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THE 
 
 BRITISH NAVY 
 
 By a. stenzel 
 
 CAPTAIN IMPERIAL GERMAN NAVY, RETIRED. 
 
 •^He that rules the sea, rules the commerce of the world, 
 and to him that rules the commerce of the world belong 
 all the treasures of the world and indeed the world itself." 
 ISir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS AND DIAGRAMS. 
 
 LONDON 
 T. FISHER UNWIN 
 
 PATERNOSTER SQUARE 
 1898 
 
 '^-i'^^ V^ in Germany. 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 The fall of the first Napoleon in 1815 was succeeded by a feverish 
 peace of 33 years. This led on to the events of 1848, when the 
 unrest of nations, caused by cravings for political and individual liberty 
 and by nationalistic aspiration, found expression in rebellion, revolution, 
 and war. Ambitious men exploited the popular passions for their own 
 advantage, and the series of events of this last half-century has been 
 chang-ing- the political map of Europe almost beyond recognition. No 
 doubt, many of the changes have proved highly beneficial to mankind. 
 Who can fail to be gratified in contemplating Germany united, and 
 freed from the nightmare of the dictatorial and overbearing preponder- 
 ance of France and from foreign interference generally in her internal 
 affairs? Or Italy! now mistress of her own fate; her soil free from 
 the detested rule of the foreigner; and the ardent desire for unity 
 cherished for centuries by her noblest patriots, but believed to be 
 no more than a pious aspiration, a realised and concrete fact. These 
 are great gains, not too dearly purchased by five great wars. Would 
 however that that were the whole price! More, much more had to 
 be paid; European Right has been superseded by European Might, 
 and we stand in the midst of an armed peace, which at any moment 
 may terminate in an outbreak of universal conflict. Educati9n has 
 raised the intelligence of the rank and file of the combatants, and 
 Science has more than doubled the destructive power of war. And 
 as if these causes of mischief were not enough, trade jealousies and 
 commercial rivalries have lately been added to intensify popular 
 passions and to stifle the small voice within the hearts of men, plead- 
 ing for justice and truth between nations as between individuals. 
 If the expected struggle is not warded off by wise statesmanship, 
 some nations like Russia will fight /or mere aggrandisement, whilst 
 
IV TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 others like England and Germany will feel their very existence to be 
 at stake. 
 
 In such circumstances it behoves wise men to take stock of the 
 forces surrounding them, and of the resources possessed by possible 
 friends and foes. The time is ripe for the publication of works such 
 as the present series, of which the volume before the reader forms 
 the first part; it may aid in forming public opinion and in guiding 
 its action. 
 
 To see ourselves as others see us is often a salutary discipline, and 
 tends to tone down the self- congratulation in which most of -us are 
 prone to indulge. Well, Englishmen may here behold their navy as 
 it presents itself to the mind of a highly competent foreign critic, 
 who has made the English Navy a special object of his professional 
 study, and they will have ample cause for gratification. Not that he 
 deals out indiscriminate praise, far from it; he does not shrink from 
 putting his finger on what seem to him sore points, nor from dwelling 
 on past errors and shortcomings ; but the sum total of his investigations 
 amounts to an ungrudging recognition of that maritime preponderance 
 which is essential to England's existence. His concluding words are: 
 "Owing to the inexhaustible resources at the disposal of the country, 
 the new fleet is being created in an incredibly short time, A POLITICAL 
 INSTRUMENT OF ENORMOUS POWER. May English policy employ it 
 with justice, wisdom, and moderation!" Every Englishman will heartily 
 echo these words. 
 
 To naval officers and others conversant with naval affairs, it is hoped 
 that the translation of Captain Stenzel's book will be interesting as a 
 sympathetic view of the English navy through German spectacles. 
 English people not specially conversant with naval affairs will find in 
 it not only a tribute to the greatness of their greatest institution, the 
 safeguard of their very national existence, but a fund of information 
 on naval subjects in a popular form such as "no single English work 
 has yet afforded them". All the information has been brought up to 
 date by means of reference to the latest sources, and every effort 
 has been made to render the work as accurate as a work of reference 
 should be. 
 
 For aid in the translation of many technical terms, my thanks are 
 due to Mr. F. W. Crohn of the firm of Messrs. Yarrow and Co., 
 Poplar. I have also been greatly assisted by Mr. F. Harrison 
 Smith R. N., who has devoted his extensive knowledge to a scrutiny 
 of my manuscript and the proof-sheets. It is almost impossible for 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. V 
 
 a foreigner to avoid some errors or misapprehensions in composing- 
 such a work as that of Captain Stenzel, and on such a subject as the 
 British Navy. It would be equally impossible, except for one who 
 combined a thorough mastery of German and EngHsh with a technical 
 knowledge of naval affairs, to avoid some additional errors in the 
 course of translation. In the elucidation of the author's misapprehen- 
 sions and in the ehmination of the translator's mistakes, Mr. Harrison 
 Smith's help has proved most useful and all but indispensable. 
 
 In writing for German readers Captain Stenzel has necessarily in- 
 troduced expressions which must be explained to an English reader. 
 He draws a distinction between Officer (Offizier) and Official (Beamte) : 
 the latter denotes the medical officers, paymasters, &c.; in a word, 
 non-combatants, who are not called by the name of Officer in German. 
 Indeed there is an important difference in the German Navy between 
 the two classes. The officers, like the crews, take an oath of allegiance 
 to the Emperor solely, the officials are sworn to the Imperial Consti- 
 tution as well as to the Emperor. 
 
 It has been thought best in a few instances to retain the German 
 terms, but this and a small number of similar cases must be left to 
 the discrimination of the reader. 
 
 One more word on an innovation I have ventured to introduce with 
 respect to the use of small capitals in the body of the text. Occa- 
 sionally emphasis is aimed at, but generally the intention is to aid 
 the reader in referring from the index to the subject indicated. 
 
 A. SONNENSCHEIN. 
 
Books consulted by author and translator. 
 
 1. Queen's Regulations and Admiralty Instructions 1893, Addenda 1896. 
 
 2. Navy List. 
 
 3. Navy Estimates. 
 
 4. Robinson, C. N., Commander R. N., The British Fleet. 
 
 5. The White Ensign, 1896. 
 
 6. Vesey Hamilton, Admiral Sir R., Naval Administration 1896. 
 
 7. Oldknow, R. C, Fleet-Engineer R. N., The Mechanism of Menof-War, 1896. 
 
 8. Armstrong, G. E., Lieutenant late R. N., Torpedoes and Torpedo-Vessels, 1896. 
 
 9. Eardley Wilmot, Captain R. N., The Development of Nafvies etc., 1892. 
 
 10. Reed, Sir E., Our Ironclad Ships, 1869. 
 
 11. Laird Clowes, Naval Pocket-Book 1896. 
 
 12. Almanack der Kriegsjiottm l8g6. 
 
 13. James, Naval History. 
 
 14. Burrows, The Life of Lord Hawke, 1883. 
 
 15. do.. Cinque Ports, 1895. 
 
 16. Barrow, The Life of Lord Anson. 
 
 17. Several Parliamentary Papers, etc. 
 
 18. Brassey's Naval Annual. 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Synops 
 
 )S1S 
 
 page 
 
 I. Historic Survey . 3 
 
 a. Sea Power; b. In Remote Times; c. The Middle Ages; d. Mo- 
 dem Times; e. Commencement of the Glorious Days of the 
 Navy; f. Expansion of the Dominion of Britain into a World- 
 Empire; g. Work of the Navy in times of peace. 
 
 II. Admiralty 44 
 
 a. Introduction; b. Historical Development; c. Present Organi- 
 sation: Naval Lords and their spheres ; Parliamentary and Financial 
 Secretary; Permanent Secretary; the Naval Intelligence Depart- 
 ment; the Hydrographic Department; the Royal Marine Office; 
 the Office of the Admiral Superintendent of Naval Reserves; the 
 Department of the Medical Director- General of the Navy; the 
 Religious Service of the Navy; the Department of the Director 
 of Transports; the Victualling Department; the Constructive 
 Branch; the Ordnance Department; the Director of Dockyards; 
 the Naval Store Department; the Accounts Branch; the Depart- 
 ment of the Director of Works; Greenwich Hospital; the Accoun- 
 tant General of the Navy; the Contract and Purchase Depart- 
 ment; the Joint Naval and Military Committee of Defence. 
 
 III. Naval Policy . . 79 
 
 a. Duties of Defence; b. Offensive Action; Employment of the 
 Navy in War. 
 
 IV. Stations, Dockyards, &c 87 
 
 A. Home Stations; a. Home Dockyards; Portsmouth Dockyard; 
 
 b. the Home Gun -Wharves; c. the Home Victualling Yards; 
 d. Hospitals; e. Barracks. 
 
 B. Naval Stations Abroad; the Mediterranean Station, Gibraltar; 
 the East Indies Station; the China Station; the Australia Station ; 
 the Pacific Station; the Station of the Cape of Good Hope and 
 the West Coast of Africa; the Station of North America and the 
 West Indies; Coast Defences. 
 
VIII THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 page 
 
 V. Personnel no 
 
 a. The Corps of Naval Officers; i. Historical Introduction. Re- 
 lative Rank. 2. Present Organisation, b. Officers of the Marines; 
 c. Engineers; d. Surgeons; e. Naval Chaplains; f. Naval Instruc- 
 tors; g. Accountant Officers; h. Warrant Officers; i. Seamen; 
 I. Historic Account; 2. Continuous Service; k. the Personnel of 
 the Engine-Room; 1. the Artificers on board; m. the Ship's Police; 
 n. the Ship's Cook; o. the Ship's Steward; p. the Marines. 
 
 1. History. 2. the Present State of Affairs; q. Strength of the 
 Naval Forces; r. the Coast-Guard; s. the Royal Naval Reserve; 
 t. the Seamen-pensioners Reserve; u. Pensions and Allowances; 
 V. Greenwich Hospital. 
 
 VI. Education and Training . . . . . . i86 
 
 the "Britannia"; the Training School for Engineers at Keyham; 
 Observatories at Greenwich and at the Cape; the Compass and 
 Chronometer Sections; the Nautical Almanac; the Royal United 
 Service Institution; the Institution of Naval Architects. 
 
 VII. Uniform .... .... 
 
 a. Historic; b. for Officers; c. for the Crews; d. Modern Uni- 
 forms: A. Officers, B. Crews: a. In sailor's dress; b. Not in 
 sailor's dress. 
 
 VIII. Flags .... 
 
 History. 
 
 IX. Service and Discipline on Board .... ... 203 
 
 a. Historic; b. Present Circumstances; c. Service on board; d. the 
 Provisions; e. DiscipHne on Board; f Hygiene; g. Conclusion. 
 
 X. Material . . ... 228 
 
 A. Ships: i. Historic Development: a. Armour-Plated Men-of- 
 War; b. Cruisers; 2. Latest Developments. B. Armour. C. Steam- 
 Engines. D. Ordnance. E. Mines and Torpedoes: i. Mines; 
 
 2. Spar-torpedoes; 3. Torpedoes; 4. Miscellaneous. F. Strength 
 of the Navy. G. Naval Estimates. 
 
 XI. Conclusion . .... 292 
 
 List of Ships 297 
 
 Index .317 
 
 191 
 
 199 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 a. Full page. 
 
 1. Nelson's "Victory" at the battle of Trafalgar. 
 
 2. Harbour of Portsmouth. 
 
 3. Uniforms of Naval Officers. 
 
 4. Swords, badges, &c. of Naval Officers. 
 
 5. Articles of dress of Naval Officers. 
 
 6. Sleeve facings of Naval Officers. 
 
 7. Epaulettes of Naval Officers. 
 
 8. Shoulder straps of Naval Officers. 
 
 9. Badges, &c. of Petty Officers and crews. 
 
 10. Flags. 
 
 11. Screw Ship-of-the-Line "Duke of Wellington'' 
 
 12. First Class Armoured Cruiser "Black Prince" 
 
 13. Third Class Battleship "Iron Duke'' 
 
 14. First Class Battleship "Camperdown". 
 
 15. First Class Battleship "Trafalgar". 
 
 16. First Class Protected Cruiser "Blenheim" 
 
 17. Third Class Protected Cruiser "Bellona" 
 
 18. First Class Torpedo Gunboat "Speedy" 
 
 19. First Class Battleship "Royal Sovereign 
 
 20. First Class Battleship "Centurion". 
 
 21. First Class Armed Cruiser "Crescent" 
 
 22. Second Class Armed Cruiser "Hermione 
 
 23. Torpedo-boat Destroyer "Daring" 
 
 24. First Class Battleship "Renown". 
 
 25. First Class Battleship "Magnificent" 
 
 26. Six Inch Breechloading gun, &c. 
 
 27. Six Inch Quick-firing gun, &c. 
 
 28. Troopship "Euphrates". 
 
 29. First Class Vedette-boat. 
 
 30. H. M. S. "Hornet" 
 
X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 b. Printed in text. 
 
 page 
 
 1. Ship of William the Conqueror 5 
 
 2. "Henry Grace k Dieu" of Henry VIll 9 
 
 3. "Sovereign of the Seas" of Charles 1 11 
 
 4. Portrait of Robert Blake 13 
 
 5. Portrait of Lord Hawke ... . 24 
 
 6. Portrait of Lord Rodney 26 
 
 7. Portrait of Lord Nelson 35 
 
 8. Portrait of Lord Charles Beresford 41 
 
 9. Portrait of Rt. Honble. G. J. Goschen 49 
 
 to. Portrait of Duke of York . . .... . . 125 
 
 11. Portrait of Prince of Wales 127 
 
 12. Portrait of German Emperor, WilHam II 126 
 
 13. Royal Naval College at Greenwich 184 
 
 14. Three-decker "Duke of Wellington" . . 229 
 
 15. The Minotaur 234 
 
 16. Coast defence ship "Royal Sovereign" . .... 234 
 
 17. The "Bellerophon" 236 
 
 18. Six pr. Quick firing gun . . . . . . 270 
 
 19. Four inch Quick firing gun 271 
 
 20. 47 inch Quick firing gun 271 
 
 21. Six pr. Quick firing gun 272 
 
 22. Six inch breech loader . 273 
 
 23. Six inch Quick firing gun 275 
 
 24. Spar torpedo ... . . ... 282 
 
 25. Whitehead Torpedoes . 283 
 
 c. Diagrams printed in text. 
 
 1. The "Warrior .... 232 
 
 2. The "Agincourt" . . . 233 
 
 3. The "Bellerophon" .... . . . . . . 235 
 
 4. The "Hercules" . . . , ... 235 
 
 5. The "Invincible" 236 
 
 6. The "Monarch" . . .... 236 
 
 7. The "Hotspur" 237 
 
 8. The "Rupert" 237 
 
 9. The "Devastation'' . 237 
 
 10. The "Dreadnought" 2,q 
 
 11. The "Inflexible" 230 
 
 12. The "Tdmeraire " . . 239 
 
 13. The "Agamemnon" 239 
 
 14. The "Benbow" 240 
 
 15. The "CoUingwood" 240 
 
 16. The "Sans pareil" 241 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XI 
 
 page 
 
 17. The "Nile" 241 
 
 18. The " Imperieuse " 244 
 
 19. The "Aurora" • . . . 244 
 
 20. The "Blake" 244 
 
 21. The "Royal Sovereign" 249 
 
 22. The "Barfleur" • 249 
 
 23. The "Edgar" 250 
 
 24. The "Astrasa" 251 
 
 25. The "Renown" ... 251 
 
 26. The "Majestic" 252 
 
 27. The "Terrible" 253 
 
 28. The "Eclipse" 253 
 
 29. Armour of "Warrior" 257 
 
 30. Armour of "Hercules" 257 
 
 d. Maps and Plans. 
 
 1. Great Britain with the "British" and "Narrow Seas.' 
 
 2. Plymouth Harbour and Devonport Dock. 
 
 3. Chatham Harbour and Dockyard. 
 
 4. Portsmouth Harbour and Dockyard. 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 a. Sea Power. 
 
 England's fate has always depended on her command over the 
 seas that wash her shores. As long as these were kept safe by a strong 
 and well organized Navy, the country had nothing to fear from foreign 
 foes and was able steadily to develop its resources undisturbed by 
 the wars that distracted the European continent; but whenever this 
 protection failed, foreign conquerors grievously injured and sometimes 
 even subjugated the nation; or pretenders overthrew the reigning 
 dynasty and usurped the throne. 
 
 From of old, English Kings have claimed the rule over the waters 
 of the "Narrow Seas," i. e. the sea on both sides of the Straits of 
 Dover, where the "Silver Streak," that separates England from the 
 continent is narrowest. Subsequently even John Lackland in the 
 beginning of the 13th century, and later still, after the defeat of the 
 Armada, the English Kings claimed the supremacy of the "British 
 Seas," a term which included all the waters from the Faroe Isles to 
 Finisterre in the one direction, and from the western coast of Norway 
 and Denmark to far out into the Atlantic in the other. 
 
 In spite of Sir Walter Raleigh's memorable dictum: "He that rules 
 the sea, rules the commerce of the world, and to him that rules the 
 commerce of the world belong all the treasures of the world and 
 indeed the world itself," the rulers of England did not comprehend 
 the TRUE IMPORTANCE TO ENGLAND OF THE MASTERY OVER THE SEA 
 till the second half of the 17th century; but from that time forward 
 it has been the leading maxim of English statesmen to maintain this 
 
 1* 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 power, and thus to retain in their own hands the maritime trade and 
 
 the wealth it brings. 
 
 But by that time England's sea-power had already expanded beyond 
 the limits of the "British seas;" the colonization of America and the 
 acquisition of Jamaica in 1655 having laid the foundation of the huge 
 Colonial Empire of our days. As this Empire expanded, so also 
 English predominance at sea had to expand. This was the gigantic 
 task imposed on the English Navy and it always has discharged it 
 and is discharging it still. The grandeur and safety of the British 
 "World-Empire" rests primarily on her FLEET. 
 
 b. In Remote Times. 
 
 The warlike deeds of the English Navies reach back to the early 
 Middle-Ages. The early Keltic inhabitants of the country certainly 
 were not a seafaring people; they never opposed on the water the 
 repeated landings of Roman Armies from Gaul, first under Caesar 55 
 and 54 B.C., and subsequently after 43 A. D. when the Romans 
 actually conquered the country. After the departure of the Romans, 
 the Anglo-Saxons coming from northern Germany landed in 449 
 without difficulty and soon made themselves masters of the country; 
 but although they were exceptionally skilful in maritime affairs , yet 
 once in possession of the fertile country, they abandoned all war- 
 like enterprise at sea and devoted themselves eagerly to maritime 
 trade, which brought them an abundant harvest. 
 
 c. The Middle Ages. 
 
 Owing to this fact the Northmen, who during Charlemagne's life- 
 time were kept in check by that great ruler's maritime power, were 
 able after his death to extend their ravages at sea as far as the coasts 
 of England, which they visited year by year, till at last they even 
 effected a permanent settlement in the north. Not till the time of 
 Alfred the Great did the English meet these foes victoriously first 
 on land and afterwards on the water; Alfred being the first of 
 England's kings, who was Commander-in-Chief of the navy. In 897 
 he had a new kind of war -ships built according to his own designs, 
 Avhich were superior to those of the Northmen, and which may be 
 regarded as the first ENGLISH FLEET. 
 
 His successors kept up their power at sea and thus were able for 
 about a century to ward off the continual piratical inroads of the 
 
Map of Great Britain with the British and Narrow Seas. 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Northmen; but under the rule of feeble Ethelred, the Danes resumed 
 those aggressions and even subjugated the nation for a time. After- 
 wards indeed, Saxon Kings regained the throne, but in 1066 Harold, 
 the last of this race, succumbed to the simultaneous attacks of the 
 Northmen in the north-east and of the Normans in the south. 
 
 To meet the expedition fitted out against England by Duke Wil- 
 liam of Normandy, Harold had collected a large fleet in the Downs; 
 this however was inadequately organized. When autumn came, pro- 
 
 The ship in which William the Conqueror crossed over to England 1066 A.D. 
 
 visions had run out, and when moreover an army of Northmen had 
 landed in the north, the fleet dispersed, and thus Duke William was 
 enabled on the 27/28th September to cross over unopposed with an 
 army of 6o,000 men and a fleet of many hundred ships, from St. 
 Valery to Pevcnsey near Beachy Head, where he landed in safety, 
 whilst King Harold was busy in the north defeating the King of 
 Norway, being himself wounded in the fight. In the battle of Has- 
 tings following thereupon, on the 14th of October 1066, the Saxon 
 army was defeated by their vastly superior enemy; Harold was slain 
 and William "the Conqueror" assumed the Crown of England. 
 
6 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 By introducing- the Feudal System he created the great territorial 
 power of the English nobles, who formed an influential class standing 
 between the Sovereign and the People and exercised a deep-reach- 
 ing influence on the political institutions of the country no less than 
 on its Navy. Then were appointed guardians of the ancient five 
 havens of Saxon times, the "Wardens of the Cinque Ports," Dover, 
 Romney, Hythe, Hastings, Sandwich. These towns were bound to 
 provide a number of vessels for warlike purposes for a fixed period, 
 and in return had valuable privileges conceded to them. This may 
 be regar'i^ed as THE COMMENCEMENT OF A DEFINITE ORGANIZATION OF 
 ENGLAND'S POWER AT SEA. William the Conqueror however did not 
 maintain a standing navy, and indeed he is said to have burned his 
 ships behind him ~^en he landed. Thus it happened that he was 
 unable to beat off hostile inroads from the sea and in the year 1069 
 he had even to buy off the Danish king Swain who had effected a 
 landing in great force. 
 
 His successors also restricted themselves to creating naval arma- 
 ments solely for special occasions, pre-eminently Richard Coeur de 
 Lion in 1189/90 for his crusade to Palestine. Although the Norman 
 barons despised trade, it nevertheless throve under their rule; the 
 Saxons, who had been dispossessed of their land, cultivating commerce 
 with great success. 
 
 The next maritime measure of permanent importance was the 
 creation of the naval port of Portsmouth by King John in the year 
 1 212, as this supplied the Navy with a strong base of operations in 
 the Channel. The following year witnessed the first battle between 
 an English and a French fleet at Damme in Flanders, where the 
 French fleet, feebly armed, was riding at anchor and was completely 
 destroyed. A few years later in 12 17 the first battle on the open 
 sea between the two nations was fought at Dover. A French fleet 
 was sailing with a favourable wind from Calais to the mouth of the 
 Thames, intending to bring help to the Dauphin, who had' been 
 called over to England by insurgent barons. Hubert de Burgh, the 
 commandant of Dover, met and totally defeated them with a squadron 
 from the Cinque Ports, which had been hastily collected and manned 
 with skilful sailors and archers; this victory saved the throne of 
 Henry III., who was only ten years of age. In this battle the English 
 employed for the first time, and with telling effect, the manoeuvre to 
 which they subsequently adhered down to the end of the period of 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 navigating ships with sails, viz: to obtain the weather-gage and then 
 to attack the enemy from to windward. 
 
 For centuries afterwards the ships of the Cinque Ports constituted 
 the main part of the war fleets of the English kings; at times they 
 even waged war on their own account, and committed piracy accord- 
 ing to the usage of those days. On the ownerless domain of the 
 seas, the protection now-a-days afforded to merchantmen by the national 
 flag, was acknowledged only if force was actually at hand or very 
 near; all ships were therefore armed and prepared for battle. There 
 was at that time no difference between merchantmen and men of 
 war, such as existed in ancient times with vessels propelled by oars; 
 it was not till the i6th century that this distinction gradually came 
 into use. But even in the beginning of this 19th century armed East- 
 Indiamen fought successfully in actual battle-array. 
 
 The number of royal vessels was under those circumstances small 
 both in England and in foreign countries; even Henry V., warlike and 
 enterprising as he was, possessed in 141 7 no more than 3 large and 
 1 7 small vessels. When a great expedition at sea was being organized, 
 the ships of the Cinque Ports and other harbours were called up and 
 even seized in the king's name. By these means vigorous princes 
 occasionally assembled large fleets, as, for example, Edward III. in 
 1340, when in the sanguinary battle of Sluys he totally destroyed 
 the French navy riding at anchor; only a few mercenary ships of 
 Genoese galleys succeeded in effecting their escape by means of 
 oars. This victory frustrated the plan of Philip VI. to land an army 
 in England. Edward III., who now openly assumed the title of "Lord 
 of the Narrow Seas", carried the war into France, so that the naval 
 victory of Sluys became the harbinger of the victories on land, of 
 Cressy in 1346 and of Poitiers in 1356. 
 
 Between these two dates the king achieved a deed of arms at sea, 
 which is characteristic of him and of his times. Accompanied by 
 the Black Priijce and a brilliant retinue he lay at Winchelsea west 
 of Dungeness with a powerful squadron in wait for a fleet of 40 large 
 Spanish vessels, which in the midst of peace, had captured some 
 English ships, and now laden with rich booty were returning home 
 from Sluys through the "Narrow Seas." At their approach he un- 
 hesitatingly attacked them, ramming them under full sail, bow to 
 bow. His own ship and that of the Black Prince were so severely 
 damaged that they both sank along with the enemy's ships that had 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 been boarded and captured; nevertheless he remained conqueror, 
 the Spaniards having lost more than half their fleet. 
 
 In such manner did vigorous rulers assemble mighty fleets from 
 time to time and perform glorious achievements at sea; but from 
 want of system in the operations, gain and loss frequently alternated. 
 Not unfrequently the English were foiled at sea, and even landings 
 on their coasts were no rarity; for example, during the reign of 
 Edward III. himself, Portsmouth and Southampton were burnt and 
 sacked, and in 1372 an English fleet before La Rochelle was defeated 
 and captured by the Spaniards. Under feeble kings like Richard II. 
 and Henry VI. England's power at sea wholly decayed, so that in 
 1395 Danish pirates were able to lay waste the eastern coast, commit 
 ravages, and levy contributions on the towns. In consequence of this 
 neglect Henry of Lancaster in 1399 found no difficulty in sailing with 
 eight small vessels from Boulogne past the mouth of the Thames, to 
 a place north of Hull, where he landed and afterwards dispossessed 
 Richard II. Similarly in 1485, Henry Tudor sailed with a larger 
 squadron from Harfleur at the mouth of the Seine to Milford Haven 
 in Wales. 
 
 d. Modern Times. 
 
 In this same year 1485 Henry Tudor won the battle of Bosworth 
 Field, where Richard III. lost throne and Hfe. Henry VII. took 
 measures to prevent others from following the example he had set 
 them, by making his country powerful at sea. In 1488 he had built 
 the "Henry Grace a Dieu," an especially large, veritable man-of-war, 
 which may be regarded as the beginning, the first ship in point of 
 time, of the ENGLISH ROYAL NAVY. His son, Henry VIII. continuing 
 his father's policy, organized the navy and in 1520 appointed a 
 supreme central authority, the Admiralty, whose chief was the Lord 
 High Admiral. Subordinate to the Admiralty was the Na\-y Board, 
 which was to superintend the non-combatant branches of the service, 
 such as the construction and armament of ships, the victualling &c. 
 He also laid the foundation of a permanent BODY OF OFFICERS OF 
 THE FLEET and moreov^ fully organized "Trinity House", which has 
 ever since had charge of maritime affairs, such as the appointment 
 of skippers, pilots, lighthouses, beacons, buoys and so on. 
 
 Under such intelligent guidance and control, navigation and com- 
 merce, which had been wholly prostrated, quickly revived and flour- 
 ished to such a degree, that even the war which France and Spain 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 carried on b^ means of privateers after Henry's excommunication, 
 did more harm to England's foes than to herself; moreover Henry 
 fostered the warlike qualities of English seamen and promoted the 
 building, and improved the rigging, oi vessels of every kind. 
 
 The government of Edward VI., a minor, and of Mary, a Catholic, 
 was not favourable to maritime affairs; but these developed and ex- 
 panded all the more under the rule of the great Queen Elizabeth. 
 The Reformation had roused the intelligence of men, and the dis- 
 covery of a sea-route to India, and of America, had mightily stim- 
 
 
 Henry Grace k Dieu of the time of Henry VIII. 
 
 ulated the spirit of enterprise. England took an eager part, devoting 
 herself to discoveries and to opposing the trade-monopolies estab- 
 lished by Spain-Portugal on both sides of the ocean for their own 
 exclusive advantage. 
 
 A galaxy of great men gained distinction in these pursuits, such 
 as Davis, Frobisher, Hawkins and others, but pre-eminently Drake and 
 Raleigh, who towered high above their contemporaries. Voyages of 
 discovery were made into the northern Polar seas, and the east coast 
 of America, where the first trans-oceanic settlements were made in 
 regions which now form part of the UNITED STATES. On the other 
 hand, an active contraband trade was carried on in the trans-oceanic 
 
10 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 possessions of Spain, which speedily led to deeds of violence and 
 cruelty on the part of the Spaniards, and to piratical expeditions on 
 a large scale by the English, supported by their Queen against the 
 harbours and colonies of Spain. Foremost amongst these ventures, 
 stand the expedition under Drake to the west coast of America and 
 his circumnavigation of the globe in 1577—84, the first after that of 
 Magelhan;^ and in 1587 the expedition to Cadiz, where the English 
 destroyed the greater part of the fleet that was being prepared against 
 them. 
 
 To avenge this insult Philip II. in 1588 fitted out his "Invincible 
 Armada," which was to have brought over from the Netherlands the 
 Spanish army under the Duke of Parma. Against this mighty arma- 
 ment England could oppose only the Royal Navy of 34 vessels, 
 whose total tonnage amounted to 12,320 tons, hardly more than that 
 of a single English battleship of modern days; only 13 vessels had 
 a tonnage of 500 tons or more; and 12 measured less than 100 tons. 
 To these were added about five times as many merchantmen and 
 other vessels, all armed but mostly of small size ; they were sent by 
 the commercial ports partly on requisition and partly as volunteers. 
 The victory, which was gained not by the tempest,^ but by the English 
 fleet, in a battle of several days' duration, in a running fight from 
 Plymouth to Gravelines, was due to the superiority of English arms 
 and of English seamanship in sailing and manoeuvring, as well as to 
 the skilful use made of these advantages by clearsighted commanders 
 such as Drake, Hawkins, and others; they introduced a new mode 
 of fighting and engaged the enemy in an artillery combat at long- 
 range from the weather position; a manoeuvre which required men of 
 skill and daring such as they had under their command. 
 
 This extraordinary success marks a turning-point in the history of 
 the world, but not in that of the English navy. Drake and Raleigh 
 failed to convince the queen of the great importance of dominion over 
 the sea, and her excessive parsimony prevented the creation and 
 maintenance of a great navy. At her death the whole fleet amounted 
 to only 16,000 tons measurement, or about 24,000 tons displacement. 
 
 During the reign of her successor, the feeble James I. (1603 — 25), 
 the navy, which the king neither understood nor cared for, found 
 
 ^ Nearly bo years previously, Magelhan himself lost his life in that voyage. 
 
 The translator. 
 ^ As commemorated by the medal bearing the modest legend: "Deus afflavit 
 et dissipati sunt." The translator. 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 11 
 
 little employment either in war or other pursuits. Some little pro- 
 gress indeed was made in organization and in some technicalities; 
 for example, the men-of-war were formed into 6 classes, an arrange- 
 ment, which remained in force to the end of sailing days; but great 
 abuses soon crept into the administration, money was squandered 
 and posts were filled by favourites ; wretched food and bad treatment 
 of the men rendered the service highly unpopular. In consequence, 
 the navy fell into such rapid decay that the English seas were made 
 unsafe by Moorish pirates and Dunquerque privateers, who even 
 pillaged English ports. The ruin of navigation was followed by rapid 
 deterioration of English seamanship, which had but lately attained 
 such great eminence. 
 
 Charles I. (1625;; — 49), the ill-advised son of James I., took a lively 
 interest in the navy, but could effect very little improvement, being 
 unable to check the abuses which had become inveterate. The ex- 
 peditions fitted out by him in the commencement of his reign, 
 against France and Spain, entirely failed, owing to the want of skill 
 of the commanders; to deficient equipment, and bad discipline. Being 
 constantly in want of money and under the pressing necessity of 
 increasing the supplies to the navy, he had recourse in 1634 to levy- 
 ing the ill-omened "Ship-money," on his own authority, without the 
 consent of Parliament. With the amounts thus raised Phineas Pett, 
 his naval architect, built a number of ships, among;st them the 
 "Sovereign of the Seas" the first three-decker. During this reign were 
 also built the early forerunners of the corvettes and frigates of later 
 days. But the political troubles of the country were intensified by the 
 levying of ship-money and by other measures of the king, so that 
 civil war broke out, terminating in the king's imprisonment and execution. 
 
 • Sovereign of the Seas," the first Three-decker of the English navy of 1637 tons 
 measurement; and 102 guns, built 1636—37 under Charles I. by Phineas Pett. 
 
12 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 During- the civil war the navy remained neutral as long as possible, 
 but finally the fleet as well as all the ports sided with the Parliament. 
 After the imprisonment of Charles I. a mutiny broke out and part of 
 the fleet passed over to the Prince of Wales, who had taken refuge 
 in Holland. With these vessels the German Princes, Rupert and 
 Maurice of the Palatinate, undertook an audacious naval expedition 
 against English shipping, first to the SciUy Isles, and then to Kinsale 
 in Ireland. Driven thence by Cromwell and Blake, they were after- 
 wards blockaded by the latter, first in Lisbon, and then in Toulon. 
 Expelled at Blake's request from this latter port they turned free- 
 booters and sailed to the West Indies, where Prince Maurice perished 
 in a hurricane. Prince Rupert, after whom is named Rupert's Bay in 
 the island of Dominica, had to abandon this life after a while, and 
 returned to Europe. There he found opportunity to utilize on a large 
 scale his experience in maritime warfare. 
 
 e. Commencement of the Glorious Days of the Navy. 
 
 Since the king's imprisonment the navy had become wholly 
 disorganized, all the old abuses having remained in full force, but 
 after Charles's execution Cromwell reorganized it in a manner similar 
 to that adopted in the army four years previously. In February 1 649 
 three colonels of the army who had distinguished themselves in the 
 field, were appointed as "Generals and Admirals at Sea" and as "Commis- 
 saries of the Navy" and were entrusted with the chief command and 
 with the administration of the navy. The soul of that Commission 
 was ROBERT BLAKE, Cromwell's greatest and most dreaded rival, whom 
 by this appointment he removed from the army, and from the country. 
 
 The reorganisation was effected rapidly, but thoroughly and skil- 
 fully. After only two months Blake was able to go on board, and 
 it was for the first time in his life. He was then 50 years old and 
 set out in command of a powerful squadron to reduce Prince Rupert. 
 This he did most effectually ,■ as has already been told above, and 
 afterwards he sailed into the Mediterranean, being the first English 
 admiral that had done so since the times of the Crusades. Subse- 
 quently he took the Scilly Isles and the Channel Isles, which were 
 still held by the Royalists, on which occasion he for the first time 
 attacked land batteries with ships. He swept the English seas clear 
 of all foes. By his bold and very effective actions against the Royg,- 
 lists as well as against Portugal, Spain, France, and the Barbary 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 13 
 
 States, the English flag, for some decades previously held in low 
 estimation, was made to inspire dread and respect, and with him be- 
 gan THE GLORIOUS DAYS OF THE ENGLISH NAVY in connection with 
 the profound and far-seeing policy inaugurated by Cromwell, which 
 laid the foundation of the "Greater Britain" of our days. 
 
 The Lord Protector clearly saw that England's safety and pros- 
 
 Robert Blake 
 
 General and Admiral. 
 
 perity depended mainly on her power at sea, which entailed the 
 necessity of constantly keeping up a mighty navy requiring a large 
 and regular revenue; and that this could not be raised except with 
 an extensive and lucrative maritime commerce, which in its turn de- 
 manded effective protection both in home and foreign waters. The 
 widest scope had therefore to be secured to British trade by the abo- 
 lition of all trade-hampering monopolies, by the conclusion of favourable 
 
14 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 commercial treaties, and hy exclusion, or at least the utmost possible 
 restriction, of foreign competition. 
 
 The United Provinces of Holland had entered into a dangerous 
 rivalry with England. Even during their forty-years' War-of-Indepen- 
 dence against Spain they had begun to develop into a mighty Power 
 at Sea by carrying on maritime trade and fishery on a large scale 
 and in a bold spirit of enterprise, and true to the spirit of the times 
 they protected their commercial navy by a powerful war-navy. The 
 decay of the Spanish maritime forces, the weakness of France at sea, 
 and the incapacity of the English fleet under James I. and Charles I. 
 added to the rise of eminent Dutch Admirals, such as Peter Heyn 
 and Tromp the Elder, all contributed to the prosperity of Holland 
 and her expansion beyond the seas. In consequence of this, about 
 the middle of the 17 th. century, the small Dutch Republic held the 
 foremost position in commerce, sea-power, and colonial expansion; in- 
 deed it did not shrink from acting in the colonies in a spirit hostile 
 to England. Cromwell made it his task to repress it. 
 
 The first step he took was to pass the Navigation Act in 165 1, for- 
 bidding that any goods should be imported into England except ei- 
 ther in English ships, or in ships of the country where the goods 
 were produced, provided always that these foreign vessels visited no 
 intermediate port, but came straight to England, thereby maiming the 
 Carrying trade of the Dutch and indeed almost wholly shutting out 
 their flag. Next, the English government issued letters of marque 
 doing further great damage to the trade of Holland, and at last, on 
 the 29th of May 1652, open hostilities broke out, when Blake in 
 command of an English squadron attacked a Dutch fleet under Tromp 
 off Dover, because the latter refused to comply with the English de- 
 mand to strike his flag in the "Narrow Seas." This was the begin- 
 ning of the FIRST of the THREE ANGLO-DUTCH WARS of the i/th Cen- 
 tury; wars characterised as being caused solely by commerical con- 
 siderations, and as being fought out exclusively at sea. It was the 
 FIRST REAL MARITIME WAR of modern days. 
 
 The English under Blake, Monk, Ascue, and others, fought with a 
 valour and obstinacy equal to that of the Dutch under Tromp the 
 Elder, de With, Ruyter, and others. Within 15 months no less than 
 8 battles were fought, all exept one in the Channel or in the Hoof- 
 den.^ Victory alternated; now the Dutch won, then the Eng- 
 
 ^ The part of the North Sea, west of Holland (see map). The translator. 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 lish. In the winter of 1652/53 Tromp for a time was master of the 
 Channel, but the final result was unfavourable to Holland. The 
 "Seven United Provinces" lacked a strong central power with undi- 
 vided responsibility, to fit out a fleet that should be adequate to the 
 work in hand, and commanded by competent officers animated by a 
 common spirit; they mostly employed armed merchantmen and even 
 their regular men-of-war were no match for the EngKsh either in 
 size, strength of structure, or armament. On the other hand also , the 
 unfavourable geographical position of Holland compelled Dutch 
 merchantmen making for the Atlantic, either to sail along the enemy's 
 coast, near or at no great distance from it, through the Straits of 
 Dover and along the whole of the south coast of England, or else 
 to take the long, difficult and circuitous course round the north of 
 Great Britain. Even the fishing grounds of the Dutch were nearer to 
 the enemy's shores than to their own. 
 
 In the long run the Dutch were no match for the superior English 
 fleet with which Cromwell opposed them consistently in every direction. 
 In the course of the war some 1700 Dutch merchantmen were cap- 
 tured , trade and fishing, on which the whole prosperity of the coun- 
 try depended were paralyzed, and the wealthy ports became desolate. 
 Thus the small Republic was compelled in 1654 in the "Peace of 
 London" to submit to the Navigation Act, and to acknowledge Eng- 
 lish supremacy in the "British Seas." 
 
 Hardly had this dangerous rival been humbled, when Blake, al- 
 though ill with scurvy, set out on an expedition into the Mediterra- 
 nean spreading the terror of the English flag by making reprisals 
 against Naples, Tuscany, the Pope, Malta, the Deys of Tripoli, Al- 
 giers, and subsequently also of Saleh. He destroyed the fleet of 
 Tunis within the port of the capital, though protected by strong bat- 
 teries; then he blockaded Cadiz, so as to put an end to the Spanish 
 trade-monopoly. One Plate-fleet he captured; another he destroyed 
 under the very forts of Santa Cruz de Teneriffe. During these ope- 
 rations, which lasted nearly three years, scurvy made ever greater 
 inroads on Blake's constitution, and this great commander breathed 
 his last on his homeward voyage on the 17th of August 1654, within 
 sight of Plymouth, on board his flagship "St. George." 
 
