may cease ; but 
 it may at any time become exigible, if the reserve fund should sink below that 
 proportion. 
 
 On liquidation, the reserve fund shall be divided in the following manner : 30 
 per cent, to the manager, and 80 per cent, to the shareholders. 
 
 ANONYMOUS SOCIETY OF EHEIMS. 
 
 FOR THE IMPEOVEMENT OP WOEKINGMEN'S HOUSES. 
 
 This Society was founded in 1882 by 157 shareholders belonging to all known 
 branches of human industry, whose sole object was to improve small dwellings, both 
 for morals and hygiene, and to do this by cooperation. Acting at their own risk and 
 peril, their disinterestedness was proved by their Statutes, which restrict the divi- 
 dends to 4 per cent., whatever may be the prosperity of the Society. 
 
 The business capital is 1100,000, of which $75,000 are paid. 
 
 The Society is under the management of nine commissioners, whose services are 
 given gratuitously. 
 
 The type of house chosen is pavillion in shape, detached and divided in four, each 
 angle containing two separate stories, which gives eight dwellings in each pavillion. 
 Each dwelling comprises an entry, two rooms, a kitchen and a water-closet. The 
 tenants of the first floor have a cellar, and those of the second have a garret. The 
 rents of these dwellings include taxes ; the price for the first story is $2 per month, 
 and for the second story $2.20 per month. 
 
 The Society has built 14 houses, containing 104 dwellings. 
 
 In 1888 the shareholders were given a dividend of 2.34 per cent, on the paid up 
 cepital. 
 
 MFjSSES. FANIBN, SENIOE and JUNIOR 
 
 BOOT AND SHOE MANUFACTURERS, AT SILLERS, PAS DE CALAIS. 
 
 Messrs. Fanien, father and son, have built, in Sillers, 160 houses for workingmen's 
 dwellings. 
 
 The houses built by Messrs. Fanien leave nothing to be desired as regards health. 
 They are built on the high road, and are generally surrounded by gardens, cultivated 
 ground or lawns, so that there is a free circulation of air. The custom is to wash 
 out the ground floors every week, and to whitewash the interior once a year. "Water 
 
835 
 
 is abundant in the locality, which is the first in which the first known artesian wells 
 were sunk. Water flows naturallj' from the fountains in the lower part of thetown ; 
 in the upper parts of the town it is only necessary to bore 26 or 33 feet to come 
 upon a spring of watej\ and Mons. Panien has placed a well in front of each group of 
 workingmen's hous^j" ts 
 
 There is a driT^" h.e yard belonging to each house, which crosses the ground 
 floor and empties ii _^ ^sjer drain under the sidewalk, into which flows the rain 
 
 water and all the wa'l '"^'^ "•' ^s been used in the house. 
 
 By dividing his Wjjg » ...to 3 rooms in the first storey and 2 rooms on the 
 ground floor, Mr. Panien allows his tenants the opportunity of separating the sexes, 
 which, unfortunately, is done in no other workingmen's houses in the district. ,*^ "s-! 
 
 The cost of building these houses varies considerably. They often cost $500, and 
 sometimes $4>^0, according to the times and the cost of material. Some 20 were 
 built in l8?5, which cost $393, not counting the price of the land. In 188Y some 20 
 others wereisuilt on the same plan and in the same street, which cost fSST, without 
 the land. 
 
 It must be observed that, apart from the mason's work which is done by a 
 contractor, everything is prepared in Mons. Panien's workshops, he being his own 
 builder and architect. 
 
 Calculating for the land around them, the houses cost about $440; they rent at 
 $0.50 per week ($26.00 per year). Mons. Panien himself pays the taxes and makes 
 the repairs, which are often considerable. 
 
 In conclusion, these houses at the prices stated above, give on an average,a 
 rough profit of 5 p.c. or 4 p.c. net. An attempt was made to build 12 houses of 
 larger size with garden attached, costing about $500, in which it was proposed to 
 lodge several families, or workmen intending to open a shop at home; but the 
 attempt did not succeed, and it was never possible to rent the houses at more than 
 $0.60 per week, or about $31.20 per year. Since then the houses have all been 
 built on the plan ol those varying from $351 to $393. 
 
 Mons. Panien has endeavored to induce his workmen to become proprietors of 
 the houses rented by them, by inserting in the lease a promise of sale under very 
 favorable conditions. 
 
 The selling price is fixed at $360, that is to say over and above the cost, payable 
 in ten yeai's by means ofa weekly instalment of $0.55 retained on the tenant's wages; 
 the rent retained being $0.40 more. In the event of the contract being broken 
 Mons. Panien reimburses the workman in the full amount of the payments made. 
 
 MULHAN'S SOCIETY OP WOEKDSTGMEN'S CITIES. 
 
 FOUNDED AT MULHANS IN 1853.* 
 
 Extract From, the Statutes. 
 
 The object of the Society is : 
 
 Art. 1 a. — The construction in Mulhans and its vicinity of workingmen's houses. 
 Each house is to be built for one family without communication with any other, and 
 besides the building, includes a yard and garden. 
 
 h. The locality of the said houses at moderate rents which must not exceed 
 8 p.c. on the cost price, an amount necessary to cover interest and general cost. 
 
 c. The.sale of the house by successive payments, to workingmen, at simple cost 
 
 price. 
 
 Art. 13. The object of the shareholders being to provide for the well-being of 
 
 the working class by means of healthy dwellings, and to assist workmen in the 
 purchase of a home by selling the houses and their dependencies at cost price, each 
 share in the Society can give a right to only : 
 
 Ist. Interest at 4 per cent, per annum. 
 
 2nd. To repayment of the capital. 
 
 The shareholders deny themselves all right to any profit whatsoever. 
 
336 
 
 CONDITIONS FOR ADMISSION TO THE PROVISIONAL PURCHASE OF A HOUSE. 
 
 For the purchase of a house costing under $600. A fii'st p^vment of |60, and 
 monthly payments of $5.00. *" f).-'^'^'^ 
 
 For the purchase of a house costing from $600 to $720. . ,kyment of $70, 
 
 and monthly payments of $6 00. aseessir - 
 
 For a house of $800 and over, the payments are $80 f i, l-''^' t^'st instalment and 
 monthly payments of $7.00. ^■^*"' '^'^T" 
 
 The deed of sale is definitive only when a thir . -i ./^"'^''ce has been paid. The 
 huy^ is debited with the price of the house and creditllt? with his payments, all 
 vlwiRg reciprocal interest at 5 per cent. 
 
 El the event of the deed being cancelled for default in monthly xiayments, the 
 purchaser is bound to leave the house on a a simple notification, and i^ rtt-iijrn it in 
 good condition under penalty of damages-interests. His account wiU .t^*' stated as. 
 follows : , '^ 
 
 Eent calculated at $3.20 per month for a house costing $480. 
 
 " •' " $3.60 " " " $520 to $560. 
 
 " " $4.00 " " " $600 to $640. 
 
 " " $4.40 " '• " $660 to $720. 
 
 " " " $4.80 " " " $760 to $840. 
 
 And deducting the rent from the payments made, the balance is to be paid to 
 the tenant on receipt of the keys, the book and receipts given by the Society. 
 
 The property must be preserved in the same state as when it was sold ; the orna- 
 mental and fruit trees, and the fences are kept in order by the proprietor, who must 
 also keep his garden in good cultivation and not build on it. 
 
 The proprietor can neither sell, nor sublet during ten years, without authoriza- 
 tion from the Society. 
 
 The entire payment, capital and interest in full, should be paid within a maxi- 
 mum delay of fourteen years. 
 
 From 1854 to 1888 the Society built 1,124 houses at a cost of $697,055, which 
 were sold for the same amount; on the 31st of December, 1888, there remained a. 
 balance of $89,990 due. Amounts paid by borrowers since 1854, including capital 
 and interest, came'to $916,804. 
 
 Under the conditions of payment as stated above, a house valued at $600 will 
 be paid for in 13 years and 5 months, the purchaser having paid a total sum of 
 $865.20. 
 
 If he had rented the same house at $3.60 per month he would have paid about 
 $579.60. 
 
 The house has, therefore, really only cost him a monthly savings of $1.77 more 
 than his rent. 
 
 The ground occupied by each house is 440 feet in superficies and the garden 1,320 
 feet, in all 1,760 feet superficies, giving per group of 4 houses 1,760 feet of buildings . 
 surrounded by 5,280 feet of gardens.* 
 
 With its bonus the Society has erected a hall or asylum capable of containing 
 25 children, and has since added two other rooms to it. It has opened a bakery that 
 delivers bread at from 1 to 2 cents per loaf of 5J lbs. cheaper than the other city 
 bakeries- It has established hot baths where baths with towels can be had at the 
 price of $0,075. Finally, it has constructed a large pond or basin, 1,232 feet in super- 
 ficies ; it is filled with hot water thrown from a large industrial establishment which 
 is worked by an engine of 500 horse-power. A bath costs 1 cent, and more than 1,000 
 are given every month. "Women may wash their clothes here free of charge. 
 
 *Mulhans-Alsace. Manufacturing city of 70,000 souls. The workingmen's cities of Mulhans have 
 served as a type for many other institutions of the same nature ; they were built by Mons. Bmile Muller, 
 architect, and their success is due to the energy and philanthropy of Mons. Jean Dollfus, whose sole work 
 
 this is. ,..,,. 
 
 * A gives an exact representation of the situation of the houses m the workingmen's city of Mulhans. 
 One group of 4 houses in 1888 cost .$4,000, of which J*00 was the cost of the land. 
 
337 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 THE DE NABTEE COMPAlSrY AT WILLEBEOECK. 
 
 In 1886 Messrs. de Naeyer & Co., addressed the following circular to their 
 woi'kmen : — 
 
 To the workmen of the de Naeyer and Co. Society at Willebroeh. 
 
 When a few months ago, on the time of the sad occurrences at Charlcroi and at 
 Liege which caused such grief to all who are interested in the workingman, and who 
 try by every possible means to improve his condition, I had occasion to address you 
 by means of a circular distributed among you, I said to you : " One of my most 
 constant subjects of thought and care has been to instil in the workman a spirit of 
 thrift and economy. When the day comes that the workingman shall well under- 
 stand what well-organized savings mean, that day shall see a marked improvement in 
 his well-being, for, let it not be overlooked it is not large wages that gives happiness 
 to the household, it is first of all order, good-will and economy." 
 
 I added," that to encourage thrift, our Society would still continue to sell, for cash, 
 flour and other articles considerably below cost, but that the profits realized on its 
 credit sales (you are aware that the discount on cash sales is about 25 per cent.) 
 would be divided among them, and that moreover, to put it within everyone's power 
 to profit by the advantages attached to cash purchases, advances in money will be 
 made to households which circumstances beyond their control, have straitened 
 pecuniarily." 
 
 We have, since then, continually endeavored to stimulate still further a love of 
 thrift, and to improve the workingman's condition without exacting any special 
 effort or sacrifice on his part, but only good will and persevei-ence. 
 
 We believe we have discovered a happy means by which to reach the end we 
 have always had in view and so much desired to attain. 
 
 It is to assist the workman to become the proprietor of a house and garden, 
 whilst only paying a usual rate of rent during a few years. 
 
 The following is the process by which We expect to obtain this result : 
 
 An anonymous society will be established with a capital of, for instance, $2,000,- 
 000. This capital will be more a security than a circulating capital, and therefore 
 we will be satisfied with a call of 10 per cent. only. 
 
 This Society will buy or build workingmen's houses of, from $200 to $400 value. 
 
 In exceptional cases the houses may be higher in value. 
 
 When the paid capital of $200,000 has all been expended the Society will have 
 recourse to the Savings Bank, who will loan it the money required at the low rates 
 asked when all possible security is given. 
 
 This Society must sustain no loses, therefore it will only build or buy houses on 
 the express condition that the persons asking for these houses for their workmen, 
 servants &;c, shall give a guarantee in exact value to the houses to be bought or 
 built. 
 
 Intending purchasers may .submit plans of houses, and the Society may adopt 
 them if they answer all demands of hygiene and economy. 
 
 As the houses will be guaranteed by the intending purchasers the privilege may 
 at times granted to the guarantees to erect them, provided it be agreed to, by the 
 Society and the workmen. 
 
 It is, of course, understood that the Society remains proprietor of house and 
 land until they are entirely paid for. 
 
 No sale of liquor will be allowed in these houses within fifteen years from the 
 date of their occupation nor in any case before the house is entirely paid for. 
 
 The tenant will pay 7 per cent, at least on the amount expended (which is 
 generally less than the usual rent). 
 
 Prom this 7 per cent, or more will be deducted the interest due the Savings Bank, 
 and the remainder will be used as a sinking fund. 
 
 20—22 
 
338 
 
 By this means the tenant may become owner of the house within eighteen years 
 or thereabout, and when the whole amount has been entirely paid, then the final 
 deed of sale will be passed. 
 
 The amounts paid monthly will be regularly deposited in -the savings bank, 
 except the part due the Society for capital paid out. 
 
 This position in regard to the Savings Bank, will be maintained so long as the 
 latter remains the Society's creditoi-. 
 
 Then come the exceptional or extraordinary cases, such as : 
 
 1st. Decease of the occupant ; 
 
 2nd. Misunderstanding between the guarantee and the occupant; 
 
 3rd. The occupant voluntarily leaving the house, or failing to pay. 
 
 1st. Decease of the occupant : 
 
 His rights may be transferred to the family, the guarantee agreeing. If not, 
 the family must furnish another guarantee. If this be found impossible of accom- 
 plishment, the Society may replace the deceased, or cause him to be replaced by the 
 guarantee, credit being given the family for the sums paid the Society (interest and 
 sinking fund), with deduction of 5 per cent, for rent. It is, of course, understood 
 that if the Society replaces the deceased tenant, the first guarantee is dischai-ged. 
 
 2nd. Misunderstanding between the occupant and the guarantee : 
 
 The tenant must furnish another guarantee agreed to by the Society, otherwise 
 the latter has a right to assume the tenant's position or to make the guarantee 
 assume it, and the same privilege as in case of decease, that is, account will be taken 
 of the amounts paid to the Society (interest and sinking fund), deduction of 5 per 
 cent, being made for rent. 
 
 3rd. The workman voluntarily leaving the house, or failing to pay : ^ 
 
 By so doing the tenant loses all his rights, except what may have been paid 
 ov^r 6 per cent. 
 
 In such case the Society must discharge the guarantee, unless it prefers to 
 transfer the house to the guarantee under the same conditions as those stipulated in 
 case of decease or misunderstanding. 
 
 In any of these events the person occupying the house must leave it voluntarily, 
 otherwise he will be forced to do so by. legal means, and the costs entailed by this 
 eviction be deducted from the amount coming to him. 
 
 Men of standing in financial and industrial circles, having been informed by us, 
 have recognized the importance and all the usefulness of this Society, now in process 
 of formation, and are all willing to give their gratuitous services as managers, which, 
 in itself, is a moral and material guarantee. 
 
 But an institution so important as this cannot be expected to work in a day, 
 besides the Government must intervene.* There are, moreover, formalities to be 
 fulfilled, statutes to be drawn up and submitted to the approval of competent 
 authority, consequently its final organization is postponed ; therefore, in order to 
 hasten the realization of our project, we have spoken to the directors of the Savings 
 Bank and Eetiring Fund, and have informed them that we are ready, as an experi- 
 mental and practical trial, ourselves to build from fifty to one hundred houses to be 
 put at the disposal of our workmen under the exact conditions mentioned in our 
 project, so that they will benefit of precisely the same advantages and pay only the 
 same rate of interest that we ourselves pay to the Savings Bank, and the balance, as 
 before stated, go to the redeeming fund. In thisway, by the ordinary rate of rent 
 regularly paid, they may at the end of a few years become proprietors of their 
 homes. 
 
 Tor instance, a house costing $320 rented for |22.40 per year, allowing for 3 
 per cent, interest to the Savings Bank, will become the property of the workman in 
 about 18 years, as shown by the following figures : — 
 
 A house costing $320, and paying 7 per cent. := $22.40 per year. 
 
 *The intervention here referred to is exemption from the tax imposed in the beginning and of that on 
 deeds of mortgS.ge. — J. H. 
 
339 
 
 Interest at 3 per cent, to be deducted. 
 
 T*<i*»i r»/l o 
 
 Annual 
 
 Amounts 
 
 to 
 
 bear Interest. 
 
 Amounts 
 
 for 
 
 Sinking Fund. 
 
 Amounts 
 
 Amounts 
 
 X cl XUUo, 
 
 'Payments. 
 
 Redeemed. 
 
 Remaining Due. 
 
 
 S cts. 
 
 $cts. 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 1 cts. 
 
 1st year. 
 
 22.40 
 
 9,600 
 
 12,800 
 
 12,800 
 
 307,200 
 
 2nd " 
 
 22.40 
 
 9,216 
 
 13,184 
 
 25,984 
 
 294,016 
 
 3rd " 
 
 22.40 
 
 8,820 
 
 13,580 
 
 39,564 
 
 280,436 
 
 4th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 8,412 
 
 13,988 
 
 53,552 
 
 266,448 
 
 5th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 7.992 
 
 14,408 
 
 67,960 
 
 252,040 
 
 6th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 7,560 
 
 14,840 
 
 82,800 
 
 237,200 
 
 7th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 7,096 
 
 15,304 
 
 98,084 
 
 221,916 
 
 8th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 6,654 
 
 15,626 
 
 113,830 
 
 206,170 
 
 9th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 6,184 
 
 16,216 
 
 130,046 
 
 189,954 
 
 10th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 5,698 
 
 16,702 
 
 146,748 
 
 173,252 
 
 11th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 5,196 
 
 17,204 
 
 163,952 
 
 156,048 
 
 12th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 4,680 
 
 17,720 
 
 181,672 
 
 138,328 
 
 13th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 4,148 
 
 18,252 
 
 199,804 
 
 120,076 
 
 14th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 3,600 
 
 19,800 
 
 218,724 
 
 101,276 
 
 15th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 3,036 
 
 19,364 
 
 238,088 
 
 81,912 
 
 16th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 2,454 
 
 19,946 
 
 258,034 
 
 61,966 
 
 17th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 1,858 
 
 20,542 
 
 278,576 
 
 41,424 
 
 18th " 
 
 22.40 
 
 1,242 
 
 21,158 
 
 299,734 
 
 20,266 
 
 19th " 
 
 22.47 
 
 0,606 
 
 20,260 
 
 320,000 
 
 
 
 
 The directors of the Savings Bank have very favorably received our proposal 
 and shown themselves to be altogether in sympathy with our project, and the 
 negotiations already opened between us prove that they have given us their hearty 
 co-operation. We would here offer them our sincere thanks. They understand that 
 the purport of the matter is to use savings funds to encourage and propagate a spirit 
 of thrift and order, whilst making the saving useful and very profitable to the work- 
 ingman, and our gratification is very great at being able to ask you for no more 
 than 3 per cent, interest for this first transaction. 
 
 Therefore we would now announce to you that we are going to begin work, and 
 that those among you who wish to secure a home under the exceptionally advantar 
 geous conditions mentioned above, and heretofore unknown, should address them- 
 selves to the commission composed of twelve persons, employees, foremen and work- 
 men in our factories. This commission will take a note of the demand and make it 
 known. 
 
 This commission will discuss with the workmen the kind of house they would 
 like, its cost, and the size of garden attached, and, in a word, all the details and 
 importance of the building. 
 
 As soon as the house is finished and its cost established, the workman will be 
 given a book containing the printed conditions of the agreement; in this will be 
 entered every month the amounts paid and the amount still remaining due, so that 
 the workman can make himself acquainted with his position month by month. 
 
 Besides the improvement in his condition given by the acquisition of a home, 
 we could draw the workman's attention to the other advantages consequent on 
 becoming a proprietor, political and others. We prefer to reserve all mention of 
 them and to keep to the subject of his increased moral and material well-being. 
 
 Since this circular was published, 100 houses have been built and sold under the 
 conditions stated above. 
 
 LltQE SOCIETY FOE WOEKINGMBN'S HOUSES. 
 
 It was founded in 1867 with a capital of $300,500, entirely paid. The last divi- 
 dend paid was 2J per cent. Prom the time of its foundation to 1888, the society built 
 431 houses, 216 of which were sold at a total amount of $287,989, of which 1165,764 
 are yet owing. 
 
 20—22^ 
 
340 
 
 The principal object of the Society is to sell its houses to workmen by means of 
 monthly payments. The payments are so calculated that the house shall be paid in 
 15 or 18 years. 
 
 The Society accepts of anticipated payments; in case of delay in subsequent 
 monthly payments, the anticipated payments are applied to discharge those in arrears. 
 Should the workman who has made anticipated payments, be straitened in circum- 
 stances during a crisis, or in time of sickness, the Society, after the manner of a real 
 savings bank, allows him to withdraw a certain proportion of the amounts thus paid 
 by him in advance. This combination offers the following advantages to tenants : 
 
 1. More rapid payment of the cost of his house and a consequent decrease in 
 the amount of interest to be paid. 
 
 2. Secure investment of the money. 
 
 3. The assurance that in case of a crisis, the amounts he has paid will be of 
 assistance to him, without his being obliged to have recourse to borrowing or to buy- 
 ing on credit the necessaries of life. 
 
 The current accounts with tenants bear mutual interest at 5 per cent. 
 
 The Society reserves the right to cancel all contracts in case of known miscon- 
 duct, continued quarrels with neighbors and criminal condemnation. In case of the 
 deed being cancelled, the rent is calculated at 6J per cent, on the price of the house. 
 
 If from death or from other foreseen circumstances, independent of the buyer's 
 will, the latter cannot continue the deed, the Society may permit of it being cancelled 
 on terms to be agreed upon. 
 
 This article of the Statutes is followed by the following paragraph : 
 Observations. — It is important for purchasers that they should thoroughly under- 
 stand this article, which is altogether in their favor, and by which the Society becomes 
 for them a real Savings Bank. 
 
 Sevei'al cases may occur such as the following : 
 
 1. A workman may die after a few years, having fulfilled all his obligations, and 
 leaving a wife and children unable to fulfil the contract. 
 
 2. Or the wife may die and leave young children to their father's care, who is 
 thus prevented from continuing the contract. 
 
 3. Or else the husband or wife may become helpless through sickness or the 
 result of an accident, and the contract becomes too heavy a charge, 
 
 4. Or again, the children may be left orphans. 
 
 In these several circumstances the Society will allow the deed to be cancelled. 
 It will calculate as though the purchaser had been a mere tenant, and will return to 
 him, his wife, or his children, all the amounts paid over and above his rent and what 
 few repairs, if any, that may have to be done. The rate calculated for rent will never 
 exceed 6^ per cent, on the price of the house, and it may be even less according to 
 the circumstances of the family. 
 
341 
 
 Table of Sinking Fund on the cost of houses varying in price from $700 to $1,900, 
 
 with mutual interest at 5 p.c. 
 
 
 Am- 
 
 
 
 Am- 
 
 
 
 Am- 
 
 
 Price of 
 
 ounts to 
 
 Duration 
 
 Price of 
 
 ounts to 
 
 Duration 
 
 Price of 
 
 ounts to 
 
 Duration 
 
 the 
 
 be paid 
 
 of 
 
 the 
 
 be paid 
 
 of 
 
 the 
 
 be paid 
 
 of 
 
 House. 
 
 every 
 month . 
 
 Payments. 
 
 House. 
 
 every 
 month. 
 
 Payments. 
 
 House. 
 
 every 
 month . 
 
 Payments. 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 
 $ 
 
 $ 
 
 
 $ 
 
 $ 
 
 
 700 
 
 5 
 
 17 yrs. 3 mos . . 
 
 960 
 
 6 
 
 21 yrs. 6 mos . . 
 
 1,440 
 
 12 
 
 13 yrs. 3 mos 
 
 700 
 
 6 
 
 13 " 2 " 
 
 980 
 
 6 
 
 22 " 4 " 
 
 1,460 
 
 12 
 
 14 " 1 " 
 
 720 
 
 5 
 
 18 " 
 
 1,000 
 
 7 
 
 17 " 10 " 
 
 1,480 
 
 12 
 
 14 " 4 " 
 
 720 
 
 6 
 
 13 " 
 
 1,020 
 
 7 
 
 18 " 4 " 
 
 1,500 
 
 12 
 
 14 " 6 " 
 
 740 
 
 5 
 
 18 "10 mos.. 
 
 1,040 
 
 7 
 
 19 " 
 
 1,520 
 
 12 
 
 14 " 9 " 
 
 740 
 
 6 
 
 14 " 3 " 
 
 1,060 
 
 7 
 
 19 " 7 mos.. 
 
 1,540 
 
 12 
 
 15 " 1 " 
 
 760 
 
 5 
 
 19 " 8 " 
 
 1,080 
 
 7 
 
 20 " 2 " 
 
 1,560 
 
 13 
 
 13 " 10 " 
 
 760 
 
 6 
 
 14 " 10 " 
 
 1,100 
 
 8 
 
 17 " 
 
 1,580 
 
 13 
 
 14 " 
 
 780 
 
 5 
 
 20 " 7 " 
 
 1,120 
 
 8 
 
 17 " 3 mos.. 
 
 1,600 
 
 13 
 
 14 " 3 mos. 
 
 780 
 
 6 
 
 15 " 5 " 
 
 1,140 
 
 8 
 
 17 " 9 " 
 
 1,620 
 
 13 
 
 14 " 5 " 
 
 800 
 
 5 
 
 21 " 6 " 
 
 1,160 
 
 8 
 
 18 " 7 " 
 
 1,640 
 
 13 
 
 14 " 9 " 
 
 800 
 
 6 
 
 16 " 1 " 
 
 1,180 
 
 8 
 
 18 " 9 " 
 
 1,660 
 
 13 
 
 15 " 
 
 820 
 
 5 
 
 22 " 6 " 
 
 1,200 
 
 8 
 
 19 " 3 " 
 
 1,680 
 
 13 
 
 15 "3 mos. 
 
 820 
 
 6 
 
 IG " 7 " 
 
 1,220 
 
 9 
 
 16 " 5 " 
 
 1,700 
 
 14 
 
 13 " 11 " 
 
 840 
 
 5 
 
 23 " 7 " 
 
 1,240 
 
 10 
 
 14 " 5 " 
 
 1,720 
 
 14 
 
 14 " 2 " 
 
 840 
 
 6 
 
 17 " 3 " 
 
 1,260 
 
 10 
 
 14 " 8 " 
 
 1,740 
 
 14 
 
 14 " 5 " 
 
 860 
 
 5 
 
 24 " 7 " 
 
 1,280 
 
 10 
 
 15 " 1 " 
 
 1,760 
 
 14 
 
 14 " 7 " 
 
 860 
 
 6 
 
 17 " 11 " 
 
 1,300 
 
 10 
 
 15 " 5 " 
 
 1,780 
 
 14 
 
 14 " 10 " 
 
 880 
 
 5 
 
 25 " 9 " 
 
 1,320 
 
 10 
 
 15 " 9 " 
 
 1,800 
 
 14 
 
 15 " 2 " 
 
 880 
 
 6 
 
 18 " 7 " 
 
 1,340 
 
 11 
 
 14 " 2 " 
 
 1,820 
 
 14 
 
 15 " 5 " 
 
 900 
 
 5 
 
 26 " 11 " 
 
 1,360 
 
 11 
 
 14 " 4 " 
 
 1,840 
 
 14 
 
 15 " 10 " 
 
 900 
 
 6 
 
 19 " 3 " 
 
 1,380 
 
 11 
 
 14 " 7 " 
 
 1,860 
 
 15 
 
 14 " 4 " 
 
 920 
 
 6 
 
 20 " 
 
 1,400 
 
 11 
 
 14 " 11 " 
 
 1,880 
 
 15 
 
 14 " 7 " 
 
 940 
 
 6 
 
 20 " 9 mos.. 
 
 1,420 
 
 11 
 
 15 " 8 " 
 
 1,900 
 
 15 
 
 14 " 10 " 
 
 TOUENAI SOCIETY FOE THE CONSTEUCTIOX OF CHEAP HOUSES. 
 
 Plate A gives the plans and elevation of houses built by the Society. They are 
 of the kind chosen by the Mulhouse Society and adopted by many other Societies for 
 the construction of workingmen'.s houses. 
 
 Mons. Thomas Fumi^re, architect of the city of Tournai, thus describes these 
 houses for which he has himself made the plans. 
 
 Of the different models of dwellings so far built, the arrangement to be preferred 
 is that by groups of foui's, iu the centre of a garden which is divided into equal parts, 
 giving one to each proprietor. By this arrangement the air is allowed to circulate 
 freely around the building, and the surrounding vegetation absorbs any miasma in- 
 herent to inhabited localities ; it has also the advantage in case of a conflagration of 
 preventing the spread of the fire; finally, the rooms are healthier and brighter on 
 account of openings being practicable on two sides of the house. 
 
 The garden encloi^es two sides of the house, the front and half th6 gable end, as 
 far as the dividing fence of the next garden. Thus each dwelling and its garden are 
 isolated. 
 
 The surface covered by the building is 385 square feet and by the garden 1,392 — 
 in all 1,777 square feet. The garden is not only a great advantage and an ornament, 
 but a great pleasui-e as well. The proprietor draws from it part of the vegetables re- 
 quired for the table, which may be valued at $6 or '$8 per year. But if a high value 
 is put upon it, it id mostly on account of the pleasure it affords the workingman and 
 his wife and children. The children especially, if they be young, can play in it with- 
 out being exposed to the danger of our crowded streets. 
 
 Eeceiving light and air on two sides, the interior division and ventilation are 
 excellent. On the ground floor there is a kitchen, a living room, and a small room 
 
 E 
 
342 
 
 that can be used as a sleeping-room; on the next floor there are three bed-chambers. 
 The floor of the lower storey, or ground floor, is 34 inches from the ground. There 
 is a porch before the door, and stone stairs of four steps. The door opens into the 
 kitchen, which is lighted bj' a glazed window over the door, and by a small window 
 20 inches wide by 34 high, opening beside the door. The kitchen is paved with well- 
 baked bricks set in mortar, at the end of the kitchen are the stairs. The first step 
 of the cellar is of cut stone to prevent moisture. The space between the stairways 
 is divided and cupboards are formed the back of the steps and closed in by the door 
 shutting the cellar. By this means, and at small expense, a very useful contrivance 
 is provided, one very necessary in small kitchens. 
 
 The cellar extends below all the house which is thereby dryer and more healthy. 
 From the_ kitchen a door opens into the living room, which is lighted and ventilated 
 by two windows ; this may also be used as the sleeping room of the father and 
 mother. 
 
 On the first floor are two bed-chambers for the children. The landing is lighted 
 by a glass door in one of the rooms. The enclosure of the garret stairs requiring the 
 same expense as the cellar stairs, the space under the steps has been utilized in the 
 same way. 
 
 The garret should be made as small as possible, so as to allow of its being used 
 for storing clothes or wood, etc. If it be made larger the proprietor would be tempted 
 to arrange rooms there, which they would rent, although the conditions of such rooms 
 would be unfavorable to health. 
 
 The privies are covered with tiles and surmounted by a ventilating pipe, and, to 
 prevent any bad odour, are outside, next to the house. The pits are in masonry and 
 covered inside with a coating of cement. 
 
 The cost price and the rules for payment are the same as for houses in the 
 workingmen's cities of Mulhouse (see page 353). 
 
 ANONYMOUS SOCIETY OF MAECIJSTELLE AND COUILLET, AT 
 
 COUILLBT. 
 
 This Society has built houses for its workmen, and gives them every facility of 
 payment. Thej^ pay one-fifth (i) in cash, and then by means of an annual instalment 
 which does not exceed an ordinaiy rental, and are thus enabled to free the property 
 and become propj'ietors of their homes in eight years. 
 
 The following table gives the practical conditions regulating the sales. 
 
 Type No. 2. 
 
 Cost of house and ground 
 
 To be paid when the deed is signed 
 
 Remains to be paid in eight years 
 
 Besides interest at 4 per cent, to be added to the sinking fund as follows : 
 
 First year per fortnight 
 
 2nd 
 
 3rd 
 4th 
 5th 
 Oth 
 7th 
 8th 
 
 298 
 098 
 098 
 !«S 
 998 
 798 
 798 
 598 
 
 The houses are built over cellars, are two storeys high with garret, and consist 
 of five rooms. The garden and houses cover 3,500 feet superficies. 
 
 a 
 
343 
 
 The regulations concerning the dwellings contain the following clauses — 
 _ An. 3. Workmen purchasers are free to dispose of their labor, and the Society, 
 on its part, preserves the right lo deny itself their assistance. 
 
 In the event of their ceasing to work for the Society, for any cause or motive 
 whatsoever, their payments must still continue as in the past, with the only difference 
 that instead of paying interest at 4 per cent, they will, from the date of leaving the 
 Society's employ, pay interest at 6 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Art. 4. "When a workman has proved that he owns a piece of land, healthily 
 situated and large enough, and free fj-om all charges, he may speak to the Society, 
 who will build him a house suited to his requirements, the ' cost of which will not 
 exceed $240 to $520. This amount will be paid to the Society in the same way as 
 used for the payment of houses belonging to the Society. 
 
 Art. 7. In case of death, the amounts paid out will be paid to the widow if such 
 is her wish, and the house will be taken by the Society. 
 
 The society has built a great number of houses which it rents at prices varying 
 from $1,20 to $2.20 per month. 
 
 BENEYOLENT BUEBAU AND WOEKINGMEN'S HOUSES IIST BELGIUM. 
 
 workingmen's houses at nivelles. 
 
 Practical manner of helping the Working Glass to secure Capital and Property. 
 
 In 1859 the Benevolent Bureau of Nivelles adopted a project presented by Dr. 
 LeBon, the object of which was to enable the poorest and most impecunious workman to 
 become the proprietor of a home. 
 
 To carry out this scheme the management erected a block of twelve houses, * 
 built in brick and affording all possible conditions of comfort and hygiene. The cost 
 of each house was $324.30, not including the price of the garden. 
 
 In building these houses, the Benevolent Bureau of Nivelles obliged itself to 
 assess an interest of 4 per cent, only, on the capital invested, and to renounce any 
 profit. The annual rent was settled at $12. 97, to which was added insurance and 
 cost of repairs, which raised the rent to $15.00 per year, or $1.25 per month. 
 
 The houses were let at this rate, but the tenants were obliged to pay, besides, a 
 monthly sum of $0.80. The management deposits this sum in the Savings Bank in 
 the tenant's name, and it always belongs, capital and interest, to the tenant. But, 
 if it is left in the Savings Bank, it enables him to become the owner of his house in 
 about twenty years. 
 
 The houses built in 1881 are all rented, and in 1884 the title deeds of twelve 
 houses were formally made over to their occupants. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF THE BENEVOLENT BUREAU OP WAVEE. 
 
 From 1869 to 1882 the management built 50 houses. The houses are all on the 
 same plan ; a cellar, two rooms on the ground floor, two rooms above, and a garret. 
 A stable and privy. They form a block. Each house covers 396 feet superficies. The 
 management rents small gardens to the tenants. They generally cultivate early 
 potatoes in them, which brings them an annual benefit of from $8 to $10. 
 
 The houses are rented on terms which enable the tenants to pay for them in 
 twenty yearly payments. The management draws only 4 per cent, interest on its 
 capital. The following is the plan of operations of the Benevolent Bureau of 
 Wavre : — 
 
 * This block resembles identically the blocks of workingmen's houses in Canada. Each house 
 contains two rooms in each of the two storeys, and a cellar and garret. A garden 1,320 feet in size, which 
 unfortunately is found very rarely in our cities, is attached to each of these nouses. 
 
344 
 
 Years. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 House 
 built. 
 
 Cost 
 
 of 
 
 each House. 
 
 Kent 
 at 4 p. c. 
 
 Sinking 
 Fund. 
 
 Total annual 
 Payment. 
 
 1869 
 
 12 
 6 
 
 12 
 20 
 
 $ 
 
 320 
 360 
 370 
 400 
 
 12 80 
 14 40 
 14 80 
 16 00 
 
 8 
 
 11 60 
 
 13 05 
 
 13 20 
 
 8 00 
 
 $ 
 24 40 
 
 1871 
 
 27 45 
 
 1881 
 
 28 00 
 
 1882 
 
 24 00* 
 
 
 
 The Benevolent Bureaux of Mons, Gand, Antwerp, Huy, Jadoigne, Morlanwelz, 
 and Wethern, have also built workingmen's houses; some sell them on yearly- 
 instalments, some they are content to let. The increasing importance of this kind 
 of administration of affairs is shown by the following : — 
 
 Capital Surface built 
 
 upon. 
 
 31 arpents. 
 
 8«5 " 
 
 1860 $ '4,'251 
 
 1889 572,932 
 
 * The houses built in 1869, 1871 and 1881 are payable in twenty annual payments ; those built in 1882 
 are payable in twenty-nine annual payments. 
 
 K 
 
SECTIOISr XII. 
 
 ri 
 
WORKINGMEN'S CLUBS, ETC. 
 
 MASONS' AND STONECUTTEES' CLUB. 
 
 FOUNDED IN PARIS IN 186Y. 
 
 Art. 1. The Society called the Masons' and Stonecutters' Club is established 
 ibr the moral and intellectual advancement of its members, and also the imjDrovement 
 of their physical well-being. Tlieypropo.se to attain this object by affording meeting- 
 places for working masons and stonecutters duiing their stay in Paris, in which 
 meeting-places, called clubs, they will find respectable and decent amusement, 
 courses of trade instruction, mutual savings bank, a dispensary, a workshop fitted 
 with tools, and other useful institutions. 
 
 The club has established gratuitious courses of trade instruction, stonecutting, 
 calculation by meters and elementary geometry — these courses are followed by about 
 300 pupils. 
 
 There is also a provident fund, which procures medical assistance, and the 
 necessary medicines for sick members; it also grants the sick member an allowance 
 of S0.40 per day. 
 
 UNION OF WOEKINGMBN'S CLUBS IN ENGLAND. 
 
 The Union of Workingmen's Clubs was established in 1862, with the double 
 -object of encouraging the formation of such clubs and to watch over their interests. 
 It has now twenty-four years experience in the organization of clubs and has in its 
 possession a fund of information concerning these matters which it willingly puts 
 at the disposal, not only of its members, but of that of all persons who may take an 
 interest in these matters. At the present date, the Union includes 340 associated 
 ■clubs, and its revenues ($9,430 in 1888) are, for the most part, drawn from the 
 monthly subscriptions paid by the clubs (the amount paid by each member is 1 cent 
 per month), and in part by the profits derived from the sale of articles required by 
 members of the club, such as account books, printed forms, registers and so forth. 
 It publishes a. weekly paper, containing reports on the management of the different 
 clubs, and information on matters that majr be useful to them. 
 
 'The management of the Union is entrusted to a Board consisting of delegates 
 from all the associated clubs, who meet once every month in the hall of one or 
 other of the clubs in London, and to a small committee of sixteen members elected 
 by the Board for a period of six months ; this committee is re-eligble every three 
 months, by half its number, and it holds meetings every week. 
 
 Although many of the clubs take an active part in politics, the Union itself 
 prohibits very strictly all political discussions in its meetings, as it has excluded all 
 political questions from its constitution. 
 
 The headquarters of the Union are in London. Here there is a library, contain- 
 ing about 6,000 volumes, of which about one-third are books of reference and works 
 on the different trades, to be consulted by workmen. The other two-thirds are divided 
 into parcels uf thirty volumes each in a special case, and form the circulating 
 library, which is lent to members of the Union, is constantly moving from one club 
 to another and is much appreciated in rural districts, where a large libraryis almost 
 a thing unknown. 
 
 There is one peculiar privilege, among many others, that the Union procures 
 for all the individual members of its associated clubs, which we must not forget to 
 mention. The English laws on the sale of liquors forbid the blubs to sell liquor 
 to any but their own members ; but by a special authorization the whole number 
 
 E 
 
348 
 
 .of associated clubs is supposed to form but one, and the Union is allowed to give 
 cards of membership to its members, which gives them a right to procure liquors 
 from all the associated clubs. 
 
 As a consequence, any woi'kman, member of an associaton club, and provided 
 with one of these cards, is in effect a member of all the associated clubs in the coun- 
 try. The Union gives every new member, together with his card of membeiship, a 
 list of all these clubs. 
 
 It is impossible to state the actual number of these clubs in England, but it 
 must be very large. "We will confine ourselves to such as are members of the Union. 
 
 ' These latter have a membership of from 50 to 1,500 members each, or an average 
 of 200 members for each club. Of 100 clubs, 71 are of a purely social character, 
 and 29 take a more or less active part in politics, either as Conservatives or 
 Liberals. The latter are found principally in large cities, London in particular. 
 The amounts for member's subscription vary considerably. Eecent statistics show 
 that among 161 clubs, 36 have settled the subscription to be paid to be $0.10 pei 
 month, 11 have fixed the amount at $0.11, 49 have fixed it at $0.12, 30 at $0.16, 
 Y have made their member's subscription $0.20 per month, and 19 have settled their 
 amounts at $0.24 per month. These subscriptions, however, are not alone sufficient 
 to meet the expenses of the club, which is principally maintained by the sale of 
 provisions, the greater part of which consist of liquors ; we must, however, remark 
 that 21 clubs in a hundred sell only non-intoxicating liquors. We must also mention 
 the rather large revenue derived from billiards, each game costing the player from 6 
 to 8 cents. 
 
 As regard their constitution, the clubs may be divided into two quite clearly 
 distinguished types : — 
 
 1. The small village clubs, established by the clergyman of the parish or by 
 some other neighboring philanthropist, and which are unable to exist without the 
 assistance of their benevolent founders; 
 
 2. Clubs in cities, thoroughly independent, self-governed, and able to meet all 
 their own expenses. 
 
 The latter's government is nearly always formed on our model — something as 
 follows : — 
 
 The management is directed by a president, a secretary, a treasui-er, and a com- 
 mittee of 12 or 18 members, all elected by ballot. The electious ai-e periodical, and 
 are the cause of rather lively contests, but in no way connected with politics, for it 
 must be remarked that, even in political clubs, the elections are never made on 
 political grounds^ — political questions being always reserved for a distinct and special 
 committee. We must here observe that the government of a club, its meetings, the 
 -discussions that take place there, afford an admirable education to individuals, which 
 maybe of the greatest use to them as citizens on the more extended field of the 
 government of their country. 
 
 Besides these questions of management, there reigns throughout these clubs a 
 remarkable activity in the members; this activity assumes the form of mutual aid 
 societies, gymnastic and dramatic societies, fishing, whist, chess and other clubs, by 
 which each individual member will be sure to find some means of gratifying his 
 tastes and natuial bent. 
 
 Amusement is not overlooked. Their lai-ge halls are the scene of many confer- 
 ences, speeches, concerts and even balls. Thei-e will be found in the lecture-room 
 the principal daily papers, and a rather good library, from which the members may 
 borrow books. 
 
 STATISTICS OF 237 CLUBS. 
 
 Of these, 68 are of a purely social character, 169 are partly political, 152 are 
 
 enregistered according to the Act of 1875, 85 are not enregistered, 188 sell intoxcat- 
 
 ing liquors, 49 do not, 08 give courses of popular instruction, 169 do not, 237 hold 
 
 . conferences, 237 have an entire membership of 51,257, or an average of 216 members 
 
 for each club. 
 
349 
 THE POPULAE SOIEEBS OF VEEVIERS. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 This institution called the Popular Soiries of Verviers, was founded in 1866, by 
 seven young men of about 20 years of age, to whom is due the honor of having insti- 
 tuted the Tombola de livres, the Excursions Ouvriires (Workingmen's Excursions) and 
 the Ghasse auxpetits vagabonds (Hunt for small outcasts). 
 
 Tombola de Livres (^Drawing for Books). 
 
 The drawing takes place at the instructive meetings, prepared by the institu- 
 tion. Every person on entei-ing the hall, draws at least one ticket from a globe 
 (tombola). The ticket costs 1 or 2 cents. At each meeting a number of books are 
 distributed in accordance with the number of tickets sold. Sometimes as many as 
 8,000 tickets are sold at one meeting, which allows a distribution of books to the 
 value of $80. Families of workingmen have by this means been able to establish 
 small libraries, who previous to this institution, had never seen a book in their houses. 
 
 Workingmen's Excursions. 
 
 The institution has organized instructive excursions, it takes 100, 200. 300 and 
 sometimes 600 workingmen and women on trips to Paris, London, Geneva, Venice, 
 and Eome, etc. These are not pleasure excursions, nor trips taken by high living 
 persons, they are instructive excursions of which all the cost and expenses are regu- 
 lated with the strictest economy. The travellers, men, women, young men and 
 women, even children, all the excursionists, are under the guidance of educated per- 
 sons, who have made a special study of the particular locality to be visited, its histo- 
 rical sites, monuments, museums, art galleries, and who deliver real lectures on the 
 very site of the events, in the halls containing the objects, before the very works of 
 art themselves. 
 
SEOTIODSr XIII. 
 
 SOOIA^L HYaiEN^E. 
 
 PHILANTHROPIC ^A^ORKS. 
 
SOCIAL HYGIENE, PHILANTHROPIC WORKS. 
 
 PHILANTHEOPIC SOCIETY. 
 
 Founded at Paris in 1Y80. 
 
 The Philanthropic Society constitutes one of the most considerable organizations 
 which private enterprise has founded in our times. The expenses have been $151,000 
 in 1887. 
 
 This Society was created at Paris : 27 economical furnaces ; 2t dispensaries 
 for adults; 4 dispensaries for children ; 3 night refuges for women and children ; 1 
 maternity; 1 hospital for aged and infirm women. 
 
 The Society administers further legacies made to assist the workmen in aid of 
 the following foundations : 
 
 PREMIUMS OF ENCOURAGEMENT GIVEN TO HONEST WOBKINGMEN. 
 
 Some generous donors, MM. Wolf, P. Nast, Goffin and Mathieii-Lafitte, have 
 bequeathed to the Philanthropic Society revenues the proceeds of which are to be 
 employed each year in the purchase of books, or in grants to be given to the work- 
 men who can become masters. A request is made by the workmen to the Philan- 
 thropic Society, who after enquiry grants or refuses the premium. In 1889, the 
 Society has distributed in bounties $1,323. 
 
 ECONOMICAL DWELLINGS. 
 
 The housing of the poor in Paris is the most important of social questions. With 
 want of space, morality is injured. Without air and without light, health is threat- 
 ened. The dearness of rents contributes to the embarrassment. The unhealthiness 
 and confusion inseparable from a too narrow dwelling disgust the workingman and 
 keep him away from his fireside. 
 
 It has rightly been said that the infectious home was the provider of the ale- 
 house. In an opposite sense, a healthy and attractive dwelling reconstitutes the 
 family quite naturally. 
 
 Thanks to a recent gift (foundation Armand and Michel Heine) the Society 
 has had built a house containing 35 lodgings, in the street Jeanne-d'Arc, 45 (thirteenth 
 district). The price of the rents varies between $33.80 and $54.60, corresponding to 
 a weekly rent of 65 cents to $1.05. The quarter is paid in advance. The clear 
 revenue will produce 4 per cent., which will be aecumulated and will be of service to 
 build new dwellings. A second house, improved upon, intended to compose 45 lodg- 
 ings is going to be built on the boulevard de Crenelle, No. 65. 
 
 BANK OF THE SCHOOLS OF THE SEVENTEENTH DISTEICT OF PAEIS. 
 
 (Founded in 1873.) 
 
 Art. 1. The Bank of the schools has for its aim : 
 
 1. To make easy and to encourage the frequenting of the municipal and free 
 schools and in order to take away every motive or pretext for stopping away, to 
 provide suitable garments and shoes for the needy children who should require 
 
 them. . i J, . ,.,.,, 
 
 2. To grant, when there is occasion, encouragement ot various kinds, either to 
 
 the pupils of the schools, or to the male and female teachers to stimulate applica- 
 tion good conduct and sedulity of the leaders, zeal and devotion of the assistants. 
 '20—23 
 
354 
 
 3. In short to look after the moral and n3.aterial well-being of the school popula- 
 tion of the district, to contribute, besides, to the development of general instruction — 
 in subsidizing libraries, in remunerating special professors, in founding, if there is 
 occasion, courses and meetings. 
 
 Art. 11. The rQvenues of the Bank of the schools are composed : 
 
 1. Of the payments of the founders $20, and of the members of the Society $1.20 
 a year. 
 
 2. Of the grants which will be able to be obtained by authority. 
 
 3. Of gifts and legacieiS made to the so-called Bank, of the pi-oceeds from guests, 
 balls, meetings, concerts, theatrical representations and all the receipts which would 
 be able to be brought about. 
 
 Art. 13. The Bank is able to receive gifts in kind : such as books, pens, paper, 
 clothes and articles of diet, intended for needy pupils. 
 
 Art 15. The Bank of the schools hands over assistance in kind and in money. 
 Art. 16. The reliefs granted consist, as far as the children are concerned — 
 In clothes, boots and school supplies. 
 
 In volumes conferred as prizes and in savings bank, books to the scholars who 
 have distinguished themselves, during the whole year, by their conduct and by their 
 work. 
 
 In furnishing of outfits, in exhibitions for the candidates who have come up by 
 competition to the higher schools. 
 
 Art. 17. The allowances, as far as concerns the teachers, are composed of gra- 
 tuities and of rewards of various kinds, allowed to those who shall have shown the 
 most zeal in the exercise of their duties. 
 
 Art. 18. It will be possible to institute a competition among the different schools 
 of the district and prizes will be distributed to the winners. 
 
 Art. 19. The school bank will place, in special establishments, a certain number 
 of children, be they orphans, forsaken, or belonging to poor families. 
 Among the expenses increased in 1888, we will point out: — 
 
 Savings bank books and rewards distributed to the pupils. $685.00 
 
 Sending into the country, for a period of 20 to 25 days 
 
 of 100 children picked out among the most feeble and poor. 1,158.00 
 
 Clothes and boots 3,655.00 
 
 Dispensary 458.00 
 
 Guardianship of the children after class-hours 312.00 
 
 Eewards to teachers 400.00 
 
 LOAN-BANK OP PAEIS. 
 
 From 1190 to 1880 the Loan-book has refunded gratuitously to borrowers, 
 pledged objects, representing a total sum of loans of $733,233. The objects restored 
 consisted of bedding, tools and working instruments. Those refunds have been made 
 the day after a crises and stoppage, and have been reimbursed to the management by 
 the state, the municipalities, or over and above the donations made with this object 
 by charitable citizens. 
 
 PHILANTEOPIC SOCIETY OP THE GRATUITOUS LOAN, POUNDED IN 
 
 PAEIS, 1882. 
 
 Art. 1. The Society, whose sphere of action is limited to the Department of the 
 Seine, has in view the gradual extinction of pauperism, by the moral raising up 
 again of unsolicited misfortunes, for the means of work and in aid of the gratuitous 
 loan. 
 
 Art. 2. Its principal object is prudent search for distress, which lies hid, the 
 raising up again of broken resolutions, respect for liberty, and the protection of 
 human dignity.' 
 
855 
 
 Art. 3. The gratuitous loan will be made, either in money or in kind, and will 
 be repayable according to the resources of borrowers. 
 
 Nevertheless persons will be forced to repayment, whose condition of subsequent 
 solvency will have been regularly proved. 
 
 It is sufficient to indicate some of the loans made by the Society, to determine 
 its usefulness and the spirit of charity which animates its members : 
 
 Loan entered under number Vl. — The family in question is, a family of a 
 working shoemaker, laboring for several masters. It is composed of father, mother 
 and two children, one almost an idiot. Overwhelmed by sickness, reduced to straits 
 also by insufficiency of work, it has scarcely sufficient ; the woman assists the 
 husband in his calling ; the rent, somewhat heavy perhaps, is on sufferance ; the 
 tradesmen will not wait longer. Under these circumstances it applies to our Society ; 
 very favorable indications, furnished by our service of inspection, bring it to a 
 decision to advance to this family a sum of $20, repayable in ten equal terms, 
 guaranteed by an assignment on his work. The repayments have been made very 
 regularly and we are quite ready to renew to him our assistance, if the circum- 
 stances require it. 
 
 Loan entered under number 162. — Here, it is still of a family of working 
 people that we speak ; the husband is a journeyman, the wife does the housekeeping ; 
 the day's journeys of the husband are for the most part of the time fruitless ; the 
 wife, although very courageous, has much difficulty to get a living for her three 
 children. Different objects of first importance pledged at the Loan Bank would be 
 indispensable to this family. Tradesmen are about to stop their credit ; the rent is 
 not fully paid. A request in due form, addressed to the Society and crowned with 
 success, permits these brave people to get out of their precaiious situation. A loan 
 of $24, payable at the rate of $3 a month, guaranteed by an assignment on the work 
 of the woman, is granted to them. At the present time this advance is fully paid 
 up ; she is restored to the possession of all which she had been obliged to deposit in 
 the Loan Bank. 
 
 Loan entered under number 205. — ^We have to treat of a clerk's family, com- 
 posed of eight children ; the husband, an indefatigable worker, is gaining his liveli- 
 hood, but the employment is veiy heavy,' that should an unfortunate event happen 
 the embarrassment will be forcibly felt. At last, sickness supervenes, with so great 
 a number of children, what wonder is it? The medicines, the visits of the 
 doctor, absorb the savings placed in reserve; some indispensable garments are wanted; 
 the baker makes peremptory demands, if not the whole of what is owed him, at least 
 some on account. The Society, seized with a demand in due form, supported by good 
 recommendations, consents to make, to this interesting family, an advance of $28, 
 guaranteed by an assignment on the salary of the husband. This loan, repayable 
 by monthly payments of $4.00, is now settled ; if the circumstances should require it, 
 the Society is quite ready to renew for him its assistance. 
 
 Loan entered under number 468. — The father is a working gardenei-, but 
 sickly ; his work brings in little ; the wife toils together with his eldest daughter for 
 a warehouse of novelties for men ; two other children are still in their custody ; in 
 spite of all, this family would make two ends meet, were it not for the insufficiency 
 of orders ; the sickness of the husband from time to time, an industry which brings 
 in little in return place it in very great embarrassment. To pay a term in arrears, 
 and to redeem from the Loan-Bank various objects of utmost importance, the family 
 in question applies to our Society, who, upon favorable indications, grants them a loan 
 of $20, repayable in ten terms of $2 each. This loan, guaranteed by an assignment 
 on the work of the mother and of the daughter, is fully paid back ; as in the preceding 
 case, the Society is quite ready to come to the assistance of this family of decent 
 people if fresh misfortune strike it. 
 
 Loan entered under number 482. — "We are face to face with a widow with 
 four children. Assistant teacher in a public school of girls, this brave woman, for 
 some time without occupation, comes for the sake of economy to teaching her little 
 family ; what she dreads is the threat of a drawback on her salary, on the part of her 
 tradesmen ; to avoid this hard extremity, and to meet engagements made, she applies 
 
 20—231 
 
356 
 
 to our Society, who, upon the excellent recommendationB furnished by our service of 
 inspection, has not hesitated to make her an advance of $20, repayable at the rate of 
 $2 a month. An assignment upon her salary guarantees the payment of it, which, 
 moreover, is made very regularly. 
 
 Loan entered under number 587. — It is still of a widow of whom I wish to 
 converse with you; this one has six children, one of them, a girl, earns in a paper 
 and fruit store $0.60 a day, another $0.40 ; the rest of the family are apprenticed or 
 still go to school. 
 
 In this case, there are brokers who possess the recommendations of the loan- 
 bank, foolishly pledged, and which are about to be sold. There is in all: linen, 
 mattresses, blankets, jewels, &c. ; a sum of $19.20 is necessary to stop this disaster. 
 After a serious and favorable inquiry, the Society consents to advance to this inter- 
 esting family the $19.20 required to put them into possession again of the said 
 tokens; the loan is repayable at the rate of $2.40; once paid, we shall operate the 
 redeeming of the most useful articles. An assignment on the salaries of the eldest 
 daughter guarantees the repayment of it, which, besides, is done in the usual way. 
 
 Loan entered under the number 42. — We find ourselves before a descendant of one 
 of the most illustrious and ancient families of France. The father, mother, and two 
 children comprise the family ; its straitened situation, proceeded from a recent con- 
 finement, then from the sickness of the wife, afterwards from privations. The hus- 
 band, clerk in an oflSce, can scarcely get sufl&cieut for the needs of his small family ; 
 debts have been contracted with the baker, the grocer, &c. ; some useful articles, and, 
 so to speak indispensable, have been obliged to be deposited at the Loan Bank as 
 security for a very small loan. The Society, the recommendation being good, has 
 allowed it two loans in succession, amounting together to $50, repayable at the rate 
 of $2 and $4 a month, having been of service: firstly, in indemnifying the most 
 exacting tradesmen, in order to avoid for them a drawback on their salaries; 
 secondly, in paying the expenses of the confinement and of baby linen ; thirdly, in 
 giving one on account on a term of rent on toleration. 
 
 This family fulfils punctually its promises and is disposed to raise itself up 
 again. 
 
 Loan entered under number 112. — We have to occupy ourselves with a family 
 of a merchant's clerk ; his father, mother and two children. The wife to procure 
 for the household what it may want, resolves to work for a store ; only, this family 
 is in furnished lodgings, and work is given outside only to families owning their own 
 movables. 
 
 She applies to the Society, who, after taking tokens, allows to it, with assign- 
 ment on the salary of the husband, a loan of $40 to purchase decent furniture. This 
 sum, repayable at the rate of $4 a month is on the eve of being completely cleared off. 
 It is the rent which weighs so heavily on little households; ah, well! the wife is 
 going to get it, thanks to our assistance. Now see them sheltered from want. 
 
 Loan entered under number 180. — Here is a very interesting family of work- 
 people, one widow, three children. The widow does housekeeping ; one of the 
 daughters, working as a dressmaker has left her mother's roof; the son is deprived 
 of his left leg, in conseqaence of an accident which befell him in his employment as 
 railway clerk. Courageous, in spite of this infirmity, he applies to our Society 
 which grants him a loan of $20 to assist him in setting up as a barber in one of the 
 suburbs of the Department of the Seine. His small establishment is prospei'ing. To 
 add to big misfortune he is obliged to give up his trade in consequence of the swell- 
 ing of the amputated leg. He enters the hospital ; but the doctor, after his cure has 
 been effected, forbids him to exercise his little industry. 
 
 He comes out of it without means, and applies again to us. The Society places 
 him as porter in a school, only he must live for one month while waiting to take 
 possession of the situation in question. We lend him again $20 and there he is at 
 the present time, installed together with his mother. Their future is assured. He 
 has already paid back his first loan ; the payment of the second can be looked upon 
 as certain. 
 
357 
 
 Loans entered under number 235. — The subject is, of a workman's family, very 
 worthy of interest, composed of the father, the mother and two children. 
 
 The eldest girl has obtained from the Philanthrophic Society a sum of $60 under 
 color of a gift to reward her for her diligence at work and for her good conduct. 
 
 This sum has been of service to buy her the tools necessary for her small indus- 
 try, wreaths of pearls. Only there was lacking the raw materials to maintain it; she 
 applies to the Society, which has granted to her a loan of $16 for the purchase of the 
 said materials. This loan, repayable at the rate of $2 a month, guaranteed by an 
 assignment upon the work of her father, a man in distress, is at the present time 
 completely repaid ; by the same opportunity, we have di-awn outfor him recognizances 
 of the loan bank which were in the hands of brokers. 
 
 He is busying himself now to effect the redeeming of articles deposited in pledge 
 at the loan bank ; this is what the Society will do by a second loan. 
 
 I/oan entered under the Wo. 240. — It is of a workingman, a widower with 
 one child, of whom we speak. Three successive loans, of a total sum of $38, have 
 been allowed to this family, having three terms of rent in arrear, everything at the 
 loan bank, to get out completely from being lestrained ; it is by $2.00 a month that 
 it has been set free. The Society has placed the son when out of apprenticeship. 
 Hope has replaced despair, and relief is here complete. 
 
 I/oan entered under the Wo. 279. — ^It is the completing of the ioan entered 
 under the No. 60 of our account rendered in 1884. This was a situation almost 
 despaired of. There were three children, still young in years. Everything was 
 compromised : the husband was out of work, all at the loan bank, recognizances 
 in the hands of the broker; under the blow of expulsion, without shelter in a word. 
 See what was the situation. Tne three successive loans, amounting to $52.00, which 
 have been of service to release them, are at the present time repaid. Work is 
 resumed, rent is up to time, nothing with the broker, the articles deposited at the 
 loan banks — nearly everything in their possession. Here again relief is as complete 
 as possible. 
 
 Loan entered under the No. 286. — Three children, father and mother, comprise 
 this artist's family. The father exercises the artist's profession in the evening, and 
 that of owner of a place in the market during the day (one meets many fiamilies 
 uniting thus). The Society has granted him an advance of $40, having served — first, 
 to redeem his recognizances from the hands of the broker; secondly, to redeem from 
 the loan bank, an instrument indispensable to his calling of an artist (viz., a violin) ; 
 thirdly, to purchase a little furniture to get this interesting family out of their furnished 
 lodgings. Repayment is made by monthly instalments of $4.00, and is guaranteed 
 by an assignment on the commissions of the husband as stall owner in the market. 
 This loan is on the eve of being settled, and his family sees hope springing up again 
 at the domestic hearth. 
 
 These examples are drawn from accounts rendered as made to the General 
 Assemblies of the Society, from 1886 and 1889, and prove, as its founder used to say 
 of it, that the Philanthropic Society of the Gratuitous Loan has for its aim to bring 
 efficacious cooperation to persons of probity, and having the love for work, when 
 they are overtaken by adversity or at being beset with the difficulties of living. It 
 is the brink of misery which it looks at, it is the irreparable failures which it wishes 
 to avoid. 
 
 To prevent misfortune, to stop, in a word, the poor man, and straitened in circum- 
 stances, from becoming necessitous, then a beggai-, thief, criminal — victim at last of 
 despair. 
 
358 
 
 State and Situation of the Loans to the 31 December 1888. 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Terms unexpired 
 
 Sums repaid. 
 
 Arrears. 
 
 
 1883 
 
 7 
 151 
 373 
 505 
 629 
 708 
 
 $ 
 
 1 
 
 $ 
 
 "i2i.'i3 " 
 
 206.85 
 193.73 
 476.39 
 529.80 
 
 
 1884.- 
 
 2,138.45 
 
 4,683.44 
 
 8,157.73 
 
 10,265.58 
 
 11,007.24 
 
 
 1,293.60 
 3,762.52 
 6,431.14 
 9,469.66 
 10,585.96 
 
 
 1885. .. . 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 
 1888 
 
 3,181.40 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2,373 
 
 86,252.44 
 
 3,181.40 
 
 31,543.14 
 
 1,527.90 
 
 The sums repaid represent 94 -87 per cent, of the amount of the loan made up to 
 31st December 1888. 
 
 SUPPOETING, AND MOEALISING INSTITUTIONS OF INDUSTEY. 
 
 PARIS. 
 
 The aim of the institutions indicated next, is to moralise affairs. 
 
 It is also to complete the good education commenced at the Christian school, in 
 obtaining masters ot commerce and industry, that they may establish wise dicipline 
 in their house of work and tolerate neither vice nor impiety. 
 
 These institutions have a lawful existence, which renders them independent. 
 
 They live by their own resources, and diminish the burdens of charity, instead 
 of making them worse. 
 
 THE MUTUAL AND POPULAR TRUST. 
 
 The Mutual Trust is still at its outset. It looks at increasing every day its 
 associates and its affairs. Being a society varying in persons and in capital, it has 
 no limit which retards its development. 
 
 At the moment in which we are drawing up this notice, in June, 1888, it is on 
 the point of discounting a thousand effects a month, of a value of $30,000. The clear 
 profit of the discounts will reach at least $5,000 in the present trade, whilst the gen- 
 eral expenses remain about $3,000. The losses, during the business ot 1887, on more 
 than $200,000 discounted, have scarcely formed the sum of $345.15. 
 
 They continue to diminish while the affairs increase. They can be looked upon 
 as signifying nothing. 
 
 The capital of the Mutual Trust being gratuitous, its operations bringing in 
 neither dividi^nd nor interest, the whole surplus of its profits will be devoted to the 
 work of which we are going to speak. 
 
 GRATUITOUS PLACING OUT OP MONET FOR MEN AND EOR WOMEN. 
 
 Whatever may be the ability of a master, he will succeed with difficulty in his 
 affairs if he is not assisted by faithful, intelligent and devoted clerks. In like man- 
 ner he will be incapable of establishing good discipline among ungodly and corrupt 
 persons. 
 
 The Mutual Trust, by its work of gratuitous investment, seeks to procure for its 
 patrons a choice staff, favorable to the prosperity and to the reputation of their 
 house. It renders the same service to all willing patrons who are desirous of joining 
 in this work. 
 
 They present to supporters, for the places offered, only persons whose moral 
 courage and professional talent may be well and rightly established by important 
 references. 
 
359 
 
 Every day but holidays, with the exception of Wednesday, the registry office is 
 open from 2 to 4 o'clock, to receive offers and requests for places. 
 
 Lady patrons visit the work-houses, which enjoy a good reputation, in order to 
 make them acquainted with work and to obtain their support. 
 
 The services of the office are absolutely free. But the work, which is in the 
 care of the Mutual Trust, receives gifts and subscriptions to cover its expenses. 
 
 They find situations only in the workshops, stoi-es and offices, and not in fami- 
 lies. Servants, professors, lady teachers, lady's companions, should apply to other 
 works. 
 
 ENCOURAGEMENT TO SAVING AMONG THE PEOPLE. 
 
 See page 555. — ^^Encouragements to the deposits of small savings. 
 
 THE WORIOIEN'S BANKS. 
 
 A part of the profits of the Mutual Trust is devoted to workmen's banks. 
 These banks are not intended to assist the needy by alms. Their aim is to encour- 
 age working people to forethought, and to assure them a future which may place 
 them under shelter from want. 
 
 A first bank was founded two years ago to constitute an inheritance for the 
 clerks of the Mutual and Popular Trust. It has already received an endowment of 
 $400. 
 
 Another bank is to serve to i-educe in a marked degree the price of life assur- 
 ances. To have a right to the allowances of this bank, a workingman shall be bound 
 to work with a patron of the Society, to be brought forward by him, and to enter' 
 into an agreement with the Mutual Trust for the regular payment of the assurance 
 premium. 
 
 SERVICE OF THE GRATUITOUS LOAN. 
 
 The Mutual Trust takes upon itself to make gratuitous loans on accouut of rich 
 men who are not willing to assist directly their dependants. In this case, bor- 
 rowers are not received as shareholders. This work is already commenced. 
 
 Such loans are extremely dangerous. If ever so. little goes wrong in the choice of 
 bon-owers, the money thus lent is never returned. The banks of the people in Italy 
 levy previously upon their profits, some sums of money intended for the credit loan, 
 which is absolutely gratuitous. But these loans are granted only to some working- 
 men brought forward by the office of a society of mutual help. The request for bor- 
 rowing has to specify, with proofs in support, that the money will be devoted to 
 industry by the purchase of tools, or of raw materials. 
 
 Married men, who are willing to lend gratuitously, without losing their 
 money, will do well to leave to the Mutual Trust full liberty to follow the rules 
 adopted in Italy. 
 
 There is, in the Grospel, a command to freely lend, similar to that to give alms. 
 For a rich man to be subject to this law, he must regulate idle capital and have the 
 certainty of being repaid. Now, this assurance is full and complete only when the 
 loan is made by the intervening of a charitable society, which undertakes to repay 
 the capital which has been entrusted to it. 
 
 The Mutual Trust does not 'take this obligation for two kinds of gratuitous 
 loans, of which we are going to speak. In this case, if there are losses, they are 
 undergone by the lenders to whom it has stood as agent. It is quite different with 
 the stocks put into the Mutual Trust as shares, or deposited at current account. They 
 are used to discount good commercial paper, under conditions which render losses 
 almos)} impossible. If there is any loss it is covered by the reserve funds of the 
 Society. These stocks come back safely to their owners. They are repaid at sight 
 for deposits at current account. The stocks, according to the Statutes, are repayable 
 six months after the resignation or the death of the titulary. 
 
360 
 
 Now as these stocks, according as we have spoken of it higher up, do not bring 
 in anything to their owner, the discounts made on their value constitute a gratuitous 
 loan on the side of the I'ich man who possesses them. 
 
 Clients who come to discount their paper do not do so gratuitously. But the 
 discount can, by this means, be done exceptionally cheap. Besides, the profits 
 attained are devoted to charitable works of the Society. 
 
 This is why the charitable rich man, who deposits funds in the Mutual Trust, 
 effects in perfect security a gratuitous loan and cooperates in all the advantage of 
 our various institutions. 
 
 Thus is practised but little general charity, in asking at the hands of the Mutual 
 Trust services which are asked every day at other banks. And this charity is 
 able to receive forthwith a reward of great worth. 
 
 In fact, when entered in our Association, the rich man will not fail to choose 
 among the associates truly honest tradesmen and contractors, who will serve him to 
 the best of his interests. He will thus accomplish important thriftiness. That will 
 be of better worth than to receive dividends for the little money which he will have 
 placed in the institution. 
 
 Finally, the Mutual Trust is able to render a last service to the charitable 
 wealthy, always glad to give their aid to work. 
 
 Scandalous lawsuits show with what ease people abuse their good word. The 
 Mutual Trust has an information service. It will give without cost, every informa- 
 tion to be desired, upon works which deserve to be assisted, and, by means of a pro- 
 vision, it will carry on the bank to the profit of its works, in paying to them the sums 
 which shall be intended for them. 
 
 AXrXILIART INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 other works are in preparation. Some organised by ward or by parish will 
 place more within reach of the associates or supporters the recommendations and 
 the services of which they have need. Of this number are the groups of neighbor- 
 ing shareholders, and the association of Christian mothers of the workshop. This 
 last woi'k, founded recently in an important parish of Paris, has in view to place 
 children, on their leaving school, in workhouses, where they can continue to be good 
 Christians. 
 
 TOWN OF LILLE. 
 
 SOCIAL WOEKS PLACED UNDER THE PATRONAGE, OR DIRECTION OF THE MUNICIPALITY. 
 
 Invalids from Work. 
 
 This work was founded at the instigation of some citizens, who have generously 
 endowed it, and have kept it together by important gifts. 
 
 In 1888 it possessed a capital giving it a revenue of $3,325.85, and had received 
 $4,373 from gifts. 
 
 It granted help for life, to working people of every age, and of the two sexes, 
 who in consequence of wounds received in the exercise of their profession, and as a 
 dire(!t consequence of their profession; or who, in exposing themselves to aid other 
 laborers in danger, have lost the use of a limb or of an organ, or contracted equiva- 
 lent infirmities. 
 
 It grants temporary assistance : 
 
 1st. To widowers and to widows of work-people having one or several children, 
 less than 15 years old, who shall have succumbed to the direct consequences of 
 their wounds. 
 
 2nd. To children under age, orphans of fathers and mothers of these same work- 
 people. 
 
 The maximum of the annuity, is fixed at $73, for injuries having carried away 
 the total loss of sight or of the two limbs. 
 
361 
 
 The maximum of temporary aids is $60 a year. 
 
 The Council determines and grants pensions after inquiry. 
 
 In 1888 there were 76 pensioners, receiving about $30.80 each a year. 
 
 And 29 persons receiving temporary assistance, amounting to $21.80 for each. 
 
 Gratuitous loan. 
 
 This work was founded in 1607, by Bartholomew Masurel, citizen and country- 
 man of the town of Lille, who in his lifetime gave all his property, valued at one 
 hundred and fifty thousand pounds parisis ($60,000), for the foundation of a loan 
 bank where : The clerks will make loans only to countrymen and inhabitants of the 
 town, under tax and jurisdiction, of Lille, as far as they could survey it, and this to 
 poor persons in want, who for want of being able to well gain their Jiving, would be 
 compelled to borrow, refusing to lend to rich and wealthy persons, as also to people 
 whom they- shall know as being of bad quality, wasteful and squandering their 
 property. 
 
 The foundation foundered during the French Eevolution, but rose up again, and 
 was re-established in 1851. 
 
 The complete reorganization dates only from 1860, and the regulation put in 
 force at this date contains the following clause : — 
 
 Art. 5. Conformably to the act of foundation, all respectable and needy persons, 
 settled at Lille, or in the suburbs, will be allowed to draw out, by meacB of the 
 simple repayment of the capital, the securities upon which there shall have been 
 lent sums ot $6.00 and under, provided that she has deposited in person her pledges at 
 the office of the endowment, and that she come also to withdraw them herself. 
 
 The maximum of the gratuitous loan has risen little by little, and in 1888 it was 
 $40.00. 
 
 In 1888 there had been made 16,000 loans, of a mean value of $1.11, represent- 
 ing together a sum of $27,332. 
 
 Subscribers for Education- 
 Work Pie Wicar, having in aim to furnish to young people, natives of Lille, who 
 are destined for the study of the fine arts, the means to be able to sojourn atEomefor 
 four years. The annuity is $480 00 a year. From 1861 to 1887 twelve artists have 
 obtained this exhibition for residence. 
 
 JSndowment GolHrant, having in object to grant allowances and exhibitions to 
 young persons, residing at Lille, having some inclination for architecture, painting 
 or music, whose means would be insufficient to pursue their studies, or who should 
 have no means at all. 
 
 The raising to Glory of Industry and Good Conduct. 
 
 A series of grants has permitted the foundation of very numerous prizes, vary- 
 ing from $3.00 to $100 for: Distribution of rewards to the poor of Lille for acts of 
 devotion and of good conduct. Safe keeping of children and cleanliness of lodgings. 
 Encouragement to order and economy among the young apprentices. 
 
 TOWN OF AMIENS. 
 
 LOAN OF LINEN. 
 
 In 1857 Monsieur L. J. A. Cozette bequeathed to the town of Amiens a sum of 
 $52,000 to contribute to the suppression of mendicity, by means of assistance to, and 
 the moralization of the needy. 
 
 Thanks to this sum, increased by generous gifts made by other citizens, an 
 establishment was founded comprising : 
 
 Firstly. A workshop of young girls entrusted with the manufacturing of sheets 
 and shirts, which are loaned every Saturday, to the needy of the two sexes. 
 
362 
 
 Secondly. A wash-house. 
 
 Thirdly. A laundry, the whole under the direction of six sisters of charity. 
 The institution has in object to lend linen to the needy. The members of the families 
 assisted have two shirts, in order to always have one of them tidy on their backs 
 when they bring back that which they have worn during the week. The sheets are 
 changed only every month. 
 
 In 1888 they had assisted 1,745 families and lent 20,178 pairs of large sheets, 
 1,485 pairs of small sheets, 15,775 men's shirts, 39,091 women's shirts, 16,558 shirts 
 for girls, and 7,560 shirts for boys. 
 
 Finally, to remedy the deplorable promiscuous intercourse, due to the negligence 
 or the distress of the parents, the Cozette House lends beds to poor families who have 
 children of different sex. 
 
 TOWN OF ANGBES. 
 
 SCHOOL STOVES. 
 
 In 1871 the municipal administration of Angers undertook the erection of new 
 primary schools. 
 
 It remained to draw children to them and lo keep them there. 
 
 They used to leave class in the sevei'ity of the winter to go, and take, at their 
 homes, the repast of the middle of the day ; they lost also the overlooking of the 
 master, and stood too readily on the public way, exposed to all the dangers of the 
 street ; then, the majority belonged to needy families, and the parents kept back by 
 employment away from the home coald scarcely prepare a hot meal for the little 
 scholar, who, too often, found at home only a morsel of dry bread. 
 
 To render easy the admittance to school for all poor children and to encourage 
 them to follow the classes assiduously, some persons had the idea of providing them, 
 in the winter, even at school, with the mid-day meal. Tliey found there, without 
 going out, healthy and strengthening nourishment, given gratuitously or procured 
 at a very small price, according to the condition of the parents. 
 
 They have easily grouped, for attempting this moral and philanthrophic experi- 
 ence, all those who devote themselves truly to the children of the people, and 
 believe that it is not sufBcient to lavish on them declarations of sympathy, but that 
 it is especially necessary to prove hj actions the interest which we bear towards 
 them. 
 
 It is thus that the work of the stoves for schools was set on foot: without other 
 bond between founders and supporters but charitable thinking, and active and per- 
 sistent good-will ; they have at first constituted, and caused to operate, a business 
 society, changed merely later on into a civil society. 
 
 From 1871 to 1875, with a hundred subscribers, they distributed, by means of 
 two chief stoves, serving five schools, from 20,000 to 26,000 meals. 
 
 The experience of these four years had fully succeeded from all points of view ; 
 materially, the organization of the stoves, and the working of them had given the 
 desired results, as abundance, quality and economy in diet ; morally, the erection of 
 these had produced the best effects in the poor population of the town ; the children, 
 better nourished, less exposed to the sickness of the bad season, as well as to the in- 
 conveniences of abandonment, and to contact with the outer world, were more fitted 
 to receive lessons from their masters. They made ready a stronger and better race of 
 people. 
 
 The good accomplished was evident. From 1875 to 1882 two hundred and fifty 
 new supporters consider it a duty and regard it as an honor to contribute to the 
 extension of other schools. 
 
 At this period they are installing two new stoves, and twelve schools partake 
 annually of 50 to 60,000 meals. 
 
 At the close of the work the provident fund of the Society rose to the sum of 
 13,377.50. 
 
363 
 
 In 1888-89 the school stoves of tho town of Angers, had seven stoves, serving 
 twenty schools, and having served during the year 96,745 meals, to wit. : 49,508 
 meals paid for and 4'7,237 meals free. 
 
 The cost price of the meals , which was $3.23^ a hundred meals in 1882, 
 
 was reduced to $1.99 a hundred meals in 1889. 
 
 The meals paid for, cost $0.02 the meal. 
 
 Finally, as a number of children are badly clothed, and shiver during the winter 
 in their thin clothes, the Society of the Stoves, distributes eveiy year clothes to the 
 children. The cost ofthe clothes thus distributed in 1888-89 has been $1,034.74, of 
 which $434.70 is charged to the Society and the balance to the municipality. 
 
 MUTUAL AID OP LYONS. 
 
 Founded in 1870, with a capital of $32,000. This society has in view : 
 
 1st. By means of its capital to come to the assistance of the population of Lyons 
 in altogether exceptional circumstances. 
 
 2nd. By means of the annual profits and sub8Criptio:is, to approve of some 
 loans without interest, with the view, especially, of being applied to, the acquii-ing of 
 instruments for work. 
 
 3rd. To intervene between masters and servants; to procure places. 
 
 The Mutual Aid of Lyons has given once $4,000 and another time $1,000 at two 
 periods of great crisis of stoppage of work. Then it has contributed to the foundar 
 tion of two works of popular interest : the Society of Credit for little workshops of 
 mechanical weaving, and the Society of Economical Lodgings. 
 
 The Society has lent, from 1872 to 1883, $44,536, upon which it has been repaid 
 $18,780, it may be, 42-12 per cent, of the capital lent. 
 
 THE WOEK OF THE BLUB OEOSS. 
 
 FOR THE RELIEF OF DRUNKARDS. 
 
 Geneva. 
 
 Ar.t 1. The Temperance Society of the Blue Cross, has for its chief object 
 to labor, with the aid of God and His Word, for the relief of victims of intemperance. 
 
 To attain this end it exacts from its members, and supporters, complete abstinence 
 from every intoxicating drink, with the exception of its religous use, or when medi- 
 cally ordered. It does not, however, mean to condemn thereby the strictly moderate 
 use of fermented drinks for those who do not take a part in the Society, but it teaches 
 the absolute necessity of total abstinence for the cure of drunkards. 
 
 Art. 2. Besides this chief aim, it seeks still to combat the abuses of drink : 
 
 1st. In making known the evils which result from it ; 
 
 2nd. In diffusing the principles of true sobriety ; 
 
 3rd. In seconding, by the means, where its principles allow it, the efforts of 
 persons or associations which fight against intemperance (1.) 
 
 Art. 3. It has no political or ecclesiastical character. 
 
 The position taken by the Society springs from these articles, either with respect 
 to wine or from a religous point of view. 
 
 The Society does not seek to obtain the abstinence of all, because it does not 
 fight against the use, but solely the abuse of wine. (2) 
 
 It does not consider, in fact, natural wine as injurious to the health, when people 
 know how to make a strictly moderate use of it. It thinks, on the other hand, that 
 
 (1) One can quote in particular, in this department, the efforts made by the Society to persuade willing 
 persons to establish temperance coffee-houses (sales of non-alcholic drinks with lecture hall, &c.), when its 
 members could not establish them by themselves. The first was founded in 1878 at Boudry ; there are now 
 nearly a hundred of them in Switzerland and in the frontier localities, where the Society of the Blue-Cross 
 has extended its influence. , , , • , r j ,-i -n x j 
 
 2) What we say of wine can also be applied to other fermented drinks of good quality. But we regard 
 as hurtful even the use of distilled drinks, especially when they have been produced by the distillation of 
 other substances than wine. 
 
364 
 
 if the wine is agreeable and of convenient use in certain cases, as stimulating, it is not 
 necessary for the preservation of health of healthy persons (its use in cases of sick- 
 ness is reserved for the estimation of the doctors). It stimulates, but does not 
 strengthen. Works, even the most difficult, are done as easily, not to say more easily. 
 when it is a question of prolonged efforts, in abstaining from wine as in making use 
 of it. 
 
 The declarations of hundreds of persons, and the example of thousands of abstain- 
 ers of all countries and trades, support this way of looking at it. 
 
 To make amends, the Society recommends abstinence : 
 
 1st. To drunkards who wish to get free from their passion (total abstinence 
 being easier . foi' them to observe than moderation, become almost impossible for 
 them.) 
 
 2nd. To those who are liable to become so, either in consequence of heredity, or 
 on account of special temptations which can result to them from the centre in which 
 they live (profession, surroundings, temperament, &c.) 
 
 3rd. To devoted persons who are disposed to give up the use of intoxicating 
 drinks, to show to drunkards that one can do without them, and to encourage them 
 by their example to abstain themselves. 
 
 The result is, that the Society, while not condemning the use of wine among 
 those who know how to make use of it with moderation, seeks in no wise to cause 
 vineyards to be pulled up. It believes, on the contrary, that their destruction would 
 be at present ver}^ grievous, because it would only tend to increase the injurious con- 
 sumption of artificial wine and liquors. 
 
 Vine-dressers and owners of vineyards can then, without inconsistency, take part 
 in the Society. The members do not make any scruple of having wine on their table 
 for their guests or for the members of their family who are not abstainers, unless 
 there should be with them some one who has been a drunkard, whom they fear to 
 lead into temptation. 
 
SEOTioisr :ktv. 
 
 EMPLOYERS' INSTITUTIONS. 
 
EMPLOYERS' INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 F. ABEAND, 
 
 MANAGER AT COURTIVEON. 
 
 An Institution established since 1883, at the Spinning Mill of Courtivron. 
 
 A combination assuring to workingmen an investment of perfect security for 
 their savings, by a subsidy from the manager, under conditions which represent a 
 tax of interest amounting to 21 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Desiring to improve the condition, material and moral, of his staff, and to 
 inculcate habits of economy, which, joined with industry, form the basis of all good 
 conduct, Mr. Fdlix Abrand has offered to his employees, in addition to the advantages 
 which procure for them a relief fund in case of sickness or accident, the possibility 
 of putting aside, without inconveniencing themselves, a little capital giving them a 
 high rate of interest, and augmenting rapidly in consequence. 
 
 The method is as follows : — 
 
 For each fraction of 16 cents which is left monthly at the post office by his 
 employees until the sum reaches 80 cents, Mr. Abrand adds a sum equal to the fourth 
 of their deposits, for these two sums united, placed in the names of the depositors to 
 their credit, at the Post Office Savings Bank of Courtivron. 
 
 Otherwise stated: — 
 
 The employee leaving $0.16, will have $0.20 placed to his credit, 
 do do 0.32 do 0.40 do do 
 
 do do 0.48 do 0.60 do do 
 
 do do 0.64 do 0.80 do do 
 
 do do 0.80 do 1.00 do do 
 
 These advantages are offered the work-people of the Courtivron spinning mills 
 on conditions, as follows : — 
 
 Art. 1. No one can draw the whole or part of the sums marked in his book 
 before live succeeding years, if he wishes to profit by the advantages proposed to 
 him. 
 
 Art. 2. The gratuity of 25 per cent, on each deposit can only become the definite 
 property of the depositor, after each period of five years. 
 
 If, before the expiration of five years, the depositor : 
 
 1. Withdraws the whole, or portion of his deposit ; 2. K three consecutive 
 months pass without his having placed at least 16 cents ; 3. If he leaves the estab- 
 lishment ; 4. Or further, if he is dismissed for bad conduct, idleness, negligence, bad 
 work, or any other grave fault, he will receive capital and interest on the sums he 
 has deposited from his salary, but the surplus of 25 per cent, included in the com- 
 pound sums inscribed on his book will be restored by him,, to be deposited in the 
 relief fund for sickness, and accident to the work-people of the mill. 
 
 Each depositor is requested to bear in mind that in every case, at all times and 
 whatever happens, the amount left by him to be placed to his account remains and 
 always will be his property. 
 
 The deposits of the manager are only subject to restitution in one of the four 
 cases hereinbefore mentioned. In case of restitution the capital only, added by the 
 manager, will be transferred to the relief fund. The interest will fully accrue to the 
 employee. 
 
 Art. 4. After a period of five years, when the employee continues to leave and 
 the manager to add, there will be recommenced, to follow on, a new period of five years, 
 under the same conditions — that is, the gratuity of the manager in favor of the work- 
 man from the 5th to the 10th year will be withdrawn from him, if he be found in 
 one of the four conditions mentioned in Article 3 ; and similarly, from the 10th to 
 the 15th, and from the 15th to the 20th year, a period at which it will be permitted 
 
368 
 
 the dfipositor to dispose of his book as he pleases. It is well understood that after 
 each period of five years, that is, after 5, 10, 15 and 20 years, all the sums on the 
 book of the depositor become definitely his property. 
 
 Art. 5. At any time, commencing from the 10th year, the depositor can with- 
 draw the interest annually accrued in the Post Ofl&ce Savings Bank. But he must 
 leave the capital acquired until the 10th succeeding year has expired. 
 
 Art. 6. On the Monday of each month which precedes payment, all the work- 
 men who possess savings' bank books under the conditions of this institution, should 
 leave them at the oflSce with a separate note indicating the sum which they place on 
 deposit. Their deposits and those of the manager are made at the Post Office 
 Savings Bank, under cai-e of the office, and the books are afterwards returned to the 
 owners. 
 
 Art. 7. A statement of the workmen's deposits and those of the manager in 
 their favor are kept at the office. 
 
 Art. 8. At any time, and on any requisition to that effect, the owner of each 
 book must present it at the office, for examination, if necessary. 
 
 Art. 9. The workman who is conscripted can withdraw, on his departure, the 
 whole of his deposits, those of his manager and the accrued interests. In case of 
 death of depositor, all the sums credited on his book become the property of his 
 heirs. 
 
 Art. 10. Whoever once avails himself of the above-mentioned advantages, under- 
 takes, by the fact of so doing, a formal engagement to accept the stipulated condi- 
 tions, and to conform strictly to them, especially to everything mentioned in Article 3. 
 
 SOME FIGURES WHICH SPEAK FOR THEMSELVES. 
 
 When an employee leaves only 80 cents monthly, during 12 consecutive months, 
 he will have deposited to his credit $12 at the Post Office Savings Bank. Calculation 
 will show that at the end of the year these $12, deposited by $1 each month, will 
 have produced 19 cents interest at the rate of 3 per cent. His capital has thus, 
 become $12.19 for $9.60 deducted from his monthly pay. 
 
 Increase, $2.59. 
 
 If this increase is regarded as interest, his money has thus been deposited at the- 
 rate of 27 per cent, yearly interest. 
 
 BAEBAS, TASSAET & BALAS. 
 
 HOUSE FURNISHINGS, CONTRACTORS, &0. 
 PAEIS. 
 
 Participation in Profits, Savings, <&c. — (See p. 33). 
 
 Insurance against Accidents. — The- establishment insures at its own expense its- 
 employees against accidents, in the company founded by the managing committee 
 of the contractors for house-furnishings and plumbing. 
 
 F. BENOIST & L. BBETHIOT. 
 
 OPTICIANS. 
 
 PAEIS. 
 
 Mutual Benevolent Society. — The employees of the establishment, situated at 
 Sezanne, must belong to the Mutual Benevolent Society and Pension Fund Associa- 
 tion of the house. 
 
 The fund is distributed : 
 
 Ist. By the following monthly shares: Men, 20 cents; women, 15 cents; 
 children, 10 cents. 
 
369 
 
 2nd. By a monthly deposit, made by the managers, of a sum equal to all sums- 
 deposited by the employees. The bank requires that its members should belong to- 
 the local Mutual Benevolent Society ; and it only grants assisatnce for medical fees 
 and attendance to children under 16 years of age, or to workmen who, by their ag©- 
 or condition of health, cannot be received into the Mutual Benevolent Society. 
 
 The Bank grants to sick persons, during three months, a daily specified indemnity 
 equal to the monthly assessment which these sick persons pay. 
 
 At the end of three mouths the indemnity suffers a reduction. 
 
 In case of death, the Bank grants an indemnity of |20 to the widow, or of $15 
 to the widower. 
 
 The Bank grants pensions to aged members, according to the state of the funds 
 reserved. 
 
 Tt pays, similarly, premiums of insurance against accident. 
 
 This premium is 25 cents per $100 of salary. 
 
 BESSBLIEVEE & SONS. 
 cotton factory, maromme, seine-inperieure. ' 
 
 Participation in Profits. — (Page .) 
 
 School op the Establisament. Open from 5 to 7 p.m., and attendance is 
 compulsory ior male and female employees under 20 years of age. Prizes are dis- 
 tributed yearly by the house. 
 
 Library. — Aunexed to the school, and containing 420 volumes. 
 
 Lectures. — Lessons in Natural History, Zoology, Botany, Geology, and a complete 
 course of Chemistry, are given by Mr. Besseli^vre. Thanks to this course, an 
 employee can pass her examination, and become a school-teacher. 
 
 Savings Bank. — This savings bank is conducted under the following i-egulations : 
 
 " Mr. Besseli^vre, with the object of fostering and encouraging provident habits 
 among his work-people : — 
 
 Considering that the most trifling savings, in accumulating, form in time large 
 sums. (^With interest at H per cent. The capital is doubled in 12 years). 
 
 Considering that young people who would economize, every year, a sum of $20, 
 (40 cents per week), would thus, at the age of 60, with accumulated interest, be. in 
 possession of a capital of about $2,000. 
 
 With the intention of founding a savings bank, open to the woi'kmen of his 
 establishment. 
 
 Workmen can deposit in this Bank all sums, the proceefds of their industry, with 
 a minimum of 20 cents. 
 
 Sums deposited, bear interest at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum, to the amount 
 of 200. Sums exceeding $200 bear interest at 5 per cent. 
 
 Insurance against Accident. — The employees are insured in an accident 
 insurance company by the firm. 
 
 The Workmen's Rjeliep Fund comes to the assistance of indigent workmen and 
 sick persons. This fund is entirely maintained by Messrs. Besseli^vre, and managed 
 by six members elected by the workmen. 
 
 The indemnities are not expressly defined, except for women during confiement, 
 who have a right to three weeks' salary, on condition of abstaining from all work 
 for two weeks at least. 
 
 Pension Fund op Employees. — The firm grants^ without reserve, to all employees 
 engaged and attached to the establishment : 
 
 After ten years' service, a sum equal to one year's salary. 
 
 These su'ms are paid to the heirs of the employees, or to the employees, when, 
 they have reeached 60 years of age, with 20 years of service. 
 
 20—24 
 
370 
 BLIN" & BLIN. 
 
 CLOTH MANUFACTURERS. 
 ElbOBuf. 
 
 Accidents. — Originally, Messrs. Blin & Blin had thought proper to insure 
 against accident ; but in consequence of suits with companies, they have became their 
 own insurers, and have assumed the responsibility of suits wJiich may arise in 
 consequence of accidents as common in the works. 
 
 A relief department has been established in the works, which gives its best atten- 
 tion to wounded persons. The injured workman is cared for, during the whole of his 
 sickness, by the house ; his salary is paid him in full, and suitable assistance, as required, 
 is further given him. 
 
 In cases where injury results in partial, or entire incapacity for work, the work- 
 man continues to receive assistance. Pensions are given to the widows of workmen 
 killed whilst at work. 
 
 MAGASINS DU BON MAECHfi. 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Cooperation, participation in Profits, Boucicault Provident Society. (Page 38.) 
 
 Medical Attendance.— A physician is attached to the establishment, and gives 
 gratuitously, consultations at 9 o'clock every morning. 
 
 Employees unable to rejoin their families, are treated at the infirmary of the 
 establishment. 
 
 The whole of the employees, besides, must become members of a mutual, benevo- 
 lent society. 
 
 Pension Fund — Boucicault Endowment. — ^This Bank was established by a donation 
 of $1,000,000 given during her lifetime by Madame Boucicault. This Bank 
 receives 5 per cent, deducted from the profits of the "Society civile du Bon March6;" 
 this deduction can be decreased to 1 per cent. 
 
 The retiring pension is granted in the form of a life-pension, not transferable or 
 revertible ; it is only granted to employees who have no interest except in the gene- 
 ral profits of the house, the paid up capital, or on sales. 
 
 It is obtained by employees (male or female) of 20 years' service in the house, 
 but it is only granted to men after they have attained the age of 50 years ; and to 
 women after the 45th year. 
 
 The pensioned employee can only receive his pension when he has ceased to 
 work in the establishments of the "BonMarch^, " or any other similar establishment. 
 
 The management decides the position of absent employees, entries and exits 
 from the house, &c. 
 
 Pensions vary from $120 to $300 per annum. 
 
 The Pension Bank can extend relief: 
 
 1st. To employees in active service, who are unable to fulfil their duties. 
 
 2nd. To the widows and minor children of employees. 
 
 3rd. And to employees, even those interested, whose situation has become 
 necessitous. 
 
 Savings. — La Maison du Bon March^, to encourage economy, receives in account 
 current the savings of their employees, and places them on interest at 6 per cent, 
 per annum. 
 
 Schools. — M. A. Boucicault founded, in 1872, the following courses, open free to 
 his employees : English language; music, vocal and choral; musical instruments 
 with harmony orchestra ; fencing. 
 
371 
 Hte. BOULANGER & CO. 
 
 CROOKERYWARE ESTABLISHMENT OF OHOISY-LE-ROI. 
 
 Number of workpeople, 956. — men, 502 ; women, 266 ; children, 188. 
 
 Education. — The house has maintained it, and defrays its expenses. 
 
 An infant asylum, where are received the employees' children from two months 
 to three years old. 
 
 An asylum for boys of from 3 to 6 years of age, and of girls from 3 to 13 years 
 of age. 
 
 An asylum for boys working at crockery making. 
 
 A boarding school for apprentices, accommodating 50 boys, orphans of parents 
 having worked in the crockery manufactory. A course of gymnastics, military 
 exercises and singing is given to the children 
 
 Scholars' Savings Bank. — Not I'cceiving more than $20 from each depositor. 
 Interest 6 per cent., capitalized monthly. 
 
 Family Council. — Composed of the principal employees of the crockery manu- 
 factory, and of representatives of the two Mutual Benevolent Societies, trustees of 
 the house, deliberating on bonuses, pensions, assistance to orphans, &c. 
 
 Savings Bank. — Not receiving more than $400 to each account. Interest, 5 
 per cent. 
 
 Accidents. — "Workmen ai-e insured against accidents by the house. 
 
 Pensions. — A bank having received a donation of $12,000 from M. Boulanger, 
 and which is maintained by the Mutual Benevolent Societies, and voluntary support 
 which the factory makes through the " Conseil de Famille," grants to old men and 
 their widows, pensions, varying from $60 to $120 per annum, according to length of 
 service. 
 
 CHAIX PRINTING HOUSE. 
 Paris. 
 
 Participation in Profits. — (Page 39). 
 
 Apprenticeship and Institutions founded for Apprentices. — (Page 69). 
 
 Mutual Benevolent Society. — ^Membership is compulsory to those employed 
 by the establishment. 
 
 The funds of this Society are formed by the retention of 16 cents from all 
 employees, paid fortnightly, and by 35 cents from those paid monthly. The amount 
 retained from women is only 11 cents, and from children 9 cents. The amount of 
 indemnity per day in case of sickness is 50 cents for men, 30 cents for women, and 
 25 cents for children. 
 
 There is granted to women, after one year of membership, the sum of $10 for 
 accouchment. 
 
 This is paid during six months. 
 
 Medical attendance is free. 
 
 In case of the decease of a member, all the members pay 5 cents, and, from the 
 amount so contributed, a sum of $20 is i-emitted to the heirs for funeral expenses. 
 
 Bank of Voluntary Pension, in which employees and workmen deposit the 
 proceeds of their profits, or of their personal savings. Number of depositors to 31st 
 December 1888, 175, of whom 139 were formerly apprentices of the establishment. 
 
 A. CHAPPl^B. 
 founder and builder of mans. 
 
 A pension of $72 per annum is given to all workmen, aged 60, who have worked 
 for 30 years in this establishment. 
 20—24 
 
372 
 
 A pension of $30 per annum is granted to all workmen, aged 60, who have 
 worked for 20 years in the establishment. This pension is paid monthly when the 
 i-ecipients have ceased work. The pension is discontinued on their decease. 
 
 To have a claim to it, it is necessary that, from the commencement, the work- 
 men should have been members of the Mutual Benevolent Society, unless there is 
 justifiable reason for the contrary. 
 
 In addition to these pensions, there is a Mutual Benevolent Society, and a, 
 Medical Dep6t for the workmen in connection with the eslablishment. 
 
 When a workman becomes the victim of an accident, during his service in the 
 establishment, and his wound disables him for life, a pension is formed for himself 
 and family in accordance with their requirements. 
 
 This pension diminishes in proportionate percentage, and amount, when each of 
 his children attain the age of 18. 
 
 If this pension is paid to the widow, it ceases when she contracts another 
 marriage. 
 
 This pension is based on the requirements of the family, and conditions 
 established by general consent between M. Chappie and the family. 
 
 A.EMAND, COlim & CO. 
 
 EDITORS, PARIS. 
 
 Premiums. — The establishment encourages young employees to follow the 
 evening courses. Employees who pass an examination successfully, ^nd obtain a prize, 
 receive a premium. 
 
 Gratuities, Assistance. — A physician is attached to the establishment, and his 
 visits are free to employees, their wives and children. Salaries are continued to 
 employees during illness. 
 
 Besides annual gratuities, a bonus, generally $20.00, is granted to deserving 
 men in the event of a marriage, or a birth, or a death. 
 
 Pensions. — Employees are obliged to have 5 per cent, deducted from their 
 salaries, which is deposited to their credit and in the name of each employee, on 
 a private book at the National Bank, for pensions for old age. 
 
 The house adds, for employees having less than 8 years' service, 50 per cent, 
 of the sums deposited by the employees. For employees having more than 8 years 
 service, it deposits a sum equal to the 5 per cent, retained. This combination 
 ensures to employees an annual pension of $120 to $240. 
 
 Savings. — The establishment receives on deposit, the savings of its employees, 
 up to $100 each, and pays them an annual interest of 6 per cent. 
 
 WESTEEN EAILEOAB COMPANIES. 
 
 REGULATIONS OF THE MUTUAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETY OF WORKMEN IN THE WORK- 
 SHOPS AND CAR DEP6tS. 
 
 Art. 1. A Benevolent and Provident Society, has been formed for the benefit of 
 workmen employed in the workshops and car depots, who do not form part of the 
 regular staff, on becoming enrolled members of the Society. 
 
 Art. 3. The Society has for its object : 
 
 1st. To give free medical attendance, and medicine, to members who are sick or 
 wounded. 
 
 2nd. To assist them by means of an indemnity granted them during a period of 
 illness. 
 
 3rd. To contribute to funeral expenses occasioned by the death of any one of 
 them. ' 
 
 Art. 5. All the workmen in the workshops and car dep6ts of the Western Eail- 
 road are titulary members of the Society, from their entrance into the company. 
 
373 
 
 Every workman entering the service of the company, is informed of the present 
 regulations, of which a copy is deposited at the oflSce of the superintendent of the 
 works ; he signs it, and thus signifies his acceptance of all its conditions and 
 obligations. 
 
 Art. 6. Honorary members are admitted by the office. 
 
 Art. t. Those members of the Society whose conduct becomes irregular and 
 notoriously scandalous, cease to participate in the privileges of the office. Their 
 names being removed from the list of participants, and being excluded from the 
 Societj'-, they have no right to any recompense. Thej' are pronounced by the office 
 to be absolutely without claim. 
 
 The member whose expulsion has been announced, can present himself at the 
 office to be heard on the accasations against him. If he does not appear on the day 
 named he will be considei'ed discharged. 
 
 Art. 8. The administration is composed of a committee, consisting of: 
 
 A president ; 
 
 Two vice-presidents ; 
 
 Six members, chosen by the members of the Society over 25 years of age, and 
 having been at least six months in the service of the Company ; 
 
 Two secretaries. 
 
 Art. 9. The president and vice-presidents are named by the Administrative 
 Council of the company, who also select the treasurer of the Society. 
 
 The Committee of Management is elected by the members of the Society, and 
 nominated by titulary members. 
 
 The election is held as follows : — 
 
 There are formed, by the office, superintendents, as many sections as there are 
 members to elect ; each section nominates a member of the office, by ballot, by a 
 majority of votes. 
 
 The two secretaries are nominated by members of the Board by open voting. 
 
 The election is made for one year. Members are re-oligible. 
 
 There is presented every year a statement of the financial position of the 
 Society, which statement is printed and distributed to all the members. 
 
 Art. 12. The Committee of Management, meets monthly, on a day appointed, and 
 each time is convoked by the President. 
 
 Art. 14. Medical care, is granted free to members during illness, except in cases 
 specially excepted and indicated in the preceding regulations. The indemnity pro- 
 vided by 2nd paragraph of Article 3 of the present regulations, is fixed, by day, at 
 half the salary, and at 5 cents for women, and for each child under 15 years of age, 
 during the period of illness, unless, however, the indemnity exceeds three-fourths of 
 the salary. 
 
 If, however, the workmen has only belonged to the Society for a minor period 
 •of three months, the assistance afforded him will only be in proportion with the time 
 in which he has been a member. 
 
 All sickness which does not last over two days gives no claim to indemnity. 
 
 Obligation to provide medical care and indemnity, can cease if the illness is pro- 
 longed over three months. 
 
 Temporary assistance, in special cases, can be granted by the Board, but only by 
 a majority of three-quarters of the members. 
 
 Art. 15. No assistance is recoverable for sickness or wounds caused by bad 
 conduct. 
 
 Art. 16. The Society grants to the widow or children of a deceased member, an 
 indemnity up to the amount of $40. 
 
 This indemnity can be given to the family of the deceased, at the discretion of 
 the Board. A further assessment of 10 cents each member can be made for the ben- 
 efit of the widow or children of a deceased member, in indigent circumstances, from 
 information received by the Board. 
 
 The above indemnity can be raised to $60 in cases where the death of a member 
 has been occasioned by injuries received in the exercise of his calling. 
 
374 
 
 Art. 17. Every workman leaving the company because of the stoppage of work 
 or employment, or any other cause independent of his own will, not resulting from 
 any fault on his part, will receive an indemnity of $6 after having served for two 
 consecutive years; and of |10 after four yeai's; and afterwards, in proportion, an 
 increase of $2 for each year of service. 
 
 Enrolled members of the Society, who are dismissed from the company for any 
 other causes than those above mentioned, or who leave of their own accord, will not 
 be entitled to any indemnity. 
 
 Any workman who, for any reason whatever, is no longer of any service to the 
 Company, ceases entirely to have any membership in^the Association. 
 
 Art. 18. Each member is subject every month to have, from the amount of his 
 pay, a deduction forming a periodical assessment for the relief fund. 
 
 This deduction cannot exceed 2 per cent, of the salary. 
 
 It is fixed, until further orders, at li per cent, of the salaries, the managing 
 Committee of the Company reserving, however, the power to modify this proportion 
 in case of want, and to the limit of the maximum fixed above. 
 
 The Company deposits monthly in the relief fund a sum equal to the amount of 
 the monthly assessment. 
 
 The funds of the Society further increase : 
 
 1st. By fines inflicted by the Board on the member who, being convalescent, has 
 resumed work without the permission of the medical attendant; on those who, 
 appointed visitors, do not fulfil their duties. 
 
 2nd. And fines inflicted for faults of work. 
 
 Art. 19. Honorary members pay an assessment of which the minimum is placed 
 at 30 cents per month. 
 
 Art. 20. In the event of the death of a titulary member of the Society, a deputa- 
 tion of members is summoned, by notice from the Board, to attend the funeral. 
 
 Art. 21. The funds of tne Society are composed : 
 
 1st. Of assessments made on workmen ; 
 
 2nd. Of the grant made by the Company of a sum equal to the assessments ; 
 
 3rd. Of payments from honorary members ; 
 
 4th. Of fines imposed by the management; 
 
 5th. Of the general amount arising from tines imposed on members ; 
 
 6th. Of the interest produced by any amount deposited in bank of the Company. 
 
 EBGTILATIONS OF THE PENSION FUND. 
 
 Institution and Endowment of the Pension Fund. 
 
 On the Ist of July, 1869, thgre was founded a Pension Fund for all employees 
 and workmen of the Western Eailroad Company, forming part of the staff, and 
 having at least a salary of |120. 
 
 Art. 2. The capital of the fund is formed: 
 
 1st. By capital at the credit of the Pension Fund, of the Mutual Benevolent and 
 Provident Fund, previously instituted on behalf of employees, who remained par- 
 takers of this ancient fund. 
 
 2nd. By the following reserves, arising from assessments on salaries, as they are 
 fixed by order of service, of appointment, that is : 4 per cent, of salary (this is made 
 monthly) and the first 12th of all increase. 
 
 3rd. By a donation from the company, of which the amount, established in the 
 following manner, will be paid at the same time to the said fund, that is — 5 per cent, 
 of the wages on salaries, and a sum equal to the first 12th of all increase. 
 
 4th. By voluntary bequest, which can be made to the Pension Fund, and by fines 
 imposed on the employees. 
 
 5th. By the profits from investments of the Pension Fund, 
 
 Art. 3. The amount of the reserve fund indicated in paragraph 2 of the pre- 
 ceding article (which properly belong to employees who submit to their rules) will 
 
375 
 
 be credited, quarterly, to their personal account, at the Pension Fund for old age, 
 instituted by law, 18th June, 1850, in order to provide for them, a retiring pension at 
 the age of 50 years. 
 
 The time of entering upon the enjoyment of benefits from the fund, can be altered 
 to a preceding date, in conformity with regulations of the old age Pension Fund. 
 
 According to same regulation payments can be made, at choice of the employee, 
 either to Eeserve Fund — that. is, payable to those entitled to them, on decease of the 
 incumbent to the fund, or to Reserve Capital. 
 
 Nevertheless, the deductions fi'om the Pension Fund will always be computed 
 as though these payments had been made to the Reserve Fund ; in case of Eeserve 
 Capital, the total pensions will be, in consequence, less than those provided by Arti- 
 cles 10, 11, 12, 13, 16 and 18. 
 
 When the old age fund cannot, by the terms of its charter, receive the payments 
 above provided, the company will guarantee, by some other means, the execution of 
 the clauses of present article. 
 
 The surplus of fund indicated in preceding article, is placed to the credit of the 
 Company, and other credits accepted by the Bank of France for its advances, in estate 
 or bonds of the State. 
 
 Art. 4. The benefits of the present Pension Fund are guaranteed I)y the Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Conditions of a Claim on the Pension Fund — Liquidation of Pensions. 
 
 Art. 5. To have a claim on the Pension Fund, every agent of the Company must 
 be 50 years of age, at least, and have passed 25 years in the service. 
 
 Below these limits, the Company reserves to itself, the right to place on the pen- 
 sion list, in advance, every employee aged over 50, and having at least 20 years of 
 servicts. The Managing Committee will have solo authority of judging the reasons 
 for thus placing on the list in advance. 
 
 Finally, whatever be their age or duration of service, employees whose wounds 
 or prematureinfirmitiesrender them incapable of continued work, will receive a reti- 
 ring ppnsion, on the sole condition that they fulfil, as to the old age fund, the required 
 conditions to this effect, as per 2nd paragraph of Article 6 (ct) of the law of 18th June, 
 1850, and by the regulations concerning the application of this paragraph. 
 
 Art. 6 The Managing Committee have the right of placing on the pension list, 
 employees who have reached the age and duration of service fixed by the first para- 
 graph of the preceding article. 
 
 Art. 7. No agent can enjoF, at the same time, a pension resulting from the 
 present regulation and emolument as an employee of the Company. 
 
 Art. 8. In every case retiring pensions of agents are composed of two classes : 
 
 1st. Capital from the fund for old age. 
 
 2nd . Pension granted by superannuation fund of the company. 
 
 Art. 9. Retiring pensions are based on the proportion of assessments or salaries, 
 subject to transfer to the reserve fund, which the incumbent has enjoyed during his 
 six last years of service, or (in the case mentioned in paragraph 3 of Article 5), during 
 the total number of years' service which is less than six. 
 
 A first-class clerk, whose salary exceeds $3,000, will not receive any profits on 
 
 the surplus. 
 
 Art. 10. An employee of the Company, fulfilling the conditions of age and length of 
 service fixed by first paragraph of Article 3, will have a right to a total pension of the 
 half of his salary, minus the last six years. 
 
 This pension will be augmented by a sixtieth part of the salary, less each year 
 exceeding twenty-five years of service. 
 
 (a). Extract from Article 6 of the law of 18th June, 1850. 
 
 «♦♦»** 
 
 In the event, however, of aerious injuries or premature infirmity, unavoidably contracted, entailing 
 absolute incapacity for work, the pension can be given also before 50 years of age, and in proportion to pay- 
 ments made before that date. 
 
376 
 
 Art. 11. The whole amount of anticipated pension, as described in the second 
 paragraph of Article 5, will be fixed as follows ; — 
 
 After having i eached the age of fifty, and after twenty-five years of service, 
 twenty-five sixtieths of the salary, less the last six years, with an addition of a sixtieth 
 of same salary for each year of service after twenty years. 
 
 In any caae the retiring pension cannot exceed to thirty sixtieths of the average 
 salary, except, however, when there shall have been occasion to have recourse to the 
 minimum provided for in Article 12. 
 
 Art. 12. The gross amount of pensions paid on the terms of Article 10 and 11 
 cannot be less, in any case, than $100. 
 
 Art. 13. The total amount of the retiring pensions, as described in last paragraph 
 of Article 5, will be composed of as many sixtieths of the lowest salary described in 
 Article 9 as there are years of service, without falling lower than six sixtieths of the 
 same salary. Nevertheless, the minimum of six sixtieths will not be applied unless 
 the time of service amounts to three years, or if incapacity is the result of injuries 
 received by the employee, in the exercise of hi's calling. 
 
 Art. 14. The liquidation of retiring pensions will be made as follows : — 
 
 The amount due by the Pension Fund of the Company will be obtained by 
 deducting the total amount of pensions determined by Articles 10, 11, 12 and 13, the 
 funds calculated on capital transfeiTcd, accruing to the old age fund by deposits 
 assessed from the employee : 
 
 1st. On his personal account only, whether he is married or single. 
 
 2nd. On his personal account, and on that of his wife, if he is married. 
 
 The sum thus debited to the Pension Fund of the Company will remain definitely 
 fixed, except in the case indicated in the following paragraph : — 
 
 If at the time of liquidation of the pension of a married employee, his wife has 
 tiot reached 50 years of age, and cannot thus claim her pension from the old age 
 fund, the Pension Fund of the Company will allow, until this pension can be received, 
 the whole pension, less the deduction only of the husband's pension at the old age 
 fund calculated on capital transferred. The double deduction will only be made sub- 
 sequently to this period. 
 
 Art. 15. In computing retiring pensions, the yeai's of service will be counted 
 commencing from the classing of the employee, except under eonditions provided for 
 by Article 25. 
 
 Art. 16. The total amount ofpensions determined by Articles 10, 11 and 12, is partly 
 transferable — that is, for $50 at least — to the name of the widow of the employee. 
 
 The amount due to the widow by the Retiring Pension Fund of the Company will 
 be obtained, by deducting from the amount, the income calculated on reserved capital 
 acci'uing to the old age fund from assessment made on his account, and arising from 
 assessments on the husband. 
 
 The sum thus debited on the Retiring Pension Fund of the Company, will be fixed 
 definitely, except in the case indicated in following paragi'aph : 
 
 If at the decease of the employee, the widow has not reached 50 years of age, 
 and thus cannot claim her pension fi'om old age fund, this amount will be paid, until 
 the period of her being able to claim it, on account of the supplementary provisions 
 for pension, by the Retiring Pension Funds of the Company ; the deduction of said 
 income will only be made subsequently to this period. 
 
 The right to pension by a widow no longer exists in the case of a siparation de 
 corps granted on demand of the husband. 
 
 If^ in addition to the widow, there are one or more orphan children less than 18 
 years of age, from a previous marriage of the employee, there is levied, from the 
 ^otal amount due the widow, and not transferable in her favour, one-fourth to the 
 credit of the orphan of her first marriage, if there be but one less then 18 years of 
 age or the half, if there are sevej-al, and the same if there should be more than one 
 under 18 years of age. 
 
 Art. 17. In the case where, by successive marriages with employees of the Com- 
 pany, a widow becomes in a position to claim several pensions, she will only have a 
 right to receive the highest one, to the exclusion of the others. 
 
J77 
 
 The interdiction onaeeumulation, does not apply to the pension which the widow 
 li&,s a right to as an employee of the Company. 
 
 Art. 18. The gross amount of pensions determined by Articles 10, 11 and 12 is 
 transferable to the names of children of the employee, aged under 18, if, at his decease, 
 the wife is either dead or unqualitied to receive the pension, or deprived of her 
 rights. 
 
 The portion assignable to the children will be divided among them in equal por- 
 tions, and paid to each until 18 years of age ; the portion of those who have attained 
 this age or, in event of their decease, being returnable to the others. 
 
 Art. 19. After decease of the pensioned widow, the sum which had been paid 
 to her by the Eetiring Pension Fund of the Company, will be transferred, under title 
 ■of a second reversibility, to the children aged under 18, and will be paid under con- 
 ditions specified in the second paragraph of the pi'eceding article. 
 
 Art. 20. The widow and children will only have a right to the application of 
 Articles 16, 18 and 19 if the marriage of the employee has taken place two years 
 ■before liquidation of the retiring pension. 
 
 Art. 21. When an employee dies during the exercise of his calling, after 50 
 years of age and 20 years of service, this employee will be considered as having 
 been a member of the pension list, and his widow and minor children will have a 
 right to the transferable portion, under conditions of Articles 16, 18, 19 and 20. When 
 an employee dies during the exercise of his calling, without having attained both the 
 age of 50 and 20 years of service, but having completed 25 years of service, and 
 whatever may have been his age, his widow or minor children will have a right, 
 under conditions of Articles 16, 18, 19 and 20, to the transferable portion of a total 
 pension calculated in the proportion of a sixtieth of the lowest salary of the six last 
 years for each year of service, but not to be less than |50. 
 
 When an employee, who has been supeiannuated for reasons indicated in the last 
 paragraph of Article 5, dies after at least 15 years of service, his widow or minor 
 children have a right to the transfer stipulated in the preceding paragraph. 
 
 Art. 22. The arrears of pensions on retired list are payable quarterly. 
 
 The endowment of the Company, towards the capital of the retiring fund, men- 
 tioned in Article 2, is granted for maintenance of the incumbents. 
 
 In consequence, the pensions paid by means of this endowment are declared, by 
 the granting Company, inalienable and unseizable. This declaration is reproduced 
 on all writings and contracts relative lo these pensions. 
 
 The fluctuation of these pensions occurring in 1887 was as follows : — 
 
 Pensions of Old Employees. 
 Number of pensions 2,058 
 
 ^ .. ^ . -^ ^ ^,u /■> [Total $244,494 60 
 
 By the Eetinng Pension Fund of the Company | Average.. . 118 80 
 
 ^ J ^ ,j /-.N [Total.:..'.!.'. 123,205 50 
 
 Ey the Pension Fund for old age (1) | Averao-e.... 64 80 
 
 ^ , J Total. f.. '.'.'.'. 377,Y00 00 
 
 -■^otal {Average... 183 60 
 
 Pensions of Widoivs. 
 
 I^umber of pensions 1,098 
 
 , „ , ^ [Total $59,385 40 
 
 By Pension Fund of the Company | Aveiage ... 54 00 
 
 „ , , ,, [Total.'. 26,510 00 
 
 Ey Pension Fund for old age (Average... 24 20 
 
 ^ , [Total .'.'.' 85,895 80 
 
 Total I Average ... 78 20 
 
 (1) Comprised in this, for married employes, are the pensions in the names of their wives. 
 
378 
 
 Ghildren's Pensions. 
 
 Number of pensions 10& 
 
 Total by Pension Fund of the Company | ;^^^°^J* ;;; ^^,671 80 
 
 Total and Average. 
 
 Number of pensions 3,261 
 
 r> ii. n • -m J J? ^1- /~i^ f Amount ... 306,551 GO 
 
 By the Pension Fund of the Company j Average... 94 00 
 
 D *i, T> • 1? J ^ ij I Amount ... 159,715 80 
 
 By the Pension Fund for old age ] Average(2) 50 60 
 
 Amount ... 466,267 60 
 Averase... 143 00 
 
 Total... 
 
 The total capital of Pension Fund on the 31st December, 1888, was $6,216,033 00 
 
 SAVINGS BANK. 
 
 The Western Eailroad Companies have established, with the cooperation of 
 their employees, a savings bank, with 3 taiff of 117 articles. The shares, the profits, 
 etc., are sold at cost price. 
 
 In 1888 the sales amounted to $267,910 
 
 the gross profits at 20,619 
 
 the general expenses at 21,284 
 
 Leaving for the year a loss of $ 665 
 
 This loss is unusual. It was caused by a depression of the tariffs, which, for 
 1887, had left a profit of $3,097, a figure which proved too high. The deficit was 
 covered by reserve funds, amounting to $34,516. 
 
 The number of employees who made use of the savings bank in 1888 was 
 6,507, and the amount of monthly sales was $8,050. 
 
 At Paris there proved to be, in 1888, a diminution of 1,329 customers, and a 
 reduction of $4,102 in the sales. An enquiry made on this subject proved that this 
 diminution was due to the active competition of merchants who, in certain quarters, 
 had lowered their prices to the level of the Savings Bank tariff. 
 
 EAILEOAD COMPANIES OF PARIS AT LYONS AND ON THE 
 MEDITEERANBAN. 
 
 REGULATIONS OP THE RETIRING PENSION FUND. 
 
 Primarily, the members of this fund consist of: — 
 
 1st. The members of the commissioned staff on all branches of the service. 
 2nd. The classified agents at stations, on the trains and track, of the folkwing 
 categories : — 
 
 1. Stations : Signal-men ; foremen and engineers ; sub-factors, porters, baggage- 
 men, farriers and saddlers of the outside service; lamp-cleaners, gas-men, gear-men, 
 concierges. 
 
 2. Trains : Waggon-men. 
 
 3. Tj ack : Superintendent of track-layers ; brigadier track-layers ; laboring 
 track-layers, and other laborers enrolled in "services of the track." 
 
 Every employee in these three classes is inscribed on the list of the department 
 in which he has completed one year's service. 
 
 (2) For employees and their widows only, the children not having a pension from the old fund^ 
 
379 
 
 Art. 2. The Endowment Fund of the Retiring Pension is formed by : 
 
 Ist. A monthly assessment of 4 per cent, on the salai-ies of employees. 
 
 2nd. A monthly subsidy at 6 per cent, on the salaries paid by the Company. 
 
 3rd. The profits from the investment of funds arising from these assessments and 
 subsidies. 
 
 Art. 3. To have a claim on the pension, every employee must fulfil the double 
 condition of being 55 years of age and of having passed 25 years in the service con- 
 tributing to the fund. 
 
 Art. 4. The Company reserves the right to place on the pension list, in advance, 
 every employee above 55 years of age ; and, whatever be his age, every employee 
 ■naving 15 years of service contributing to the fund, in case of wounds received, or 
 sickness, or infirmity contracted in the service. 
 
 Art. 5. The retiring pension, regular or anticipated, is calculated at the propor- 
 tion of Jjj or 2 per cent, of the average salary, for every year of service contributing' 
 to the fund. 
 
 This average salary is computed in accordance with the average of salaries sub- 
 mitted to the assessments which the employee has paid during his last six years of 
 service (or during the entire terms of his services, if the latter proportion is more' 
 advantageous for him). 
 
 The pension in no case can exceed $2,400. 
 
 Art. 6. The half of an employee's retiring pension is transferable to his widow,- 
 provided that his marriage had been contracted five years before the cessation of his 
 service. 
 
 On decease of the wife, her retiring pension is not transferable to the husband. 
 
 When an employee, who has fifteen years' service counting towards the retiring 
 pension, dies during the performance of his service, whatever may have been his age, 
 his widow has a claim on half of the pension which might have accrued to his pi-ofit 
 if the marriage had been contracted two years befoj-e his death. 
 
 The widow has no right to a pension in case there has been a separation de corps, 
 or divorce, at the demand of her husband. 
 
 Art. 7. On the decease of a married employee, retired, or having fifteen years 
 of service counting towards a pension, if his wife is deceased or not entitled to receive 
 the pension, his legitimate children, aged at least 18 years of age, will receive an 
 annual assistance eq[ual to half of the pension which their father haa obtained, or 
 would have been entitled to receive. It is divided among them in equal portions, 
 and the part due to each is granted on their attaining the age of 18 years. 
 
 If the agent leaves, at his decease, a widow to whom reverts half of the pension,- 
 the same arrangement applies to the children when this widow dies. 
 
 In the case where an employee dies leaving legitimate children, issue of a former 
 marriage, thei e will be detained in their favor from the pension assigned to the widow 
 a fourth, if there is one orphan ; half, if there are several. 
 
 The portion of pension thus assigned to the children returns to the widow when 
 each one attains the age of 18, or dies. If the widow herself has legitimate children, 
 issue of the marriage with the employee, the assistance granted to the children of 
 first marriage will be divided in equal portions to each one of the children of both 
 marriages, and the widow will have free disposal of the portion thus destined for her 
 own children. 
 
 Art. 8. No widow, at least, unless she has herself been an employee of the Com- 
 pany, can obtain two I'etiring pensions. 
 
 In a case where, by successive marriages with employees, a widow is in a posi- 
 tion required to claim several pensions, she can only receive the highest, to the ex- 
 clusion of the others. 
 
 Art. 9, When an employee is transferred from a department where he has not 
 been subject to assessment, to one in which he is, his time of service only counts from 
 the period when the change takes place. 
 
 When an employee is transferred from a department where he is subject t& 
 assessment to one in which he is not, he continues to be taxed, and preserves the 
 right to a pension. 
 
380 
 
 Art. 10. Tte pension fund returns in cash, without interest, the deposits of all 
 employees who cease to remain on the list of members, and do not fulfil the condi- 
 tions necessary to have a right to the regular pension, reserving the usual right in 
 cases where they are indebted to the company for any cause whatever. 
 
 On the death of an employee, the payments are made to his heirs, except in 
 cases pi'ovided for, in the third paragraph of Article 6. 
 
 Exceptions can, in like manner, be made to this principle, in the cases mentioned 
 in Article 7, the children not heing entitled to receive at the same time the temporary 
 assistance mentioned, and the emoluments arising from assessments made on their 
 parents. In this case, it will be at the discretion of their guardian to select which 
 of the two allowances may seem to be most advantageous. 
 
 Art. 13. The payment of the pensions, is placed under the responsibility of the 
 Company. 
 
 Consequently, in the case where, from any cause whatever, the retiring fund is 
 unable, fiom its regular resources, to meet the demands for the payment of pen- 
 sions, the Company will be held bound to guarantee this payment by a supplemen- 
 tary grant. 
 
 Art. 14. The Company reserves the right to profit by the results of experience 
 in revising the assessments for reserve fund, and to modify, in whole or in detail, 
 the regulations of the retiring pension fund, as established by the present regulations. 
 
 No modifications, however, which ]'efer to previous regulations, nor those to be 
 adopted in future, can, in any case, have a retroactive effect in regard to acquired 
 rights. 
 
 Medical Care and Attendance. 
 
 No one will be admitted to the staff of the Company until he has been examined 
 by the physicians of the Company, who will deliver him a certificate describing his 
 state of health, and his degree of physical aptitude for the employment which he 
 intends to follow. Women employees, of whatever class, are not subjected to an 
 examination on joining the Company, except for sight and hearing. 
 
 Art. 8. Every day, at an appointed hour, the physicians give consultations to 
 sick persons, either at the stations or at their homes. 
 
 Art. 9. The patient, whose removal to hospital is considered necessary by the 
 physician, must consent to go, unless he prefers being attended at home at his own 
 expense. 
 
 Art. 15. The following have no claim for medical attendance : — 
 
 1st. Employees whose salaries exceed $600. 
 
 2nd. Employees and workmen who do not need attendance, and who select a 
 residence more than 1 J miles from the ofl3ce to which they are attached.* 
 
 Art. 20. Boxes of medicine, also surgical instruments, apparatus, &c., are kept 
 in the stations and workshops. Boxes of bandages are placed in the cars of passen- 
 ,ger trains. 
 
 Art. 39. During interruptions to duty caused by sickness, certified to by the 
 physician of the Company, employees receive as indemnity half of their pay or 
 fixed salary. 
 
 Art. 43. Their full pay can be continued to sick employees in the following 
 ■cases ; — 
 
 1st. Sickness or injuries caused by the service. 
 
 2nd. Injuries in the workshops, contracted without imprudence on the part of 
 the injured. 
 
 Valued employees, of good character and ability, can be also authorized to draw 
 their full pay in case of sickness, but permission to this effect can only be given by 
 the manager of the Company. 
 
 * The Company lodges all those employees whose duties require their presence in the vicinity of the 
 stations or workshnps. ' 
 
381 
 
 Solidays. 
 
 Employees, whose duties do not leave them fi-ee disposal of their time on Sun- 
 days and holidays, have a right to twelve days' holiday, paid, every year. This 
 holiday can be extended by the management. 
 
 Writ of Attachment. 
 
 Every agent whose salary is subjected to an opposition or writ of attachment, 
 or who has consented to an assignment, or transfer of amount deducted by th"e Com- 
 pany, in view of a retiring pension, as well as on sums which might ultimately be 
 due by the Company, is considered as having resigned if, before the expiration of 
 two months, the full liquidation of this writ has not been notified to the Company. 
 
 The delay expired, the general treasurer retains the whole amount of salary 
 seized, until the affairs of the employee have been settled. 
 
 This rule can be modified in favor of employees who find themselves tempor- 
 arily embarrassed in consequence of sickness or family expenses legitimately 
 incurred, and who also guarantee to repay their indebtedness within a few months. 
 
 In this ease, the assessment made by the Company is a fiftieth to the total 
 amount of salary. 
 
 § 5. — Travelling Expenses.* 
 
 22. Employees who are obliged to be from home on account of the service, have 
 a right to regular indemnity according to their functions, either in detail or by a 
 lump sum. 
 
 23. Travelling indemnity, payable on account rendered, cannot be greater than 
 expenditure for transport, board and lodging, actually incurred. 
 
 These expenses should, moreover, be kept within the limits of moderation and 
 economy which expediency and the interest of the Company demand. 
 
 The following have a right to indemnity for expenses of travel, according to 
 memoranda rendei'ed. (Here follow the names of functionaries of manager's staff, 
 department of works, department of stores and bridges, department. of transfbr, 
 department of construction, who have a right to indemnity for removal.) 
 
 24. Eor the other employees, with the exception of those who, by reason of the 
 special nature of their business, when absent, are subject to regulations of Articles 25, 
 26 and 21, the travelling expenses, etc., are regulated by the total number of hours 
 passed out of their residence, deduction being made for all absence except four hours. 
 
 On dividing by 24 the total number of hours to deduct, the total number days of 
 absence is found, which is allowed by the half-day. 
 
 Each of these days have a fixed indemnity, as follows :-^ 
 
 $2.00 for chiefs and assistant chiefs. 
 
 $1.60 for employees having at least $600 salary. 
 
 $1.20 for employees having from $360 to $600. 
 
 $1.00 for employees whose salary is below $360 ; the chief track-layers outside 
 their circumscription and State laborers. 
 
 $0.60 for station agents, baggagemen and day laborers. 
 
 25. Travelling expenses to employees on trains are fixed as follows : — 
 
 Chief-conductors $0.60) By period of 24 hours reckoned as by 
 
 Conductors and brakmeu 0.40 J Article 24. 
 
 All conductors and brakemen on service in trains have a claim for expenses 
 calculated as hereinbefore mentioned, if they are in charge of a service which takes 
 them once or several times per day from their homes, and if the duration ot these 
 absences exceeds four hours. 
 
 Conductors detached from another service receive, for their ordinary service, 
 stations calculated at rates fixed by the present Article 25, The expenses of change 
 of station in connection with their regular service are regulated : 
 
 * General order, No. 4. 
 
382 
 
 1st. In accordance with above Article 24, for conductors detached in the service 
 of a station other than that of their residence, notwithstanding they avail thertiselves 
 of the service of trains. 
 
 2nd. In proportion of fl.OO to each period of 24 hours, for the services of ballast 
 and pilotage. 
 
 26. The travelling expenses of mechanics and firemen are fixed as follows : — 
 For absences of 15 to 18 hours, $0.30 for mechanics and $0.25 for firemen ; 
 For absences of 18 to 24 hours, $0.60 for mechanics and $0.50 for firemen. 
 
 For over 24 hours, the indemnities allowed for each half day's absence are 
 respectively — 30 cents for mechanics and 25 cents for firemen. 
 
 These indemnities, however, are raised to 50 cents for mechanics and 40 cents 
 for firemen when these employees are detached from their depots for ballasting ser- 
 vice or transportation of material, or for any other accidental cause, independent of 
 the ordinary ti'ain service. 
 
 27. The section chiefs of the road are repaid, on notice, for their travelling 
 expenses, at the rate of 80 cents per meal for those taken outside of their residence, 
 and at 60 cents for each night's lodging ; conductors at the rate of 60 cents per meal 
 taken outside of their residence, and at 50 cents for each night's lodging. 
 
 The stokers in France receive travelling indemnity, fixed at $20 per month. 
 
 The chief track-layers within the portion of road of their circumscription, receive 
 travelling indemnity, fixed at $6 per month ; when removed from their circumscrip- 
 tion they receive a further indemnity, determined in accordance with Article 24. 
 
 An indemnity of 50 cents per day is allowed to guards, also to foremen and 
 track-layers, whose service obliges them to lodge outside. 
 
 The section chiefs, ofiSce chiefs, and special agents of the works, having more 
 than $600 salary, are classed with chiefs of road sections. 
 
 Sub-chiefs of sections, superintendents and agents of the works, having more 
 than $400 of salary, are classed with conductors on the road. 
 
 The switchmen and employees of the same class receive 45 cents for each meal 
 taken outside their residence, and 30 cents for each night's lodging. 
 
 The chiefs, sub-chiefs of office, and principal legal advisers, are classed with sec- 
 tion chiefs of the i-oad. 
 
 The other legal employees are classed with conductors on the road. 
 
 Indemnities for Removals. 
 
 An indemnity for removal, is granted to every clerk dismissed, with the excep- 
 tion, if the fact or the dismissal is imposed as punishment, or, when it has taken 
 place at the request of the person employed. This indemnity is established on the 
 following basis : — 
 
 Bachelors lodged by the Society, 1 per cent, for the reception. 
 
 Married persons lodged by the Society, 2 per cent, for the reception. 
 
 Bachelors not lodged by the Society, 3 per cent, for the reception. 
 
 Married persons not lodged by the Society, 6 per cent, for the reception. 
 
 Widowers with children and those who, bachelors or widowers, live at the care 
 of their parents, are assimilated to married persons. 
 
 Furniture is removed gratuitously by the Company. 
 
 Further, the Company allows supplementary expenses, when the clerk dismissed 
 has, by reason of his dismissal, a lease to cancel, or a temporary stay to make at the 
 jhotel. 
 