 Meanwhile Admiral Penn, who had been despatched to the West 
 Indies, had taken Jamaica from the Spaniards. This island was after 
 Guiana, which had been taken possession of in 1652, the first great 
 English Colony within the Tropics. Nova Scotia, the Bermudas, and 
 
1(5 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 some of the Lesser Antilles had already been colonized in the first 
 half of the century. 
 
 After the RESTORATION maladministration resumed its sway and af- 
 fected also the navy, although the king's brother, the Duke of York, 
 in his capacity of Lord High Admiral, took a deep interest in its 
 welfare. Mammon was predominant and Charles II. sold to France 
 that Dunquerque which Cromwell had won, and which was so neces- 
 sary to the command of the "Narrow Seas." Charles however con- 
 tinued Cromwell's policy towards HOLLAND', whose maritime trade had 
 recovered with surprising rapidity, so that it exceeded the English 
 trade several times over. Trade-jealousy then again kindled war, the 
 SECOND ANGLO-DUTCH WAR, which also was a purely maritime contest 
 and in the main was fought out in the Hoofden. War was declared 
 in February 1665, English squadrons having already in the previous 
 year made the ominous capture of the prosperous Dutch colony 6f 
 New Amsterdam in North America, the modern New York, and of 
 some other settlements, besides some Dutch commercial fleets. 
 
 The fleets of both the nations had been largely reinforced during 
 the last 12 years; in the first battle of Lowestoft on the 13th of 
 June 1665, each numbered upwards of 100 sail. In numbers the 
 English superiority was not very great, but their ships were mostly 
 larger, more solidly built, and better armed; moreover the esprit de 
 corps of the English officers told heavily in their favour, an advan- 
 tage which the Dutch, in spite of all organising efforts, failed to se- 
 cure. Charles I. divided the English navy into three Squadrons; 
 the Red (being the Centre), the White (the Van) and the Blue (the 
 Rear), and the admirals and their vessels hoisted the corresponding 
 flags. This arrangement, which also determined the rank of the ad- 
 mirals, remained in force till about 30 years ago. 
 
 The fighting instructions dating from Blake's times (1655) were on 
 this occasion observed for the first time as an invariable battle-array, 
 viz: "CLOSE HAULED." This prevailed down to the time of Nelson. 
 
 The Enghsh, whose van was led by Prince Rupert under the com- 
 mand of the Duke of York, gained the victory. The Dutch Admiral 
 de With and his ship were blown up, and English fire-ships, which 
 at that battle formed an important integral part of the fleets for the 
 first time, did great damage to the Dutch. 
 
 In the following year the English were defeated by the famous 
 Admiral de Ruyter in a second battle of four days' duration; but 
 within two months on August the 4th 1666, they turned the scales 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 completely in their favour. But when Charles II. from want of money, 
 determined to omit fitting out the greater part of his ships of the line, 
 and to restrict himself to the lucrative war by privateers, de Ruyter 
 in the month of June 1667, sailed with a large fleet up the Thames, 
 took Sheerness and its maritime stores, and even" seized or destroyed 
 a number of men-of-war in the arsenal of Chatham, at that time the 
 most important in England; then he sailed up the river as far as 
 Gravesend, so that London quaked at the sound of Dutch guns.^ 
 
 Now at last Charles submitted to terms of peace, which was con- 
 cluded at Breda on the 31st of July 1667. At this peace the Dutch, 
 in spite of the great successes they had gained towards the end of 
 the war, ceded their North-American possessions to England, thus 
 uniting the English colonies of New England with those of Virginia 
 and Carolina. 
 
 Notwithstanding this, Charles II. afterwards formed an alliance with 
 Louis XIV., with the intention of ruining the small Republic, which 
 had not yet ceased to be a dangerous rival at sea, and thus the 
 beginning of the year 1672 was also that of the TfflRD ANGLO-DUTCH 
 WAR, which, as between these two powers, remained to the end ex- 
 clusively a maritime contest. Four battles were fought, all in the 
 Hoofden, and all indecisive in spite of the great superiority of the 
 allies and of the obstinate valour of the English under Prince Rupert. 
 This was due solely to the superior tactics of De Ruyter, who boldly 
 took the offensive at every favourable opportunity. After two years, 
 new alliances put an end to this unnatural war, in which England was 
 almost exclusively promoting the interests of France. In February 
 1674 the Dutch concluded a separate peace with England, but as 
 they continued the war with Louis XIV. both by land and in the 
 Mediterranean, they were forced to make to England various con- 
 cessions and to acknowledge her supremacy in the "British Seas". 
 
 Despite the abuses prevailing under Charles II. the English war- 
 navy went on steadily expanding; the Duke of York, the King's 
 brother, afterwards James II., largely contributing to this result. It 
 stood in need of such development in view of the surprisingly rapid 
 growth of the French Navy, which under Colbert's wise and vigorous 
 administration rose in 22 years from 3 Ships of the Line (1661) to 
 71 such ships (1683). The crews and officers received such excellent 
 
 ' " It was said that, on the very day of that great humiliation, the King 
 feasted with the ladies of his seraglio, and amused himself with hunting a moth 
 about the supper room.'' (Macaulay.) The translator. 
 
 2 
 
18 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 tactical training under Du Quesnc, Tourville, and other admirals that 
 already in 1676 they made a good fight of it in the Mediterranean 
 against De Ruyter himself. After a considerable interval of time the 
 English had to engage this force, Wilham of Orange having mean- 
 while, in consequence of the revolution of 1688, ascended the throne 
 of England. The English did not engage in this struggle single-handed, 
 but fought side by side with those very Dutch whose strength they 
 had largely reduced in the three obstinate wars above recorded. 
 
 At first the French were in the ascendant. Without hindrance they 
 conducted James II. with a body of troops to Ireland and repeatedly 
 sent him re-inforcements. Admiral Herbert's attempt to prevent this 
 was repulsed by the French admiral Chateau Renault outside Bantry 
 Bay (1689). Met by a large fleet under Tourville, Herbert withdrew 
 ^from the Isle of Wight as far as Dungeness; being finally compelled 
 to fight by orders from government, he sent on loth of July 1690 
 only the Dutch Squadron, which led the van, into the fight offBeachy 
 Head. The Dutch suffered severely and then Herbert retired into the 
 Thames. The French were now masters of the whole Channel, but 
 fortunately for England they did not take advantage of this oppor- 
 tunity, which 1 14 years afterwards Napoleon desired so eagerly. The 
 opportunity did not return, for in the following years the allies had 
 received such reinforcements that Tourville had to limit himself to 
 sailing up and down the Channel for the purpose of damaging his 
 enemy's trade. And when in 1692, upon express orders from Louis XIV., 
 he attacked at La Hogue the fleet of the allies, which was of twice 
 his strength, he suffered a complete defeat. 
 
 After that the French had had enough of maritime warfare on a 
 large scale, and contented themselves with doing damage to the 
 maritime trade of England and Holland; there was no further pitched 
 battle at sea. The aUied fleets attacked French ports, obstructed their 
 traffic, and endeavoured to protect their own commerce. In this, 
 however, they were not altogether successful; the French did them 
 great harm, partly with their men-of-war and partly by audacious 
 privateers like Jan Bart, Dugay-Trouin, and others. The peace of 
 Ryswijk on the 20th of September 1697 effected no change as be- 
 tween the Maritime Powers, but France was wholly exhausted. 
 
 This, however, did not prevent her in 1702, barely 5 years after- 
 wards, from raising claims to the Spanish throne, and waging a new war 
 in alliance with Spain against England, Holland, and the German Empire. 
 Although this war lasted till 1 7 1 3 , yet there took place only one single 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 battle at sea, that of Malaga on the 24th of August 1 704, which was 
 a mere cannonade-duel between ship aud ship, fought according to 
 p'rescribed rules of warfare and ending as a drawn battle. After that 
 the French fleet refused to accept battle, and from 1709 onward, in 
 consequence of the exhaustion of the country, it did not put in an 
 appearance at sea. For the same reason, Holland, who had to wage 
 war on land as well as at sea, was in 1707, and afterwards, unable 
 to send out more than one third of the stipulated number of ships. 
 The Engjish then acted accordingly. Barring the severe losses which 
 they suffered at the hands of French privateers, they were sole rulers 
 of the sea, and wisely utilized this state of things for the benefit of 
 their trade and sea-dominion. 
 
 As early as 1702 Admiral Rooke sunk a Spanish platefleet in the 
 harbour of Vigo. Returning in 1704, shortly before the battle of 
 Malaga, from an unsuccessful expedition in the Mediterranean, he 
 landed a corps of English and Dutch troops under the Imperial Field- 
 Marshal the Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt at GIBRALTAR, which was feebly 
 garrisoned and badly defended. With the aid of the fleet, the for- 
 tress, after a short bombardment was taken by storm, and it has since 
 become one of the most important bulwarks of England's power. 
 
 In 1708 the islands of Sardinia and Minorca were taken. At the 
 peace of Utrecht Austria got the former, but the latter with the 
 beautiful haven ofPortMahon remained nearly 50'years in the posses- 
 sion of England, being an excellent strategic position for the fleet in 
 the western Mediterranean. France had to dismantle the forts of 
 Dunquerque, that dangerous place of refuge for privateers, and to 
 abandon all her claims, to Newfoundland and Nova Scotia in America, 
 retaining only Canada, and the island of Cape Breton off the coast of 
 Nova Scotia. This rendered very problematical the execution of the 
 plan prepared under Louis XIV. of founding a great French colonial 
 empire that should extend from Canada, across the great lakes south- 
 wards as far as Louisiana, and embrace the huge and fertile basin of 
 the Mississippi, and thus cut off the English settlements on the Atlantic 
 from the hinterland to the west of them. From Spain, England obT 
 tained the notorious Assiento, or the monopoly of the importation of 
 slaves from Africa to her colonies, a prolific source of profit, which 
 was largely increased by the contraband trade connected with it. As 
 a matter of fact the whole trade of Spanish America passed over to 
 England, just as the trade with PortugaPhad done by the Methuen 
 treaty in 1703. 
 
20 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 The only advantage gained by the Netherlands under this treaty 
 was the safety of their land-frontier towards France. Their commerce 
 and their prosperity, and consequently their power at sea, had been 
 so reduced by friend and foe that they ceased to be of any account 
 in international affairs. France was equally prostrate, her fleet was of 
 slight importance, and as it found no employment Du Quesne and 
 Tourville found no imitators or successors. The Spanish navy, greatly 
 enfeebled as it already had been, fell into total decay. Thus Great 
 Britain now stood forth as sole mistress of the sea. Thanks to her 
 superior navy, no enemy set foot on her shores during the whole of 
 the war; her commerce, expanding by leaps and bounds, brought her 
 ever increasing wealth; and her prosperity was steadily augmented. 
 
 The peace of 26 years that now ensued suffered only one interrup- 
 tion. A Spanish fleet sailing in disorder off Cape Passaro in Sicily 
 was without declaration of war attacked and almost wholly destroyed 
 by a much stronger English fleet, thereby thwarting the aspiring and 
 ambitious plans of Cardinal Alberoni, who by energy and circumspec- 
 tion had in a short time raised Spain and her navy to a considerable 
 height. This action paralyzed Spanish sea-power once more, without 
 any war arising therefrom. 
 
 Great as was the expansion of the mercantile navy during that 
 period of peace, there was no corresponding progress in the war- 
 navy. This was due to the want of a wise administration and to the 
 everdeepening corruption of morals under Walpole's ministry. Rigid 
 adherence to use and custom, and a decided dislike of all theoretical 
 consideration, and therefore of well-founded alterations, caused the 
 structure and the armament of the men-of-war to keep pace with the 
 scientific progress of the day, as Httle as had the study of tactics. 
 Posts were fdled, not according to merit and capacity, but according 
 to political requirements; the government- of the fleet ,was intrusted 
 to incompetent hands; discipline was relaxed, and gross abuses crept 
 into the administration. The body of officers consisted of very hetero- 
 geneous elements, the crews were mostly collected by the press-gang,, 
 and as the requirements rapidly increased they consisted mostly of 
 the scum of the people, and even of men who physically were wholly 
 unfit. Stern discipline, accordingly, \\as indispensable, and was often 
 barbarously enforced. In consequence of the wretched accommoda- 
 tion and bad food of the crews, and of the defective sanitary arrange- 
 ments on board, disease and death made havoc among the men and 
 largely reduced the efficiency of the ships for war-purposes. 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 Dissensions arose in consequence of the contraband trade carried 
 on, on a large scale, and with great audacity bj' the English in the 
 Spanish colonies. The Spaniards opposed it with much harshness and 
 exercised the right of search even beyond their territorial waters. 
 This latter charge was denied, but the parliamentary opposition in 
 England exaggerated the occurrences to such a degree, that Walpole 
 felt his position endangered by popular irritation. Accordingly in 
 October 1739 war was declared against Spain, letters of marque having 
 been issued three months before. France gave open support to 
 Spain from the very beginning of the war, but not actively before 
 March 1744. 
 
 In consequence of the long neglect and the incapable administration 
 of the navy the first six years of the war were uneventful. It was 
 fortunate that the French fleet under Louis XV. was in a still worse 
 plight, and the Spanish fleet was of no account whatever. The first 
 expeditions of the English were directed against the Spanish colonies, 
 when England's supremacy at sea made itself painfully felt by her 
 enemies in their land warfare in the Western Mediterranean. A large 
 expedition sent to the West Indies failed on account of disputes among 
 admirals and generals, and of disease and mortality among the crews. 
 A small expedition under Anson to the west coast of America and 
 to circumnavigate the world did the Spaniards great harm in spite 
 of the great sufferings and losses of the English crews by scurvy &c; 
 the men having in less than a year been reduced to only one third 
 of their original number. The sole permanent effect produced by 
 this expedition was, that this eminently skilful commander trained a 
 number of officers in his own methods, and that he returned home 
 so enriched with the booty he had made, that he was able to aspire 
 to play an important part in his native country. But when he arrived 
 home about the middle of 1 744, he was received coldly and reduced 
 to half pay. Six months afterwards however, chance placing at the 
 helm a ministry favourable to him, he received an appointment at the 
 Admiralty, where he served his country till the day of his death in 
 1762, having, with a short interruption, filled the office of First Lord 
 of the Admiralty ever since 175 1. With correct insight, and on the 
 basis of his large and varied experience, he introduced during his 
 years of office suitable reforms, and found wise employment for the navy; 
 he also improved the discipline and promoted the most skilful officers. 
 The only great battle during the whole of this war was fought 
 near Toulon on the 22nd of February 1744 by the English against 
 
22 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 the combined Franco-Spanish fleet. In spite of the superiority of the 
 EngHsh it turned out a drawn battle, because the EngHsh admiral in 
 command was not sufficiently supported. This led to tedious legal 
 proceedings, which undermined discipline still more. In 1745 the 
 French intended to land a large force in England in favour of the 
 Pretender; this was frustrated partly by bad weather and partly by 
 the irresolution of the French admiral in command of the expedition. 
 Then the French abandoned that intention and devoted themselves 
 to the advancement of their extensive colonial schemes in North 
 America and the East Indies. Anson however frustrated their attempt 
 at sending out re-inforcements by assembling the English ships cruising 
 along the French coasts and lying in wait off Cape Finisterre. At first 
 he took the command himself, and in May 1747, abandoning the 
 rigid tactics hitherto observed, he totally destroyed a smaller French 
 squadron. He then handed over the command to Rear Admiral Hawke, 
 who on a larger scale and after severe fighting gained a similar vic- 
 tory a few months later, in October 1747; these were the first decisive 
 successes of the fleet since 171 8. Damage was moreover done to the 
 enemy by capturing their merchantmen and disturbing their maritime 
 trade, which, besides the injury done to their commerce, checked 
 their military operations, principally those on behalf of the Pretender, 
 who in 1745 had effected a landing in Scotland. 
 
 The peace of Aix la Chapelle (1748) which reduced everything to 
 the stains quo ante bellum, was a mere armistice; for the conflicting 
 interests of the great commercial companies, and the attempts to 
 extend the colonies, led to much friction and to feuds in North 
 America and in the East Indies. Though the government of the 
 country was slack in every way, Anson who was the soul of the 
 Admiralty even whilst still a Junior Lord, utilized the time of peace 
 effectually by regulating the promotion of officers, fixing their uni- 
 forms, codifying the articles of war, improving the discipline, intro- 
 ducing marines, at first to the number of 50, shortly afterwards of 
 100 companies; improving the building and equipment of ships, 
 abolishing abuses in the dockyards, founding the port of Halifax in 
 Nova Scotia &c. &c. 
 
 Ships were being fitted out at the beginning of 1755, and hosti- 
 lities at sea soon followed. Towards the end of July, Hawke was 
 sent out with a strong squadron to cruise along the west coast of 
 France, and albeit that no declaration of war had taken place, he was 
 ordered to pick up French vessels, peaceably or by force. By the 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 end of the year the English had 300 prizes and 8000 prisoners in 
 their "hands. This was the prelude to the Seven Years' War which for 
 England was a maritime and transmaritime war, and not only confirmed 
 her supremacy at sea, but made her the First Colonial Power in the world. 
 
 War was not declared till May 1756, and was unsuccessful in the 
 beginning. The French made a feint of landing in England, so as 
 to keep the English fleet engaged near home; meanwhile they sur- 
 prised Minorca by a large expedition from Toulon. A squadron under 
 Admiral Byng, sent in relief from England, arrived before the island 
 somewhat late, and was on the 20th of May beaten off by the French 
 squadron under La Galissoniere. Byng now returned to Gibraltar and 
 on the 28th of May, Port Mahon capitulated. This failure produced 
 such a fury of indignation in England, that King George II. was 
 compelled to call to the helm the elder Pitt, who speedily inspired 
 the Court, the Parliament, and the Nation with a spirit so fiercely 
 aggressive, as to enable him, jointly with Anson, to initiate a new, 
 carefully planned campaign at sea on a large scale; the first since 
 the times of Cromwell and Blake. The aims were: to blockade the 
 French coasts ; to interrupt their communications by sea and thus cut 
 off the colonies from the mother country; to ruin their maritime trade; 
 to make vigorous attacks upon the French coasts so as to do them 
 all possible harm; to trouble the country and detain troops, whereby 
 relief would be afforded to England's ally, Frederick the Great; and 
 finally to send out combined expeditions of fleet and army for the 
 conquest of French colonies. 
 
 No efforts were spared to gain these ends. Of money there was 
 no lack, thanks to the preponderant power of the English navy at 
 sea, which prevented the enemy from setting foot on her soil; mari- 
 time trade flourislied; and prosperity increased in spite of the war. 
 The fleet and the army were largely increased; the most skilful offi- 
 cers at sea, such as Admirals Hawke, Boscawen, Rodney, Flowe, and 
 others were entrusted with commands, regardless of all routine con- 
 siderations of age of service. "Sink, burn, and destroy" was the 
 watchword which has since become proverbial. The wishes and 
 grievances of the crews about provisions, cleanliness &c. were wisely 
 attended to, and thus at last it became possible that the fleets could 
 remain at sea for a long time and yet be in good fighting trim. 
 
 The attacks upon the French ports were not always crowned with 
 positive success, owing to frequent dissensions between the generals 
 and the admirals, but still they gained the object in view. The 
 
24 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 French fleet never ventured to accept battle, nevertheless heavjr blows 
 were inflicted on it. In August 1759, a French squadron slipped out 
 of Toulon and stole through the Straits of Gibraltar. Admiral Bos- 
 cawen overtook it near Cape St. Vincent and almost wholly destroyed 
 it. On the 20th of November 1759, Hawke succeeded in the midst 
 of a storm from the west, in running down the French Admiral 
 Conflans, who was scudding before the wind towards the rocky Bay 
 of Quiberon. Darkness setting in, Hawke still audaciously pursued 
 him into those most dangerous waters and completely defeated him — 
 an action, which could only be engaged in by a Commander of high 
 
 eminence, who had his forces 
 
 diBi^ 
 
 well in hand, and could ab- 
 solutely rely on every man's 
 doing his duty to the utmost. 
 These two actions put an 
 end to the enemy's plan of 
 effecting a landing in Eng- 
 land on a large scale. Be- 
 tween the dates of these two 
 actions the fate of Canada 
 was decided at the battle of 
 
 Quebec , where General 
 Wolfe gained the victory 
 and lost his life; the fleet 
 having conveyed his troops 
 up the St. Lawrence and 
 landed them at a favourable 
 place. 
 
 At the beginning of 1762, 
 when France was already 
 totally defeated at sea, Spain 
 joined in the war as her 
 ally. Pitt, who had foreseen 
 this, wanted to declare war against Spain six months before, and 
 resigned when he found himself unable to carry the Cabinet with 
 him; but even under his feeble successors his spirit still governed the 
 conduct of the war. The new adversary, in the very first year, lost 
 Havana to one great English expedition, and Manila to another that 
 had started from the East Indies; this cooled his warlike ardour so 
 rapidly that an armistice was at once concluded. 
 
 Admiral Lord Hawke 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 IN THE PEACE OF PARIS which was concluded on the loth of Feb- 
 ruary 1763, and was followed within a few days by that of Hubertus- 
 burg, England, owing to Bute's over-great love of peace, restored 
 many of her conquests, but still acquired Canada and Florida in North 
 America; Dominica, and three more isles of the Lesser Antilles in 
 the West Indies, Senegal in Africa, and the undisputed predominance 
 in India. Thus France's far-reaching plans to form colonies in North 
 America and make conquests in India received their final quietus, 
 whilst England's colonial domain and maritime trade developed on a 
 gigantic scale, in consequence of her predominance at sea having 
 been unequivocally established by her navy. 
 
 Still, after a short time this was again put to the test, as France 
 and Spain were only waiting for a favourable opportunity to reduce 
 England's power and to regain their lost possessions. In 1761, only 
 two years after her disaster in Quiberon bay, the French navy began 
 to recover and gain strength, so that in 1778 it numbered 80 ships- 
 of-the-line, whilst Spain had about 60. The English ministries that 
 followed that of the elder Pitt were feeble, and did not produce a 
 single man of eminence; party spirit was rampant, and abuses of many 
 kinds had crept into the administration. Owing to the advancing 
 scientific spirit some great voyages of discovery were made by Cook, 
 Wallis, Carteret, and others; but the war-navy did not attain an ex- 
 pansion commensurate with England's greatness. It is true it had 
 150 ships-of-the-line on paper, but only a part of them was available, 
 and as for the enlistment of the crews, recourse was still had to the 
 press-gang. 
 
 In addition to all this the North American colonies were driven 
 into revolt by harsh legislation, and on the 4th of July 1776 they 
 declared their independence. It is true they did not possess a single 
 man-of-war, but their numerous privateers inflicted great harm on the 
 maritime trade of England. When on the 17th of October 1 777, 
 they had compelled General Burgoyne to surrender and had thus 
 given proof of their vitality, France formed an alliance with them, 
 and in 1778 declared war against England, Spain following suit in 
 June 1779. To this was added in 1780 the armed neutrality of the 
 Northern Powers caused by England's harsh conduct towards neutral 
 flags. They aimed at repressing her encroachments at sea, and 
 finally towards the end of the same year she was also involved in 
 war with Holland, which however had ceased to be formidable and 
 was rent by faction. 
 
26 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 None of these states had any enemies on land, nor did England 
 attempt any invasion, so* that, with the exception of the struggles in 
 the revolted colonies, the war was waged exclusively at sea and in 
 the trans-oceanic possessions. The English Government lacked far- 
 seeing, resolute men, in consequence of which the war was carried 
 on without system and without the assumption of a vigorous offen- 
 sive as in the times of Pitt and Anson, but it remained essentially a 
 war of defence; the enemies' fleets were neither blockaded in their 
 ports, nor defeated outside them, and the whole war passed by with- 
 out producing a single 
 leader of eminence. Thus 
 it happened that hostilities 
 were carried on in five 
 different places at the 
 same time; in the waters 
 near home; at Gibraltar 
 and in the western Medi- 
 terranean; on the coasts 
 of North America; in In- 
 dia; and in the West In- 
 dies. Everywhere it was 
 the SUPREMACY AT SEA 
 that was in question, and 
 that decided the final issue. 
 The sole engagement 
 on a large scale took 
 place in the waters near 
 home off Ushant, on the 
 27th of July 1778. It was 
 indecisive, and the only 
 result it brought was liti- 
 gation, one of the Ad- 
 mirals preferring charges 
 against Keppel, the Ad- 
 miral in command, which 
 merely undermined discipline precisely as had happened after the 
 battle of Toulon, recorded above. In August 1779, a combined 
 Franco-Spanish fleet of 60 ships-of-the-line appeared in the Channel, 
 against which the English could only place 38 vessels in Hne, 'whilst 
 an army of 50,000 men stood ready at Havre and St. Malo, waiting 
 
 Admiral Lord Rodney. 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 27 
 
 to be carried across; but once more fortune favoured England; the 
 allied admirals were unable to agree ; their ships, especially those of 
 Spain, were inadequately manned and equipped, and some were not 
 even seaworthy. — Accordingly the ships of this Great Armada returned 
 to their native ports without having fought or done anything else 
 worthy of note. The danger of a landing in England passed away 
 without again presenting itself during the whole of the war. 
 
 The United States could not have permanently withstood single- 
 handed England's might both on land and at sea, but the repeated 
 appearance of French fleets off their coasts brought them direct and 
 indirect advantages; they received re-inforcements and although the 
 French did not actually defeat the English, yet they gained some 
 advantages over them and thwarted their operations; to French co- 
 operation was due the capitulation of General Cornwallis in Yorktown, 
 on the 19th of October 1781, which decided the war. 
 
 In the West Indies the belligerents fought for the possession of 
 the Lesser Antilles , and the course of events turned mainly on the 
 alternating preponderance of the English or the French squadrons 
 present on the spot. Six times they met, but always without result, 
 as, owing to the adherence on both sides to traditional use and wont, 
 the hostile fleets merely engaged in violent cannonades. At last on 
 the I2th of April 1782, in the battle of Dominica, Rodney abandoned 
 the obsolete traditions. His fleet sailed by the wind, and with his 
 flagship, which formed the centre of his line of battle, he advanced 
 end on against the enemy's line, burst through it, severed it, and 
 threw it into disorder. He gained a brilliant victory, the first since 
 Quiberon 23 years before; the flagship of the French Admiral de 
 Grasse was captured, and himself made prisoner. English pre- 
 dominance in the West Indian seas was now assured. 
 
 In the East Indies, the English as undisputed Lords of the Sea 
 captured all the French and Dutch possessions with little trouble, but 
 in February 1782 Commodore BailH de SufFren appeared with a French 
 squadron off the coast of Coromandel and immediately assumed the 
 offensive. Without harbour or resources, he fought the English ad- 
 miral Hughes four times in seven months, and took Trincomalee in 
 Ceylon. In June 1783, just before the arrival of the news that peace 
 was concluded, he fought a fifth battle. But all were indecisive in 
 spite of SufFren's superior tactics, because he was insufficiently sup- 
 ported by his officers. Consequently affairs remained in suspense 
 till the end of the war. 
 
28 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Gibraltar was besieged by the Spaniards from June 1779 ^^^^ '-^^ 
 end of 1782, first on land only, and then also by sea, where the 
 alHes assembled a large fleet and cut off all suppHes, but on the 
 13th of September 1782, the heroic commander. General Elliott, 
 baffled all the attempts of his assailants, who even employed protect- 
 ing floating batteries. For all that, the fort would have had to sur- 
 render from want of necessaries, if the fleet had not repeatedly come 
 to the rescue with re-inforcements and supplies; in January 1780, by 
 Admiral Rodney, who had previously at Cape St. Vincent all but 
 annihilated a Spanish squadron sent to oppose him; in March 1781 
 by Admiral Darby, and in October 1782 by Admiral Howe, with 
 whom the greatly superior fleet of the allies at Algesiras did not 
 venture seriously to interfere. 
 
 The Mediterranean however was abandoned to the enemy, the English 
 navy merely acting on the defensive, in consequence of which a 
 large Spanish expedition was able in July 1781 to land 8000 men at 
 Minorca without hindrance, and to lay formal siege to Fort Philip, which 
 was bravely defended; but after a bombardment by 1 50 guns the small 
 garrison of looo men had to surrender on the 5th of February 1782. 
 
 Meanwhile open hostilities had also broken out in the German 
 Ocean between the English and the Dutch. Even before the actual 
 declaration of war, England had issued letters of marque against them, 
 captured 200 of their merchantmen, and totally ruined their maritime 
 trade. With difficulty did the small impoverished country fit out a 
 squadron which in August 1781 met an equally strong English squa- 
 dron at the Dogger Bank. The fleets engaged in a furious can- 
 nonade at short range, ship against ship, ending in a drawn battle 
 with vessels on both sides so damaged, that they had to return to 
 their several ports. The Dutch were unable to fit out a new ex- 
 pedition and ceased to be of any weight in maritime affairs; and 
 their colonies, St. Eustace in the West Indies, Surinam, and others, 
 were taken possession of by the English almost without a struggle. 
 At the end of 1782 preliminaries of peace were concluded, and 
 on the 3rd of September 1783, the treaty was signed at Versailles. 
 England ceded Minorca and Florida to Spain; returned to France 
 her possessions in the East Indies and on the west coast of Africa, 
 as well as St. Pierre and Miquelon in Newfoundland; she renounced 
 the restrictions imposed on Dunquerque; and Trincomalee and some 
 other colonies were restored to Holland. On the other hand France 
 surrendered to England all the West Indian islands she had taken. 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. ' 29 
 
 with the exception of Tobago. But above all England recognised 
 the independence of the United States, thereby losing the whole 
 North American continent with the exception of Canada. 
 
 This great war, which was almost wholly fought out at sea, termin- 
 ated unfavourably for England in spite of the inefficiency of the con- 
 tinental powers of Europe engaged in it. 
 
 In the ensuing ten years of peace England recovered with amazing 
 rapidity from the effects of the war, thanks to the growth of her 
 manufactures, to the expansion of her maritime commerce, and to 
 the extension of her Indian Empire. The younger Pitt who had as- 
 sumed the government at the end of 1783 was a pronounced lover 
 of peace, but was wise enough to keep up the navy in adequate force, 
 and though the old abuses in the administration were left unredressed, 
 yet due provision was made for the speedy equipment of ships to 
 be put in commission, and for the collection of stores in the yards. 
 
 When, after the execution of Louis XVI., the French Republic de- 
 clared war on the 1st of February 1793 simultaneously against England 
 and Holland, circumstances were specially favourable for the English 
 navy. The officers 'of the French navy, being all Royalists, were 
 scattered by the Revolution; the crews were turbulent and undisci- 
 plined; the chief commands were in the hands of incapable Jacobins ; 
 and the administration was wholly disorganized. In addition to all 
 this the country was distracted by civil war to such a degree, that 
 towards the end of August 1793 Toulon with 31 ships of the line 
 was handed over to the English, and a mighty coalition was arrayed 
 against that unhappy country, distracted by the Revolution. The 
 Spanish fleet, retrogressing as it had been for two centuries, was of 
 slight account; that of Holland was small, the state itself having been 
 enfeebled; the Danish and Swedish fleets were also unimportant; the 
 Russian flag was not seen on the ocean; and the United States as 
 yet had no war-ships. 
 
 At the beginning of the war the English fleet numbered 411 ves- 
 sels of every kind, amongst them 153 ships-of-the-line ; it was far 
 and away superior to all the others, and in the course of years the 
 proportion turned more and more in its favour, because under Pitt's 
 government the war was conducted with great energy, and there was 
 no lack of means in consequence of England's predominance at sea, 
 which almost turned maritime trade into an English monopoly. Partly 
 by new ships which w^re built in the Royal dockyards and in private 
 yards, partly by purchase, and partly by putting in commission ships 
 
30 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 taken from the enemy, the navy increased by leaps and bounds, and 
 speedily numbered more than lOOO vessels of every kind. In 1793 
 there were only 12, in 1795 more than lOO ships-of-the-line in com- 
 mission, independent of those stationed in the harbours, and, with 
 the exception of a temporary interruption caused by the peace of 
 Amiens in 1802, this state of things continued till 18 14. By 1809 
 the ships in commission for war purposes were more than 700 in 
 number. The crews were increased in similar proportion; the number 
 of officers of the navy rose from 2378 in 1793, to 6630 at the end 
 of the war; the crews from 45,000 men at the beginning of the war 
 to 145,000 in the years 1811 to 1813. 
 
 In the early years of the war, the achievements of the navy were 
 not equal to those under the elder Pitt in the Seven Year's War, 
 although from March 1793 till May 1795, Spain fought on the side 
 of England; the blockades of Brest and afterwards of Toulon were 
 not carried out with due vigour; indeed the English evacuated the 
 latter place towards the end of 1793, leaving behind 25 French vessels; 
 and a French squadron that had sailed out of Brest was not attacked 
 and defeated with the energy of a Hawke or a Boscawen. Never- 
 theless in the great battle off Ushant on the ist of June 1794, Ad- 
 miral Howe gained the victory, and so did Bridport before L'Orient, 
 and Hotham before Genoa, and off the Hyeres isles. In a few years 
 the French maritime trade was wholly ruined by English cruisers and 
 privateers, whose number gradually rose to the strength of about 
 1000 vessels, and the French possessions beyond the seas, in the 
 East and West Indies, fell almost without a struggle into the hands 
 of the irresistible power of England at sea. At the beginning of 
 1795 Holland under the title of the Batavian Republic, had been 
 forced to join France, and so her colonies shared the fate of those 
 of France; it was then that their Cape Colony and Ceylon passed 
 over to England. 
 
 In October 1796 Spain allied herself to France, whereby the latter 
 country gained the superiority in the mimber of ships. The English 
 government now ordered Admiral Jervis, who was cruising in the 
 Mediterranean, to sail out of this sea and to evacuate Corsica, which 
 had been taken in 1794; but at this juncture the genius of the English 
 commander effected a complete change. His crews having received 
 an exemplary good training, he defeated on the 14th of February 
 1797, at Cape St. Vincent a Franco-Spanish ^eet twice the size 01 
 his own. In this battle his Commodore Nelson greatly distinguished 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 31 
 
 himself, and after it Jervis held for 2| years a large part of the 
 Spanish navy strictly blockaded in Cadiz, Spain's principal naval port. 
 
 In the year 1797 the English navy was in imnainent danger from 
 internal troubles. The gross abuses of the administration which Jervis 
 characteris.ed as "rotten to the core," especially the bad quality of 
 the food and of the . clothing , and the arrears of pay, together with 
 cruel treatment, made the men desperate and drove them into MUTINY. 
 In the middle of April the crews of the squadron intended for the 
 blockade of Brest, lying off Spithead, refused obedience when ordered 
 to put to sea, and afterwards the Channel fleet followed suit. These 
 had hardly been appeased by concessions, when in the middle of 
 May the crews of the ships at the Nore and of the blockading squa- 
 dron under Admiral Duncan before the Texel, where the Dutch fleet 
 lay, mutinied also; all of the latter, with the exception of two, returning 
 to the mouth of the Thames. They blockaded the river and com- 
 mitted many deeds of violence. Within a month order was restored, 
 the ringleaders were hanged, and many others severely punished. A 
 similar outbreak occurred in October of the same year with the 
 squadron stationed off the Cape of Good Hope. On board a frigate 
 in the West Indies, under whose commander a reign of terror prevailed, 
 the crew killed all the officers and then handed the vessel over to the 
 Spaniards. The only fleet where mutiny did not actually break out, 
 was that of Admiral Jervis, who wisely nipped it in the bud with 
 stern rigour, and so kept his force in front of the enemy in good 
 fighting trim. 
 
 After suppression of the mutinies partly by rigour, and partly by 
 concession of the just and reasonable demands of the men, the crews 
 once more became amenable to discipline, in consequence of which 
 Admiral Duncan was, as early as October 1797, able to engage the 
 Dutch fleet in the bloody battle of Camperdown, and with his greatly 
 superior force to inflict so telling a defeat on them, that they put in 
 no further appearance at sea. 
 
 Admiral Jervis' action was not confined to the fleet before Cadiz, 
 but extended far beyond. The blockade of the enemy's war ports 
 was enforced rigorously and steadily, and it was everywhere decisively 
 felt that he had assumed the offensive. This was done to the ut- 
 most by Nelson, the greatest of his disciples and followers. This 
 hero knew how to gain, in addition to the ready and willing obedience 
 of his subordinates, their aff'ection and full devotion. Being sent 
 into the Mediterranean with a part of the Cadiz fleet he discovered the 
 
32 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 French squadron, that had escorted Bonaparte to Egypt and was as 
 strong as his own, at anchor in the Bay of Aboukir. He came in 
 sight of it in the evening of the ist of August 1798,^ attacked it im- 
 mediately, and in spite of the desperate valour of the French, nearly 
 annihilated the whole fleet by his masterly tactics. 
 
 This great victory not only frustrated all Napoleon's plans about 
 Egypt and India, but restored to England the preponderance in the 
 Mediterranean which she had evacuated, and thus essentially modified 
 the political situation; its moral effect moreover was far-reaching and 
 strongly influenced the march of events. For lOO years previously 
 the French, adhering to their traditions, had avoided going in 
 search of the enemy in the open sea and fighting him for the 
 supremacy on the waters; all they aimed at was to avoid him, and 
 battle they would accept only, if it was unavoidable — Suffren alone 
 was a glorious exception to this rule. By dexterous manoeuvres 
 he had often gained advantages even when his forces were no more 
 than equal to those of the enemy. But from now forward no French 
 officer of the navy hoped for success , even with superior forces. 
 Upon this rock were wrecked all Napoleon's schemes against England, 
 whom, from the outset, he had regarded as his principal foe, and 
 whose ruin was the direct and indirect object of all his ventures. 
 
 The English Government on the other hand steadily pursued the 
 one aim of making its fleet, not predominant, but the sole ruler of 
 the sea, and to gain this end every other fleet had to be blown out 
 of the water. Therefore in 1799, it engaged jointly with Russia in 
 a great expedition against Holland. A landing was eff"ected near 
 the Helder, and hardly any resistance being offered, this naval port 
 was occupied. The 25 Dutch men-of-war lying in the river Texel, 
 16 of which were two-deckers, surrendered to the allies without firing 
 a shot, the crewfe refusing to fight. They were taken possession of 
 in the name of the Prince of Orange, but afterwards incorporated 
 with the English navy. The army that had been landed fought a 
 few unsuccessful engagements, then re-embarked and returned home. 
 
 When in November 1800 the three Northern Powers once more 
 joined in an Armed Neutrality to check England's encroachments at 
 sea, a large English fleet was sent early in the year 1801 into the 
 Baltic, the Russian ships being still detained by the ice. Admiral 
 Parker was Commander-in-Chief and Nelson was Second-in-Command. 
 On the 2nd of April Nelson led his squadron with great audacity 
 
 ' In England this battle is known as the "Battle of the Nile." The translator. 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 33 
 
 into those very dangerous waters and fought the BATTLE OF COPEN- 
 HAGEN, in which both parties fighting with great bravery suffered 
 teavily, without arriving at a decisive result. Thanks however, to 
 the personal intervention of the famous Admiral, Denmark was induced 
 to withdraw from the alliance, which in fact was wholly dissolved owing 
 to the assassination of the Czar Paul I. on the 23rd of March. 
 
 In the summer of the same year Bonaparte, in his capacity of First 
 Consul, concluded peace with all his enemies on the continent, and 
 made preparations for the invasion of England, collecting at Boulogne 
 an army and a large number of flat-bottomed vessels. To lessen the 
 keen anxiety caused thereby, Nelson was appointed commander of 
 the coast defences from Orfordness as far as Beachy Head, but he 
 was unable to effect anything against the flotilla, which was well pro- 
 tected and bravely defended. 
 
 The armistice concluded, after Pitt's resignation, by Addington's feeble 
 ministry on the 12th of October 1801 , put an end to all further 
 combats , and in the Peace of Amiens concluded on the 27th of 
 March 1802, England restored all the conquests she had made, ex- 
 •cepting the important islands of Trinidad in the West Indies, Ceylon, 
 and Malta, which latter place the French commandant had been forced 
 to surrender to England on the 5th of. September 1800, after a 
 blockade of two years' duration rigorously enforced. England was now 
 in possession of an excellent and very strong naval port in a most 
 favourable position, which secured to her fleet in perpetuity a domi- 
 nant position in the Mediterranean. 
 
 When in the middle of May 1803 the war was resumed, the number 
 of ships-of-the-line in commission was speedily raised from 32 at the 
 beginning of the year to 60, and quickly afterwards to 75, and the 
 blockade of the enemy's naval ports and their fleets within them was 
 speedily enforced with superior squadrons; the capture of French and 
 Dutch, and afterwards also of Danish and Portuguese, colonies was 
 .again undertaken, and the enemy's maritime commerce was destroyed; 
 the maritime trade even of neutrals suffered heavy loss in conse- 
 quence of the declaration of paper-blockades for long tracts of coasts, 
 and from the exercise of the right of search. When Spain, towards 
 the end of 1 804, formed an alliance with France, she had to endure 
 all the hardships of a state of war inflicted by the sea-dominatin'g 
 -power of England. 
 