 EAILWAY COMPANY FEOM PAEI8 TO OELEANS. 
 
 Remarks on the Various Institutions Founded on behalf of the Staff. 
 
 The institutions founded by the Company, in the interest of its staff, to-day 
 comprise : — 
 
 1. The making up of retirement pensions, in favor of commissioned agents ful- 
 filling conditions of age and of length of fixed service. 
 
383 
 
 2. The distribution of gratuities and of relief in money, provisions, garments 
 and fuel. 
 
 3. The granting of annuities to sufferers from accident in the service. 
 
 4. A complete medical service. 
 
 5. The distribution of healthy drink during the hot weather. 
 
 6. Shops installed at Paris, Orleans, Tours, Perigueux and Bourdeaux, deliver- 
 ing, on all points of its network, nourishing pi'ovisions and garments, objects of bed- 
 ding, cloths, &c,, as well as a cellar established at Vitry. 
 
 7. A refectory, erected in the precinct of the workshops at Paris. 
 
 8. A bakery, set up also in the neighborhood of the workshops at Paris. 
 
 9. Evening classes for workingmen and apprentices of the workshops. 
 
 10. A school for the daughters of the working class and clerks, and a working 
 place where they can learn a profession, and later on, work as operatives. 
 
 11. Finally, a subsidyfrom the Company to the Society of Mutual Aid and Pro- 
 vidence, founded and managed by the workingmen and clei'ks, with the principal 
 aim of assuring pensions at a fixed age or in desperate conditions. 
 
 1. Pension for retirement. — The rules of the Society concerning retiring pensions, 
 established in favor of persons employed, contain the arrangements recapitulated 
 hereafter. 
 
 (a.) The Company makes each year, on the profits of its working, a defalcation 
 which varies with the dividends distributed to the shareholders, and which is divided 
 among the commissioned clerks in the proportion of 
 
 On the amount of this defalcation, the Society appropriates 10 per cent, of the 
 advantages produced, to the establishing of retiring pensions by means of deposits 
 made in the name of each clerk, at the National Bank for retirements, instituted and 
 managed by the State. 
 
 When there is an excess, the surplus is deposited at the Savings Bank in the name 
 of the person employed, or is remitted to him in money. 
 
 For some years, the share not having produced a sum equal to one-tenth of the 
 profits, the Society has made up the deposit at the national bank for retirements by 
 means of a special grant. 
 
 The sum dep>osited for the year 1886 has risen in quantity to $585,Y29, 
 namely : — 
 
 Amount of the shai-e $432,106 
 
 Supplementary grant 153,623 
 
 Even sum $585,728 
 
 The deposits at the National Nank for retirements are made, at the choice of the 
 person employed, at reserved capital or at transferred capital. 
 
 In the case where the pension established at the Bank for superannuations, 
 reaches the maximum fixed by law, the portion of the grant relating to the composi- 
 tion of the supperannuation, as well as the arrears of clear rent, are deposited in the 
 name of the clerk at the Savings Bank of Paris, on condition thereby of transmitting, 
 in rent upon the State, the sum which exceeds the legal maximum. 
 
 When a clerk leaves the service of the Company, at some date and for some 
 motive whatever it may be, the books of the Bank for superannuations, and of the 
 saving bank are restored to him. If he dies while in employment, the remittance 
 is made to his heirs. 
 
 (b.) The commissioned agents are discharged, on the proposal of the director of 
 the Company, and by decision of the Couacil of Management. 
 
 In each case of discharge, they calculate, conformably to the tariffs of the Bank 
 for old age, the amount of the rent produced by the payments operated on by the 
 Company at the Bank of superannuations for old age, and at the Savings Bank, for 
 the account of the agent discharged and for that of his wife. 
 
 For every agent married for more than five years, at the time of his discharge, 
 the calculation is made in consideration of the capital invested as reserved, or as 
 given up, at the choice of the agent, according as he desires to assure the reversion 
 
384 
 
 for half of his pension on the head of his widow and children under age, or as he- 
 prefers to leave to his family the whole sum of the stocks, dejjosited in his name at 
 the Bank for old age and at the Savings Bank. 
 
 For every bachelor, widower or married for less than five years, the capital on 
 deposit is considei-ed as given up at the time of the discharge. 
 
 The annuity thus determined, is augmented with a supplementary allowance 
 which assures to every agent, after twenty-five years of sei'vice and fifty-five years 
 of age, a retiring pension equal to hulf of his mean profit during the six last years. 
 This pension is increased by -j^th of the profit by year of service at most, without 
 being able to exceed three-fourths of the mean profit of the six last years. 
 
 It is reduced in an analogous proportion for the agents whom the Company is 
 brought to discharge in anticipation, and who count, however, fifty years of age and 
 twenty years of active service. 
 
 The widows of the agents, who have died on active service obtain a pension 
 equal to half of that which the Company would have put at the service of the hus- 
 bands, if they had been discharged at Ihe time of their death. 
 
 The capital granted to establish supplementary pensions for the agents dis- 
 charged, and for the widows of agents who have died on active service, has amounted, 
 during the year 1886, to $199,968. 
 
 The capital of these supplementary incomes, is remitted to the agents who ask 
 for it, when they count more than thirty years of service, at the time of being placed 
 on retirement. 
 
 2. Gratuities and supplies. — The gratuities and supplies distributed in 1886, 
 amounted to $109,643.60, namely : — 
 
 Gratuities $35,321.40 
 
 Supplies 48,060.00 
 
 Indemnities to agent discharged bj^ anticipation 26,262.20 
 
 Even sum $109,643.60 
 
 3. Annuities to Sufferers from Accidents. — When the commissioned agents having 
 less than twenty years of service and fifty years of age, clerks on trial, auxiliaries, 
 a set gang of men and workmen of the different services of the network served by 
 the Company, are struck down with absolute incapacity for work, in consequence of 
 accidents from seivice, they can obtain, whatever be their age and the length of 
 their service, an annuity equal to half of their fixed mean profit — in the last six 
 years, diminished by ^th a year of service below twenty-five years, and by -^th a 
 year of age below fifty-five years, without this pension being yet lower than $80.00. 
 
 For the clerks on trial, auxiliaries, set gangs and workmen, the annuity is from 
 $80 whatever may be the age and the length of service. 
 
 If the clerks are married at the time of the accident, the payments are, in case 
 of pre-decease of the husband, revertible fof- half with minimum of $60 on the head of 
 the widow, or upon that of the orphan children under age, up to their 18th year. 
 
 Widows and children, left by the sufferers from accidents, having met with death, 
 are assimulated, for the settlement of pensions, to widows and children of those who 
 are struck down with absolute incapacity for work. 
 
 The pensions granted to widows, are revertible, up to the age of 18 years, 
 on the head of orphan children, sprung from marriage with the agent killed or dis- 
 charged . 
 
 4. Medical Service. — The medical service extends to all the agents of the Com- 
 pany, that is to say, to clerks properly called and to workmen occupied on permanent 
 works. 
 
 All the sick and the wounded, have right to the care~of the doctor, except in the 
 case where incapacity for work results from quarrelling, from misconduct, or from 
 chronic diseases before admission. 
 
 In the localities of their network, where there exist workshops for the repaii-ing 
 of stock (Paris, Tours, Perigueux), a special physician is attached to the service of 
 
385 
 
 the stores and of the traction. This physician owes his advice and attention not only 
 to the clerks and workmen of this service, but further, to all members composing; 
 the family living with them and in their care. 
 
 He gives consultations daily, in the apartment placed at his disposal, and he 
 resorts to the residence, when, not being able to present themselves, the sick dwell 
 in the limits fixed for the medical limit. 
 
 The workshops of Paris possess a pharmacy ; besides several chemists, estab- 
 lished in the quarters inhabited by the workmen and clerks, are authoiized to deliver 
 medicines upon the presentation of orders signed by the physicians of the Company. 
 On the network the sick apply in like manner to chemists appointed by the Com- 
 pany. Medicines are granted gratuitously to agents whose profit is equal or inferior 
 to $420. 
 
 Sick agents receive, during a certain time, according to circumstances, all or 
 part of their attendance or equivalent relief. 
 
 The expense occurred in 1886, as much for fees to doctors, as for purchase of 
 drugs, amounted for the whole of the staff to $63,4Y6. 
 
 5. Healthy Drink. — A healthy drink is delivered each year, during the heat of 
 summer, to all the staff of the Company. It is composed of: 
 1 quart of gentianed rum. 
 6J gallons of water. 
 
 The gentianed rum is thus prepared : 
 
 1 quart of tincture of gentian mixed with IJ gallons of rum pure at 53°. 
 
 The use of this drink has given the best results from a health point of view. 
 
 The mean annual expense is about $40. 
 
 The quantity of rum distributed in 1886 has been 31,000 gallons. 
 
 6. — Storehouse for Provisions, Garments, and Cellar of Vitry. — Storehouses, inten- 
 ded for supplying with provisions the agent of the Company, are set up in the interior 
 of the establishments of the Company, at Paris, Orleans, Tours, Perigueux and 
 Bourdeaux. 
 
 They deliver to the commissioned and non-commissioned staff of the services of 
 the Company, nourishing provisions, combustibles for firewood and all articles of 
 chief necessity in bedding, hosiery, linen, drapery, stockings and manufactured gar- 
 ments, woollen cloths, cotton and velvet. The storehouse of Paris alone furnishes 
 bread and wine. 
 
 The wine delivered by the storehouse of Paris, is stored at the cellar of Vitry. 
 
 Every agent of the Company on commission, or on a' day's journey, can be sup- 
 plied at these storehouses, but only for his wants, and those of the members of his 
 family living with him. It is sufl&cient for him for that purpose to ask for a little 
 book,-which is handed over by the traction service, and examined by the direct chief 
 of the agent. 
 
 The nature and the price of sale of the goods, are posted up in the storehouses, 
 and published by distributions of tariffs made monthly. 
 
 At Paris nourishing provisions of every kind are, when it pleases, taken to the 
 storehouse, or delivered at home. In order to obtain the delivery of them, it is 
 enough to present the little book, examined according to regulations, with a mark 
 pointing out the goods asked for. 
 
 On the network, conveyances to the residence do not take place. 
 
 The" agents inhabiting the locality, and possessing a separate storehouse convey, 
 or cause the articles to be conveyed, which have been delivered over by the store- 
 house. 
 
 In other localities, the agents send on fixed days (twice a month), their books 
 and their orders to the chief of the terminus or station, who puts them together, and 
 sends them to the storehouse in a special basket belonging to this establishment. 
 
 On fixed days, in like manner, the storehouse returns into each terminus or 
 station, the same baskets containing the books and goods. The chief of the terminus 
 or station is entrusted with looking after the distribution. The conveyance of 
 empty and laden baskets, takes place twice a month ; it is performed gratuitously. 
 
 20—25 
 
All the goods handed over to the agents in the stores, at home, or by being 
 sent in baskets, are weighed, measured and got ready by the care of the clerks of 
 the stores, in conformance with entries borne on the books, and on the sheet called 
 ■"The Journal of Sale," indicating the nature, quantity, price, partial and total value 
 ■of each article. 
 
 The books are given or sent back with the goods, the sheet " Journal of Sale " 
 i-emains at the store, and serves at the establishment for conditions drawn up for the 
 ■deductions to operate monthly. 
 
 The value of the articles delivered by the provision stores in the course of a month, 
 ought not to exceed, at Paris, three-fifths, in the Province two-fifths, of the salary or 
 profit in touch. 
 
 The articles furnished by the stoi-es for garments, can be regulated, in six months, 
 by means of monthly fixed deductions, varying from fl.OO to $4.00, according to the 
 importance of credit accounts opened on the books. 
 
 The sale prices are fixed without profit ; they comprise solely the value of the 
 general expenses (included in this are the cost of rent, of apartments assigned to the 
 stores, the charges for conveyance, for pay to the staff, &c.,) added to the purchase 
 price. 
 
 The goods are bought, as far as possible, at the places of production and of choice 
 in the localities served by the lines of the Company. The wine particularly is bought, 
 for the greater part, among the producers in Touraine and iu the south of France. 
 Its quality is always good, without ever coming up to what can be called " luxury 
 quality ;" but the good bargain attained is not any more the result of any inferiority. 
 
 Almost all the articles of clothing are cut and prepared at the store of Paris ; 
 some are made up by special workmen, but the greater portion is set apart for the 
 widows, womeij or children of workingmen and clerks of the Company. 
 
 During the year 1886, 217 persons, widows, wives or daughters of agents of the 
 Company, have taken part in the making-up of garments, and linen articles sold by 
 the stores. 
 
 The amount of sums paid for these works of making-up has been $13,148.00. 
 
 The cost price of these manufactures, do not ditfer greatly from those of the 
 large manufacturing houses, but the work of sewing of them is more attended to. 
 
 The sewing, procured to the staflf by the stores, varies from 12 to 20 per cent, on 
 articles of diet ; it reaches 15 to 30 per cent, on other articles. 
 
 The sales amounted in 1886 : — 
 
 Inprovisions, fuel, &c $552,465 
 
 In garments, bedding, hosiei'y, drapery, &c 310,319 
 
 Together $86_2_/j84 
 
 Y. jRefectory. — A refectory placed also in the neighborhood of the establishments, 
 at Paris, has been established, with the view of furnishing to all workmen and clerks 
 of all the services, food at the most reduced prices. 
 
 The staff find there, at every meal, soup, thick broth, boiled beef and various 
 meats, prepared with fresh or dry vegetables, eggs, cheese, preserves — in a word, 
 everything which, according to season and price, can be sold in portions without 
 exceeding the price of $0.04. 
 
 The thick broth costs $0.01 ; the soup 0.02 ; the portion of beef 0.03 ; the portion 
 of stew 0.03; seasoned vegetables 0.01 ; the price of portions, pork, fish in oil, fresh 
 or salted fish, eggs, preserves, cheese, delivered in variable quantities at the rate of 
 purchase, never exceeds $0.03. 
 
 The price of the wine delivered to the establishment, depends also on that of pur- 
 chase. Up to now, it has varied from $0.46 to 0.65 per gallon, in it being included 
 the duties of tolls and imports into Paris, which are I0.1Y3. Whatever be the 
 quantity of provisions taken, there is never delivered more than a pint of wine a 
 person and a meal. 
 
 Men are only admitted to take their meal at the dining-hall, on table, previously 
 furnished with plates, spoons, forks, glasses and water-bottles, salt, pepper, &c. 
 
3S7 
 
 The hot foods are delivei-ed in double-bottomed-platters, tinned over, like those for 
 soldiers; the lower receptable holds soup, the upper meat and vegetables. 
 
 The delivery of the cooked foods is made at open shutters, in the wall which 
 separates the kitchen from the refectory. Bach consumer presents himself in his 
 turn of arriving at one of the shutters, receives and carries oif the food which he re- 
 quires. 
 
 This arrangement allows of serving, in 18 to 20 minutes, about 400 persons. 
 The foods prepared are in like manner handed over to persons , who desire to carry 
 them home ; but the refectory does not furnish the necessary vessels for convey- 
 ance. 
 
 Payment is made at the time of the sending of the food, by means of counters 
 delivered by the provision store of Paris. The value of these tokens, entered in the 
 book, as that of other goods delivered, is kept to the end of each month. 
 
 The fresh meats, vegetables, fish, fruits, necessary for the refectory, come from 
 the markets of Paris ; other provisions are furnished, the bread and the wine especi- 
 ally, by the provision store. 
 
 At this time, the price of a meal on the spot, or at home can only amount to 
 $0,112. 
 
 Bread (the portion) $0.01 to $0,020 
 
 Wine (one pint) 0.032 
 
 Soup (bread 1| ounces, thick broth 18 oz.) 0.020 
 
 Cooked meat (loaf without vegetables) 0.030 
 
 Seasoned vegetables.... 0.010 
 
 Total $0,112 
 
 The food delivered by the refectory during the year 1886 represents a value of 
 $29,170. 
 
 The workmen and clerks who do not wish to take a part, or the whole of the 
 food or of the wine delivered, find at the refectory tables got ready with plates, 
 knives, forks, salt and pepper, where they can be installed, and eat the nourishment 
 which they are made to procure for themselves by their family. 
 
 8. Bakery of Paris. — The Company has established a bakery, managed by its 
 care in the annexes of the provision store of Paris. It makes each day from 4,300 
 to 4,400 lbs. of bread of first quality. 
 
 The difference between the price of sale of this bakery and that of commerce, 
 represents $0.0195 a pound for the year 1886, or a reduction of 28 per cent. The 
 quantities delivered during the coui-se of the year, amounted to 1,527,133 lbs., and in 
 value to $38,583. 
 
 Elsewhere, as Tours, P^rigueux, Capdenac, Saint-Sulpiee-Launri^re, Montlugon, 
 Bourdeaux, Poitiei's and Ussel, the agents have taken the initiative in establishing 
 bakeries, which form co-operative civil societies, in which all the inhabitants of the 
 locality can take part, on promising to observe their statutes. 
 
 The Company is absolutely strange to the adminstration of those establishments 
 which are set up outside the gi-ound of the railway, with the sole resources of the 
 participants ; but it facilitates their operation, in causing, on account of the bakery, 
 at the time of the monthly paying of its staff, recovery to be made of sums due it by 
 its agents. It is well understood that these latter reserve the most absolute liberty 
 of not paying; and it is, in this case, the bakery which is entrusted with recovering 
 sums thus refused. 
 
 9. Classes and Meetings. — Lectures and meetings intended for workmen and 
 apprentices of workshops of Paris, have been held in the evening, and comprise in the 
 elementary portion : reading, grammar, arithmetic, geometry, and linear and orna- 
 mental drawing. Another side, comprises information on the manufacture and 
 employment of the materials used in the railway workshops. These courses and 
 meetings commence each year on the 15th October, and end on the 30th April of the 
 following year. The professors are taken from the staff of the Company, among the 
 vounff persons who have come forth from special schools, or from school-teaching. 
 
 •^ 20-25* 
 
388 
 
 In 1886, the number of pupils entered at these courses has been 158. 
 
 10. Schools and Workshop for Girls. — There exists also, in the neighborhood of the 
 workshops of Paris, a school and a workshop for the daughters of clerks and work- 
 men. 
 
 The school, the system in which is the day school, and where the teaching is 
 gratuitous, receives little girls to begin from the age of three years. Children from 
 three to six yea7-§ make up an infant class ; those that are ovei-, are divided into six 
 other classes ; they learn to read, to write, to count and to sew. 
 
 During the school year ISSG-ST the number of pupils has been 442, of which 130 
 were in the infant class. 
 
 The working places comprise shops for the ironing of linen and the making of 
 flowers, dresses and waistcoats. Apprentices and workwomen are occupied there. 
 
 At the age of 13 years, children of the clerks and workmen of the Company can 
 be admitted to the workplace as apprentices, at the request of the parents, so much 
 as comes to the number of pl.ices for disposal. 
 
 Apprenticeship is gratuitous. When it is ended, the apprentices can continue 
 to work as workwomen in the same workshop, while receiving, to begin from this 
 moment, remuneration for their labour, as ordinary workwomen. There is never in 
 these workshops any standing still, or dead season. 
 
 In 1886-1887 the working place comprised : 65 workwomen and 26 women 
 apprentices. 
 
 SOCIETY OF MUTUAL BELIEF AND PKOVIDENCE. 
 
 In 1865, on the initiative of clerks and workmen of the Company, there was 
 constituted a mutual relief and provident society, whose aim is to assure to its mem- 
 bers a I'etiring pension at a fixed age and under settled conditions. 
 
 A certain number of managers and of superior ofiicers of the Company, figure in 
 the Society, under title of staff, or as subscribers, or as members of its council elected 
 by the general assembly, but the administration of the Society is absolutely indepen- 
 dent of the Company. The latter limits itself to facilitate its working in handing 
 over, in view of stoppage on the pay, the recovery of the contributions of the clerks 
 of the Society to the railway service, and in granting to the Society, an annual gift of 
 $2,000 to $3,000. In 1886 this gift has been $3,000. 
 
 The Society's expenses are administered by a council elected in general assembly, 
 composed of a president, of two vice-presidents, of a secretary, of a treasurer and of 
 seven commissioners. The condition of affairs was summed up as follows at the end 
 of the trading of 1886 :— 
 
 THE PERSONAL. 
 
 Honorary members 60 
 
 Active members 10,249 
 
 Pensioners 1,353 
 
 Widows of pensioners 208 
 
 Orphans 3 
 
 11,813 
 
 Finances. 
 
 Contributions of nominal members $ 1 ,083,246 39 
 
 Contributions of honorary members and various 
 
 donations : 6,528 00 
 
 Gifts from the Company •. 45,000 00 
 
 Interest on sums placed out 455,807 35 
 
 Proceeds from repayment of bonds taken out at 
 
 the various drawings 39,286 89 
 
 Superior value between the purchase prices and 
 
 the value of repayments from bonds taken out 
 
 at the drawings 20,911 41 
 
 Fines incurred by 'members of the Society o,554 23 
 
 $1,654,334 27 
 
389 
 
 Pensions paid (1868 to 1886) $543,102 24 
 
 Funds invested.... 1,069.697 93 
 
 Eelief 8,202 03 
 
 Tarious expenses 32,117 32 
 
 1,653,179 52 
 
 Difference at bank $ 1,154 75 
 
 Paris, March, 1888. 
 
 CETSTAL MANUFACTOEY OF BACCAEAT. 
 
 Primary Schools. — ^Erected at Baccarat by the Company, and held together at 
 its expense, for the children of its workmen. This group is composed of: — 
 
 1. A refuge, three halls for the children of the two sexes from 3 to 6 years, kept 
 by two nuns ; it receives 100 children. 
 
 2. Of classes for girls from 6 to 13. They Comprise 4 classes, with 5 nuns for 
 130 pupils. When the young girls have finished their primary instruction, they can 
 enter at the working place, where they are prepared for the work of sewing and of 
 house-keeping. There are at the present time 35 young girls in the workshop. 
 
 3. Of classes for boys from 6 to 13, instructed by 5 masters. They count 160 
 pupils. 
 
 Schools for Adults. — For apprentices of 12 to 15 years. They are open from 5 to 
 7 o'clock in the evening. 
 
 Professional Schools. — Founded to form the apprentice cutters of crystals, 
 engravers, carvei-s, draftsmen. Every year the scholars are examined by a doctor, 
 who states the proofs of their physical force. After a year of residence, paid for the 
 pupils at the rate of $3.20 a month, these latter ai'e sent to the workshop to undergo 
 there a more special apprenticeship. 
 
 School of Drawing. — An obligatory course for apprentice engravers, draftsmen, 
 ^c, takes place from half-past "four to six o'clock in the evening. This hour and 
 a-half is taken up on work. Prizes of $4, $2 and $1 are annually given to the 
 pupils. 
 
 Religious Service. — There is a chapel in the manufactory. A vicar of the parish 
 is paid by the Company. 
 
 Philarmonic Society. — Created and kept by the Company, for and among its 
 -workpeople and apprentices. 
 
 Medical Service. — A physician lives at the works ; he gives twice a day, free 
 consultations to the staff. 
 
 The Sick and Orphans Provident Banks.— The various cla'ises of workpeople, 
 glassmakers, cutters and various workmen, have each a separate provident bank, 
 with the aim of assisting the sick and orphans. They have paid in 1888 : — 
 
 Indemnities to sick workmen $5,524 
 
 In relief to orphans (72) 928 
 
 Total $6,452 
 
 The receipts are made up of : 
 
 1. Payments from workmen $3,471 
 
 2. Payments from the Company 2,195 
 
 _$5^66 
 
 The banks are kept by a payment from the Company equal to 2 for 100 of the 
 .-salaries, and by a stoppage made on the workmen, which varies from 1 to 1^ per cent 
 -of the fees attending the class. 
 
390 
 
 The indemnities for sickness are from ^ or f of the set wages, in accordance 
 with the state of the Bank ; they can last an equal time to that of the former effective 
 set-vices of the workman. 
 
 To the widows of members of the Society, the Banks allow from fl.OO to $1.20 a, 
 month for an orphan less than 13 years old ; for the daughters, the indemnity paid 
 is up to 15 years. 
 
 Participation in the Provident Banks is obligatory ; they are administered by 
 a council composed, by majority, of workmen, elected by their comrades and presided 
 over by the Director of the works. 
 
 Every workman who leaves the manufactory loses all his rights. 
 
 Women do not contribute to the Provident Banks. 
 
 The Company allows to married work-women in child-bed a relief of $8. They 
 are received at the workshop only six weeks after accouchement. 
 
 Salvage. — A company of 70 workmen organised for employment at fires, admini- 
 sters a P]-ovident Bank, founded to assure to a workman wounded at a fire, his entire 
 wages, and in case of death, a pension of |60 to his wife. This bank is supported 
 exclusively by payments from the Company. 
 
 Accidents. — The Company serves to the wounded, to widows, and to orphans of 
 workpeople, sufferers from accident at their work, pensions regulated on a very 
 liberal basis. 
 
 Accidents are uncommon ; one death at the mean is not counted in four years, 
 on a staff of 2,000 persons. 
 
 Retirements. — The Company has ci-eated, entirely at its expense, banks for retire- 
 ments of its aged or infirm workpeople. 
 
 There were, in 1888, 109 men and 19 women pensioners, receiving together 
 $9,199. 
 
 The deposit of the Company at the banks for retirements is : 
 
 For that of the glass-makers, 2J- per cent, of the effectual wages, 
 do cutters, 2|- do do 
 
 do various kinds, If do do 
 
 without reckoning donations extraordinaiy. 
 
 Eetirements are granted after 20 years of service, to men having attained to th& 
 age of 50 years, and to women of the age of 45. They are likewise granted to work- 
 people who, having been employed for 6 years, find themselves in consequence of 
 accident, incapable of continuing their work. 
 
 The pension for women is $4 a month ; that for men is fixed according to salary;, 
 it can never be lower than |5. 
 
 Savings. — It is estimated that the workpeople of Baccarat save 10 per cent, of 
 of their wages. 
 
 COMPANY OP THE FOEGES OF CHAMPAGNE, AND OP THE CANAL OP' 
 
 SAINT-DIZIEE AT WASSY. 
 
 Society of Relief. — All clerks are obliged to belong to the Society — in fact, the list 
 for payment is the list of members of the Society; the Bank is supported by assess- 
 ments, fines inflicted on the workmen at their workshops, an annual subvention, not 
 fixed, from the Company ; donations at interests at 6 per cent., funds of the Society 
 kept at current account, by the Company. The assessment consists in a stoppage of 
 2 per cent, on the monthly salary. Under color of right of admission, the stoppage- 
 retr'enched upon the first month's work is 10 per cent, of the salary. The pecuniary 
 indemnity due in case of sickness is 40 per cent, of the daily wages. It is only due 
 for 40 days. 
 
 The ruling of the Society is almost the same as that of every society of mutual 
 aid, to remark only that men of 60 years old are only admitted, as long as they have- 
 been recruited, at the same time as a son or grandson living with them. 
 
 Workmen leaving the works lose all their rights to the advantages of the- 
 Society. 
 
391 
 
 Bank of Retirement. — A bank for retirements, supported by an annual donation 
 of $2,400, and half the profits of the management, has been created by the Company. 
 It has in view : 
 
 1. To grant a retirement to clerks and aged or infirm workpeople. 
 
 2. To assure workmen against accident. 
 
 3. To subsidise the banks for relief of the works. 
 
 4. To pay the expenses of schools, and to develop instruction. 
 
 5. To subsidise rejoicings and gymnastic societies. 
 
 6. To allow relief in exceptional circumstances. 
 
 To have right to a pension, it is necessary to reckon 6 years of service in the 
 works, and to be 60 years old, or struck with infirmities, resulting from work. 
 
 The Company does not forsake its aged workmen ; it gives them easy employ- 
 ment, and one that causes little fatigue, or places them in hospitable establishments, 
 and pays their board. 
 
 Assurances against Accidents. — Workmen are assured collectively by the Company 
 at an assurance against accidents by means of the payment of a premium of $0.80 at 
 $100 of wages. 
 
 Savings. — The Company receives at current account the savings of workmen to 
 whom it grants, under colour of encoui-agement, an interest of 6 per cent. 
 
 Administrations. — The management has been organized (they are four in niimbei:) 
 with the aim of procuring on the spot for workmen, all articles of which they had 
 need ; to entnist tothe management, the superintending of the expenses, and to pre- 
 vent households from running into debt. 
 
 Sales are sternly limited to the staff. The sale is made at ready money by means 
 of tokens or checks of money struck in the name of the Company, and the value of 
 which varies from | the centin to $1. They are handed over under color of 
 advances to the workmen on the 1st, 10th and 20th of each month, but while keeping 
 account of the wages already gained. 
 
 To obtain fresh advances, ihe workmen have to clear off the expense of two-thirds 
 at the least of the preceding advance, on presenting the memorandum book whicn is 
 restored to them and on which are entered : 1. the amount of the advances ; 2. the 
 total of each sale. The measure has in object to prevent workmen from changing 
 their tokens for money. 
 
 The profits of the management represent 10 • 75 per cent, of the sum of busiiiess ; 
 they are distributed one-half at the bank for retirements, one-half divided among 
 purchasers in proportion to the amount of their purchases. 
 
 The system of purchases by means of tokens, has not given use to exaggerations 
 in expenditure ; on the contrary, the housewives render much better account of their 
 expenses than when the deliveries were made on a credit note-book. 
 
 It has in consequence developed habits of frugality, and contributed to the wel- 
 fare of households. The number of debtor accounts has diminished; it represents 
 scarcely $0.25 on $100 of salary. 
 
 The workmen have never formulated complaints, the more as they are absolutely 
 independent of not furnishing themselves at the stores of the Company. Several 
 families purchase only articles of least importance. Some abstain entirely. 
 
 Lodgings. — The stafi' of the Company is lodged round the works and manufac- 
 tories. 
 
 The chief workmen and families, numbering three workpeople, do not pay rent. 
 The due required from other workpeople is about $0.50 a room and a month. 
 
 The workman ceasing to labor at the works, has to give up his apartment at 
 the end of his fortnight. If he is dismissed, the delay is for eight days only. 
 
 Various. — The Company, considering the distance of the schools of the commu- 
 nity, has created schools in its establishments ; these schools are directed by Sisters 
 of Christian Learning and are attended by 346 pupils. Parents have the choice bet- 
 ween the schools of the works and those of the commune, but they are held to vindi' 
 cate the regular sending to class of their children. 
 
 The Company has also erected a workingplace or class of apprenticeship, where 
 they can practically be taught making-up and sewing. The apprenticeship is for 
 
392 
 
 three years ; the first J'^ear, the apprentice is not paid ; the second, he receives $0.15 a 
 day ; the third, the whole of the wages gained. 
 
 The pi-ofits are put down for, her in a little book from the Savings Bank, repay- 
 able on her coming of age, or on her marriage. The expenses incurred by the 
 operation of the-se patronised institutions are about $19,570 a year, or $11.11|- a work- 
 man. 
 
 COMPANY OP OCEAN MAILS. 
 
 Bank of Providence. — Founded in 1888, obligatory for clerks entered on the ser- 
 vice of the Company after this date. 
 The Bank is supported by : 
 
 1. An allowance of 1 per cent, upon the dividend annually. distributed. 
 
 2. A stoppage of 5 per cent, on wages and gratuities. 
 
 3. The interests of the funds of the Bank. 
 
 4. Donations and graiuities made at the Bank. 
 
 5. Losses in consequence of resignation or erasure. 
 
 Li order to form the initial stock of the Bank, the Company has deposited under 
 color of a gratuity a sum of $20,000. 
 
 Each benefactor has his individual book, on which they carry his share proceed- 
 ing from the division of resources below. 
 
 The clerk who resigns, or is struck out, before having completed six years of 
 service, has a right to none of the sums borne on his book; they are returned to stock. 
 
 The clerk whose resignation or erasure happens when he has six years of service, 
 and less than twelve, only receives the principal of his stoppages ; the surplus in the 
 book is returned to stock. 
 
 The clerk having twelve years of service but less than eighteen when his erasure 
 or his resignation intervenes, receives the amount of his stoppages with the interest 
 of the said stoppages ; the surplus returning to stock. 
 
 After eighteen years of service, the clerk who resigns or is struck off duty, has 
 right to the amount of sums borne on his book ; it is thus for every clerk of 50 years, 
 whatever may be the number of his years of service. 
 
 The property of the clerk dismissed before eighteen years of service is returned 
 to the stock; if the abolishment is brought about after eighteen years of service 
 the clerk receives the half of the principal of his stoppages ; the remainder is 
 returned to stock. 
 
 The clerks disbanded on account of sickness, or abrogation of employment receive 
 their account in full. 
 
 In case of death the sums borne on the book of the deceased are paid to his 
 direct heiis. 
 
 Bank of Relief for the Workshops of the Giota. — Founded to grant medical care 
 and drugs to the members of the staff, and to their families, as well as pecuniary aid. 
 It is supported: 
 
 1. By weekly assessments paid by workmen, laborers, &c., and in proportion to 
 their wages this assessment varies from $0.02 to $0.13 a week. 
 
 2. From a stoppage of 3 per cent, on the profits of works executed on contract. 
 
 3. Prom a stoppage of 1 per cent, on the attendance to clerks afS^liated to the 
 Society. 
 
 4. Pi'om an assessment of $1,200 made by the Company. 
 
 5. From gi'atuities equal to a half-day's pay ($1,300 to $1,400) granted on the 
 occasion of each launching of a ship. 
 
 The Society is managed by seventeen members, of which thirteen are elected ; 
 of their number, one is a clerk and nine of them workmen. 
 
 Retirements. — The Company has not a bank of retirement, but to encourage work- 
 men to assure ease for themselves in their old days, it deposits a premium on 
 account of each of its workmen, who has a book of retirement; in 1888-89 this pre- 
 mium has been 25 per cent., that is to say, that for each $1.00 deposited by a work- 
 man, the Company has added $0.25. 
 
393 
 
 Lodgings. — The Company has built houses, which it lets to its workmen ; the 
 revenue roughly, is about 3 per cent. 
 
 G-ENEEAL TEANSATLANTIC COMPANY. 
 
 BANKS OF RELIEF. 
 
 Age, accidents, sickness, the perils of voyaging, are so many causes of abrupt 
 trouble in the domestic life of clerks, and of their families. Temporary and contin- 
 uous aide are prescribed and ought to be granted. The General Transatlantic Com- 
 pany has accepted these obligations, and put in practice this philanthropic work, in 
 being sensible of creating special resources outside of its profits. 
 
 It has constituted two separate banks, Nos. 1 and 2, directly supporting 
 themselves, and each having its accounts apart. 
 
 The bank of relief, No. 1, concerns the staff" navigating and working under 
 management in harbors, which make up its capital, while relinquishing 1 per 
 cent, of their salaries. This capital, is besides increased by the half of the receipts 
 gathered upon board of packet-boats, either by collections, or by concerts established 
 in favor of the central society of salvage. 
 
 The condition of bank No. lis flourishing, and it is in a way of meeting the con- 
 tingency of an unlucky service of ships. The capital is $40,000. This Bank distri- 
 butes about $12,000 of relief a year to a number of persons representing- 20 per cent, 
 of the whole staff. The needs being always veiy large, they have been obliged to 
 establish very strict rules for the distribution of relief — so much for burial, so much 
 for widows, so much for children, etc. ; there only remains variable the indemnities 
 gi-anted for men incapaciated from work, temporarily or for a definite period. 
 
 The bank for aids No. 2, has been founded in the same spirit as bank No. 1, to 
 ■come to the assistance of the whole staft" as well voyaging as sedentary. No regular 
 tion is established for the granting of relief. It is the Council of Management of the 
 ■Company which gives its decision upon each case or request. 
 
 The funds of the bank No. 2, are increased by the proceeds from visits on board 
 the packet boats in the harbors, by the profits from the sale of tobacco and cigars to 
 passengers, and finally by some fines. In 188Y the capital was $11,000, and there 
 bas been distributed during the year $8,000 in relief to 135 persons. 
 
 Non-Pecuniary Institutions in Favor of Clerks. 
 
 SMALL STEWARDSHIP. 
 
 Independently of the premiums, the clerks of the Company still find, owing to 
 the cares of the management, some particular advantages. 
 
 1. In the transfer which is made to them, at retail from the purchase at whole- 
 sale prices of articles of diet of usual consumption, in adding thereto wine, fuel, gar- 
 ments and linen. Open credit for the clerks can amount to three-fifths of their salary, 
 and is held back on payment only to the end of the following month. 
 
 2. In the installation at the seat of the Society, for the staff of the offices, of a 
 restaurant or a breakfast is prepared for them for the price of $0.20. The loss under- 
 gone by the Company by reason of the moderate price is $0.05 a meal. 
 
 MEDICAL SERVICE. 
 
 A service has been organized with the aim of furnishing gratuitously medical 
 attention to all the clerks of the management, and at the same time to fix the length 
 of leave which the sickly condition, of some among them, demands. 
 
 This service comprises consultations in the study of the physician, or medical 
 "visits at home, in serious cases. 
 
 Eeductions on the price of drugs, are obtained with a special chemist. 
 
 In 1887 the consultations in the study of the physician have been 142, and the 
 visits at home 57. 
 
394 
 COMPANY OF THE DOCKS, AND WAEEHOUSES OF MAESEILLES. 
 
 RULE FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RETIRING PENSIONS FOR AGENTS OF THE COMPANY. 
 
 Art 1. There have been instituted retiring pensions, in the conditions fixed below, 
 for the advantage of agents of the Company. 
 
 Art. 2. To assure the service of retiring pensions, there has been created a special 
 reserve fund, which shall be constituted : 
 
 1. 3y an obligatory stoppage of 4 per cent, operated monthly on the profits of 
 agents comprised in the lists of the fixed staff. 
 
 2. By a stoppage, likewise compulsory, of 4 per cent, upon the monthly wages of 
 auxiliary agents admitted to the eventual benefit of retirement. 
 
 3. By a grant furnished monthly by the Company, equal to 4 per cent, of the 
 profits and wages submitted to stoppage. 
 
 4. And by the proceeds from the investment of funds, accruing as much from 
 stoppages, as from the subsidy furnished by the Company. 
 
 In case of insufficiency of reserve funds here below, it will be provided for the 
 service of retiring pensions, by annual supplementary grants furnished by the Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Art. 3. To have right to the retiring pension, every agent is bound to falfil the 
 double condition of having attained 60 years of age and accomplished with the Com- 
 pany 30 years of service, during which he will have been submitted to stoppage. 
 
 The daily, and auxiliary, agents having accomplished a year of service will 
 undergo from the office the retaining of 4 per cent., to commence from 1st January 
 or Ist July following. 
 
 Art. 4. The retiring pension, is based on the mean of the profit submitted to 
 stoppage which the agent will have enjoyed, either during his six last years of ser- 
 vice, or during the whole length of his services, if the latter discount is more advan- 
 tageous to him. 
 
 Art. 5. The agent who fulfils the conditions of age and service fixed at Article 3 
 has a right to a retiring pension equal to half, or -1^ of his mean profit, established on. 
 the basis indicated at Article 4. 
 
 The pension is increased by a sixtieth of this mean profit, for each year exceed- 
 ing thirty years of service. 
 
 Art. 6. The retiring pension is inalienable and unseizable. It will be paid every 
 three months in the oflaces of the Company, at Paris and at Marseilles, on the dis- 
 charge of the pensioner by means of proof of his identity, or on the production of a 
 certificate of life. 
 
 Art. -7. Every clerk having reached the limits of age and of service, specified 
 at Article 3, can ask to be put on retirement and to have his pension settled. 
 
 From its side, the Company can place on retirement every agent having attained 
 the regulation limits of age and of service. 
 
 Art. 8. The Company reserves to itself, besides, the right of placing on retire- 
 ment from office, and bj' anticipation, every clerk more than 50 years old and having 
 ac least 15 years of service. 
 
 The pension allowed in this case is a fourth, or ^ of the mean profit, established 
 after the basis set down at Article 4. This fourth is increased by a sixtieth of the 
 mean profit, by each year passed in the service of the Company, in addition to the 
 first fifteen years. 
 
 Art. 9. The stoppages of the agents, the grants from the Company, and the 
 retiring pension are calculated after the fixed mean profits, without regard to acces- 
 sory or eventual grants, of whatever nature they may be. 
 
 Art. 10. The Company repays stoppages in capital, without interest, to all 
 agents whom it discharges, and who do not fulfil the necessary conditions to obtain 
 a retiring pension, nnder the reserves of common law in the case in which agents 
 would -find themselves their debtors for any cause. 
 
 11. The Company refunds in like manner the stoppages, without interest, to 
 widows, and by defaul L, to children of agents who have died on active service. 
 
395 
 
 State of the Bank for Retirements on the 30tt June, 1889. 
 
 Number of Agents admitted to retirement since its 
 
 foundation 33 
 
 Pensioners deceased 5 
 
 Pensioners living on 20th June, 1887 28 
 
 Amount of pensions paid $ 3,688 00 
 
 Eesources of the Bank '73,536 93 
 
 COMPANY OP THE MINES OP BLANZY. 
 
 Bank of Relief. — This Bank, was organized under method of a society of mutual 
 aid ; it constitutes a real association between the Company of the Mines of Blanzy 
 on one side, and its oflficers, clerks and workmen on the other. 
 
 The object of this Society is, on the part of the Company of the Mines of Blanzy r 
 
 Ist. To fulfil all the obligations and responsibilities which the law imposes on it 
 towards its workmen. 
 
 2nd. To assist its staff incase of accidents, wounds, and illness contracted in the 
 service, and even outside of this work. 
 
 3. To procure medical aid for the members of the staff and their families. 
 
 i. To guarantee themselves in a complete manner pecuniarily, against all in- 
 demnities in principal, interest, expenses and all other accessories which could be 
 taxed on them, for any cause, which directly or indirectly, applies to the exercise of 
 their industry, incumbent on them either accoi'ding to law or by amicable transac- 
 tions, by reason of the civil responsibility, which could be imposed on them by virtue 
 of present and future legislation, the present Mutual Society remaining bound to 
 guarantee itself against them entirely, and to pay the amount of them to its agent, in 
 a way that it may be wholly discharged. 
 
 On the part of the clerks, agents and workmen of the Society : 
 
 1. To procure school supplies for their childi-en. 
 . 2. To assure to their wives, widows, ascendants or descendants, in the limits 
 fixed by the rules, assistance of various kinds, permanent or temporary, in case of 
 accidents experienced by them, for any cause, even resulting from superior force, 
 fi'om their own fault, and imprudence or negligence, or from that of agents for 
 whom the Company is bound to answer, and even in case of ordinary illness, saving 
 the exceptions which shall be established. 
 
 3. To settle in advance, and in view of compromise -and arbitration, the nature 
 and quality of indemnities, and relief to which they and their families could hav& 
 right in the cases below, and especially in those of civil responsibility against the 
 Company of the mines of Blanzy, and to prevent thus all judicial disputes which 
 ought not to exist among members of one and the same association. 
 
 4. To procure for themselves the necessary means to assure to the Company of 
 the Mines, the guarantee which it has wished to obtain by No. 4 of the first part of 
 the present article. 
 
 Receipts. — The receipts of the Society are composed of: 
 
 1. The assessments of the members of the Society. 
 
 This assessment is 1 per cent, on the amount of the salaries for clerks, and 
 2J per cent, on the amount of wages for workmen. 
 
 2. The grant furnished by the Company of the Mines. This subsidy is equal to- 
 that produced by the assessments paid by the workmen. 
 
 The Company is charged further with keeping up at its expense, halls of refuge,, 
 schools, workshops, where all children of the two sexes will be received gratuitously 
 while conforming to the regulations made by it. It will pay the fees of physicians,, 
 of druggists, or of the sisters versed in pharmacy, and of the sisters attached to the 
 hospital. 
 
 3. Of the amount of the fines, interest on capital, of the Society, and of donations. 
 
896 
 
 Besides this assessment, the Company furnishes at its own expense, the necessary 
 buildings for hospitals, the pharmacy and dispensaries, for the lodging of three 
 doctors for the staff of the hospitals, and for that of the sisters visiting and attending 
 to the sick at home. 
 
 The expenses charged on the society are : — School supplies, the maintenance of 
 the furniture and hospital instruments, and of the pharmacy, relief in kind and atten- 
 tion to be given to thp wounded and sick ; the purchase of drugs, expenses incurred 
 by sending certain sick to thermal stations, expenses necessitated by the institution 
 of sisters as sick-nurses ; pecuniary relief, permanent or temporary, granted to mem- 
 bers of the Society or to their claimants; the service of pensions ; the payment of 
 every sum which the Company could be called upon to pay, either by judgment, or 
 by amicable compromise, in a way that the Company of the Mines may be altogether 
 guaranteed and indemnified against expenses, for which it could be held as responsible 
 Only towards its agents or workmen. Finally funeral expenses, expenses of mourn- 
 ing for widows, and expenses of management. 
 
 Every person receiving a salary from the Company, has a share in the Society 
 of relief; if he goes out from the Society, that is to say if he leaves the service of the 
 Company, he loses all its advantages. None of the associates can ask for the break- 
 ing up of the Society, upon the distribution of its real effects. He can, nevertheless, 
 have recourse to the annual accounts. 
 
 The relief in money by the day of sickness is : — 
 
 Jfm.— Bachelors $0.15 to 10.20. A married man and his wife $0.20 to $0.25. 
 Each child less than 12 years old, from $0.05 to $0.10. 
 
 Women. — Widow or girl, from $0.12 to $0.15. 
 
 Child.— ¥rom 12 to 11 years, from $0.10 to $0.12. 
 
 NATURE OF RELIEF. 
 
 Number of 
 Nominal 
 Members. 
 
 Slims paid. 
 
 Mean 
 per day 
 
 per 
 nominal 
 Member 
 
 Percentage 
 
 of Nominal 
 
 Members 
 
 Assisted. 
 
 Proportion 
 of Relief by 
 100 persons. 
 
 
 1,764 
 1,974 
 1,690 
 
 935 
 1,321 
 1,731 
 
 431 
 
 $14,645 
 
 5,m 
 
 6,855 
 1,571 
 7,715 
 7,456 
 822 
 
 $0.28 
 
 0.34i' 
 0.23i 
 
 18 p. 0. 
 20 
 17 
 10 
 13 
 18 
 4 
 
 2.90 i). .;. 
 3.21 
 2.74 
 1.52 
 
 Sick 
 
 "Widows on pension 
 
 
 2.20 
 
 Ill do y--- ■■■; ;■ 
 
 2.81 
 
 
 0.61 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 9,846 
 
 S44,175 
 
 
 
 16.00 p. i;. 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Total extract in tons, 881,218 tons. 
 
 Number of workmen occupied at the bottom 2,861 
 
 do do inthelight 2,246 
 
 Total 5,107 
 
 Sura expended in relief of every kind per ton extracted, $0.05^. 
 
 Workmen killed in the works, 2. 
 
 In 1888, the business of the Bank for relief, has been as follows : Eeceipts, 
 164,000 ; on which the company had paid |28,900 and the workmen $29,500 ; $247 
 more in fines. 
 
 The expenses have been $63,500. 
 
 Bank oj Retirement : — The Bank of relief, grants no retiring pension to its mem- 
 bers. The Company of the Mines of Blanzy makes retiring allowances to its work- 
 men, which it pays from its personal revenues, and in addition of the subsidy which 
 it grants to the Society of relief. 
 
397 
 
 To have right to the pension, it is necessary to have 30 years of consecutive 
 sei'vice, and tote 55 years of age (except the condition prevented by infirmities). 
 These pensions are as follows : — 
 
 Age. 
 
 Time of 
 service. 
 
 Head of ser- 
 vice (mines.) 
 
 Foremen. 
 
 Workmen of 
 
 theproperty. 
 
 Heads of 
 
 yard. 
 
 Workmen 
 from shops, 
 office boys. 
 
 Laborers. 
 
 Widows, 
 vri ves and 
 daughters 
 havingworked 
 for the Com- 
 pany. 
 
 55 
 
 30 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 135 00 
 145 00 
 153 00 
 162 00 
 171 00 
 180 00 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 105 00 
 112 00 
 119 00 
 126 00 
 133 00 
 140 00 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 90 00 
 96 00 
 102 00 
 108 00 
 114 00 
 120 00 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 60 00 
 04 00 
 68 00 
 72 00 
 76 00 
 80 00 
 
 1 cts. 
 
 48 00 
 51 20 
 54 40 
 57 60 
 60 80 
 64 00 
 
 $ cts. 
 36 00 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 31 
 32 
 
 39 20 
 
 40 80 
 
 58 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 35 
 
 43 20 
 
 59 
 
 45 60 
 
 60 
 
 48 00 
 
 
 
 Bank of Retirement of Olerks. — This Bank is supported, by a previous levying of 
 2J per cent., made on the wages of the clerks, and by an equal sum deposited by the 
 Company. After 25 years of service and 55 years of age, the clerks have right to a 
 retiring penson equal to the one-half of their profit. Widows and orphans have 
 right to one-half of the retiring allowance of the nominal member. 
 
 Clerks leaving the service lose all their rights, and cannot reclaim their deposits. 
 
 Lodgings. — The Company lets to its workmen, those on the ground of selectness, 
 small houses surrounded with gardens, at prices varying from $0.90 to $1.20 a month, 
 a sum representing scarcely the taxes, maintenance and assurance of these houses. 
 These houses are composed of three large apartments and a cellar; the garden has an 
 acre of ground. 
 
 The capital invested in these buildings amounts to $430,000. 
 
 Offices of Beneficence. — These offices distribute to poor families bread, bacon and 
 garments, the disbursements have rieen to $1,200 in 1888. 
 
 Mechanical Weaving. — To abolish as far as possible the work of widows and girls 
 at the mine, the company has established work places for weaving, having cost $120,- 
 000, occupying 360 workwomen, receiving $24,000 in wages. 
 
 Workshops. — The company has with the same aim, founded workshops, where the 
 young workwomen are instructed at a handicraft, and learn to make up and repair 
 family garments. 219 young girls frequent these workshops and gain from $3.30 to 
 $10 a month. 
 
 Arrangement of the Inheritance. — In order to encourage its workmen to practise 
 economy, the Company sells them plots of ground at cost price, and makes them an 
 advance of $200 to assist them to build. It pays and reimburses the whole in ten 
 annuities without interest. Loans of money are made on the same conditions to 
 workmen already possessing plots. 
 
 These liberal terms have brought their rewards ; at the end of 18Y8 there were 
 1,079 workmen, heads of families, proprietors, or 29 per cent, of the working heads 
 of families taken up by the Company. 
 
 nourishing Provisions at a reduced Price. — The Company delivers at reduced 
 price to its woi-kmen, bread, bran, bacon, pies, oil for eating, flour, etc., etc. In time 
 of crisis and rise in the stocks the Company has undergone losses amounting to $13,- 
 000 a year. This service saves to the workmen nearly $40,000 a year. 
 
 jTuel. — Families receive gratuitously coal, which is necessary for them. 
 
 Savings. — The Company receives deposits of money made by its workmen, and 
 serves to them an interest of 5 per cent. 
 
 Harmony. — The Company subsidises a band formed of 70 to 80 of its workmen ; 
 in 1888 the expenses under this head have been $1,7 . 5, independently of its patronized 
 institutions, The Company of the Mines of Anzin subsidises several independent 
 associations created by its workmen and clerks. These are : 
 
398 
 
 The Sporting Union of Montceau-les-Mines. 
 
 The Prudence. — A society with variable capital, having in aim to assist the work- 
 men of the Mines of Blanzy in facilitating small savings, in allowing loans on mode- 
 Tate conditions, in burdening themselves with different matters, such as, keeping of 
 property, correspondence, lawsuits, assurances, etc., etc. 
 
 The Society of Mutual Aid to Old Soldiers. 
 
 Associations of Young People. — The notice of the Company says on the subject of 
 these associations : "Ever since the troubles of 1882, which have caused so much 
 •disturbance, and which have been exaggerated so far, they have remarked that young 
 people had played the principal part. It ii» especially among them that were recruited 
 the secret societies adorned by the members with the title of syndical chambers, and 
 better known under the name of the black band." 
 
 From that, they concluded that the best means of turning aside young people 
 from these mischievous societies, was to group them, and to form different associa- 
 -tions where they find honest employment, or theii- energy and industry, may be use- 
 fully engaged. 
 
 " -Da Physiophile," conducted by an engineer, is a society for study, &c., &c. 
 
 The Company has built at its own expense a chui-ch and three Eoman Catholic 
 ■chapels; it contributes to expenses for religious purposes, the entertainment of 
 presbyteries, &c. 
 
 A society of St. Vincent de Paul, a circulating libi'ary, evening classes for adults 
 orphans, workingmen, etc., all are equally subsidized by the Company. 
 
 The pecuniary advantages offei'ed by the Mining Company of Blanzy to its 
 workmen, in addition to their salaries, and in a variety of ways, amounted during 
 the business of 1887-88 to a total sum of $223,799. For a populations of 5,182 
 persons, this increases the average individual salary to $43.18 per annum, and raises 
 the price per ton 24r| cents. 
 
 This sum of $223,789 represents 50 per cent, of the dividends divided among 
 shareholders. It is veritable participation in the profits. Nothwithstanding this, 
 the average of salaries has always followed an ascending market, while the price of 
 <joal has gradually diminished. 
 
 MINING COMPANY OF ANZIN. 
 
 Lodgings at Eeduced Prices. — After having abandoned the construction of 
 workmen's villages, on account of inconveniences in point of salubrity and morality, 
 the company has had constructed 2,628 separate dwellings, having a garden of 2,400 
 feet. They are let at 70 cents, $1.00 and $1.20 per month, being at least 3 per cent, 
 less expense than the first establishment. The expenses of keeping in repair and of 
 taxes are borne by the Company. 
 
 With the object of encouraging economy, the Company sells to its workmen, 
 these houses at cost price. They are paid by monthly instalments, about equal to 
 the rent, and without interest. They have already sold 93 houses. 
 
 They make advances on the same conditions to their workmen who wish to 
 build. The latter has thus constructed 741 houses. 
 
 The Company has a boys' school, and has given schools to the parishes ; they 
 support several asylums and industrial schools. 
 
 Technical Courses. A special preparatory school, managed by the engineers 
 of the Company, produces the best workmen ; it receives the best scholars of the 
 primary school. 
 
 Churches. — The company has four churches consecrated to the Eoman Catholic 
 religion ; it pays the salary of two curates of these churches. 
 
 Pensions and Grants. — Before 1887 the Company granted retiring pensions to 
 their workmen without making any assessment on their salaries. From January 
 1st, 1887, it has deposited in the National Bank, pension funds for old ago, to credit 
 
399 
 
 of the employees who made an equal payment, a sum representing 1^ per cent, of 
 the salary of the workmen. These payments ceased when the latter reached 50 
 years of age. 
 
 The Company further grants to those of its workmen who remain in its service 
 Tip to 50 years of age a supplement to their pension of 60 cents per annum of ser- 
 vice, counting from the period whence they have fulfilled the double conditions of 
 having at least 35 years of age and 10 years of uninterrupted service. For married 
 men and living with their wives the supplement is $1.20. 
 
 A workman having entered the service of the Company at 13 years of age would 
 •enjoy by this system, at 50 years of age, an annual pension of |72, and that of his 
 wife would be $26. If he only draws at 55 years of age, his pension would be $100, 
 and that of his wife $30. 
 
 In case of infirmities or serious wounds, the pension of the workman is paid to 
 Mm, and he receives a further grant, which may amount to $35 per annum. 
 
 The widows of workmen kuled when at work, have a claim, besides the pension 
 paid them from the Pension Fund, to an annual grant of $36, to which is often added 
 ■a supplementary bonus of the same amount. 
 
 The parents of workmen killed in the service of the Company are treated in the 
 same manner as widows. 
 
 The Company grants also pensions to the employees and to their widows. 
 
 Various Advantages. — The Company grants 20 bushel of coal per month to the 
 families of workmen ; the quantity is increased in case of sickness, and tor families 
 having more than six children. 
 
 It gives to its workmen their first clothing for work in the mines. 
 
 It gives a bonus of $2 . 40 for each child admitted to its first communion. 
 
 It lets at reduced prices ground for the culture of vegetables. 
 
 Board of Health. — This service is performed under clever physicians, to whom 
 "the Company furnishes vehicles and horses. Sick employees receive gratuitously 
 medicines, regulated pecuniary assistance, wine, meat and soup. 
 
 Bread. — ^When bread is raised in pi'ice above a certain amount (about 3J cents 
 per lb.), the Company orders the distribution of bread at a price equal to 3^ cents per 
 lb. These distributions cost the Company $22,000 in 1867 ; $20,000 in 1872 ; $26,600 
 in 1873-74. 
 
 The Mining Company of Anzin made a total expenditure of $315,500 in 1888 for 
 i;he maintenance of institutions which it had established for the benefit of its workmen. 
 
 MIlSfING COMPANY OP EOCHB-LA-MOTIERB-ET-PIEMINY. 
 
 Hospital Establishments. — The Company has built two hospitals for those of its 
 -wounded employees who have to undergo serious operations or prolonged treatment, 
 -and for the dispensing of medicine to all its staff. 
 
 The attendance of the Company's physicians and medicines ordered by them, are 
 given gratuitously to workmen and their families for 3 months, and to the families 
 ■of employees who are making less than $400 per annum. 
 
 Gratuities to Needy Workmen. — Assistance in money grants is given to workmen 
 .and their families in cases of urgent necessity resulting from wounds, sickness, death, 
 first communion, &c. 
 
 jiuel. — The majority of households receive gratuitously 16 bushels of coal per 
 month. The coal sold is at the rate of 30 cents per ton ; it costs the Company from 
 $1.20 to $2.00 per ton. 
 
 Schools. — The Company partly pays the education of their employees' children; 
 .350 are sent to asylums kept by the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, and 206 girls to 
 the Sisters' school. 
 
 It takes care, until they are 16 years of age, of 11 boys, children of workmen 
 -who have been killed in its service, and pays the apprenticeship of 35 young girls. 
 
 The expenses of hospital service cost in 1888, $13,600, of which $440 was pro- 
 •vided by fines. 
 
400 
 
 Relief Fund. — There is allowed to the wounded employee : Ist. $0.20 per day for 
 himself; 2nd. $0.05 for each of his children aged over .12 years. These two grants 
 cannot exceed f rds of the salary. His wife and the children under 16, wounded in the- 
 service, receive $0.10 per day. 
 
 There is granted : 
 
 1st. To the widow of a workman killed by accident in the mine, a pension : 
 
 For herself, of $0.15 foi- each day of the month, and of |0'20 if she is more than 
 50 years of age. 
 
 For each of the children, of at least 12 years of age, $0.05 per day. 
 
 2nd. To orphans of father and mother, a pension of $0.10 per day each, up to 16 
 years of age. 
 
 Accidents generally give rise to the exercise of generosity by the tribunals,, 
 when they concern minor children. The result is a pension or indemnity instead (or 
 in excess of) the payments of the relief fund or the legal expenses. 
 
 In 1888 the expenses of the Eelief Fund amounted to $24,600. 
 
 Pension Fund. — The Company grants a pension of $60 per annum to every work- 
 man who has been 30 years in its service ; this pension is only paid commencing at 
 55 years of age ; the widow of a pensioner has a claim for half of his pension. 
 
 In 1888, the expenses of this fund amounted to $6,440. 
 
 Provident Fund for the Employees. — For employees not entitled to a pension, th& 
 Company provides a fund for old age, by transferi-ing to this fund a sum equal to the 
 tenth of the amount of all the salaries of employees. To recompense services ren- 
 dered previously to the formation of this fund in 1874, the Company has deposited 
 the sum of $11,000. Employees have a right to receive all sums at their credit after 
 20 years of service. 
 
 The amount to distribute annually varies from $1,200 to $1,600. 
 
 In 1888 the Company employed 2,691 workmen, receiving altogether $633,683 of 
 salary. The total cost to the managers of institutions of the Company was $44,823, 
 representing an expenditure of $16.65 for each employee, or Y'07 per cent, of salaries, 
 
 G-BNEEAL OMNIBUS COMPANY OP PARIS. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY EXPENSES, BESIDES SALARIES, IMPOSED ON THE GENERAL OMNIBUS 
 COMPANIES OP PARIS IN FAVOR OF THEIR EMPLOYEES — 1855 TO 1888. 
 
 Pension Funds. — The pension fund is nothing but a relief fund for all ages, managed 
 by the bank, for deposit and consignment, and is supportea by obligatory assess- 
 ments of 20 cents fortnightly upon all employees less than 40 years of age on their 
 entrance into the Company, and by a grant made by the Company in favor of those 
 whose salary does not exceed $360 of $2.40 yearly, after their first year of service 
 and of $4.90 after the third year. These payments remain, in every case, the pro- 
 perty of the incumbents. 
 
 In this fund, principally, the Company has deposited $136,236 since its origin, 
 which dates from 1855. It has besides expended $217,944 for assistance granted to 
 various institutions. 
 
 The accident insurance company receives a monthly payment from each of the 
 officers and employees of the Company. It is also supported by the proceeds from.' 
 tines. It balances every year with a considerable deficit ($918,676 since its origin), 
 to which must be added the salaries of physicians, to the number of twelve, who 
 render care and advice to employees who are in need of them ($94,622 since the foun- 
 dation). Employees wounded in the service, received the complement of days during 
 which they were unable to work (133,585). Burial expenses ($21,937) are paid by 
 the Company, notwithstanding the death does not result from accident. 
 
 Employees taken for militaiy service receive an indemnity for their families- 
 ($29,512). 
 
 A quarterly premium is granted to drivers who have best known how to avoid 
 accidents ($64,781). 
 
401 
 
 Canteens, with a moderate tariff and very conveniently served, have been esta- 
 blished in all the stations of importance (interest on capital involved, $25,139). 
 
 A commissariat centrally situated to the ofiSces, supplies to all employees so 
 requiring, alimentary facilities and food of general consumption. 
 
 A deduction is made each year from the products of advertising, and distributed 
 among the superintendents, outriders, conductors and drivers designated as most 
 deserving (ISOjTST.) 
 
 The total amount of all this supplementary expenditure in favor of the em- 
 ployees, amounts at present to $1,055,272. 
 
 GBNEEAL HACKMBN'S COMPANY. 
 
 PARIS. 
 
 Mutual Benevolent Society. — The drivers and employees of this Company, founded 
 in 1867 a Mutual Benevolent Society. The Company gave to this Society an annual 
 grant equal to the tenth of the whole amount deposited by the members. The 
 combined amount of capital thus formed amounts to $44,715.00. 
 
 COAL MINING COMPANY OF BBSSliGES. 
 
 A sick fund, maintained by a compulsory assessment of 2 per cent, on salary; by 
 transferring to it the amounts derived from fines inflicted, and from loads of coal 
 refused and charged to employees; by donations, interests, &c. 
 
 This fund grants medical care and medicine to members and their families 
 gratuitously, and indemnity to sick or wounded employees in the service. 
 
 The indemnity is from 20 cents for single men or widowers without children : 
 25 cents per day for married men, and 5 cents per day for each child under fourteen, 
 up to a maxumim of 35 cents per day whatever be the number of children. 
 
 In exceptional cases, the fund also grants relief to families of the most needy 
 workmen, to widows and orphans : and optional pensions to widows and orphans. 
 
 These privileges are only granted by the sick fund during one hundred days. 
 The Company assumes the cost of medical attendance. 
 
 The workman loses all his rights upon leaving the service of the Company. 
 
 Fund for the Wounded. — Maintained by a monthly assessment transferred by the 
 Company, and equal to 2 per cent, of the salaries of workmen and beneficiaiy 
 employees. 
 
 The fund pays all expenses resulting from charges for attendance upon the 
 wounded. It provides for indemnity during sickness, pensions to widows and orphans, 
 and pensions to workmen wounded, or who have become incapacitated for work. 
 
 The funds of this Bank, maintained entirely by the capital of the Company, 
 are reserved expressly for those of the wounded, or their heirs, who accept literally and 
 strictly the conditions for indemnity fixed by the Company. Consequently, wounded 
 employees or their heirs, who wish to remain independent for the purpose of entering 
 an action against the Company, to obtain from the courts compensation for any 
 injury resulting from accidents during work, will not participate pecuniarly in this 
 special reserve of 2 per cent. 
 
 The acceptance of the first payment following an accident, of pecuniary indemnity 
 for stoppage of work, or of pensions fixed by the regulations, entails the renunciation 
 of the right to enter any subsequent action against the Company. 
 
 The Wounded Fund defrays all expenses incurred by suits entered against the 
 Company on account of accidents. 
 
 The outlay of the Fund must not exceed its resources, and in case of a deficiency, 
 a proportionate reduction is made to all indemnities and pensions until the equlli- 
 briuni is i-estored. 
 
 Pension Fund. — In freeing from the regulations of this fund all that which 
 relates to the liquidation of a previous Pension Fund, we find that the Company 
 
 20—26 
 
402 
 
 engages to deposit annually a sum equal to 2 per cent, of his salary, to his credit, on 
 the pass-book of every employee who engages to deposit in the National Pension 
 Fund, a sum equal to 3 per cent of his salary. 
 
 On the Ist of January, 1889, a fourth only of the deposits of the new staff was 
 transferred to the Pension Fund, all the remainder was left subject to their discretion, 
 and independent of the offer of 2 per cent, of salary made by the Company. 
 
 Reward Fund. — Every year, grants are made to workmen distinguished for 
 length oi service, punctuality, civility and good conduct. These rewards are made 
 in about the j)roportion of one-tenth of the salary. 
 
 The account of the donations of the Coal Mining Company of Bess^ges in 1888 
 reached the sum of 169,000, equal to $28.59 for each workman. 
 
 PAEISIAN GAS COMPAI^. 
 (Paris.) 
 
 Provident Fund. — All employees and workmen of the Company are obliged to be 
 members of this institution. The Fund is maintained by an assessment of 1 per 
 cent, on salaries, and by a grant from the Company, equal in amount to this. 
 
 Indemnity in cases of wounds or illness, is equal to half of the pay or salary of 
 the members. It is paid for two months. 
 
 In case of death, funeral expenses are paid by the Fund, and relief is afforded 
 to his heirs of an amount equal to two months' salary or pay of the deceased 
 member. 
 
 Every workman who leaves the service of the Company, loses all claim to the 
 advantages of the Fund. He cannot claim assessments made. 
 
 The Provident Fund is administered by a commission named by the man- 
 agement. 
 
 Pension Fund. — This Fund is sustained by an annual grant of $17,100 made by 
 the Company, by an annual dividend of $500, coming from the legacy of a former 
 managing director, and by the interest of sums in Bank, donations, legacies, etc. 
 
 To obtain a retiring pension, the employee must be at least 55 years of age, and 
 have spent 25 years in the service. 
 
 The pension is based on the average of the fixed salary which the incumbent has 
 received during the preceding six years. It is regulated for each year of service at 
 a fiftieth of the average salary, with increase for each year of service above 1 per 
 cent, of said salary. In no case can pension exceed two-thirds of the salary. The 
 pension of the widow of an employee, is a third of that which her husband had 
 received, or could have received. Annual assistance is granted to the minor orphans 
 of a deceased employee on the death of their mother. 
 
 SUEZ CANAL COMPANY. 
 
 Pensions and Grants. — Of the 2 per cent, of the net profits assigned to the staff 
 (see page 50), one portion is distributed to the regular staff, the other is applied 
 towards providing pensions for auxiliaries. 
 
 Finally, pensions and annual grants are given pilots, seamen and workmen. 
 
 Pensions are proportioned to the salary earned by the pensioner during his 
 service, to the duration of this service and to the emoluments he received. For 
 example, when a pensioner has four persons under his care, the pension is 50 per 
 cent, higher than for a single man. 
 
 Sickness. — The company has a complete medical service, an hospital and a villa 
 for convalescents. 
 
 At the period of marriage, the employees in Egypt receive a grant equal to one 
 or two month's salary, according to circumstances. 
 
 The Company continues the salary of their employees on regular holidays, or 
 during period of illness. 
 
403 
 THE UNION. 
 
 FIRE INSTJRANOE COMPANY. 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Provident Fund. — Participation in profits existed in this Company since its 
 formation, under the form of bounties. In 1887 it adopted a new regulation relative 
 to employees who had joined the service since 1886, this regulation liquidated, at the 
 same time in an equitable manner the pension of employees who had joined before 
 1886. 
 
 This regulation required : — 
 
 1st. That employees should insure for the sum of 11,000, payable at the age of 
 55 years. The premium is payable, half by the employee and half by the Company. 
 The portion of the premium paid by the employee is deducted from the amount of 
 his participation in the benefits; if this amount is inferior to the half premium, the 
 complement will be added by the Company. 
 
 2nd. An individual book is opened for each one of the employees. To this book 
 is brought a debit for : — 
 
 1. A monthly assesment of 5 per cent, on the regular salary, also an assessment 
 of the twelfth of this annual salary fi-om the first nomination, and of the twelfth of 
 all subsequent increase. 
 
 2. The total amount of the products from participation in profits, and deduction 
 of the half-premium above mentioned. 
 
 The proportional part due by the employee for losses accruing to the profit of the 
 Provident Fund. 
 
 Discharged or delinquent employees are depi-ived of their rights ; tkey only 
 have a claim to sums retained from their salary. 
 
 The employee leaving the service on account of ill-health, has a right to the 
 liquidation of his account. 
 
 When an employee has arrived at the age required for the pension, the amount 
 of his account is employed in purchasing reliable securities, of which the dividends 
 are paid him, but the bonds for which are retained by the Company to be handed to 
 his widow, to his heirs or descendants. If the deceased has not left any heirs, the 
 sum inscribed on his book reverts to the Provident Fund. 
 
 The distribution of the portion of pi'ofits credited to the employee is made as 
 follows : 
 
 200 per cent, of salary of an of&ce superintendent: 150 per cent, of salary of an 
 oflSce assistant-superintendent. The usual salary of employees or inspectors. 
 
 The total amount paid in favor of employees by the Union Company in the way 
 of profits or of half-premiums of insurance, amounts to $748,172 in 1837 to 1888. 
 
 MONTEOSB ESTATE.* 
 
 M. MATHIEU DOLFUS, PROPRIETOR. 
 
 This estate produces annually 100 to 200 casks of wine. 
 
 The workmen are paid by the day or by the job, according to the nature of the 
 work ; the price by the day amounts on an average — for men, at from 50 to 60 cents 
 per day, for women, at from 15 to 20 cents. 
 
 A household of working people make on an average $240 per annum ; to this 
 salary should be added the enjoyment of a little cottage residence, with its garden, 
 fuel, wine, medical care and medicine. Women, during confinement, receive a sum of 
 $20.' Children of an age to attend school, are brought there and carried home in 
 vehicles. The school teaching is free, and books, etc., furnished by the estate. 
 
 To these advantages are to be added : a premium of 40 cents per cask divided, 
 after the vintage, among the vintagers. 
 
 *Report of the Departmental Committee of the Gironde. 
 20—26^ 
 
404 
 
 2. A participation of 4 per cent, in the benefits granted to work-people on the 
 estate, aftej- deducting an interest of 6 per cent, for the shareholders. This participa- 
 tion in profits is intended to assist in maintaining a provident fund, in order to ensure 
 to employees a retiring pension for their old age. 
 
 In 1880 and 1881 the participation gave 10 per cent, of the amount of salary; 
 in 1883, 8-50 per cent. 
 
 L. COUETBHOUX. 
 
 WOOLLEN MILL OP A. GAULIER — SEDAN. 
 
 Workmen's Capital — Formulce — Application — Remits. 
 
 170 workpeople (men, women, young people) constituting a fund for old age, 
 of which 50 per cent, is for subscription to workmen's capita], the whole in aid ot 
 deposits made by the tradesmen. The independence of the workman is otherwise 
 thoroughly secured; he can always go to work and supply himself where it is most 
 convenient. 
 
 The workman's capital, recommended by the cities of Sedan, Mezi^res and 
 Charleville — fortune for many, comfort for all, and facility to every one to invent 
 improvements and do business. 
 
 With $1.10 monthly payment on bonds for lota,* of which $1 pays the expense 
 of putting into circulation $90.10, forming, with all the capitalized interest, a fund 
 of $20.12 for income at the National Bank for old age, the employee obtains : — 
 
 Ist. $600, disposable in fractions of $100 at 22^ years — 30 years — 3Y|- years — 
 45 years— 52-|- years — 60 years. 
 
 2nd. $60 of life annuity, beginning at 60 years of age (if his payments have com- 
 menced at 15 years of age). 
 
 3rd. Six chances for drawing every two months. 
 
 For a monthly payment made : 
 
 Prom 15 to 22|- years of age, every two months he has one chance of drawing ; 
 at 22^ years, for $99 deposited he will possess $121-20, that is, one obligation of $100 
 on refunding $3, and a book of $21.20, guaranteeing a life pension at 60 years of age 
 in funded capital. 
 
 Prom 22J to 30 years of age, he has two chances of drawing every two months ; 
 at 30 years, for $198 deposited, he possesses $242-40, that is, two obligations of $100, 
 refunding $6, and two books of $21.20, guaranteeing $23.85 of life pension. 
 
 From 30 to 37^ years of age, he has three chances of drawing every two months ; 
 at 37J years of age, for $297 paid in, he possesses $363, that is, three obligations of 
 flOO, refunding $9, and three books of $21.20, guaranteeing $30.75 of life pension. 
 
 From 37^ to 45 years of age, he has four chances for drawing every two months ; 
 at 45 years of age, for $396 deposited, be would possess $480, or four bonds of $100 
 each, bearing $12, and four books of $21.20, assuring $35.54 of yearly pension. 
 
 From 45 to 52J yeai-s, every two months, he has five chances of drawing, at 52^ 
 years, for $495 paid in, he would possess $606, or five bonds of $100, bearing $15 
 and five books of $21.30, assuring $39.17 of yearly pension. 
 
 From 52^ to 60 years of age, every two months, he has six chances of drawing; 
 at 60 years of age, for $594 paid in, he possesses $727.20, or six bonds of $100, bearing 
 $18, and six books of $21.20, assuring $40.82 of yearly pension. 
 
 The interests accruing from the six bonds being for $18, at 60 years of age, he 
 might continue his course with six chances for drawing every two months, six bonds 
 worth $600, and a yearly revenue of $58.82. 
 
 On delivery of each book of life interest, the incumbent decides if he wishes it 
 placed at transferred or reserved capital. The bonds are not seizable so long as tte 
 
 *We have mentioned these obligations c'l lots in this report, although they do not exist in Canada ; we 
 have referred to them, not vi^ishing to change anything in the report, but we wish to remark that the lots 
 designated do not at all enter into the calculations for workmen's capital ; there are opportunities for 
 peculation independent of this very remarkable system. 
 
405 
 
 subscriber retains them, but if he wibhes to speculate with them, they become payable 
 to bearei-, without prejudice, to the dividends for old age, which, in every case, 
 remain personal. 
 
 By marriage a double amount may be acquired, or $1,200 disposable, $120 of 
 interest, and twelve chances of drawing eveiy two months. 
 
 To these advantages many others can be added, according to the trade or occu- 
 pation to which he belongs: — 
 
 1st. The managers prefer employing the holders of these titles. 
 
 2nd. To workmen having served three consecutive months, they will consent to 
 grant gratuitous insurance in case of accident or sickness. 
 
 3rd. To this institution will be made donations and legacies, according to loca- 
 tion or region, to divide among the schemes of the several industries. The munici- 
 palities can distribute these among their shareholders administering them, which can 
 be easily done, as they are obliged to guarantee each title to the holders of these 
 bonds, to which Frenchmen alone have a right. 
 
 Under this form, so simple, is thus presented a plan fostering education and 
 social improvement'. 
 
 The State can only exercise a simple surveillance of this organization, which it 
 can easily do, in all its useful and various proportions, either at the Oridit Fonder, 
 or from the Eailroad committees, or from societies on the basis of mercantile 
 agencies, and this without occasioning either inconvenience or expense, all the 
 details of execution having been approved by eminent financiers. 
 
 01. D AGE FUND FREE TO WORKMEN. 
 
 By payment in the shape of bons on the fund, an advance can be obtained from 
 contractors of five, ten or fifteen dollars. This will be charged to the workman, by 
 being placed to his debit, on his pension book. This economy, having been com- 
 menced at 25 years of age, would thus produce on the purchases a monthly paving 
 of at least $1.00. Deposited at interest, it would produce for them $123.24 of life 
 pension: at reserve fund, it would give $79.96 of life pension from 60 years of age, 
 and $420 for the heirs. 
 
 If the institution subscribed to the capital of the workman, and profited by the 
 funds for old age transferred by these purchases : at current capital, at 60 years 
 of age, there would be a life pension of $240.89, and $1,200 for the heirs; at reserved 
 capital, from 60 years of age, there would be a life pension of $170.85, and $1,874.40 
 for the heirs. 
 
 RULES OP THE WORKSHOPS. 
 
 Workman's Capital. 
 
 To all work-people in the factory, men, women, or young people of 15 years of 
 age and over, duly authorized, giving $1.10 per month, and not drawing the interest 
 during the period of deposit, M. Courtehoux offers : — 
 
 Ist. A mortgaged ticket (1885) of the CrSdit Fonder (title deposited in the Bank 
 cf France'), that they may have a chance of profiting by drawing. 
 
 2nd. After 90 deposits (or 7J years) the title itself will be returned to the sub 
 scriber, that he may dispose of it as he pleases ; he will be free to di-aw the proceeds 
 or the capital. 
 
 At the same time, he will be given a book of the National Bank for old age, 
 crediting a payment of $20.00, made the same day, in his name, (after capital trans- 
 ferred or resei-ved), which will form for him an unseizable life pension commencing 
 at 60 years of age. 
 
 By payments made, 
 Of which $1 monthly, or $90 is to pay the obli- "| he obtains a transferable 
 
 gation L title $100.00 
 
 and 10 cents monthly, or $9.00 for the life pen- ( and a book of the old age 
 
 sion with capitalized interest J fimd $20.00 
 
 Thus for $99 he would then have $120.00 
 
406 
 
 In case of death during the period of depositing, theamou nts paid in, will be 
 returned to the fannily, without interest. In case of a member having been drawn 
 in the lottery, it will be paid, with interest, to the subscriber, who can thus after- 
 wards purchase, for himself, a book of the old age fund. There would thus also be 
 the difference between the price issued of $90 and that deposited. 
 
 If the payments were not made regularly, tho procedure would be in accordance 
 with the rules established by the Cridit Fonder, but with the loss of current interest, 
 and the monthly 10 cents already given to obtain the book of the old age fund. 
 
 I 
 To Encourage JEconomy. 
 
 1. There will be a preference for employment made in favor of subscribers so 
 long as they do not give cause for complaint. 
 
 2. They will profit gratuitously by the accident insurance in case of accident, 
 and as far as possible, in case of serious illness. Prom this principally, they will, at 
 once and annually, have an interest in the 20 cents representations of individual 
 claim on the medical and pharmaceutical services of Gaulier or other places which 
 guarantee, at this price, medical care, and a reduction of 50 per cent, on medicines. 
 
 Further, when they sustain serious sickness exceeding five days, without its 
 resulting from an affray or bad conduct, the men receive 25 cents for each day dur- 
 ing which they are laid up, and the women 15 cents (during one month). 
 
 As for the latter, confinement, &c., gives no claim for indemnity. 
 
 If abuses arise, or false representations have been made, the authors are imme- 
 diately and forever deprived of these advantages, and they cannot recommence pro- 
 fiting by them in future until after three months steady employment at the factory. 
 On leaving it, this stage has to be recommenced each time. 
 
 For the correct application of this regulation, the inspection of accounts and 
 deposits, M. Courtehoux required the association with hira of four delegates, who 
 will constantly represent the subscribers. 
 
 Along with him, and with votes counting two in the deliberations, they will 
 manage the relief fund which will be formed from grants and the fines levied for 
 discipline. A special object will be to assist, by monthly payments of $1.10, the 
 most indigent, but only during the duration of military service. 
 
 The independence of the workman is entirely secured. He can always go to 
 work with whom or wheresoever it suits him best. 
 
 If, by monthly payments of $1, this sj'-stem has been generalized, and if it has 
 been followed up from the age of 15, there is the certainty of possessing in every 
 case $600 at 60 years of age, and $60 of lite pension. This for a man and his wife 
 will give $1,200 at 60 years of age, and $120 of life pension. 
 
 Wishing to form pensions for all his workmen, M. Courtehoux places at their 
 disposal bons on the fund of 20 cents, 40 cents and $1 to regulate their purchases 
 with the contractors. 
 
 Since this method of payment has been adopted, there has been granted to the 
 Workman's Commission of the factory, not only the lowest prices in accordance with 
 quality, but a discount of 5, 10 or 15 j>er cent., of which the value will be credited 
 to the workman on his book at the National Bank for old age on receipt of the hon^. 
 
 A lifepension of $120.00 to $240.00, from 60 years of age, can thus be acquired 
 by a young household without cost. It can also be reserved for children by aged 
 persons. 
 
 These advantages are open to all. There is entire liberty to profit by them or 
 not, and to whatever extent is most convenient. 
 
 Advances in the shape of bons are always limited in amount to the minimum 
 value of days' work not paid. 
 
 In case of removal, the Eelief Fund grants loans proportioned to its resources. 
 
407 
 
 M. HIPPOLYTB DTJCHBE.— Pans. 
 
 PROVIDENT AND SAVINGS BANK. 
 
 Art. 1. The Provident and Savings Bank, founded by M. Ducher, for the benefit 
 of employees and work-people of both sexes in his establishment, is regulated in con- 
 formity with the following rules. 
 
 Art. 2. The Provident and Savings Bank is maintained by means : — 
 
 Ist. Of an annual sum paid to said Bank by M. Ducher, in the shape of a donation. 
 
 2nd. Of grants made to the Bank. 
 
 3rd. Of voluntary payments, regularly made by participating members, of two 
 per cent, of their salaries or appointments. 
 
 Art. 3. There are admitted to participation in the profits of this Bank all the 
 employees and work-people, male and female, having served one full year in the 
 Ducher establishment, on the first of January in each year, and who work there exclu- 
 sively. 
 
 Employees and work-people (of both sexes), however, who wish to participate 
 immediately in the profits, can do so by paying to the Bank a fixed sum of flO.OC. 
 
 The participant who once omits to pay the required 2 per cent, will be deprived 
 of all participating rights, 'and the amount of his account will be transferred as capi- 
 tal to the Ducher Provident and Savings Bank. ^ 
 
 'Employees who have an interest either in the profits, or in the outside affairs of 
 the establishment, are excepted from the participation. 
 
 Art. 4. In case of sickness, interrupting work, the attendance of a physician, 
 named by M. Ducher, and medicine, are guaranteed gratuitously, to each participant 
 during a period of not more than two months. 
 
 The continuation of assistance is fixed by the medical certificate. The partici- 
 pant can always, however, demand a consultation to bo held between the physician 
 of the Bank and another named by himself. 
 
 The participant receives, besides, during sickness, a money indemnity fixed as 
 follows : — 
 
 For the first month 40 cents per day for himself. 
 
 do do 20 do forhiswife. 
 
 do do 20 do for each child. 
 
 During the sec.ond month 30 cents per day for himself 
 
 do do 15 do forhiswife. 
 
 do do 10 do for each child. 
 
 During confinement, there is no relief due to the participant, either medical or 
 pharmaceutic ; there is only paid, in case of sickness following confinement, and for, 
 at most, -one month, on application of the husband, a daily and personal assistance of 
 60 cents, no allowance being made to the family. 
 
 Provident Fund. 
 
 Art. 10. There is opened, in the name of each subscriber, a separate account for 
 the distribution of amounts paid in accordance with article 3, after ^jlacing in reserve 
 the sum granted by M. Ducher, as before mentioned, which is used in the indem- 
 nities paid and contingent relief during the year. 
 
 Each subscriber receives a book in which are credited the payments made by 
 him to the bank. 
 
 The accounts of the bank are audited each year, on 31st December. 
 
 The capital disposable is distributed at provisional title, and only to order, 
 among the individual accounts of subscribers, who will have no right to exercise, 
 except as under conditions provided for, by articles 12, 14, 15, 16, IT and 18 here 
 following: — 
 
 Art. 12. On the death of a subscriber, whatever has been his age and length of 
 service in the establishment, the amount at his credit on the preceding inventory 
 will be remitted to his widow, to his legitimate or adopted children, their young 
 children, or the heirs. 
 
408 
 
 If those interested, above limitedly enumerated, do not make known their claim to 
 Mr. Ducher, within the space of one year from the decease, theamount of account to 
 credit of late member, returns in full to the Bank. 
 
 This is also the case if the deceased member leaves no heirs. 
 
 Art. 13. If a subscriber finds himself attacked by sickness or infirmity incapaci- 
 tating him from work, M. Ducher can, at any such time, dispose of, in his favor, 
 or that of his family or relatives, the whole or a portion of the amount at his credit. 
 
 Art. 14. In case a subscriber is dismissed, not for any misconduct, but by a 
 reduction of staff, or scarcity of employment or business, the amount of his account, 
 up to the time of his leaving, to order, from the preceding 31st December, is imme- 
 diately placed at his disposal in cash and in full. 
 
 Art. 15. "When the subscriber is dismissed for other cause than as provided for 
 in the preceding article, similarly as on leaving or resigning, there is paid to him on 
 the following 31st December the amount of his account, to order, up to the time of 
 dismissal or to the preceding 31st December. 
 
 Art. 16. If the participating subscriber, dismissed or deceased, is found to be 
 indebted to M. Ducher, from any cause, an amount from his credit is then applied 
 to liquidate the balance due M. Ducher. 
 
 Art. lY. As the funds of the Ducher Bank are also as liable to diminution (caused 
 by increased demand for relief on indemnity) as accumulations, and the bank is only 
 conducted iu the interest of the wbole body of subscribers, participation in the Ducher 
 Provident and Savings Bank gives no right of co-proprietorship to the participant, 
 neither of credit or otherwise, on the funds of the said Bank, during the whole course 
 of participation. 
 
 The right to withdraw sums credited provisionally up to date, on personal account, 
 is only granted in case of death, departure, or dismissal. 
 
 Art. 18. The amount of individual accounts can never, in any case, be made sub- 
 ject to assignment or security of any kind whatever. 
 
 When a participant infringes above this last clause, he will be deprived of all his 
 rights of participation, and the whole amount at his credit will be distributed among 
 the rest of the members. 
 
 This Bank is only in operation since 1886. Besides connection with this Bank, M. 
 Ducher has granted to his employees, in the space of 7 years, a sum of $26,000. 
 
 FANIBR ET PILS. 
 
 SHOE MANUFACTURERS. 
 
 (Lillers and Paris.) 
 
 Lodgings. — Messrs Fanier & Son have built at Lillers, 160 houses for the accomo- 
 dation of their workmen ; the price of rent varies from $18.20, $20.80 to $26 per 
 annum. The whole of the houses give a net revenue of 4 per cent. 
 
 For the sale of houses, see page 
 
 Baths. — Two swimming baths are placed free at the use of the employees. 
 
 Schools. — Two schools, one for girls and one for boys, have been established by the 
 house. 
 
 Mutual Benevolent Society. — In 1861, M. Fanier, sr., founded theMutual Benevolent 
 Society of Lillers. "If he has founded a special society in his parish, there would 
 not be sufficient material to sustain another there." 
 
 To induce his workmen to join this society, he has given, every year, for the last 
 ten years, one of of his workman's cottages to this society, to be drawn for, in a 
 lottery on July 14th, by the participating members; (in 1887 two' houses). 
 
409 
 
 O. FAUQUBT. 
 
 SPINNING AND WEAVING MILL. 
 
 General Conditions of Operation at Oissel and at Cables. 
 
 Nature and object of the Institution. — Assistance to unmerited misfortune. Sub- 
 scription to works of charity. Pension for industrious old age. 
 
 Source of capital. — Employers' donations. Participation in industrial profits. 
 Fines inflicted during work. Benefits from the Savings Bank. Cancellations after 
 departure or dismissal. Inheritance : Interest on the reserve. 
 
 Management. — Employers, assisted by a council of four members elected by the 
 body of employees and workmen in the shops, applying the regulations and judging 
 fully and finally on all questions. 
 
 Conditions of Admission. — 18 years of age. — At least 5 years' service. — Excep- 
 tional services. — Giving a claim on the distribution of funds, of which a portion is 
 disposable and a portion placed in reserve. 
 
 Condiiions of Pension. — A minimum of 20 years' service. — 55 years of age. — 
 Incapacity for work contracted in the service. — The pension is personal. — -it is 
 guaranteed by the reserve. 
 
 Conditions for Assistance. — Unmerited misfortune. — Accidents during work. — 
 Death which leaves the widow or orphans without resources. 
 
 Eeserve Fund. — ^This is composed of unassigned capital. — Capital on interest. — 
 Belongs exclusively to all the workmen and employees, and of no use to any others. 
 
 OisseL Staff. Les Cables. 
 
 350 Number of members 125 
 
 175 do participants 125 
 
 8 do pensions 6 
 
 25 do persons assisted 14 
 
 1 to 23 years. Service accomplished at the factory I to 53 years. 
 
 7 years. Lowest average of service 12 years. 
 
 Meceipts. 
 
 $24,400 Yalue of united annual donations $2,000 
 
 5,240 Interest on unexpended capital 320 
 
 2,120 Cancellations, liquidations or fines 80 
 
 2,440 Profits from the Savings' Bank 126 
 
 332,000 Total Eeceipts , 2,720 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 $22,000 Distribution to participants 
 
 2,460 Interest untouched due participants 
 
 260 Works of benevolence and relief. $180 
 
 300 Pensions annually distributed 100 
 
 26,900 Total expenses 280 
 
 Balance. 
 $6,300 Disposable capital remains in reserve $2,450 
 
 MANUFACTOEY OF FELIX HUBIN. 
 
 Harfleue. (Seine-Inf.) 
 
 Mutual Benevolent Sociext. — Contribution of the establishment, $240 per 
 annum. Contribution of woj-kmen, fi-om 8 to 16 cents per week, according to salary. 
 Indemnity for illness, 20 cents per day, with attendance of a physician of their own 
 choice and medicine free. 
 
410 
 
 Asylum and School.— ^M. Hubin has fitted up, and furnished several of his 
 houses for the use of the school and asylum. The municipality has the supervision 
 of these establishments, but M. Hubin pays all the expenses of the asylum. At the 
 school there were, in 1888, 40 scholars, and 80 inmates at the asylum. 
 
 Workmen's Houses. — Built by the establishment, and leased by the workmen. 
 There are two kinds : — the first is a house of two storeys, with mansard roof, and is 
 composed of one dining-room, kitchen, three large bed-rooms, a cellar, garret and 
 water-closet ; the garden has a superficies of 800 feet. The houses cost 1750, and are 
 let at $25.60 per annum, and $3.80 per cent, for taxes, &c. The second kind has but 
 one storey, having one bed-rooin and the garret less than the first. Cost $600 ; rent 
 $22 per annum, and $3.65 taxes, &c. 
 
 The workmen much prefer these houses, and it has been necessary to make a 
 selection from the numerous enquiries for them, preference being given to the oldest 
 employees. 
 
 JAlSrVIEE, PEEB BT BILS ET COMPAGME. 
 
 EOPE-WALK AT MaNS. 
 
 Participation in profits. 
 
 Professional standing given to the establishment itself. 
 
 Gardens. — The gardens, having each 1,265 square feet superficies, are for the 
 use of the workmen, and are sufficient to furnish the vegetables necessary for the 
 family. 
 
 Savings. — The workmen who place their savings at the establishment, receive 5 
 per cent, interest. Advances are made to them in special cases. 
 
 Restaurant. — The workmen generally reside at a distance of 2 or 3 miles from 
 the factory, and were obliged either to have a cold lunch or go to the cabaret. The 
 establishment founded a restaurant capable of supplying food for 200 persons. The 
 loss entailed by its management varied from $120 to $360 per annum. 
 
 Belief, Accidents. — There have only been three serious acccidents (three amputa- 
 tions) within 28 years. The employees are insured by the establishment. A relief 
 fund, giving medical care and medicine free, has been founded by the house ; it is 
 maintained by fines for bad work, &e., and a donation from the management. 
 
 Wounded workmen, beside medical care, receive their salaries in full. Sick 
 employees receive assistance in money and suitable relief. 
 
 M. M. KBSTNBE & CO. 
 At Bellevue near Giromagnt (Haut-Ehin.) 
 
 Participation in Profits. — (See page 54.) 
 
 The number of workmen in the factory varies from between 60 to 80. 
 Mutual Benevolent Society. — The employees and workmen of the establishment, 
 also their wives and children, are members of the relief fund. 
 The assessments paid fortnightly are as follows : — 
 
 Assessments paid by : the workman. the magager. 
 
 Eor the workman * $0.12 $0.08 
 
 From his wife 0.02 0.04 
 
 do each child 
 
 Under 16 years old 0.02 0.02 
 
 Fines levied from workmen for infraction of the rules of the establishment are 
 transferred to the relief fund. 
 
 Sick employees receive gratuitous medical care and medicine, and an indemnity 
 of 30 cents daily. 
 
 * Members of the Society who are at the same time connected with another society do, not have to pay 
 any personal assessment. 
 
411 
 
 On the death of a married employee the society pays $12.00 ; on that of the wife 
 $8.00, and $3.00 on the death of a child. 
 
 Among the cases of sickness not giving claim to assistance of any kind, may be 
 mentioned the following: 
 
 Small-pox, unless the patient can prove that he has been vaccinated. 
 
 In case of any serious or prolonged illness, the committee can grant special relief. 
 Since 1851, date of the foundation of the relief fund, its operations have been as 
 follows : — 
 
 Seceipts. — Amounts paid by M. M. Kestner & Co $ 6,853.16 
 
 do do workmen 3,482.99 
 
 Sundry receipts 658.55 
 
 10,994.70 
 Expenses— Tot a] 10,701.03 
 
 Balance $ 293.67 
 
 Loans to Workmen. — If the foremen, or workmen, wish to employ their savings 
 in acquiring immovable property, or in building a house, they can be authorized to 
 dispose of capital the product of their premiums as participating members. Loans 
 without interest can in this case be made to them, on the following conditions : — 
 
 Ist. That the foreman or workman applying for an advance is commended for 
 industry and general good conduct. 
 
 2nd. That Kestner & Co. recognize in advance the advantage and utility of the 
 acquisition of the property, or projected building. 
 
 3rd. That the purchasers, have themselves added a sum at least equal to the 
 advance applied for. 
 
 4th. Thu,t the advance will never exceed the sum of |200. 
 
 5th. That it will be guaranteed by mortgage security, and made repayable by 
 five instalments in five consecutive years. 
 
 The firemen and workmen have no right to above mentioned loans, or to any 
 ordinary advances, until they have passed two years in the service. 
 
 Pendens. — Foremen and workmen have a claim to the following life pensions : — 
 
 1st. To $108 per annum, when having reached 70 years of age, and passed 33 
 years of service, they wish to retire. 
 
 2nd. To $72 per annum, when having reached 70 years of age, and passed 30 
 years in the service, they wish to retire ; or when wounds or incurable sickness have 
 been received or contracted, resulting from their employment, render it impossible 
 for them to continue work. 
 
 3rd. To $48 per annum, when dulj'-proved incurable infirmities, not the result 
 of their employment, makes it impossible for them to work, provided, always, they 
 have spent ten years in the service. 
 
 The widows of foremen and workmen who, at their decease, had attained ten 
 years service, have a right to the following pensions: — 
 
 1st. To $36, when they have themselves reached 70 years of age at the death of 
 their husbands. 
 
 2nd. To $24, when they had reached the age of 60 on the death of their hus- 
 bands. 
 
 3rd. To $12, when they had reached the age of 45 on the death of their husbands. 
 
 There is a special claim for $20 to widows who, at the death of their husbands, 
 are at least 45 years of age, and those whose husbands had at their decease leas than 
 ten years of service. 
 
 As for the pensions of deceased foremen and workmen who, before decease, had 
 been admitted to full enjoyment of pension, in accordance with the age and years of 
 service of the deceased husband, the above pensions will be granted to the widows. 
 The total amount of pensions paid since 1851 amounted in 1888 to $7,917. However, 
 the years of the pension will not be added to the years of service. 
 
412 
 
 Male pensioners who go to work in another establishment, and widows who con- 
 tract a second marriage, or whose conduct is not good, will lose their right to the 
 pension. 
 
 CO-OPEEATIVB PAPBE MILL OF DANGOULfiME. 
 
 LAEOOHE-JOUBBRT & 00. 
 
 The Co-operative Paper Milling Company of Angoulgme is, for the operatives, in 
 time of scarcity of provisions, an institution of benevolenx5e and assistance. Thus, 
 when the price of bread exceeds 2 cents per pound, every workman in the factory 
 and workshops who, during the month, has earned from $2 to $12, receives at the 
 end of the month, besides his fixed salary, four bons, established on an average, and 
 whose amount reduces the price of bread to the same rate which he pays for his 
 other provisions. 
 
 The Co-operative Paper Mill Co. not only interests itself in the welfare of the 
 employees, but also in that of their young families. For a long time past, it obliges 
 the children of workmen to attend the primary schools in the districts where its 
 mills are situated, and it has always paid in full the salaries of the school teachers. 
 Further, in the month of December, 1880, under the supervision of Mmes. Laroche- 
 Joubert, there was founded, under the patronage of the Co-operative Paper Milling 
 Co., in a locality adjoining the workshops of the Angoullme establishment, by means 
 of a personal and voluntary subscription from members of the Society, an infant 
 asylum, where are admitted, during the working hours of their parents in the work- 
 shops, all their children, from the age of 15 days until the age when they can be 
 admitted into the asylum of the city of Angoulgme, where they are taken and 
 brought back again by a woman attached to the infant asylum. 
 
 The infant asylum receives and takes care of child reu every day it is open; it 
 furnishes them with soup twice a day, and milk if necessary ; it keeps warm for 
 them the necessary food, &c., and gives them clothing (socks, bonnets, shirts and 
 skirts, &c.) when those in use are not in i?ood order or eondition. 
 
 These children, from the month of December, 1880, to 31st December, 1881, were 
 kept to the number of 4,587 days' time at the infant asylum. 
 
 The expense for this first year, which was that of installation, had been $1,297. 
 
 The existence of this infant asylum, is assured for the whole duration of the 
 Society. 
 
 The Co-operative Paper Mill, keeps open at its own expense, in the vicinity of 
 Angoulgme, primary schools for young boys, and girls, who work in the workshops, 
 and this long before the time at which the law obliges them to do so. 
 
 The average monthly attendance of children attending those schools daily, kept 
 at the expense of the establishment, is from 80 to 90 girls, and from 35 to 40 boys, 
 besides those from the city of AngoulSme. 
 
 A. LBFRANC. 
 
 VARNISHES, PRINTING INKS, &C., PARIS. 
 
 Provident and Pension Fund. — This fund was founded by a donation of $1,000 
 from M. Lefranc, and is sustained by a monthly payment fixed by M. Lefranc, and 
 transferred by him from his net profits. 
 
 A deduction of 5 per cent, is made in the first place on all the allowances 
 deposited in the Provident Fund, with the object of forming a special fund to supply 
 any assistance which M. Lefranc may consider necessavy to grant to employees 
 (male or female) in special cases. This deduction ceases when the special relief 
 fund reaches the sum of $400 ; but when it descends below this figure it must be 
 augmented in the manner above mentioned. 
 
 All employees (male and female) are admitted to participation in the profits 
 after one year's sei'vice, counting from the 1st January preceding. 
 
413 
 
 A separate account is opened for each individual participant, and each receives 
 a book on which is written the amount credited to his account. 
 
 The sums assigned to the Provident Fund, are distributed among the individual 
 accounts, at a proportionate rate with the years of service, and of the respective 
 salary of each participant. 
 
 The amounts earned by participants, are considered as salary, whether they 
 work by the month, the day or by the piece. Participation is only granted at a 
 maximum salary of $600 and a maximum term of service of 20 years. 
 
 The employees (male and female) do not have a right to the liquidation of their 
 accounts until they reach 45 years of age, and have passed at least 20 years in the 
 service ; or at the age of 60, and after a minimum of 10 years service. 
 
 The liquidation of accounts in the event of death, or a departure for unforeseen 
 causes, or a forfeiture, are provided for in the regulations, under the conditions usual 
 in Managers' Pension Banks. 
 
 WOEKSHOPS OP M. ALBEET LUNG. 
 
 COTTON MILLS. 
 
 Moussey and la Petite Baon (Vosges). 
 
 Lodgings. — M. A. Lung has constructed detached houses, each containing 3 
 rooms, a kitchen, cellar and garret, and surrounded by a garden of about 6,000 feet 
 superficies. These houses cost about $500 ; they are let at $2 per month, or sold at 
 the price of $400 payable by instalments of $5 monthly, with interest at 5 per cent, 
 per annum. Besides these houses, M. Lung has erected buildings containing 20 
 lodgings, let at from $1.20 to $1.40 per month. 
 
 Savings. — The establishment receives the savings of their workmen, and grants 
 them interest at 5 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Advances without Interest to Workmen. — M. Lung advances to his workmen, 
 without interest, the sums necessary for the first acquisition of immovable property, 
 or in the case of stoppage from sickness, or in order to stop the practice of purchas- 
 ing on credit from the contractors. These advances are repaid by means of monthly 
 reserves. ^ 
 
 Schools. — M. Lung maintains, at his own expense, schools in his establishment 
 for children and adults. 
 
 FIEM OP ALPEBD MAMB & SONS. 
 
 TOURS. 
 
 Participation in Profits. — (Page 160). 
 
 Schools. — Subsidies to schools of the city. 
 
 Workman's Town. — The workman's town, built by the Mame establishment, con- 
 sists of 62 cottages, each having its little garden, and disposed in quadrilateral 
 shape around a large square planted with trees, serving as a promenade available to 
 all the tenants. The price of rent varies from $31.20 to $47.40 per annum, accord- 
 ing to quality of lodging; in the city similar lodgings are let at from $100 to $120. 
 
 Mutual Benevolent Society. — The establishment has founded in connection with 
 its workshops two Mutual Benevolent Societies, which it has endowed. 
 
 Retiring Fund. — The retiring fund is supplied by amounts paid by the masters 
 for the following puiposes : — 
 
 Years. 
 $2 per year for each workman whose length of service is at least 5 
 6 do do do 10 
 
 10 do do do 15 
 
414 
 
 The payments are so calculated that a workman entering the service of the 
 establishment at 18 years of age can, retire at 60 years on a retiring pension of $120 
 alienated capital or $60 reserved fand. 
 
 The Mame Donation. — The institution furnishes gratuitously medical attendance 
 and medicines to the wives and children of workmen as well as to the workwomen of 
 the establishment. Aid is given to help pay funeral expenses. 
 
 Different Aids. — Granted under the form of gifts of materials, and provisions. 
 
 Free Pensions. — The widows of workmen, are granted pensions through the 
 liberality of the house. 
 
 The amounts paid out by Messrs. A. Mame & Sons towards improvement in 
 their staff's well-being amounted : 
 
 In 1887 to $15,872 for $168,600 salaiy. 
 
 In 1888 to $15,707 for $170,720 salary. 
 
 MANUFACTUEEES OF TOBACCO. 
 France. 
 
 The manufacture of leaf tobacco into smoking tobacco, snuif, chewing tobacco, 
 and into cigars and cigarettes, is not free in France ; the State has the monopoly of 
 it, and tobacco factories form a part of the State service. 
 
 The documents concerning the manufacture of tobacco in France, sent to the 
 exhibition of social economy, consisted of statistics and tables which the Economiste 
 Frangais sums up as follows : — 
 
 " There is a rather large population employed in the manufacture of tobacco, 
 stores, &c. The entire staff', managers, foremen and workmen in 1875 amounted to 
 22,974." 
 
 The requirements of the service having at that time necessitated a momentary 
 stoppage in reci-uiting, the number at the time was less : 
 
 Men. "Women. Total. 
 
 Foremen 758 111 869 
 
 "Workmen 1,802 18,200 20,002 
 
 Altogether 2,560 18,311 20,871 
 
 We see that the feminine element constitutes nearly nine-tenths of the whole, 
 and persons who like to sing la donna e mobile may imagine that workshops, so com- 
 posed, would involve incessant changes. There is nothing of the kind. The steadi- 
 ness or want of stability of the working staff, in the larger industeries, is one of the 
 points that came under the attention of the jury of the exhibition of social economy. 
 It does, indeed, offer a very clear indication, and the curve of stability which Mons. 
 Cheysson has given the formula, may serve to class industries from a social point of 
 view, as the facial angle, for instance, serves to class races from an intellectual point 
 of view. Now, the curve for the non-commissioned staff, in State manufactures, is 
 one of the least depressed there is. The average for length of service comes to 
 twelve years, foremen and workmen both ; and on 4,000 workmen they count 115, 
 or more than one in ten who have served more than thirty years in the administra- 
 tion. 
 
 This faithfulness is mainly due to the means taken, in the present and in the 
 past, to assist the workmen in their need. We can give but a mere indication of 
 these protective measures ; the document exhibited at the Champ de Mars, and at 
 the Esplanade des Invalides, contain a full description of them. The basis of the 
 system is the obligatory and gratuitous aflliation of foremen and workmen, to the 
 National Eetiring Fund for old age. Since 1861, when the fund was first erected, the 
 cilstom of the State manufactures was assured ; at- that time each agent was charged 
 4 per cent, retained on his salary and entered in his book. Since 1882 it is the 
 administration itself that provides, at its own expense, the regulation 4 per cent., 
 
415 
 
 and there are no amounts retained. The payments made since 1861 amounted to 
 $2,600,000, of which $2,^80,000 is alienated capital, and $280,000 is reserved capital. 
 The average amount in the bank books amounted to $29.20 in 1871, and to $92 in 
 1889. As for the workmen who, at the time the Fund was instituted, were too aged 
 to become members, with any profit to themselves, they were given books in the Savings 
 Bank, payable only at the age for retiring. Even yet, the agent whose pension has 
 just been settled, and who can continue work, must pay into the Savings Bank his 
 arrears of pension. These different operations are calculated by hundreds of 
 thousands of francs. 
 
 Mutual aid societies have been founded in certain cities and are very prosperous. 
 Certain manufactures have organized libraries -and baths for their workmen; it is an 
 intelligent solicitude that thus includes both body and mind. 
 
 The Administration has, as in duty bound, shown its interest in the fate of 
 women in child-bed and of new born infants. 
 
 In default of precise statistics in regard to births, we have been furnished with 
 information concerning the operation of creches installed in manufactures, or subsi- 
 dized by them, during the period from 1878 to 1888. The first mentioned gave for 
 that interval, returns of 727 admissions and 132,000 days' presence. The parents 
 pay only one-third of the expense — $4,500 on $12,400. In the subsidized creches 
 1,119 children were received, and there were 188,000 days' presence. 
 
 MBNIEE. 
 
 CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Noisel Factory {Seine and Marne). 
 Workingmen's Houses. 
 
 Dwellings. — The staff comprises about 1,500 workmen, including 600 women ; a 
 great many families are thus ail employed in the factory. 
 
 This staff formerly occupied a great part of the surrounding country, some living 
 at quite a distance from the factory. 
 
 It was to do away with the inconvenience thus caused, that Mons. JMenier in 1874 
 founded the working city which his sons have sirce extended. 
 
 These houses furnish 200 dwellings ; they are one story and a-half high, and sur- 
 rounded each by its own garden. 
 
 They are solidly built, of good materials, in brick, with iron flooring and roofed 
 in tiles. 
 
 Each dwelling has two flats, a cellar and a garret, and its own garden, covering 
 4,000 feet supei-ficies. • 
 
 A wash-house, woodshed and water-closet are attached to the house. 
 
 Each house contains two dwellings, and in order to insure complete indepen- 
 dence for both families, the gardens and the closets are semi-detached, the houses 
 being separated from top to bottom longitudinally by a partition wall which 
 separates each dwelling entirely from the other. 
 
 Moreover, in order that the circulation of air may be as free as possible between, 
 the houses are situated on either side of the street, each opposite the garden of the 
 house over the way, so that a house on the right hand side is opposite the garden 
 of a hause on the left hand side, and vice versa. 
 
 The cost of each house is about $2,000, or $1,000 for each dwelling. 
 
 The cost of each dwelling is $30 per year, payable at the rate of $2.50 per month, 
 which the factory collects from the workmen, making them pay neither taxes nor 
 repairs. 
 
 "i_:iThe ownership of these houses cannot be ceded by the establishment, who by 
 this means wish to avoid, as a consequence of any change by sale or inheritance, 
 their being used for other than the end for which they were intended, by admitting 
 to the city, strangers who might do injury to the inhabitants. 
 
416 
 
 Premiums. — However, as workmen are granted premiums for length of service, 
 proportioned to the time that they have been in the employ of the establishment, 
 intended to compensate for the rent they pay for their dwellings, they are by this 
 fact exonerated, after a time, from all payment of rent. 
 
 There are large baths and washing tanks, well provided with hot water, and 
 with running water, amply suf3.cient for the washing of clothes, and for the bathing 
 requirements of the population. 
 
 Economies. — A general store, established by the firm in large and spacious 
 buildings, are stocked with all the provisions, liquors, dry goods, clothing, boots and 
 shoes, firewood, &c. — in a word, with all the necessaries of life, which are offered to 
 the workmen at a very low cost. The establishment can afford to sell at a low 
 rate, as it buys the goods on the best and most profitable conditions, baking its own 
 bread and furnishing meat from cattle raised on its own estates. The importance of 
 this store is shown by the following sales : — Bread per day, 2,600 lbs. ; meat, 550 
 lbs. The yearly total of sales amounts to about $80,000. 
 
 Canteens. — For a certain number of workmen and women, who live in the neigh- 
 boring villages, large refectories have been built, separate for men, women and 
 families; they are provided with stoves and ovens, where they can keep the food 
 they bring with them warm. Eestaurants and canteens provide board and lodgings 
 for unmarried persons, at a low charge, established by a tariff imposed by the firm 
 on the keepers of such places. 
 
 Schools. — The establishment has founded a group of schools for the children of 
 IToisiel ; they are well managed, provided with all necessary classes, including : a 
 class for boys, classes for girls, and a mixed class of children from four to eight 
 years, where they are provided gratuitously with books and the necessary materials, 
 as well as a good, strong, practical education, in which some pupils have distin- 
 guished themselves. 
 
 An asylum with a day nursery is attached to this group. The number of chil- 
 dren attending is 250. 
 
 Sickness, Accidents. — In the event of sickness or accident aid is promptly given 
 by a physician attached to the establishment, and a drug shop, well stocked with all 
 necessary drugs, which are delivered free to the staff. 
 
 Whenever a case of sickness occurs an indemnity of $0.40 per day for men, and 
 of $0.20 for women, is granted for the time they are prevented from working. 
 
 The Messrs. Menier provide aid for women in child-bed, and for infirm old men^ 
 
 The inhabitants of Noisiel attend the lecture-room very regularly, and likewise 
 the library, which contains 1,200 selected volumes; they attend the concerts given 
 on Sundays and holydays by the factory band. 
 
 Finally, the Savings Bank founded by the firm, receives deposits of the work- 
 men's savings for which they allow interest at 6 per cent, per annum. The total 
 amount of these savings for the whole establishment amounted, in 1888, to nearly- 
 $400,000. 
 
 THE MOUTIEE ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 Apprenticeship. — (Bage Y3.) 
 
 Profit-sharing. — (Page 63.) 
 
 Accident Fund. — Is supplied by the firm, no amount being retained from the 
 workmen's wages. The indemnities are as follows : the first eight, the whole wages ; 
 afterwards, half that amount. The indemnity cannot exceed $1.00 per day. 
 
 In the event of serious accident, or death, the workmen, or their heirs, can have 
 their account in the Insurance Fund in case of accident, guaranteed by the State, liqui- 
 dated. The insurance is at the expense of the firm; it represents an annual premium 
 of $1.60 (page 282). The workmen have also a right to the benefits of the Mutual 
 Insurance, founded by the Syndicate Board of contractors in locks and building in iron. 
 
 Mutual Aid Society. — It is obligatory for the staff that share in it ; free for others. 
 The fund is supplied by : 
 
417 
 
 Ist. An entrance foe settled at $1.00 up to 39 years. 
 
 2.00 from 4Q to 45 years. 
 4.00 from 46 to 55 yeai-s. 
 
 2nd. By subscriptions of $0.02 on every ten hours work. For the workmert 
 sharing in it, the subscription is paid half by the workmen and half by the establish- 
 ment. 
 
 The establishment pays only -^ of the subscription of outside help. 
 
 The daily indemnity is $0.40 for the first three months, and $0.20 for the three 
 following. 
 
 A member belonging to another mutual aid societj^ niay renounce medical cure, 
 and, in exchange, be insured on his life for the amount of $40 if he is under 29 years 
 of age, and for $20 if he is more. 
 
 Reserve Fund. — This object has a moral and practical object ; a suiall amount of 
 the earnings fjom lucky years is put aside, and helps to tide over the unlucky years; 
 the workman finds in it confidence for the present, and strength for the future. The 
 fund is supplied by an amount of 10 per cent, retained on the profits previous to 
 division, and from any surplus from the other funds of the Establishment. 
 
 In the event of a bad inventory, it can assist and contribute a email share, not 
 to exceed $4.00 per head. 
 
 In case of deficit, it may advance money to the Mutual Aid Society; it may also 
 make slight advances to the workman, charging no interest, to be repaid in instal- 
 ments on the succeeding pay days. 
 
 Betiring Fund. — The retiring fund belonging to the Maison Moutier is in reality 
 only an intermediary between the depositor, and the National Retiring Fund for old 
 age. Besides voluntary savings, it is supplied by the shares coming from the 
 division of profits, and by the statutory surplus from the reserve fund. The division 
 is made every year, and entered in the books belonging to each of the members. 
 
 THE LAPAEGB FACTOET. 
 
 LIME-KILNS. 
 
 Viviers — Arddche, 
 
 Dwellingn. — This establishment has built workingmen's cities, the houses of 
 which are much sought after, both on account of their cheapness and their comfort- 
 ableness. They are therefore of necessity, only rented to fathers of families of three 
 children, and even then there is a choice. 
 
 There is a circle, where a lecture room, and an excercise room, stand in the 
 centre of the village. A tavern capable of holding 200 persons, is built by the 
 factory for the benefit of the unmarried men ; they are lodged and boarded for the 
 sum of $7.00 per month. 
 
 Hospital— The Society has founded a hospital for its wounded and sick. 
 
 Retiring.— There is no retiring fund, but the Society gives a pension to old work- 
 men. On the 1st of January, 1889, there were 19 persons receiving pension, the 
 total sum of which was $1,709 per year. 
 
 Church.— In the midst of its buildings, the firm has built a church, and maintains 
 a clergyman for service in it. , ., , 
 
 Schools.— T-wo primary schools, one for girls and one lor boys, are built and sup- 
 ported by the Society. „ „ ^ , . , 
 
 Every month the masters distribute prizes of small sums of money, which are 
 entered in the Savings Bank of the prize-winning scholars. 
 
 When the young girls leave school, they are admitted to a workroom, where they 
 are taught to do housework. 
 
 Ymiths' Circle.— The object of this institution is to procure for wilhng young 
 people, not only amusement, but supplementary instruction, after leaving the primary 
 schools, which prepares them for holding foremen's situations. 
 20—27 
 
418 
 
 All these institutions are founded and maintained by the masters, by deducting, 
 according to statute, the amount of $0.01 per ton of manufactured material every 
 year before the division of profits. 
 
 Savings Bank. — It receives savings from the workmen, for which it pays them 
 4^ per cent, interest per annum. 
 
 Aid Fund. — Is supplied, 1st, by IJ per cent, retained on the wages; 2nd, by an 
 amount equal to ^ the sums retained, paid by Messrs. de Lafarge. The Fund pays 
 indemnities during times of enforced idleness; also aids in the same way as other 
 institutions of the kind. 
 
 Accidents. — The workmen are insured against accidents by a collective premium, 
 which is paid, ^ by the Aid Fund and f by the firm. 
 
 Economies. — The disposable funds of the Aid Fund have been used to establish a 
 bakerj"- and a grocery. The profits are divided as follows : 10 per cent, to the com- 
 missioners, 40 per cent, to the agents, 15 per cent, to the Aid Fund, 5 per cent, to the 
 schools, 30 per cent, to a I'etiring fund now being formed. 
 
 LES FILS DB PEUGEOT FE^EBS. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OJF IRON WORK AND VELOCIPEDES. 
 
 Valentigny (Boubs). 
 
 Mutual Aid Society. — Founded by the House, and supported by the following 
 subscriptions : — 
 
 $0.30 for men 20 years and over. 
 
 $0.15 for women of all ages, and boys under 20. 
 
 And by a subsidy from the house equal to one-third of the subscription. The 
 amount of daily indemnities in goods, ai'e equal to the subscriptions, and are paid to 
 the sick for the space of one year. 
 
 Retiring. — The firm has established, with its own money, a retiring fund which 
 is supplied by an annual amount deducted from the profits. Any workman 50 years 
 of age who has been 30 years in the firm's employment, is given a pension of $72, 
 half of it revertible to the widows and orphans. 
 
 Accidents. — All the staff of the firm is insured against accidents, without any 
 retention on their wages. 
 
 Worhingmen's Houses. — Cottages and blocks of houses are built by the firm to 
 lodge their workmen. Every advantage has been offered the workmen to help them 
 to buy those houses, but unavailingly ; the workmen prefer to buy land and build 
 houses according to their own taste. 
 
 In the latter case the firm advances the money necessary. 
 
 Savings. — The firm receives the savings of the workmen on current account, for 
 which it pays interest at 4 per cent. 
 
 Go-operative Societies for Provisions. — Two co-operative societies have been estab- 
 lished by the house; they sell both to the workmen of the factory and to the public ; 
 "75 per cent, of the profits are divided among the consumers ; 15 per cent, to the 
 reserve fund and the shareholders. To become a shareholder, it is necessary to be 
 employed by Messrs. Peugeot. The capital is $16,000 ; the shareholdej-s, who 
 numbered 75 in 1867, now number 250 ; the shares are flO. 
 
 In 1888 the sales amounted to $77,680 ; the general expenses to $3,900, and the 
 net profits to $6,900. The reserve fund is $8,600. 
 
 The Society is managed by its shareholders, that is to say, by the employees 
 and workmen of the establishment. 
 
 The Society established a bakery. The bread is sold at 5 per cent, above cost 
 price. In 1888 the price was $2.84^ per 100 lbs. of bread. 
 
 Schools. — The house has built, and supports at its cost, four schools and two 
 asylums. 
 
 Hospital. — Founded by M. B. Peugeot. 
 
419 
 
 A. PIAT. 
 
 Paris — Soissons. 
 
 Profit-sharing. — (Page 72.) 
 
 Society of Mutual Aid. — Receipts : assessments on active members. The sums 
 paid in by the employer, or the honorary members, go to the retiring fund. 
 
 Provident Fund. — Receipts : assessments of |0.10 on each active member. This 
 fund gives to the sick, a daily allowance, which, contrary to that of the aid fund, goes 
 on increasing in proportion aa this one decreases : — 
 
 Mutual. 
 
 IMay 10.40 
 
 2 " $0.40 
 
 3 " $0.40 
 
 4 " $0.20 
 
 5 " $0.20 
 
 6 " $0.20 
 
 7 " $0.10 
 
 8 " $0.10 
 
 9 " $0.10 
 
 The Society may grant $4 to $5 help to the families of the sick. The doctor's 
 care and the medicine are gratuitous. 
 
 It pays an annual pension pf $40 to members who have been 20 years in the 
 Society, and who are 60 years of age. 
 
 Mons. Piat raises the pension to $72. 
 
 Assurance in case of Death. — By a collective life insurance, paid yearly by the 
 Society, the widow of each member can on death of the member, receive a sum of 
 $100. 
 
 The total amounts paid by each member is $0.63 per month ; $0.40 for the 
 mutual $0.10 for the Privoyance, and $0.13 for life insurance. 
 
 Accident Insurance. — Wounded workmen are paid f of their usual wages during 
 the whole time of their disablement. The insurance is paid by the firm. , 
 
 Schools for Apprentices. — The apprentices, about 30 in number, have one-and-arhalf 
 hours schooling every night, taken from the time due in the workshop. Weekly and 
 half-yearly rewards are given them. 
 
 Library. — Comprises 500 volumes. 
 
 Harmony Band of the Piat Workshops — 80 musicians. 
 
 Provident. 
 
 Total. 
 
 $0.00. 
 
 $0.40. 
 
 $0.06. 
 
 $0.46. 
 
 $0.08. 
 
 $0.48. 
 
 $0.10. 
 
 $0.30. 
 
 $0.12. 
 
 $0.32. 
 
 $0.14. 
 
 $0.34. 
 
 $0.16. 
 
 $0.26. 
 
 $0.18. 
 
 $0.28. 
 
 $0.20. 
 
 $0.30. 
 
 P. PINET. 
 
 BOOT AND SHOE MANUFACTUREE. 
 
 Paris^ 
 
 Retiring Pension. — With a view to forming an annuity for the old age of his work- 
 men and women. Monsieur Pinet pays every year to the Retiring Fund for old age, 
 an amount equal to an increase of 5 per cent, of their wages, to the extent of $20 per 
 year. 
 
 These sums are paid as reserved capital. In order to have a right to subscribe, 
 every workman and workwoman must belong to a mutual aid society, unless their 
 age, their health, or some infirmity prevents their being admitted. 
 
 They must work exclusively for the Pinet House, and have belonged to it for 
 three consecutive years. The right to subscribe is acquired after the third year, and 
 20—27^ 
 
420 
 
 those woi'kmen and workwomen alone have a right, who have produced for the House 
 a minimum amount determined in the following manner : 
 
 The workman residing in Paris or within its jurisdiction, 
 working for the house, should earn in the year, at 
 least '.... $240 00 
 
 The workman living in the Province working under the 
 direction of a foreman or a contractor, should earn in 
 the year, at least 180 00 
 
 Workmen living in Paris or the Province should earn in 
 
 the year, at least 80 00 
 
 If the minimum cannot be attained on account of enforced idleness, resulting 
 from sickness duly attested, the subscription is proportioned to the wages earned. 
 
 In case of voluntary departure, the workman loses his right to a subscription 
 for that year. If he I'eturns he has to go through the preliminary three years. 
 
 In case of enforced idleness, in consequence of business being dull, the pay 
 ments are in proportion to the amounts earned during the year, and under the 
 condition that if the workmen and workwomen work for other houses without being 
 duly authorized, they lose their rights, and can only resume work for the house after 
 eight days' notice. 
 
 Many workmen and workwomen, who, after 55 years of age, have lost a portion 
 of thoir strength, if they wish it, may be paid the subscription in cash, and the mini- 
 mum of wages to be earned daring the year is lowered 
 
 For workmen in Paris to $180 
 
 do the provinces to 140 
 
 For workwomen in do 60 
 
 Special articles regulate the position of the different contractors. 
 
 The rules of the Pension Fund of the Pinet House conclude with the following 
 article : — 
 
 "Wishing to give the older members of my staff, who have worked fori me for 
 at least seven consecutive years, a proof of my attachment, I will, in the month of 
 August next, pay into the Eetiring Fund for old age, to the account of each one who 
 is 60 years old, a sum calculated at the rate of $1 for men, and 60 cents for women, 
 for each year's work they have done for my house. 
 
 PLEYBL, WOLFF & CO. 
 
 PIANO MANUFACTURERS. 
 
 Faris. 
 
 Workshop School. — It is situated in the factory itself, and receives boys from 5 
 to 8 years of age, and little girls from 5 to 12 years of age. While the children work 
 and play under the father's eye, the mother can attend to her daily duties. Boys 
 about 8 years of age are old enough to attend the public schools. 
 
 Savings. — To encourage savings among the apprentices, the House places every 
 year in the Saving's Bank, to each one's account, an amount equal to the sum he 
 puts in himself 
 
 The House receives the savings of its workmen, and pays them interest at 5 
 per cent., the maximum is fixed at $400. 
 
 Z/oan Aid. — The House makes generous donations to the Mutual Aid Society of 
 its workshops. It loans money to its workmen who are in straitened circum- 
 stances from causes over which they have no control, and the sums so lent, are pay- 
 able by instalments of $0.40 per week retained on their wages. During 20 years the 
 losses on the loans have amounted only to $1 36 per cent. 
 
 Retiring Fund. — The House grants, without any retention, a pension of $73 per 
 year to every workman who has worked for it for 30 years, and who is 60 years of 
 
421 
 
 Library. — 300 volumes are at the disposal of the workmen. 
 
 Finally, the House bears the entire expense of a band, and a company of archers 
 formed from its staff. 
 
 During a period of 20 years, the Pleyel House has expended a sum of $146,000 
 for these institutions. 
 
 SAINT-PEfeRBS. 
 
 SPINNING AND WEAVING OF COTTON, FLAX, &C. 
 
 Paris — Rouen. 
 
 Aid Fund, Accident Insurance, Betiring Fund for Old Age. — ^These three funds are 
 supplied by : — 
 
 1st. Subscriptions from employees and workwomen settled as follows : — 
 
 $0.10 per iortnight for men, and young people, earning at least $0.40 per day. 
 $0.07 per fortnight for women and children. 
 
 2nd. A sum paid by Messrs. Saint-Pr^res equal to one-third the said subscription. 
 
 3rd. Pines. 4th. Gifts. 5th. Interest at 4 per cent, by the House on the capital 
 of each fund. 
 
 The total amount of subscriptions is divided as follows : — 
 
 70 per cent, to the Aid Pund. 
 
 10 do Accident Pund. 
 
 20 do Eetiring Pund. 
 
 Medical care and medicine are given to the sick free of charge, and a daily 
 pecuniary indemnity of $0.20 is paid to members whose subscription is $0.10, and an 
 indemnity of $0.10 for those paying $0.07. The continuance of this indemnity varies 
 from one to four months, according to the age of the member. After four months 
 it is reduced one-half, and entirely suppressed^after four months more. 
 
 The wounded are cared for in the same way as the sick. 
 
 In case of permanent infirmity they receive a sum varying fj'om $60 to $180 
 according to the seriousness of the case. In case of death a sum of $240.00 is paid 
 ±0 the heirs. 
 
 The retiring pension is granted to any workman over 65 years of age, who has 
 worked 25 consecutive years for the House. It is as many times $1.20 as he has 
 worked consecutive years in the House. 
 
 " The fact of belonging to, or entering the service of, any one of the four establish- 
 ments, argues complete submission to the regulations of the funds, as well as to the 
 present general regulations; and a complete renunciation of all suits at law against 
 Messrs. Saint-Prdres for any cause against which the three funds are intended to 
 secure them." 
 
 Dwellings. — ^Messrs. Saint-Pr^res have built 453 cottages, costing $222,000, which 
 they rent to their workmen; the rent gives a revenue of scarcely IJ per cent. 
 
 Schools are established in the different factories of the firm. 
 
 SAUTTEE, LEMONIEE & CO. 
 
 PROFIT-SHARING (PAGE 165) PARIS. 
 
 Savings Group. — The savings groups are two in number at thepresent time, and 
 are formed and administered by the working staff by authorization of the House. 
 They are formed on the type of those of the Society " la Pourmi." 
 
 Their object is the constitution of a collective capital, intended to be divided 
 among the members at the end of a few years. This capital is principally formed 
 by obligations, drawn by lot and shares in the chances of increase afforded the draw- 
 ing- 
 
 The House in no way interferes in the administration of these savings groups, 
 
 neither in their constitution nor in any other manner. 
 
422 
 
 It, however, lends them its assistance in the purchase, or sale of the values which 
 it allows them to deposit in its bank free of charge. 
 
 The first group was formed in 18Y9. Its membership during the first few years, 
 did not exceed 20; last year there were 38 members. Many of the first members 
 have retired and have been replaced by others. The monthly subscription has varied 
 noticeably ; it has been reduced to $0.60 and it has been as high as |2.20 per month. 
 
 The capital constituted by this first group amounts to about $4,200. 
 
 The second savings group was created in 1880. Its members numbered at first 
 18, and has since been slightly reduced. In 1885 the accumulated capital, $1,240, 
 was divided among the 9 members who still belonged to it. 
 
 The group was then reconstructed; at the present time, 1889, it now numbers 
 26 members with $1,240 capital. The subscription has been raised from $0.60 to 
 $1.60 per month. 
 
 The third gi-oup was formed in 1881, and at first numbered 22 members. This 
 number was reduced to 11. It owned a capital of $1,522.20. The monthly sub- 
 scription varied from $0.60 to $1.00. 
 
 As we see from the preceding figures, the savings groups have so far been but a 
 sort of Savings Bank, the small number of their members and the moderate amount 
 of capital accumulated preventing them from yet calculating on the probability oi 
 drawing values by lot. 
 
 They have, however, had a very beneficial influence on the working siaff, who 
 have thus, little by little, contracted the useful habit of putting aside a part of their 
 
 Aid Fund. — The aid fund in case of sickness and of enforced idleness, was formed 
 in 1880, by the working staff, supported by the House. It is supplied by subscrip- 
 tions paid every foi'tnight; the rate is proportioned to the needs. 
 
 The House every year contributes a variable amount. 
 
 The Fund is managed entirely by the working staff. Bach member has a right 
 to daily relief in case of sickness. 
 
 The subscription rate has varied from $0.06 to $0.10 ; the number of members has 
 gradually risen to 220. The House, and honorary members contribute about 40 per 
 cent, of the total receipts. 
 
 During the first years, the expenses equalled the receipts, and at the end of the 
 J ear the funds in the bank were m7. Since then experience has taught the work- 
 men, who at first were very averse to the idea, that it is necessary to have a certain 
 capital in bank, and they have directed their efforts to this purpose. 
 
 MESSES. SCHISTEIDER & COMPANY AT THE CEEUSOT. 
 
 RETIRING FUND. 
 
 Since 187*7 Messrs. Schneider & Company have, every thi-ee months, and as a 
 voluntary gift, paid to the National Eetiring Fund, the sums necessary to assure to 
 their staff in the future a retiring pension proportioned to the time they have worked 
 for the firm, and to the sums they have earned. 
 
 Every employee and workman in the factories of the Creusot, and in their 
 exterior dependencies, who are 25 ye'ars of age, and have been 3 years in the service, 
 has a right to this favor. 
 
 The amounts to be paid are now, for the husband, 3 per cent, of the sum entered 
 in the pay-book, and 2 per cent for the wife.* 
 
 The payments are made with a view to constitute an annuity, with alienated 
 capital ; at the request of the interested party, however, the capital may be reserved. 
 
 A personal book has been established by the Eetiring Fund. Any person leaving 
 Messrs. Schneider & Co. takes his book with him, and the rights he has acquired remain 
 to him. 
 
 These annuities are inalienable and unseizable. 
 
 * The 2 per cent, paid for the workman's wife is intended to constitute a pension for her, outside that 
 derived from her husband. In all, Messrs. Schneider & Co. pay to the Retiring Fund in the name of their 
 workmen a sum equal to 5 per cent, of their wages. 
 
423 
 
 Schools and Asylums supported by the Establishment. 
 
 
 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Asylums. 
 
 Number of classes 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 967 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 1,781 
 
 8 
 
 Number of professors 
 
 19 
 
 Number of pupils 
 
 1,858 
 
 Wages. — The average wages in 1889 are Y8 per cent, higher than those paid in 
 1837. 
 
 They are, nevertheless, 4 per cent, lower than those of 1876. 
 
 Workingmen's Souses. 
 
 Sums advanced to the staff for the purchase of land, and materials for building 
 houses : — 
 
 ISTumber of sums advanced from 1837 to 1889 2,391 
 
 Total of such sums advanced $658,534 
 
 do do repaid , 613,093 
 
 - Eomaining due on Ist January, 1889 45,441 
 
 Stability of the Staff. 
 
 The total number of workmen and employees is 12,338. 
 
 Of this numbei- 1,491 have served from 30 to 69 years continuously in the house, 
 and 10,487 have been from 1 to 30 years in its employ. 
 
 Among the latter, 380 have worked 5 years, 460 have worked 15 years, 275, 20 
 years, 259, 29 years, and 160, 30 years. 
 
 There are scarcely 2,400 workmen who have worked less than 5 years in the 
 establishment. 
 
 Savings. 
 
 Amount of deposits in the fund belonging to the staff. Position of affairs on 
 1st January, 1889 : — 
 
 Number of depositors 3,049 
 
 Amount of deposits $1,839,929 
 
 SEYDOUX, SEIBEE & CO. 
 