 ' Bonaparte renewed his preparations for the invasion of England on 
 the largest possible scale; in addition to 30 ships-of-the-line he 
 
 3 
 
34 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 ordered hundreds of flat-bottomed boats to be built, sufficient to carry 
 over an army of 150,000 men, and at the beginning of 1805 these 
 were assembled in six ports between Texel and Havre, the largest 
 number being at Boulogne. The squadrons of Toulon and Rochefort 
 were to slip out unobserved and sail to the West Indies to draw the 
 English blockading fleets after them; they were then to return to 
 Europe, join the Spanish fleet at Ferrol, attack the blockading fleet 
 outside Brest with superior force, defeat it, and then re-inforced by 
 the ships set free at Brest, secure the command of the Channel and 
 keep an open passage for the army of invasion: — a magnificent 
 scheme, worthy of Napoleon's creative genius; all that was lacking 
 was a leader at sea of corresponding spirit. 
 
 The squadron in Rochefort skilfully discharged its task and did 
 the English much harm in the West Indies; speedily (May 20th) it 
 returned to its port of departure without having met the Toulon fleet. 
 Admiral Villeneuve did successfully slip away from Nelson, who for 
 i| years had kept him shut in. He was joined by a number of 
 Spanish ships from Cadiz and sailed to the West Indies without 
 being overtaken by his pursuing enemy. On his way back he en- 
 countered, on the 22nd of July 1805, the English blockading squadron 
 outside Ferrol, which, though inferior to his own, gained some advan^ 
 tages in the indecisive battle that ensued. The English now sailing home, 
 Villeneuve was able to join ' the ships of the alHes inside Ferrol ta 
 his own fleet. He now had 29 ships-of-the-Hne under his command 
 and ought to have sailed up the Channel and with his superior force 
 to have attacked the English squadron outside Brest, wherever he 
 met it. But his heart failed him, and instead of sailing north-east 
 towards the Channel, he directed his course on the 14th of August,, 
 southwards to Cadiz. 
 
 This put an end to Napoleon's intended invasion of England. He- 
 immediately and finally abandoned it, and within a week after receipt 
 of the news, that is towards the end of August, he set his army in 
 motion from Boulogne to Austria against the allied Austrian and 
 Russian armies. In a rapid succession of victories these were defeated, 
 and before the end of the year he was able to dictate the Peace of 
 Pressburg. But before that time Villeneuve had met his fate; he had 
 been promptly blockaded in Cadiz and coming out to meet Nel- 
 son's blockading fleet he was, in spite of his considerable superiority 
 of force (33 ships-of-the-line against 27), totally defeated and made 
 prisoner on the 21st of October in the glorious BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR. 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 35 
 
 The ships of the French van that escaped fell, on the 4th of No- 
 vember, into the hands of an English squadron off Cape Ortegal. 
 These decisive victories formed the concluding act of the great drama 
 of maritime war- 
 fare. The French 
 navy, far from 
 being annihilated, 
 still numbered 32 
 ships -of- the -line 
 fully equipped, 
 and moreover 
 Napoleon had so 
 many new ones 
 built, that at his 
 deposition there 
 were 73 ships- of- 
 the-line in exist- 
 ence. French 
 squadrons more 
 than once suc- 
 ceeded in eluding 
 the English block- 
 ading fleets and 
 putting to sea, but 
 they never again 
 engaged in a pitch- 
 ed battle. On 
 the other hand 
 the English enfor- 
 ced with much 
 rigour their block- 
 ade of the naval 
 
 ports of their 
 enemy , and to 
 some extent of 
 
 the coasts of 
 France , and of 
 
 the countries under French rule; a very remarkable performance. 
 French merchantmen and even men-of-war were often cut out from 
 fortified roadsteads by surprise attacks with boats ; in 1 809 a squadron 
 
 Nelson in the cabin of the "Victory" making his will 
 before the battle of Trafalgar. 
 
36 • THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 lying under the isle of Aix off Rochefort was all but annihilated by 
 fire-ships. The "Continental System" enforced by Napoleon after 
 the overthrow of Prussia in 1806, by which all English goods were 
 excluded from the continent, was a severe blow to English trade, but 
 some compensation was found in an extensive contraband trade car- 
 ried on, on a huge scale, under the protection of the fleet. 
 
 An emporium of supreme importance for that object was Helgoland, 
 which was taken from the Danes in 1807 for that verj- purpose. In 
 the same year after the Peace of Tilsit, which isolated England and 
 gave her cause for anxiety on account of the newly formed Franco- 
 Russian alliance, she sent a large expedition of ships and men to 
 Copenhagen without declaration of war; the city was bombarded from 
 the land and taken; and the whole fleet of 18 ships-of-the-line with 
 stores &c. was seized and carried away. A few months previously 
 an English squadron had been sent with like orders to Constantinople, 
 and but for the want of resolution of Admiral Duckworth and his 
 diplomatic adviser, the same fate would have overtaken the Turkish 
 capital and fleet. 
 
 In such manner did the English na\y rule the sea without control. 
 Once more French, Dutch, and Danish colonies were seized one by 
 one, even Java fell in 181 1. The Indian Empire, untouched by the 
 war, steadily grew in extent. England's maritime trade was certainly 
 injured to some extent by French privateers, but still it increased year 
 by year; maritime commerce being all but an English monopoly. 
 The prosperity of the country increased and there was no limit to 
 Englaad's borrowing power at a low rate of interest, whilst on the 
 continent distress grew from day to day. The dominion of the sea 
 enabled the government to fit out expeditions to every coast, and 
 there was no lack of means. In 1809 a large expedition was sent to 
 the Low Countries; unfortunately too late to effect, as was intended, 
 a diversion in favour of Austria, then at war with Napoleon. It was 
 to have destroyed the French fleet at Flushing and the port of Ant- 
 werp, but it totally failed. On the other hand, the war in Portugal 
 and Spain under Wellington, which had begun on a small scale, but 
 assumed ever larger dimensions and greater importance, and ultimately 
 in 1 8 14 even led to the invasion of France, contributed grcatlv to 
 the results of the war against Napoleon. Only the supplies brought 
 to the English armies by their fleet enabled them first to maintain 
 their ground and ultimately to advance; this was especially the case 
 in 1 8 10, when they were cooped up in the lines of Torres Vedras. 
 

 "Victory" (Nelson's famous Flagship) 
 
 at the battle of Trafalgar 
 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 37 
 
 It was al%o due to the action of the fleet that the Russian squadron 
 at Lisbon under Admiral Senjavin surrendered; and again it was the 
 fleet that brought back from the island of Fiinen, whither Napoleon 
 had sent them, 10,000 Spanish troops desirous to fight for their 
 country. Finally in 181 5, the fleet also frustrated Napoleon's plan to 
 escape to the United States by enforcing a most rigorous blockade 
 of the harbour of Rochefort, whereby he was compelled to surrender 
 on the 15th of July to the commander of the English ship-of-the- 
 line, the "Bellerophon." 
 
 These examples sufficiently demonstrate first, that the English fleet 
 proved itself a very effective and sharp instrument, not only for the 
 advancement of the country's maritime policy and the expansion of 
 its power, but also for the promotion of the objects of the war which 
 continental nations are wont to regard as a land-war; and secondly 
 that the navy . exercised a deep-reaching influence on the march of 
 events. 
 
 The ruthlessness with which the navy had acted even against neutrals, 
 had led in 1 8 1 2 to a WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES, which avenged the con- 
 tempt with which the dominant navy had for years looked down upon the 
 fleets of all other nations. The United States did not possess a single 
 ship-of-the-line; they had a few frigates, corvettes &c., but these were 
 superior to English ships of the same class in size, structure, speed, 
 armament, and crews. Avoiding pitched battles with English squadrons, 
 they captured in single combat between ships of like kind, several English 
 men-of-war, and amongst them three frigates, in the very first year 
 of the war. In addition to that, hundreds of their privateers inflicted 
 great harm on English commerce; but in this respect the English 
 retaliated upon American trade with equal effect. 
 
 The Peace of Ghent, which was concluded with the United States 
 towards the end of 18 14, produced no essential change in the state 
 of affairs, but by the treaties at the end of the wars in Europe, Eng- 
 land obtained, in addition to her acquisitions of 1801, in the West 
 Indies, Tobago and St. Lucia; in the Indian Ocean France ceded to 
 her Mauritius (Isle de France) and the Seychelle Islands; Holland 
 ceded the Cape of Good Hope and Guiana; and Denmark gave up 
 Helgoland^; the Ionian Islands were placed under English protection; 
 
 1 Helgoland has since been transferred by Lord Salisbury to Germany in 
 return for certain concessions in Africa; the Ionian Isles were delivered over to 
 Greece by Mr. Gladstone on sentimental grounds. The translator. 
 
38- THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 and it was agreed that the important port of Antwerp, which mig-ht 
 eventually have become a base of operations against England, should 
 be made a purely commercial port. 
 
 f. Expansion of the Dominion of Britain into a 
 World-Empire. 
 
 After the fall of Napoleon the British fleet was larg-ely reduced; 
 in 1 817 there were only 124 ships in commission, inclusive of 14 ships- 
 of-the-line, as compared with upwards of lOO only 4 years pre- 
 viously; the crews were reduced from 140,000 to 19,000. The 
 numerous and important acquisitions spoken of above, and the fact 
 that her navy dominated all the seas without rival, had conferred on 
 England a world-ruhng position; she was able at pleasure to extend 
 her territories without let or hindrance in India and Further India, in 
 South Africa and Austraha; she could by peaceable means or by 
 force open new avenues to her commerce, and appropriate as points 
 dappui islands or fortified harbours that were favourably situated, as 
 for example: — Singapore (1819), the Falkland Isles (1833), Aden 
 (1838), Hong-Kong (1839), and New Zealand (1840). On all those 
 occasions and in disputes beyond the sea, the fleet co-operated with 
 much effect; for example, in the wars against Burma in 1824/25, 
 against China in 1839/42, against the Dictator Rosas on the river Plate 
 in 1845. But for all that, little was done for the further development 
 of the navy, excepting a few improvements in ship-building; people 
 were content to rest on the laurels won in the past. 
 
 The first STEAMER of the navy, a small tug, was built as late as 
 1822. In spite of its obvious advantages it was but tardily imitated; 
 the same thing happened at the introduction of screw-steamers and of 
 iron-clads. The inventions of shell-guns, and grenades, made pubHc 
 by the French general, Paixhans, in 1821, which by reason of their 
 practicability marked a new departure, were ignored in England for a 
 decade and a half. Some progress, albeit a late one, was made by 
 estabhshing in 1832 the "Excellent" a gunnery school-ship, a name 
 continued to this day, for the systematic training of gunnery officers 
 and seamen-gunners. 
 
 In the same year was also effected a thorough reform in the leading 
 authorities that administer the navy; their methods had never been 
 very suitable and had long been obsolete. A reform which Admiral 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 39 
 
 Jervis had planned some 30 years previously, but had not been able 
 to carry through during- the short time that he held the post of First 
 Lord of the Admiralty, was now carried by Sir James Graham, a 
 distinguished member of the House of Commons ; he greatly simplified 
 and expedited the routine of office; did away with abuses; and intro- 
 duced an effective control of the expenditure, which led to a con- 
 siderable saving. 
 
 In spite of this deep-reaching improvemeiit n the administration, the 
 lethargy in military affairs that had set in after the conclusion of the 
 great war continued undisturbed, the French navy all the while grow- 
 ing strong again; its crews were carefully drilled and its effective 
 force was increased by numerous steam war-vessels. After the French 
 had partly armed all their ships with the 22 centimetre* shellguns, there 
 ensued in England in 1838 the first "SCARE" at the dangerous 
 neighbour, which has since been repeated from time to time, and has 
 caused large sums to be voted by fits and starts for the increase of 
 the navy. But after a short time people relapsed into their old apathy, 
 and nobody thought of a systematic preparation for war. 
 
 Accordingly when in the Crimean war England entered the field as 
 the ally of France, her old hereditary foe, the English fleet proved 
 itself wholly unprepared for the work, notwithstanding the warnings it 
 had received a long time previously. Her sailing vessels were not 
 up to date by the side of the French steamers, especially as the 
 Russians declined all pitched battles both in the Black Sea and in 
 the Baltic; no effect was produced on the Russian coast-fortifications; 
 while vessels to act in shallow water against works on the coast were 
 wanting altogether; and ere the numerous gun-boats ordered were 
 fiiiished, the war was over. 
 
 As aUies of their old enemies, the French proved themselves superior 
 both in material and in organisation; the French steam war-vessels were 
 both more numerous and more efficient than the English; the screw- 
 steamer "Napoleon", especially, left all English vessels far behind. 
 Similarly the French floating armed batteries at Kinburn far surpassed 
 all the English vessels during the attacks on the forts of the coast, 
 and the arrangements of the French for the transport of their troops 
 to the Crimea and for their support outside Sebastopol were much 
 more carefully considered. But for all that, the high importance of 
 the navy was made evident, unobtrusively but very convincingly, by the 
 
 ' 22 cm = 87 inches very nearly. The translator. 
 
40 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 paralysis of the Russian traffic at sea; by the attacks made on har- 
 bours and coast-works; by the safe transport of troops to their several 
 places of destination ; by the support afforded to their operations ; and, 
 finally, by the prompt bringing up of necessary supplies. 
 
 At the treaty of Paris on the 30th. of March 1856, the Powers 
 agreed to the neutraUty of the Black Sea, to the free navigation of 
 the Danube, to the removal of the Russian frontier further north, away 
 from the banks of the river, and to the exclusion of foreign war- 
 ships from the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. To this was added 
 England's startling assent to the declaration of the i6th. of April, 
 which abolished privateering, protected enemy's goods under neutral 
 flag, and admitted the legality of effective blockades only; all being 
 principles of maritime law in flagrant contradiction to the practices 
 previously observed. 
 
 Only a few years later in i860, France caused a new "scare". She 
 had successfully constructed the first iron-clad ram, the "Gloire", and 
 immediately set about building a number of sister-ships. This gave 
 the impulse to the construction of the English iron-clad navy which 
 is even to-day still in progress — the two frigates, the "Warrior" and 
 the "Black Prince" previously begun, were mere partly-armoured 
 mongrels and of no account. In consequence of the want of system 
 and of expert knowledge, a great variety of types, both of large and 
 small battle-ships and coast defences, was adopted. In times of scares 
 large sums were voted and many ships built, at other times the num- 
 ber of ships built was small, so that the English iron-clad fleet of 
 the first three decades represented a motley collection of specimens. 
 The taunt rigging of sailing vessels, which is almost wholly useless, 
 was adhered to with tenacity, even with ships of low freeboard, till 
 in 1870 a battle-ship, the "Captain", foundered near Finisterre and 
 the whole crew was lost. Still longer the English adhered, in guns, 
 to the pattern of short rifled muzzle-loaders, with a calibre ol 406 mm. 
 (= 16 inches) and a length of tube of only 14 — 18 calibres; a con- 
 siderable number of the older iron-clads are still armed in this manner. 
 The value of great speed was also not understood for a long time; 
 till the middle of the eighties the English built cruisers of only 11 
 to 13 knots. 
 
 But about that time a complete change set in; the mighty impulse 
 given to matters of warfare by the war of 1870/71 made itself felt 
 also in the English navy. In 1885 began the manoeuvres of the 
 fleet on a large scale, which have since been repeated every summer 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 41 
 
 and are always combined with a partial mobilization. In 1882 the 
 "Intelligence Department" had been organized at the Admiralty, and two 
 years afterwards a section of this department was added to the staff- 
 service of the Admiralty; preparations were made for rapid mobilization, 
 and every branch of the service was roused into a mental activity which 
 had previously been sadly missing; even the senior Naval Lords of 
 the Admiralty, occupying the most exalted and responsible posts, 
 had neglected to inform themselves about the tasks that were set to 
 
 Lord Charles Beresford 
 
 Post Captain 1 
 
 the navy and the means needed for their performance. Special praise 
 is due to Lord Charles Beresford, a post-captain^ who resigned his 
 post as Junior Lord of the Admiralty in order to have greater freedom 
 and more influence in his work for the benefit of the nation. 
 
 The ground having been thus sufficiently prepared, the Conservative 
 Government, which entered office in 1889, took advantage of a new 
 "scare" to present to Parliament a carefully considered SCHEME OF 
 
 ' Now Rear-Admiral. The translator. 
 
42 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDING on a large scale, viz: 70 vessels, inclusive of 10 battle- 
 ships, costing- 22 millions, and to be built within the short period of 
 four and a half years, and contrary to the tradition rig-orously observed 
 till then, of voting- only the current year's expenditure, .Parliament was 
 asked to vote the whole of the money at once. On the 31st of May 1889 
 the bill became law under the title of the NAVAL DEFENCE ACT; from 
 that day dates, of course with a large increase of the budget for the 
 navy, the conscious and systematic development and the rapid in- 
 crease of the new English navy, from which the Liberal Government 
 that followed was unable to depart, and which is even now being 
 continued on the same large scale. 
 
 The "Imperial Defence Act" of 1888 may be regarded as a pendant 
 to the above named Naval Defence Act. By this, £2,650,000 were 
 voted for the fortification and equipment of harbours and coaling 
 stations at home and abroad, so as to secure predominance at sea in 
 all quarters. 
 
 g. Work of the Navy in Times of Peace, 
 
 In addition to the work done by the navy in the wars narrated 
 above in protecting the empire, the colonies, and the mercantile 
 marine, the fleet also co-operated in many smaller wars, principally 
 in distant seas; but even in times of peace it was called upon to act 
 in a warlike capacity, such as doing police duty on the waters; pro- 
 tecting commerce by repressing piracy which was prevalent in the 
 Mediterranean, in the West Indies, and in the China Seas till far into 
 the present century, and is even now not wholly extinct; also in 
 suppressing the slave trade, a work in which England has pre-emin- 
 ently distinguished herself ever since 18 16; in chastising savages and 
 the like; moreover by exhibition of England's power in foreign ports, 
 and at times enforcing temporary blockades , concessions . of various 
 kinds were wrung from foreign powers. In 1890 the Government of 
 Lisbon was forced to cede extensive districts in Africa, merely by 
 the concentration of British squadrons near Portugal and her possessions. 
 
 The fleet moreover advanced navigation, and the knowledge of the 
 seas, and of Geography generally by work wholly unconnected with 
 war, such as making voyages of discovery in connection with scientific 
 investigations, and conducting soundings and various kinds of surveys. 
 These latter have been conducted and are carried on even now 
 extensively and systematically in many seas. 
 
I. INTRODUCTION. 43 
 
 Voyag-es of discovery were first engaged in in 1497, when the 
 Venetian, Cabot, in the service of Henry VII. arrived with English 
 ships off the mainland of America even before Columbus had done 
 so. A long pause ensued, and then the great time of Elizabeth set 
 in; the time of Frobisher, Davis, Hudson, each of whom making three 
 voyages in search of the north-west passage to Eastern Asia, and 
 followed by Hall, Baffin and others penetrated the frozen Arctic seas. 
 These were followed by Drake, Gilbert, and Raleigh, who visited 
 portions of the eastern coast of what is now called the United States ; 
 Drake during his circumnavigation of the world, visiting also the western 
 coast as far as San Francisco, and so on. In 1740 — ^44, Anson made 
 a similar voyage, and from 1764, after the conclusion of the Seven 
 Years' War, voyages of discovery were made in the Pacific by Byron, 
 Wallis, and Carteret, and foremost of all by Cook over the whole 
 Pacific, when he discovered Australia, in which regions Vancou\er and 
 Flinders rendered valuable service after him. 
 
 In the period of peace following upon the fall of Napoleon I., Ross 
 and Parry initiated a new era of voyages into the Arctic seas east 
 and west of North America, some seeking the North-west passage, 
 and some afterwards in search of the unfortunate Sir John Franklin, 
 who together with his companions lost his life in a similar enterprize. 
 In 1850 the existence of such a passage was demonstrated by Mac- 
 Clure, and in 1859 Mac Clintock discovered the remains of Franklin's 
 expedition. Other voyages also were made, too numerous to be re- 
 corded here. In 1875/76 the last English attempt to reach the North 
 Pole was made by Nares, who had for three years previously been 
 engaged in making scientific voyages to study the oceans. 
 
 In the voyages of discovery places were named, their positions 
 were determined, and surveys of all kinds were executed; more- 
 over, for a long time, vessels of every kind specially fitted out for 
 such purposes were employed in every sea. To the English navy 
 navigation is indebted for most of the sea-charts and sailing-directions, 
 and in many cases none but English charts are available; in con- 
 sequence of this and of the fact that the English maritime trade ex- 
 ceeds that of all the other nations put together, English has become 
 the universal language of all seafaring men. Among those who have 
 made surveys at sea may be mentioned with distinction the names 
 of W. H. Smyth, Belcher, and Beechey; and amongst the investigators 
 of maritime meteorology, those of Beaufort and Fitzroy. 
 
44 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 II. ADMIRALTY. 
 
 a. Introduction. 
 
 An organization of the supreme authority, in harmony with the 
 changing circumstances of the day, is the indispensable condition of 
 the efficiency and wise employment of any military force. The govern- 
 ment of all the navies, except that of Germany, is vested in a single 
 supreme authority, which controls all technical and financial affairs, the 
 appointment and promotion of officers, and a multitude of the most 
 varied branches of the service; — it is, in a word, a mighty and 
 most complicated machine. To construct that skilfully, and to make 
 it work smoothly, so that the desired results are obtained rapidly, satis- 
 factorily, and with the least possible amount of friction, is perhaps the 
 most difficult of all problems of organization hitherto propounded, 
 and has certainly as yet been nowhere thoroughly solved. 
 
 This supreme authority, elsewhere called the Ministry of Marine, is 
 in England called the ADMIRALTY ; its present organization is considered 
 by many as the best extant, although a bureaucratically trained eye 
 detects in it many a peculiarity, illogicity, and even at times incom- 
 prehensibiHty; for example, in the whole of the Admiralty there is 
 not a single official who has received a legal education.'^ 
 
 It is only lately that the sphere of activity of the Admiralty, as it 
 is at present, has been defined; it had been subjected to many changes, 
 and in early times its organization had frequently been radically altered ; 
 but the favourable insular position of the kingdom, and the consequent 
 steady progress in its internal institutions has enabled also the Admi- 
 ralty with but few interruptions, to adapt itself to the changing and 
 growing demands of the day. From time to time there have risen 
 men of exalted talent and creative genius, who have with a strong 
 hand carried through the necessary and incisive changes. 
 
 b. Historical Development. 
 
 Up to the 15 th Century the affairs of the navy were regulated by 
 the "King's Council." The chief command over the fleets assembled 
 from time to time according to requirements, was vested in officers 
 of high rank, who down to the 13th century were called "Keepers 
 
 ' There is, however, an entire branch called "The Legal Branch". See Navy 
 List July Edition i8g8. pp. 449 — 51. The translator. 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 45 
 
 of the Sea," and after the introduction of the new title they were 
 designated as Admirals. In 1406 Henry IV. appointed the Earl of 
 Somerset as the first "Admiral of England," who was now placed 
 permanently at the head of the navy; his powers and duties being 
 gradually enlarged; the leading Admiral had the title of "Lord High 
 Admiral" conferred on him, and his badge of distinction was a golden 
 whistle set in jewels and suspended by a chain of gold. The first 
 patent of this kind, the counterpart of which is used to this day, was 
 bestowed by Henry VI. on Warwick the Kingmaker (1470). Over 
 large fleets the Lord High Admiral took the command in person; on 
 less important occasions this command was entrusted to the "Vice- 
 Admiral or Rear-Admiral of England." 
 
 After the early Tudors had begun the institution of a permanent 
 Royal Navy, Henry VIII. organized the Admiralty as a military au- 
 thority under the Lord High Admiral for the government and employ- 
 ment of the Navy; its seat was in London and subject to it was the 
 "Navy Board," that administered the so-called civil branches of the 
 service, such as the victualling department, the artillery, and the 
 management of the three dockyards at Woolwich, Deptford, and 
 Portsmouth; another authority, a part of this new organization, was 
 Trinity House that had to superintend the general affairs of naviga- 
 tion, such as lighthouses, pilotage, beacons, buoys &c. The sub- 
 ordination of the Navy Board to the Admiralty was nominal rather 
 than actual, for it was practically independent, and like its several 
 sections and the victualling yards, speedily became wholly independent; 
 consequently, when the supreme authority was inefficient gross abuses 
 quickly crept in, as for example in the times of James I., under Lord 
 Howard of Effingham, then grown feeble and senile. 
 
 This organization remained unchanged in all its essentials down to 
 the murder of the Lord High Admiral, the Duke of Buckingham, the 
 favourite of Charles I., in 1628. After that, this exalted office was 
 no longer conferred on any single individual, but its duties were 
 discharged by a Commission of eminent Officers of State under the 
 patent of the Lord High Admiral, the tenour of which defined their 
 functions. Outside the general instructions of this document there 
 existed no special regulations, affairs being managed, as of old, accor- 
 ding to ANCIENT USAGE AT SEA. 
 
 After the execution of Charles I., the Admiralty and the Navy Board 
 were abolished, and the government of the navy was entrusted to a 
 Committee of the House of Commons, consisting of three Colonels 
 
46 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 of the army, who were designated as Generals and Admirals at Sea, 
 and who, in addition to the administration of the fleet, undertook also 
 the supreme command of it, a duty in which Blake gained pre-eminent 
 distinction. In the management, formerly so rotten, order was now 
 introduced in all branches, and Cromwell settled the first fixed budget 
 for the navy, to the amount of £400,000; in his time the navy 
 flourished beyond all precedent. All this however changed with the 
 restoration of Charles II. in 1660; he immediately appointed his brother, 
 the Duke of York, as Lord High Admiral, and the old authorities 
 were re-instated, and with them, in spite of all the endeavours of the 
 Royal Chief to the contrary, all the former abuses returned when the 
 Duke, after the passing of the "Test Act," which excluded Catholics 
 from all government, had to resign his office. Its duties were once 
 more discharged by a commission at the head of which was Prince 
 Rupert of the Palatinate, down to the death of Charles II. in 1684, 
 when King James II. recognising the supreme importance of the navy, 
 took its management into his own hands. 
 
 The revolution of 1688 introduced new changes and more conti- 
 nuity. It is true that in 1701 the Earl of Pembroke was Lord High 
 Admiral, and from 1702 to 1708 this post was held by Prince George 
 of Denmark, the husband of Queen Anne, but as neither of them was 
 a sailor by profession, both turned out failures. With these excep- 
 tions, and barring an interruption of 15 months in 1827/28 in favour 
 of the Duke of Clarence, afterwards King William IV., the duties of 
 this office have since 1689 been discharged by a Committee, the so- 
 called Lords of the Admiralty, or to give them their present official 
 title, the " COMMISSIOXERS FOR EXECUTING THE OFFICE OF LORD HIGH 
 ADMIRAL OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND &C." 
 The first regulation by law was made 1690 — 92, from which time 
 forward the organization remained unchanged down to the beginning 
 of the 19th century. 
 
 In the Navy Board however, frequent changes took place, new de- 
 partments being created and abolished by turns. For example, the 
 Transport Office organized immediately after the revolution of 1688, 
 on account of the wars waged by England on the continent and in 
 Ireland, was abolished in 1724 during the long period of peace after 
 the conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession. It was reor- 
 ganized again in 1 794 upon the outbreak of the war with France, and 
 again abolished in 1817 during the time of peace following after 
 Waterloo. On the whole, the number of departments kept on increas- 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 47 
 
 ing, till in 1782 there were 13 of them, mostly having their seat in 
 different parts of London, although some were domiciled in Chatham, 
 or Greenwich, or Portsmouth. General supervision and individual 
 superintendence and scrutiny becoming more and more difficult, abuses 
 crept in to the great detriment of the navy, till towards the end of 
 the century there arose grave difficulties between these departments 
 and the Admiralty. 
 
 Admiral Jervis, promoted in 1801 to the post of First Lord of the 
 Admiralty, he who had formerl}' declared the Navy Board to be 
 "rotten to the core," was as able an administrator as he had proved 
 a skilful commander of the fleet. He began by restoring order tho- 
 roughly and systematically; but partly owing to his time of office 
 being short, and partly to the tenacious resistance of red-tapists, he 
 was unable to effect an essential amelioration; nevertheless the in- 
 vestigations conducted by him brought to light many glaringly re- 
 prehensible practices (as for example the yearly disappearance of 
 half a million sterling), so that improvements had to be gradually in- 
 troduced. 
 
 Up to 1796 the officials of the Admiralty paid themselves by per- 
 quisites, but from that time forward they received a fixed salary, and 
 further reforms were effected in the first quarter of the 19th century; 
 but for all that, the mechanism of the office was very clumsy and 
 costly till 1832, when Sir James Graham, an eminent Member of Par- 
 liament, as First Lord of the Admiralty, carried through the complete 
 reform striven for by Admiral Jervis. He abolished the Navy Board, 
 and instead of it organized five "Civil Departments" for ship-building 
 and equipments, victualling and transport, stores, health, and accounts, 
 all having their seats in London, near each other. The Admiralty 
 Committee consisted of the First Lord, who ruled supreme over all 
 the departments, and five other Lords besides (four being Naval 
 Officers, and one a member of Parliament as Civil Lord). These six 
 Lords met almost daily settling all important affairs in common, the 
 "Parliamentary Secretary" keeping the minutes of these meetings. 
 The official business of the Committee was in the hands of the "Per- 
 manent Secretary," who did not (like the six Lords and the Parlia- 
 mentary Secretary) resign with every change of the ministry, and who 
 thus preserved the continuity of the work and the traditions of the 
 office. A large number of officials were now found superfluous, and 
 a yearly saving of about £6o,ooo was effected. This organised co- 
 operation of all the six Lords proved a very efficient instrument; it 
 
48 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 worked harmoniously, rapidly, and effectually, and in all essentials it 
 exists to this day. An alteration introduced by Mr. Childers in 
 1868/69, making the five Lords under the First Lord, to a certain 
 extent mere chiefs of departments, was abolished after only three 
 years; the same thing happened with some changes of posts, such as 
 the appointment of a Chief of the Staff, of a Naval Secretary, •*■ of an 
 engineer as a second Civil Lord, and the abolition of the Permanent 
 Secretary. 
 
 c. Present Organisation. 
 
 At present the Admiralty is organised as follows: At the head 
 stand the "Lords Commissioners," who have charge of the duties of 
 the Lord High Admiral of Great Britain and Ireland &c.; they are 
 six in number, viz: the First Lord, for nearly 70 years always a member 
 of Parliament , four Naval Lords , afficers of the navy who are de- 
 scribed severally as First, Second, Third, and Junior Naval Lords, and 
 a Member of Parliament, as Civil Lord. 
 
 The Board of Admiralty, which changes with the change of ministry, 
 is appointed by PATENT, which, as has already been stated, is derived 
 from the times of Henry VI. and has, with slight alterations, preserved 
 its original phraseology for four centuries, down to 1872, when at 
 last some obsolete paragraphs were expunged. Now the Lords Com- 
 missioners are entrusted with the supei-intendence of the building and 
 equipment of ships, the wages and employment of the crews, the 
 commands over the officers and naval authorities, the regulations of 
 the service, the appointment of officials, the making of contracts, and 
 with some obsolete privileges. 
 
 The patent is a mere formality; an English statesman, who had 
 been First Lord for many years after the Crimean War, confessed 
 that he had never read the patent, nor did he know of any one who 
 had. It does not agree with the "Orders in Council" of 1869/72, 
 which charge the First Lord with the sole responsibilily of the govern- 
 ment of the navy; but this contradiction notwithstanding, the patent 
 is retained, partly from the strong English attachment to old traditions, 
 but mainly because the other Lords are therein named as responsible 
 fellow-counsellors, whereby their dignity is enhanced. 
 
 In reality however, THE FIRST LORD, as minister of the navy, is alone 
 responsible to the Queen, to ParHament, and to his colleagues, for 
 
 1 The late Captains Robert Hall and Sir George Tryon. The translator 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 
 
 49 
 
 the formation, maintenance, and efficiency of the navy, for its employ- 
 ment in accordance with the maritime pohcy adopted by the Cabinet, 
 for its corresponding composition and strength, and for the whole 
 administration of the navy. He can initiate measures and veto pro- 
 posed regulations; he represents the navy^ in' Parliament. All this 
 does not date only from the Orders in Council of 1869/72, where it 
 is only for the first time distinctly expressed, but was the practice 
 
 The Rt. Honble. G. J. Goschen M.P. &c. 
 
 First Lord of the Admiralty, 
 
 for a long time previously, although in cases of special urgency other 
 ministers have been authorised to issue orders to commanders of 
 fleets, as was the case for example in 1807 at the attack on Copen- 
 hagen in the midst of peace. The First Lord takes the chair at the 
 meetings of the "Lords Commissioners" and in most questions he is 
 competent to decide against the opinion of all the other Lords. But 
 
50 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 not being- an expert, he relies greatly on their counsel and support, 
 and is more or less dependent on them; and as he himself has chosen 
 them for his counsellors, and as according' to tradition all important 
 affairs are discussed in common at their meetings, and as moreover 
 every one of the Lords has at all times ready access to the First 
 Lord, the relation of the members to each other is one of cordial 
 comradeship. As a matter of fact, the First Lord hardly ever decides 
 an affair of importance on his own sole responsibility. 
 
 The administration of the affairs of this central authority is distributed 
 amongst the other five Lords always under the control of the First Lord, 
 to whom they are responsible for their conduct, as follows: — 
 
 The Senior Naval Lord, an eminent officer of the navy, nearly 
 always a Vice-Admiral, discharges in all essentials the functions of 
 Commander-in-Chief of the Navy, and is the nearest counsellor to the 
 First Lord in all that concerns the maritime policy of the state. It 
 is his business to watch over the efficient organisation and readiness 
 of the fleet for all emergencies, and to direct its employment; accor- 
 dingly the "Intelligence Department" is controlled by him, and it is 
 he that elaborates plans of campaign and of mobilisation; he super- 
 intends the hydrographic section which is concerned with nautical 
 surveys and the construction of charts; he is also in charge of the 
 protection of merchantmen, and of fishing, and of all that concerns 
 the police at sea. The maintenance of discipline and the granting of 
 leave of absence to officers and men also falls to his domain. On the 
 structure of new ships he exercises a weighty influence, as he indicates to 
 the Third Lord, to the Naval Constructor, and to the Superintendent 
 of the technical department, the main requirements of the ship about to 
 be built; the same holds good with respect to the artillery of the navy 
 and torpedo-armaments, which belong to another department. 
 
 The duty of the Second Naval Lord, who, as a rule, is also a 
 Vice-Admiral, consists mainly in manning the fleet both with seamen 
 and technical experts; also with marines and artillery, both in times 
 of peace and of war; he is further responsible for the naval re- 
 serves &c. He superintends the education of officers and the training 
 of the whole force, inclusive of the schools and other training 
 establishments. Accordingly he is in close contact with the Senior 
 Naval Lord, although subject and responsible only to the First Lord. 
 
 The Junior (4th) Naval Lord, to mention him at once, attends to 
 the transport, the medical and the victualling departments, inclusive 
 of the hospitals ashore and afloat; he controls also the employes of 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 51 
 
 the hospitals and the lower officials on board, such as clerks, stew- 
 ards &c. ; the ships' libraries, uniforms, allowances, bounties and prize- 
 moneys, naval savings-banks, pensions of crews and of officers' 
 widows and the like, are all under his charge, and finally to keep 
 him in contact with the active navy, he is entrusted with the pro- 
 vision of coals for the ships, so that he remains in constant touch 
 with all the ships in commission, and with the coaling-stations both 
 at home and abroad. 
 
 These three Naval Lords then are employed principally with the 
 ships in commission and their crews. On the other hand the domain 
 of the Third Naval Lord, also a Rear- Admiral , comprises the whole 
 naaterial of the navy in ships and appurtenances; to it belong all 
 the technical concerns and institutions; his title from of old is 
 "Controller of the Navy," — corresponding to the whilom "Director 
 of the Naval Department" of Germany, ere this department had been 
 broken up into three independent sections. Contrary to the other 
 sections of the English Admiralty, which represent some odd matters 
 not here enumerated, the composition of this large section is per- 
 fectly uniform comprising, as it does, ship-building, the construction 
 of machinery, the arming of artillery and torpedoes, the stores for 
 all technical purposes, the operations and administration of the yards, 
 and the audit of the accounts of the yards. The drawings for new 
 ships, planned according to the requirements agreed upon between 
 the "Controller" and the "Senior Naval Lord," are made in tlfis 
 section by the Director of Naval Construction jointly with the "En- 
 gineer-in-Chief of the Navy," who is not subordinated to, but co-or- 
 dinated with him, and with the Director of Naval Ordnance. This 
 Department also orders and superintends the building of ships. If 
 this is carried on in a Royal yard, the ship remains, from the first pro- 
 jection of it till its completion, within the domain of this depart- 
 m'ent, whereby due uniformity and rapidity of construction is secured. 
 The same holds good of all conversions and repairs. 
 
 The Controller is responsible for the superintendence of ships and 
 machinery made according to contract in private yards; he also 
 examines merchant-steamers as to their fitness for auxiHary-cruisers 
 in case of war, and finally his sphere of activity includes also all 
 the arrangements of the naval dockyards and victualling yards both 
 at home and abroad. 
 
 The chief of this large and important department, for which in 
 the current year (1898/99) £13,597,000 have been voted, formerly 
 
52 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 held a subordinate position; it was only in 1869 that he was made 
 a Lord of the Admiralty; three years afterwards he was withdrawn 
 again from the Commission, but after an interruption of 10 years he 
 was finally reinstated in that position, he being one of the most im- 
 portant members of the central authority. 
 
 According to the requirements of the extensive range of business 
 of this department he has not, like his colleagues, a secretary, but 
 a large office, in a certain sense a central section of the department, 
 employing a secretary as chief of the office, and 8 senior and 33 junior 
 officials and writers. 
 
 The Sixth or Civil Lord finally, a Member of Parliament, has the 
 superintendence of the works department inclusive of the purchase 
 of land in London, in the naval ports at home and abroad, and of 
 the stations of the coast-guards &c. To him moreover are submitted 
 all special questions about gratuities and pensions of all the employes 
 in the navy, as well as the concerns of benefit-societies , dockyard 
 and similar schools, and the like. 
 
 Whilst the different branches of the service of the navy are thus 
 more or less systematically apportioned to the five Naval Lords sub- 
 ordinated to the First Lord of the Admiralty, a distribution has become 
 customary with respect to the personal concerns of officers, engineers, 
 medical officers, warrant officers, and officials, which has no parallel in 
 the navy of any other nation. Elsewhere these are as much as possible 
 rnanaged in a single special section, but in this country they are 
 allotted to all the six Lords, so that each has a portion of the patro- 
 nage, which for centuries has played a large part in the party-govern- 
 ment of England. 
 
 The lion's share is reserved for the First Lord, who regulates the 
 promotion and discharge of all officers of the navy, distinctions and 
 rewards, the orders to the admirals and all commanders' of ships, the 
 commanders of the coast-guards and senior surgeons, the appointment 
 of midshipmen and of candidates for paymasters, and the appointment 
 and promotion of officials of the Admiralty and elsewhere, stationed 
 in London. 
 
 The Senior Lord commands the senior officers of the ships; the 
 Second Lord the navigating officers, and watch keepers, the sub- 
 lieutenants, midshipmen, and na-\al cadets, the engineers and the 
 gunners and boatswains (warrant officers); the Fourth Lord, the naval 
 chaplains, the instructors, the doctors, exclusive of those reserved for 
 the First Lord, paymasters, assistant paymasters and candidates and 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 53 
 
 the carpenters (warrant officers). The Third Lord and controller 
 appoints the technical officials in the yards, and the Civil Lord attends 
 to the appointment, promotion, pensioning", and other affairs of the 
 remaining- officials in the naval establishments on land, excepting- 
 those of the Admiralty- and elsewhere in London, and those appor- 
 tioned to the Controller. 
 
 In addition to the Lords of the Admiralty and in a similarly in- 
 dependent position, but not members of the commission, the governing- 
 body of the Admiralty that changes with the ministry, includes the 
 Parliamentary and Financial Secretary, who is a non-expert, but 
 is selected from among- the g-ood debaters in the house, and dis- 
 charg;es the function of chief administrator of the finances. He is 
 responsible to the First Lord for the correct drawing- up of the budget 
 and for all the expenditure of the navy; it is therefore his duty to 
 look into every new or unusual demand; he has to examine all the 
 items of expenditure, to audit the accounts, wherein he is aided by 
 the Accountant General, a hig-h-placed official who has a large staff 
 under him. He is especially to superintend the purchase and sale of 
 ships, stores &c., the payment of chartered auxiliary cruisers and the 
 like. Moreover he is the channel of communication between the 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer and the treasury, and it is his business 
 to support the First Lord in representing the navy in the House of 
 Commons. 
 