 SPINNING AND WEAVING. 
 
 JJe Cateau. 
 
 Savings Bank. — In 1866 Messrs. Seydoux, Seiber & Go. founded a Savings Bank 
 for their workmen and employees. The rate of interest is settled at 5 per cent., 
 for deposits of $1,000 and less, and at 4 per cent, for deposits exceeding $1,000. 
 
 Retiring without any Amount being retained from the Wages. — The establishment 
 grants a retiring pension to its employees, workmen and workwomen when they are 
 too old to work. The total amount paid for pensions in 1888 came to $3,960. 
 Aid Fund. — This fund is supplied : — 
 
 Ist. By fines imposed on woi'kmen, about $560 
 
 By donations to the Society, as follows : — 
 
 2nd. An amount equal to the amount of fines 560 
 
 3rd. By a subsidy 900 
 
 Total $2,020 
 
424 
 
 All the workmen, without exception, have a right to drugs, medicines, and 
 funeral expenses gratuitously. Moreover, the sick and wounded are paid an indem- 
 nity in money. 
 
 Workwomen in child-bed are given a certain sum as aid, equal in amount to 
 10 days' work. 
 
 Special assistarce is given to the widows, and the families of workmen, more 
 particularly afflicted with reverses or sickness. 
 
 In 1888 this assistance amounted to 14,600. 
 
 Baths.— TheTQ are six bathing halls for the use of the staff. A bath costs 80.02. 
 It is free when ordered by the physician of the establishment. 
 
 Kitchens. — The House maintains an economical kitchen for the small sum of 
 $0.06 ; the workman is provided with a piece of meat, some soup and some vegeta- 
 bles. The kitchen staff consists of a nun and two servants. The selling price leaves 
 an annual deficit of $500. 
 
 Creche. — In 1870 the house build a crScho that cost $7,600. 
 
 Children are received from fifteen days old to a year old. They are washed, 
 dressed and fed for a sum of $0.04 per day. The expense per day and per child is 
 $0,124, leaving $600 deficit every year paid by the House. 
 
 Asylum Sail. — At three years of age, that is, the age when they can no longer 
 be received in the ci-eche, they are admitted to the asylum founded by the House in 
 1852. It receives 300 children, and costs the House $1,000 per year. 
 
 Primary Schools. — Prom the asylum the children pass to the primary school. 
 The House has founded two, one for boys and one for girls ; the latter cost $24,000. 
 They are attended by 245 pupils from seven to fifteen years of age, all children of 
 workmen. In 1888 the school cost the House $2,340. 
 
 PARTICULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Asylum for Old Men. — Pounded in 1854 by Mons. Charles Seydoux. Value, 
 $28,000. 
 
 Hospital. — Contains 33 beds. Pounded and successively endowed by several 
 members of the firm. Value, excluding endowments, $30,000. 
 
 Maternal Charity. — This Society was founded by Madame Charles Seydoux. 
 Belief is distributed to about 100 mothers of families every year (milk, meat, coal 
 and baby-clothing), representing about $7.20 for every person assisted. 
 
 Annuities. — In 1873 Mons. and Madame A. Seydoux established annuities of $20 
 per year for the workmen, and $16 per year for the workwomen who had been more 
 than 40 years in the employ of the establishment. These are special pensions, inde- 
 pendent of those- paid by the establishment. In 1888, 33 persons were receiving 
 these annuities. 
 
 Retiring Fund. — In 1878 Madame Veuve Seydoux made a donation of $40,000 to 
 the Eetiring Pund of the firm of Seydoux, Sieber & Co., the income of which 
 is to be regularly employed in increasing the number of pensions the house allows 
 its old employees. 
 
 THE THAOK CLBA]SriN"G AND DYEING WORK— ANONYMOUS SOCIETY 
 
 (VOSGES). 
 
 Co-operative Society for Provisions. — This Society was founded by the firm ; it 
 has now become a civil association. An amount taken from the profits is thus 
 divided : — Ist. 13 per cent, to the reserve fund ; 2nd, 2 per cent, to the provident 
 fund for the relief of members in want. 
 
 Mutual Aid Society. — The fund of this Society is supplied by a subscription of 1 
 per cent, on the wages, by subsidies granted by the management, by a special sub- 
 scription of $0.01 per fortnight for the retiring fund, by subscriptions from the 
 members of the Family Fund and the interest of moneys invested. 
 
 The Family Pund is supplied by a subscription of $0.08 per fortnight paid by the 
 fathers of families and by widows whose children work in the factories. In return 
 
425 
 
 for these subscriptions medical attendance and medicines are supplied to the families. 
 There is nothing peculiar in the operation of this Society; we must, however, note : 
 
 Art. 3. In order to prevent the Aid Fund from being crushed by too heavy 
 charges, the Management will, as far as possible, avoid hiring workmen of a weakly 
 or diseased constitution. In the event of any admittance will be subject to the 
 advice of the physician. 
 
 Finally the Mutual Aid Society will make use of its funds to build working- 
 men's houses, lending money on first mortgages to such of its members as have 
 bought land. 
 
 Betiring Fund. — Is supplied by the sum of $0.01 per fortnight from each work- 
 man, and a subsidy from the house equal to 5 per cent per annum. 
 
 Special Institutions. — Hot baths free at the factory or at home. Drawing classes 
 for the workmen, classes for manual work for the pupils of the primary schools. 
 Library, gymnastic society, artillery, band. 
 
 ANONYMOUS SOCIETY OF THE WORKSHOPS OP NEUILLY. 
 
 JLocksmiths. 
 
 Workshop Aid Fund. — ^Is supplied by : — 
 
 1. By a subscription from the house equal to 2J per cent, of the wages. 
 
 2. One per cent, on the wages charged to the workmen. 
 
 3. By voluntary gifts and by interest at 5 per cent, paid by the Society on the 
 capital of the different funds. 
 
 A workman who leaves the factory for any cause whatever ceases to belong to 
 the Society. 
 
 Any workman with leave of absence may continue to belong to the Society by 
 continuing his payments, and has then, in case of illness, a right to only half the pecu- 
 niary indemnity ; the time he is absent is counted as retiring, provided, however, he 
 returns to the workshop when the House requires his services. 
 
 In case of sickness, the members have a right during two months to a pecuniary 
 indemnity equal in amount to one-half their daily wages, including holidays, and 
 an indemnity of $0.10 per day for medical expenses. 
 
 In case of accident, the wounded person is allowed for three months a daily 
 indemnity equal to his usual wages, but all expenses are to be paid by him. 
 
 In case of permanent disablement from all work, the member is allowed an 
 annuity equal to one-third the whole amount of his usual wages for one year of 300 
 days' work. 
 
 In case of death an amount equal to two years' wages is paid the heirs. 
 
 Article 14. On paymei'-.tof indemnities for accidents, a full and entii'e discharge 
 is given to the Anonymous Society of the workshops of Neuilly by the member and 
 his heirs, from all recourse or clairasof any kind whatsoever in regard to the accident. 
 
 Any member 60 years of age who has worked 10 years for the house has a right 
 to a retiring pension, the just amount to be determined according to the state of the 
 fund, the amount, however, never to exceed one-third the sum earned by one year of 
 300 days' work. 
 
 If a retired member dies and leaves a widow and young children, a pension for 
 the space of two years of half the amount paid the deceased husband or father. 
 
 FOEGE AND STEEL WOEKS SOCIETY OF THE NOETH AND EAST. 
 
 Dwellings. — The Company has built houses for its workmen. The houses are 
 isolated, and contain four dwellings, composed of three rooms, a kitchen, garret and 
 cellar; a garden f of an acre in extent belongs to each dwelling. The rent of these 
 houses is $2.50 each per month, and represents inteiest at 3 per cent, on the capital 
 invested. Unmarried workmen are lodged at a hotel built by the Society. 
 
426 
 
 Schools. — The Company has opened a school for the children of its workmen. 
 Adult classes are taught by one of the Society's employees. 
 
 Aid Fund. — Is supplied by 2 per cent, retained in the wages. There is always 
 a yearly deficit of $2,200, which is made up by the Company. 
 
 The Company has established a special Aid Fund, to assist its workmen in par- 
 ticular circumstances. This fund is supplied by an assessment on the profits. 
 
 Accidents. — On account of the difficulties and delays usual in ordinaiy insurance 
 companies, the Company has, at its own expense, established an insurance fund and 
 insures its own workmen. 
 
 Savings. — The Company receives the savings of its workmen and pays deposi- 
 tors 5 per cent, interest per annum. 
 
 ANONYMOUS SOCIETY OF THE COAL MINES OP MONTEAMBBTT. 
 
 The pension, aid funds, &c., are similar to the aid fund and pensions granted by 
 the Mining Company of La Eoche-la-Moli6re and Firminy, excepting that the widow 
 of a workman who dies from the results of an accident receives only SO. 12 instead 
 of $0.15. 
 
 The Company has founded hospitals, baths, &c., at a cost of $60,000. 
 
 Asylums, Schools. — The Company has founded several asylums and two schools. 
 About 250 children are received m the asylums, and the giris' school is attended by 
 220. The Company pays a subsidy for the band " L'Harmonie des Mineurs de La 
 Bicamani and a Mutual Aid Society. 
 
 The Company's total expenses for its institutions amounted to $41,620 in 1888, 
 or about $19 per workman employed. 
 
 SOLVAY & CO. 
 
 SODA, CHEMICAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 Varangeville-Dombasle (Meurthe et Moselle.) 
 
 Medical Services, and Medicines. — Are gratuitously allowed the workmen and 
 their families vnthout any deduction from the wages. 
 
 The firm also grants a pecuniary indemnity for its sick workmen, which varies 
 between one-fourth and the whole of his usual wages, according to the workman's 
 position and the expense of his family. Workmen wourlded at work are granted the 
 whole of their usual wages. 
 
 Baths. — A bathing hall, containing two rooms and apparatus for douche baths, is 
 at the free use of workmen and their families. 
 
 Accidents. — The Company insures its workmen against accidents, without any 
 deduction from their wages. 
 
 Belief granted to Workmen in Want. — A relief fund to assist workmen who can- 
 not meet the expenses of their fiamilies has been founded by the Company, and is 
 supplied : — 
 
 1st. By fines imposed on the workmen. 
 
 2nd. By a grant from the firm of Solvay & Go. equal to the amount produced 
 "by fines. 
 
 3rd. By extra subsidies and personal gifts. 
 
 Retiring Fund. — All the workmen are obliged to subscribe IJ per cent, of their 
 wages to the National Eetiring Fund for old age; the Cumpanyadds a sum equal 
 to 3 per cent, of their wages. Moi'eover, it pays to the account of every workman 
 who has been in its employ more than ten full years an annual amount equal to $0.20 
 for every year so employed, or $2.00 for ten years' service, $2.20 after eleven, etc. 
 
 The regulation concerning the Eetiring Fund was put in force on Ist May, 1889, 
 and in order to encourage its older workmen, who were not obliged to consent to the 
 
427 
 
 deduction, the Society paid a fitst subscription of $2.40 to the account of the work- 
 men who took a book in the Eetiring Fund. 
 
 When a workman leaves the factory he is benefited by all the sums paid to his 
 account, his book being his own personal property. 
 
 Fund for Allocations and Retiring for Employees and Foreman. — The object of 
 this institution is to constitute resources for employees and foremen at the time when 
 accident or their advanced age may render them unfit for work and make them wish 
 for rest. 
 
 The fund is supplied exclusively by grants made by the Society, for that pur- 
 pose. 
 
 When the managers have verified that the profits are sufficient to ensure capital 
 interest at 10 per cent, they pay to the Allocation Fund a sum equal to 10 per cent, 
 of the salaries of employees who have been at least six full years in their employ. 
 
 15 per cent, of salaries of employees who have served 6 to 10 years. 
 
 20 do do do 11 to 15 do 
 
 25 do do do 16 to 20 do 
 
 30 do do do 21 years and over. 
 
 The allocations are entered in the name of each employee in the account opened 
 for this purpose. 
 
 The accounts are settled : — 
 
 1st. After the age of 55 years, having since their entrance been continuously in 
 the employ of the firm, except when forced to leave by stress of circumstances. 
 
 2nd. After the age of 50 years, having served at least 20 years. 
 
 3rd. After 25 years' service, without regard to age. 
 
 4th. If the workman is dismissed without having given cause. 
 
 5th. If he becomes disabled in any way, judged by the physicians to be perman- 
 ent, after sickness, wounds or infirmity. 
 
 In the event of death the funds entered in the deceased's name are paid to his 
 heirs. 
 
 If the employee voluntarily leaves the firm's employment, or if he is dismissed 
 or expelled, his money in the fund is at the disposal of the managers, who will decide 
 whether his account is to be settled, or whether he will be re-admitted to the fund. 
 
 Savings Fund. — The Society receives on deposit the savings of such of its staff' 
 as earn at least $600 per annum ; it pays depositors interest at 5 per cent, on deposits 
 not exceeding $1,000, and 4 per cent, on sums above that amount. 
 
 Dwellings. — The Society has built 285 cottages, and lodges its employees and 
 foremen rent free ; it rents houses to its workmen at from $2.00 to $2.40 per month, 
 which gives about 1 J per cent, on the capital invested. 
 
 For the purpose of assisting its workmen charged with the care of a family, 
 who have been a certain length of time in the Society's service, it has been decided 
 that from 1889, the following reductions will be made: — 
 
 so p. c. about $20 per year for workmen who served at least 20 years, and have 6 children to care for. 
 
 60 p. c. 15 do do 
 
 40 p. c. 10 do do 
 
 60 p. c, 15 do do 
 
 40 p. c. 10 do do 
 
 20 p. c. 5 do do 
 
 40 p. c. 10 do do 
 
 20 p. c. 5 do do 
 
 20 p. c. 5 do do 
 
 with the restriction that one child working reduces by two the number of those to 
 be considered entirely at their parents' charge. 
 
 One-half of the amount thus remitted will be paid in cash to the workman at 
 the end of the year. The second part will be entered in a special savings book, 
 belonging to the Society, bearing 5 per cent, interest. 
 
 The amount thus kept on deposit is paid to the workman at the end of five 
 years' consecutive service. 
 
 20 
 
 do 
 
 4 
 
 do 
 
 20 
 
 do 
 
 2 
 
 do 
 
 IS 
 
 do 
 
 6 
 
 do 
 
 15 
 
 do 
 
 4 
 
 do 
 
 15 
 
 do 
 
 2 
 
 do 
 
 10 
 
 do 
 
 6 
 
 do 
 
 10 
 
 do 
 
 4 
 
 do 
 
 5 
 
 do 
 
 5 
 
 do 
 
 ;es b 
 
 y two the numbei 
 
 • of those 
 
428 
 
 WADDINGTON" SONS CO. 
 
 COTTON SPINNERS AND WEAVERS. 
 
 St. Remy-sur-Avre {Eure and Loire). 
 Former spinning mills, 1792; I'lsle, 1824; Mocdieu, 1834; LaPaqueterie, 1853. 
 
 Staff: 
 
 Employees 30 
 
 ("Men 586 
 
 Workmen -I Women. 470 
 
 [Children 148 
 
 1,234 
 
 Annual Wages : 
 
 Employees $ 14,384 
 
 fMen (from 10.50 to 11.25) ....\ 
 
 Workmen-! Women (from $0.40 to 10.75).. 1- 190,391 
 (.Children (from $0.25 to |0.45)J 
 
 Total $204,775 
 
 INSTITUTIONS : 
 
 Supported by the Firm. 
 
 Creche— Founded in 1872— 
 
 Children inscribed in 1888 59 
 
 Days of attendance 6,024 
 
 Annjial expense 
 
 Maternal School — Founded in 1874 — 
 
 Children inscribed in 1888 92 
 
 Days of attendance 17,775 
 
 Annual expense $875 
 
 ScJhools — Free and obligatory — Founded in 
 1870 — Books, &c. , provided gratuitously 
 since the law of 1883. A book on the 
 Savings Bank is given to the 1st pupil 
 of the 10 commercial schools. 
 
 Reserves — Payment of wages during time 
 of service. 
 
 Retiring pension — F'ounded in 1878 — 
 
 Number retired 
 
 Average pension 
 
 Sums expended to the end of 1888. 
 
 Accident insurance. 
 
 74 
 
 $45 
 
 $22,910 
 
 Shared by the Staff. 
 
 Mutual Aid Society— Founded in 1827. 
 1888 ( Subscription of the staff . $3, 273 "> 
 
 re- \ Fines, &c 457 \ 
 
 ceipts. (.Subscriptions by the firm. 360 J 
 Fixpenses 
 
 Library— Founded in 1885— 
 
 Number of volumes 
 
 Number of subscribers 
 
 Number of volumes loaned . . 
 Annual subsidy by the firm . 
 
 .$4,090 
 $4,043 
 
 692 
 
 227 
 
 4,265 
 
 $120 
 
 Workmen's Dwellings — 
 
 Number of dwellings 193 
 
 164 having gardens. 
 
 Capital in real estate $83,627 
 
 Annual rent from $9 to $19 
 
 Provident Fund — 
 
 Number of depositors 226 
 
 Total of deposits $74,863 
 
 Rate of interest 5 p. c. 
 
 Mutual Aid Society.— AM the workmen are obliged to belong to this Society. 
 The fund is supplied : — 
 
 1st. By a subseiiption of $0.13 for men, and $0.11 for women, and $0.04 for 
 children, payable fortnightly 
 2nd. By fines. 
 
 3id. Bj an annual subsidy of $360 by the house. The members have a right 
 to medical aid and attendance. Indemnities in money for sickness are classed as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Glass A. — Sickness by which the sufferer is confined to bed : 
 Men, $0.30 per day, dating from the first day. 
 
 Women, $0.25 do do do 
 
 Children, $0.12 do do do 
 
 On suggestion of the physician, a nurse will be allowed ; she will be paid $0.25 
 per day by the Society. 
 
 Glass B. — Sickness which does not confine the sufferer to bed : 
 Men, $0.20 pei- day, dating from the fourth day. 
 
 Women, $0.16 do do do 
 
 Children, $0.08 do do do 
 
 Glass G. — (Simple indisposition) is allowed no indemnity. 
 
429 
 
 Class D. — (Drunkenness, secret sickness). Sickness of these kinds have not only- 
 no right to an indemnity, but in certain oases, if they are due to negligence oi- bad 
 conduct, the member is bound to pay his own physician and medical chaiges. 
 
 Class E. — Chronic maladies, included in Class A. Sickness of this class gives no 
 right to indemnity if the member has already received during three months $0.30 per 
 day, or for less than six months. 
 
 If in cases of sickness of classes A and B, the sick person is the support of the 
 family, which is composed of aged and infirm parents, or of infant children, and if 
 the total earnings of the family do not amount to $0.15 per day and per member, a 
 surplus aid amounting to $0.05 will be allowed for each person unable to work. 
 These indemnities must not, however, exceed the price of the sick member's ordinary 
 daily wages. 
 
 Women in child-bed will be paid $4.00 and two Ions for 3 lbs. meat each, and 
 $2.40 for the midwife. In the event of the woman prefei'ring a doctor, the sum of 
 $6.40 will be allowed her, and she will then have to pay the doctor herself 
 
 If the results of the lying-in entail inability for work of more than 20 days dura- 
 tion, the sick woman will have a right to an indemnity in money beyond that time. 
 
 Women must not return to work until at least 20 days after their confinement. 
 During the 10 days following the confinement they must remain constantly in bed, 
 and during the next 10 days any fatiguing work likely to injure their health is strictly 
 forbidden. In the event of death $Y is allowed for an adult, $5 for a child under 15. 
 Aid ceases at the expiration of 3 months. 
 
 In case of accident the wounded person is granted an indemnity in cash equal to 
 his salary, to continue during the whole time of his confinement. 
 
 D. WALTEE SBITZ. 
 
 COTTON SPINNING AND WEAVING. 
 
 (Granger, Vosgesd 
 
 Maternal School. — Established and maintained by the house. It receives gratu- 
 itously the children of workmen to the age of six years. Every year articles of 
 clothing made in the workshops are given as a reward to the children. The materials 
 are also given by the firm. 
 
 Belief to the 8icJ{. — ^Mons. Walter Seitz assumes the whole expense resulting from 
 sickness among his 500 workmen and their families. 
 
 Accidents. — All the workmen are insured against accident at the expense of the 
 house. 
 
 Dwellings. — Isolated houses for the workmen were built by Mr. Walter Seitz ; 
 the rent is from $16 to $24 per year. The workmen's goods are insured against fire 
 at the master's expense. 
 
 Savings. — The house receives the workmen's savings and allows them interest at 
 5 per cent, per annum. 
 
 CASSELL & CO. [LONDON] (LIMITED.) 
 
 Profit-Sharing.— (Page 80). 
 
 Provident Society. — Is supplied by an annual assessment of 5 per cent, on the 
 profits, deduction having been made for the reserve fund and of 5 per cent, for capital. 
 
 This amount of 5 per cent, comes to about $4,500, of which about $Y50 are used 
 for charitable purposes. Of the balance, 10 per cent, is employed to succor unfore- 
 seen misfortune, and what remains of the $3,375 is put to the reserve fund. Employees 
 receiving a salary of over $2,000 do not share in the Provident Fund, and those earn- 
 ing from $1,500 to $2,000 receive only half the benefits accruing from it. 
 
 The other employees are divided into 3 classes : — 
 
 1st. Superintendents and Directors, who are given three times the share granted 
 to the 3rd class. 
 
430 
 
 2iid. Clickers, 2nd foremen, share twice as much as the 3rd class. 
 Each class is sub-divided into 4 sections : 
 
 A having served 5 years, receives 1 share. 
 
 B do 10 do ' 1^ do. 
 
 do 15 do 2 do. 
 
 D do 20 do 2^ do. 
 
 According to the audit of the books in 1888, the profits granted to the different 
 classes gave each of the sharing members a capital of: 
 
 Classes. A. B. C. D. 
 
 1 $250 $375 1500 $625 
 
 2 187 281 375 468 
 
 3 125 187 250 312 
 
 These sums are paid to the heirs of workmen who die while in the firm's employ, 
 after 5, 10, 15 or 20 years' service or in the event of inability to work resulting from 
 sickness. Any employee leaving the Company's service loses his rights. 
 
 An employee to share in this fund must have been five years in the Company's 
 employ. 
 
 In the event of death, the fund pays the funeral expenses as follows : — 
 $25 for employees less than five years in the service. 
 $50 for those who have been more than five. 
 
 ANOlSrYMOUS SOCIETY OF MAECINBLLE AND COUILLET. 
 
 BLAST FURNACES, METAL FLATTENING, COAL MINES. 
 
 [^Couillet, Belgium.'] 
 
 Number of workmen, 5,000 to 6,000. 
 
 Tutelary Schools. — Two of these schools are founded by the Company, where 353 
 children from 3 to 7 years old are received gratuitously ; the Company also grants 
 a subsidy to another establishment of the same kind. 
 
 Schools. — On leaving the tutelai-y schools the girls enter the factory primary 
 schools, where they remain until they are twelve years of age. The boys attend the 
 communal schools subsidized by the Company. 
 
 Workingmen's Souses. — (See page 342.) 
 
 Aid and Betiring Fund. — The Company has established an Aid and Eetiring Fund 
 for its employees and workmen (with the exception of miners). 
 
 This fund is supplied by: — 
 
 1st. A deduction of 3 per cent, on the workmen's wages, and a deduction of 2 per 
 cent, on those of employees. 
 
 2nd. A subsidy by the Company equal to 1 per cent, of the wages of employees 
 and workmen. 
 
 3rd. By fines, donations, and unclaimed wages. 
 
 Any workman or employee who proceeds against the Company before the civil 
 courts for damages, interest, for any accident whatsoever, loses his right to the benefits 
 of the fund, either for himself, his family, his heirs or representatives. 
 
 After the eighth day of sickness the workman receives an indemnity of 40 per 
 cent, of the wages, with a maximum of $0.25 per day, besides medical care and 
 medicines ; for wounded persons, the maximum indemnity is $0.30 per day, payment 
 to begin the day after the accident. Eelief is granted only during six months of 
 twelve consecutive months. 
 
 Pensions granted to aged and infirm workmen, to widows of workmen who have 
 died while in the Company's employ, to their ascendants and the orphans of work- 
 men who have died in the condition mentioned. 
 
 The pensions are based on the workman's wages and on the length of time he 
 has worked. 
 
 Article 27 of the Fund's regulation's says : — 
 
•431 
 
 " Aid granted in accordance with the preceding articles may at any time be 
 reduced according to the disposable moneys of the fund." 
 
 The Board of Management, in 1886, in virtue of this article, reduced the pensions 
 in the following proportion : — 
 
 Annuities for Old Age. 
 
 Reduction for Men. Women. 
 
 Aid from $0.30 and over per day 35 p. c. 40 p. c. 
 
 do $0.28 to «0.30 do 34 do 39 do 
 
 do $0.26 to $0.28 do 32 do 37 do 
 
 do $0.24 to $0.26 do 30 do 35 do 
 
 do $0.22 to $0.24 do 28 do 33 do 
 
 do $0.20 to $0.22 do 26 do 31 do 
 
 do $0.18 to $0.20 do 24 do 29 do 
 
 do $0.16 to $0.18 do 22 do 2Y do 
 
 do $0.14 to $0.16 do 1*7 do 20 do 
 
 do $0.12 to $0.14 do 14 do 17 do 
 
 do $0.10 to $0.12 do 10 do 15 do 
 
 Under $0.10, per day 8 do 13 do 
 
 The aid granted to wounded workmen, to the widows and orphans of workmen 
 wounded or killed in the employ of the Company, has been reduced from 10 per cent, 
 for all those receiving more than $3.00 per month, and 5 per cent, for those receiving, 
 less than $3.00 per month. 
 
 The fund is managed by a bureau named by the Society. Mining workmen are 
 affiliated to the provident fund of Charleroi. The workmen are subject to no reten- 
 tion on this account, but the Society pays the fund 1|- per cent, of the wages paid. 
 
 COMPANY OF MINES AND ZINC FOUNDEIBS OF LA VIBILLE- 
 
 MONTAGNB. 
 
 (Angleur — Belgium.) 
 
 Savings Fund. — The Company has established savings funds, receiving deposits 
 of $0.20; they pay interest at 5 per cent, per annum; the maximum of deposits 
 allowed is fixed at $2,000. 
 
 Workingmen's Souses. — In order to encourage the workmen in habits of thrift, 
 and to become householders, the Company has : 
 
 1st. Bought lands, which it parcels out and sells to the workmen at reduced 
 prices; it also loans money to the purchasers at long dates, to enable them to build 
 houses. 
 
 2nd. To workmen who have chosen and bought their own land, it sells building 
 material at cost price. 
 
 3rd. ,It builds houses and sells them at cost price to the workmen — one part 
 being payable in cash at the time of sale and the balance in small yearly instalments. 
 
 By this means, of 6,500 workmen, 1,000 are householders. 
 
 This remarkable proportion still leaves 5,000 workmen tenants. To lodge them 
 the Company has built regular colonies. In general, the houses are built in groups 
 of three or four, holding each one family — rarely two. A family occupying a 
 dwelling composed of four rooms, shed and garden or piece of ground, pays from 
 $16 to $20 per year, less than one-tenth of the wages. 
 
 The leases are monthly, with a right to cancel the lease by giving one month's 
 notice. The tenant cannot sell intoxicating liquor nor make his house an inn. 
 
 Aid and Provident Fund. 
 
 The Company has established two funds : — 
 
 1st. An Aid Fund, which insures the workman against loss of time from accident 
 or sickness. 
 
432 
 
 2nd. A Provident Fund, insuring the workman against the results of infirmities 
 and old age. 
 
 Aid Fund. 
 
 The object of the Aid Fund is : — 
 
 Ist. To procure gratuitously medical aid and attendance in case of sicknass or 
 wounds to the workman and his family. 
 
 2nd. To grant an indemnity for enforced idleness to workmen, sick or wounded, 
 This indemnity varies from one-thii-d to one-half of the wages. 
 
 3id. To contribute a uniform sum to defray the expense-^ of the lying-in of work- 
 men's wives. 
 
 4th. To contribute to the funeral expenses of workmen or members of their 
 family. 
 
 5th. To grant temporary aid to widows, children, and the ascendants of deceased 
 workmen. 
 
 This fund is supplied by an assessment on the wages, varying according to the 
 special charges of each establishment from 1 per cent, to 5 per cent, of the wages. 
 
 Provident Fund. 
 
 Any workman having worked fifteen consecutive years, or who is acknowledged 
 by the physician as being incapable of continuing his work, has a right to an annuity. 
 These pensions are fixed at one-fifth the amount of the workman's highest salary, 
 this fifth varying from $0.10 to $0.20 per day, plus ^ cent per day for each year of 
 service after fifteen years. Workmen who have received serious injury in the 
 Company's service have a right to a pension whatever the length of service may 
 have been. 
 
 This fund is exclusively supplied by the Company's gifts. 
 
 The expenses of the two funds, from 1850 to 1888, inclusively, were together, 
 $2,051,000, or about 5 per cent of the wages. The expenses of the Provident Fund 
 represent 1-06 per cent, of the wages. 
 
 JAfe Insurance Fund. 
 
 The Company wished to insure a certain security on their work, to its engineers 
 accountants and clerks, and give them the feeling of confidence that if they are 
 struck by death unexpectedly, their widows and orphans will not be left destitute. 
 The manner ofproceeding was to constitute, by means of mutual association, a capital 
 for each one, which thrift alone could not secure him. 
 
 The following is the general economy of this institution: — 
 
 Any commissioner employee pays an annual sum equal to 3 per cent, of his 
 fixed salary, and the Company adds 1 per cent, of its own money. 
 
 The capital insured to each one is proportioned to a total payment of 4 per 
 cent, on one part and on the other to the age of the associated member at the time of 
 his insurance. 
 
 To determine the premium of the insured capital, the tariff of a large life insur- 
 ance company has been adopted. 
 
 Every five years a balance sheet of the Fund's ti-ansactions is given, and if it 
 shows a profit, 50 per cent, of the profits is divided among the members, in propor- 
 tion to the amount of their policy, and 50 per cent retained for the Provident Fund. 
 
 A special clause of the Statutes, allows any employee on the retired list, to main- 
 tain his insurance by continuing his payments, or to cancel it. In the latter case 
 his account is liquidated under much more favorable conditions than could be pro- 
 cured in any other company of life insurance, and the emyloyee has, in the amount 
 thus reimbursed by the fund, a supplement to the annuity granted by the Company. 
 
 Amusements. — The Company expends a sum of $26,000 to maintain a band, an 
 archery society, &c. 
 
 Schools, Churches. — The Company has devoted $65,000 to establishing or sub- 
 sidizing schools, and a sum of $56,000 to building a ehureh, and organizing Bivine 
 Service therein. 
 
433 
 NETHEELAND MANUFACTURE OF YEAST AND SPIEITS. 
 
 DELFT (HOLLAND). 
 
 Profit-sharing. — (See page 85.) • 
 
 Premiums. — ^Premiums are granted to the staff; they are proportioned to the 
 quantity and quality of products manufactured. From 18'74 to 1888 these premiums 
 have on an average exceeded the wages by 10 per cent. They are not paid in cash 
 in full to the workmen; the part paid in money, is regulated by the articles of the 
 Premium Savings' Fund. 
 
 Schools, Glasses. — The House has founded : 
 
 An asylum for children from 2 to 6 years of age. 
 
 A school for manual work for the children of workmen. 
 
 Premiums of encouragement, for the children of its workmen attending the 
 communal schools. 
 
 Classes of foreign languages for employees. 
 
 Sewing class for the daughters ot its workmen. 
 
 A lecture room for lectures, games and conferences. 
 
 A library of 2,000 volumes for adults and children. 
 
 Dwellings, Go-operative Society. — The director of the factory, Mr. "Wm. Marken, 
 has founded, with the assistance of his staff, an anonymous society by shares called 
 "Collective property"; the object of the Society is to procure good houses for the 
 employees and workmen of the factory, and to establish to their benefit, co-operative 
 stores, hotels for unmarried men, baths, lavatories, schools, circles of amusement, &c. 
 The Society gives rather good results. 
 
 Savings Banks. — In many parts of the factory, boxes with closed and doubly- 
 locked covers are nailed solidly to the wall. Numbered rows of openings in the 
 covers correspond to tin cases underneath, forming so many numbered and separate 
 money boxes. A number is allotted to each workman that requests it. One of the 
 keys is in the keeping of the director, or of his representative, the other is in the care 
 of a workman chosen by his comrades. These two persons open the boxes once a week. 
 The amount found in each case, is entered on the Savings Bank book. The first deposits 
 up to a certain amount are paid premiums at 5 per cent. Eate of interest 5 per cent. 
 The advantages of the boxes with cases is that they prevent loss of time, and the 
 formalities of enregistration. There are never any serious complaints. 
 
 Obligatory Savings Fund Premiums. — "Wages premiums are paid entirely in money 
 to married workmen having 4 childen under 15 years of age. For other workmen 
 the premium is paid as follows : — 
 
 90 per cent, to married workmen having 3 children under 15 years old 
 
 80 do 2 do 15 do 
 
 70 do 1 do 15 do 
 
 60 do without children 
 
 50 do bachelors over 23 years old. 
 
 25 do do from 18 to 23 years. 
 
 10 do do under 18 years. 
 
 The part not paid is entered in the name of the claimant in the savings premium 
 
 book. 
 
 The capital is paid in full to the claimant : 
 
 Ist. At 60 years of age; 2nd. When he is dismissed ; 3rd. In case of death, to 
 
 his heirs. . . . «, . 
 
 In the event of the claimant marrying, he receives 25 times the amount ot his 
 wages. In case of the lying-in of his wife, double his salary. 
 
 Eate of interest 4 per cent. 
 
 Toilet and Bath Booms.— This building is intended for change of garment before 
 and after work, and contains' lavatories, hot and cold double baths. Each workman 
 has a locked cupboard to contain his clothing, valuables, &c. The factory provides each 
 workman 3 blouses and 3 pairs of linen trousers. 
 20—28 
 
434 
 
 Sickness. — In cases of sickness, the factory pays, without deduction of wages, half 
 the amount of the workman's wages during 12 weeks, and a quarter during six 
 weeks more. 
 
 To employees and foremen, etc., the whole of the salary dtu'ing six weeks, and a 
 quarter during the other six w^eks. 
 
 Accidents. — Tiie workmen are insured against accident by the establishment; the 
 premium is 6^ per thousand of the total amount of wages. 
 
 In the event of temporary disablement for work, the result of an accident during 
 work, the house pays the entire salary. , 
 
 Retiring. — To each member of the staff, at the end of each year, is granted for 
 that year's work, a retiring pension, beginning the 1st of January of the year follow- 
 ing that on whicH he will have attained his 60th year and over. The house assures 
 this pension in consideration of a premium (to a life insurance company), so that 
 when this sum shall have been paid yearly from the 21st to the 60th year the total 
 amount for retiring resulting from these 40 annuities will be equal to the amount of 
 fixed wages the recipient will have received during the last year. 
 
 He who leaves voluntarily, or is dismissed from the employ of the house, pre- 
 serves the right already acquired to a life pension, except in cases of misconduct, 
 dishonesty, injury done the establishment, etc., or the management reserves the 
 right to cancel his right to a pension. 
 
 The insurance premiums paid for this kind of pensions, amount to Y per cent, of 
 the wages. 
 
 This institution was founded in 1880, in connection with the system of profit- 
 sharing which had just been adopted by the shareholders at a time when business 
 was at its brightest. Part of the profits allotted to the staff, was intended to ensure 
 them a retiring fund. For the years from 18Y9 to 1881 a portion of the profits were 
 sufficient to meet, the expense of insurance on the basis adopted. From 1882 to 1884 
 the profits were not sufficient to cover the premiums ; several employees and work- 
 men were completing the premiums to their credit at the premium Savings Bank, 
 whilst for the others the payments — and the pension insured — were reduced in pro- 
 portion to the disposable funds. In 1885 and 1886 all profits failing, there was a 
 complete stoppage to insurance. Then the management defended before the share- 
 holders, the theory that the cost of insurance for old age should be considered as part of 
 the expenses of labor, and be included in the general expenses, independently of profits; a 
 theory which was unanimously adopted by the G-eneral Assembly of shareholders, 
 still leaving untouched the system of profit-sharing. In accordance with this reso- 
 lution, the general expenses in 1887 are charged with fl, 12,300, in 1888 fl. 13,500, 
 for insurance for retiring pensions. On the Ist of January, 1889, thirteen workmen 
 were given enjoyment of pensions, amounting in all to fl. 508. These pensions being 
 insufficient to support them, they were provisionally permitted to remain in the 
 Company's employ at light work. The age for i-etiring was then fixed for them at 
 the age-of 65. 
 
 Mutual Aid Society in caie of Death. — The resources of the establishment do not 
 alone suffice for the family, when the workmanjdies in the prime of life, after having 
 been a few years in the Company's employ. 
 
 On the occasion of the sudden death of a workman, leaving a widow and several 
 young children, the staff voted 146 against 24 for the foundation of this institution, 
 with retroactive effect for the families of workmen previously deceased. The Mutual 
 Aid is not insurance ; it is benevolence, and, until decided otherwise, will assist 
 widows to the extent of its power, and in proportion to her needs and her own 
 resources. The Society is managed by an executive committee of three members, 
 ■elected by the staff, under the presidency of the chief of the section of Personal 
 Interests. 
 
 The maximum subsidy is fixed at 4 florins per week for the widow, and 1 florin 
 for each child. Maximum for a family, 8 floi-ins. 
 
 The expenses are met one-third by the House, two-thirds by an assessment pro 
 rata the wages, proposed by the executive committee, and approved by the Noyau. 
 
435 
 
 Fire Insurance collective policy. — The Houso contracis for a collective policy with 
 a well-established insurance company. This Company rofevsto a certain register for 
 the articles and amount insured, up to a certain maximum. In this register is 
 entered each declaration, signed by the participant, and countersigned by the chief 
 of the section, who, at the end of each term, sends the register to the Company to be 
 ratified. 
 
 The premium for insurance is IJ per thousand, and should be paid by the par- 
 ticipant in four weekly terms. 
 
 Council of Prud'hommes. — The differences which may arise between one or more 
 members of the staff, either during work or immediately before or after, are sub- 
 mitted to the decision of the Council of frud'hommes. The council is composed of 
 four arbitrators and as many supplementary men, half of the number named by the 
 management, the other half elected by majority of votes of the staff. They must be 
 twenty-four years of age, and have lived in the commune of Delft for at least three 
 years. They choose their own president and vice-president, who must not be either 
 master nor workman. In case of disagreements each party has a right to appeal to 
 the Council. They speak to the president, who hears both sidps, and tries to effect a 
 friendly understanding. If he succeeds he draws a formal declaration in duplicate, 
 which both pai'ties sign, and a copy is given each. If it is impossible to settle the 
 matter amicably, the matter is carried before the Council in full assembly, who, in 
 public session, hears both parties and their witnesses. The Council then retires to 
 deliberate, and decides by majority of votes. The judgment is of the nature and 
 form of a judgment on disputes, but the Council has a right at the same time to give 
 its advice on the manner in which the guilty party is morally bound to repair his 
 fault. 
 
 Arbitration between masters and workmen not being recognized by the law of 
 the Netherlands, the sentence of the Council of Prud'hommes can have no legal force; 
 its execution is left to the feelings of equity of the parties. 
 
 The procis-verbal of the Council's decision, is published in the Messager de la 
 Fahrique. 
 
 ALFEED DOLGB, 
 
 FELT MANUFACTURER, DCLGEVILLE, N. Y., U. S. 
 
 The System of Distribution of Earnings at the Bolgeville Factories.* 
 In a letter to the Chicago Morning News, published January 19, 1889, Mr. Dolge 
 says : 
 
 " There is no doubt in my mind that manufacturers will eventually make all 
 their employees partners in the business, so to say, as there is undoubtedly some- 
 thing wrong at present in the relation of capital to labor. In many instances capi- 
 talists enrich themselves immeasurably at the expense of labor. It would certainly 
 be welcomed by the majority ot the American people if a plan could be devised, just 
 for both sides, whereby labor will get its rigbtfal proportions of the earnings of a 
 business. 
 
 " My experiments are not a system of profit-sharing in the generally accepted meaning 
 of the expression. They are only a part of it, or rather a step toward it, originated by 
 the conviction that the employee is entitled to something more than the wages proper 
 out of the earnings of the establishment he works for. While I decidedly advocate 
 a more just distribution of earnings, I have as yet not found a plan of so-called profit- 
 sharing that I consider thoroughly practical ; but I have no doubt that with the aid 
 of such work as you have entered upon, satisfactory results will be achieved in the 
 
 near future. 
 
 " What I have contributed toward education I consider also a part of the profit- 
 sharing, as with intelligent, educated workmen only we will be able to make any 
 headway in the practical solution of social problems. And I am of the opinion that 
 
 * Extract from " La juste repartition des gains,'' a work distributed by Mr. Dolge's representative to 
 the members of the " Congris de la Partieipation aux Unifiees." 
 20—28^ 
 
436 
 
 the national Government should take an active part in promoting education and 
 enforce compulsory attendance of school, establish teachers' seminaries and pension 
 teachers." 
 
 We see here that Mr. Dolge takes two positions very decidedly. 
 
 He object to " prolit-sharing," and he believes that one of the greatest factors in 
 harmonizing labor and capital will be "the education of the workingman." 
 
 With Mr. Dolge there is no such thing as " profits." All gains are " earnings" 
 — the earnings of labor or of capital, or of both together. The laboi- may be manual 
 or intellectual, or both. The manual labor may be skilled or unskilled. The intel- 
 lectual labor, that of the foreman, the superintendent, the general manager, the 
 inventor, the salesman, the proprietor (who guides all and is responsible for all). 
 
 Mr. Dolge has, therefore, directed all his efforts towards securing " a just distri- 
 bution of earnings." To do this he has necessarily had to determine what the exact 
 earnings of each individual in his businesswere, irrespective of the question of salaries 
 and wages. In this direction he has had some success by a must elaborate system 
 of book-keeping. Still, he readily admits himself, that he is yet far from a satistac- 
 tory solution of the question, and that all his efforts hitherto have been entirely 
 tentative. 
 
 Practically, what Mr. Dolge does is this : 
 
 He sets aside each year a calculated amount of profits of his business for the 
 benefit of his men. 
 
 This sum, however, he does not give them in cash; but he invests it for their 
 benefit in various benevolent schemes, of which the principal are a pension fund, a 
 life insurance plan, a mutual aid society, a school society, a building fund for the erec- 
 tion of homes, a club house and a public park. 
 
 EEMUNE RATION. 
 
 The amount of the remuneration, has so far depended upon the arbitrary decision 
 of the proprietor, with due consideration of the results achieved in the different 
 departments. The introduction of a positive system based upon the experience of 
 the past years, is now under consideration. It is the intention to perfect the same 
 in such a way that a change of management or ownership of the business cannot 
 affect it. 
 
 PENSION. 
 
 The pension plan grew out of the mutual aid society started among the employees 
 a few years ago. January 1, 1882, he proposed to enlarge the benefits of the society 
 by a plan devised, controlled and supported by himself. 
 
 During the seven years since the establishment of the pension law, only one 
 case occurred under its pi'ovisions. Mr. Foster, employed in the lumbering depart- 
 ment, was hurt while repairing the waterwheel. May, 1883. lie was not totally 
 disabled, but capable to earn some money besides his pension. 
 
 The following is a copy in full of the pension law : — 
 
 New York, January 1, 1882. 
 
 From a desire to improve the material condition and prospects of its employees, 
 to establish them as a compact, contented and well regulated community, and to 
 fasten the mutual ties of esteem as well as of interest, that holds us together, and 
 without which no lasting success is possible, the firm of Alfred Dolge has th>s day 
 made the following pension law : — 
 
 Evei-y regular employee of the firm of Alfred Dolge shall, after a continuous 
 service of ten years, be entitled to a pension under the following conditions : — 
 
 Pension will be due in case of partial or total inability to work, caused by 
 accident, sickness or old age, as long as such inability may last, and it is to consist 
 in the following quota of the wages earned during the last year, viz.: — 
 
 Fifty per cent, after ten years' service. 
 
 Sixty per cent, after thirteen years' service. 
 
437 
 
 Seventy per cent, after sixteen years' service. 
 
 Eighty per cent, aftei- nineteen years' service. 
 
 Ninety per cent, after twenty-two years' service. 
 
 One hundred per cent, after twenty-five years' service. 
 
 In case of accident while on duty, or of sickness contracted through the per- 
 formance of duty, employees shall be entitled to a pension of fifty per cent, at any 
 time previous to the completion often years' service. 
 
 As the pension is to be an equivalent for lost wages, the title to it is strictly 
 personal and not transferable under any circumstances. In cases of partial loss of 
 wages, where earnings are not cut off entirely-, but only reduced, the pension is to be 
 computed on the difference of wages only, representing the loss actually sustained. 
 
 The above regulations do not in any way affect the right of the firm to discharge 
 employees, dr any of the employees to leave. The firm reserves the right of amend- 
 ments to the above law, and of final decision in case of doubt and in all pertinent 
 questions not above provided for. 
 
 ALFREr DOLGE. 
 LIFE INSURANCE 
 
 January 2, 1887, Mr. Dolge laid his life insurance scheme before his employees 
 in the following announcement :— 
 
 "After considering a variety of plans, I have finally come to the conclusion to 
 set aside a certain portion of the business profit each and every year for the purpose 
 of paying premiums on life insurance policies. The rule which I have established 
 is simply this : That each employee, who has, for five consecutive years, been in 
 the employ of the firm is entitled to a life insurance policy of §1,000, and at the 
 expiration of the tenth year of steady employment to another $1,000 policy. Pre- 
 miums and all expenses will be paid by the firm, as long as the insured is in the 
 employ of the firm. For those who have been rejected an amount equal to the pre- 
 miums will be regularly deposited in the German Savings Bank of New York." 
 
 August, 1888, Mr. M. Eobinson, one of the employees insured under this law, 
 died, and his widow received promptly the sum of |l,000 from the Life Insurance 
 Company. 
 
 At this time forty-seven employees are beneficiaries of the life insurance plan. 
 They carry policies aggregating $107,000. The premiums paid last year amounted 
 to $4,821.99. The total outlay in this department since it was established is $10,331.71. 
 Nine persons entitled to pensions under the rules, have been rejected by reason of 
 their age or physical infirmities. For these Mr. Dolge has placed in the Savings 
 Bank the sum of $533.65, representing the premiums that he would have had to pay 
 on policies if the candidates had been accepted. Mr, Dolge discriminates in favor of 
 his high-priced help where he deems it just — as, for instance, the director of his felt 
 factory — who carries $10,000 in life insui-ance. 
 
 The apparently small number entitled to life insurance policies, is due to the fact 
 that the factories were started by Mr. Dolge in 1875 with twenty-seven employees. 
 Only seven of these remain with him. The business has made its greatest progress 
 within the last six years. In 1878 only forty-two persons were employed, and thirty- 
 «ight remain in his employ. Of the 140 employed in 1883 but 112 were in Mr. Dolge's 
 service January 1, 1888. The number eligible for insurance is increasing each year, 
 however. It jumped fi-om thirty-six, in 1887, to forty-seven last year, and will reach 
 sixty this year. To be entitled to a place on the list of regular workmen the employee 
 must have been at steady work one year. 
 
 OTHER PROVISIONS. 
 
 Eemunerations, pensions, and the life insurance are considered an equalization 
 between the wages of the workingmen and the increased profits resulting from their 
 work. 
 
 Not belonging properly under the head of profit-sharing, but closely connected 
 with the same as institutions for the benefit of the workingmen, are the Mutual Aid 
 Association, the School Society, the Club House and the Public Parks. 
 
438 
 
 THE MUTUAL AID ASSOCIATION. 
 
 Eight yeai'8 ago Mr. Dolge started the Mutual Aid Society with a gift of $400, to 
 which he added other donations at several times. He sought to make his employees 
 independent, and interest them in the management of an affair of their own. Each 
 member of the Society earning |6 a week, or more, pays 50 cents a month in dues ; 
 those earning less than $6 a week pays 25 cents a month. In case of sickness the 
 member of the first class receives $5 a week from the relief fund, and of the second 
 class, $2.50. Sickness, the result of irregular habits or mode of living, secures no 
 benefits; nor if the disease is simulated, or if it existed at the time the member was 
 admitted to the Society. Members not entitled to relief regularly, but needy, because 
 of old age or excusable sickness, may be given $1 a week or more, if the committee 
 appointed to investigate the case decides that the case is worthy, and the Society's 
 finances will warrant the drain. If a member dies his heirs receive $50. ' 
 
 The amount paid for relief from the founding of the Association to December 1, 
 1888, was $4,708.52. The number of members is 155. 
 
 THE SCHOOL SOCIETY. 
 
 A few years ago the employees organized a Turner's Society. Out of the evening 
 school for physical exercise grew the School Society. The employees of the Dolge 
 factories organized the Society for the" purpose of giving their children increased 
 advantages for obtaining an education. During 1886 and 1887 the members of the 
 Society spent considerably more than the i egular tax levy in the support of the public 
 schools. The men paid ten cents each and upward and Mr. Dolge contributed $300 
 a year. In 1886 Mr. Dolge donated $7,000 for a new school house. The taxes for 
 the same purpose amounted to $6,000 and Mr. Dolge paid $2,000 of this sum, making 
 $9,000 out of the $17,000 which the new building cost, come out of his pockets. On 
 November 26, 1888, the School Society decided to found the Dolgeville Academy. 
 Mr. Dolge agreed to contribute $4,000 yearly towards the work of the Society. Free 
 evening schools, under its organization, have sessions five times a week. Mr. Dolge 
 and his employees have merged their school with the public schools. They control 
 the school system of the district ; double the school taxes by their personal contribu- 
 tions; build school-houses and academies, and provide for a higher grade of instruc- 
 tion than the common school system includes. 
 
 For this academy Mr. Dolge is erecting a new building at his own expense. 
 
 Since 1883 Mr. Dolge paid teachers for an evening school, which was free to all. 
 
 THE CLUB HOUSE AND THE PUBLIC PARKS. 
 
 Mr. Dolge built the large club-house, at the cost of $10,000, containing gym- 
 nasium, stage, bowling alley, library, billiard rooms, etc., for the purpose of giving 
 his workingmen a meeting place where they could meet socially. Beer only sold — 
 no liquor — no gambling allowed. 
 
 The parks cover an area of about 140 aci'es, are well taken care of, provided 
 with good paths, seats, benches and tables at convenient places, and the natural 
 beauty of the parks, with their waterfalls, cascades, island, to which a suspension 
 bridge leads, are much fiequented by the workmen and their families. 
 
 OTHER BENEVOLENCES. 
 
 Mr. Dolge also helps his men to buy their homes. He builds houses for his em- 
 ployees on plans prepared by them, and allows them to pay the cost in monthly 
 instalments of $10 each. The habit of saving inculcated by this plan is not its 
 smallest benefit. Sixty of Mr. Dolge's employees own their own homes and ten 
 others have bought lots to build on. 
 
 The village has no savings banks, and Mr. Dolge allows his workmen to leave 
 their wages with him if they desire. He takes their wages as a sort of call loan, and 
 pays 6 per cent, interest on them. Only such money as is earned as wages and is 
 not drawn when due, comes under this arrangement. Mr. Dolge does not encourage 
 
439 
 
 this savings bank business, as he prefers that the men be independent in every respect. 
 Neither does ho advise his employees tb purchase real estate in the village, because 
 its prosperity depends on the success of his manufacturing enterprises, and such 
 advice would run counter to his idea of the desirability of absolute independence 
 of employees. Mr. Dolge puts the final touches ou his manifold schemes with a 
 reunion and banquet lonis employees at the beginning of each year. 
 
 H. O. HOUGHTOX & CO. 
 
 RIVERSIDE PRESS. 
 
 Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 In 1872 this firm established a savings bank for its employees, who now number 
 533. It is open to all as long as they belong to the house, and deposflis can be made 
 at any time up to $1,000. luterest at 6 per cent, per annum. Whenever, on the 
 1st of January, the deposits amount to $100, and that this amount remains on 
 deposit during the following year, the proprietors of the Eiverside Press bind them- 
 selves to pay the depositor a share in the annual profits of the house, the amount 
 never to exceed 4 per cent, (besides interest). The interest not withdrawn is added 
 to the deposit. During the last seventeen years the 8 per cent, additional has been 
 paid fourteen times ; one year there was no division, another the division was 3 per 
 cent., and finally one division amounted to only 2'88 per cent. The total amount of 
 deposits has constantly increased, and there are now 168 depositors. 
 
SECTION^ XVI. 
 
 I 
 
 IN THE 
 
 TJlSriTED KIN^aDOlM. 
 
II^TERVEISTTIO N^ 
 
 OP 
 
 PUBLIC AUTHORITIES IN MATTERS OF ECONOMY 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM.* 
 
 The divisions of the subject-matter according to the enumeration of the objects 
 as given in the oflB.cial circular, are, it will be readily observed, not mutually exclu- 
 sive. Many of the examples might fall equally well under more than one of the 
 classifications; e. g., hygiine publique officielle appears to be only a branch oi osuvres, 
 institutions et ttablissements d'Etat ayant pour objet V amilioration physique des indi- 
 vidus. Under these circumstances it is scarcely possible for a writer to preserve a 
 scientific arrangement in his materials and it has been difi&cult to avoid repetition in 
 all cases. Nor is the list exhaustive. No doubt further researches might bring to 
 light many other instances similar to those which will be named. The difficulty of^ 
 generalization is another difficulty. Public authorities have ceased to act where once 
 they acted, as in the case of the Contagious Diseases Acts, and act where once they 
 did not, as in the case of improved dwellings for the poor. Many cases of interven- 
 tion and non-intervention depend less on consistent principle than on the sentiment 
 of Parliament, or the expression of popular feeling at a paWicular time. Some of the 
 Acts of Parliament mentioned in the following pages extend to the whole kingdom, 
 others only to England, but very often Scotland and Ireland are governed by similar 
 provisions. Much of the legislation affords instances of that jooZifig'Me eoqpirimentale 
 so ably treated by M. L^on Donnat in his recent contribution to La Bibliotheque des 
 Sciences contemporaines. (Eeinwald, ^diteur.) 
 
 Physical Improvement of Persons. — In addition to the Public Health Act (which 
 will be dealt with below) may be mentioned the following instances of intervention : 
 Adulteration of bread, seeds, food, drugs, coffee, tea, tobacco, hops, and other com- 
 modities is made an offence by several Acts of Parliament, the principal being 38 and 
 39 Vict., c. 63 (1875). Por the due carrying out of the Public Health Act and of 
 these Acts, public analysts are appointed by the local health authorities of counties 
 and towns. It is pai-t of their duty to test specimens of any material which is 
 suspected of being adulterated. The sale of certain poisons is prohibited unless under 
 certain restiictions,— arsenic by 14 and 15 Vict., c. 13 (1851), other poisons by 31 and 
 32 Vict., c. 121 (1868). 
 
 Under the Factory and Alkali Acts a system of government inspection has been 
 established, the object being to insure that certain trades ai-e exercised with a due 
 regard to the physical safety of those engaged in them. As early as 42 Geo. Ill, 
 c. 73 (1802), an Act was passed " for the preservation of the health and morals of 
 apprentices and others employed in cotton arid other mills." In 1878 the provisions 
 of all the Acts dealing with factories and workshops were consolidated in the Factory 
 and Workshop Act, 1878. Among other restrictions it is provided by the Act that 
 no young person is to be employed in the manufacture of white lead, that no girl 
 under sixteen is to be employed in brick and tile or salt works, that machinery is to 
 be fenced, and that workshops are not to be over-crowded and are to be properly 
 ventilated and washed. 
 
 * Report of Mr, James Williams, Barrister-at-Law in London, in answer to questions prepared by the 
 Committee of Section XVI. 
 
444 
 
 By the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, and succeeding Shipping Acts (of which 
 a large number has been passed by Parliament iu the last thirty yearn), provision is 
 made for the carrying on board merchant ships, of medicines, lemon and lime juice, 
 etc., and for every foreign-going ship having 100 persons or upwards on board, carry- 
 ing a qualified medical man. A certain minimum of sleeping accommodation must 
 be provided for every sailor. Every vessel must carry a sufficiency of boats, life- 
 buoys, and other life-saving appliances. The Passengers Act, 1855 (18 and 19 Vict., 
 c. 119), enforces a due regard to the safety and health of passengers by numerous 
 provisions as to the supply of food and water, sanitary accommodation, separation 
 of the sexes, light, ventilation, etc. 
 
 In order to protect the public from the danger resulting from the practice by 
 unqualified persons of certain professions and trades affecting the physical condition 
 of the public, it has been enacted that those who practise them must be duly quali- 
 fied and registei'ed. This was enacted as to apotliecaries in 1815, chemists and 
 druggists in 1852, medical men in 1858, dentists in ISTS. By the Contagious Diseases 
 (Animals) Act, 1878, the Privy Council was empowei-ed to make general orders for 
 the registration by local authorities of all persons carrying on the trades of cow-keep- 
 ers, dairymen and purveyors of milk. This power was transferred to the Local 
 Government Board in 1886. The health of soldiers and sailors in garrison towns 
 was the object of the Contagious Diseases Acts, 1866 to 1869, under which a system 
 of inspection of femmes publiques was established. A strong and excited agitation was 
 conducted against the Acts, an agitation which finally resulted in the repeal of the 
 Acts in 1886. The medical opinion of the country has been almost uniformly con- 
 demnatory of the repeal of the Acts, but in the present state of public feeling it 
 appears improbable that they will be re-enacted. The Contagious Diseases (Animals) 
 Acts, one of the provisions of which has just been mentioned, are intended to secure 
 as far as possible the safety of the public from the flesh and milk of cattle, sheep, and 
 swine from disease. 
 
 As to recreation, 22 Vict., c. 21 (1859), facilitates the grant of lands belonging 
 to municipal corperations, parishes, and private owners for the purpose of recreation 
 gi'ounds. The Commons Act, 1878, enacts that enclosure commissioners in ordering 
 inclosure of common lands are to reserve a privilege of playing games or other 
 species of recreation at suitable limes and in suitable places. By the Baths and 
 Wash-houses Act, 1878, a public bath, when not in use as a bath, may be used as a 
 gymnasium or for any other healthful recreation. 
 
 Intellectual Improvement of Persons. — Tentative advances towards a national 
 system of education were made both by Parliament and by voluntary associations at 
 an early date in the present century. The national society was founded about eighty 
 years ago, and is still in existence. It provided for the establishment of schools by 
 voluntary gifts of money for the education of children iu the principles of the Church 
 of England. A select Committee of the House of Commons, appointed in 1816 on 
 the motion of Mr. Brougham, reported in favor of a national system of primary 
 education. But no general system was in fact established, until after the passing of 
 the Elementary Education Act, 1870, for the framing of which the principle credit is 
 duo to the late Mr. "W. E. Forster. The main effect of this Act (as amended by 
 subsequent Acts, especiallj' that of 1876), has been to secure the education of every 
 child in schools provided either by the local authority in the form of a school board 
 or iu schools provided by voluntary effort, in the case of elementary schools, chiefly 
 those provided by different religious denominations. All are alike subject to inspec- 
 tion by the State through Her Majesty's inspectors of schools. In addition to these Acts, 
 other Acts provide for the extension and regulation of the powers of the universities 
 and of schools of a higher grade by the Grammar Schools Act, 1840, the Public Schools 
 Act, 1866, the Endowed Schools Act, 1869, the "Universities of Oxford and Cambridge 
 Act, 1869, and Acts dealing with the Scotch and, Irish Universities. Schools of a 
 higher grade than elementary schools are not as yet subject to Government inspec- 
 tion, but strong efforts are being made to subject such schools to the control of the 
 Government to that extent, as also to introduce a system of registration of the 
 teachers engaged in the higher education. Technical, art, industrial, and reforma- 
 
445 
 
 tory schools are regulated by numerous Acts. Instruction in art is now provided 
 by the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council of Education 
 (a committee of the Privy Council), as well as by the Eoyal Academy and other 
 bodies not under the control of the Goverameat. To the higher grade colleges in 
 Wales, a grant is made annually by the Government, and Bills have been introduced 
 into the House of Commons (hitherto without success), for the support by the Gov- 
 ernment of schools for intermediate education in Wales. 
 
 By several Acts of Parliament (the first of which dates from 1854), the majority 
 of ratepayers of a town have the power of imposing a rate not exceeding one penny 
 in the pound for the support of free libraries. The gift of laud by will for charitable 
 purposes, is subject to verj'' strict regulations by the Mortmain Acts, which practi- 
 cally make invalid death-bed gifts for such purposes. The policy of the Acts d^tes 
 from the thirteenth century, and was intended to prohibit the acquisition of land by 
 monastic corporations by means of priests and friars working upon the consciences 
 of dying landowners. The policy is still continued, but an exception is made in 
 favor of gifts of land to a limited amount for public parks, schools and museums, 
 and for educational, literary and scientific purposes. Such institutions may also 
 obtain the certificate of a proper authority, and so be enabled to claim exemption 
 from the payment of poor rate and other kinds of local and Imperial taxation. 
 
 Moral Improvement of Persons. — There is little to be said under this head. The 
 suppression of any public exhibition of an immoral tendency, or of immoral conduct 
 of any person in public, falls within the ordinary powers of the police. Into private 
 morality not aflfecting the public, law does not as a rule inquire. Two cases of special 
 interest demand a short notice. By an Act passed in 1879 (42 and 43 Vict., c. 19), 
 local authoiitics are empowered to grant licenses for retreats for habitual drunkards 
 and such persons may, at their own request, made before justices of the peace in open 
 court, enter such retreats for a term not exceeding a year. The licensing of stage 
 plays by the Lord Chamberlain is one of the last relics existing in the United King- 
 dom of the censorship of the pres?. The Lord Chamberlain or his deputy reads 
 every new play before its appearance, and forbids it to appear if it contains anything 
 contrary to morality. He may also suppress a play in course of being acted for the 
 same reason. (See Encyclopoedia Britannica : Press Laws, Theatre.) 
 
 Intervention of Public Authority in Exchange Contract. — The principal instances 
 of this are the Acts making it necessary for certain contracts to be in writing. Of 
 these Acts the Statute of Frauds passed in 1677 (29 Car. II, c. 3), is the most impor- 
 tant. Other Acts require that certain contracts, e. g., bills of exchange, bills of sale 
 and contracts under the Public Health Act, 1875, should be in a particular form. 
 The State also enforces its rights over contract by the stamp laws and the Weights 
 and Measures Act, 1878. The principal Stamp Act is that of 1870, under which 
 certain contracts are bound to bear a proper stamp, in some cases embossed, in 
 others adhesive, denoting that the sum declared by the stamp has been paid as a tax 
 to the State. The Weights and Measures Act forbids the sale or contracts for the 
 sale of commodities, except in accordance with the Imperial standards of weights 
 and measures. The Act has practically destroyed various old customary modes of 
 contract and sale according to local custom. 
 
 The State does not as a rule deal with the legal capacity of contracting parties. 
 They may, with few exceptions, enter into any contract at their pleasure, and it will 
 be enforced by the courts if it do not contravene the ordinary principles relating to 
 the validity of contracts, even if contrary to the policy of an Act of Parliament, un- 
 less the Act specially avoid contracts made for the purpose of excluding its provis- 
 ions. Nor does Parliament usually interfere to alter relations already established 
 by contract. Among the few exceptions, most of which relate to land, are the fol- 
 lowing. The Land Law (Ireland) Acts of 1870 and 1881 practically substituted for 
 the existing contract between landlord and tenant in Ireland a parliamentary con- 
 tract by which the tenant obtained a more extensive Tight than that given by the 
 original contract, i.e., the right to sell his tenancy. The Act of 1881 also forbade 
 certain tenants to contract themselves out of the Act. Very similar provisions are 
 contained in the Crofters' Holdings (Scotland) Act, 1886. A crofter {i.e., a small 
 
44b 
 
 tenant fi'om year to year at a rent of less than £30 in certai/i parts of Scotland), 
 cannot since the Act bo removed from his holding, except for the breach of certain 
 conditions imposed by statute. In this case the crofter obtains a security of tenure 
 which was not in the contemplation of landlord or tenant at the time of making the 
 contract. The Hares and Babbits Act, 1880, forbids the landlord and tenant to 
 contract themselves out of the Act, under which the tenant is entitled under certain 
 restrictions to destroy hares ana rabbits on his farm. By the Agricultural Holdings 
 (England) Act, 1883, any agreement whei'eby the tenant foregoes his right to com- 
 pensation for improvements made by him is void. The Copyhold Acts allow 
 compulsory enfranchisement {i.e., reduction into freeholds) of copyholds either by 
 the lord of the manor or the tenant, whatever the original contract may have been. 
 One of the few instances of legislative interference with contract other than agricul- 
 tural contract, is a remarkable section in the Copyright Act of 1842 (5 and 6 Vic, 
 c. 45), enacting that the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council may, on complaint 
 that the proprietor of the copyright in any book has refused to republish the same 
 after the author's death, license the complainant to publish it. This right has, it is 
 believed, never been exercised. A still more remarkable provision had been con- 
 tained in the previous Copyright Act of Queen Anne (8 Anne, c. 19), under which the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury and others were empowered to lower the price of a book 
 in case they thought it too high. The restriction imposed by Parliament on the 
 dividends of gas companies (which will be mentioned later) is another example of 
 interference with the profits of contract. 
 
 Intervention of Fuhlic Authority in Labor Contracts. — At an earlj' period the 
 State in England, as ix\ most other countries, assumed to regulate the contract of 
 labor. The earliest Act of importance which did so was the celebrated Statute of 
 Labourers (23 Edw. Ill, c. 1), passed in 1319, and not finally repealed until 1863. It 
 enacted that every ■ pei-son under the age of sixty, not engaged in certain 
 excepted pursuits, might be compelled to enter into service at customary wages. 
 By 5 Eliz., c. 4 (1563), wages were to be annually assessed by the sheriff and justice 
 of the peace in a county, and by the mayor and corporation in a town. The principle 
 of interference with labor was still further carried out by the Poor Law of 
 Elizabeth (43 Eliz., c. 2, 1601), and by numerous Vagrant Acts. One of these, 
 passed in 1547, went so far as to adjudge all idle vagabonds into slavery. The severe 
 penalties against idleness and vagrancy still existing are the natural consequences of 
 the poor law system under which every person has a right to be relieved or to have 
 work found for him. At one time the law also interfered to a very considerable 
 ■extent with apprentices, and no one could exercise a trade unless he had been bound 
 apprentice for seven years. Erom 1363 to 1563 a mechanic could work only at one 
 trade. 
 
 The tendency of the law is now, as might be expected, to leave the parties to a 
 contract of labor entirely unfettered. There are, however, certain cases in which 
 the State for purposes of public policy still asserts its rights over the contracting 
 parties. The main examples of such interfei-ence with the natural course of trade 
 occur in cases where there is an inequality of strength in the contracting parties. 
 For instance, what are called "parliamentary fares " must by Act of Parliament be 
 charged by railway companies to passengers by particular trains, and must not 
 exceed one penny per mile. Again, by the Eailway and Canal Traflftc Act, 1888, the 
 Railway and Canal Commission has authority to order a railway or canal company 
 to provide trafllc facilities and to revise tolls and charges, notwithstanding agree- 
 ments. Tolls and fares are fixed by local authorities under the powers of the Mar- 
 kets Clauses Act, 1847, the Tramways Act, 1870, and other public Acts, as well as by 
 numerous private Acts. In all these cases the danger of a partial monopoly is avoided 
 by the fixing of a maximum charge. What is called " undue preference " is also pro- 
 vided against by the Eailway Clauses Act, 1845, aud other Acts, the effect of which 
 is to insure that carriers shall give no undue preference in charges to one trader 
 over another, but that all customers of the carrier are to be treated equally. 
 
 Women, children, sailors, and others are specially protected from entering into 
 incautious agreements or from undertaking work of a kind which would be physi- 
 
447 
 
 cally or morally dangerous. The employment of women and children, is subject to 
 the regulations Imposed by the Mines and Factories Acts, under which the hours of 
 labor are limited in most cases to twelve hours a day, inclusive of meal-times, and 
 under no circumstances may a woman, or child under twelve, work under ground. 
 •Children under sixteen are not allowed to be employed as chimney-sweepers. Agree- 
 ments for service made with sailors must by the Merchants Shipping Acts contain 
 certain particulars. Sailors cannot under any circumstances agree to give up their 
 •claim to salvage earned. Workmen by the Truck Acts, 1831 and ISST, may not be 
 paid their wages except in money, and the payment must not be made in public- 
 houses. Due provision must by other Acts be made for the proper lodging of fruit 
 and vegetable pickers as a part of the employer's • agreement with them. By the 
 Shop Hours Regulation Act, 1886 (a temporary Act, continued for a year by the 
 Expiring Laws Continuance Act, 1888), no one under the age of eighteen may be 
 •employed in a shop for more than seventy-four hours in a week. 
 
 The State also interferes with certain trades by enforcing the licensing of those 
 who conduct them and in other ways. Among common trades which are usually 
 licensed by local authorities under powers given by Parliament, are those of publi- 
 cans, pedlars, hawkers, boatmen, cab-drivers, porters, milk dealers, and keepers of 
 common lodging houses. Other trades are subject to special and more direct legisla- 
 tion, e. g., manufacturers of gold and silver lace, thread, or fringe are restricted in 
 the use of materials and the purity of the metal used, goldsmiths must not alter plate 
 once stamped or sell watch-cases without a license, fishermen may not catch certain 
 fish, such as salmon, trout, crabs, lobsters and oysters, during the close season. 
 Authors are deprived of the full profits of their work by the legal necessity of pre- 
 senting copies of their books to the British Museum and other public libraries. 
 Printers are liable to some restrictions. The printer of a newspaper, book, or election 
 notice must put his name and address thereon. The name and address of the manager 
 •of a theatre must be printed on every play-bill issued in the theatre. (For further 
 information, see Uncyclopcedia Britannica : Press Law.) The cultivation of crops 
 of certain kinds, such as hemp and tobacco, is either altogether forbidden or very 
 much restricted. The importation of explosives, of foreign cattle, and of some other 
 matters, is forbidden by law. 
 
 Begulation by the State or the Municipalities and the Duration and Mode of Work. 
 — Enough has been said as to this in what has just preceded. 
 
 Begulation of the Minimum Wages of Workmen. — This is of rare occurrence, and 
 perhaps only in a few occupations which immediately afiect the convenience of the 
 public. Thus, by the Metropolitan Hackney Carriage Acts no cab fare in London is 
 to be less than one shilling. 
 
 Tariff of Bates for certain Goods, Bread Tax, Meat Tax. — Fixing of the price of 
 commodities was very common under old sumptuary laws, by means of the assise of 
 bread and beer, especially. An Act passed in 1266 (and not repealed until 1*758) 
 introduced the assise of bread, beer and ale, under which the Corporations of London 
 and other important towns were empowered to fix the price of such articles. The 
 reign of Edward III was prolific in statutes passed with a similar object. By one of 
 the provisions of the Statute of Laborers already mentioned victuals were to be sold 
 at reasonable prices, so that the vendors might have moderate and not excessive 
 gains. Mayors and bailiffs of towns were to have authority to enquire into the 
 reasonableness of the charges. Other Acts dealt with the price of herrings (135*7) 
 ami of fowls and geese (1363). This policy, though now quite obselete, existed 
 down to a comparatively recent period. For instance, by 2 and 3 Bdw. VI, c. 15 
 (1548), it was made a criminal offence for victuallers to conspire to sell victuals at 
 unreasonable prices. This Act was revived for a time in 16Y0, and was not finally 
 repealed till 1825. 
 
 Grist Mills, Bakeries, Butcher Shops, Dairies, Bestaurants, Druggists, Municipal 
 Bazars. — Such institutions, except as private speculations, are unknown. 
 
 Public Baths. — Public baths and washhouses are provided by local authorities 
 in accordance with several Acts of Parliament, the earliest being 9 and 10 Vict., c. 74 
 .(1846). Local authorities are not bound to adopt the acts, it is at their option to 
 
448 
 
 do so. When built, the baths are subject to cei-tain regulations, e. g., that there shall 
 be a covered swimming bath, a wash-house, and a drying-place, and that three 
 classes of baths shall be provided, the maximum charge for the lowest class being 
 one penny for a cold, and two pence for a hot, bath. Several other Acts provide for 
 the establishment of public open air bathing places, and for the use of a bath, when 
 closed for bathing, as a gymnasium. 
 
 Municipal Stores for Workmen. — These are unknown. 
 
 Public Works considered in connection with Public Assistance. — Such works 
 have been undertaken at certain periods of exceptional distress among the 
 poor. Thus 9 and 10 Vict., c. 107 (1846), authorized the construction of public 
 works (chiefly roads in Ireland) as a mean of alleviating the distress caused by the 
 Irish famine in 1846. In more recent years municipal corporations have frequently 
 made use of unemployed laborers during the winter months in road and other 
 work, the general rate of payment for unskilled labor being four pence an hour. 
 
 Municipal Undertakings for the Conveyance of Passengers, for Lighting Cities by 
 Gas and Electricty. — Where a municipal corporation intends to obtain powers from 
 Parliament to construct or oppose the construction by others of any public work on 
 which the funds of the town are to be spent, it must first, under the Municipal Cor- 
 porations Borough Funds Act, 1872, obtain the assent of a majority of the 
 citizens. This is one of the instances, like the Free Libraries Act, in which a 
 majority may enforce its views against the minority. With railways municipal 
 corporations cannot, as a rule, deal. But they have power to allow the laying of 
 tramways under the Tramways Act, 1870, and to fix fares and make by-laws subject 
 to the approval of the Board of Trade. In one case recently a local authority at 
 Liverpool (the Mersey Docks and Harbor Board) obtained powers from Parlia- 
 ment to lay an overhead railway like that at New York, but it has not yet been 
 carried into execution. The Gas Works Clauses Act, 1847, and the Electric Light- 
 ing Acts of 1882 and 1888 have given to municipal corporations large powers of 
 contracting with private companies for the supply of gas and electric light (with a 
 power of purchase if they think fit), the latter only after license from the Board of 
 Trade. A gas company may not pay its shareholders more than 10 per cent, 
 dividend per annum. Any further profit must go towards the reduction of the price 
 of gas. 
 
 The Construction and Working of Railways and Canals by the State. — ^In the 
 United Kingdom railways and canals, are the property of private companies, and 
 none is worked directly by the State, except a short canal on the south coast called 
 Military Canal. The construction of railways and canals, must, however, be sanc- 
 tioned by the State. The mode of giving the sanction is by passing a private Act of 
 Parliament after a judicial hearing of the promoters and opposers of the scheme 
 before select committees of the House of Lords and Commons. Canal Acts are now 
 not of frequent occurrence, the most important in recent years is that authorizing 
 the construction of a ship canal to Manchester, on' which many thousand laborers 
 are now at work. By 34 and 35 Vict., c. 86 (1871), the Government may take 
 possession of any railway in case of an emergency, such as invasion by an enemy. 
 By the Military Tramways Act, 1887, a Secretary of State is empowered to obtain 
 from the Board of Trade provisional orders for the making of tramways for military 
 purposes. 
 
 Intelligence Officers, Labor Exchanges. — There is no general system of such 
 offices, but in some cases municipal corporations and other local authorities have estab- 
 lished registers of unemployed laborers and bureaux of labor. The nearest 
 approach to any recognition by the State of such a system is the establishment 
 under the Merchant Shipping Acts of mercantile marine offices for the purpose of 
 superintending contracts made between masters of vessels and the seamen hired by 
 them. 
 
 National and Municipal Credit Banks for Workingmen. — The banks established 
 by the State are savings banks under the control of the post office. There are also 
 savings banks established by private persons, generally under management of trustees. 
 Trustee savings banks are regulated by Acts passed in 1863 and 1887. Such banks 
 
449 
 
 must be duly certified, and returns of deposits must be made weekly to the National 
 Debt Commissioners. Upwards of £40,000,000 a year is to be returned. The post 
 office savings banks are regulated by numerous Acts, beginning with one of 1822. 
 Eecently facilities have been given for the investment of small sums by the post 
 office in Government annuities and in consols. There appears to be no banks under 
 the coiitrol of municipal authorities. Banking may be carried on by industrial 
 societies, subject to certain limitations. 
 
 Advances or Subsidies to Co-operative Societies or to Corporations for Production. — 
 Friendly, industrial and provident societies, though under supervisions of the officers 
 of the State, receive no subvention either from the State or the municipalities, eicept 
 the indirect advantage that they are relieved from payment of income tax. 
 
 Sesponsibility of Masters in case of Accidents. — At common law a master is not 
 liable for injuries resulting to a servant in his employment from the negligence of a 
 fellow-servant, or by reason of the employment being a dangerous one, unless the 
 danger was a hidden and secret one, or ai-ose from the use by the master of danger- 
 ous instruments, such as insecure scaffolding in a building or defective ropes in a 
 mine. The Employers Liability Act, 1880, made a change in the law by making 
 the master liable when the injury was caused by the negligence of a fellow-servant 
 placed in a position of authority. It also enabled the injured servant to sue in the 
 county court, thereby relieving him from the more expensive and dilatory procedure 
 of the High Court of Justice. Many of the great railway companies have systems 
 of insurance under which compensation is given to a servant injured by the negli- 
 gence of a fellow-servant. In some cases this insurance is compulsory; it is a part 
 of the contract of hiring that the servant shall pay a weekly sum as premium. There 
 is a large number of accident insurance companies in the United Kingdom, but the 
 only recognition by the State of such insurance is that in some cases such companies 
 are established by charter from the Crown. The existing poor law takes the place 
 of insurance among the poor, for a poor man disabled by accident can always claim 
 provision from the poor-rate. 
 
 Building of Workingmen's Houses. — In recent years there has been much legis- 
 lation for the purpose of giving local authorities power to improve the dwellings- of 
 the poor. The late Earl of Shaftesbury, in 1851, and Viscount Cross, when Secretary 
 of State for the Home Department from 1874 to 1880, were honorably distinguished 
 by their exertions to this end. The same policy has been followed later, and the 
 result of all has been a series of Acts, called the Laboring Classes Lodging Houses 
 Acts, 1851 t(| 1885, the Artisans and Laborers' Dwellings Acts, 1868 to 1882, and 
 the Artisans and Laborers' Dwellings Improvement Acts, 1875 to 1882. The Acts 
 are facultative, not compulsory, but where adopted by a local authority, they give 
 that authority power of compulsoiy purchase of insanitary premises and of charging 
 the rates in certain classes with the expenses of substituting improved dwellings. 
 Under the Acts a large number of new' buildings has been constructed in some of 
 the great towns, notably London and Birmingham. In some cases the working of 
 the Acts appears not to have been entirely beneficial, the accommodation given by 
 the new buildings not being equal to that of the premises destroyed, so that many 
 of the poor have been driven to already ovei-crowded districts. 
 
 The Homestead Law. — There is no " homestead " law in England, but a Bill con- 
 taining provisions similar to those in the United States was once unsuccessfully 
 introduced into the House of Commons by Mr. E. Eobertson, M.P. for Dundee. 
 Something similar to the homestead law, but giving less extensive rights, is the 
 exception under certain Acts of Parliament of the necessaries of life from execution, 
 distress, or bankruptcy. The earliest example of this beneficium competentice (to use 
 the language of Eonian law), occurs as early as Magna Charta (1216), where it was 
 enacted that the tenant should only fee distrained for, the services due to his lord 
 salvo contenemento suo, i.e., that he should not be deprived of his whole means of 
 livelihood. The same principle occurs in more modern Acts, by which the wearing 
 apparel, bedding and tools and implements of trade of a debtor, up to the value of $25, 
 are protected from distress by the landlord, or by order of a coui't of summary juris- 
 20—29 
 
450 
 
 diction, and from execution issued by the High Court or an inferior court. In bank- 
 ruptcy the limit of exception is fixed at flOO. 
 
 Public Health Regulations. — The question of public health (called also "State 
 Medicine," occupied the attention of the Legislature at a very early period. At com- 
 mon law any nuisance causing danger to health could be dealt with only by an 
 action or indictment for nuisance at common law. The disadvantages of this pro- 
 cedure were twofold ; on the one hand, the courts had no preventive jurisdiction 
 (unless to a very limited extent by injunction in chancery), and could only act where 
 the danger had already arisen; on the other hand, the procedure was expensive and 
 dilatory. The procedure by action, indictment or injunction is still open to any one 
 injured, but large preventive and summary powers have at various times been given 
 by Act of Parliament. The earliest Act dealing with the matter appears to be the 
 Statute of the City of London (13 Edw. I, st. 5), passed in 1285. The earliest 
 general Act as to offensive deposits in j'ivers was 12 Eich. 11, cap. 13 (1388). In 
 addition to these were numerous Acts creating and defining the jurisdiction of com- 
 missioners of sewers, the earliest passed in 142*7. There were also numeious local 
 Acts dealing with particular districts. The first general Act was the Public Health 
 Act, 1848. In 1875 the existing law was finally digested (subject to a few later 
 amendments), in the Public Health Act of that year, 38 and 39 Vic, cap. 55. The 
 general tendency of legislation has been to place local sanitary regulations in the 
 hands of local authorities, subject to a general superintendence by a department of 
 the central Government, up to 1871 the Privy Council, since that date the Local 
 Government Board. The whole country is under the jurisdiction of urban and rural 
 sanitary authorities, the former being municipalities or local boards of health, 
 the latter boards of guardians of the poor. Sanitary authorities appoint 
 a medical officer of health and an inspector of nuisances. The Public Health 
 Act contains a long list of nuisances which may be abated by summary pro- 
 ceedings by the sanitary authority. The list includes most of those injurious to 
 health, such as unsound meat, offensive trades, infectious diseases, smoky chimneys, 
 etc. A sanitary authority has also power to provide hospitals, mortuaries, and ceme- 
 laries. In addition to the Public Health Act, many other Acts (some of which have 
 been already mentioned under the head of amilioration physique), deal with analo- 
 gous matters, among others the Police Acts, the Towns Clauses Act, 1847, and Acts 
 affecting vaccination, the removal of nuisances, the regulation of bakehouses and 
 slaughterhouses, the ventilation of mines, and the non-pollution of rivers. The sani- 
 tary govei-nment of London is regulated by special Acts, such as the Metropolitan 
 Building Acts. The parochical vestries are generally the sanitary autiiorities in the 
 metropolis, except in the city of London, where the old Commissioners of Sewers 
 still have jurisdiction. In many of the large ports there is,a special authority, called 
 the port sanitary authority, which regulates matters peculiarly affecting vessels using 
 the port, such as quarantine. The Scotch Public Health Act dates from 1867, the 
 Irish fiom 1878. In Scotland there is no distinction of urban and rural sanitary 
 authorities. (For further information, see Encyclopaedia Britannica : Public Health.) 
 
 Municipal Laboratories. — These are unknown in the United Kingdom. 
 
 Liquor Laws. — A strong distinction is drawn between "intoxicating and 
 non-intoxicating liquors. Venders of non-intoxicating liquors are in general free to 
 sell when and where they please, the main exception being that a vendor of such 
 liquors who wishes to open his shop for sale before a certain hour in the morning 
 must have an excise refreshment-house license. Vendors of intoxicating liquors, 
 being regarded as a privileged class, are subject to a double jurisdiction, fiscal and 
 legal. They must pay to the excise a certain sum, varying with the value of the 
 premises occupied, and they must in most cases be licensed by justices of the peace. 
 The sale of intoxicating liquors not to be consumed on the premises, chiefly by 
 grocers, is not subject to^the justice's license, but the license is granted simply by 
 the excise authorities, the commissioners of Inland Eevenue, as is also the license for 
 the refreshment room of a theatre, when once the theatre has been duly licensed by 
 the justices. Within narrow limits the justices have power to determine the hours 
 of closing in the evening. On Sunday licensed premises in England are open only 
 
451 
 
 for two hours at mid-day, and may not open in the evening before six o'clock. In 
 Scotland and "Wales they are wholly closed on Sunday. In Ireland they are closed, 
 except in the towns of Dublin, Cork, Limerick, "Waterford and Belfast. An exception 
 in all tliese cases is made in favor of the sale of liquor at railway refreshment rooms, 
 and in the Scotch and Irish Acts of its sale on board steamers and to bona fide travellers 
 and persons staying in the house. Sunday closing was first established in Scotland in 
 1853 by the Forbes Mackenzie Act, in Ireland in 1878, in Wales in 1880. Many 
 attempts have been made to introduce the principle wholly or partially into England, 
 and Bills have been proposed in Parliament for its experimental adoption in the 
 country as a whole and in particular counties, such as York, Durham and Cornwall. 
 The only instances of Sunday closing in England are those where publicans take out 
 what is called a " six day license," under which they pay a smaller sum to the excise 
 than for a full license, and may not open their premises on Sunday. The question of 
 " local option" has occupied the attention of Parliament for many years, and at the 
 close of 1888 a resolution was passed by the House of Commons in favor of such a 
 system. Its main feature is the placing in the hands of the ratepayers of a particular 
 district the decision of the question whether or not they will allow any, and if so, 
 how many licensed premises in the district. (For further information, see M. L^on 
 Donnat's Politique experimentale, p. IIY.) 
 
 Conflicts between Masters and Workmen. — Intei-vention by the state takes place as 
 a rule only when the acts of the employers or employed render them liable to pun- 
 ishment for crime. Apart from such cases, the State seldom interferes in modern 
 times, and permits the disputes to be carried to their economic conclusion. The policy 
 of the older law was different. It was an offence at common law for a workman to 
 combine with others for the purpose of raising wages, the law considering such a 
 combination to be a conspiracy in restraint of trade. This policy was adopted and 
 extended by Parliament in several old statutes, chieflj'^ of the Tudor period, notably 
 2 and 3 Bdw. VI, c. 15 (1549). Wages of artificers, except those of clothiers, which 
 depended on statute, and of laborers included in the statute of laborers, were usually 
 fixed by the trade guilds in the towns. Meetings of artisan were often forbidden by 
 Parliament, as "genei-al chapters" of masons by an Act of 1465. The Conspiracy 
 and Protection of Property Act, 1875 (38 and 39 Vic.,c. 86) makes it an offence under 
 the Act to do certain acts which are of usual occurrence during strikes by workmen, 
 such as intimidation of those who refuse to join the strike, or '• picketing," which 
 means following the obnoxious person about, hiding his clothes or tools, or watching 
 or besetting his house. The Employei's and Workmen Act of the same year gives 
 justices a summary power of deciding disputes between employers and employed. 
 Trade unions, or combinations of workmen for the purpose of keeping up wages to 
 an artificial standard fixed by the trade, are not now illegal, provided that they con- 
 form to the Trade Union Acts of 1871 and 1876, which deal chiefly with due regis- 
 tration and absence of illegality in the rules of the union. • 
 
 City Subsidies for Strikers. — Any such subvention, even if it did not render those 
 voting in its favor liable to criminal prosecution, would at least not be enforceable 
 in a court of justice, and any sum voted for such a purpose would undoubtedly be 
 disallowed by the Government auditor of accounts. 
 
 Intervention of Public Authority to encourage or restrict Emigration or Immigration. 
 — There is no restraint on immigration, as there is in the United States, a condition of 
 the law which in the opinion of many economical authorities has led to much of the 
 distress among the poor of London. This is a result of the low wages at which the 
 pauperised immigrants from foreign countries, especially Polish Jews, are willing to 
 work. Nor is there any restraint on emigration — in fact, emigration has been encour- 
 a;ged by Parliament ever since 1834. By the Poor Law Act passed in that year (4 
 and 5 Will. IV, c. 76), the guardians of the poor in any poor law union may borrow 
 money from the public works commissioners on thesecurity of the poor-rate in order 
 to assist emigration of the poor. The provision for the safety of emigrants on the , 
 voyage is part of the duty of the Board of Trade (which has succeeded to the powers 
 of the Emigration Commissioners originally apppointed for the purpose), in accord- 
 ance with the Passengers Acts and the Merchant Shipping Act, 1872. In Scotland 
 20—29* 
 
452 
 
 advances are made by the inclosure commissioners to landowners in the Highlands 
 and islands, repayable by rent charges. Quite recently a Eoyal commission was 
 issued enabling the commissioners to carry out a scheme for colonising a part of the 
 Dominion of Canada by crofters and cottars from the highlands and islands. The 
 expenses are to be repayable by mortgages on the lands of the immigrants in Can- 
 ada. The Irish Acts go further than the English and Scotch in providing for emigra- 
 tion from one part of Ireland to another, and in enabling the land commission to 
 agree with a State, colony, or company for advances for assisting emigration, the 
 advances to be repaid by the commission out of the money in their hands. The 
 number of emigrants from Ireland in 1887 was no less than 82,923. 
 
 Tax on Foreign Workmen. — There is no tax on foreign workmen, though it has 
 been sometimes proposed to establish one. 
 
 Naturalization. — At common law the rights of aliens were very limited. If an 
 alien purchased land the Crown was entitled to it. Under some old Acts alien arti- 
 sans might not work in England. All leases of houses and shops to aliens were void. 
 On many occasions, notably in 1Y92 and 1*793, owing to the influx of French refugees 
 in those years, Alien Acts were passed, enabling the Crown to remove aliens from the- 
 realm at its discretion. The position of aliens was gradually ameliorated, partly by 
 the passing of general Acts, partly by private Acts naturalizing individuals as citizens, 
 and sometimes giving them political rights, partly by Il«yal letters of denization 
 (from donatio regis), under which the alien obtained no political rights, and was 
 something in the position ot the /i^roixo? at Athens or the Latinus at Eome. Full 
 naturalization could, before 1870, only be granted by Act of Parliament. The present 
 Naturalization Act dates from 1870. Its principal provisions are these : Eeal and 
 personal property of every description may be held and disposed of by an alien to 
 the same extent as by a natural-born British subject. Naturalization is obtained by 
 certificate of a Secretary of State after five years' residence of the alien in the United 
 Kingdom. Under this certificate the alien obtains full political rip-hts, such as those 
 o± voting in elections and of sitting in Parliament. JSTothing in the Act is to qualify 
 an alien to be the owner of a British ship. Colonies may legislate with respect to 
 naturalization. 
 
 Peddlers and Gostermongers competing with Stationary Dealers. — There is no limit to 
 the number of costermongers, but they are subject to the authority of the police in 
 regard to the place they occupy in the public streets. In certain parts of London 
 they have obtained a kind of prescriptive right to occupy certain parts of the streets 
 on certain days, and are not interfered with as long as their conduct is satisfactory. 
 But in parts where no such right has been established they are not allowed to do 
 more than drive or walk from door to door, selling their food. The police would 
 order them to move on if they assumed to occupy for any length of time a part of the 
 street with a booth. or a cart. In some cases the costermonger must have a hawk- 
 er's license. But from this certain itinerant vendors are exempt — for instance, ven- 
 dors of fish, fruit or vegetables, tinkers and others carrying material for mending 
 household goods, retailers of coals, and others. A hawker's license, where necessary, 
 costs two pounds ($10) a year, and is part of the revenue from the excise. For every 
 horse he must pay the large sum of four pounds ($100). 
 
INTERl^ATIOI^AL CONGRESSES. 
 
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS 
 
 OF 
 
 CHEAP DWELLmG-HOUSES, 
 
 HELD AT PAEIS FEOM THE 26th TO THE 28th JUNE, 1889. 
 
 1. 
 
 9 
 
 Four questions were discussed at this Congress, viz. : — 
 Cheap dwellings from an economical and financial point of view. Eeporter : Mons. 
 A. Eappalouich. 
 . Cheap dwellings from a legislative point of view. Eeporter: Mons. Anthony 
 
 EOUILLET. 
 
 3. Cheap dwellings, as regards construction and sanitation. Eeporters : Messrs. Bmile 
 
 MuLLER and Doctor Du Mesnil. 
 
 4. Cheap dwellings, from a moral point of view. Eeporter : Mons. Georges Picot, 
 
 member of the Institute. 
 
 The Congress, having discussed these questions, adopted the following resolu- 
 tions : — 
 
 EESOLUTIONS. 
 
 I. — 1. The problem of cheap houses in a good sanitary condition is one that, on 
 account of many causes, admits of no final and universal answer. 
 
 2. The solution proper to each particular case is to be found in individual or 
 associated private enterprise ^lone. The direct intervention of the State or of local 
 authority on the market, either to compete with private enterprise or to tariff rents, 
 should be avoided. It can only be admitted when there is a question of means of com- 
 munication, sanitation and of settling of taxes. 
 
 3. The extension of the enterprise of building cheap houses in the suburbs and 
 districts surrounding cities is intimately connected with frequent and inexpensive 
 means of transport, reduced tariffs on railway trains, workingmen's trains, lines 
 through the city, tj-amways, steamboats, &c. 
 
 4. Among the resources to which they may have recourse, we must note the 
 reserves of savings banks. The introduction of savings banks in the building of 
 cheap dwelling houses is legitimate and useful as long as it is circumspect. It can 
 assume several forms ; legislators should encourage it, either by acknowledging its 
 right to make use of its reserves, or by reduction of fiscal charges on sales, or by 
 hypothecary loans in specie. 
 
 5. The Congress expresses the desire that savings banks be authorized, by means 
 of guarantees, to be detei-mined in the future, to employ part of their fund as a loan 
 to contractors building workingmen's houses, with the object of utilizing for the 
 benefit of those who amassed them the small savings deposited. 
 
 6. In order to assist the purchaser in paying off the engagements he has con- 
 tracted in the purchase of a house, and to alleviate, in the event of death, the obli- 
 gations falling to the heirs, many combinations may be profitably considered (con- 
 ditions of cancelling the contract by means of yearly instalments, life insurance and 
 hypothecary loans). 
 
 II. — 1. Legislators should declare certain special rules for the erection of w:ork- 
 ingmen's houses. 
 
 2. Cheap houses should be allowed, either permanently, or for some period fol- 
 lowing their construction ; special exemption from fiscal charges on the property 
 (adopted by 20 against 18). 
 
456 
 
 3. The bad state of sanitation of one, or a group of houses may give cause for its 
 expropriation for public utility. 
 
 4. Local authority may intervene in the examination as to the sanitation of the 
 house. 
 
 5. In large towns, as a sanitary measure, pure water should be put in all houses. 
 
 6. The principle of exoneration from law costs, costs of stamps, and in regis- 
 tration may be inscribed in the law to the benefit of cheap houses, when the family 
 house constitutes the only real estate left by deceased. 
 
 7. Modifications to be introduced in the ejectment of tenants, should be con- 
 sidered as regards costs. 
 
 III. — Plans for building workingmen's houses should, before execution, be sub- 
 mitted to the approval of public authority as regards their healthfiilness. Local 
 regulations should be made to prevent the erection of unhealthy houses, account 
 being taken of the local resources in building materials, and the needs of the inhabi- 
 tants. The Congress recommends the desiderata formulated by Messrs. Muller and Du 
 Mesnil in their report for hygiene, healthfulness and the good consideration of cheap 
 dwelling houses. 
 
 IV. — 1. Wherever the economic conditions will allow, separate houses with small 
 gardens should be preferred in the interest of the workingman and his family. 
 
 2. If from the cost of the ground, or any other cause, it is necessary in large 
 cities, to build houses to contain many families under the one roof, they should be care- 
 
 ' fully arranged, so that they may be quite independent of each other, allowing the 
 least possible contact. 
 
 3. The plans must be made with intention of avoiding^all possible contact to 
 between the tenants. The stairways and landing-places should be in full light and 
 considered as a prolongation of the public road. Corridors and back passages of any 
 kind must be strictly proscribed. Bach dwelling should contain, inside, a water- 
 closet provided with water, and having a ventilator opening outside. 
 
 4. For families of more than three persons, three rooms are indispensable in 
 order to allow of the separation of the sexes. 
 
 5. Any massing together or attempt to deprive th.e tenant and his family of 
 entire independence of their neighbors should be strictly prohibited. 
 
 CHEAP WOEKINGMBN'S HOUSES. 
 
 PEOM AN ECONOMICAL AND FINANCIAL POINT OF VIEW. 
 
 Extract from Mr. A. Baffalovich's Report. 
 
 A primary importance is, with reason, attached to the possibility of transform- 
 ing the workman or lesser employee into a landed proprietor. It is the best means 
 of awakening in him a love of order and economy, to inculcate in him the desirable 
 feeling of responsibility. Considerations of this kind do not come within the range 
 of our duty; the^' will appear in their proper order in Mr. Picot's report. 
 
 Among enterprises whose object is the building of cheap houses, we distinguish 
 several classes : 
 
 1st. Those that build small houses, with a right on the tenant's part to become 
 .the proprietor by means of yearly payments. The building may be built either by a 
 company of workmen and small capitalists, or by anonymous societies, or by indivi- 
 dual capitalists. 
 
 2nd. Those that erect large buildings for a number of tenants. 
 
 3rd. Those that improve old houses. 
 
 I. Building Societies. — Those pei-sons who attach much importance to personal 
 effort, to self-help, and to the co-operation of several individual efforts, will under- 
 stand why we place building societies in the first rank. (1) 
 
 (1) According to the definition of the law of 1874, building societies are established to unite stock or 
 funds, in order to advance money to their members, by mortgage or landed property. Some also advance 
 money on the shares of their members, but these are exceptions. 
 
457 
 
 The name of building society marks the original form of these associations, but 
 •does not apply to their present manner of working. They no longer build (at the 
 most, they complete houses left unfinished by borrowers). They are essentially loan 
 ■societies, formed by assessments, nearly always monthly, but the sums they advance 
 are always on immovable propert}', land or houses. The peculiar property of these 
 advances is that both capital and interest are payable by monthly instalments. 
 
 The consequence is that, being immediately reimbursed in a portion of their 
 money, the societies iindit to their advantage to lend amounts much larger, in propor- 
 tion to the real value of the hypothecated property, than an ordinary lender. This man- 
 ner of procuring advances is very advantageous to persons of small means. In this 
 way the workman who earns good wages, the clerk, the small shopkeeper, so long 
 as they have a small capital in hand, are enabled to purchase a house, and, at the 
 •expiration of twelve or fourteen years, often become proprietors for a small total 
 which does not much exceed the amount they would have had to pay in rent. 
 
 On the Slst of December, 1886, there existed, in the United Kingdom, 2,079 ■ 
 societies, 1,992 of which were in England, 46 in Scotland and 41 in Ireland. Their 
 assets amounted to $265,505,000 ; they owed their shareholders |1Y6,600,000 and 
 $79,185,000 to other depositors. (1) 
 
 Building societies are often connected with a land society, which buys vast 
 tracts of land, and sells them again in lots at the increased value consequent on the 
 erection of a city. 
 
 English co-operative societies have organized building departments or they are 
 affiliated to building societies. (2) 
 
 We may state the number of co-operative building and loan associations that are 
 spread throughout the great American Eepublic to be between 3,000 and 3,500. The 
 savings accumulated during the past forty years, in the form of houses and lands, and 
 paid by the occupants or their families, must certainly exceed $500,000,000, 
 and may even be as high as $800,000,000. Twelve years ago this accu- 
 mulation of capital was valued at 500,000,000 francs ($100,000,000) for 
 Philadelphia alone, and the annual payments at more than $5,500,000. At 
 the present time the savings invested amount to $180,000,000 for that city alone. 
 In the whole country there are more than six times as many building societies. 
 In Philadelphia, of a population of 900,000 souls, 185,000 were workingmen, and of 
 that number 40,000 or 50,000 owned their dwellings. It is true that the site on which 
 Philadelphia stands admits of the city being indefinitely extended, and year after 
 year the city is being surrounded by pretty little red brick houses, which are the 
 dwellings of single families. The public health is better in Philadelphia than in New 
 York ; as regards municipal taxation, the comparison is equally favorable, since with 
 its 900,000 inhabitants Philadelphia expends very little more than Boston with 
 360,000. Workmen are not afraid to make their homes in the suburbs, and to take 
 an hour or three-quarters of an hour's trip twice a day by railway. The street rail- 
 way system is nowhere more developed than in Philadelphia. 
 
 Building societies have made a great and sudden progress in New York (3). In 
 1888, from Januaiy to September, more than 15,000 ])er80ns joined them. They are 
 to be congratulated on this sudden development; it proves that with proper institu- 
 tions persons earning 2 francs ($0.50) per day may gather together a small capital 
 and can lend it to others ; but we must not overlook the danger that may result Irom 
 ignoi-ance of the elementary rules of finance and book-keeping, or the tendancy to 
 speculation in the managers or members of these societies. 
 
 Building societies are certainly one of the best imaginable systems for awakening 
 a love of economy in persons possessed of a very small income. It has great attrac- 
 tions for those who pay rent or board, and who wish to escape from the one or the 
 
 (!) In Leeds, a city of 320,000 inhabitants, there are two societies of 11,000 members between them. 
 During the last twenty years, more than 18,000 houses have passed through the hands of the Leeds perma- 
 nent building society. The average value of a house is $830. In 1866, 9,400 houses were hypothecated, 
 of which 3,000 belonged to workingmen. It is much the same with Newcastle, Birmingham and Bristol. 
 
 (2) Sixty societies have expended over 12,500,000 in building cottages. 
 
 (3) For particulars see TEconomiste Frangais of 16th February. 
 
458 
 
 other. Borrowing, which is generally so detnorallzing to a workman, in this instance 
 becomes a stimulus to saving and careful house-keeping. 
 
 Besides those in Anglo-Saxon countries, we find building societies in Denmark. 
 In Copenhagen the workmen employed by the firm of Burmeister & Wain founded a 
 society in 1865; in 1884 it consisted of 13,500 members. It has helped to build 562 
 houses, worth $1,100,000, and inhabited by 4,381 persons; the fourth part of 
 the amount advanced has been redeemed, and 200 new houses have been built. 
 Similar societies exist in several other Danish towns ; and in Switzerland, notably at 
 Basle. In Germany, influenced by Schulze Delitzch, great importance has always 
 been attached to the management of small capitals in view of a common work such 
 as the building and purchase of houses, but it does not appear that the movement, 
 which has produced such wonderful effects in England and the United States has 
 been as fruitful the other side of the Ehine. There are building societies in Inster- 
 burg, Halle, Plensburg, and one was established in Berlin in 1886 (^Berliner Baugen- 
 ossenschaft) . The system adopted is one of weekly payments, giving right to a 250 franc 
 ($50) share. Any one who has been a member for six months, and owns at least one 
 share, may expect a house when one has been finished. If there are more candidates 
 than one they draw lots for it. Later on we will speak of the Eeal Estate Society of 
 Orleans. At Eheims, in 1870, a land society was founded by the employees and 
 workingmen of the city. It began operations in 1873 as a cooperative society for 
 building workingmen's houses. In order to become a member of the society an 
 entrance fee, which is not to be repaid, is exacted, together with a yearly tax of $5 
 at least, bearing 5 per cent, interest. A few years ago the society owned 48 
 houses, each having cost from $900 to $1,200. The yearly sum to be paid in 
 order to become a proprietor in twenty years' time varies between 350 and 450 francs 
 ($70 and $90). 
 
 At the risk of appearing to be wanting in method, we must here be allowed to 
 make an observation in regard to savings banks in which the poorer class deposit 
 their savings. In Italy, and in the United States, a part of their funds is invested 
 in loans on mortgage to aid in building cheap houses. Public-spirited men claim the 
 same right for the savings banksin France. Thanks to Mons. Aynard, of Lyons, and 
 to Mons. Rostand, of Marseilles (1), one first step has been made in this direction. 
 
 II. — We now come to anonymous societies for building cheap houses to be sold 
 to workmen on yearly payments. The list is, we are happy to say, a long one, but 
 it is not our intention to give it in full. 
 
 As ranking first on the continent, we must cite the society of the working cities 
 of Mulhouse. With a business capital of some hundred thousand francs, to which 
 were added the loans guaranteed by the Company, they built 1,200 workingmen's 
 houses within a peiiod of thirty years. A thousand of these houses are now paid by 
 the purchasers, by moans of an amount detained on their wages, which amount does 
 not much exceed the ordinary rate of house rent outside the city. In Paris there is 
 the Anonymous Society for workingmen's houses of Passey-Auteuil, with a capital 
 of $40,000. This Society has limited the maximum rate ot interest on its 
 capital at 4 per cent, per annum. It has therefore been able to fix the rental of its 
 houses at between 438 to 480 francs ($87.60 to $96), sinking fund included, besides a 
 sum of 500 to 1,000 francs ($100 to $500), to be paid on entering the Society. 
 
 At Lille, the Eeal Estate Company of Lille, founded in 1867, with 100,000 francs 
 ($20,000) capital, increased by a subsidy granted as a free gift by Napoleon III, has 
 built 301 houses, 201 of which are sold to their occupants. Their price is 3,000 
 francs ($600) ; one-tenth part is payable in advance, with cost of enregisiration, and 
 the balance by monthly or fortnightly instalments, during a period of fifteen years 
 at the longest, with a right to anticipate payments. Since the foundation of the 
 Company the yearly interest of 5 per cent, has been regularly paid to the share- 
 holders. 
 
 At Saint-Quintin, the Anonymous Society of Saint-Quintin, price of house 
 2,500 francs ($500) ; at Amiens, the Anonymous Society for workingmen's houses, 
 
 (1) See Les Questions d'Bconomie Sociale dans ime grande ville popitlaire, by Eue^ne Rostand. 
 
469 
 
 with a capital of 300,000 francs ($60,000), has built up a new ward ; it has put up 
 85 houses, sold at a price much below the usual price for such houses (price of 
 houses, 3,523 and 2,t62 francs, payable by monthly instalments of 20 francs ($4), in 
 fifteen years. Nine-tenths of the capital are now paid up ; it has always paid its 
 shai-eholdei's 5 per cent., and it has on hand 110,000 francs ($34,000) profits, which 
 are to be devoted to establishing a school for housekeeping and apprenticeship (1). 
 We have already spoken of the Land Union of Eheims. At Nancy (2), the Eeal 
 Estate Society, with a capital of 300,000 francs ($40,000), has built 57 houses, costing 
 4,500 to 7,000 francs ($900 to $1,400), all sold to workmen. Up to 1884 it had 
 always given its shareholders 5 per cent, interest ; since then 2J per cent, and it is 
 now in liquidation. At Havre an anonymous society, the Havre Society for work- 
 ingmen's houses, was founded in 1871, with a capital of 200,000 francs, by the direct 
 influence of Mulhouse. It has built 117 houses, representing more than 500,000 
 francs ($100,000). It had, in 1884, sold 56 houses, 38 of which were entirely paid 
 for. The conditions of the sale were : a first payment of 300 francs ($60), redemption 
 in fifteen years by monthly instalments of 24 francs ($4.80), or in twenty years by 
 monthly payments of 20 francs. The interest is limited to 5 per cent. At Bolbec 
 there is a society for workingmen's houses, with a capital of 100,000 francs. 
 
 At Orleans, in 1879, two workmen decided to found a real estate society, whose 
 object was to encourage a spirit of economy by facilitating the acquisition of pro- 
 perty. In 1887, it built 220 houses, all sold, to be paid in full in twenty-five years. 
 
 In Belgium, we may mention the Vervietoise Society, for building working- , 
 men's houses, and the Li^geoise Society for workingmen's houses (425 houses, of 
 which 237 are sold). 
 
 In England we know of the Artizan's, Labourer's and General Dwellings Com- 
 pany, whose object is to give each family a low-priced home. It is intended to react 
 against the system of barracks. 
 
 Being unable to build in London itself, large territories were bought in the 
 country parts. Up to 1881 every effort was made to induce workingmen to become 
 property owners. But at the present time the company is- buying back the houses. 
 It built small towns of 6,000 houses. Its capital is 31,250,000 francs ($6,250,000) ; 
 the dividend is 5 per cent. 
 
 in. — We now come to the third class, to enterprises for building large tene- 
 ment houses, with superior advantages as regards sanitation and comfort. We must 
 here classify the different foundations and societies of London, which have expended 
 92,500,000 francs, and lodge 70,000 persons. We will only mention the Metropolitan 
 Association, the Peabody Donation, the Improved Lodgings Company, the Society 
 for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes. (3) 
 
 Capital is paid from 3 per cent, to 5 p^r cent, interest. In the Peabody Legacy 
 there are no shareholders, and the revenues are altogether used to extend the work. 
 An interesting enterprise, and one less known, is the Surrey Lodge Estate, founded 
 under the auspices of Mr. Cons, Alderman of the London Council, who lives among 
 his tenants, and pays 4 per cent, to the shareholders. 
 
 In Paris, thanks to the generosity of the Messrs. Heine, the Philanthropic 
 Society built a first group (4) in Jeanne d'Arc street, in the midst of the XIII. 
 district (arrondissement). The property consists of 77 apartments, divided into 35 
 dwellings. Two other groups have successfully been built in different parts of Paris, 
 in quarters where healthy dwellings are extremely rare. 
 
 A block of 45 houses has been begun in the boulevard of Crenelle. 
 
 (1) See Workingmen's houses at Amiens, by i^lie Fleury. 
 
 (2) See " La Reforme Sociale," March 16th, April 1st, April 16th. 
 
 (3) According to statistics for 40 years, up to 1886, furnished by Mr. Gatliff, 29,643 families, or 146,809 
 persons, have been benefited by the improved London houses. 
 
 (4) Mons. Picot, in 1888, delivered a most eloquent address at the inauguration : " It is a social work, 
 and proves to the irresolute the possibility of action. When the Philanthropic Society draws 4 per cent . 
 interest on its capital, it refutes the chimerical reasoning of socialists, who expect the State to do every- 
 thing, and wish the Commons, with its municipal rates, the Government with the budget of France, should 
 build houses for the proletaires." 
 
460 
 
 In Eouen (December, 1885), $100,000 were collected, and six distinct buildings 
 erected, containing 95 dwellings 
 
 At Lyons, in June, 1887, the tenants of the first group of houses built by Messrs. 
 Aynard, Mangini and Grillet, entered into occupation of them. M.essrs. Aynard, 
 Mangini and Gillet expended $410,000 of their own money, besides a loan of 
 $30,000 from the Savings Bank, taken from its reserve fund. Capital is 
 assured 4 per cent. The promoters of the Lyonnese work having obtained a solid 
 basis for operations, and positive results, founded an Anonymous Society, with a 
 capital of $200,000 ; $40,000 were advanced by themselves ; $60,000 required from 
 the subscribers ; $100,000 loaned by the savings bank from its reserve ; 82,500 
 of land were bought, on which to build 20 houses. In Marseilles, thanks to Mons. 
 Eostand's efforts, the Savings Bank of that city was authorized to enler into a 
 similar enterprise. 
 
 It is simply an act of justice to let the savings of the poorer class react in this 
 way: 
 
 The Strasbourg Savings Bank in 1882, took the initiative by devoting $78,400 
 of its reserve fund to building workingmen's houses. In Italy the savings 
 bank's funds, and those of the Mutual Aid Society, are employed to build small dwell- 
 ings. 
 
 In Brooklyn there is the Improved Dwelling Association founded by Mr. White, 
 which pays 6 per cent, dividend. 
 
 In New York the Improved Dwelling Association divides 6 per cent., and a later 
 enterprise : Tenement House Building Company, which pays only 4 per cent. 
 
 IV. — Miss Octavia Hill has the merit of having inaugurated a peculiar system 
 of which we cannot speak with too much respect. It is to improve dwellings. Houses 
 in a bad state of sanitation are bought and put into good order, which is done care- 
 fully and economically so as to give capital a reasonable interest (no charity, no 
 aocialism). Instead of being given as a charity, they are paid for by work ; it is the 
 direct influence of contact between tenants and proprietors or agents, animated by a 
 serious spirit of philanthropy. In 1885 Miss Octavia Hill and her followers owned 
 57 properties, valued at $1,558,835 and lodging 11,582 persons. 
 
 Miss Octavia Hill set the example not only in London, but also in the United 
 States, notably in New York and Boston, in Germany at Darmstadt and at Leipzig. 
 At Berlin an anonymous society was established, including Mr. Gneist among the 
 members of its council, to purchase houses, to repair and let or sell them, in order to 
 encourage orderly habits. The capital is $247,000, of which $86,000 are invested. 
 
 "We may be allowed to quote the local saving explained by Mons. Goste in his 
 excellent work: Z/es questions sociales contemporaires, 1886 (page 430). It relates to 
 the progressive acquisition of hypothecary obligations conferring a right to a lease 
 and promise of sale of the property occupied by the tenant, with a. progressive 
 reduction of the rental. 
 
 Woald it not be possible for insurance companies to advance money to workmen 
 to enable them to become proprietors ? Workmen who wish to, become the owners 
 of their own homes might easily take out a life insurance policy sufficiently large to 
 allow a reasonable margin for an advance : there can be no surer investment than to 
 lend them money and take a mortgage on the property they occupy. This is how it 
 could be managed : the workman should save and deposit in a savings bank the 
 sums saved until they reach a sum sufficient to guarantee the loan he intends to 
 effect. He then withdraws his money from the bank, and at the same time he takes 
 out a life insurance policy for which he pays, and effects a loan from the same com- 
 pany. By this means, if he died the next day, his indebtedness would be cancelled 
 by means of his policy. (1) This short review justifies our premises. 
 
 (1)1 am enabled to give the following note by favor of Mons. Cheysson : 
 
 Let us take for example, the head of a family, aged 35 years, and a small house, costing 6,000 francs 
 ($1,200). The Society rents it, with a promise of sale, to be redeemed in 20 years at 4 per cent, interest. 
 
 Simple rental 240 francs. 
 
 Kedeeming of rent 201 " 
 
 Annual payments 441 " 
 
461 
 
 The Society enters into an agreement wjth an Assurance Company for a policy by which, if the work- 
 man dies, within the 20 years, the Insurance Company, instead of the heirs, pays the balance remaining' 
 due. 
 
 The annual insurance premium for such policy is 88 francs 20 centimes. 
 
 Past rent 441 " 
 
 Total 529 " 20 
 
 By this means, if the head of the family chance to die, he leaves no embarrassments behind him ; the 
 house is made, over, freed of all indebtedness, to his heirs on the day of his death. The premium is equal 
 to 1 ■ 5 per cent, of the price of the house. If, instead of devoting the amount to secure his purchase, the 
 head of the family had used it to pay his indebtedness, he might have been free in 15 years instead of 20. 
 
 Is it better for him, if he lives, to be free in 15, instead of 20 years ; or is it better for him to have no 
 dread of seeing death interfere with the freeing of his property ? 
 
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS 
 
 ON 
 
 PROFIT SHARING, 
 
 ■ HELD AT PAEIS PEOM THE 16th TO THE 19th OP JULY, 1889. 
 
 Pifteen questions were submitted for discusbion at this Congress. Each of these 
 questions has been the subject of a report; from the importance of the subject we 
 have thought proper to reproduce these reports in full. 
 
 After four days' deliberation, the Congress voted the following resolutions 
 which differ very slightly from the suggested resolutions presented by the reporters. 
 
 EESOLTJTIOI^S. 
 
 The International Congress is of opinion : 
 
 I. — That an agreement freely agreed to, by the workman, or employee, and by 
 which he is entitled to a share in the profits, is in accordance with equity, and with 
 the essential principles of common law. 
 
 II. — That in establishing profit-sharing, it is essential that by some means, if 
 necessary from the general expenses, an appropriation should be made to supply 
 subsidies for cases of sickness or accident. 
 
 Til. — That in an establishment employing a large number of workmen, and in 
 which different articles are manufactured which might be considered as forming 
 distinct and separate enterprises, it may be au advantage to interest the workman 
 not only iu the general profits, but in the profits of the branch of work he is 
 engaged in. 
 
 IV. — That, as a general rule, profit-sharing is a means of remuneration much to 
 be preferred to any other system of supplementary payment; but that if the system 
 of premiums or overwages has not, as regards capital and labor, the moi-al influence 
 of profit-sharing, it may become a first step towards that system. 
 
 V. — That the control of accounts by an expert accountant, named every year by 
 the general assembly of participants for the following year, gives equal security to 
 the sharers as to the head of the establishment. 
 
 VI. — ^That profit-sharing can be adopted only when a complete system of 
 accounts has been regularly kept. 
 
 VII. — That the organization of labor with profit-sharing should constitute an 
 element of professional and economic education for the entire staff, who, by this 
 means, will be prepared to succeed the master either in the form of a simple 
 limited partnership, or as a cooperative productive association. 
 
 VIII. — That if the participant be admitted to share in the capital, he thereby 
 becomes a real partner, sharing in the losses as well as in the profits, which is still 
 better adapted to prepare him for that real cooperation in which all shareholders 
 are woi'kmen and employees as well. 
 
 IX. — That, when practicable, and as far as possible, in order to strengthen the 
 guarantees offered to participants in stipulated profit-sharing, certain rules in regard 
 to inventories should be introduced. 
 
 X. — That it may be useful and just that, in the division of profits, categories 
 should be established in accordance, either with the position held by the principal 
 employees, heads of the business departments and foremen, or with length of sei-vice. 
 
 XI. — That all systems of profit-sharing, either in cash or otherwise, are legiti- 
 mate, as resulting from a free agreement ; but that it would be wise, especially in the 
 
464 
 
 beginning, that as large a part as possible of the surplus remuneration allotted to the 
 staff as their share of the profits, should be devoted to a savings fund. 
 
 XII. — That capitalization on individual books, forming an inheritance trans- 
 missable to the family, is preferable to an annuity. 
 
 XIII. — That forfeiture be no longer entered in agreements relating to profit- 
 sharing. The Congress, however, acknowledges that in regard to a provident or 
 retiring fand, forfeiture may, in the staff's own interest, be applied, on condition 
 that the amount remain in the general fund, and that, in order to prevent any need 
 of arbitration, rules as regards forfeiture be entered in the agreement. 
 
 XIV. — That the establishment of a public bank of deposit for collective savings 
 would be calculated to inspire confidence, and a feeling of security to interested 
 parties, and is desirable as regards both master and workmen. 
 
 XV. — In establishments where the division of profits would realize but a small 
 sum for each workman, and when the staff is stable, collective profit-sharing possess- 
 ing the advantage of mutual services, aid and instruction, or for sums advanced to 
 help to secure houses for the workmen, is, in principle, pi'eferable to individual 
 profits. 
 
 XVI. — That without absolutely advising that preference be given to investments 
 in a sleeping partnership in the industry or commercial business in which the work- 
 men are engaged; the latter is the best and most practicable means of realizing in 
 the same way as did Leclaire and Godin, future co-operative associations of production. 
 
 XVII. — That if the amount of profit-sharing is to be devoted to life insurance, 
 mixed insurance is to be preferred to any other. 
 
 XVin. — That ail established retiring and life pensions should be in accordance 
 with rates founded on tables of death rates. 
 
 XIX. — That the amount allotted for profit-sharing may be usefully employed as 
 a stimulus to individual thrift, or to make advances to workmen to help in the pur- 
 chase of a house by means of annual payments. 
 
 XX. — That profit-sharing by increasing the stability of workmen, fathers of 
 families, facilitates apprenticeship and a proper renewal of the staff. 
 
 XXI. — That, in principle, there is no obstacle to profit-sharing being introduced 
 into agricultural work, where a sufiicient number of paid workmen are employed, 
 and where a good system of accounts is kept. 
 
 XXII. — ^That, as regards sea-fisheiy, it is advisable to retain the system of sharing 
 the catch, which maintains a moral and professional level in fishermen's families ; 
 that, moreover, that wherever monthly payment of voyages has been established it 
 would be advisable to combine with the fixed wages a share in the catch. 
 
 XXIII. — That profit-sharing cannot be imposed by the State; that it must be 
 the result, according to the circumstances, of the master's own free will, or of his 
 free acceptance of a suggestion from the workmen, and should be governed by the 
 same obligations as govern any other agreement. 
 
 EEPOETS. 
 
 PIEST QUESTIOlSr. 
 
 Is the free agreement expressed or understood, by which the workman or employee 
 receives above his usual salarg or ordinary wages, a share in the profits, without partici- 
 pating in the losses, whether individually, in money or otherwise, jointly and collectively, 
 under the form of accessory advantages, or in other ways, conformable to natural law 
 and to equity f 
 
 Eeporter: Mons. (tonse. 
 
 (Councillor in the Court of Appeals.) 
 
 Why should such an agreement not be in accordance with equity ? Is it not 
 just that the woi-kman, whose zeal and assiduity, whose labor and carefulness has 
 
465 
 
 procured the profits, should share in them ? Apart from moneyed capital, is there 
 not a living capital, and is it not as valuable as the other? Does it not take a direct 
 part in the production ? The assistance given by the workman is free ; the more 
 active is his shai'e in tlie work, and the more intelligent, the greater are the profits 
 of the concern, and the greater the gain for capital. Why, then, in the name of all 
 that is equitable, should the workman be refused a proportionate share in the profits? 
 Does he run no risk ? The accidents he risks, the dangers that threaten him, those 
 are the risks the workman runs, and they are not less serious than those encountered 
 by the capitalist. 
 
 These views may be called Utopian; and doubtless a division of the profits of any 
 certain kind of work, among the workmen whose whole labor has contributed to 
 it, would satisfy the demands of equity ; but matters must be viewed under a less 
 ideal aspect, and the relations essential to the economy of life, must be taken into 
 account. The workman binds himself to supply his labor for a certain wage, in order 
 to assure himself the necessaries of life ; by so doing he alienates in advance his share 
 in the profits, and so to say insures himself against the risks he dares not meet. 
 This special kind of contract, from a legal point of view, is wholly incompatable with 
 any idea of partnership. 
 
 Without examining into the question whether hire is an essential element of the 
 larger industries, we can at once assert that it cannot, at the present time, be dis- 
 
 Eensed with. The severity of this condition may, however, be ameliorated by the 
 indncss and benevolence of the capitalist, and all that has been done in that way 
 is worthy of every encouragement. But there must be no mistake, nor must we 
 be led away by delusions. 
 
 The distribution of a share in the profits, voluntarily made by a master among 
 his workmen, is another matter ; it is a sort of gratuity, frequently a most considerate 
 act, but it would be altogether different were the share in the profits made obliga- 
 tory by natural contract possessing legal effect. Such a course would be a mis-con- 
 ception of the essential principles of all legislation, and for two reasons: — 
 
 1st. Because any share in the pi'ofits pre-supposes a pai-tnership, and there 
 can be no partnership without a share in the losses as well. 
 
 2nd. An acknowledged right to a share in the profits, entails as a necessity, the 
 right to control the affairs from which the share proceeds. Such a condition of things 
 would render the direction of a commercial or industrial enterprise impossible. 
 
 Such is the objection to this state of affairs, and to us its force does not seem 
 weakened by condensation. 
 
 Is the division of profits a society in which the strongest members get the lion's 
 share ? Let us be understood at once : the workman, in certain cases, is considered 
 as having a share in the property, and is therefore a real partner, sharing also in the 
 losses, whether the losses be deducted from the reserve fund or not, does not signifj''; 
 the value of the share in the property is reduced and may become nothing. This 
 participation in the profits is therefore in no wise different from an ordinary partner- 
 ship ; nor is it to an agreement of this kind we take exception to that is not the ques- 
 tion, it is expedient to study. 
 
 Any other participation is simply a share in the profits, and presupposes no part- 
 nership, no ownership ; it is merely a manner of remuneration. 
 
 It is often said that Capital, Enterprise and Labor co-operate in production ; that 
 to the first belongs interest, to the second profit, and to the third wages. It must 
 not however be supposed that the rules regulating these three elements of production 
 are inflexible ; actual practice has frequently a way of deranging somewhat the 
 abstract propositions of social economy. Capital often orders affairs, and is not con- 
 tent with interest alone ; it exacts a share of the profits as a compensation for the 
 risks it incurs, a share which is frequently the largest. The director of the enterprise 
 neither assumes all the risks nor receives all the profit. Capital may even assume 
 the responsibilities of the direction, in consideration of a certain amount in profits. 
 In that case the director is remunerated by a certain share in the profits, and Capital 
 assumes the position and risks of a director. It is not surprising then, that the man- 
 ager of a factory is paid by a proportion of the profits and not a fixed salary. It is 
 20-— 30 
 
466 
 
 clearly an incentive to succeed. If capital assumed the responsibility of the enter- 
 prise it would still have to forego one portitjn of the profits in order to secure the 
 other part. Legislation has foreseen and sanctioned agreements of this kind— limited 
 liability companies, joint stock companies. There is in them a partnership of capital 
 and labor which admits of lemuneration, the latter by a share in the profits, and 
 which can entail no loss for capital, since it has assumed no responsibility. 
 
 Why should a different ai'gument be used when the matter refers to workmen. 
 He provides capital also ; his time, his strength, his experience and his intelligence 
 are his capital. May it not be possible to stimulate his assiduity and his ardor by a 
 variable amount of remuneration ? One portion of his earnings should be unalter- 
 able, lepresenting his time and his ordinary labor, the material, so to speak; those are 
 his wages which provide forhis daily needs. But it can readily be understood that if 
 the workman is more assiduous, if his work is more carefully done, if he is more 
 attentive and particular, the amount and value of the production is sensibly increased. 
 How can such an increase be secured if it be not made to the workman's interest to 
 procure it. Then if he be the cause of an increase in the returns, he is entitled to a 
 further remuneration, which should be in proportion to the increase in the profits. 
 This extra remuneration may be either devoted to different funds, or it may be all 
 or part given in cash to the woi'kman. In eithei- case its nature is the same. 
 
 As regards the share the workman takes in production, his situation is essentially 
 the same as that of the manager or director of the factory ; for whilst the manager 
 directs and apportions the work to the different bands of workmen, the co-opei'ation 
 of each workman engaged on the work, is equally necessary, his individual efforts 
 are as essential as those of the director who unites these efforts to a common end. 
 For what lawful cause should the promise of a proportioned share be less valid 
 and obligatory in one case than in the other ? There is certainly no partner- 
 ship in such an agreement, which is merely an agreed form of remuneration. It 
 may be agreed that a work shall be paid for, according to its selling value or the 
 value of the production — that is work by the piece ; or by the amount of profit it will 
 bring — that is participation. These agreements are essentially the same, and we 
 readily concede that neither the participating workman nor the manager who is 
 paid by a share in the profits, are in any legal sense partners in the concern. But 
 the agreement which assures them their rights is none the less regular and in accord- 
 ance "with the law. But it may be objected, what is the value of an unratified con- 
 tract. The capitalists, the manufacturer who agrees to divide a part of the piotits, is 
 not really bound if the apportionment of the share depends upon himself alone; such 
 an agreement is subject to potestive conditions which deprive it of all legal value. 
 Is that correct? It must first be observed that in certain enterprises the rate is fixed 
 by the partners ; in others the participants are given the right to verify the division. 
 But let us grant that to prevent possible interference the master, by the agreement, 
 refuses all right to management, the validity of the contract is still the same. Bad 
 faith in the matter is not to be supposed possible. Will anyone dare to assert that 
 the workman who accepts the annual amount given him, who believes in the honesty 
 and sincerity of his master, must of necessity be deceived by him ? Assuredly not. 
 The limits of this report do not allow us to refer to authenticated facts produced at 
 the enquiry, but they would testify that, on the conti-ary, the agreement has always 
 been legally carried out. The manufacturer who, in ordei" to secure on easy terms 
 devoted assistants, would resort to participation as a method of doing so, could not 
 fail to fall a victim to his own duplicity. Let us go still further. Is it a fact that 
 the promise of a share in the profits is nothing more than an obligation subject to a 
 potestative condition ? Not at all. By a protestative condition it is supposed that 
 one of the contracting parties is at liberty to release himself from the obligation. 
 This is not the case when participation is promised ; a master cannot refuse a share 
 in the profits when due, without denying the existence of such profits, a course which, 
 instead of being a release from an obligation, is merely a fradulent way of escaping it. 
 
 But, it may be answered, that does not matter as the result is the same. Not if 
 the validity of the contract is to be considered, which is precisely the point under 
 examination. What we have to consider is how the proof is to be given. Usually 
 
467 
 
 a creditor has some document in which his rights are stated, and by which he can 
 verify whether they have been respected. A workman, however, has no such safe- 
 guard, no source of verification, but has to rely entirely on the debtor's promise. 
 Does it never occur that a debtor's woi-d is taken as proof, and rules this sort of 
 contract ? Verbal contracts are of frequent occurence, and are not the least import- 
 ant kind. The value of commercial and financial obligations, founded only on the 
 word and good faith of the parties has never been doubted. The law has provided 
 that for the carrying out as well as for the passing of such a contract the affirmation 
 before a court of justice, of one of the contracting parties, must be accepted by the 
 other contracting party. 
 
 The obligation still exists, even when the proof of the execution of the agreement 
 is somewhat restricted. Moreover, we must add, tbat despite the clause tha,t debars 
 the participants from proof by the books, an inventory after death, a producing of 
 the books before a court of justice, or any course of that nature will suffice to reveal 
 the extent of profit of which the master may have deprived the sharer, who has a 
 legal i-ight to resort to such means to ensure his due. Therefore, it must be recog- 
 nized th^at difficulty of proof cannot invalidate the obligation itself. 
 
 It can, at most, be asserted that as concerns the working of profit-sharing there 
 must be mutual trust between the parties; otherwise such contracts could not exist. 
 At the same time, although the agreement itself is obligatory, profit-sharing can be 
 nothing more than a benevolent measure. It may be because profit-sharing is such 
 a recent measure, but to our knowledge there has been no legislation on this matter, 
 although a project concerning it, is just now, before the French Chamber. Such a 
 measure may seem to settle any uncertainty, but the principle will remain the same. 
 The law of obligations, so well founded by the Eomans, still rules, and almost with- 
 out change in the judicial world. It recognizes the right to enter into such agree- 
 ments, and, as a consequence, the bonds that unite the master and the workman in 
 profit-sharing; it confirms the master's obligation and gives the workman the legal 
 right" to demand the execution of the agreement as in any other contract. Such is 
 the theory. But you are assembled here to study facts, and facts are what will 
 reveal the practical results to be expected from profit-sharing. Confronted by 
 wonders which we extol, let us still be allowed to express the hope that profit-shar- 
 ing, while it draws master and man together, creates a community of interest, and 
 establishes a mutual confidence, may promote a common interest in the productive 
 forces and contribute to the well-being and peace of all those who labor for the 
 continued improvement of our industries. This is progress ; it is guaranteed to us 
 by the past and we look forward to it with confidence. 
 
 SUGGES'EED RESOLUTION. 
 
 The International Congress is of opinion that an agreement, freely signed by the 
 workmen, and by which he is entitled to a share of the profits, is in accordance with 
 equity and with the essential principles of actual law. 
 
 SECOND QUESTION. 
 
 Where it is the desire of the master of an industry, to secure to workmen in addition 
 to their wages, advantages intended to increase their wellbeing in the present and to give 
 them a security for the future, without, however, charging the price due them, by adopting 
 the system recomm,ended by Mr. Eugel Dollfus, of subtracting an annual amount from the 
 general costs. Is it not posmbie for him to make use of the principle of profit-sharing 
 among the workmen ? 
 
 Should participation,regulated according to a determined quantity, be calculated from 
 the total amount of commercial and industrial profits of the concern ? Should it not, on 
 the contrary, be regulated in an establishment, by means of a series of distinctive inven- 
 tories, by special kinds of work, by groups or bands of workmen. 
 
 20—30^ 
 
468 
 
 MR. FlitVitniC DUBOIS, REPOETEE. 
 
 (Doctor of Laws and Sub-manager of the Chaix Printing Office.) 
 
 If it be the desire of the head of any industi-ial enterprise to. promote the well- 
 being of his staff, he should above all, it would seem, seek to assure him the necesaries 
 of life, health, education and the present security of his family, by adopting what 
 may be styled consei'vatory measures, such as aid societies for times of sickness, 
 assurances in case of accidents and death, technical schools, creches etc., etc. The 
 benevolent institutions, which are founded by the chief of the establishment for the 
 benefit of his workmen, according to Franklin's maxim " Take care of your health, it 
 is your best tool," are of conatant and immediate necessity; they will admit neither 
 of postponement nor uncertainty, and cannot be subject to the eventual profits of the 
 concern; and we therefore believe that the amount needed for the working of these 
 institutions should be taken from the general sharing in the profits with its many 
 different possibilities, will complete the work by instituting a patient economy or 
 saving which will make the future secure. 
 