 The First Lord is assisted by three secretaries, a Post-captain and 
 two hig-her officials, and each of the other Lords, with the exception 
 of the controller, has one secretary. The real official work of all these 
 governing- bodies is concentrated in a large central section, presided 
 over by the PERMANENT SECRETARY of the Admiralty, an eminent 
 official of g-reat influence, who, as his title indicates, does not change 
 with the ministry, but keeps his post permanently. He receives and 
 sends replies to all written communications, is the channel of communica- 
 tion between the Lords of the Admiralty and the different sections, 
 and he sees to it that affairs are not settled one-sidedly, but that all 
 branches of the service should co-operate. He signs all the orders 
 and regulations of the Admiralty in their name. He keeps the minutes 
 of the Commissioners, and according-ly is present at all their meetings 
 and is cognisant of all their transactions. Being the only administrator 
 that is permanent, he preserves the traditions of office and is the 
 means of communication between the outgoing and incoming Lords 
 at a change of ministers. 
 
54 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Accordingly this central section is not limited to a single office, 
 be it of registration, or records, or archives, but in addition to these 
 three comprises four subsections, viz: 
 
 1 . A Military Branch, dealing with putting ships in commission and 
 laying them up in reserve; also with their employment and distribu- 
 tion; and with the management of the police at sea to protect com- 
 merce, fisheries &c. : in short all the affairs, for which the Senior 
 Naval Lord is responsible. In this office also is conducted the poli- 
 tical and secret correspondence, and in case of war the guidance of 
 the operations would proceed from this subsection; 
 
 2. A second, called the "Naval Branch" for no particular reason, 
 whose sphere of activity corresponds to that of the Second Naval Lord, 
 and accordingly comprises the manning of the fleet, inclusive of the 
 marines, coast-guard, and reserves of officers and men, their appoint- 
 ment, training &c., till they are discharged. 
 
 3. A third, called the "Civil Branch," which deals with the concerns 
 of pensioners and of non-combatants, a class of men which includes 
 even naval officers employed in the service of the Admiralty &c. 
 
 4. A Legal Branch, which deals with matters of disciplinary punish- 
 ments, courts-martial, and other tribunals bearing on discipline, pri- 
 sons, and the like; also with questions of law concerning blockades, 
 prizes &c. and with the regulations of service, and with matters of 
 uniforms, flags, and the like. 
 
 An idea can be formed of the extent of business of this central 
 section from the numbers of officials employed, there being 68 of 
 them, besides the Private Secretary. 
 
 The "Department of the Secretary of the Admiralty" is accordingly 
 the organ of the Lords Commissioners, and especially of the First 
 Lord of the Admiralty in all dealings with the navy and other 
 government offices, and in all those communications with naval autho- 
 rities at home and in foreign countries, which the individual Naval 
 Lords or chiefs of sections are forbidden to hold directly; all com- 
 mands, orders, and written instructions of the Admiralty not pertaining 
 to its other sections are drawn up in this office. There are eight such 
 sections (besides that of the technical department, which holds an 
 independent position). Primarily there are two under the Senior Naval 
 Lord, viz: 
 
 I. The Naval Intelligence Department directed by a naval Captain 
 or a Rear-Admiral. This office was only created in 1882, and two 
 years afterwards was enlarged and divided into two subsections. The 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 55 
 
 first of these is charged with collecting and scheduling for ready use 
 all the information obtainable about foreign navies; their resources; 
 preparedness for warlike operations; and the distribution of their 
 vessels on the several stations, as well as their arrangements for coast- 
 defence. The other is concerned with the home preparations for war; 
 with mobilisation and elaboration of plans of campaign for all possible 
 eventualities ; as well as plans for the manoeuvres of the fleets in times 
 of peace. The experience derived from these is tabulated in this 
 office for the use of the Admiralty or the Lords Commissioners, and 
 under their direction the needful information is conveyed to the 
 commanders of fleets or squadrons. The chief of this section makes 
 an official report to the Admiralty upon occurrences bearing on the 
 conduct of war, but plans of operations he submits only if requested 
 to do so; he holds a purely consultative position, and the personnel 
 of his section is not regarded as belonging to the Admiralty-Board, 
 especially as, exclusive of half a dozen officials, it consists only of 
 six staff-officers drawn from the corps of naval officers, and of four 
 officers of the Marines. 
 
 From the labours of this office, which may be designated as the 
 labours of the staff of the Admiralty on behalf of the navy, the Ad- 
 miralty derives the bases for calculating the needful strength and 
 composition of their own navy, its preparedness for and employment in 
 war. It characterises the former standpoint of the governing body 
 that the Intelligence Department is only 15 years old. 
 
 2. The HydROGRAPHIC Department, under the Hydrographer of the 
 Navy, who as a rule, is a Rear-Admiral; this office is related to the 
 former in that it furnishes charts, which form the basis of strategical 
 operations. It is not of recent creation, but has existed these 100 years 
 (1796), and the office of the Royal Hydrographer dates back to the 
 times of the Stuarts The duties of this office are to make surveys 
 and do other scientific work pertaining to navigation, and it keeps 
 permanently employed a flotilla of ships and vessels in home and 
 foreign waters. It edits and publishes charts, sailing- directions, 
 and information for the use of navigators, also lists and descriptions 
 of lighthouses, and tide-tables for every sea; it suppHes the vessels 
 of the Navy with these publications, also with chronometers, mariner's 
 compasses, and nautical instruments and appliances of every kind. 
 The Hydrographer moreover advises the Admiralty in all that concerns 
 surveys and nautical affairs, inlcusive of pilotage, as well as on keeping 
 the naval ports in fit and proper state; he is to keep abreast with 
 
56 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 the hydrographic work of foreigri navies, and finally aids in the work 
 of the observatories of Greenwich and of the Cape, and in the pre- 
 paration of the Nautical Almanack. The staff of this section consists 
 of 12 staff officers, seven of whom are naval officers and five belong 
 to the navigating- branch in process of extinction, and one lieutenant. 
 Moreover the office employs a senior paymaster as civil assistant of 
 the director, nine draughtsmen, five officials, and a writer; 29 persons 
 all told. 
 
 The SECOND Naval Lord also superintends two sections, viz: — 
 
 3 . The Royal marine office presided over by a lieutenant-general 
 of this corps, as substitute for an adjutant-general. He is to watch 
 over the drilling and training of the Marines, keeping their ranks 
 full so as to have them constantly in readiness for embarkation on 
 board the men-of-war, of the armament of which they form an inte- 
 gral part. In the year 1 896/97 the total number of Marines provided 
 for in the budget amounted to 15,861 men, of whom 2870 were 
 artillery-men, 12,697 light infantry, the rest belonging to the staff 
 and the depot. This office is distinguished from all the other offices 
 of the Admiralty in that it consists only of military men, viz: of two 
 colonels as assistants of the chief, two majors as quartermasters, and 
 seven subalterns. This is connected with the peculiar organisation 
 of the marines, of which we shall treat further on. 
 
 4. The OFFICE OF THE ADMIRAL SUPERINTENDENT OF NAVAL RESERVES, 
 presided over by a flag-officer, at present a Vice-Admiral. He is to 
 provide for the manning of the fleet, organizing, inspecting, and if 
 need be, mobilizing the personnel of the second line of defence; for 
 that purpose he is in command of (a) The Coast-guard, (b) the Royal 
 Naval Reserve, and (c) the Seamen-Pensioner Reserve. Details about 
 these organisations will be given further on under the heading ^'Per- 
 sonnel." This admiral is also chief of the Reserve Squadron, which 
 consists of nine coast-guard ships stationed in different ports of the 
 United Kingdom — battleships of older type or large cruisers, which are 
 permanently in commission, but with reduced crews and serve as 
 head-quarters for the coast-guards in the nine districts into which 
 the coast is divided for that purpose. His flag flies on the battle-ship 
 "Alexandra" in Portland. This squadron, which the Admiral Super- 
 intendent of the Naval Reser\-e is able to man within a \-ery short 
 time, forms the First Naval Reserve of the fleet; its duty is to protect 
 the coast in case of a sudden declaration of war, if perchance the 
 Channel fleet should happen to be just then off the Spanish coast. 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 
 
 or in the Mediterranean, or in Madeira, and for that purpose this 
 squadron of the Naval Reserve would be immediately concentrated 
 on the south coast. 
 
 The office received its present organisation in December 1874. Its 
 staff consists of a naval captain as assistant, and two paymasters as 
 secretaries, together with five civil officials. For active service the 
 admiral can also dispose of the staff of his flagship. 
 
 The FOURTH Naval Lord of the Admiralty superintends the work 
 of the medical men and chaplains of the navy, as well as the trans- 
 port and the victualling services. 
 
 5. The Department of the medical director-general of the 
 NAVY was created in 1832 by Sir James Graham when he reorganized 
 the Admiralty; at the head of it he placed the Chief- Physician of the 
 Navy, who then received the title of the "Medical Director General 
 of the Navy." He is responsible for the due performance of the 
 medical duties on board and ashore, both at home and in foreign 
 possessions; also for the administration of the hospitals, and he advises 
 the Lords Commissioners on all medical and sanitary affairs both per- 
 sonal and material. The medical ■ men and the personnel of the ho- 
 spitals, and on shore the nurses also are under his control; he regu- 
 lates and watches over their training and their duties, and the due 
 discharge of the latter. In him is vested the whole inventory and 
 material of all the naval hospitals at sea and ashore; he has to pro- 
 vide for the renewal of plant, and is to have stores in readiness for 
 the use of all the sanatory establishments of the navy. As these 
 amount to no less than 25, of which 13 are abroad, that of Malta 
 alone requiring in 1888 to pack and hold ready for immediate ship- 
 ment the necessaries for 15,000 men (and this is doubtless exceeded 
 at present), some approximate conception may be formed of the enor- 
 mous extent of the duties of this office. Moreover, the Director- 
 General has to control the expenditure for salaries and wages of the 
 personnel, for drugs, and other stores; he has to scrutinise the accounts, 
 wherein he is assisted by a special branch in this office. He does 
 not actually purchase the stores, but he sends in his requisitions to the 
 financial section to be described hereafter. 
 
 This section (the medical) also examines the provisions for the 
 fleet, the surgeons receiving special instruction on this subject previous 
 to their embarkation; finally has to draw up a yearly report on the 
 state of health in the navy. 
 
 Sanatory institutions of the navy are found under various names 
 
58 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 In the United Kingdom, at Haslar (near Portsmouth), at Portsmouth, 
 Plymouth, Chatham, Yarmouth, Sheerness, Portland, Dartmouth, Walmer, 
 (near Deal) and Haulbowline (near Cork); abroad at Gibraltar, Malta, 
 Ascension; at the Cape, at Trincomalee (Ceylon), Hong--Kong-, Yoko- 
 hama, Sydney, Esquimault (Vancouver Island), Coquimbo (Chile), Port 
 Royal (Jamaica), Bermuda, and Halifax (Nova Scotia). Moreover there 
 are contracts made for the accommodation in case of need of patients 
 in sick quarters, in a large number of places in the United Kingdom, 
 and in some foreign cities. 
 
 The staff of the Director-General comprises 2 physicians of eminence, 
 3 senior and 13 other officials. 
 
 6. The RELIGIOUS service of the navy is superintended by the 
 Chaplain of the Fleet and Inspector of Naval Schools; he has to 
 watch over 102 Anglican Naval Chaplains, most of whom also act as 
 Naval Instructors, and 29 Naval Instructors. Three quarters of these 
 are on board ship and the rest are distributed in hospitals, prisons, 
 schools &c. ashore. He is subordinated in his official capacity to 
 the Fourth Naval Lord, but with respect to the Naval Schools to the 
 Second Naval Lord. In the office he is assisted by a Head School- 
 master. 
 
 Only two of the Naval Chaplains are Roman -Catholics; these are 
 not on board, but are stationed in the two large Naval Ports, Ports- 
 mouth and Devonport. 
 
 Of larger dimensions is the work of the NAVAL TRANSPORT OFFICE. 
 A section to regulate the transport was instituted as far back as 1689, 
 at the time of the war in Ireland against James II. after he had been 
 deposed; then abolished again in 1724 during the long peace follow- 
 ing upon the War of the Spanish Succession. Abuses having crept 
 in , it was re-instated 70 years afterwards at the beginning of the war 
 against Revolutionary France, and subsequently enlarged by being- 
 charged also with the care of the sick and wounded. After the de- 
 thronement of Napoleon (in 181 7) it was once more abohshed, and 
 its duties committed to the Victualling Office; but when the Crown 
 had taken over the government of India from the East India Company, 
 and when in consequence of the enormous expansion of the British 
 Colonial Empire the work of transport had assumed vast dimensions, 
 it was found necessary in 1862 to form a special section of the Ad- 
 miralty for its administration. 
 
 7. The Depai^tment of the director of TRANSPORTS is supervised 
 by a senior naval captain. It is his duty to provide for the transport 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 59 
 
 of officers and men, as well as of other persons attached to the army 
 and navy; also of stores for both branches of the service to and from 
 the colonies and India— the latter occupying-, under the Secretary 
 of State for India, a separate position with a management of its own 
 — and he has to watch over all the expenditure referring- thereto. 
 Considering- the number and extent of England's possessions abroad, 
 and that these are hardly ever free from little wars in one place or 
 another, it is obvious that this office has an extensive sphere of acti- 
 vity, which may under circumstances be greatly enlarged. 
 
 The Director is supported by two assistants, a naval captain in 
 military affairs and a higher official in the actual administration, and 
 moreover by v/our inspectors of ships, two of whom are former chief- 
 carpenters. The rest of the personnel of this office consists of 19 
 officials engaged in the administration, and 4 writers &c; in all 29 
 persons. 
 
 8. The VICTUALLING DEPARTMENT, charged with providing the navy 
 with provisions, clothes, &c. Wholesome and abundant nourishment 
 is the first necessity for the efficiency of ships and fleets. For want 
 of that, many an enterprize has in former days been wrecked; fleets 
 have been unable to keep the sea, and crews have perished by thou- 
 sands; in no other branch of the navy have such gross and disastrous 
 abuses occurred as just in this particular department. 
 
 In the times of Queen EHzabeth the victualling was generally put 
 out to contractors, and the consequence was, that immediately after 
 the defeat of the Armada, the fleet was reduced to impotence by 
 disease. The failures of the great expeditions of Charles I. are mainly 
 to be attributed to the shortcomings of the victualling department; 
 the same was the case with Admiral Hozier's expedition to the West 
 Indies in 1727, and during Anson's circumnavigation of the world 
 the men died by hundreds. At the blockade of Brest and Rochefort 
 in the Seven Years' War, Admiral Hawke had incessantly to struggle 
 against the gross mismanagement in the victualling department, and 
 not till towards the end of the i8th century was a sensible improve- 
 ment effected in the care of the health of the crews by the energetic 
 action of Admiral Jervis. But the practice of depriving the men of 
 meat for three days in the week was not abolished till 1824. 
 
 The shortcomings of the Victualling Department were to, a large 
 extent due to bad organisation. In 1832 the Victualling Commission 
 was dissolved, and its duties entrusted to an office with a single 
 
60 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 eminent official at its head, who was directly responsible to one of 
 the Naval Lords of the Admiralty. This is the arrang-ement existing 
 in all its essentials to this day, few changes having since then been 
 made, as for example the severance in 1862 of the transport work 
 from the victualling office, with which it had been connected. 
 
 The Director of Victualling is charged with supplying, storing, and 
 preserving, the needful provisions and wearing apparel for the navy 
 (but not the uniforms of the marines), inclusive of table furniture and 
 other crockery; also the books of the ship as well as the requirements 
 of internal lighting; moreover he has to control the work of the vic- 
 tualling yards and depots at home and abroad; he appoints and em- 
 ploys the officials, and checks the accounts of the distribution of the 
 stores. Like all other officials he is bound to forecast his require- 
 ments for the year a long time in advance; but considering the enor- 
 mous consumption of the fleets in all the seas, the rapid changes of 
 requirements due to frequent change of numbers, the waste inevitably 
 caused by climatic and other influences, and the uncertainty of the 
 harvests which have to be taken into account, this task is one of 
 quite unusual difficulty, which is still further increased by the regu- 
 lations that on board the men may claim to receive money in lieu 
 of some of their rations in kind, and that marines on shore receive 
 the rations of soldiers, and on board those of sailors. With respect 
 to the requirements to be anticipated on the different stations of the 
 fleet, the Victualling Department must communicate with the Intelligence 
 and the Transport Departments. The Director of Victualling does 
 not however purchase the stores; this is done by the financial section 
 exactly as in the case of the supply of the requirements of the me- 
 dical section. 
 
 The home victualling yards are at Deptford, Gosport, and Plymouth, 
 near the three great Naval Dockyards; there is also at Haulbowline 
 a small victualling yard connected with a small dockyard. The for- 
 eign yards, 13 in number, are at Gibraltar, Malta, Ascension, the Cape, 
 Bombay, Trincomalee, Hong-Kong, Sydney, Esquimault, Coquimbo, 
 Port Royal, Bermuda, and Halifax. All the stores purchased pass 
 through one of the yards, where they are examined by special officials 
 and rejected if found imperfect. Of some stores like ship -biscuit, 
 oatmeal, cocoa, mustard, and pepper, the whole requirements of the 
 fleet are prepared in the victuaUing yards themselves. The principal 
 yard is at Deptford, where all these articles are produced and where 
 most of the provisions, as well as the clothing- purchased, are delivered; 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. (jl 
 
 Gosport and Plymouth also bake ship-biscuit, and the latter prepares 
 oatmeal as well. 
 
 The distribution of the stores from the yards and depots to the 
 ships is not regulated by the heads of the several departments; they 
 have merely to comply with the requisitions of the Commandants and 
 Commanders of Squadrons, who are responsible for the efficiency of 
 their ships and have to render account of their stores; nevertheless 
 the Director of Victualling' is not without some means of exercising 
 a certain control, as he knows from experience the requirements of 
 ships in all seas and under all circumstances, aild all the accounts 
 are submitted to him and he forwards them to the Court of Accounts. 
 It is interesting to know from the experience thus gathered that the 
 waste of stores on board ship amounts on an average to one per 
 cent of the whole total of the stores. 
 
 In the Victualling Department there are employed besides the Di- 
 rector, 35 officials, 12 of whom are of superior rank. 
 
 Having now described these eight departments, which have to deal 
 with the vessels in commission and their personnel , and who are 
 responsible, as already stated, to the Senior, Second, and Fourth 
 Naval Lords (who, in consequence, have to hold frequent communi- 
 cations), we have yet to consider the organisation of the TECHNICAL 
 DEPARTMENT, which forms a distinct, separate unit under the THIRD 
 Naval Lord and Controller. Its function is to prepare and keep in 
 a state of efficiency all the MATERIAL of the fleet, so- as to be fit for 
 immediate use in case of war. The department consists of six bran- 
 ches: for the designing and building of ships, of marine engines ; also 
 for the armament of vessels, for the service in the yards, for the 
 administration of the stores in the yards, and finally for checking the 
 expenditure in the yards. For brevity we will designate them as 
 follows: (i) Constructive, (2) Engineering, (3) Naval Ordnance, (4) 
 Dockyards, (s) Naval Stores, (6) Controller's Aaccounts, and their 
 several heads, as Directors of the same. 
 
 I. The Constructive Branch, whose head is the Director of naval 
 construction and who also happens to be just now the Assistant Con- 
 troller, and in the Controller's absence his representative in all matters 
 not referring to the artillery. This official has to design all the ships 
 of the navy, as well as the machinery and contrivances for the artil- 
 lery &c., and has to watch over their construction; he is also respons- 
 ible for the efficiency of the ship in coming up to the expected 
 performance 
 
(52 THE BRITISH. NAVY. 
 
 The mode of procedure is as follows: The Lords Commissioners, 
 chiefly the Senior Naval Lord and the Controller, fix the requirements 
 of any new ship about to be built; on receipt of the instructions of 
 the latter the Director of naval construction designs, jointly with the 
 Engineer in chief and the Director of Naval Ordnance a corresponding 
 Sketch, and passes it over to the Controller, who submits it with the 
 needful explanations to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. 
 If this is approved either with or without modifications, then the Con- 
 troller returns it to the Director of ship-building and orders that Plans 
 be designed; this must be done jointly with the above named heads 
 of sections who indicate their consent by their signature of the plans. 
 These are now, together with a complete description of the ship and 
 of its expected performance, handed by the Controller to the Permanent 
 Secretary to be circulated among the Naval Lords for their inspec- 
 tion; next the Lords Commissioners hold a meeting for final discus- 
 sion and approval or modification, as the case may be. When the 
 Lords Commissioners have passed the plans of a ship and have had 
 them stamped, then no alteration of any kind can be made without 
 their express consent. The plans with the needful specifications and 
 indications of weight are now handed over to the building-yard, where 
 the lines are laid down in the moulding loft and the working drawings 
 are made accordingly, which in all that concerns the armament and 
 fighting gear of the ship are to be inspected and approved of by the 
 respective ordnance officers &c. on the spot. From the yard these 
 drawings are forwarded to the Admiralty to be examined by the 
 Director of ordnance, the Controller, and eventually by the Senior 
 Naval Lord, and passed with or without modifications as the case may 
 be. Meanwhile the Director of the constructive branch jointly with the 
 Engineer-in-Chief of the Navy prepares a Preliminary estimate, which 
 is worked out in detail by the dock-officials; at the same time the 
 contract and purchase department of the Admiralty prepares the con- 
 tracts for the supply of the materials needful for the construction of 
 the ship and, if approved of, the contracts are concluded. As soon 
 as the materials are delivered in the dockyard, the work is taken in 
 hand and superintended by the superintendent of the yard, who is in 
 charge of it; but the progress of the work is to be incessantly watch- 
 ed by the Director of Naval Construction himself or by his assis- 
 tants, so as to make sure that the execution exactly tallies with the 
 original plans. 
 
 This applies to the building of ships in the Royal dockyards. Some 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 63 
 
 modifications are made with ships built in private yards, the most in- 
 portant of which is that the exact cost of the ship is determined, 
 before the building is taken in hand, and the Director of Naval Con- 
 struction is as answerable for those ships as for those built in the 
 Royal yards. He is therefore entitled to visit the private yards in 
 question either personally, or by officials of his department, so as to 
 determine their productive capacities. He proposes the yards that 
 should be invited to send in tenders, and has the work watched by 
 one or more officials stationed on, the spot. In those factories where 
 steel-plates, armour plates, and anchor chains are made these officials 
 are stationed permanently. 
 
 In the discharg-e of these duties the Director of Naval Construction 
 is largely aided by the Royal Corps of Naval Constructors, of which 
 he is the Head. This corps was first formed in 1883 for the purpose 
 of securing a larger number of thoroughly educated experts in naval 
 construction, with which the navy up to then was but scantily supplied. 
 Up to then mere mechanics were employed in ship-building, and no 
 provision was made for their further training, but now gifted lads, who 
 have received a good school education, have a higher career opened 
 to them. Their technical training begins with five years' service in 
 the dockyards, where the student is taught practical ship-building by 
 passing through all the shops; then follows a three years' course in 
 the Naval College at Greenwich, nine months of each year being 
 devoted to the study of the theory of engineering, and three months 
 to practical work in certain yards. When the student has passed his 
 examination he is appointed Assistant Constructor of the Third Class; 
 all subsequent promotion is made by selection. The Corps at present 
 numbers 72 members in 6 grades; most of them are employed in home 
 yards, four in the yards of Malta, Hong-Kong, and Bermuda; four of 
 the elder ones are employed as additional advisers to the Director of 
 Dockyards and to the Superintendents of the three great naval dock- 
 yards, two as Instructors in the Naval College of Greenwich, a few 
 more in other special offices, and about 20 belong to the ship-building 
 section of the Admiralty and accordingly are at the disposal of the 
 Director of Naval Construction. Frequent changes of place occur 
 between them and their colleagues employed in the dockyards. 
 
 When a ship built in a private yard is finished, it is brought to one 
 of the three large naval dockyards, where it is armed and fitted out 
 and tested by a series of trials as to stability, seaworthiness, speed, 
 manageability in manoeuvring, efficiency of the armament &c., in short 
 
G4 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 as to its entire capacity for warlike service. The Director of Naval 
 Construction is to make sure, either personally or through his officials, 
 that the terms of the contract have been fulfilled. Barring this latter 
 investigation ships built in the Royal dockyards are subjected to the 
 same tests as those built in the private yards. Next, the Director of 
 Naval Construction reports to the Controller -on the ship's performance 
 and capabilities, by drawing up a detailed description of it containing 
 all that is worth recording, especially as to her stability; and this 
 report, accompanied, if need be, by advice about the manipulation of 
 the vessel, is passed on to the officer in command, when the ship is 
 put in commision. This puts the commanding officer in possession 
 of a fund of information such as — according to the statement of the 
 present Director himself — is nowhere else secured. 
 
 Supplementary alterations in the construction and appointments of 
 ships as well as larger repairs require the approval of the Director 
 of Naval Construction, who has also, jointly with the Engineer in Chief 
 to make inspection and valuation of ships about to be purchased, as 
 well as of steamers of the commercial navy, that are to serve as 
 auxiliary cruisers in war, and to make a report on them. Jointly 
 with the Director of Naval Ordnance he has to make arrangements 
 for their eventual armament. With reference to the materials for 
 ship-building he has, together with the Director of Stores and Dock- 
 yards, to consult the Controller, and has also a voice in fixing the 
 salaries of the men under him. To keep himself abreast of the times 
 he is to obtain, independent of the Intelligence Department, the widest 
 possible information on all the occurrences, impro\-ements, and inven- 
 tions in shipbuilding at home as well as in foreign countries. 
 
 It will be seen that the sphere of activity of the Director of Naval 
 Construction is both very extensive and highly important; for all the 
 floating material of the navy he is the first and nearest counsellor of 
 the Controller; on many points however he has to act jointly with 
 the Directors of other branches, principally with the "Engineer in 
 Chief of the Navy". The latter has risen to his present post from 
 the branch of Engineers, and its present occupant still holds the rank 
 of Chief Inspector of Machinery. Engineers trained in the construc- 
 tion of machinery, that is to say officials who had a University educa- , 
 tion, and who do not belong to the navy, but are still employed in 
 the dockyards and in the admiralty, such as Germany has and indeed 
 also England in her Corps of Naval Constructors, are not known in 
 the English engine factories. All the higher posts are filled by mem- 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 65 
 
 bers of the corps of mechanical engineers of the navy, that is to say 
 by naval men, of whose training- we shall speak later on. That is 
 why the Engineer-in-Chief and all the engineers of his section, as 
 well as those employed, elsewhere on land are, according to English 
 practice, sent on board of ships stationed in ports. 
 
 Of late the position of the Engineer-in-Chief has greatly risen in 
 importance, both on account of the greater complexity and of the 
 greater number of engines used on board. On large vessels it some- 
 times happens that more than lOO auxiliary machines are in use for 
 moving the iron-clad turrets or heavy artillery, for weighing anchor, 
 lowering boats, working search lights, for internal lighting of the 
 vessel, &c. For all these appliances, and indeed for the due discharge 
 of all his duties, the Engineer-in-Chief is responsible to the Con- 
 troller. For planning the positions of the armament and placing it, 
 for the apparatus for launching the torpedoes, and for the electric 
 lighting of the ships and boats, he is jointly responsible with the 
 Director of Naval Construction and the Director of Naval Ordnance. 
 He renders assistance to the Director of Dockyards in maintaining, 
 improving, and extending the machinery for the work in the yard, in 
 repairing and altering the machinery on such ships and boats as are 
 under his charge. His co-operation with the Director of Naval Con- 
 struction in all new ships to be built has already been spoken of 
 above ; we have only to add that he is not subordinate to the Director 
 of Naval Construction, but is co-ordinate with him. 
 
 The mode of procedure in the construction of new machinery, work 
 which is comparatively new in the Royal dockyards, is similar to 
 that adopted in the building of new ships. The Engineer-in-Chief 
 makes a general sketch with specifications, for which tenders are in- 
 vited from a limited number of selected firms of established reputa- 
 tion. As a rule the contract is given to the lowest tender, and with 
 ships built in private yards the same firm as has the building of the 
 ship is nearly always chosen. Next the builders make precise draw- 
 ings of the machinery to be examined by the Engineer-in-Chief, 
 who superintends the construction by having it looked into, either 
 from time to time or even continuously. 
 
 All the trials of new machinery fall into the domain of the Engineer- 
 in-Chief, and he superintends their working on board; for although 
 the mechanical engineers on board are subject to the naval comman- 
 ders alone, yet all the reports about the machinery are sent to him, 
 and as head of the branch of mechanical engineers, he exercises a 
 
 5 
 
66 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 considerable personal influence. In his latter capacity he serves as 
 additional counsellor to the Senior Lord of the Admiralty in all the 
 concerns of his corps; he proposes all orders to be issued, and 
 superintends the training of candidates and the corresponding training 
 institutions. In the section for machinery there are employed besides 
 the Director, 15 engineers of various degrees. 
 
 2. The Ordnance Department. The administration of the armament 
 of the navy has passed through various phases, which are characte- 
 ristic of the former want of logical procedure, and of the position of 
 the navy and army towards each other. As far back as the beginning 
 of the 1 6th. century an Artillery section for the Navy was organized, 
 but in the last century the duties of this office were entrusted to the 
 Director of Ordnance, and in 1855 to the Minister of War, a Member 
 of Parliament; consequently the estimates for artillery &c. of the Navy 
 were included in the Army-budget, but not without largely cutting 
 down (up to 45 per cent) the demands made by the Admiralty. 
 
 The War Office was, however, unable to keep pace with the 
 rapid expansion of naval artillery which had already set in even then, 
 such as: the transition from comparatively light, smooth bore to hea\^, 
 rifled guns; from short muzzle-loaders to long breech-loaders and so 
 on, and great delays occurred in the deli-s-ery of artillery to new ships, 
 and altogether English naval artillery remained so far behind that of 
 other maritime powers, that even now many English battle-ships^ are 
 armed with Muzzle Loaders. The Admiralty had no information about 
 the available store of ammunition. In spite of these obvious disadvan- 
 tages this arrangement remained in force till a few years ago, when 
 the Artillery works at Woolwich and the Royal factories of ammuni- 
 tion &c. were placed under a Director General, who has to satisfy as 
 far as possible both the demands of the Admiralty and of the War 
 Office, but is subject to the latter alone. 
 
 Proposals for the ordnance are made by a joint committee of mili- 
 tary and naval officers and civiUans, and this committee is also sub- 
 ject to the War Office; the military authorities are also charged with 
 the delivery of the artillery and ammunition prepared for the navy. 
 The estimates for artillery &c. of the Na\'y are now included in the 
 Navy Estimates, and since 1891 the Administration of the ammuni- 
 tion and other artillery stores for the Navy has been transferred to 
 the Admiralty, a special section, the Nayal Ordnaxce Store De- 
 
 ' Only obsolete ships. The translator. 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 67 
 
 PARTMENT, having been created for that purpose and subjected to the 
 Director of Naval Ordnance. This section is charged with keeping in 
 readiness on all home and foreign stations the ammunition for war 
 purposes needful for ships and coast batteries. It consists of a Colonel, 
 who works under the Director of the Department, a Major, 6 senior, 
 and 31 junior officials and writers. 
 
 This is the present arrangement. As the Admiralty has the disposal 
 of the moneys voted for the armaments, they do not restrict their 
 orders for guns &c. to the Royal factories, but also largely employ 
 private firms, principally that of Lord Armstrong, at Elswick near 
 Newcastle. In the Admiralty, the technical department, the ord- 
 nance branch, is managed by a naval captain, the Director of Naval 
 Ordnance and Torpedoes, who has under him a second official as 
 Assistant in the torpedo and mining sections, and a third as Inspector 
 of ammunition, &c. The Director of Naval Ordnance is responsible 
 to the Controller for the due equipment of the fleet with guns, ammuni- 
 tion, torpedoes, and all appurtenances needful for the utmost efficiency 
 of the whole armament. 
 
 From the earliest sketch of the design for a new ship till after the 
 trial of the guns, the Director of Ordnance is constantly to remain in 
 touch with the Director of Naval Construction concerning the placing- 
 of the guns, fitting up of the ammunitjon store-rooms, arrangements 
 for the supply of ammunition &c. , and with the Engineer-in-Chief 
 concerning the gun-carriages, the mechanism for moving the guns and 
 torpedo-tubes, &c. The drawings referring thereto are to be signed 
 jointly. He is to keep the Naval Ports at home and abroad supplied 
 with sufficient stores of ammunition &c. He advises the Controller 
 in all that concerns the artillery and torpedoes, especially with refer- 
 ence to the introduction of new types of guns or other improvements, 
 on all of which matters he is expected to possess the latest informa- 
 tion; he is in continuous communication with the Director of Ord- 
 nance in the War Office concerning the supplies for the navy; 
 it is his duty to watch over the education of the students in the 
 gunnery and torpedo training ships and similar institutions, also over 
 target practice, laying of minefields, working of the guns in coast- 
 batteries, and to make verbal reports to the Senior Naval Lord as 
 necessity arises; he holds direct communication with the captains of 
 the gunnery and torpedo training ships on all technical concerns. 
 
 His assistant in the section for torpedoes and mines, which includes 
 also search-lights, stands in the same relationship to him as he himself 
 
 6* 
 
68 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 stands to the Controller. Independently of the Naval Intellig-ence 
 Department he is also to make himself acquainted with all that occurs 
 in his sphere both at home and abroad; he is to be present at the 
 practising and is to submit plans for torpedo-boat practice and ma- 
 noeuvres, and he is to do all in his power to promote progress in 
 the use of his arm, especially in the tactics of torpedo-boats. 
 
 The staff of this section includes also three commanders and one 
 Heutenant acting as assistants of the Director, and four gunners of 
 the navy. 
 
 3. The Director of Dockyards is subject to the Controller and 
 superintends the administration and the work of the yards and naval 
 depots both at home and abroad. This post has only lately been 
 created. In the place of the former unsatisfactory state of things an 
 Inspector of Dockyards was appointed in 1872, and he was subordi- 
 nated to the Director of Naval Construction. As this did not altoge- 
 ther turn out well further trials were made, till at last in 1886 the 
 present section was organised; its independent position, subject only 
 to the Controller himself, is justified by the extent and importance of 
 its sphere. There are no less than 26 yards and naval depots, seven 
 of which are in England, one in Ireland, and the rest (18) abroad. 
 
 The large yards, which are used for the building and equipment 
 of ships and accordingly constitute the most important parts of the 
 large naval ports are: — In England; Portsmouth, Devonport, and 
 Chatham, inclusive of the smaller annex at Sheerness. Abroad, on a 
 somewhat reduced scale; Malta, which serves as the main base of 
 operations for the English fleet in the Mediterranean and is equipped 
 accordingly. The yard at Pembroke, in the excellent port of Milford 
 Haven in Wales, is used for ship -building exclusively. In Ireland 
 there are only the small yards of Haulbowline (usually known as 
 Queenstown), which have floating docks and dry-docks. The foreign, 
 yards or depots at Gibraltar, Bermuda, Halifax, Port Royal in Jamaica, 
 the Cape, Bombay (for the Indian navy), Trincomalee, Hong-Kong,. 
 Sydney (for the Australian navy), and Esquimault are used as stations 
 and bases of operations for the several squadrons. At Deptford there 
 is a depot for several sorts of stores; in Portland, Antigua (West. 
 Indies), Ascension, St. Helena, Sierra Leone (West coast of Africa), 
 Suez, Samarai (Dinner-Island), New Guinea, and Yokohama there are- 
 coaling-stations. * 
 
 * To these must now be added Durban in Natal; "the Government of NataL 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 69 
 
 The Director of Dockyards has to supply all these yards &c. with 
 the stores necessary to meet all eventualities; and he has to provide 
 for the careful preservation and distribution of the stores by fit and 
 proper officials; above all he is to conduct skilfully and economically 
 the very extensive operations of the large yards, where warships of 
 every kind from the largest down to gun-boats (exclusive however of 
 torpedo-boats), and of late also some naval machinery, are construc- 
 ted; where repairs and alterations of vessels are made, and ships laid 
 up in reserve are kept in fit state of repair, and where, finally, all the 
 stores needful for the equipment of these ships, and for making good 
 any waste, are held in readiness. The Director is responsible for the 
 rapid progress of work done, and in order to keep himself well in- 
 formed on every point he is' expected to pay frequent visits to the 
 dockyards at home; one of his most important duties is to draw up 
 the shipbuilding programme for the coming financial year. Although 
 the Superintendents of dockyards are senior naval officers and 
 those of the four principal dockyards are admirals, yet the Super- 
 intendent of the dockyard has no executive authority, his staff con- 
 sists of two ship-building and two mechanical engineers, two officials, 
 and five writers. 
 
 4. The Naval Store Department, under the Director of Naval 
 Stores, was created in 1832, as part of the great reform of the Ad- 
 miralty; after passing through several changes it received its present 
 organisation and independent position about 10 years ago. Its duties 
 are: — to keep up the supply and to watch over the distribution of 
 the stores required for building, fitting, repairing, and equipping men- 
 of-war, and to keep these in fit and proper condition, whilst in com- 
 mission at home as well as in foreign yards and depots; exclusive 
 however of their armament; it has further to attend to the stores of 
 the different naval Colleges at Greenwich, Portsmouth, Dartmouth, 
 and Keyham; also the naval barracks, of stations and vessels of the 
 coast-guard, of training ships for the mercantile navy, of the auxiliar}-- 
 cruisers, of batteries for the Naval Reserve and of Naval Prisons &c. 
 Considering the great number and distances of the wharves and the 
 frequent and rapid change in the state of affairs, e. g. with respect to 
 the new ships to be built, or of the ships in commission, it is clear 
 
 is prepared to supply free of cost 12,000 tons of steam coal annually to ships of 
 her Majesty's Navy calling at the Port of Durban." Telegram of the Officer 
 administering the Government of Natal to the Colonial Secretary. Standard 
 April 6th 1898. The translator. 
 
70 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 that great watchfulness is required both in keeping constant supplies 
 ready and in making the estimate for the coming budget. Moreover, 
 the Director is bound to scrutinise and approve the accounts for plant 
 and materials of the ships, wharves, and prisons, to supply information 
 on them to the Controller and to the treasury, and to submit to the 
 Controller and Financial Secretary schedules of the stores on hand, 
 every deficiency of which must be immediately reported to the Con- 
 troller. With respect to the supply of coals for the fleet he is subject 
 to the fourth Naval Lord; in the discharge of this important duty he 
 is under the necessity of keeping himself fully informed about the 
 movements of the ships and their consumption of coal, and every 
 month he is to submit a report thereon to the Board of Admiralty. 
 The Director is an official at the head of i8 higher and 26 lower 
 officials and writers; in all of 44 persons. 
 
 5. The Accounts Branch, under the Inspector of Dockyard-Expense- 
 Accounts, was only created in 1886 and was subjected then to the 
 Auditor -General, but in 1887 to the Controller, in order to give to 
 those who advanced technical demands an independent position with 
 respect to the administration of their own finances, and to have the 
 distribution checked by experts. The Inspector must carefully calcu- 
 late and watch over the distribution at the yards, and over the correct, 
 clear, and speedy rendering of accounts, so that both he and the 
 Controller are always able to gain a general survey of the state of 
 accounts; he has to proceed in a similar manner with all the amounts 
 of the budget for which the Controller is responsible. For that pur- 
 pose he submits week by week a general view of all the sums spent 
 on the several ships in progress of building, and on other works car- 
 ried on in the yards. His staff consists of 3 superior officials and 
 13 writers &c. 
 
 We find, then, combined under the Controller in the technical de- 
 partment, everything that refers to the floating material of the fleet; 
 to building ships and keeping them in order; to their repairs, arma- 
 ment, and total outfit; and to their equipment and maintenance whilst 
 in commission both in home and in foreign waters. This department 
 guides and superintends all the operations, and all the several staffs 
 employed are subject to it; its financial independence is secured by 
 the fact that, subject of course to the approval of the Admiralty 
 Board, it prepares its own estimates and administers the moneys voted 
 to it; its accounts are subsequently audited by the treasury. Here we 
 find then a systematic centralised organisation such as is found nowhere 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 71 
 
 else in England; it has only come into existence during the last de- 
 cade, but is now in a position to satisfy all reasonable claims upon 
 it. It no doubt postulates cordial accord among the different heads 
 of departments, and especially among the Directors of the first four 
 sections, but the highly complicated mechanism of the administration 
 of the navy, which might be compared to that of a man-of-war, makes 
 such co-operation indispensable. Still it must be regarded as a de- 
 fect —not however inherent in the organisation — that the planning 
 of new ships has become the monopoly of the Director of Naval Con- 
 struction. Albeit that the present holder of the post is a highly 
 gifted expert, still mistakes have been committed; for example, the 
 building of a great number of so called torpedo -gunboats, from the 
 "Curlew" in 1885 to the "Halcyon" in 1894; vessels that were origin- 
 ally intended to be torpedo-boat destroyers, but turned out unsuit- 
 able; the inconvenient limitation of space and weight for the machin- 
 ery of the cruisers of the "Bellona" type and others, and the build- 
 ing of battle-ships of the "Royal Sovereign" type without bilge 
 keels. But on the one hand the English navy, with the means at its 
 disposal, can speedily make good deficiencies and find compensation for 
 defects, and on the other hand the above-mentioned official can utilize 
 the experience gained during a long series of years both by himself 
 and by the whole navy. At any rate, it remains a defect in the 
 organisation, that work of such supreme importance is entrusted to 
 a single pair of eyes. 
 
 We have now to mention the two sections placed under the super- 
 intendence of the Sixth Lord of the Admiralty, the Civil Lord, who 
 is a Member of Parliament: 
 
 6. The Department of the Director or works, whose Director 
 is an officer of Engineers in the Army, at present, a major. He 
 executes all the architectural works on land and by the seashore 
 pertaining to the Admiralty both at home and in the colonies, except 
 the buildings in London, and provides for their maintenance and 
 repairs when built; these include breakwaters, harbour- walls, dry- 
 docks, workshops in the yards, magazines, hospitals, fortifications, 
 dwellings of the coast-guards &c., in Chatham, Gibraltar, Hong-Kong, 
 or anywhere else. Contrary to the rule observed in every other 
 department he, being an expert himself, purchases the needful ma- 
 terial, and with respect to the acquisition of the ground he makes 
 proposals to the Board of Admiralty. He puts himself in communi- 
 cation with all the departments and their respective chiefs to whose 
 
72 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 several domains these structures belong", so as to elicit all the views 
 entertained, and the objections that may be raised. He prepares the 
 estimates for his department to be approved of by the Controller, 
 and independently superintends the expenditure of the moneys voted 
 to him. 
 
 The procedure as to the erection of these structures is somewhat 
 as follows: If, for example, a drydock has to be built in a port 
 abroad, the Director of the Works Department has to obtain instruc- 
 tions as regards the dimensions and other details from the Controller, 
 who afterwards ^\■ill have charge of that dock. The sketch is next 
 made in this department according- to instructions and approved of 
 by the Controller and other officials concerned in it; this approval 
 obtained, preliminary plans are designed and forwarded to the station 
 in question, where the officers and officials examine the plans and 
 make report thereon to the Admiralty. These being once more ap- 
 proved of by the Controller, the Director of the Works Department 
 orders the final plans to be designed. In all larger undertakings the 
 actual construction is entrusted to one of the contractors, whose name 
 appears on the restricted list kept at the Admiralty, exactly as is the 
 case with the building of new ships. These contracts are as a rule 
 not offered for public competition, but the registered firms are pri- 
 vately invited to send in their tenders, and well-considered measures 
 of precaution are taken to prevent abuses. Smaller undertakings are 
 usually offered for public competition. 
 
 The staff of this section consists of an official, who acts as Assistant 
 to the Director, 1 1 senior, and 24 junior officials and writers. 
 
 7. Greenwich Hospital, which under its Director forms a small 
 section of the Admiralty. Since 1869 this institution has ceased to 
 be a real hospital or asylum for old sailors of the navy. Details 
 about it will be given under the head '■^Personnel." 
 
 The duties of the Director, who has two senior and three junior 
 officials under him, are to administer the revenues of the hospital 
 derived from real property &c. and to manage the school, which has 
 been recently enlarged, and where iioo boys are educated; he also 
 has to deal with the applications for pensions made by widows of 
 sailors who have been drowned or have otherwise lost their lives in 
 the service of their country, and so on. The picture gallery in the 
 "Painted Hall" of the whilom palace, the Hall of Glory of the English 
 Navy, is entrusted to his charge. 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 73 
 
 There remain to be mentioned the two departments under the 
 Parliamentary Financial Secretary' ; these are: 
 
 1. That of the Accountant General of the Navy, whose post 
 was created in 1832, at the great reform of the Admiralty. Since 
 then his duties have been subjected to numerous chang-es, mainly 
 because the examination and eventual cutting down of the estimates 
 of the other departments, and the scrutiny of the accounts of the 
 stores of the technical sections, were the cause of much friction; of 
 the latter he was entirely relieved, and with respect to the estimates 
 his powers over the other departments were correspondingly enlarged. 
 
 At present the Accountant General of the Navy is the representa- 
 tive and assistant of the Financial Secretary; His duties are: — i. To 
 examine the sectional votes sent in to him by the responsible Direc- 
 tors of Departments, and to prepare the whole estimates in accordance 
 with these. 2. To remit to the various departments the moneys voted 
 to them in accordance with the estimates, and to watch over the ex- 
 penditure, the items of which must be communicated to him. 3. If 
 moneys are transfered from one estimate to another, or if estimates 
 are exceeded, to consult the Financial Secretary and in some cases 
 to decide himself. 4. To cause payment to be made on account of 
 all salaries, wages, and other liabilities of the navy. 
 
 As a rule he is counsellor of his chief in all questions referring to 
 the expenses of the navy, and all the departments of the Admiralty 
 have to apply to him on questions of finance. 
 
 The sphere of this department is consequently very extensi-\-e, and 
 the work is divided amongst three subsections; for matters of the 
 estimates, for the payment of salaries and wages and allowances for 
 travelling and daily expenses, for material delivered and work done, &c. ; 
 each of which subsections is further subdivided into smaller offices. 
 The personnel of this department is therefore very numerous; it com- 
 prises besides the Deputy, two Assistants, and a private Secretary of 
 the Head of the Department, 40 senior, and 198 junior Officials. 
 
 2. The Contract and Purchase Department under the Director 
 of Navy-Contracts. Up to 1868/69 the heads of the different depart- 
 ments had to procure the needful supphes of victuals, clothing, mate- 
 rials, &c. for the docks, as well as the necessary drugs, medicines, &c. 
 and to make the required contracts; since then these duties have been 
 transferred to the above department especially organised for that pur- 
 pose. During its existence frequent consultations have been held with 
 
74 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 respect to the extent and limits of its functions, and changes have 
 from time to time been introduced in the modes of procedure; at 
 present the state of thing;s is as follows: — 
 
 The Director of the department supphes all the materials for the 
 navy and makes the required contracts, except those for ship materials 
 and machinery, which the technical Department or the Admiralty con- 
 tract for directly with private firms, and materials for inland and coast 
 structures which belong to the domain of the Director of the Works 
 Department. The procedure to be followed by the Director of the 
 department is prescribed for him with the utmost minuteness. As soon 
 as a department has sent him a requisition, he comes to an under- 
 standing- with the Director in question on all the points of detail; and 
 also with the Lord in charge of that department, to whom he is in 
 that matter to some extent subordinate, and finally he discusses the 
 subject with his Chief, the Financial Secretary, and thus secures as far 
 as possible the harmonious co-operation of all the parties concerned. 
 Purchases are made according to the nature of the material in four 
 different ways: by pubHc unlimited tender, by private restricted tender, 
 by employing a broker, or by direct purchase. About one third of 
 the moneys voted is spent by public tender on stores of a general 
 kind, common articles of trade ; one half of the vote is expended by 
 restricted tender, which is generally preferred, so that only one sixth 
 remains for the other two modes of expenditure; brokers are em- 
 ployed in the purchase of common marketable articles of food such 
 as cocoa, sugar, rum, &c. mostly bought in at public auction; direct 
 purchase is made of eminent firms principally of patented articles, and 
 of goods of small value. Supply contracts are generally made for the 
 current financial year, i. e. from the ist of April to the 31st of March, 
 for certain articles however a three years' contract is concluded. 
 
 The firms to be placed on the Admiralty list to be invited to tender 
 for contracts, not open to public competition, are selected with the 
 utmost care, seeing the great importance of this matter. A firm desir- 
 ous to gain that position must make appHcation for it; investigation 
 is then made by the Directors of the sections concerned as to its 
 technical or financial capacity, and they make report to the Financial 
 Secretary, who has to decide on the admission or exclusion of the 
 firm. The contract in limited competition is not necessarily given to 
 the lowest tender, if it is expected that another firm will render better 
 service. The inspection of the goods delivered is not made by the 
 Contract and Purchase Department itself, as its staff does not include 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 75 
 
 experts, but by the parties who are to receive the goods, and they 
 have to report on the quahty of the articles supplied. 
 
 Finally, the Director of the Contract and Purchase Department has 
 to arrange for the sale of old ships that have become useless, and 
 of old stores of all kinds, and has to make a detailed report to the 
 department concerned. His staff consists of one Assistant, 6 senior, 
 and 17 junior officials. 
 
 This Condensed Description of the Organisation of the Ad- 
 miralty exhibits the enormous extent of its sphere of action, and the 
 great variety of its transactions; this is also evident from the number 
 of officers and officials employed. Besides the Lords of the Ad- 
 miralty, the Permanent Secretary, and the Financial Secretary, the 
 Admiralty employs 40 officers, of whom about one third belong to 
 the Marines and to the Army, 1 8 Engineers, 3 Medical Officers, one 
 Chaplain, 6 Warrant Officers, 235 senior, and 550 junior officials; 
 altogether in round numbers, some 860 persons. The offices of the 
 Lords of the Admiralty, of the Central Section, of the technical 
 department, and of most of the other sections are on the site of the 
 old Royal Palace of Whitehall in London, some however are placed 
 elsewhere in other buildings; the two offices under the financial secre- 
 tary, those for the marines, for inland and coast structures, for the 
 medical and clerical sections are very near to Whitehall and those for 
 structures on land in London and for the Nautical Almanack somewhat 
 further off. 
 
 The government and administration of this great arm, on which the 
 safety of the country primarily depends, is entrusted, not to an eminent 
 expert, but to a commission, albeit under the presidency of a single 
 Minister who is alone responsible, and consequently authorized to act 
 according to his own discretion. But as he is NOT an expert and is 
 therefore in all things dependent on his military colleagues and ad- 
 visers, the government is to all intents and purposes a government 
 by Commission; all this is so contrary to our own notions, ^ that we 
 find it hard to imagine how such a contrivance can work; but it is 
 adapted to English circumstances, and as the organisation received a 
 manageable shape by the great reform in 1832 and was, moreover, 
 further improved after the Crimean war, and in many important essen- 
 tials has been systematised still more during the last decade, it yields 
 result-s, which are on the whole satisfactory. It being wisely perceived, 
 
 • i. e. the notions of Geirmans. The translator. 
 
76 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 that the navy is an instrument of policy even in times of peace, the 
 retention of both the chief command and the administration in one 
 single central authority has been firmly adhered to ; on the other hand 
 it is considered incompatible with the balance of power within the 
 Constitution to entrust so mighty an engine as the great navy to the 
 hands of a single officer in the capacity of a Lord High Admiral. 
 The House of Commons therefore, anxiously watching over the fun- 
 damental principles of the Constitution, decides that the post should 
 be held by one of their own members, who, being neither an expert 
 not a military man, is unable to gain a preponderant influence. 
 
 However the First Lord of the Admiralty is entrusted with such 
 far-reaching powers, that he is not bound even by an unanimous vote 
 of all his colleagues and may on his own motion alter the whole 
 distribution of duties above., described; consequently he can, in case 
 of need, give immediate effect to the decisions of the Cabinet con- 
 cerning the employment of the fleet or any other measures without 
 giving notice thereof to his colleagues, even if it involves con- 
 siderable expense. The Financial Secretary, who has charge of the 
 moneys is no German Councillor restrained by legal prescription 
 within rigid bonds, but a parliamentary politician, who is placed in 
 the midst of the party life of the country and feels himself fully safe- 
 guarded by the Cabinet of his own party. 
 
 It is a fundamental difference between German and English organisa- 
 tions that there is not a single official in the English Admiralty, who 
 has received a legal education; that there exists no such thing as a 
 hierarchy of officials; and a Privy-Council in our (i. e. German) sense 
 is wholly wanting. 
 
 Cases of sudden and urgent necessity are exceptional; the usually 
 harmonious conduct of affairs of importance at the board-meetings, 
 which are held several times a week, secures the mature consideration 
 of all points, is a safe-guard against one-sided resolves, and keeps the 
 Lords of the Admiralty well informed on the course of events ; a state 
 of things which is of the utmost value in the working of so extensive 
 and complex a mechanism, and renders unavoidable cases of friction 
 as harmless as possible. Differences of opinion, that make themselves 
 felt at the board of the Lords of the Admiralty, are hardly ever 
 made public; and this all the more as every event that reaches the 
 public is minutely discussed and pitilessly criticized in the press and 
 eventually also in the House. There exists consequently a cordial 
 co-operation between the First Lord and the counsellors chosen by 
 
II. ADMIRALTY. 77 
 
 himself on entering- office. Neither are the inspections of the squa- 
 drons, dockyards, training-ships &c., undertaken by the Lords of the 
 Admiralty singly, but always by several jointly, and those of the dock- 
 yards twice a year. 
 
 Quite free from defects the organisation of the Admiralty is not. 
 One defect, the monopoly of designing the plans for new ships ex- 
 cept torpedo-vessels and boats has already been mentioned above; 
 cause is given for friction in the regulation that the Director of Dock- 
 yards is to arrange for and carry through the building of the ships, 
 whilst the Director of Naval Construction is to see to it that the 
 execution of the work is in accordance with his designs and that 
 therefore both these officials are responsible; similarly with respect 
 to the Ordnance the responsibility is divided between the War Office 
 and the Admiralty. The Accountant General of the Navy fills too 
 responsible a post in that he must approve of every item of expendi- 
 ture, ere it can be submitted to the Admiralty and that the transfer 
 of votes only needs his own approval; his power is therefore far- 
 reaching on all matters of expenditure, especially on the technical 
 sections. The selection of commercial firms also for admission to the 
 list of houses to be invited to make tenders not open to the public 
 has led to favouritism and friction — in fact, very much depends on 
 the kind of men that hold responsible posts; but this will always be 
 the case even with the best of regulations. 
 
 On the whole the present organisation of the Admiralty works well; 
 for example in carrying out the ship-building plans in accordance with 
 the Naval Defence Act of 1889, it has done wonders. True it has so 
 far only been tested in times of peace; the fiery ordeal of a great 
 war it has not yet passed through. 
 
 In conclusion we have yet to mention the JOINT NAVAL AND MILITARY 
 Committee on Defence, at which the Navy is represented by the 
 Senior Naval Lord, the Admiral Superintendent of Naval Reserves, 
 the Director of Naval Ordnance, the Director of the Naval Intelligence 
 Department, and the Army by the Adjutant General of the Forces, 
 the Inspectors General of Ordnance and Fortifications, &c. and the Director 
 of the Army Intelligence Department; there are two secretaries, an 
 engineer and a naval officer. It is characteristic of the position of 
 officers in England that the chairman is the Under-Secretary of State 
 for War, a Member of Parliament, who is not a soldier. This body 
 was only created in 1890, and is intended to effect the Co-operation 
 of Navy and Army nominally only for defence; but as, according ta 
 
78 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 English notions, the domain to be defended beg-ins at the enemy's 
 coast, offensive operations are not excluded. 
 
 An especially important duty of the Admiralty, in the discharge of 
 which all the Lords, the Financial Secretary and all the Heads of 
 Departments take part, is the preparation of the ESTIMATES. Its basis 
 is the programme of ship-building for the year and the increase of 
 military force caused thereby, and this is determined in its turn by 
 the maritime policy of the government of the day. The motion for 
 the building of new ships is usually made by the Senior Naval Lord, 
 on the basis of the information obtained from the Naval Intelligence 
 Department about the preparations made by foreign fleets. After dis- 
 cussion with the Controller the proposals are drawn up, communicated 
 to the other Lords, and then submitted to the First Lord of the Ad- 
 miralty and discussed at the Board-Meeting. Next the First Lord 
 submits the programme, modified by the Board or not, as the case 
 may be, to the Cabinet, which considers the financial aspect of the 
 question and determines the ship-building programme for the coming 
 year. If the First Lord or the Cabinet decline the scheme proposed 
 by the Naval Lords, or any essential part of it, and if the Naval Lords 
 believe themselves unable to bear the responsibilit}-, there is nothing 
 left them but to resign. 
 
 Next the technical and other departments concerned formulate their 
 claims on the Naval Budget; these are examined by the Lords super- 
 intendents and submitted to the Admiralty-Board. At the meetings 
 where these matters are discussed, the Accountant General of the 
 Navy is present to argue the financial points, and the several Heads 
 of Departments make the required explanations. Thus the Naval 
 Estimates are at last settled and it is then treated as if already \'oted 
 by Parliament and steps are taken to carry out the programme, be- 
 cause the Ministry disposes over a workable majority in the house 
 and a refusal or even a curtailment of the Budget is not to be anti- 
 cipated. This is an undoubted advantage conferred by the EngHsh 
 Constitution. 
 
 The Estimates comprise two divisions; the principal provides for 
 the effective services, and the smaller for the non-effective services, 
 such as half-pay, pensions and the like. The former includes 12 sec- 
 tions: I. Salaries and wages for the fleet and coast-guards; 2. Vic- 
 tualling and clothing; 3. Medical Service; 4. Law; 5. Education; 
 6. Scientific Service; 7. Na\-al Reserves; 8. Building, repairs and 
 maintenance of ships; 9. Armament of ships; 10. Architectural struc- 
 
^^^ III. NAVAL POLICY. 79 
 
 tures on shore and inland; 11. Miscellaneous; 12. Admiralty. Next 
 come three sections of the smaller division: 13. Half-pay and pensions 
 for Officers &c.; 14. Pensions and gratuities for men employd in the 
 navy; 15. Pensions and gratuities for officials. In the Budget for 
 1896/97, there appears an additional item; 16. Annual contribution 
 towards the maintenance of the Australian Squadron. The amounts 
 will be enumerated at a later stage. 
 
 III. NAVAL POLICY. 
 
 On the Naval Policy of the Government depends the strength 
 and composition, as well as the distribution and employment of the 
 navy; its objects have been changed from time to time and are not 
 even yet finally determined, being exposed to alterations with every 
 change of ministry. 
 
 Up to the times of Cromwell England was content with the protec- 
 tion of her own coasts and with securing predominance in the home 
 waters, and even this was only partially secured during the reign of 
 the early Tudors, and wholly so under Elizabeth; this reign marks 
 the commencement of the first OFFENSIVE operations in distant regions. 
 Under the first two Stuarts the navy fell into such rapid decay, that 
 not even the Channel and the English coasts were safe from enemies. 
 The great Protector at once adopted the only true maritime policy 
 for England by employing his reorganised and rapidly strengthened 
 fleet in OFFENSIVE operations, placing at its head Blake, the most 
 efficient of all his officers. This Commander swept the Home-Waters 
 of enemies and pirates, kept them safe by a powerful and active 
 police at sea, by capturing Dunquerque, the principal nest of priva- 
 teers, and by proceeding with vigour against any and all who did not 
 pay respect to the English flag, and were hostile to English trade. 
 Cromwell engaged in war against his superiors at sea, the Netherlands, 
 and carried it through victoriously. Finally he laid the foundation of 
 England's modern World-Empire by the conquest of Jamaica and by 
 encouraging the English settlements already existing in different parts 
 of the world. 
 
 Thus was pointed out to England the way from which it did not 
 
80 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 in general depart, although it often fell far short of the Protector's 
 energy and comprehensive view. But as has already been stated in 
 the historical introduction, the elder Pitt with Anson and Hawke, and 
 the younger Pitt with Jervis and Nelson, energetically followed the 
 track laid down by Cromwell with such energy and persistence, that 
 it has since the beginning of the current century been regarded as 
 the guiding principle of English Maritime Policy. In 1 8 1 5 the Eng- 
 lish Fleet was the sole mistress of all the seas, maritime trade had 
 become almost a monopoly of England, and there existed no obstacle 
 to the unlimited extension of her great Colonial Empire. 
 
 Now followed a long period of peace giving birth to humanitarian 
 and free trade principles and pushing Pitt's policy to the back-ground; 
 the mercantile and war-navies of other nations regained their strength 
 and asserted themselves. After 1838 England was from time to time 
 alarmed by "scares" at the French Naval Power; but as no great 
 naval war arose and as the English naval officers exercised but slight 
 influence on the country, partly because its institutions are unfavour- 
 able to them, and partly because of their own lack of mental activity, 
 the undesirable state of things continued till the beginning of the 
 eighties, when a new era opened; attention was drawn to the imminent 
 dangers of a great war, the aspect of affairs being fundamentally 
 changed by the introduction of steam, ironclads &c., and definite plans 
 were formed for the retention of England's predominance at sea. 
 
 Individual officers like Admiral Colomb, General Chesney, Lord 
 Charles Beresford and others, far surpassing their contemporaries in 
 military science, largely contributed to bring about this improved 
 state of affairs. 
 
 Then commenced the numerous effective changes and new creations 
 in the organisation of the Admiralty, beginning with the appointment 
 of the Naval Intelligence Department in 1882 mentioned above under 
 section II; this soon led to the great annual manoeuvres of the fleet, 
 to the first experiments in mobilisation, to the thorough reform of the 
 work in the dockyards, in a word to a total re-organisation of all the 
 preparations for war. In the Imperial Defence Act of 1888 £2,6oo,-ooo 
 were voted for the protection of Naval Ports and Coaling-stations at 
 home and abroad, and £850,000 for building a squadron of cruisers 
 for Australia. Next the New Conservative Ministry, having resumed 
 the wise Naval PoUcy following upon the Naval Defence Act of May 
 1883, came forward with its great programme for ship-building, which 
 wisely took into account the new necessities that had arisen. It was 
 
III. NAVAL POLICY. 81 
 
 proposed to build within a period of 5 years 70 vessels, of which 
 10 should be battle-ships and 42 cruisers. It is to be specially pointed 
 out that contrary to the ancient parliamentary usage of centuries, the 
 whole sum of nearly j^22, 000,000 was voted in advance and not merely 
 the partial amount that appeared in the budget of 1889/90. Thus 
 opened the new epoch in England's maritime policy, which is based 
 on the strategy for a great naval war adapted to the circumstances 
 of the present day. 
 
 The DUTIES OF THE FLEET are essentially identical with those it had 
 to discharge at the beginning of the century; viz: 
 
 a. Duties of Defence. 
 
 1. To keep the United Kingdom safe from invasion and its coasts 
 from insult and injury; 
 
 2. To protect the commercial navy in all seas, likewise the fisheries; 
 
 3. To keep the sea open for the arrival of imports into the United 
 Kingdom; 
 
 4. To protect India and all the colonies; 
 
 5. To keep open the communications between the mother-country 
 and her colonies and India. 
 
 b. Offensive Action, in connection with the above. 
 
 1. To keep the enemy's fleets locked up in their harbours, and to 
 defeat, and if possible to destroy them, if they venture out; 
 
 2. To blockade the enemy's ports and do injury to his coasts; 
 
 3. To pursue and destroy the enemy's cruisers and privateers; 
 
 4. To capture or destroy the enemy's commercial navy and fishing 
 
 fleets; 
 
 5. To compel the trans-oceanic possessions of the enemy to surren- 
 der either by cutting off all their communications, or by actual forcible 
 capture by the army. 
 
 The successful carrying out of these offensive operations would at 
 the same time secure mutual unhindered communication between Great 
 Britain, her colonies and India; this free communication being the 
 indispensable condition of their retention. 
 
 Since the beginning of the century circumstances have undergone 
 changes both great and essential. Then Great Britain had loi mil- 
 lion inhabitants, her industry was but slightly developed, the soil was 
 
 6 
 
82 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 fully cultivated and remained so right to the middle of the century, 
 so that the country maintained itself and was independent of foreign 
 supplies, and industry being but slightly developed did not call for 
 any large importation of raw material. But now the population of the 
 United Kingdom has risen to nearly 40 millions, the area under cul- 
 tivation had even ten years ago been reduced to one third of what 
 it had been before, so that the yield, although proportionally verj- 
 high, still suffices for barely one fifth of the population. This is 
 accompanied by a heavy fall in the price of provisions; between 
 1872 and 1895 the price of wheat fell 6o''/q, of barley 4i*'/o, of oats 
 48"/^, of beef between 1877 and 1895 about 31°/,,, of mutton about 
 20"/^ and so on ; at the same time the general mode of life and con- 
 sequent consumption of provisions has considerably advanced; it does 
 not pay to grow cereals; the soil, whose area might suffice for the 
 support of the whole people, is returning ever more to pasture. More- 
 over Industry has expanded so largely, that it gives direct employ- 
 ment to five million workmen, not inclusive of those depending on 
 them; were the importation of raw material interrupted, two thirds of 
 these men would be out of work and out of bread. 
 
 The maritime trade of Great Britain has increased enormously. In 
 1785 the imports and exports amounted to a little over 31 million 
 pounds; in 1894 it had risen, according to official statistics, to upward 
 of 9471 million sterling; that is, it had multipUed thirty fold. And 
 this is not inclusive of the trade in precious metals between the 
 mother-country and the colonies, nor of the value of the vessels &c. ; 
 if these were added, it is calculated that the amount would rise to 
 1650 million sterling, being 53 times the amount of 1785! There has 
 been an especially rapid increase in the importation of food stuffs 
 during the last decades; for example in the 25 years intervening be- 
 tween 1865/69 and 1890/94 the importation of wheat had risen from 
 2,980,000 tons to 6,550,000 tons or by about 120%; Indian Corn 
 from 1,180,000 tons to 3,480,000 tons or by 194 "Z^; bacon from 
 60,000 tons to 300,000 tons or by about 5oo"/(,. And in spite of 
 the fall in prices, the total value of the imported food stuffs has risen 
 enormously from £64,700,000 in the year 1871 to £174,250,000 in 
 1892, that is to say nearly 200 per cent in 21 years. 
 
 The British mercantile navy has also advanced with gigantic strides ; 
 in 1894 it consisted in round numbers of 36,000 vessels (of more 
 than 100 tons) amounting altogether to some 12,779,000 tons. Of 
 these, 21,000 vessels belonged to the United Kingdom and their 
 
III. NAVAL POLICY. 83 
 
 tonnage amounted to nearly 9,000,000 tons, employing' crews number- 
 ing 240,000 men. The number of fishing boats is said to exceed 
 27,000. The unchecked importation of food-stuffs for the support of 
 the population, and of raw materials to feed the factories, has become 
 incomparably more important than it was only 30 years ago; in fact 
 the very existence of the state depends on it. And this all the more, 
 because the usage of trade has changed, ever since communication 
 with the exporting countries has been made so safe and rapid by 
 telegraphs and steamers as to obviate the necessity of adhering to 
 the old practice of accumulating large stores for months before the 
 ■demand was expected to arise; now people live from hand to mouth. 
 This state of things has no parallel in history; there is a certain 
 resemblance to ancient Rome at and after Sulla's time down to the 
 time of the Emperors, when the cultivation of cereals had been almost 
 -wholly abandoned in Italy and the supply of corn from Sicily was a 
 life and death question to the Eternal City. 
 
 Moreover the enormous increase of the mercantile navy and its 
 distribution over all seas -has largely increased the difficulty of 
 protecting it against the cruisers and privateers possessed of the mod- 
 ern appliances for rapid navigation. 
 
 The question, how the English navy will in these altered circum- 
 stances be able in a great war to satisfy the claims upon it, has been 
 much discussed, but by no means answered, no experience being 
 available. Certain fundamental maxims are however universally ad- 
 mitted; first and foremost the principle that the strength of the Eng- 
 lish Navy must far exceed that of any other. The only criterion for 
 ■comparison as yet known is simply to count the number of ships of 
 the several classes; battle-ships, coast defence, iron clad, armoured 
 and unarmoured cruisers and torpedo boats; a scientific method of 
 estimating the different kinds of ships according to age, size, armour, 
 armament &c. has not yet been discovered. About the amount of 
 the required superiority, people in England are not yet agreed; those 
 who go farthest demand that the English navy alone should equal 
 that of all the rest put together, but it may be regarded as an accepted 
 principle that in battle -ships the Enghsh fleet must to some extent 
 .surpass the two fleets next in size combined, viz : the French and the 
 Russian; the number of cruisers must be adapted to both requirements, 
 viz: that of accompanying battle-ships and protecting English com- 
 merce on all the seas. 
 
 As for the EMPLOYMENT or THE NAVY IN WAR a great deal is said 
 
84 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 about defensive warfare, the fleet is always called the "FIRST LINE 
 OF DEFENCE," and the several enactments for the mag-nificent increase 
 of the navy are officially designated as "THE NAVAL DEFENCE ACTS," 
 but in reality it is regarded as self evident that the English domain 
 begins at the Enemy's coast and that the sea is ruled over by the 
 British trident. It follows, that a thoroughly OFFENSIVE strategy is 
 as far as possible kept in view on principle, as has been explained 
 above, sub-section b. i — 5. 
 
 The blockading fleets outside the enemy's ports are to surpass 
 those shut in in the proportion of 5 to 3, so that, if some ships are 
 temporarily disabled or absent to bring a supply of coals &c., the 
 ships remaining should still be a match for the enemy, and the battle- 
 ships are to be accompanied by a great number of cruisers for out- 
 post service, scouting, keeping up commxmications and the like; also 
 by a number of torpedo-boat destroyers to act against the torpedo-boats 
 of the enemy. Cruisers of greater or less strength would uninterrup- 
 tedly watch over those parts of the enemy's coasts near which com- 
 mercial highways pass; also over narrow straits (Gibraltar, Babelmandeb, 
 Bass' Straits), and would patrol the much frequented maritime high- 
 ways to protect their own merchantmen and capture those of the 
 enemy as well as his cruisers, auxiUary cruisers, and privateers. By 
 this means communication would also be kept open between the 
 mother country and her squadrons, coaling-stations and colonies, while 
 her maritime trade and the important transport of coals would be 
 safe-guarded. Whether large transport or commercial fleets, especially 
 slow sailers like the usual freight steamers should not be convoyed 
 across the ocean, as was the practice in sailing days, is still an open 
 question, which will probably be answered affirmatively in the next 
 large maritime war. The fishing fleets will certainly have to be so 
 protected. Squadrons abroad will be re-inforced, in order effectively 
 to secure predominance at sea, protect maritime trade and capture 
 the enemy's colonies. 
 
 The maintenance of British Supremacy in the Mediterranean, which 
 has risen in importance since the opening of the Suez Canal, forms 
 a separate problem; it is concerned with large commercial interests 
 (in 189s, no less than 60 ''/p of the British corn-supply passed through 
 the Dardanelles) and still more with the communication with India, 
 whither great masses of troops would have to be despatched imme- 
 diately after the outbreak of war, to ward off a land attack by Russia. 
 Some years ago opinions on this point were divided, but now there 
 
III. NAVAL POLICY. 85 
 
 is no doubt, that the squadron in the Mediterranean, which has lately 
 been re-inforced and in time of war will receive still further additions 
 will, supported by Gibraltar, Malta and Alexandria-Port Said endeavour 
 to retain the mastery of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Whether, in view of these numerous tasks the English navy will 
 be able to prevent interruptions of the import-trade of the country, 
 especially if war were to break out suddenly and the enemy were to 
 make skilful use of well-appointed cruisers, experience alone can teach 
 us. Even a short temporary interruption causing dearth of the raw 
 material for manufactures might throw great numbers of men out of 
 work — as was the case with the cotton -supply in the War of Se- 
 cession — and , with an enhanced cost of provisions, create distress to 
 the working-classes bringing trouble and riot in its train. ^ 
 
 A less grave, but still in the long run very grievous injury to 
 shipowners and merchants would be the great rise in the premium 
 of insurance for English ships and cargoes. Considering the colossal 
 value of the merchandise afloat a rise of a mere small percentage 
 would represent many millions, and yet this payment would not be 
 the chief harm ; the danger is that the rise of insurance would transfer 
 the British carrying trade to neutral flags. Less than ten years ago 
 the then Financial Secretary of the Admiralty publicly declared his 
 conviction that in a great maritime war the whole British commercial 
 navy would pass over into the possession of neutrals and sail under 
 neutral flags. This certainly is very improbable for this reason, that 
 the validity of sales concluded after war had been declared, would 
 not be admitted by the enemy and thus the vessels in question would 
 be treated as British ships and be either captured or destroyed, pro- 
 vided always that there is no STRONG PROTECTING FLEET at hand; but 
 in consequence of the high war -premiums and the obvious dangers 
 British ships would not be entrusted with cargoes and would lie idle 
 in port, so that the British commercial flag would rarely be seen on 
 the ocean. The grievous loss accruing therefrom to merchants and 
 shipowners in Great Britain would continue for a long time even after 
 the termination of the war, as trade does not readily return to chan- 
 nels which it has been forced to forsake. "Commerce is a delicate 
 structure" justly says the German Poetess, and it would thus not be 
 
 1 This apprehension of our author seems groundless in view of the exemplary 
 conduct of the Lancashire workmen during the very cotton-famine he alludes to. 
 
 The translator. 
 
86 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 easy to overestimate the material injury suffered by England from 
 this cause. This is a point on which influential circles in England 
 are very sensitive, and a temporary interruption of imports may exer- 
 cise a decisive effect on the direction of English policy. 
 
 Such a state of affairs fully justifies the maritime policy of England 
 so to increase the navy, that it should be able to maintain its predom- 
 inance in all seas and under all circumstances, even in the face 
 of the largest coalition. Battleships are therefore regarded as the 
 kernel of naval power; these must be built of such a size, that every 
 tactical unit should be superior to that of the enemy. Similarly the 
 cruisers should be double the size of the largest now existing; they 
 should be very swift and able to keep the sea for a long time, so 
 as to protect the commercial highways and destroy the enemy's crui- 
 sers. And finally the torpedo-boat destroyers, taking the place of 
 the torpedo-boats used by other nations, should by superior counter- 
 attacks deprive these latter of all chance of success. The manning 
 of the navy also has of late been largely increased from year to year; 
 during the last seven years by 28,345 men, numbering now (1898) 
 106,390 men, and these can in case of need be immediately increased 
 by calling in the whole body of coast-guards and the accessible por- 
 tions of the naval reserves, thereby enabling the Admiralty to mobilize 
 upwards of 120,000 men, including officers, subordinate officers &c. 
 
 This rapid increase of men even on a peace footing enables the 
 navy to appear in all seas even during peace with a force superior 
 to that of every other nation; and to enable the British squadrons to 
 maintain their predominance in war also and to keep the sea, provi- 
 sion is made for adequate organisations and equipments of suitable 
 Naval Ports as bases of operations and of coaling stations along the 
 principal highways. The fortification of these points, and other pro- 
 visions against hostile attacks, left a great deal to be desired, but 
 eight years ago only with the sums voted for that purpose by the 
 Imperial Defence Act all needful measures have been taken to meet 
 any conceivable hostile forces that may appear unexpectedly; ports 
 also are being built and special attention is devoted to increase the 
 number of DRY DOCKS, suitable to the mighty battle-ships and cruisers 
 of modern days. 
 
 Under such circumstances the navy finds it an easy task to discharge 
 its duties in TIMES OF PEACE, protecting Enghsh merchantmen, subjects, 
 and interests both at sea and in foreign ports; rendering assistance 
 in case of need, and doing poHce duty at sea against pirates and 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 87 
 
 slavers which still appear here and there; but above all universally 
 asserting- English predominance on the waves. Thus the navy be- 
 comes, even in times of peace, a very effective instrument of English 
 policy and makes possible the uninterrupted further expansion of the 
 huge Empire, which even now occupies an area 54 times that of the 
 German Empire with a population seven times as numerous. 
 
 The successes of the Navy are not restricted to mere small expe- 
 ditions against savage or semi-savage tribes, but even civilized states 
 that are weak at sea have been forced to make concession by the 
 mere threatening presence of an overwhelming squadron without the 
 necessity of firing a single shot, as for example in 1 890 when Portugal 
 was compelled to cede extensive tracts of land in South Africa. If 
 the application of force appears unavoidable, the fleet either acts in- 
 dependently as it lately did in Zanzibar, or lands troops, supplies 
 them with food and other necessaries and either serves them as base 
 of operations or arranges one for them either afloat or on shore; 
 frequently the troops are supported by naval brigades, as for example 
 in the Indian Mutiny, where they took a glorious part in the storming 
 of Lucknow. Occasionally they even make independent expeditions 
 into the interior, as a few years ago at Witu in East Africa. 
 
 Thus both in war and in peace it is the NAVY to which England 
 is indebted for her grandeur, universal power, and prosperity. 
 
 IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 
 
 Immediately under the Admiralty there are placed 15 independent 
 naval commanders, 10 of whom bear the title of Commander-in- 
 Chief, and 5 hold positions of less importance. Seven of the first are 
 heads of the 7 LARGE FOREIGN STATIONS OF THE NAVY, the other three 
 
 Admirals or Vice -Admirals— are Port Admirals IN THE THREE 
 
 HOME STATIONS, whose chief places are the great Naval Ports, Ports- 
 mouth, Devonport and Chatham.^ The two latter stations, however, 
 do not bear the names of the actual Naval Ports, but one is called 
 "Plymouth" after the commercial port of that name, whose outer 
 
 ^ See the plans of Portsmouth, Plymouth and Chatham. 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 harbour Plymouth Sound, is protected by a mighty breakwater, whilst 
 Devonport-"^ close by is situated on the "Hamoaze", the deep estuary 
 of the small river Tamar, which forms the fully protected inner har- 
 bour; the other is called the "Nora" from the Nore Lig'htship 
 marking a shallow off Sheerness. 
 
 a. Home-Stations. 
 
 The range of these three stations embraces all the coast of Great 
 Britain; that of the Nore the east coast of England and the whole 
 coast of Scotland; that of Portsmouth extends from Dover in the east, 
 as far as Tor Bay near Start Point in the west, and includes also the 
 Channel Isles; that of Plymouth from Tor Bay round Land's End as 
 far as the borders of Scotland, inclusive of the SciUy Isles. The 
 supreme command exercised by the Port-Admirals over the coasts is 
 more nominal than real; neither the lighthouses nor the coast-guard 
 stations are subject to them, nor do they inspect these, any more than 
 the ships in commission belonging to the coast-guards, that are 
 permanently stationed in their several harbours. Barring some occa- 
 sional trips to the Scilly or Channel Islands they hardly ever leave 
 their ports, where their powers are very extensive. 
 
 The three Commanders-in-Chief live in their respective naval ports 
 in their official residences on shore, but they and their staffs and a 
 number of other officers &c. are borne on the lists as living on board 
 their flagships, although these afford very inadequate, or perhaps no 
 accommodation at all; in Devonport and Chatham^ two small despatch- 
 boats of 550 and 453 tons respectively do duty as flag-ships, and 
 in Portsmouth the flag-ship of Jervis at St. Vincent and of Nelson at 
 Trafalgar, the famous "Victory", from due loyalty and reverence, is 
 still the flag-ship of the port. The enumeration in the ship's books 
 of men not actually living on board, whereby they retain their ships' 
 allowances, is an old practice from the times, when every one engaged 
 in effective service of the fleet, except a portion of the marines, had 
 to be on board and was considered as discharged or reduced to 
 halfpay on quitting the ship. Naval men on active service ashore were 
 not known in those days. Not very long ago, a strong reserve of 
 
 ' This name is comparatively modern, it was formerly "Plymouth Dock," 
 hence the still existing predominance of the name Plymouth, though the child 
 threatens to outgrow the parent. The translator. 
 
 " Nominally only; the port guardships actually fly the flags. The translator. 
 
Exphnmtion/ of Sii^ 
 
 1 Fatkornhne 
 
 - - .- 3 
 
 Depth in fathoms ~ 6 Fi 
 Scale'. 
 
 Harbour of Plymouth and Dockyard of Devon port. 
 
E-cplmutiiorv of Signs. 
 / Fathojnb'm 
 
 
 nouth and Dockyard of Devonport. 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &c. 89 
 
 men was kept on board the harbour ships to meet any sudden 
 conting-ency; only lately barracks have been erected in the naval 
 ports on account of the great numbers to be accommodated and 
 from sanitary considerations. 
 