 11. — By the institution of profit>sharing, a double result should be sought for, 
 according to oui- opinion : 1st. an increase of the workman's remuneration, in 
 proportion to the increased development of the business ; next, the staff's increased 
 interest in the work — in other words, a stimulation of the ardor of the workman by 
 which the zeal and care of which he is capable will be brought to bear on his work. 
 Now, it is indisputable that the workman will the better answer to this stimulus the 
 more he is made to understand what is the end in view, and the more he realizes how 
 it is to be attained. Such ends should not be too extended, for experience has shown 
 that the moral influence of participation is in inverse ratio to the number of workmen. 
 And, therefore, in a large factory, where many workmen are employed, it would be 
 better to interest the workman in the amount of profits to be procured by the work 
 in his particular shop, rather than the profits derived from the whole concern. If a 
 small band of workmen are employed in one shop, and all engaged on one special 
 branch of work, each has a knowledge of the direct influence of his own individual 
 efforts, his assiduity, his zeal, the care to be taken to prevent loss of time, waste of 
 raw matei-ials and leakage. Thus there grows up among them not alone a u.seful 
 competition but a sort of mutual watchfulness and overseeing, which is exempt from 
 all humiliating influence, by reason of the sense of being bound together by a unity 
 of interests. 
 
 The question of classifying participation according to shops is one that ought to 
 interest all large establishments, where the workman, so to speak, is lost among a 
 numerous staff', and has but an imperfect idea of the direct beai-ing of his personal 
 efforts. Yet, in spite of the advantages offered by this system of limiting participa- 
 tion by shops, it has heretofore been but rarely put in use. Dr. Bohmert's enquiry 
 presents but three instances, that of Messrs. Baur and Nabholz, building contractors 
 at Seefeld, near Zurich, that of Mr. Demmler, Court Architect at Schwerin and the 
 Co-operativePaper Factory of Angoulgme, under thedirection of Mr. Edgard Laroche- 
 Joubert, deputy for Charente, and it is in this last named establishment only, that we 
 find the system in its entirety. 
 
 The factory at Angoulgme is divided into several branches, each of which shares 
 separately in the annual profits produced by each branch. Each branch is debited 
 with its rent, taxes, assurance and the wages of all the staff' employed — in a word, 
 with all the expenses to which the house is put for it. In the shop where paper is 
 manufactured the shares are 25 per cent, on the profits; the fine departments for 
 glazing envelopes, for cardboard, for registration and the Paris warehouse, each receive 
 50 per cent., the packing department 60 per cent. The division is made on a scale 
 in which not only is the rate of wages, but the worth, and length of service, is taken 
 into account according to rules regulated by these books. The system of book-keep- 
 ing seems to be quite simple, for Mons. Laroche-Joubert, on his deposition before 
 the Extra-Parliamentary Commission on Labor Societies (26th May, 1883) states 
 that only a single book-keeper is required to keep the books of his factory. Mons. 
 
469 
 
 Laroche-Joubert, having given his system many years trial, sees every reason to con- 
 gratulate himself on its adoption. These arc the only instances we can refer to in 
 which participation is divided according to workshops. Why is not the system more 
 generally adopted ? We believe the reason to be the difficulty experienced in organ- 
 izing a scheme of book-keeping in accordance with the system. Let us see whether 
 the difficulty be not more in appearance than in reality. Let us take, as an instance, 
 an establishment employing a lai'ge number of woikmen, as the question does not 
 apply to a shop where the staff is small and a sense of solidarity is more likely to 
 exist. 
 
 The capital is three million of francs. 
 
 The number of workmen to become sharers in the profits is 238, of which 26 are 
 employees and 216 workmen, divided among six shops. The average of the annual 
 salaries on which the participation is to be based is 2,200 francs. 
 
 In establishing participation the master has calculated that he can assess 1'5 per 
 cent on his profits, which will permit him to distribute among the sharers, in ordi- 
 nary years, about 10 per cent, on their wages. 
 
 The manner of wi'iting out the division of this amount would not appear to be 
 complicated, but all that would be required would be to devote, on the books for 
 genei-al working, a particular column to each shop. 
 
 On the debit side will be entered the workman's pay, the raw material and all 
 other expenses to be specified. 
 
 The credit side will comprise the proceeds of the business, that is to say, the 
 amount charged to the customers, also reduced to fractions corresponding to the 
 amount of the workshops that have contributed to the work done. The order book 
 and the sales book will be divided in the same way, noting the same details, and at 
 the end of the month the accountant will transfer them in the same way to the gene- 
 ral account book. 
 
 The difference between the debit and credit of each shop constitutes the rough 
 profit, from which will be deducted the amount for general expenses, which, we will 
 suppose to be, 10 per cent, of the amount of proceeds and the interest of the capital at 
 5 per cent., or a total of 15 per cent., of which each branch will bear a part in propor- 
 tion to the proceeds of the shop. It is on a net profit thus obtained that the master 
 will assess the share of 15 per cent, to be divided among the staff. 
 
 From a feeling of justice, it is intended that the result of this piofit-sharing for 
 the past yeai-, at all events, shall be to give each participant, no matter to which 
 branch of the factory he may belong, an amount equal and proportioned to his salary. 
 Thus the results are very different in the different bands of participants. Thiis 
 workshop A, in which are 82 workmen, has produced a net profit of 60,000 francs, 
 whilst workshop B, with 55 workmen, has given 18*7,500 francs. In order to balance 
 the shares the master must therefore find a different basis of division for each shop. 
 The calculation may be made as follows : — 
 
 The 15 per cent, the' master has decided to deduct from his profits to be divided 
 among those interested we will call general amount of assessment, and special amounts 
 of workshop assessment, the amount to be deducted from the net profits of each branch, 
 give the participants an equal share in the 10 per cent, of the wages. This amount, 
 which at the beginning is determined once for all, and after the first inventory is 
 considered as normal, will remain the same for all succeeding years. Thus, for the 
 workman in workshop A, the amount to be divided will be 30 per cent, of the profits 
 to be realized in that shop ; for workshop B, it will be 6-45 per cent., and so on, each 
 shop getting an amount to be divided in accordance with the profits to be realized 
 and the number of men in the shop. As regards the employees who are engaged in 
 no particular branch of work, but who assist in the general business of the establish- 
 ment their amount of profits would be calculated on the sum total of net profits. 
 The amounts to be shared among all the different bands of workmen will be the 15 
 per cent, the master decided to divide. 
 
470 
 
 Specimen of division 
 
 of profits and profitsharing by workshops : — 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 SSA 
 
 
 
 °S3 
 
 j-s 
 
 
 
 3 . 
 
 
 
 "> s2 
 
 
 S 
 
 §1 
 
 
 
 
 o 2 
 
 i> 
 
 i 
 
 l-^lii 
 
 
 ■S 
 
 II 
 
 rofit-sharing 
 amount of 10 
 the salaries. 
 
 Amount 
 
 WOEKSHOPS. 
 
 (4H ca 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 eneral ex 
 p. c. of th 
 fund inter 
 c. on oapi 
 
 1 
 
 ft 
 
 ■s 
 
 (J 
 
 0) 
 
 
 to be divided of 
 the net profits 
 (6th column). 
 
 
 fl 
 
 m 
 
 P3 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 Iz; 
 
 m- 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 $ 
 
 $ 
 
 $ 
 
 $ 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 5 
 
 
 Workshop A . , 
 
 160,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 24,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 82 
 
 36,080 
 
 3,608 
 
 30 p. c. on $12,000 
 
 — B.. 
 
 150,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 22,500 
 
 37,500 
 
 55 
 
 24,200 
 
 2,420 
 
 6,45 37,500 
 
 — C. 
 
 30,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 3,500 
 
 18 
 
 7,900 
 
 792 
 
 22,68 3,500 
 
 — D.. 
 
 60,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 35 
 
 15,400 
 
 1,540 
 
 30,80 5,000 
 
 — E.. 
 
 16,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 2,400 
 
 3,600 
 
 20 
 
 8,300 
 
 880 
 
 24,45 3,600 
 
 — ¥.. 
 
 180,000 
 
 180,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 27,600 
 
 8,400 
 
 6 
 
 2,640 
 
 264 
 
 3,14 8,400 
 
 Offices 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 9,680 
 
 968 
 
 1,38 70,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 totals 
 
 600,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 238 
 
 104,720 
 
 10,472 
 
 15 p. c. on $70,000 
 
 These I'esults, which were equal for all in the beginning, will be modified as years 
 go by ; they will be higher for some and lower for others, according to the state of 
 business, and the*;eal and assiduity of the participants. The important point is that 
 we all start alike from the beginning and from an equal footing, and it depends on 
 themselves to thereafter gain higher ground, or, at least, maintain their rank. 
 
 The system of profit-sharing by workshops, offers a wide field for discussion 
 between the partisans of participation and those who uphold bonuses and gratuities. 
 
 The admittance of the workmen to share in the profits, creates a unity of interests 
 between intelligence, capital and labor ; the bonus system is, on the contraiy. a 
 system of individualism, which isolates those three elements, one from the other. 
 But participation including so large a number of persons, may, in certain cases, be 
 open to the objection of not really stimulating the ardor of the workmen. Allotting 
 by v/orkshops answers to these objections. It offers the advantages of a mixed 
 system, free both fi'om egotism and illusion. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 The International Congress is of opinion : 
 
 1st. That in establishing profit-sharing, it is essential that by some means, if 
 necessary from the general expenses, an appropriation should be made to- supply 
 subsidies for cases of sickness or accident. 
 
 2nd. That in establishments employing a larger number of workmen, and in 
 which different articles are manufactured, which might be considered as forming 
 distinct and separate enterprises, it may be an advantage to interest the workman, 
 not only in the general profits, but in the profits of the branch of work he is engaged 
 
471 
 
 THIED QUESTIOiSr. 
 
 May not participation too narrowly restricted to the supplementary profit, which in 
 each workshop may result in exceptional economies of time, rnaterial or fire, be apt to 
 become confounded with bonuses, and over-salaries paid from the general expenses f 
 S^as not this latter system the disadvantage in certain cases of leading to the over- 
 
 driving of the workman ? 
 
 REPORTER : MONS. ABEL DAVAUD. ' 
 
 (Member of the Syndicate of Accountants and of the Committees of admission to 
 the Exhibition of Social Economy). 
 
 We can scarcely understand the possibility of participation by workshops in 
 large establishments with their risks and industrial requirements. Our opinion in 
 principle, and under reserve, as to the examination of the resolution proposed by the 
 reporter of the second question, is that the profits restricted to those produced by 
 the workshops, office or other branch are contingent in their nature, profitable or not, 
 according to the participant's occupation according as he is occupied at a work 
 which is productive or otherwise, and above all, if the work is paid for from the 
 amount of general expenses, which is always averse to disbursement. 
 
 How can accountants, walking clerks, have a part in the participation, they who 
 are not producers of goods to be sold at a profit?. Thus understood, workmen work- 
 ing by the piece can alone be the real participants. » 
 
 Participation must therefore not be inaugurated by means of any system which 
 shall tend to encourage indivudal interests instead of that larger union of men and 
 things which is the very essence of participation. In a general way, every system 
 of industry of our day requires two principal and essentinal agencies, without which 
 no production is possible — that is to say. Capital and Labor; and the same in the 
 division of profits, satisfaction must be given these two indispensable factors. 
 
 1st. Labor produces, represented by the wages received, which are equivalent to 
 a capital invested in the enterprise, and in that right receives a dividend in pro- 
 portion to its importance. 
 
 2nd. Capital for what it is, receiving its share for the support it afibrds labor 
 becomes by right first sharer. We now pass to the second part of our particular pro- 
 gramme, regretting that the limits allowed us in discussing this question prevent us 
 from developing our scheme for a pi'actical system of participation. 
 
 In the convention of the learned societies which took place a few years ago, the 
 subject of participation came under discussion and met with opposition under the 
 pretext that associating workmen in the master's profits led to the interference of 
 the workmen in the business of the establishment, to avoid which a manner of work- 
 ing was proposed, and much lauded, which was to give profit to both parties whilst 
 avoiding any imprudent compromise. 
 
 The means proposed was Labor premiums and extra Salaries. 
 
 This is what this system of work, which is offered as an eifeotive means of par- 
 ticipation, leaving all free, consists in : A master has a large order to fill for a cer- 
 tain date and offei's exceptional conditions to his workmen, saying : " I pay you 10 
 francs the piece ; I will give you 12 francs for the same quantity, on condition that you 
 do 150 pieces in the time you generally take to do 100. " 
 
 The proposal is a tempting one to energetic men earning small wages. They 
 set to work. Some few among them succeed in accomplishing the task, but it is well 
 it does not last long. The strain comes, the strongest alone resist it, and even there 
 it is thanks to the stimulantprocured at the wine-sellers ; the others, the weaker ones, 
 are soon foundered, and the druggist receives the surplus of the wages earned in the 
 struggle to accomplish a work beyond their physical strength. 
 
 It is another matter when the extra salary is given, not for overwork, but as an 
 encouragement to save the I'aw material, fii'e and use of tools, it is in this sense it 
 becomes a real benefit lo both workmen and master. Eailway mechanics and engi- 
 neers in factories are generally given an interest in saving grease and firewood. 
 
472 
 
 But how can this system of work be called participation par excellence ? What 
 solidarity is there in this mode ? In what manner are the men and their master 
 associates ? Moreover, this custom of paying extra wages for extra work, which was 
 cited at the convention of the learned societies as being in general usage in another 
 country, is really only in use in a certain number of forges and manufactories. 
 Nevertheless, in Paris, as elsewhere, the system of extra wages is applied in an acci- 
 dental way. Night work, overtime given when the inventory is taken, or work done 
 at irregular times, has been customary, and always will be done; but it has never 
 occurred to either workmen or masters to call the over-wages thus earned, participar 
 tion in the profits. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTIONS. 
 
 The International Congress is of opinion : 
 
 That in a general way profit-sharing is a means of remuneration much to be pre- 
 ferred to any other system of awarding supplementary earnings. 
 
 That the system of bonuses, except for woi'kshops, where they are given for 
 saving in raw material or fire, may lead to the over-driving of the workman, and that, 
 in any case, considei-ed in its relation to Capital and Labor, it can never possesses the 
 moral influence of participation. 
 
 FOURTH QUESTION. 
 
 When stipulated participation, whether united or not to the business profits proper, 
 leads to the fixing of a determined amount, does it not even, when the master's authority 
 is beyond dispute, offer the workman the guarantee of a controlling influence on the 
 accounts by means of an expert accountant. 
 
 Thus organized, does not stipulated participation offer the advantage of obliging the 
 business-man himself to keep a regular system of accounts ? 
 
 Is it not adapted to facilitate the transferrance of the establishment into the hands 
 of the staff, by preparing it for transformation into a cooperative association of produc- 
 tion ? 
 
 Is not this transformation still better prepared for when the workman, having become 
 shareholders, share in the losses, if there be any, as well as in the profits. 
 
 REPORTER : MONS. GOFEINON (Ed.). 
 
 (Former Contractor for Public "Works, one of the founders, and Vice-President 
 
 of the Society for Profit-sharing, Member of the Committees, for 
 
 admission of the group of social Economy). 
 
 GrENTLEME^f, — This is one of the most important questions before the Congress; 
 the restricted limits of this report would be altogether insufl3.cient were the subject 
 to be treated with the breadth it requires. 
 
 During the extra parliamentary enquiry into labor societies of 1883, by the 
 Minister of the Interior, a great number of witnesses were heard, a number of whom 
 criticised the system of participation. Among other observations of a like nature 
 was one relating to the exclusive right reserved to themselves by the heads of a 
 house, whether industrial or commercial, or by the director of an establishment, to 
 take stock whenever they see fit, without allowing the participants or the working 
 partners in cooperative establishments to intei'vene in a matter so important as 
 regards the shares to be divided. 
 
 All these depositions taken at that enquiry are consigned to the first and second 
 volume which deserves to be consulted. The last sitting of the first session of the 
 Commission of Enquiry took place on June 16th, 1883, and it was only on January 
 16th, 1885, that it met again to complete its labors. 
 
 In his speech on January 19th, 1885, Mons. Waldeck-Eousseau, Minister of the 
 Interior, drew special attention to the results, as shown by the enquiry, of participa- 
 
473 
 
 tion in the' profits by a large number of establishments of various industries, in par- 
 ticular, in the house of Leclair, where this system was first practically established 
 and where it has been persevered in. 
 
 The supplementary report of the enquiry, forms a third volume, printed by the 
 firm of Chaix & Co., and is to be found in their library, 20 Berg^re street. Any one 
 desiring to become acquainted with the subject should I'ead this volume. 
 
 Mons. Charles Robert, at the session on the 21st January, treated exhaustively 
 the subject of stipulated participation fi'om a legal point of view. His deposition 
 contains no less than 32 pages, large in-folio, giving in conclusion a proposition in 
 law, which must do away with any doubt on the subject of participation and co-ope- 
 rative associations for production as regards interference or control over the accounts. 
 
 From this deposition,»were taken all the appraisements produced at the enquiry, 
 and in certain diflerent publications, and according to which participation would be a 
 simple act of generosity, and not a contract curtailing rights and obligations. 
 
 It refers to legal judgments, in which the matter has been differently interpreted, 
 and declares that if the master of an establishment was, in the first instance, moved 
 by sentiment of generosity in forming the contract, the contract none the less creates 
 positive rights for the pai'ticiipants who, noc being responsible for losses, cannot be 
 compared to shareholdeis in an anonymous or in a limited partnership. 
 
 And the witne-s concludes with these words to the Commission of Enquiry: 
 
 "I believe, gentlemen, that I may, without exaggeration, assert that on the solu- 
 tion of this question, depends wholly the future participation in profits of worltmen 
 and employees. In order that participation may be established and spi-ead, it is a 
 necessity that the master of an establishment, or the director of a company, be not 
 exposed, as a consequence of the participation granted by him. to the possibility of a 
 demand from the employees or workmen to interfere in the accounts. 
 
 The right to examine the accounts by an expert-accountant, as is done in the 
 establishment of Fox, Head & Co., at Middlesborough (England), and by Messrs. 
 Barbas, Tassart & Balas, contractors for Public Works at Paris, and by the firm of 
 Thuillier Bros., appears to give unlimited satisfaction to the participants or 
 co-operatives, and also a sense of security to the proprietor or director of an estab- 
 lishment as regards a possible demand for interference, and as a consequence an 
 attack on the master's authority. Is not this control of accounts to be preferred 
 to the chance of other trouble-, of the dangers we have noted?" 
 
 In answer to this first 'question of the progi-amme, let us say at once that any 
 industry, large or small, in which is not kept a regular system of accounts, greatly 
 lessens its chances of success, book-keeping being the fundamental basis on which 
 all turns. None of the financial part of any business, the general expense, the 
 amount of returns, its stock-taking at the end of the commercial term, can be kept 
 going regularly without a good system of accounts. Without such a system the 
 business is given over to chance, to the unforeseen. It is a ship on a long voyage 
 without a compass. 
 
 In a system of well-kept; books general expenses are charged only as a remnant 
 of the accounts. The first allows the chief to understand his situation from day to 
 day; the second gives only an approximate idea, which is always deceptive. 
 
 Any firm intending to establish participation among its staff must, first begin 
 by oi'ganizing a complete and regular system of accounts, if it has not one already; 
 otherwise, participation must not be thought of — it is impracticable. 
 
 It has been shown by the firm of Barbas, Tassart & Balas, whose accounts have 
 been inspected by an expert-accountant since 1884 — about five inventories — that 
 this inspection offers no inconveniences, and, moreover, was not asked for by the 
 staff- on the contrary, when first proposed to the staff it was i-efused, they declaring 
 that their confidence in their master was in no wise diminished. It was found 
 necessary in order to make them accept the innovation, to prove to them that the 
 safety of the establishment j-equired it, which was true. 
 
 There is therefore, safety only in a regular system of accounts, and in having it 
 controlled by an expert-accountant. 
 
474 
 
 The answer to the second question is very simple : " Thus organized, does not 
 stipulated participation afford the advantage of obliging the business man himself 
 to keep a regular system of accounts ? Is it not adaj)ted to facilitate the transference 
 of the establishment into the hands of the staff, by preparing it for transformation 
 into a co-operative association of production ?" 
 
 We have already said that participation should not be thought of, and still less 
 co-operation, unless a regular system of accounts be kept. 
 
 Had the regular organization of work no other merit than this it would still 
 have done good service to our industries. 
 
 As regards the passing of a business into the hands of another, the difficulties 
 are already too well known to our heads of industries, and these difficulties continue, 
 and will still continue to increase. 
 
 Facility of transport, and of means of communication, has greatly increased 
 competition in our industries, a competition that is both national and international, 
 and that shows no signs of abating, but rather the contrary. 
 
 Capitalists are not scarce in France, but onr manufacturers, to whom credit is 
 more or less a matter of necessity, expei-ience at the outstart, some difficulty in finding 
 lenders. Then, if the desired loan is effected, and the borrowers chance to have no 
 particular security to offer, their account for general expenses is largely increased by 
 reason of the amount of interest they are obliged to pay. This entails a proportionate 
 rise in the price of the goods they have to offer for sale, and gives them but a poor 
 chance of success in their struggle with competition. But this is not the greatest 
 difficulty they have to contend with; that lies in the impossibility of securing per ma- 
 "ment intellectual and manual help at regular normal wages, such as would enable the 
 establishment to maintain a regular rate of production, and realizing more or less 
 profit. This is the problem to be solved, one which most intimidates the sons of 
 manufacturers destined to succeed in their father's business, and they naturally 
 prefer any other career than that indicated to them. And so we see fewer and fewer 
 cases of sons succeeding their fathers, the more especially if the latter have acquired 
 wealth. 
 
 Where, outside the staff employed in his house, can a manufacturer who is of art 
 age to retire from business seek a successor ? Profit-sharing affords stability, and 
 having once conferred this great benefaction on his workmen, a careful master should 
 see that they are taught their business technically, and above all given an opportunity 
 to acquire that knowledge of management so requisite in a large business. 
 
 His life will thus be passed amid capable fellow-laborers, whom he is preparing 
 to succeed him, and one of the greatest sources of enjoyment to an elderly person is to 
 witness the prosperity of the business he has founded, and to have secured the hap- 
 piness of those who have worked there. The Messrs. Leclair are notable examples 
 of this kind of success in their undertakings. Messrs. Laroche-Joubert and Godin in 
 their manufactories, and Mr. Boucicault in commerce, when he organized profit-shar- 
 ing in the Bon March^. 
 
 These three examples are a sufficient answer to the second question. 
 
 The third question is put in this way; 
 
 " Is not this transformation still better prepared for when the workmen, having 
 become shareholders, share in the losses, if thei-e be any, as well as in the profits ? " 
 
 In the four establishments above mentioned, the participants are perforce pro- 
 prietors of part of the capital. They thus share proportionately in the losses, which 
 is always the best way to arouse their interest in the work. 
 
 In our answers to the Commission of Enquiry we have already stated that we 
 consider profit-sharing as a necessary practical education in business economy, paving 
 the way to co-operative production with every chance of success. The four firms 
 above mentioned are cases in point, particularly the Maison Leclaire. In concluding, 
 we regret to have not one single example to offer of the transference of an agricul- 
 tural business by means of profit-sharing, as we have been enabled to do in enterprise, 
 manufacture and commerce. 
 
 In the profit-sharing pavillion on the Esplanade des Invalides (Exhibition of 
 Social Economy) contains but one, agricultural establishment, that of Mr. Bigiion, at 
 
475 
 
 Theneuille, in the AUier, remarkable alike for its organization and its continued 
 success. We may therefore hope that his example will serve as a model, a study, 
 for other agriculturists, and that at the next exhibition this industry, the mother of 
 all others, will also have advanced with the march of progress. 
 
 Whence arises such poverty of organization of labor and profit-sharing in agri- 
 culture? One of the committee of the society of profit-sharing, Mr. Cazeneuve, an 
 agricultural proprietor, reporter on the question, has every means of answering. A 
 pamphlet can be procured from the guardian of the pavillion of the Society which 
 treats of profit-sharing in farming. One of its leading articles relates to the subject 
 of this report. The reason is, that few agriculturists have any system of accounts, 
 and those that have, have a very incomplete and defective one. We can only lepeat 
 that under these circamstances profit-sharing is utterly impossible. Agricultural 
 bookkeeping should therefore form one subject of our deliberations. An appeal has 
 been made to noted men, and a number of models of a system of agricultural book- 
 keeping have been sent to the pavillion of profit-sharing. The system of Mons. 
 Tieville is in particular worthy of the attention of all agriculturist!?. 
 
 STJGGESTET) RESOLUTION. 
 
 The International Congress is of opinion that : 
 
 1st. That the control of accounts by an expert accountant named by the partici- 
 pants every year in Genei-a! Assembly for the ensuing year gives the participants a 
 sense of security equal to that of the head of the establishment. 
 
 2nd. That profit-sharing can be adopted only when a complete system of accounts 
 is regularly kept. 
 
 3rd. That the organization of labor with profit-sharing should constitute an ele- 
 ment of professional and economic education for the entire staff', who, by this means, 
 will be prepared to succeed the maslei', either under the form of a simple limited 
 partnership, or as a co-operative productive association. 
 
 4. That if the participant be admitted to share in the capital he becomes thereby 
 a real partner, sharing in the losses as well as in the profits, which is still better 
 adapted to prepare him for that real co-operation in which all shareholders are work- 
 men and employees as well. 
 
 FIFTH QUESTION. 
 
 In order to strengthen the guarantees offered the sharers in stipulated profit-sharing, 
 would it be advisable to establish certain rules for the inventory, particularly as regards 
 the wear and tear of goods, and the deduction made by the chief , previous to any division 
 of amounts for reserve and management? 
 
 Eeporter: Mr. Paul Moutier. 
 
 (Contractor of Public Works, member of the committees of admission to the 
 
 Group of Social Economy.) 
 
 The principal of pi-ofit-sharing by the staff", engaged in a certain business being 
 adopted, it becomes a matter of necessity for its management to be perfectly honest; 
 it is the sole and only means of obtaining those beneficial results which are to be 
 expected from the union of productive forces. 
 
 As regards a system of accounts, it is useless to conceal the fact that the most 
 delicate points to be calculated, are those concerning the chief's own emoluments, the 
 wear of material and the redeeming of capital ; whence it becomes advisable to dis- 
 cover some basis on which this calculation may be grounded. 
 
 Stipulated and statutory profit-sharing exist only where the amount to be divided 
 among the sharers is definite. Othej- points likely to effect the annual results should 
 also be previously settled, so that all charges on the business being known, no mis- 
 trust is likely to be felt by those interested and having perfect confidence in each 
 other, they can make common cause in pushing the work forward to the extent of its 
 capacity. 
 
476 
 
 In lai-ge industries participants can have no cause for apprehension ; these indus- 
 tries are regularly constituted and their rules stipulate the amount of salary to be 
 paid managers, directors and engineers, as also the yearly amount of sinking fund. 
 The advantages granted the participating staff are also specified in certain articles, 
 and the conditions clearly given. The regular system of book-keeping is also war- 
 ranty for the fulfilment of the contract, which cannot be infringed without entailing 
 serious responsibilities. 
 
 In a private enterprise, where the chief himself assumes all management, the 
 matter bears a different aspect. In fact, if the chief wish to make a truly equitable 
 ■division he is forced to proceed as though there existed a deed of agreement between 
 himself and his workmen. He is obliged to consider his own emoluments, the stock, 
 material, cash and capital. This capital would give interest at a rate calculated at 
 from 5 to 6 per cent. No serious difficulty would be experienced in settling the 
 ■amortissement, which will vary between 5 and 10 per cent., according to the impor- 
 tance of the business. Then comes the amount to be assessed before any division is 
 made for expenses of management. How are these expenses to be calculated ? 
 
 That the chief's emoluments are to be affected by the fluctuations of good and 
 bad years is not to be thought of for a moment ; it therefore becomes necessary to 
 seek some invariable basis on which to found them. The share to be given the 
 owner of the capital seems to be clearly indicated ; it is generally based on the im- 
 portance of the business done; on account of business risks, we have already calcu- 
 lated his interest at a fairly remunerative rate, and therefore it seems but just that 
 the chief should receive as salary a sum of only 3 to 5 per cent, on the capital he has 
 invested, which amount, being about what he would require for his daily needs, may 
 foe compared to the workmen's wages. 
 
 Add to which, that a master willing to reduce his monthly assessments finds in 
 the inci-eased amount of profits to be divided at the end of the year, a full remunera- 
 tion for his services as director. 
 
 It may be objected that as certain industries require but a small amount of 
 capital, the results of the proposed system would be that the chiel's lemuneration 
 would no longer be proportionate to the services rendered by his administrative mind 
 and his experience. Therefore in the scheme of profit-sharing which I myself have 
 chosen, I have not omitted to calculate in the owner's share the valuation of the 
 •capital, which I have found to be a simple means of calculating the intellectual value 
 of him whoso personal influence is a direct factor in the success of the enterprise. 
 
 It has often been stated that profit-sharing is a necessary and preliminary stage 
 to productive co-operation, and the correctness of the assertion is proved when a 
 system of accounts is being prepared in an establishment by which to introduce 
 profit-sharing ; the scheme of book-keeping is necessarily that employed in a real 
 association. 
 
 Finally, it is essential that from the very starting of a business each factor 
 should be recognised and particularized, for is not the most perfect contract that in 
 which alldifflculties have been foreseen, and nothing remains but to overcome them 
 without discussion. We are led by these considerations to the following conclusions : 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 That the International Congress is of opinion that, when practicable, and as far 
 as possible, in order to strengthen the guarantees offered to participants in stipulated 
 profit-sharing, certain rules in regard to inventions should be introduced. 
 
 SIXTH QUESTION. 
 
 Should the division of profits be made at so much in the franc, of amount of salary 
 or wages without distinction? Or, on the contrary, should the division be made in 
 -accordance with the position held or with length of service f 
 
477 
 
 Eeporteh : Mr. Tulbu. 
 
 (Former Pupil of the Polytechnic School, Type Founder and Member of the Com- 
 mittees of Admission to the Group of Social Economy.) 
 
 The members of a co-operative association may be divided into two classes : 
 
 The first includes employees and workmen whose duties and work are always 
 the same, and are paid for by allowances or wages so invariable as to be called fixed. 
 
 The other is composed of the foremen or chiefs of the soi'vice, whose responsi- 
 bility is of moi'e or less importance. 
 
 It may be said that in bolh classes the services are gauged by the amount 
 received as salary or allowance, and in that case it appears just and right that the 
 division should be made at so much in the franc of the wages and allowances, with- 
 out distinction. , 
 
 And this division would be equitable were it not that besides the services 
 remunerated by regular wages or allowances, there are others of a different char- 
 acter. 
 
 Let us examine the first class, and see what is the influence of good workmen 
 and employees on the general profits, apart from any idea of participation. It is an 
 indisputable fact that a good workman or employee who wastes no time at his work 
 reduces to a certain extent the general expenses and increases the amount of profits. 
 Consequently, a workman assiduous at his work, by that mere fact increases the 
 profits of the business. It seems just, the I'efore, that a certain amount of the profits 
 should be awarded to diligence backed by length of Service. 
 
 Diligent workmen co-operating together in a common effort to facilitate the 
 division of labor among the men in the workshop, and work is thus accomplished 
 without over-haste or loss of time. This guarantees superior workmanship, from 
 which follow higher prices and a consequent increase of profits, part of which will 
 be awarded the diligence of the worknian. 
 
 Finally, a diligent workman becomes a co-laborer attached to the firm by which he 
 is employed, his devotedness increases with years, and is apparent when times are hard 
 and difficulties occur. The co-operation is so real that masters make use of every 
 means to secure the stability of their staff". 
 
 One of the best means of attaining this end is to devote a part of the profits to 
 be divided accoi-ding to length or seniority of service. 
 
 But as to the amount of profits to be so divided, no rule can be established. The 
 master is the best judge. In some establishments the amount of profits to be shared 
 is divided, half to wages and half to the number of home work. 
 
 Passing thence to the heads of departments, we see that their influence on the 
 production of profits is more direct and important. An establishment in which the 
 staff is all that could be desired, but which is imperfectly governed, would exper- 
 ience great diflaculties. But on the other side, establishments are often seen to 
 prosper with a mediocre staff', thanks to its superior management. It is, therefore, 
 directly to the master's inteiest to give the heads of departments, his nearest 
 co-laborers, a larger share, in that this share should be proportionate, not so much 
 to the amount of their pay as to their personal endeavors and their influence on the 
 general economy of the business. This influence is apparent in the good manage- 
 ment of the commercial or manufacturing part of the business. The number of 
 hours work has nothing to do with it. It would indeed be a difiicult matter to 
 calculate, as the intellectual or brain work of the heads of a business is often con- 
 tinued during his leisure hours, and thus beyond the time he spends in the place of 
 business. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTIONS. 
 
 The International Congress believes that it may be right and useful in the division 
 of profits to classify the shares either in accordance with their rank in the establish- 
 ment such as the principal employees, heads of departments and foremen, or accord- 
 ing to length or seniority of service. 
 
478 
 
 SEVENTH QUESTION. 
 
 Is it to be preferred that the amount of profits to be divided, either whole or in part, 
 should, by some means, be created a saving for the future benefit of the participants, to 
 the payment being moLde in specie f 
 
 H. If the answer be in the affirmative, must life rents be abolished in order to 
 arrange for the creation of a patrimony for the participant's family, as has been done 
 by M. DeCourcy, by means of capitalization at compound interest of the individual 
 books, or by means of insurance f 
 
 III. Is there sufficient cause to demand of the Legislature the establishment of a 
 public bank in which may be placed the collective savings aiising from participation, 
 cooperation, subsidies from masters, and syndical taxes and other sources ? 
 
 Eeporter: Me. Albert Trombert. 
 
 (Sub-chief of the publishing office of the Chaix Pi-inting Establishment, 
 Secretary of the Society for the Study of Profit-sbaring.) 
 
 I. 
 
 The first argument to be brought forward in favor of a scheme of saving, 
 •destined to assure the workmen's future, is the need there is to lessen the workman's 
 anxiety for that future. As profit-sharing is not supplementary salary, it would 
 seem wise to devote the surplus amount thus given to providing for the future. 
 We readily admit that the shares of divided profits paid in cash are, in general, 
 usefully employed in providing real, and sometimes urgent, requirements; but, 
 are not these needs likely to be still more urgent when the day comes that the 
 workman's strength will leave him and he is unable to earn wages ? It has been 
 answered in objection that the workman must be left to provide for his own 
 future; that having once awakened his zeal and diligence by the promise of a 
 share in the profits, he must receive that share in cash, and not be made to wait a 
 more or less extended length of time ; that any other proceeding subjects him to 
 & sort of guardianship derogatory to his dignity. This objection appears to us 
 to be purely theoretic when a man has but restricted means — very frequently 
 scarcely suificient for the daily necessaries of life. A vast amount of moral 
 courage is required to devote to the Savings Bank that money on which there 
 are so many pressing and instant demands. In such circumstances one has to 
 raise one's mind above such secondary considerations, and see but the end to be 
 attained — security for the old age of the workman or employee worn out by labor. 
 Let the owner of a book in the General Insurance Company, or a pensioner in the 
 DeBerny foundry be asked whether his pride is at all wounded when in his old 
 age .he enters into the possession of that provident fund that saves, or helps to 
 save him from want. 
 
 Therefore, when a workman's share of the profits is paid him in cash, an 
 opportunity is lost — by means ot a I'emuneration which does not affect his wages 
 — of providing by a saving fund for the futui-e. On the other hand, an element 
 is introduced into his present budget, variable in its nature, and of which 
 he will keenly feel the privation when a bad year occurs, and thei-e are no 
 profits to be divided. As profits are subject to the fluctuations of business, the 
 results of profit-sharing cannot be foreseen with any certainty, nor are they without 
 danger noted beforehand for necessary requirements. An accumulation of them, on 
 the conti'ary, ensures that sacred provision for old age which is the dream of every 
 good workman, and to attain which, it will readily be understood, he is willing to 
 deny himself some present enjoyment. We must also take into account the influence 
 cash payments, if extensively practised, would have on the rate of wages. 
 
 In reference to this, Mr. de Coui'cy says : 
 
 " If possession of a share in the profits were given immediately and continued 
 from year to year, profit-sharing would become a mere supplementary salary, and 
 .as a consequence would re act on the rate of wages with a tendency to lower them. 
 
479 
 
 Capital being spurred on by trade competition would be led to diminish the fixed 
 remuneration of handiwork. "Were it to resist the influence labor itself, attracted by 
 profit-sharing, would oifer for itself for rebatement (1)." Mr. de Courcy's far-reach- 
 ing consideration has a very serious bearing, for profit-sharing would lose all value 
 were it to cause a reduction in wages. 
 
 Prom whatever point of view we look at the subject, the most profitable pro- 
 ceeding for the workman seems to be to devote his profits to a provident reserve 
 fund. On the other hand, the master finds in this system a warrant for the stability 
 of his staff, and a provision for his workmen worn out in his employment or by old 
 &ge. 
 
 IT. 
 
 In our opinion, the formation of a patrimony is much to be preferred to a life- 
 rent; it is of a higher rank of usefulness and of morality. In fact, how many 
 workmen and employees are afflicted with infirmities incapacitating them from 
 work, and how many die before they have reached the age to retire. And how few 
 are they who, having attained the enjoyment of a pension, have the possession of it 
 for any time worth mentioning ! A pension, or a right to a pension ends with life ; 
 the interest borne by the patrimony is never ending. If the person entitled to it 
 becomes pi-ematurely unfit for work, he has the immediate enjoyment of his share 
 in the provident fund ; suppose he dies before old age comes on, he has the comfort 
 ■of leaving some help from his savings to those he leaves behind him. When pi-ofit- 
 sharing was first started in the General Insurance Company the employees wei'e left 
 their choice of shares for capital or a life rent ; and more than five-sixths of the 
 number choose the capital. M.r. de Courcy says: "We see all employees who are 
 heads of families chose the capital in preference to the life-rent." And the work- 
 men are as ready as the employees to make this choice. Mr. Piat afiirms it in 
 regard to his foundry, Mr. Chaix in regard to his printers, and Mr. Gofiinon in 
 regard to his roofers. 
 
 Mr. de Courcy says again : "Promise a young man that by remaining twenty- 
 five or thirty years in the sei-vice of the same company he will in his old age be 
 granted a retiring pension, and he will feel very little gratitude for such a distantly 
 prospective good, which will rather discourage him. Show him his book, in which is 
 entered his first savings, which it depends entirely on himself to discontinue or to 
 increase, and you arouse in him the feelings of a capitalist and of a conservative. 
 The attachment of a small employee for his bank book may in a way be compared 
 to the peasant's love for the few feet of ground he claims as his own " (2). 
 
 The prospect of leaving a legacy to his family may have a most beneficial 
 influence on the workman. It is calculated to silence the promptings of envy, to 
 put him on his guard against specious Lheories, and to bind his wishes to things 
 that are serious and stable. But besides these moral considerations there is an 
 argument in favor of patrimony that interests the master himself; it is the danger 
 that may arise from an opposite system. And indeed any promise for retiring 
 j)re-8upposes a Warranty, which may be mathmatically figured out into considerable 
 figures and lay heavy charges on the future. Individual accounts have the advan- 
 tage, on the contrary, of giving an exacL account of the real amount of the provident 
 fund belonging to the staff. 
 
 The establishments which have in a greater or lesser degree disposed of the 
 profits to be shared in the manner approved of by Mr. de Courcy, may be divided 
 into three classes. In the first, the share of the profits is capitalized on individual 
 books, to be eventually paid the workman either at the end of the stipulated period, 
 or age, or at the end of a certain definite length of service. Others keep possession 
 in the fund of the amount, and pay the owner the interest alone, the capital being 
 paid his family only at his death. Finally, there are firms who have adopted a com- 
 bination of different systems, and believe themselves justified in giving the workman 
 .a cash payment of a fraction of the profits allotted him. Their motives for this 
 
 1. Institution of a Provident Fund for Employees and Workmen, p. 239. 
 
 2. The Institution of Provident Funds for Salaried Men, Employees and Workmen, p. 24.S 
 
480 
 
 course of action have been defined in, a repoi-t presented in 1884 by Mr. Chaix to 
 Congress of the French Associatiation for the Advancement of Science. 
 
 "If the master," said Mr. Chaix," had only to deal with employees, who understand 
 more clearly the advantages of accumulated savings, and who are naturally more 
 stable, he might retain the entire amount to be divided ; but workmen who do not, in 
 general, take thought to the future, would not believe in the profit-sharing if they 
 did not every year touch at least a portion of the profits. They would feel persuaded 
 that in keeping their share under the pretence of saving it for them, they were being 
 bound to the establishment; and instead of appreciating the benefits of profit-sharing' 
 they would be filled with distrust of it. It is therefore my belief that we must make 
 up our minds ourselves to giving them a certain amount in cash, advising them at 
 the same time to put it by, and affording them the means, as is done in our establish- 
 ment, of investing it." 
 
 We do not think it will be going beyond the bounds of this question, to give the 
 sum to which in some houses only the Provident Fund arising from capitalized 
 pi'ofit-#jharing amounts. On the 31st December, 1888, the amount of division was 
 $1,806,222 to the General Insurance Company ; $28,000 among the staff in the calico 
 factory of Mons. Besseli^vre of Maromme; $319,101 among the staff of the Bon 
 March4 ; of $48Y,Y90 in the Union Assurance Company ; of $350,000 in Messrs. 
 Schaeffer & Co.'s establishment at Pfastalt; of $180,699 in the Chaix printing esta- 
 blishment; of $22,100 among the staff of Mr. Gounouilhou, Printer, in Bordeaux ; 
 of $10,197 among the staff of Lefranc & Co.'s ink factory at Paris ; of $49,904 in 
 the Pernod Distillery at Pontarlier, etc. It may be easily imagined the benefits 
 these large allocations have spread among the staff, to what affection and fidelity 
 they have given birth, and to how many families they have given comfort. 
 
 III. 
 
 On December 16th, 1884, Mr. de Courcey and the Boai-d of Management of the 
 Society for the Study of Profit-sharing made a demand for the establishing of a public 
 bank for deposits. In a letter then addressed to the Minister of the Interior they 
 gave in full, the arguments in favor of such an institution. (1.) They would have 
 the profits distinct from the business assets of the establishments to protect them 
 from the risks attendant on every industry. The idea has been taken up ; the extra 
 parliamentary Commission of Labor Associations has examined and taken it into 
 consideration, whilst at the present time a law is before the Parliament for the estab- 
 lishment of a " General Industrial Agricultural and Commercial Provident Fund." 
 (2.) Private provident funds would still exist and manage their own business ; but 
 they would be secure against all, risks. The State alone, from this point of view, 
 seems to offer the required warranty, especially in regard to the large sums now 
 fo.-med by the accumulated savings. The Deposit Fund would give workmen a feel- 
 ing of security and reliance in provident institutions, and masters themselves welcome 
 it as a relief from an irksome responsibility. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 The International Congress is of opinion that : 
 
 Ist. It is advisable to devote as large a portion as possible of the profits awarded 
 the staff. 
 
 2nd. That capitalization on individual books, forming an inheritance transmiss- 
 able to the family, is preferable to an annuity. 
 
 3rd. That the establishment ofa public bank of deposit for collective savings would 
 be calculated to inspire confidence and a feeling of security to interested parties, and 
 is desirable as regards both master and workmen. 
 
 EIGHTH QUESTION. 
 
 Is not collective profit-sharing, which is intended, by means of a common undivided 
 fund, to provide an aid in the general interest, preferable in certain industrial centres to 
 any gift made separately to the individual f 
 
 1.) See Bulletin of profit-sharing Vol. VI, p. 256. 
 
 ^2.) See Volume III of the Extra Parliamentary enquiry into Labor Associations. 
 
481 
 
 Eeporter: Mr. Steinheil. 
 
 (Former Member of the National Assembly, Manufacturer at Ebthan, Alsace.) 
 
 Before entering into the question, I would first ask this: It being admitted 
 that the amount of profits allotted workmen is not sufficiently large to form both a 
 fund for the general interest and to give each workman his share in the profits, must 
 collective profit-sharing be adopted, or must it be done away with, or individual 
 profit-sharing be adopted ? 
 
 To anyone objecting that the workman's share must be raised to meet both 
 cases, I would bring to mind that profits of such importance are hard to secure and 
 still more difficult to realize. 
 
 They are difficult to secure, for though I have been so fortunate as to meet with 
 hearty cooperation among some of our associates, I have likewise met with many 
 very ill-disposed to share with others, profits which commercial law gives un- 
 reservedly to themselves. 
 
 I may add, that in most cases, profits to the workmen in any very considerable 
 proportion are not possible to realize. 
 
 This is specially the case when capital plays a predominate part, and the work- 
 man a minor one, above all, when profit and loss depend upon.the fluctuations of the 
 market, which are often excessive. Moreover, it is evident that the manufacturer 
 who alone has to bear the loss has a right to, by far, a larger share in the profits 
 than the workman who only shares in the profits. We may also add that the manu- 
 facturer in giving his workmen a very large share in the profits would expei-ience 
 great difficulty in competing with other manufacturers, who, by keeping all thei;r 
 profits to themselves, increase both their capital and their business importance. 
 
 But in the many cases in which the workman's profits are necessarily small, 
 speaking from E(iy long pei-sonal experience, I maintain that collective sharing is to 
 be given the preference. It admits of establishing, maintaining and improving the 
 admirable work of mutual aid, to the direction of which masters and workmen 
 giving the light of their individual experience, procure medical attendance and 
 medicine in case of sickness, and also money to partially supply the loss of their 
 wages. It is an organization of the utmost value to the invalids of labor, procuring 
 them a retiring pension, which places them beyond the reach of penury, and insures 
 them the respect due the head of the family. And when the same organization of 
 mutual aid includes widows, and when it procures for the member the capital 
 required to purchase or build himself a house, and to advance his intellectual and 
 moral progress by means of conferences and a popular library, I maintain that this 
 manner or utilizing the common undivided fund of collective profits possesses superior 
 advantages to individual profit-sharing. 
 
 The latter offers difficulties of organization which the larger number of manu- 
 facturers dare not attack, whilst collective profitsharing is easily organized, and 
 calculated to become better known and more widely extended. I admire the splendid 
 results realized by the Leclairs, Grodins and Boucicauts — but these are exceptions. 
 I would be overjoyed if the humble evidence of a manufacturer, who, for forty-four 
 years, has practised collective profit-sharing, should encourage some few of my con; 
 frires to follow in the same way. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 The International Congress is of opinion that : 
 
 In establishments where the division of profits would realize but a small share 
 for each workman, and where the staff is stable, collective profit-sharing possessing 
 the advantage of mutual services, aid and instruction, or for sums advanced to help 
 to secure houses for the workmen, is, in principle, preferable to individual profits. 
 
 NINTH QUESTION. 
 
 In order that profit-sharing, instituted by <ynaster, should in certain cases prepare 
 
 the way to an Association of Productive Go-operj^icr.f^ould choice be made — in preference 
 
 20—31 
 
482 
 
 to investments retained in their entirety as a provident fund — of an obligatory or free dis- 
 position of the profits in shares or interest bearing portions, destined later to transform 
 the workmen into co-proprietors, or, it may be, into sole proprietors of the factory ? 
 
 Eeporter: Mons. Vetssier, 
 
 (Manager of the Monitor of Labor Syndicates — Moniteur des Syndicats Ouvriers) 
 
 Member of the Committees of Admission to the Group of Social Economy. 
 
 The reign of strikes is over ; it has been condemned by experience. Those even 
 who most eagerly urged them on, and who are sincere, are now unanimous in admit- 
 ting that the advantages gained by their means have not in any way been adequate 
 to the cost of obtaining them. In point of fact, in nine cases out of ten the work- 
 men having inconsiderately declared war, without any prepared plan of campaign, 
 without arms and without ammunition, have been utterly routed, but not without 
 giving some hard blows to their adversaries, so that both conquerors and conquered 
 have come out of the struggle badly wounded and weakened. And while masters 
 and workmen were at blows, while labor was suspended, ordei-s for work were given 
 to foreigners and, as a consequence, the public wealth was assailed. 
 
 Confronted by such fatal results, hostilities were for a time suspended ; but peace 
 was far from being signed; the least incentive would have sufl^ced to set fire to their 
 ;passion, and the struggle become more fiei-ce, more bitter and more murderous than 
 ever. To prevent such a catastrophe some neutral ground had to be discovered 
 wliereupon to come to an understanding. Now, to please both master and workman 
 on matfcei-s relating to labor is not easy of accomplishment. 
 
 Masters spurred on by competition will always have an inclination to secure at 
 as low prices as possible the services for which workmen will always strive to get 
 the highest price. The solution of the difficulty must therefore be sought on a line 
 with the question of daily wages. 
 
 A certain number of workmen have tried to solve the problem by joining their 
 means and their efforts, becoming their own masters and urdortaking work on their 
 own account. That, in my opinion, is the correct way to solve the difficulty ; but 
 unfortunately its application is not easy. 
 
 Not only do workmen lack money — that is the sinews of business, and procure it 
 with difficulty, but they experience still more difficulty in securing a good able man- 
 ager, capable of directing their enterprise. To be able to direct affairs one must 
 have a knowledge of them, and to have a knowledge of them one must have studied 
 them practicSally. But to become an able director of any business it does not suffice 
 to be an able workman. A knowledge of the trade is no drawback, it is true, but 
 other knowledge which is not to be acquired by practice, is also necessary. Besides 
 which, a strict discipline, not always maintained, is an indispensable adjunct to 
 associated workmen. 
 
 The want of recognition of this truth is the rock on which so many labor 
 oo-operations have foundered. For the workmen, then, the looked-for solution, with 
 a few rare exceptions, remains a mere theory. 
 
 A number of masters have also tried to solve this problem in economy and 
 establish good feeling between themselves and their workmen, and for this purpose 
 they have given their workmen an interest in the profits. Labor is thus given an 
 increased remuneration, without putting the enterprise itself to any risk, and their 
 attempts have been crowned with success. The workmen see the improvement in 
 their affairs, and the masters' sacrifice is repaid by an increase of devotedness and 
 activity on the part of their staft'. The bonds between master and men are thus 
 drawn closer, and a current of sympathy established which gives a more regular 
 movement to what has become a common enterprise. 
 
 Prom that time the workmen's attention was aroused ; for the first time, perhaps, 
 it has occurred to them that business has not always prospered, that where profits 
 were hoped for, losses sometimes result, and that their share will be more or less great 
 according to results. Then began their industrial education from a commercial 
 
483 
 
 point of view. The master was no longer an enemy, but the one who assumes all 
 the difficulties of the enterprise. 
 
 Such appreciation of the master's position would be more complete if, instead of 
 simply sharing in the profits, the workman became a real partner. Profit-sharing 
 would have been for him a primary preparation for productive co-operation, having 
 initiated him into all the difficulties and contingencies attendant in any enterprise; 
 fitting him for that future co-operation which must be the inevitable result of the 
 extensive proportions industrial establishments now assume; and for which, when 
 the proprietor has made his fortune, and wishes to retire, there are so few oifers of 
 purchase. 
 
 It may be objected that the profits to be divided run some risk when invested in 
 the business from which they proceed. This is true, just as it is true that they I'un 
 risks in any other investment, even in those reputed to be beyond all question, which 
 yet swallow daily, the savings of the public. But the remedy is ready at hand, inso- 
 much that the workman is, in a way, forced to watch over the safety of the concern, 
 and that his individual efforts will in nine times out of ten ensure its success. 
 
 I therefore come to the conclusion that the shares should by preference be 
 invested in a sleeping partnership, in the industry or commercial business on which 
 the workman's action is direct, rather than in institutions or values beyond the 
 workman's range of sight. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 The International Congress, without absolutely advising that pi-eference be given 
 to investments in the liabilities of business in which the workman is engaged, rather 
 than to invest, a sleeping pai'tnership, is of opinion that the former course, in spite of 
 its risks, is a powerful means to prepare the staff, as was done by Leclaire & G-odin, 
 for future productive co-operative association, in which may be founded later provi- 
 dent labor institutions. 
 
 TENTH QUESTION. 
 
 If the profits are to he devoted to life insurance, should not the preference be given to 
 mixed insurances f 
 
 )^^^If the profits are intended to constitute a special retiring fund belonging to the 
 establishment, and connected with a mutual aid socieiy, or founded by one or more syndi- 
 cates, in order to organize the fund, should not tariffs or taxation and rates of pensions 
 be adopted, in conformity with tables of death rates and mathematical rules often over- 
 looked or unknown ? 
 
 Eeportek : MoNS. GmETSSE. 
 
 (Teacher in the Polytechnic School, Actuary in the Union Life Insurance Com- 
 pany, General Councillor for Morbihan.) 
 
 The necessity of saving, which has been so generally acknowledged by the masses 
 in this last half of the century, has led to the adoption of the most varied investments 
 for such funds. The most simple form of investment and the one most readily 
 adopted is the life-rent, as analogous to the retiring fund for Government employees 
 and those of other large administrations, and what more naturally likely to encourage 
 workers than the prospect of a provision for their old age. This is what gave rise 
 to the National Eetiring Fund for old age, established by the State, and to the simul- 
 taneous institution of mutual aid societies, a large number of which are not content 
 merely to assist their numbers when ill or in want, but assure them besides retiring 
 pensions at a certain age. 
 
 ' Is a life-rent the best investment for a workman or employee's savings ? Is it 
 not readily seen that the premature decease of the pensioner deprives his family of 
 an income frequently of the utmost importance to them ? At the utmost a reversion 
 of a portion of the life-rent to the widow is but an insufficient mitigation of her 
 misei-y ; and if there be no widow, are there not frequently children or parents, or 
 20—31^ 
 
484 
 
 other dependents on the pensioner ? And what is a life-rent in reality, when it is 
 made up of yearly payments, the proceeds of a voluntary economy or of amounts 
 retained from the salary or allowances ? It is instituting a capital employed entirely 
 for annuities, if the capital be alienated, or it is utilized for its revenue alone, if the 
 capital is reserved. This latter is the use to which it is put in retiring fands for old 
 age, and it is a partial safe-guai:d of the families' interests. But when a life-rent 
 represents a real capital, why is not the owner left the free use of it ? Is he not the 
 best judge of how to employ it when the time comes for him to enter into the 
 employment of the fruits of his own economy ? 
 
 There are two good reasons why the State may not, at the present time, adopt 
 this method : First, the State has made, and still makes, an enormous sacrifice in grant- 
 ing life-i-ents, which are out of proportion to the amounts retained on the salai-ies, and 
 it must be assumed that the material prosperity of its old employees, is gualanteed 
 against any ill-use being made of the capital. Then, again, as the State has not pre- 
 served the amounts retained in any special fund, it lacks the means necessary to pay 
 capital sums instead of rents. But what cannot be done by the State, or for similar 
 reasons, by mutual aid societies, may be easily accomplished by private firms, or 
 anonymous societies that practice profit-shaiing. 
 
 And, in fact, the profits to be divided, looked at in any way we please, are the 
 result of individual work, are personal property. And, except in rare cases, where 
 the amount is employed exclusively to establish a retiring fund, the share to be 
 divided is paid directly to the staff in variable proportions, or given them entire in 
 cash, or capitalized on individual books; the amount entered in the book is not 
 generally paid to the owners before the age for retiring, or it is paid to the family 
 in case of decease, and sometimes with certain restrictions as to the use to be made 
 of it. But the result of any of these ways of disposing of the amount is the forma- 
 tion of a disposable capital in lieu of a life-rent ; it is liberty given the workman to 
 use the fruits of his life's labor to what he believes to be the best advantage. It is, 
 from a social point of view, creating a capital, a power, in opposition to a precarious 
 income contingent on other sources^-a weakness. Is this asserting that life-rents 
 should be completely abolished ? Not at all ; there should be a just balance between 
 the minimum rent needed to provide the necessaries of life and a patrimony for the 
 family (1) ; and individuals and mutual aid societies may easily make use of interest 
 pertaining to the capital reserved for a retiring fund for old age. 
 
 Houses in which profit-sharing is practised, have, by creating a capital, raised 
 the question to a higher level. It no longer relates merely to the more or less 
 judicious use the interested party may make of his accumulated savings for the good 
 of his family, but the family must be guaranteed against loss occasioned by the death 
 of its head, mateiial loss, which is much more deplorable when death strikes him in 
 the full activity of his life than when it comes at the end of his career. Mr. Charles 
 Eobert has clearly shown that the real life of a man represents an actual capital, as 
 was established by ancient barbaric codes. (2) In former times the price of blood 
 was valued at variable rates, now it is the wrong done the family. 
 
 The only remedy is life insurance, for the repayment of capital by meane of life- 
 rents with reserved capital no more than pays back a sacrifice made, without in any 
 way compensating for loss by death ; but the development of this idea among work- 
 men and its being understood by them has always met with great difficulty. 
 
 In 1866 Messrs DoUfus-Mieg & Co, to encourage their workmen, took out life 
 insurance policies to the amount of $200 francs each, payable at death, for thirty of 
 their men, themselves assuming the payment of half the premium. Twelve years 
 later not one new policy had been signed (3). 
 
 Since 1868 the State has established at very low rates, a life insurance fund ; 
 the maximum insurance was $600. Medical examination was not exacted, but 
 but the amount of insurance was not payable unless the policy had lasted two years. 
 
 (1) See La Rente viagire et la patrvmoine, by Prosper de Lafitte. Review of Provident Institutions 
 (March, 1889.) 
 
 (2) Conference of the Protestant Labor Society (18th January, 1880.) 
 (,3) Decennial enquiry on the private Initiative Institutions of Alsace. 
 
485 
 
 In spite of such exceptional advantages, in 1887 only 1,391 policies had been taken 
 out, to the amount of 1541,335. There is another class of insurance belonging 
 to this fund ; it is in favor of mutual aid societies, which can insure all their 
 members for $200 each without regai-d to age or health, by a collective policy 
 renewable yearly. At the end of 1886, 19 members only on a total of ove;- 6,000 
 then belonging to such societies, had taken advantage of the inducements offered, 
 which was extremely fortunate for the State which experienced great losses through 
 these insurances. 
 
 In England, which is par excellence the country of insurances, the Government 
 has even, by means of the Post Office Savings Banks, established life insurances for 
 workmen. From 1864 to 1811 only 5,940 policies had been issued, and since then 
 the yearly average has been 425 policies. It appears to us that this indifference to 
 insurance on the part of the workman must be the result of the matter having been 
 badly presented to them. The majority of workmen when able to meet their daily 
 demands are more occupied with the idea of providing for their old age than with 
 what will happen to their family after their death. That eventuality seems so distant 
 and the sacrifice to be made every year, so heavy. What is wanted by those from 
 whom savings for the future are required, while the present needs are so hard to 
 satisfy, is the possibility of that future being realized. One combmation alone 
 answers to this demand, it is mixed insurance, which is formed by insurance payable 
 to the policy holder at a certain period settled in advance, or in case of death, to his 
 heirs immediately after the expiration of the period agreed upon. Jean DoUfus was 
 the first to understand the importance of this kind of insurance for workmen ; in 
 1881 with assistance of a few devoted and intelligent friends he founded the Mulhouse 
 "Workingmen's Insurance Company with a capital of $6,000, soon raised to 
 $9,000 (1). 
 
 The object of this company was to induce workmen to take out mixed insurance 
 policies of $200 payable at 60 years of age as follows: To each $200 
 policy issued to a workman paid for in yearly paj'ments varying from $2.45 
 at 25 years of age to $6.50 at 45 years of age, was joined another similar 
 policy paid by the company payable in one sole premium, but payable only if the 
 premiums of the first policy were regularly paid and kept to their original destina- 
 tion. At the end of 1888, 163 policies were thus issued, of which 142 are still in 
 existence ; 11 have been bought out, 3 cancelled and 7 paid after death. (2) 
 
 If in spite of the noble efforts made by the founders, these policies have not been 
 more numerous, it is because their direct effect is not yet appreciable. 
 
 But if the establishment of these insurances is slow ; firms in which profit-sharing 
 is practised may stimulate it, as has been done by two insurance companies. One is 
 JLa Baloise Company which issues policies for the Mulhouse Society ; it includes 120 
 employees holding policies of mixed insurance to nearly two and a half times the value 
 of the salai-ies. The premiums are wholly payable by the Company for employees 
 who have served at least five years ; if they live to the age of sixty they receive the 
 amount of policy, if they die before reaching that age, the Society has a right to dis- 
 pose of the amount according as the deceased policy holder has, or has not, left direct 
 heirs or persons dependent on him; if the amount is not thus claimed it is paid to the 
 aid fund. 
 
 The other insurance company referred to, is the Union, which had long ago 
 established the principle that a portion of the profits should be used in insurance 
 by giving its employees in both its branches. Fire and Life, policies at half premium 
 in different forms, besides the shares in the profits given them directly, and a right 
 to the retiring fund which might be granted them. Since 1887 profit-sharing has 
 been rcnilated by issuing individual books in w'hich is entered the amount of profit- 
 share, and the sum retained on salary, in the other way by payment of policies 
 
 (1.) See Statutes of Mulhouse ■Workingmen's Insurance Company, also models of insurance policies in 
 'Vol. iv oi Bulletin de la participation, Tp.yZ. „ , ,, t> i • c • riootn. 
 
 (2 ) These results were given us by the Insurance Company called the Baloise; bee enquiry ot IBS.'S by 
 Mons.' Charles Robert, V61. VII, Bulletin de la participation, p. 76. Of 163 policies issued, 40 proceed from 
 the Pfastatt establishment of Mr. Lalance. 
 
486 
 
 in mixed insurance, payable at 55 yeai-s of age, half the amount of premium only 
 being payable by the holder of the policy, the other half being payable by the man- 
 agement. The amount of the policy is $1,000 in the beginning, and may be raised 
 to 11,500 by successive amounts of flOO each, whenever the employee is promoted 
 or his salary raised. 
 
 The high rate of mixed insurance may also be an obstacle to its adoption ; nevei'- 
 theless when the revenue is variable such as that proceeding frcm pi'ofit-sharing, 
 might not the sacrifice made, be a little larger in view of the important and imme- 
 diate advantages this form of insurance guarantees both for the present and for the 
 futui'e ? The average age is 30, the yearly premium is |6 for an insurance of $200, 
 payable at 60 years of age, which is about $0.50 to $0.60 per month. There would 
 also be means of combining, under various forms suitable to the different establish- 
 ments in which they are used, mixed insurance with other provident funds, capitali- 
 zation of amount of insurance or life rents. 
 
 As regai'ds assurances in case of decease, life insurance companies alone can, at 
 the present time, on account of the large business done by them, act as intermedia- 
 ries, individuals or industrial companies and offer them absolute guarantees for 
 investing their reserve. It is otherwise as regards life-rents, any provident society 
 may, in this matter, constitute itself theoretically an insurance company; and it is 
 not even a fiction ; any mutual aid society is a society for insurance against illness, 
 accidents, and want of work, &c. ; the sole difference proceeds from^ prices attached 
 to certain risks which are naturally inferior to those of an assurance company, but 
 as regards the examination and the engagement entered into, the method is precisely 
 the same. Whether these societies for mutual aid operate alone, or in groups accord- 
 ing to their number, they must be possessed of a capital representing at the end of 
 each year, the amounts of the life-rents to be paid their actual pensioners, or to those 
 of their members who will eventually become such, that is the reserve; otherwise 
 their promises and the engagements entered into are absolutely delusive. Those 
 societies alone which pay over to the old age fund or individual books, the share 
 allotted each member, are exempt from this care, but it is passed over to the old age 
 fund, and in su".h case the pensions entered correspond to a tariff arranged in accord- 
 ance with tables of death rates. 
 
 How can societies which promise life-rents of a determined value be alone 
 relieved from these essential conditions of warranty ? Many among them have met 
 with bitter experience on which there is the less need for us to dwell, as a special 
 commission has just been named by the Minister of the Interior to examine the 
 balance sheets and. enquire into the resources of mutual aid societies. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 1st. Mixed insurance is preferable to any other kind. 
 
 2nd. Retiring pensions and life-rents should always be in accordance with tariffs 
 and established according to tables of death rate. 
 
 ELEVENTH QUESTION. 
 
 Could not the amount of profits to be divided, be, to a certain extent, usefully employed 
 to encourage individual savings by the grant of an exceptional rate of interest, or by 
 advancing money to the workman to assist him in the purchase of a house ? 
 
 Eeportek: Mons. Aug. Lalance. 
 (Formerly Manufacturer of Pfastatt, Alsace.) 
 
 When the average pi-ofits of an enterprise do not allow a sufficient individual 
 share to the staff, or when the staff is numerous, individual shares are sometimes 
 replaced by a collective subsidy. 
 
487 
 
 "We propose to seek the best means of utilizing the amount of this coUeetive 
 share, that is, the means that will give the greatest and most useful result. It, 
 is evident that of several different uses that can be made of it, preference should be 
 given to that which, at equal outlay, will produce the largest results. 
 
 Experience proves that ordinary Savings Banks are not much patronized hj 
 workingraen employed in manufactories. There are three reasons tor this : 
 
 1st. The high minimum of deposits; 
 
 2nd. The low rate of interest ; 
 
 3rd. The time lost for deposits and withdrawing. 
 
 This last point above all, is a serious consideration in cities where the distances 
 are long, and where the workman often loses half a day's work going to the Savings 
 Bank. 
 
 A remedy has been sought for this inconvenience by establishing a Savings Bank 
 special to the establishment in every factory. 
 
 There is no minimum ; the smallest sum is received. 
 
 The rate of interest is 6 per cent on all sums under |60, and 4 per cent, on sums 
 of from $60 to $200. 
 
 It has not appeared necessary to receive sums higher than $200 from the same 
 depositors, as he can easily find investments for such. 
 
 In some establishments a higher rate of interest still is allowed on first deposita; 
 even 12 per cent, or 1 per cent, per month on deposits of less than $20. 
 
 But the greatest inducement to workmen to patronize the saving fund of the 
 factory, is that deposits are received on pay-day, at the very time the wages are paid, 
 and consequently Ihei-e is no loss of time to complain of. 
 
 That is a main point, and one that produced great results. 
 
 Thus in an establishment in Alsace, employing 1,100 workmen, not one tad 
 opened an account at the Municipal Savings Bank. 
 
 In 1881 a special Bank was organized on the basis indicated by the rules given 
 below. 
 
 During these eight years the deposits amounted to — $28,8.31 20 
 Interest 2,266 60 
 
 $31,097 80 
 "Withdrawn , 21,406 40 
 
 In December 31st, 1888, there remained $ 9,69 1 40 
 
 belonging to 131 depositors. 
 
 But this amount was not the whole amount of the saving accomplished by means 
 of the Bank, and the ease with which deposits could be made. 
 
 Of the amounts withdrawn, one-half only was used for food and rent. The 
 other half was used to purchase property, fields and houses. 
 
 The Bank there, in eight years, really produced a capital of $20,000 which, 
 without it, would never have been saved. 
 
 And what did the establishment sacrifice to produce this result ? "We see that it 
 paid $2,266.60 in interest, at on average rate of 5 per cent. 
 
 Admitting that the factory cannot secure a higher rate of interest than 3 per 
 cent, on the capital it invests, there was, therefore, a balance of $900 borne by the 
 establishment. Thus $0.20 granted by the establishment accomplished a saving 
 of $4.40. 
 
 Thei-e is consequently a useful result of considerable value. It is certain that 
 all wage-eai-ners can economise, and save a part of their regular wages to form a 
 small capital for themselves. 
 
 Experience goes far to show lAat habits of thrift are easily encouraged by these 
 small savings, that in matters of this kind to begin is all the diflSculty. 
 
 "We must, however, observe that the Savings Bank referred to above are only to 
 be recommended in establishments able to give full security for the funds entrusted 
 to them. 
 
488 
 
 Another way of employing collective prolitB to advantage, is by helping 
 workingmen in the purchase of a house. 
 
 In the laboring towns so far established money generally brings 4 per cent, per 
 annum and sometimes 5 per cent. It is evident that a society established for the 
 purpose of building houses and selling them on time can hardly give more. 
 
 But establishments which every year dispose of the amount of profits to be 
 shared may easily offer to build houses for their workmen, charging them but 1 or 2 
 per cent, for advances made them. They may even refuse to charge any interest. 
 
 Supposing that a house of the value of $900 was it question, it would take 21 
 years to pay for it at the rate of $6 a month, if interest were at the rate of 5 per 
 cent. ; 16 years it interest at 2 per cent., and IH years only if no interest charged. _ 
 
 In those districts where building materials are not too expensive the acquisition 
 of a house is the manner of saving most pleasing to the workman, probably because 
 from the very first his are the enjoyable feelings of a proprietor. 
 
 It is also noticed that there is a tendency to free the property by supplementary 
 payments besides the obligatory. 
 
 As an example I will cite a group of ten houses in Alsace built by the owners of 
 a factory for their workmen. 
 
 The obligatory redeeming rent was to be $2,800 in six years ; in reality it was 
 $5,400, that is the purchasers paid $2,600 more than they were obliged to pay in 
 that time. 
 
 These $5,400 saved in six years by ten purchasers cost very little to the firm 
 who advanced the money at 3 per cent, interest. This is indisputably the invest- 
 ment that produces the greatest possible useful result at the least possible expense ; 
 it is the most powerful encouragement to thrift. 
 
 But it is apparent that it can be applied to a small number of workmen only. 
 
 The Savings Bank is of a more general usefulness. 
 
 These two means may, therefore, work simultaneously, and are probably the 
 best use to which collective profit-sharing may be put, because it is the one that best 
 encourages individual thrift. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE SAVINGS BANK. 
 
 Art. 1. In oj'der to enable workmen to invest, at interest, that portion of their 
 pay of which they have no immediate need, Messrs. Schseflfer, Lalance & Co., will, 
 on the 1st of June, 1881, institute a special savings bank for their establishment. 
 
 Art. 2. Any foreman or workman has a right to deposit any sum at their dispo- 
 sal on the Saturday on which payment is made. The deposit will be made in each 
 workshop, a cashier specially appointed for the purpose will give a receipt. 
 
 Art. 3. Any sum over $0.10 will be received. 
 
 It is, howevei', expressly stipulated that the deposits belong to the depositors, 
 and that the depositors ai'C not to make use of borrowed names. 
 
 Art. 4. Interest at 6 per cent, per annum will be given on amounts so deposited, 
 as long as the amounts do not exceed $60; when the sums deposited exceed $60, 
 the rate of interest will be 4 per cent. only. 
 
 Art. 5. No depositor is allowed to have an account of more than $200 in 
 the bank. 
 
 Art. 6. Any one wishing to withdraw all, or a portion of their deposit, should, on 
 the Saturday pay-day, notify the cashier, who will give them an oi-der by means of 
 W,hichthey will be paid the amount at the office, eight days after receipt of the order. 
 
 Art. T. Anyforemanor work man leaving the establishment, must withdraw his 
 deposit. If he fails to do so, he loses all right to interest from the date of his depart- 
 ure. He is at liberty to have ^i^ amount paid over to any bank he shall designate in 
 v^ritiug. 
 
489 
 
 Art. 8. In the event of the depositor's death, the full amount of his deposit with 
 interest up to date, will be paid over to his heirs or assigns on proof of their claim. 
 Chateau de Pfastatt, May 20th, 1881. 
 
 Signed : Sch^ffek, Lalance & Co. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 The International Congress is of opinion that the amount of profits to be 
 shared, may be very usefully employed to encourage individual saving, or to ad- 
 vance money to the workman to assist him in the purchase of a house. 
 
 TWELFTH QUESTION. 
 
 7s not profit-sharing a means of facilitating prof essional instruction by reason of the 
 stahilit'if of workmen who are heads of families ? And reciprocally are not the good 
 workmen formed by the prof essional teaching given in the establishment likely to lead to the 
 founding and maintaining of profit-sharing in an industrial establishment ? 
 
 Eeporter : Mr. Beudin. 
 
 (Director of the competitive examination of apprentices in the former Maison 
 
 Leclaire.) 
 
 Is not profit-sharing a means of facilitating professional instruction by reason 
 of the stability of workmen who are fathers of families? 
 
 Such are the terms in which is expressed the twelfth question given by rule of 
 the Congress, to which I have the honor to reply. 
 
 Before treating directly of the matter of the question, it appears to me to be 
 necessary first, to discover why t^orkmen are not steady to one place. 
 
 The instability of workmen is often complained of, and, no doubt, it has long 
 been an incontestable fact. Nevertheless, from a certain point of view, there is 
 nothing extraordinary in the fact, and this is why : 
 
 What has been done of any importance on one part or the other to repair this 
 evil, to avoid this continual change of workmen, to suppress wandering from work- 
 shop to workshop so injurious to one and all? 
 
 It must be admitted that, in general, neither master nor workman have yet made 
 a movement in regard to this matter, and yet all agree in recognizing that the effects 
 of this mutual indifference are hurtful to all, when they are not disastrous. 
 
 As regards the workman, be he, or be he not, the father of a family, when he 
 enters an establishment to practice his business in any capacity whatsoever, it is to 
 be observed that ho is thrust there, not drawn to the place, and that, one place having 
 no more attraction for him than another, he cares very little whether he works there 
 or elsewhere ; his sole aim, on hiring in the establishment that pays him, being to 
 get through the day's work as quickly as possible, to get his daily bread without 
 even asking himself whether he has earned the money that pays for it, no more than 
 it occurs to him to ask himself whether he could not do better work and more of it. 
 
 His sole desire, his sole aim is to get through the day, woi'king carelessly and 
 without much bodily fatigue, and without brain exertion, and the next day and those 
 following begin again the same course, with the same zeal and the same energy. 
 The small interest taken in him settles the question of his stability. 
 
 Under these circumstances and from the point of view we now deal with, he is 
 utterly indifferent whether or not apprentices are taken who imbued with the same 
 errors, bring with them unknowingly and as by tradition, further examples of care- 
 lessness and indifference. From these arises the want of attraction, the want of 
 eagerness evinced by parents to transmit to their children a business which is always 
 pi-ecarious in its results. 
 
 As regards masters, they are too much occupied with their own affairs, and in 
 general too careless of the fate of their men, when it does not directly affect them, to 
 give much thought to the young people, the apprentices. 
 
490 
 
 The result of all this is, that no one pays any particular attention to professional 
 teaching ; masters are prevented by an egotism much to be deplored, and the work- 
 men, I repeat, by an inveterate indiflference. 
 
 So, indiiference on one side, carelessness on the other, culpable want of foresight 
 in both, such, in my opinion, is the reason why apprenticeship has fallen into disuse. 
 Such is the reason why this loss, so fatal to all, now threatens to wreck French 
 industry in all its branches, to the great damage of our national prestige. 
 
 There is, however, a sure and practical means of resuming this teaching, and, at 
 the same time, insuring the most perfect and satisfactory stability. 
 
 The method by which such a happy result is affected is much used in several 
 establishments, though I will cite but one as a model, because it is one with which I 
 am well acquainted, and for good reasons. 
 
 I refer to profit-sharing as it is practised in the Maison Leclaire, now Eedouly 
 and Marquot. 
 
 To this establishment thanks to this means, or rather to this system, and thanks 
 also to the just and equitable division of the fruits of labor, workmen are drawn, 
 attracted by the system and they remain, firmly attached to the house ; they not 
 only remain, but each one strives to the extent of his power to bring in his relatives, 
 young or otherwise, and, more than all, he tries to keep them there, and for this 
 reason : 
 
 In the IVIaison Eedouly and Marquot, the workman, though not made nor pre- 
 pared expressly for the house, are completely transformed, both from a material 
 and moral point of view, by the advantages and the well-being he experiences there 
 for the present as well as for the future. 
 
 The careless, joking, indifferent, sceptic woi'kman of former days, and I refer to 
 the best among them, has become diligent serious, thoughtful. Attentive to all that 
 goes on around him, to all that is done he is now interested not only in his work, in 
 the possible proceeds of his work, but he is careful to see that his less steady 
 companions do not tor a moment forget, either in their general conduct or in the 
 execution of the work entrusted to them, that they are in an establishment where the 
 profits are divided among them all, great and small, young and old. 
 
 He enquires into everything and is affected by the least error of woi-kmanship, 
 which he rightly feels may be prejudicial to common work, as well as to his own 
 individual interest. 
 
 Finally being by means of this system, in a position to view the future without 
 anxiety, and to enjoy the present in a comparative comfoi-t, before unknown to him, 
 he has but one care, to procure a similar position for his family, his only aim to 
 insure them in a like manner against want, the much dreaded and redoubtable foe 
 of the workman. 
 
 Therefore ,his first care, and his dearest wish, is to bring into the house, his son 
 or his nephew, to keep him near him if possible, and to teach him even to its least 
 details the trade in which he himself has been so successful. 
 
 Thus stability, the security of the workman, is by this means perfectly, which 
 proves that profit-sharing is an excellent means, if not the very best, to obtain it; 
 moreover, it is an infallible method not only to facilitate, but to lead to the spread 
 of professional instruction. 
 
 In the Maison Eedouly and Marquot, to which I am still obliged to refer, having 
 no better example to offer, this professional school, which is always progressing, has 
 since its foundation, formed one hundred and eighty apprentices, the greater number 
 of whom now form a new group of excellent and very able workmen, on whom the 
 house depends and counts to continue to further advantage the traditional good- con- 
 duct, good workmanship, exactitude and honesty which have so long given it its 
 brilliant reputation. 
 
 It is very evident that the apprentices of this house, being educated and treated 
 as their predecessors never were, urged as much, if not more, by interest than by 
 gratitude, do all in their power to continue and, if possible, to improve, the system 
 which, by teaching them their trade in a superior manner, procures for them an 
 amount of physical well-being of which we ourselves would, formerly, never dare 
 to dream. 
 
491 
 
 Consequently proflt>eharing will never, in all future times, find more ardent 
 disciples, nor can it now find more zealous adherents. 
 
 There are, moreover, figures in support of what we assert : 
 
 The Maison Eedouly and Marquot employs annually 603 or TOO workmen ; they 
 this year employ more than 800, all of whom, without exception, share in the profits; 
 but this includes the whole eifective force of the productive army; this army is 
 ofllcered by those among them who, after examiuation, have given proof of ability 
 and whose moral character leaves nothing to be desired. These to a number of 130 
 form the grand council of administratiou of the iiouse, who are called the nucleus 
 {le noyau) which is itself the kernel of employees from among whom, at the proper 
 moment, are chosen directors and managers. 
 
 Messrs. Eedouly and Marquot, former employees, were also at one time mem- 
 bers of the noyau. 
 
 Of the members of this noyau, which is in a way the promised land of every 
 workman in the establishment, now number 37, that is, more tnan one-fourth of its 
 full force, are former apprentices ; among this number there are 10 heads of work- 
 shops, and 4 employees or chiefs of the service. 
 
 Among the 130 members of the noyau, there are 21 employees, and it is from 
 among theoe that, the need occurring, the most worthy is chosen to occupy the very 
 enviable position of director or manager, if for any reason either post should become 
 vacant. Well, among these 21 employees who represent the staff, 14, two-thirds, are 
 worjjmen, and of these 14, four were formerly apprentices; these four have conse- 
 quently their foot upon the ladder which leads to the highest rung of power. 
 
 And this is what I wished to come to, for it is in fact the rise of the youthful 
 element to supreme power which is now beginning, and yet scarce ten years have 
 passed since professional instruction was again started in our establishment. 
 
 We may, therefore, now foresee the time when the management of the Maison 
 Leclaire, of the Maison Eedouly and Marquot in fact, will be entirely in the hands of 
 its former apprentices. 
 
 To conclude, this is the result of what precedes : 
 
 Stability certain and absolute ; 
 
 Pi-ofessional instruction encouraged, even desired by all, the result of stability; 
 
 The torming of excellent workmen, and, as a consequence, the improvement of all 
 by the effects of such instruction ; 
 
 The assured renewal of a picked staff, whieh as a consequence, tends to per- 
 petuate the common work ; 
 
 The permanent establishment and active propagation of all and by all of profit- 
 sharing, as the most powerful active factor of social improvement. 
 
 Such is a synopsis of the principal reasons, as has been j)roved by experience, 
 should in favor of extension of professional instruction, and of the system of profit- 
 shai-ing. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 The Congi'ess is of opinion that profit-sharing, by increasing the stability of 
 workmen who are fathers of families, facilitates apprenticing and a proper renewal 
 of the staff. 
 
 THIETEENTH QUESTION. 
 
 Sow far, and in what way, may the principle of sharing the net profits be applied to 
 agriculture f 
 
 Eeporter : MoNS. Albert Cazeneuve. 
 
 (Agricultural Proprietor, Member of the Committee of Management of the Society 
 
 of Profit-Sharing). 
 
 It is apparent that in agriculture, as in industry and commerce, the principle of 
 profit-sharing among the staff can only be practised where paid labor, plays a more 
 or less important part. 
 
492 
 
 lu the smaller cultures indeed, whether the proceeds are sold as grown, or 
 whether the land is farmed, the owner or farmer cultivates the land himself with the 
 assistance of his family, only in exceptional cases employing paid help. The head of 
 the enterprise and his family therefore assume the double character of master and 
 workmen, and excellent conditions they are for the work to be well and quickly done. 
 There are no means either of applying profit-sharing to farming, since the farmer 
 does all the work with the assistance of his family, without calling in any hired help, 
 and is not remunei-ated by any fixed rate, but by part of the rough proceeds of the 
 work, which he shares with the proprietor in a proportion determined by the farm- 
 ing contract. The farmer is not a hired woi-kman, he is a simple profit-sharer, an asso- 
 ciated workman. 
 
 The principle of profit-sharing thus can in no way be applied to agi iculture as 
 represented by farming, nor to market-gardening, or where the proceeds are directly 
 disposed of, nor to tenant-farming, where, on account of the narrow limits the work 
 is almost entirely done by the head of the entreprise and his family. It can only be 
 applied on large properties or occasionally on farms which, holding a middle place 
 between the larger and smaller cultures, inclining more to the latter, hire workmen 
 regularly. 
 
 When we examine the constitution of rural enterprises, great and small, from 
 the point of view of labor, we find in many of the complex combinations of means of 
 remuneration which are, in reality, only incomplete forms of profit-sharing restricted 
 to one or more persons, and bearing on such and such a branch of production, instead 
 of being applied to all the working staflF, and including the results in general of the 
 cultivation of the land. These special ways of remuneration have generally the 
 weight of tradition to support them in the districts in which they are practised, which 
 proves that certain useful effects must result from them, since they have been per- 
 petuated in spite of a few drawbacks. 
 
 The working of this kind of incomplete profit-sharing, demonstrates that the con- 
 stitution of agricultural enterprise readily adapts itself to general pi-ofit-sharing, and 
 that to establish it all that would be required, in most cases, would be to gradually 
 develop those institutions now existing in a rudimentary state. 
 
 Moreover, in agriculture, as in commerce and in industry, the system can only 
 be applied after the peculiar conditions of the enterprise in which it is to be intro- 
 duced, and the moral, intellectual and material condition of the workmen have been 
 well studied. The master must also seriously study and examine his own position, 
 for as he is the pivoton which everything turns, he it is who must thoroughly under- 
 stand the system and make it understood ; in order to insure its regular and profit- 
 able working he must be fully convinced of the usefulness of the work he is about to 
 attempt, and must most carefully prepare the regulations determining the conditions 
 on which profit-shai-ing is to be established. If he would avoid mistakes he must 
 proceed progressively, including at first only the director and a few of the best 
 workmen. Later on the number may be extended as the good effects of the system 
 prove its advisability. Besides having prudently settled the amount to be divided 
 in accordance with the amount of the net profits, he avoids all danger of making 
 any serious mistake injurious to his interests, having no division to make until after 
 all the costs of working have been paid and capital the interest specified in the 
 regulations. 
 
 The exact amount of net profits to be divided, is not more difficult to determine 
 in rural matters than in others, provided, be it understood, that a complete and suit- 
 able system of book-keeping is kept. That is generally the weak side of many an 
 enterprise, and a serious obstacle to the general adoption of the system, for well-kept 
 books are indispensably necessary to gain a clear view of the situation, and it is only 
 after the situation of affairs has been clearly shown that a business man is in a posi- 
 tion to know whether he can establish profit-sharing, and how to organize the sys- 
 tem. Before profit-sharing is dreamed of as generally applied to agricultui-e, the 
 elements of book-keeping must be disseminated among agriculturists. 
 
 The influence of good book-keeping varies necessarily according to the import- 
 ance and nature of the culture. AH useful facts without exceptiop should be noted, 
 
493 
 
 but, at the same time, attention should be given not to overcrowd the books with 
 details which may bo interesting to know but which are not absolutely necessary. 
 The system of accounts should, at first, be made as simple as possible, developments 
 being added as they are requii'ed, after the system already established is well under- 
 stood, and that practice has brought to light the deficiencies to be supplied. An 
 inventoiy carefully taken every year, a bank book, an account book, debtor and 
 credit, should suffice in most cases, a r^sum^ of these accounts is capable of giving 
 with sufficient preciseness the results obtained, to enable the farmer to judge of the 
 conditions under which profit-sharing may be established. It should always be 
 established with prudence and methodically, and in any case be proceeded by a 
 rigorous system of good book-keeping. 
 
 The general considerations just given indicate briefly how far and in what 
 manned profit-sharing may be introduced into agriculture. 
 
 To begin with, the staff of hired help must be sufficiently large, and the book- 
 keeping such as to allow the master to clearly understand his real position. 
 
 These two essential conditions being fulfilled, the agriculturist who desires to 
 initiate his workmen must study both the special state of his enterprise, and the 
 peculiarities of his workmen's characters; he must also study himself, and when he 
 has gathered information on all these points, he will be in a position to know whether 
 he can introduce profit-sharing in his work, and discern tl e clauses it would be 
 proper to insert in the j'egulations which are to govern its establishment. It 
 would be better, as the number of shares and the amount to be assessed, that the 
 regulations should not at first include the full extent of the advantages it is his 
 intention to grant eventually, so that if, later on, he should be induced to modify the 
 agreement it may be by extending and not by i-estricting its benefits. It would be 
 impossible to give in detail the conditions of this profit-sharing regulation, for the 
 conditions, as regards manner of assessment, division and distribution are, by nature; 
 likely to vary according to the business, and the prefatory study the master has 
 given the matter has been with the express intention of providing him with useful 
 suggestions on the subject. 
 
 We may say that up to the present, no properly so called application of the 
 system of profit-sharing has been met with in agricultural enterprises, for neither 
 the clauses in a farmer's agreement, nor the complex combinations of remuneration 
 mentioned above, can be considered as such. But this fact does not prove that it is 
 impossible to introduce profit-sharing in agriculture, the explanations before given 
 show the contrary to be the case ; it simply proves that the relations between capital 
 and labor being less extended in agricultural matters, because of being more com- 
 plete and immediate between master and workmen there has been less_ need felt of 
 modifying the system of wages pure and simple. 
 
 Nevertheless the system of profit-sharing which should be introduced wherever 
 it may be usefully done, seems of a nature to produce the same fruitful results in 
 agriculture as in commerce and industry, and at this time of an agricultural crisis, 
 remarkable alike for its extent, its duration and intensity, it appears to be in certain 
 cases a means, if not of remedying, at least of improving, to a greater or less extent, 
 the conditions of agriculture. 
 
 To conclude, in order that profit-sharing may, in agricultural matters, be 
 rationally and efflicaciously applied it is necessary : 
 
 Ist. That the work gives regular employment to a certain number of paid work- 
 men ; 
 
 2nd. That a system of book-keeping should have been previously and for some 
 time established, in as simple a form as possible, but well organized and regularly 
 kept; 
 
 3rd. That the master should have previously taken acoun/; of the nature of the 
 work, the characters of his workmen and of his own personal tendencies, in order to 
 insert such clauses in the regulation as are best adapted to the position of affairs, 
 taken care to enter on this path with prudence and circumspection ; 
 
 4th. That we may be fully assuied that the above conditions being fulfilled, the 
 system of profit-sharing applied to the working staff will undoubtedly produce the 
 
494 
 
 most salutary effects, both in an economical and social point of view, in the raral , 
 districts in which it has been introduced. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 The Congress is of opinion that, in principle, there is no obstacle to profit-sharing 
 being introduced into agricultural work where a sufficient number of paid workmen 
 are emplo^-ed, and where a good system of book-keeping is kept. 
 
 POUETBBNTH QUESTION. 
 
 Are the different forms of partnership in use in sea-fishery to he considered as forms 
 of profit-sharing, and, taken in this sense, do they admit of improvement ? 
 
 Eeporter : MoNS. Bmile Chevallier. 
 
 (Laureate of the Institut, Professor of Political Economy in the National Agricultural 
 
 Institution, and at the Higher Normal School of Saint-Cloud, Assistant 
 
 Secretary of the Exhibition of Social Economy.) 
 
 Growth of wealth being due to a combination of labor, capital and nature, it 
 naturally follows that it should belong to those possessed of these three agencies. 
 But the division of wealth has obeyed different laws in accordance with different 
 periods of history and of civilization. 
 
 It is allowable to suppose that primitively, at the time when specie was scarce, 
 or, on the other side, when the division of social labor was but slightly pronounced, 
 when industrj' was limited to the production of articles necessary to existence — .it is, 
 I repeat, allowable to suppose that division of profits was really a division of the 
 products. So much consumable wealth, and to be consumed by all, had been produced 
 by their joint efforts, and it was divided among those who had produced it. Was it 
 not the most simple method ? We know how it occurred that, little by little, under 
 the influence of very different causes on the deed of partnership between the differ- 
 ent agents of production, there was grafted another contract determining, under 
 penalty, the remuneracion coming to each one ; how the part of the undertaker of 
 the work was gradually extended ; how the latter finally assumed the responsibility 
 of all risks, and reduced his fellow-associates to the position of hired help pen- 
 sioners, &c. 
 
 At the present time, a man who furnishes his labor is nearly always remuner- 
 ated in a manner which is entirely independent of the results of the enterprise, and 
 if he happens to be promised by a liberal and philanthropic master a share in the 
 profits, the share does reduce his wages, but is given in addition to them. Let it not 
 be asserted that this is a falling off, a return to slavery. Salary is indisputably a 
 progression ; no doubt in practice it should be supplemented by other combinations 
 destined to serve as a condiment, but it presents advantages in the way of certainty 
 and periodicity which workmen are the first to recognize. 
 
 However, the ancient form of division is perpetuated in a few isolated instances. 
 To cite only the principal of these, we will mention farming and the sea-fishing in- 
 dustry, in which we observe some points of resemblance, and they are probably those 
 which explain why the laborer is yet in the position in which stated salary is un- 
 known. First of all, the product of the industries is uncertain ; the catch is not 
 always large; farming is met with in districts where the crops raised are uncertain. 
 In the second place, the results are almost immediate ; the fish taken are sold imme- 
 diately, or at least its sale is sure ; the farmer is lodged ; he cultivates varigus kinds 
 of crops, some of which may be used to supply his personal wants, a period of only 
 four or five months being all the time he has to wait : they are potatoes, maize, fruit 
 chestnuts ; and finally there are the cattle, whose milk may be immediately con- 
 sumed. 
 
495 
 
 In France, in the fishing industry, except in cod-fishing, this sort of partnership 
 is maintained. In general the men have no stated wagea, but a shai-e in the sale of 
 fish. 
 
 This custom is also practised in most foreign ports. 
 
 Without doubt this manner of remuneration is very profitable to the crew, 
 when the catch is good, but for a labor so hard, painful and dangerous, is seems as 
 though the gain should not be so uncertain. The enterprise itself should be the firs 
 to feel it, and have reason to fear a lack of experienced fishermen. This is precisely 
 ■what occurred in the Breineand Hamburg Companies, founded in 1866, and this was 
 the principal cause of their want of success. At Breine, the crew at first were given 
 half the catch ; but this share not having sufSciently aroused their interest, the com- 
 pany was under the necessity of giving the men a certain stated salary. The crew 
 of each boat were thenceforward paid a monthly sum of 60 thalers in gold (247 francs, 
 50 centimes — $45.90) to be divided among them in proportion to the work done by 
 each. This system by which the fishermen were assured the certainty of a portion 
 of their renumeration, was very profitable to the Company, whose fishing smacks, in 
 spite of the small number of day's work, brought in a large number of cases of fish. 
 
 This combination of a stated salary, and a share in the proceeds of the work is 
 certainly a progressive measure, vrhich we hope to see generally adopted. 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 The Congress Is of opinion that it is advisable in sea-fishery to combine a stated 
 remnneration with a certain share in the proceeds of the voyage. 
 
 FIFTEENTH QUESTION". 
 
 Should profit-sharing he ordered by the Government f Should it not, according to 
 circumstances, proceed from the master, or from the wish of the workmen freely accepted 
 by him, with the same rights as any other agreement relating to labor ? 
 
 Eeportee ; Mr. Gauthier. 
 
 (President of the Syndical Chamber of Eooflng and Plumbing, Member of the 
 Committees of Admission to the Group of Social Economy.) 
 
 The conditions of labor have followed the political changes of our country. 
 Faced by the Eevolution of 1789, from all restraint the workman has, since the 
 repeal of the laws on strikes, and coalitions, become absolutely free. But, and herein 
 is the weak part of his liberty, living independently, without tie between himself 
 and his master, without any link with production, supplying his needs from day to 
 day, he is often helpless and without resources when confronted by sickness, lack of 
 work, and the other accidents of life. Profit-sharing, remedies in part, this relaxation, 
 which is the consequence of the absolute liberty both of master and workman, and 
 establishes a bond of interest between them. Profit-sharing is interesting, because, 
 from a social point of view, it will lead to the development of a spirit of thrift in the 
 workman, by giving him, over and above his wages, an amount of which he can 
 dispose for the well-being of his family, assure himself of a retiring pension as a 
 provision for his old age. Profit-sharing marks one step towards the change which 
 is to give the workman a more and more important place in production: it is a 
 progress destined to effect immense improvement in his position — economically 
 considered — leading him to direct partnership or to cooperation. 
 
 That profit-sharing is not generally adopted, that it is yet an exception in the 
 customs of industrial firms is due to causes which are sure to disappear in time. In 
 fact, profit-sharing cannot bo adopted without previous preparation. It requires 
 serious study and an organization suited to each industry. It exacts — and this is the 
 most delicate point — it exacts a very regular system of book-keeping, giving the par- 
 ties interested a clear view of the state of affairs. 
 
496 
 
 Now, it may be very inconvenient for a business to have its transactions pub- 
 licly exposed, if not for very prosperous firms, at least for those very numerous 
 enterprises which do business with borrowed funds, and whose credit might suffer if 
 the real state of their affairs became publicly known. This reason, which may appear 
 to be a secondary consideration, is in truth the real, though concealed, cause of the 
 refusal of many firms to adopt profit-sharing. 
 
 Nor is it to be desired that profit-sharing, which is in the first stage of its exist- 
 ence, should be generally adopted and applied under circumstances likely to com- 
 promise it. The most important point is gained ; the principle of it is now before the 
 public, the way is marked out and the example given. It may even be considered 
 fortunate for the system that, up to the present time, only houses of important stand- 
 ing have adopted it, houses possessed of the necessary organization and resources to 
 insure success. 
 
 In view of the important benefits and immense advantages profit-sharing may 
 secure to the country, by assuring a certain amount of well-being to a part of the 
 social body, we may question whether it would be well, whether it would be advisa- 
 ble to thrust it on our industries by means of a special law — to even have it imposed 
 by order of the State. Viewing profit-sharing as an obligation, the subject requires 
 serious study and attentive thought, because of the influence the obligation may have 
 on the progress of profit-sharing, the object of which must be well understood. 
 
 Profit-sharing is an encouragement and a reward; it should ai-ouseand stimulate 
 emulation among workers. Stimulating progress it must also cooperate to raise the 
 level of production. In my private opinion, profit-sharing should not be established 
 in a general way, as a sort of supplementary gain added to the regular wages, but 
 be rather instituted as a particular salary, reserved for able workmen of good cha- 
 racter and conduct, and thus preserve it as a reward. Forcibly given to all work- 
 men indiscriminately, by law, would destroy its essential principle, its moral cha^ 
 racter, and would lead to injustice, by admitting men to a share in the profits who 
 have done nothing to add to the sum of the profits, and also the incapable men who 
 may, by their ill-done work, have compromised the business. If these considerations 
 be well weighed, it will be recognized that to bear fruit, profit-sharing must be per- 
 fectly free, in order to provide a means of recompensing effectually, specially, the 
 sustained efforts of the good workmen, and to stimulate others by the hope of a similar 
 reward. 
 
 ' The principle of obligatorj^ proft-sharing was laid before the public powers. 
 It was laid before the Chamber of Deputies in 1882, in a proposed law emanating 
 from a number of deputies. Article 1st contains the whole principle, and is thua 
 stated : — 
 
 "Any concession made by the State, either to an individual or to a company, in 
 regard to the exercise of any productive industry, should involve the sharing of 
 the profits of such industry by all persons employed, and under the conditions stated 
 in a statement of charges." 
 
 This article, by its generality, includes not only all large concessions for mines, 
 canals, railways, &c., but all works, great and small, that are directly given, or are 
 subject to tender. 
 
 It cannot be denied that the proposed law is suggested by an interest in the 
 laboring class, but it over-reaches its object, by creating a special means of remuner 
 ation, to the exclusive profit of the workmen and employees of contractors for public 
 works. In this instance the obligation attacks the liberty of the contract,, which 
 should alone govern the conditions of the work between master and men, both in 
 regard to public works and to private enterprises. 
 
 Thei-e are principles which should be definitely accepted by our modern Society, 
 fundamental tenets oue must respect if we would progress, and avoid all retrogres- 
 sion prejudicial to the intei'ests we wish to guard. The liberty of labor is one of 
 these principles ; it is one of the conquests of the Eevolution ; it can no longer be put 
 in question, and any innovation which does not take this liberty into consideration 
 is, by that fact alone, doomed to barrenness, because it would be in opposition to the 
 general principles of our public right, with our manners, our aspirations and our 
 national traditions. 
 
497 
 
 Force of example and its results, can alone ensure the progi-esslve developments 
 of profit-sharing. Its forced adoption, introduced at hap-hazard, in establishments 
 unprepared for it, would rather comprise its chances of success by the hidden 
 trouble it might bring to light. In order that profit-sharing may become one of our 
 customs, and be developed, it must give the workmen, it is supposed to favor, very 
 sure returns. 
 
 The application of profit-sharing to public works is, perhaps, the most diflScult 
 to organize, on account of the necessary changing of the staff; it is almost impossible- 
 in large lumber industries where the hiring of workmen is made by large bands of 
 men, where the work has to be quickly done. 
 
 When a principle is established, all its consequences must be accepted, for they 
 will occur in spite of us. 
 
 If the State impose division of profits on its contractors, &c., it must superin- 
 tend the division ; now, the Grovernment cannot supervise the inventories which 
 state the profits without interfering in the management of the entei-prise, which 
 would, in certain cases, make it responsible and lead to its will overriding that of the 
 master, which is not to be allowed. 
 
 If the Government oblige masters to adopt profit-sharing in their establishment, 
 it must determine the amount in its statement of accounts ; but this statement of 
 profits to be divided might lead to its being included in the charges of the tender, 
 under the same title as the other charges the contractor has to pay, which would be 
 the most complete denial of profit-sharing, since it would eventually be paid by the 
 State whose abatement of the amount in the tender would diminish according to the 
 greater or less amount of profits imposed. 
 
 Admitting that the Government can, without too much trouble, superintend the 
 division in the larger concessions under its immediate control, such superintendence 
 could scarcely be exercised in smaller enterprises granted to private individuals, the 
 details of which are generally very numerous. Control of the profits could not be 
 affected without seeking information in the books, a most odious and vexatious pro- 
 ceeding which would give the secrets of the establishment to the first comer, com- 
 promising very frequently the honor of the master, and his foi^tune and professional 
 or trade secrets as well. 
 
 Obligatory profit-sharing, by including all those who have taken any part what- 
 ever in the work, makes it necessaiy to keep a special set of accounts, besides the 
 general book-keeping of any house undertaking public work, in order to keep count 
 of the successive changes in the objects in its workshops destined to be used in the 
 lumber-yards of the Government, to keep the accounts of those having a right to a 
 share in the profits, which would be very difflcult, and often utterly impossible. 
 
 Important works cannot be carried entirely through with the same set of work- 
 men; thei-e are periods of great activity demanding a great number of hands, and 
 there are also slack times necessitating inevitable dismissals. ; special kinds of work 
 succeed each other. How can the accounts to be regulated of workmen who are 
 hired with the condition of being given a share in the profits over and above their 
 wages, and who may never be seen again ? 
 
 Supposing that means were discovered to solve the question of intei-ior organiza- 
 tion, to avoid divulging secrets of management, profit-sharing in the matter of 
 public works would have very little to recommend it. 
 
 In fact, public works are always granted to the lowest tender, that is to the per- 
 son who will do the work for the lowest amount of remuneration. Under such con- 
 ditions the transaction being restricted toitsnarrowest limits offers very little chance 
 of gain. 
 
 Yery frequently these works being sought after by industry, eager for produc- 
 tion, are subject to great abatement and result in loss for the contractor. 
 
 On account of their nature the works given to contractors cannot be managed 
 like large concessions having but one kind of production in view, which is always 
 the same and whose profits may be annually regulated by the balance sheet of an 
 inventory. A contract for public work may last two, three, four and five years, and 
 it is only at the close of the transaction, after regulation of the bills, after settlement 
 
 20—32 
 
498 
 
 of all accounts, at the expiration of the security that the profits or the loss may be 
 determined. When men have worked several years in the shanties of the State or 
 of any public administration, in the belief that a share in the profits is enteredjin the 
 statement of accounts, and they are told at the expiration of the transaction that 
 there are no profits, they are not likely to accept so peremptory a declaration, how- 
 ever exact it may be, nor will they listen to reason. Confronted with such a nega- 
 tive result, claims will pour in and disorder fatal to the public peace will ensue. To 
 order profit-sharing when there are none to share, is to order riot and violent reprisals. 
 
 Obligatory profit-sharing, because of the difficulty of applying it to public 
 works, undertaken apart from the affairs of an establishment, would lead the Grov- 
 ernment to allow only those to tender, who, in their establishments, practice profit- 
 sharing in the annual profits. Admitting that the State could meet with establish- 
 ments practising profit-sharing, in all the industries its requirements exact, the 
 system would still cause great trouble to our industrial customs, and be calculated 
 to compromise our public finances ; for limiting the competition, by excluding 
 establishments not practising profit-sharing, would result in a small number of ten- 
 ders and expose the Government to the risk of paying a higher amount. 
 
 Besides the material diflflculties of its application, another consideration ai-ises, 
 which doubly forces the rejection of obligatory profit-sharing, and that is that there 
 is never any real progress made but such as is naturally effected by time and by the 
 co-operation of good-will and conviction. Constraint and obligation are incompat- 
 ible with the independence of our national character. A nation that has done so 
 much to gain its liberty cannot be driven back under the yoke, more or less con- 
 cealed, of the State. Eeforms that demand submission to offensive rules, excite us 
 to insubordination, create in us dissimulation, and are always fruitless; we take 
 credit, with our character, in escaping obligations imposed on us. Profit-sharing, 
 with the attendant shuffling of public functionaries, would become odious to even 
 those best disposed towards it, to those even who have, of their own free will, 
 granted it to their workmen, and who, the same as others, would be subjected to 
 inquisitorial visits of more or less intelligent agents. 
 
 Finally : profit-sharing is an institution of the future, destined to give the long 
 sought for solution of the problem of social peace, by the direct agreement of master 
 and workmen ; but it must remain free if it is to bear fruit ; it must proceed from the 
 master or by agreement freely accepted by master and men, and must not, in any 
 way be confounded with the daily wages. If it were otherwise, if profit-sharing were 
 to lose its characteristic of liberty, we would see its proportion discussed, thrown 
 as food to satisfy the appetite of the clubs, the same as wages, which would com- 
 promise both the principle and its benefits. In order that this new form of 
 partnership, which the workmen recognizes only by the profits, the master being 
 left to bear the misfortunes and losses, may take root in our customs, and must be 
 given all liberty that it may meet all requirements and surmount all the trials of its 
 application. Profit-sharing will one day rise triumphant over all prejudice, all 
 difficulty of organization, free and independent ; destined to reform mankind, it must 
 become the application of that maxim of every true worker : " to each one according 
 to his merit." 
 
 SUGGESTED RESOLUTION. 
 
 The International Congress is of opinion : 
 
 That profit-sharing cannot be imposed by the State ; 
 
 That it must be the result, according to the circumstances, of the master's own 
 free will, or of his free acceptance of a suggestion from the workmen, and should be 
 governed by the same obligations as govern any other agreement. 
 
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS 
 
 EESPECTING 
 
 ACCIDENTS INHERENT TO LABOR, 
 
 HELD m PAEIS FEOM THE 9th TO THE 14th SEPTEMBBE, 1889. 
 
 This congress was one of the most important, if not the most important, of all 
 those held in Pai'is in 1889. It numbered 780 members, coming from all points of 
 the world, including 29 oflScial foreign delegates, representing 12 different countries, 
 36 honorary members, and 710 afBlliated members, among whom were the delegates 
 sent by large numbers of boards of trade and associations. 
 
 The congress was subdivided into three sections : — 
 I. Technical. 
 II. Statistics and management. 
 
 III. Economy and legislation. 
 
 Each section sat separately. 
 
 Seventeen reports were submitted to the deliberations of the sections and of the 
 congress. These deliberations gave rise to very important debates, but in conse- 
 quence of a rule of the congress (conformably to the rules of some societies on 
 political economy) no resolution was passed, and no vote taken. 
 
 The reports presented to the congress are divided as follows : — 
 
 INTEODUCTIOJS". 
 
 State of the question respecting accidents inherent to labor in Prance and else- 
 where. 
 
 Reporter : M. Numa Droz, federal councillor, head of the department of Foreign 
 Affairs and Commerce in Switzerland. 
 
 I. TECHNICAL SECTION. 
 
 1st. Eeport on the German General Provident Exhibition against Accidents, 
 held in Berlin from April to October, 1889. 
 
 Reporter : Bmile MuUer, professor in the Central School, ex-president of the 
 Society of Civil Engineers. 
 
 2nd. General sketch of the technical means to be taken to prevent accidents. 
 
 'Reporter : Alfred Toqu6, engineer in the Mining Corps. 
 
 II.— STATISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 DEFINITION AND STATISTICS OF ACCIDENTS. 
 
 1st. Definition of the accidents to which labor is exposed in the several coun- 
 tries : characteristics of these accidents and inabilities resulting therefrom. 
 
 Reporter : — ^Hyppolyte Marestaing, founder of the accident assurance society 
 called lia Priservatrice. 
 
 2nd. Statistics of accidents inherent to labor (railways, mines, quarries, steam 
 apparatus). Elements of the first cost of assurance against accidents. Classifica- 
 tion of risks. 
 
 Reporter : — Octave Keller, chief mining engineer, vice-president of the Statistical 
 Society of Paris. 
 
 20— 32J 
 
500 
 
 3rd. Statistical definition of accidents and census of professions. 
 Reporter : — Bmile Cheysson, chief engineer of roads and bridges, &c. 
 4th. Statistics of accidents in the different industries. 
 Reporter : — Emile Cacheux, engineer. 
 
 PREVENTIVE MEASURES AGAINST ACCIDENTS. 
 
 1st. Eegulation and ofiScial inspection of industrial establishments in the several 
 countries. 
 
 a. Mines, quarries, railways and the use of steam. 
 
 Reporter : — A. Olry, chief mining engineer. 
 
 h. Labor of women and children in factories. 
 
 Reporter : — M. Laporte, sectional inspector of work in factories. 
 
 c. Dangerous and unhealthy establishments in the several countries. 
 
 Reporter : — M. Livache, civil mining engineer, inspector of classified establish- 
 ments : 
 
 2nd. Steam users' associations. 
 
 Reporter : — Ch. Compare, director of the Parisian Association of steam users. 
 
 3rd. Industrial associations organised in Prance and in foreign countries, to pre- 
 vent accidents. 
 
 Reporter : — Henri Mamy, inspecting engineer of the Manufacturers Association 
 of France against accidents inherent to labor. 
 
 III. ECO]SrOMT AND LBGISLATIOJST. 
 
 1st. Liability for accidents inherent to labor and professional risk. 
 
 Reporter : — Charles Dejace, professor in the University of Liege, president of the 
 Belgian Society of Social Economy. 
 
 2nd. The intervention of judicial tribunals in awarding damages in cases of 
 accidents. — Indemnity awarded according to civil status of the persons injured. 
 
 Reporter : — Een^ Jourdain, manufacturer, ex-vice-president of the Industrial 
 Society of Saint-Qiientin. 
 
 3rd. Experimental study of the obligatory insurance and of the free and oijtional 
 insurance. 
 
 Reporter : — Luigi Luzzatti, member of the Italian Parliament, professor of law 
 in the University of Padua. 
 
 4th. Organisation of insurance against accidents. 
 ■ Reporter : — Emile Cheysson, chief engineer of roads and bridges, etc. 
 
 5th. Examination of financial arrangements to be made for the safe working of 
 the superannuation service. — Formation of a reserve fund, or annual distribution of 
 ofiBces. 
 
 Reporter : — E. B^ziat d'Audibert, actuary. 
 
 6th. Difference to be made in the organization of insurances for short or long 
 periods. 
 
 Reporter : — C. Bodenheimer, journalist, chief of the Journal d' Alsace. 
 
 For want of resolutions and votes, we will cite a resume of the closing speech 
 pronounced by the President of the Congress, also an extract from a letter addressed 
 to the Coiigress by Mr. Numa Droz, one of the honorary presidents. This speech 
 and letter were supposed to represent the opinion of the majority of the Congress. 
 
 The speech of the President of the Congress is condensed as follows : * 
 
 " "With respect to the technical preservation from accidents, he declares that 
 though considerable progress has already been made, there still remains an active 
 propaganda to be made in the way shown by the Mulhouse Association and followed 
 of the French Associations. He compliments highly the efforts of those associations. 
 
 " He calls attention to the usefulness resulting from the creation in large centres, 
 of museums where would be exposed models of the principal apparatus intended to 
 prevent accidents. 
 
 * International Congress respecting accidents inherent to labor. — Proceedings of the sittings and visits, 
 prepared by M. Gruner. 
 
501 
 
 " Ab to the management he notices that the i-egulations in force to prevent acci- 
 dents have been discussed, and that whereas some i-ules have been found to work 
 very efficiently in Pi-ance as well as in foreign countries, still there are others totally 
 inadequate and which need remodelling. 
 
 " Generally, the inspecting staff of factories should be increased, and constituted 
 on uniform bases. 
 
 " Statistics, so far, seem to indicate that the number of accidents are on the 
 decrease wherever effective means have been taken to preserve order whether tech- 
 nical or administrative. Unfortunately the statistics of different countries cannot 
 be compared ; they cannot agree on a precise definition of an accident. This defini- 
 tion should be established. As to the statistics in themselves, it is desirable that the 
 classification which is to form its basis be everywhere the same as to the causes and 
 results of injuries received. 
 
 " Economy and legislation in connection with accidents inherent to labor have 
 been ably discussed, and the following conclusions are deduced from these discussions: 
 
 " 1. The statu quo should be amended by special legislation ; 
 
 " 2. The professional risk is almost unanimously accepted, provided it be clearly 
 defined as to its juridical bearing, and limited as to its pecuniary consequences ; 
 
 " 3. The majority would seem opposed to the principle of the obligatory insur- 
 ance and the State insurance." 
 
 A large number of the members of the Congress, desirous to continue the useful 
 work already commenced, proposed the creation of an international permanent com- 
 mittee of the Congress I'especting accidents inherent to labor. 
 
 The object of this committee would be : 
 
 1. To act as a medium between the persons interested in the question of acci- 
 dents ; 
 
 2. To collect all technical, legislative and statistical informations touching this 
 subject, and to publish the same in a series of sheets or circulars, the number of which 
 would depend on the funds in hand ; 
 
 3. To find the bases and ihe form of international statistics of accidents ; 
 
 4. To prepare the meeting and programme of the next Congress. 
 
 In order to attain this end, in a satisfactory manner, the committee would com- 
 prise, beside the French nucleus, members from divers counties. 
 
 Exti-act from a letter of Mr. Numa Droz, federal councillor, head of the Depart- 
 ment of Foreign Affaii s and Commerce. 
 
 <^ ^J^ ^L^ ^t ^Jf ^J^ ^f' ^If ^f£ ^1^ 
 
 In spite of the difference of opinions to be met in the eleven reports now before 
 me, it seems to me that oat of the whole arise general conclusions that may 
 serve as a useful basis for, deliberations of the Congress. I know very well that 
 the intentions of the organisers is not to come to a vote on precise resolutions, because 
 when such resolutions are not the result of common consent, bat of occasional 
 majorities, they have not a great value and may sometimes mislead public opinion. 
 I make bold, however, to think that it is not impossible and may be useful to 
 distinguish the well-developed tendencies shown by the divers reports presented to 
 the Congress, to indicate the relations existing between them, and to try to stake out 
 the way which might be followed by those who, in the future, will take up this 
 question, if they wish to profit by the interchange of ideas brought about by this 
 Congress. It is from that standpoint I have deduced for myself the results of the 
 work of the reporters, and that I take the liberty to submit to you ; you can judge 
 for yourselves as to their application. 
 
 It appears to me that the following principles and prescriptions are the conse- 
 quence of the preliminary examinations now in your hands, and that in short this 
 is how the question stands, not in a legislative point of view, but merely the question 
 of accidents inherent to labor in Prance and abroad. 
 
 I. The idea of the professional risk is generally admitted; but it is reasonably 
 claimed that this risk should be clearly defined as to its juridical bearing, and limited 
 as to its pecuniary consequences. 
 
502 
 
 II. The new principle develops two tendencies almost irresistible : The one is to 
 apply more and more to all kinds of professions ; the other is to comprise not only 
 accidents as such, but also the sickness resulting or which may be considered as 
 resulting from labor. 
 
 III. This double tendency is liable to bring about a notable transformation in 
 the present social element, either immediately by obliging to recognize the rights 
 and to create organizations not already existing, or indirectly, by leading to the 
 constitution of other rights and other social organizations for other life risks, as 
 proved by Germany, which has lately legislated on the risks of incapacities and old 
 age as a result of its laws on sickness and accidents. 
 
 IV. Considering these facts, many minds are anxiously exercised as to what will 
 become of the individual liberty, the initiative and personal responsibility in the new 
 organizations. In fact, experience seems to prove already that the spirit of precau- 
 tionary measures relaxes considerably both with the employer and the employee 
 where those new principles are applied. Thus, whilst admitting the idea of profes- 
 sional risk, it were well to react against the errors so far ascertained and against 
 those that may occur. 
 
 V. In order not to be misled, it is necessary to consult the experiences acquired 
 in different countries, under the systems there in use. But, in order that the com- 
 parisons can be utilized with the utmost profit, it is highly desirable to have statistics 
 based on uniform principles either for the classification of accidents according to 
 their nature and duration, or, as to the principles forming the basis for the payment 
 of indemnities, that these latter be voluntarily paid, or under an insurance, or by 
 judgment of a court. The establishment of a standard form for the use of the different 
 countries would be a very meritorious deed. 
 
 VI. We will certainly agree to wish that in every country, the necessary 
 legislative measures be passed to establish means to prevent accideats, and that an 
 official superintendence and inspection be organized for their execution, without 
 interfering, however, with similar means, oftentimes more effective, taken by persons 
 or private associations. 
 
 VII. Also, without finally deciding for such or such a system, we should desire 
 that indemnifying measures be sufficient in all manufacturing countries, and that 
 necessary precautions be taken everywhere to ensure the payment of indemnities to 
 persons injured by accidents. 
 
 VIII. Lastly, I believe I can again refer to the final conclusion of my report, 
 where it is said that in order to obtain the object in view : — " It would be desirable 
 to constitute a permanent international medium, which would serve to collect the 
 experiences obtained in divers countries and to fix the best rules to follow." 
 
 Forgive me, gentlemen, if I have thus anticipated your debates. But it seems 
 to me that the Congress will really be useful if, as I am sure, it succeeds in clearly 
 showing, first, the great social importance of the question of accidents inherent to 
 labor, taken either by itself, or its consequences elsewhere, and secondly, the necessity 
 to give without delay, to this momentous question, solutions drawn from the common 
 fund of experiments made all over the world. 
 
 Berne, Yth September, 1889. 
 
 EBPOETS. 
 
 The reports presented to the International Congress relating to accidents inhe- 
 rent to labor, form a volume of 500 pages. The study of these reports is incumbent 
 on all persons who are willing to devote themselves to the solution of the grave 
 question of the responsibility in matters of accidents to workingmen, and who desire 
 to find a system of just and equitable indemnity for injuries received. 
 
 We have thought proper to reproduce in their entirety three of these reports ; 
 they show clearly the state of the question of accidents inherent to labor in all 
 countries ; the statistics allowing to judge exactly of the importance and of the 
 proportion of the accidents and divers systems of organization of insurance applied 
 in different countries. 
 
503 
 
 STATE OF THE QUESTION EELATING TO ACCIDENTS DUEING WOEK 
 
 IN PEANCE AND IN FOEEIGN PAETS. 
 
 By Numa Deoz. 
 
 (Federal Councillor, Chief of the Department of Foreign Aifairs and Commerce 
 
 in Switzerland.) 
 
 It is with much hesitation that I have accepted the honorable mission of prcr 
 senting a general report on the complex and delicate question of accidents at work. 
 The lively interest I take in the matter with which I have been of&cially connected 
 y during a considerable number of years, and the desire I have to see the subject taken 
 up, have alone induced me to overcome the scruples I had felt and the many difficul- 
 ties of different kinds that confronted me, and by which I had at first been impelled 
 to excuse myself to the organizers of the Congress for refusing the mission. 
 
 I would most assuredly answer to their intention were I merely to give a broad 
 outline of the matter in question, leaving it to more competent hands to fill in the 
 picture or to soften its harshness if necessary. 
 
 I. 
 
 To begin with, it will be necessary to examine and see whether the direct inter- 
 vention of the State in this matter of accidents of labor is in conformity with law 
 and justice, or is necessitated by our social requirements. Our jurists are even to 
 this day in lively controversy on the question of law, — some strictly maintain the 
 pi-inciplethat each one is responsible only for the damage caused by his own fault, 
 whether it be an intentional result or the effect of negligence. They arrive at the 
 conclusion that the State has no special laws to make concerning accidents of labor, 
 nor to prescribe any preventive measures, but that we must depend upon the indivi- 
 dual interests of employers and workmen for the necessary precautions to be taken 
 to avoid accidents, and that if accidents do still occur in spite of these precautions, 
 then the only recourse is to appeal to our common law for damages and indemnification. 
 
 Others allege that there are kinds of danger inherent to the nature of the 
 work, dangers which cannot be entirely avoided by any possible precaution or inten- 
 sity of forethought that may reasonably be exacted from a workman, and which are 
 increased by work being done in common. The more is an employer's responsibility 
 diminished the less will he be inclined to take precautionary measures against pos- 
 sible accidents. If, in any case whei-e the fault is imputable to no one, and cannot be 
 laid to the charge of the employer, the injured person is offered no reparative 
 amends, or cannot be, on account of the insolvency of the person declared responsible, 
 the result will be a miserable and unmerited situation for the injured person and his 
 family, which cannot be overlooked or left unaided by the bulk of society. 
 
 It would be an illusion in most cases to rely upon provident precautionary 
 measures having been taken by the workman himself to assure himself against pos- 
 sible accident; the workman's pay is generally so small that it cannot be considered 
 as representing, besides the work done, a premium of insurance against accidents. 
 The State, therefore, cannot rely on individual interest alone for care to prevent acci- 
 dents, nor can it rely on an appeal to common law for reparation by damages of the 
 injury done, but must itself dictate the precautionary measures to be taken and make 
 provision so that the victims of accidents shall be awarded as theif due, and not as a 
 voluntary alms, the aid required by them. 
 
 Such, in a general way, are the doctrines maintained by one and another. But 
 there are shades of opinion and compromises of different kinds that may be effected 
 between these theories. For instance, those jurists who rely upon common law do 
 not all of them deny the State the right to order preventive measures, and those of 
 the other class do not altogether hold to a complete right to indemnity in case of 
 accident. The greater number draw back before the extreme consequences of an 
 appeal to law which they take from their starting-point. It will be necessary to 
 state them before comparing the legislation of different countries on this matter. 
 
504 
 
 The countries of Europe* in which common law is still in force are the most 
 numerous, but, with about two or three exceptions, they are the least industrious. 
 We will follow their alphabetical order. 
 
 Belgium. — Where the responsibility of masters is governed by Articles 1382, 
 1383 and 1384 of the Civil Code. (1) 
 
 Art. 1382. " The deed of any person that causes damage to another obliges him 
 by whose fault the damage was committed to make reparation." 
 
 Art. 1383. " Every person is responsible for the damage caused by his fault to 
 another, whether by positive act, neglect or imprudence." 
 
 Art. 1384. " He is responsible not only for the damage caused by his own fault, 
 but also that caused by the fault of persons under his control or by things which he 
 has under his care." 
 
 " Masters and employers are responsible for the damage caused by their servants 
 and workmen in the performance of the work for which they are employed." 
 
 According to these provisions, the proof of the fault falls to the workman, and 
 it is he, also, who has to bear the risks in cases of " fortuitous event, and of irresist- 
 able force." 
 
 Denmark. — Here Eoman law rules, according to which the chief of the industry 
 is responsible only for his personal fault and those committed by his representative 
 acting in his name. 
 
 Spain. — At the present time, masters' responsibility is governed by the prin- 
 ciples of common law, according to which the person who has caused any damage 
 to another is bound to repair it ; but the proof of the master's fault lies with the 
 victim. 
 
 France, notwithstanding the efforts made during many years to endow it with 
 a special legislation, is still, like Belgium, under the rule of common law, as con- 
 tained in Articles 1382 to 1384 of the Civil Code (2). For a long time these articles 
 were applied only in regard to the responsibility of an employer in regard to 
 the damage caused to a third party through his fault or that of his workmen, but 
 not as I'egards accidents occasioned persons in his service, except in case of fraud. 
 About forty years ago a happy modification was effected in jurisprudence, which 
 admitted the i-esponsibility of the master as existing in regard to his employees, 
 except in unforeseen cases and where superior force is used, but the proof always lies 
 with the victim. 
 
 Hungary. — The master is responsible only for accidents of which he is personally 
 the cause, and for those occasioned by his representative, actmg as such, but not for 
 those occasioned by his employees or workmen. 
 
 Italy. — This matter is governed by Articles 1151, 1152 and 1153 of the Civil 
 Code (3), according to which the master is responsible only for such accidents as 
 are occasioned by him personally or by his direct representative. 
 
 Luxembourg is governed the same as Belgium, using the same Civil Code. 
 
 Norway. — Eesponsibility is regulated in this country as in Denmark, by the 
 principles of Eoman law. 
 
 Netherlands. — The Civil Code of the Netherlands contains in its Articles 1401 
 and 1403, the same principles as the French Civil Code in its Articles 1382 to 1384, 
 already quoted. 
 
 Portugal. — The courts decide on the responsibility of masters in accordance 
 with the principles enunciated in Articles 2398 and 2372 of the Civil Code (3) which 
 are an amplification of the principles of French law. 
 
 Boumania. — (?) 
 
 * We have not thought proper to refer to legislation in the States of America, which is in general more 
 rudimentary than in Europe. 
 
 (1) That is to say, the Code NapoUon. 
 
 2. The text of Articles 1382, 1383 and 1384 is the same as those given on the same subject for Bel- 
 gium, the latter country having always been governed in civil matters by the Code NapoUon. 
 
 3.- Conformable to Articles 1382, 1383 and 1,384 of the French Civil Code. 
 
505 
 
 Russia. — The legislation of the country contains no special dispositions. The 
 principles of Eoman law are applied. 
 
 Sweden, like Denmark and iforway, applies the principles of Eoman law. 
 
 The countries which are endowed with a special legislation are Germany, Auslria, 
 ■Great Britain and Switzerland, but it is to be noted that in each of these countries 
 accidents occasioned by work are more or less governed by the principles of com- 
 mon law. This is a point to which we will refer in the second part of this report. 
 
 The movement which, in Germany, Austria, England and Switzerland, has brought 
 about a special legislation, and is also being felt in other countries, began by legis- 
 lation on railway accidents. It was recognized that a traveller who delivers himself 
 up to the management of this kind of transport is most frequently beyond any means 
 of being warned of the coming danger, and, should he see it, of preventing or avoid- 
 ing it. It is very frequently of utter impossibility to prove the management to be 
 in fault in the event of an accident ; besides, it places the victim in a very false po8i-_ 
 tion to oblige him to prove the management in fault, even when it is possible to do' 
 so. Consequently, several legislations, notably that of Germany (law of Yth June, 
 1871), and in Switzerland (law of the 1st of July, 1875), allow interverting of proof — 
 that is to say, the management is presumed to be in fault until it has proved the 
 contrary. 
 
 The benefit of this new pi-inciple was soon claimed in favor of the workman. 
 He also is frequently at the mercy of the enterprise in which he is employed. The 
 business involves dangers which he cannot see, or, if he does, which he cannot guard 
 against. Unskilled in technical matters as he is, how is he to find proof of faults 
 committed by those he is bound to obey? Switzerland was the first, by its 
 law of the 23rd of March, 1877, Article 5 (1), to introduce interverting of 
 proof in favor of the woi-kman. This interversion has had as a consequence that a 
 fortuitous event does not exonerate the employer, for as long as he does not prove 
 the victim or a third party to be in fault, or that it was caused by irresistible force 
 the responsibility of the accident rests with him. It does not alter the case that the 
 
 (1. ) The articles are of the following tenor : 
 
 Art. 2398. — "Builders and contractors working either on their own account or for others ; masters of 
 industrial, commercial or agricultural establishments ; companies and individual contractors for causeways, 
 railways and other public works, also contractors for tramways or any other system of transport, will be 
 responsible not only for damages or injury caused to others' property, but also for accidents which, by their 
 fault or that of their agents, may have occurred to any person ; whether the damages proceeded from facts 
 in contradiction to their regulations general or particular concerning the works, industries 'or enterprises in 
 question, or whether they result from the non-execution of the said rules. 
 
 " § 1st. — This same responsibility will rest on those who, in the construction of works, or in theopera- 
 tion of the enterprises, professions or trades indicated in the above article, will cause to others' property or 
 to persons any damage or injury whatsoever, when it has been proved that voluntarily they have not 
 observed, or cause to be observed, the common rules generally used to obviate such misfortune. 
 
 "§ 2. — If the damage or injury results from the fault or negligence of the victim the indemnity will 
 be less ; if, on the contrary, it can be imputed to a third party, the indemnity will be divided in proportion 
 to the fault or negligence of the authors, as stipulated in Article 2372, §§ 1 and 2. 
 
 "Art. 2372. — If the damage is caused by several persons they are severally responsible, saving the 
 recourse the one who pays has against the others. 
 
 " § 1. — 'The several shares to be paid by the authors of the damage are proportioned to their respon- 
 sibility. ' 
 
 " § 2. — In the case of a wronged or injured person claiming damages, interests, the shares to be paid 
 by its authors are determined in the judgment which establishes the responsibility." 
 1. 'The article suggests : 
 
 "A federal * law will enact the necessary provisions regarding the responsibility proceeding from the 
 working of factories. 
 
 " Meanwhile the following jDrinciples will het applied by the judge called upon to rule in the case : 
 " a. The owner of a factory is responsible for the damages caused if a proxy, representative, director or 
 superintendent of the factory has, in the exercise of his duties, caused, by his fault, corporal injury to or 
 the death of an employee or workman. 
 
 " b. The owner of a factory is equally responsible for the damages when, without it being throught any 
 special fault of his proxies, representatives, directors or superintendents, the operation of the factory has 
 occasioned injuries to or the death of a workman or employee, unless he can prove that the accident was 
 caused by irresistible force or that it was occasioned by the victim's own fault. If the latter has been partly 
 the cause of the accident, the manufacturer's responsibility as to damages interests is reduced in a like pro- 
 portion. " 
 
 * The federal law here referred to was decreed on the 25th June, 1881, under the title of Federal law on 
 the civil responsibility of manufacturers. 
 
506 
 
 accident was caused through the fault of another workman — the master is still respon- 
 sible. The Swiss law of the 25th June, 1881, on the evil responsibilities of manufac- 
 turers, has weakened this principle by limiting the amount of the indemnity to be 
 given ; but it has altered nothing, neither as to the interverting of proof, nor as to the 
 exclusion of a fortuitous event as an exoneration, nor as to the responsibility for 
 accidents caused by another workman. 
 
 In Belgium. — Monsieur Charles Sainctelette, former Minister of Public Works, 
 in 1886 proposed a law designed to compel interverting of proof, but which, in 
 other respects, does not go so far as the Swiss law. Mons. Pirmez, Deputy and Minis- 
 ter of State, proposed, in 1888, to modify Articles 1382 to Article 1386 of the Civil 
 Code, in accordance with the following principles : the plaintiff will have first to prove 
 the obligation, then the defendant has infringed that obligation ; the defendant, on 
 the contrary, will have to prove that he is not in fault. 
 
 In Fmnce a whole series of projected laws have been presented to the Chamber 
 of Deputies to improve the workingman's situation as regards his claims in law in 
 case of accident : projects by Martin Nodaud of the 29thMay, 1880, the 4th of Novem- 
 ber, 1881, and the 20th January, 1882; Penlevey's project of the 14th January, 1882; 
 Eelix Pauri's project of 11th February, 1882; Maret's project of 7th March, 1882; 
 Penlevey's of the 26th November, 1883 ; that of Mun and his companions, 2nd February 
 1886; the Eouvier project of the 24th March, 1885; and that of Lockroy ofthe 
 2nd February, 1886 ; the project of the Parliamentary Commission of 29th Novem- 
 ber, 188Y. This last project was made law by the Chamber of Deputies after lengthy 
 debate, on 10th July, 1888, and again in the month of February, 1889. The Senate 
 is i"Q the act of discussing it as we wi'ite these lines. 
 
 The fundamental idea ofthe French law under discussion is the same as that of 
 the Swiss law ; the master is responsible for the accident until he can furnish proof to 
 the contraiy by some one of the exonerating reasons foreseen. In the Swiss law 
 these are three in number : the fault of the victim, the fault of a third party not 
 connected with the factory, and irresistible force. In the French law but one is 
 recognized : the fault of the victim. Both legislations have therefore admitted fully 
 professional risk, which alone involves responsibility. 
 
 Great Britain has not gone nearly so far in its law of Yth December, 1888. (1) 
 According to this law, the master is responsible for any accident that may occur 
 owing to any defect in the manner of working, or in the material, also for any 
 accident occasioned through the fault of his representative, or even of his workmen 
 acting in accordance with regulations made by him, or whilst executing orders given 
 by those to whom he had delegated his authority. He is responsible, moreover, for 
 damages caused by negligence of his workmen ; but he is not held responsible for 
 any accident caused by a fortuitous event, or by irresistable foi-ce — that is to say, if 
 he has been unable to discover or repair the defects proceeding from the manner of 
 working, or from the tools, or if it is the victim's own fault, if the wounded work- 
 man knew of the danger, and did not warn his master, or if he exposed himself to 
 the danger contrary to his master's orders ; finally, if the regulations, the cause of 
 the accident, have been approved by competent authority. 
 
 The English legislator looks at the matter in this way : If it be necessary by 
 imputing responsibility to give a stimulus to the master's interest in preventing 
 accidents, it is also necessary, by admitting exonerating circumstances, to arouse the 
 workmen's attention to the danger he incurs. In a word, the English law, although 
 to a certain extent the proof rests with the master, it is not based on the principle 
 of prof essimal risk, the essential character of which is to do away with the responsi- 
 bility of the fortuitous event. 
 
 Practically, the notion of professional risk has many drawbacks ; it puts the 
 master in a position which makes him liable for often ruinous damages, or he has to 
 pay high rates of insurance. It assuredly tends, in a certain measure, to lessen the 
 workman's care and forethought, and it leads to long and expensive lawsuits, or, when 
 it is desired to avoid these, to arrangements from which one or other of the parties 
 
 (1) This law is not yet in force ; the Government had to withdraw it. 
 