 The Commander-in-Chief is in charge of all the men-of-war in 
 Commission that are in the harbour, even of those that form part of 
 a squadron and of the flagship, if the Commander of the Squadron 
 is a Junior Admiral. If a Senior Admiral arrives outside the port he 
 requires the consent of the Commander-in-Chief ere he \is allowed 
 to send one of his ships into the harbour; if his flagship has to enter 
 the port he must haul down his flag and hoist it on another ship of 
 his squadron that remains outside. Within the harbour the Com- 
 mander-in-Chief is the Chief Officer and sole Commander; on the 
 other hand he has no power over ships that are out of sight from 
 his flagship, unless they are expressly put under his command. 
 
 Of the ships in port that are laid up in ordinary the so-called 
 fleet-reserve is subordinated to him directly; this reserve was instituted 
 8 years Eigo as a more speedy preparation for war. Previously all 
 the ships laid up in ordinary belonged to the yard and were divided 
 into four classes according to their state of preparedness. The first 
 of these classes of ships ready to be put in commission, consisting of 
 the First Class Steam-Reserve, was placed under the command of a 
 naval captain, who had under him a number of men, sufficient to keep 
 ship and machinery in a proper state of repair and he was respon- 
 sible for it; but partly because he never had his full complement, and 
 partly because the men he had were employed elsewhere in the yard, 
 the arrangement did not work. This portion of the reserve, since 
 called the fleet-reserve, has been withdrawn from the command of the 
 dockyard- authorities and put under an executive commander. 
 
 Since that time the ships in the Reserve have been grouped into 
 5 divisions, numbered A — E, of which A and B form the fleet-reserve, 
 the other three corresponding to the former reserve classes 2, 3, 
 and 4 — the dockyard-reserve. Division C. comprises the ships that 
 are being' fitted out; D. those under repair; and E. the obsolete ships ; 
 they are all completely dismantled and in charge of the yard. The 
 ships of the fleet-reserve are manned with crews numbering one- 
 third of their full complement, are fully equipped, with full bunkers; 
 the machinery, steering-compasses, and armament have been thoroughly 
 tested, so that after being fully manned and having taken ammunition 
 on board, which must be done in the roadstead, they would be ready 
 
90 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 to go to sea within 24 hours. But as the very complicated mechanism 
 of modern men-of-war frequently necessitates small repairs, the fleet- 
 reserve is classed into two divisions, A. comprising those ships and 
 torpedo-boats which are ready for immediate despatch, and B. those 
 which, though under repairs, can still, in case of need, be readily 
 employed. 
 
 The Personnel required to put the ships in commission is like the 
 ships themselves distributed over the three home-stations. Four 
 years ago (1894) it numbered, inclusive of the crews of the ships in 
 Commission, but exclusive of the officers &c. 43,576 men; viz: 
 26,264 men, i.e. about 60 "/^ seamen, 12,721 or SO^/q engineers, and 
 4591 or io°/q artificers or other labourers employed in the yard. Of 
 this grand total 17,330 men, or about 40*'/o belonged to Portsmouth, 
 14,226 men or about 32^!^ to Devonport, and 12,020 men, or 28 7o 
 to Chatham, or more correctly Sheerness, which is the men's depot. 
 These numbers include the crews of the ships in commission in port, 
 also the crews and other persons of the several divisions of the fleet- 
 reserve, the men in training in the training ships &c., and some extra 
 men for trial trips, detachments of workmen &c. In consequence of 
 the constant increase in the number of the men, the frequent changes 
 of ships — new ones being added, others lost or discarded — these 
 totals are not constant, but are subject to a yearly revision; losses 
 are replaced by the admission of lads who have finished their training, 
 (5000 of whom are being educated), and finally by enlistment, each 
 of the three ports having assigned to it for that purpose a portion 
 of the United Kingdom and of the gigantic Capital, London. 
 
 The Port Admiral being Chief of the fleet-reserve and of the whole 
 military force fills a post of special importance in the preparation 
 for war and in the mobilization of the fleet. When ships of the re- 
 serve in the docks are being put in commission, or those of the 
 fleet-reserve are got ready for sea, it is his duty to superintend, and 
 if need be, to expedite their outfit, to fill up the crews of all the 
 ships with suitable persons, and to see that the ships ready for 
 service should not remain in harbour longer than is necessary. He 
 orders the alterations and repairs of ships and attends to their prompt 
 execution; if required he increases the number of workmen. He pro- 
 ceeds in the same way when ships are dismantled, and he discharges 
 the men, that have served their time. 
 
 The Port Admiral is at the head of the technical and other naval 
 establishments belonging to his port, such as the dockyard, the vie- 
 
Scale . 
 
 Chatham Harbour and Dockyard 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 91 
 
 tualling yard, the ordnance depot, hospitals, school ships &c., but 
 he may not interfere in the working of those establishments which 
 are managed by a superior officer or official bearing the title of 
 "Superintendent." 
 
 In time of war he orders ships to cruise outside the harbour to 
 inform him betimes of the approach of any enemy's ship, and he 
 has to see that no hostile vessel finds ingress into the harbour. 
 Very extensive precautions have of late been taken to meet such a 
 contingency, especially against the entrance of torpedo-boats &c., not 
 only by batteries and electrically lighting up the mouth of the harbour 
 at night, but also by the construction of heavy booms strengthened 
 by insurmountable obstacles. 
 
 Notwithstanding the extensive range of powers of the Port Admiral 
 within his sphere, yet he is wholly dependent on the Admiralty, to 
 whom he is to make accurate report about all occurrences; every 
 morning about wind and weather and every evening about any and 
 every event worth recording &c. By this means the Central Authority 
 is kept fully informed in every respect about the state of affairs in 
 the three great naval ports. 
 
 Each one of the three home-stations comprises: 
 
 a. A large dockyard, serving principally for repairs and outfit 
 of men-of-war; 
 
 b. a gun wharf; 
 
 c. a victualling yard; 
 
 d. one or more hospitals; 
 
 e. barracks ashore and afloat. 
 
 b. Home Dockyards. 
 
 The three great HOME DOCKYARDS are in Portsmouth, Devonport, 
 and Chatham, the latter also comprising a smaller yard annexed to 
 it at Sheerness on the Island of Sheppy at the mouth of the Thames. 
 They have to fulfil principally the following purposes: 
 
 1. The rapid supply of the ships in commission and of those of 
 the fleet-reserve with the complements of stores, and with the needful 
 repairs and outfits; 
 
 2. The speedy fitting for service of the ships of the divisions C. 
 and D. laid up in ordinary in the dockyard-reserves, so as to add 
 them to the fleet-reserve; 
 
 3. The keeping in store of all the materials necessary to satisfy 
 
92 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 the needs of the ships enumerated under head i, and the holding in 
 readiness of all the things necessary for the warlike outfit of the 
 dockyard-reserve and the completion of the said outfit with utmost 
 speed, and above all on mobilization of the fleet. 
 
 4. The skilful, speedy, and cheap construction of all the new ships 
 and machinery ordered of them. 
 
 The organization of English dockyards differs from that of German 
 yards mainly in this, that with the exception of the ram, which is 
 really part of the ship itself, English yards do not manufacture arma- 
 ment; this is the consequence of the pecuHar position held in England 
 by the naval ordnance ever since the middle of the last century, as 
 has been pointed out above under section II. 
 
 Ship-building has from of old been carried out on a large scale 
 in all the ^three yards; and during the last decade they have also 
 begun to construct ship's engines such as had up to then been manu- 
 factured exclusively in private factories. They first began on a small 
 scale, but are now already able to build engines for cruisers of the 
 2nd. class up to 9600 H.P. This includes also the numerous mecha- 
 nical contrivances on board, the mountings of guns of all kinds 
 from the largest in armoured turrets down to the small quick firing 
 guns and machine-guns and finally also the torpedo-armament. Pre- 
 viously it was thought that the Royal yards worked slowly and 
 expensively; the numerous and to some extent serious shortcomings 
 in their organization and working (cf. section B.) may have justified 
 this opinion; but of late years the contrary has been proved by actual 
 experience. For example the mighty battle-ship the "Royal Sovereign", 
 of more than 14,000 tons displacement, was built in Portsmouth with 
 remarkable speed; she was finished, stood all the necessary trials 
 satisfactorily, and was put in commission as fully prepared for war 
 and added to the Channel Squadron, within two years and eight 
 months from the date, when the first keel plate was laid down. The 
 still larger battle-ship the "Magnificent," of 14,900 tons displacement, 
 was constructed at Chatham with such speed that she was floated out 
 of the dry dock exactly in one year and put in commission 20 months 
 after the first keel-plate was laid down, and it is intended to produce 
 the newest battle-ships of equal size in similarly short periods of 
 time. These achievements stand unmatched, and the large private 
 yards, that have been entrusted with the building of sister- 
 ships cannot keep pace with the work of the Royal dockyards. 
 Moreover the cost of production, in the Royal yards is sonjewhat 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 93 
 
 less than in the private yards. The battleship "Empress of India", 
 of 14,150 tons displacement, built in a Royal yard cost a trifle over 
 £861,000; the "Resolution", also of 14,150 tons displacement, built 
 in a private yard cost nearly £883,120; a difference of upwards of 
 £22,000 in favour of the Royal yard. Cruisers on the other hand 
 are built more cheaply in private yards. In consequence of this the 
 Royal yards are fully employed in building- new ships; Portsmouth 
 builds chiefly battle-ships and large cruisers, Devonport cruisers of 
 various dimensions, Chatham vessels of all kinds, Sheerness smaller 
 cruisers and machinery. The large ships engines are still supplied 
 by private firms, among whom John Penn & Sons of Greenwich, 
 Maudsley Sons & Field of London; Humphreys, Tennant & Co., of 
 Deptford; Hawthorn, Leslie & Co., of Newcastle; Laird Bros, of 
 Birkenhead; Thomson Bros, of Clydebank; Harland & Wolff of Bel- 
 fast, deserve to be especially mentioned. 
 
 The large home yards are moreover fully supplied with men, 
 materials and machinery for effecting all sorts of repairs; they con- 
 tain an adequate number of large and small dry docks to execute 
 works and the repairs of damage under water, to clean and paint the 
 ship's bottoms &c. Finally they supply ships with all things required 
 for service on board, for keeping the vessels in good order, for the 
 accommodation of the crews and supplying them with all things need- 
 ful except arms, victuals and clothing; all the various and exceedingly 
 numerous stores are kept in readiness in large storehouses. Conse- 
 quently the yards are also of great military importance in the mobili- 
 zation of the fleet. 
 
 In each of the three great dockyards a Rear Admiral under the 
 title of Admiral Superintendent guides and supervises all the work of 
 the yard; according to regulations he holds the post for three years; 
 exceptionally however and for special reasons, by Order in Council, he 
 may be retained six months or a year longer in that post. He hoists 
 his flag on a ship specially and permanently set aside for that pur- 
 pose — there are three old wooden ships of the line in the three 
 several yards which at the same time serve as guardships for the 
 Dockyard-Reserve. 
 
 In addition to the three great dockyards there are in the United 
 Kingdom the following establishments: 
 
 I. The considerable building yard at Pembroke in Milford Haven, 
 superintended by a Post Captain, acting in the capacity of Captain 
 Superintendent, which is devoted to building battle-ships and cruisers. 
 
94 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 2. The small yard Haulbowline in the harbour of Queenstown near 
 Cork, which stands under a Rear-Admiral acting as "Senior Officer 
 on the Coast of Ireland"; he discharges in_ a way the functions of 
 Port Admiral for all Ireland and the whole island belongs to his 
 range of command; the operations however are not extensive, Haul- 
 bowline being fitted neither for building ships nor for fitting them 
 out, but only for smaller repairs and for the supply of various kinds 
 of stores, principally coals. It is a base of operations for the fleet 
 on the South coast of Ireland. 
 
 3 . A great depot of stores in combination with the chief victualling 
 yard at Deptford near London, under a highly placed official acting 
 as "Superintendent" and finally: 
 
 4- A coaling station in the harbour of Portland by the Bill of Port- 
 land, between Portsmouth and Plymouth which has lately been con- 
 structed and protected against torpedo-boats; it now serves as a place 
 of assembly for the fleets in the Channel, somewhat like the open 
 roadstead of St. Helens east of the Isle of Wight in former days. 
 
 An estimate can be formed of the EXTENT OF WORK IN THE 
 HOME YARDS from the fact that in the financial year 1896/97 there 
 were 856 officials on the several staffs, whose salaries amounted in 
 round numbers to £160,000. There were employed 6088 permanent 
 workmen and 17,262 day-labourers, making a total of 23,350 men 
 (in round figures 4000 more than in the previous year). The total 
 wages amounted to £1,700,000. The men in constant employment 
 are divided into two classes; a small class of only 146 men who 
 live inside the yard, and a large class of mechanics; the former 
 earn on an average £86. 10. 0. a year, the latter (5942 in number) 
 average £84. 4. o. The men temporarily employed earn £67. o. o. 
 There are employed in the yards 396 policemen, drafted from the 
 London police. 
 
 The total expenditure for the financial year 1896/97 amounted for 
 salaries and wages to £2,146,000; for material to £2,296,000 making 
 a grand total of £4,442,000; besides this there were spent 51. mil- 
 lions for work done in private yards and factories; viz: for vessels 
 £2,395,000, for engines £2,420,000, for gun-carriages £480,000. Of 
 the total vote of £9,950,000 no less than £7,532,500 were spent on 
 the building of new ships; the Royal yards spending in this way a 
 good half of their share of this vote, and the work done by contract 
 consuming nearly the whole of the sum allotted to it. As the total 
 vote for the Navy amounted to £22,260,000, it results that 34*'/o of 
 
o 
 
 B 
 o 
 
 C o 
 
 P -3 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 95 
 
 it, more than one third, was devoted to the building of new ships; 
 a very large amount. 
 
 c. Portsmouth Dockyard. 
 
 It would lead us too far to enter into a detailed description of the 
 organization of all the dockyards; let that of Portsmouth, the largest 
 and most ancient of all, serve as a sample. It dates from the begin- 
 ning of the 13th century; in 1212 it was enlarged and fortified. 
 The first dry-dock was built in the reign of Henry VII. 1495 — 1497. 
 It was improved under Henry VIII. and still more under Cromwell. 
 After the Seven Years' War it was greatly enlarged, and in 1848 
 there were added shops for the repair of machinery, but its present 
 extent it attained only lately by a large addition of capacious new 
 buildings. The Yard now covers an area of about 115 acres; it 
 possesses numerous spacious basins, protected by tidal locks, also 5 
 slips and no less than 16 dry-docks, besides 2 long locks, which can 
 also be used as docks. The older dry-docks are only 220 to 287 
 feet long, 53 to 67! feet wide at the entrance gate, 20 to 26 feet 
 depth of water at the mean high water line over the sill; these dimen- 
 sions were sufficient for the wooden ships-of-the-line, but are not 
 nearly adequate for the gigantic battle-ships and cruisers of the present 
 day; accordingly some of the new docks attain a length of no less 
 than 500 feet, a breadth of 95 feet and a depth of 4H feet, so that 
 the largest ships with utmost draught of water find easy admittance; 
 a matter of no slight importance considering that in future combats 
 great injury will probably be done to ships below the water line. 
 
 The tabular statement on page 96 enumerates the Heads of Depart- 
 ments of Portsmouth Dockyard as well as their staffs and salaries. 
 
 There are according to it 251 persons on the several staffs and among 
 them there are' only two naval officers, so that inclusive of the two 
 naval officers in column i there are employed oiily four^ naval of- 
 ficers in the whole of that extensive yard. All these as well as the 
 other employes of the effective services, engineers, surgeons and 
 some warrant officers are borne on the books as resident on the flag 
 ship of the Admiral Superintendent. It is to be noticed that sur- 
 geons and chaplains do not belong to the staff of the station, but to 
 that of the dockyard. 
 
 ^ There seems to be here some misapprehension; the Navy List contains at 
 least 12 names with the letters R. N. after them; indeed the latter part of the 
 statement appears to contradict the earlier part. The translator. 
 
96 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Designation 
 
 Rank 
 
 Pay 
 
 of staff 
 
 Admiral Superintendent . 
 
 Flag Officer 
 
 i88o o oi 
 
 8 
 
 Master Attendant and 
 
 
 
 
 Queen's Harbour Master 
 
 Staff Captain 
 
 6oo o o' 
 
 7 
 
 Chief Constructor 
 
 1 Engineer of Naval 1 
 I Construction J 
 
 677 0* 
 
 84 
 
 Chief Engineer . 
 
 Naval Engineer 
 
 646 o> 
 
 25 
 
 Naval Storekeeper . 
 
 Civil Official 
 
 650 0' 
 
 49 
 
 Cashier . . . . . 
 
 ditto 
 
 675 
 
 21 
 
 Officer in charge of Ex- 
 
 
 
 
 pense accounts . . . 
 
 ditto 
 
 650 
 
 56 
 
 Surgeon . . . 
 
 Naval Surgeon 
 
 655 m 
 
 I 
 
 Chaplain . .... 
 
 Naval Chaplain 
 
 550 
 
 — 
 
 ' Also official Residence. 
 
 251 
 
 The number of workmen employed in the yard last year was 6520. 
 
 Of the other home-yards we will in the subjoined tabular state- 
 ments only g-ive the number of men on the STAFFS and of the 
 WORKMEN, with their salaries and wages; also the number of dry- 
 docks which supply sufficient criteria for comparison with Portsmouth 
 dockyard with respect to the extent of the works and their im- 
 portance. 
 
 Name of the Yard 
 
 STAFFS 
 
 00 1- 
 C o rt (U 
 
 Z- 
 
 Pay 
 
 WORKMEN 
 
 > 3 00 
 
 Wages paid 
 
 DRY 
 DOCKS 
 
 1. Portsmouth . . . 
 
 2. Devonport . 
 
 3. Chatham 
 
 4. Sheerness . 
 
 5. Pembroke . . , . 
 
 6. Deptford (Victualling 
 Yard) 
 
 7. Haulbowline . 
 
 8. Portland (Coaling 
 Station) . 
 
 260 
 214 
 188 
 103 
 67 
 
 19 
 3 
 
 ^47,819 
 ^39,952 
 ^34,739 
 ^19,931 
 ^13,633 
 
 70 
 80 
 
 3 o 
 
 16 o 
 
 6 o 
 
 £ 3,607 15 o 
 gS 407 o o 
 
 £ 166 5 o 
 
 Total 
 
 856 1^160,257 o o 
 
 6520 
 4405 
 5040 
 
 1575 
 1650 
 
 133 
 39 
 
 ^478,965 10 o 
 
 ^323,245 3 ° 
 ^370,608 17 o 
 
 ^"5,755 14 o 
 ^121,219 17 o 
 
 £ 9,231 o o 
 £ 2,580 12 o 
 
 £ 805 16 o 
 
 18 
 II 
 10 
 
 5 
 I 
 
 19,370 
 
 s^I,422,4I2 9 6 
 
 47 22 
 
 ' "Large" Docks are those which admit the largest battle-ships and are at 
 least upwards of 300 feet long, 60 feet broad and 24 feet deep over the sill. 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 97 
 
 As has been stated above the existence of Portsmouth Dockyard 
 is traced back to the beginning of the 13th century. Soon after his 
 accession to the throne Henry VIII. founded the Admiralty and the 
 Navy Board and introduced an organized administration of the Navy; 
 he supported this dockyard and also constructed yards at Woolwich 
 and Deptford, but these have of late years been discontinued. During 
 the reign of Elizabeth, Hawkins rendered great service to the administra- 
 tion of the Navy especially to the dockyards, and the Queen herself 
 founded that of Chatham. Under Charles II. this was enlarged and 
 extended as far as Sheerness, so that in the Anglo-Dutch wars it was 
 regarded as most favourably situated for the conduct of the war, and 
 as the first dockyard of the country. When after the revolution of 1688 
 Holland, by that time greatly weakened, had become England's ally, 
 and France was the enemy to be conquered, Plymouth dockyard, 
 previous to 1689 a mere floating workshop, was built, being more 
 favourably situated for a war against the west coast of France, and 
 75 years afterwards, in 1764 this yard was greatly enlarged. Its 
 present name "Devonport" it received in 1824, and the machine- 
 shops at Keyham, like those of Portsmouth, were only added towards 
 the end of the forties of the nineteenth century. 
 
 The ship-building yard at Pembroke dates from 181 5, and Haul- 
 bowline, begun in 1778 and enlarged in 1865, can be regarded as 
 having been a dockyard only since 1885, when its large drydock 
 was opened. 
 
 Formerly the English navy had also small yards, or more correctly 
 naval depots, in Harwich, Deal, Kinsale (in Ireland) and New York 
 (previous to the war of Independence), nay even in Lisbon, which 
 by the Methuen treaty had become almost an English port. 
 
 The English navy is by no means restricted to the performance 
 and capacities of the Royal dockyards, but employs a large number 
 of PRIVATE YARDS in England, Scotland, and Ireland and some of 
 these factories are possessed of great means and resources. Fore- 
 most amongst these may be named the firms of Laird Bros, of 
 Birkenhead near Liverpool, and J. & G. Thompson on the Banks of 
 the Clyde for, ships and engines of every size; Armstrong, Mitchell 
 & Co., of Elswick near Newcastle, the Naval Construction and Arma- 
 ments Co., at Barrow in Furness, The Thames Iron works at Black- 
 
 1 "Large" Docks are those which can admit the largest battle-ships and are 
 at least upwards of 300 ft. long, 60 ft. broad, and 24 ft. deep over the sill. 
 
 7 
 
98 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 wall for ships of all sizes and many more. The number of DRY- 
 DOCKS in the COMMERCIAL PORTS of the United Kingdom is no less 
 than 249; 203 of which belong- to England alone; and although only 
 14 of these can be called large according to the definition of this 
 term given above, yet many of them have very considerable dimen- 
 sions; a length for example of some 815 feet, so that they are able 
 to admit even cruisers (all but the very largest) and all ships of 
 less dimension. 
 
 The Home Gun- Wharves. 
 
 The HOME GUN-WHARVES are in Portsmouth and Devonport con- 
 tiguous to the Dockyards and those of Chatham are at Upnor in the 
 immediate neighbourhood; their staffs amount respectively to 27, 17, 
 and 21 persons; the police officers are respectively 53, 47, and 24 
 in number and they employ 572, 307, and 179 skilled workmen. 
 To each of these three establishments is added a torpedo-depot. 
 
 Their material is mostly supplied by the colossal arsenal at Wool- 
 wich. Ever since the time of Henry VIII. as has been mentioned 
 before there had been a shipbuilding and fitting yard at Woolwich, 
 but, being rendered unnecessary by Chatham and Sherness, it was 
 closed in 1869 and converted into an Artillers-- arsenal, belonging to 
 the war office, but still working for the navy also. The arsenal 
 manufactures cannons, gun-carriages, and ammunition; powder is made 
 at Waltham Abbey, and small arms at Birmingham and Enfield. The 
 chief manager, the Director General of Artillery is an eminent ex- 
 pert, a civilian, but the heads of sections are mostly military and 
 naval officers. The works are carried on on business principles. In 
 1890 the buildings were estimated to be worth about £570,000 and 
 the machinery about £733,000; the arsenal employed some 13,000 
 workmen, whose weekly wages amounted on an average to nearly 
 £1. 12. 8, the value of the articles produced to £2,300,000, and since then 
 this amount has gone up still higher. Of this sum about 55% are 
 spent on wages, and only I — 3% on administration. 
 
 Torpedoes also are made at Woolwich; the producti\c capacity of 
 the works is 400 torpedoes a year. 
 
 Of the staff of the arsenal 35 members belong to the na\■^', which 
 also employs 399 skilled workmen. 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 99 
 
 c. The Home Victualling Yards. 
 
 Since 1870, when the ship-building- and outfitting' yard at Deptford 
 was closed, Deptford has been the chief Victualling yard, which 
 supplies the neighbouring ports of Chatham and Sheerness; its of- 
 ficial name is the Royal Victoria Yard, and its staff numbers 40 per- 
 sons, employing 384 mechanics and labourers. Portsmouth harbour 
 has a separate Victualling yard, the Royal Clarence Yard at Gosport 
 employing a staff of 17 persons and 130 workmen; similarly there 
 is at Plymouth the Royal William Yard with a staff of 10 persons 
 and 118 workmen, and finally in Haulbowline there is a small Vic- 
 tualling yard, the Royal Alexandra Yard employing a staff ot 4 persons 
 and 14 workmen. Fiftyseven policemen are employed to protect the three 
 larger yards and finally there are at work 'j'j men as crews of eight Vic- 
 tualling yard craft belonging to the four yards. Deptford bakes a large 
 part of the biscuits and prepares all the cocoa, mustard &c. wanted for 
 the navy; all the stores of victuals, clothing and other articles, whether 
 supplied by contract or bought in the open market are delivered 
 there. When examined and approved of, they are stored and duly 
 passed on to the fleets or other victualling yards. As regards the 
 clothing" there is a remarkable difference between the English and 
 the German navies. The English sailors (not the Marines) can on 
 payment of its value, have the cloth supplied them and are allowed 
 to make their clothes themselves, or have them made, but they must 
 in colour and cut conform to the prescribed pattern; nevertheless 
 considerable differences are occasionally observed in different ships. 
 
 For victualling and clothing for the navy there were voted in the 
 current financial year £1,921,325. It is worth mentioning that, of 
 the amount voted for victuals, upwards of 57 % are acounted for 
 as savings in kind, sailors on board preferring to receive money 
 payments according to regulations, in lieu of a large portion of 
 the rations due to them; there are naturally certain limits drawn to 
 these transactions, and the men do not get the full money value 
 allowed them, so that as a matter of fact the exchequer effects con- 
 .siderable savings. 
 
 d. Hospitals. 
 
 There are five hospitals in the home ports, viz: one in each of 
 the three great naval ports and also in Portland, and in Haulbowline; 
 
 7* 
 
100 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 to these are yet to be added four hospittils for the marines at Norton, 
 Eastney, Plymouth and Walmer and a lunatic asylum at Yarmouth. 
 The hospital at Haslar, opposite to and belonging- to Portsmouth, is 
 by far the largest; it employs nine physicians and surgeons, a chaplain, 
 four apothecaries, ten nurses &c. ; and there are besides 143 hospital 
 assistants &c. , and 56 workmen; in all 229 persons. All the sur- 
 geons of the navy, immediately after their engagement, pass through 
 a practical course at that hospital. 
 
 At the hospital in Plymouth, which is next in size, there are at 
 work seven medical men; in the other hospitals three to four; of sub- 
 ordinates there are employed in Plymouth 1 24 and in the other hos- 
 pitals from 47 down to two. There are engaged in all 26 Nurses;, 
 three Senior Nurses whose salaries range from £191.0.0. to £85.0.0. 
 and 23 Sisters with salaries ranging from £94.15.0. to £71.13.4. 
 with free maintenance. 
 
 e. Barracks. 
 
 Barracks are still in process of formation and little is to be said 
 about them. Part of the reserves are still lodged on board ships in 
 port, but at Sheerness and at the three great naval ports barracks, 
 are being built and are partly finished. 
 
 B. Naval Stations Abroad. 
 
 Of the ten Commanders-in-Chief three, as has already been said,, 
 discharge the functions as Admirals Superintendents of the three great 
 naval ports, of the other seven each fills the post of HEAD OF A 
 GREAT NAVAL STATION ABROAD and of the Squadron belonging to it; 
 and according to the size of the station they rank as Rear-Admiral 
 or Vice-Admiral and only rarely as full Admiral. ^ These stations 
 are designated as: i. Mediterranean, 2. North America and the West 
 Indies, 3. Pacific, 4. China, 5. Australia, 6. East Indies, 7. Cape of 
 Good Hope and west Coast of Africa; to these is yet to be added 8. 
 the South East Coast of America, with but a small squadron under 
 the command of a Naval Captain as Senior officer.^ In addition to 
 
 ' The size of the station does not determine the rank of its admiral, though 
 naturally admirals of high rank are selected for stations of greater size or im- 
 portance. The translator. 
 
 '' Now a Commodore. The translator. 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 101 
 
 all this there is in the home waters an especially strong squadron, 
 the CHANNEL SQUADRON, whose range comprises, besides the English 
 Channel, the German Ocean and the Baltic, as well as the Atlantic 
 Ocean along the West Coast of France and Spain as far as Africa. 
 It consists of six new mighty battle-ships, two large first class cruisers, 
 and five smaller cruisers &c. ; it is commanded by a Vice-Admiral 
 and by a Rear-Admiral as second in command; the former bears the 
 title of Vice-Admiral commanding and not of Commander-in-Chief, 
 probably to avoid friction with the three Admirals Superintendents 
 .of the respective naval port to which he is assigned. 
 
 There is further employed in the home waters a RESERVE SQUADRON, 
 consisting of five older battle-ships and four large cruisers, with one 
 or two gun-boats added to each; they serve as Coast-guard ships, 
 and though stationed in the different ports of the United Kingdom 
 they can be concentrated in a very short time; they are commanded 
 by the Admiral Superintendent of the Naval Reserves, whose flag 
 at present is hoisted on the battle-ship "Alexandra" stationed at 
 Portland. 
 
 Finally we have yet to mention the TRAINING SQUADRON consisting 
 of four older large cruisers. It has no special range assigned to it, 
 but is used for training young sailors and navigates therefore mainly 
 under sail. It cruises generally in the German Ocean and the North 
 Atlantic and is commanded by the Senior officer of the four Captains, 
 who bear the title of "COMMODORE IN COMMAND." The position of 
 a Commodore in England is always such, that the ship bearing his 
 broad pendant "■ never has a special captain on board. 
 
 The Commander-in-Chief on FOREIGN stations controls everything 
 that concerns the navy within the range of his station. He has to 
 keep the ships of his squadron within the range of his station and is 
 to make himself acquainted immediately after assuming command with 
 the condition and capacity of his ships, officers and crews, and 
 specially of the commanders and keep himself minutely informed on 
 every detail. He conducts tactical exercises and signal practice with 
 the squadron and keeps a Squadron Journal entering an account of 
 the exercises and also the number of days spent in port and at sea; 
 moreover he makes inspections on entering on his command and 
 subsequently yearly, or more frequently, according to need. These 
 inspections deal not only with manoeuvres on board, such as clearing 
 
 * See diagram of flags. 
 
102 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 decks for action, fire alarm &c., but also with such details as bedding-, 
 victualling', payment of wag^es, punishments, mess-accounts and of- 
 ficers' instruments &c. The Commander-in-Chief is to look after the 
 equipment of the ships, so as to have them always prepared to 
 execute any command given; he is also to see after the reg^ular per- 
 formance of Divine Service. 
 
 He is earnestly enjoined to observe all the practices and usages 
 of international comity and to keep up a constant good understanding 
 with the British diplomatic agents &c. 
 
 He is chief of all the yards and other Naval Establishments on 
 shore within the range of his station and has to watch over their 
 working; he is also authorized to suspend officials; he visits the hos- 
 pitals every three months but, like the Port Admirals, he is not 
 authorized to interfere with those branches of the service, which are 
 managed by officers or officials holding the rank of Superintendent. 
 He is to keep the Admiralty constantly informed about the move- 
 ments of the ships of his squadron, as well as about changes among 
 the officers and surgeons, and he is to make report on all remarkable 
 occurrences of which accounts have arrived at his station. On the 
 first of every month the Admiralty is to be apprised of the dis- 
 tribution of the ships of his squadron. The signal-books are to be 
 sent in once every half year, the log-book once a year, as well as 
 copies of all commands of a permanent character given on the sta- 
 tion. He is to propose in good time the discharge of men and the 
 recall of ships that have served their time. When officers are to be 
 relieved, he is to make report on them; and he is in like manner 
 to make report on all the officers who have been under him at least 
 six months previous to the expiration of his own command. 
 
 The above named NINE NAVAL STATIONS comprise all the seas of 
 importance to British trade, except the Black Sea, the passage of the 
 Dardanelles and the Bosporus being forbidden by the treaty of Paris 
 of 1856 to the ships of all nations except those of Turkey. These 
 naval stations are held by 136 vessels of all kinds, inclusive of 34 
 armoured ships, which are distributed in the several stations accord- 
 ing to their relative importance. In any sudden emergency Com- 
 manders of neighbouring stations transfer ships temporarily to each 
 other, either upon the receipt of orders from the Admiralty or even 
 upon their own initiative. 
 
 The MEDITERRANEAN STATION is the most important and therefore 
 the most strongly occupied of all these stations; its range extends 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 103 
 
 from the western extremity of the straits of Gibraltar over the whole 
 Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, and the Red Sea. On the first of Oc- 
 tober 1896 the Mediterranean Squadron consisted of thirty seven 
 ships, inclusive of thirteen ironclads, ten of which were of later and 
 latest types (1882 — 1892), one armoured cruiser, a ram, and a vessel 
 for coast defence doing duty as guard ships at Gibraltar. The re- 
 maining 27 ships are small and large cruisers, despatch boats, fast 
 gun-boats, and torpedo-boat destroyers; also a sailing vessel used as 
 training ship for ordinary seamen; an old ship of the line doing duty 
 as a guardship in the harbour of Malta. Since then the squadron 
 has been greatly reinforced in consequence of the troubled outlook 
 in the Levant. It is generally divided into two sections; the larger 
 part under the Commander-in-Chief himself, at present an Admiral, 
 who mostly attends to the western Mediterranean, and the smaller part 
 under the officer, second in command, a Rear-Admiral, who is mostly 
 engaged in the eastern Mediterranean. To this station belongs also 
 the large yard at La Valetta in Malta which, situated as it is in an 
 excellent, central position in the narrow part of the sea that separates 
 the eastern from the western basin of the Mediterranean, serves as a 
 base of operations for watching the traffic and despatching forces in 
 every direction. It is also specially well fitted for an intermediate 
 stage on the great highway to India between Gibraltar and Port Said. 
 Having a fully protected natural harbour, whose narrow entrance is 
 strongly fortified, it can be easily blocked and therefore successfully 
 defended. This yard, the only foreign one that, like the three great 
 home yards, is governed by an Admiral Superintendent, is provided 
 with men and materials in a corresponding manner; there are direc- 
 tors of fitting, shipbuilding, machine construction and store depart- 
 ments; also a naval surgeon, a chaplain &c. The staff numbers 
 80 persons, whose pay amounts to £14,841. Of this the Admiral 
 Superintendent, whose flag flies on the old ship-of-the-line, the 
 "Plibernia" draws £1960.0.0. 
 
 The yard is fully equipped for effecting repairs of every kind; it 
 possesses four dry-docks, two of which are "large" docks, and is able 
 to make repairs, and even build new ships, albeit on a reduced scale. 
 Most frequently however ships are repaired in this, yard, after their 
 commission is expired;^ they are then fitted out to be "recommis- 
 
 ^ A man-of-war's commission generally lasts three years, but ships may be kept 
 n their station some months longer before being relieved. The translator. 
 
104 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 sioned" for a second or even third such period, the new crews being 
 brought from home in troopships. 
 
 In addition to the dockyard, Malta has an ordnance, ammunition, 
 and torpedo-boat depot, employing 27 mechanics from the ships; 
 also a victualling }-ard with 72 workmen managed by a staff of six 
 persons, a hospital with three surgeons, five nurses and fifty hospital 
 assistants &:c. Malta serves then to the Mediterranean Squadron as 
 a fully equipped naval port; but being very deep and without current 
 it is exposed to pollution by thousands of sailors and 80,000 in- 
 habitants of the town. Till lately no measures of precaution had 
 been taken, so that the proverbially notorious Malta fever laid low 
 many men; in 1894 no less than 26 officers were ill in the hospital, 
 and several died. 
 
 GIBRALTAR offers to the Mediterranean squadron a second point 
 d'appui; till lately it had only a small establishment, but it is to be 
 converted at great expense into a naval port, by the building of a 
 skilfully protected harbour and large drj'docks, which will of course 
 take some years to finish. At present it already possesses a naval 
 and coal depot superintended by a post captain with a staff of seven 
 persons, an ordnance depot, a victualling depot, and a hospital; 
 £65,000 have been voted for a new hospital, and the other estabhsh- 
 ments will no doubt also be proportionally enlarged. In a future 
 great war the English navy will possess a splendidly equipped point 
 of support at this supremely important spot, the ingress into the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 The Mediterranean station is neighbour to the EAST INDIES STATION, 
 which mainly comprises the Indian Ocean; it borders in the east the 
 China and in the south-east the Australia, and at Zanzibar it touches 
 the Cape Station. 
 
 The East Indies Station is held by eleven ships commanded by a 
 Rear-Admiral, whose flag is hoisted on a large armoured cruiser. 
 The other vessels are smaller cruisers and gun-boats &c., but there 
 are also included two armoured vessels for coast defence and some 
 torpedo-boats stationed in Bombay. These two armoured vessels, 
 two torpedo-gunboats and half a dozen torpedo-boats belong to the 
 Indian Marine, but they are commanded by officers of the Royal 
 navy and manned mostly by crews of the Royal navy, although there 
 exists a small corps of Indian Marine Officers. As a rule one part 
 of this Squadron is stationed off the East coast of Africa under one 
 of the older officers in command, and another in the Gulf of Persia. 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 105 
 
 Head-quarters are in Bombay, where there are nine dry-docks and a 
 yard maintained by g-overnment. Calcutta, too, has ten docks, and 
 both establishments are managed by officers &c. of the Indian Marine. 
 There is also at Trincomalee in Ceylon a Naval depot managed by 
 an official at the head of a staff of six persons, a Victualling and 
 Clothing depot, and a hospital. It is proposed to move all these 
 establishments to Colombo. Finally there is an ordnance depot in 
 Bombay and another in Aden. 
 
 To the Naval Budget of the East Indies Station which protects 
 India, the government of India contributes £175,000 a year, of which 
 sum the officer in command of the Squadron draws £680. 
 
 Since the war between China and Japan the CHINA STATION has been 
 made very powerful; its range extends from the straits of Malacca to 
 Bering's Straits; eastward it borders on the Pacific Station and south- 
 ward on that of Australia. The squadron consists of 26 vessels, 
 commanded by a Vice-Admiral, who has under him a Rear-Admiral 
 as Second in Command, and in Hong Kong a Commodore as super- 
 intendent of the dockyard and other naval establishments at that 
 place. The squadron comprises one of the new swift battle-ships, 
 which is the flagship of the Commander-in-Chief, four armoured 
 cruisers, eight cruisers of various sizes, several gunboats, despatch 
 boats, torpedo-boat destroyers and finally a large steamer, formerly 
 a troopship and now doing duty as a guard-ship in Hong Kong, and 
 flying the flag of the Commodore. Some of the smaller vessels are 
 of shallow draught for service on the Chinese coasts and rivers. Hong- 
 Kong occupies a central position and is the head-quarters. It pos- 
 sesses an excellent and secure harbour with seven drydocks, one of 
 which is a large one; also extensive works managed by a Chief 
 Constructor, a staff of 37 persons all told, besides depots for ord- 
 nance, torpedoes, victuals and clothing, a large hospital with three 
 physicians and 40 assistants &c. — -'in a word HONG KONG IS A FULLY 
 EQUIPPED BASE OF OPERATIONS. Singapore, also commonly the station 
 of a portion of the squadron, has four drydocks and there is besides 
 a considerable number of these in other ports within the range of 
 the station, though not actually in English possession. There is also 
 a hospital at Yokohama; the naval depot there was given up in 1889. 
 
 The AUSTRALIA STATION, bordering in the north on the China, in 
 the west on the Indies and in the east on the Pacific stations, ex- 
 tends southwards as far as the Polar circle. The Commander-in-Chief 
 is a Rear-Admiral, who flies his flag on board an armoured cruiser. 
 
106 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Besides his flagship his squadron comprises seven 3rd class cruisers 
 and five gunboats, mostly such as the Australian governments ordered 
 in 1889 to be built in England at their own cost, at an outlay of more 
 than £860,000. In case of war these ships are to be employed solely in 
 defence of the Australian colonies; the contribution of these countries 
 to the budget of the navy amounted, for the year 1896/97, to nearly 
 £63,000. The spacious and well protected port of Sydney serves as 
 a base of operations. It possess a repairing yard fully manned and 
 managed by a post captain, who draws a salary of £1250 a year. 
 There are two docks, one of which is a large dock, a naval depot, 
 an ordnance depot, and a victualling and clothing store. In addition 
 Sydney has six other docks, and there are numbers of drydocks in 
 other Australian ports. 
 