507 
 
 is pretty sure to suffer. Such, at least, has been the experience in Switzerland, 
 where they have been obliged by the law of 26th April, 1887, to provide warranties 
 for workmen in order that they may the more easily find access to the courts. They 
 should also, if it had been possible, have provided them for the masters against 
 lawyers or politicians, who very often urge and excite the workmen to go to law, 
 instead of accepting the equitable indemnity offered them. 
 
 It was the prospect of all these drawbacks, and the considerations arising from 
 a disquieting social state, which ui-ged Germany, as early as 1881, to seek in another 
 direction for the solution of this problem. It was discovered in the organization of 
 an obligatory insurance against accidents, regulated and superintended by the State. 
 The first project of law was withdrawn because of the conviction that an insurance 
 against sickness must previously be organized. This latter was finally established 
 by law on 15th June, 1883. The law for insurance against accidents, dates from 6th 
 July, 1884. It is entirely based on the principle of professional risk, and provides 
 for indemnity for the victims of accidents, whatever the cause may be, except in the 
 case of a person who has caused the accident with deliberate intention. 
 
 Austria has followed this example, but it first enacted the law for accident insur- 
 ance (28th December, 188V) and afterwards that of insurance for sickness (30th March, 
 1888). The fundamental principles of the law on accidents are the same as in the 
 German law. If the workman is the cause of the accident, he has no right to indem- 
 nity. 
 
 Switzerland. — Preparations have been made with a view to introducing obligatory 
 insurance against accidents ; but if it must be preceded or accompanied by an 
 insurance against sickness, the question will present great constitutional diflftculties. 
 In Spain, Italy, Russia and Switzerland projects, of law on insurance are also being 
 studied. 
 
 The conviction of your reporter on this first part of the question relating to 
 accidents of labor is that the social legislation which is in process of being developed 
 in the principal industrial cities of Europe responds to both a notion of just law and 
 a social necessity. In view of the dif&culty there is in determining exactly which of 
 these two considerations should rank first in the elaboration of the measures to be 
 taken, your reporter is of opinion that preference should be given to a system of 
 legislation in which the three following factors can be best taken into account : the 
 employer, because of the interest he should naturally have in preventing, as far as lies 
 in his power the cause of accidents ; society, represented by the State becausfe of that 
 sodality which obliges it to care for the victims of accidents, who are as worthy of 
 interest as the victims of war. 
 
 We will now examine how these three factors work together in different coun- 
 tries. 
 
 1. Article 3 of the federal law of 25th June, 1881, on the civil responsibility of manufacturers : 
 
 " In the industries which the Federal Council, in the execution of Article 5, letter D, of the law on labctr 
 
 in factories, designates as engendering serious sickness, the manufacturer is besi.des responsible for the 
 
 injury done to an employee or to a workman by any one of these maladies, when it has been conclusively 
 
 proved that it has been solely caused by the work in the factory. " 
 
 By decree of the 19th December, 1887, the Federal Council designates as certainly and exclusively 
 
 engendering determined and dangerous maladies, those factories in which the following substances are 
 
 employed or in which they are jjroduced : 
 
 1. Lead, its combinations (litharge, white lead, minium, sugar of lead, &c.) and alloys (printing metal, 
 &c.) 
 
 2. Mercwry and its combinations (corrosive sublimate, nitrate of silver, &c. ) 
 
 3. Arsenic and its combinations (arsenic acid, arsenious acid, &c.) 
 
 4. Phosphorus (yellow variety. ) 
 
 5. Oas (wnbreathabU) sulphurous acid, hypozotous acid, azotous acid and vapors of azotic acid, hydro- 
 chloric acid, chloride, bromide, ioide, fluoric acid, and 
 
 6. Poisonous gas, sulphydric, sulphur of carbon, oxide of carbon, carbonic acid. 
 
 7. Cyanogen and its combinations. 
 
 8. Benzine. 
 
 9. Aniline. 
 
 10. Nitro-glycerine. 
 
 11. Virus from emall-pox, carbuncle and glanders. 
 
 This decree was put into force on the Ist of January, 1888. It can be revised or completed at any time. 
 
508 
 
 II. 
 
 The idea of what the accident is, is not the same in all countries. What is gen- 
 erally understood by accident is a corporal injury, proceeding from some sudden 
 and violent exterior cause. Switzerland, in its legislation, has assimilated to accident 
 the sickness contracted in the exercise officially declared to be unhealthy. This 
 assimilation exists to a certain extent in the laws of Austria and Germany, by the 
 fact that the insurances against sickness pays the sick person an indemnity, whether 
 the sickness be the result of an accident or of another cause. An accident, properly 
 so-called, is only treated as such if the sickness resulting from it lasted more than 
 thirteen weeks in Germany, and more than twenty weeks in Austria, without, how- 
 ever, death should intervene in the meantime. In Germany a law of insurance for 
 the aged and disabled completes the existing institutions, so that the idea of an 
 accident no longer bears the importance that it does in other countries. 
 
 One indisputable advantage of applying common law is that it makes no distinc- 
 tion between the trades as regards reparation for damages caused by accidents. 
 There is given a right to indemnification from the moment the author of the accident 
 is known and his fault proved. In countries endowed with a special legislation based 
 on the principle of trade (or professional) risk, the classes of workmen and employees 
 having a right to indemnification have at first been necessarily restricted to those in 
 the most dangerous industries ; even these industries which border on injustice have 
 been designated only with the greatest care and prudence, for fear of arousing against 
 the new principle the ill-will of interested parties. But the principle having been 
 made law, it has spread expansively, as we may con\ ince ourselves by an examina- 
 tion of the principles now in force in the countries j-uled by a special law. 
 
 Germany. — The law on accidents of 6th July, 1884, specifies that the insurance 
 comprehends workmen working in mines, salt-pits, establishments where minerals 
 are worked, quarries, marine and building yards, factories and foundries — finally, all 
 industries worked by steam, and by power of the elements (water, wind, &c.) All 
 establishments in which at least ten workmen are regularly employed are con- 
 sidered as factories. 
 
 The law of 28th May, 1885, has extended insurance to : Ist, the entire postal 
 and telegraph administration, and to those of railways, and to marine, and army 
 administrations, including the enterprises for building that may be undertaken on 
 their own account by these administrations ; 2nd, to works for dragging ; 3rd, to 
 enterprises of carting of transport of interior navigation, on float, and also at 
 wharves; 4th, forwarding and warehousing; 5th, to the business of packers, 
 to loaders, to carriers, to cullers, measurers, weighers, to marina assistants and stowers. 
 (This law does not apply to soldiers in the army, or to mariners.) 
 
 The law of 15th March, 1886, gives the benefit of the insurance to employees 
 in the civil administration of the Empire, and to marine and army employees. The 
 law of 5th May, 1886, has given the new doctrine its greatest step, by applying to 
 all persons employed in agricultural administrations and to those of forestry for a 
 total number of workmen calculated to be about eight million persons (8,000,000). — 
 Previous to this, only workmen employed in industries connected with agriculture, 
 such as distilleries, breweries, starch factories, etc., were included in the law relating 
 to accidents. 
 
 Finally, the law of 11th July, 188Y, and that of the 13th of July of the same 
 year, have admitted to insurance several classes of workmen employed in building 
 operations who had heretofore been excluded, also seamen. By these laws it follows 
 that only a small number of employees are not included in obligatory insurance 
 against accidents : artizans, domestic servants, porters, pedlars, etc. There are at 
 the present time in Germany more than twelve million workingmen insured against 
 accidents. 
 
 Austria. — The law of 28th December, 188*7, imposes the obligation of insurance 
 against accidents on all workmen, employees, assistants, apprentices, &c., working in 
 an industry properly so-called — that is, in factories, workshops^ &c. This law is 
 only applicable : a, to workmen employed in mines, or subterraneous works ; h, to 
 
509 
 
 seamen; c, to employees of the State, the proviHces and districts (communes). The 
 Minister of the Interior can include under the obligations of this law anj class of 
 workers he may deem advisable. The law applies exclusively to those employed in 
 industrial pursuits ; in principle it does not apply to workmen employed in agri- 
 culture or wood culture, nor to workmen on railways. But the Eeichsrath has 
 voted two resolutions requesting the Government to examine the measures to be 
 taken in order to include under its obligations the workmen to whom it does not 
 now apply. 
 
 France. — The first article of the law passed on 10th July, 1888, by the Chamber 
 of Deputies, recognizes as having a right to indemnification for accidents occurring 
 during work, "workmen and employees engaged in factories, manufactories, 
 shanties, transport enterprises, mines, coal pits and quarries, and besides in any 
 operation in which machinery worked by steam is used." 
 
 Great Britain. — The law of 18th May, 1888, declares that by workman is under- 
 stood a person who engages in manual labor for wages ; it excludes fi-om benefit of 
 indemnity, which it foresees, all servants and employees properly so-called, but it 
 considers as workmen the employees on railways and tramways, also seamen 
 (excluded by the Act of 1880). 
 
 Switzerland. — The law of 1st July, 18Y5, on the responsibility of railway enter- 
 prizes, establishes a right to indemnity for accidents occurring during the construction 
 of a road, if the accidents occur through any fault in the entejrprise. Thus the proof 
 falls to the victim. On the other baud, when the accidents occur during the working 
 of the railway, the employees in the enterpriserank with the travellers, and the proof 
 of irresistible force or the fault of the victim falls on the administration. 
 
 By the law of 23rd March 1877, on work in factories, and that of 25th June 1881 
 on the civil responsibility of manufacturers, the principle of the indemnity was 
 established in favor of the factory workman, the only one to whom the regulations on 
 work, foreseen by the federal constitution, applies. By factory is understood any 
 industrial establishment employing more than twenty-five workmen, but no mechan- 
 ical motor, or more than five workmen if there be a motor. The executive federal 
 authority charged to interpret the idea given by the word factory has included 
 several excepuons. Thus, in mills, in breweries, it is not necessary that there should 
 be five workmen fot the establishment to be classed in the list of factories. 
 
 Although the Federal constitution (Art. 34) (1) has, as we have just said, limited 
 the regulation regarding work to those establishments alone that are known under 
 the name of factory, yet the Swiss Legislature has faced the fact that it is needful to 
 extend civil responsibility to manufacturers in other industries. This extension was 
 granted by the law of 26th April, 1887 : Ist. All industries employing or producing 
 explosive materials; 2nd. For the following industries, enterprises, when the master 
 employes, on an average, more than five workmen : Building and works pertaining 
 to it, carriage by land or water, or floating, not including steam navigation, which is 
 regulated by the laws ruling railways, mounting and repairing telephone and tele- 
 graph lines, mounting and unmounting of machines, and any like work of a technical 
 nature, railway work, tunnelling, building bridges, roads, and hydraulic works, 
 digging wells and galleries, canals, operations of quarries and mines; 3rd. For 
 works and services in connection with the operations of the factory, even when 
 they are not executed within the closed places of the factory ; for work relating to 
 and in connection with the working of railways and steamboats, or factories not 
 included under the designation of " working " (exploitation). 
 
 As we perceive, agricultural laborers do not benefit by the law. It is the case 
 here as in other countries: legislators were in fear that the law would fail to pass 
 were these included also. 
 
 (1) This article is as follows : — 
 
 " The Confederation has a right to decree uniform laws on the labor of children in factories, on the 
 durationof adult's work, also as to the protection to be given workmen against the exercise of dangerous and 
 unhealthy industries. We must, however, except the dispositions taken in different countries on the 
 subject of mines and quarries, and steam apparatus ; but m this report we speak of prescriptions of a 
 general nature." 
 
510 
 
 III. 
 
 ~ One important point which will essentially occupy the technical section of this 
 Congress and will also be a special object of attention to the section for economy and 
 legislation is that regarding the preventive measures to be taken to avoid accidents. 
 In those countries that are ruled by common law there are few, if any, legislative 
 prescriptions in this matter; as we have before stated, the interest and care of the 
 master is relied upon to take whatever precautions suit them, either to lessen their 
 civil responsibility or to protect, from simply humanitarian reasons, the lives and 
 health of their workmen. Hungary is the only country ruled by common law in 
 which we find any disposition of law bearing on this point : " The master is obliged 
 to take all possible means to protect the life and health of his workmen " (law of 
 17th May, 1872). But we have been unable to learn whether the execution of this 
 disposition is subject to superintendence, nor what penalty is provided in case of 
 its enfringement. We must also mention Belgium, where a royal decree of the 27th 
 December, 1886, prescribles rules as to the government of dangerous industrial esta- 
 blishments or such as are unhealthy or inconvenient, and a law of the 5th May, 1888, 
 relates to the inspection of the same establishments and also to the inspection of 
 steam engines and boilers. 
 
 In countries provided with special legislatioh we find the following prescrip- 
 tions : 
 
 Germany (Law of 1st July, 1883, titles II. and VII.) — The preventive is sub- 
 ject to the approval of competent authority, which designates the precautions to be 
 taken to guarantee the lives and health of the workmen. The superintendence is 
 entrusted to inspectors appointed by the State Government. Besides, the coi'pora- 
 tions charged with the obligatory insurance give instructions subject to the approval 
 of a superior Imperial ofiicial, and have the right to superintend the execution of 
 them through their agents. 
 
 Austria (Law of 8th March, 1885; law of 17th June, 1883, concerning inspectors 
 of factories, etc.) — All proprietors or chiefs of industrial establishments are bound 
 to establish and maintain, with due regard to location, machinery and tools, the 
 means necessary to protect the lives and health of the workmen. The inspection 
 is entrusted to inspectors appointed by the Minister of Commerce together with the 
 Minister of the Interior. The insurance companies have the right to charge these 
 inspectors to verify the fact that necessaiy measures of hygiene and of security have 
 been taken. 
 
 Great Britain (Law of 27th May, 1878.) — This law contains a great number of 
 protective clauses regarding the lives and health of workmen; inspectors and doctors 
 are charged with the superintendence. 
 
 Switzerland (Law of 23rd March, 1877.) — The workshops, the machinery and 
 engines must be so placed and cared for as to guard as much as possible against all 
 danger to the lives of the workmen. Hygienic regulations developed by ordinances 
 are also contained in the law. The superintendence is entrusted to the local authori- 
 ties, experts of the district (^canton) and federal inspectors. 
 
 Among those countries which are about to pass from the rule of common law to 
 that of special legislation we must again mention Spain, which has elaborated the 
 project of a law, 7th June, 1887, relating to the protection to be given the invalids 
 of labor (crippled by labor), and prescribing the necessary measures to be taken for 
 health and security, as also for superintendence. France, in the project of law of 
 13th IS'ovembei-, 1886, on the work of children, minor girls and of women, adopted 
 by the Chamber of Deputies 19th June, 1888, and the 3rd of February, 1889, provides 
 for superintendence in factories, manufactories, &c., exercised by special inspectors, 
 who will, doubtless, also have authority to see to placing of safeguards. Norway and 
 Sweden who, in projects of law dating 1887 and 188S, propose to take detailed pro- 
 tective measures and to institute a superintendence in the matter. 
 
 The declarations and statistics of accidents may, up to certain point, be considered 
 as among the preventive measures, for their object should be to permit, not only the 
 immediate proof of the damage done, and the calculations necessary to insurance, 
 
511 
 
 but the verification of the causes of the accidents and consequently an attempt to 
 discover the means of preventing them. In this respect, the insurance companies 
 already exercise a strict watchfulness and a direct influence in their own interest, 
 which is almost identical with that of the masters, since the rate for premiums is in 
 conformity with the nature of the danger and the frequency of occurrence of acci- 
 dents in an establishment. But a large number of countries have deemed it necessary 
 to legislate on this matter. Thus, in Germany, as is quite natural, sickness and acci- 
 dents are immediately made known to the insurance companies, and a statistic is 
 drawn up accordingly. It is the same in Austria. In Spain, according to project of law 
 of 7th June, 1887, information of accidents has to be given to the local authorities 
 within a certain time to be determined. In France, in accordance with the project 
 of law of 13th November, 1886, discussed in the Chamber of Deputies in June, 1888, 
 and in February of 1889, the masters are bound, within twenty-four hours, to give 
 notice of any accident to the Mayor of the Commune. In Great Britain the accident 
 must be made known within six weeks. Jnltaly (projectof law of 19th February, 1883) 
 the authorities must be informed of the accident within twenty-four hours, under pen- 
 alty of a fine from 100 to 250 lires ($20 to $50). Norway has a project of law of 2l8t 
 December, 1887, ruling that in the case of an accident entailing incapacity for work 
 for at least eight days, the master is bound to give a written notification of it to the 
 Commission of Superintendence. In Portugal, a project of law of Mr. Navarro, Min- 
 ister of Public Works, on the 29th July, 1887, provides that the manufacturer must 
 give information of the accident to the inspector and administrator of the Superior 
 Council of Industry within twenty-four hours. The project of law elaborated in 
 Sweden in 1888 on insurance against accident provides as follows : In the case of 
 serious accident, that is to say, entailing incapacity for work for more than fifteen 
 days, the master or his representative must give immediate notification to the author- 
 ities. Finally, in Switzerland, the master is bound to immediately give warning to 
 competent local authority of any case of serious injury or of violent death occurring 
 in his establishment. This authority should proceed to hold an official inquiry on the 
 causes and consequences of the accident, and to notify the cantonal government of it. 
 An injury is considered as serious when it entails an incapacity for work for more 
 than six days. At the present time detailed statistics of accidents in all the trades is 
 being established, which is to serve as a basis for the eventual elaboration of a law on 
 obligatory insurance. 
 
 It is evidently much to be desired, in regard to reliable statistics for the neces- 
 sary insurance calculations, that there should be, in every counti-y, one uniform rule 
 for the delay to be granted for declaration of the accident, and equally uniform 
 rubrics concerning the cause and the different circumstances of the accident, and of 
 the results that have followed. The establishment of a formula is a work with which 
 the Congress might usefully occupy itself 
 
 IV. 
 
 In those countries that are governed by common law, reparative measures, as 
 regard's the victims of accidents which are limited bylaw to cases in which the mas- 
 ter or his representative is in fault, are not so as regards the material reparation of 
 the injury, that is to say, the indemnity to be paid. In countries with a special 
 legislation this is no longer the case. As soon as professional risk is admitted, it 
 became a matter of necessity not to expose employers or insurance companies to 
 ruin by an accumulation of risks which, for the moment at least, are deemed too 
 large. Perhaps as these preventive measures are developed and perfected we may 
 be able to reduce the risk to such an extent as to enable us, in this respect, to 
 approach more closely to the principles of common law. However, we will now 
 pass in review the provisions now in force, or proposed to be passed in those coun- 
 tries that are governed by common law. 
 
 Germany. — As we have seen, only those cases incapacitating for work during 
 thirteen weeks, are allowed to claim insurance. According to the law of the 15th 
 
512 
 
 June, 1883, establishing insurance in case of sickness, the communal funds are bound 
 to provide for the members ; 1st. Medical care, etc ; 2nd. In case of incapacity for 
 work, half the ordinary local wages. 
 
 The other funds should provide : 1st. Medical care, etc. ; 2nd. Half the work- 
 man's real wages, the indemnity, however, not to exceed $0.72; 3rd. An aid 
 similar to that allowed women in confinement, and that for a period of three weeks ; 
 4th, In case of decease an indemnity equal to twenty times the average daily wages 
 for work. 
 
 According to the law of 6th July, 1884, insurance against accidents obliges the 
 company to provide ; 1st. In case of corporal injury : a, to pay the cost of the 
 sickness; b, the payment of a pension which dates from the foui'teenth week 
 after the accident; this pension, it the incapacity for work is entire and permanent, 
 amounts to two-thirds of the wages ; if it is partial, of a fraction proportioned to the 
 incapacity. 2nd. In case of death : a, the payment of the funeral expenses ; h, a 
 pension not to exceed 60 per cent, of the annual earnings, to be divided as follows : 
 20 per cent, to the widow until her death or re-mar^age ; 15 per cent, to each child 
 until it attains the age of fifteen complete years ; to a child orphaned both of father 
 and mother, 20 per cent, until it attains the age of fifteen complete years; to the 
 parents and grand-parents of the deceased person whose only support he had been, 
 20 per cent. The total amount of pensions to be paid should not exceed 60 per cent.,, 
 and parents should be given the pension in preference to grand-parents. 
 
 Austria. — The law of 30th March, 1888, establishing insurance against sickness,, 
 provides that workmen should be treated and cared for gratuitously during a period 
 of at least twenty-five weeks at least. Moreover, if the incapacity for work lasts 
 over three days, they are to be paid an indemnity equal to 60 per cent, of the average 
 wages. Women have a right to aid during, at least, the four weeks following their 
 confinement. In case of death, the heirs will be given, to cover the funeral expenses, 
 a sum equal to the average wages for twenty days' work. 
 
 The law of 28th December, 1887, on insurance against accidents, provides that 
 in the case of wounds, the pension will begin to be paid only from the fifth week 
 after the accident. In case of entire incapacity for work,- the pension will equal 60- 
 percent, of the salary. In the event of partial or tempoi-ary incapacity its nature 
 and duration will have to be calculated in order to determine the amount of the pen- 
 sion. In the case of death, the insurance will pay : 1st. The funeral expenses ; 2nd, 
 a pension as follows : a, to the widow 20 per cent, of the amount of the victim's wages ; 
 &, to the widower if he is unable to work, 20 per cent.; c, to each legitimate child 
 until the age of fifteen years, 15 per cent. ; d, to each natural^ child to the same age, 
 10 per cent.; e, to the parents of the deceased, 20 per cent.; /, to his grand-parents, if 
 he is their only support, 20 per cent. But the whole amount of these pensions must 
 not exceed 50 per cent. If the widow marries again she will receive a last amount 
 equal to three times the pension to which she had a right. In calculating this pen- 
 sion the annual salary of the victim is taken into account. 
 
 Belgium. — According to the conclusion of the Labor Commission of 1887, the in- 
 demnity should consist of a pension equal to a part of the salary, without settled 
 terms. 
 
 Spain (project of law of 7th June, 1887). — In the event of incapacity for work 
 the master has to pay, besides the physician's and druggist's charges, the workman's 
 usual wages. If the incapacity for work is entire and defined, he must pay, besides 
 the physician's expenses, damages-interests equal to the salary for one thousand 
 day's work at 'the most, and of six hundred days at the least. If the incapacity for 
 work is only relative, the indemnity varies between six hundred and three hundred 
 days. In case of decease the master must give the widow the amount of the doctor's 
 charges, and the cost of funeral, together with an indemnity which must amount to 
 a sum equal to the salary for six hundred to one thousand days' work. If the 
 deceased leaves only parents over sixty years they will receive half the amount that 
 would have been paid the widow ; independently, of course, of the expense for 
 doctor, etc. If the accident has occurred through the fault of both master and. 
 
513 
 
 workman, the court will reduce the indemnity in proportion to the responsibility of 
 each. If the accident gives rise to criminal prosecution, the indemnity to be paid 
 by the master may be increased. 
 
 France. — The law voted by the Chamber of Deputies in July, 1888, and February, 
 1889, contains the following provisions : 
 
 Art. 2. " When an accident has occasioned an entire and permanent incapacity 
 for work, the victim has a right to a life pension, the amount of which will vary ac- 
 cording to circumstances. The pension can nevei- be less than one-third the average 
 annual salary, nor more than two-thirds the annual salary. It can, in no case, be 
 less than $80 per year for men, nor $50 for women. Considered as complete incapacity 
 for work are total loss of sight, of reason, of the use of the two limbs, or any other 
 incurable ifafirmity destroying the workman's power." 
 
 Art. 3. " If the accident occasions only a permanent partial incapacity for work, 
 the pension to be paid the victim will be reduced in proportion to the remaining 
 capacity for work." 
 
 "Art. 4. If the accident is followed by death the indemnity will include : 
 
 "1st. Twenty times the average daily wages of the victim to pay funeral 
 expenses ; 
 
 " 2nd. A pensiou to be paid the heirs of the victim, to date from the day of the 
 victim's death, as follows : 
 
 "A, Por the widow of the deceased or for the powerless husband until death, or 
 until the one or the other contracts a second marriage, a pension equal to 20 per cent, 
 of the average wages of the victim. 
 
 "B. Por children orphaned of both father and mother, until the age of fourteen 
 complete years, a pension calculated on the average annual salary of the victim in 
 the following proportions : 15 per cent, of the wages if there is only one child ; 25 
 per cent, if there are two children ; of 35 per cent, if there are three children; and 
 40 per cent, if there are four or more children. If the children are orphaned by the 
 loss of both father and mother, the pension may be raised to 20 per cent, of the vic- 
 tim's average annual salary for each of them. The total amount of pension granted 
 the children caimot in any case exceed 40 per cent, of the annual average ssSary of 
 the victim, if he leaves a widow, nor more than 50 per cent, of the salary if he leaves 
 children only. Each of these pensions should, as each expires, be reduced propor- 
 tionately. 
 
 " C. If the victim was unmarried, or a widower or widow without children, a 
 pension is to be paid the father and mother if over sixty years of age, or to the 
 widowed mother whatever her age may be, of whom the victim was the sole support, 
 or in default of these, to the grandparents over sixty years of age, the pension for 
 each to be in proportion to 10 per cent, of the average annual wages of the victim." 
 
 Art. 5. "In the event of the widow marrying again she will receive one sum 
 equal to three times the amount of the annual pension that had been paid her in 
 accordance with the preceding Article, and this pension will cease the day of her 
 second marriage." 
 
 " The widow has no right to indemnity unless the mamage was contracted before 
 the accident." 
 
 Art. 6. " Natural children, acknowledged before the accident, have a right to a 
 pension determined by Article 4, even when there are legitimate children." 
 
 Art. T. "In all cases of accidents having occasioned wounds or death, the head 
 of the enterprise will pay, besides the indemnities determined in the preceding 
 Articles, the physician's and druggist's charges. He will, moreover, pay during the 
 whole of the sickness which is the result of an accident, an indemnity equal to half 
 the daily wages of the victim, the indemnity not to be less than $0 . 20 per day, nor 
 obligatory more than $0.50 per day. The medical and pharmaceutical expenses, 
 however are not to exceed the sum of $20 ; the temporary indemnity will be obligatory 
 only for accidents entailing more than three days' incapacity for work. The latter 
 indemnity will be paid only for a period not exceeding three months, dating from 
 the day of the accident. After that time the victim will have the indemnity pro- 
 vided for by Articles 2 and 3. However, if the consequences of the accident have 
 20—33 
 
514 
 
 not in that time produced their full effect on the victim, the court will reserve judg- 
 ment for a time during which the temporary indemnity will continue to be paid. 
 When the results of the accident prove to have produced a total or partial permanent 
 incapacity for work, this indemnity will cease fi-om the date determined by the judge 
 that the life pension granted by Articles 2 and 3 will begin to be paid." 
 
 Great Britain. — (Bill of 18th May, 1888.) The amount of the indemnity cannot 
 exceed a sum representing three years' salary of a workman in the business, woi-king 
 in the same district, the amount not to exceed £250 sterling. 
 
 Italy. — According to a project deposited 19th February, 1883, and voted by the 
 Chamber of Deputies 15th June, 1885, and now pending before the Senate, the indem- 
 nity comprises : 
 
 A. — In Case of Death. 
 
 1st. Expenses for physician, drugs and funeral ; 
 
 2nd. A sum of money as indemnity for damage occasioned by incapacity for 
 work during the time of the sickness ; 
 
 3rd. Another amount on account of the death of the support of the family. 
 
 B. — In the Event of Temporary Incapacity for Work. 
 
 1st. The outlay and expenses of treatment ; 
 
 2nd. An amount as indemnity for the impossibility of working. 
 
 The court will judge of the importance of the damage done. When the victim is 
 insured and the master has contributed to the payment of the premiums, the indem- 
 nity paid by the insurance society should be deducted from the amount to be paid by 
 the master ; but only so far as the master has paid one-third, at least, of the 
 premium, and that the insurance is for all accidents. 
 
 Russia. — A project of law drawn up in 1883, but which so far has had no conse- 
 quence, encloses the following provisions : 
 
 , The amount was to be settled in each case in accordance with, the workman's 
 wages. 
 
 In case of death the indemnity was to comprise : the expenses for doctor and 
 the funeral. She was to receive until such time as she married again, a pension equal 
 to 50 per cent, of her late husband's wages. The children were to be paid, until 
 they were 15 years of age, the 16f per cent, of the same wages if their mother was 
 living ; if not, 25 per cent. Finally, the parents of the deceased would have had a 
 right to the 16f per cent. But all these pensions together were never to exceed '75 
 per cent, of the victim's wages. 
 
 In the event of an accident producing a temporary incapacity for work, the 
 master would have paid the wounded man's expenses for treatment and the whole 
 amount of his wages. 
 
 In the event of entire incapacity for work the master would have had to pay 
 a pension equal to the wages of the victim. If the incapacity for work was perma- 
 nent or durable but partial, the pension would vary from 25 to 75 per cent. 
 
 The workman would have been given his choice to receive either one single 
 payment, representing six times his annual wages (the amount, however, not to 
 exceed 6,000 roubles), or to be paid an annual pension. 
 
 Sweden.— A. project of law of 1888, provides that the indemnity would be ruled 
 in accordance with the following principles,: 
 
 1st. The workman, in case of complete incapacity for work, shall, during the 
 duration of such incapacity, receive 60 per cent, of his annual wages ; 
 
 2nd. In case of partial incapacitj'' he will be allowed a portion of his wages 
 proportioned to the capacity remaining for work; it must not, however, exceed 
 50 pQr cent. This indemnity will be paid during the entire continuation of the 
 sickness 
 
 3rd. In event of death ensuing within the year, there will be paid: 
 
515 
 
 A. For funeral expenses, 50 per cent, of the annual wages ; 
 
 B. To the widow, to the day on which she again contracts marriage, 20 per cent, 
 of the same wages ; 
 
 C. To the husband if he was really dependent on his wife's wages, equally 20 
 per cent. In any case the pension will cease if the husband is able to provide for 
 his wants, or if he marries again ; 
 
 B. To each of the children to the age of fifteen, 10 per cent. 
 
 E. If the deceased has left neither spouse nor children, 10 per cent, to the 
 parents who relied on him for support. 
 
 The whole amount of the pensions together must not exceed 50 per ceiit. of the 
 annual wages. 
 
 If the children have a claim for a pension on their father or mother's laccount, 
 the amount of the different pensions is reduced to the two-thirds. 
 
 The widow, in case she remarries, will be given once for all, an amount equal to 
 three times the annual pension. 
 
 Switzerland. (Law of 25th June, 1881.) 
 
 Art. 6. — " The indemnity to be granted as reparation for damage done comprises : 
 
 "a. In the event of immediate death, or of death ensuing after treatment, the 
 entire expenses of the attempt at cure. 
 
 " The injury suffered by the deceased during his illness on account of total or 
 partial incapacity for work. 
 
 " The funeral expenses. 
 
 " The injury suffered by the members of the family whose support the deceased 
 was at the time of his dea^ih. 
 
 "Those having a right to indemnity are: the husband, the children and grand- 
 children, parents and grand-parents, the brothers and sisters. 
 
 " h. In the event of wounds or sickness : 
 
 " Expenses of all kinds and the care given during the sickness. 
 
 " The injury suffered by the victim, wounded or ill, on account of total or partial 
 incapacity for work, temporary or permanent. 
 
 "The judge will determine the amount of the indemnity, taking into considerar 
 tion the whole circumstances of the case, but even in the most serious case he cannot 
 allow an amount superior in capital to six times the amount of annual wages of the 
 employee or workman, nor must it exceed the sum of six thousand francs. 
 
 " The judge is not bouhd to hold to this maximum amount in a case where the 
 corporal injury or the death of the victim was caused by any fault of the manufac- 
 turer and is susceptible of furnishing grounds for a penal action. 
 
 " Expenses of treatment, care and the funeral are not included in this maximum. 
 
 " The judge may, with the consent of all parties interested, substitute for the 
 payment of a capital sum, the allocation of an equivalent annual rent. 
 
 " From the time the final judgment is given, the manufactui-er is free from all 
 obligation as regards future claims." 
 
 Y. 
 
 We now touch upon a very difS.cult and much discussed point, that of the 
 measures to be taken to giiarantee the payment of indemnities. 
 
 Two principal tendencies are in contest in this as in other economic matters : 
 on one side are the partisans of individual responsibility, on the other are those who 
 claim the intervention of the State in a greater or less measure. 
 
 I acknowledge that in the beginning I was very incredulous as to the eflScacy 
 of the measures adopted by Germany, and of which it has given the example in 
 organizing obligatory insurance against sickness and accidents. It had seemed to 
 me that organizations born of an individual and collective effort, and placed within 
 reach of laws regulating in an exact and satisfactory manner the civil responsibility 
 of masters, would give better results. But I am quite willing to admit that the 
 objections which I was, in 1885 (1) occupied in embodying in a special work have, 
 
 (1.) Les victimes du travail. Universal Library, May and June, 1885. 
 20— 33^ 
 
516 
 
 for the most part, been refuted by facts. Without referring to Austria, whose legis- 
 lation is too recent, the experiments made in Germany seem to have given general 
 satisfaction to both masters and workmen. There is one essential point, however, 
 on which I was not mistaken. I foresaw, at the time, that Germany could not 
 remain at this point, and that it would be forced to successively organize other 
 forms of insurance ; which has just been done by the law of May of this year, 
 creating insurance in case of invalidism and the infirmities due to age, to be 
 eventually followed by insurance against stoppage of work (chomage), inclemency 
 of the weather, &c. In many countries the current of opinion flows the same as in 
 Germany and in Austria ; it is an element which must inevitably be taken into 
 account. Europe seems to be on the point of a vast evolution towards an economic 
 system entirely different from that which has been held in honor during the greater 
 part of this century. There is nothing new under the sun, but there is nothing 
 lasting either. Our posterity will experience it in their turn. 
 
 Countries may be divided in two classes : those which have no obligatory in- 
 surance ; those where it is proclaimed by law, more or less choice being allowed as 
 to the insurer. In the first class naturally enter those countries ruled by common 
 law ; besides Great Britain and Switzerland. In many countries if the indemnity is 
 not amicably settled either by the master or by the insurance company, recourse 
 has to be had to the courts to determine the amount. Several difficulties arisefrom 
 this : the victims or their heirs are often obliged", from the impossibility of ma king 
 the necessary advances for costs for a law suit, to be content with an insufficient 
 indemnity ; that is why, particularly in Switzerland, the Government has been obliged 
 to provide legal assistance for such cases ; the masters, on the other part, are exposed 
 to the danger that labor associations, advised and helped by lawyers and politicians, 
 should press these expensive lawsuits even when a fair amount has been offered in 
 indemnification ; finally, the system of an indemnity paid under the form of a pen- 
 sion is nearly impracticable, and Great Britain and Switzerland have consequently 
 been obliged to rule that the payment be made in a capital sum which in many 
 cases does not admit of account being taken of the changes for the better or worse 
 which may occur in the victim's condition. 
 
 In the second category, Germany stands first. Insurance is founded on the consti- 
 tution of professional corporations (Berufsgenossenschaften). Corporations may be 
 freely formed subject to approval of the Bundesrath, an approval which may be with- 
 held if the number of participants and their workmen is too small, if the corporation 
 excludes enterprises which might easily become associated elsewhere ; finally, if a min- 
 ority of the parties interested refuse to enter into the association, and prefer to establish 
 a special one giving, besides, the necessary guarantees. As regards all enterprises not 
 voluntarily associated the Bundesrath is obliged to associate them, in spite of opposition 
 to form them into corporations after having heard the interested parties. Each corpora- 
 tion settles its own tariff by classification of dangers and submits it to Governmental 
 approval. This tariff should be revised at first every two years, then later every five 
 years. The premiums are paid by the head of the enterprise in proportion to the 
 wages of the workmen ; they must cover the indemnities, the cost of administration, 
 premiums for safety and preventive measures against accidents, finally form a reserve 
 fund. The law, which contains 111 articles, enters into the most minute details on 
 the constitution of corporations and their committees, on the determination of the 
 amount, and the payment of the indemnities, on the formation of courts of arbitra- 
 tion, on penal provisions, etc. A higher superintendence is exercised by the imperial 
 office of assurances. 
 
 It would be too lengthy a matter to enter into the details of its organization 
 and powers. "We may add that as far as regards the administration of the corporar 
 tion and the arbitration committees, the workmen are represented in equal number 
 to the masters. The premiums are produced by a division among all those interested, 
 of the damages to be paid lor. They are levied on the members of the corporations 
 in proportion to the number and wages of the workmen insured, engaged by each 
 member, and to the classes of risks established by the General Assembly of the cor- 
 
517 
 
 poration. A reserve fund for each corporation must be established according to the 
 following rules : for the first year, 300 per cent, of the amounts of indemnity is 
 assessed ; the second year, 200 per cent. ; the third year, 150 per cent. ; the fourth 
 year, 100 per cent. ; the fifth year, 80 per cent. ; the sixth year, 60 per cent. ; from 
 the seventh to the eleventh year the assessment will decrease 10 per cent, each year; 
 The interest on the reserve fund is added to it until they amount to double the annual 
 expenses ; after that the revenues of the reserve fund may be used to cover part of 
 the expenses of the corporation. 
 
 This system of division called Umlageverfahren has been preferred to that of the 
 technical reserve or Deckungsverfahren, according to which would have been esta- 
 blished, on a basis of calculated probabilities, a capital permitting the annual pre- 
 miums levied to be still better equalized. It has been a reproach to this last system, 
 that it has laid, upon unreliable calculations, too heavy a burden upon industry, if it 
 be desired to give a suflScient margin against theunfox-eseen, or, in the contrary case, 
 to not afford sufficient security. The upholders of the Deckungsverfahren allege, on 
 the other hand, that after a few years the accumulated engagements of the corpora- 
 tion will be out of proportion to the amount of premiums "that can be reasonably 
 levied. Experience will show on which side lies the truth. In the meantime practical 
 proofs are being gathered by which another system may be established if the first is 
 recognized as defective. 
 
 JJfons. Constant Bodenheimer, whose profound knowledge on these matters consti- 
 tutes him an authority, has established in a most interesting work (1), a comparison 
 based on a practical example and which tends to show that the system adopted in 
 Germany is much more economical for those assured than that of insurance compa- 
 nies against civil responsibility. " It will be said," he writes, " that the expense is 
 still sufficiently large. But then what security for the manufacturer and what rest 
 of mind ! Formerly he paid more without yet being safe from lawsuits and 
 trouble. Now, at least, as far as accidents are concet-ned, his responsibility is no 
 longer at stake ; he pays the contribution settled by the division, he conforms to the 
 regulations for the prevention of accidents, and he is quite safe, no matter what 
 occurs, and he has the assurance that the workmen who may be crippled in his 
 factory will be paid a sufficient indemnity." 
 
 In Germany, accidents that cause neither death nor a cessation of work for more 
 that thirteen weeks, are considered as sickness, and we must say a few words of the 
 insurance organized in that country against this latter kind of risk. The law of 
 13th June, 1883, prescribes that all persons belonging to industries it designates should 
 form part of a communal fund for sickness, unless they already belong to a similar 
 institution, local fund, factory fund, corporation fund, etc. • The indemnity consists 
 in paying the costs of the sickness from the third day, of an amount equal to half 
 the day's wages the sick person was accustomed to be paid, provided that this 
 amount does not exceed $1:00 per day. Each workman should pay into the fund 
 1^ per cent, of his earnings. The commune administers the fund with the partici- 
 pation of those interested, and advances the funds necessary, reserving the right to 
 recuperate itself for a rise in the premium. Small communes which do not include 
 at least fifty persons in the obligation of being insured, or who, having borne 2 per 
 cent, of the rate of the contribution, cannot meet the insurance for sickness without 
 further advances, can, at their request, be annexed to one or more neighboring 
 communes for the administration of the fund. Factory funds are obligatory on 
 mastei's employing more than fifty workmen; they are directed at their expense and 
 administered by a council composed of one-third of the master's delegates, and 
 two-thirds of insured workmen. In their practice these different organizations meet 
 with numberless difficulties, the principal of which seem to be double insurance, and 
 the deceit practised by lazy and dishonest workmen, especially in cities where insured 
 know each other very little. 
 
 This work being only a general review of the state of the question of accidents 
 of labor, we are obliged to leave to other works and to special reports to be pre- 
 
 (1.) Workmen's Insurances. Polistiches Jahrbuch der Schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft. Berne, 1889. 
 
613 
 
 sented to the Congress a great number of more or less interesting and important 
 points. "We will restrict ourselves to a few more statistical calculations borrowed 
 again from Moas. Constant Bodenheimer. 
 
 In 1886, the total number of aid funds in Germany was 19,238 and 4,570,087 
 insured members. The expense of all the funds amounted to $13,981,426. 
 
 The total number of accident insurance corporations, in 1887, amounted to 64, 
 covering 274,560 industries and 3,551,819 workmen insured. There occurred 113,594 
 accidents, 17,142 were supported by the corporations; the others were assisted and 
 at the charge of the sick funds ; $1,387,355 were paid in pensions. The Imperial office 
 paid out 1,234 aids concerning indemnities, 2,700 comi^laints concerning the obliga- 
 tion of insurance, and 2,033 complaints concerning tariff risks. The 439 arbitration 
 courts had to settle 5,941 litigations. 
 
 In Austria, a territorial system has been adopted instead of the corporative 
 system for accident insurance. There should be a fund in every country, and the 
 headquarters should be in the capital of the country. The direction is entrusted to 
 a committee composed of one-third part masters, one-third part workmen, and one- 
 third part persons named by the Minister of the Interior. The different industries 
 are classed according to the danger they offer. There should be a reserve fund the 
 amount of which will be determined by the Minister of the Interior. The subscrip- 
 tion are proportioned to the wages ; any wages over $495 is calculated at that 
 amount only. The rate of subscription is determined by the Minister of the. Interior : 
 the workman pays 10 per cent., the master pays the remainder. A committee of 
 arbitration is appointed to each fund : the Minister of the Interior appoints the pre- 
 sident and the vice-president ; two assessors are also chosen by him, two by the 
 masters, and two by the workmen. 
 
 The insurance against sickness establish district obligatory funds for persons 
 not insured elsewhere, and obligatory industrial funds for any manufacturer employ- 
 ing at least 100 workmen, workmen builders' funds ; funds instituted by corporations, 
 miners' funds, and free aid funds are realized by it. The subscription to obligatory 
 funds may reach as high as 3 per cent, of the wages. 
 
 Austrian laws being recently established (28th December, 1887, 30th March, 
 1888) we have as yet no data of the experiments made. 
 
 In Switzerland, .the basis of obligatory accident insurance is being studied. 
 Since last year, as we have said, statistics of accidents are being collected for this 
 purpose, and a constitutional revision necessary to give the Confederation the power 
 to legislate on these matters is being prepared. 
 
 Two of the countries not yet possessed of special laws on the master's responsi- 
 bility for professional risk have, however, insurance funds established by the State; 
 these countries are Prance and Italy. 
 
 A few words on each of these institutions. 
 
 France. — A law, passed 11th July, 1868, established two insurance funds, one 
 in case of death, the other for accidents resulting from industrial or agricultm-al 
 labor. These funds are under State warranty. Any insurance begun less than two 
 years before the death of the insured person, is without effect, but the payments 
 made are returned to the heirs with simple intei-est at 4 per cent. The case is the 
 same when the insured person's death is from exceptional causes. 
 
 'So one person can insure for more than $600. The amounts are inalienable and 
 unseizable to half the total sum. 
 
 No one under sixteen years of age or more than sixty can be insured. 
 
 In default of payment of the annual premium, the contract is thereby cancelled ; 
 liquidation will be made only after the death of the insured person. 
 
 Insurances against accident are yearly: the premiums amount to $1.60, $1.00, 
 and $0.60. In settling life pensions in case of accidents, they are distinguished as 
 follows : 
 
 1st. Accidents that have occasioned an entire incapacity for work ; 
 
 2nd. Those that have brought on a permanent incapacity for work at the trade 
 (for accidents of this class only half the pension is allowed.) 
 
519 
 
 The amount allowed for life pension is thirt3'-two times the amount paid for one 
 year's subscription. 
 
 The aid given to widows, to sexagenarian parents and to the victim's children 
 is equal in amount to two years of the pension to which they would have a right. 
 
 Public administrations, industrial establishments, etc., may insure their work- 
 men collectively. 
 
 !N"o one under twelve years of age can be insured. 
 
 By the law voted in the Chamber of Deputies of Prance, the insurance is obliga- 
 tory, with liberty of choice granted the insured person. The system supposes, almost 
 perforces a State institution like the French fund, charged, in some sort with regu- 
 lating the rate of premiums, which the free competition of insurance companies 
 could scarcely succeed in doing. But it is to be feared that the State fund would 
 get only the poor risks, or would do no business, as has been the case with the French 
 fund. 
 
 Italy. — The national insurance fund against accidents happening to workmen 
 during work, was established by the law of 8th July, 1883, and has been in operation 
 since August, 1884. 
 
 This institution is due to the Savings Banks of Eome, Milan, Bologna, Florence 
 and Cagliari, to the " Opera pia du San Paolo " in Turin, to the " Montei dei Paschi " 
 at Sienna, and to the Banks of Naples and Sicily, which, by unequal shares, have 
 established a guarantee fund of $300,000. 
 
 These nine establishments first came to an agreement with the Government in 
 date of 18th February, 1883. 
 
 This agreement, submitted to Parliament, was favorably received and suggested 
 the law of 8th July, 1883, already cited, by the terms of which the insurance may 
 be either individual or collective between masters or workmen. — Any workman may 
 be insured from the age of ten years. 
 
 The societies charged with the administration are also entrusted with settling 
 the scale of indemnities. The Government allows the Postal Savings Banks to give 
 their gratuitous assistance. It releases the insurance fund from all obligation of 
 stamps and enregistration for any deed they may have to pass. Finally, it reserves 
 to itself the right to control the tariffs and regulations of the administration, which 
 must be approved by royal decree. 
 
 Moreover, the Swedish Parliament is now engaged on a project of law of 1888 
 establishing a State insurance fund. According to this law the object of the fund is 
 to establish insurance against accidents of labor and those of old age, to be organized 
 according to special laws ; it will also administer the funds of the Sick Fund recognized 
 by the State. It will be guaranteed by the State, and at the expense of the State. 
 
 A special council will be charged with superintendence of the establishment's 
 operations : this council will be composed of the members constituting the juris- 
 diction of appeal established by Article 22 of the law on insurances, and of eighteen 
 members chosen for three years as follows : eight by the King, and ten by the 
 Eiksdag. 
 
 The fund will have delegates in the communes by whom it will exercise its 
 powers and receive moneys due it. These delegates will be elected for two years by 
 the representatives of the commissions. They will be considered as public func- 
 tionaries. The communes will be responsible for the management of their delegates. 
 Every year the council and the direction of the fund will each send a report addressed 
 to the King. 
 
 YI. 
 
 As we have already stated in a previous work (1) the principle of responsibility 
 seems to us to be adopted, at least in a general way, to international understanding 
 and agreement. There is an inequality, which is deeply felt by masters and workmen, 
 in the fact that in some countries industry is weighed down by too heavy charges, 
 
 (1) International legislation of labor. Univeraal Library. Lausanne, February, 1889. 
 
520 
 
 whilst in others the victims of labor are given no protection whatever. The voice 
 of humanity more than that of interest, is heard in the universal demand for an 
 equitable solution of this stirring question. No doubt an international agreement 
 could prescribe nothing very precise as to the choice of a system, but an agreement 
 could be come to as to certain rules which, I am convinced, would be accepted by the 
 public conscience. 
 
 In my opinion, it would not be a very difficult matter, with a little goodwill, 
 to come to an understanding on certain principles relating to measures to be taken 
 to protect the life and health of workmen (such as the superintendence of safeguards, 
 the obligation to take necessary precautions, the interdiction of certain kinds of 
 work for certain classes of persons, etc.) In the same way, an understanding could 
 be come to ask the establishment of accident statistics, according to certain uniform 
 rules. 
 
 VII. 
 
 The proofs gathered during the course of this general report, and the consider- 
 ations drawn from them, lead us to the following conclusions : 
 
 1. Legislation on accidents of labor introducing the principle of professional 
 risk, and the indemnity resulting from this risk, are founded on a just conception of 
 law and respond to a social necessity. 
 
 2. The laws already in existence on this matter are of too recent date to offer 
 definitive results, in any country. There will, therefore, be reasons, as experiments 
 are made, to modify this law in accordance with experience so as to make it as 
 equitable and as suitable as possible to social requirements. 
 
 3. To this end it would be well to establish a permanent international bond 
 which shall bring together all experiments made in the different countries, and serve 
 to determine the best rules to be followed. A request to this purpose might be 
 formulated in the hands of the International conference for the regulation of labor 
 in which the Swiss federal council has taken the initiative, independently of any 
 measures the Congress of Paris may see fit to take in the matter. 
 
 Berne, 15th July, 1889, 
 
521 
 
 STATISTICS OF ACCIDENTS. 
 
 I.— STATISTICS OF ACCIDENTS OP LABOE. 
 
 KAIL WATS, MINES, QUARRIES, STEAM APPARATUS. 
 
 n.— BLBMBNTAEY NOTES ON THE COST OP INSUEANCE 
 
 against accidents, classification of risks, 
 
 By Octave Keller, 
 
 Chief Mining Engineer, Member of the Superior Council of Statistics, Vice-President 
 
 of the Society of Statistics, Paris. 
 
 STATISTICS OP ACCIDENTS. 
 
 I. — ACCIDENTS OF WHICH RAILWAY WORKMEN ARE THE VICTIMS. 
 
 France. — Statistics of the accidents of which railway employees are annually 
 the victims are included in a few figures taken from a publication issued by the 
 Minister of Public "Works, entitled : Statistical Documents concerning French Railways. 
 Leaving aside accidents that have happened to travellers, we find that during the 
 year 1885 — the last on which such documents appeared — there were 18Y railway 
 employees killed, and 559 wounded, on the lines of general interest, which are much 
 the most important, and the only ones to which we will devote our attention. 
 
 On 31st December, 1885, the staff on these lines comprised 232,205 persons. 
 Prom this number we must deduct the central administration (2,723 persons), and 
 besides in the central running and traffic service, the office staff (6,152 persons), and 
 the office boys and people in the service (412), 9,287 employees in all. There 
 remains, after this deduction, a total number of 222,918 work people, who may be 
 considered as particularly exposed to accidents, either from the nature of their em- 
 ployment, or from their daily occupation leading them along and across the tracks. 
 
 The proportion of victims, as given by this data, is 0.84 killed and 2.50 wounded 
 on eveiy thousand. 
 
 These figures are, however, exceptionally low; they differ greatly from the 
 average of the ten previous years, as may be seen by the following table, which is 
 taken entire from the same documents : — 
 
 
 RAILWAY EMPLOYEES. 
 
 Years. 
 
 In the 
 
 performanxie of 
 
 their duties. 
 
 Through 
 
 their fault or 
 
 negligence. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 KUled. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 1884 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 10 
 17 
 
 9 
 17 
 15 
 
 9 
 25 
 12 
 
 71 
 96 
 67 
 108 
 131 
 134 
 183 
 166 
 186 
 155 
 
 201 
 
 254 - 
 
 302 
 
 288 
 
 260 
 
 207 
 
 200 
 
 171 
 
 199 
 
 183 
 
 586 
 
 665 
 
 705 
 
 816 
 
 805 
 
 1587 
 
 3598 
 
 3310 
 
 3346 
 
 . 3086 
 
 208 
 263 
 312 
 305 
 269 
 224 
 215 
 180 
 224 
 195 
 
 657 
 
 188.S 
 
 1882 
 
 761 
 
 772 
 
 1881 
 
 924 
 
 1880 
 
 936 
 
 1879 
 
 1721 
 
 1878 
 
 3781 
 
 1877 
 
 3476 
 
 1876 
 
 3532 
 
 1875 
 
 3241 
 
 
 
 Average for ten years. 
 
 13 
 
 130,1 
 
 226,5 
 
 1850,4 
 
 239,5 
 
 1850,4 
 
522 
 
 The publication referred to gives no information concerning the way m which 
 this table was drawn up, although an explanation would have been desirable, espe- 
 cially as regards the wounded. It is evident that the mode of computation has 
 totally changed for this class of victims since 1819, whilst from 1875 to 1878 more 
 than three thousand wounded were succoured every year. From 1880 no more than 
 one-fourth or one-fifth of that number are mentioned, the number of killed not having^ 
 diminished. Official statistics, therefore, take note since 1879, and more especially 
 since 1880, only of accidents of a certain degree of seriousness, of more serious acci- 
 dents than during the former period. This conclusion is inevitable. Thence, to 
 form an idea of the actual number of wounded, our calculations must be exclusively 
 based on the figures of the four years, 1875 to 1878. The companies' average staff,, 
 which we may consider as having been exposed to the danger of accidents during 
 that period, if we calculate as we have done for 1885, amounts to 169,929 work 
 people. The corresponding proportion of wounded amounts to about 20*65 per 
 thousand. 
 
 Por the proportionate number of deaths, nothing prevents us from basing our- 
 calculations on the average number of work people killed during the decennial 
 period (239.5 per year) and comparing it with the actual number of work people 
 exposed to accidents, which on an average amounts to 196,538 persons. There- 
 results, for deaths, a proportion of 1-21 on a thousand work people. 
 
 Germany. — The statistics for German railways, in 1887, gives a proportion very 
 little different for work people killed, and a proportion nearly double of wounded, 
 including, it is true, trifling wounds. 
 
 The report from ^he Imperial insurance office, presented to the Eeichstag by 
 Mons. de Boetticher, vice-chancellor of the Empire, on 5th December, 1888, contains 
 a detailed tabular statement on this point, including 19 railway lines in operation in 
 Prussia and in the other countries of the Empire. We give the totals, and in addition 
 the proportionate figures. 
 
 The average number of persons insured was 214,435. The total number of 
 wounded is 996 (995 men and 1 woman, no children), for whom an indemnity was 
 determined, during the course of 1887, in virtue of the insurance laws, as follows : — 
 
 Proportion for 
 1,000 insured. 
 
 Dead 290 1.35 
 
 {Incapacity for work for more than 13 
 
 weeks, up to 6 months 120 0.56 
 
 Incapacity for work for f Partial 284 1.32 
 
 more than 6 months (Total 302 1.41 
 
 General total 996 4.64 
 
 On the other part, the total number of work people mentioned as injured by 
 accidents amounts to 8,380, or 39 per thousand. 
 
 The statistics give the following details for the 996 victims of the first class : 
 1st. 290 dead, left 721 persons having right to an indemnity, as follows : 
 
 Widows 233 about • 80 per death 
 
 Children 470 do 1-62 do 
 
 Ascendants 18 do 0-06 do 
 
 2nd. Accidents are ranged as follows, according to their cause. (The system of 
 classification adopted is common to all industries ; it is not peculiar to the operation 
 of railways, whicn explains the little technical interest it presents in this regard). 
 
 Nuinber of victims 
 having right to indemnity. 
 
 Explosion of steam or gas apparatus (under pressure) " 
 
 Explosion of explosives and inflammatory materials... " 
 
 Metals in fusion, burning liquids, unbreathable gas, &c. 6 
 
523 
 
 Number of victims 
 having right to indemnity. 
 
 Machinery in movement (motors, conveyors, machine- 
 tools, &c.) 32 
 
 Breaking, falling down, fall of objects 63 
 
 Falls from ladders, stairs, galleries, into pits, into 
 
 holes 113 
 
 Transport; loading and unloading 630 
 
 Divers (use of simple manual tools) 152 
 
 3rd. Finally, accidents are divided, according to the natui'e 
 of the wounds received, into seven classes : 
 
 Wounds on the head, the face (eyes) lOY 
 
 do arms, hands (fingers) 186 
 
 do legs, feet 328 
 
 Wounds on other parts of the body (or several wounds 
 
 at once) 286 
 
 Asphyxiation 1 
 
 Drowning 2 
 
 Difife re n t wounds 86 
 
 The statistics of the Imperial Insurance QflBce do not give a division of the acci- 
 dents according to their causes, such as the victims, own imprudence or negligence, 
 fortuitous events or other causes. The most important point it furnishes for us is, 
 as we have seen, the number of wounded, either slightly or seriously, and in particu- 
 lar the number of persons crippled, which is very large. 
 
 We must draw attention to the fact that it is the staff of workmen employed on 
 trains that is the most exposed to danger. It has been shown by the Year Book of 
 statistics of injuries received on the Union of German Eailways, that in 1882 there 
 was a proportion of 67 wounded per thousand of the Etas' on the trains, against 29 
 per thousand wounded on other railway systems, that is the proportion on the 
 Union was more than double the proportion on the other systems. It would be well 
 to have more detailed results of wider observations taken on this matter, 
 
 England. — ^Accidents seem to be still more numerous in England. 
 
 In regard to this we will quote from an important document handed by Mr. 
 Findlay, General Manager of the London and North- Western Eailway, to the superior 
 commissioner charged with the superintendence of the amendment to the Act of 
 1880, the Employers' Liability Act. It is a report from the president of the London 
 and North-Western Eailway Insurance Company, presented to the General Assembly 
 of delegates, February 23rd, 1886. We extract from it the following statistics of 
 accidents, of which railway work people have been the victims. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Woi'k people. 
 
 Killed 
 in their 
 service. 
 
 !^ermanent 
 
 incapacity 
 
 for work. 
 
 Temporary 
 
 incapacity 
 
 for work. 
 
 DUBATION. 
 
 Weeks. 
 
 1882 
 
 1883 
 
 36.326 
 38.129 
 37.649 
 36.364 
 
 102 
 88 
 86 
 83 
 
 46 
 53 
 55 
 52 
 
 4.292 
 4.285 
 4.465 
 4.368 
 
 17.534 
 17,558 
 
 1884 
 
 17.734 
 
 1885 • ■ • 
 
 17,917 
 
 
 
 Average per IjOQO work peopl 
 
 e and per year. 
 
 2,431 
 
 1,387 
 
 117 
 
 — 
 
 The duration of temporary incapacity for work exceeds four weeks per wounded 
 persons ; the average is thirty^-two to thirty-three days. 
 
 These figures are very high ; nevertheless the source from which they are 
 derived seems an unquestionable guarantee of their reliability. 
 
 There are certain calculations according to which the proportion of killed 
 among the workmen on English railways is carried still higher. In a communica^ 
 
524 
 
 tion to the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries and Assurance Magazine, January, 
 1882, Mr. "Whittall quotes statistics of accidents relative to the period of 1870, 
 ISYl, 1872, according to which there is an average of 614 killed on a total of 129,688 
 workmen, or 4 "73 per thousand. 
 
 In the discussion that followed, Mr. Neison asserted that the proportion was 
 3-3 or 3"4 per thousand according to facts given by insurance companies " embracing 
 200,000 years' risks." It is less, according to this actuary, on passenger lines than on 
 freight lines. 
 
 As for the wounded the proportion is about 1 in 12 workmen, which gives about 
 83 per 1,000, the staff comprising all the work people insured in the companies. 
 
 No comparative study of accidents of travel on the railways in different countries 
 has not yet been made. Time and space are lacking, which would prevent our un- 
 dertaking such a work, and, with regret, we must allow ourselves to be restricted to 
 the preceding indications. We see that according to the different documents quoted 
 the working staff on railways is exposed to many and serious accidents. Without 
 wishing to generalize we may say that the frequency of railway accidents varies 
 between the given average and double that amount in different countries and that in 
 France there are fewer deaths, and probably also, fewer wounded than in Germany, 
 and especially than in England. The speed of running trains must influence the 
 proportion of victims. 
 
 ACCIDENTS IN MINES. 
 
 France. — In France the statistics of mining accidents in the mining of minerals 
 are given every year in a detailed statement by the corps of mining engineers ; it is 
 inserted in the Statistics of Mineral Industries, published every year by the Minister 
 of Public Works. 
 
 According to the provisions of article 11 of the decree of January 3rd, 1813, 
 workers of mines are bound to give information to the State Engineer of any acci- 
 dent which from any cause whatsoever may have occasioned " death or serious injury 
 to one or more workmen." This provision is the fundamental basis of statistics of 
 mining accidents'. 
 
 The limits assigned this report do not permit of our inserting the numerous ex- 
 tracts that could be taken from the official documents already quoted, and which 
 form a continuous series from 1833 for mines and factories, and to 1847 for accidents. 
 We will only give the most recent general results which treat directly of the object 
 of this study. 
 
 The following gives, from 1878 to 1887, the number of killed and wounded per 
 thousand workmen employed underground or on the surface ; firstly, coal mines, 
 anthracite and lignite ; secondly, in other mines of any kind : — 
 
 
 Coal Minks. 
 
 Other Mines. 
 
 Yeaes. 
 
 Workmen. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 Workmen. 
 
 Kffled. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 1878 
 
 106 
 102 
 107 
 106 
 108 
 113 
 109 
 101 
 102 
 103 
 
 415 
 500 
 200 
 410 
 269 
 003 
 426 
 616 
 354 
 163 
 
 153 
 164 
 188 
 175 
 154 
 172 
 171 
 171 
 133 
 178 
 
 1060 
 
 1-069 
 
 1066 
 
 1-245 
 
 1-336 
 
 935 
 
 895 
 
 746 
 
 601 
 
 612 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 824 
 700 
 700 
 428 
 187 
 324 
 059 
 794 
 028 
 121 
 
 30 
 22 
 22 
 21 
 14 
 16 
 11 
 14 
 17 
 10 
 
 86 
 
 1879 
 
 87 
 
 1880 
 
 63 
 
 1881 
 
 76 
 
 1882 
 
 78 
 
 1883 
 
 68 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 45 
 63 
 
 1886 
 
 56 
 
 1887 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
525 
 
 For these ten years, the average of victims per 1,000 workmen employed, was 
 as follows : — 
 
 Killed. Wounded. 
 
 Coal mines 1-56 S-ST 
 
 Other mines of any kind 1'49 6'01 
 
 The excess of victims in the mining of comhustible matter is due exclusively to 
 explosions of fire-damp ; otherwise, for the greater part, these mines would be less 
 dangerous than the mining of metals where, though there be no danger from fire- 
 damp, as a general thing, the more frequent use of powder and dynamite are the 
 cause of relatively frequent accidents. The following figures give proof of this fact, 
 and at the same time give an idea of the variable number of accidents due to 
 carbonized hydrogen, in the annual statistics of miners who meet their death in 
 coal mines : 
 
 Proportion per 1,000 
 Years. of workmen killed in coal mines. 
 
 
 By Fire-damp. 
 
 From other causes. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1878 
 
 0,15 
 
 1,29 
 
 1,44 
 
 1879 
 
 0,16 
 
 1,44 
 
 1,60 
 
 1880 
 
 0,14 
 
 1,61 
 
 1,75 
 
 1881 
 
 0,21 
 
 1,43 
 
 1,64 
 
 1882 
 
 0,11 
 
 1,31 
 
 1,42 
 
 1883 
 
 0,34 
 
 1,18 
 
 1,52 
 
 1884 
 
 0,20 
 
 1,36 
 
 1,56 
 
 1885 
 
 0,41 
 
 1,27 
 
 1,68 
 
 1886 
 
 0,23 
 
 1,07 
 
 1,30 
 
 1887 
 
 0,82 
 
 0,91 
 
 1,73 
 
 Average of ten years. 0,277 1,287 1,564 
 
 The exceptionally large number of victims caused by fire-damp in 1887 is due 
 to a catastrophe that occurred in the Chatelus mines in the St. Etienne basin, in 
 which 79 miners were killed and 6 wounded. 
 
 It is easily understood and everyone knows that the risks are much greater in • 
 the mines that on the surface. It is important that the difference should be noted, 
 the more so that, for the most part, it is omitted in foreign statistics. 
 
 Thus in 1887, in coal mines there was a loss by death of 165 workmen, and 537 
 wounded on a total number of 72,972 working inside mines, or respectively 2,26 and 
 7 36 per 1000, against 13 deaths and 75 wounded out of 30,191 workmen employed at 
 the surface of mines, or respectively 0,43, and 2,49 per 1000 only. If we may be 
 allowed so to express it, the normal nature of a mine leads to accidents, which are 
 the fewer in proportion as a larger number of men at the surface in comparison 
 with the number of those working below, and inversely. 
 
 To acquire a knowledge of the causes of the most ordinary accidents to which 
 miners are exposed, and of their relative frequency, which is subject to but very 
 little yearly variation, except as regards explosive gas, it is necessary to cast a 
 glance at the table given below. 
 
 We find that for the year 1887, the proportion of killed and wounded, in coal 
 and other mines of any kind, per thousand workmen (pickers, wood workers, carters, 
 etc.) emploped below the surface was . 
 
526 
 
 CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS. 
 
 Falling in 
 
 Fire-damp 
 
 p-j./ Falls in pits 
 
 \ Breaking of cables, etc. 
 
 Blasting 
 
 Underground railways 
 
 Manual labor 
 
 Divers causes 
 
 Totals . 
 
 COAL MINES. 
 
 Killed. Wounded. 
 
 0,G3 
 1,15 
 0,11 
 0,01 
 0,04 
 0,14 
 
 0,18 
 
 2,26 
 
 3,29 
 0,37 
 0,20 
 0,06 
 0,36 
 1,86 
 0,56 
 0,66 
 
 7,36 
 
 OTHEE MINES. 
 
 KUled. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 0,72 
 
 3,47 
 
 0,14 
 0.29 
 0,29 
 
 0,15 
 
 1,01 
 0,58 
 0,72 
 
 0,15 
 
 0,86 
 
 1,59 
 
 6,79 
 
 We may casually mention that the statistics of mining industries for the last 
 few years contain a complete list of accidents from fire-damp, with a reference to their 
 cause. Accidents occurring outside have been assigned a special place in this pub- 
 lication. 
 
 The total number of mines, up to 1887, give as compared to accidents below the 
 surface, a proportion of eight times less for deaths, and three and a half times less 
 for the wounded. 
 
 As we have shown in the beginning, the statistics given relate for the most part, 
 if not altogether, to workmen who have been seriously wounded, or Trho have seemed 
 to be so at the time the accident occurred. The definition of this class of accidents 
 has not been given in the regulations ; in fact they principally consist of broken 
 limbs. 
 
 With a view to obtain a knowledge of the total number of wounded, either 
 seriously or otherwise, the administration of mines, incited thereto by projects of 
 law then before the Parliament, to alleviate the situation of the victims of accidents 
 of labor, proceeded in 1888 to a special enquiry of great importance in the principal 
 coal mines through the intermediary of engineers in charge of the local service of 
 mines in the departments. We were entrusted with the organization of this enquiry 
 and had the satisfaction of seeing the miners lend the engineers all the assistance in 
 their power. The aid funds, which are in operation in most of the mines, and the 
 remarkable organization of which we made public in our work in 1884 (Annales des 
 mines, 5e livre) give a very complete and a retrospective census on the number of 
 victims. It was consequently decided that, in order to afford as broad a basis as pos- 
 sible for statistics of accidents, the work should comprise the three years 1885, 1886 
 and 1887. 
 
 Information was received from the 80 most important coal companies, and had 
 reference to a staff comprising : — 
 
 90,633 workingmen or employees in 1885 
 92,568 do do in 1886 
 
 93,273 do do in 1887 
 
 Altogether: 276,474 persons. 
 
 The corresponding victims for the three years are divided into : 
 
 1st. 474 killed. 
 
 2nd. 38,168 wounded who were incapacitated for work for more than four days. 
 
 3rd. 10,640 workmen very lightly wounded, having not lost more than four 
 day's work. 
 
 Besides the latter cases which are least interesting and the number of which 
 cannot be obtained with absolute certainty, because the aid fund does not always 
 allow any pecuniary indemnity for wounds of this class, the victims have all been 
 indicated by lists filled in by the companies, by their names and surnames, with a 
 mention of their occupation, wages, age and the date of the accident, its nature, and 
 the number of days of incapacity for work that have followed it. 
 
527 
 
 For workmen killed, the civil status was given, the age of the widow, the 
 number of orphans under fifteen years of age, and the age of each ; if there were no 
 widow and child, the age of the widowed mother, and in default of a widowed 
 mother, the number and age of ascendants more than sixty years of age. 
 
 As regards the wounded, the companies were recommended to make distinction 
 between permanent, partial and temporary incapacity for work. As for the latter 
 class, when the incapacity for work exceeded a^duration of four days, the number of 
 days' incapacity for work was mentioned. 
 
 We will find in the Statistics for Mining Industries and Steam Apparatus for the 
 Year 1887, in three tables, the general results of the enquiry concerning victims of 
 accidents that happened in coal mines in the yeai-s 1885', 1886 and 1887, in each 
 department. We give herewith the totals furnished by extracts from statistics for 
 the three united years, adding to them a few supplementary details : — 
 
 Amount of the average yearly numbers of workmen and 
 employees in the 80 companies referred to in the 
 information given 276,474 
 
 Amount of con-esponding wages $59,31*1,958 
 
 Proportion 
 Classification of Victims. Number, per 1,000 Workmen 
 
 and Employees. 
 
 Killed 474 1,7 
 
 Crippled, affected by a permanent 1 Total 51 ") q „ ' 
 
 incapacity for work J Partial 204 J ' 
 
 ") Having lost more than six [- 4,3 
 
 Seriously wounded. . >■ months work 297 1,1' 
 
 3 do from 3 to 6 month's work 636 2,3 
 
 "Wounded; having lost 21 days to six months 8,662 31,3 
 
 "Wounded slightly, having lost from 5 to 20 dys. work. 27,844 100,7 
 
 "Wounded very slighly, having lost four days at most 10,640 38,5 
 
 Total number of victims, killed or wounded 48,808 176,5 
 
 Family of Workmen Killed. Number. f^^'T'dS. 
 
 "Widows 295 0,62 35 years. 
 
 Orphans, of at least 14 years of age 630 1,33 6 years and 3 months. 
 
 Ascendants 54 0,11 Over 60 years. 
 
 SALAEIES. 
 
 Average daily wages of workman killed $0-78 
 
 Average daily wages of wounded, not including those 
 
 who have lost more than four days work 0'76 
 
 The number of days' work lost from incapacity for work caused by wounds was 
 779 892 days, exclusive of days lost by invalids and wounded who lost no more than 
 four days. Thus the average number of days lost for every wounded was about 21 
 days. For the number of 297 wounded who lost more than six months' work, the 
 number of days they .were incapaciated for work amounted to a total of 87,030, an 
 average of 293 days per wounded. If fi-om this total we deduct the 779,892 days 
 previously mentioned, we obtain, for the wounded who have lost from five days to 
 six months, an incapacity for work averaging 18-6 days. 
 
 ]S"ote was taken of the age of persons permanently incapacitated for work, with 
 a view to the payment of annuities. The average age came to forty-six years for 
 cases of entire incapacity, and to thirty-nine years for partial incapacity. 
 
 As we are aware, women are not employed in the interior of mines in Prance, 
 it being legally interdicted. They are allowed to work at the surface, and form 
 about three per cent, of the total number of work people employed in coal mines. 
 
528 
 
 According to a special calculation of victims belonging to the female sex, the latter 
 form about 1-5 per cent, of the total number of wounded. Tlius in ISST the lists of 
 names furnished by the engineers included not one woman among the killed, nor 
 among the permanently injured, and only one among the names of persons affected 
 by a partial incapacity for work, finally 181 among 12,655 wounded whose tempo- 
 rary incapacity for work exceeded four days. 
 
 However, in 1886, there were 2 women (married) killed, and 3 in 1885. 
 
 In 29,911 cases the nature of the wound, that is, the part of the body injured, 
 was indicated exactly. The division was as follows : — 
 
 Fractures 1,056 35,3 
 
 Dislocations, sprains, wrenches 1,266 42,3 
 
 Wounds 6,957 232,6 
 
 Contusions 20,632 689,8 
 
 The Statistics of mining industries for 1887 (Bxposd p. 69) contains a detailed 
 list of the parts of the body injured, with an indication of the injury. It is shown 
 among other wounds particularly mentioned, one-fourth of the fractures (263) con- 
 sisted simply of broken fingers. 
 
 Finally, four-fifths of the persons wounded, were but slightly injured and lost no 
 more than 1 to 20 days' work. The proportion of those whose permanent or tem- 
 porary incapacity for work lasted more than 10 days was from 3,5 per 100 (35,6 per 
 1,000) ; it coincides nearly exactly with those of fractures. And, as having led to 
 death or serious wounds (occasioning more than 3 months' incapacity for work), 6 
 cases per 1,000 workmen. In 2 of these cases the wounded persons were rendei'ed 
 unable to work for more than six months, and even permanently. 
 
 The mining committee, on the other side, instituted a private enquiry on the 
 condition of the working of the mine, and have published the results in a circular 
 dated 17th June, 1887. The figures relating to accidents are as follows : — 
 
 Number of workmen to whom 
 Average. this average refers. 
 
 Killed 1,93 per 1,000 45,352 
 
 Wounded 133,90 — 43,501 
 
 Duration of each workman's 
 
 sickness from wounds 24,87 days 37,679 
 
 Duf'ation of sickness for each 
 
 workman employed 4,07 — 37,679 
 
 Workmen killed per 1,000 work- 
 men wounded 14,94 — 40,569 
 
 These statistics give much fewer details than those given by the administration 
 of mines ; the number of workmen included is much more limited, and does not 
 apply to the same period of time. Although presenting certain variations, the 
 averages which do not always possess exactly the same signification still approach 
 each other in a satisfactory manner. No doubt can exist as to the large number of 
 victims of labor in coal mines. 
 
 Germany — In other countries the annual number of workmen killed in mines is 
 a little larger than in Prance. ' 
 
 In Prussia, according to the official reports given in the Zeitschrift fur das JBerg- 
 hutten und Salinen-Wesen im preussichen Staate, in 1887 there were 663 killed, to wit : 
 
 Workmen. Killed. Killed per 1,000. 
 
 Coalmines 191,379 513 2,68 
 
 Lignite mines 23,266 58 2,49 
 
 MetalUferous mines 63,660 70 1,10 
 
 Other mineral minings 10,089 22 2|l8 
 
Permanent 
 Incapacity. 
 
 Number. 
 
 per 1,000. 
 
 351 
 
 4.065 
 
 21,24 
 
 19 
 
 279 
 
 11,99 
 
 40 
 
 606 
 
 9,52 
 
 3 
 
 112 
 
 11,10 
 
 413 
 
 5.062 
 
 17,55 
 
 529 
 
 The general average, for the total number of mines, in which 288,394 workme xh 
 were employed came to 2,30 per 1,000. 
 
 For the decennial period from 1877 to 1886 it is still higher, 2,53, 
 
 In coal mines the proportion of victims from fire-damp was 0,46 per 1,000 for' 
 1887. It amounted to 0,82 for Westphalia alone, where more than nine-tenths of the 
 accidents of this nature occur. 
 
 The small proportion relative to victims in metalliferous mines is due, in great 
 part, to the fact that the staff for the interior is increased by more than half, by the 
 addition of that belonging to the dependencies on the surface, in particular the work- 
 shops for sorting, washing and preparing the minerals for fusion, in which the con- 
 ditions of lab6r are not very dangerous. 
 
 The statistics given by the Prussian engineers takes into account only such 
 wounded persons as have lost one month's work through incapacity for labor, and 
 they rank them into two classes, viz. : — 1st. Those who, through temporary incapa- 
 city, have lost from one to six months' work ; 2nd. Those permanently incapacitated 
 from working at their trade. These have been calculated according to the nature of 
 the work : 
 
 Total 
 Temporary 
 Incapacity. 
 
 Coal mines 3.714 
 
 Lignite mines 260 
 
 Metalliferous mines 566 
 
 Other mines 109 
 
 Altogether 4.649 
 
 The proportion of invalids (workmen permanently incapacitated for work) 
 amounts, on an average, to 1,43 per 1,000 workmen employed. In coal mines it 
 amounts to 1,83 per 1,000. 
 
 It is to be remarked that during the last four years, although the number of 
 deaths has decreased or remained stationary, the number of wounded has not ceased 
 to increase. In fact the total amounts given annually are as follows for all sorts of 
 mines taken together : — 
 
 Total 
 
 Temporary Permanent , ' , 
 
 Year. Incapacity. Incapacity. Number, per 1,000. 
 
 1883 2.686 188 2.874 10,04 
 
 1884 2.570 206 2.776 9,51 
 
 1885 2.954 223 3.177 10,85 
 
 1886 4.237 402 4.719 16,39 
 
 This phenomenal difference is shown, not only in the mining industry, butfin 
 nearly all branches of labor, and is recognized as being due to the operation of the 
 law of accident insurance of 6th July, 1884. fUilC; 
 
 Statistics of accidents, classed according to their nature, give two tablesjof 
 detailed statements, one relating to deaths and the other to wounded persons. The 
 latter table contains no less than one hundred columns. We give a r6sum6 of the figures 
 relative to accidents in coal mines which afford the most interest from the order in 
 which they are given, and by limiting them to two decimals : — 
 
 Proportion Proportion 
 Nature of accidents. of killed of wounded 
 
 p. 1,000. p. 1,000. 
 
 By blasting 0,12 0,80 
 
 By falling in 1,06 8,49 
 
 On planes and inclined pits 0,30 1,25 
 
 In pits 0,23 0,59 
 
 20—34 
 
530 
 
 Proportion Proportion 
 
 Nature of accidents. of killed of wounded 
 
 p. 1,000. p. 1,000. 
 
 In the working shanties 0,08 3,68 
 
 'By fire-damp 0,46 0,35 
 
 By foul air 0,04 — 
 
 By machinery.! ^ 0,04 0,51 
 
 By flooding...' 0,05 — 
 
 On the surface 0,23 3,00 
 
 Various causes 0,07 2,57 
 
 2,68 21,24 
 
 Accidents from fire-damp are subject to a special analysis and are examined 
 from all points. In 1887 there were over 79 explosions, 61 of which were inoifen- 
 sive ; the 18 others caused the death of 88 persons, of which number 52 were the 
 victims of one single catastrophe. 
 
 J^;::;;: In 1887, 1,717 mines were worked in the German Umpire; in these 346,146 
 persons were employed. This number of workmen and employees were insured 
 against accident as members of the Mining Syndicate, according to the last report 
 from the Imperial Insurance Office, presented to the Eeichstag 5th December, 1888. 
 
 We extract from this document, which is of the greatest importance as regards 
 the application of the law of 6th July, 1884, the following figures concerning the 
 number of " wounded persons to whom indemnities have been paid during the 
 course of the financial year: " 
 
 Consequences of accidents. Number of cases. Per 1,000 insured. 
 
 Death 498 2,45 
 
 Incapacity for work during more f Totale . . . 5.5 1,67 
 
 than 6 months [ partielle. 951 2,74 
 
 Temporary incapacity for work from more than 
 
 13 weeks to 6 months 497 1,45 
 
 Altogether 2.872 8,30 
 
 Besides the above mentioned victims to whom pensions or indemnities were 
 paid, there were 1,349 similar cases from accidents received in former years. 
 Such are the statistics of serious accidents. The report furnishes an accessory 
 account of the total of accidents of which information was given to the local police 
 in 1887, in virtue of article 51 of the law, that is which caused " an incapacity for 
 work for more than three days, or death." The total number amounts to 24,630 or 
 71,15 victims per 1,000 insured. The number of wounded persons subjected to from 
 ,4 days to 3 months' enforced idleness would be about 21,758, or 62,86 per 1,000. 
 
 But the report is careful to draw attention to the fact that the latter information 
 only gives an approximate amount, and that in a general way the total number of 
 accidents given for the different industries is less than the reality. 
 ' Claimants to indemnity, left by death, are as follows : — 
 
 Proportion per 
 Number. death. 
 
 Widows 535 0,63 
 
 Orphans sixteen years of age 1,407 1,65 
 
 Ascendants 42 0,05 
 
 What is most calculated to attract attention, in these mining statistics, is the 
 extremely large number of wounded persons, wounded so seriously as to incapacitate 
 them from work for more than six months, and which are ipso factq provisionally 
 classed as invalids, and to whom an annuity of life pension is allowed. The proper- 
 
531 
 
 tion is 4,41 per 1,000 insured, whilst in French coal mines, according to statements 
 given by the companies (and the result would probably be different were the courts 
 to verify the facts) the average proportion of workmen injured so as to be perma- 
 nently incapacited for work, does not exceed 0,9. 
 
 Besides, in Germany the incapacity was judged to be totdlinmore than one-third 
 the number of cases, whilst in Prance in was declared total in only one-fifth the 
 number. 
 
 The difference stated is due in a great measure to the manner of establishing 
 the statistics. The classification is not identical, notably for invalids. In this res- 
 pect we must notice the great difference existing between the statistics of accidents 
 that have happened in mines drawn up by Prussian engineers and similar statistics 
 drawn up by the Imperial Insurance OflSce for the German Empire. 
 
 England. — In England the official statistics give complete and circumstantial 
 information concerning total accidents that have occurred in coal mines and in metal- 
 liferous mines. In 188Y,inthe total numher of these mines, the number of workmen 
 working below and on the surface comprised 568,026 persons, of whom 1,051 were 
 killed, or about 1'85 per 1,000. This large number of victims may be classed 
 as follows : 
 
 1st. In coal mines 995 deaths, or 1,89 per 1,000 
 
 (The staff comprising 526,227 workmen). 
 2nd. In metalliferous mines 56 deaths, or 1,34 per 1,000 
 
 (The staff comprising 41,749 workmen). 
 
 The difference shown between these two sorts of mines, as regards the frequency 
 of deaths, a difference that with slight variations is seen every year, is due princi- 
 pally to explosions of fire-damp. Accidents of this kind, and of a very serious 
 nature, still occur in England, but they are much less frequent than formerly. The 
 figures given below taken from the reports of the inspectors of mines, show how 
 much the death risk has decreased in coal mines since 1851, all causes taken as a 
 whole. 
 
 Periods. 
 
 Average 
 
 yearly No. 
 
 of workmen 
 
 in pits and 
 
 on the 
 
 surface. 
 
 TEABLT AVERAGE OF WOBKMEN KILLED. 
 
 By fire 
 damp. 
 
 By 
 
 other 
 
 accidents. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total 
 per 1,000 
 workmen. 
 
 Proportion 
 of deaths 
 caused by 
 fire damp 
 
 per 100 
 workmen 
 
 killed. 
 
 1851 to 1860 
 1861 to 1870 
 1871 to 1880 
 1881 to 1887 
 
 246,032 
 316,240 
 482,837 
 514,522 
 
 244 1 
 226-7 
 268.6 
 169 1 
 
 757-7 
 835-9 
 866-3 
 858-8 
 
 1,001-8 
 1,062-6 
 1,134-9 
 1,027-9 
 
 4.07 
 3-33 
 2-35 
 1-99 
 
 24-3 
 
 21-3 
 
 23-6 
 
 .16-3 
 
 In the interval between the two last mentioned periods the proportion of deaths 
 from fire-damp fell from 23,6 to 16,3 per 100. 
 
 As regards metalliferous mines, the same publication gives, year after year, 
 information as to the working staff and the number of deaths since 1874. During 
 the period from 1874 to 1883 inclusive, the average number of workmen killed was 
 54,143, which gives a proportion of 1,645 per 1,000. 
 
 Total accidents occurring in mines are methodically classified by districts, and de- 
 .lails concemingJhe accidents -given. .This will be shown by the following division 
 of workmen killed in 1887 in the whole number of coal mines in Great Britain and 
 Ireland : 
 
 20— 34J 
 
632 
 
 ACCIDENTS IN THE INTEMOE Or MINES. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 Accidents 
 in shafts 
 
 Diiierent 
 
 accidents 
 
 under 
 
 ground 
 
 Explosions of fire-damp 149 
 
 -PoUiv,™ ;„ fof walls 106\ 
 
 Falling m |^j ^^^j gg^j 
 
 'Unwinding of rope (cable) 8" 
 
 Breakage of cable or chain 1 
 
 By mechanical contrivances going up or down 16 
 
 I Fall of workmen {^Z'^'Stheshait: ! ! ! 'i ! ! ! ! ! i! ! ! ! ! ! ! ' ' ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! i! ! ! ! ! 2? 
 
 Fall of objects {^^ XFtheshait: ! ^ .;;;::::; i;;;:: i! i! ^ i!! :! i!:; I 
 
 [ Different 23 
 
 'By blasting • 22"| 
 
 Asphyxiated by gas 6 
 
 Inundation 3 
 
 Fall into water " 
 
 On inclined planes 65 
 
 By waggons 73 
 
 By machines 10 
 
 , Others 3 J 
 
 149 
 470 
 
 84 
 
 21S 
 
 Total 916 
 
 ACCIDENTS ON THE SURFACE. 
 
 By machines 
 
 Explosion of the steam engines 
 Divers 
 
 69 J 
 
 79- 
 
 General total. 
 
 It is a much more difficult matter to ascertain the exact number of ■wounded 
 than it is to calculate the number of deaths. This second portion of Bnglioh statis- 
 tics is incomplete. By direct research in the reports of inspectors of mines, for the 
 year 1887, we have ascertained that there -were 2,251 wounded, and 552 killed of a 
 total of 269,979 workmen, which gives a proportion of 2,04 killed and 8,33 wounded 
 per 1,000. 
 
 The variation between the different reports is too great to inspire any confidence 
 in the value of the results given. Inofficial statistics the wounds inflicted are atone 
 time serious, at another light. It is certain that a very large number of accidents 
 not followed by death, are not included. 
 
 In support of this assertion we will cite figures borrowed from the particular 
 statistics of permanent Societies of Miners in 1885, the Eeport of the Council of 
 the Central Association for dealing with distress caused by mining accidents, 4th 
 May, 1886. 
 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 members. 
 
 KILLED. 
 
 WOUNDED. 
 
 Societies. 
 
 Number. 
 
 p. 1,000 
 members. 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 p. 1,000 
 members. 
 
 
 86-866 
 5.044 
 38.232 
 15.374 
 10.568 
 1.743 
 37.459 
 14.020 
 
 182 
 22 
 93 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 78 
 
 20 
 
 2,10 
 4,36 
 2,43 
 .1,76 
 2,08 
 1,15 
 2,08 
 1,43 
 
 14-924 
 952 
 7-054 
 2-415 
 1-251 
 477 
 7-805 
 
 172 
 189 
 185 
 157 
 118 
 274 
 208 
 
 North Staffordshire 
 
 Lancashire and Cheshire 
 
 "West Riding of Yorkshire 
 
 North 'Wales... 
 
 Midland Counties' 
 
 Monmouthshire and South W^ales 
 
 Midland District (accidental death only) 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 209.306 
 
 446 
 
 
 34-878 
 
 
 Averages 
 
 2,13 
 
 166 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 We Lave now before us the statistics of the Permanent Mining Societies velating 
 to the last six years : the proportions of killed and wounded are similar to those 
 given in the above table. The number of wounded per 1,000 miners is very larg'e; 
 it agrees perfectly -with that given by the special enquiry into accidents occurring in 
 
533 
 
 French coal mines, therefore the proportion given by the statistics of the German 
 Empire, for the total number of victims known, including wounded persons who are 
 allowed no indemnity by the law of insurance, a proportion notably lower than in 
 France or England, amounting as it does to only 11,\5 per 1,000 in 1887, must be 
 considered as below the reality. ■ 
 
 Other Countries. — The details just given concerning Finance, Germany and Eng- 
 land throw light on the question of mining accidents. We have but little space re- 
 maining in which to analyse the statistics of other European countries, where, move- 
 over, mining is done on a less important scale, and the information given is much 
 less complete as regards accidents having no serious results. Some few figures give 
 an idea of matters in Belgium, Austria and Italy. 
 
 Belgian statistics published in the Annals of the Belgian Public Works con- 
 tain a table of the workmen killed or seriously wounded in coal works since 1865. 
 
 During the decennial period from 1878 to 1887, of a total number of 102,168 
 workmen employed in the interior and at the surface of mines, there were 372 
 killed (or 2,32 per 1,000) and 76,5 wounded (about 0,75 per 1,000). We are evi- 
 dently very far from being made acquainted with the real number of persons seriously 
 wounded in Belgian coal mines. Mons. Harzg, chief mining engineer, director of 
 mines in the Department of Agriculture, of Manufactories and Public Works, adds 
 the following observation to this table : — 
 
 "In order to determine whether a certain period of time has been more calam- 
 itous than another, the comparison of the number of victims must be esta'blished 
 essentially on the list of killed, with the exclusion of the wounded, the serious 
 nature of the wounds having possibly been dependant on personal appreciation. We 
 must, however, remark that such appreciations have a tendency to uniformity con- 
 sequent on the second paragraph of Article 78 of the regulations of 1884, which 
 define what must be understood by seiious wounds." 
 
 According to this regulation, by serious wound must be understood any injury 
 of a nature to cause death, or as a consequence to interfere with the victim's usual 
 occupation. 
 
 In Austria for the total number of mines including coal, lignite and metals, salt 
 and other substances, the official report gives 141 killed, and 229 seriously wounded 
 for the year 1886, against 177 killed and the same number seriously wounded in 
 1884. 
 
 The proportions per 1,000 workmen amounts to : 
 
 2,1 killed and 2,7 wotmded in 1884. 
 1,7 killed and 2,7 wounded in 1886. 
 
 In lignite mines in 1884 the proportions of killed have reached 2,5 and for 
 wounded 4,1, and have not decreased in 1886 to less than 2,1 and 3,6 respectively. 
 
 In Italy, according to Bevista del servizzio minerario nel 1886, it has been calcu- 
 lated that in the mines there were 51,798 workmen, and 49,237 in 1886. The corres- 
 ponding accidents have given : 
 
 In 1885 : 56 deaths (1,08 p. 1,000) and 146 wounded (2,82 p. 1,000) 
 1886 : 143 do (2,92 p. 1,000) do 313 do (6,36 p. 1,000) 
 
 The rather large increase for the last year is due to two causes: 1st, to the 
 caving in of a sulphur mine in which 68 persons were crushed or asphyxiated in a fire 
 that followed, and where 8 others were wounded ; 2nd, " to the facility with which 
 information was received of the most trifling accidents thanks to the National In- 
 surance Fund. " The mining engineer, Mons. Conti, in his report on the district of 
 Caltanisetta, having stated that there occurred 116 deaths and 243 persons wounded 
 in that district, confirms the increase in the number of cases as being especially due 
 to the institution of insurance iunds. "In fact, " he writes, " in 1886 the number of 
 victims of accidents given in the bulletin of the Fund, of which no direct knowledge 
 •was acquired, was 79, besides 2 deaths and 80 wounded." 
 
 Insurance organization is, in fact, the best means of establishing a complete 
 system of statistics of accidents. 
 
534 
 
 ACCIDENTS IN QUARRIES. 
 
 We shall not go very lengthily into the subject of accidents in quarries. We 
 jvill give only a few figures in oidec to establish the fact that: Ist. subterranean 
 quarries are as dangerous as mines; 2nd, that open quarries, in general, offer notably 
 less risk. 
 
 The establishment of these statistics present peculiar diflculties. It is difficult 
 to know the average annual number of workmen employed in quarries ; many of 
 these works, especially those in open air, are notably temporary. Besides, it is 
 with great difficulty that the exact number can be ascertained of workmen having 
 received wounds which do not endanger their lives. 
 
 jSTevertheless, in France, thanks to the mining engineer's superintendence, and in 
 Germany to the application of the insurance law, the information collected is not 
 without value. 
 
 According to the statistics of the mining industry the average number of work- 
 men employed in 188*7, in subterranean quarry work, was, in Prance and Algeria, 
 20,163 ; and information was received of 40 workmen killed and 61 wounded, or res- 
 pectively 2 killed and 3 wounded per 1,000. 
 
 In open air quarries, of a number of 93,552 workmen, 101 were killed and 112 
 wounded, or 1,1 killed and 1,2 wounded per 1,000. 
 
 The number of wounded given is evidently less than the real number, and th& 
 number of killed is alone to be relied upon. The following is the average proportion 
 of deaths per 1,000 workmen employed both in open air and underground in different 
 mining operations during the ten years between 18Y8 and 1887 inclusively: 
 
 Mines of inflammatory materials 1,56 p. 1,000 
 
 Other mines of all kinds r,49 — 
 
 Underground quarries 1,38 — 
 
 Open air quarries 0,90 — 
 
 In the German Empire, according to the last report to theEeichstagconcerning- 
 the insurance law of 6th July, 1884, the associated quarrymen comprised 187,929 
 insured persons in 1887. 
 
 The number of individual accidents having claim to an indemnity was 781, that 
 is 4,16 per 1,000, viz.— 
 
 p. 1000. 
 
 Dead 179 0,95 
 
 Incapacity for work from 3 to 6 months 95 ") 
 
 do for more than 6 months {fo^taL^- " ] ' ; HI \ ^^ ^'^^ 
 
 The general total of victims known, including persons wounded whose incapa- 
 city for work lasted less than 3 months (or more precisely 13 weeks), amounted tO' 
 3,160, or about 16,82 per 1000. 
 
 By these last given statistics wo are not enabled to establish any difference 
 between underground quarries, and open air quarries, so dissimilar notwithstanding, 
 as regards the risks generally incurred in their operation. 
 
 ACCIDENTS FROM STEAM APPARATUS. 
 
 In Prance, an annual detailed statement is given of the explosions of steam appa- 
 ratus, addressed to the Minister of Public Works by a central commission for steam 
 engines. 
 
 The information given is entirely to be relied on, as according to the law now 
 in force, any explosion gives rise to an enquiry and a detailed statement by the 
 authority in charge of the local govei'nment and the mining engineers, or, if the 
 matter concerns engines on boats, it is seen to by the commission of superintendence, 
 of which commission the engineers form a part. 
 
535 
 
 The principal object of the enquiry is to discover the cause of the accident ; the 
 number of the victims either killed or wounded, which holds an important place in 
 the question, is always entered in the statements and in the repoi'ts drawn up on the 
 matter. These official documents are forwarded to the administrative or legal 
 authorities, in accordance with the royal ordinance of 23rd May, 1843, relating to 
 steamboats navigating streams and rivers, with the royal ordinance of 17th January, 
 1846, relative to steamships navigating the sea, finally to the decree of 30th April, 
 1880, bringing the rules of public administration to bear on the use of steam in 
 apparatus used on land. This latter decree, which replaces the old ordinance of 
 22nd May, 1843, and the decree of 25th January, 1865, relative to steam boilers 
 other than those in use on boats, obliges the nead of the establishment in direct 
 terms by article 38, to give instant information to the engineer charged with the 
 superintendence of any accident whatsoever that has caused death or inflicted in- 
 juries on anyone, or that has only done material damage. A report, in any case, is 
 drawn up because it is essential to the public security to discover all possible causes 
 of an explosion. 
 
 The Official Journal, the Mining Annals and the Statistics of Mining Industries 
 and of Steam Apparatus annually publish a Table of accidents having occurred through 
 the icse of steam engines, as drawn up by the Central Commission. It gives the dates 
 of the accident, the nature and the situation of the establishment in which the 
 apparatus was placed, the nature, form and destination of the apparatus, the cir- 
 cumstances of the accident, its consequences as regards persons and things, and its 
 presumable cause. 
 
 "We have arranged the tables relating to the last eight years with regards to the' 
 risks inherent to the use of steam, and have extracted the following facts, for France 
 and Algeria together : 
 
 
 ACCIDENTS. 
 
 VICTIMS. 
 
 TEARS. 
 
 Having 
 
 caused 
 
 victims. 
 
 Not having 
 
 caused 
 
 victims. 
 
 Total 
 number. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded pr 
 
 laid up for 
 
 more than 20 
 
 days. 
 
 Wounded or 
 
 laid up for 
 
 less than 20 
 
 days. 
 
 Total 
 Number. ■ 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 19 
 19 
 30 
 17 
 25 
 18 
 23 
 21 
 
 6 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 29 
 37 
 34 
 37 
 25 
 30 
 36 
 
 30 
 15 
 40 
 40 
 46 
 34 
 33 
 17 
 
 30 
 10 
 20 
 62 
 40 
 33 
 24 
 17 
 
 (( 
 
 11 
 19 
 30 
 34 
 29 
 14 
 33 
 
 60 
 36 
 
 1882 
 
 79 
 
 1883 
 
 132 
 
 1884 
 
 120 
 
 1885 
 
 96 
 
 1886 
 
 71 
 
 1887 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 Average for the 
 eight years. 
 
 21,5 
 
 10,1 
 
 31,6 
 
 31,9 
 
 29,5 
 
 21,2 
 
 82,6 ■ 
 
 Throughout the variations shown in the above tables from year to year, we may, 
 with a little attention, discover a sort of fatal regularity. Accidents are of a more 
 or less serious nature, have a greater or less number of victims, or none, according to 
 some mysterious chance. But their yearly number varies very little ; it oscillates 
 between the figures 31 and 32. The death rate is about the same figure, subject how- 
 ever to greater variations. If we overlook the number of persons slightly wounded, 
 and whose enforced idleness does not exceed 20 days, we find that on an average half 
 the number of victims seriously injured do not survive the wounds or burns received. 
 It is the frequency of death as regards the wounded that characterizes the fatal con- 
 sequences of explosions. 
 
536 
 
 The following table of statistics relating to a previous period (1873, 1879), con- 
 firms our statement. It is to be remarked that persons lightly wounded are not 
 included, their number not having been given : — 
 
 TEARS. 
 
 ACCIDENTS. 
 
 KILLED. 
 
 WOUNDED. 
 
 1873 
 
 30 
 32 
 26 
 35 
 22 
 35 
 35 
 
 37 
 54 
 
 26 
 28 
 40 
 37 
 35 
 
 48 
 
 1874 
 
 63 
 
 1875 
 
 31 
 
 1876 
 
 51 
 
 1877 
 
 32 
 
 1878 
 
 31 
 
 1879 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 Average of the seven years 
 
 31 
 
 37 
 
 44 
 
 Comparing the relative averages of the two periods, 1873-1879 and 1880-1887, 
 we are led to the conclusion that the number of accidents is stationary, whilst the 
 number of deaths is decreasing. ISTow the number of steam engines is increasing 
 every year. In 1873 there were 67,489 boilers and receivers in operation in France; 
 in 1887 there were 104,366, or half as many more. 
 
 We may conclude from this, with entii'C certainty, thatiu the interval there has 
 been a relative decrease in the accidents caused by the use of steam, and an indis- 
 putable improvement as regards security. 
 
 The central commission for steam apparatus divides the presumable causes of 
 accidents into three classes, viz. : 
 
 Ist. Defective State of the Establishment. — Its construction, arrangement, placing 
 of guards or defective materials. 
 
 2nd. Defective State' of its General Maintenance. — Wear, friction, or wear of 
 metal, repairs (for other causes) not made or defective. 
 
 3rd. Ill-usage of Apparatus. — Want of water (followed or not by unseasonable 
 use of water), too much pressure, other imprudent acts or negligence. 
 
 Causes either unknown or divers form a fourth class. 
 
 The yearly total of presumable causes is higher than that of corresponding acci- 
 dents, for the same accident is often due to several causes at once. For the period 
 from 1880 to 1887, the statistics referred to give the following figures : — 
 Presumable causes of accidents. 
 
 
 Defective conditions 
 
 Imprudence 
 or negligence 
 
 in the use 
 of apparatus. 
 
 Unknown 
 and 
 
 
 Of the establish- 
 ment. 
 
 Of maintenance. 
 
 divers 
 causes. 
 
 1880 
 
 4 
 
 .S 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 20 
 15 
 23 
 22 
 16 
 12 
 20 
 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 1881 
 
 1882 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 
 Total 
 
 71 
 
 86 
 
 141 
 
 15 
 
 
537 
 
 The number of accidents that happened during the period above mentioned was 
 253. "We find that in 141 cases, that is in 55 cases in a hundred, enquiry into the 
 cause of accidents has established the fact that they were due to the imprudence or 
 negligence of the engineer or to the stoker acting in his stead. Again in 157 cases 
 ■(62 cases in one hundred) defects in installation, construction or care of the engine 
 might be laid to the charge to the maker or to the head of the establishment, either 
 apart from any fault on the part of the engineers and stokers, or together with 
 them. 
 
 These particular statistics, given by the most competent men as regards steam 
 apparatus, seem to us to hold a right to a place in this report. 
 
 There remains another question to be answered, and one of as much importance 
 as the division of responsibility of the explosion between master and workmen: it is 
 to calculate the danger of employing steam engines, the risk of accidents incurred by 
 using them. 
 
 Statistics relating to the period between 1880-1887, as we have seen, give an 
 annual average of about 32 killed to 51 wounded, about 83 victims. If we had a 
 knowledge of the exact number of persons exposed to the danger of an explosion, we 
 could, with mathematical accuracy define the actual risk. But the number is 
 omitted from every regular report ; it would be a great mistake to count as among 
 these all the staff employed in factories worked by steam, and another to incluie 
 only the engineers and stokers. The zone of danger increases or decreases according 
 to the surroundings and to the extent of the explosion. On the other hand, the 
 number of victims is generally in proportion tothenumber of workmen permanently 
 •or temporarily employed within that zone at the time of the explosion. Whilst one 
 boiler explosion does injury to no one, another similar has a multitude of victims. 
 Thus by an explosion that occurred in 1883 in theforgesofMarnaval, 30 were killed, 
 and 61 wounded ; in a similar case, in 1884, in the forges of Eurville, there were 22 
 killed and 33 wounded. 
 
 In studying this question we meet with a concurrence of varying circumstances 
 which seem to devote it forever to obscurity. Statistics, however, afford us a 
 means of eliminating the most embarrassing peculiarities, and of solving the problem 
 to a certain and sufficiently satisfactory extent. 
 
 Let us observe that there have been, within the last eight years, 661 persons 
 killed or wounded out of a total number of 253 explosions. Consequently we have a 
 result of an average of ff^=:2,6 persons injured by accidents of this kind. Thus the 
 zone of danger comprise on an average 2 or 3, if not more, persons to each steam 
 engine. It is not to be doubted that there were at least 2,6 exposed to being wounded, 
 since such is the average number of those struck. Thence, taking this data furnished 
 by experience as a basis, we may assert that, in any number whatsoever of persons 
 working near, or who are simply in the vicinity of, 100,000 steam engines for 
 instance, there are 260,000 at least who run the risk of being the victims of an 
 explosion. 
 
 However, the number of engines in use exceeds 100,000. In 1887 there were 
 calculated to be a total number of 80,421 boilers (including locomotives and steam- 
 boats) in operation in France, and 23,945 steam receivers subject to Government 
 regulations, altogether 104,366 explosive machines. 
 
 Besides these, there were 1,028 in Algeria. 
 
 Consequently the risks were divided among 260,000 persons, at the least calcu- 
 lation. 
 
 As according to statistics for the last eight years, the average number of victims 
 
 is 32 killed and 51 wounded annually, the proportion does not exceed 260 ooo ^^'-*^^^ 
 
 on 1,000 killed, and gel^o' °'' ^ ^^^^'^^ ^®^® *^^^ ^'"^ P®^ ^'^^^ wounded. 
 
 As shown by these figures, steam boilers have become much less dangerous 
 than is generally thought. Compared to other bad risks of which workmen have 
 to take their chance, these are almost overlooked in the chances of ■ accidents of 
 labor. 
 
538 
 
 This tappy result is due in a great measure to the number of safeguards in use 
 around steam boilers, some of which are ordered by law, and others adopted by 
 manufacturers themselves, in order to secure the safety of the public. 
 
 II. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE COST OP INSUEANCE AGAINST ACCIDENTS, 
 
 SCALE OP EISKS. 
 
 INDEMNITY TO BE ALLOTTED IN DIFFERENT ACCIDENT CASES. 
 
 It cannot be concealed that an equitable and humane compensation for misfor-- 
 tunes caused by accidents, necessarily leads to great expense in factories counting a 
 large number of victims of labor among their workmen. Por many years aid socie- 
 ties, for this purpose, have been organized by mining companies, by railway com- 
 panies, and in general by all the larger industries, and indemnities, in cases of 
 permanent or temporary incapacity, in the form of pensions to widows andto orphans 
 of deceased members, are distributed in a greater or less degi-ee of munificence. 
 
 Those allocations nearly always comprise aid and medicines not only for cases 
 of wounds but in cases of sickness also. Sometimes the expense is borne by the 
 master, and sometimes by the workmen, sometimes by both together. Statistics of 
 this kind in Prance and in foreign parts would furnish materials for several volumes. 
 It is a subject we cannot even touch upon just now. We cannot bind ourselves to 
 the discovery of what are the expenses to be foreseen to assist insurance against 
 accidents under certain determined conditions, that is to say, in taking as an object 
 the allocation to victims or to their heirs of indemnities, the highest that can be 
 given, or the largest pensions that have been allotted by the laws of the country, in 
 which, from this point of view, the condition of the working class has been improved. 
 
 The German Empire, where a law of insurance against accidents is in force since 1st 
 October, 1885, (urnishes much useful information on this subject, and abundant data 
 to go upon ; we will make use of the oflScial information published in that country^ 
 from which we will take numerous extracts as it is on the law already quoted, that,, 
 with little exception, is founded the project of law concerning the responsibility of 
 accidents of which workmen at labor are the victims, which the Chamber of Deputies- 
 has adopted on second deliberation on 10th July, 1888. 
 
 It is indispensable here, for the proper comprehension of this study, that in their 
 essential points, the basis of indemnities foreseen in this project and left to the cbarge- 
 of the head of the enterprise, are as follows : 
 
 In case of death : 
 
 1st. An indemnity twenty times the victim's daily wages for funeral expenses ; 
 
 2nd. A pensien to the widow equal to 20 p. c. of the average annual wages of 
 the victim ; 
 
 3rd. Pensions to orphans, having lost both father and mother, to the age of' 
 fourteen complete years, the total amount of which varies from 15 to 40 per cent, of 
 the annual wages of the victim, according to their number, if there is a widow, and 
 from 15 to 50 p. c. of the same wages, if there are only children. 
 
 -ith. A pension of 10 per cent, of the same wages allotted to the widow mother 
 of the victim or to each of his two ascendants over sixty years of age, if the victim 
 was unmarried or a widower or widow without children. 
 
 In case of permanent and entire incapacity for work : 
 
 An annuity varying from one-third to two-thirds of the average yearly wages 
 of the wounded person according to circumstances left to the judgment of the court, 
 under reserve of a minimum of $80 annually for men, and $50 annually for women. 
 
 In case of permanent partial incapacity for work : 
 
 An annuity similar to the preceding but " reduced in proportion to the remain- 
 ing capacity for work." 
 
 In all cases of accidents : ^ 
 
 1st. Doctor's and druggist's charges restricted to $20 per wounded ; 
 
539 
 
 2th. Daily indemnity equal to half the average daily wages of the victim 
 between the limits of from 20 cts. to 50 cts. This temporary indemnity will be paid 
 only for accidents that have caused more than three days' incapacity for work. 
 
 In Germany widows' pensions are calculated the same as in the French project. 
 The expense is a little heavier foi- orphans who are pensioned until the age of fifteen 
 complete years, and for whom the total amount of pensions may be 60 per cent of 
 the victims' daily wages. The pension is f of the average annual wages of the 
 victim in case of total incapacity for work lasting more than six months ; in case of 
 partial incapacity it is reduced " in proportion to the remaining capacity for work." 
 The law makes no mention of permanent incapacity; the pensions are to be paid 
 "for the duration of the incapacity." 
 
 Insurance funds established by law pay these indemnities only after the four- 
 teenth week after the accident. During the three first months, the expenses are 
 borne by the sick aid fund, or by the communal insurance against sickness. 
 
 Consequently the official statistics of the results of obligatory insurance against 
 accidents, in Germany, has nothing to do with wounded persons whose incapacity for 
 work has lasted less than three months. It is resti-icted to approximate indications 
 of the number of wounded there are in this class. On the other hand, we find classed 
 as invalided, any wounded person who has been unable to resume the exercise of bin 
 trade at the end of six months, or who has remained partially incapacitated at the 
 end of the same period. 
 
 There results from this a great difference in the proportion of victims, according 
 to the statistics consulted whether French or English, in which is notably classed 
 permanent disablement. 
 
 We must be very careful, therefore, not to allow ourselves to become confused 
 on this point, as so many authors have done. 
 
 The preliminaries bases being given, we will successively examine the different 
 elements of the expenses that are charged to the head of industries, and which it is 
 intended insurance should altogether or partially cover. 
 
 COST OF THE MEDICAL TREATMENT OF THE WOUNDED. 
 
 Generally those expenses are higher than those for the treatment of the sick,, 
 particularly when the wounds necessitate the transfer of the victims to hospitals. 
 
 They vary a good deal in the different establishments, according as they have 
 or not a physician, an infirmary or a hospital attached ; according to the number or 
 workmen employed, if they work closely together, or are disseminated, &c. 
 
 The operations of the mutual aid societies give valuable indications as to the, 
 cost of sickness, provided we consider as minima the averages given in the reports, 
 when applied to the treatment of the wounded.* 
 
 The cessation from work seems to last longer in the case of wounds than in that 
 of sickness ; the average is twenty-one days. By allowing for the wounded the same 
 daily costs of treatment as allowed the mutual aid societies, that is to say, 25 cents- 
 per day's sickness the expense would amount to $5.25 per wounded.** 
 
 In some mines, the medical service is admirably organized ; special hospitals 
 attended by nurses and several physicians and surgeons are attached to the company. 
 The expenses are then almost double. Thus, in a pamphlet lately issued, Mr. Mar- 
 sault, chief engineer of the Bess^ges Coal Company, in speaking of the aid funds of 
 that company during a period of fifteen years (from 1873 to 1887), gives the average 
 cost of treatment as $0,442 per day per wounded, and as $0,394 per day for the sick. 
 
 The German statistics corroborate these data, especially the increase of expense, 
 when the wounded have to be taken to hospitals. 
 
 * See tables, pp. 228-229. 
 
 ** The average cost of 25 cents per day of sickness adopted by Mr. Keller, is based on the official' 
 reports of the French mutual aid societies for 1884. The reports of 1886, published on pp. 228-229, give an. 
 average of 25J cents. 
 
540 
 
 The report of the Imperial Assurance office, of 30th November, 1888, contains 
 «everal figures respecting the cost of medical treatment {Kosten des Heilverfahrens) 
 which can be compared as follows : — 
 
 Number of FxiDente -^-^^^age expense per 
 wounded treated. ' ' wounded. 
 
 Treatment f Professional syndicates 6.025 $ Y2,393.80 $ 12.01 
 
 at home. 1 Government employees .... 509 9,035.00 17.89 
 
 Treatment j Professional syndicates 2,539 64,068.80 24.27 
 
 in hospital. [Government employees.... 147 3,652.00 24.84 
 
 Total 9.320 149,149.60 16.00 
 
 The average expense of the treatment of a wounded is very high. But we must 
 DOt forget that these statistics apply only to persons grievously wounded. If they 
 included the wounded who recover before three months' time, a large number of 
 whom having received only slight injuries are easily treated, and cost very little, the 
 average cost per sick would naturally be much less, and come nearer the figures 
 given above. 
 
 •CAPITAL CORRESPONDING TO THE PENSIONS TO BE ALLOWED IN CASE OF DEATH OR OP 
 
 INJURY. 
 
 After the retrospective enquiry instituted by the Administration of mines, on 
 accidents that occurred in coal mines during the three years 1886, 1887 and 1888, 
 the capital sums corresponding to the pensions to be allowed victims or their heirs, 
 in conformity with the rules laid down in the pi-oject of law on the i-esponsibility of 
 accidents, were calculated with exactitude for each case referred to the enquiry, 
 taking into account, in any case of disablement, the wages paid the victim, and 
 his or her age; the age of the widow, the number of orphans and their ages, the 
 number of accidents in any case o± which death had been the result. The adminis- 
 tration made use of the table or scale in actual use by the National Insurance Fund 
 for cases of death or accident, entitled ; "Table of rents with immediate enjoyment at 
 any age, at the rate of 4 per cent." The calculations for temporary rents or pensions 
 provided for orphans, were established in accordance with the latest information 
 gathered relative to the mortality of childreh. The value of such a rent from age 
 .n to fourteen years complete, was equal to the difference between the value of an 
 immediate life-rent at the age of n and the value of a life-rent from the age of n to 
 the age of fourteen complete years. 
 
 According to these calculations the expense for 474 workmen killed in the prin- 
 cipal coal mines during the three years mentioned, was as follows : — 
 
 ("Widows $252,818 20 
 
 Capital amount ofpension Orphans.-;::::::::: :v:; 115: 
 
 to be allowed. 
 
 638 00 
 
 ( Ascendants 12,502 60 
 
 Altogether 1380,957 80 
 
 Funeral expenses 7,687 80 
 
 Total $388,645 60 
 
 For injured persons to the number of 51, afflicted with entire and permanent 
 •disablement, the capital sums allotted for pensions equalin amount to two-thirds the 
 victim's annual wages, give a total sum of $123,630. 
 
 For 204 cases of partial disablement the sums represented by the smaller pen- 
 sions, that is, those equal to one-third the yearly wages, amount to $266,006. 
 
 Consequently the expense, according to the case considered, for each victim, 
 was as follows : — 
 
 Death $ 819 95 
 
 Total disablement , 2,424 13 
 
 Partial disablement 1,303 95 
 
541 
 
 It must be observed : 1st. That if the partial disablement costs on an average, 
 a little more than half the amount of total disablement, it is due to the difference in 
 age of the corresponding victims (39 years instead of 46 years) ; 2nd. The daily 
 wages of miners killed was $0.78, and as a general thing, those of the wounded was 
 $0.'76, with an average of 285 days' work per year. 
 
 According to which as relating to the daily wages of the victim, an accident 
 followed by death costs the price of 1,051 days of work, or about three years and 
 eight months' work; total disablement costs 3,190 days' work (or 11 years); partial 
 disablement costs 1,'716 days' work (six years). 
 
 As for temporary disablement for work we know that its average duration is 
 twenty days ; as the wounded person is allowed half wages, the cost entailed, would 
 be only ten days' work if the cost of medical treatment did not add from 6 to 10 
 days' work more. 
 
 Approximately accidents may be said to rank, according to the preceding calcula- 
 tions, in the following order, taking as a starting point the cost of a fatal accident : 
 
 1 case of entire permanent disablement is equal to 3 cases of death ; 
 
 1 case of permanent partial disablement is equal to about one and a half. 
 
 60 cases of temporary disablement to 1 case of death (counting all kinds of 
 accidents and not only those entailing enforced idleness for more than 3 months). 
 
 Those figures apply specially to mining. But according to evidence given by 
 the large insurance companies of Germany and to the calculations made upon them 
 by Mr. Behm, by the assistance of tables of mortality, it was discovered that the 
 cost of indemnities in case of death being 1, that resulting from cases of entire disable- 
 ment, taking as basis a life pension equal to two-thirds the yearly wages, would be 
 2.9025, or very nearly 3. The equivalent above given may therefore be considered 
 as generally applicable in all branches of industry. It affords a convenient means 
 of determining at first glance the scale of risks, according to the statistics of accidents 
 which occur every year in different industries. 
 
 COST OF APPLYING INSURANCE LAWS IN GERMANY. 
 
 The cost of enquiry and administration correspond [to the manner of organiza- 
 tion prescribed by the law of insurance. 
 
 There were, in 1887, 62 professional syndicates divided into 366 sections, whose 
 membeass sharing in the insurance amounted to 3,861,560. 
 
 There were also 259,9*77 employees of the Empire or the States insured ; so that 
 the total number of persons insured in virtue of the law of July 6, 1884, was 
 4,121,537. 
 
 The application of the law gave employment to a numerous staff, to wit : 
 
 Members of councils of administration of syndicates 731 
 
 — — of sections 2.331 
 
 Electors delegated to assemblies of syndicates 2 . 350 
 
 Eepresentatives of syndicates ( Vertrauensmcenner) 6 . 750 
 
 Accredited technical inspectors of syndicates 79 
 
 Workmen's representatives 2.407 
 
 State employees' i-epresentatives 440 
 
 Number of courts of arbitration 452 
 
 Number of syndical enterprises 319 . 453 
 
 Public administrations support almost the entire expense of management con- 
 cerning the insurance of their employees, without any special allocation being made. 
 But as regards the syndicates, the expenses are all kept count of and entered in the 
 books, and published in the official reports. In detail they are as follows for the 
 year 1887 : 
 
542 
 
 Cost of enquiry and determining indemnities $ 39,561.00 
 
 Cost of courts of arbitration 51,446.80 
 
 Preventive measures against accidents 90,397.20 
 
 Cost. of first establishment 56,418.60 
 
 General cost of administration 724,291.40 
 
 Total 962,115.00 
 
 Under the heading " Preventive measures against accidents " are included the 
 costs for inj^pection which represent the greater part of the expense. Then come the 
 publication of provisions whose object is the prevention of accidents ; these provi- 
 sions are due to the initiative taken by the syndicates and are simply authorized by 
 the Government. Finally, for premiums for saving life and^ accessory expenses, the 
 modest sum of $2,000. 
 
 The general expenses of administration comprise the following articles, of which 
 ■we will merely give the items : 
 
 1. Cost of traval and board. 
 
 Of members of the councils of administration of syndicates. 
 Of representatives do do for sections. 
 
 Of representatives of syndicates (Vertrauensmsenner). 
 Of electors delegated to assemblies. 
 Of employees. 
 
 2. Salaries of employees and persons in the service. 
 
 3. Eent, heating and lighting offices. 
 
 4. Furniture of offices, printed forms, etc. 
 
 5. Postage, messengers. 
 
 6. Insertions and different publications. 
 
 7. Taxes and different expenses of administration. 
 
 These expenses, the total amount of which is rather large, are divided among the 
 3,861,560 insured persons. The amount of each insured person is $0,249, viz. : 
 
 JKxpenses of administration $0,1872 
 
 Costs of enquiries, arbitration, inspection and others 0,0618 
 
 Total 0,2490 
 
 If on a parallel with the expenses demanded for the application of the law, and 
 which amount to $962,115, as we have just seen, we put the indemnities allowed 
 during the year, including therapeutic treatment, the total of which for syndicates 
 does not exceed $1,343,374, we are struck with the diminutive useful result of the 
 gigantic machinery put in motion : about $0,25 expenses for $0,35 indemnity per 
 insured person. There is such a disproportionate difference between the effort and 
 the result as to have awakened criticism even in Germany. However, the expenses 
 seem less exorbitant when we take into account the millions paid to the reserve 
 fund, over and above the pensions paid to victims of accidents. This exaggerated 
 difference disappears when, as will be shown later, it is compared to the larger 
 capital sums representing the constitution of life-rents ; in fact, under these condi- 
 tions' they form only 6,20 per cent, of the charges for accidents that have occurred 
 during the year. 
 
 It is interesting to compare with the expenses of administration we ai-e speaking 
 of, which amount to $0-1872 per insured person, with the cost of management of 
 Fi-ench mutual aid societies. 
 
 In 1884 their average amount, per participating member, was $0-36 for the 
 2,173 authorized societies, and $0'19 for the 5,570 approved societies. 
 
 It is to be supposed that the general expenses of administering the insurance 
 law in Gei-many will increase year by year in ratio to the increase in pensions. They 
 will probably approach those of the most important aid funds in this country, for 
 instance the mining funds the average of which in 1886, amounted to $0'402 'and 
 in 1887 to $0-422 per member. 
 
543 
 
 RESOURCES NECESSARY TO MEET INSURANCE. 
 
 The German law settles the amount of indemnity and pension to be paid victims 
 of accidents. It acts in a rational way when it ascribes no limits to the subscriptions 
 necessary to meet the expense. 
 
 According to Article 10 " the means of meeting indemnities, to be furnished by 
 the syndicates, and the costs of administration, are created by means of j'early sub- 
 scriptions or rates divided among the members in proportion to the wages and salar- 
 ies paid to insured for their work, and according to legal tarifPs of risks." 
 
 The syndicates are, moreover, bound to make supplementary payments during 
 the fij'st eleven years, settled in accordance to a detei'mined scale, in order to con- 
 :Stitute a reserve fund. 
 
 In a statement drawn up by Messrs. Eehm and Bodiker, the annual charges for 
 insurance are calculated on the basis of an average annual salary ot 750 marks 
 (8185.50). According to this calculation the annual expenses, not including cost of 
 management, will go on increasing during a period of 75 years, in a very rapid man- 
 ner during the first 40 years. The payment to be made by masters for each of their 
 -workmen, deductions made of the cost of management is calculated at $0-417 
 for the first year and to nearly double that sum for the second year ($0'780) : 
 it amounts to $1.01 for the third year, and to $1.65 for the tenth, to $2.91 
 for the thirtieth and finally to $3.49 for the seventy-fifth. Mons. Ed. Gruner 
 ^ives a clear view of this subject in his work on " The laws of labor assistance in Ger- 
 many. " He considers syndicates to be " supported exclusively by their annual 
 receipts." " The reservefund provided, ceasing to be increased otherwise than by 
 its own interest (at the end of 11 years) is, in reality, nothing more than an aid fund 
 -destined to ward off the consequences of some future social upheaval, which would 
 for the time prevent regular work; but it is no sense a regular reserve fund such as 
 .should be established by private insurance companies. " 
 
 From the very first year, however, the increase foreseen by Messrs. Behm and 
 Bodiker, has been exceeded by the increase in the number of victims, which subject 
 we will refer to later on; and the difi'erent increases every year. 
 
 We know the exact amount of the expenses for the year 1886 and 1887 ; for 1888 
 • even we have general approximate results in the Official Journal of the Imperial 
 Insurance offices in Germany for 15th February, 1889. 
 
 The average yearly expense for each insured person is as follows : — 
 
 1886. 1887. 1888. 
 
 Legal indemnities $0-122 $0-348 $0-548 
 
 Cost of applying the law 0-230 0-250 0-264 
 
 Payment to reserve fand 0-390 0-644 0-822 
 
 Altogether $0-742 $1-242 $1-634 
 
 The figares given for 1888, resulting partly from valuations, are those given by 
 the Central Committee for Forges of France in one of its circulars printed 5th March 
 1887. The author of this circular basing his calculations on those of Behm and 
 Bodioker, calculates that the real definitive value of insurance is, according to results 
 given for 1887, 17 marks 62, or $4.40, and that it amounts to 18 marks 39, or $4.59 
 according to those of 1888. 
 
 We must not be surprised to use made of calculations of probabilities, even ap- 
 preciations. However numerous may be the figures inserted in official reports con- 
 
 ■ cerning the application of the insurance law of 6th July, 1884, the elements neces- 
 sary to calculate with exactitude the premium for insurance as it is usually defined, 
 and which suppose that the capital constituting life-rents are immediately paid, or 
 
 . are, at least, exigible, these elements, or at least some among them, a knowledge of 
 which is indispensable, are wanting. Thus the amount of pension allowed for more 
 
 ■than six months' disability, entire or partial, is confounded with temporary indem- 
 
 .nities, and no indication of the victims' ages is given. 
 
544 
 
 This matter of the premium is of such importance that we are bound to do our 
 best to elucidate it, making use for this purpose of the facts gathered by the Minister 
 of Public Works, as to the constituting of the pensions following the enquiiy of 1888 
 on accidents in French coal mines, and applying them to German statistics. 
 
 Tilthough the statement of the problem is not quite the same in Prance as in 
 Germany, the similarity of the law project of our deputies to that already in force in 
 Germany permits of our making use of a means to obtain a sufllciently close valua- 
 tion of the average premium of insurance, as regards professional syndicates. 
 
 CALCULATION OF THE AVERAGE INSURANCE PREMIUM OP PROFESSIONAL SYNDICATES 
 IN GERMANY, ACCORDING TO STATISTICS OF ISST. 
 
 ISTumber insured 3,861,560 
 
 Salaries fixed with a view to subscription. . $590,169,335 00 
 Average annual salary , 152 83 
 
 The number of days' work is unknown. If we settle it at 280 or 281 per year, 
 to keep count of the causes for enforced idleness, which must be very numerous in 
 such a large number of diiferent industries, the average daily wages amount to about 
 $0.55 per workman. 
 
 The number of heirs in case of death is 0,64 for widows, 1,43 for orphans, 0,06 
 for accidents, altogether 2,16 per victim (1). 
 
 The capital required for pensions is calculated as follows, with regard to the 
 daily wages, according to the number of days work they represent, and which serve 
 us as a known quantity in each case. 
 
 Number of Known Capital for 
 
 cases. quantity. Pensions. 
 
 Deaths 2,956 1,051 3,106,'756 X $0.55 
 
 Disability for more J Entire 2,827 3,190 9,018,130 X 0.55 
 
 than 6 months | Partial .. 8,126 1,716 13,944,216 X 0.55 
 
 Altogether 26,069,102 X $0.55 
 
 Or $14,338,006. 
 
 Tempora^ disabmty from 3 to | g ^61 30 61,830 X $0.55 
 
 Or $ 34,006.60 
 
 For other expenses we give the exact figures of the oflScial report ; and thus form . 
 the table given below : 
 
 TABLE OF EXPENSES FOR INSURANCE OF PROFESSIONAL SYNDICATES. 
 
 Ist. Legal indemnities. 
 
 Capital for pensions (including funeral expenses). $14,338,006.00 
 
 Indemnities for enforced idleness (3 to 6 months).. 34,006.60 
 
 Medical treatment at home $72,393.80'] 
 
 Treatment in hospital 64,068.80 I isinirRQn 
 
 Aid to families of wounded persons.... 30,708.20 [ i»J-,07b.J0 
 
 Capital paid to foreigners 13,905.40 J 
 
 2nd. Expense of applying the law 962,115.00 
 
 Total...; $15,515,203.80 
 
 (1.) The similar total as given in the statistics of accidents in French coalmines for 1886 to 1888 is but . 
 little different : 2,06.^ However, the proportion of orphans and heirs to a pension is less (1,33 instead of 
 1,43) because the limit of age adopted is 15 years instead of 16 as in Germany. 
 
345 
 
 From these figures result the following annual expenses : 
 
 Legal indemnities fS.TB 
 
 Expense of applying the law 0.25 
 
 Total $ 4.01 per insured. 
 
 Expense in regard to wages •. 25.94 per $1,000 
 
 As the expense of administration would inevitably increafle if the syndicates were 
 obliged to collect immediately and preserve and manage the large capital sums cor- 
 responding to the pensions, and which would go on accumulating, we must calculate 
 the actual cost of applying the law. 
 
 But on the other hand it is to be observed that pensions ceased to be paid to 
 wounded persons when cured. It is probable that this cessation of pension does, in 
 the end, reduce the sum of legal indemnities. 
 
 The proportion cannot become known with any exactness before a certain num- 
 ber of years, and on this point we are reduced to hypothesis. Will the reduction 
 of corresponding expenses be greater than the increase occasioned by the constantly 
 augmenting number of wounded persons whose recovery is not complete at the end 
 of six months ? Will not the number of accidents decrease in proportion ? Finally, 
 will the expense of insurance decrease to a little below the sum of $25.94 as shown 
 above, or will it attain larger proportions still ? The future alone can tell. 
 
 We may here remark that the honorable reporter for the Parliamentary (Jom- 
 mission who in 1887, was charged with examining the project of law, and its propo- 
 sitions, concei-ning the responsibility of accidents of which workmen are the victims 
 while at their labor, adopted a very different valuation the errors of which are very 
 manifest at the present time. He based his calculated amounts on an average charge 
 of $11.20 per $1,000 wages, as the result of the German statistics (Appendix I 
 of Mons. Deputy Duchy's report), when this average according to the figures given 
 in 1887, appear to us to approach $26. 
 
 CALCULATION OP THE PREMItTM FOR INSURANCE OF THE SYNDICATE FOR MINES IN 
 GERMANY, .ACCORDING TO STATISTICS FOR 1887. 
 
 Let US make a calculation after the same method for the important mining 
 syndicate. It is not, as may be imagined, a useless work. The knowledge of the 
 following figures will enable us to see clearly the working of the mining aid funds of 
 Prussia, of which the financial results for 1887 will be given as follows : — 
 
 Number of assured 346.146 
 
 Wages (fixed in view of assessments") $64,156,793 
 
 Average annual wages 185.34 
 
 de daily do 0.65 
 
 (The daily wages are calculated by counting 285 days of work a year.) 
 
 Number of Given Capital for 
 
 Cases. quantity. Pensions. 
 
 Deaths 849 1.051 892.299x0.65 
 
 Disability for more V-Total.... 565 3.190 1.834.250x0.65 
 than 6 months. |^ Partial . 951 1.716 1.631.916 x 0.65 
 
 J Altogether 4.358.465 x 0.65=$2,833,002.20 
 
 Temporary disability from 3 
 
 to6 months 497 30 14.910 >^ 0.65= 9,691.40 
 
 Expenses of medical treatment and other aid (real expenses) 44,191.40 
 
 Total of legal indemnities $2,886,885.00 
 
 20—35 
 
546 
 
 Taking the above calculated pensions as a basis, together with actual accessions, 
 we obtain for each insured person -the following figures : 
 
 Legal indemnities $8.34") $8 51 
 
 Expense of applying the law (real expenses). 0.1*7 j ' 
 
 Or, per $1,000 salaiy $45.95 
 
 This is the approximate expense to which we are led with regard to the reserve 
 already mentioned, plus 4^ per cent. 
 
 MINING EXPENSES OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 In order to complete this subject, we will give in detail the receipts and 
 expenses of the mining funds of Prussia for 1887, to the operation of which the 
 insurance law presents no obstacle. 
 
 We will then know the amount per workman of the expenses occasioned by 
 accidents dui-ing the said year, in the one, among all the industries, in which aid has 
 been assured to victims during the longest period of time, and in which catastrophes 
 are the most frequent. 
 
 There were TT societies (Jinappschaftsvereine) in that country, including 1,846 
 mines, factories and salt-pits. The members, some of whom have entire, some 
 restricted rights, numbered 329,209 in the beginning of the year, and 336,021 at the 
 end of the year. 
 
 NUMBER OF PERSONS ASSISTED. 
 
 In the beginning At the end 
 
 of the year. of the year. 
 
 Invalids 27.983 30.162 
 
 "Widows 30.124 31.163 
 
 Orphans 52.202 54.127 
 
 Totals 110.309 115.452 
 
 Adding to these the number of persons assisted by the sections of professional 
 syndicates in virtue of the insurance law against accidents we counted 32,837 
 invalids, 32,804 widows and 62,347 orphans. 
 
 Beceipts. 
 
 Payment of members $2,560,757 
 
 do chiefs of enterprises 2,286,784 
 
 Interest on capital, fines, etc 363,268 
 
 Total ; 5,210,809 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Aid to Invalids $1,649,417 'j 
 
 — widows.. 845,585 (-$2,957,172 
 
 — orphans _. 462,170) 
 
 Expense for sickness 1,274,219 
 
 Exceptional aid, expense for interment, etc 77,139 
 
 Schooling expenses 82 558 
 
 Cost of management 138,339 
 
 Different expenses 151 811 
 
 Total 4,681,338 
 
 Under the heading of invalids are included, at least so we believe, all the 
 wounded receiving indemnities, who, however, are not under treatment. 
 
 There were counted 135,712 sick persons to whom were paid sick-wages (Kran- 
 kenlohn). The average duration of a sickness was 16.1 days (as against 16.8 the 
 preceding year.) 
 
647 
 
 Among the different expenses are included $84,812 for purchase of immo- 
 vables, which constitute a real payment into the reserve fund. 
 
 If we leave these expenses aside, as well as the expenses for schooling, there 
 remains an average expense of $13.59 per member, to wit : 
 
 Aid to the wounded, widows and orphans $9.040cts. 
 
 Expenses of sickness 3.894 " 
 
 Exceptional aid, funeral expenses 0.235 " 
 
 Expenses of management , 0.422 " 
 
 Total $13,592 cts. 
 
 According to which the total amount of expense incurred for members in case 
 of accident or sickness compared with the average wages of miners, which, as we 
 have seen, is $185.34 for all Grermany (taking it for granted that the average is suffi- 
 ciently applicable to Prussia) amount to 7.33 per cent, without counting the different 
 expenses, and those for schooling. 
 
 During the preceding year, the aid (unterstUtzungen) for invalids, for widows and 
 for orphans amounted to scarcely $8.64 fer member, instead of $9.04. There has 
 therefore been a considerable increase in the expenses from one year to the other, 
 and there is nothing to show that the maximum has been reached. 
 
 ANNUAL INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS KNOWN, AND COVERED BY INSURANCE 
 
 IN GERMANY. 
 