 The PACIFIC STATION, bordering on the China and Australia stations 
 in the east, is the most extensive of all; it stretches from Bering's 
 Straits in the north along the west coast of America to far beyond 
 Cape Horn in the south, that is over 133 degrees of latitude from 
 the Arctic to the Antarctic Circles. Its range touches British terri- 
 tory in Canada on one side and New Zealand on the other and in- 
 cludes the group of English Islands in Polynesia, the most important 
 of which are the Fiji Islands. There being no great naval powers 
 within the whole area of the range, it has only a small squadron, 
 commanded by a Rear-Admiral and consists of seven vessels, viz: 
 one armoured cruiser, which flies the flag of the Commander-in-Chief, 
 five small cruisers and gunboats and one old store-ship permanently 
 stationed at Coquimbo in Chile to supply the vessels sailing the 
 waters of the west Coast of South America. 
 
 The port and base of operations of this squadron is the beautiful 
 and safe harbour of Esquimault in Vancouver Island, where a yard 
 is being built with a large drydock containing an ordnance depot, a 
 store for provisions and clothing, and a hospital; it is managed by 
 a staff" of ten persons. Only lately, that is since the completion of 
 the Canadian overland route, has attention been directed to this im- 
 portant point. The United States have begun to build a yard at 
 Puget Sound near by, a large dock being already finished. In the 
 wide range of this station there are only two more drydocks, which 
 are British, viz: in Auckland, in New Zealand; one of these being a 
 large dock. 
 
 East of the Pacific Station lies the STATION OF THE SOUTH EAST 
 COAST OF AMERICA, which extends from Cape Orange (situated at 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 107 
 
 4 degrees N. on the borders of Brazil and French Guiana) to the 
 Antarctic Circle in the south, and eastward far into the Atlantic. It 
 is occupied by only four ships, as has already been pointed out, one 
 of which, a cruiser of the 2nd class flies the broad pendant of the 
 Senior Officer in command;^ the other three are smaller cruisers. 
 There is no yard within the range of this station and only a coal 
 depot lately formed on one of the Falkland Isles. 
 
 To the east it borders on the STATION OF THE CAPE OF GOOD 
 HOPE AND THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA, which comprises the Atlantic 
 Ocean from Sierra Leone to the Cape and beyond it to the Antarctic 
 Circle, as well as the Indian Ocean on the east coast of Africa as 
 far as Zanzibar, where the East Indies station begins. The station 
 is in charge of a Rear-Admiral, whose flagship is an armoured cruiser; 
 an older ironclad lies as guardship in Simon's Bay at the Cape; 
 moreover the squadron contains six cruisers, five gunboats &c., a few 
 torpedo-boats stationed at the Cape, two river gunboats of shallow 
 draught , • stern wheel steamers on the Zambezi. CAPE TOWN is the 
 base of operations; it is a port strongly protected by art, with a 
 dockyard, managed by a staff of i8 persons, a large dry-dock, an 
 ordnance and torpedo depot, a store for provisions and clothing, and 
 a hospital. There are also stores for provisions at the coaling sta- 
 tions of Ascension, St. Helena, and Sierra Leone. Of late it has 
 become the duty of this squadron either alone, or jointly with British 
 or Colonial troops to carry on the little wars, which follow one an- 
 other with great rapidity in the interior of Africa, on the Niger &c. 
 
 Towards the north the South America station borders on the 
 STATION OF NORTH AMERICA AND. THE WEST INDIES; this latter ex- 
 tends from Cape Orange to the Arctic Circle and comprises also the' 
 West Atlantic Ocean. In consequence of its great importance it is 
 in charge of a Vice-Admiral who is Commander-in-Chief; the squadron 
 consists of twelve vessels, among which is a large, new, armoured 
 cruiser, flying the Admiral's flag, an old floating battery doing duty 
 as harbourship in Bermuda, and an old depot-ship in Port Royal (Ja- 
 maica) which flies the broad pendant of the Commodore commanding 
 there; the other nine vessels are cruisers of second and third class 
 and a large gunboat. This squadron has several points (Vappui: in 
 the north HALIFAX in Nova Scotia, with a small dockyard managed 
 by a staff of ten persons, a drydock for the largest ships, a torpedo- 
 
 ' Now a commodore. The translator. 
 
]03 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 depot and a hospital; in the BERMUDAS, in the midst of the Ocean 
 facing the coast of the United States, there is one of the larger dock- 
 yards under a captain Superintendent who draws a salary of £900. 
 It is managed by a staff of 35 persons, and contains in addition a 
 floating- drydock for ships up to 11,000 tons displacement, a torpedo- 
 depot and a hospital. At PORT ROYAL in Jamaica there is a small 
 dockyard under a Commodore assisted by a staff of ten persons; also 
 a torpedo-depot and a hospital with three surgeons and 17 assistants; 
 and there is a coaling station on the Island of ANTIGUA, which pos- 
 sesses a small but excellent harbour. Finally the Island of ST. LUCIA 
 is being fortified and fitted for a base of operations for the West 
 Indies. 
 
 The staffs of the TEN FOREIGN YARDS number 225 persons with 
 an average pay of £292.0.0. and there are employed 2933 workmen, 
 of whom 157 recei\e fixed wages averaging £120.11.8. a year; the 
 hired men of colour earn from £49. 15.0. to £55.0.0. and the 
 mechanics employed on board ship earn from £80.0.0. to £95.4.0. 
 a year. The dockyards are guarded by 163 policemen. 
 
 The squadrons permanently maintained on these nine foreign 
 stations have lately been strengthened partly by increasing the num- 
 ber of ships, and partly by replacing older and smaller vessels by 
 new, larger, swifter, and altogether more efficient ships; in consequence 
 the English go\ernment can without special preparation, call up ships 
 from various stations and concentrate, within a short time, and AT 
 ANY GIVEN POINT an imposing naval force, superior to everything that 
 any other power can produce. 
 
 The squadrons find everywhere, on spots skilfully chosen, safe ports 
 and convenient poinis d'appui for independent military operations with 
 the necessarv' stores, and means for repairing ships and keeping them 
 in good order, and also all needful arrangements for the care of the 
 sick and wounded. Where natural good harbours are wanting, they 
 have been constructed artificially at great cost, as for example at 
 Gibraltar, Cape Town &c. In addition to the establishments founded 
 and administered by government, which we have just enumerated, the 
 squadrons find means and appliances of all kinds, such as dockyards, 
 drydocks, machine-shops, stores (ammunition alone excepted), and 
 especially coal in abundance in British ports all over the globe. This 
 secures to the English navy the Rule of all the Ocean waters and to 
 the British Empire the Rule of the World. 
 
 Till about ten years ago these points were badly neglected, be- 
 
IV. STATIONS, DOCKYARDS, &C. 109 
 
 cause their great, and under circumstances, decisive importance in 
 maritime warfare were not sufficiently understood, but since then as 
 great progress has been made in this province as in the expansion 
 of the navy. By the Imperial Defence Act of 1888 abundant means 
 were voted to the administration to make up for the neglect of 
 previous years. Down to 1886 many fortifications on the English 
 coast itself were inadequately armed, and abroad the state of things 
 was far worse; the Cape, Mauritius, Colombo, Port Royal &c. were 
 all but defenceless; Gibraltar and Malta, where they fronted the sea, 
 were altogether insufficiently armed; everywhere muzzle loaders only, 
 and some of these very old and not even mounted and so on. The 
 defending forces partly belonging to the army and partly to the navy 
 were under divided commands. By 1892 the six places named above, 
 as well as Singapore, Bombay, Hong Kong, Sierra Leone, Bermuda 
 and Castries Bay (St. Lucia) were supplied with heavy new breach- 
 loaders, quickfiring guns, rangefmders , mine fields, search lights and 
 able instructors for the garrisons; from Halifax to Bermuda a sub- 
 marine cable has been laid for military purposes; St. Helena and 
 Ascension have been garrisoned &c. 
 
 Coast Defences. 
 
 In a similar manner the coast defences at home, previously sadly 
 neglected, have been rendered thoroughly efficient with much skill 
 and vigour. Previously the Admiralty used unreservedly to entrust 
 to the War Office the management of the laying of mines, and the 
 latter committed the work to the engineers. An examination in 1890, 
 conducted by expert naval officers, shewed that these mines were 
 dangerous to English ships. The same thing happened under similar 
 circumstances in Germany; in 1883 an examination shewed that the 
 mines, with the exception of those retained in the hands of the naval 
 authorities, were dangerous to German vessels. Since the appoint- 
 ment of the mixed COMMISSION FOR THE COAST DEFENCE, Consisting 
 of eminent naval and military officers, the mode of precedure has 
 been completely changed. The armaments of the fortifications of 
 Portsmouth, Spithead, the Isle of Wight, &c. are fully up to date, 
 those at the mouth of the Thames are greatly enlarged and strength- 
 ened, the entrances into the three great naval ports are made deeper, 
 so that heavy vessels fully equipped may have ingress and egress at 
 all times and tides, the roadsteads of Spithead &c. not being con- 
 
110 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 sidered safe from hostile attacks by torpedo-boats; moreover the 
 small entrances into these ports as well as into Portland and South- 
 ampton are to be fully closed up by special obstacles to prevent the 
 bars from being crossed. For Southampton alone 1614,300 have been 
 voted for that purpose. The efficiency of the bars by mines and 
 booms, of electric lighting-, of the coast batteries has been repeatedly 
 tested by trials on large and small scales. It is contemplated to 
 fortify the magnificent harbours of Bearhaven and Lough Swilly in 
 Ireland, of Falmouth and the Scilly Isles, so as to make them useful 
 to English ships and inaccessible to those of the enemy. In case 
 of war these parts would be excellent bases of operations. 
 
 A great deal has also been done to protect the commercial ports 
 and to improve the means of communication, which till lately were 
 still much the same as they had been in the times of the Armada. 
 In 1 89 1 of the 680 coast-guard stations more than 300 were at a 
 distance of from 31 to 35 miles from the nearest telegraph station, 
 and not a single one, it seems, was directly connected with such a 
 station. But since then much has been done in that direction and 
 also in the interest of the saving of life and property on the coast; 
 several lightships too are in connection with the land by telegraphs 
 and telephones. For signalling the Semaphore has taken the place 
 of signalling by flags, as being more reliable and visible at greater 
 distances. The erection of a number of detached forts south of 
 London is planned so as to check, at least for a time, the advance 
 of an enemy, who in spite of all precautions to the contrary, should 
 have effected a landing at or near Dover. 
 
 Thus it is seen that during the last decade enormous progress has 
 been made in the naval stations both at home and abroad; greatly 
 to the advantage of England in naval warfare and thus to her pre- 
 ponderance at sea. 
 
 V. PERSONNEL 
 
 The personnel of the navy is classified: i. according to branch 
 into: seamen, engineers and mechanics, marines, medical officers, 
 administrators, artificers, cooks, stewards, and servants; 2. according 
 to rank into: officers, warrant officers, and crews, which include the 
 
V. PERSONNEL. HI 
 
 petty officers. Of the different branches each (cooks, stewards &c. 
 excepted) has its own officers. 
 
 The officers of the navy are divided into two branches of service-, 
 viz: military officers and civil officers; the latter include engineers, 
 surgeons, paymasters, instructors, secretaries and candidates for such 
 careers, and finally, among the warrant-officers, the carpenters. The 
 officers of the military branch are the seamen naval officers, inclusive 
 of gunners and boatswains. 
 
 The table on page 112 shows the "Relative Rank" in the two branches 
 of the service, the Navy and the Army. 
 
 a. The Corps of Naval Officers. 
 
 I. Historical Introduction. 
 
 The corps of naval officers has grown gradually. In the Middle 
 Ages ships were as a rule not commanded in battle by seamen, but 
 by knights, or other military officers embarked for the combat. This 
 had been the practice with the ancient Romans and remained so in 
 England till the time of Henry VIII. and often also after him till 
 late into the 17th century. But the advance in the art of navigation, 
 caused by the introduction of the Mariners' Compass and by the 
 improvements and complexity of the rigging, made it possible to en- 
 gage on distant voyages and enterprizes and so raised the qualifica- 
 tions of navigators and steersmen, that landsmen were wholly unable 
 to assume the real command of a ship. From that time naval men 
 rose in importance and position, and Henry VIII. bestowed the rank 
 of NAVAL OFFICER on the "Master," the navigating assistant of the 
 Captain, and actually the ship's Ruler. Before his appointment, he 
 had to pass an examination at Trinity House, the centre of naviga- 
 tion and of all seafaring matters in England. But it was not till the 
 time of Elizabeth that Seamen by profession were appointed as cap- 
 tains, i. e. independent rulers of battle-ships. This was at the time of the 
 Armada, when the danger of the country loudly called for the "right 
 men in the right place"; and when Drake, Frobisher and others had 
 distinguished themselves by great voyages of discovery and by bold 
 warlike expeditions. Seamen by profession were entrusted also with 
 other high posts, as commanders of parts of the fleet. But still these 
 were not PERMANENT APPOINTMENTS in the Royal service, for, when 
 the voyage or the enterprise was over commandant, officers, and 
 
112 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
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V. PERSONNEL, 113 
 
 crews were paid off, and being free again they re-entered civil life, 
 and had to shift for themselves; only a small number of officers and 
 men were retained to look after the ship while laid up in ordinary. 
 This practice greatly stimulated the love of adventure and of pred- 
 atory expeditions. 
 
 A short time previously, in 1580, the rank q{ Lieutenant had been 
 introduced into the navy. The master was the navigator of the vessel 
 but not a combatant; the object in view now was to give the captain 
 an assistant and eventually a deputy or successor in battle, and also 
 to tra.in young men of good family as naval officers from among 
 whom the captains should be selected, The ship, no matter what 
 was her size, had then only ONE lieutenant on her staff, whom the 
 captain appointed himself, mostly from among his relations or friends, 
 but the master was appointed by the Admiralty, and was selected 
 upon the recommendation of Trinity House from the masters' assis- 
 tants, called "Master's mates", the captain had therefore no authority 
 to depose the master. The appointment of lieutenant, notwithstanding 
 the reform of replacing captains, who owed their posts to favouritism, 
 by seafaring officers of experience, made but slow headway and sea- 
 men by profession often felt sorely aggrieved that inexperienced 
 young gentlemen of quality were promoted over their heads to the 
 post of captain. 
 
 The same thing happened when in 1649 at the time of the Common- 
 wealth Blake and other Colonels of the Army were made "Admirals 
 and Generals at Sea"; nevertheless Cromwell, who knew his men well 
 had made a wise choice. Still such occurrences were the cause of 
 much tension and friction between the officers of the two arms of the 
 service, which formerly used to cause no little inconvenience in the 
 conduct of the war, and has even now not yet wholly disappeared. 
 
 The recruiting of naval officers from among themselves 
 had begun much earlier. At the time of Queen Elizabeth every 
 commandant was entitled to keep on board two servants for every 
 50 men in the crew, and captains of eminent families were allowed 
 double that number. In practice they only kept a part of the number 
 of servants and pocketed their allowances. Nevertheless this system 
 opened a way for youths of good family to enter the navy as cabin- 
 boys. In manoeuvring they were placed amidship between the main- 
 mast and the mizen mast with that part of the crew which was called 
 "waisters" or "midshipmen"; this name was transferred to the lads 
 who worked with them, but under the eye of the captain and were 
 
 8 
 
114 ' THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 taught the duties of the petty officers and of helmsmen. The title 
 of midshipman gave no claim to a higher career. Down to the 
 middle of the i8th century and later, midshipmen were a very mixed 
 company; many remained in this position for decades or even during 
 the whole time of service, or became petty officers, or master's mates, 
 and only a very limited number entered the ranks of officers, little 
 labour having been bestowed on their education for a long time. In 
 order to secure means for recruiting the corps of naval officers 
 Charles II. introduced in 1676 the practice of admitting lads of good 
 family as "Volunteers" with "King's letters," of which every ship 
 was allowed to take on board a fixed proportion according to the 
 size of the ship; they were not to be more than 16 years of age and 
 at once drew £22.10.0. a year pay. Shortly afterwards regulations 
 were made for their promotion to a lieutenancy; viz: three years 
 service at sea, one year of this time as midshipman; age not less 
 than 20, good certificates for service and conduct and passing an 
 examination conducted by three naval officers. 
 
 This is to be regarded as THE FOUNDATION OF THE CORPS OF 
 NAVAL OFFICERS; from that time forward no one could be appointed 
 to the rank of captain, who had not qualified for a lieutenancy, which 
 necessitated a service of several years in the lower ranks. In 1703 
 the number of years of service at sea was doubled by being raised 
 from three to six. Nevertheless there still existed three modes of 
 gaining admission into the corps of naval officers; i. As "Volunteer" 
 for lads of good connections and favoured in the highest quarters; 
 2. As servants in the manner explained above— a kind of appointment, 
 which existed till 1794, and has given to the fleet more than one 
 admiral; for example Admiral of the Fleet Sir Provo Wallis lately 
 deceased at a very advanced age, and finally: 3. As apprentice on 
 merchantmen, whence the lads were transferred to the navj-, a prac- 
 tice, which prevailed down to 1815; this was the introduction that 
 Admiral Benbow had, and also Captain Cook. 
 
 With reasonable talent, skill and good fortune a lieutenancy might 
 be reached by any of these ways, but PROMOTION beyond was very 
 difficult. Sometimes it was by merit, but more commonly by favour 
 and influence of family, relatives and friends, in one word by "interest", 
 which was perhaps never and nowhere so powerful as in England in 
 the 1 8th century and till comparatively lately. 
 
 Down to the time of Charles II. Naval Officers drew pay only 
 during the time that their ship was in commission; and the amount 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 115 
 
 of the salary depended on the rank of the ship. When she was laid 
 up in ordinary, salary and service came to an end from the Admiral 
 down to the cabin-boy; the whole crew dispersed and each went his 
 own way. To prevent this dispersal of the officers HALF PAY was 
 introduced in 1667 for the captains, and some years afterwards also 
 for the senior officers and thus there was founded a PERMANENT STAFF 
 OF NAVAL OFFICERS, whilst Up to that time only warrant officers and 
 pursers had been retained in permanent employment with their ship. 
 In the following year, in 1668, men-of-war were forbidden to carry 
 goods and merchandise for pay; officers were thus no longer exposed 
 to the degrading influences attendant on the gross abuse of this priv- 
 ilege, and the public service was freed from its pernicious effects. 
 To indemnify the commandants for this loss of income. Table Money 
 was allowed them, ranging from £255 for a ship of first rank, to 
 £83. 10. o. for a ship of sixth rank and they were ordered to send 
 in a report of their voyage. In 1693 the pay of all naval officers 
 on board (except the captains who had already been previously pro- 
 vided for) was doubled and half-pay was extended to captains down 
 to ships of the 5th rank and also to all senior masters, who had 
 served at sea for a twelvemonth or had taken part in an engagement; 
 the number of "servants" was considerably reduced and naval officers 
 on half-pay were allowed to travel in foreign countries. In 17 18 the 
 promotion from post captain to the rank of Admiral had been regu- 
 lated according to SENIORITY OF SERVICE, but in 1747 this was super- 
 seded by promotion by selection. Towards the end of the century 
 the system of "servants," which had led to great abuses, was largely 
 restricted, officers being allowed to keep only one twentieth of the 
 number hitherto permitted, but in their stead real cabin-boys of 15 
 to 17 years of age were to be taken on board, and one fifth of these 
 had to be lads of good family "gentlemen volunteers", who expected 
 to become officers and who were to be at least 1 1 years old. Since 
 1844 these "volunteers" have been called "naval cadets," but till 
 about i860 no change was made in the age of admission (12—13 
 years). Up to then there existed two systems of appointments and 
 early training of cadets; some were nominated by the Admiral or 
 Captain and taken on board at once, where they received theoretical 
 teaching from a Naval Instructor and practical training in actual ser- 
 vice; others were nominated by the First Lord of the Admiralty and 
 sent for one year to the Naval College at Portsmouth, which was 
 then under the direction of the able Professor Inman, where they were 
 
116 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 taught principally navig-ation, but became also acquainted with the 
 working of the dockyard; then they were sent on board. 
 
 The rank of SUB-LIEUTENANT was created in 1802 by Admiral Jervis, 
 when he was First Lord of the Admiralty; after 1864 the officers 
 between the midshipmen and the lieutenants were officially designated 
 as "Mates." 
 
 Formerly Admirals and Captains were allowed on being transferred 
 to another ship to take with them, as "followers", a certain number 
 of officers or of the crew; but as this had led to much inconvenience 
 it was abolished together with the usage that the admiral on board, 
 on hauling down his flag, promoted a lieutenant to commander. 
 
 The "Masters," who formerly played an important part on board, 
 but were not counted among the executive naval officers, were orga- 
 nized into an especial branch of the service, THE NAVIGATING BRANCH; 
 they received special training in navigation and could rise to the post 
 of Staff-Captain, but could not become Admirals. The ranks of this 
 branch of the service are: navigating lieutenant, staff-commander, and 
 staff-captain; formerly there was on board of each ship an officer of 
 this class, who was in charge of the whole of the navigation, and of 
 all that pertains to it, and had other particular duties, especially the 
 superintendence of the loading of the ship. This corps was not 
 recruited from the same social stratum as the other naval officers, 
 and this affected their status somewhat awkwardly. In the service 
 too they did not enjoy equal rights, ev'en staff captains ranking on 
 board below lieutenants when on duty. The inconveniences resulting- 
 therefrom being considerable, this branch of the service has been 
 allowed for the last 30 years to die out gradually ; every naval officer 
 is now required to be skilled in navigation also. 
 
 At present there only exist 70 Navigating officers of that branch; 
 the staff-captains being mostly employed in the dockyards and in 
 the hydrographic service, and the younger members as navigating- 
 officers on board large ships. 
 
 Warrant officers are occasionally promoted to the rank of lieutenant 
 as a mark of special distinction; but these cases occur so rarely that 
 they have no influence on the corps of naval officers, which remains 
 practically a closed body and has been recruited in the same spirit 
 since the establishment of the Naval Training College, the "Britannia" 
 at Dartmouth. Now we will describe the system that prevails at 
 present, although some changes are in prospect. 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 117 
 
 2. Present Organization. 
 
 Three times a year in March, July, and December candidates of 
 whom there is never any lack, are admitted to the Entrance Examin- 
 ation. As a rule the First Lord of the Admiralty nominates the 
 candidates, but a few are also nominated by the other Lords and by 
 the Secretary of the Admiralty; moreover there must always be nom- 
 inated six candidates from the colonies on the recommendation of 
 the Colonial Secretary and five sons of naval and military officers, who 
 have died in the service; besides which the two private training ships, 
 the "Conway" and the "Worcester" each have the right to nominate 
 one candidate a year;^ finally every flag officer, on assuming command 
 on board, and every Post-captain on entering on his first command 
 has the right to nominate one candidate who must be at least 12 
 years of age. The following are the l^erms of admission to the exa- 
 mination: the candidate must be 141 to 151 years old, free from 
 bodily defects, and ought, if possible, to be able to swim. The 
 examination is COMPETITIVE, and takes place in London and in Ports- 
 mouth; as a rule no more than one third pass. An examinee, who 
 has failed may try once more. The Examination for a simple i. e. 
 "qualifying" pass, for which the student must at least "satisfy the 
 examiners" comprises the following subjects: Arithmetic, Geometry, 
 Algebra, English, French and Religious Knowledge; the Voluntar>^ 
 subjects, which make it possible to attain a higher place comprise 
 the same three branches of Mathematics, but with more advanced 
 problems, and also Latin, Geography, English History, and Drawing 
 both freehand and geometrical. By way of an example as to the 
 kind of questions given we may quote the following: English Essay: 
 "John Bunyan and his works"; English History: "Description of the 
 Campaigns of Edward I. and Edward II. in Scotland", or, "What 
 were the parts played by Wolsey, More, Cranmer, and Cromwell in 
 the Reign of Henry VIII?" or: "Narrate the chief voyages of disco- 
 very in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and describe their effect on 
 the future history of England"; in Geography: "What is understood 
 by the scale of a map, and in how many different ways is it indicated?" 
 "How may its place be supplied on a map where it is wanting, by 
 means of the latitudes and longitudes of places?" or: "Name instances, 
 
 ^ With some modifications in the terms of admission; see Navy' List. 
 
 The translator. 
 
118 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 where the geographical names have reference to the previous inhabit- 
 ants of the country"; in ReHgious Knowledge: "Short account of 
 the reign of Ahab or Hezekiah, with one or two lessons to be drawn 
 from it", or: "What do you know of Deborah, Naomi and the Queen 
 of Sheba?" Of such questions seven to eight must be answered in 
 History and Religious Knowledge. 
 
 Candidates who have passed, enter the training ship "Britannia" as 
 NAVAL CADETS; the "Britannia" does not merely mean the old wooden 
 vessel of 121 guns launched in i860, but two ships of the line at 
 anchor, joined by a bridge, fitted up internally with comfortable living, 
 sleeping, and schoolrooms; to this accommodation are added rowing 
 and sailing boats of all kinds and a screw sloop, and close by on 
 shore a number of play-grounds. The cadets must themselves defray 
 the cost of their outfit, amounting to about £40 and have to make 
 a yearly payment of £75. Eight cadets at most, if they are sons of 
 officers, or of officials under the Admiralty, and are in somewhat 
 straightened circumstances, may, at the option of the Admiralty, have 
 their fees reduced to £40 a year. Moreover cadets have to defray 
 their personal expenses, such as washing, repairing boots and clothes, 
 pocket money &c. and they receive no pay. 
 
 The period of training on board the "Britannia" lasts four terms; 
 and there are three terms with 13 week's vacation in each year. The 
 education comprises in addition to the usual scientific subjects, the 
 elements of Seamanship, Navigation, and Nautical Astronomy. At 
 the conclusion of each term there is an examination in which special 
 stress is laid upon Seamanship. A lad failing in two examinations, 
 or proving himself otherwise unfit, is discharged. The rank a lad 
 attains in the service depends on the result of his examination; the 
 time spent on the "Britannia" may, if the examination is successful, 
 be counted as a year's sea-time. The best youths of this class at 
 once become MIDSHIPMEX; the others have to earn the post on board 
 by actual service at sea; if they then prove themselves duly quahfied 
 they receive their appointment. In this way out of 125 naval cadets 
 about 116 a year become midshipmen; but this number is now quite 
 insufficient owing to the enormous increase given to the navy it is 
 intended therefore to admit to the examination 190 naval cadets every 
 year with the hope that this will yield 170 midshipmen. 
 
 All those who have passed the "Britannia" are as soon as possible 
 put on board sea-going men-of-war that have a naval instructor 
 on the staff, where their scientific education is continued. Seamanship 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 119 
 
 gunnery and torpedo practice are taught by a lieutenant, machinery by 
 a proficient engineer, and other duties, such as watchkeeping, heaving 
 the log, mustering the watch, working out observations, keeping a log book 
 and the like, are discharged under the superintendence of an officer; 
 each lad is, moreover put in command of a boat, which he has to 
 look after and which gives him frequent opportunities of improving 
 himself, of gaining experience, and of shewing his mettle. A cadet's 
 pay on board is i/ — that of a midshipman 1/9 a day; and his friends 
 must contribute in addition £50 a year, which is paid out to him in 
 periodical instalments with his pay; with this money he is expected 
 to defray his mess and all other expenses. 
 
 The Midshipman must have seen 41 years' SEA- SERVICE before he 
 is admitted to the officers' examination. During the time he spends 
 on board he has to pass yearly examinations in Seamanship, Naviga- 
 tion, Gunnery, Torpedo-practice, Mechanical engineering. Use of instru- 
 ments, and he has to produce his work-book and log; his answers 
 and essays are forwarded by the Commander-in-Chief of the naval 
 station to the Education Board at Greenwich. The OFFICERS' EXAMI- 
 NATION comprises Seamanship, Navigation, Pilotage, Gunnery and 
 Torpedo practice. The examination in Seamanship is conducted orally 
 by three senior naval officers, mostly on board and often in foreign 
 waters; having passed that, the midshipman, now 19 to 21 years old, 
 is made ACTING SUB-LIEUTENANT by the Commander-in-Chief of the 
 station and then he is sent home at the first opportunity to be exa- 
 mined in scientific subjects. There he first of all attends at the Green- 
 wich Naval College, a six weeks' course in Mathematics, Navigation, 
 Surveying, Engineering &c. and he is then examined in Navigation. 
 Upon this follows a short course in Pilotage; next comes a course 
 of one' month's duration in the torpedo training-ship "Vernon" in 
 Portsmouth, and a course of nine weeks' duration in the gunnery 
 training-ship "Excellent" also at Portsmouth. These several periods 
 were reduced in the Autumn of 1895, the deficiency of naval officers 
 making it desirable to draft off the sub -lieutenants as quickly as 
 possible into active service again. 
 
 Repeated failures in any one of these examinations is followed by 
 discharge from the service; on the other hand those who pass high 
 in all branches receive prizes, and the best are promoted to the rank 
 of LIEUTENANT immediately, and the next best after three, six, or 
 nine months. The other sub-lieutenants, who are promoted by seni- 
 ority, remain two, three, or even four years in that rank, according 
 
120 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 to the vacancies that arise ; four years however is the utmost according 
 to regulations. With the present dearth of Officers promotion is rapid. 
 
 It is seen then, that in this most ancient and grandest of all navies 
 great stress is laid on ENTRANCE INTO THE NAVAL SERVICE AT A VERY 
 EARLY AGE; the authorities being convinced that intending naval officers 
 should be accustomed to the privations and hardships of life on board 
 and to the peculiar circumstances and dangers attending a seafaring 
 life before they have been spoiled by the amenities of life ashore, 
 that they SHOULD FEEL AT HOME AND AT EASE ON THEIR SHIP AND 
 ON THE WATER, and not suffer from home-sickness; that on the one 
 hand the habit of prompt and implicit obedience, and on the other, 
 that of acting on emergencies on their own initiative and responsibility 
 should come to them as a second nature. 
 
 Considering the numerous and varied practical and theoretical quali- 
 fications of a naval officer, less value used to be attached to general 
 school education than to the technical training for the exercise of 
 their calling, which was put in the fore -ground. That was all very 
 well in the time of wooden ships-of-the-line and frigates, when the 
 different vessels closely resembled each other in simplicity of struc- 
 ture and internal arrangement, and when the whole armament consisted 
 of smooth bore guns and small arms. During the last 40 years 
 however the scientific and technical attainments demanded of a Naval 
 Officer have risen enormously; modern ships exhibit in build, arrange- 
 ments and armament types of extraordinary difference and variety, 
 and are genuine Works of art with their engines and contrivances 
 amounting sometimes to the number of 100. Merely to UNDERSTAND 
 these requires great familiarity with numerous branches of science. 
 The school education therefore of a naval cadet entering the service 
 at so early an age now no longer suffices for the further studies of 
 a naval officer, and rigidly as the people in England are wont to 
 adhere to tradition and old practice, yet great changes are in prospect. 
 The age of entry has been raised by one year and it is anticipated 
 that the entrance examinations will be stiffer, so that the cadet on 
 quitting the institution at Dartmouth, which is to take the place of 
 the "Britannia" will have laid a foundation for his scientific studies, 
 adequate to the continuance of his technical training. 
 
 The PERIOD OF SERVICE AT SEA that has to precede the appointment 
 to the rank of naval officer will be adhered to, for INTIMACY WITH 
 THE SHIP AND WITH THE SEA, such as is acquired only by long habit 
 is the foundation for that permanently solid performance in all seas 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 121 
 
 and climates during' a protracted absence from home, which is demanded 
 of all officers by the exigences of the English naval service. 
 
 A great stimulus to exertion in the early years is the importance 
 attached to the ATTAINMENT OF A SUB-LIEUTENANCY. It has already 
 been mentioned that the best are made lieutenants immediately or 
 speedily, and that they have the prospects of further promotion; but 
 those who only~ just pass th» examination and either will not or 
 cannot apply themselves to work, may at once renounce all hope 
 of advancement; the subsequent promotions being made by selec- 
 tion and not by seniority, they will remain LIEUTENANTS to the end 
 of their days. 
 
 This rank which has the same relative value as that of a captain 
 or major in the Army, is the only intermediate one between the 
 position of a sub-lieutenant who is a mere subaltern, and that of com- 
 mander; it is therefore .well fdled and at the present moment is held 
 by nearly 900 officers. One may say, the lieutenant is the officer 
 of the watch on board, and is, next to the captain, responsible for 
 the due discharge of all duties on board. Sometimes lieutenants are 
 employed elsewhere; some are, for example, put in command of 
 torpedo-boats and other small vessels, or are employed as teachers 
 and instructors on training ships &c. With the present dearth of 
 officers they are immediately ordered on board after they have passed 
 their examination, and are sent to some naval station, where they 
 find employment on various service as officers of the watch, or of a 
 division of men, or as gunnery or torpedo officers, or in landing 
 parties &c. 
 
 In the autumn of 1895 the deficiency in the number of lieutenants 
 made itself felt so urgently that 100 lieutenants and sub -lieutenants 
 of the Naval Reserve, who had proved their fitness by long service 
 on board of men-of-war were exceptionally appointed as "Supple- 
 mentary Lieutenants and Sub -Lieutenants" thus breaking through 
 the strict regulations of the service, and it looks as if this precedure 
 would continue till the great gaps now existing are filled by the 
 appointment of larger numbers of naval cadets. These supplementary 
 officers have, however, a limited prospect of promotion, and but few 
 will become Commanders, and these quite exceptionally. 
 
 An officer ambitious to advance in his career must distinguish him- 
 self in some special branch of the service; he must become a spe- 
 cialist. Immediately after having- passed his officer's examination the 
 sub-lieutenant may apply for leave to enter the NAVIGATING BRANCH, 
 
122 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 and he may calculate on his admission, if he has passed high in the 
 examination in Navigation and Pilotage; he is then, even when yet 
 sub-lieutenant, employed on board as Navigating Officer, and his salary 
 is increased by i/6 a day. Contrary to the regulation as to Officers 
 of the Navigating Branch in former days, he is entitled to promotion 
 to the highest posts, and if he is unusually able and trustworthy his 
 position offers him good chances of being brought under notice and 
 recommended. 
 
 Lieutenants, who have seen one year's service at sea during their 
 lieutenancy may apply for admission to the GUNNERY AND TORPEDO 
 SCHOOL; this admission also will mainly depend on the result of their 
 examination in these branches; if it is granted, the officer will have 
 to pass through courses of studies of 20 months' duration; beginning 
 with a theoretical course of nine months at Greenwich; viz: from the 
 1st of October to the 30th of June, comprising lower and higher 
 Mathematics, Statics, Mechanics, Physics, Chemistry, Electricity, 
 Mechanical Engineering, Drawing, and Fortification. This is followed, 
 FOR THE STUDENTS OF GUNNERY, by a three months' course in the 
 torpedo training-ship "Vernon" at Portsmouth, ending with a final 
 examination. Next comes a practical course of nearly six months' 
 duration in the gunnery training-ship "Excellent," also terminating 
 with a final examination. (The name "Excellent" has been retained, 
 although the ship in question was given up in 1890, and the institu- 
 tion has been transferred to Whale Island at Portsmouth.) This course 
 of studies deals with Artillery of every kind and position, from the 
 heaviest turret-guns, down to machine-guns; also with field (landing) 
 guns and small arms; likewise with the use of the necessary tools 
 and instruments, practising the crews in the use of these arma- 
 ments and in field as well as torpedo-service; finally the officer has 
 to write theoretical essays and deliver a lecture. 
 
 The STUDENTS OF TORPEDO have to pass through a three months' 
 preHminary course in the "Vernon" followed by a two months' course 
 in the "Excellent" and terminating with a Leaving Examination; 
 next comes a five months' course on the "Vernon" in the practical 
 Torpedo Service and in surveying also concluding with a Leaving 
 Examination. The practical Torpedo Course with its examination 
 deals with Electricity for naval purposes, Whitehead Torpedoes, the 
 general Torpedo and Mining Service including range finding, and 
 gunnery, and also tests the capacity for becoming Instructor. 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 123 
 
 Those who have passed the examination and are found to be 
 bodily fit for it, pass through a 14 days' practice in diving; otherwise, 
 only two days' exercise in the use of divers' dress and of the air- 
 pump. 
 
 The Examination Certificates are numbered i — 3, according to the 
 number of marks obtained, on which will depend the subsequeiit ad- 
 ditional allowances to the pay. Those lieutenants who have gained 
 a FIRST CLASS CERTIFICATE are, as a rule, retained in the training- 
 ship for a year as Instructors and then receive the most coveted ap- 
 pointments as Gunnery or Torpedo Officers on large seagoing vessels, 
 especially on flagships, where they come under the notice of their 
 superiors and have the best opportunity of turning their abilities to 
 account. Gunnery and Torpedo Officers receive, while on board, 
 additional allowances of from 1/6 to 3/6 a day, according to the 
 class of their several certificates. After three years they have to pass 
 through a requalifying course of six weeks in the Gunnery training 
 ship and of 2^ months in the Torpedo training-ship. 
 
 In addition there are also OTHER COURSES OF INSTRUCTION given 
 in these ships; e. g. an eight weeks' course for junior naval officers 
 in gunnery, torpedo practice and mines; other courses again for of- 
 ficers on half pay &c. All midshipmen and naval officers in vessels 
 in home stations are required as far as possible, to pass through 
 such a course, the schools at Devonport and Sheerness being, in ad- 
 dition to the "Excellent," available for gunnery. It is seen then that 
 MUCH is done for the education of naval officers in both these im- 
 portant branches of service, so that men of talent and industry have 
 abundant opportunity of distinguishing themselves even in times of 
 peace and of gaining promotion to higher posts. 
 
 It is diiferent with such studies as the conduct of war, strategy 
 and tactics, the history of naval war, coast warfare &c. for which 
 little provision is made; only occasionally courses of lectures are 
 given on these subjects in the Naval College at Greenwich. The 
 prevailing view is that the lieutenant must become acquainted with 
 naval tactics by practical work in the squadron ; no doubt this is the 
 best school of all, provided always, that the students, who have had 
 no previous theoretical training find abundant opportunity for a thorough 
 study of ALL tactical eventualities which is far from being the case 
 with all these students, and perhaps applies only , to very few of them. 
 A striking instance was afforded in 1893 by the loss off the Syrian 
 
124 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Coast of H. M. S. "Victoria," the flagship of the Mediterranean 
 Squadron.^ 
 
 Able lieutenants, of tried experience and somewhat well connected, 
 who have served from lo to 15 years, of which four years at least 
 must have been spent at sea, may reckon on being promoted to 
 the rank of "Commander." As these appointments are made by 
 selection, great inequalities frequently occur. For example on New 
 Year's Day 1891 fifteen lieutenants received promotion; of these the 
 oldest was already 40 years of age, the youngest only 32, the average 
 age being 361- years; but according to seniority of service, the first 
 was the 60th on the list, the second the 84th and so on; the last 
 the 262nd who was thus promoted over the heads of 247 of his 
 predecessors! Many, as has already been said, never get beyond 
 the rank of lieutenant, partly because considerations of health or of 
 family affairs prevent their serving on foreign stations; of these some 
 join the coast guard, or remain in the service till they have reached the 
 limit of age, their 4Sth year, when they accept their discharge and 
 are pensioned off. Naturally this gives much cause for bickerings 
 and discontent, all the more as it is impossible to avoid old lieute- 
 nants who have been passed over being put under the command of 
 an officer, who had been below them in ranl< and in seniority. 
 
 The COMMANDER is employed as "Executive Officer" in battle-ships 
 or first class cruisers; or as captains of third class cruisers, corvettes 
 and training ships of every size. He must have a minimum of 
 two year^ service, of which at least one year must have been in a 
 seagoing vessel, ere he can become captain; this latter condition is 
 not set aside, even if he has gained distinction in battle such as 
 would have secured advancement. This promotion is also by selec- 
 tion, but passing over the heads of able and industrious officers 
 occurs in these ranks far more rarely than with the lieutenants. 
 Nevertheless of the six commanders promoted to post-captaincies at 
 Christmas 1889 the first was the 43 rd and the last the 86th in the 
 list of seniority; but it must be taken into consideration that of the 
 first 42, most had joined the coastguard and had often been passed 
 over, and that those between the 43rd and 86th had no need to 
 abandon all hopes of advancement. The average age of those promoted 
 in 1891 was 41I years, and the duration of service in their rank was 
 from 6 to 8 years. 
 
 ' Competent judges maintain that this was an accidental mistake of the ablest 
 tactician in the service. The translator. 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 125 
 
 Captains command battle-ships of first and second class, and the 
 important training ships, the "Excellent" and the "Vernon;" some- 
 times they serve as Captains of the Fleet of large squadrons, or as 
 Commodores of small squadrons , or as Heads of Departnients ' in 
 the Admiralty and the like. Their number being greater than is 
 required by the effective services, they are commonly without em- 
 ployment on half pay for three years; at this present time there are 
 59 in that position. 
 
 Captain H. R. H. The Duke of York. 
 