 Accordingly as the insurance law is applied accident statistics are being completed ; 
 and, an important circumstance, to be partly attributed to simulation which appears 
 to us to be the natural consequence of the law, or rather of the natural feelings of 
 humanity which incline both doctors or arbitrators to refrain from lessening the 
 amounts claimed for indemnity, is'the fact that the proportion of serious accidents is 
 beyond all that had been foreseen. The case is the same as i-egards fatal accidents 
 which shows that the workman has grown more imprudent. But as regards this 
 matter we believe that the syndicates moved by their financial interest, will insist on 
 the general use of preventative means of precaution, suggested by experience. The 
 continual increase of serious accidents cannot last very long. 
 
 In any case the fact must be admitted that it is impossible to actually fix the limit 
 of the expense that must follow from obligatory insurance, when we find that in 1888 
 for a small increase in the number of insured persons (4,242,100 instead of 4,121,537 
 in 1887) for the professional syndicates and public administrations together, the total 
 number of accidents claiming indemnity, increased at the rate of 20 per cent. (20,666 
 instead of 17,102). 
 
 The details of the statistics for 1888 are not yet known ; and that is the reason we 
 have been obliged to base our calculations principally on the results of the year 1887. 
 However, the total amounts published by the Imperial Insurance Office for last year 
 allow us to establish comparisons between the three years 1886, 1887 and 1888, which 
 are likely to prove instructive. 
 
 NUMBER OF VICTIMS PER 1,000 WORKMEN AND PER YEAR. 
 Result of the Accident. 1886 
 
 Death 0,73 
 
 Disablement for more than 6 ( Entire 0,48 
 
 months ■, [Partial 1,06 
 
 Temporary disablement from 3 to 6 months. 0,56 
 
 Total number of accidents giving a claim ") 
 
 to an indemnity, in virtue of the in- > 2,83 4,14 4,84 
 surance law ) 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 0,79 
 
 0,84 
 
 0,77 
 
 0,65 
 
 2,05 
 
 2,46 
 
 0,53 
 
 0,91 
 
 Total number of accidents known 27,19 28,02 32,01 
 
 20—35^ V —= 
 
548 
 
 Classification of Bisks — Principal Methods of Classification. 
 
 Insurance companies establish tariffs in which the different elements of 
 statistics of accidents are taken into account as far as they may be gathered from the 
 different branches of industry. 
 
 Sometimes these tariffs ate given in detail; the cost ot insurance varies accord- 
 ing to the kind of the work, according to the nature of the manufactory. Sometimes 
 the industries are divided by groups of a certain limited number, in each of which the 
 risk of accident is supposed to be the same and the cost of insurance identical for all 
 the establishments grouped. 
 
 This last method has been adopted in Italy by the National Accident Insurance 
 Fund for accidents of labor. 
 
 For individual insurance the establishments are ranked into 14 classes of risks. 
 Their names are given in a work entitled : " Arti per I'instituzione della cassa nazio- 
 nale d'assicurazione per gli operai contra gl'infortuni sul lavoro, vol. II. The classifica- 
 tion was established on those of the following insurance companies : General Insu- 
 rance of Venice, the Fondiaria, the Paternelle, the Urhaine and the Seine, the 
 Zurichoise, and the Winterthur 
 
 In Germany, at the time of the short enquiry which preceded the vote of the 
 insurance law in 1884 the authors of the preparatory studies divided the different 
 industries into ten classes of risks, according to statistical facts gathered at the time. 
 
 It is this work, of which experience has since shown the inevitable errors and 
 oversights, that, in France, led to the nomination of the Commission of the Chamber 
 of Deputies to determine the amount of premium to be paid in case of recourse being 
 made to insurance under State wan anty. 
 
 By reducing the risks to five classes it succeeded in simplifying the problem, 
 without, however, assisting in its solution. 
 
 Finally we have another combination which is the least favorable of all ; it is 
 that which preceded the establishment of the N'ational Insurance Fund in case of 
 accident, oi^ganized by law, 11th July, 1868. The different industries are taken as a 
 whole and as presenting one identical risk, and are subject to the payment of the 
 same premium whatever may be the danger surrounding the work. It is not with- 
 out reason that Mons. Duch^ pointed, out this sole premium as one of the causes of 
 the Funds' failure to win public favor, which was never with the fund. For several 
 years the number of insured has been, with difficulty, maintained at 1,200. In 1887 
 the fund received : 
 
 619 subscriptions of $1.60. 
 361 — 1.00. 
 
 255 — 60. 
 
 Of the 1235 subscriptions more than half (688) were paid by firemen. Millers, 
 printers, locksmiths, a few municipal guards formed the greater part of the remainder. 
 
 During the year, three accidents were liquidated, one of which entailed entii e 
 disablement from work, and two a permanent disablement from professional woi-k. 
 The reports of the higher commission concerning the operations of which we speak, 
 make no mention of the trades exercised by the victims. There is no reason to devote 
 our attention further to this fund, which, moreover, it is announced, is under process 
 of complete transformation. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PROFESSIONAL SYNDICATES OF GERMANY ACCORDING TO 
 THEIR EXPENSES FOR 188*7, FOR ACCIDENT INSURANCE. 
 
 The Imperial Insurance Office of Berlin is of necessity, as a consequence of the 
 law now in force, the headquarters for information as to the degree of risk inherent to 
 each kind of industry. However, no communication has been made to the Press in 
 respect to this important subject, at least not to our knowledge. But the details 
 published in regard to the financial results of the application of the insurance law 
 of 1884 during the year 1887, supplies the want. 
 
549 
 
 Classification of syndicates. 
 
 Tabacco . 
 Silk. 
 
 Clothing industry 
 
 Printing 
 
 Ceramics 
 
 Industry of metals (2 syndicates) . 
 
 Working in pacer 
 
 Textiles j6 syndicates) 
 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Ironmongery (feinmechanich) 
 
 Glass 
 
 Shipping, warehousing 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Leather industry 
 
 TUes 
 
 Carting 
 
 Foods 
 
 Machines, manufacture of small iron wares . 
 
 Gas and water apparatus 
 
 Ironworks, steel (7 syndicates) 
 
 Inland navigation (3 sjmdicates) 
 
 Private railway-s 
 
 Distilleries 
 
 Wood industry (4 syndicates) 
 
 Building (12 syndicates) 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Tramways ... 
 
 Mills 
 
 Paper manufactures 
 
 Chemical products 
 
 Quarries 
 
 Chimneys 
 
 Mines 
 
 Brewing and malting 
 
 Altogether 3.861.560 
 
 Persons 
 
 insured. 
 
 90.735 
 35.526 
 86.193 
 55.792 
 48.214 
 77.993 
 48.906 
 
 502.102 
 18.267 
 40.513 
 4.S.902 
 54.317 
 34.139 
 38.085 
 
 190.487 
 54.566 
 35.765 
 69 455 
 21.006 
 
 383.050 
 53.171 
 27.580 
 38.829 
 
 159.218 
 
 671.815 
 
 106.817 
 44,326 
 82.693 
 49.553 
 82.011 
 
 187.929 
 5.648 
 
 346.146 
 61.562 
 
 Marks. 
 
 42,222.688 
 
 21.390.712 
 
 46.706.530 
 
 48.876.695 
 
 32,040,751 
 
 57.442.895 
 
 34.201.472 
 
 277.615.675 
 12 971.292 
 32.634.807 
 28,283.326 
 45.964.050 
 17.420.715 
 31.478.870 
 71.052.190 
 39,615,153 
 24.743.351 
 57.529.488 
 18.976.743 
 
 318.960,854 
 31.023.909 
 20.991.925 
 22.258.416 
 
 110,330,128 
 
 383,643,386 
 33.664,679 
 14,257,505 
 54,181,948 
 27,873.796 
 62.710.378 
 61.457.421 
 3.127.682 
 
 256.627.172 
 49.070.933 
 
 2,389.349.536 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Marks. 
 
 56,470 
 
 33,087 
 
 81,020 
 115,476 
 
 83,540 
 198.163 
 108.964 
 938.201 
 
 46,071 
 128.373 
 114.444 
 192.450 
 
 74.487 
 138,332 
 384.534 
 243,124 
 149,025 
 403,021 
 143.326 
 2.575.855 
 257.600 
 180.259 
 191.637 
 958.449 
 3,414.248 
 326.331 
 144.797 
 564.975 
 335.397 
 756.880 
 791.056 
 
 42.953 
 3,887.886 
 1,096,860 
 
 19.157.395 
 
 Relation of 
 
 expenses 
 
 to wages per 
 
 100. 
 
 1,34 
 
 1,55 
 
 1,71 
 
 2,36 
 
 2,60 
 
 2,93 
 
 3,19 
 
 3,37 
 
 3,55 
 
 3,93 
 
 4,04 
 
 4,19 
 
 4,28 
 
 4,39 
 
 5,41 
 
 6,13 
 
 6,90 
 
 7,00 
 
 7,55 
 
 8,08 
 
 8,33 
 
 8,58 
 
 8,61 
 
 8,68 
 
 8,90 
 
 9,69 
 
 10,15 
 
 10,43 
 
 12,03 
 
 12,07 
 
 12,88 
 
 13,73 
 
 15,15 
 
 22,35 
 
 8,06 
 
 If, for each professional syndicate, we divide the amount of expenses by the sum 
 of the annual wages of those insured, we obtain quotients whose value is in direct 
 relation to the expense and the indemnities for which each syndicate has to provide 
 during the course of the year. We have made use of these quotients to draw up the 
 accompanying table which indicates the number of persons insured in the diflterent 
 branches of industries, the amount of wages corresponding for 1887, the expenses in- 
 curred for insurance during the same year and the relation of those expenses per 
 1000 to the wages. 
 
 The last number which represents the expense in Prance per $1,000 of wages 
 is, in a way, the given quality of risks. 
 
 "We must remember that according to the observations and calculations already 
 made, we must triple and even quadruple this given quantity to obtain approximately 
 the value of the premium which will be exigible when the operation of insurance is 
 become normal. 
 
 To obtain more generality, we have united similar syndicates which differ but 
 little from each other, except in the part of the empire in which they are situated. 
 Con'sequently the 62 professional syndicates form actually 34 industrial distinct groups, 
 in which the risks of serious accidents are on the increase. 
 
 The relation of expenses to wages, which appears in the last column represents 
 an average for each large industry considered in the whole number of its factories, 
 its workshops, and establishments. But each branch taken individually gives use to 
 very different risks. Thus the wood industry includes workshops for wheel making, 
 carpentering, coopering, for the manufacture of wooden shoes, carriages, workshops 
 for turning in which accidents are very infrequent, especially where no mechanioa 
 
550 
 
 motor is used, whilst in works ou square timber, as in all others where the work- 
 men have large and heavy masses to handle, serious accidents are rathar frequent. 
 As we are aware the German law leaves the regulating of these risk tariffs to these 
 syndicates, by statutory means, for each kind of establishment, according as the nature 
 of the work to be done and the material conditions in which it is done offer more or 
 less risk of serious accidents. 
 
 SCALE OF RISKS ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OP THE INDUSTaY. 
 
 In the preceding table we see that the given quantity of risks varies from 1.34 
 for the tobacco industry, the least dangerous (which in Germany is not a State 
 monopoly) to 22.35 for brewing and malting where most accidents occur, or as from 
 1 to 16 J. Leaving this latter industry aside, where particular danger seems the 
 result of a defective organization, or of work done on too large a scale, without suffi- 
 cient superintendence (for in other countries, the results are much less unfavorable 
 as regards the lives of the workmen employed in the manufacture of malt and beer,) 
 the scale of risks ascends from 1 to 11.3. Mines are at the top. 
 
 If there was any need to point out the reality of the professional risk, the com- 
 parison of the figures (the entire length of the scale) would amply suffice. As for 
 determining the exact value of the risk, it presents great difficulty in so much as it 
 exacts, as a starting point, very precise statistics, established on very numerous 
 obsei-vations, 
 
 Insurance companies are unable to supply the deficiency shown in their own 
 statistics — or those they have been able to procure and which they keep as secret 
 as possible — except in praising the premiums to supply the existing deficiency. 
 They even refuse, through prudence, to insure certain risks. 
 
 SCALE OP RISKS ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OP THE ESTABLISHMENT, ACCORDING TO 
 INSURANCE TARIPPS OP " LA PR^SERVATRICE." 
 
 The companies or insurance associations against accidents number 12 in Prance, 
 they pay from $1,000,000 to $1,200,000 in indemnities every year. 
 
 In order tc better understand what, in general, is the scale of risks in industries, 
 we will conclude by giving the classification to which we are lead by the study of 
 the insui-ance tariffs of one of these companies " LaPr^servatrice " which was founded 
 in 1861. 
 
 In this company, heads of establishments are allowed, if they choose, to insure 
 against all risks run by the workman at his work or only against a portion of these 
 risks, for instance, against the most serious accidents : death and permanent disable- 
 ment for work. In this latter combination, the only one to which we will here 
 refer, insurance is limited to the following payments : 
 
 1st. In case of death, a capital of |200 for the widow and orphans; 2nd. 
 in case of permanent disablement from work, a pension of $60, $40 and $20 accord- 
 ing to the degree of such disablement. 
 
 Besides, in case of contestation or action at law, the master's civil responsibility 
 is covered to the extent of $1,400 for each accident. This latter amount may be 
 carried to $2,000 by means of a supplementary tax of 10 per cent. 
 
 The staff of an establishment should not, on principle, be insured by fractions ; 
 the contract should include the total number of wage earners. This rule may, how- 
 ever, be deviated from where the work of an establishment is divided into branches, 
 quite distinct the one from the other, and offers no risk of accident, except in one or 
 more special branches. ^ 
 
 For this purpose the company authorizes printing establishments, for instance, 
 to exclude compositors, proof-readers, foremen, folders, &c., and to insure the staff 
 in other branches of the business ; in delf-works, china-works and potteries, to 
 exclude workmen, moulders, painters, &c., employed in shaping the pieces, and to 
 insure the staff employed in extracting and in carrying the material, and in firing 
 the pieces ; and moreover to exclude women aud children under fifteen years of age. 
 
 The subscription is generally paid in day's work ; it is sometimes settled at the 
 rate of $20 of wages. This is especially the case in spinningand weaving industries. 
 
551 
 
 We show in the accompanying table, the subscription to be paid in each 
 industry per workman for 300 days work. In the spinning and weaving and other 
 similar establishments where the staff comprises many women and children, the rate 
 is $0.40 per $100 of the wages; the subscription per member and for 300 
 days may be subject to great variation. It cannot exceed 60 cents for a yearly 
 salary of $150, which seem to be about the average wages. These establishments 
 are consequently among the lowest taxed. 
 
 For coal mines in which the insurance tariff is limited to the most serious 
 accidents, the rate is $2.'70 ; it must be noted that accidents occasioned by fire- 
 damp and by flooding are formally excluded from the warranty. 
 
 Subscription 
 
 per 300 days 
 
 work. 
 
 S 
 Variable. 
 
 60 
 75 
 81 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 1 05 
 
 1 14 
 
 1 20 
 
 1 35 
 
 1 38 
 1 50 
 
 1 56 
 1 m 
 
 1 65 
 
 X 80 
 
 195 
 2 10 
 2 22 
 2 25 
 234 
 2 40 
 
 255 
 
 2 70 
 
 2 79 
 
 2 82 
 
 2 85 
 
 3 00 
 
 3 60 
 3 72 
 
 3 90 
 
 4 50 
 
 5 40 
 
 INSURANCE LIMITED TO SERIOUS ACCIDENTS. 
 
 NAME AND CLASSIFICATION OV KISKS. 
 
 9 00 
 
 Spinning and weaving of cotton, thread, woollens, flax, silk ; preparation and bleaching 
 of goods ; printing stuffs, colored cloth, dyes ; manufacture of wadding. 
 
 Manufactures of oils and grease ; wiredrawing ; tinsmith's work without zinc plumbing. 
 
 Manufactures of crockery, china and pottery without machinery. 
 
 Coopers, turners ; wheelwrights, carriage making without mechanical saws ; makers of 
 wooden shoes without motive power ; 
 
 Wheelwrights with mechanical saws ; makers of wooden shoes with motive power : Manu- 
 factures of wax and other candles ; soap factories ; tanneries, white leather workers 
 and curriers ; glass and crystal workers. 
 
 Brewens and malters ; mechanical nail making, cutlery, ironware, gunsmiths ; galvaniza- 
 tion, silver and gold plating ; art bronzing. 
 
 Bricks and tiles vnttioui, machvnery ; foundries and locksmithing (small articles) ; manu- 
 facture of boots and shoes by machinery. 
 
 Manufactures of foods ; manufactures of perfumery ; boat and ship building, enterprise 
 for sweeping ; house painting. 
 
 Carpentering without mechanical saws : cabinet-making ; india rubber and gutta percha 
 works ; rope walks ; blacksmithing ; plumbing, tinsmithing and zinc working ; print- 
 ing and lithographing (partial insurance. ) 
 
 Refiners of metals ; small forging ; carpentering with mechanical saws ; inlaying ; ceiling 
 plasterers ; salt works ; waggon making. 
 
 Manufactures of mortars and cements. 
 
 Workshops for sharpening ; heating and lighting apparatus ; gold and silver beating ; 
 bricks and tUes with machinery ; manufacture of manures ; musical instruments and 
 machines ; gas factories ; marble works ; sugar factories ; manufactures of champagne 
 wine. 
 
 Manufactures of asphaltum and bitumen. 
 
 Mills (stationary). 
 
 Steelworks, forges and blast-furnaces ; docks and warehouses without machinery ; paving 
 (mthout quarrying). 
 
 Manufacture of dye woods ; large-looksmithing ; lime and cement (extraction and manu- 
 facture) ; manufacture of aerated waters ; foundries (large pieces). 
 
 Building of marine docks ; canals for gas ; building roads and ways ; sugar refineries. 
 
 Building canals without tunnels, bridges. 
 
 Yards for fire-wood, coal and coke. 
 
 Chalk factories ; mushroom beds ; distilleries. 
 
 Exterior plastering, and cleaning of fronts. 
 
 Open-air quarries ; building (masonry, timber, roofs, &c) ; lumber yards ; canal building 
 with tunnels, dykes ; dredging ; dealers and drivers of horses and cattle ; docks and 
 warehouses, with machines ; horse-breeding, riding-schools ; bargemen ; petroleum 
 distilleries ; street-porters. 
 
 Work in wood-carpentering ; building of railways without tunnels ; paper and cardboard 
 factories. 
 
 Slate quarrying in pits, quarrying in rough and paving stones in pits, clay pits, kaolin, 
 sands ; coal mines. 
 
 Building of acqueducts and viaducts, railways with tunnels ; removmg furniture. 
 
 Underground canals (water pipes, drains, &c) ; extraction and manufacture of lime for 
 underground masonry (for quarries, mines, &c). 
 
 Abattoirs. ' j • ^ 
 
 Threshing of grain ; marble and cut stone quarries ; marble and stone sawmg ; roofing, 
 chimney makers ; gravelera and terrace makers ; carriage by diligence, omnibus, 
 tramways, private and public carriages. 
 
 Enterprises for demolition ; inflammable and explosive chemical products. 
 
 Nightmen. 
 
 Carriage by horse and cart, led on foot. 
 
 Sawmills, cutting and splitting wood. 
 
 Lightermen (dockwork) ; loading and unloading ships ; rigging ships ; carriage by vehicle 
 drawn by several horses, led on foot. 
 
 Drain makers. 
 
552 
 
 This table affords more opportunity than did the preceding to go into the 
 details of the different trades. It demonstrates the increase in risks resulting from the 
 use of machinery in similar establishments, and among other peculiar points, shows, 
 if we admit that the premiums are rightly calculated, that horses are in general more 
 da,ngerous motors than the machines themselves. In regard to this we may cite accord- 
 ing to Mr. Whittall, statistics of fatal accidents in England in which horse-breakers 
 show the highest average number of deaths (4.19 per 1,000). In the same statistics 
 boatmen, whose business is also very dangerous, rank next with an average of 4 
 deaths per 1,000. According to the list given, we perceive that "La Pr^servatrice" 
 demands the highest premiums, putting drain-makers aside, from workmen engaged 
 in loading and unloading, or in rigging vessels, and from drivers driving vehicles 
 drawn by a number of horses. 
 
 Taken as a whole the classification of risks we have given according to the 
 tariff of this company agrees satisfactorily with that given by statistics of pro- 
 fessional syndicates in Germany, if we take into account the subdivisions established 
 in the different industrial groups. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN FROM FRENCH AND FOREIGN STATISTICS ON ACCI- 
 DENTS OF LABOR. 
 
 Our only pui-pose has been to draw in broad lines a picture of the state of 
 the serious question of accidents of labor without entering too much into detail, 
 and without going beyond facts given by statistics. There are r umbers of docu- 
 ments within our reach which, however, could not be employed in this report, 
 which must of necessity be limited in extent. 
 
 It remains for the members of the Congress to bring the contingent force of 
 their own personal obsei-vation to the vast field of study open to them, to provide 
 supplementary statistics, above all by authentic figures, that is to say, figures sup- 
 ported by a long series of observations, or embracing as large a number of persons 
 as possible, and each presenting a clear significance. 
 
 From this time forward, we can extract from French and foreign statistics the 
 most worthy of confidence, a general series of traits of great interest. We will give 
 a brief sketch of them. 
 
 If we take under observation a certain fixed number of workmen, provided 
 the number be large enough (100,000 for instance), all working at the same trade, 
 we find a surprising regularity in the number of accidents occurring every year to 
 these workmen, and also in the number of killed and wounded. Doubtless there are 
 differences from one year to the other ; but the variations, as shown by statistics, if 
 they are exact, are generally a very secondary matter. 
 
 The conclusion is that these accidents, even when they seem due to chance alone, 
 are governed by some mysterious laws. They occur every year with a fatal fre- 
 quency. And it is on the frequency of accidents of the same kind, that, as we are 
 aware, insurance is based. In any determined organization of labor, in each branch 
 of human activity, the principle of the regular, constant risk constitues the funda- 
 mental basis of theoretical studies relative to accidents. 
 
 However, the laws of chance are not inflexible. Eisks decrease in all 
 industries in which preventive means are employed, where safety apparatus is used, 
 and where wise regulations are enforced in order to secure the safety of the work- 
 men. The use of lamp with a metallic trellis work, and of ventilator in coal mines 
 infested with fire-clamp, safety signals, automatic checks, machinery for coupling on 
 railway trains, safety valves on steam boilers, various means of insuring the safety 
 of workmen in the use of instruments and the machinery for conveyance from other 
 machinery in motion, in all sorts of industrial establishments, are to be seen in 
 statistics, especially in decennial statistics, frequently in a very obscure and indistinct 
 manner as to the causes, but very apparent as to effect, by a periodical decrease in 
 the proportionate number of victims. 
 
553 
 
 There are a rather large number of trades in the exercise of which the 
 peculiar risks run have so fkr not been stated ; accidents do occur — they occur eveiy- 
 where — but they are not sensibly more frequent, nor more serious, than those to 
 which every man is exposed, even when he is not employed at regular manual labor. 
 
 But always where there are heavy masses to be moved, when man has to struggle 
 with the powers of nature and to compel the rebellions elements to obey, he is exposed 
 to injury and sometimes to death. 
 
 In most industries there is the risk of professional accident, often character- 
 istic, and the importance of which is liable to increase of diminish accordingly as the 
 conditions of the work are more or less well regulated. 
 
 The danger assumes different forms in accordance with the industry ; in 
 some by the frequency of the accidents, in others by their seriousness, in the more 
 dangerous trades by both their frequency and seriousness. 
 
 The relation existing between the killed and the seriously wounded is not well 
 understood ; we may however state that it varies from one trade to another, because 
 it depends on the nature of the danger to which the workmen are exposed. 
 
 Women are usually employed at less dangerous work, and on this account 
 the number of wounded and killed is much smaller than among men. The same 
 reason applies to children. 
 
 The chances of death succeeding accidents increase with the age of the 
 victim. Such is also the case in instances of permanent disablement. 
 
 As regards causes, accidents may be divided into three classes: Some are 
 the workman's fault, others the fault of the master and his employees ; others again 
 reveal no serious fault that may be laid either to the master, nor the workman, and 
 these are generally classed as due to fortuitous causes. In regard to this statistics 
 are, for the most past, very imperfect ; which we can easily understand as exact 
 information in this matter implies enquiries instituted, examinations by experts, and 
 moreover, judgments rendered on the subject. All that we can state in a general 
 way is that the class of accidents said to be due to fortuitous events, is the more 
 numerous. 
 
 The expense for doctor and medicines for workman, is a little heavier in 
 cases of wounds than in sickness, and the duration of the disablement is also a little 
 longer. The expense for wounds is, in particular, greater when the patient is treated 
 in hospital than when he is cared for in his own home. 
 
 Each workman loses more day's work during the year from sickness, 
 than he does from wounds, even in such industries as mining where accidents are 
 most fi-equent. 
 
 The cost of insurance depends mainly on the amount of indemnity 
 guaranteed to the victims or to their heirs. Taking into account the rate of life 
 pensions provided in the projected law, the result as shown by mining statistics 
 would be that on an average, the workman, whose wounds are the cause of a total 
 and permanent disablement, costs th^ head of the industry three times as much as 
 the workman who is killed on the spot. 
 
 If we examine the accounts of insurance funds we discover that expenses 
 vary according to the nature of the industry from a simple figure to ten times that 
 amount and oven more. Certain trades, otherwise exceptional, are fifteen and twenty 
 times more dangerous than others. 
 
 Wages bear no comparison with the scale of risks. Therefore the premium 
 for insurance necessary to equitably compensate accidents vary between greatly 
 extended limits. 
 
 The census in France for 1886, shows that the staif of workmen employed in 
 the different industries and in transportation all branches taken together, number 
 6,774,000 souls, exclusive of domestics, servants and employees. Granting that fatal 
 accidents are about as numerous with us as they are in Germany, as seems very 
 probable, we would calculate an annual number of 5,419 workmen killed, allowing 
 the rate to be 0"8 deaths per 1,000, which has been the average in this country 
 during the three last years. The number of workmen entirely disabled for a period 
 xceeding six months, is more than 4,000 per year. 
 
554 
 
 These figures show what aii important thing it is as regards the nation, as regards 
 all humanity, that practical solution to the problem should be discovered, that 
 efficacious means should be universally adopted, in the first place, to prevent accidents 
 or at least to limit the number ; secondly to succour the unfortunate victims of labor. 
 
 OEGANIZATION OP INSUEANCB. 
 
 Br Bmile Cheysson, 
 
 Chief engineer for bridges and causeways, former president of the Society of Social 
 Economy, former director of the Creusot, 
 
 Industry, and more especially modern industry, is a real battlefield, on which 
 numbers of victims fall every day. For each of these accidents the master is held 
 to be more or less responsible, either according to common law which obliges him 
 by whose fault injury has been done to another, to repair it, or in accordance with a, 
 special legislation founded on the principle of professional risk. 
 
 Confronted with such a misfortune, a certain number of masters expose them- 
 selves to it directly, much as we wait in expectations of hail or fire to meet and 
 repair the damage done by them ; others, on the contrary, resort to that combination 
 which has done such good service in similar cases, that is insurance. Insurance is 
 one of the most marked and most honorable characteristics of this end of the century. 
 Whenever it has been possible to valuate risks with any exactitude, it affords a 
 chance of escape by means of corresponding premiums. For a trifling sacrifice of 
 known extent is given in exchange, security and escape from the uncertain conse- 
 quences of an eventual disaster. Scatters over a large basis the blows of fate fall 
 lightly; they touch everybody and crush nobody. Insurance is the triumph of 
 human foresight over chance. 
 
 We have adopted insurance into our customs for fire, drowning and epizootic 
 
 diseases It is now being applied to accidents of labor, and applied in 
 
 this way assumes dififerent forms in accordance with the character of different nations, 
 and above all, in accordance with their legislation. 
 
 The study of these forms or difference of organization in insurance will form 
 the subject of this report, written at the lequest of the Committee of orgaoization 
 for the International Congress of accidents of labor. 
 
 All the questions relating to this extensive subject of accidents are bound and 
 linked together, whoever touches one raises all the others. However, we will en- 
 deavour in this report to avoid trenching on the domain assigned to other reporters, 
 and to keep within the limits of our own bounds however elastic they may be. This 
 report being compiled from a documentary rather than a theoretical point of view, 
 we will restrict ourselves to giving a summary of the solutions given to this part of 
 the problem of accidents, by the principal counti-ies that have given attention to the 
 matter, except to gather them together in the end, and to draw the deduction to which 
 the matter naturally leads. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF INSURANCE IN GERMANY. 
 
 Germany stands at the head of the movement, and it is she offers the most com- 
 plete and connected system for all questions relating to the sickness, accidents or old 
 age of the workingman. It is inspired by an avowed state socialism and by con- 
 siderations at once political and social, and presupposes its application by a hand of 
 iron on a disciplined and submissive people. The extent and j-adicalism of the solu- 
 tions of this system, and at the same time, its contagious influence and we might say 
 the fascination it possesses for all countries in process of labor reform, even for the 
 most liberal minds, brings it prominently before the Congress. There is no place 
 for liberty in this system ; obligation is the pivot on which it acts ; insurance is 
 oTjligatory. Heads of industries left to themselves might have withheld from it ; but 
 henceforth the law lays a constraining power over every one ; the master is, by the 
 very fact of being engaged in an industry, obliged to insure against accident. He is 
 
555 
 
 forced by the State to be provident. All is foreseen and provided for by a code con- 
 taining over one hundred articles and which bears the appearance ofa military regu- 
 lation. Workmen and masters are taught their duties and their rights as a soldier 
 is told the countersign ; nothing is left for arbitration or the unforeseen ; nothing 
 either is left to legal contestation, and herein lies the benefit of the law. There is no 
 embarrassment caused by distinction of cases, no speciality of circumstances : it severs 
 all difficulties as by a cut from a sword, settles tariffs and hands over their application 
 not to legal courts but to a technical jury, whose duty it is to identify the victim, 
 examine and verify the nature of the accident and the nature and extent of it& 
 results. 
 
 Article Ist of the law of July 6th 1884. lays down the principle of obligatory 
 insurance and points out the persons to whom it is to be applied. Other laws extend 
 the classification, and scarcely any are excluded insurance but domestic servants,, 
 artisans and messengers, — and there is even question of including them also. (1) 
 
 This insurance, which is paid solely by the master, is for fatal accidents, and takes 
 no account of any other until after the thirteenth week of disablement. During the 
 interval, a period of about three months, the injured has a right to assistance from 
 the insurance fund for sickness. (Law of 15th June, 1883.) 
 
 This restriction has a double effect: first of all, it excludes from insurance all 
 trifling accidents which represent the f of the whole number (in 1886 of 115,4'7& 
 accidents, only 17,102 came within the law of 1884) ; then it obliges the workmen to 
 share indirectly in the expense resulting from accidents to workmen who contribute 
 two-thirds of the amount to the sick fund even when they have nothing whatever to 
 do with the second fund. (2) Thus the masters alone bear the expense of serious 
 accidents and the workmen the two-thirds of the light cases. What shall be the 
 organisation of insuj-ance thus definitely indicted. Having from the first, thrust 
 aside pi-ivate companies, which harmonize badly with the essential characteristics of 
 the new law, it had in the beginning been the intention, in the project presented to 
 the Reichstag, March 8th 1881, to constitute a grand Imperial Fund. (Meichsversiche- 
 rungsanstaW) which the State should administer and subsidize. But the Eeichstag 
 rejected both the jjrinciple of a subsidy and of a central fund, and substituted for it 
 an organization of corporations or syndicates of insurance which prevailed in the 
 law of 6th July, 1884. 
 
 These corporations are composed of masters and heads of industries all engaged 
 in the same or in a similar business within very wide limits. Thus, of sixty-two (62) 
 corporations organized at the end of 1886, 24 covered more than one State, and 25 
 the whole Empire (.3). That of miners, for instance, included 343,619 workmen. 
 
 When the corporations become too large they may be divided into sections, 
 corresponding to basins, all the members having more contact and affinity with each 
 other than with their colleagues in the more distant parts of the Empire. Thus the 
 workers in the basin of the Euhr will better understand and agree upon their own 
 common interests than they could with the miners of Hartz or Silesia. Each of 
 these sections are independent to a certain extent, having on special occasions a 
 right of recourse to the general corporation. 
 
 These corporations are govei-ned by a committee of direction named in general 
 assembly, and, to ensure the proper working of its affairs, to visit the mines, to class 
 
 (1) The law of the 28th May, 1885, extends the law of .July 6th 1884, to the administrations of Post- 
 06fices, telegraphs, railways and to those of carriage by land and water. 
 
 The law of March 15th 1886, includes employees in the civil administration of the Empire, those of the- 
 army and navy . 
 
 The law of May 5th 1886, applies to persons engaged in agriculture and forestry. 
 The law of July 11th 1887, is for seamen and workmen in building yards, (shanties. ) 
 
 (2) The sick fund pays the indemnity during the first thirteen weeks ; but after the fifth week the 
 master is bound to supply the difference between the rates of § the wages allowed the victim and the rate 
 of half the wages allowed the sick, about J the wages. 
 
 (3). The corporations extending over the whole Empire, ar e those of mines, quarries, glass works, china- 
 works, brick works, chemical products, paper making, sugar factories, malt works, railways, printing, etc. 
 
 (4) The corporations extending over the whole Empire, are those of mines, quarries, glass work, china- 
 works, brickworks, chemical products, paper making, sugar factories, malt works, railways, printing, etc. 
 
556 
 
 them according to their risks and hold inquiries after accidents have occurred, they 
 employ " men of trust " ( Vertrauensmanner) who are the real working pivots of the 
 institution. 
 
 Indemnities to be allowed to victims or their families are, as we have ali-eady 
 stated, according to tariffs made by law in proportion to the wages and according 
 to the gravity resulting from the accident. The direction of the coi-porations or of 
 the sections, settles the amount of indemnity to be granted in accordance with these 
 tariffs, the interested parties having a right to recourse of a court of arbitration. 
 
 The yearly premiums, as in mutual insurance companies where the insured are 
 their own insui-ers, are not fixed in amount in German corpoi'ations, but depend 
 upon the indemnities to be paid, the costs of administrations and the amount of 
 reserve. We know that, in order, to make the new organization more acceptable to 
 industries in the beginning, the system of division was preferred ( Umlageverfahren) 
 to that of technical reserves (Deckunsverfahreri) which is practiced by private 
 insurance companies. The first system, it is true, releases the present, but it is at 
 the expexise of the future, to which it may subsequently bring formidable dif&eulties ; 
 it benefits the master of the day to lay a heavier burden on the master of to-morrow, 
 although the latter, to whom such an engagement is bequeathed might well cry: 
 
 Comment I'aurais-je pria si je n'etais pas ne ? 
 (How could I be boimd when I was not born ?) 
 
 The system has the further disadvantage of disguising the real consequences of 
 the institution, by inserting it, as we may say, like a wedge, the pressure of which 
 comes the more painful, the further it is driven in. It makes over to future gene- 
 rations at a very high charge, the immediate and momentarj^ savings realized in the 
 present (1). It is the proceeding, not of the father of a family, but of a prodigal for 
 whom the future does not exist, being yet distant, and who would willingly say with 
 the fabulist: from this to forty years hence, 
 
 Le roi, I'toe ou moi nous mourrons. 
 (The King, the ass or I will die. ) 
 
 If, by one of those fluctuations of fashion or of public taste, of which history pre- 
 sents more than one instance, an industry languishes and dies oat, how will the cor- 
 responding corporation honor the burdensome legacy left by its predecessors ? The 
 law must have foreseen this possibility, and, according to the case, the charges of the 
 failing corporation fall either on the Empire or on the Confederate State (Art. 33). 
 Thus, as a last analysis, the State is offered as guarantee for the corporations and is 
 substituted for them in the obligations they are unable to meet. 
 
 It is the State which, at bottom, is the great motor of the grand mechanism of 
 mutual syndicates ; it is the State that moves the wheels and who together with the 
 Imperial Insurance Office (Meichsversicherung) from above presides over their opera- 
 tion. This ofiice, the headquarters of which are in Berlin, and the members of which 
 for the ordinary service, are named by the Emperor, is the keystone of the arch and 
 keeps the hand and eye of the G-overnment over all the workshops in the Empire. 
 Making all corporations revolve under its superintendence, it is a veritable " instru- 
 ment of domination," a sign of power, and as such is a subject of reproach with the 
 
 (1) The respective charges of the two systems have been calculated as follows : 
 
 System of division. Reserve system. 
 
 1st year 4 ' 
 
 10 — 66 
 
 17 — 100 
 
 20 — 105 
 
 30 — : 135 
 
 40 — 150 ■ 
 
 50 — 155 
 
 60 — 162 
 
 70 — 166 
 
 80 — 168 
 
 90 — 170 j 
 
 See Assurances ouvrUres, by Mons. Bodenheimer, p. 99. 
 
 Constant rate. 100 
 
557 
 
 socialists who, after voting the law, now call it the barrack socialism, socialisme de 
 caserne. 
 
 Such an organization could not exist without a large official staff. Besides the 
 43 persons in the Imperial Office, there are TBI members belonging to the committees 
 of the corporations ; 2,331 to the section committees ; 6,Y50 men of trust ; 2,350 elec- 
 tors delegates to the syndicates' assemblies ; 2,40Y representatives of the workmen ; 
 3,252 members of courts of arbitrations ; in all 17,451 persons to regulate 17,102 
 accidents. 
 
 The general expenses are on a par with the bureaucracy, and are, like it and for 
 the same reason, at once a necessity and an evil of State socialism. Obligatory 
 insurance against accidents could not be an exception to the system. In IBS'! the 
 amounts paid in indemnities and aids amounted to 1,711,699 marks and the expense 
 of administration to 2,324,299 marks or about $1.35 of general expense to each 
 dollar of indemnity. The proportion is better for 1887, although still excessive ; the 
 amount for indemnities is 5,373,496 marks and for general ex;penses 3,621,447 marks 
 (not including 455,039 marks for expenses of enquiries and arbitration courts) (1). 
 Here again are two thirds bf the useful result gone to loss. This heavy machinery 
 wastes a great deal of power in friction. (2). 
 
 As the result of several causes — the principal of which is perhaps a certain 
 careless " letting things go," due to the want of individual responsibilty of masters, 
 not sufficiently aroiised by official inspection which can never be worth private 
 interest, — the number of accidents indemnified increased from 100,159 in 1886 to 
 115,475 in 1887; parallel with this increase the amount for indemnities, instead of 
 being doubled as had been expected by the addition of the accidents for 1887 to 
 those of 1886, was nearly three times as much. 1888 produced a similar result. 
 • Whilst according to the calculations of the authors of the law, the legal indemnities 
 should have increased at the rate of from 1 to 2 and to 3 for 1886, 1887 and 1888 ; in 
 reality the increase was 1, — 2,89, — 4,49. The miscalculation was 44 per cent, for 
 1886 and 55 per cent, for 1887. The insured paid per year for each workman $0.74 
 in 1886, $1.24 in 1887, $1.63 in 1888. Moreover, in spite of this rapid increase, 
 the latter contributions scarcely amounted to one-third the charge corresponding to 
 the actual yearly number of accidents. If, in fact, each year had liquidated its debts 
 instead of carrying part of them on to the future, the rate per head and per year 
 should have been about $4 in all : and consequently German industry in 1888 would 
 have had to pay, on this account, not simply $6,200,000 but $15,400,000, not includ- 
 ing the expenses of medical treatment for the 100,000 wounded whose disability 
 from work lasted more than thirteen weeks (3). 
 
 To sum up, according to German legislation the master is responsible for every 
 accident (except when the victim has caused it through his own fault and designedly). 
 He is bound to insure against this responsibility and to belong to an insurance cor- 
 poration formed of all his colleagues practising the same or a similar business 
 throughout the whole Empire. The working of all these groups is under the direction 
 of the Imperial Insurance Office. The State binds itself to supply the deficiency 
 caused by the acknowledged insolvency of any one of them. 
 
 Thus the State intervening through the obligation, by the regulation, by super- 
 intendence, and at need by financial warranty, that is to say, the State from the 
 foundation to the summit of the system, with its heavy hand, its costly and cumber- 
 some bureaucratic system, the inexorable uniformity of its forms ; but likewise with 
 the force of its intervention which by one turn of the wrist gives a firm and general 
 solution to an irritating problem, which shakes the torpid and inert, crushes egotism, 
 and in advance defines the rights (?f the appearing parties, leaving no loop-hole for 
 a suit at law. Such are the characteristics of this grand German experience whose 
 powerful organization and seductive traits must be acknowledged, even when we 
 
 (1) Whilst the general average of expenses for administration for 1887, was $0.25 it amounted to $1.22 
 for the Chimney-sweepers' Corporation, which in this respect is at the head of |the list. 
 
 (2) According to the approximate results of 1888 the proportion for this year is reduced 48 per cent. 
 
 (3) See Mr. Keller's report on the statistics of accidents. 
 
558 
 
 formally reject the principle. It enjoins on all nations the duty, not of imitating 
 this combination which may be repugnant to their national feeling, to their history, 
 to their character or to their peculiar constitution, but the duty to, at least, study it 
 closely, to attentively watch its results, and to profit by the lesson it teaches. 
 
 II. — ORGANIZATION OF INSUEANCE IN AUSTRIA. 
 
 The organization of Austrian insurance, as established by the law of 28th Decem- 
 ber, 1887, is formed on the German law just described, and differs very little from 
 it ; the two principal marks of difference being in relation to the grouping of corpo- 
 rations, and the settling of the rates for premiums. 
 
 In consideration of the peculiar characteristics of the different regions of the 
 Empire, and the antagonism of the races which form its population, it has been im- 
 possible to preserve the professional corporation, including the countries, from 
 irohtier to frontier. Thus, instead of the profession being the basis of the corpora- 
 tion, it is the province, from which it follows that many dissimilar professions are 
 grouped together. There are, therefore, many corporate centres, instead of one sole 
 centre, from whence the action of the government would spread over all. 
 
 As for the settlement of premiums, that is done by the system of technical 
 
 reserves {Beckunsverfahren) . Bach year the corporation " must furnish the necessary 
 
 amount to constitute a capital corresponding to aids and pensions, in conformity with 
 
 > the technical rules of insurance " (article 16) ; it is also obliged to form a reserve 
 
 fund to meet the accidental fluctuations in the charges from year to year. 
 
 It is also to be remarked, that the law takes no note of accidents whose dura- 
 tion is less than four weeks (instead of thirteen as in Germany), and that the work- 
 man bears the tenth part of the cost of premium (article 17) (1). , 
 
 Finally, the Austrian system is a copy of the German system, except that it is 
 not centralized, and that the calculation of premiums is more correct. This is 
 another experiment it would be well to watch and to note its results. 
 
 III. — ORGANIZATION OP INSURANCE IN ITALY. 
 
 Crossing the Alps into Italy we meet with quite another system, which appeara 
 to us to be perfectly adapted to countries inhabited by the Latin race, although 
 different from those already mentioned. 
 
 Confronted with the accident problem, the Italian Government had, in 1883, 
 thought to solve it both by defining the master's responsibility by means by inter- 
 version of proof, and by organizing insurance. 
 
 The first project of law, deposited 19th February, 1883, by Mons. Berti, Minister 
 •of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry, was voted by the Chamber of Deputies, 
 15th June, 1885, but has since then been held in check by the Senate, whose 
 authority has greatly modified the economy of the projected law. 
 
 The second law passed more successfully through the trial of Parliamentary 
 •debate, and became law on 8th July, 1883, establishing a National Labor Insurance 
 Fund against professional accidents (casa nazionaledi assicurazione per gliinfortuni 
 degli operai sal lavoro. 
 
 Here the State no longer holds a prominent position ; it intervenes no longer by 
 the strong hand of obligation ; it does not enforce insurance, but limits itself to 
 lending its assistance. Neither does it proceed by its own power, but appeals to the 
 ■concurrence of all the principal Savings Banks of the Kingdom, that is, to those 
 provident institutions that have taken such deep root in Italy and whose strong and 
 active organisation, is a subject of envy and admiration to other countries. These 
 Savings Banks, by their traditional disinterestedness and their "maternal imper- 
 sonality " to make use of the happy expression of my eminent friend Mons. Luzzatti 
 one of the most ardent promoters of the law — by the legitimate confidence placed 
 in them by their clients and by their constant contact with them, where the best 
 
 (1) If the worlonan is paid in kind, the premium is chargeable to the master. 
 
559 
 
 possible machinery by which to set in motion the new law of insurance and the 
 surest means to ensure it being adopted among the customs of the people. 
 
 The institutions that co-operated in forming the National Fund were ten in number 
 namely : the seven Savings Banks of Milan, Turin, Bologna, Eome, Venice, Cogliari, 
 (1) Genoa, the Monte dei Paschi of Sienna, and the Banks of Naples and Sicily ; the 
 whole ten are taxed to constitute, by their contributions which vary from $10,000 to 
 ^120,000, a guarantee fund of $300,000. 
 
 This fund exercises only a moral influence ; its affairs are administered by the 
 Savings Bank of Milan and directed by a superior council in which each of the insti- 
 tutions that co-operated in its foundation, are lepresented. It offers its clients either 
 individual insurance, simple collective insurance or combined collective insurance (2) ; 
 the tariffs for premiums have been determined in an eclectic manner subject to 
 revision every five years, when the experience of the principal foreign companies 
 Are brought to bear upon them. Being oppressed neither by profits, since Savings 
 Banks ignore the shareholders and the distribution of dividends, nor by the expenses 
 of management, of which the founder societies have taken the exclusive charge, the 
 premiums are as low as possible, amounting on an average to one cent per day per 
 head, that is, to about one-fifth or one-tenth of what it costs a workman for his 
 daily morning glass. Moreover, their effects is felt by private companies which have 
 had to modify their prices as to local dealers when subjected to the competition of 
 co-operative provision associations. Professions are classed in 14 classes of risks, 
 the premiums of which vary as much as from 1 to 13 (3) . In ihe four last classes 
 (11 to 14) where the riches are greatest, the civil responsibility of the master cannot 
 be covered beyond nine-tenths. One-tenth of the indemnities pertaining to this 
 responsibility remains, therefore, to the master's charge, in order that his vigilance 
 may not abate (4). The workman is paid the daily aid, to which insurance gives 
 him a right in case of temporary disablement, only after the 31st day of disable- 
 ment. 
 
 The State i eserves to itself the right of approval of the tariffs and regulations 
 for the Fund's administration. In return for the control thus exercised, it allows 
 the Fund entire exemption from stamp taxation and enregistration fees, as well as 
 the gratuitous services of the postal Savings fund for passing insurance contracts, 
 the collection of premiums, and the payment of indemnities. Although the State 
 seems content to assume the simple part of a benevolent guardian, the more devoted 
 adherents of the National Fund, such as Mons. Ugo Pisa would still further loosen 
 its bonds, to give it " that entirely self-government requisite to free and prompt 
 action." They complain, and bring facts in support, that it is subjected to the 
 bureaucratic impediments of governmental authorization for any change in its tariffs 
 ■or regulations, whereas this interference should be limited to cases of reform res- 
 tricted to the insured-" (5). The State is reproached by them of failing to give an 
 example of provident foresight by insuring its own workmen, by compelling con- 
 tractors of public works to insure ; finally to press the voting of the law on the res- 
 ponsibility of masters which, properly, should have preceded the establishing of 
 the Fund and which would have given a great stimulus to its operations. 
 
 Instituting a fund is not everything ; a way must be learned to reach those to be 
 interested in it. We shall soon have in France, an example of a State Fund, ignored 
 and consequently useless. In Italy where it has long been the custom to band 
 together foi' works of mutual assistance and brotherhood, this tendency to band 
 together has been applied to increase the spread of insurance against accidents. 
 Such is the object of the numerous patronages (Patronats) established in many 
 cities, and especially in Milan. 
 
 (1) The catastrophe of the Oagliari Bank is known to us all ; but it has in no way shaken the stability 
 or the vitality of the Insurance fund. 
 
 (2) Combined collective insurance is that which insures the civil responsibility of masters. 
 
 (3) The projects of the French law present only 5 classes of risks with premiums varying from 1 to 4. 
 
 (4) It is known that insured coachmen are less careful of the safety of passers-by, and we have seen 
 bow accidents have increased in Germany since the institution of the new organization. 
 
 (5.) " La privoyance sur Us accidents en Italic," Milan, 1889. Mons. Ugo Pisa, is the zealous and dis- 
 tinguished president of the " Patronat " of Milan. 
 
560 
 
 This Fatronato d'assicurazione e di soccorso per gli infortuni del lavoro began 
 operations on the 1st of July, 1883. Its object is to assist the working class in cities 
 and in the country parts, to insure against accidents by offering itself as an inter- 
 mediary with regard to the fund, by advancing, when required, the necessary 
 premium, and by even supporting a part of the expense which, however, must not 
 exceed one-fourth of the whole ; finally, in case of accidents, by helping them obtain 
 lawful reparation. The patronage appeal to all classes of men to interest themselvef- 
 in insurance, even those holding themselves aloof from their fellows, under the 
 cowl of penitential brotherhoods. The committee of Milan includes 84 delegates 
 belonging to the nobility, the liberal arts, to industry, to commerce and to manual 
 trades. It has divided among its members, not only the different quarters of the 
 city, as in Blberfeld, but also the hospitals, in order to gather instant information 
 concerning accidents. 
 
 The province is likewise covered with a complete network of the committees 
 belonging to the patronage having their headquarters in the different rural centres 
 of any importance, and extending thence over the surrounding districts, the whole 
 being under the direction of the Milanese committee. 
 
 It is due to this organization and to the devotedness of its delegates, that the 
 patronage of Milan now numbers 551 members and owns a capital of $35,000, and, 
 since 1883, has insured 38,8Y3 workers, 2,421 by individual insurance, 36,452 by 
 collective insurance, not to mention aid to victims, and the moral and legal support 
 given to their claims. 
 
 The patronage of Turin, founded in 1886, follows in the footsteps of the Milan 
 patronage. (1) In Palermo, it is the Bank of Sicily that has assumed the task, and 
 performs it with commendable activity. Other patronages are in process of forma- 
 tion, notably that of Eome. 
 
 The total number of workmen insured in the IS'ational Fund is 159,'76'7, of which 
 nearly one-half belong to the Milan branch (75,632) ; ^ to Palermo (29,327) ; -J to 
 Turin (20,195). The whole of the three branches represent nearly f of the whole, 
 which shows the influence exercised by patronages in spreading insurance. 
 
 These results may seem of small importance if we compare the number of those 
 insured to the mass of persons who are not, but they will assume more weight when 
 we come to consider that they are due to individual effort, and to the personal work 
 of those interested, seconded by the zeal of the patronages, particularly if we recall 
 that the National Fund is deprived of the powerful support that could be afforded it 
 by the legal determination of the civil responsibility of heads of industries. It is 
 certainly a less difScult matter to change the appearance of matters by a stroke of 
 the wand of obligation than to improve them gradually by their adoption into 
 customs and the progress of public opinion, but, on the other hand, how much more 
 meritorious and durable is the latter conquest ! 
 
 Thus, far from being astonished at the smallness of the results obtained by the 
 Italian National Fund we shoiald rather appreciate them highly and do homage to 
 the admirable principle of this organization. which restricting the State to the 
 distant sphere of control and guardianship gives the first place to the provident 
 institutions already deeply rooted in the provinces, and leaves the field free to the 
 bands formed with a view to the public good. No doubt but the services of the fund 
 will be greatly extended the day when the long and impatiently looked for law on 
 professional risk will be passed, and when six hundred popular bankers which are 
 ready and willing to lend their co-operation and disinterested assistance, will be 
 accepted as local representatives of the Insurance Fund. 
 
 We cannot better characterize this splendid experiment than by borrowing 
 from Mons. Luzzatti the reflections with which he terminates the study relating to 
 this fund which he has just published in the Nouvelle Anthologie (2). 
 
 (1) The Patronato di assiourazione e di soccorso per gli operali colpiti da infortunio del lavoro was 
 founded at Turin, 30th March, 1886 ; it includes 77 members and has contributed to the rapid spread of 
 insurance in that city, where the number of persons insured has, in 1887, increased from 1,419 to 14,773. 
 
 (2) Number for the 16th May, 1889. 
 
561 
 
 "The trial of liberty of insurance against accidenti now being attempted in Italy, 
 seems to us to be decisive. We are no longer allowed to believe that, admitting the 
 democratic character of our period 1 We can hereafter refuse to include insurance 
 among the expenses of production. The producer is in this dilemma, either self- 
 interest joined to a sentiment of protection will spontaneously move both master 
 and workmen to insure, or in default of this impulse of heart and head, we must 
 expect the direct or indirect intervention of the law. 
 
 " I hope, moreover," continues the author, " I hope my country will escape the 
 Cyclopean organization of obligatory insurance by which Germany strives to solve 
 social problems, applying to them methods of blind military discipline of which it 
 makes use to organize and set in motion its formidable permanent armies." 
 
 IV. — ORGANIZATION OF INSURANCE IN ENGLAND, IN BELGIUM AND IN SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Official organization of insurance against accident implies logically a special 
 legislation on the civil responsibility of masters, and especially the adoption of the 
 principle of professional risk. Where common law is in force, there is felt less need 
 of those vast systems that crush the workingman, although maintained by him. The 
 master is not threatened ; the power of the State stands further away. Eecourse is, 
 therefore, had to private companies, without each prefers to become his own insurer, 
 with or without a private fund. Such is the situation of England and Belgium. 
 
 In Switzerland, although professional risk has been admitted in the laws created 
 since 18*75 (1), obligatory insurance has not yet been arrived at^ but its basis is being 
 carefully studied, and to judge from the works of the most noted writers in the 
 country, the public mind inclines to the German solution of the question (2). To 
 prepare its resolutions the Federal Council, in its message of 5th December, ISST, 
 orders statistics of accidents to be taken, which are to keep step with the census of 
 the population, and of the workmen employed in factories, " in order to learn the 
 exact proportion of accidents to the number of workmen." Without this double veri- 
 fication accident statistics are incomplete, and legislation lacks foundation. The 
 Swiss Government is, therefore, much to be praised for giving these different 
 statistics as a preface to its projected legislation. 
 
 V. — ORGANIZATION OF INSURANCE IN PRANCE. 
 
 In France the responsibility of accidents is still governed by common law and 
 by Article 1382 of the Civil Code, which obliges the workman to furnish the proof. 
 Within the limits of the article, and except when called upon to answer for accidents 
 before the courts of law, each one is free to settle his responsibility as he likes, 
 without restriction by any preventive aid organization. The only exceptions to this 
 general rule are workmen engaged in public works and in mines. 
 
 In virtue of the decree of 16th December, 1848, modified by the bill ot clauses 
 and general conditions of 16th November, 1866, workmen wounded in shanties of 
 public works, after having been given instant medical attendance, have a right to 
 gratuitous treatment at the hospital or at home, and to receive, during the obligatory 
 interraption of labor, half their usual amount wf wages. To secure medical attend- 
 ance and aid the administration allows an amount of 1 per cent, on the sums due the 
 contractor (3). Any balance left is payable to the latter ; if there is a deficit the 
 State supplies the balance. 
 
 As regards miners, the edict of Henry lY, 14th May, 1604, decrees that for 
 each mine there shall be retained a sum of one-thirtieth (3'3 per cent.) " on the 
 
 (1) The Federal law on the responsibility of railway enterprises, 1st July, 1875. The Federal law on 
 the civil responsibilities of manufacturers, 25th June, 1887. Extension law, 27th April, 1878. 
 
 See the pamphlet published by the Federal Department of Commerce and Agriculture on these different 
 laws, and on the law of 23rd March, 1887, concerning labor in factories. 
 
 (2) SeeMons. Bodenheimer's remarkable work on labor insurance {Assurances OuvrUres). 
 
 (3) The decree of 1848 says "2 per cent, of the wages ; " but to simplify the documents it has been 
 admitted that the work represents half the whole expense, and 1 per cent, has been substituted for 2 
 per cent. 
 
 20—36 
 
562 
 
 entire amount of clear and net proceeds * * * for the support of one or two 
 priests as they may bie needed, either to say mass at an hour to be determined on 
 Sundays and holidays during the week, to administer the sacraments, and for the 
 maintenance of a surgeon and the purchase of medicines." But Louis XV, by his 
 edict of September, 1739, suppressed the law for the thirtieth part, leaving to the 
 grantors to " provide themselves for the necessary expenses, and to the grand master 
 of the mines, or to his lieutenant, to see that the spiritual and temporal needs of the 
 workmen and others employed in the said mine are attended to."* 
 
 At the present time the owners of mines are not bound by the provisions of 
 Articles 15 and 16 of the decree of 3rd January, 1813, by which they were obliged to 
 maintain on the premises all the necessary appliances for aid, and even a surgeon, 
 if ordered by the Minister, on the proposition of the prefects and the report of the 
 general director of the mines. We will see later on that mine-owners have exceeded 
 this obligatory minimum. 
 
 Masters now who wish to provide against the ordinary risks of accidents may 
 have recourse to one of the four following combinations: the State fund, private 
 companies, syndical funds, or private aid funds. 
 
 The insurance fund against accidents was created by the law of 11th July, 1868, 
 under the management of the Deposit and Consigning Fund. Annual insurance and 
 premiums are alike for all professions. This is an intolerable infraction of the rule 
 which proportions the premium to the risk. It is evident that this sameness of 
 tariff must drive away all good risks from the fund and draw to it all the bad ones. 
 
 As the result of different causes this fund has miscarried and presents the mis- 
 erable total of 1,200 persons insured, half of whom are firemen insured by oiHce. It 
 liquidated three accidents in 1888. These figures make the four years' results of the 
 Italian fund stand out more prominently hy contract, in spite of the unfavorable 
 circumstances that help to keep it back. 
 
 As ragards private companies of insurances against accident, according to Mr. 
 Kellei', they ai'e 12 in number and pay annually from 5 to 6 millions in indemnities. 
 Mons. B^ziat d'Audibert, on the other hand, compares the liberty they enjoy in 
 France with the effectual superintendence to which they are subjected in England 
 and by the State in Switzerland, and regrets that the constitution of their reserves is 
 not large enough to guarantee the payment of pensions to claimants. 
 
 Although doing good service these companies have still to extend their custom 
 and to consolidate their financial guarantees. 
 
 Certain professional syndicates of masters have established mutual accident insu- 
 rance among their members. As being in the first rank we must mention the Syndical 
 Chambers (Chambres Syndicales) for building which, in Paris, form what is called 
 the Lut^ce Street group. In the greater number among them, especially in those 
 for plumbing and roofing, the cost of insurance is entirely supported by the masters. 
 According to Mr. Gauthier, the president of this Chamber and one of the most zea- 
 lous promoters of the institution, it includes nearly half the whole building staff in 
 the department of the Seine, that is, 75,000 workmen, on a total of 150,000. Since 
 1883, the fund regulated 908 accidents, for which it paid $22,903.60 to the victims. 
 It has, besides, a beneficial influence in preventing accidents by its superintendence 
 of the tools used. This initiatory proceeding cannot be too highly lauded, nor its 
 general spread too earnestly desired (3). 
 
 It is above all in instituting aid funds that the spirit of " patronage,'' with its 
 suppleness and ingenuity is displayed. These institutions are a sort of mutual aid 
 societies, with the distinction that they treat not only sickness but wounds, that they 
 include only the workmen of one establishment and that many among them are exclu- 
 sively maintained by subsidies from the master. In such a case the honorary mem- 
 bers pay everything instead of contributing only a portion. In other cases the funds 
 are the proceeds of a certain possible surplus in co-operative provision societies, from 
 
 * See Treatise on Legislation of Mines (TraiU de legislation des Mines), by Louis Aguillonj vol. ii, 
 page 351. 
 
 (3) See Etudes Syndicales by J. B. Gauthier. 
 
563 
 
 profit-sharing, from certain industrial gratuities, or a donation or legacy The aid 
 
 fund is often supplemented by a dispensary, a hospital. Sometimes they are isolated 
 <3ases, special to one establishment ; others, again, they are confederated by basins, 
 and whilst maintaining their own individuality as regards light accidents, by their 
 grouping they constitute, as in Belgium and at Saint Btienne departmental funds 
 {r^gionales) which assume the charges for serious accidents with the prolonged aid, 
 and the retiring pensions. 
 
 To describe all the different combinations suggested to masters by the inspira- 
 tion of "heart and mind" would oblige us to developments outside the limits of this 
 report. For such a purpose we would have only to consult the enquiry opened in 1883 
 by the administration on mining aid funds, and the Exhibition of Social Economy 
 annexed to the Universal Exhibition of 1889. 
 
 In a remarkable report published bj' the Annales des Mines in 1884; Mr. Keller 
 ^ives an account of the enquiry, and shows us the generous sacrifices consented to 
 by Coal Mining Companies in the interest of their staff. On a total of 100 of their 
 workmen 98 share in the aid fund. Here then we have a whole population who, 
 free from constraint, have found ample means to solve the problem of accidents. 
 
 Nor has the railway fund, which includes twice the number of members in the 
 mining fund, any need of outside help ; the care of the companies for their staff has 
 organized aid and provident funds to assist them. Eetiring pensions for the yictims 
 ■of accidents are settled prematurely, and, in case of death, pensions are paid to 
 the victim's family. The Orleans company, by a regulation of 3rd March, 1888, 
 decided that victims would be paid a pension of at least $80, whatever might be 
 their age, or length of service, with a gradual increase in accordance with these two 
 facts. In the event of the death of a pensioner husband, the widow and children are 
 allowed a pension of at least $60. (1) 
 
 The Exhibition of Social Economy is, on the other hand, a source of valuable 
 information on the thousand suggested solutions offered by the patronage in favor of 
 wounded workmen. They are given from facts, from living reality, not alone by 
 w^alking through galleries in which the tables and diagrams are exhibited, but by 
 studying the reports (some of which are quite remarkable) in which many of the 
 exhibitors have described their institutions, and the principles that govern them. (2) 
 In another congress we have studied the striking characteristics of this exhi- 
 bition, (3) and we intend to give more numerous details yet in the report which the 
 Jury of the Social Economy have done us the honor to entrust to us for the section 
 XIV. (Institutions patronales.) (4) This moral intimacy with the highest class of 
 masters, at the head of the industries of the whole country, has convinced us that 
 the State has only to proclaim the principle of responsibility by law, to enforce its 
 application in the courts, to assist, encourage and control from its height the provi- 
 dent movement ; as for what remains, the customs of the people, public opinion, the 
 freedom of action of those interested, whether they be masters or workmen, are to 
 be relied upon. 
 
 Legal coercion could only be excused, if it were true — as is very loudly asserted 
 — ^that workmen are condemned by the egotism and obduracy of capital to pitiless 
 work, that nothing is done for them, and that therefore the State must of necessity 
 interfere to force masters to fulfil their neglected duties. Such is the basis of State 
 socialism. For our part we are not averse to the dilemma to which Mr. Luzzatti 
 drives masters: "Act, or the Law will act for you ; " we would allow them to be 
 confronted in the distance by the spectre of the German system as a threat, if they 
 
 (1) In the German syBtem — and in the French project — if a workman dies from the effects of an accident 
 once his pension is settled, his widow has no right to the reversibility of the pension. 
 
 f2) Among these docunients, which we cannot refuse ourselves tne pleasure of naming, are : The Aid 
 and Provident Fund of the Coal Mimes of Besseges, by Mr. Marsault ; the Notiee on the La^or Institutions of 
 Blanzy ; the Labor Institutions of Vieille Montagne ; the Notice on the Coal Mines of Mariemont and 
 Bascowp. 
 
 (3) Communications to the Congress of Social Economy, 13th June, 1889, on Social Economy at the 
 Universal Exhibition of 1889. 
 
 (4) There is a movement on foot at the present time to have these admirable documents preserved 
 in a pe-rmanent museum, and also collected in an illustrated publication annexed to the reports of the jury. 
 
 20— 36| 
 
564 
 
 still remained inactive, but we would protest against the abuse of State intervention, 
 wherever patronages are displaying their beneficial efforts. 
 
 "We are not of those who hold by the irreverent aphorism : " When the State 
 does good, it does it badly ; " but we, at least, believe that individuals can do it better, 
 because they profit bj' the pliability and the richness of the solutions born of liberty, 
 whereas the State is forced to make use of the brutal and levelling uniformity of 
 obligation. "What more conclusive argument against this kind of intervention 
 than the sight presented by provident institutions opening out spontaneously at the 
 breath of liberty ? Could the State have ever given rise to those varied, ingenious 
 and complex systems, so well adapted to each particular case, in a word to the thous- 
 and combinations that have suggested themselves to individuals, or to associations 
 impelled by their feelings, and their interest of course ? In place of this healthy and 
 luxuriant vegetation, the State would have planted its posts, and oflScial lines, all the 
 same, all dull, monotonous and dry, not only without leaves, without flowers, but 
 what is more, without fruit. 
 
 In fact, obligation is barren ; together with spontaneity, it suppresses all the 
 merit and social efficaciousness of the institution. "When thrift, and forethought, and 
 patronage become obligatory they cease to be virtues ; they no longer draw the 
 classes together ; they no longer give a stamp to character ; it is a tax levied, not a 
 spontaneous effort ; formulas and mechanical orders given, it may be, by means of 
 gendarmes will have replaced free action, which is fruitful precisely because it is free. 
 
 VI. — PROJECTED OKQANIZATION OF INSURANCE IN FRANCE. 
 
 The project of law voted in France by the Chamber of Deputies, 10th July, 1888, 
 and now pending before the Senate, gives rise to many questions withiw the bounds 
 of this report. But, to keep to our subject this is the solution it gives for insurance 
 organization. 
 
 First of all, the insurance is optional, not obligatory. The law decrees the prin- 
 ciple of professional risk, but it leaves each one free to shield himself with it as he 
 chooses. For my part, I think it worthy of high praise for having resisted the 
 powerful attraction of the German law and although having borrowed some of its 
 provisions from it, for having drawn back from obligatory insurance. 
 
 The principal types, any of which may be chosen by those interested are preci- 
 sely those we have before examined and which are at their disposal. 
 
 They may become their own insurers if they have the power, like railway com- 
 panies ; or they may insure in an ordinary insurance company ; or have recourse to 
 the State within the limit of professional risk, that is to say, to the third of the 
 annual salary ; finally, and this form is favored by the projected law, they may 
 group themselves together to institute freely mutual insurance syndicates whose 
 operation is similar to that of the German and Austrian corporations, but with 
 restrictions intended to prevent them from acquiring too much power, and a 
 disquieting amount of resources. 
 
 Having neither the seat nor the stability of German corporations, these groups 
 are but a feeble image of them and, notwithstanding their similarity of aspect cannot 
 in practice play the same part. It is, moreover, to be desired that in the formation 
 of these syndicates, to which the State may be led to make considerable advances in 
 case of disaster they should be provided by some guarantee and regulated as closely 
 as can possibly be done by the generous terms of the law. 
 
 It has certainly been the desire of the law to encourage this form of insurance 
 by giving to the Syndicates the Postal Savings Bank as a banker, but it is to be feared 
 that the premiums for insurance indicated by the State will, by their excessive 
 moderation, make all competition by their companies, whether mutual syndicates or 
 private companies, impossible. 
 
 If, with its present impotence, the State does not do much good to workmen, at 
 least it does no harm to neighboring funds. But it will probably be reorganized 
 on a more rational basis ; then, with the rate for premiums, likely insufficient, such 
 as is settled by the project cf law, no other system will be able to exist near it. 
 
565 
 
 This is the usual result of the justaposition of a State industry with free indus- 
 try. The State can afford losses, for it draws upon the Treasury to make up its 
 industrial deficits, making all taxpayers pay for them ; consequently, free industry 
 has only to give up the contest. In the case referred to, if the State Fund work at 
 a loss, the many workmen not admitted to profit by the law will pay for those who 
 do, which further increase the difference between them. If the State works at a 
 profit it has the appearance of speculating at the masters' and associated workmen's 
 cost. 
 
 In organizing this law, legislators met with the great difficulty of settling them 
 limits beyond which accidents would be justifiable by the new law. 
 
 If the German and Austrian laws have admitted accidents to have a right to 
 indemnity only after the 13th or 5th week, it is because, for the prior period, the 
 eick or wounded are cared for by the sick fund. In this way the system is complete 
 and shows neither blank nor bieak. 
 
 In Prance, however, we have no official insurance for sickness; 
 
 Is a. wounded person to remain one month without help ? 
 
 When he lies mutilated he needs instant help ; nothing can do away with this 
 necessity. And, therefore, the projected law, braving technical objections, admits the 
 victim to insurance from the date of the accident. It, therefore, resigns itself to the 
 heavy burden of slight accidents which represent -^ of the whole, and to treat a 
 scratch or a sprain as seriously as an accident followed by death.' 
 
 In the course of debate the project has become much modified which is to be 
 much approved. Instead of doing away with aid funds and mutual aid societies, 
 that is to say, of that part of the organization now existing against accidents, 
 it retains it and in this copies the Gorman system, adapting it to our national 
 situation very happily. We would, on account of the importance of these provisions, 
 request permission to quote the text of the articles from 9 to 11 of the new project. 
 
 Art. 9. — Masters may discharge the obligation imposed on them by Article 7 of 
 paying the expenses of the victim's sickness and the temporary indemnity for three 
 months if they prove. 
 
 1st. That they have established either with or without the assistance of their 
 workmen or employees, individual aid funds, or that they have, at their own expense, 
 affiliated these to other approved and authorized mutual aid societies. 
 
 2nd. That these funds or societies are obliged to pay, over and above medical 
 care for the wounded, an indemnity of half the amount of their wages, with a mini- 
 mum of 1 franc, and a maximum of 2 frs. 50 per day for the entire duration of the 
 sickness, or at least, during the three first months. 
 
 Abt. 10. — ^In the event of the first aid required being secured by particular funds, 
 or by mutual provident societies under the provisions of the preceding article, the 
 insurance of one of the heads of'enterprise by any of the methods provided in title V 
 and VI, may be restricted to the consequences of the accident beyond the period of 
 three months dating from the time of the accident. 
 
 Art. U. — The Statutes of individual aid funds must be established in accordance 
 with the laws and decrees on mutual aid funds and professional syndicates. 
 
 A regulation of public administration shall determine within a delay of three 
 months, the modification to be made in the statutes types of mutual aid societies to 
 adopt them to the new powers given them. 
 
 By this combination the law may be relieved of the burden of slight accidents 
 which would prove a great impediment to its progress, and an inevitable occasion of 
 fraud ; masters would have an interest in establishing factory funds after the German 
 fashion (Betriehskrankencassen) and to gi'oup the workmen around, thus drawing 
 together the bonds of the industrial family; finally a new impulse will be given to 
 mutual aid societies, and thus without obligation, will be solved the problems of acci- 
 dent and of sickness. 
 
 VII. — CONOLTTSIONS. 
 
 We have reviewed the different forms given to insurance organizations in the 
 countries guarded by this difficult enterprise. 
 
56G 
 
 It has been our endeavor to do justice to each of these systems, without however 
 concealing our preference for those systems that are due to liberty of individual 
 action. 
 
 Having thus described what we have done, may the reporter be permitted to 
 speak on his own account, and air his own ideas of a system of insurance organization 
 or rather of thrift in general ? 
 
 This system has been suggested by the difiSculties encountered in entrusting- 
 provident funds to individuals, to ordinary companies or to the State. 
 
 Individual administration, even that of ordinary companies, lack the necessary 
 guarantees ; but too many examples can, alas ! be cited ; it lacks the prestige that 
 commands confidence and without which insurance cannot exist. 
 
 The State has this prestige; insured persons give over their funds to it without 
 hesitation, and in our country the ofScial stamp seems to be considered the only 
 guarantee for the becurity of their investments. 
 
 The credit of the State. is a mighty power and engenders thrift, which is killed 
 by the least alarm. If there be any doubts, as of the solvency of the fund, there is the 
 grog-shop ready to receive any small sums one might have been tempted to save 
 from immediate wants. 
 
 It is certainly a great advantage ; but how many difficulties and dangers accom- 
 pany it I Those relating to the engulfing of savings banks in the State Fund have 
 often been brought prominently forward. What would be the result if to them we 
 added retiring funds, profit-sharing and insurance against accidents — in a word — all 
 provident funds in every shape ? If all the resources of the country are thus emptied 
 into the coffers of the treasury, what will remain for the work of production ? 
 
 Thus, private administration lacks security ; State administration lacks fruitful 
 economy. How then shall we avoid this double danger ? 
 
 I would wish us to assume a stand similar to that we have taken in regard to 
 transport. Between absolute and entire liberty as in the United States and England, 
 and adoption by the State as in Germany, France has known how to assume a middle 
 course and retain at once both liberty and authority by organizing companies for 
 the concession of railways. 
 
 Such is the type I would copy to form large district companies which would be 
 to thrift what I'ailway companies are to transport. Established by provinces with 
 the concurrence of the Saving Banks of the large cities, after the manner of the 
 Italian Fund, its members taken in the district from among the first men, and those 
 most devoted to the public good, they would administer the provident funds 
 within the limits of their statutes and under the strict superintendence of the 
 State, which is in railway matters an excellent guide though but a poor speculator 
 They would employ their capital, and following the example of Italian, German, 
 and Belgian Savings Banks, would make use of every means to restore to the 
 country as fruitful investments, the savings the country would have entrusted to 
 them. One of the surest and most useful investments seems to be that of subsidizing 
 enterprises for building workingmen's houses, in the same manner as is done by the 
 Savings Banks of Marseilles and Lyons. The people's savings employed to improve 
 the people's houses : can a more beneficent circulus be imagined, and is not this 
 combination to be prefered to that by which all funds are fruitlessly swallowed in 
 the State Fund ? 
 
 These companies being regional would open a way for benevolent persons whose 
 devotedness to their fellow-beings is now condemned to inactivity in their Province, 
 and who by their generous efforts would give life to the locality now waiting for an 
 impulse. There would soon be established among them a rivalry for doing good, 
 each company being left free within the limits of its statutes. 
 
 In constituting thelarge regional companies, the State would confer. some special 
 privilege on them in exchange for the charges assumed by them, and might at need 
 give them as is done in Belgium for the General Savings and Eetiring Fund of Brus- 
 
 let. September, 1889. 
 
567 
 
 sels, its financial warranty as security to the public. Thi-i warranty is willingly 
 granted for railways, why should it be refused to moral and social matters that are 
 surely as worthy of consideration as railways ? 
 
 As soon as a company becomes strongly established in any region the State will 
 withdraw, and leave to its management any one of the provident institutions most 
 required in the region (such as savings, retiring or assurance fund.) Special measures 
 will be taken to insure the safe transition from one system to the other. 
 
 By this means the State would be gradually releived of its already too burden- 
 some financial responsibility, now about to be still further increased. The new orga- 
 nization — which on more than one point resembles that ali'eady described for Jtaly, 
 and that which governs the Brussels Savings Bank — will give to State security that 
 freedom of action that can only be given by private interests. Thus this system, 
 which is already proved by its success in railway matters, avoids all the difllculties 
 attendant on State enterprise or private operation, whilst it combines the advantages 
 of both systems. 
 
 Everywhere public spirit is being awakened from that sort of lethargy that 
 threatens countries too much self-centred ; everywhere the feeling is becoming appa- 
 rent, although yet ill-defined, that if there are exigencies of national unity, national 
 unity does not imply one entire uniformity of solution, and the absorption by the 
 State of all national powers. The combination we have taken the liberty to submit, 
 in our own name, to the Congress, will possess the advantage of relaxing the strain 
 to relieve this want, to lessens the pressure to the centre, and to vitalize the 
 benumbed extremities. If the Congress were to favorably receive this measure, 
 public opinion enlightened by it, would not delay in insisting oa its adoption by Par- 
 liament, and thus enabling us to avoid the daugers of either too excessive centraliza- 
 tion or of a too broad scattering. 
 
 * * 
 So as to give an idea of the sVibjects treated in the various reports presented to 
 the Congress respectins^ accidents inherent to labor, we collate from the minutes of 
 proceedings the following summaries of those reports. 
 
 EBPOET ON THE GERMAN GENERAL EXHIBITION FOR THE PRE- 
 VENTION OF ACCIDENTS. 
 Held at Berlin, April to October, 1889. 
 Br Mk. Emile Muller. 
 
 In the absence of Mr. Muller, reporter, Mr. Mamy recapitulates the causes 
 which have occasioned the Berlin Exhibition, and the classification which was 
 adopted there. The speaker, in a very clear manner, develops more particularly the 
 points which have struck him, either on account of their novelty or their importance ; 
 such as connections and disconnections by pulleys, ropes or by electricity ; brakes for 
 steam moters, worked at equal distances ; the organic or inorganic dust collectors so in- 
 teresting for manufactures in cities, which cannot throw it outside; the various ap- 
 pliances applied to dangerous machinery employed in the wood industry, such for 
 example, as the tops, the lower part of the planer, and circular saws, for which some 
 seventy precautionary means hav^ been proposed, but of which two or three seem at all 
 practicable. Paper making and printing present various ingenious devices, among 
 which Mr. Mamy cites, especially, a protecting arrangement for the knives of trimming 
 machines. As regards the textile industry, what account can replace the precious work 
 which, thanks to Mr. Engel-Gros, will soon be placed in the hands of every member of 
 the Congress? * It is the selection of results of 22 years of study undertaken by the 
 
 * Collection of provisions and apparatus destined to prevent accidents by machinery — 42 plates, with 
 explanatory notes in French, English and German. Published by the Society for the prevention of acci- 
 dents in factories of Mulhouse, Alsace. For sale at H. Stuckelberger, bookseller, Mulhouse. Price, $2.00. 
 A copy of this magnificent volume has been offered to each member of the Congress by Mr. Engel-Gros, 
 president of the Association. Every manufacturer desiring the welfare of his workmen ought consult this 
 work and adopt the preventive measures which it preconizes. 
 
568 
 
 Mulhouse Association, which society occupies the place of honor in the Berlin Exhi- 
 bition. As to mines, special reports dispense with all developments, nevertheless 
 Mr. Mamy has noted a very pronounced tendency in using electric lamps, which 
 has been adopted by the G-erman companies. 
 
 Furthermore, an official illustrated report of the Exhibition at Berlin will appear 
 next winter. 
 
 OFFICIAL EULBS AND INSPECTION OF MINES, QUAERIES, EAILWAYS, 
 ^ AND STEAM APPARATUS. 
 
 EEPORT BY M. OLET. 
 
 Mr. Olry deals only with subjects which, to his mind, require a little more 
 light. Eespecting mines he asks : Why, under the English Acts of the 10th August, 
 18Y2, and 16th September, 1887, authorising the nomination of mining delegates, the 
 workmen in that industry have not used the option given them of having the work- 
 ings (^exploitations) inspected by one of themselves ? As to railways : Is it proper 
 that branches worked by the State should be without control ? 
 
 Eegarding steam engines, Mr. Olry asks Congress to decide as to which of the 
 three modes to which they have to submit in the diiferent countries is the best: 
 that of pei'fect freedom in construction, placing and working ; that of a moderate 
 rule fixing the conditions of placing, submits the boilers to be inspected and to 
 periodical trials, and compels the use of a safety apparatus — valves, water level 
 pipes, &c. ; or that of an absolute rule imposing not only the placing, the inspections, 
 the trial, but submitting the system and the conditions of the materials used in the 
 construction. 
 
 Mr. Adolphe Smith, editor of the Lancet, observes that only 140,000 miners are 
 actually united, and that their assessments for the purpose of sending two members 
 to the House of Commons amount to $3,000 a year ; consequently, it is difficult for 
 them to remunerate the inspecting delegates, inasmuch as they consider that they 
 should be liberally paid, so as to obtain the most capable and independent ones. 
 Mr. Smith believes that, to keep up the institution, municipalities or the State will 
 have to give them subsidies. 
 
 OFFICIAL EULES AND INSPECTION OF THE WOEK OF WOMEN AND 
 
 CHILDEEN. 
 
 EEPORT BY ME. LAPORTE. 
 
 He shows at the outset that during the last ten years in the Department of the 
 Seine, two-thirds of the accidents to children are attributable to their own im- 
 prudence : whence the necessity of preventing it. 
 
 Then he asks Congress if it would not be well to generalise the prescriptions of 
 Article 12 of the law of the 19th March, 1874, and to make them cover all industries, 
 whether employing children or not, and to exact from constructing engineers the 
 protection of the dangerous parts of their machines. 
 
 The president asks the speaker to state if it necessary to make the builder 
 assume a part of the responsibility in the accidents resulting in the use of those 
 machines ? That was indeed what Mr. Laporte understood. 
 
 Mr. Laporte then asks if the inspector must indicate the means of protection. He 
 shows that, in the most recent laws relating to protection of labor that in that of Canada 
 (1888) precautions against fire have been taken, and he puts this question to Congress : 
 Is it necessary to introduce such prescription in a law respecting the protection 
 of work ? Mr. Louis Guyon, factory inspector of the Province of Quebec, shows that 
 manufacturers had been refused to use machines, because their dangerous parts were 
 not protected according to the exigencies of the law. 
 
 He saya also that steam engines cease to be under official inspection, so soon as 
 they are affiliated with an inspection association. 
 
569 
 
 MANUFACTUEEES' ASSOCIATIONS OEGANIZBD FOE THE PEEVENTION 
 
 OF ACCLDBNTS. 
 
 REPORT BY MR. MAMT. 
 
 In the midst of dangers which can be found in work, the manufacturers have 
 not thought that private initiation should remain inactive. In 1867, Engel-Dolfus 
 founded in Mulhouse an association for the prevention of accidents, which was given 
 ind still gives grept service ; in 1880, Messrs. de Coene and de Sapincourt founded 
 a similar one in Eouen ; in 1883, Mr. Emile Muller, with the aid of the Society for 
 the protection of apprentices, founded the Manufacturers' Association of France, 
 Bvhich radiates over the whole territory, whilst the former are in districts ; finally, 
 thanks to be the help of Mr. Poillon and the aid of the manufacturers' society an 
 association was founded at Amiens. In Belgium an association of the same kind 
 b.as just been constituted ; there also exist some in Ehenish Prussia. 
 
 The associations are of great importance, because the dangers in a workshop 
 3xcape tho notice of the workmen who are there and their chief Thug, since the 22 
 fears the Mulhouse Society exists, it is estimated that 65 per cent, of the accidents 
 3ould have been prevented by its intervention, and that 54 per cent, have been 
 effectively ; and if we consider all the existing associations, the figure of 50 per 
 3ent. seems to have been attained. 
 
 The association of Eouen, which is actually ten years old, and which has under 
 its tutelage 35,000 workmen, has reduced by half the number of accidents to which 
 that working population would have been victim but for its intervention ; but these 
 statistics are always hard to obtain, because manufacturers are not bound to report 
 iccidents. That is a deficiency which it is necessary to fill. The protective laws 
 jould not exclude societies for the prevention of accidents which satisfy the senti- 
 ments of humanity, and, moreover, present the great avantage of relieving the 
 QQutual aid funds or accidents societies by decreasing the number of victims to be 
 issisted. 
 
 To be successful these associations must be in districts, on account of the indus- 
 trial characteristic of each of these disti-icts. It is important the members know one 
 mother and that the industry be the same. The success of the Association of Mul- 
 iouse is due to that fact. These associations must not remain isolated ; on the con- 
 trary, it would be convenient that they be united by an annual congress. It is neces- 
 sary to establish special statistics of accidents so as to form a basis for a law regard- 
 ing accidents. 
 
 STATISTICAL DEFINITION OF ACCIDENTS, AND ENUMEEATION OF 
 
 OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 REPORT BT MR. EMILE CHETSSON. 
 
 Mr. Cheysson resumes his report on the Statistical Definition of Accidents and 
 Enumeration of Occupations. He shows how, on account of the misunderstanding in 
 ;he manner of computing accidents, statistical results vary in ratios of from 1 to 
 i on railways and of 1 to 24 on mines, depending on whether all accidents or only 
 ■he mock severe are reported. 
 
 On tho other hand the working staff is but imperfectly known, the coeflScient of 
 ;he chances of accidents is then most often undetermined. To be able to collect care- 
 iil informations, it is necessary to have direct data, as is done iai Germany, Italy, 
 Belgium, Switzeiland, &c. 
 
 A good legislation against accidents cannot be had, if it has not for basis a reliable 
 itatistic respecting accidents and industries. 
 
 These statistics then must be c -eated, and, it is necessary to arrive at an 
 nternational understanding for that pur])ose. 
 
 Such, then, must be the first object of the association, which will, without doubt, 
 )e called uppn to follow the work of the Congress. 
 
570 
 
 EESPONSIBILITY OF ACCIDENTS OP WOEK AND PROFESSIONAL EISK. 
 
 REPORT BY MR. DEJACE. 
 
 Mr. Dejace proves that all are in accoi-d in acknowledging that the regime of 
 common law, as found in the civil code, is insuflScient to assure the share due on 
 account of accidents. 
 
 The divergencies are seen, on the contrary, as soon as solutions are arrived at. 
 
 Mr. Dejaco divides them into juridical solutions and social solutions. 
 
 In the first category, he includes the methods of Mr. Sainctelette and of Mr. Pir- 
 mez * which he combats, one or the other, as not giving suflScient satisfaction to the 
 workman, and as being made to bear heavily on industry. 
 
 As regards social solutions they have been radical in Germany and Austria, for 
 they even suppress the question of responsibility. The honorable reporter rejects 
 them as only leading to stifle, both in the master and workman, the sentiment of preven- 
 tion. 
 
 Therefore, he rallies to the mixed system of the professional, risk which has the 
 double advantage of being juridical and of not hurting industry. 
 
 He defines the inherent risk of industry which the workman runs, independent 
 of the act of the master and of his own gross fault. Without doubt it exists in every 
 industry; but to arrive at a practical i-esult, it must be limited, in spite of some- 
 thing better, to certain particularly dangerous industries. 
 
 Besides, and this second limitation is essential, the right of reparation which 
 follows from it, must only be applied to accidents due to machinery, the danger 
 of which has necessitated the proclamation of the new principle. 
 
 Therefore, the honorable reporter aims at the triple classification of accidents, 
 corresponding to a triple solution : 
 
 1. Will remain entirely at the charge of the patron, accidents due to the fault 
 of the latter or his overseers; in this respect the common law is sufficient. 
 
 2 Will be entitled to charity those due to the gross fault of the workman. 
 
 3. All other accidents will be grouped under the name of professional risk. 
 Without being pi'opei'ly speaking responsible, the patron will be held to pay a certain 
 part of the indemnity. ** 
 
 OP THE INTERVENTION OF THE TRIBUNALS FOR ASCERTAINING- 
 INDEMNITIES TO BE PAID IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS. 
 
 Report by Mr. Jourdain. 
 Mr. Jourdain determines the points to be discussed : 
 
 1. Is it necessary to leave to the tribunals a complete liberty in the fixing of 
 Indemnities ? 
 
 2. Is it necessary, on the contrary, to bind their hands by the establishment of a 
 sort of invariable tariff which they will limit themselves to apply to each of the cases 
 submitted to them ? 
 
 3. Has there not been cause to adopt a mixed system, which leaving the 
 judge a certain latitude between a maximum and minimum, will permit him to keep 
 count, in each case of accidents, of the aggravating and extenuating circumstances 
 which present the responsibilities incurred by the patron and the workman. 
 
 The reporter refutes the first opinion as consecrating the actual state of things; 
 the second, as not leaving the judge a sufficient power of appreciation, and he 
 adopts the third, which permits of proportioning the reparation to the degree of 
 imputability. 
 
 He proposes, then, the establishment of an average, a maximum and a minimum. 
 As to the rights of the victim, it is not necessary, in the calculation of the indemnity, 
 to keep to one element, the salary which the victim brought to the house, and the 
 family considerations, must remain outside of the question. 
 
 * Eoonomiats and political Belgians, members of the Labor Commission. 
 ** The debate on this important report lasted two days. 
 
571 
 
 SXPEEIMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY OF OBLIGATOEY INSUEA^STCB, AND OF 
 FEBB AND OPTIONAL INSUEANOE. 
 
 Eeport by Mr. Luzzatti. 
 
 Mr. Luzzatti commences by declaring that he prefers the Alsacian type as 
 )eing the ideal type, because it is that of liberty. The ideal, in fact, would be a 
 lystem of free provident funds adopted by each industry, with a good law of respon- 
 iibility tending to assurance, the latter not being obligatory. But that is not a 
 •eason not to examine with impartiality the German system, and to lend to it faults 
 vhich it has not. In that way one is wrong, in seeing the increase of accidents, in 
 jelieving in a necessary correlation with obligatory assurance, and to say : Post hoc, 
 trgo propter hoc. In the tirst place that increase is not very large. And, then, how 
 ;an one judge it in a proper manner since that system is nascent, and that heretofore- 
 ;here were no statistics relating to accidents of wo i-k? Let us add that obligatory 
 issurance is completed by the obligatory inspection, which can impose technical and 
 lygienic ameliorations. 
 
 In fine, the want of centfalization which we make to the Gorman system is not 
 ibunded ; in reality it is a very decentralizing system with its corporations which 
 lave each a district personality. That is a I'Cf^son why we must not confound service 
 ytState with centralization of State; the comparison between German and French 
 )r Italian railways shows well the difference. The reporter concludes by a few 
 ietails on the part of his report treating on the Italian organization respecting acci- 
 lents ; he explains the working of the national fund and the powerful help which 
 it receives from masters. 
 
 In the course of the discussion on this report, important facts have been cited 
 md which it is useful to describe. 
 
 .Mr. Mamy, engineer of the Manufacturers Association of France, declares that 
 in a Congress held respecting the law on accidents, a large number of French manu- 
 facturers* have adopted the principle of obligatory insurance, with the two follow- 
 ing provisoes : 
 
 1. Participation of workmen to the payment of the premium, in a proportion 
 s\hich represents the accidents due to their own fault, the masters taking in their 
 3harge accidents caused by fortuitous causes or by major force ; in that manner all 
 Occidents would be insured, and would give place to indemnity ; 
 
 2. To leave to the option of manufacturers either to insure themselves with the- 
 State, to assure themselves with insurance companies placed under State control, or 
 to form mutual assurance syndicates. 
 
 Mr. Vandervelte, delegate of the Belgian Commission to the exhibition, explains 
 bow the Belgian socialist party came to ask for obligatory insurance. It did not 
 3ome to it by the theory of professional risk. The starting point is found in the ana- 
 lysis of the contract of labor. So as to conserve and develop the forces of work of the 
 nation it is necessary : 
 
 1st. The the salary of the workman include not only that which is necessary to- 
 the daily reconstruction of the force of labor, but, moreover, what Cobden has first 
 jailed, assurance salary ; 
 
 2nd. That the workman, thus earning enough to insure himself, be foreseeing 
 3nough to do so; unhappily, not being insured against forced idleness, as in England,, 
 be is discouraged and renounces to insure himself. 
 
 The solution of this difllculty is bristling with difficulties, variable according to 
 the countries. In Belgium it is impossible to apply the Alsacian method, that is the 
 generalization of factory funds ; the workman themselves put obstacles, because 
 baving often been persecuted, they have become suspicious. From that time, we 
 3ome fatally to obligatory insurance. 
 
 Passing to the mode of payment of the premium, M. Vandervelte shows that in 
 theory no matter whether the master or the workman pays for it, that premium 
 
 * Some members of the Congress remark that these manufactures did not represent the majority of 
 French manufacturers. 
 
572 
 
 falls, in. a last analysis, on the consumer. But in practice, it is better that it be paid 
 by the master, because the repercussion on the consumer operates more easily, and 
 that on the other hand it suppresses all difficulty in case of forced idleness. 
 
 MEASUEBS TO BE TAKEN TO GUAEANTEE THE PAYMENTS OP 
 
 PENSIONS. 
 
 Eeport by Mr. Beziat d'Audibert. 
 
 Mr. Beziat d'Audibert remarks that the important question as to whether the 
 indemnity must consist of capital or of rents, has not been -put. He has then 
 supposed the problem solved in favor of rents. Can one in France obtain a good 
 method for the annuity of these rents ? England and Switzerland have institutions 
 which answer that need ; in Finance there are none up to the present. The funds 
 having to be placed in a financial establishment, it is necessary that the guarantee 
 be : 1st, efficacious ; 2nd, equitable ; 3rd, liberal. Actually when tribunals grant a 
 pension, they exact that they should be placed in Government stock. The title is 
 registered in the name of the victim for the usufruct, in the name of the master for 
 the fee-simple. That system is onerous : 1st, to the master ; 2nd, to the companies 
 which must pay the capital of the rent, without their title in fee-simple being of any 
 utility. Moreover, the -high price of Government stock, calls for an enormous dis- 
 bursement. The Eetiring Fund, organized by the law of 1886, cannot lend itself to 
 the payment of indemnities caused by cases of accidents, for the law does not permit 
 ib to constitute immediate rents in the name of a specified person. 
 
 The insurance must be optional and free. Then, an alternative is found for the 
 companies ; or else they are relieved from the payment ot pensions, and then they 
 must be free, without any control, or they make the payment of pensions, and then 
 deposits in Government stocks are obligatory. 
 
 The reporter concludes in saying that he is opposed to the German system : 1st, 
 on account of corporative lien ; 2nd, because it necessarily leads to obligatory 
 assurance. 
 
 ON THE DIFFEEENCES TO BE BEOUGHT EST THE OEGANIZATION OF 
 
 INSUEANCE, ACCOEDING AS THE INDEMNITIES AEB OF 
 
 LONG OE SHOET DUEATION. 
 
 By Mr. Bodbnheimer. 
 
 If the assurance is obligatory for accidents and for sickness, there is great 
 danger in dividing, according to their length, the accidents into small or serious 
 accidents, some remaining completely or for a part at the charge of the woi'kman, 
 the others at the exclusive charge of the master, as the German law has done. 
 Theoretically, in fact, one is led to think that the workman will try especially to 
 avoid accidents, to the share of which he contributes. Statistics from Germany, for 
 1886 and 1887, have confirmed these apprehensions. For the two categories, it is 
 necessary to apply the principle of the financial participation of the workman, which 
 brings in his share in the management. 
 
 As to the accident insurance, it has as a necessary consequence the sickness 
 insurance : 1st, because it is often difficult to distinguish the accident from the sick- 
 ness ; 2nd, because the sickness is often the result of the accident; 3rd, because the 
 eickness is as interesting as the wounded person ; 4th, because there are professional 
 sicknesses. 
 
 In the two branches of insurance the co-operation of the workman must be the 
 same. If accident insurance only is admitted, the distribution of the charges must 
 be equal between the patron and the workman. 
 
 One cannot distinguish between the great and the small accidents, because often 
 when the accident occurs, it is not known whether it will be lona; or short. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
APPENDIX.'^' 
 
 SYNDICS OF THE MASTEE EOOFEES AND PLUMBERS OP THE TOWN 
 AND DEPARTMENT OF THE SEINE. 
 
 MUTUAL GUARANTEE ASSOCIATION AGAINST ACCIDENTS. (2) 
 
 Extract from the Constitution. 
 
 Sec. 1. There is a mutual assurance society among the master roofers and 
 plumbers of the Department of the Seine who comply with the present constitution, 
 conformably to sections 6, T and 8. 
 
 This society is founded under the patronage and by the action of the Syndics 
 of the Master Roofers and Plumbers, contracting for works done throughout the 
 territory of France. 
 
 Sec. 2. The object of this Society is to guard its members from the pequniary 
 consequences resulting from accidents to persons. 
 
 The guarantee applies as well to accidents to persons employed at the works as 
 to outsiders, provided the accidents are due to the execution of the said works. 
 
 This guarantee is unlimited, whatever be the amount of the pecuniary risks. 
 
 Sec. T. The insurance is entered into, for so long as the Society lasts, except that 
 the member and the Society have the respective right to cancel the contract at the 
 end of each period of three years, by giving to each other three months' notice in 
 advance by means of a declaration signed by the member and addressed to the Board, 
 or signed by the President and addressed to the member. 
 
 The insurance takes effect from the day following that on which the new mem- 
 ber has signed his engagement. The period of three years mentioned in the pre- 
 ceding paragraph dates only from the first January following the day on which the 
 insurance was entered into. 
 
 Sec. 9. Every six months the member will address to the head office a declara- 
 tion signed by him of the amount of his expenses for labor. 
 
 He will pay an assessment fixed proportionately to his total expenses for labor 
 of all kinds, including carters, for personal injuries, and can make his employees and 
 clerks participate to the benefits of the insurance by declaring the same beforehand. 
 
 This assessment is paid annually at $0.10 per every $20 of the total expense for 
 labor incurred by the member, and is payable half-yearly on the 15th January and 
 15th July. 
 
 It can be increased or reduced according to circumstances, by the vote of the 
 general meeting, for the year following the date of that meeting. 
 
 On joining the insurance every member will pay the sum of $20 as part of his 
 assessment, this sum will be refunded to him at the expiration of his insurance, less 
 his last premium. 
 
 Section 12. In every case where a member leaves the insurance or loses his rights 
 in some way or other, the sums paid by the assured and accrued by his assessment, 
 remain the pi'operty of the insurance. 
 
 Section 18. The society of insurance is managed by the Board of Syndics. 
 
 The Board ot Management is by light the oflice of the general meetings. 
 
 All the necessary powers for administering and conducting the society are vested 
 in the Board, and are exercised in its behalf by the president, who is thei'efore, qua- 
 lified and authorized to act for the Society in everything and in all actions, judicial 
 or others, entered against the members or in their name. 
 
 (1) The documents published in this appendix have been inadvertently omitted, and contain neoes- 
 ;sary explanations on particularly interesting projects. 
 
 (2) This insurance dates from the year 1869. 
 
576 
 
 REGULATION. 
 
 Section 21. Every employee or workman injured in the performance of his duties, 
 will receive a daily allowance to the extent of half his salary during all the time of 
 his temporary incapacity, which may vary from one to 180 days. 
 
 The cessation of work, forming the basis for the payment of the indemnity, will 
 be certified by the physician of the insurance, or his substitute. If the certificate is 
 given by another physician, it will have to be countersigned by the physician of the 
 insurance. 
 
 Sectio'n 22. Every accident entailling permanent inability to work at one's occupa- 
 tion (such as the los of a leg, of a foot, of a hand) will entitle the person iajured to an 
 annual life-rent of $36, payable quarterly, or if the person injured prefers the cession 
 of that life-rent, the Board can redeem it, by paying 80 per cent of the amount of that 
 rent, capitalized at the rate of 5 per cent. 
 
 The payment of the life-rent will be made through a life insurance company, 
 chosen for that purpose by the Board. 
 
 Sec. 23. Every accident entailing a permanent and absolute inability to work 
 (such as the loss of sight, or the loss of the two limbs) will entitle the persoQ injured 
 to an annual life-rent of $70, payable quarterly, with the same right of cession and 
 redemption and on the same conditions as in section 22. 
 
 The payment of the rent will be made as mentioned in section 22. 
 
 Sec. 24. A capital sum of $400 will be paid over to the widow and children 
 underage of an employee or workman killed by accident; this sum to be paid one 
 half to the widow and ode half to the children under age. 
 
 If there are no children under age the widow will receive only one half of the 
 indemnity. 
 
 If there are no children under age nor widow, the father and mother sexagena- 
 rians or infirm of the person injured, will each be entitled to one fourth of the 
 indemnity. 
 
 Sec. 25. Injuries or death resulting from drunkenness, violation of the laws, 
 disorderly conduct, are a bar against the benefit of the insurance. 
 
 Anyone who knowingly uses fraudulent means or documents in order to exag- 
 gerate the result of the accident, will lose all rights to an indemnity. 
 
 Sec. 26. Every accident should be declared to the head offlce of the insurance 
 within forty-eight hours, under penalty of forfeiture. 
 
 Sec. 27. The injured person who refuses to obey the directions of the physician, 
 loses at once all right to the indemnity. 
 
 Sec. 28. For every injury caused by the workmen of the assured to a third party, 
 during the execution of the work, there may be paid (in conformity with section 21) 
 an indemnity of 75 cts. for every day lost certified by the physician of the insurance, 
 
 Note.— Accidents are examined and settled by a commission sitting in the office 
 of the Syndics on the second and fourth Tuesday of every month, at three o'clock. 
 
 ASSOCIATION TO PEBVENT ACCIDENTS IN EACTOEIES, POUNDED IN 
 
 1867, UNDBE THE PATEONAGE OF THE INDUSTEIAL 
 
 SOCIETY OF MULHOUSE. 
 
 (Extract from the Constitution.) 
 
 1. An association is formed whose object is to prevent avoidable accidents in 
 factories, either by i-egular inspection of the establishments or by the adoption of 
 rules and machine apparatus most appropriate to protect the workman, or again by 
 indicating the best regulations to adopt. 
 
 7. The Board of the association appoint the inspectors and all the salaried staff 
 needed. The utmost discretion is imposed on them by the contracts entered into. . 
 
577 
 
 8. The inspectors are bound to apply to the heads of establishments before pro- 
 ceeding to visit the workshops. 
 
 The heads of establishments are at liberty to accompany them, or to appoint a 
 delegate for that purpose. 
 
 The inspectors bind themselves to abstain from examining anything that is not 
 connected with the prevention of accidents. 
 
 9. The duties of inspectors of the association are incompatible with those of 
 umpire's or arbitrators in matters of accidents in factories. 
 
 10. The observations of the inspectors are entered, without any personal men- 
 tion, in a book which is kept private, and for the use only of the members of the 
 association. 
 
 11. After each visit the inspectors deliver to the heads ot the establishments a 
 sealed envelope containing a summary note of their passage. 
 
 Moreover, a detailed report is sent to him within the two weeks following the 
 visit. 
 
 12. The free members make known to the association any accident which has 
 occurred within their establishments, and necessitating a cessation from work of 
 three days. As for the others their own corporation go through that formality. 
 
 13. Every year the association makes a report on the rules and machine appa- 
 ratus, the best adapted to prevent accidents in factories. 
 
 The Association to Prevent Accidents in Factories publishes rules indicating the 
 precautions to be taken to guard the workmen from all accidents that can be 
 prevented. 
 
 So far the association has published ten rules, that is to say : — 
 No. 1. — General rule. No. 2. — Management of steam machines. No. 3. — Clean- 
 ing of shafting. No. 4. — ^Handling of belting. No. 5. — Elevators. No. 6. — Thresh- 
 ing machines. No. 7. — Cardipg machines. No. 8. — Spindle frames. No. 9. — Self- 
 acting looms. No. 10. — Eoller printing machines. — Instructions as to the first 
 remedies to be applied in case of accidents. 
 
 *,* 
 * 
 
 These rules, printed in large type, are published as posters and hung in all the 
 
 workshops, so that the workmen can read them and follow the instructions they 
 
 contain. The two principal ones of these rules are reproduced here. 
 
 INSTEUCTIONS ON THE IMMEDIATE EBMBDIES TO BE APPLIED 
 IN CASES OP ACCIDENTS. 
 
 (Summaiy Extract of Chapters II and III of the "Work by Messrs. E. Perrand & A. 
 Delpech, at Messrs. J. B. Bailli^re et Pils, 19 Eue Hautefeuille, in Paris.) 
 
 ASPHYXIA. 
 
 Asphyxia is a state of apparent or real death caused by the stoppage of 
 respiration. 
 
 Any cause which prevents a sufficient quantity of air from reaching the lungs 
 may cause asphyxia. Such is drowning, strangulation, the compression of the chest 
 (by something falling, for instance), the existence in the air of unbreathable gas, etc. 
 
 The first duty to fulfil in case of asphyxia is to remove the victim from the 
 cause which occasioned the accident. We will not dwell upon the manner of draw- 
 ino- out a drowning man from the water, or upon the necessity of immediately 
 loosening the rope from around the neck of a man hanging, etc. A few words are 
 necessary on the precautions to be taken by the preserver in case of asphyxia from 
 unbreathable gas, to prevent his being struck down himself 
 
 He should commence by making an opening from without if possible, by means 
 of ladders and poles, breaking the windows where the accident occurred so as to renew 
 the air before going in. 
 20—37 
 
578 
 
 If this cannot be done, he should put over his nose and mouth a cloth saturated 
 with vinegar and water, and should pass around his body a strong rope, which will 
 . enable him to be pulled out should he lose consciousness. 
 
 Before going into the place he should draw a long breath and try and hold his 
 breath until he should have opened all the apertures so as to let in ±he pure air. 
 In certain cases where suflScient air cannot easily be let in (as in cellars, etc.), he 
 should also carry a rope, the end of which is held outside and on the other end of 
 which is a noose which he should attach to the victim's clothes, and that being done, 
 he should quickly retire while the assistants will draw out the asphyxiated person. 
 
 If the gas that has caused the accident arises from the combustion of coal or pit 
 coal, it would be useful, before entering the room, to throw in large quantities of 
 water mixed with slack lime. 
 
 In a case where the accident is caused by illuminating gas, he must take great 
 care not to enter the room with a light, that might ignite the gas and cause an 
 explosion. 
 
 Immediate help. — The man is then carried into a well-ventilated room, moderately 
 warm, and should have around him only those absolutely i-equired. As a general 
 rule, in cases of asphyxia as well as for all other accidents, if it be a woman, the 
 assistance should be given, if possible, by other women, and the curious should be 
 strictly prohibited from entering. The victim should be undressed quickly, or if 
 this be difficult the clothes should be cut with scissors. He should then be 
 placed on a bed, or on a simple mattrass placed on a table, after having placed a 
 bolster under the shoulders to raise the body slightly, the head falling backwards. 
 He is then covered with a light covering, and for want of better, with sfraw oi' dry 
 hay. These preliminaries having been quickly done, the mouth of the asphyxiated 
 is opened and a small piece of wood is placed between the teeth, or a handle of a 
 spoon or some other flat object, not sharp, is inserted; the jaws are kept apart by 
 placing a cork between the large teeth, and the tongue is drawn out with the fingers 
 which are covered with a handkerchief or a cloth. With the finger or with the 
 feathei-ed end of a feather, the nostrils, mouth and throat are cleared from mucus and 
 froth that obstruct them. 
 
 All this is done quickly but methodically, while the assistants try to restore 
 warmth and the circulation by dry rubbing, with hot bricks and ii'ons and with hot 
 smoothing irons wrapped in flannel and passed over the body. Eubbing with spirits 
 with a flannel, a rough towel or a handful of straw is useful. . 
 
 A lighted match should frequently be placed to the nostrils and a cork still wet 
 with alcohol whose sharp penetrating vapour produces a salutary irritation. 
 
 If, notwithstanding these manojuvres, the body still I'emains inert, and the 
 respiration does not return, artificial respiration must be resorted to without too 
 much delay. 
 
 Artificial Respiration by the Sylvester process : This process consists in produc- 
 ing, by movements of the arms, the play of the muscles that raise and lower the 
 chest. 
 
 The operator places himself at the head of the asphyxiated who is lying on his 
 back and raises his shoulders with a blanket or an article of clothing rolled up. The 
 feet are supported and held by an assistant so that the body remains immovable. 
 
579 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 It is needless to say that all the preceding precautions which have been described 
 
 should have been taken, that the nose 
 and the mouth should have been cleaned 
 and that the tongue has been drawn 
 out. In case of need, it fs kept in this 
 position by passing a handkerchief un- 
 der the chin in such a manner that it 
 is pressed between the teeth. 
 
 The operator then places himself at 
 the head, he grasps the arms of the 
 asphyxiated close to the elbows, ■ the 
 forearm being bent on to the arm 
 (Fig. 1) ; and having pressed them 
 rather tightly on the sides of the chest, 
 he then raises them quickly but with- 
 out violence over the head, making 
 them describe the arc of a circle (Fig. 2) . 
 He then brings them back to the first 
 position and recommences the manoeu- 
 ver, imitating the beats of normal res- 
 piration. The operator ceases after a 
 few movements in order to judge the 
 effect he has produced, and begins again 
 if the respiration is not established of 
 itself. 
 
 During these manoeuvres the assist- 
 ants continue rubbing under the cover- 
 ing or over the dry clothing; they 
 renew the application of hot flannels, 
 of bottles of hot water, or of hot bricks 
 placed along the body, to the feet or 
 under the armpits. 
 
 As soon as there are signs of life we 
 give the sick persons a few spoonful of 
 cordial, hot wine, grog, &c. If there 
 be nausea we aid the vomiting by pass- 
 Fig. 2. ing over the uvula an oiled feather. 
 Then we place the sick person in a warm bed, his head being slightly raised, 
 •and care should be taken to allow air to circulate well around him. It will not be 
 long before he will fall asleep, but his sleep should be watched in case new symptoms 
 of asphyxia should manifest themselves. We have seen persons asphyxiated return 
 to life after a very long period (several hours) ; therefore we must, so long as any 
 hope remains, continue to practice the artificial respiration, changing the operator 
 BO as to prevent fatigue. 
 
 ;;^i; , Here are some of the signs by which we may know that all hope is gone: 
 "X' If, on applying the ear to the chest in the region of the heart, we hear no 
 beating; if a glass placed at a short distance from the mouth be not tarnished; if 
 a hot coal, placed at the end of the toes, produces no sign of feeling or no blister. 
 
 LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS. 
 
 The loss of consciousness is due to various causes. Besides those we have already 
 •described as being caused by asphyxia, we will mention among the most ordinary 
 cases : concussion of the brain, (see farther on) overcome by heat, apoplexy, epilepsy 
 (or haut mal) syncope. We call syncope the state of a person who is ill either on 
 account of emotion, weakness, loss of blood, etc.) 
 20—3*7* 
 
580 
 
 Immediate help. — Send away the cuiious ; loosen the collar and belt; give as 
 much air as possible. 
 
 If the face is pale (syncope) lay the sick person down flat, the head low, throw 
 a few drops of cold water on his face, make him inhale vinegar, ammonia or ether, 
 and rub the temples and forehead with vinegar and water, eau de cologne etc. 
 
 If the face is highly colored (congestion, apoplexy) place the sick person on a 
 bed the head high and the legs hanging, and place on the head cloths dipped in cold 
 or ice water. If there be vomiting, turn the head on one side to prevent the matter 
 from being breathed into the lungs. 
 
 In case of epilepsy (which we distinguish by convulsions which accompany 
 the loss of consciousness) all the cure consists in securing the sick person from the 
 violence of the shock and the fall, put in the tongue which might be caught between 
 his teeth and bitten. We must then wait patiently until the workings cease of them- 
 selves. 
 
 BEUISES. 
 
 OONTtrSIONS. 
 
 They are the result of a violent shock against some body that will not yield 
 (such as blows, falls &c.) and are characterised by pain and swelling of the part 
 affected, the skin remaining intact. A violent contusion without any of the vital 
 organs being injured brings on syncope. (See what is to be done in such case.) 
 Finally the contusion of some important internal organ such as the brain, the lungs, 
 may entail the most serious consequences and cause, according to the organ injured, 
 the loss of consciousness, spitting of blood, &c. 
 
 Immediate help. — In cases of slight contusions apply wrung out cloths dipped in 
 cold water or eau blanche. If the accident is more serious, carry the wounded person 
 into a well-ventilated room, put him on a bed or mattress and be careful to remove 
 everything that can interfere with his breathing. And while awaiting the doctor, 
 keep, on the part injured, compresses of ice water, and renew these frequently. 
 
 WOUNDS. 
 
 Wounds are of differents kinds according to their causes, such as a piercing, a 
 shock, an incision a tearing ; their gravity depends on their extent, their depth and 
 above the particular organs injured, such as blood vessels, lungs, heart etc. 
 
 Immediate help. Take scrupulous care not to touch the wound with dirty fin- 
 gers, dirty cloths, sponges, and cover them with lint or cob webs, &c., all manoeuvres 
 that might introduce into the wound bad germs might be the cause of poisoning, and 
 consequent 'blood poisoning and death. Clear the wound from anything that may 
 soil it (such as sand, earth, &c.) by washing it thoroughly with pure water and 
 better still with phenic water, and with the aid, if required, of a clean piece of linen 
 such as a napkin, a handkerchief, &c. 
 
 While waiting for the doctor you should never permit any one to remove any- 
 thing that has penetrated into the wound and which offers any resistance to a slight 
 pull, we should not pull off either the pieces of skin adhering or the clots of blood 
 which the water could not remove. 
 
 Cover the wound with a compress cold water, or, better still, phenic water, and 
 keep it in its place by a napkin or linen band. 
 
 HEMORRHAGE. 
 
 Hemorrhage or loss of blood, which accompanies every wound, may assume 
 such proportions as to necessitate immediate remedy. 
 
 Immediate help. — When the blood is thick, of a dark red color and flows gently 
 and not by starts, it is generally sufiicient after having removed everything from the 
 wounded part that could interfere with the circulation, such as clothes, garters, etc., 
 to press on the wound with the aid of the fingers or by means of a piece of linen 
 moderately light. 
 
581 
 
 This process is insufficient in the greater number of cases where a small artery 
 is injured. In such case vermillion red blood flows from the wound by starts cor- 
 responding with the beatings of the heart, and death is imminent unless the hemor- 
 rhage is stopped. Compression of the principal artery of the limb, while awaiting 
 medical aid is always the surest means of saving the life of the wounded. 
 
 It is important to know the places where this operation can be more easily per- 
 formed and consequently with more chance of success. 
 
 We will now enumerate them. 
 
 For a wound in the forearm or the hand seek the artery above the elbow in the 
 inside of the arm beside the biceps muscle. (Fig. 3.) 
 
 * 
 
 fig. 3. fig- 4. 
 
 For the lower limbs in the middle and a little above the fold in the thigh. (Fig. 4.) 
 
 For a wound in the head, seek the artery (caro- 
 tide) near the middle of the neck on the front side 
 of the principal muscle, which from behind the ear 
 extends to nearly the middle of the chest and press 
 it from the front to the back of the vertebrse of the 
 neck. (Fig. 5.) 
 
 The cessation of the hemorrhage will indicate 
 that we have found what we sought. 
 
 If we do not succeed in stopping the blood in 
 this way we must try and produce with compression 
 by means of elastic bands (such as suspenders, etc.) 
 bound round the injured limb above the wound. 
 Should it be required, we should use a cloth folded 
 like a cravat, the ends of which we fasten in a knot 
 and under which knot we pass apiece of wood (a cane, 
 etc.) sufficiently long that by turning it we succeed 
 to tighten the cloth and compress tightly the limb. 
 (Figs. 6 and 7). 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
582 
 
 Pig. 6. 
 
 Fig. n. 
 
 WRENCH (SPKAINS). 
 
 Immediate help. — Apply fresh water in the form of a bath, running water, or 
 compresses frequently renewed. 
 
 DISLOCATIONS. 
 
 There is dislocation everytime that the extremity of a bone comes out of its 
 natural cavity to take a wrong position. We are notified of the dislocation by the 
 characteristic malformation of the place when compared with the symmetrical one, by 
 the change in the length of the limb and by the inability of the injured person to 
 perform certain movements. These dislocations are caused by falls, violent move- 
 ments made in abnormal positions, sometimes by blows. 
 
 Immediate help. — It would be dangerous to attempt the work of replacement, 
 which to be of any use would require accurate anatomical skill. We must then con- 
 tent ourselves by the exercise of palliative measures that will soothe the patient and 
 stop the swelling of the part, until such time as the doctor arrives. 
 
 We must simply apply compresses of (eau blanche) sugar of lead water and 
 keep the sick person lying down in the least fatiguing position possible. 
 
 PEACTURES. 
 
 The immediate symptoms of a fracture are the impossibility or difficulty of 
 moving the injured limb, the change more or less great from its natui'al position, and 
 the rubbing of the two ends of the broken bones. We may notice also in the parts 
 that are held together by a single bone, such as the arm, an unnatural bend, and the 
 individual movements of the two parts which form the bone. 
 
 Immediate help. — We must avoid all protracted attempts to assume ourselves 
 that there is really a fracture and apply the remedy indicated as if we were positively 
 certain. The first thing to be done is as simple as possible, and is intended to keep 
 the limb immovable in its normal position. It is formed of small pieces of wood 
 (splints) which are cut the necessary length and thickness, and pieces of thick card- 
 board. While these are being prepared the injured limb should be covered with a 
 compress dipped in cold (eau blanche) sugar of lead water. Then the splints 
 covered with wadding or a soft thick cloth, are put round the limb and then fixed 
 with bands or several handkerchiefs. 
 
583 
 
 The figures 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 render it unnecessary for us to enter into further 
 details. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Fig. 8, 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 "When the fracture is rendered worse by wounds, we must commence by attend- 
 ing to these as has been indicated ; and after having covered the wounds with com- 
 presses, we apply the provisional remedy. 
 
 The doctor should be called within the shortest delay. He alone is authorized 
 to make a thorough examination of the injured limb, to unite the fracture and ap^ly 
 
584 
 
 the final application. To wait too long entails much trouble; the painful swelling 
 of the muscles next the fracture is an obstacle to the putting on of the bandage, which 
 delays and interferes with the cure. 
 
 In case of a fracture of the arms, the injured person should, if his strength is 
 BuflBcient, seek his own dwelling or that of the doctor, that is if the distance to travel 
 is not too great. See on figure 11 the position of the sling used to support the arm. 
 
 If the fracture be in the lower limbs the patient should not in any case be allowed 
 to walk. 
 
 To carry the wounded we must use a stretcher or upon something made to 
 resemble it. 
 
 A plank, a shutter or a door can be used ; it should be covered with a straw bed 
 or drj' grass, and care should be taken, by some means or other, to keep the head 
 raised. 
 
 BTTRNS. 
 
 Immediate help. — When a person's clothes are on fire the first thing to do is to 
 smothqr the flames by whatever means may be at hand ; you should at once cover them 
 with a cloak, a blanket, a quilt, a carpet, &c., and wrap it closely around him. The 
 fire being extinguished we should relieve him of his clothes, using scissors if necessary, 
 so as to prevent the rubbing which might pull away the flesh, and cause intense 
 suffering. If pieces of the cloth remain stuck to the flesh it is better to leave them 
 than to try and remove them. 
 
 Open the blister by a prick from the extreme point of a pin ; but take great 
 care to protect the skin that covers the sore and prevent dii'cct contact with the air. 
 Apply on the burned parts a liniment which is obtained by shaking in a corked 
 bottle a mixture in equal parts of oil and lime, or if this cannot be obtained, use olive 
 oil, butter or any other grease spread on cotton. 
 
 When the burns are caused by chemical caustics, we should be careful not to use 
 water in the first instance ; it would only excite the corrosive action, causing intense 
 suffering ; we must try, on the contrary, to extract what remains of the caustic by 
 touching it gently with wadding or lint, until the drying up of the sore, and then 
 only should there be frequent washing with alkaline water (a solution of carbonate 
 of soda, etc.) soap suds, lime water; if the burn is caused by acids, then wash witb 
 vinegar water, if by burns from potash or soda, ammonia or quick lime is used. 
 
 POEEIGN BODIES INTRODUCED INTO NATURAL CAVITIES. 
 
 If a foreign body has penetrated the eye, the nose or the ears, and if it cannot be 
 pulled out very easily, we should await the arrival of the doctor. 
 
 When a foreign body has entered the throat which, leaving aside the incon- 
 venience and discomfort, might cause suff'ocation and even asphyxia, we should try 
 and remove it with the aid of the fingers. 
 
 If this means is not successful, we must try and drive it down by making the 
 patient swallow. small balls of bread crumb, or pieces of cooked potatoes, as large as 
 possible. If there be suffocation, try and make the patient vomit, by making him 
 drink warm water or by tickling the palate. 
 
 POISONING. 
 
 Immediate help. — While waiting for the doctor, for whom we must send quickly, 
 try and remove the poison as quickly as possible, by causing vomiting. For that 
 purpose, make him drink large quantities of lukewarm water, tickle the throat with 
 the finger or a feather. 
 
 Give him, moreover, emollient and softening drinks, such as milk (which should 
 be given in the first place) and albumen water (which is made by beating the whites 
 of four eggs iu a pint of water) gum water, etc. 
 
 If it is known what poisons have to be dealt with, the following substances may 
 be given : — 
 
585 
 
 In poisoning with acids (sulphuric acid, or vitrol, nitric, etc.) carbonate of soda, 
 pounded chalk, magnesia, etc., dissolved or soaked in a good deal of water is used. 
 
 In poisoning with alkalies (caustic soda or potash, etc.) water slightly flavored 
 with vinegar or acidulated milk with the juice of lemon is used. 
 
 With arsenic, magnesia mixed with water. 
 
 With salts of mercury (corrosive sublimate, etc.) the white of an egg. 
 
 With phosphorous, magnesia and over and above, ten drops of the essence of 
 turpentine in milk every half hour. 
 
 Avoid oil and fatty substances. 
 
 Finally, if we have to deal with vegetable poisons (such as opium, belladoaa, etc.) 
 .administer strong black coffee and spirits, and apply compresses of cold water to the 
 head. 
 
 CONTENTS OF AN AID BOX. 
 
 Bottle of ammonia (volatile alkali). 
 
 do spirits of camphor. 
 
 do extract sugar of lead. 
 To prepare (eaw blanche) mix 2 tablespoonfuls of extract of sugar of lead in a 
 pint of water. 
 
 Bottle of 100 grammes of high wines and phenic acid at 90 per cent. 
 To prepare phenic water (J eau pheniquie) , mix 2 tablespoonfuls of that solution 
 in a pint of water, and shake the mixture so as to dissolve all the phenic acid, which 
 -commences by separating in the form of oily drops. 
 Bottle of vinegar. 
 
 do oil of almonds. 
 
 do lime water. 
 An empty bottle to prepare the calcareous liniment. 
 Bottle of eau de melisse. 
 
 do hydrate of magnesia. 
 A few linen bands ; a few rolls of lint for dressing. 
 A few splinters of wood (splints) for fractures. 
 
 GENEEAL EULES TO PEBVENT ACCIDENTS BY MACHINBEY. 
 
 A. TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE-POWEE. 
 
 Art. 1. — It is expressly forbidden to come in direct contact with a motor in 
 motion, to clean it with a rag or cotton waste in the hand. 
 
 Art. 2. — Cleaning or dusting shafts and pulleys in motion must be done whilst 
 standing on the floor and with a pole long enough for that purpose, and a brush or 
 hook holding junk attached. 
 
 The use of a ladder or other thing to rise above the ground is formally for- 
 bidden. 
 
 Art. 3. — ^Wheels, bearings and bushes must be cleaned only when the machinery 
 is at rest, and during regular stoppages. 
 
 Art. 4. — ^It is also forbidden to clean a motor during accidental stoppages, and 
 •even during regular stoppages, unless it is done in conformity with Article 5 ; all 
 cleaning or other operation to the motor must be done after the day's work. 
 
 Art. 5. — When anyone is busy with a motor during the hours of rest, or in the 
 morning before starting, the foreman of the room wherein the work is going on and 
 the tender of the motor must be notified. 
 
 The tender is only to start on the express order of that foreman, and after 
 giving in all the workshops the specified signal. ( 
 
 Art. 6. — The handling of belting (mounting, taking down, lacing, cleaning or 
 oiling) should be done only by the foremen, overseers acting as foremen, or by 
 the workmen specially designated, such as tenders of motors, harness-makers, 
 weavers, cardgrinders and their assistants. 
 
586 
 
 All other workmen should abstain from handling belting. 
 
 Art. 7. — It is strongly prohibited to mount belting simply by baud on transmis- 
 sion pulleys in motion. 
 
 All belting should be mounted, during motion, by means of a pole with hook, or 
 a belt hanger, if there are any. The hooked pole should be held alongside the body, 
 and should be of such length that the lower end of the pole be never, during work, 
 on a level with the abdomen. 
 
 Art. 8. — During the motion, it is recommended : 
 
 1. To take down the belts without quitting the floor, and, if possible, by means 
 of the hooked pole ; 
 
 2. To clean or oil belts only by means of brushes with long handles, and on the 
 sides where the belts unroll from their pulleys ; 
 
 3. ITever lace a belt without removing it from the shaft by means of the hooked 
 pole, if there are no belt holders. 
 
 Art. 9. — When a belt rests on a shaft in motion, it is forbidden — 
 
 1. To lean, or hang to, or hold on to that belt ; 
 
 2. To try stopping that belt should it happen to roll itself round the shaft, ox- 
 taken up by the adjoining belt. 
 
 B. — MACHINES. 
 
 Art. 10. — The conduct of motors will be entrusted to persons carefully chosen for 
 that purpose. A workman is forbidden from starting or stopping a motor, or to do 
 anything to do, without the express order of the director. 
 
 Art. 11. — Whilst a machine is in motion, it is forbidden : 
 
 1. To clean the main pieces in motion, or even pieces at rest in the immediate 
 neighborhood of main pieces in motion. 
 
 2. To oil main pieces difficult of access ; 
 
 3. To remove or displace covers of gearings, boxing or other safety appliances. 
 The machine will have to be stopped before those things are done. 
 
 C. — ELEVATORS. 
 
 Art. 12. — It is expressly forbidden : 
 
 1. To overcharge an elevator ; 
 
 2. To start or stop an elevator duriag the absence of those entrusted with that 
 duty; 
 
 3. To start an elevator before all the gates opening on the passage are closed. 
 
 4. To leave the gates or barriers open after the loading or unloading of the cage ; 
 
 5. To lean out of the gates or other guards erected before the openings traversed 
 by the cage, or again, to stand or move about near enough to those openings as to 
 risk being struck by the cage in motion; 
 
 6. To undertake any work underneath the cage, before it has been previously 
 unloaded and wedged. 
 
 Art. 13. — If the elevator is provided with skids for the purpose of bringing thfr 
 platform on a level with the floor of the different stories, the workmen should push, 
 these skids underneath the platform before loading or unloading the cage. 
 
 D. — IMPORTANT REMARKS. 
 
 It is recommended to the workmen : 
 
 1. Not to undertake any work in the immediate neighborhood of a machine 
 or motor in motion, nor the handling of belts or cables, with loose clothes or sleeves 
 torn, or with aprons, belts, neckties or cravats with loose ends ; 
 
 2. Never to change dress near main pieces of machines or motors in motion ; 
 
 3. To employ the pi'eventive apparatus provided for their use ; 
 
 4. To signal to the head of the establishment, or his representative, any dan- 
 gerous piece of machinery or arrangement, material or thing (such as pole, stairs^ 
 ladders, etc.) that would likely cause an accident. 
 
587 
 
 THE WOEKMAN'S CAPITAL* 
 
 "The idea of the workman's capital is so feasible, its practical use is of such 
 importance for the working classes, that we feel justified in publishii^', so that it 
 may well be understood, the memoir which Mr. Courtehoux addressed on that subject 
 to the members of the jury of the exhibition." 
 
 * 
 
 I have the honor to submit the operation of my two organizations, the Work- 
 man's Capital and Old Age Fund, tree to workmen (details of which are given on 
 page 404.) 
 
 By these two innovations I embrace all ages, by giving satisfaction to their 
 several aspirations and drawing them nearer to the employer, without injuring the 
 interests of the latter. 
 
 The success is undoubted, for out of a staff of 170 workmen (men, women and 
 youths), lYO are members. 
 
 workman's capital. 
 
 To young people especially I recommend this system, it educates them morally 
 and economically ; it induces them to marry, and prepares them for all emergencies 
 by assuring them of an honorable pension. 
 
 Eemember, gentlemen, that our epoch having given instruction, must furnish 
 the means to use it; the lot-bonds with monthly instalments of $1.10 is a means 
 to that end. 
 
 To show the result before any effort is made, through a title of $100 in full 
 property, has an astounding effect on youth, whoso initiative and perseverance in. 
 the matter of instalments are kept alive in for the sake of the drawings, and never 
 abate. 
 
 Do not neglect, gentlemen, to use those means of action which necessitate 
 savings, keeps away from taverns, prepares well-assorted unions, and gives them a 
 capital which they may make unseizable on risk in enterprises at their will. 
 
 If they are not successful, they will have at least secured a permanent revenue, 
 the respect of old age, $600 in hand, $60 of life-rent at the age of 60, and ten changes 
 of drawings every two months. 
 
 Thus at 60 years of age, the husband and wife should possess $1,200 in hand,. 
 $120 of life-rent, and twelve chances of drawings every two months. 
 
 To these advantages add ; — 
 
 THE OCD age fund FREE TO WORKMEN. 
 
 These latter are specially applicable to households, and act as a compensation 
 for their family burdens. 
 
 In fact, certain trades people, finding it a safe piece of business, never hesitate- 
 to advance money on notes payable at the master's office or at a local branch of that 
 fund. 
 
 It suflces on one side, to offer those notes according to the value of the unpaid 
 days (which replaces the trust system so expensive to the workmen), or else to- 
 exchange them for cash. 
 
 The employer is thus in a position to be useful to his staff, and the town to some 
 of the ratepayers; for the workman the result is: — 
 
 Ist. Goods at lower prices ; 
 
 2nd. A saving, without pinching, which is entered on his book of old age, when 
 he takes up his notes. 
 
 You can thus, gentlemen, replace the supply associations and induce them to- 
 distribute their benefits in the shape of books of old age, and thus constitute an. 
 indestructible general saving; a progress surely. 
 
 * See page 404. 
 
588 
 
 By the local or employer's notes, you certainly have greater advantage than the 
 supply associations, for you can operate on all objects without exception, avoiding 
 leakages and getting the best articles, having been bought by interested parties. 
 
 This would sustain the retail dealers, which the towns and state are interested 
 in maintaining. 
 
 The working is this : it is sufficient to point out to the workmen those of the 
 trades people who have consented the highest rebates, and if it is 5, 10 or 15 per 
 cent., deliver colored bonds, signifying that on their being presented for payment a 
 ■drawback will be made of the amount entered in the workman's book when he took 
 the bonds. 
 
 Without expense to anyone, a minimum monthly reserve of $1 will be obtained; 
 with me it is much higher than that. If you commence at the time of marriage, say 
 at 22 or 23, the husband and wife will each have at least a life rent of |60 at the age 
 of 60 years. 
 
 The old people, without any sacrifice, will be able to induce their children 
 and grand-children to economise, and create in tlieir favor an annuity or capital the 
 most considerable the younger they begin. The yearly $12,^ placed on three-year-old 
 •children, being $396 of life-rent at $60. 
 
 These institutions will create emulation, and diminish poverty ; in any case, 
 they will relieve public charity, which will thereby find a better basis for the dis- 
 tribution of help, and become more efficient in other quarters. 
 
 If the interested parties have enough foresight and enei-gy to subscribe to the 
 workman's capital as also to the old age fund, they will acquire either an annuity of 
 ■$240 and $1,200 in hand, or a reserve capital of $90.80 as life rent, and $1,874 for 
 their heirs. 
 
 The improvident ones would thus be secured against misery later on, and the 
 industrious ones would have no fear for the future. 
 
 Is it not the means to quiet the spirit, and prevent violent recriminations ? 
 
 So far, gentlemen, I have spoken of the general state of affairs profitable to all 
 •classes of workers, and exhibiting a new class of proprietors. 
 
 I have now to prove to you that it will be very favorable to certain special 
 classes, the more interesting as their risks of trade are greater. 
 
 Please refer to the table of the workman's capital which contains all the details, 
 you will see that bond lots with monthly instalments of $10 are pei-sonal and kept 
 for the workman who can obtain them one by one. Every time he has to be author- 
 ized thereto by his municipality, and this foi-ms the basis for the distribution of gifts 
 and donations. 
 
 This title is the more advantageous to the workman, that the masters will rather 
 prefer to employ the subscribers. In order to secure a steady staff they will hesitate 
 to insure him against accidents and sickness ; this will lead to a good understanding. 
 
 This is, gentlemen, a simple plan, since it suffices to issue bond lots ; its execu- 
 tion is very easy, and to the advantage of the societies which will have the privilege 
 thereof, for their property being the sureties of the masses, will be under their 
 guardianship. 
 
 The project having been jilso examined in its financial details, as also in those 
 affecting the workingman, I propose to you an organization in. which each one, in 
 case of misfortune, can strene-theu himself. Do not reject it, I pray, without asking 
 the explanations I am ready to give. 
 
 1789 gave independence to the classes ; let 1889 give to the best favored of these 
 classes the resources necessary to the emancipation of the intelligence and capabilities. 
 
 By developing the individual initiative, the syndicates will be forined without 
 risks. 
 
 Please.aecept, gentlemen of the jury, +he assurance of my respectful consideration. 
 
 L. COUETEHOUX. 
 
 Several times I have mentioned the easy system of loan on unseizable titles of 
 the workman's capital. This operation should be confined to the savings banks, 
 which would derive an extra revenue therefrom. 
 
589 
 
 APPEBNTICBSHIP. 
 
 Meeting of the Bronze manufacturers joined by the smelting, iron, zinc and silver 
 industries, and all the plastic arts. 
 
 Instruction, encouragement, benevolence. 
 
 Sketch of the School of Designs and modelling of the meeting of Bronze manu- 
 facturers. 
 
 The school vpas founded by the exertions of the present chairman of the Syndics, 
 Mr. G-agneau, with the help of the Bureau, in 1884. It was opened in September, 
 1885. It has now (May, 1889) 80 pupils taught gratuitously. The end in view 
 was the artistic instruction of the sons of workingmen and of patrons of the bronze 
 industries, and to impart to them the technical knowledge of styles, or knowledge 
 absolutely necessary for the intelligent execution of their work. 
 
 Courses of design and modelling are given daily by their able professor Mr. 
 Eugene Eobert. 
 
 They are divided into oral courses and studies in drawing and modelling. 
 
 The progress obtained are most satisfactory, and we are pleased_with the result 
 of our efforts. 
 
 We can show to the authorities who have patronized us, that their sacrifices 
 have borne good fruits. 
 
 We form a group of workmen having all the indispensablti knowledge in an 
 artistic point of view, and the national industry of bronze cannot but benefit by it. 
 
 The expenses of this institution amount to about $2,400. 
 
 In 1887 the Minister of Commerce was kindly pleased to grant us a subsidy of 
 $200, increased to $400 in 1888. 
 
 In 1880 the Municipal Council thought fit to grant us a subsidy of $60, to be 
 increased to $100 this year. 
 
 The surplus expenses are covered by volunteer subscriptions of our chamber. 
 
 BELGIAlSr LABOE COMMISSION. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS ARRIVED AT IN REGARD TO ACCIDENTS OF LABOR. 
 
 1st. In matters relating to accidents of labor, reliable statistics should first be 
 established of the number of workmen in each trade and of the number of accidents 
 occurring at work, in order to be able to oi-ganize insurance on a scientific basis. 
 
 2nd. The master should be obliged to give information regarding each accident 
 at labor that may occur in his establishment, the statement to be made according to 
 a specified form. 
 
 3rd. The law should regulate obligatory reparation for accidents. The parties 
 remaining free, after the accident, to agree upon the manner of compensation. 
 
 4th. The workman must be insured. He must be insured by the master. They 
 may all be insured collectively. 
 
 5th. The law will attend successively to the case of paid workmen belonging to 
 the difl'erent branches of manual labor. 
 
 6th. The workmen insured will be those receiving an annual salary of at least 
 $500, foremen included. 
 
 7th. The insurance company will be formed of a syndicate of establishments 
 engaged in the same or in a similar industry, the operations of the company to be 
 under control of the State. 
 
 8th. The object of the insurance will be the professional risks. 
 
 9th. The insurance company assumes the workman's place in his rights against 
 the master, to the amount of^the sum paid. 
 
 10th. No accident caused by serious fault of the insured workman will be charged 
 to the insurer. 
 
 11th. The workman's age and the amount of his wages during the last five years 
 will the bases on which the indemnity will be determined. 
 
690 
 
 12th. In cases of death, the law will determine who are the persons to be paid 
 the indemnity, and also the amount of the indemnity to be paid each. 
 
 13th. To assist the workman in establishing his claims, an article of the law 
 will oblige masters to keep a regular pay list. 
 
 14th. The master will pay the premium to the company. The amount will be 
 in proportion to the professional risk and the reputation of the establishment and 
 of the master. 
 
 15th. The premium must be large enough to constitute the capital for the pen- 
 sions to be granted. 
 
 16th. The syndicate will be managed by a commission composed of one part 
 masters and one part workmen, with a president who shall belong to neither the one 
 nor the other class. 
 
 Apprenticeship. 
 
 1st. There is need that the public authority should encourage the establishment 
 of professional schools, by annexing to academies and industrial schools, courses of 
 study in the arts and sciences applicable to industry. 
 
 The instruction given should be of a practical kind. Private enterprise which 
 takes the direction of establishing professional schools, and schools for apprentice- 
 ship, should be encouraged by the public powers, provided these schools answer to 
 all conditions of publicity and inspection. 
 
 2nd. Cultivation of manual dexterity should be begun in the primary course. 
 
 The application to industry of scientific theories is taught in the industrial 
 schools. 
 
 The application to industry of theories respecting the engravers and the plastic 
 arts is taught in the decorative art schools. 
 
 Courses of apprenticeship are made in workshops, and in schools founded by 
 masters or by trade syndicates, and closely connected with the workshop. 
 
 3rd. The action of the State must be limited to establishing harmony and a gra- 
 duation between the different schools for professional instruction, to encouraging 
 them by means of subsidies, whilst I'cspecting as far as possible the steps taken by 
 the groups by which they were founded. 
 
 4th. The communes may lend assistance to the course of professional instruction 
 by: 
 
 a. The introduction of manual exercises in primary schools. 
 
 h. By founding industrial schools and classes for drawing and modelling. 
 
 c. Encouragement in the shape of subsidies, by a grant of the premises to the 
 professional syndicates. 
 
 5th. The concuiTcnce of the State and the communes should be limited to deter- 
 mining : 
 
 a. The minimum age for admission to the school of apprenticeship, 
 
 b. The minimum amount of knowledge verified by an examination for the ad- 
 mission of apprentices ; 
 
 This minimum may consist in a perfect knowledge of reading, writing and the 
 four fundamental rales of arithmetic. 
 
 6th. The Government may encourage the establishment of superior courses of 
 instruction for adults in which there will be given theoretical instruction suitable to 
 the requirements of workmen in the larger industries. 
 
 Workingmen's houses. 
 
 Ist. Scientific statistics concerning workingmen's houses should be established. 
 
 The Laboi Commission expresses the desire, that in the enquiry on working- 
 men's houses, the Superior Board of Public Health should be called upon to produce 
 a statement to be as closely approximate as possible of the number of families in 
 which, during the hours of rest, there is separation of children from adults. 
 
 2nd. Communal administrations should be given the legal right: 
 
591 
 
 a. To publish rules prescribing indisponsable couditions for morality and health, 
 in the building of houses. 
 
 h. To maintain, in the interest of public health, a permanent and vigilant super- 
 indence over the construction of houses, especially of those destined for the occupa- 
 tion of several families. 
 
 4th. Public administrations should employ a portion of their capital in building 
 suitable workingmen's houses and to lease them at prices which all expenses paid, 
 "will pay a fair remunerative rate of interest on the capital employed. Taverns should 
 be forbidden to be kept in them. In oi-der to give the tenants an interest in main- 
 taining their dwellings in a proper condition, it would be well to stipulate that the 
 amount of net profit exceeding a certain rate of interest on the capital, shall, each year, 
 be divided among the tenants, to be deducted from the next year's rent. 
 
 6th. It would be well : 
 
 a. To encourage those societies whose sole object is the building, renting and 
 especially the sale of workingmen's houses to working men, by authorizing these 
 societies to issue premium obligations. 
 
 b. To exempt from land tax during the space of fifteen years, all newly built 
 houses whose cost, not including the price of the ground, does not exceed $320. 
 
 In the event of the sale of these houses, if the purchaser owns no other real 
 estate, and that it is stipulated that the property is to be paid for in annual instal- 
 ments, the exemption from the land tax will be granted for fifteen yeai-s, dating from 
 the day of sale. 
 
 c. That the communal administration should exempt from road tax (purchase 
 of lands intended for streets, walks, drains, water and gas pipes) all administrations, 
 societies and individual persons who devote their capital to building workingmen's 
 houses. 
 
 d. To prevent provinces and communes from imposing the land tax on the 
 houses. 
 
 e. To increase neither the land tax, nor provincial nor communal taxes of exist- 
 ing workingmen's houses after they have been put into repair and a state of im- 
 proved sanitation, provided their value does not exceed $320, land not included. 
 
 "LA FEATBENELLE" (BELGHAN) OF BETJSSELS. 
 
 PROVIDENT AND MUTUAL AID SOCIETY OF MERCHANTS, MANUFACTURERS' EMPOTEBS, COM- 
 MERCIAL AND manufacturers' TRAVELLERS — POUNDED IN 1852. > 
 
 The operations of the Society are un ';er the direction of four distinct funds: 
 
 1st. The business fund is established for the payment of indemnities in case of 
 sickness or infirmity ; 
 
 2nd. The special fund A (instituted in 1866) for the relief of widows and 
 orphans and to members in want ; 
 
 3rd. The retiring fund B (established in 18Y5) to provide supplementary assist- 
 ance to members who have reached their sixty-fifth year; 
 
 4th. The special fund (established in 1885) to provide medical attendance 
 and medicine. 
 
 The members pay an annual subscription of $6.00, $0.60 of which are to be 
 applied to the retiring fund. They are bound to pay an entrance fee, which is 
 established as follows : — From 25 to 35 years of age, $3.00 ; from 35 to 40 years, 
 $6.00 ; from 40 to 45 years, $20.00 ; under 25 years of age they pay no entrance fee. 
 
 Indemnities for sickness are as follows : — During the first six months, $20.00 per 
 
 month ; after the first six months, and until the sickness is cured, $15 per month. 
 
 Moreover, the Society provides giatuitously medical attendance and medicines. It 
 
 is afHliated to the Free Federation of the Mutual Aid Societies of Brussels, and to the 
 
 ■Cooperative Society of Popular Druggists. 
 
 The business cajjital is formed by the receipt of subscriptions and entrance fees, 
 which should suffice to cover indemnities and the general expenses of the fund. In 
 
692 
 
 the event of the receipts exceeding the expenses of the fund, the surplus is divided; 
 among the special funds A. B. and C. to be reciprocated by special funds A. and C^ 
 when there is a deficit. 
 
 The service of the funds is as follows : 
 
 FUNDS. 
 
 Business Fund. 
 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 Subscription from $5.40 per year and per 
 
 member. 
 Entrance fees of new members. 
 
 Indemnities for sickness, -j^ of the general 
 expenses. > 
 
 Special Fund A ( Widows). 
 
 Interest on. business capital. 
 Interest on capital of Fund A. 
 Fines and gifts. 
 
 10 per cent, of possible surplus of business 
 fund. 
 
 Assistance to widows and orphans of 
 
 members. 
 Aid for members in want, 
 -j?^ of general expenses. 
 Possible deficit of the business fund. 
 
 Subscriptions of $0.60 per member. 
 Interest on capital from Fund B. 
 45 per cent, of possible surplus of business 
 fund. 
 
 Special Fund B {Retiring). 
 
 Pensions to members sixty-five years of 
 
 age. 
 ■^ of the general expenses. 
 
 Special Fund Q {^Medical Attendance and Medicine). 
 
 Interest on capital of Fund C. 
 Dividends of popular drug shops. 
 45 per cent, of possible surplus of business 
 fund. 
 
 Physicians' service. 
 
 Medicines provided by popular druggists^ 
 
 Possible deficit of business fund. 
 
 The primary object of this association is to promote the growth of mutual aid 
 societies by establishing new funds as often as the means at its command will permit;, 
 it is thus that the Funds B and C were founded. 
 
593 
 
 ALCOHOLISM. 
 
 Extract from the report presented by M. L. Siguin, director of the Mans Gas Company, 
 in the Departmental Committee of the Sarthe, Exhibition of Social Economy. 
 
 " We cannot terminate this statistical report, which is unfortunately very in- 
 complete, without calling your attention specially to alcoholism, this redoubtable 
 scourge which is spreading daily and making more victims than the most deadly 
 epidemics. "We would like, on this subject, to cite fully the three remarkable con- 
 ferences made in 1881, in the rooms of the Philanthropic Society of Mans, by Dr. E. 
 Dubois, the able professor of physiology at the Faculty of Sciences at Lyon, but it 
 Would draw us too far, and exceed the limits we have set ourselves: We will simply 
 give mere outlines of this question, of so much importance in sociaF economy. 
 
 It is necessary, first, to know the toxic power of certain kinds of alcohol. Here 
 is a striking table prepared from the remarkaole experiments made in 1878 by Messrs. 
 Audig^ and Dujardin-Beaumetz. 
 
 ( 
 
 1 Group of alcohols. 
 
 Description of alcohols. 
 
 Average toxic dose per kilogramme 
 weight of the animal. 
 
 1 
 
 Pure. 
 
 Diluted. 
 
 A/cohojs 
 
 Ethylic alcohol C H" 0. 
 
 Grammes 8.00... 
 do 3.90... 
 do 2.00. . . 
 do 1.70. . . 
 
 7 75 
 
 Homologues 
 
 Series, . .... 
 
 Propylic alcohol C" H^ 
 
 ButyUo alcohol C* H^" 
 
 3.75 
 1 25 
 
 Fat 
 
 AmyUc alcohol C» H^^ — 
 
 1.50 
 
 These figures show that the heavier the atomic weight of alcohol, the more 
 considerable is its toxic power; but we know that the atomic weight of alcohol is in 
 envirse ratio of its specific heat. Thus we can admit that theory and expei-ience 
 lead to the same conclusions, and consider as well established the propositions 
 advanced by Dr. Dubois in his said conferences. 
 
 1. Water being the neuter fluid possessing the highest specific heat, is also the 
 most convenient for sustaining life. ■ 
 
 2. All neutre liquids miscible with water can, by obstructing the osmotic 
 exchanges necessary to the life of the cells, delay momentarily or finally suspend 
 the vital manifestations, without exercising a chemical action so-called. 
 
 3. These same liquids act with more or less energy and are more or less toxic, 
 according as their specific heat is less high, that is to say, according as it differs 
 from that of water. 
 
 We have only to show here that alcohol destroys the cell, the individual, the 
 societies. 
 
 Its toxic pi'operties vary according to its origin. 
 
 We give below, from experiments of Messrs. Dujardin-Beaumetz and Aubigd, 
 the increasing degree of nocuousness of alcohols : — 
 
 1. Brandy made of wine ; 
 
 2. do cider or perry ; 
 
 3. do residuum of grapes; 
 
 4. do grain and cereals ; 
 
 5. do beet-roots and molasses ; 
 
 6. do potatoes. 
 20—38 
 
594 
 
 Alcoholic liquors obtained by fermentation are less injurious than those pro- 
 duced by distillation. So far as the public health is concerned there is a choice to 
 be made. 
 
 In the first class we find wine, beer, cider, perry, &c. In the second brandies, 
 bitters and liquors of all kinds. 
 
 As to wine, notably, we are to examine if it is natural, adulterated or contains 
 water. In the latter case the product possesses the deleterious properties of drinks 
 made with alcohol. We must acknowledge that fraud introduces itself everywhere, 
 and that analysis is sometimes unable to detect it. We cannot point out here, even 
 summarily, the evils caused to organism by the use of alcohol ; but a useful book to 
 study on this subject is the remarkable work of Dr. E.Monin, entitled "Alcoholism," 
 a paedico-social treatise, which should be in every library and in all the schools. 
 
 Now, let us ask if anything has been done to stop the inroads of this scourge ? 
 Alas ! we must say, no. All the efforts of the legislators have been powerless to 
 stop the progress, the evil, and this because we have applied ourselves to fight the 
 effects and not the causes. Eepre^sive laws can do but little, preventive laws are 
 more effective. 
 
 " All the laws," says Zschokk, " are powerless to extirpate an evil which has 
 taken rojt in the lives of the people; it is with the people themselves that the 
 moral reform must begin, and no government is strong enough to do it." 
 
 Let us, then, profit by the honest declaration of the Austrian economist, and 
 since the people is governed by the people, let us try to stop the evil ourselves, 
 whilst it is not too late. 
 
 The law on drunkenness, as we have shown in our report, produces no salutary 
 effect; it does not prevent the habitual drinker from relapsing; besides, it only 
 punishes he who is evidently drunk; it does not reach the drinker who every 
 day absorbs a certain quantity of alcohol without getting intoxicated, though he is 
 the most alcoholised. To remedy this evil, we must regulate the bar-rooms with 
 the greatest care. 
 
 Unfortunately no law has been passed in that sense, on the contrary, we have 
 given to the retailer every facility to sell his prodoicts. The number of drinking 
 places is unlimited, no superintendence is exercised as to the quality of liquors sold, 
 and the hours of sale is no longer, we might say, regulated ; the rum-seller is free 
 to do as he pleases. ' 
 
 As has been well said by Mr. A. Laurent, the tavern makes the drinker, 
 more so tli^n the drinker make^ the tavern,, ^nd when ,we reflect that in most of the 
 large cities, bar-rooms are attended by women who give themselves to the first 
 comer, 'we copie to the coijclusion that besides the poisoning we have just pointed 
 out, there is moreover a serious cause of demoralization and a new attack on public 
 health; this terrible evil must be cured without delay. It is only by regulating this 
 unwholesome trafiftc that the drinker will be stayed in his downward course. 
 
 Other measures are equally applicable, and permit us to cite literally the 
 conclusions of the last lecture of Dr. E. Dubois, vithout, however, discussing the 
 economic value of those considerations inspired first of all by a sincere desire to 
 better the working class and improve their condition. 
 
 "It has been proved that alcoholism ruled especially where wine was unknown • 
 remove the tax on wine, you destroy at one blow adulteration ; limit exportation if 
 necessary, and plant the vine everywhere; give good wine cheap, and less brandy 
 will be drank ; for that purpose, reduce the middlemien, and favor co-operative 
 supply societies. 
 
 "Seize, confiscate everywhere the badly rectified alcohols; forbid the adultera- 
 tion of wine ; exact a heavy license from liquor sellers, and restrict their number 
 as also the hours of sale, and give free scope to the sale of good fermented liquors 
 which are less hurtful; encourage the use of non-alcoholic drinks ;' reward those 
 who know how to spread the use thereof; remove the tax from tea, coffee, sugar 
 post up tables showing the relative toxic power of spirituous liquors ; multiply 
 
595 
 
 cautions ; drive away from the country the old offenders who form 60 to 80 per 
 cent, of the incurable and dangerous drunkards. Teach hygiene in schools, inculcate 
 in youth the horror of drunkenness. 
 
 " It is in large centres that alcoholism causes the greatest ravages ; apply your- 
 selves to correct the inconveniences of the crowding of individuals; give plenty of 
 air, water and light. 
 
 " Poverty, grief, fatigue bring forth vice ; suppress those abominable taxes on 
 food, by which the more mouths a workman has to feed, the more taxes he has to 
 pay ; diminish the hours op labor, increase the wages op the worker ; he will 
 thus be able to secure a comfortable home, far preferable to the tavern ; induce him 
 to economise; the worker who begins to save is not far from renouncing to false enjoy- 
 ments ; give to the girls a practical education, so that later on they make good wives. 
 As in America, create temperance societies, and for that purpose ask the women to 
 lead the movement^ for they suffer most from the aftei--blow of alcoholism, without 
 experiencing any of its false enjoyments. Do not confine yourselves to physical 
 hygiene, preach also moral hygiene ; seek and teach the grand natural laws ; make 
 them respected, by showing the numberless miseries resulting from their inobser- 
 vance; for that purpose, multiply public lectures, open libraries and work-rooms, 
 well lighted, well heated in winter, and not kept closed precisely at the time when 
 the workman could come. 
 
 " As a foil to ennui and idleness, favor theatres, concerts and assemblies where 
 drinking is not allowed ; by exciting the thirst of intelligence, you will satisfy that 
 of the body!" 
 
 Nothing could be added to this eloquent page of the learned lecturer. We lay 
 this programme before you, and call upon your patriotism to make it a success. 
 
 Means adopted by the Sociiti de la Yieille-Montagne, to prevent alcoholism among 
 
 its workmen. 
 
 At Vieille-Montagne, * as everywhere else, the greatest enemy of the working- 
 man is alcohol. "We say that the means best adapted to improve his intellectual 
 and moral condition, is to fight against the tavern. In fact it is there that he loses 
 his health — moral as well as physical ; it is there that he spends the largest share 
 of his wages. The surplus, even the necessities, the family resources, the savings, 
 and with them the security for the future, the dignity, independence, and morality 
 of the workingman are there engulfed every day. And strange to say, whilst the 
 workman frequently complains against the emploj'er who feeds and sustains him, 
 sometimes out of his own pocket, he reserves his good graces for the tavernkeeper 
 who ]-obs and poisons him. 
 
 To strive against this formidable adversary, the Vieille-Montagne has recourse 
 to repressive and preventive means. 
 
 Repressive means. Eules posted up in the workshops of all manufactures, forbid 
 the introduction, the sale and consumption of intoxicating liquors. 
 
 Every workman found intoxicated in a workshop is to be dismissed. 
 
 The sale of spirituous liquors is forbidden in the houses belonging to the Society 
 and rented to its workmen. 
 
 Finally, in several works, at Borbeck and Valentin-Oocq, for example, the Vieille- 
 Montagne has bought all the taverns around the works, and has converted them into 
 tenements. To keep away temptation is already a great progress ; and wherever 
 taverns had to be maintained for the convenience of the men, the Society has seen 
 that preference was given to the sale of hygienic drinks such as beer and wine, rather 
 than that of poisonous products resulting from the distillation of the potato and 
 beetroot. 
 
 Preventive means. But we know how repression is difScult and ineflcieut ; how 
 ingenious are the workmen to avoid the precautions taken to preserve them from 
 
 ^— _,*Xhe SoeUU de la Vieille-Montagne at the Universal Exhibition of 1889.— Workin^an's Institutions. 
 Chapter Vl.^-Institutions to improve the intellectual and moral condition of the workingman. 
 20— 38| 
 
596 
 
 their own vices. We know what astute allies drunkenness finds in these who derive 
 a profit from it. Finally it is clear that if the Society can watch over the workman 
 during his day's work, so long as he remains in the shop, it cannot follow him neither 
 in his home nor during his leisure hours and of idleness. 
 
 So, without neglecting the precautionary measures just refierredto, the Society has 
 chosen the preventive means, which have the efifect of repressing vice, by preventing 
 its growth. 
 
 Dwellings. The fiist and perhaps the best means to keep the workman from 
 the tavern, is to give him a pleasant home. The workingtnan who owns the house he 
 lives in, and tends his own garden, or even the workingman who can rent a clean 
 and neat dwelling seldom becomes an hahitui of the tavern and a victim to alcohol. 
 And if, moreover, that man had the luck to marry a good housewife, we may safely 
 leave him alone. A dirty tenement, ill-dressed children, a slovenly wife are the great 
 auxiliaries of drunkenness. It is for that reason that the Viellle-Montagne, finding that 
 the true place of the woman is not in the workshop, but at home, does not encourage 
 the labor in factories of girls and women. They forbid it in the interior of their mines, 
 even in the localities where the law allows it, and they only permit it where health 
 and morality are safe. 
 
 Amusements. But it does not suffice to lodge the workingmen, we must also 
 think of giving them recreations, which may occupy their leisure hours in an honest 
 and healthy way. For that purpose the Yieille- Montague has created and patronised 
 in all their establishment, societies of amusement, orpheons, harmonies, bands, target 
 shooting, etc.* 
 
 * See page 425. 
 
CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
/ 
 
CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 The first visitors quickly possessed themselves of the copies of interesting and 
 important documents offered to the public by the expositors in the Social Economy 
 section. 
 
 At the latter end of June, when we arrived in Paris, it was entirely impossible 
 to obtain in the Exhibition the collection of documents needed to prepare a useful 
 report. 
 
 In order to remedy this- state of things, we had to beg from the expositors copies 
 of documents we had perused at the Exhibition. It is thus that we managed to 
 obtain three or four hundred volumes, pamphlets, notices, &c., mentioned in this 
 report. 
 
 On the other hand, and to make the report more complete, we have asked from 
 the expositors some explanations on the application of the different systems adopted 
 in their establishments, or on the results obtained. 
 
 The numerous answers received were useful to us. 
 
 Some contained information, or explanatory notes, which could not find place 
 in the published documents, and we have thought proper to annex them to these 
 documents, though in a limited number, 
 
 SECTION II. — PROFIT-SHARING, 
 
 WooDHOusE Hill, Huddersfield, 12th August, 1889.* 
 
 J. Helbronner, Esq., Paris. 
 
 Dear Sir, — I send you a copy of our printed rules and such other matter as we 
 have beside us relating to our profil-sharing, but the best thing for you to do, if you 
 could find time, would be to make a personal visit to us, and examine on the spot 
 the work. We have visits from eminent economists frequently. I shall be in London 
 at the Cooperative Festival at the Crystal Palace next Saturday, 1*1 th. August. 
 Should you be in London at the time, I shall be glad to further explain what we are 
 doing. 
 
 We have had difficulties, but I am hopeful the more serious are past. For 
 instance, the large merchants took exception to our association with cooperation, 
 and refused to do business with us unless we abandoned this part; but, being a pa,rt 
 of the scheme, I could not consent to do so, as we always looked to cooperative dis- 
 tribution as an outlet for our productions, but hoped to continue for a time our 
 ordinary business connections, and this being found impracticable we have directed 
 our attention to develop business'relations with cooperative societies, and we find an 
 increasing business from this true channel. There is an account of our work in 
 Gilman's book, " Profit-Sharing." 
 
 We contend that our system is the most perfect plan of interesting the worker 
 in his work that has presented itself since the introduction of machinery. Pre- 
 vious to that period, when " hand work " was the principal employment, workers 
 were more interested in their work than our system ; but then it is idle to talk of 
 going back to "hand work in our ordinary innustries," so we must make the best of 
 our mechanical age, which we, by experience of three years, have proved is done 
 under our system. Of course, it sacrifices the capitalist, and renders impossible the 
 founding ot vast fortunes. I abandoned the hope — if I ever had it — of such an 
 ideal. I shall be pleased to answer any questions and give further particulars if you 
 are not able to visit us, 
 
 I remain, yours truly, 
 
 GEO. THOMPSON. 
 
 ' See page 80. 
 
600 
 
 405 Oxford Street, London, W., 6th August, 1889.* 
 
 Dear Sir, — In reply to your letter of the 3rd inst., you must understand that 
 this business is a company of a few gentlemen, working with me, whose sole object 
 is to develop a business in the interest of labor — we, ourselves, having no pecuniary 
 interest in the matter. But, then, unlike other employers, we had not got a business 
 to start with, it had to be made first, and it will yet be a few years before we reach 
 the goal of " proiit-sharing " when all profits will go to the workers, as "manage- 
 ment," when associated with profits, does not mean the Board of Directors or myself. 
 We give our services, and for myself it means all my time, and it is chiefly my own 
 personal influence that has made the business. 
 
 You will observe from the enclosed that we are changing the name of the Com- 
 pany, as the original title was alike awkward and misleading. This new prospectus 
 will, I think, give all the information you require. At the same time I will also 
 send you isiy own pamphlets. 
 
 I should wish it to be clear to you that no workingman has been permitted to 
 take shares in the Company, so that no man can ever reproach us with having 
 risked, or lost, the savings of his wages. 
 
 Paithfiilly yours, 
 
 MAEY H. HAET, Son. Sec. 
 
 SECTION IV — ^APPRENTICESHIP. 
 
 NiMBS, 12th August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — I have the honor to address to you herewith the documents which you 
 have asked respecting the Institution of Competition for Apprenticeship, founded by 
 the Gonseil de Prud'hbmmes of Nimes. 
 
 Those documents are : 
 
 1. Sketch of the origin of the institution. 
 
 2. Eegulations. 
 
 3. Nature of the relations betvveen the Gonseil de Prud'hommes and the working- 
 men's syndicates, a few in number which exist at Nimes, touching the institution. 
 (There are no masters' syndicates.) 
 
 4. Eeports ou the annual distribution of diplomas. In these reports I mark 
 in blue eveiytbing that is likely to make known the object, purpose and making of 
 the institution. 
 
 The work is a patronage similar to the one existing in some Parisian syndicates, 
 and has principally a technical tendency. 
 
 Its singularity is that it is founded and directed by a Gonseil de Prud'hommes, 
 composed of masters and workers in equal number, etc., exercising equal judicial 
 functions. 
 
 This is the idea which presided at its foundation. The intelligent apprentice- 
 ship is baffled by the progress in mechanics. 
 
 The object of the institution is to watqh over the apprentice in the workshop, in 
 order that he may become a good workman. 
 
 It is not a method of instruction, but an educational proceeding, a stimulus to 
 work. 
 
 The thought which dominates the Gonseil de Prud'hommes of Nimes is that it 
 would be advantageous to industry to be organized in corporations without having 
 arbitrary and tyrannical rules, but animated by liberal sentiments. The professional 
 instruction of apprentices would be the object of the attention of masters and work- 
 men of each corporation. The organization of syndicates recommences in Prance 
 the reconstitution of corporations ; but that organization is still in an embryo 
 state. A considerable lapse of time must ensue before it is complete and in perfect 
 working order. For a long time to come over the length and breadth of France 
 
 *See page 80. 
 
601 
 
 syndicates will be unable to deal with the professional instruction of apprentices in 
 workshops. On the contrary the Conseil de Prud'hommes who have in their legal 
 powers the protection of the apprentice in a great number of industries, are admir- 
 ably situated to look after and stimulate the apprentice, as long as a complete cor- 
 porq,tive regimen is not put in force. Even if there exists one, the action of the 
 •Gonseil de Prud'hommes will be useful regarding the vigilance kept over the appren- 
 tices' interests in case they wore neglected. 
 
 Being altogether at your disposal, 
 
 I beg you to accept my respectful greetings, 
 
 G. BBNOIT GEEMAIN, , 
 
 President of the Conseil de Prud'hommes. 
 
 Industrial School of Vosges. 
 
 Spinal, Tth August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — ^You have honored me by asking information on the Vosges Industrial 
 School. I hasten to sen! you a prospectus and a time-table. You will find in these 
 two documents all the indications that you require. 
 
 The Industrial School founded by one of ray predecessors to take the place of 
 the Mulhouse School, which war had removed, is not annexed but placed close to the 
 College under one director. The theoretical studies pursued are analogous to those 
 •of special teaching (3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th years). 
 
 The theoretical studies are profound. You may have seen at the Exhibition the 
 result of our technical instruction. In fine, the school furnishes naval engineers, 
 ■draughtsmen for builders and architects, and chemists foi' manufactories ; but its 
 main object is to permit manufacturers' sons to follow up, with knowledge, the 
 paternal occupations. The Industrial School of Vosges is, I believe, the only one of 
 its kind ; I do not think that there is a second establishment of the kind in the world, 
 except, perhaps, the school at Saumur a particular creation of the Principal of the 
 ■College. 
 
 It was feared at first that the two distinct classes of pupils living in the same 
 establishment would present serious inconveniences. Experience has shown, on the 
 ■contrary, that there was an advantage in uniting in a common discipline young men 
 pursuing different aims. Thus they learn to know and love one another, to the 
 great profit of industry and the liberal arts. 
 
 These, Sir, are a few of the facts which I thought would be well to add to the 
 documents herewith enclosed. If you have need of any further opinions, on any 
 particular point, I am altogether at your disposal. 
 
 Be pleased to accept, Sir, the expression of my most distinguished sentiments, 
 
 G. MOEBL, 
 
 Director. 
 
 City of Troyes Professional School. 
 
 Troyes, 4th August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — I am in receipt of your honored letter of the 1st August, and I hasten to 
 
 five you the information which you ask, respecting the City of Troyes Industrial 
 chool. 
 
 That school was founded 12 years ago, under the patronage of the Municipal 
 Council of the City of Troyes, and is divided into 4 branches, namely : 
 
 Engineering, carpentry, woodworking and stereotomy ; the courses take place 
 every day from 8 to 10 at night, and eveiy Sunday morning from 8 to noon. The 
 pupils who follow these courses are either apprentices or young men from 15 to 20 
 years of age, and attend these courses after working all day in a workshop. All 
 pupils pursue theoretical and practical studies. 
 
602 
 
 The pupils of the mechanical course make a study of the works which are con- 
 fided to them. Sketching and drawing, wood models, moulding at the foundry, the 
 lathe, adjusting and forging. The other coui-ses have also to follow the same method. 
 The sketches or draughts for each work are always made pi-eviously. 
 
 If any other information would be useful to you, I hold myself at your disposal. 
 
 Be pleased to accept, Sir, 
 
 my very sincere respects, 
 H. SIEODO, 
 Professor of Engineering at the Professional 
 
 School of the City of Troyes. 
 
 Industrial School of Oharleroi. 
 
 Charleeoi, 13th August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — In answer to your circular of the 10th instant, I hasten to forward a sum- 
 mary report of the state of the society of conferences of the Industrial School at 
 Charleroi, (Belgium), which report appears at the Universal Exhibition at Paris. 
 (Social Economy Exhibition, Section XII). 
 
 That society was founded on the 4th November, 1876, by persons devoted to 
 popular instruction and especially by the administrative and teaching staff of the 
 Industrial School. It proposes to develop and complete the knowledge which the 
 pupils and workmen of the Industrial School hail acquired during their course of 
 study, to inspire and inculcate in them, and the rest of the working population the 
 taste of literature, science and arts ; to make them appreciate intellectual pleasures, 
 and thus draw them away from frequenting saloons and the abuse of alcoholic 
 liquors, which often have led to deplorable excesses. 
 
 The society has given since its foundation about 12 conferences each year, dur- 
 ing the bad season from the month of October to the month of April. 
 
 Bach meeting has a musical -part, a conference and a free distribution of books. 
 
 The conferences have always attracted a large audience ; the hall has nearly 
 always been too small ; the average attendance may be reckoned at 500 persons 
 belonging both to the working and well-to-do populations. 
 
 The society excludes religious and political subjects, but it leaves to lecturers 
 the greatest latitude in the choice of their subjects ; historical, philosophical, scientific, 
 economic and social questions have been treated. 
 
 The official musical societies and the amateur societies have kindly lent their 
 aid to the musical portion of the entertainment. 
 
 The books chosen for the lottery have always been books written on subjects 
 treated of in the lectures, the ideas of progress, of tolerance and of liberty. More 
 than 8,000 choice volumes have thus been distributed among the public. 
 
 In substance, this Society is very much appreciated by the laboring and well-to- 
 do classes ; it answers to all their needs and their ideas, and renders great service in 
 the emancipation of the lower classes. 
 
 O. CHARLES, 
 President of the Conference Society of the 
 
 Industrial School of Charleroi. 
 
 Commission of Superintendence of the Work of Children Employed in Industries. 
 
 Teoyes, 16th August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — I have simplified the work which you ask from me in your letter of this 
 morning's date. 
 
 Herewith enclosed you will find a very succinct table of the work of the Com- 
 missioner of Superintendence of minor children. 
 
603 
 
 I send you also the minutes of the Society for the Protection of Working Youths 
 since its foundation to 1888, inclusively. 
 
 I should be glad, Sir, if you would send me, at your leisure, the part of your 
 report relating to those documents. 
 
 Accept, Sir, the expression of my most distinguished sentiments, 
 
 J. BEENOT. 
 
 Table of the work of the Commission of Superintendence, and the results of visits 
 in the City oi Tj'oyes and rural communes, from 1815 to 1889 : — 
 
 Years 
 
 1876. 
 157 
 
 1877. 
 199 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 260 
 
 1880. 
 265 
 
 1881. 
 257 
 
 1882. 
 254 
 
 1883. 
 209 
 
 1884. 
 165 
 
 1885. 
 145 
 
 1886. 
 166 
 
 1887. 
 122 
 
 1888. 
 113 
 
 1889. 
 
 Workshops visited 
 
 114 
 
 Children under surveillance. 
 
 157 
 
 199 
 
 m 
 
 706 
 
 1,071 
 
 1,280 
 
 1,147 
 
 1,120 
 
 751 
 
 780 
 
 1,286 
 
 1,398 
 
 1,375 
 
 1,507 
 
 Contraventions 
 
 48!^ 
 
 788 
 
 °i 
 
 1,0!^5 
 
 681 
 
 419 
 
 ■>A^ 
 
 115 
 
 M 
 
 21 
 
 82 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 •P 
 i-S 
 o » 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■) 
 
 
 
 
 SECTION V. — MUTUAL RELIEF SOCIETIES. 
 
 Ey, 1st August, 1889. 
 
 Sir,— Similar to all mutual societies, the one I founded here, under the name of 
 the Fraternal Unity, and of which 1 am the president, gives to each of its sick mem- 
 bers medical care, medicines, and a small indemnity for each day's sickness. It has 
 also a pension fund for old people. But what makes it worthy of interest is the 
 aggregation of children to mutuality, a characteristic work which nobody has yet 
 thought of, and is scarcely yet in existence, and which our society represents at 
 the Exhibition. 
 
 There is a great want lacking in popular instruction. The child learns to read, 
 write and reckon ; he is given notions of history, of literature, and the first elements 
 of physical sciences and natural philosophy, but nothing is made known to him of 
 the institutions which are to his benefit, notably, mutual institutions, co-operative 
 societies, &c. it is this want our society proposes to supply, and to that end 
 has ordered one of the teachers to give childi-en it has admitted, not only 
 theoretical notions on that object, but to also organize a society which they them- 
 selves will have to manage, under the advice and superintendence of that teacher 
 and the administrative council of our society. These children have already consti- 
 tuted their administrative council, and have decided to follow bee-culture, so that 
 with the product of that industry they will be able to pay their assessments , to the 
 mutual society and the retiring fund. As they go on they will add to their /hives a 
 few fowls, and a garden, and then, if the profits realized from these recreative labors 
 be STificient, a co-operative canteen, where they will be able to have their mid-day 
 meal. Such is, in a few words, the work of the children of the Fraternal Unity, as 
 shown in Section V of V Esplanades des invalides. 
 
 The table includes, besides, this brief summary, the photogi-aph of one of 
 children's bee-hives, and the drawing by one of them of a small comb of honey, and 
 a still for distilling (eau de vie) liquor from honey. To that table is added a 
 small register containing the first duties of those children to mutuality and associ- 
 ation, as well as an account of their book-keeping. 
 
 It is evident that if each village school followed our example, which will un- 
 doubtedly take place when we are more fully developed, in less than one generation 
 
604 
 
 the entire population would believe in mutuality, and soon, then, we will see inau- 
 gurated the reign of universal association, by which means the social world will be 
 regenerated. 
 
 Be pleased to accept, Sir, the expression of my respectful and devoted sentiments, 
 
 JOUANlSrE, 
 President of the Fraternal Unity of By. 
 
 SECTION VI. — RETIRING FUNDS AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 " JJes Privoyants de I'avenir." 
 
 Paris, 26th August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — I have the honor to forward the information which you have been good 
 ■enough to ask. / 
 
 Yes ; according to Article T of the Statutes, a pension is given after twenty 
 years' membership in the Society. It is not fixed ; it varies every year as you may 
 understand, according to the number of pensioners. 
 
 It is not just that our society should attain its maximum prospei"ity in 20 years. 
 The increase, according to our minds, must be constant ; therefore we are trying to 
 include all the French of the age of 15. 
 
 As to the pension, if it diminishes somewhat in the tenth, eleventh, twelfth and 
 thirteenth years, that will certainly not last, and the increase will soon come back 
 again. 
 
 ^ The division of interests will put an end to their capitalization, but will not put 
 a stop to the increase of capital, since each month it will be increased by assess- 
 ments. 
 
 We hope that these explanations will suffice. You may command us if you want 
 to complete them. 
 
 Eeceive, Sir, our fraternal salutations, 
 
 For the Committee, 
 
 ie Prisident (Illegible.; 
 
 Eheims, 9th November, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — I bring you, a little late though, a few complementary informations res- 
 pecting the Eheims Exemption Fund Society and asking you to be good enough to 
 excuse my replying any sooner, as my employment in the evening have prevented 
 me doing so. 
 
 SKETCH. 
 
 The Exemption Fund was founded in 1878 by a former vice-president of the Pro- 
 vident Aid Mutual Society, with the help of a few councillors and active members of 
 the said Society. 
 
 Its evident aim, in taking children from their birth to the age of 20 and giving 
 them a capital of 900 francs, was to obtain recruits for the Provident Aid Mutual 
 Society. These young people, at the age of 20, withdraw from the Exemption Fund 
 and join the Pension Society, bringing with them a deposit which exonerates them 
 from paying assessments. They can then inscribe themselves for a double pension 
 by paying the regular assessment. 
 
 The Pension Society of Eheims was founded in 1849. At that time, the 
 prospect of a pension of 365 fj-ancs a year seemed sufficient, and a deposit of 
 40 centimes a week was all that could be asked from these workmen, whose salaries 
 were not very high. Since that time money with us has lost much of its value, 
 salaries are higher, living is dearer; and the pension of 365 francs appearing insuffi- 
 cient, it has been necessary to admit the double assessment, so as to obtain the 
 double pension. 
 
605 
 
 With the help of the Exemption Fund a father provides for his child. For 20' 
 years he pays fr. 30X52 weeks==15 fr. 60x29 year8=312. He receives 500 francs, 
 deposits them in the Pension Society and the interest on that deposit pays the annual 
 assessment of his child, now become member of the said society. He has thus ex- 
 empted his son paying from the age of 20 to 60 years, that is, 40 years, fr. 40X52 
 weeks=20 fr. 80X40 years=832 fr. At 60 years, when there are no more assess- 
 ments to be paid, the 500 francs deposit is given to the person entitled. In case of 
 death before the 60tb year, the heirs are re-imbursed. 
 
 The father has thus insuredihis child a pension of 365 francs, and the child at 20? 
 years can, in his turn, double that pension. 
 
 (Then follow precise and complete information respecting the working of the 
 fund.) 
 
 To obtain and give a societary, 20 years old a sum of 500 francs, four factors 
 had to be taken into consideration. 
 
 1st. The annual assessment ; 2nd. The percentage of interest ; 3rd. The time ; 
 4th. The death rate. The table once drawn up and aiming at the 500 francs at the 
 age of 20, has served as a basis to indicate the debt of the inscribed members 
 according to their age. {See the Statutes, Article 38.) 
 
 Of the four agents, assessment and time are fixed,/ whilst interest fluctuates 
 according to financial operations to deposits, and the death rate is altogether 
 eventual, i 
 
 We have been led to bear the reserve contained in Article Y of the Statutes by 
 that characteristic of uncertainty. We have also, every year, deemed it prudent to 
 ascertain the results obtained. If by a system of book-keeping we know what the 
 society owns, we also have to ascertain what it owes, and we can ascertain it from • 
 a statement of all the societies, with their ages, made up on the 31st December. 
 Supposing that each, member is due a sum of 500 francs at 20 years of age, it is 
 then easy to find what is due to each according to his age on the 31st December, by 
 taking as a basis of the calculation, the table found in the Statutes, Article 38,. 
 column A. 
 
 The general total constitutes the liabilities. We may call that operation an. 
 annual liquidation. 
 
 You will notice that the liabilities are larger than the assets. 
 
 In 1888 liquidation requires 14,257 05 
 
 We only possess 13,507 50 
 
 Adeficitof 749 65 
 
 That deficit of $749.55 on $14,257 represents 26 fr., 30 on 500. Thus, if we fol- 
 lowed closely the result indicated in the next column, and base ourselves on 
 Article 7 of the Statutes, we would reimburse to the exemptions expired in 1889,. 
 500—26.30=473.70. 
 
 Up to the present we have not done that, and for this reason : — 
 
 A year may be an exceptionally good one or an exceptionally bad one. It is a 
 good one if the deposits of deceased members or withdrawals remain the property of 
 the surviving, or else moneys paid out in reimbursements above cost price. Tt is a 
 bad one if the forecast of the death rate is not realized, or unforeseen expenses, 
 incurred. It must also be borne in mind th'at in the purchase of books at the- 
 outset we commenced to create a deficit of more than 600 francs. 
 
 We cannot, therefore, base ourselves for the reimbursement to be made in 1889 
 on the results of 1888 ; it is rather on the average of the last 5 or 10 years that we 
 must calculate the reduction if one is made. We find that the deficit diminishes 
 every year and we hope that the increase will contiiiue, and that we may always be- 
 able to give 500 francs without affecting the equilibrium. The foregoing shows a very 
 pi-ecarious situation, and in which we must not remain. It can only be maintained 
 if in the future our capital brings at least as much as it does to-day ; and we must 
 acknowledge that nothing is less sure in face of the economic situation in France.. 
 
606 
 
 The value of money decreases day by day. The tables drawn up in 1878 are calcu- 
 lated at an interest of 4'25 per cent., whilst now it would be hard to buy stocks 
 bearing more than 3-Y5 to 3*95 per cent. The Diparcieux Mortality table, which has 
 up to the present time served as basis for all these pension funds, is upwards of 100 
 years old (1750) ; the death rate has diminished greatly ; the basis is not correct. 
 A new table has just been established for Government Pension Fund. 
 
 There are two out of the four forces that work against us : decrease of interest and 
 diminution of the death rate. The time remains fixed from to 20 ; it is only the 
 capital that can be touched. 
 
 The Society must not, to attain its aim, reduce the promised capital of 500 
 francs at 20 years of age, a sum already insufl&cient to obtain a pension of 1 franc per 
 day at the age of 60, but rather let it be maintained as a minimum, and for that pur- 
 pose it will be necessary to change the tariff of receipts and change the assessments. 
 
 To that end we ai'e now preparing a table founded on the new mortality table, 
 with interest at the rate of 3.75 and an increased assessment of 5 centimes a w6ek, 
 which will give an exempted capital of 520 francs at the age of 20. 
 
 Dealing only with the laboring class we have in our midst patient and eco- 
 nomical people, the work develops but slowly, modestly, without pomp or publicity. 
 We have no influential personages to patronize it and we receive neither Commune 
 nor Government subsidies. But if the Society has not taken more rapid strides by its 
 resources, and by the method that 1 have just expounded, its advancement is assured. 
 
 "Without pomp and renown we have the perseverance and the satisfaction of doing 
 a useful work for our fellow-citizens, and we should be still happier if we saw the 
 work prosper and improve in other lands and do the greatest amount of good to the 
 - large family of working people. 
 
 Be pleased to receive. Sir, the assurance of my profound considerations. 
 
 TH. ALAVOnSTE. 
 
 SECTION IX. — CONSirMERS CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 WorkingmerCs Unions. 
 
 Elotes, 27th August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — In answer to your letter of the 15th instant, I send you by same courier, a 
 copy of our first statutes, also a copy of those actually in force. 
 
 By means of a subsci'iption bond of 100 francs at 4^, as stated in the Statutes, 
 we have been able to erect a magnificent house. 
 
 Since eight years that our society is in existence, each share has given a divi- 
 dend of not less than 12 per cent. ; more than 5 per cent, on the share capital, more 
 than 3^ per cent, of drawback on the consumption, according to the articles of the 
 first statutes, and 5 J and 6 per cent, according to the last statutes. 
 
 Our average monthly sales amount to 10,000 francs worth (groceries, haber- 
 dashery, hosiery, drapery, &c.) and more than 7 to 800 francs worth of coffee, which 
 bring the figures to 11,000 francs. Our average profit is 10 per cent. 
 
 We do not make 5 per cent, net on groceries, but in haberdashery we get 25 to 
 30 per cent, for some articles. I must tell you that we have to act with the greatest 
 prudence, because we have very dangerous competitors here. We must always have 
 first class goods, for our customers are very scrupulous, for the reason that in most 
 cases they are shareholders or obligatories. The workmen of the two establishments 
 pay monthly to the office of the society. It would be impossible to apply in our 
 establishment the system which is employed by many: A deduction made oq the 
 workman's salary. 
 
 Our customers are generally from the Provinces ; many of them are proprietors, 
 and nearly all have money loaned, so that the Society does not run any risj£ of losing. 
 
607 
 
 But, after all, sir, we owe that to the heads of establishments, who employ only 
 local workmen and recruit from the old workmen. It is to be hoped that these few 
 observations will suflSce. 
 
 Please accept, sir, the assurance of our consideration. 
 
 For Workingmen's Union the Managing Director, 
 
 X. VAUTHIBE. 
 
 SECTION X. — CREDIT OO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATION. 
 
 Mutual Gredit.'-^ 
 
 Paris, 18th August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — ^With the object of completing the report which I sent to the Exhibition of 
 1889, a copy of which I enclose, I may be allowed to state that the first phase has 
 only been tried with in the last five years. Three considerations have led me to study 
 practically the object of mutual credit ; the two others permitted me to establish a 
 syndical group of mutual credit. 
 
 - The syndical grouping, I'avenir des comptables, has also exhibited, and consists in 
 exhibiting six pyaphical tables inserted in its motto. These six tables give the statis- 
 tical elements of three years' growth. To comprehend the idea put forward, the con- 
 sequences of which I cannot develop, and which, if successful will tend to modify 
 the credit fund, I will simply enumerate the kind of operations within the parview of 
 the syndicate. 
 
 The Mutual Credit Syndicate (Jj'avenir des Comptables) is based on the satisfaction 
 given to the daily needs of its individual members. In France, through the want of 
 legislation concerning mutual ci-edit we are obliged to organize ourselves in a mixed 
 form. You will find the reason in the second part of the report sent you ; it is useless 
 to speak about it now ; but if I draw attention to it here, it is for the purpose of 
 ' showing that the want of legislation forces us to accept as members of the syndicate 
 persons following the same occupation. 
 
 So that law itself hinders us in the recruiting of our members. Now we are 
 obliged to ask the recruit : " What do you do ? " — whilst before we had only to rely 
 on his companionship, and honesty, and the solvency of the candidate. 
 
 There is another, besides the legal hindrance, with which we are forced to com- 
 promise, that is the question of the solvency of members. No doubt you understand 
 that one may be honest and not be solvent. Therefore, we have to select and accept 
 only those presenting an undoubted solvency. Later on we shall have to make certain 
 modifications in our system, but it will be in anticipation of an act of charity, and the 
 losses will be borne by a special fund. In the meantime that subject does not occupy 
 our attention. You thus see at a glance that it is hard for us to recruit. We number 
 23 at this present time, and I have much pleasure in stating that we have not solicited 
 any person and that we do not accept every candidate. 
 
 The members pay the sum of $60, in monthly assessments of $1. The principle 
 of responsibility is admitted, but not thoroughly understood — I will not speak of it. 
 
 There are many circumstances in the life of the employee which necessitate an 
 immediate and unforeseen expenditure. Now, the employee is not a capitalist, and 
 has no material guarantee to give as security. He then finds that funds and 
 secui'ities are what he lacks. 
 
 The question of secarities is very complex, and is reserved for a future date. 
 
 The following are the cases that occur more often : Sickness, births, deaths, and 
 sojourn in the country; the purchase of goods, of furniture, &c. ; the creation of a 
 personal estate fund. A member receives in kind a sum double the total of his 
 assessments. 
 
 He makes a draft for three months, which may be renewed on the payment of 
 one-third the sum borrowed at each renewal. This, then, constitutes nine months 
 
 * See page 309. 
 
603 
 
 credit. "We allow that rule to be modified, seeing that the debt is guaranteed by the 
 member's own signature. 
 
 These loans are made at 6 per cent., without commission. 
 
 The second series of operations consist in paying goods for the associate 
 member, to be returned in monthly instalments. These operations are divided into 
 two classes : 1st. Those relating to goods of prime consumption, such as heating, 
 liquors, the tailor ; 2nd. Those concerning goods of secondary consumption, such 
 as furniture, jewels, &c. Each one of these methods are carried on differently. 
 
 We buy our goods of prime necessity direct from a manufacturer who allows 
 us an acting commission varying from 6 to 10 per cent.; and as we pay cash we 
 obtain a discount or return in^^erest of 2 to 3 per cent. 
 
 The invoice is made in the name of the borrower, and is paid by the merchant 
 as having been received from " I'Avenir des Comptables," on account of M.X., the per- 
 son to whom the goods are sent. It is kept by " I'Avenir." 
 
 The acting commission is allotted the borrower, who thus sees the price of the 
 goods diminished by 6 to 10 per cent, less than the ordinary trade price ; and the 
 discount or return interest is kept in the funds of " I'Avenir des Comptables." The 
 loans are also made on the same condition as the first loans which I have already 
 spoken. The latter are called ; Simple Loans, the second Compound fjoans. 
 
 The expiration of the bill, in the last case, is calculated from the time the bor- 
 rower takes to sell his goods and to the number composing his family. Neverthe- 
 less the reimbursements take place monthly and in proportionate parts, dating 
 from the expiry. These loans are not renewable. 
 
 There are two cases concerning goods of secondary importance: either the goods 
 can be kept as a pledge or security, or else they cannot. In the fii"st instance the 
 business is conducted as in a store, except that interest is charged at 5 per cent, 
 without commission, and that the borrower may borrow to the whole amount of his 
 purchase, since the assessments serve as guarantee against the fluctuations, as loans 
 on movables, &c. 
 
 In the case when goods cannot be given as security, the borrower can select a 
 second member to act as security. 
 
 The security must naturally be free from all anterior loans, and the member 
 giving it cannot borrow without being freed of its security. Nevertheless the amounts 
 deposited by the borrower are primarily for the purpose of liquidating his security^ 
 
 I cannot dwell any longer on the object of this statement. 
 
 I conclude, realizing that you will be good enough to acknowledge the receipt, 
 of this letter. I shall be happy if I have been able to facilitate your work. 
 
 The Founder of I'Avenir des Comptables 
 
 P. L. LUNBAU. 
 
 SECTION XI. — workmen's DWELLINGS. 
 
 Ghent, 26th July, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — I hasten to answer your request contained in a letter dated the 22nd instant. 
 
 The administration of the Benefit Society of Ghent has already made a first 
 attempt in improving workmen's lodgings. 
 
 It has built for the laboring class 27 model workmen's houses, uniting all th& 
 hygienic conditions of salubrity. Rents have been reckoned in such a way that the 
 capital involved in their construction will bear an interest of 4 per cent. ; as I stated 
 before, we are only experimenting, but we have been successful. 
 
 Our object is to compel owners who have workmen's houses to improve them 
 and charge the same rent as ours. 
 
 We are a manufacturing town having a population of about 100,000 souls ; there 
 is, therefore, a large number of dwellings tor that class. 
 
 Several houses found in the quarter where ours are situated have been cheapened 
 and some even have become vacant, through not possessing these improvements. 
 
609 
 
 The Benefit Society intends to follow its philanthropic work, and is now studying; 
 the practical method of renting houses to workmen, so that in a relatively short, 
 lapse of time they may become proprietors. 
 
 The houses built by the Benefit Society are after the niodel I described in the' 
 work sent to the Exhibition at Paris. 
 
 Eents vary from. $0.48 to $0.55 per week upon the size of the garden adjoining 
 each house. 
 
 I am at your disposition for all other information which may be useful, and I 
 beg yon to accept the assurance of my distinguished sentiments. 
 
 L. VAN DEE BOS. 
 
 SECTION XIV BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Appert Frlres, Glass Manufacturers — Consulting Engineers. 
 
 Paris, 27th July, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — In answer to your honored letter of the 27th July, 1889, we send you a 
 copy of the different plans adopted by us to assist workmen in their work in our 
 manufactories and to improve their condition of the calling (glass blowing by the use 
 of compressed air) as well as the sanitary conditions of certain workshops. 
 
 In a word we have tried to help the workmen in case of sickness, and we believe 
 that is the point which will interest you most. 
 
 The difficulties experienced on account of being in a city are due to the unstab- 
 ility of workmen, and, although we believe that we are not hard to please, we find 
 that about 50 per cent, of our staff is renewed each year. 
 
 Accept, Sir, our earnest salutations, 
 
 APPEET FEEEES. 
 
 Benevolent Provisions to aid Workmen in Event of Sickness. 
 
 1st. — RULE FOR INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. (Extract.) 
 
 Art. XV. — Messrs. Appert bind themselves to pay all workmen, employed in 
 their manufactories afflicted by organic sickness or a wound incapacitating them 
 from three days' work, one-half of his salary during the length of his sickness, not 
 exceeding one month. They reserve the right of continuing that indemnity for a 
 longer time, if they them it necessary. 
 
 Art. XVI. — ^The sick workman, on his demand, will receive free care, consulta- 
 tions, or medical advice at home, by a physician designated by Messrs. Appert 
 FrSi'es. 
 
 Art. XVII. — If, in consequence of the nature of the injury or sickness, the 
 physician orders him to be sent to hospital, for which purpose, also, Mr. Appert will 
 lend their aid to obtain admittance, free care will cease in case the sick or injured 
 workman would not comply to the wishes of the said physician. 
 
 2TsrD. — FREE INSURANCE OF ALL WORKMEN IN THE MANUFACTORY IN CASE OF SEVERE 
 
 ACCIDENTS INCAPACITATING FROM WORK FOR MORE THAN 90 DATS, 
 
 OR LOSS OF A LIMB OR DEATH. 
 
 Maximum capital insured, $3,000. 
 Preventive Measures for the Health of Workmen against the Action of deleterious Dust. 
 
 1st. — RULES FOR INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. (Extract.) 
 
 Ai't. X. Every workman employed in the factory will make use of the means 
 of sanitation and drainage available in the execution of his work, and which consist 
 in,— 
 
 20—39 
 
610 
 
 Ist. The use of special Seine water as a beverage ; 2nd, frequently washing face 
 and hands ; 3rd, by opening windows, doors, or ventilators so as to renew the 
 atmosphere of the workshop as often as possible ; 4th, the use of gloves, masks and 
 protective wrapping ; 5th, sprinkling pulverized matters where practicable ; 6th, the 
 use of simple and medical baths put gratuitously at the use of all workmen. 
 
 If all these precautious are not taken in the event of accidents, or sickness fol- 
 lowing therefrom, Messrs. Appert Fr^res will not be held responsible. 
 
 2nd. — VENTILATION IN CRUSHING AND BOLTING FACTORIES. 
 
 The use of a Geneste and Hericher ventilator, distributing 5,000 cubic metres 
 of air, and renewing the atmosphere of the room to be ventilated, ten times in an 
 hour. 
 
 3rd. — PROTECTING MASKS AGAINST THE ACTION OF DELETERIOUS DUSTS, 
 
 Hygienic Bules for Glass Workers. 
 
 USE or MACHINERY FOR GLASS BLOWING BT COMPRESSED AIR — THE APPERT FRERES 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 Ist. Glass workers' bench for the manufacture of glasses. 
 
 2nd. Blowing apparatus for the Cornues-Metras system of ball lighting. 
 
 3rd. Moulding apparatus for glasses, decanters, lamp chimneys, gas lamp 
 shades, &c. 
 
 4th. Blowing apparatus called Universal, for window panes, watch glasses, clock 
 cylinders, &c. 
 
 Bailway from Paris to Lyons and the Mediterranean. 
 
 Paris, 26th July, 1889. 
 Sir, — In answer to your letter of the 23nd instant, I have the honor to send you 
 herewith a copy of our General Orders, Nos. 4, 6, and "7, relating 1st, to the Eetir- 
 ing Fund instituted by the Company, and 2nd, to the care and medical help given to 
 the staff. 
 
 Independently of the object included in the documents herewith, the Company 
 
 fives help to those of its agents who are needy by reason of sickness, family charges, 
 c, it helps the co-operative associations of its agents along the line by paying half 
 the freight charges, and has established lunch rooms where employees and workmen 
 obtain their meals at reduced rates. 
 
 In addition, the Company places in oirphans' homes, children of widowed em- 
 ployees and pay all expenses. It also maintains (but in exceptional cases) father- 
 less children. The number of beds maintained in eleven different orphanages 
 amount to over 120. 
 
 In preference to other candidates the Company admits on its staff, employees' 
 sons of the age of 14. It also employs in the Central Service Ofi&ce, in stations 
 either, as receivers or assistant receivers, the daughters, wives, sisters, &c., of its 
 agents. This last measure, adopted a few years ago to help employees with large 
 families, has led to good results. 
 
 Be good to accept, Sir, the assurance of my very distinguished consideration. 
 
 The Manager, 
 
 E. PICAED. 
 
 Workman's Capital.^ 
 
 Sedan, 24th July, 1889. 
 Sir, — In answer to your letter of the 22nd instant, I have the honor of mailing 
 to-day a copy of the pamphlet which accompanies my table of explanations. 
 
 * See pages 404 and 587. 
 
611 
 
 After perusal, be good enough to study the table that precedes it, and call 
 my attention to the points which do not appear explicit enough. 
 
 Every fact admitted or every means recommended being of a simple and un- 
 doubted mechanism, I shall then be happy to give you the details that you desire. 
 
 As a complement I will tell you that in my shop all the staff (employees, 
 carriage-makers and workmen) are interested in producing good work. Bach one 
 has a minimum assured salary, but it is not granted if he has not earned as much as 
 if on piece-work. It follows that the latter method of payment is the one in vogue. 
 
 The fines imposed on account of discipline are deposited in favor of the Factory 
 Aid Fund, and leads to no complaints, no I'ecriminations. 
 
 Be pleased to accept. Sir. my earnest courtesy, 
 
 . L. COUETEHOUX. 
 
 Sedan, 5th August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — Your letter of the 26th July found me sick in bed, and it is in the same 
 condition that I answer ; be kind enough to excuse the delay and incoherence of 
 this letter. 
 
 Ton call my attention to the book of $20 ; I pray you to read again my 
 regulations, and you will see that that sum is formed in my fund by the |9 extra paid 
 on the price of sale of the bond and the accrued interest on payments made on the 
 price of sale. This book will thus be in the name of the workman, on the day only 
 when he has redeemed his bond. 
 
 In answer to your question about wages, I will say that the guarantee of a 
 minimum for the day has a very great importance for the good understanding be- 
 tween masters and workmen ; when these latter work by the piece, the slightest 
 irregularity in the materials given out or in the conditions of preliminary operations 
 would cause bargaining. With me nothing like it occurs, I admit no observation. 
 
 We have a remunerative tariff of an assured minimum of 50 cents for a man 
 and of 50 cents for a woman ; as piece work often permits to gain double that, 
 this difference acts as an inducement to work quickly, and pay by the day is excep- 
 tional. 
 
 As to the deductions in case of defects, everything is regulated, and no surprise 
 is possible ; there are two checks, and the workman is present at the first one. 
 
 Fines for breach of discipline are accompanied with a reprimand from myself 
 in person, and I would easily see if injustice has been done ; beside, nobody com- 
 plains, for the fines are paid into the relief fund. 
 
 I am happy, sir, to notice the good impression you created on me, but I wonder 
 if you consider the question as simple or as general as I would wish. 
 
 Have you studied, that instead of distinct administration for each manufacture, 
 and necessarily restricted, it might assume the following form : — 
 
 The State would give to the workingman his bond, free from all risks ; or the 
 towns, for the purpose of identifying the subscriber, would keep a register of classes 
 of trades for the distribution of relief funds. 
 
 Have you noticed that I desire the towns to take upon themselves service of 
 savings bank tickets for the payment of supplies to the workmen, a service which 
 is outside of the Workman's Capital, and might nevertheless lead to titles of bonds, 
 but for the sake of clearness I will only say that might lead to pension books ; 
 
 Or masters would spread the idea of savings, by offering gratuitous insurance in 
 case of accident and sickness to every holder of a life-rent book wherein instalments 
 are made regularly. , 
 
 Or a relief fund could be created by gifts and legacies that I would make sufS 
 cient for large extras to miners or other dangerous occupations, but also to cover the 
 instalments into the Workman's Capital of those performing military service. 
 
 By this organization, or without the least pecuniary sacrifice the aforesaid State, 
 towns, and masters would find great profits, the whole working population of a 
 countiy would forever derive incalculable advantages. 
 20— 39J 
 
612 
 
 In my pamphlet I refer again to these details, for fear that you might consider 
 my plan only as a guide to other manufacturers ; it goes further, it is a caution and 
 an essay submitted to the State. 
 
 The French considering the Canadians as brothers, I do not hesitate to direct 
 your attention on this most practical operation. Please answer, as I would like to 
 know if you have well understood me. 
 
 Accept, Sir, the assurance of my highest esteem, 
 
 L. COUETBHOUX. 
 
 VillenetJvette PRijs Clermont L'Hf rault, 28th July, 1889, 
 
 Sir, — I acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 22nd July instant, and I 
 am happy to be able to give you information on the organisation of Villeneuvette. 
 
 It was founded in 1666 by Colbert. The workmen are lodged on the gi-ounds of 
 the manufacture. 
 
 Pour families of workmen have lived and grown there for over 140 years. 
 
 Out of 400 workers, more than 140 have been here for over 30 years. 
 
 The work is rendered as steady as possible, by keeping the workers busy out in 
 the country during slack times. This problem is not always easily to solve, for men 
 used to factories take long to accustom themselves to work in the open air. 
 
 Much knack and kindness on the part of master and employees are needed to 
 choose properly those who are best fitted for change of occupation. 
 
 The dwellings are gratuitous. 
 
 There are 70 dwellings within Villeneuvette, and 20 on the farms or mills 
 situate on the property. 
 
 The workmen rather prefer to reside at Villeneuvette, though this manufacture, 
 forming a commune, is enclosed by a wall with gaites which are closed at 9|- p.m., 
 only to open at 4^ a.m. next morning. 
 
 Workmen are supplied with medicines and medical attendance for eight francs 
 a year. 
 
 Two physicians of the adjoining town attend at the works. 
 
 Good understanding exists between master and employees ; but it is true that 
 both live in the same circle. 
 
 The master living with his employees cannot, nor does he display great luxury, 
 and the workmen seeing that the head of the establishment helps them as much as 
 lies in his power, consider him as a friend. 
 
 The social question, always on the tapis, has been solve i at Villeneuvette in a 
 most satisfactory manner. 
 
 Only one question remains to be decided, that is to obtain a more steady employ- 
 ment, for the manufacture is engaged in the making of cloths for the army, and 
 orders from the State are subject to great fluctuations. 
 
 The maximam, which is of 40,000 metres by lot, decreases in certain years to 
 10,000 metres. That is the case to-day. 
 
 Another inconvenience is the system of tenders, to which army work is sub- 
 jected. It is awkward as it gives no security to the workman ; a rebate of a few 
 centimes will cause a change. 
 
 The moment the Governments will recognize the necessity of giving security to 
 workingmen, it is to be hoped that the dangerous system of tenders will be done 
 away with. 
 
 It was only by dint of great sacrifices that Villeneuvette has succeeded in making 
 head against such a system. 
 
 The manufacturer tendering finds himself in the three following alternatives : — 
 
 1. To lose his industry. 
 
 2. To diminish the quality of his products, which all conscientious men should 
 discountenance. 
 
613 
 
 3. To lose a more or less considerable sum by taking the work at a low price ; 
 this is what took place at Vilieneuvette, in order that the population should not 
 suffer. 
 
 Wo believe that the Social Exhibition of 1889 will indicate what is best for the 
 working classes. 
 
 Now, as formerly, what is asked by the workingman is uot so much a high rate of 
 wages, as security for the future. 
 
 The best way to give security to the voi-kingman is to live with him. 
 
 Then the manufacturers, if they are good Christians, are not tempted to seek 
 over-production ; on the contrary, they will try to regulate labor. 
 
 A manufacturer having the good of his employees at heart, must keep en a 
 level with modern improvements, but he must not take advantage of these improve- 
 ments to dismiss his employees when they cannot at once handle new machinery. 
 
 I regret that my occupation prevents me from giving you more information 
 respecting the organization at Vilieneuvette,^ but 1 was pleased to receive your 
 letter, it has been the means to communicate with the representative of a country 
 having such a bright future as Canada, it having remained attached to the Catholic 
 religion. 
 
 Please accept Sir my respectful compliments, 
 
 JULES MAISTEE. 
 
 Sol VAT ET CiE., Works op VarangSville, Dombasle. 
 
 DOMBASLE SUR Me0rthe, 7th August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — In answer to yours of the 5th August, we have the honor to inform you 
 that the fines imposed on our workmen, comprise fines for breach of discipline and 
 fines for bad work. 
 
 As to the payment by the Society of a sum equal to the amount of the fines, the 
 ■object is, apart from the reason indicated by you, to show to the workmen that 
 their employers do not impose fines without cause, as it would be against the interest 
 of the Society. In this way the workmen do not complain, for the good reason that 
 the product of the fines is applied to relieve the needy. 
 
 So the workmen do not fancy that their chiefs have a certain interest in punish- 
 ing them. 
 
 Please accept, Sir, the expression of my deep respect. 
 
 The Director,' 
 
 G. MAEQUET. 
 
 GrLASS-WoRKS OF PoLEMBRAT, AlSNE. 
 
 PoLEMBRAY, 17th August, 1889. 
 
 Sir, — M. le comte de Brigode, manager of the Society of Poilly, Fitz-James and 
 Brigode for the working of the glass-works of Folembray, has transmitted to me 
 your letter of the 10th instant for a reply. 
 
 I do it the more willingly as having been a witness for twenty years of the good 
 created in the country by the family of Poilly, I can speak more freely than would 
 our manager. 
 
 Social economy is hardly spoken of here, except in the high sense understood 
 by Le Play, when speaking of the duties of masters, considered as social authorities. 
 
 The harmony existing between the master and his workmen, and the confidence 
 reposed in him so far, are due to the fact that he lives among them, that he knows 
 them all, that he constantly seeks to establish equity in matters of wages, claiming 
 only what is right, and charging to the society defects in the finished products for 
 which the glass maker is not responsible. 
 
 Apart from that are the services rendered in thousands of cases : Loans without 
 interest, steps taken to reduce military service, compatible with the law ; placing 
 
614 
 
 one, recommending the other ; visiting the sick; giving food and relief when out of 
 work ; the keeping of widows till their children can enter at the glass works ; giving 
 counsels in law-suits, etc. These services belong rather to charity and philanthropy 
 than to social economy properly speaking ; and I would be at a loss to answer 
 questions laid in official circulars. 
 
 In fact, each workman, in our works is or may become an object of special 
 interest, and the master has always thought that this sollicitude was more appro- 
 priate to our business than any system of deductions from the wages, or of payments 
 by the society to form a superannuation fund. 
 
 The society is a corporation, and can, periodically, change its membership ; the 
 manager does not intend leaving to his successors undetermined social charges, and 
 must restrict himself to do the most good, from day to day, according to the res- 
 sources at hand, and the present needs. 
 
 On the other hand, the glass-makers are, generally, pretty- nomadic ; some come 
 from the north, centre and south ; at the end of their career they seek to re-enter 
 their native place, or they retire to a large city. Their savings must be invested in 
 moveable securities (rentes, pension funds for old age, mixed insurance, bonds of 
 large companies) rather than on immovables in a small commune whose sole industry 
 is the glass works. They are lodged gi'atuitously, and in the village nearly all the 
 vacant tenements or houses constructed by private parties in the commune, are rented 
 by us. The result is more independence, and on the whole, more comfort and more 
 hope for the family among our workmen than in similar establishments where they 
 are kept confined. 
 
 The children, employed to cany bottles, find after their hours of schooling at the 
 glass works, good beds similar to those in secondary educational institutions, and are 
 only roused when times comes to go to work. They thus avoid being displaced 
 during the night, which would' be a hardship, especially in winter, if they had to 
 travel to the works from the village, like their parents. Every day they receive 
 gratuitously a ration of meat, and they get also a winter suit and a summer suit. 
 Prom 12 to 16 they earn If. 50 and If. 60c. per day. Once they attain to be 
 glassmakers' boys they join the family and earn If 50c. per day. At 18 they 
 may become big boys and recei-sie 4f. 50c. to Yf. per day. Lastly, they become 
 glass-blowers or master glass-makers, and their wages vary from 9 to 13 francs per 
 day. 
 
 So that a young glass-maker, marrying at 22 or 23, an intelligent woman, can 
 and should in twenty or twenty-five years labor, obtain through the pension fandfor 
 old age, or the large companies, a revenue equivalent to his annual resources. If he 
 has boys, the task is just as easy, since from the age of 12, the child is not only no 
 burden to bim, but becomes rapidly from 15 to 22 a source of profit for his family. 
 If he has girls, they can make their apprenticeship at the Asile de Poissy, and at 18 
 they can be married to young glass-makers. 
 
 In the case of ceosation of work, the society grants an indemnity of one franc 
 per day to the sick; it contributes also for one-third or one-half according to the 
 salary of the sick, to the medical expenses. 
 
 This rule has a double result: the workman calls the physician only when neces- 
 sary; and on the other hand, the physician attends to the call which he might other- 
 wise hesitate to do if the workman claimed his services as in duty bound at the 
 sole expense of the society. 
 
 Such are, Sir, the principal features of our industrial organisation. 
 
 You see that there is no place for us in an official competition on the subject you 
 are interested in ; but I hope that you will notice with interest how diverse are the 
 solutions of these matters, and that it is possible to attain the same end [though 
 following different ways. 
 
 Please accept, Sir, the assurance of my high esteem, 
 
 Pr. de POILLY de PITZ-JAMES de BRISON, 
 Le directeur, 
 / J. Damotjr. 
 
BIBLIOaH^I^HY. 
 
 IJist of works and documents escposed in the Social Economy Section, having been 
 examined, cited and mentioned in this report. 
 
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616 
 
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 Caisse de retraite des ouvriers sous le patronage du oonseil municipal de la 
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 Caisse Rationale des Eetraites pour la vieillesse, France. — Documents. 
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 Caisse de Seoours des ateliers de Neuillt. — E^glements. 
 
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 Carlier, J. — Eapport sur "La Fourmi Beige." 
 
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 Cassell & Co., London. — Eeport of a meeting of employees, 1886 et 1889. State- 
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 Chambres Stndicales de l'Industrie et du Batiment en 1889. — Historique des. 
 
 Chambre Stndicale des D:6bitants de Vins du DEpartement de la Seine. — 
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 Chambre Stndicale des Fabrioants de tulles et dentelles de Calais. — Histo- 
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 Chambre stndicale du papier et des industries qui le transporment. — (Euvres 
 fondles par la Chambre en faveur des apprentis et employ^. 
 
 Chappie, A. — Fonderie au Mans. Institutions patronales — E^glement des usines. 
 
 Chauppert, M. L. — Historique des ^tablissements ^conomiques des soci^t^s mutuelles 
 de la ville de Eeims. Leur fondalion — Leur marche pendant 20 ans. 
 
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 dans toutes les communes d'un d^partement et pour I'extinction progressive de 
 de la mendicity. 
 
 Chesneau, B. — Les grands dditeurs anglais. 
 
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617 
 
 Cit£s ouvKiiiRES DE MuLHOiTSE (les). — Historique — Statuts — Fonotionnement. 
 
 Colin, A. et Oie. — Librairie — ^Paris — Notice sur les expositions de. 
 
 ■CoMiT^ DifiPAETEMENTAL DE LA GiRONDE — Bnqugte et rapporfc de la commission — 
 
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 ■Comit£ DifipARTEMENTAL BIT EhSne. — Eapports, notes et documents de la soci^t^ d'^co- 
 
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 ■CoMiTf d^partemental DE LA Sarthe. — E^ponses au questionnaire de I'enqugte sui- 
 
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 •COMPAGNIE DES FORGES DE CHAMPAGNE ET DU CANAL DE SaINT-DiZIER 1 WaSST, — 
 
 Notice sur I'exposition d'^conomie sociale de la — 
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 <;!oMPAGNiE GfiN^RALE DES OMNIBUS. — Paris — Institutions patronales. 
 Compagnie GtNfRALE des voitures X Paris. — Soci^t^ de secours mutuels — 
 
 Tableaux. 
 -Compagnies DBS MESSAGERiEs MARiTiMEs, Paris. — Institutions cr^^es ou encourag^es 
 
 dans I'int^rgt de son personnel et mesures prises pour int^resser ce personnel 
 
 aux r^sultats du service. 
 Compagnie des mines d'Anzin. — (Notice sur la.) 
 Compagnie des mines de Eoche-la-Molijire et Firminy. — Notice. 
 Compagnie parisienne d'£olairage et de chaufpaqe par le gaz. — Caisse de 
 
 pr^voyance et de retraite. 
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 Eeport. 
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 et documents. 
 Convert, — F. — Villeneuvette. — Une entreprise agricole et industrielle. 
 Corporation des tonneliers et odvriers de Caves de Ebims. — (Socidt^ de secours 
 
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 CosTB, Adolphe. — ^Les questions sociales contemporaines. 
 CouRS proeessionnels pour les apprentis, au cbemin de fer du nord k Paris. 
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 Eentes de vieillesse sans qu'il en cofite aux travailleurs. 
 Cristallerie de baccarat. — (Notice sur la). — Ses ouvriers, ses institutions. 
 
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 Decauvillb, ain6. — Petit Bourg. — Edglement des usines et de la maison d'appro- 
 
 visionnement. 
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618 
 
 Boole db dessin et oours propessionnels de main-d'ceuvre eond^s et DiKiafs par 
 LA Chambre Stndicale de la Sijottterie, Joaillerie et ORFiiVERiB DE Pakis. 
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 EOOLE DE fabrication DE TISSU, D'ART ET DE DESSIN INDUSTRIEL ET Df OORATIP DE LA 
 
 YiLLE DE Mmes. — Un mot sur I'histoire de I'lndustrie depuis le commencement 
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 Boole du Travail, Paris. — Statuts — Comptes rendus. 
 
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 BcoLE. PROPESSIONNELLE ET menagJire municipale X EouEN. — Programme des cours 
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 Boole suPifiRiEURE de commerce de Marseille. — Notice sur I'^cole. 
 EcoNOMAT POPULAIRB. — Soci^t6 Cooperative d'alimentation, de Marchienne-au-Pont, 
 
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 Emigration et immigration. — Rapport concernant la Belgique. 
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 Gagneur, Wl. — Transformation de la Fruiti^re. 
 Galesloot, G. — Les soci^t^s de secours mutuels, en Belgique. 
 
 Gasnier, J. — L'Epargne scolaire dans le ressort de la Caisse d'Epargne du Mans — 
 Origine de I'lnstitution — Son organisation actuelle. 
 
 Gilman, (Nicholas Paine) — West-Newton, Mass., U. S. — Profit Staring between 
 
 employer and employees. 
 GiLON, E. — Cercles d'ouvriers en Belgique. 
 GoDiN, J.B.A. — Mutuality nationale centre la mis^re. 
 Grand conseil des Socif t£s de Secours Mutuels de Marseille. — Origine— Fonc- 
 
 tionnement — E^glement. 
 
619 
 
 Hart & Co., London. — Industrial Partnership. 
 
 Hart, Mary H., London. — Poverty and its remedy — ^Papers on the reconciliation of 
 
 Capital and Labour. 
 Hearts op Oak, 46.— Compte-rendu annuel, 1887. 
 Henrot, Dr. H. — Monographie de la ville de Eeims. 
 
 Institut Commercial de Paris. — ^Ecole pr^paratoire au commerce d'Exportation — 
 
 Programme ot renseignements divers. 
 Institutions de la Maison P0NTAiNE-BESS0i.«r, Paris. — (Notice sui- les). 
 
 Japon. — Observations explicatives sur les objets envoyds k I'Exposition Universelle 
 de Paris, par le ministere de I'instruction publique du Japon. 
 
 Kestner & CiE, Bellevue. — Institutions patronales. 
 
 La Bouch^e de Pain. (CEuvre de la) et de I'hospitalit^ par le travail. — Statuts — 
 Conferences. 
 
 La Foukmi. — Society en participations d'Bpargne — Statuts — Comptes-rendus — Notes 
 explicatives. 
 
 La France Pri^votante — Paris. — Society civile de retraites — Statuts — Comptes- 
 rendus — Journal. 
 
 La Fraternelle. — Society de secours mutuels ^ Lille — E^glement — Bilan. 
 
 La Marseillaise. — Caisse de retraite pour la vieillesse en faveur des deux sexes — 
 Statuts. 
 
 Lang, T. — L'Ecole La Martini^re — Historique — But — Bnseignement, etc. 
 
 La protection mutuelle. — Society philanthropique entre tous les employes des 
 chemins de fer frangais. — Statuts. 
 
 Laroche. Joubert et Cie. — Papeterie coop^ratrice d'Angoulgme — E^glement de 
 cooperation. 
 
 La Solidarity, Calais. — Society de construction — Projet de cite ouvri^re par L. 
 Cazin. 
 
 Laurent Odon. — Les associations cooperatives de oonsommation en Belgique. 
 
 Le Bon, Dr. F. — Moyen pratique de faciliter aux classes laborieuses. Facets du capital 
 et de la propriete. — Des habitations ouvri^res k JSTivelles. 
 
 Leclaire (ancienne maison) Peinture, Paris. — Participation aux benefices. — Society 
 de Secours Mutuels et de Prevoyance. 
 
 Lecceur et Cie. Menuiserie. — E^glement de la participation aux benefices. 
 
 Le Havre. — E6glement et programme de I'ecole municipale de gargons. — E^glement 
 et programme de I'ecole primaire superieure de jeunes SUes. — ^E^glement et 
 programme de I'ecole des apprentis mecanicieus de la marine. — Statuts de I'asso- 
 ciation amicale des anciens ei^ves de I'ecole d'apprentissage. 
 
 Les Fils de Peugeot FrJires. Quincaillerie. Valentigny. — Eeponse au question- 
 naii'e de I'Enqugte d'Economie Sociale. 
 
 Leeranc et Cie. Couleurs. — Issy. — Caisse de Prevoyance et de Eetraite. — Societe 
 de Secours Mutuels en cas de dec^s. 
 
 Le Grain de Bl£. — Caisse de Eetraites. — Statuts. — Bilan. 
 
 Les sans nom non sans cceur. — Cercle philanthropique etabli &. Gand. — Statistiqne 
 des secours octroyes. 
 
 Lethuillier et Pinel. Ingenieur-Mecaniciens. Eouen. — E^glement des ateliers et 
 des primes de salaire. 
 
 Le Travail. Paris. — Association ouvri^re pou:r I'entreprise generale de la peinture. 
 
 LiGiER, Dr. — Le credit agricole par la fruitiere. 
 
 L'Industrielle. Brest. — Societe de Prevoyance pour les retraites civiles. — Scatuts. 
 Historique. 
 
 Liverpool Training School of Cookery. Eeport, 1888. 
 
 Lombart, (Chocolaterie.) Paris. — Participation aux benefices. — Institutions patro- 
 nales. 
 
620 
 
 Lung, A. Notice sur I'industrie cotonni^re k Moussey. 
 
 L'Union. — Cie d'assurance contre I'incendie. Paris. — Expenses aux questionnaires 
 
 de I'enqiiSte du groupe de rBconomie Sooiale. 
 Lyre Havbaisb (la). Soci^t^ chorale. — Notice. 
 
 Magasin du Bon MARonfi, Paris. — Institutions Patronales. 
 Mahillon, L. — Les Caisses d'Bpargne en Belgique. 
 
 Maincent. — Projet d'une Caisse de Eetraite de la Vieillesse pour touts la population 
 bas^e sur le principe obligafoire. 
 
 MaISON HoSPITALlfiRE POUR LES OUVRIERS SANS ASILE ET SANS TRAVAIL, PaRIS. — 
 
 CEuvre preventive — Eapport. 
 
 Mame, a., & riLS, Tours. — Imprimerie — Librairie — ^Institutions patronales. 
 
 Marbeau, B. — Destruction de la Participation aux b^ri^dces chez les picheurs de la 
 Manche. 
 
 Marsault, J. B. — Les Caisses de secours et de pr^voyance k la Compagnie Houill^re 
 de Bess^ges — Oompte-rendu pour 1888. 
 
 Masson, Gr., — Librairie, Paris. — Caisse de Participation. 
 
 MfiNiER. — Usine de Noisel — Institutions patronales. 
 
 Menon (Melle). — Principes pour I'^tude de la coupe, Fassemblage et I'ornement des 
 vitements enseign^s k I'^cole professionnelle de Levallois-Perret. 
 
 Metropolitan Asylums Board. — London. Annual Eeport of the Ambulance Com- 
 mittee for 1886, 1887, 1888. 
 
 MiCHA, A. — Le Credit Mutuel — Banques Populaires — Unions du Credit en Belgique. 
 
 Michel, Ch. — La grande et la petite culture en Belgique. 
 
 Mines de Blanzy. — Notice sur les institutions ouvri^res des 
 
 Mont-de-Pi£ti£ de Paris. — Compte administratif de I'exercice de 1888. Les op^rar 
 tions de d^gagements gratuits depuis la fondation de I'^tablissement. 
 
 MouTiER (maison). — Cours d'apprentissage. Participation aux benefices. Eapports 
 vis-^vis des ouvriers. Institutions de pr^voyance. E^sultats de I'organisation 
 du travail. 
 
 MozET ET Delalonde. — Entreprise de ma§onnerie. Participation aux benefices. 
 Comptes-rendus. 
 
 Mutuality oommerciale (la). Paris. — Association de pr^voyance pour les em- 
 ployes de commerce. Statuts et r^glements. 
 
 Naeyer (G. de). — Willebroeck, Belgique. Documents relatifs k la participation et 
 
 aux maisons ouvri^res. 
 NiNAUVE. — Les associations professionnelles en Belgique. 
 
 <BuvRE DES viEiLLARDs INDIGENTS. — Soci^te de charit^ maternelle. E^glement. 
 CEuvres sociales plac^es sous le patronage ou la direction de la municipality de la 
 ville de Lille (Description des). 
 
 <EUVRES SOCIALES PLAC:6es sous LE PATRONAGE DE LA MUNICIPALITY D'ArMENTIJiRES. 
 
 — Statuis de la society de secours mutuels. 
 
 OrPHELINAT de la , BIJOUTERIE, JOAILLERIE, HORLORGERIE, ETC — Statuts. Eeglc- 
 
 ments int^rieurs. Compte-rendu. 
 Orphelinat municipal propessionnel de GAR90NS 1 Angers. — Notice. 
 
 Pavin de Laparge. — Institutions en faveur des ouvriers. 
 
 Peace Dale Manufacturing Co. — Cooperative. Circulars No. 1 to 10. 
 
 Pernot, pils. Pontablier. — Institutions patronales. 
 
 PiAT, A. — Machines outils. Paris. — Notice sur les Bxpositions ae, 
 
 PiNAUD, B. Parfumerie. Paris. — E6glement des primes de salaire. 
 
 PiNET, P. — Manufacture de chaussures. Paris. Institution de pension de retraite 
 
 pour la vieillesse en faveur de son personnel. 
 Pisa, Ugo. — Eelation sur la Prevoyance pour les accidents du travail en Italie. 
 Pleyel, Wolff et Cie. — Institutions patronales. Description et G-iaphiques. 
 PoELMAN. — Les caisses de retraites en Belgique. 
 
621 
 
 Pkevotance Commerciale, (la). — Oaisee de retraite pour les employes des deux 
 
 sexes du commerce des nouveaut^s. Comptes-rendus. Statuts. 
 Pri^t grathit de (SociifiTfi PHiLANTHROPiQUE Du). — Statuts. Comptes-reiidus. 
 Pr:6votants de l'avenir. — Soci^W civile de retraite. Instructions. Statuts. Journal. 
 Profit Sharing. — ^N. O. Nelson. Saint-Louis, Miss., E.-U. 
 
 Eaffalovich, Arthur. — ^Le logement de I'ouvrier et du pauvre. 
 
 EiCHARD, Ch. — La soci^t^ mutuelle de pr^voyance pour la retraite de Eeims. — Son 
 
 but. — Son m^canisme et son histoire. 
 EiGOLAGE, J. E. Samuel. — Projet d'organisation des ^coles pratiques d'enseignement 
 
 secondaire. — Les programmes de travail manuel. 
 EoYER DE Dour. — Baron Hypolite de. — La question des habitations ouvri^res en 
 
 Belgique. 
 
 Soci^Tfi AQRicoLE DE l'arrondissement DE Senlis. — Statuts et rapports. 
 
 SoCI^Tfi ANONTME DE HOUILLIiRES DE MoNTRAMBERT ET DE LA BeRAUDIJiRE. — Notice 
 
 8ur la. 
 SocifiTfi ANONTME DES MINES DE LA LoiRE. — Institutions patronales. 
 Soci]6t:6 anontme et cooperative de la Laiterie de Leschelle. — Compte-rendu. 
 Socif t£ ANONTME iMMOBiLiiiRE DES PETiTS LOGEMENTS 1 EouEN. — Documents relatifs 
 
 k la soci^t^. — Comptes-rendus annuels. 
 
 S0CI£t£ ANONTME REMOISE, POUR L'AMf LIORATION DES LOGEMENTS X BO;^ MARCHifi. 
 
 Administration. — Operations. 
 
 SocrfTfi CIVILE DE OONSOMMATION DU ISilME ARRONDISSEMENT, PaRIS. — StATUTS. 
 
 Eapports. — Comptes-rendus. 
 
 SoClfiTf COOPERATIVE D'aLIMENTATION ET D'EpARGNE DE LA MAISON SoRDER HuiL- 
 
 LARD ET CiE, SuRESNE. — Notice sur la. 
 
 SoCIEtE cooperative des PHARMACIES POPULAIRES DE VeRVIERS. — StatutS. 
 
 SociEtE cooperative immobiliEre des ouvriers de Paris. — Statuts. 
 
 SociEtE cooperative Suisse, GenEve. — Statuts. — Bilan. 
 
 SociEtE d'Assurance Mutcelle des Instituteurs des Basses-PtrEnEes. — Statuts. 
 
 SociEtE de Consommation des Ouvriers des Forges et Acieries de Trith, Saint- 
 
 LEger. — (Notice sur la). 
 SociEtE d'Enseignement Professionnel du Eh6ne. — ^Notice sur I'organisation et le 
 
 fonctionnement de la Society. 
 SociEtE de la Vieille-Montagne, Angleur, Belgique. — Institutions ouvri^res. 
 SociEtE de la Yieillesse dite des charrons et porgerons de la Ville de Paris. 
 
 — Statuts — Comptes-rendus. 
 SociEtE de patronage des prisonniers libErEs Protestants. — Eapport. 
 SociEtE de PrEvotance et de Secours Mutuels de la Boucherie de Paris " Les 
 
 Vrais Amis." — E^glement, etc. 
 SociEtE de Protection de l'enfanoe ouvriEre 1 Trotes. — Statuts^-Comptes- 
 
 rendus, 1881-1889. 
 SociEtE de protection des Apprentis et des enfants emplotEs dans les manufac- 
 tures. — Bulletins — Comptes-rendus. 
 SociEtEs de Secours Mutuels. — Eapport sur les operations des soci^tes de secours 
 
 mutueJs pendant Tannfe 1886, en Prance. 
 SociEtE de secours et Caisse de Eetraite pour la vieillesse des deux sexes 
 
 1 Yauvert, Gand. — Statuts — ^Eapport, exercice, etc. 
 SociEtE de Secours Mutuels de l'Imprimerie ttpographique, Paris. — Statuts — 
 
 Extrait du r^glement — Caisse de retraite — Eenseignements divers. 
 SociEtE de Secours Mutuels de Port Brillet. — Mayenne — Statuts et E^glements. 
 SociEtE de Secours Mutuels des Ateliers des chemins de fer de l'Etat 1 
 
 Epernat. — Statuts — Historique. 
 SociEtE de Secours Mutuels, Saint-Pran§ois Xavier, Paris. — Statuts — Historique — 
 
 Situation. 
 SocIEtE de Secours Mutuels de Petit-Bourg. — Statuts. 
 
622 
 
 SocifTfi DE Secours Mutuels et de Eetraite Notre-Dame de Bon-Secours a. 
 
 Dieppe . — Statute. 
 SociifiTi DES fourneatjx des ficoLES LAiQUES DE LA viLLE d'Angers. — Historique — 
 
 Organisation — Fonctionnement. 
 Soci:fiTii DES restaurants :ficoNOMiQUES. — Statute et r^glements de la ville de Nancy. 
 SociifiTfi DES SAUVETEURS Du MIDI — Marseille. — ilistox-ique. , Secours mutuels. 
 
 Situation. ' • 
 
 Sooi:fiTl DU TRAVAIL. — Bureau de placement. Statuts. Comptes-rendus. 
 Soci:fiT:fi Franklin — Biblioth^ques populaires. 
 Soci:6t:6 immobiliJire D'ORL:fiANS — ayant pour but de d^velopper I'esprit d'^pargne 
 
 en facilitant ['accession k la propri^td. — Notice sur son fonctionnement. 
 SooifiTfi INDUSTRIELLE d'Amiens, (Notice siir la). — Statuts. CEuvres cr^^es par la 
 
 Soci«^. 
 Soci:fiTfi INDUSTRIELLE DU NoRD DE LA FRANCE (la) — A I'exposition universelle. 
 SociEt:6 INDUSTRIELLE DE Saint Qubntin ET DE L AisNE (Notice sur la). — Enseigne- 
 
 ment professionnel et technique. 
 
 SoOlfiTfi MUNICIPALE DE SECOURS MUTUELS DU 9e ARRONDISSEMENT DE PaRIS. — Statuts. 
 
 Oompte rendu 1888. 
 
 SoClfiT^ MUTUELLE DE PR^VOTANCE POTR LA RETRAITE DE EeIMS. — Statuts. Eegle- 
 
 ments. Compte-rendu. 
 
 Soci^T^ Philadelphique, Saint-Gtermain-en-Late. — Soci^t^ de secours mutuels. 
 Statute.. Compte-rendu. Agr^gation des femmes. ' 
 
 SooitTfi PHiLANTHROPiQUE, Paris. — Annuaire de 1888-89. Eapports et comptes- 
 rendus. 
 
 S0Ci:fiT:fi PHILANTHROPIQUE COOPERATIVE (dE CONSOMMATION) DE SaiNT-EeMT-SUR- 
 
 AvRE. — Statuts et rapports. 
 Soci:6T:fi protectrice de l'enfance. — Annuaire. Bulletin. Compte-rendu. 
 
 S00i:6Tf PHILANTHROPIQUE DES COMMIS ET EMPL0T:6s DE LA VILLE DE MARSEILLE. — 
 
 Statuts. Notice. Eapports. 
 SociEt:^ PHILANTHROPIQUE, l'union DU COMMERCE, Paris. — Documents. 
 SociEt:^ philomatique djk Bordeaux (Notice sur la). — Statuts et r^glements. Cours 
 
 d'apprentis et d'adultes. 
 SocifiT:fi POUR l'enseignement professionnelle des femmes, Paris. — Programme. 
 
 Comptes-rendus. 
 Soci:6T:fi protestante du travail. — Programme. Situation. 
 
 Sautter-Lemonier, Paris. — Institutions patronales. Salaires. Notice et graphiques. 
 Saint FRtiRES. — Filatures. — Paris. — Institutions patronales. 
 Schneider & Cie. — Au Ci'eusot, — Graphiques des Institutions Ouvri^res. 
 Setdoux-Sieber & Co. — Tissus de laine. Le Cateau. Institutions patronales. 
 Solidarit:6 mutuelle. — Soci^t^ civile, philanthropique, de travail et de placement, 
 
 Paris. Eapport par M. E. Bise. 
 SoLVAT & Cie. — ^Produits chimiques. Dombasle. Institutions patronales. 
 SouPART, A. — Eemun^ration du ti-avail, en Belgique. 
 Statistiques GfiN^RALEs DE LA FRANCE, Tome XV, 1885. — ^Publi^ par le minist^redu 
 
 commerce de I'industrie et des colonies, 1888. 
 Steinheil, DilSTERLEN & Co., EoTHAU. — Notice sur quarante-deux ans de participa- 
 tion des oiwriers aux r^sultats d'une manufacture de coton. 
 Suisse. — Message du Conseil FM^ral k lAssemblde f^d^rale concernant I'extension 
 de la responsabilit^ civile k d'autres industries et le complement de la loi f^d^rale 
 du25juin 1881. 
 
 Pr^avis au sujet de I'article additionnel proposd au projet de loi concernant 
 
 I'extension de la responsabilit^ civile. 
 
 Eapport de la Commission du Conseil National concernant I'extension a 
 
 d'autres industries et services, de la responsabilit^ civile des fabricants. 
 
 Circulairedu d^partement federal du commerce k tons les ^tats conf^d^r^s 
 
 concernant le syst^me k suivre par les industriels ou entrepreneurs 
 
 responsables pour annoncer les accidents. 
 
 Message concernant les relev^s statistiques des accidents survenant en Suisse. 
 
623 
 
 StNDICAT AQRIOOLE BU DfiPARTEMENT DU JURA. — StatutS. 
 
 Stndicat de L'fipioERiE EN DETAIL DE Eeims et de LA REGION. — Statuts. E^glemeiits. 
 Eapports. 
 
 Talmasse, p. — Jeune garde de Finstruotion publique. Yerviers. 
 
 Talmasse, p. — Rapport r^dig^ au point de vue de la propagaude des soci^t^s ouvri^res 
 
 de jeunes fiUes k Verviers. 
 Thompson, W. & Sons. — Huddersfield — Cooperative production in woollen and 
 
 worsted cloths. — Eules. 
 TrevJis, a. et Fils. — Tissus et broderies, Paris. — ^L'usine et les ouvriers. 
 
 Union belge. — Soci^t^ do secours mutuels et de bienfaisance k Paris. Organisation, 
 
 statuts, etc. 
 Union des ouvriers d'Elotes. — Statuts. 
 
 Union des Neuf. — Bruxelles. Soci^t^ cooperative d'^pargne. M^moire. 
 Union du Satiment de la ville de Paris. — Syndicat professionnel. Statuts et r^gle- 
 
 ments. 
 UsiNES F£lix Hubin, Harfleur. — Notice sur les institutions patronales. 
 
 Vandel et Cie, La Perri^re-sous-Jougne. — Society de secours mutuels des usines. 
 
 Society de consommation. Graphiques. Statuts. 
 Yandervelde, E. — Les institutions patronales en Belgique. 
 Yergez, C. (J. — Notice sur la creation et le d^veloppement des classes d'apprentis et 
 
 d'adultes de la society philomatique de Bordeaux. 
 Yermont, H. — Les retraites des travailleurs. Les soci^t^s de secours mutuels. 
 
 Waddington Fils et Cie. — Notice sur les institutions de la fabrique. E^glements 
 
 de I'asile et de la creche. 
 Walter-Seitz. — Industrie cotonni^re. — Institutions patronales. 
 Williams, J. — Intervention ^conomique des pouvoirs publics dans le Eoyaume-Uni. 
 Wright, Carroll D. — Growth and Purposes of Bureaus of Statistics of Labor. 
 Profit-Sharing. 
 
 230e SocifiTfi de Secours k la Yieillesse pour les deux sexes, en faveur des agents et 
 ouvriers de la Compagnie des chemins de fer Paris — Lyon — M^diterran^e. — 
 Statuts. — Eapports. — Circulaires n°' 26 et 36. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 IXTRODUCTION. 
 
 Organization of Labor ix 
 
 Apprenticeship ix 
 
 Salaries xii 
 
 Workshop Regulations xv 
 
 Knes... ^''''^'^''.['.'.'.'.[['.'.'..[l] XV 
 
 Arbitration — Conciliation xvi 
 
 Payment of Salaries xviii 
 
 Female and Child Labor .1^1.^. ...................... ... xix 
 
 PrOPIOVSHARING .' y j^^£j 
 
 Opinion of employers on profit-sharing with their employees and the results obtained xxxi 
 
 Patronal Institutions xxxix 
 
 Professional Syndicates xjii 
 
 Provident Institutions ^j.^ 
 
 Mutual Benevolent Societies xlvi 
 
 Retiring Funds and Annuities ..'.....!.,........!..... 1 
 
 Life and Accident Assurance jj^^ 
 
 Savings II. ..II ....'..'.'.'.'..'.'... .'.'.'.. Ivi 
 
 Co-operation _ jj^ 
 
 Co-operation Consumers' Associations Ix 
 
 Co-operative Credit Associations Ix 
 
 Co-operative Productive Societies ^. Ixiii 
 
 Workmen's Dwellings Ixvij 
 
 Social Hygiene Ixxiv 
 
 Dwellings, Workshops Ixxiv 
 
 Alcoholism Ixxv 
 
 Workmen's Clubs — Games and Recreation jxxx 
 
 Section XV. '''''\ i^^^ji 
 
 English Section Ixxxii 
 
 Conclusion 2xxxiij 
 
 SECTION 1.— REMUNERATION OF LABOR. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Agricultural wages j 
 
 Ordinary wages, daily wages, in the smaller industries in Paris and the other cities of France. .!!!'! 3 
 
 Ordinary wages, daily wages, in the larger industries (not including industries connected with mines 
 
 and metallurgy g 
 
 Fo> emen's, wages in the large industries g 
 
 Superintendents' wages do do " g 
 
 ilaohine drivers' do do do g 
 
 Assistants drivers' do do do g 
 
 Minimum wages per day paid to men under 21 years of age : workmen in felt hats, in grist mills, in 
 
 lime kilns, and in spinning of all sorts g 
 
 Minimum of wages paid to men from 15 to 21 years of age, in marble sawing, brickyards, porcelain 
 
 work, wax candles g 
 
 Minimum of daily wages paid to boys in industries for marbles, lime-kilns, brickyards, saw-miils, 
 
 tanneries, spinning and other industries g 
 
 Minimum daily wages paid to girls in industries for the manufacture of passementrie, bonnet trim- 
 mings, the manufacture of shawls, in marble works, lime-kilns, brickyards, porcelain works 
 mirrors, wood sawmills, tanneries, paper and cardboard factories, gas factories, wax candle 
 
 factories, grist-mills, spinning, weaving, dyeing, and materials for it g 
 
 Wages, average, paid to navvies, masons, stonecutters, rough-cast plasterers, assistants, carriers, in 
 
 Bordeaux, for a day of ten hours g 
 
 Working paviors, average wages , . , 7 
 
 Masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, cabinetmakers and printers in Lyons 7 
 
 Strikes in France from 1874 to 1881 — 
 
 Number of strikes for each year 7 
 
 Causes of strikes — Complaints of workmen g 
 
 Demands for increase of wages ; reduction of wages ; reduction of hours of labor ; demand for the 
 
 dismissal of a superior ; complaints concerning labor association-. 8 
 
 20—40 
 
626 
 
 Number of men on strike 9 
 
 Duration of strike , 9 
 
 Number of days' work lost on strikes ; 10 
 
 Division according to the industry of the number of strikes and of those on strike 10 
 
 Result of strikes during the period from 1874 to 1885 10 
 
 Attack on the liberty of labor and industry 11 
 
 Conditions imposed on Wohkmen in the different Industeies in France. 
 
 Heating Apparatus, &o. — FamUistire de Guise. Wages of the ten best workmen. Average wages 
 
 . of moulders and adjusters, general average of the whole staff : workmen's pay 15 
 
 Building — {Contractors for supplies) Maison Moodier, Saint-Germain en Laye. 
 
 Besides the upper employees whose salaries are paid monthly, work is done by the hour ; the pay 
 is monthly, but the workmen may be advanced sums on account ; no allowance is made for 
 going and coming from the shanties situated within two miles ; ior works more than two 
 miles distant, and for those in the provinces, the house pays the transport, board and lodg- 
 ing ; premiums are granted in certain oases ; hours of labor, workshop rules 18 
 
 Baccarat Glass-Works. Baccarat. (Meurthe and Moselle.) Staff of the establishment ; men by 
 the month.; boys or apprentices, women (including apprentices), ..assistants and workmen by 
 the day ; employees, foremen and guards ; increase in the average wages from 1878 to 1889 ; 
 progressive decrease in the cost of the necessaries of life ; hours of labor, work by the day 
 only, organization of labor, monthly payments, fixed wages and over-wages given as gratui- 
 ties ; all the workmen by the month are lodged rent free, in cottages surrounded by gardens ; 
 advance and increase ; tariff for forms ; increase and reduction of wages ; savings books of 
 the workmen ; council composed of the head men of the factory and of employees in the 
 
 service, to settle disputes 13 
 
 Boots and Shoes — Crochard d; Son, Boot and Shoe Manufacturers, Mans. 
 
 Amount of annual production ; proportion of wages on the production ; number of workmen ; 
 
 work hours ; pay of men, women and children ; increase in wages during the last 25 years . . 15 
 Builders' Machinists — Decauville, senior's, establishment, Petit Bourg. 
 
 Workshop rules ; monthly pay ; advances on account ; machines ; fines ; accidents jfmilitary ser- 
 vice ; deposit fund ; rents ; old age retiring list 24 
 
 BuiLDEBs, Machinists — Piquet & Co. 's Factory, Lyon. 
 
 Workmen paid by the hour ; special organization of work ; rigorous and automatic control ; super- 
 iority of this organization as regards good work ; satisfaction and prosperity of the workmen. 20 
 Coal Mines of Monteambebt and of La Beraudi^re (Anonymous Society). Basin of the Loire. 
 Wages of superintendents, pickers, carpenters, miners, levellers, machinists, receivers, black- 
 smiths, measurers, assistants in transporting, assistants to levellers, pickers, &c.; average 
 for the interior ; average for the outside ; general average ; comparison of wages of 1854 
 
 and 1888 ; average daily wages in the mines of La Roche, La Moliere and Firminy 22 
 
 Carpenters — Maison Lecceur, building contractors, Paris. 
 
 Was in existence in the middle of the last century ; employs 400 worlanen ; work is organized by 
 groups of seven or eight workmen, who execute different kinds of works in accordance with 
 a settled tariff ; this system gives an excess of about 25 per cent, on ordinary daily wages. . . 16 
 
 Common Pottery— -ilfons. Chardon, Malicorm (Sarthe). 
 
 The staff is composed of turners and assistants ; the men work apart with their wives and fam- 
 ilies ; hours of work ; wages paid turners and assistants ; rental 11 
 
 Cotton Spinning and Weaving — Mons. Marquet, cotton spinner and weaver. Croudlles, near \ 
 Chartre-su/r-Loire. 
 Factory contains 9,200 spindles ; employs 133 persona, men, women and children ; twelve hours' 
 work per day ; monthly pay ; wages per day ; increase in wages since 1850 ; a workman 
 leaving his work without notice loses the sum earned since last pay day ; steady workmen 
 can save ; the necessaries of life have not increased in a ratio with wages, but a love of 
 luxury has crept in, and wants increase 17 
 
 Combing, Spinning and Weaving — Seydoux, Seiber cfc Co. Le Cateau, Bousies, Maurois (villages in 
 the Northern Department). 
 Employs 2,765 workmen, not including 800 hand weavers ; daily wages, laborers, day workmen ; 
 workshop average ; wool pickers ; machine guides ; heaters ; cleansing wool from grease ; 
 caretakers ; spinners ; weavers ; machinists ; their day's work is 11| hours ; premiums for 
 punctuality ; prenaiums for production ; profit-sharing ; thrift ; deposits in the savings' bank ; 
 fines ; fines are paid to the mutual aid fund ; master's pay yearly a sum equal to the amount 
 of fines ; no strikes . . 22 
 
 Engineers-Machinists — Lethuillier and Pinet, Bouen. 
 
 Sixty -six hours work per week ; every workman who has worked three consecutive years receives 
 a premium of $14.00 at the end of the year ; the premium increases every year to the maxi- 
 mum amount of $46.00 16 
 
 Forges of Champagne-^ J'org'e Company of Champagne and the Canal from Saint-Dizier to Wassy. 
 Employs 1,760 workmen, men, women, boys and girls ; kind of work at which women and girls 
 are employed ; wages settled by various methods ; by the day, according to production ; by 
 the job and by the month ; certain classes of workmen are paid premiums and over- wages . . 12 
 
 Iron Goods — The sons of Peugeot Brothers, Manufacturers of Iron Ware, Velocipedes, &o., Valin- 
 tigny (Doubs.) 
 Employ 1, 900 workmen ; ^%th work by the piece, ^th by the day ; days' work is ten hours ; average 
 
 wages in 1863; average wages in 1858 ; average wages at present time ; monthly pay. . , 19 
 
627 
 
 LiaHTiNG BY G-AS — Light Companii for the cities of Mans, Vendofiie and Vannes. Page 
 
 Number of workmen ; monthly wages ; average wages ; increase in the average wages since 1878 ; 
 no noticeable change in cost of necessaries of life ; a steady workman can bring up his family 
 
 and save $40.00 to $48.00 per year 12 
 
 Mdsical Instkumbnts. — Fmitaine & Besson, Manufacturers of Musical Instruments, Paris and London 
 
 Day's work is ten hours ; weekly pay ; work by the piece incompatible with perfection required ; 
 
 slack time unknown ; workmen are paid yearly gratuities, and after ten years' service a 
 
 premium of $40.00 per year 11 
 
 Portable Railways — DecauviUe, Senoir's, establishment. Petit Bonrg. 
 
 Workshop rules ; monthly pay ; advances on account ; machins ; fines ; accidents ; military 
 
 service ; deposit fund ; rents ; old age retiring list 23 
 
 Printed Cottons — Messrs. Besseliive & Smis. Maromme (Seine infdrieure). 
 
 Men and women'p wages per day of ten hours ; gratuities attached to special positions increase ' 
 
 the wages by 20c. to 40c., and the work women's from lOo. to 20c 11 
 
 PiNAUD Peri'URMEry. Paris. 
 
 Factory rules ; system of premiums granted over and above the wages, amounting to from $10 
 
 to $40 per year ; the workman leaving the factory has a right to dispose of his capital 21 
 
 Ship-building — Anonymous Society of the yards and- workshops of La Gironde. Bordeaux. 
 
 Number of workmen employed ; paid by the day ; hours of work ; wages of carpenters, caulkers 
 
 and superintendents 21 
 
 Remuneration of Labor in Belgium. — Agriculture — Average Wages 28 
 
 Average wages, day laborers in the different industries in Belgium : Under 14 years, from 14 to 
 
 16 years, over 16 years 2G 
 
 General average for the whole kingdom, without classification, men and women 27 
 
 Comparative State of production of the coal mines of the Bassin du Bainault in 1850, 1870, 
 1887. Number of workmen employed ; average daily wages ; average wages per ton ; cost of 
 
 the necessaries of life 27 
 
 Coal Companies of Mariemont and Bascoup ; working population ; institution for the benefit 
 
 of their staff ; board of explanation ; organization of labor 28 
 
 Company ov La Vieillb Montagne, zinc mines and foundries at Angleur, Belgium, founded 
 in 1837. Organization of labor ; fixed wages ; eventual wage or premium ; average rate of 
 
 wages since the foundation ; regulation of wages 30 
 
 Duration of the days' work in Belgium 27 
 
 Industries working 10 hours per day 27 
 
 do 11 do 27 
 
 do 12 do 28 
 
 do more than 12 hours per day 28 
 
 Daily work — the day's work 27 
 
 do the night's work 27 
 
 Number of Workmen employed in the different industries : 
 
 Under 14 years 27 
 
 From 14 to 16 years 27 
 
 Over 16 years 27 
 
 SECTION II.— A— PROFIT SHARING. 
 
 Barbas, Tassart and Balas. — Roofers, Plumbers and Manufacturers of Heating Apparatus. 
 
 Profit sharing established in 1862, by means of a yearly payment, called a gratuity, of a portion 
 of the profits of the establishment ; 
 
 In 1882 profit-sharing of the most deserving workmen who have been three years in the firm's 
 employ, regularly established ; 
 
 Workmen s share amounts to 5 per cent, of the net profits of the establishment ; 
 
 Half the amount of shares is paid the workman in cash every year, the other half is paid to the 
 retiring and provident fund ; 
 
 The proportion compared to the wages is 10 -f^ per cent. A workman working 300 days in the 
 year is paid $23.75 in cash, and a like amount is entered on his savings book for retiring ; 
 
 Results of the organization 33 
 
 Bbssblievre & Sons. — Manufacturers of Printed Cottons, Maronne (Seine inferieure). 
 
 Workmen share in the profits of the establishment as a gratuity ; no determined amount ■; 
 
 The workmen admitted to profit-sharing are those whose conduct has been above reproach and 
 who have been five years in firm's employ ; 
 
 Half the amount is paid the workman at the end of the year ; the other half is paid to the provi- 
 dent fund, and bears interest at 4 per cent. ; * 
 
 The division is made by a committee composed half of workmen and half of representatives of 
 the firm ; 
 
 Profit-sharing has given a result of 7 per cent, to 17 per cent, per annum in proportion to the 
 workmen's wages^ from 1878 to 1888 ; 
 
 The sum in cash coming to each workman has varied from $31 . 50 to $75 , 50 per year ; 
 
 The greater number of the workmen have paid half the amount given them in cash to the provi- 
 dent fund 35 
 
 Bon MARCHi Stores.— Jfaison Aristide Boucicwult (cooperative). 
 
 The widow Mde. A. Boucicault, in 1880, took 96 of her upper employees and heads of depart- 
 ments into partnership ; fths of the capital, which is four million dollars, belong to the em- 
 ployees ; 
 20— 40| 
 
628 
 
 Page 
 
 The legal form is a limited partnership for Mde. Boucicault, and a general partnership for the 
 others ; 
 
 A certain number of the employees have an interest either in the profits or in the general busi- 
 ness of the house, or in the sales in their department ; 
 
 The sums carried to the credit ef the Provident fund are divided in accordance with a scale 
 
 based on the years of service 37 
 
 Buttner-Thierky, JSI. E. Printer, Lithographer. Paris. 
 
 Mons. Buttner-Thierry allows his staff 1 per cent, on the sales in his establishment and a gratuity 
 in proportion to his profits ; one-third is paid in cash, and the other two-thirds are deposited 
 with the Union Insurance Company as a provident fund 39 
 
 Chaix Printing House. — Paris. 
 
 Profit-sharing is established in the house on the following basis : 
 
 15 per cent, of the net profits are divided among the participants in proportion to their 
 
 wages ; 
 One-third of the share coming to each is paid in cash ; J is paid to the Provident and Retiring 
 
 fund, and can only be touched when the participant leaves the establishment ; 
 One-third is paid to the provident and retiring fund and can only be touched after 20 years' 
 
 service, and at 60 years of age. 
 The result gives an average of 6 per cent, on the wages, from 1872 to 1888. 
 Besides the workmen's share there is also the apprentices' ; they share in the profits realized on 
 
 the work done by them. The proceeds are paid them when they finish their apprenticeship, 
 
 and form an amount varying between -SlOO and $120 39 
 
 Chocolate Works, Lombart. Paris. 
 
 In this establishment the workmen share in the profits in a proportion which is determined by 
 
 the master, and varies from $12,000 to $20,000 per year ; 
 The division is based : 1st. on length of service, 2nd. on amount of wages, 3rd. on the merits of 
 
 the party ; when the shares are more than $20 the men are paid i in cash and f are paid to 
 
 the retiring fund ; if the amount is less than $20 it is paid entirely to the fund. 
 
 Workmen have a right to retire at 50 years of age 59 
 
 Company for Lishting by Gas the Cities of Mans, Vendome and Vannes, Central Electric 
 ' Company of the city of Mans. 
 Profit-sharing consists of a sum which the management allows every two years, and which repre- 
 sents about 10 per cent, increase on the yearly wages. The employees and workmen are 
 
 moreover given an annual gratuity proportioned to their services. 
 The most deserving workmen receive, moreover, after 5 years' service, a yearly sum of $10. These 
 
 amounts are deposited in the Savings Bank in the workman's name, and are entered in his 
 
 private book 41 
 
 Company (Universal) of the Suez Canal. 
 
 Profit-sharing of the staff in proportion of 2 per cent. 
 
 The shares ^from this 2 per cent, form a retiring fund for the staff. 
 
 The minimum retiring pension of an employee 30 years of age is one-third his average salary 
 
 during the last five years ; the maximum is half his salary. 
 If there be a surplus, a reserve fund of 10 per cent, is assessed from the retiring fund ; 
 If this still leaves a surplus, it is divided among all the employees still in service, in proportion to 
 
 their salaries 45 
 
 Company (General Transatlantic). 
 
 This company maintains the principle that every one employed by the Company, from the General 
 
 Manager to the lowest employee, has a right to a premium over and above his salary ; 
 Profit-sharing is, however, divided into three classes : ] st. the sedentary staflE, 2nd. the sea-faring 
 
 staff, 3rd. the captains and officers responsible for damages ; 
 In ordinary times the amount for premiums and penalties is 10 per cent, of the salaries, and 5 
 
 per cent, supplementary premium for the sea-faring staff ; 
 
 The premiums are paid at the end of the year 44 
 
 Co-operative Paper Company of Angouleme. — Laroche-Joubert & Co. 
 
 Profit-sharing is separately established for the different factories of glazing, &c., mourning 
 
 paper, registers, packing, and Paris warehouse ; 
 There is in each department, at so much in the dollar, 
 
 One part for capital ; 
 
 One part for intellect ; 
 
 One part for labor. 
 Plus a premium for the workmen who produce a maximvim of goods and a minimum of waste. 
 Each one's share is paid in money every year,' but there is a savings bank belonging to the 
 
 establishment in which deposits are received on advantageous terms ; 
 Each depositor may convert his deposit into sloping partnership shares, and thus become a 
 
 shareholder in the Company. 
 
 In 1885 the shares thus belonging to employees amounted to the sum of $269,000 55 
 
 deBerny. — {Type Foundry, Paris.) 
 
 Mons. deBerny adopted profit-sharing in his establishment in 1848, basing his system on the re- 
 lative value of capital and labor by a proportioned division of profits and loss. 'The division 
 
 is called the Workshop Fund, to which are paid : 
 2 per cent, retained on salaries ; 
 The share of profits awarded labor ; 
 Interest on sums loaned ; 
 
629 
 
 Page 
 
 The moneys of the fund are the property of the workers who have a hfe interest in them ; the 
 share coming to each is settled every year. The division is made in proportion to the days 
 of work. The fund shares in the losses in the same proportion as in the profits. The fund 
 loans money to the members to the amount of their snares ; the loans bear interest at 6 per 
 
 cent, and are payable fortnightly 46 
 
 DOGNIN. — {Lace and Tulle Manufacturers, Lyons.) 
 
 Profit-sharing is established in the different departments of this house, the workmen sharing in 
 the profits realized in their own department ; 
 
 Machinists, and those whose work concerns the whole factory, share in the general profits ; the 
 division is based on the wages, and a graduated scale of years of service ; 
 
 The division is made by the savings bank, the amount being made in specie or in the books ; 
 
 This condition, the object of which is to encourage thrift, has produced the best results 52 
 
 Pamilisteee de Guise. — (Co-operative association of capital and labor, Godin & Co. Heating appara- 
 tus, t£r. ) 
 
 The system of profit-sharing was established by statute in 1880 ; it is divided into four classes : 
 the partners, the members, the profit-sharers, and those interested ; 
 
 The partners must have served 5 years, and o\vn five shares, of $20.00 each in capital shares ; 
 
 The members must have served 3 years, and own at least one share of $20.00 in cai^ital shares ; 
 
 The profit-sharers have worked 1 year for the association ; 
 
 Those interested own parts in capital shares, either by inheritance or by purchase ; 
 
 The percentage of the amount to be divided being established, the partners receive two parts, the 
 members one and a-half parts, the profit-sharers and those interested one part ; 
 
 The dividends are paid as savings. 
 
 By means of Mons. Godin's legacy, and the accumulated savings, the workmen owned in 1888, 90 
 per cent, of the capital shares, the capital had doubled in 10 years, and all the aged and in- 
 firm workmen were pensioned by the retiring fund 75 
 
 FlVES-LlLLE Company. — For mechanical constructions ami enterprises, Fives-Lille [N'orth], 
 
 The Company has established Provident funds for its 2,.500 or 3,000 workmen ; 
 
 The funds are supplied by an amount equal to 8 per cent, of the net profits of the workshop ; 
 
 2 per cent, is allowed for gratuities, medical attendance, legal costs, &c. ; if there is a surplus it 
 
 is paid to the Provident fund ; 
 The division is made in proportion to the wages. 
 
 The participants' accounts are liquidated after 12 years participation and 15 years service 44 
 
 GlRONDE Feinting House. — (G. Oounouilhou, Manager, Bordeaux.) 
 
 After five years service every employee shares in the profits of the establishment ; 
 
 The proportion of profits to be divided among the employees is 15 per cent. ; 
 
 Two-thirds are divided among the employees who have served five years, and the other third among 
 
 those who have served twelve years ; 
 The share of the first mentioned is paid to the retiring fund with enjoyinent at the age of 50 
 
 years. That of the last mentioned is paid them in cash. 
 The results of the organization has given an average sum of $28 . 72 since the year 1885 54 
 
 General Insurance Company 54 
 
 Kestner & Co. — Bdlevue, near Qirojnagny {Upper Rhine). 
 
 Messirs. Kestner have admitted their workmen to a share in their profits in 1851 ; 
 
 Profit-sharing is proportioned to the employees length of service ; 3 per cent, for the first five 
 years and 1 per cent, more for every additional five years. 
 
 Since 1851 the results have given an average of 5 ' 72 per cent, on the wages 54 
 
 La Nationale. — (Fire and Life Insurance Company, Paris.) 
 
 The Company has, since 1837, distributed among its employees (with the exception of managers 
 and inspectors) 2^ per cent, of the amount of dividends paid to the shareholders ; 
 
 This gratuity is paid m cash in proportion to the wages of the employee 41 
 
 Le Soleil et l'Aigle (The Sun and Eagle). — Fire Insurance Company. 
 
 This Company founded in 1881 a Provident fund for the benefit of their employees ; 
 
 3 per cent, of the amounts paid in dividends is devoted to profit-sharing ; 
 
 Of this amount 50 per cent, is divided among the employees in proportion to their salaries ; 25 
 per cent, is divided in proportion to their length of service, and 25 per cent, remaining is put 
 at the manager's disposal to reward exceptional services, to assist those in want, and to pay 
 interest at 4 per cent, to the participants accounts 41 
 
 LbC(eub — Gtmtractors for Carpentry, Paris. 
 
 The Maisoii Lecojur allows 10 per cent, of the net profits to its workmen. The first noyau of 
 participants was formed of the oldest and most worthy of its employees ; at the present time 
 the workmen are admitted to profit-sharing after three years' service. The division is made 
 in proportion to the wages ; half the amount is paid to the retiring fund, and the other half 
 
 paid in cash 58 
 
 Mame & ^oss.— Printers, Bookbinders and Publishers, Tours (1796-1889.) 
 
 Profit-sharing consists of a percentage on the sales in the bookstore, and on the profits of the 
 shop ; one-third is paid in cash, and two-thirds to a Provident fund ; 
 
 The average amount for each workman is $30 per year ; 
 
 The results of the organization from 1874 to 1888 61 
 
 Masson, Gr.— [Bookseller and Publisher, Paris.) 
 
 Mons. G. Masson allow his employees to share in the profits to the extent of $0.60 on each $1,000 
 of sales, to the amount of one million, and of $1.00 per $1,000 for any amount exceeding one 
 million ; 
 
.630 
 
 The division is made in proportion to the salaries of each ; 
 
 One-third of the amount is paid in cash ; 
 
 The two other thirds increased by interest at 5 i^er cent, become the property of the sharer at 
 
 the expiration of twenty years' service. 
 In 1888 the sum of '81,410 was divided among 27 employees, giving each an average of $52.22 62 
 
 MoNDUlT. — Roofer & Plumber 6.S 
 
 JIOUTIEB — Founded in 1S19. Contractors for building supplies ; specialty in locks and mechanical con- 
 trivances. 
 
 The workmen of the Maison Moutier share in the profits of the establishment in the proportion 
 of 25 per cent. , under the following conditions : — Must have worked for the house for three 
 years ; reserved Ic. per day on his wages as a saving. 
 
 If the division does not exceed $20 it is paid in full to the retiring fund ; if there is a surplus, 
 the employee may dispose of it at will. The amounts paid to the retiring fund, either by 
 the master or by the workman are inalienable and unseizable ; they belong to the employees, 
 but cannot be withdrawn before the age of 55 years 63 
 
 MozET .-iND Delalonde. — Contractors for Masonry, Paris. 
 
 The workment share in 10 per cent, of the profits of the establishment. 
 
 The sharers are named by the master and a committee of foremen, from among the work- 
 men who have worked more than two years for the establishment ; 
 
 The division is made in proportion to the wages ; half is paid to the retiring fund, and the 
 other half is paid in cash ; 
 
 The results from 1885 to 1889 gave an average of 8-^ compared to the wages 65 
 
 OissEL Spinning Mills 53 
 
 Pernod & Fils. — Distillers, Pontarlier (Douhs). 
 
 Messrs. Pernod & Son admit their staff to a share in their profits in a variable proportion ; the 
 
 amount divided remains in the house which is responsible for it, but the shares are 
 
 entered on books belonging to the workmen. 
 The house insures its workmen against accident and sickness, at its ovra expense ; 
 In 1888, on an amount of $965,000 business done, a sum of $11,675 was paid the 67 workmen in 
 
 wages, and .$6,700 of profits was divided among them, about 57 per cent 65 
 
 Paris and Okleans Railway. 
 
 This Company allows the working staff to share in the profits ; 
 
 From the net profits are first assessed interest and dividends for capital shares ; 
 
 Of the surplus, the Board of Management allows one proportion, varying from 5 per cent, to 15 
 
 per cent., the maximum of which is $50,000 ; 
 On the amount for profit-sharing is first assessed, a certain sum to be divided among the staff 
 
 who have been wounded, or who have contracted sickness or infirmities, in the performance 
 
 of their duties ; to employees who have distinguished themselves by their services ; 
 The balance is divided among the employees, and paid to their personal accounts in the retiring 
 
 fund for old age, until each amount has attained 10 per cent, of the owner's salary ; 
 If there is any surplus it is paid the employee in cash, to the amount of 7 per cent, of his salary ; 
 Deposits in the retiring fund and in the savings bank are invested in state rents ; 
 Every employee has a right to increase his savings bank account by deposits from his private 
 
 resources 24 
 
 A. PlAT. — Machinist, Soissons, Paris. 
 Profit-sharing established in 1882 ; 
 
 The share to be divided among the staff is given as a gratuity ; 
 Of the share coming to each half is paid in cash and half to the retiring fund ; 
 Profit-sharing as compared with the wages gives a proportion of 8 per cent. 
 The share coming to each workman is about $.30.60 per year. 
 Results of the organization from 1882 to 1888 66 
 
 Redouly & Co. — Former Leclaire House, contractors in house painting, gilding, tinting, glass and 
 decorative work. Paris, 
 
 Since 1842 this important firm has, in different ways, allowed the workmen to share in the pro- 
 fits. A provident fund founded by Mons. Leclaire has now a capital of $451,103. Smce 
 Mons. Leclaire's death the firm has been able to commanditer half the business capital, 
 which amounts to $80,000, without affecting the service of aid and pensions. 
 
 The net profits of each year are divided as follows : 25 per cent, to the managers, 25per cent, 
 to the Provident and Mutual Aid Society ; 50 per cent, to the workmen. 
 
 The retiring pension, paid after 20 years' service, is $240. That for widows and orphans, until 
 they are of age, is $120. 
 
 In case of sickness, the society pays the expensas for medical attendance, medicines and an 
 indemnity of $0 . 70 per day. 
 
 The results for the last ten years have given an average of 205^°^ per cent, of the wages ; 
 
 In 1882, the share coming to each workman who had worked 300 in the year, was $80 besides 
 
 his wages 67 
 
 Sautieb, Lemonier cS: Co. — Lighthouses, cfcc. Paris. 
 
 Profit sharing is established in this house under the form of a supplementary allocation fixed by 
 
 the master ; ' 
 Each one's share varies in accordance to his services and his intelligence. 
 The results give an average of from 8 to 10 per cent, in proportion to the wages ; 
 In 1889 the sum divided among 90 shares amounted to $66,000 73 
 
631 
 
 Stbinheil, Dieterlen & Co.— Cotton Spinners, Bothans, Alsace. 
 
 In the deed of partnership between Messrs. G. Steinheil and Bieterlen, it is agreed that the 
 
 workmen are to share in both the profits and losses of the factory to the extent of 10 per cent. ; 
 In 18fi8, the proportion was raised to 12 per cent. The period from 1868 to 1872 having proved 
 
 disastrous not only for the factory, but for all Alsace as well, the balance sheet showed a 
 
 loss for the workmen ; 
 In 1872 the house announced individual profit-sharing, and maintained in its statutes collective 
 
 profit-sharing to the extent of 10 per cent ; 
 Of this amount 4 per cent, is immediately paid to succor workmen in want, and the balance is 
 
 paid to the fund of the Mutual Aid Society ; 
 The average annual amount paid to the fund of the Mutual Aid Society is $1,500. The surplus, 
 
 if there be any, will be divided when the Society is dissolved 7.S 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 BusHiLL, Thomas & Soi^s.— Paper Manufacturers, Coventry. 
 
 Profit-sharing was established in 1888. 
 
 The proportion is not fixed, but a certain sum is divided among the workmen who have been at 
 least one year in the employ of the firm, pro rata their wages ; 
 
 Half this sum is paid in cash, the other half is paid to the Provident fund of the establishment ; 
 the workmen have a right to the amounts deposited in the Provident fund at the expiration 
 of 25 years' service, or at the age of 65 years 79 
 
 Oassell & Co. (Limited). — Printers, Publishers, London. 
 
 When the Company was estabUshed in 1883, with a capital of £500,000 sterling, £70,000 were 
 reserved for the staff, and all the empl&yees by the payment of 1 shilling per week, during 
 three years and a-half, becomes the owner of one share. The shares cost £9 — have borne 
 interest at 10 per cent., for the last six years, and their commercial value is now £15 10s. 
 
 The employees ovm 7,500 shares at the present time, or about £67,500 on the £70,000 reserved 
 
 for them 80 
 
 Hakt & Co. — Industrial Partnership (Livdted). 
 
 This firm was founded by Miss Hart whose object was to introduce Mons. Leclaire's ideas on 
 
 British soil. 
 The workmen's part is paid in the form of shares 80 
 
 Thompson & Sons (Limited).— CToi/i Manufacturers, Woodhouse Mills, Huddersfield, England. 
 Cooperative Association based on the system of Godin and Leclaire ; 
 After^ the general expenses and interest on capital have been paid, the remaining profits are 
 
 divided among the employees in the form of parts in capital shares ; 
 One portion of the profits is reserved to reward special services ; 
 Eighty-six workmen are now shareholders 80 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 DE Xaeyer & Co. — Willehroeck, Belgium. 
 
 AftPr the troubles between the Belgium and English fishermen in 1887, this firm provided steam 
 sloops for the Belgium fishermen, which it rents them ; the sloop is used for fishing purposes, 
 manned by a master and four seamen, fishermen ; to the rental is added a percentage on the 
 fish caught, the proceeds to serve as a redeeming rent for the capital represented by the 
 sloop and nets, thus when the catch is good the fishermen become owners of the sloop in a 
 few years ; 
 After the above deduction, the balance of receipts is divided among the crew in the follovidng 
 
 proportion ; -j^^ to the master, ^ for each sailor 82 
 
 Pilotage op the " Escaut." 
 
 The pilotage of these waters by ships coming from the sea into Belgian ports, or vice versa, is in 
 
 the hands of both Belgian and Netherland pilots ; 
 There is competition between the two countries, and as a stimulus to the zeal of their agents, 
 
 salaries are based on the receipts 85 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Felice Genevois & Sons, Soap Manufacturers, Naples. 
 
 ■The Neapolitan population object to co-operative work, and of 200 workmen employed by this 
 firm 16 only are profit-sharers. 
 
 Each sharer should leave his profits entire until the attain they sum of $6,000 ; 
 
 The division of profits is made pro rata the capital of the participant, increased by the wages 
 earned during the j^ear, after having shared 20 years the sharer may retire and be paid the 
 part belonging to his capital, as if he were still working. His dividends are not less than 
 per cent 86 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Netherlands Mancpacture op Yeast and Spirits. 
 
 10 per cent of the net profits are placed at the disposal of the directors, to be employed for the 
 workmen's benefit, to the best of their judgment. In 1887 this share of the profits amounted 
 to $5,642 ; the division was xaadapro rata the wages, equivalent to 9 per cent, of the wages. 
 The dividends are paid in cash to heads of families, and half in cash and half to the Savings 
 Bank for unmarried men 85 
 
632 
 
 UNITED STATES. Page 
 
 N. 0. Nelson Manupaotumng Co., Brass Founders and Manufactitrers of Seating Apparatus, St. 
 Louis, Missouri. 
 Profit-sharing in this establishment is in accordance with the Godin-Leclaire system. After paying 
 interest to capital at the rate of 7 per cent. , 10 per cent, is assessed for an aid fund for the 
 wounded and sick ; 10 per cent, for a provident fund to cover eventual losses, and 2 per 
 cent, to found a library. 
 The results of the system — deduction made of above mentioned assessments — gives an average of 
 
 about 10 per cent, on the wages 87 
 
 Peace Dale Manupaotueins Company, Peace Dale, Rhode Island. 
 
 This Company introduced profit-sharing among the workmen in 1878. The management reserved 
 the right to determine the amount of dividend, when there is one. During ten years the 
 Company has paid only four dividends representing, in all, 10 per cent, of the wages, or 
 
 ly^ per head per year 88 
 
 Synoptical Table. 
 Of the establishments practising profit-sharing, in different Countries, and the methods 
 
 adopted up to 1885 : 89 
 
 Alsace, 97 ; Austria, 98 ; Belgium, 99 ; Denmark, 99 ; France, 95 ; Great Britain, 97 ; Ger- 
 many, 97 ; Holland, 99 ; Italy, 98 ; Norway, 99 ; Russia, 99 ; Sweden, 99 ; Switzerland 
 
 98. Complete table up to 1888, 100 94 
 
 Table of establishment in which the practice of profit-sharing was attempted and abandoned 96 
 
 SECTION II.— 5— CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 PKiNCE. 
 
 Armchaies makers. — (Association of.) 
 
 Founded in 1849, reconstituted three times on expiration of the contract ; 
 
 Each member binds himself to pay S20, in amounts retained on his wages ; 
 
 A reserve fund is created by a deduction of the profits of each member to the amount of one 
 
 year's wages (about $400) ; 
 When the reserve fund is provided for, the profits and losses are divided pro rata the wages 
 
 received. 
 The association can make use of the amounts deposited to the credit of the reserve fund to cover 
 
 commercial losses, but in such a case the reserve fund must be repaid in as short a time as 
 
 possible, until which time the amount is considered as an ordinary debt of the society 116 
 
 ■ 10IATION L'AvENiE of Fumiturc Makers. 
 
 This Association is an anonymous society, with variable capital and membership. The first sub- 
 scription to capital was SI, 200 represented by sixty shares of $20.00, payable one-fourth 
 cash, and the balance in instalments of $1.00 per month. 
 
 Goods, such as tools, raw materials are allowed ; m order to belong to the Society it is necessary 
 to purchase or agree to subscribe five shares. 
 
 When there is a surplus it is paid to capital up to one-third the capital, and when this reserve is 
 completed, the balance is employed for professional teaching, federal insurance and to a 
 provident and retiring fund 115 
 
 Cabmen. — (Association of Caimen.J 
 
 Anonymous company, with variable capital ; 
 
 The capital is fixed at $24,000, and may be increased by the admission of new members and 
 
 decreased to $10,000 by some of the members retiring or their being expelled ; 
 In order to become a member it is necessary to pay $400 and subscribe to 6 shares ; 
 An amount is deducted from the profits to give 5 per cent, interest on capital paid ; 
 The balance is divided as follows : 
 -^ to actual shareholders ; 
 ■j% to labor, pro rata the days of work ; 
 ^ to the reserve fund ; 
 jij to the aid and gratuity fund , 139 
 
 Cabinet Makers. — (Association. ) 
 
 Formed as a general partnership of the most simple type : each member pays $80.00 for his share 
 in the business capital, the management is in common, the expenses are borne by all the 
 members in proportion to their subscription and the profits are divided on the same basis, 
 one-fifth reserved for unforeseen expenses 116 
 
 Cabinet makers. — (Association of Parisian). 
 Anonymotis partnership, variable capital. 
 
 Capital fixed at $14,000, divided into 140 shares of $100 each ; the shares are payable $1 on subs- 
 cribing and $1 per month retained on wages. 
 5 p. 0. interest is paid capital and charged to the general expenses, the net profits remaining are 
 
 divided as follows : 
 50 p. c. as dividend to shareholders ; 
 25 p. c. to the reserve ; 
 25 p. c. to the retiring fund ; 
 
 Shares holders can receive their portion only when their shares are entirely paid up 103 
 
 Carpenters. — (SyndicaJ Association of Working Carpenters of the Seine.) 
 
 Was founded in 1880 after the strike, with a capital of $2,000 divided into 100 shares of $20.00 
 each, one-fourth of which is payable at once, and the balance in instalments of $1.00 per 
 month. 
 
633 
 
 The business capital may be increased, shareholders cannot own more than ten shares ; Page 
 
 The profits are divided as follows : — 
 
 One-third to copital pro rata the amounts paid on shares. One-third to labor pro rata the wages 
 
 received during the year j 
 One-sixth to the reserve fund ; 
 One-sixth to form a retiring fund 117 
 
 CABVESTEtiS.— (Cooperative Association of Working Carpenters of Villette.) 
 
 This institution is under the form of an anonymous partnership with variable capital. The 
 business fund was originally $6,000, divided mto 300 shares of $20 each, and is now ^16,000, 
 plus $4,000 to the reserve, and a rolling fund varying between $4,000 and $9,000 ; 
 The division of profits is given under the form of an increase in wages. The members now 
 
 receive 20 per cent, more than the regular tariff 119 
 
 Cement-makers.— f<?e«er(rf Associaiion of Working Cement-makers.) 
 
 This institution is in the form of an anonymous partnership, with variable capital ; 
 
 No one can own more than ten shares ; 
 
 No one but a working cement-maker is allowed to subscribe ; 
 
 The net profits are divided in the following manner : 
 
 5 per cent, to the reserve fund ; 
 
 25 per cent, to the creation of a reserve fund extraordinary ; 
 
 70 per cent, dividends to shareholders. 
 
 Members who have not paid their subscriptions regularly do not share in the dividend 121 
 
 COUMES. — (House of L.) Professional school for Hat-making, Co-operative Society of Villenoy. 
 
 The object of this association is : Apprenticeship, perfecting and development of French hat- 
 making. 
 The creation of a co-operative muss in order to ensure the progressive transference of the business 
 
 into the hands of the associated workmen, by means of the progressive elimination of the 
 
 founder members. 
 The business fund is $10,000, divided into 500 shares of $20. The capital is constituted by the 
 
 founder members and the working members. The founder member shares in the capital only 
 
 in the division of profit, and must withdraw from the finri in a given time ; the workman 
 
 member shares both in the capital and in labor profits. 
 After the yearly inventory, the proceeds are divided into two equal parts — one attributed to 
 
 capital, and the other to labor. 
 The part allowed capital is divided as f oUows : — 
 
 Interest limited to 4 per cent. 
 
 15 per cent, to the reserve. 
 
 The balance isdivided — half as dividend to capital, and half to the co-operative mass. 
 The other part allowed labor is divided as follows ; — 
 
 f to co-operative labor. 
 
 f to savings. 
 
 \ to the co-opera,tive mass. 
 Co-operative labor is subdivided as follows : — 
 
 35 per cent, per head to the sharers ; ^ 
 
 30 per cent, per head to length of service ; 
 
 35 per cent, per head to intelligence (management and heads of the service). 
 Each year a certain number of founder members' shares are bought at par by the co-operative 
 
 mass, according to the amount at its disposal. A drawing by lot gives the numbers of the 
 
 shares to be put to this forced sale 98 
 
 Decokattve Painters. — (Association of Artistic Decoration.) 
 
 At the time the decorative work in the City Hall of Paris was given out, 16 decorative artists, 
 
 painters, formed themselves into a general partnership for the execution of these works. 
 
 The partnership to expire when the works were accepted and paid for ; \ 
 
 The regulations state that : The work done by the partners will be done by the hour ; 
 At the expiration of the partnership, the profits realized wiU be divided among the partners pro 
 
 rata tne time given by each 133 
 
 Dairy. — (Anonymous Society of the Co-operative Dairy of Leschelles.) 
 
 Founded in 1887 by the Count Capparelli with a capital of 810,000 ; the premises and tools absorb 
 
 this sum ; ,,.,..,, 
 
 In 1888 the society received 343,200 gallons of milk: from the co-operators, for which it paid about 
 
 9|c. per gallon ; the profits amounted to $2,860 ; 
 The results of the year 1888-89 gave a net profit of $2,860, besides 5 per cent, interest on capital ; 
 
 one part was paid in dividends, the other was allotted to redeeming rent 101 
 
 File-Makers. — (Association as a general partnership of File-makers.) 
 
 Founded in 1848, under Government patronage with a subsidy of $2,000. 
 
 The business share of each member is Hmited to $1,600 obligatory and to a posssible $2,000 ; 
 
 Each members leaves his share of profits and interest to the amount of $400 ; beyond that amount 
 
 he receives interest on his capital. , -, ■ , 
 
 Profits and losses are divided among the members ^o rata the wages earned during the year. . . 136 
 Jewellers. — (Cooperative Association of Jewellers in RoUed Gold.) 
 
 This Association is an anoymous partnership with variable capital and membership ; there are 160 
 
 members, who have paid $3,800 ; , , , , , „» ^ 
 
 The shares are $10.00, $1.00 baing paid on subscribing and the balance by 25 cents per week; 
 All workmen in this branch of the trade are admitted to the association on the same condition, 
 
 and to share in the same benefits ; every six months an inventory is drawn up, and the net 
 
634 
 
 Page 
 profits are divided into five parts : 1st. A dividend to shareholders, 2nd. Reserve fund, 3rd. 
 Provident and aid fund, 4th. Improved means of production, 5th. Tickets of attendance to 
 
 managers 136 
 
 LiTHoaKAPHEES. — (Cooperative Association of Worhing Lithographers. ) 
 
 Capital fixed at $40,000; 200 members at $200 each, payable 12.00 on subscribing and the balance 
 at 40c. per week. 
 
 The profits are divided as follows : 
 
 ^ to each manager. 
 
 3^j to the reserve. 
 
 X to the retiring fund. 
 
 The balance is divided among the members in proportion to the amounts paid by each 138 
 
 Opticians. — (General Association of Working Opticians.) 
 
 The legal style of this association is "anonymous society,'' with variable capital ; 
 
 The capital is now fixed at 824,000 minimum and it may be raised to 832,000 ; 
 
 The shares are .SlOO each. The business share of each member is formed from his share of profits 
 and by a weekly deduction of 60c. at the minimum and .$1 maximum from the wages. Each 
 member has a right to own §3,000 in capital shares and to raise this amount to 14,000 ; 
 
 2 p. c. of the annual profits go to the reserve ; 
 
 Every member who has served 20 years and has paid his .$3,000 may retire as a worker and con- 
 tinue to draw his dividends for the remainder of his lifetime 124 
 
 Piano Manupaotukers. — (Society of.) 
 
 This society is a general partnership. It numbers 18 partners, the subscribed capital is $47,442 
 and is entirely paid up, besides $40,000 in the reserve fund, and the property where the 
 workshops are situated. The business share of each member $300 on entering ; $300 by 
 amounts of $20 retamed on proceeds of work ; when the share in business amounts to $2,000, 
 the amounts thus retained cease, and the dividends alone are applied to the business capital. 108 
 Paviors. — (General Association of the Paviors of the Seine.) 
 
 An anonymous society with variable capital. 
 
 Capital from $3,.360, divided into 84 shares of $40. 
 
 The object of the association is to allow working paviors to contract for public works in roads 
 and paving j 
 
 The amounts paid by members to capital shares bear interest at 5 p. c. 
 
 Of the remaining profits : 
 
 20 p. c. to the reserve. 
 
 80 p. c. as dividends to shareholders. 
 
 The price of labor is based on the City of Paris series 122 
 
 Painters. — (Association of House Painters.) 
 
 Anonymous society, variable capital. 
 
 In 1889 the capital was $4,000, profits the same year $1,920. 
 
 The profits are divided as follows : 
 
 13 p. c. to the retiring fund. 
 
 25 p. c. to the reserve extrordinary. 
 
 35 p. c. to shares. 
 
 ?5 p. c. to all the workers, distributed pro rata length of service in the society. 
 
 Members whose shares are not completely freed cannot claim dividends 120 
 
 Spectacle-Makers. — (Society of Working Spectacle-Makers as a general and liquidated partnership.) 
 
 Founded in 1848 by Duez and Durie without capital ; now has a capital of $266,000, besides 
 tools worth $120,000 and a stock worth $40,000. The limit of capital for each shareholder is 
 $6,000 and a possible $8,000. 
 
 There are 95 members ; 
 
 Instead of ,a retiring fund the member increases his shares in the society by adding his annual 
 profits and interest, and, when he is ready to retire, he is paid interest at six per cent, mi- 
 nimum and ten per cent, maximum, per year. 
 
 The Society does not part with any portion of its capital or profits, except as interest, as has 
 
 been stated ; it increases its membership or the value of the shares 125 
 
 Sculptors. — [Cooperative Association of.) 
 
 Anonymous society, variable capital ; 
 
 Present capital fixed at $4,900, represented by 490 shares of $10 each ; 
 
 A member must subscribe 10 shares, payable 10 p. c. on subscribing and the balance by instal- 
 ments of 40 cts. monthly ; 
 
 Interest at 5 p. c. is allowed on paid up capital, the profits are then divided as follows : 
 
 75 p. 0. as devidend to shareholders ; 
 
 20 p. c. to outside employees pro rata work done ; 
 
 5 p. c. to the reserve fund 122 
 
 Tinsmith.— (.4ssocM(Mo« of Working Tinsmiths, Manufacturers of Street Lamps and Gas Meters. 
 
 The capital of this association is $10,000, formed by means of 20 cts. per week retained on the 
 wages of each member ; 
 
 The profits are divided as follows : 25 p. o. to the reserve fund ; 25 p. c. to the retiring fund, and 
 50 p. c. as dividends to the members ; 
 
 In 1884 the profits gave $71.50 per head 131 
 
 Tailors. — (General Association of Working Tailors.) 
 
 Anonymous society, with variable and unreducible capital. Present capital $20,000 divided in 
 1,000 shares of $20 each, payable ^ on subscribing and the balance by payments of $1 per 
 month ; 
 
635 
 
 The capital is variable and unreducible, that is, it may be increased but not diminished ; Page 
 
 ilie le^al reserve is 10 p. a, the attendance tickets of managers and 5 p. c. interest on capital 
 
 paid, are carried to the account of general expenses ; i 
 The profits are then divided equally among labor, capital and provident fund 131. 
 
 TYYoanAFSY.— C Association of Working Ti/pographers, and others, for printing and publishing the Offi- 
 cial Journal. ) ^ j ir j r j ^ 
 
 Anonymous society, variable capital ; 
 
 The capital is nominal, as the State provides the workshops, tools and materials, the Association 
 
 furnishing labor only ; 
 The profits are about $12,000 per year and are divided as follows : 
 5 p. c. to the reserve ; 
 5 p. c. to paid up capital ; 
 10 p. c. to the provident fund ; 
 5 p. c. to the retiring fund of the Parisian Typographical Society ; 
 
 The balance is divided among the shareholders 134 
 
 Typosbaphebs.— ('CooperofitT Association of Working Typographers " Vlmprimerie Nouvdle.")— 
 Capital, $20,000, divided into 1,000 shares of $20 each ; 
 
 30 p. c. of the profits to the reserve fund, the balance devoted to the enlargement of the work- 
 shops ; 
 In 18S4 the Association possessed a paid up capital of $20,000, a reserve fund of $20,000 and 
 
 tools worth $120,000 135- 
 
 Feance. 
 
 Synoptical table of co-operative Associations for production, of Paris 140" 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 The cooperative movement in Belgium 146. 
 
 Geeat Beitain. 
 
 Situation of co-operative productive societies in Great Britain, 31st December, 1887 143 
 
 Italy. 
 
 The co-operative movement in Italy is popular and supported by members of Parliament, finan- 
 ciers and the principal newspapers. Results : 42 societies, 9,865 members, paid capital, $139,- 
 000, profits for the year 1887, $44,500 im 
 
 Russia. 
 
 The origin of work done in common (generally known as artiles) dates back to the most ancient 
 
 times ; associations for fishing, hunting, opening new lands are organized by arteles 146'' 
 
 United States. 
 
 The co-operative movement in the United States 147 
 
 SECTION III— PROFESSIONAL SYNDICATES. 
 
 Law relating to the creation of professional syndicates in France 151 
 
 Agbicultuek. — (Agriculturcd Syndicate of the Department of the Jura.) 
 
 Founded with the object of protecting and studying agricultural interests and the industries con- 
 nected with them ; for the purchase of seed, manures, cattle and agricultural implements ; to 
 facilitate the sale of products, to spread the knowledge of proper methods of culture ; finally, 
 
 to encourage all attempts to improve agricultural progress. Membership is unlimited 152; 
 
 Agmcultuee. — [Agricultural Society of the Arrondissement of Senlis, Oise.) 
 
 Anonymous society in shares, variable capital. The Society makes purchases, for its members, 
 of agricultural implements, manures, seeds, and, in general, all articles relating to agricul- 
 ture ; is guarantee for members buying in regard to sellers. The capital is nominal, and 
 
 $20,000, divided into 200 shares of $100 each 153- 
 
 Accountants. — [Syndical Board of Accountants of the Department of the Seine.) 
 
 Founded with the object of protecting the interests of accountants, to state their rights and their 
 duties, especially as regard the secret entrusted to them and their personal responsibility. To 
 clearly define the knowledge required in an accountant's profession, and to propagate the 
 knowledge ; to provide experts and arbitrators of indisputable ability when required by 
 courts of justice, commerce and finance. 
 
 The membership is unlimited ; the subscription is $2.40 per year and 60c. entrance fee 158' 
 
 Building. — (Building Union of the City of Paris and of the Department of the Seine). 
 
 Established vrith the object of protecting and supporting the interests of builders in general. 
 
 To come to an understanding with capitalists and financial companies, on matters concerning 
 tenders for, and the adjudication of public works, and to protect the interests of the syndicate 
 in the event of their being attacked ; 
 
 To found a professional library, and classes for the technical instruction of pupils and appren- 
 tices. The subscription is $2. 40 per year and the entrance fee 60c 155' 
 
 Glass Woekees. — (Syndical Union of French Glass Workers). 
 
 Founded to oppose foreign competition, support the interests of glass workers, to demand the 
 part corresponding to the value of the works, and to establish mutual aid in case of lack of 
 work. 
 
 Entrance fee 20c, monthly subscription 10c 156- 
 
636 
 
 iABOB Exchange of Liege. _ Page 
 
 The Exchange or Market for Labor has as its object to equalize as much as possible the demand 
 and supply of labor, to afford a convenient meeting-place where the master can hire the 
 workmen he needs, and where the workman out of employment can consult the registers 
 and tables, procure information as to the establishments in want of hands, and finally facili- 
 tate the reouiting of employees, and protect the interests of both parties by a system of 
 references. The Exchange publishes every day on its posters, situated in different parts of 
 the city, the list of situations vacant, and the situations wanted 160 
 
 Xithoghapheks-Pbintehs. — {Association of Printers and Lithographers of Brussels.) 
 
 Founded for the purpose of maintaining the trade at a certain level ; receives only able workmen 
 as members. Besides this speciality, the association grants an indemnity in cases of lack of 
 work 160 
 
 Labor, — {Labor Association, mairie and arrondissement, Paris). 
 
 Pounded by wealthy persons belonging to different social scales. This association procures work 
 
 for persons requiring it ; its assistance is given gratuitously, and without distinotion,provided 
 
 the person seeking employment can prove his respectability. 
 Prom the time of its foundation, in 1871, to 1889, the Company has procured employment for 
 
 15,080 person ; 
 The members of the committee propagate widely doctrines of social economy, profit-sharing, as 
 
 exemplified by Leclaire, Bastiat and de Laboulay e 1 59 
 
 Millers (Syndicate of the Millers of France). 
 
 Pounded to consolidate the interests and relations between millers, flour dealers, grist-mills, 
 
 directors and managers of mills, brokers, commission merchants, grain dealers, and flour 
 
 merchants — finally all those whose interests are connected with mills 'in France ; 
 To study tariffs, means of transport and improvement in means of production ; 
 To organize a mutual fire insurance societyj an intelligence office for situations in mills, and 
 
 finally the publication of a general review, called "La Meunerie Fran5aise," and a year 
 
 book on French mills. 
 
 The monthly subscription is S2,40 153 
 
 PEorESSlONAL Labob. (Central Society of Professional Labor). 
 
 Founded by several engineers, manufacturers, and merchants, with the object of keeping pace 
 
 vrith all matters relating to professional labor ; 
 To study and understand the progress made in the processes of their art, not only in France, but 
 
 also in foreign parts, in order to be able to foresee and meet possible competition. 
 The members masters, pay an annual subscription of $20.00, and the other members an annual 
 
 subscription of 82.00 ■ 159 
 
 Shoesiakbrs of la Gibonde. (Mixed Syndicate, Bordeaux). 
 
 Pounded for the purpose of uniting intimately masters, employees, workmen and apprentices, as 
 
 well as all industries connected with shoemaking, or whose final object is the manufacture 
 
 of boots and shoes 158 
 
 Typographees. {Free Association of the compositors-printers. Typographers of Brussels). 
 
 Pounded with a view to procure work for those requiring it, to maintain the rate of wages by 
 
 every lawful means ; also a detailed tariff of handwork in order to regulate apprenticeships. 
 The monthly subscription is 50c. 
 The Association allows members deiJrived of work an amount varying from 82.10 to $3.00 160 
 
 SECTION IV.— APPRENTICESHIP.— TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Apprentice — {Protective Society for Apprentices and Children employed in Manufactories, Paris.) 
 
 Pounded for the philanthropic purpose of affording protection to appentices and children em- 
 ployed in factories against the unlawful exactions of masters and the brutality of foremen. 
 This society has extended the limit of its operations to other foimdations, which complete 
 the principal object of its institution ; 
 Children of the laboring class : A series of prizes or rewards granted at a ceremonious distribu- 
 tion of prizes, to the foremen who have best met the views of the Society in the care given to 
 the children under them, and also prizes for the most deserving among the apprentices ; 
 Employers foundations : Orphan asylums, i^rofessional schools, annuities for apprentices, legal 
 
 assistance, factory accidents, (fee. , &c 191 
 
 Baebas, Tassaet & Balas. — (Poofers, Plumbers, ic, d'c.) 
 
 This firm has established workshops which are really professional schools, from which the staff is 
 recruited. 
 
 The apxjrentiees have first to pass an examination in order to prove that their education is suf- 
 ficient. If it be not they are obliged to follow a course of instruction. 
 
 The term for apprenticeship is four years. ^ 
 
 Previous to being given a certificate of ability, the apprentice has to do some one piece of hand 
 work unassisted, and he is declared a journeyman only if the work is perfect. 
 
 The house allows them a supplementary pay of 5 cents per day, which is paid to the savings fund 170 
 
 Bronze Manufacturers' School 589 
 
 •Chaix — (Professional School of the Cha ix Printing House. ) 
 
 Founded in 1863 by Mons. Napoleon Chaix, for the purpose of forming able workmen. The ap- 
 prentices are given methodical instruction in manual work, which is completed by a course 
 of scholastic instruction. 
 
 The apprentices are awarded prizes, the amount of which is regulated in accordance with a 
 graduated scale . 
 
637 
 
 Page- 
 By means of these rewards the apprentices are enabled to belong to provident institutions, to be 
 
 insured against accidents, to belong to the retiring fund, &c., &;o. 
 The term of apprenticeship is four years , 170 
 
 City of Amiens. (Industrial Soeictt/ of Amiens). 
 
 Founded for the purpose of providing workmen a technical and practical education, and to main- 
 tain the superiority of the stuffs manufactured in Amiens. 
 
 For this jjurpose a school of apprenticeship has been established, in which are classes for weaving, 
 chemical printing, velvet cutting ; for folding, for applied mechanics, for commercial book- 
 keeping and correspondence in English, German and Italian ; popular libraries, lecture hall, 
 workingmens' exhibitions. ^ 
 
 These classes are free 202' 
 
 City of Hatke. — (The City of Havre Municipal School of apprenticeship for boys.) 
 The object of this school is to form able workmen and later on good foremen. 
 The technical instruction includes the following specialties : — 
 1st. Locksmith's work. 2nd. Adjusting. 3rd. Forge work. 4th. Turning metals. 5th. Brazier's 
 
 work. 6th. Foimding and moulding. 7th. Turning. 8th. Cabinet-making. 9th. Wood 
 
 turning. 10th. Carving. 11th. ModelUng. 
 The pupils are allowed to compete with each other. 
 A special class for mechanic apprentices is annexed to the Havre School for the purpose of giving 
 
 a theoretic and practical education to a certain number of young men in order to prepare 
 
 them for their duties on board steam vessels destined either for long or coasting voyages 180 
 
 City of Havkb. — Superior school of apprenticeship for girls. 
 
 The object of this school is to initiate them in the practice of a profession or trade, and to pre- 
 pare them for their duties as mothers of families. 
 The pupils are admitted gratuitously. Premium? are granted to the most deserving pupils 180 
 
 City of Nismes. — {Apprentices' competition.) 
 
 Founded by the Board of " Prud'hom/mes " (men of trust) to encourage and develop professional 
 
 instruction ; 
 Each apprentice is under the direction of a prud'homme who gives a report of the aptitude of 
 
 his pupOs, their good conduct and their progress ; 
 Examinations take place every year 181 
 
 City of Pakis. — (Municipal Professional School of House Furniture, Paris). 
 
 Founded for the purpose of forming able and intelligent workmen. 
 
 The course of instruction comprises : — Cabinet-making ; paper-hanging ; wood-carving ; car- 
 pentering in chairs ; turning in wood ; plaster and metals. 
 
 The pupils are all day pupils, and the school provides gratuitous instruction and breakfast and 
 luncheon as well. 
 
 The term for apprenticeship is four years. The scholars are chosen by competitive examination , . 188 
 
 City of Paeis — (Professional school for booiindustries.) 
 
 Established for the purpose of forming able and educated workmen for the book industry. 
 
 The duration of the study term is four years ; the course is free. 
 
 During the first year the pupils go through aU the school workshops : they are then divided and 
 
 placed according to the aptitude shown by each 18S 
 
 City of Pakis — (Diderot Municipal School. ) 
 
 This school is situated at La ViUette ; its object is to provide workmen for the eight following 
 trades : Forge work, metal turning, adjusting, locksmith, mechanical precision, modelling, 
 wood turning, carpentry. 
 The term of instruction is three years. 
 
 Apprentices are taught not only a trade, but general ideas on all the trades connected with it. . . 181 
 City of Roues. — (Municipal Professional School for Housekeeping for young Girls.) ^ 
 
 Founded by the city of Rouen to prepare young girls for different kinds of sewing, cutting out 
 
 and making garments, under linen, pressing and the care of a household 188 
 
 City of Sedan. — (Municipal School for Wearing.) 
 
 Founded after the crisis of 1881 for the purpose of forming workmen capable of manufacturing 
 
 dressed goods, but which has now become a school for general weaving 18S> 
 
 City of Saint Etiexne. — Professional school for boys. 
 
 At this professional school of apprenticeship is tattght adjusting, gunsmiths' work, forge work, 
 
 foundry, carpentering and modelling, weaving and dyeing, modelling and sculpture ; 
 The object of the professional school for girls is to teach them all works suited to their condition, 
 work at which they will be engaged later in life, either as housekeepers or as a means of 
 
 earning their livelihood 189 
 
 Emulation Dieppoise. — (A course of Artistic Industrial Dramng, and Professional Work.) 
 
 Founded for the purpose of dexseminating a knowledge of drawing and encouraging a taste for 
 
 the fine arts m order to apply them to different trades. 
 The course includes a theoretic and practical class for mensuration, carpentry and cabinet- 
 
 mrking ; forge work and work in metals ; tracing, turning and adjusting ; 
 The amount of subscription for the scholars is merely nominal ; the school is maintained by the 
 
 Chamber of Commerce, the municipality and private subscriptions 201 
 
 Fanien & Senior Son. — (Boot amd Shoe Manufacturers, Silliers, Pas-de-Calais.) 
 
 This firm has established a professional school for recruiting its staflf. Boys are received at 13 
 years of age, going through all the departments of the factory and doing apprentice work ; 
 
638 
 
 Page 
 
 at 14 years of age they are supposed to be sufficiently prepared to enter the professional 
 school, where foremen teachers teach them to manufacture shoes in different kinds of work. 
 
 There are special classes of work for young girls. 
 
 This school shows excellent results 172 
 
 •Gutenberg. — (Professional School, Piiris). 
 
 Founded in 1883 by the Board of Printing to raise the level of typographical knowledge. 
 
 The work of the school is not done in public. 
 
 The course of instruction lasts three years. A certain number of pupils are admitted gratuitously, 
 
 others on payment of a certain amount. 
 Apprentices from the different city printing houses are sent by their masters, on certain days of 
 
 the week to follow the classes of the school 174 
 
 Hattbes. — (Professional School for Hatters). 
 
 Pounded in 1881 as a private establishment, this school is now subsidized by the Government 
 and by the Public Assistance : it receives orphans, abandoned children and apprentices who 
 are paid for. 
 
 The object of this school is to form workmen and able foremen capable of competing with foreign 
 workmanship. 
 
 The apprentices are lodged and boarded and maintained in the school, the average cost is 50c., 
 everything included. 
 
 The re^lar term is four years for apprenticeship and two years for finishing. 
 
 The Mmister of Commerce has founded Travellmg Scholarships ($360) for the prize men of the 
 
 school 177 
 
 ■Jewellery. — (Society for the Orphans of Jewellers^ Clockmakers, Goldsmiths, and the trades connected. ) 
 
 Pounded for the purpose of assisting the children of its members, when deprived of their 
 natural jirotectors. 
 
 In this assistance is included the expense for a nurse, for primary instruction and apprenticeship. 
 
 The society affords its protection and superintendence until the apprenticeship is terminated. 
 
 The receipts in 1888 amounted to $4,100, and the expenses to $2,900 190 
 
 Iabok. — (Protestant Society of Labor for propagating the principle of free placing of employees, work- 
 men and apprentices.) 
 
 Founded by manufacturers and commercial men to serve as intermediaries between manufac- 
 turers, and merchants in want of book-keepers, employees, corresponding clerks, cashiers, 
 agents, governesses, ladies and young men, as clerks, workmen, &c., and those persons re- 
 quiring employment or work 197 
 
 MOUTIER House. — (Locksmiths and manufacturers of mechanical contrivances.) 
 
 The apprenticeship indentures exact a certificate of primary study. 
 
 Manual instruction, determined by progressive exercises, is entrusted to the foremen. 
 
 The course of theoretic instruction is given by the master and the manager of the works 173 
 
 Paper — (Syndical Board ofprofessional instruction in paper manufacture, and in the industries hy 
 which it is made, Paris.) 
 
 The institution, founded by the Syndical Board of Paper in favor of apprentices, includes : En- 
 couragement, primary instruction, professional teaching, and special teaching of apprentices . . . 175 
 Patronage op Apprentices — (Society of Patronage of Apprentices and Israelite Workmen of Paris.) 
 
 This is a boarding-school for the purpose of giving a moral education of orphans, abandoned 
 children and those whose parents have no means of providing for them, to have them taught 
 a trade, or to complete their education by a night course of instruction. 
 
 The term for apprenticeship is three and a-half or four years 196 
 
 PhILOMATHIO SOOIBTY OP BORDEAUX. 
 
 In the beginning this society was only a sort of academy devoted to letters, science, music and 
 archeology ; later on it established a free class for dividing silk cocoons, founds adult and 
 apprentices' classes, which are now much developed. 
 
 The course of instruction is divided into three classes : — 1st. Primary instruction, commercial 
 
 instruction and professional instruction 199 
 
 Philotechnio Association of Paris. 
 
 Founded for the purpose of giving to adults of both sexes gratuitous instruction suited to their 
 trades. 
 
 The instruction given is directed with this end in view, and distributes certificates for study re- 
 lating to commerce, the industrial arts, mathematical science, and technical instruction .... 198 
 Polttechnic Association. 
 
 Founded to spread among the working classes the first elements of positive science, especially as 
 to their application ; the spread of useful professional and technical knowledge. 
 
 The public night free classes are 450 in number. There are also conferences and people's libraries 197 
 Railway — Chemin de pee du Nobd.— fPT-o/cssiotiaJ Glass for Apprentices.) 
 
 Founded by the Board of Directors at Paris-La-Chapdle for the purpose of forming able and 
 educated workinen, with a practical knowledge of all kinds of work relating to railways. 
 , Instruction is given gratuitously, and the term of apprenticeship is three years. 
 
 Every year prizes are awarded to the most deserving 179 
 
 Rbdouly & Co. (former Leclair House). 
 
 The sons and nephews of employees of the House are admitted by preference. 
 
 There is no deed of apprenticeship, both parties remaining free. The heads of the workshops 
 teach their trade to the workmen under their care, and vary the work in order to teach them 
 all its branches. 
 
639 
 
 Page 
 An aipprentice is declared a workman only when he has filled all the parts of the programme of 
 
 the competition 193 
 
 Rhone (Society for professional instruction). 
 
 Pounded' for the purpose of establishing classes for adults, and specially professional classes for 
 workmen, apprentices and employees. 
 
 At the end of each year prizes are awarded to the most deserving 200 
 
 Saint Quentin (Industrial Society of Saint Quentin and the Aisne.) 
 
 Founded for the purpose of developing the physical and intellectual abilities of workmen, fore- 
 men, and to found a free course of technical and professional instruction in order to provide 
 a meeting place where heads of industries can meet and agree upon new methods of manu- 
 facture 202 
 
 Situations. — Association foi- procuring places for apprentices and patronage for orphans of both sexes, 
 Paris. 
 
 Founded for the purpose of procuring for orphans of both sexes : 1st. Apprenticeship to a trade. 
 
 2nd. An education suited to their intelligence. 
 
 3rd. Religious instruction in the creed professed by their parents 195 
 
 Tailors. — Professioncil school of apprenticeship for tailors, Paris. 
 
 Founded by the Board of Syndicates of the merchant tailors of Paris, for the purpose of forming 
 
 good workmen, to raise the level of hand-work, and to form good foremen (called cutters) . . 176 
 Workshops fob Apprentices. — Directed by Mons. L'AbM Boussard at IJyons. 
 
 Founded for the pinrpose of withdrawing children from evil companionship and the deteriorating 
 influence of the streets, in order to form them into good citizens and workmen ; 
 
 In the larger industries, with their mechanical appliances, there is difficulty in forming appren- 
 tices ; they are merely assistants ; 
 
 In Mons. L'Abbe Boisard's workshops, apprentices are taught both the theory and practice of 
 their trade, and when they leave the workshops are finished workmen ; 
 
 The pupils are given, as a gratuity, a remuneration for their work, based on their general good 
 conduct ; 
 
 At the expiration of five years' apprenticeship, the workman is the owner of his tools and a capi- 
 tal of $200 or $300 196 
 
 Yeast and Spirits. — Netherlands Manufactory of Yeast and Spirits, at Delft, Holland-. 
 
 Each apprentice is under the patronage of a workman in the factory. The repetition class (two 
 hours pQr day) is under the direction of a teacher ; the drawing class is under the direction 
 of an architect of the house. 
 
 At 18 years of age the apprentices pass an examination and receive a diploma, and a place pro- 
 cured for them either in the factory or elsewhere 174 
 
 Belgium. — (Manufactwring Schools, Apprenticeship Workshops, Technical Classes.) 
 
 For the purpose of competing with foreign workmanship, Belgium has founded 37 industrial 
 schools, with a capital of $113,256 ; 44 workshops for apprenticing ; 12,687 young men are 
 taught in these establishments. 
 The classes are similar to those in all technical schools, with the exception of one special point, 
 which diffei-s according to the industry of the locality ; designs for machinery in Brussels, 
 mining in Gand, steam engineering at Liege, &c., &c. 
 There are other similar institutions, such as the school at Tournaie, in which the braziers' trade is 
 taught ; the school at Gand, metallurgy ; National School at Brussels, clockmaking ; school 
 at Liege, tailoring ; brewing at Gaud ; typography at Brussels ; school of St. Luke ; sculp- 
 ture, decoration, ornamentation ; professional schools for young girls at Brussels, Antwerp, 
 Mons, Liege and Vervois ; 40 schools for housekeeping 203 
 
 England. 
 
 There are 1,984 night schools in England, and 208 laboratories in which 179,262 pupils are given 
 a technical and scientific education. . 
 
 The schools are under State protection, and are managed by the Corporation of London Institute ; 
 they are maintained by voluntary contributions, State subsidies and subscriptions from the 
 pupils. ... 
 
 The classes are not altogether free. The English people maintain that man best appreciates 
 what he pays for. There are, besides these schools, others for special purposes ; schools for 
 heads of workshops, classes for decorative art, china painting, wood engraving, modelling, 
 
 sculpture, &c 206 
 
 ■Germany. — {The Peasants' Museum in Germany.) 
 
 Germany at the present time presents two phenomena of ecohomy : 
 
 The production of German industry is too great ; markets are glutted ; orders are few, and in 
 the meanwhile the necessaries of life are increased in price ; the workmgmen find httle employ- 
 ment, and wages are lower ; . ■, ^ ,■,■ , , ■ i . ■ 
 
 In order to remedy this disaster the manufacturer leaves the city and estabbshes his factory in 
 the country parts, where his expenses are fewer, taxation avoided, and because here, when 
 the workmen are subjected to enforced idleness at the factory, they can employ the tune 
 —which in a city would have been lost— in cultivating their small farms or gardens to 
 supply their tables with fruit and vegetables ; . 
 
 The double object of this is to establish rural industry, and for routine and common production 
 
 to substitute artistic production 209 
 
 J AT AN. —(Professional Instruction, School of Arts and Trades at Tokyo). ■ j • ■, 
 
 Founded in 1881 for the purpose of imparting a knowledge of arts and trades to those destined to 
 teach arts- and trades or who wish to become foremen or heads of workshops. 
 
H40 
 
 Page 
 The school possesses a chemical laboratory, a dye shop, a china factory, a glass factory, and a 
 manufactory for chemical products ; the mechanical section includes a drawing class, a work- 
 shop for wood work, a foundry, a forge, a finishing shop, and a boiler shop, in order that the 
 pupils may practice the arts they intend to pursue 205 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 The Workmen's College at Sydney was founded in 1876, and in 1883 the Government established 
 a sub-department for technical instruction with a capital of $100,000. 
 
 There are 3,000 pupils. The classes are taught by professors as to the theory, and the practical 
 application is taught by able workmen. 
 
 There are also travellmg professors who visit the different districts and deliver lectures on sub- 
 jects adapted to the locality 207 
 
 Roc MANIA. 
 
 There are 23 elementary technical schools in Roumania for forming apprentices, and two (2) art 
 
 and trade schools. Nearly one-third the money required to support these schools is provided 
 
 by the Government, the remainder being furnished by the Communes. The course requires 
 
 four years' study, and is free. 
 Practical instruction is given in five different workshops : forge work, foundry, turning, adjust- 
 ing, modelling, carpentry, turning and wood-engraving 208 
 
 RUSSTA. 
 
 There are in Russia : 
 
 4 superior technical schools. 
 
 9 average and trade schools. 
 
 SO inferior do 
 
 1,200 workshops annexed to schools. 
 
 30 special schools for forming workmen for railway work. 
 
 Schools for navigation in all the ports of the Empire. 
 
 15 inferior agricultural schools. 
 
 3 schools for rural economy. 
 
 2 model farms. 
 
 Night classes, exhibitions and lectures for workingmen 208 
 
 SECTION v.— MUTUAL AID SOCIETIES. 
 
 " Amicale" Postal and Telegraph Friendly Society (France.) 
 
 Its object is to afford sick members a pecuniary indemnity, funeral expenses and relief to widows 
 
 and orphans 224 
 
 " La Fraternelle " of Antwerp. 
 
 Founded for the purpose of providing mutual aid, in case of sickness, to manufacturers, mer- 
 chants, accountants, commission merchants, commercial travellers, clerks, &c. 
 To assist tenants under certain unforeseen circumstances 228 
 
 " La Fraternelle Beige '' — Rules 59i 
 
 Coopers : Mutual Aid Society of coopers and workmen in the wine cellars of Rheims. 
 
 In consideration of a small subscription, the members are afforded aid in case of sickness and a 
 
 daily indemnity over and above what they may receive from their own societies 228 
 
 Cheistian Emulation of the City of Bouen. 
 
 The object of this Society is to afford its members, sick or unwell, gratuitous medical atten- 
 dance and medicines, a pecuniary indemnity, and proper interment at the society's expense. 226 
 Decrees on Retiring Funds. 
 
 Assistance granted by the French Government to Mutual Aid, and Retiring Fund Societies. 
 
 Regul.ations imposed by the management of the said Retiring Funds 217 
 
 Decrees on, Mutual Aid Societies. 
 
 Assistance granted by the French Government to approved Mutual Aid Societies. 
 
 Regulations and restrictions imposed on these companies as to the use of their funds, and as to 
 
 the approval of their Statutes 217 
 
 General Reassurance. — Society of the members of the Provident, Retiring and MutuM Aid Societies 
 of the Department of the Seine. 
 Union and consolidation of the Savings Societies of the Department of the Seine, Statutes and 
 
 Regulations of the said Reassurance Society 222 
 
 Ge.and Council of the Mutual Aid Societies of the mouth of the River Rhone, at Marseilles. 
 
 The Grand Council is a sort of council composed of prud'homTMS (men of trust), or a conciliation 
 committee to hear and decide, without delay and without charge, all the dilEculties that 
 
 may occur between the Mutual Aid Societies of this region 221 
 
 General Recapitulation of the condition of the membership and finances of Mutual Aid Societies 
 
 approved and authorized in 1886 220 
 
 Maeseilles Philanthropic Society of the clerics and employees of the City of Marseilles. 
 
 Its members are allowed, in the event of sickness, medical care, and medicines, a weekly indem- 
 nity, aid for disablement, a retiring fund, and funeral'expenses. 227 
 
 Mutual Insurance Society established among the Teachers of the Department of the Lower 
 Pyrenees. 
 Its object is : To help defray the expenses caused its members by the birth of children, sickness 
 and death, by contributing as largely as possible towards the payment of the physician's 
 charges, the expenses for medicines and the cost of funerals 223 
 
641 
 
 Ninth Arbondissement (District) Municipal Mutwal Aid Society of the 9th district of Paris. 
 
 Por the purpose of ensuring assistance to its members in case of sickness, a pension for old age, 
 
 proper interment in case of death, and the Society's protection for their children 226 
 
 Table recapitulating the general average of the operations of Mutual Aid Societies approved of and 
 
 authorized during the year 1886 218 
 
 SECTION VI.— RETIRING FUNDS AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 Association (Fratcmcl) of the Employees of French Railways. 
 
 Founded for the purpose of ensuring its members an annuity, revertible, in case of death, to the 
 surviving husband or wife, or to the orphans, or to widowed mothers. 
 
 To ensure eventual assistance. 
 
 Entrance fee is 60c., and the monthly subscription is from 20c to $2, at will. 
 
 The retiring pension is determined pro rata the amounts paid to the fund by the member retiring 250 
 General Retiring Fund. — Mutual Saving^ Society, Paris. 
 
 Foimded for the purpose of procuring its members (civil or military officials, members of the 
 clergy, &,c.) either an increase of their retiring pension or a legacy to their children. 
 
 The funds are employed to purchase obligations in lots from the Credit Fonder, which give a 
 
 right to a drawing by lot, the results of which sometimes add large amounts to the fund .... 256 
 "La France Pr^voyantb." — Civil, philanthropic and national retiring society. 
 
 Founded January ] st, 1886, for the purpose of ensuring all persons having paid during fifteen 
 consecutive years, a monthly sum varying from 20c. to $1.00, a retiring pension in accord- 
 ance with the funds of the company, but not in any case to exceed $400 240 
 
 "La Pr^voyance Commbrciale." — A retiring fund for employees, of both sexes, in commercial estab- 
 lishnients, including those under the general name of dry goods, and the industries connected 
 with them. 
 
 Founded at Paris in 1880, for the purpose of ensuring it members a pension in proportion to the 
 funds of the society, and to the share contributed by each. 
 
 The entrance fee is $2.00, the amount of monthly subscription varies from 60c. to $2.20 accord- 
 ing to age 243 
 
 " Lb Grain DE bl£. " — A retiring fund founded at Paris in 1883 for the purpose of constituting a 
 fund for annuities. 
 
 The amount for subscription to be paid during membership is fixed at .S120, and for women at 
 $80 or $120 according to their agreement on entering the society. 
 
 The annuities are payable at fifty years, the amount to be paid as pension is settled by the 
 
 general assembly 258 
 
 " Lbs Pr^voyants de l'avenir," a civil retiring society. 
 
 Founded with the object of affording members who have belonged to the society for a period of 
 twenty years, a pension, large enough in amount to procure them the necessaries of life. 
 
 The entrance fee is 40c., the monthly subscription is 20c.^ and the price of the book is lOo. 
 
 All members who have belonged twenty years to the society have a right to an equal share in the 
 
 interest on the society's funds during the past year 241 
 
 National Retiring Fund for Old Age. 
 
 The National Retiring Fund for Old Age was founded in 1850 ; is under State warranty, and 
 controlled by the Minister of Finance ; its object is to provide annuities for depositors, the 
 maximum of which is fixed at $240. 
 
 The deposits are made at will, and the depositors may cease them or begin again when they 
 choose, increase dr diminish the amount of deposit ; liquidation is effected according to the 
 
 tariff in use at the time of deposit 231 
 
 Mutual Provident Society fob retiring. 
 
 Founded at Rheims in 1849 by a workman of the name of Lesage. Its mechanism is one of the 
 most simple as well as the most remarkable. 
 
 Any workman paying one cent per day becomes a member. If the payment has been made since 
 the age of 20 to the age of 60 years, that member has a right to a retiring pension or annuity 
 of 20c. per day, or $73.00 per year. If the subscriber begins his payments after twenty years 
 of age, ne must pay the amount he would have paid by instalments of one cent per day, 
 with capitalized interest. 
 
 By payment of one sum of $100.00 the member is exempted from all other payments. The sub- 
 scription being paid by means of the interest on this sum 261 
 
 Old Age Society of the wheelwrights and blacksmiths of the City of Paris.— (Founded in 1824). 
 
 Members of this Society having paid the same subscription during a period of 15 years, when 
 they attain the age of 60, are assured an annuity, the amount of which, has been, since 1871, 
 
 fixed at 50 per cent, of the subscriptions they have paid 258 
 
 Retiring Fund for Workmen wnder the patronage of the Mu/iiicipal Council of the City of Sedan. 
 (Founded in 1849). 
 
 The monthly subscription is 40c. -^ , • • j u • i. ... 
 
 The pension is allowed only after five years subscription, capital is increased by interest at 4 per 
 cent. The average for retiring is equal to 11 per cent, of the amount entered to the account 
 of the member. 
 
 The pension is paid at 51 years of age 262 
 
 230th Aid Society FOR old AGE, /or ioft se«s. . , „ . ^ j ^i. ht j 
 
 For the benefit of agents and workmen of the Railway Companies of Paris-Lyon-aud-the-Med- 
 iterranean, founded in 1875. . , , .••..!. r en ■ • 
 
 Its purpose is to ensure a pension for agents and workmen, retiring at the age of 50 years, having 
 previously belonged at least ten years to the Society. 
 
 Entrance fee 20c., monthly subscription 20c. and 20c. per year for general expenses 253 
 
 20—41 
 
642 
 
 SECTION VII.— ACCIDENT AND LIFE INSURANCE. 
 Association to phevent accidents in faotobies. — Founded in 1867 under the patronage of the Page 
 industrial Sncieti/ of Mulhouse. — Rules 576 
 
 Instructions on the immediate remedies to be applied in case of accidents 577 
 
 General rules to prevent accidents by machinery 585 
 
 Law and decree concerning the creation of two insurance fy/nds, one in case of death, and the other in 
 case of accidents, resulting from agricultural and industrial labor. — (France), 
 
 These companies are under State warranty. Insurance in case of death is acquired by the pay- 
 ment of premiums. 
 
 The amount to be paid on the death of the person insured is arranged by tariff, there being taken 
 into account ; 1st, compound interest at 4 per cent, on amounts paid ; 2nd, the death risk in 
 accordance with the age of the person insured, calculated by the Deparcieux table. 
 
 Accident insurance is by the year, the insured person paying at will, 60c., $1.00 or 81.50 per 
 year. 
 
 The annuity paid to the insured consists of a sum 320 times the amount he has paid, and of a 
 
 second amount, being part of the proceeds of the State subsidy 266 
 
 Mutual guarantee association against accidents. — Founded by the master roofers and plumbers 
 
 of Paris ' 575 
 
 State Life Insurance. 
 
 By an Act of Parliament of New Zealand, the governor is allowed to grant life insurance poli- 
 cies, and pensions garanteed by the revenue of the colony. 
 
 The security offered is absolute. 
 
 When the general expenses are paid, the profits are divided among the j)olicy bearers ; in 1888, 
 an amount of $280,000 was thus distributed. 
 
 Notwithstanding this bonus the rate of tariffs is low, as low as in company in which there is no 
 
 profit-sharing 271 
 
 "Security oe, the workshop" — an association to prevent accidents in factories, founded under the 
 patronage of the Industrial Society of Houen. 
 
 The association has recourse to the following means, in order to arrive at the desired result ; 
 
 Two inspections during the year of the workshop or factory ; 
 
 To impart to all its members a knowledge of the precautions necessary to be taken to prevent 
 
 accidents in the factory 268 
 
 SECTION VIII.— SAVINGS. 
 
 "Bulletin d'jSpargne." [Sarings bulletin). 
 
 The " Bulletin d'epargne " was establised to allow of daily savings by all. By this means the 
 smallest amount of savings are represented by postage stamps ; when the bulletin contains 
 twenty cents in stamjjs it is accepted by the agencies, or by the National Savings Bank, as a 
 
 deposit 285 
 
 "LaEourmi." [The Ant) A society for sharing in savings. Founded at Paris in 1S~9. 
 
 " La Eourmi " has been ten years in existence and now counts 27,234 savings accounts ; it has 
 banked by means of monthly subscriptions of $1.00 an amount of $1,600,000. 
 
 The object of " La Fourmi " is to centralize a large number of small sums liable to remain unpro- 
 ductive, and to use the amount for Erench obligations by lots, the subscribers all having an 
 equal chance. 
 
 The whole amount is realized ten years after the date of its creation 284 
 
 Postal Savings Banks. 
 
 Results obtained from Postal Savings Banks in Austria, Belgium, France, Hungary, Italy, 
 Netherlands, United Kingdom, S\vitzerland, during the year 1887. 
 
 Situation of the depositors' account on 31st December, 1887 275 
 
 Savings Bank of Chalons~suk-Marne. 
 
 The Scholars' Savings Bank for the scholars of the department is divided into seven sections, and 
 four prizes of $2.00, -54.00, $6.00*and $8.00 are distributed among the teachers whose pupils 
 have made the greatest number of deposits. 
 
 180 Bank books containing $1.00 each are distributed among the pupils 284 
 
 Scholars' Savings Bank of Brussels. 
 
 The Savings are free, no constraint being used. The teacher may however endeavor to per- 
 suade the pupils to save, may take advantage of every opportunity to induce the children to 
 
 put by their small amounts for an evil day 285 
 
 Scholars' Savings within the district of the Savings Bank of Mans. 
 
 Was founded in 1834 for the purpose of affording a means by which the children can, with their 
 teacher's assistance, invest their small savings of less than one franc, which is accepted by 
 the ordinary Savings Banks, without leaving the schoolroom. The scholar, by this means, 
 can save a few of the cents allowed him by his parents for pocket money. 
 
 The city of Mans has the honor of being the first city in Europe to institute Scholars' Savings 
 
 Banks, 42 years before they were introduced into England 278 
 
 Savings and Provident Banks des Bouohes-du-Rhone (of the mouth of the river Rhone). Savings 
 of workingTnen^s children. 
 
 Founded for the purpose of making children familiar with ideas of order and economy, and to 
 receive on deposit the smallest savings of industrious and thrifly persons ; 
 
 To make use of the savings of the people to improve the fate of workmgmen and of poor families 
 by providing clean, healthy, convenient and cheap houses for them. 
 
 A system of premiums of encouragement to school-masters to induce them to persuade their 
 
 pupils to take Savings' Bank books 276 
 
643 
 
 TOUKNAISIAN Saving Bank, and Aid f mid. (Founded at Tournai, BeUjium, in 1SB5). Page 
 
 The Bank is administered by the City. 
 The lowest deposit accepted as lOo. 
 The maximum is $400 for one person, but a whole family living under one roof can deposit 
 
 $800.00 286 
 
 SECTION IX— CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS FOR PROVISIONS. 
 
 Bessie Coal Company. { Workmen's Stores of Molih-es.) 
 
 The predion stores of the Bessege Coal Company afford the workmen all the advantages of a 
 co-operative Association without its risks ; full liberty to make their purchases there or 
 elsewhere ; liberty to buy on credit or for cash ; no amount retained on account of the stores ; 
 profits divided annually among the purchasers in proportion to the amount of purchases 
 entered in their books. 
 
 The profit-sharers number 295 
 
 Condition of the Cooperative Societies fob provisions, of the City of Lyons, in 1888. — 
 
 These societies include 13 bakeries, 13 groceries, provisions, household articles and 4 for heating. 
 
 The most remarkable of these societies is ' ' La Ruohe " (The Hive), the shareholders of which 
 have paid 85 per share and the payment of which has been made, wholly through the means 
 
 of the successive division of profits 290 
 
 Condition op the Co-operative Societies op Great Britain, in 1887. — 
 
 Classification of the Societies in 1887. 
 
 Condition of the Societies from 1861 to 1867. 
 
 Report by section of Societies selling on credit 298 
 
 Cooperative societies for provisions on January 1st 1888. 
 
 XJnitei ) States : Maine 18, NewHampshire 6, Vermont 1, Massachusetts 35, Rhode Island 2, 
 Connecticut 5, New- York 6, New Jersey 12, Pennsylvania 5, Illinois 6, Ohio 18, Michigan 1, 
 Iowa 2, Missouri 1, Minnesota 7, Texas 155, Wisconsin 8, Utah 2, total 290. 
 
 France : 800 Societies 300,000 members. 
 
 Italy : 82 Societies, with a paid capital of $415,665 300 
 
 Cooperative Society for provisions, of the miners of Anzin, founded in 1865. 
 
 Buys for the benefit of its members, groceries and provisions required and sells them to the mem- 
 bers. Should there be any profit it is divided among the purchasing members. Since its 
 foundation the society's sales have amounted to $7,773,100, and it has divided profits to the 
 amount of $917,111 among its members as dividends giving about 11 "80 i^er cent, on the sales. 
 There are 3,118 members and 15 stores 295 
 
 Provision Society of the workmen of the Forges and Steelworks op PRiTH-SAiNT-LEofeB (North). 
 
 The object of this Society is the purchase and manufacture of all articles of clothing and provi- 
 sions that may be required by its members, and under the best conditions both as to jjrice 
 and manufacture. Its capital of $4,000 is divided into 400 shares of SIO each. The Society 
 manufactures bread, clothing, shirts, blouses, jackets, trousers, &c., makes almost, all the 
 knited goods required by the customers. 
 
 The Society pays a license and can sell to anyone. The sales from July 1st, 1884, to Daoember 
 31st, 1887, amount to 8196,197. 
 
 There are 944 customers. 
 
 The average quarterly sales per customer amount to about $51.80. 
 
 The average amount from sales per day is $300. 
 
 The profits from July 1st, 1884, to December 31st, 1887, were 8 per cent, on the purchases of 
 co-operators or $13,780.55. , 
 
 The society's success is most satisfactory 292 
 
 Philantbopic Co-operativb Society of Saint Beny-sur Aure, Eure-et-Loire. 
 
 This society began operations in 1872 with a. capital of $1,088, and 160 shareholders. 
 
 It has now $42,062 capital, and total business capital of $92,482. In 1888 the sales amounted to 
 $132 465. It divided $12,592 as dividends among its shareholders. The general expenses 
 
 amounted to $8,215. The wages to $5,260 *. 301 
 
 Real Estate Co-operative Society op the Workmen op Paris. ^ 
 
 At the exhibition in 1867, a number of workmen, without the assistance of builder or architect, 
 a specimen of workingmen's houses. They were awarded a silver medal. 
 
 The Emperor promised to subsidize any institution with a capital of $20,000, which would put 
 this idea into execution. 'The society collected the $20,000, and the Emperor gave them 
 land on the Avenue Doumesnil. They built 161 dwellings, which they rent from $40 to $60 
 
 per year 289 
 
 Swiss Co-operative Society at Genera. 
 
 Thip society sells to the public ; the shareholders alone divide the profits. 
 
 The profits are divided as follows : — 5 per cent, is allowed as interest before any division is made, 
 90 per cent, is divided among the purchasing members, and 10 per cent, to the employees. 
 
 The profits realized in 1889 amounted to $22,202. 
 
 The members number 2,485 301 
 
 SECTION X.— CREDIT COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 Belgian Popular Banks. 
 
 Popular Banks are mutual credit associations. There are 22 m Belgium ; since 1869 they form 
 a federation among themselves ; their delegates meet in congress every year. 
 
 20— 4l| 
 
644 
 
 Page 
 In the beginning the principle of unlimited liability was admitted, but now all the popular banks, 
 —excepting one— are of limited liability ; (the average is $65.) In general popular banks do 
 all sorts of banking business with their members, discount on commercial values, money 
 advanced on security, loans withsecurity, hypothecary guarantee on deposit of deeds, credit 
 opened, discount, &o. 
 Popular banks have had a beneficial influence as regards the condition of the working popul- 
 ation of Belgium 318 
 
 Mutual Credit. 
 
 The object of the society is contained in the following axiome ; "Form yourself your initial 
 
 capital, and when that is established, credit will come to you " 309 
 
 Popular Bank of Milan. Anonymous Society limited. 
 
 The end of which the Popular Bank of Milan was established, was to procure credit for its 
 
 shareholders by mutual assistance and by savings. 
 The businees capital is formed : by the shares of its members ; by the amount furnished by 
 
 entrance fees, and the share of profits awarded to the reserve fund. 
 The operations of the Bank consist of ; 
 Loans to members ; discount on bills of exchange ; of its members ; banking and paying the 
 
 account of its members ; the isaure of Savings Bankbooks ; of administering values deposited 
 
 with it ; to issue cheques bearing daily interest. 
 A committee of " PrMd'Aommcs " (men of trust) chosen from among the members regulate and 
 
 decide upon all contestations and litigations 313 
 
 Popular and Mutual Credit Banks. 
 
 Mutual Credit Banks accept deposits sharing in a decennial premium. 
 
 The maximum amount of small savings allowed in a book is $40 on which interest at 6 per cent. 
 
 is paid. 
 The Popular and Mutual Credit is a society of persons who, in order to have a right to render 
 
 each other mutual service, join legally together by subscribing one share of flO 305 
 
 EussiAN Cooperative Banks. 
 
 Russian Cooperative Banks number about 1,500, and there is a little difference in their statutes. 
 
 The principal points are ; 
 
 To accept deposits of the savings of the peasantry and to make loans to the members ; 
 
 The amount contributed by the members in the same for all and cannot exceed 100 roubles ($75. ) 
 
 The amounts paid in by members is generally 3 roubles per annum ; 
 
 The reserve fund is formed of a share of not less than 10 per cent, on the profits, provided this. 
 
 not exceed one third the capital. The bank accepts deposits of money from its members 
 
 as well as from other persons. 
 The profits for the year, deduction made of expense of management, and the amount for the 
 
 reserve fund, are divided among the members in proportion to the amounts that have been 
 
 paid in by each 317 
 
 SECTION XI.— WORKINGMBN'S HOUSES. 
 
 Anonymous Society op Marcinelle and Couillit. 
 
 This society builds workingmen's houses. One-fifth is paid on purchase, and the balance is paid 
 in yearly instalments, the amount of which does not exceed an ordinary rental. The houses 
 are paid up in 8 years, and tenants are then owners of the houses. In the event of the work- 
 man's death, the sums paid on purchase are re-imbursed to the widow should she so desire, 
 and the society takes back the house 342 
 
 Anonymous Society of Rheims. — For the invprovement of cheap worhingmen's houses at Sheims. 
 Capital $100,000, of which $75,000 are paid, the dividends are limited to 4 per cent. 
 The type of house adopted is the pavillion shape. Each house is isolated and divided in four, 
 each angle containing two storeys independent of each other. Each dwelling includes an 
 entry, two rooms, a kitchen and a water-closet. The tenants of the fii-st floor have a cellar, 
 ^ and those on the second floor have a garret. The rent of these houses, including taxes, is 
 $2 per month for the first floor, and $2.20 for the second 334 
 
 Benevolent Bureau and Workingmen's Houses, Belgium. 
 
 Build blocks of houses, in each dwelling of which there are 2 rooms on the 1st floor, 2 rooms on 
 the second, a cellar, a garret, and a garden attached to each dwelling. The price, is $320, 
 payable in 20 yearly instalments of $24.40, $12.80 of which is for the rental, and $11.60 for 
 sinking fund. 
 
 50 of these houses have been sold with success 343 
 
 De Nayer and Company, Wilkbrceck, Behjium. 
 
 This firm has built 100 houses which it has sold to its workmen. The price of the house and 
 garden is $320. The savings bank advanced the money at 3 per cent. So that in paying 18 
 yearly sums of $22.40 each workman becomes owner of a house besides having paid his rent. 
 This combination has been eminently successful 337 
 
 Fanien, Pere et Fils — Boot and Shoe Manufacturers, Lilliers Pas-du-Calais. 
 
 Have built 160 houses in Lilliers to lodge their workmen. The houses cost $440, and are rented 
 at 50 cents per week, which gives a net rate of interest of 4 per cent. 
 
 The workmen may purchase their houses by signing a lease for ten years, at 95 cents per week. 
 In the event of the contract being annulled Mr. Fanieu pays back to the workman the sums 
 he has paid on the purchase 334 
 
645 
 
 LiiiGBOis Society for Workingmkn's Houses. Page 
 
 Capital, $300,500 ; has built 431 houses, of which 216 were sold for a total amount of $287,979, 
 
 8165,764 still remaining due. 
 The payments are so calculated that the house is paid in full in fifteen or eighteen years. 
 If in consequence of circumstances beyond the purchaser's control, he is unable to continue his 
 payments, the society will cancel the contract. The rent of the house is calculated at 6^ per 
 
 cent, on the price of the house 339 
 
 La SoLlDARrrfe DiiMCORATlQUE of Tenants, at Saint-Pierre les Calais. 
 
 The object of this society is to guarantee proprietors of houses the regular payment of their rent, 
 and by this means to succeed in lowering rents. This object is attained by a creation of a 
 loan or reserve fund intended to guarantee against a deficiency, which would eventually be 
 of assistance to tenants, in the event of their being unable to pay their rents, by lending 
 them the necessary money. 
 The capital is variable and divided into shares of $20. It can be increased according to the 
 
 needs of the society and according to the number of members 333 
 
 IJA SoTjIVAHIT^, Building Society of Saint-Pierre-les-Calau. 
 
 Pounded to enable industrious workmen to become owners of their dwellings ; it can create obli- 
 gations reimbursable by means of quarterly drawings, and it has recourse to the assistance 
 of a credit society in order to procure the means necessary to carry on its work. 
 In no case can the amount paid be confiscated. This society does not differ greatly from ordinary 
 building societies, exce^3t that its operations does not include the confiscation of deijosits of 
 
 members unable to continue their payments 328 
 
 MuLHonsE Society of Workingmen's Cities — 
 
 Founded in 1853, at Mulhouse, by Jean Dolfus, manufacturer, with the assistance of Emile 
 
 Muller, architect, for the purpose of building isolated workingmen's houses ; 
 Each house for one family without cammunicstion with any other, with yard and garden ; 
 The rent of these houses is moderate as the amount must not exceed 8 per cent, on the cost ; 
 Conditions for the provisional purchase of a house : 
 
 For a house under $600, a first payment of $60 and monthly payments of $5 ; 
 For a house of $600 to $720, a first payment of $70, and monthly payments of $6 ; 
 For a house of $800 and over, a first payment of $80, and monthly payments of $7 ; 
 The sale is considered final only when one-third of the price has been paid, and in case the con- 
 tract is cancelled the account is thus settled : the payments are applied to the rent which is 
 calculated at $4 per month for the first, $4.40 for the second, and $4.80 for the third, the 
 
 rent being paid; the balance is reimbursed on delivering the keys 335 
 
 EouEXBSE Society for cheap houses : — 
 
 The capital is fixed at $26,000 in 260 shares of $100 each ; 
 
 This is no speculation, the shareholders in no case being allowed more than 3 per cent, on their 
 money ; the society endeavours to make it possible for workingmen to become owners of 
 their houses ; 
 Six specimen houses were built in 1887 ; they met vnth such success that the management built 
 
 thirty-eight (38) more in 1888 ; 
 The houses are let on a 10 years' lease ; the price is as follows : 
 4 p. c. on the cost, as rent ; 
 
 The amount necessary to redeem the property in 16 years ; 
 1 p. c. on capital not sunk, for general expenses ; 
 
 Under these conditions the workingman can be very comfortably lodged, and become the owner 
 of his house by the payment of $62.40 everything included, during 16 years. Which explains 
 
 the success of this truly philanthropic enterprise 323 
 
 Heal Estate Society op Orleans /or the purpose of developing a spirit of thrift by facilitating the 
 acquisition of property : — 
 Variable capital. At the present time it is $80,000 divided into 4,000 shares of $20 each. Even 
 with this capital the Society has built 215 houses, of the collective value of $440,000. The 
 difference is covered by the sale of lands, the payment in warranty, the beginning of a sink- 
 ing fvmd anticipated payments and above all by the use of hypothecary means. 
 The Society does not buQd in advance. It buUds from plans and by agreement ; its principal 
 types of houses are the three following : 
 1st. A two-storey house 17 x 22, its price, land included, is $900 or $64 per year during 25 
 
 years, the value of the location of the property is $60 ; 
 2nd. A two-storey house 20 x 26 with kitchen outside, value $12,000. 25 annual instalments 
 
 of $85.26 each. Location value, $84 ; 
 3rd. A two-storey house 26 x 28, price $2,000, 25 yearly instalments of $142. Location value 
 
 of the property, $160 325 
 
 The Touenai Society for the building of cheap houses ;— 
 
 The type of house adopted by this society is the Mulhausen type, a group of four houses with 
 garden attached. The house covers a surface of 385 feet of ground, the garden, 1,.392 feet, in 
 all about 1,777 square feet ; ... 
 
 As to the cost price and the conditions for payment they are the same as for the working cities 
 
 of Mulhouse 341 
 
 SECTION XIL— WORKINGMEN'S CLUBS, RECREATION AND GAMES. 
 
 Masons and Stone-Cuttbrs Club. 
 
 Founded at Paris in 1867, for the purpose of promoting the moral and intellectual instruction of 
 its members, as well as to improve their condition. It affords working masons and stone- 
 
646 
 
 cutters, during their stay in Paris, a meeting place where they can find decent amusement, 
 classes of trade instruction, a mutual aid fund, a dispensary, a workshop, and other useful 
 institutions 347 
 
 Popular Evenings or Verviebs. 
 
 It is to the institution of the popular evenings of Vervier that are due the drawings, The Tombo- 
 las of Books, and workin^men's excursions. 
 
 The tombolas of books, the tickets for which cost only one cent or two cents, allow workmen to 
 create a small library for themselves, and given books to families which had never owned 
 them before. 
 
 Workingmen's excursions are instructive voyages in which all the expenses are regulated with 
 the strictest economy. Thee excursionists are under the guidance of educated persons who 
 have made a special study of the historical localities and who deliver real lectures on the 
 very site of the event, before the very productions of the artist of whom they may speak . . . 349 
 
 Union op Workingmen's Clubs in England. 
 
 This Association was founded in 1862 to encourage the formation of clubs and to protect their 
 interests. The Union has a fund of useful information which is at the disposal of the clubs 
 and the public in general. 340 clubs are affiliated, and furnish a revenue of $9,430, provides 
 registers, account books, printed forms, &c., which are sold to the clubs. It publishes a 
 weekly journal in which all the questions of interest to the clubs are treated. 
 
 68 circles are of a purely social character, 169 are political ; 188 sell spirituous liquors, 169 do 
 
 not ; 237 hold conferences 347 
 
 SECTION XIII. —THE PUBLIC HEALTH, PHILANTHROPIC WORKS 
 
 Alcoholism 593 
 
 City of Angers. — School Ovens. 
 
 In 1871 the City of Angers crea.ted new primary scools. During the winter months the school 
 provides the mid-day meal, in order to attract and keep the children, and thus prevent 
 the walk to and from the school during the inclement season, and by which means they 
 also avoid the dangers of the street. 
 In 1888 the City of Angers furnished 49,508 meals paid for, and 47,237 free meals. 
 Each meal cost 2 cents. 
 
 The School Oven Society also provided clothing for poor children 362 
 
 City of Amiens. — Loan of clothing. 
 
 The object of this Society is to lend clothing to indigent persons. It owns a workroom in which 
 young girls manufacture clothing from the cloth provided them, and also shirts. The cloth- 
 ing is loaned to indigent persons of both sexes. There is also a laundry and a linen closet. 
 
 All under the management of the Sisters of Charity 361 
 
 City of Lille. — Social work under the patroiutge and direction of the municipality. 
 
 The work called " Les Invalides du Trnrnil" was founded and endowed by a small number of 
 
 citizens. It is maintained by large donations made to it. 
 It grants annuities to workmen, to widows and widowers w;ith one or more children, to minor 
 
 children orphaned both of father and mother. 
 In 1888, 76 persons were receiving an average aid of $30 ' 80 per year from the Society. 29 received 
 
 temporary aid amounting on an average to $21 . 80 each. 
 The work of pratuitous loans was founded m 1607. 
 The average loan is $1.71. 
 
 Suhaidiea for Instruction to allow young artists four years study in Rome. 
 
 Glorification du travail et de la bonne conduite (rewards for good conduct) is a series of gifts 
 varying from $3 to $100 as a reward for good conduct, clean dwellings and thrift among 
 
 apprentices 360* 
 
 Mutual Aid Society o/iyoms. 
 
 Founded for the purpose of serving as an intermediary between masters and workmen. 
 
 Loans, without interest, the sums required by workmen to purchase tools for their work. 
 
 The Society contributed to the foundation of the " Credit Society " for loans to small workshops 
 
 for machine weaving, and to the " Cheap Dwelling Society " 363 
 
 Mont de Pi^Ti; of Paris. 
 
 From 1790 to 1880 the Mont de Piit6 has gratuitously returned to the o\vners, articles pledged 
 there, representing a sum loaned of $733,233. The articles returned were bedding, tools and 
 implements of labor. The articles were returned the day after crisis and loss of work, and 
 the charges reimbursed to the management by the State ; Municipalities have also helped, 
 
 and donations made by charitable persons 354 
 
 The Blue Cross for the reformMion of drunkards. 
 
 Founded at Geneva for the reformation of the victims of intemperance. 
 It combats the use of liquor — 
 
 ] St. By making known the evils resulting from it. 
 
 2nd. By propo^ating principles of real sobriety. 
 
 3rd. By seconding the efforts of persons struggling against intemperance. 
 
 The Society does not forbid the use of wine, but the abuse of it 363 
 
 Philanthropic Society. 
 
 The most important private organization ; expenses in 1887 $157,000. 
 
 Over 27 economic ovens, 29 dispensaries, 3 night asylums, 1 maternal asylum, 1 hospital for aged 
 and infirm per-ons. 
 
647 
 
 Page 
 The Society administers legacies for the asbiatance of workmen. By means of a recent donation 
 (The Iteine endowment) the Society has been enabled to build one house containing 35 dwel- 
 lings, the rents are so calculated as to produce 4 per cent, interest on capital 353 
 
 Pkotective and Moealtzing Institutions of Labor. 
 
 Founded for the purpose of completing a good commercial education at the Christian School, by 
 inducing heads of industries and commerce to maintain a wise discipline in their stores and 
 worshops, and by not tolerating any vice or impiety whatsoever. 
 These institutions are : — 
 
 Mutual and Popular Credit. 
 
 The Society for the gratuitous placing of young men and women. 
 
 Encouragement to popular saving. 
 
 Workmen's Funds. 
 
 Gratuitous Loan Society. 
 
 Auxiliary Preparative Society 358 
 
 Philanthhopic Society /or gratuitous loans. 
 
 Founded in Paris in 1882, in order to relieve persons in unacknowledged misfortune, to seek dis- 
 creetly for hidden misery, and raise broken courage, by means of work and assistance in 
 
 money gratuitously loaned. 
 The Society gives ready assistance to honest and industrious persons when in adversity ; its aim 
 
 is to prevent misery, to lend assistance on the eve of affliction, to prevent irreparable losses 
 
 by timely aid. 
 The returns for the year 1888, with the addition'of the four previous years, give the following 
 
 results: -Loans, $36; 252. 44; repayments, 831,543.14; not yet due, $3,181.410 ; in arrears, 
 
 $1,527.90. 
 
 The amounts repaid represent 94 ' 87 per cent, of the sums loaned 354 
 
 School Find of the XVII District of Paris. 
 
 The object of this association is to encourage and increase attendance at school, to provide proper 
 
 shoes and clothing for poor children in need of them ; 
 To watch over the moral and material well-being of the school population of the cirrondissement 
 
 (district), to assist in improving general instruction by rewards to teachers and professors. 
 The fund places a certain number of children in special establishments, whether they be orphaned 
 
 or forsaken children, or belonging to indigent families 353 
 
 SECTION XIV.— EMPLOYERS' INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Abrand, F. Spinning Mills, Courtivron. 
 
 An institution that has been in use since 1883 in the spinning mills of Courtivron, ensures the 
 workmen an investment for their savings, and which, through the master's generosity, is one 
 of the most advantageous ; the interest together vrith the master's represents an increase of 
 27 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Whenever a workman deposits 16 cents in the fund, Mr. Abraud adds 25 per cent, and the 
 amount of 20 cents is entered in a book and so on up to 80 cents per month, maximum 
 amount of individual deposit under that condition , 368 
 
 Anzin (Mining Company of ). ,,..., ^ ,, ^- • 
 
 Pensions and Aid.— An assessment of IJ per cent, on the salaries is paid over to the retiring 
 fund, together with a like amount paid bjr the company. The company, moreover, grants a 
 supplementary pension of 60c. for unmarried men, and $1.20 for married men for every year 
 
 in the company's employ. ^ „n i. 
 
 Cheap Dtcellings.—The company has built 2,628 houses, which it rents to the workmen at 70c. to 
 
 $1.20 per month. . . , , . • i_- i, i.i 
 
 Technical Course.— A preparatory school under the direction of the engineers, in which able 
 
 workmen are formed. , . ,, ,^ ,, ,■ ,• ■ t^ i it. 
 
 Churches.— The company owns four churches devoted to the Catholic religion. It pays for the 
 
 services of two clergymen. . ,^ , , ,, , , -t 
 
 Health Department.— FAeven physicians can be gratuitously consulted by the workmen, who also 
 
 receive gratuitously medicines, wine, meat and broth. , ^ i. ^ 
 
 Bread.— When the price of bread exceeds 3i cents per lb., the company provides bread at that 
 
 Theselns'titutions, in 1888, cost the company the sum of $315,500 398 
 
 Babbas, Tassart & Balas.— iJoo/crs, Plumbers, Sc., Paris. 
 
 Profit-sharing, provident fund, &o. (see page 33). ■ ^ • j ^ i 
 
 Accident Insurance.— The house insures, at its own expense, its workmen against accidents of 
 
 labor in the insurance company founded by the Syndioal Board of Contractors in Roofing 
 
 and Plumbing ^°° 
 
 Bbnoist & L. Beethiot.— Opiictcwig, Pam. i 
 
 Muttud Aid Fund.— Subscription : Men, 20c. ; women, 15c. ; children, Wc. per month. The 
 
 master pays in an amount equal to the whole amounts paid by the stall. . 
 
 In case of sickness the fund grants an indemnity of 40 cents per day during a period of three 
 
 months ; in case of death an indemnity of $20 368 
 
 BssAa^s.— (Coal Company of.) ^ i- n j i.t. 
 
 Sick Fund supplied by an assessment of 2 per cent, on the wages, the payment of hues, and the 
 
 loads of coal refused and unpaid to workmen, by gifts, interest, &c. 
 The Fund grants 20c. to unmarried, and 25c. to married men and 5c. per child under 14 years of 
 
648 
 
 Page 
 Wounded Fund, supplied by a monthly allowance paid by the Company and equal in amount to 
 
 2J per cent, of the workmen to be benefited ; 
 The fund for the wounded bears the expense of law-suits taken against the Company on account 
 
 of accidents ; • 
 
 The Retiring Fund. — The Company binds itself to pay annually a sum equal to 2 per cent, of 
 
 the wages if the workman binds himself to pay to the National Retiring Fund, a sum equal 
 
 to 3 per cent, of his wages ; 
 Gratuity Fund. — Every year gratuities are granted to ^ the staff, chosen from among the most 
 
 deserving ; 
 
 In 1888 the donations of the Company amounted to $69,000, or about $28.50 per workman 401 
 
 Bessblievee & Son. Calico manufacturers, Maromme, Lower Seine. 
 Profit-sharing (See page 35). 
 School belonging to the establishment, library, conferences saving fund, accident insurance, 
 
 workmen s aid fund, retiring fund for employees &c 369 
 
 Blanzt. — Mining Com/pamy. 
 
 Aid JJVmd.— Founded for the purpose of fulfilling the obligations and responsibility imposed by 
 
 the law in regard to the workmen ; 
 To assist the workmen in case of accidents and sickness contracted in the company's employ ; 
 To procure medical aid to the workmen and their families ; 
 To completely guarantee themselves against aU indemnities, civil responsibilities that might be 
 
 imposed on them by any actual or future law ; 
 To procure school furnishings for the children. 
 The fund is supplied by an assessment of 1 per cent, on the wages of the employees and by 2i 
 
 per cent, of the workmen's wages ; a subscription equal to the subscriptions and assessments 
 
 of the workmen furnished by the Company ; fines, gifts and interest on capital. 
 Retiring Fund. — Besides the subsidy to the Aid Fund, the Company pays a retiring pension to 
 
 its workmen who have been 30 years in its employ and are 55 years of age. The pensions 
 
 vary from $50 to $180 per annum. 
 Dwellings — Th Company rents houses to its workmen varying from 90 cents to $1.20 per month. 
 Bureau de Bienfaisance, distributes provisions to poor families to the amount of $1,200. 
 Machine Weaving. — To suppress the work of widows and girls in the mine, the Company has 
 
 established weaving workshops. 
 Work-rooms. — For the same purpose the Company has established work-rooms for young girls, 
 
 where they are tavight a manual trade. 
 Heritage. — The Company sells its workmen land at cost price and advances them $200 to build a 
 
 home. The whole amount is payable in ten years' tame, no interest being charged. 
 Food at Low Cost — The Company delivers bread and provisions at low rates to its workmen. 
 Heating. — The Company supplies coal gratuitously to families. 
 Savings — The Company receives deposits and pays 5 per cent, interest. 
 These advantages jirovided for the workmen in 1888 cost the Company a sum of $223,799, which 
 
 represents, on a population of 5,182, $43.18 increase in wages, and also represents a dividend 
 
 of 50 per cent, paid to the shareholders 395 
 
 Blin & Blin. — Cloth Manufacturers, Elbceuf. 
 
 Mr. Blin used originally to insure his workmen against accident ; since the law-suits with the 
 
 Companies they have become their own insurers, and have assumed the responsibility of any 
 
 accidents that may occur in their factories. 
 
 An aid office is established in the factory 370 
 
 Bon Maech^ Stobes. 
 
 Cooperation, profit-sharing (Boucicault provident fund, see page 37). 
 
 Medical Services. Free consultations. 
 
 Retiring Fund. Boucicault foundation. Indowed by $1,000,000 by Mde Boucicault, and supplied 
 
 by an assessment on the profits. The right to retire in granted at 60 years of age, the 
 
 annuity varies from $120 to $300. 
 Savings. "The house receives deposits of savings from the staff and pays 6 per cent, interest. 
 Schools. In 1872, Mde Boucicault founded schools where the employees are taught free of charge 370 
 BouLANGEE Hte AND COMPANY — Delf potteries of Choisy-le-Roi. 
 Schools. — The firm maintains a school at its own expense. 
 Cr6che.—The firm has founded a creche for the children of its workmen. 
 Asylum. — The firm has founded an asylum for boys and girls. 
 Savings. — The workmen's savings, maximum deposit $400, 5 p. c. interest. Scholars' savings 
 
 maximum deposit $20, 6 p.c. interest. 
 Family Council, composed of the principal employees. 
 Accidents. — The firm insures its workmen against accidents. 
 Retiring, supplied by the mutual aid society, and private gifts, retiring pensions from $60 to 
 
 $120 371 
 
 Oaeeiagbs (General Company of). ' 
 
 Mutual Aid. — Established by the drivers and workmen of the Company. The Comijany grants 
 
 the Society a subsidy equal in amount to one-tenth the sum jiaid by the members. In 1888 
 
 this sum amounted to $44,715 401 
 
 Cassell k Company (Limited) London. 
 Profit-sharing (see page 80). 
 
 Provident Society, supplied by means of an annual assessment of 5 p.c. on the profits. 
 The annuities vary .from $15:5 capital to $625. Besides these amounts the fund pays $50 for the 
 
 funeral expenses of employees dying after having been five years in the employment of the 
 
 firm 429 
 
649 
 
 Chaix Printing House. — Poms. Page 
 
 Profit-sharing (see pa;ge 39). 
 
 Apprenticeship, and institutions for the benefit of apprentices. 
 Mutual Aid Society. 
 Fund for voluntary retiring 371 
 
 A. Chappee. — Founder and Builder, Mans. 
 
 A retiring pension of $72 per year granted to any workman at the age of 60 who has served the 
 
 firm 30 years. 
 A retiring pension of $30 per year is granted to any workman aged 60 years who has been 20 
 
 years in the firm's employ. 
 There is besides the retiring pension, a mutual Aid Society, and a medical fund attached to the 
 
 factory 371 
 
 Cleansing and Dyeing Woeks of Thaon (Vosges). — {Anonymous Society of the.) 
 
 Co-operative Society of provisions. — Founded by the establishment, transformed into a civil 
 
 society. An amount of 13 per cent, is assessed on the profits for the reserve fund, and 2 per 
 
 cent, for the provident fund. 
 Mutual Aid Society. — Receipts : an assessment of 1 per cent, on the wages, subsidies granted by 
 
 the management, special subscription, subscription of the members of the family fund ; 
 
 interest on capital. The mutual aid fund employs its funds in building workingmen's 
 
 houses ; 
 Retiriim Fund. — Receipts : subsidy equal to 5 per cent, of the wages and an assessment of 1 per 
 
 cent, per fortnight retained on the wages ; 
 Savings.— ^he house receives deposits of savings from its workmen and pays them 5 per cent. 
 
 interest per annum. 
 Divers. — Hot baths, free either at the factory or at home, drawing class for the workmen, class 
 
 for manual labor for the pupils, primary schools, library, gymnastic society, archery, and a 
 ' band of brass instruments 424 
 
 Coal Pits or Montbambekt. — Anonymous Society of the. 
 
 The 'aid and pension funds are the same as those granted by the Mining Comimny of La Roche- 
 
 la-Mohere and Ferminy (see page 399), except that the widow of a deceased workman whose 
 
 death has been caused by an accident receives 12c. instead of 15c. 
 The Company has founded hospitals, baths, etc., which cost $60,000. 
 Asylum-Schools. — The company has founded several asylums and two schools ; it has subsidized 
 
 a Mutual Aid Society. 
 The expense its institutions cost the Society in the year 1888 amounted to $41,620, equal to $19 
 
 per workman 426 
 
 Colin & Company, Publishers, Paris. 
 
 Prizes are gianted to the pupils of the night school. 
 
 Aid. — A physician is employed by the company to give advice free to the workmen. 
 
 Gratuities. — The wages of sick employees continue to be paid. 
 
 Retiring Fumd. — An assessment of 5 per cent, is made on the wages, with an allowance from the 
 
 firm. The retiring piensions vary from $120 to $240. 
 Savings. — The firm receives deposits to the amount of $100, for which it pays interest at 6 per 
 
 cent, per annum 372 
 
 Cooperative Paper Works of AngoulSme. {Laroche-Joubert & Co. ) 
 
 The cooperative Paper Works of Angouleme guarantees to its workmen that the price of bread 
 shall not exceed 2c. per lb., over which price the difference is paid by them. 
 
 A primary school for boys and girls is maintained by the establishment. 
 
 In 1880, by Mde. Laroche-Joubert's care, a " creche " was founded, in which children from the 
 age of 15 days are received ; theyjare admitted to rooms, cared for, watched, fed and gene- 
 rally attended to during the day and taken home at night by a woman engaged at the 
 "creche." 
 
 By means of this institution jiarents are enabled to work during the infancy of their children. 
 
 The expense of this institution is $1,297.00 412 
 
 Courtehoux ( Woollen weaving mills at Gaulier-Sedan). 
 
 Workmen's Capital. 170 workmen establish a retiring fund for themselves by means of a monthly 
 
 subscription to the workmen's capital, which in 7J years gives $120 for the $99 paid ; 
 By means of a system of discount allowed by merchants a contribution of about $1 per mouth is 
 
 added to the workmen's capital ; 
 If a workman's family subscribes to the workmen's capital and benefits by the interest on sales, 
 
 he will at 60 years of age have a right to annuity of $240, and besides, leave $1,200 to his 
 
 heirs .' 405-610 
 
 Docks and Warehouses oj' Marseilles. — (Company of.) 
 
 Metiring Fund, is supplied by a deduction on the wages amounting to 4 p.c, by a subsidy equal 
 
 to 4 p.c. of the wages ; 
 Employees have a right to retire at 60 years of age, having been 30 years in the Company's 
 
 employ ; 
 The amount of annuity or pension is based on the average wages during the last six yearSj the 
 
 employee being allowed 50 p.c. of his wages 394 
 
 DoLGE, Alfred. — ("Felt Manufacturer at Dolgeville, New York, U.S. ) 
 
 System of Division of the Earnings in the workshops at Dolgeville. — In a letter to the Chicago 
 
 Morning News, Mr. Dolge criticises the system of profit-sharing as generally understood. 
 
 Mr. Dolge has not got beyond experimenting, but so far finds no satisfaction in it. In the 
 
75 
 
 do 
 
 80 
 
 do 
 
 90 
 
 do 
 
 .00 
 
 do 
 
 650 
 
 meantime he lays aside an amount calculated, in accordance with his profits, and applies it 
 to a retiring pension fund, to life insurance, to a mutual aid society, and to a school associa- 
 tion, a buidin^ society, &c. 
 Pensions. — A pension is due in case of complete or partial disablement from work for as long as 
 the disablement lasts. The pensions are regulated on the wages of the last year, as follows : 
 50 p. c. after 10 years of work. 
 60 do 13 do 
 
 16 do 
 
 19 do 
 
 22 do 
 
 25 do 
 
 The above rules in no way detract from the right possessed by the house to dismiss its workmen, 
 
 nor from the right of the latter to leave 435 
 
 DuoHEE HiPPOLYTE. — Paris. 
 
 Aid Fund. — Supplied by an assessment of 2 per cent, on the wages, or an annual sum paid by 
 
 Mons. Duoher as a gift, and by gifts made to the fund. 
 In case of sickness the fund provides medical care and medicines, besides pecuniary aid to the 
 
 amount of 40o. per day for the first month, and 30c. per day for the second. 
 Provident Fund. — An individual book is givenjto each workman, in which his payments to the 
 
 fvmd are entered. 
 Every year after the affairs of the aid fund are balanced the disposable balance is paid to the 
 
 Provident Fund. 
 The amounts of retiring pensions are settled by Mons. Ducher himself. 
 In a period of 7 years he has divided the sum of $26,000 among its members 407 
 
 Estate Montrose. 
 
 The estatate produces 200 casks of wine. , . ■ 
 
 A working family earns S240 per year besides their dwelling with garden, fuel and wine, medical 
 
 attendance and medicines. Women in child-bed receive $20. Children attending school 
 
 and conveyed to and from school in a vehicle, school fees and furnishings are paid by the 
 
 estate . 
 
 The Metiring Fund is supplied by a premium of 40c. per cask a division of 4 p. c. on the profits. . 403 
 
 Eantbn & Son. — ( Munufitcturcrs of Boots and Shoes, Lillers and Paris.) 
 
 Dwellings. — Messrs. Fanien, father and son, have built 160 houses ; 
 
 The price of rental varies between $18.20, $20-80 and $26' 00 per year. The whole gives a 
 revenue of 4 per cent. 
 
 Baths — Two bathmg halls are placed gratuitously at the use of the staff. 
 
 Schools. — Two schools, one for girls and one for boys, have been established by the firm. 
 
 Mutual Aid Society. — In order to induce his workmen to join the Mutual Aid Society, Mons. 
 Fanien every year gives one of his workingmen's houses to the society which is drawn by lot 
 on the 14th day of July, by the members of the society 408 
 
 Fauquet, 0. — Weaving and Spinning. 
 
 Benevolent and Retirinri Fund. — Supplied by donations from the master. 
 
 Profit-sharing, fines, profits of the " economat " or household saving, sxiccessions, interest on the 
 
 reserve fund. 
 The funds are applied : 1st. To relieve unmerited misfortune, from labor accidents, death by 
 
 which a widow and children are left without means. 
 2nd. Retiring pensions for workmen 55 years of age who have been 20 years in the employ of the 
 
 firm. 
 The benevolent funds are managed by a committee composed of the master and four members 
 
 elected by the workmen 409 
 
 FOEGES AND StEEL WoEKS 01' THE NOKTH AND EAST — [Society of the). 
 
 Dwellings. This Company has built houses for its workmen, each house contains 4 dwellings, 
 
 and a garden is attached to each dwelling. The rent is $2.50 per month, representing 3 p. c. 
 
 on the capital invested. 
 School. The Company has opened a school for the children of its workmen. 
 Aid Fund. Receipt : -2 p. c. assessed on the wages. It shows every year a deficit of $2,200 in 
 
 its accounts which is made up by the Company. 
 Accidents. On account of the difficulties raised by the Insurance Companies, the Company 
 
 insures its workmen itself. 
 
 Savings. The Company receives the savings of its workmen and pays them 5 p. c. per year 425 
 
 jj"'OEGE Company oy the St. Diziee Canal at Wassy. (The) 
 
 Aid Fund. — The aid fund of this company is supplied by an entrance fee of 10 per cent, of the 
 
 first month's wages, and by a deduction of 5 per cent, on subsequent monthly wages, by fines 
 
 imposed on the staff, and by a subsidy from the company. 
 An indemnity equal to 40 per cent, of the salaries is allowed for 40 days in cases of sickness. 
 Retiring Fund. — The retiring fund grants an annuity to workmen who are 60 years of age and 
 
 who have been more than 6 years in the company's employ. 
 Accident Insurance. — The workmen are insured collectively by the company at the rate of 80 
 
 cents per $100 of the salaries. 
 Savings. — The company receives, on current account, the savings of the workmen, for which it 
 
 allows them 6 per cent, interest. 
 Household Savings. — These are organized to procure on the spot all the articles required by the 
 
 workmen. Workmen only are allowed to purchase. Sales are made by means of tickets. 
 
651 
 
 Page 
 
 JDwelUngs. — The company's houses are rented at the rate of 50 cents per month for each apart- 
 ment. 
 
 Schools. — The company has established schools directed by sisters of the Christian Doctrine ■ 
 which are frequented by 346 pupils 
 
 Divers. — The company has established a workroom or class for apprentices, for sewing and mak- 
 ing clothing. The term of apprenticeship is 3 years. > 
 
 The expenses of the employers' institutions amount to $19,570, or 11 cents per workman 390 
 
 General Omnibus Company. Paris. 
 
 Supplementary expenses assmned by the Company for the benefit of its staff. 1855— 188S. 
 
 Retiring Fund, is supplied by a contribution of 10 cts. per week from the whole staff, and a con- 
 tribution from the Company of $2.40 for each employee whose salary does not exceed $360 
 for the first year, and $4.20 after the third year. 
 
 Accident Aid Fund receives a monthly subscription from each of the employees, and the pro- 
 ceeds from fines ; 12 physicians attend to the sick and wounded. The wounded receive the 
 usual pay. The costs of interment are paid by the Company. A quarterly premium is 
 granted to cabmen who best know how to avoid accidents. 
 
 Canteens at low rates are established at all the depots. 
 
 Household Savings. — A store at which the members may purchase provisions and groceries. 
 
 The total amount for supplementary expenses at the present time amounts to $1,055,272 400 
 
 GeNER.\L TEANS.\TtANTIC COMPANY. 
 
 Aid Fund No. 1 belonging so the sea-going staff or those working in trust in the ports. 'The 
 workmen subscribe 1 per cent of their pay. The fund benefits of half the receipts 
 gathered on board by means of gifts, &c. Fund No. 1 distributes $12,000 in annual aid. 
 
 Fund No. 2 assists the sedentary staff. There is no established regulation, the board of manage- ' 
 ment decides in every case. 
 
 Siiuill Household Savings. The employees have the advantage of buying in retail, their provi- 
 sions in retail, their provisions at wholesale prices, also linen, clothing, wine, fuel, &c. 
 There is also a restaurant where breakfast can be procured for 20c. Medical attendance. 
 A medical service is organized for the purpose of providing gratuitous medical attendance 
 
 to all the employees. Reductions are made by druggists on the cost of medicines 393 
 
 Glass Works oi' Baccarat. 
 
 The following institutions, for the benefit of the workmen, have been founded by the estab- 
 lishment : — 
 
 Schools. — Primary schools, adult schools, professional schools, and a drawing school. 
 
 Religious Service. — There is a chapel attached to the works, and a curate in attendance is paid 
 by the company. 
 
 PhUharriwnic Society. — Is established and maintained among the workmen and apprentices. 
 
 Medical Service. — A physician is established at the works, and can be consulted gratuitously. 
 
 Provident Fund — Pays one-half and one-third of the salary during sickness. 
 
 Fire Company. — A company of firemen of 70 workmen is organized in case of fire. 
 
 Accidents. — Liberal pensions to the wounded are granted in case of accidents. 
 
 Retiring Fund. — Retiring pensions of $60 per year at the minimum, are granted to workmen of 
 50 years of age, who nave worked 20 years for the company. 
 
 Savings. — It is estimated that the workmen of Baccarat save 10 per cent, of their wages 389 
 
 Houghton, H. O. , & Company. — Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 In 1872 this firm established a Saving Fund for the benefit of its workmen, who number 533. 
 Deposits may be made to the amount of $1,000. Interest at 6 per cent, is paid on deposits, 
 and when a depositor has, during one year, deposited $100, the firm adds 4 per cent, from 
 
 the profits 439' 
 
 HuBiN (Factories oi' Felix). — Harfleur, Seine infirieure. 
 
 Mutual iid Society.— The firm pays $240 per year. The workmen's subscription is 8c. and 16c. 
 per week, according to the wages. The amount of sick indemnity is 20c. per day, besides 
 the expense for medical care and medicines. 
 
 Asylum and School. — Mr. Hubin has given several of his houses to be used as a school, and an 
 asylum, which he supports, but which are managed by the municipality. 
 
 Workinginen's Houses. — 'They are of two types : one costs $600, and is let at $22 per year, and the 
 
 other at $750, rented $25.60, representing 3 ' 65 per cent, on the capital 409 
 
 •J iNviBR, Father, Son & Company f.fffwip ;Spimm«r/. Mans.) 
 
 Profit-sharing. Professional instruction in the factory. Gardens covering 1,265 feet of ground 
 
 at the use of the workmen. 
 Savings. — Workmen depositing their saving in the factory are paid 5 per cent, interest. 
 Food Owns.— Can provide food for 200 ; provided by the Company at an annual expense of $360. 
 Aid Accidents.— The fines, cost of badly done work, and a subsidy by the masters, supply the 
 
 'aid and accident fund. Medical care and medicines ars gratuitously provided by the fund. 
 
 The Company insures its workmen against accidents 410 
 
 Kestner & Company.— Befff^f, near Ciromugny (Upper Rhine). 
 
 Profit-sharing (see page 54). ,,■■<; 
 
 Mutual Aid ^ocseft/.— Workmen's subscription 12c., masters' subscription 8c. 
 
 The sick are provided with medical attendance and medicines free of charge, also an indemnity 
 
 of 30c. per day, ., , , , , „ , ^ , 
 
 Loans to the Workmen. — Workmen who wish to build themselves a house are allowed to borrow 
 
 $200, without interest, to be paid from their share of the profits. 
 Pensions.— 'Retiring pensions are paid to the workmen, varying from $48 to $108 per year, 
 
 according to age and length of service 410 
 
652 
 
 Lefeano, a.- Colors, Varnishes, Printing Inks, &c., Paris. Page 
 
 Provident and Retiring Fund. Supplied by a gift of 11,000 by Mens. Lefrano, and by monthiy 
 
 payments assessed on the net profits. 
 All the employees are allowed to share in the profits ; each one is given a book, in which are 
 
 entered all the amounts to his credit. 
 The men have a right to have their books liquidated only after having been 20 years in the 
 
 employ^ of the firm, and at the age of 45 ; or at the age of 60, having been 10 years in the 
 
 firm's employ '. 412 
 
 Lighting and Heating by Gas.— (Parisian Compomy.) 
 
 Provident Fund. — Supplied by an assessment of 1 per cent, on the wages, and bjy'a subsidy from 
 
 the Company equal to the total amount assessed. In case of wounds and sickness aid to the 
 
 amount of half the usual wages is paid during two months. 
 Retiring JWid. ^Supplied by an annual subsidy of $17,100 by the Company, by an annual rent 
 
 of $500, by interest on tne sums in the fund, by gifts, legacies, &c. 
 It is necessary, in order to have a right to a retiring pension, to be 55 years of age, and to have 
 
 been 25 years in the service of the Company. The pension amounts to 2 per cent, for each 
 
 year in the service, of the average wages during the last six years 402 
 
 Lung (Mr. Albert Lung's Factories) Cotton Spinning emd Weaving, Moussey and la Petite Boon 
 
 (Vosges.) 
 Dwellings. — Mens. Lung has built houses costing $500 which he rents for $2 per month, and sells 
 
 at $400, payable at $5 per month with interest at 5 per cent. 
 ' Savings. — The firm receives the workmen's savings, for which it pays the interest at 5 per cent. 
 
 per annum. 
 Sums advanced to Workmen. — Mr. Lung advances to his workmen, without interest, the sums 
 
 necessary to pay the first instalments on property, and in cases of necessity, sickness, enforced 
 
 idleness, &c. 
 Schools. — Mr. Lung maintains, at his own exjiense, schools for children and adults 413 
 
 " L'Union "(Fire Insurance Company). 
 
 Profit-sharing has been practiced in this Company since its foundation. 
 
 Provident Fund. — The Company exacts that all its employees should be insured for $1,000, paya- 
 ble at 55 years of age. Half the premium is paid by the? Company, and half by the employee, 
 to be deducted from his share in the profits 408 
 
 Lyons and the Meditbbeanean Kailway. — Retiring Fund. 
 
 The retiring or annuity fund is supplied by a subsidy from the company, the proceeds from the 
 investment of the moneys, and a deduction of 4 per cent, from the employees' salaries. 
 
 A right to retire is given at the age of 55 years, and after 25 years' service. 
 
 The retiring pension is based on the average wages of the last six years, in proportion to 2 per cent, 
 for each year of service. Example : An employee earning $1,000 per year for 25 years, has 
 a right to twice 25 ; that is to say, 50 per cent, of $1,000, or $500 per year 378 
 
 Mame. — Alfred Mame and Son, Tours. 
 Profit-sharing. (See page 60.) 
 
 Schools. — Subsidy to the city schools. ^ 
 
 Workingmen's City. —The workingmen's city, built by Mr. Mame, is composed of 62 cottages, 
 
 with gardens. Rent, $31.20 to $47.40. 
 Mutual Aid and Retiring Fund. — The payments by the master and the workmen are so calculated 
 
 that at 60 years of age the workmen receive a pension of $120 a year. 
 The sums paid by the firm of Mame & Sons to improve the fate of their workmen amount to 
 
 $15,875 per year 413 
 
 Makcinelle & CouiLLET. — Blast furnaccs, metal beating, coal. Couillet, Belgium. 
 
 Guardian Schools receive, gratuitously, 353 children from 3 to 7 years of age. 
 
 Schools. — On leaving the Guardian Schools the girls enter a primary school belonging to the Fac- 
 tory, and remain there until they are 12 years old. 
 
 Workingmen's Souses. — (See page 342.) 
 
 Aid and Retiring Fund. — Receipts : a deduction of 3 p.c. on the wages of the workmen and 2 p.c. 
 on the employees' salaries ; a subsidy of 1 p.c. fines, gifts, &c. 
 
 In case of sickness the members are cared for gratuitously and receive 40 per cent, of their 
 wages for 6 months. 
 
 The retiring pensions are based on a scale which is revised from time to time by the Board of 
 
 Management 430 
 
 Maritime Company op Caekiers. 
 
 Provident Fund — Supplied by 1 per cent, on the annual dividend ; 5 per cent, on wages and 
 
 gratuities ; interest on the moneys in the fund ; gifts and donations to the fund ; fines and 
 
 forfeiture. 
 Each member has a book, in which is entered his share in the division of the sums paid to 
 
 the fund. 
 At 50 years of age, having served 18 years, the employee has a. right to receive the amount 
 
 entered in his book. 
 Workshop Aid Fund. — Founded for the purpose of providing medical aid and medicines to the 
 
 staff. 
 Retiring.— Inate&A of a retiring fund, the company pays 25 per cent, on all the savings of the 
 
 workmen. 
 Dwellings. — The company has built houses, which it rents to the workmen. The net income 
 
 froiu them is 3 per cent 392 
 
653 
 
 Menibe. — Chocolate Manufacturer, Noiaid (Seine id Mame.) 
 
 Dwellinfis. — Mr. Menier has built houses for his 1,500 workmen. They contain two dwellings 
 
 with garden, shed and water-closet attached. The cost of each house is $2,000, or $1,000 per 
 
 dwelling. 
 Premiums. — A system of prizes for length of services has been established in such a way that 
 
 after a certain length of time the older workmen live rent free. 
 Household Savings. — A provision store furnishes to the workmen bread, wine, fuel, and all 
 
 things necessary for his daily wants, and at very low prices. The amount of sales is from 
 
 S80 per year each. 
 Canteenti. — Taverns, in which the unmarried men are lodged and boarded, charge in accordance 
 
 with a moderate tariff. Workmen residing in adjacentj villages and bringing their food 
 
 with them, are allowed the use of ovens to keep their food warm. 
 Schools.— The establishment has founded schools for boys and girls. An asylum, with a guar- 
 dian in charge, is attached to the schools. 
 Aid. — The establishment provides, gratuitously, medical assistance and medicines for the sick, 
 
 and an indemnity of 40c. per day for each person sick. 
 Savings Fund. — Receives the savings of the staff on which it pays interest at 6 pet cent, per 
 
 annum 415 
 
 Mining Company of Boche-la-Moliire and Firminy. 
 
 Hospitals. — The company has built two hospitals. Medical attendance and medicines are free. 
 Foot Belief. Relief in money is granted to workmen in urgent cases, on account of death, 
 
 wounds, first communion. 
 Heating. — Families are given 16 bushels of coal per month. 
 Schools. — 550 children of workmen are sent to the asylum of the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, 
 
 206 to the Sister's school, where 35 young girls are apprenticed, and 11 boys are cared for 
 
 whose fathers were killed in the Company's service. 
 Aid Fund. — A wounded workmen is allowed 20 cents per day, besides 5 cents per child. Accidents 
 
 are generally settled amicably, and when there are minors they are settled by the courts 
 Retiring Fund. — The company, grants a pension of $60 to workmen who have been 30 years in its 
 
 employ and are 55 years of age. 
 Provident Fund. — A sum of $1,200 to $1,600 is divided among its workmen who have been 20 
 
 years in its employ. 
 These institutions cost the company $44,823, equal to $16.65 per workman, or 7 07 per cent, of 
 
 the wages , 399i 
 
 MocTiER Establishment. 
 
 Apprenticeship {See page 173). 
 
 Profit-sharing (Sec' page 63). 
 
 Accident Fund supplied by the house without any deduction on the wages. Indemnity for the 
 
 first week ; entire wages, afterwards half the wages. The firm insures its workmen in the 
 
 Accident Insurance Company guaranteed by the State. {See page 282). The workmen 
 
 have also a right to the benefits of the Mutual Insurance Company, founded by the Syndioal 
 
 Board. 
 Mutual Aid Society, is supplied by subscriptions from the staff ; grants a daily indemnity of 40e. 
 
 to the sick. 
 Betiring Fund.. — The Moutier Establishment is only an intermediary between the depositor and 
 
 the National Retiring Fund for old age. 
 Besides voluntary savings, there is an obligatory saving of Ic. per day imposed on the members 
 
 without taking into account the part proceeding from a division of profits. 416 
 
 Netherlands Yeast and Spirit Factory.— Dey?, Holland. 
 
 Profit-sharing (see page 85). . , , 
 
 Prizes. — Prizes, or premiums, are granted to the staff ; they are m accordance with the quantity 
 and quality of the products manufactured. From 1874 to 1888 these premiums have in- 
 creased the wages by 10 per cent. 
 
 Schools, A-c— The firm has founded : an ayslum for children from 6 years of age ; a school for 
 manual labor for the workmen's children ; classes for foreign languages for the employees, a 
 lecture haU, games and conferences ; a library of 2,000 volumes. 
 
 Dwc-Hm'/s.— The director, together with the staff , has founded a Oooperavive Society the object of 
 which is to procure good dwelling houses for the employees and workmen of the factory, also 
 co-opera^ve stores, hotels for unmarried men, baths, lavatories, schools, circles, &c. 
 
 Saving Fund " ohligntoTy." . , , ,, .mi, i, ■ i.. . 
 
 An assessment on the wages is paid to the saving fund at 4 per cent. The owner has a right to 
 to be paid at 60 years of age, or on leaving. , . ,„ , , . ^ -. 
 
 Sickness.— In case of sickness the firm pays half the wages during 12 weeks, and a quarter of it 
 during 6 more weeks. , . 
 
 Retiring Fund.— At the age of 60, and after having paid 21 annual premiums, the employee has a 
 right to retire on a pension equal to his wages. , , .,. 
 
 Mutual Aid in case of i»m«A..— Founded for the purpose of assisting the families of deceased work- 
 men who died in the age of activity. The indemnity is 4 francs per week to the family. The 
 firm pays one-third and the employees two-thirds the expenses of this fund. 
 
 Fire Insurance.— 'S-y agreement with an insurance all the houses are insured collectively at the 
 
 rate of li per thousand. .„ ,.„ j j-a; li.- i ^ ji 
 Council of " Prud'hommes" (men of trust).— AM differences and difficulties are regulated by a 
 Council of Prud'hommes, 4 of whom are named by the director, and 4 by the staff. The 
 Council chooses its own president 433 
 
6U 
 
 Paeis and Orleans Railway Company. Page 
 
 The institvitions for the benefit of their workmen, founded by, are as follows : — 
 lat. A retu'ing pension in favor of employees fulfilling all the conditions of age and length of 
 
 service required ; 
 2nd. The distribution of gratuities and aid in money, provisions, clothing and firewood ; 
 3rd. An annuity to the victims of accidents which nave occurred in the service ; 
 4th. Medical attendance throughout the whole railway system ; 
 5th. Distribution of hygienic drinks during the heated term ; 
 6th. Stores in Paris, Orleans, Tours, Perigueux and Bordeaux, which deliver provisions and 
 
 clothing, stuffs, bedding, &c., to all points of the system ; also, a wine cellar established at 
 
 Vitry ; 
 7th. A refectory in the midst of the Paris workshops ; 
 8th. Night schools for workmen and apprentices in the shops ; 
 9th. A bakery established among the Paris workshops ; 
 
 loth. A girls' school for the daughters of the workmen and employees, and a workroom ; 
 nth. A subsidy by the company for the mutual aid and provident fund, founded and managed 
 
 by the employees, to ensure for themselves a certain annuity at a determined age 382 
 
 Pavin — Lafaege Factoey. — Lime-kiln (Viviers-Ardiohe). 
 
 Dwellings. — The firm has built workingmen's cities, where the houses are rented to fathers of 
 
 three children. A tavern in which 200 workmen are boarded and lodged at $7 per month. 
 Hospital. — An hospital for the sick and wounded. 
 Retiring. — There is no retiring fund, but the Company pensions its old workmen. On the 1st of 
 
 January, 1889, there were 19 pensioners, receiving in all $1,709 per year. 
 Church. — The Company has built a church and pays the services of a clergyman. 
 Schools. — The Company maintains a school for boys and one for girls. 
 Workroom. — On leaving the school the young girls are sent to the workroom, where they learn to 
 
 do housework. 
 Aid J^foic/.— Supplied by an assessment of IJ per cent, on the wages and by an amount paid by 
 
 Mons. de Lefarge. The fund pays aid and indemnities for enforced idleness. 
 Accidents. — The workmen are insured against accident, and J the premiums are paid by the Aid 
 
 Pund, and | by the house. 
 Household Savings. — The funds of the Aid Fund are employed to establish a bakery and a 
 
 grocery 417 
 
 Peugeot. Les Fils de •Peugeot Fe^ees. {Ironwork and Velocipedes, Valentigny, Douhs). 
 
 Mutual A id Society, supplied by subscriptions imposed on the workmen, and by a subsidy from 
 
 the firm. An indemnity of 30o. per day is paid to the sick. 
 Retiring Fund, supplied from the profits of the establishment. At 50 years of age, and after 30 
 
 years service, a workman has a right to a pension of $72, half of which amount is revertible 
 
 to the widow and orphans. 
 Accidents. The whole staff is insured against accidents without there being any amount retained 
 
 on the wages. 
 Workingnun's Houses. Cottages and blocks of houses have been built to lodge the workmen. 
 
 When the workmen wish to build a house, the amount necessary is advanced. 
 Savings. The firm accepts deposits from the staff, on which it pays 4 per cent, interest. 
 Cooperative Society for provisions, founded by the workmen and operated to their benefit, 
 
 furnishes all necessary provisions. 
 Schools. Four schools are maintained at the expense of the firm, also two hospitals halls. 
 Hospitals. A hospital was founded by Mr. Peugeot 418 
 
 A. PlAT. (Raris-Soissons). 
 
 Profit-sharing. {See page 66). 
 
 Mutual Aid Society. Receipt : Subscription from actual members. Amounts paid by the masters 
 
 and honorary members are devoted to form a retiring fund. 
 Provident and Retiring Fund. Receipt : monthly subscription lOo. This fund pays a daily 
 
 indemnity of 26c. or 40c. to the sick. 
 It pays a retiring pension to workmen 60 years of age who have been 20 years in the firm's employ. 
 
 The annual amount allowed by the Fund is $40.00 raised by Mr. Piat to $72.00. 
 Life Insurance. The total amount of payments to be made is 40c. per month for the Mutual and 
 
 10c. for the Provident, and 13c. for a policy of $100 in case of death. 
 Apprentices School. An hour and a half is devoted to lessons, in the workshop, every night. 
 
 Prizes are given. 
 Library. It consists of 500 Volumes. 
 Harmony Band of the workshops of A. Piat 80 musicians 419 
 
 PiNET. (Boot and Shoe Manufacturer, Paris). 
 
 Retiring pensions. Mr. Pinet, in order to form a capital for a retiring pension, pays a surplus 
 
 of 5 p. 0. on the wages. 
 The workman has a right to retire at 55 years of age after 7 years employment by the firm. The 
 
 pensions varies from $60 to $180. 
 In 1889, in the month of August, Mr. Pinet paid the fund a sum calculated to represent $1.00 
 
 for the men and 60c. for the women for every year's work done for the firm 41n 
 
 Pleyel, Wolff & Company. Piano Manufacturers, Paris. 
 
 Workshop School. Receives children from 5 to 12 years of age. 
 
 Savings. As an encouragement to thrift among the apprentices, the house every year, places to 
 
 the account of each a sum equal tot hat he has himself deposited. 
 Aid. The firm makes a generous allowance to the Mutual Aid Society. 
 
655 
 
 Loans. The firm loans sums of money to its employees who happen to be in straitened circum- 
 stances, which are to be repaid by weekly sums retained on the wages. In a period of 20 
 years it has lost the sum of |l.36 only on these loans. 
 
 Retiring. The firm grants a retiring pension of S73, to any employee who has been 30 years in 
 its employ and who is 60 years of age. 
 
 Idbrary, contains 300 Volumes at the use of the staff. These different institutions have cost 
 
 the firm of Pleyel the sum of $146,000 during the last 20 years 420 
 
 SAlNT-FnfcRBS. — Cottmi Spinning Weaving, Paris-Rouen Aid Fund. Accident Insurance and 
 
 Retiring Fund for old nge. 
 Receipts : 20c. per month for men, 14c. for women and children. One-third this amoupt is paid 
 
 by the house, besides gifts, tines and interest on capital. Of this 70 per cent goes to the Aid 
 
 Tund ; 10 per cent, to the Accident Fund, and 20 per cent, to the Retiring Fund. 
 The sick are attended gratuitously and are paid an indemnity of 20c. per day. The crippled 
 
 are paid §60 to S180. In the event of death the sum of $240 is paid the heirs. 
 A right to retire is granted any workman 65 years of age and who has been 25 years in the ' 
 
 firm's employ. The amount of the pension is as many times $1.20 as the workman has been 
 
 consecutive years in the employ of the firm. 
 Dwellings. — Messrs. Saint-Freres have built 453 cottages which they rent to their workmen. The 
 
 rental gives a return of IJ per cent, on the capital invested. 
 Tchools. — Schools are establisned in the different factories of the firm 421 
 
 Sautter, Lbmonier c& Co., Paris. 
 
 Profit.sharing. — (See page 73.) 
 
 Savings Group. — Savings groups, three in number, are formed and administered by the working 
 staS, after the manner of the society called La Fourmi. 
 
 The 1st. group was formed in 1879. The subscription has been changed from 60o. to 82.20. 
 The capital formed by this group is $4,200. 
 
 The 2nd group was formed in 1880, numbering 18 members. In 1885 the accumulated capital, 
 $1,240, was divided among the 9 members remaining. 
 
 The 3rd group, formed in 1881, numbered at first 22 members. The subscription has been 
 changed from 60c. to SI. 
 
 Aid Fund. — In the event of sickness and enforced idleness. The fund is supplied by subscrip- 
 tions from the staff. The rate is proportioned to the need. The firm contributes a variable 
 amount. The subsorijition varies from 6o. to 10c. The contribution by the firm generally 
 amounts to about 40 per cent, of the receipts 421 
 
 Schneider & Co. — Greusot Foundries. 
 
 Retiring Fund. — Since 1877 Messrs. Schneider & Co. have, from their own means, and as a 
 
 voluntary gift, paid to the National Retiring Fund the amounts necessary to insure their 
 
 workmen a retiring annuity proportioned to their wages and their length of service. 
 The payments amount to 3 per cent, for the husband, and 2 per cent, for the wife — in all, equal 
 
 to 5 per cent, of the wages. 
 The total number of workmen is 12,338. 
 Workingmen's House. — Sums advanced to the staff for the purchase of lands and to build houses, 
 
 $658,534. Total amount repaid, $613,093. Balance due on 1st January, 1889, $45,441. 
 Schools. — The Company maintains 20 classes for boys and 33 classes for girls, and 8 infant-school; 
 
 the teachers are 59 in number ; the pupils are 4,606 in number. 
 Savings. — At the same date 3,049 depositors had deposited the sum of $1,839,929 422 
 
 Setdoux, Siebek & Company. — Spinning and Weaving, Le Cateaii. 
 Savings Fund. — Founded by the house ; gives 5 per cent, interest. 
 Retiring Fumd. — The house grants, without deduction from the wages, retiring pensions to its old 
 
 employees whom age and infirmity prevent working. Mde. Widow Seydoux has made a 
 
 donation of $40,000, and the income from this sum increases the retiring pensions. 
 Aid Fund. — Receipts : Fines, gifts, subsidy from the house. The workmen receive medical 
 
 treatment free. The fund also pays the funeral expenses. The sick are given an indemnity 
 
 in money. 
 Baths. — 10 bath-rooms are at the use of the workpeople ; every bath costs 2c. 
 Food Ovens.— The house maintains an economical oven. For 6c. the workman can procure a 
 
 piece of meat, some soup and vegetables. 
 Criche.—A creche has been established, where children from the age of 15 days to one year are 
 
 received. They are fed, dressed and cared for at a cost of 4 cents per day. At the age of 
 
 three years the children are received into the criche. 
 Schools.— The house has founded a primary school for boys and girls. 
 Aimuities. — Mde. Widow Seydoux, in 1873, founded a retiring annuity fund for workmen who 
 
 have been more than 40 years in the employ of the firm— $20 for men and $16 for women. 
 
 There are 33 pensioners. 
 Sospitai.—A. hospital for old people, and a society called Maternal Charity 423 
 
 SOLVAY AND COMPANY. — Soda, Chemical Products, Varangeville, Domhasle (Meurthe and Moselle). 
 Medical attendance and medicines free to the workmen. The sick receive one fourth their wages. 
 
 Workmen wounded at work receive their entire wages. 
 Baths. — A bath-room is put at the use of the workmen. 
 Accidents.— The Company insures its workmen against accidents, without any deduction from 
 
 their wages. . . , . , , , 
 
 Relief to Workmen in Want.— An aid fund to assist workmen in want is supphed by the fines, by 
 
 an amount equal to the'fines paid by Solvay & Company ; by gifts from the staff. 
 
656 
 
 Page 
 
 Retiring. All the workmen are obliged to pay IJ per cent, of their wages to the National 
 Retiring Fund for old age ; to this the Company adds a sum equal to 3 per cent, of the wages. 
 The Company, moreover, pay a sum equal to 20c. for each year of service. 
 
 Savings Fund. — The Company receives on deposits the savings of its workmen, and pays interest 
 at 5 per cent per annum. 
 
 Dioellings. — The Company has built 285 cottages, and gives the use of them rent free to its 
 employees and foremen ; it rents houses to its workmen at $2.00 per month, giving a return 
 of about 1\ per cent, on the capital invested 426 
 
 Suez Canal. — f Company of the Suez Maritime Canals.) 
 
 Aid and Annuity Fund. — Of the 2 per cent, on the profits allowed to the staff (see page 45) one 
 portion is applied to pensions and to annual aid. The pensions are graduated in accordance 
 
 ' with a scale of payment established by the company. 
 
 Sick. — The company has a complete medical service, a hospital, and a villa for convalescent 
 patients. 
 
 Divers. — On the occasion of the marriage of any of the Europeen employees, they are allowed a 
 
 month and a half's extra salary 402 
 
 The Workshops of Neuilly {anonymous company), for locksmiths' work. 
 
 Aid Fund of the Workshops. — Receipts : Subsidy by the house equal to 2J per cent, of thf wages ; 
 assessment of IJ per cent, on the wages ; voluntary donations, interest, &o. 
 
 In case of sickness the members have a right to half their wages and 10 cents per day for medi- 
 cal expenses during the space of two months 
 
 In case of an accident the victim receives his entire wages for a period of three months ; if the 
 accident is followed by permanent incapacity, the victim has a right to a pension equal in 
 amount to half his salary. 
 
 In the event of death, a sum equal to two years' wages is paid to the' hKirs. 
 
 Any member 60 years of age who has been ten years m the firm's employ receives a pension 
 
 equal to one-third his wages 425 
 
 Tobacco, (Manufacture of). 
 
 The French Government which has the monopoly of the manufacture and sale of tobacco 
 employs 20,871 persons. Since 1861 its staff has been obliged to belong to the National 
 Retiring Fund for old age, and 4 per cent, was therefore retained from their wages. Since 
 1882 the State itself pays the 4 per cent. The average amounts in the books in 1889 was $92. 
 
 The administration has established criches to assist women in childbed. In 1888, 727 were 
 admitted and there were 132,000 days of attendance ; parents pay one-third the expense, 
 
 and the State pays the other two-thirds 414 
 
 ViElLLE Montagnb. — {Mining and Zinc Foundry Company) Angleur, Belgium. 
 
 Savings Fund. — The Company accepts deposits of savings from its workmen, and pays 5 per cent, 
 interest up to the maximum sum of $2,000. 
 
 Workingmen's Houses. — The Company encourages its workmen to become property owners; it 
 builds houses, which it sells to them at cost price, pOTable by instalments ; it also sells them 
 the land and loans them money to build a house. jMore than 1,000 of its workmen own their 
 own houses. 
 
 Aid Fund. — Its object is to provide medical care, medicines and an indemnity for enforced idle- 
 ness for its sick or wounded workmen. The fund is supplied by an assessment on the wages. 
 
 Provident Fund. — The object of their fund is to provide pensions for their workmen who have 
 been 15 years in the Company's employ, and who are acknowledged by the physician to be 
 incapable of working. These pensions vary in amount from 10 cts. to 20 cts. per day, 
 besides i of a cent per day for every year's service, counting from the 15th year. This fund 
 is supi^lied by the Company. 
 
 Life Insurance. — All the working staff pay 3 per cent, of their wages and the Company adds 1 per 
 
 cent, to insure the men's Hves 43;j^ 
 
 Waddington Sons & Company. — Cotton Spinners and Weavers, St. Renny sur Avre (Eure et Loire.) 
 
 Institutions at the charge of the firm: — 
 
 Criche. — Days of attendance, 6,024 ; expense $859. 
 
 Maternal School. — Days of attendance, 11, lib ; expense $875. 
 
 Schools. — Ten commercial schools, founded and supported by the firm. 
 
 Reservists. — Salary paid during time employed by the Company. 
 
 Retiring Pension. — Number retired 74 ; average pension $45. 
 
 Institutions in which the Workmen furnish their share : 
 
 Mutual Aid Society. — Receipts : subscription of the saff, fines and others ; subscriptions by the 
 firm. Annual expense, $4,043. 
 
 Library. — 692 volumes. Subsidy by the firm $120. 
 
 Workmen's Dwelliiigs. — 193 houses with gardens. Rent, from .§9 to 819 per month. 
 
 Provident Fund.— Numhev of depositors, 226. Total amount of deposits, $74,863. Rate of 
 interest, 5 per cent. 
 
 Obligatory Mutual Aid Society. — Supplied by a subscription of 13c. per fortnight ; the fines and 
 a subsidy by the firm. The sick are cared for gratuitously, and receive an indemnity in 
 provisions and goods, classified according to the sickness. This relief ceases at the end of 
 
 three months 428 
 
 D. Walter Seitz. — Cotton Spinning and Weaving, Granger, Vosges. 
 
 Maternal School.— Receives gratuitously the workmen's children up to the age of 6 years. 
 
 Sick Attendance. — The firm assumes the entire expense arising from the care of the health of its 
 500 workmen. 
 
 Acciilents. — All the workmen are insured against accident at the firm's expense. 
 
657 
 
 Dwdlings.— Isolated dwelUngs have been built ; the rents vary from between $16 and $24. The 
 property is insured against fire. 
 
 Savings. —The firm receives deposits from its staff, and pays interest at 5 per cent 429 
 
 Western Railway Company. 
 
 Aid and Provident Fund provides gratuitous medical attendance and medicines for sick or 
 wounded employees. 
 
 Grants an indemnity during the continuation of the sickness. 
 
 Jrays funeral expenses. 
 
 BcUrinp Fund, is supplied by a donation from the Company, private gifts, fines, and deduction 
 ol 4 p.c. on the salaries, the amount allowed as annuity to employees who have been for 25 
 years m the service of the Company and who are 55 years of age, is equal to half the salary 
 
 tor the last six years and of which the average is $183.60 372 
 
 SECTION XVI. -INTERVENTION IN ECONOMY OF PUBLIC AUTHORITY 
 IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 Advances or subsidies to cooperative societies or corporations for production 449 
 
 iimldmg workingmens houses 449 
 
 Commercial competition to stationary merchants by foreign and traveiling merchants ........ 452 
 
 Oonstruction and working of railways and canals by the State 448 
 
 Disputes between masters and workmen 451 
 
 Employers Liability Act, 1880 [.....[..[[...[..[,....... 449 
 
 Fixation of minimum wages for workmen 447 
 
 Homestead law ^ 449 
 
 Intellectual improvement ] 444 
 
 Intervention of public authority in exchange contract 445 
 
 Intervention of public authority in labor contracts in general 446 
 
 Intervention of public authority to favor or to restrict emigration or immigration 451 
 
 Labour Exchange , 448 
 
 Mills, &c I ................[.[[.. .. 447 
 
 Moral improvement of persons 445 
 
 Municipal enterprise for the conveyance in common of travellers, and for lighting cities by gas 
 
 or electricity 448 
 
 Municipal laboratories 450 
 
 Mimicipal stores for workmen 448 
 
 Naturalization 452 
 
 National and municipal credit banks for workmen 448 
 
 Physical improvement of persons ■ : 444 
 
 PubUc Baths, 9-10 Vic, Chap. 74, 1846 447 
 
 Public Health Act, 15 Vic, Chap. 13 450 
 
 Public works considered as annexed to public assistance 448 
 
 Regulation of the duration and manner of work by the State or by municipalities 447 
 
 Regulation for liquors 450 
 
 Subsidies granted to men on strike in cities 451 
 
 Tariffication of prices for certain goods 447 
 
 Tax on foreign laborers 452 
 
 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES. 
 International Congress op cheap dwellings. 
 
 Cheap dwellings from an economical and financial point of view 456 
 
 International Congress respecting accidents inherent to labor. 
 
 State of the question respecting accidents inherent to labor in France and elsewhere 503 
 
 1. Report on the German General Provident Exhibition against Accidents, held in Berlin from 
 
 April to October, 1889 567 
 
 2. Statistics of accidents inherent to labor (railways, mines, quarries, steam apparatus). 
 
 Elements of the first cost of assurance against accidents. Classification of risks 521 
 
 3. Statistical definition of accidents and census of professions 569 
 
 Regulation and official inspection of industrial establishments in the several countries : 
 
 («.. ) Mines, quarries, railways and steam appliances 568 
 
 (6.) Labor of womeirand children in factories 568 
 
 Industrial associations organised in France and in foreign countries to prevent accidents 569 
 
 1. Liability for accidents inherent to labor and professional risk 570 
 
 2. The intervention of judicial tribunals in awarding damages in cases of accidents. — Indem- 
 
 nity awarded according to civil status of the person injured 570 
 
 3. Experimental study of the obligatory insurance and of the free and optional insurance 571 
 
 4. Organization of insurance against accidents 555 
 
 5. Examination of financial arrangements to be made for the safe working of the superannua- 
 
 n I Mtion service. — Formation of a reserve fund, or annual distribution of offices 572 
 
 6 Difference to be made in the organization of insurances for short or long periods 572 
 
 20—42 
 
658 
 
 International Congeess on promt shabing. 
 (Fifteen questions were submitted for discussion at this Congress.) 
 
 First QDbstion. Is the free agreement expressed or understood, by which the workman or 
 employee receives above his usual salary or ordinary wages, a share in the proiits, without 
 participating in the losses, whether individually, m money or otherwise, jointly and collec- 
 tively, under the form of accessory advantages, or in other ways, conformable to natural law 
 and to equity ? 464 
 
 Second Question. — Where it is the desire of the master of an industry to secure to workmen, in 
 addition to their wages, advantages intended to increase their well-being in the present and 
 to give them a security for the future, without, however, charging the price due them, by 
 adopting the system recommended by Mr. Eugel DoUfus, of subtracting an annual amount 
 from the general costs. Is it not possible for him to make use of the principle of profit- 
 sharing among the workmen ? 
 Should participation, reflated according to a determined quantity, be calculated from the total 
 amount of commercial and industrial profits of the concern ? Should it not, on the contrary, 
 be regulated in an establishment by means of a series of distinctive inventories, by special 
 kinds of work, by groups or bands of workmen ? 4C7 
 
 Third Question. — May not participation too narrowly restricted to the supplementary profit, 
 which in each workshop may result in exceptional economies of time, material or fire, be apt 
 to become confounded with bonuses, and over-salaries paid from the general expenses ? Has 
 not this latter system the disadvantage in certain cases of leading to the overdriving of the 
 workman ? 471 
 
 Fourth Question. — When stijjulated participation, whether united or not to the business profits 
 proper, leads to the fixing of a determined amount, does it not, even when the master's au- 
 thority is beyond dispute, offer to workmen the guarantee of a controUng influence on the 
 
 accounts by means of an expert accountant ? 472 
 
 Thus organized, does not stipulated participation offer the advantage of obliging the business- 
 man himself to keep a regular system of accounts ? 
 Is it not adapted to facilitate the transferrence of the establishment into the hands of the staff, 
 
 by preparing it for transformation into a co-operative association of production ? 
 Is not this transformation stiD better prepared for when the workmen, having become share- 
 holders, share in the losses, if there be any, as well a^ in the profits. 
 
 Fifth Question. «^In order to strengthen the §^arantees offered the sharers in stipiulated profit- 
 sharing, would it be advisable to establish certain rules for the inventory, particularly as re- 
 gards the wear and tear of goods, and the deduction made by the chief, previous to any divi- 
 sion of amounts for reserve and management ? 475 
 
 Sixth Question. — Should the division of profits be made at so much in the franc, of amount of sa- 
 lary or wages without distinction ? Or, on the contrary, should the division be made in ac- 
 cordance with the position held or with length of service ? 476 
 
 Seventh Question.--Is it to be preferred that the amount of profits to be divided, either whole or 
 in part, should, by some means, be created a saving for the future benefit of the participants, 
 to the payment being made in specie ? 478 
 
 II. If the answer be in the affirmative, must life rents be abolished in order to arrange for the 
 creation of a patrimony for the participant's family, as has been done by M. DeCourcy , by 
 means of capitalization at compound interest of the individual books, lOr by means of insur- 
 ance ? . 479 
 
 III. Is there sufficient cause to demand of the Legislature the establishment of a public bank in 
 which may be placed the collective savings arising from p^icipation, cooperation, subsidies 
 
 , from masters, and syndieal taxes and other sources ? 480 
 
 Eighth Question. — Is not collective profit-sharing, which is intended, by means of a common undi- 
 vided fund, to provide an aid in the general interest, preferable m certain industrial centres 
 to any gift made separately to the individual ? ,' 480 
 
 Ninth Question. — In order that profit-sharing, instituted by a master, should in certain cases 
 prepare the way to an Association of Productive Cooperation, should choice be made — in 
 preference to investments retained in their entirety as a provident fund — of an obligatory or 
 free disposition of the profits in shares or interest bearing portions, destined later to 
 transform the workmen into co-proprietors, or, it may be, into sole proprietors of the factory ? 481 
 
 Tenth Question. — If the profits are to be devoted to life insurance, should not the preference be 
 given to mixed insurances ?| 
 If the profits are intended to constitute a special retiring fund belonging to the establishment, 
 and connected with a mutual aid society, or founded by one or more, syndicates, in order to 
 organize the fund should not tariffs or taxation and rates of pensions be adopted, in confor- 
 mity with tables of death rates and mathematical rules often overlooked or unknown ? 483 
 
 Eleventh Question. — Could not not the amount of profits to be divided be, to a certain extent, 
 usefully employed to encourage individual savings by the grant of an exceptional rate of 
 interest, or by advancing money to the workman to assist him in the purchase of a house ? . . 486 
 
 Twelfth Question. — Is not profit-sharing a means of facilitating professional instruction by reason 
 of the stability of workmen who are heads of families ? And reciprocally, are not the good 
 workmen formed by the professional teaching given in the establishment likely to lead to the 
 founding and maintaining of profit-sharing in an industrial establishment ? 489 
 
 Thirteenth Question. — How far and in what way may the principle of sharing the net profits be 
 
 applied to agriculture ? 491 
 
659 
 
 Page 
 FoDBTENTH Qdbstion. — Are the different forms of partnership in use in sea-fishing to be considered 
 
 as forms of profit-sharing, and, taken in this sense, do they admit of improvement ? » . . . 494 
 
 Fifteenth Question.— Should profit-sharing be ordered by the Government? Should it not, 
 according to circumstances, proceed from the master, or from the wish of the workmen freely 
 accepted by him, with the same rights as any other agreement relating to labor ? 495 
 
 BELGIAN LABOR COMMISSION. 
 
 Conclusions arrived at in regard to accidents of labor, apprenticeship and workingmen's houses 59 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 List of works and documents exhibited in the Social Economy Section having been examined, cited 
 
 and mentioned in this report 615 
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 Communications received from exhibitors on ; 
 
 Section II. — Profit-sharing 599 
 
 Section IV.— Apprenticeship 600 
 
 Section V. — Mutual benevolent societies 603 
 
 Section VI. — Retiring funds and annuities 604 
 
 Section IX. — Consumers' cooperative associations 606 
 
 Section X. — Credit cooperative association 607 
 
 Section XI. — Workingmen's dwellings 608 
 
 Section XIV. — Employer's institutions 609 
 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 924 055 817 377 
 
 
 DATE DUE 
 
 
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