 This period of leisure is generally employed in attending a higher 
 course of studies in the NaVal College at Greenwich, and gunnery 
 and torpedo courses in the above named training ships. When he 
 is afterwards appointed to command a ship, he has to discharge 
 numerous and very various duties, both with respect to the personnel 
 and to the materiel; duties which require a man of weight and OF 
 THOROUGH TRAINING IN ALL BRANCHES OF TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE; 
 for although he is assisted by able officers in the several branches 
 of service, such as Navigation, Gunnery, Torpedo, Mechanical En- 
 
126 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 g-ineering &c., yet he must never be DEPENDENT on them, but must 
 DOMINATE his whole range of duties and responsibilities; in a word, 
 he must be to the whole of the crew, both officers and men, EDUCATOR 
 AS WELL AS INSTRUCTOR. Such functions can be discharged only by 
 the BEST AND ABLEST MEN on board of a modern man-of-war. At 
 first this officer has a salary of about £420, but if he is among the 
 fifty highest men of his rank, his salary amounts to about £615, and 
 
 Emperor William H. 
 
 Honorary Admiral of the Fleet 
 
 inclusive of the additional allowances, which vary from 7/ — to 18/ — 
 a day, it may mount up to £950 a year. At the age of 50 he may 
 claim to be pensioned but this rarely happens; at 55 he is super- 
 annuated and must retire. The pension amounts to about £610 a 
 year. A Captain must remain 15 to 16 years in that rank, before 
 he is promoted; anyone then, who has not attained a Captaincy be- 
 fore he is 40 years of age, has no prospects of being made Admiral. 
 Promotion beyond the rank of Captain is not made by selection, 
 but by seniority; this regulation has not been departed from, even 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 127 
 
 in the case of Nelson. The highest post in the navy however, that 
 of Admiral of the Fleet is awarded by selection. For example 
 H. R. H. Prince Alfred of Great Britain and Ireland, the present Duke 
 of Coburg Gotha is an English Admiral, who had to wait 13 years 
 after attaining his Captaincy, before he could be made Rear Admiral; 
 similarly H. R. H. the Duke of York, the future King of England, 
 who has already been Captain for 5 years and is the 105th on the 
 
 Prince ot Wales. 
 
 list of seniority has to wait till all the men above him, have been 
 promoted or quitted the service before he can become a Rear- 
 Admiral. 
 
 Promotion to the rank of Flag Officer can only occur as vacancies 
 arise, the number of flag officers being limited by regulation; only 
 such admirals, as up to the age of 60 have not actually served in 
 that capacity are compelled to quit the service. The number of flag 
 officers (admirals of various degrees, who are so called because they 
 carrya special flag on board as sign of their office) is 67; viz: 
 
128 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 2 Admirals of the Fleet, 
 lO Admirals, 
 20 Vice Admirals, 
 
 35 Rear Admirals,' so called because formerly they commanded 
 
 67 the rear of large fleets. 
 
 Admirals also do duty, as Commanders-in-Chief and Heads of 
 
 Stations at home and abroad; as Heads or Second in Command of 
 
 large squadrons, as Port Admiral of the four great naval ports; as 
 
 Naval Lords of the Admiralty and as President of the Naval College 
 
 at Greenwich. No Admirals of the Fleet hold command at present. 
 
 Besides the admirals on active duty, nearly two thirds of whom, 47 
 
 in all, are on half pay, the English Navy has two honorary Admirals 
 
 of the Fleet (or as the Germans would call them Admirals of the 
 
 Navy a la suite), viz: His Majesty William II. German Emperor, and 
 
 King of Prussia and His Royal Highness, the Prince of Wales. 
 
 The number of captains of the navy, of whom there were 187 on 
 the i8th of March 1898, is to be raised to 208 in the year 1903, 
 by a yearly increase of three or four; similarly the present number 
 of 284 commanders is to be raised to 304 by a yearly increase of 
 five, and that of the lieutenants from 93 1 to 11 50. The number of 
 sub-lieutenants is not fixed; it depends on the number of lieutenants. 
 Inclusive of the present number of 235 sub -lieutenants, the corps of 
 naval officers now consists of 1 704 members, but is to be increased 
 by the year 1 903 to 1730, exclusive of the sub-lieutenants; if these 
 are added in, the number of naval officers may possibly be 2100 
 or more. 
 
 Scale of Pay of the Officers of the Navy. 
 
 Rank 
 
 Full Pay 
 
 Half Pay 
 
 
 Year of 365 days One day 
 
 Year of 365 days One day 
 
 Admiral of the Fleet . 
 
 5^2190 
 
 £i> 
 
 £\222 15 
 
 £% 7 
 
 Admiral 
 
 sg'1825 
 
 ^500 
 
 af 766 10 
 
 ^■2 2 
 
 Vice-Admiral . . . 
 
 5^1460 
 
 £/[ 
 
 ^593 2 6 
 
 £\ 12 6 
 
 Rear- Admiral 
 
 ^1095 
 
 ^300 
 
 £\S(> 5 
 
 £\ 5 
 
 Commodore of the First Class 
 
 ^1095 
 
 £z 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Captains-To the first 50 . . 
 
 if 602 5 
 
 £1 13 
 
 .^301 2 6 
 
 £0 16 6 
 
 ditto-to the next 50. . . 
 
 ig'501 17 6 
 
 £1 7 6 
 
 ag'264 12 6 
 
 £a 14 6 
 
 ditto-to the remainder . . 
 
 i^4io 12 6 
 
 £1 2 6 
 
 J^228 2 6 
 
 £0 12 6 
 
 Commanders . ... 
 
 5^365 
 
 ^100 
 
 £\i2 10 
 ^155 2 6 
 
 £0 10 or^ 
 
 ag'o 8 6 
 
 ' To each of the first 100, if he has served one year on Full-Pay as Com- 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 129 
 
 
 Rank 
 
 Full Pay 
 
 Half Pay 
 
 
 Year of ^65 days 
 
 One 
 
 day 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 
 Under 8 years' seniority 
 
 ^■182 
 
 10 
 
 £0 
 
 10 
 
 
 £0 4 oi 
 
 
 Of 8 years' seniority and 
 
 
 
 
 
 from 
 
 
 tn 
 
 1 
 
 6 years Service, of which 
 3 have been in a Ship 
 
 > #^219 
 
 
 
 £0 
 
 12 
 
 [ J" 73 
 to J'155 2 6 
 
 .#086 
 
 
 of War at Sea 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 <u 
 
 Of 1 2 years' Seniority and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 9 years' Service, of which 
 
 6 have been in a Ship 
 
 of War at Sea 
 
 [^255 
 
 10 
 
 £0 
 
 14 
 
 according to years of 
 service &c.^ 
 
 Sublieutenants . . . 
 
 j'91 
 
 5 
 
 £0 
 
 5 
 
 s^45 12 6 
 
 £0 2 6 
 
 Midshipmen 
 
 ^31 
 
 18 9 
 
 £0 
 
 I 9 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Na 
 
 val Cadet 
 
 £iS 
 
 5 
 
 £0 
 
 I 
 
 
 — 
 
 To these payments have yet to be added allowances, which vary 
 according to the post filled and are sometimes of very considerable 
 amount. Thus the Commanders-in-Chief on Foreign Stations or at 
 Portsmouth receive 5^1642 a year or £4. 10. o. a day for Table Money; 
 those of Plymouth and the Nore, as well as Commanders-in-Chief of 
 independent Squadrons .£1095 a year or £3 a day; those Second in 
 Command in Foreign Squadrons £730 a year or £2 a day; ditto in 
 Home Squadrons £547.10.0. a year or £1.10.0. a day; the same 
 allowance is also made to the Admiral-Superintendent of the dock- 
 yard at Malta. Admiral-Superintendents of the dockyards at home 
 receive £730 a year or £2 a day; the Admiral of the Naval Reserve 
 draws £1095 or £3 a day. Moreover the Commanders-in-Chief of 
 home Stations receive from £500 to £250 a year as Commuted Allow- 
 ance in lieu of Retinue of Servants, so that the total service-revenue 
 of a Vice- Admiral if he is Commander-in-Chief at Portsmouth amounts 
 to more than £4000 a year; at Plymouth to nearly £3500 a year; 
 the revenue of a Rear-Admiral in charge of any of the three great 
 dockyards at home amounts to upwards of £1850 a year. A Com- 
 modore of the Second Class, if he is a senior post-captain and 
 commander of a squadron abroad draws for Salary, Table Money, 
 Command Money, &c. close upon £1700 a year; a Captain of the 
 Fleet upwards of£iioo; Captain of the "Excellent" draws £866 and 
 
 mander the higher amount. To the remainder and those who have not served 
 as above the lower amount. 
 
 1 In lieu of 8 years read 3 years for Half-Pay. See Navy List. 
 
 ^ For fuller and more detailed information see Navy List. 
 
 9 
 
130 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 so on. The caiDtain of a ship with a crew of more than 400 men, 
 and also the Chief of the Staff of a Squadron receive each an extra 
 allowance of ^335, other captains have smaller allowances, but even 
 those of harbour ships with crews of less than 400 men receive £130 
 a year. Aides-de-Camps to the Queen draw allowances varying in 
 amount; some exceeding" ^€370 a year. 
 
 A Commander if in charge of a Ship of War at Sea draws an 
 additional allowance of £68. 8. 9. a year; if of a harbour ship 
 £4.6. 10. o. a year; as Navigating Officer on board he receives from 
 £74 to £90 a year, and if he is on board a flag-ship he has a still 
 further augmentation of ^€74. 9. o. a year. 
 
 A Lieutenant when in independent command of a ship or tender, 
 draws as command ---money in addition to full pay £68. 8. 9. a year, 
 as Senior Executive Officer on board £45. 12. 6. a year, as Senior 
 Lieutenant on board £2^. 7. 6. a year, as gunnery or torpedo Officer 
 according to the grade of his examination certificate from £27. 7. 6. 
 to £63. 17. 6. a year, for navigating duties £45. 12. 6.; for ditto if of 
 5 years' seniority £54. 15. O.; for ditto if passed for First Class Ships 
 for pilotage, without regard to seniority £73. o. o. and if for naviga- 
 ting duties on a flag-ship as further addition to the latter £54. 15.0., 
 so that even as junior lieutenant his pay may mount up to about 
 £315 a year. 
 
 Also for Surveying Pay considerable sums are set aside. An officer 
 for example, superintending a survey at home draws an extra allow- 
 ance of 13/6 a day; ditto abroad 20/— a day; a Heutenant engaged 
 in a similar duty draws for a survey at home 10/— and abroad 15/- 
 a day; assistant surveyors receive from 2/— to 7/— a day at home 
 and from 2/6 to 8/— a day abroad, and so on. 
 
 Flag Officers and Commodores are very well and even richly 
 provided for; they alone draw TABLE MONEY. As officers holding 
 positions of less seniority do not enjoy this advantage, it seems that 
 the mere pay of lieutenants and subUeutenants is scanty, especially 
 if the reduced purchasing power of money in England is kept in 
 view. The practice of making additional allowances seems perfectly 
 justified, and this all the more as they stimulate the men to increased 
 efforts in their work; on the other hand of course the door is opened 
 wide to favouritism. 
 
 To the corps of naval officers have yet to be added the still sur- 
 viving officers of the NAVIGATING BRANCH which was formed from 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 131 
 
 the former MASTERS or SAILING MASTERS; a body of officers, which 
 is being allowed to die out. There are still living- 15 staff captains 
 and 56 staff commanders; i. e. 71 officers all told, who are to be 
 gradually replaced by a corresponding increase in the number of 
 posts in the executive branch. The staff captains are mostly em- 
 ployed in the dockyards as harbour masters, or on surveys &c. the 
 staff commanders as navigating officers in battleships &c. 
 
 Of the naval officers above enumerated 199 are on half pay, viz: 
 47 admirals, 59 captains, 42 commanders, 40 lieutenants and I staff- 
 commander of the navigating branch; besides these there are 1057 
 officers on RETIRED PAY, that is officers, who have reached the limit 
 of age, or have quitted the service for other reasons. 
 
 Admirals of the fleet ^ are RETIRED at the age of 70; admirals and 
 vice-admirals at the age of 65, or at any age so soon as 10 years 
 have elapsed, since their flag was hauled down, or (if they have not 
 hoisted their flag at all since their service as captain ceased); rear 
 admirals in the same circumstances as those last described at the 
 age of 60 ; flag officers, who have not hoisted their flags as flag- 
 officer are retired at the age of 60. 
 
 Admirals and vice-admirals have the option of retiring at the age 
 of 60, and rear-admirals at the age of 55. 
 
 Captains are to be retired at the age of 5 5 , or at any age , if 7 
 years have elapsed since they last served; they are to have the 
 option of retiring at the age of 50. 
 
 Commanders are obliged to retire at the age of 50, or at any age, 
 if five years have elapsed since they last served; they have the option 
 of retiring at 45, or even at 40. 
 
 Lieutenants are retired at the age of 45, or at any age, if five 
 years have elapsed since they last served; they have the option of 
 retiring at 40. These naval officers draw Retired Pay but no Pen- 
 sion. Pensions are given only to former warrant officers; at present 
 203 in number. 
 
 Of 1057 Naval officers on retired pay, 64 are admirals, 150 are 
 captains, 247 are commanders, 413 are lieutenants, and 14 are sub- 
 lieutenants; 33 are staff-captains, 133 are staff-commanders, naviga- 
 ting- lieutenants and sub-lieutenants; of, the last named there are 
 but three. 
 
 ' See Navy List. 
 
132 THE BRITISH NAVY'. 
 
 b. Officers of the Marines. 
 
 These are recruited like the officers of the army and are subject, 
 on the whole, to the same regulations; the uniform too, barring- a 
 few distinctive badges, is the same. 
 
 Candidates for the ARTILLERY, who must be between i6 and i8 
 years of age, have to pass a competitive examination at the Military 
 Academy at Woolwich ; those who pass are appointed Second Lieute- 
 nants and are sent on to the Naval College at Greenwich for a nine 
 months' course, at the end of which they have to pass an examina- 
 tion; then they go through a practical course in gunnery and the 
 use of torpedoes in the "Excellent" and the "Vernon" at Portsmouth, 
 whence they proceed as lieutenants to do garrison duty at Southsea 
 near Portsmouth till the time of their embarkation. 
 
 Candidates for the INFANTRY have to pass through the same ex- 
 amination as those for artillery, but at the age of between 17 and 19, 
 or even older; the course at Greenwich lasts 9 to 11 months, that 
 on the training ship is omitted. Having passed the examination, 
 they join their corps as lieutenants and go into garrison either at 
 Portsmouth, Plymouth or Chatham. 
 
 Promotion in both branches of this service is by SENIORITY from 
 the lieutenant upwards to the Colonel-Commandant and General. Ser- 
 vice is partly on board, where the marines constitute a part of the 
 regular crew, and partly on shore both at home and abroad in ac- 
 cordance with their motto "Per mare, per terram". As land troops- 
 they find frequent employment in the numerous small wars the country 
 has to wage, at present principally in Africa. 
 
 The Marine Artillery employs: i General, 2 Lieutenant-Generals, 
 I Major-General, 2 Colonels, 4 Lieutenant-Colonels, 14 Majors, 
 35 Captains, 19 Lieutenants and 15 Second-Lieutenants; in all 93 Ar- 
 tillery Officers. The Infantry employs: 2 Generals, 3 Lieutenant- 
 Generals, 5 Major-Generals, 9 Colonels, 13 Lieutenant-Colonels, 42 Ma- 
 jors, 76 CaptainSj 114 Lieutenants, and 22 Second-Lieutenants; in 
 all 284 Infantry Officers, making a total of 377 Officers of the Marines. 
 Officers of higher rank than Majors^ no longer serve on board ship, 
 and the Majors themselves are employed only on Flag ships. On 
 board, "the Marines are, irrespective of their rank, subordinated in 
 every respect to the officer in command and to the officer second- 
 
 ^ Though exceptionally as "Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel." The translator. 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 133 
 
 in-command of the ship. They must never assume command of a 
 ship or boat, except upon express orders; but they are in command 
 of their own troops on board, in everything; that concerns their par- 
 ticular service. 
 
 Full Pay Royal Marine Officers.^ 
 
 Rank 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Infantry 
 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Colonel Commandant 
 
 £no 
 
 
 
 £z 
 
 
 
 ^■702 
 
 12 6 
 
 £1 18 6 
 
 Colonel Second Commandant 
 
 ^479 
 
 I 3 
 
 £1 
 
 6 3 
 
 ^365 
 
 
 
 #100 
 
 Lieutenant Colonel . . . 
 
 £^^% 
 
 10 
 
 £0 
 
 18 
 
 5^328 
 
 10 
 
 £0 18 
 
 Major after 2 years' service . . 
 
 a^292 
 
 
 
 £0 
 
 16 
 
 J^292 
 
 16 
 
 £0 16 
 
 Major under 2 years' service . . 
 
 ^^257 
 
 5 
 
 £0 
 
 14 I 
 
 ^247 
 
 17 II 
 
 £0 13 7 
 
 Captains having Brevet rank . . 
 
 ^257 
 
 5 
 
 £0 
 
 14 I 
 
 ^247 
 
 17 II 
 
 £0 13 7 
 
 Captains . 
 
 ^^■220 
 
 10 5 
 
 £0 
 
 12 I 
 
 ^■211 
 
 7 II 
 
 i^o II 7 
 
 Lieutenant after 10 years' service 
 
 5^142 
 
 19 2 
 
 £0 
 
 7 10 
 
 a^I36 
 
 7 6 
 
 £0 7 6 
 
 Lieutenant after 3 years' service 
 
 ^■124 
 
 T4 2 
 
 £0 
 
 6 10 
 
 afll8 
 
 12 6 
 
 jg'o 6 6 
 
 Lieutenant under 3 years' service 
 
 £io\ 
 
 17 II 
 
 £0 
 
 5 7 
 
 ^95 
 
 16 3 
 
 ^0 5 3 
 
 Second Lieutenant . . . . 
 
 ^95 
 
 16 3 
 
 £0 
 
 5 3 
 
 ^95 
 
 16 3 
 
 £0 5 3 
 
 Colonels 
 
 Lieutenant Colonels after 5 years' 
 service, who are qualified for 
 retired pay 
 
 Other Lieutenant Colonels . . . 
 
 Majors 
 
 Captains^ 
 
 Lieutenant after 10 years' service 
 
 Lieutenant after 3 years' service 
 
 Lieutenant under 3 years' service 
 
 Half Pay Royal Marine Officers. 
 ^300 o o 
 
 ^450 o o 
 
 ^212 18 4 
 
 ig'182 10 o 
 
 .^133 16 8 
 
 ^85 3 4 
 
 ^76 o 10 
 
 ^57 15 10 
 
 ^300 
 
 .^450 o o 
 
 ^200 15 o 
 
 a^i73 7 6 
 
 ^127 15 o 
 
 ^■82 2 6 
 
 £7i o o 
 
 £S'i 15 o 
 
 The LIMIT OF AGE for compulsory retirement from the service is 
 for Generals 65 years, for colonels 60 years, for lieutenant-colonels 
 54 years, for majors 48 years, for captains 42 years. All these of- 
 ficers receive pensions ranging- from £750 to £225 (see Navy List). 
 
 Special pensions are paid and regulations made for optional retire- 
 ment after 12 to 30 years' service, for virhich the reader is referred 
 to the Navy List. In some cases officers receive considerable gra- 
 
 ' For further and more detailed information see Navy List. 
 2 Captains with Brevet rank having served ? years as Captain R. M. A. ^152 i 8, 
 R. M L. I. ^^146 o o. The translator. 
 
134 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 tuities, or may, with the consent of the Admiralty, commute their 
 pensions; this commutation sum amounts sometimes to nearly 
 £2450. o. o. 
 
 c. Engineers. 
 
 The decided aversion of English naval officers to innovations of 
 every kind led to a tardy adoption of steam as motive power for 
 ships. Naval officers of the old stamp had a rooted dislike to machi- 
 nery and all that pertains to it, which had an adverse effect on the 
 introduction of machinery in the navy, and on the formation of the 
 corps of Naval Engineers; and although in 1842 the navy already 
 possessed 29 steamers with engines up to 320 nom. H. P., yet the 
 leading engineer held only the rank of a warrant officer lower than 
 the carpenter. The NUMBER of engineers also was small and for the 
 exigencies of war quite inadequate. In the stress of the Crimean 
 war they were forced to engage whatever men they could get and 
 at high pay; the chief engineer of a gunboat receiving £16 a month. 
 
 From that time forward steamers only were considered useful in 
 war, and engineers were engaged in great numbers. In 1863 steamers 
 had no machinery on board except the engines and even these were 
 used as little as possible, sails being preferred; but for all that there 
 were employed in the navy no less than 1356 engineers; for example 
 the frigate "Inconstant", had as many as ten engineers on her staff, 
 and so on with other ships. In the same year the training of engi- 
 neers was regulated much on the lines followed to this day. 
 
 In the years of peace that followed, the old discarded practices 
 were again reverted to; in 1868 "Engine-Room Artificers" were in- 
 troduced for the manipulation and repair of the engines and the 
 number of engineers was rapidly reduced; in 1889/90 their number 
 had sunk to 642, that of the engine-room-artificers having risen to 
 1289. At present the number of engineers on board is very small, 
 too small indeed, considering that their sphere of work, the number 
 of their multifarious duties and their consequent importance has enorm- 
 ously risen during the last 25 years. Ships are no longer propelled 
 by sails, and depend for their motion wholly upon the engines; the 
 number of steamers is very much greater, and many ships carry 
 small torpedo-boats; the ship is steered, loads are moved on board, 
 and bilge pumps are worked by machinery. Mechanical contrivances 
 are similarly required for generating light for the ship and for search- 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 135 
 
 lights, for turning the armoured turrets, and often also for hoisting 
 the ammunition. So largely has the introduction of machinery in- 
 creased, that some ships have more than one hundred different 
 machines in use, and at the same time the complicated structure of 
 modern vessels has greatly added to the responsibilities of engineers. 
 In the present day the HEAD ENGINEER of a ship is in charge of: 
 
 1. the engines and boilers; 
 
 2. the engines and boilers of tenders and torpedo boats; 
 
 3. all auxiliary engines, whose number sometimes exceeds lOO; 
 
 4. all the pumps, inclusive of the extensive and complex pipe 
 connections ; 
 
 5. the distilleries (for the preparation of drinking water); 
 
 6. the turning gear for armoured turrets, guns and gun-carriages, 
 as well as the mechanism (hydraulic) for working the guns, 
 hoisting the ammunition &c. ; 
 
 7. the torpedoes with their engines, and the mechanism for using 
 and discharging them, as well as the air-compressors and ap- 
 purtenances; 
 
 8. the ventilation arrangements; 
 
 9. the capstans; 
 
 10. the steam steering-gear; 
 
 11. the steam-winches; 
 
 12. the steam fire-engines with hose and appurtenances; 
 
 13. the hydraulic lifting gear; 
 
 14. the engine-room telegraph; 
 
 15. the ash-hoists; 
 
 16. the engines for generating electric lights for the ship, search- 
 lights and signals; 
 
 17. the ice-machines; 
 
 18. all the contrivances for flooding any part of the ship in fire- 
 emergencies, e. g. : the magazines ; 
 
 19. the double bottom and all other portions of the ship, which 
 are more or less difficult of access and in danger of rust; 
 
 20. all the watertight doors and fastenings of every kind. 
 
 To these have yet to be added the spare gear for the dififerent 
 engines, the tools, the store of coals, the lubricating substances and 
 finally the superintendence of the attendants on the several engines, 
 the number of which sometimes exceeds one hundred. 
 
 From this it is evident that the performance of a ship in almost 
 every direction , as well as the use of the armament, and the internal 
 
136 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 comfort, depend wholly oir in part on the head engineer; the extent 
 of his labours and of his numerous, manysided, and grave respon- 
 sibilities are well nigh overwhelming. To be able to do justice to 
 himself and to his work he needs to be supported by a numerous 
 and efficient staff, and to hold pecuniarily and socially a position 
 commensurate with the importance of his work. This is what naval 
 officers do not yet understand; they are still victims of the old aver- 
 sion to mechanical engineers (engine drivers as they used to call 
 them) and it will want the lessons of a war to open their eyes. ^ 
 
 The EDUCATION of engineers however has been planned on right 
 lines over since 1863, and it is even now being steadily improved, 
 the practical and scientific qualifications demanded of an engineer 
 being very high. 
 
 Engineers are RECRUITED much in the same way as the corps of 
 naval officers; the candidate does not pass through the earlier stages 
 on board ship, but enters his practical duties at once as assistant 
 engineer; this post is gained by open COMPETITIVE examinations, 
 which are held yearly and simultaneously in different large centres 
 in Great Britain, the Admiralty reserving to itself the right to nomi- 
 nate a few candidates whilst three are reserved for the colonies. Al- 
 though the engineers are not without grievances yet there is no lack 
 of applicants. These must be between 14 and 17 years of age and 
 free from bodily defects. 
 
 The ENTRANCE EXAMINATION is very similar to that of naval cadets, 
 but in the Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry the demands are 
 somewhat higher; they include Arithmetic, the elements of Geometry 
 and Algebra, of Physics and Chemistry, English Composition &c. ; 
 also French, German or Italian, Geography and free hand drawing. 
 Candidates being admitted irrespective of their family connections 
 and social position their status at the officers' mess and in other 
 respects is not enviable. The examinees who pass are admitted into 
 the navy as ENGINEER STUDENTS and are sent on the ist of July to 
 the Royal Engineers' College at Keyham, which is part of the Devon- 
 port Dockyard. There they live and are provided with spacious 
 playgrounds and boats of various kinds; their courses of study, which 
 are under the supervision of the Admiral Superintendent, last five years, 
 
 '■ Our author is somewhat too pessimistic in this case; the naval officers were 
 loud in the praise of the heroism of the engine-room staff in the ill-fated "Vic- 
 toria." The translator. 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 137 
 
 with six weeks' vacations each year. The friends of the student have 
 to defray the expenses of his uniform and other outfit, as well as 
 his current expenses such as washing &c. and they pay £40 a year; 
 out of this the lads receive a small allowance for pocket-money, be- 
 ginning with 1/— a week, and rising gradually to 5/"" ^^.d finally 
 8/— a week. 
 
 The EDUCATION is pre-eminently PRACTICAL; the first three years 
 are spent in the machine shops of the Dockyard, in the construction 
 of gun, torpedo, and electric lighting machinery; the fourth year is 
 devoted to boiler construction, building of iron ships, castings, copper- 
 smith work, and model making; of the fifth year six months are 
 spent on board ship in making repairs, and six months in the Draw- 
 ing Office. In every workshop the student is required to produce a 
 test article of his own making. The instruction in building of iron 
 ships is given by the Chief Constructor of the Dockyard. In ad- 
 dition to all this, THEORETICAL teaching is given in the schools on 
 two mornings and three evenings in each week; like the practical 
 teaching it comprises all branches of engineering, viz: engines, boi- 
 lers, auxiliary machinery, electric and hydraulic apparatus, torpe- 
 does &c. Every year an examination is held at Greenwich under 
 the superintendence of the President of the Naval College there; it 
 covers Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, History and Geography, 
 French, Statics and Hydrostatics; in the second and subsequent years 
 practical skill in the manipulation of machinery is also tested. The 
 LEAVING EXAMINATION at the end of the fifth year is conducted- 
 by mechanical engineers of the steam-reserve in the Dockyard, and 
 is on the manipulation of engines; that on practical work is con- 
 ducted by the Chief Engineer of the Dockyard, and on the other 
 branches by the Director of Studies. In the theoretical studies the 
 following subjects are optional. The Differential and Integral Calculus, 
 Mechanics, Thermo-dynamics, Metallurgy, and Construction of Machin- 
 ery. It is clear from this enumeration that the course of studies is very 
 comprehensive. The EXAMINATION CERTIFICATES are of three grades, 
 and according to these the school years count as twelve, six, or 
 three months' service. A student who fails in the examination is 
 dismissed. 
 
 Those who pass are appointed as "Probationary Assistant Engineers" 
 in the Steam-Reserve in the dockyard, and are employed on board; 
 and if after a twelve months' trial they have given satisfaction they 
 receive their final appointment as "Assistant Engineers." The best 
 
138- THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 of the successful examinees, that is to say, those who have earned 
 60% of the marks obtainable, are sent on the ist of October to the 
 Naval College at Greenwich, to continue their theoretical studies in 
 a further course of nine months' duration. 
 
 From the examination lists on this last course the two best 
 men are chosen to go through two more theoretical courses so as 
 to become Naval Constructors. Then they have to undergo one year's 
 sea-service, and are eligible for an appointment at the Admiralty. 
 Those who at the difficult final examination at Greenwich have earned 
 a certificate of first or second grade are received in the CORPS OF 
 NAVAL CONSTRUCTORS, as Assistant Constructors of the Third Class. 
 This rank they hold for four years and are eventually employed in 
 the dockyards abroad; if they conduct themselves well and discharge 
 their duties satisfactorily they are in due time promoted and become 
 Assistant Constructors of the Second Class, and ultimately by selec- 
 tion of the First Class. Those who at the final examination at Green- 
 wich have earned a certificate of the first grade may arrive at this 
 last post by the end of the fifth year. 
 
 Candidates may adopt this career by entering the Naval College 
 at Keyham direct; but the standard for these is considerably higher; 
 at the final examination after the five years of study Conies, higher 
 Mathematics and applied Mechanics are OBLIGATORY, great stress being 
 laid on PRACTICAL naval construction in all its branches, in the 
 drawing-office, in the workshop, in the moulding lott and in the 
 practice on the blocks. Those who pass well may also go for three 
 years to the Naval College at Greenwich. They are then admitted 
 into the Corps of Naval Constructors only on condition that they 
 pass well the Greenwich Examinations. After that they are subjet 
 to the same regulations as the other students. 
 
 There is another road of admission into the Corps of Mechanical 
 Engineers even without attending the School for Naval Engineers at 
 Keyham. Candidates between 20 and 23 years of age of good con- 
 duct, who have studied with success at one of the higher technical 
 colleges may be appointed as PROBATIONARY ASSISTANT ENGINEERS, 
 if they pass a special examination at Greenwich, in which Statics, 
 Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, Pneumatics, and Dynamics are obligatory; 
 higher Mathematics and Machine-Construction are optional subjects; 
 if they gain a certificate of the first class they may be admitted to 
 the further course at the Naval College at Greenwich on the same 
 conditions as apply to the other students at Keyham. 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 139 
 
 Even without the above mentioned examinations, candidates may 
 be appointed, if they possess good certificates from some technical 
 college and pass successfully an easy practical examination, but then 
 their certificate is only of the Third Class; this excludes them from 
 the Naval College at Greenwich but leads to an immediate appoint- 
 ment to practical work with the rank of Probationary Assistant En- 
 gineer. Moreover the Admiralty has reserved to itself th^ TEMPORARY 
 appointment of juniur civil engineers possessed of the necessary 
 practical and theoretical attainments as Assistant-Engineers, who may 
 at any time, when their services are no longer required, be discharged 
 with a compensation payment of six months' salary. 
 
 When the assistant-engineer has served three years he may apply 
 to be examined for the post of ENGINEER. The examination may 
 take place at home or abroad; it is conducted by two or three 
 mechanical engineers of high rank in presence of the superintendent 
 of the dock -yard reserve, or of the Captain of the ship, as the case 
 may be. The examinee must be fully able to discharge the duties 
 of an engineer and have such mastery of the mechanism of the 
 engines, that he can deal even with special occurrences and be fit 
 to undertake the sole charge of an engine. The appointment of 
 engineer can only be bestowed upon an assistant-engineer after five 
 years' service, and then he is employed as officer of the watch on 
 large ships, or as engineer in charge on small ships. 
 
 To gain the next step of promotion, viz: that of CHIEF ENGINEER 
 there is required: i. at least a three years' service as Engineer in 
 charge on a sea going ship-of-war; 2. the passing of one more ex- 
 amination before a board constituted like that just described. This 
 examination is to prove intimate acquaintance with all the different 
 kinds of ship's engines and boilers; and with the calculations of their 
 capacity of performance; also skill in drawing portions of engines, 
 working drawings, and ability to discharge all the functions of super- 
 intending engineer. The certificates awarded are as usual of three 
 grades. The appointment of chief engineer however can only be 
 gained by those who have earned a certificate of the Naval College 
 at Greenwich, unless special exemption is granted by the Admiralty. 
 
 This concludes the series of examinations for members of the corps 
 of naval engineers. It will be seen, that nobody can enter the higher 
 ranks, who has not passed the final Examination at Keyham at least 
 "zf^//" and has moreover gone through at least one higher scientific 
 course at Greenwich. 
 
140 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 The next step of promotion, that of STAFF-ENGINEER requires four 
 years' service as chief-engineer and nothing else, and to become 
 FLEET-ENGINEER there are needed eight years' service either as staff- 
 engineer or as chief-engineer. Holders of these rank are employed 
 as superintending engineers upon ships, the fleet-engineers being 
 engaged on the largest vessels and on flag-ships. 
 
 Up to this point PROMOTION goes by SENIORITY, provided that all 
 the conditions above described are fulfilled, the next advance, viz: 
 to the post of INSPECTOR OF MACHINERY follows Upon selection; but 
 only such officers are eligible, as have held posts of at least chief- 
 engineer for a minimum period of five years, inclusive of two years' 
 service as superintending engineer. Promotion to the highest post 
 of all, viz: that of CHIEF-INSPECTOR OF MACHINERY is again awarded 
 by seniority; the only qualification being a long and meritorious time 
 of service. The inspectors and chief-inspectors of machinery are 
 employed as directors of engine works in the dockyards both at 
 home and abroad, and also in the fleet- and dockyard reserves. 
 
 It is seen then that naval engineers are taken through such a wide 
 range of studies, both theoretical and practical, with standards of at- 
 tainments so high in each, that only men of close application and 
 strenuous endeavour can hope to succeed. These qualities English 
 engineers possess in an eminent degree, although their status, com- 
 pared with that of other branches of the naval ser^-ice, leaves much 
 to be desired. Their promotion is slow and their pay is compara- 
 tively low. The assistant engineer has to remain about 4 years in 
 that post; the engineer at least seven years in his; it thus requires 
 seventeen years at least, counted from the day of entry, before the 
 post of chief-engineer is reached. Both this latter officer and the 
 staff-engineer have to remain in their respective ranks four years and 
 the fleet-engineer eight years. It takes then about 33 years of ser- 
 vice to rise to the rank of inspector of machinery. 
 
 On the 1st of October 1896 the navy employed five chief inspec- 
 tors of machinery, one of these and he NOT the eldest, was the En- 
 gineer-in-Chief of the whole navy and Head of the Engineering 
 Department of the Admiralty; eight inspectors of machinery, 121 fleet- 
 engineers, 78 staff-engineers, 79 chief-engineers, 298 engineers, and 
 216 assistant-engineers, making a total of 805 members of the corps 
 of engineers; 67 of these or 8-3% of the whole number, which are 
 distributed amongst all the ranks, have gone through the special 
 course of naval architecture at Greenwich. One of these is the En- 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 141 
 
 gineer-in-Chief, the Adviser to the Admiralty. In addition to all these 
 there were employed 35 assistant-engineers holding temporary ap- 
 pointments. 
 
 Table of full pay and half pay of the naval Engineers. 
 
 
 
 Full Pay 
 
 
 Half Pay 
 
 Rank 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One 
 
 day 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Chief Inspector of Machinery . 
 
 £710 
 
 
 
 £2 
 
 
 
 j'438 
 
 5^1 4 
 
 Inspector of Machinery . 
 
 ^■638 
 
 15 
 
 £1 
 
 15 
 
 5^401 10 
 
 £1 2 
 
 Fleet, Staff & Chief Enginers . 
 
 #255 
 
 10 
 
 £0 
 
 14 
 
 i^i27 15 
 
 J^O 7 
 
 rising for every 2 years' service 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 at first by ^18 5. a year and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 afterwards by ^^36. 10. 0. a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 year up to 
 
 ^474 
 
 10 
 
 £1 
 
 6 
 
 ^■328 10 
 
 £0 18 
 
 Engineers .... 
 
 ^164 
 
 5 
 
 £0 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 rising every 3 years by ^^ 18. 5. 0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 till after 9 years the maximum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 is reached of . 
 
 ^219 
 
 
 
 £0 
 
 12 
 
 5^109 10 
 
 £060 
 
 Assistant-Engineers . . 
 
 af 109 
 
 10 
 
 £0 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Ditto. After i years' confirmed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 service 
 
 £n(' 
 
 17 6 
 
 £0 
 
 7 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Probationary Assistant Engineers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 on entry' . 
 
 i£io<) 
 
 10 
 
 £0 
 
 60 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 The head engineers receive additional allowances, which vary, ac- 
 cording to the class of the ship and the regulations of the Admiralty, 
 from £18. S- O. to £164. 5. O. a year; those on flag-ships receive a 
 further augmentation of from £45. 12. 6. to £91. 5. o. ; senior engineers 
 doing duty on a ship with engines of 3000 H. P. or more have a 
 still further increase of £36. 10. O. a year; the head engineers on 
 ships of the fleet- and dockyard reserves draw half this amount, and 
 the corresponding inspectors and chief-inspectors of machinery draw 
 £54. 15.0. a year besides. 
 
 The Retired Pay of engineers varies according to age, years of 
 service, and ranlc from about £50 a year for assistant engineers to 
 £5 50 a year for Chief-inspectors of machinery. Engineers ^ and assistant- 
 engineers retire compulsorily at 40 and 45 respectively; chief-, stafF- 
 
 1 Subsequently 5^136. 17. 6. a year=7/6 a day, subject to special regulations; 
 see Navy List. 
 
 2 See Navy List. 
 
142 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 and fleet-engineers retire optionally at 50, compulsorily at 55; inspec- 
 tors and chief-inspectors of machinery optionally at 55, compul- 
 sorily at 60. 
 
 d. Surgeons. 
 
 The Medical Service in the English navy had been for a long- 
 time in a sad state, in consequence of which a mortality truly ap- 
 palling occurred from time to time. In Cromwell's time Admiral 
 Blake succeeded in effecting a temporary amelioration, but after him 
 surgeons' posts were again obtained by purchase and remained so 
 in spite of the apointment of a Surgeon General of the Navy in 1664. 
 Medicines and drugs were bought by the surgeon or the paymaster, 
 presumably not without some commission for themselves, and the 
 regulation of 1703 that all medicines, drugs, instruments &c. should 
 be officially inspected in London before being received on board, 
 caused great indignation. Down to the present century surgeons held 
 a very subordinate position in the service; not till 1808 were they 
 ranked higher than the warrant officers and put on a level with the master 
 and paymaster. At present their status is that of Higher Officials. 
 
 The career of a naval surgeon is open to every native born English- 
 man, who has gained the necessary qualifications for the post in ac- 
 cordance with the official regulations. He must be of PURE EUROPEAN 
 BLOOD, between 21 und 28 years of age, and free from bodily defect. 
 He must produce certificates of good conduct and morals, and be 
 willing to do service in all quarters of the globe. Candidates are 
 inspected at the Admiralty, and have to pass a COMPETITIVE EXAMIN- 
 ATION in which Medicine, Surgery, Anatomy, Physiology, the ele- 
 ments of Chemistry, and Materia Medica, are obligatory, and Biology, 
 Physics, Physical Geography, French and German are optional. Those 
 who pass are appointed at once as naval surgeons with a salary of 
 £209. 17. 6. a year (11/6 a day); the status in the service depends 
 on the result of the examination. Next they have to pass through 
 a course of instruction on the practice of hygiene on board ship, 
 given at the great hospital at Haslar near Portsmouth. Afterwards 
 on the recommendation of the Medical Director General of the Navy, 
 they are employed in the service either on large ships as assistants 
 of the senior medical officer, or even as ship's surgeons in smaller 
 vessels, if they are somewhat older men; or on shore in naval hos- 
 pitals or dockyards both at home and abroad. 
 
 After twelve years' active service, during which time his salary has 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 143 
 
 risen to £282. 17.6. a year (15/6 a day), he is promoted and becomes 
 staff surgeon with a salary of £383.5.0. a year (£1.1.0. a day); 
 every year one and only one medical officer may, on account of 
 eminent services, be exceptionally promoted by the Admiralty after 
 a shorter number of years of service, provided always that there 
 should never be more than eight officers so promoted in the corps 
 of naval surgeons. The staff surgeons are employed as senior medical 
 officers on ships of all sizes. 
 
 The senior medical officer or the SHIP'S SURGEON must visit the 
 patients on board at least twice a day, and has to look after the 
 health of the crew and the sanitary condition of the vessel and even- 
 tually to make suggestions to the Commanding Officer concerning 
 drinking water, the diet of the men, ventilation &c. 
 
 Every man, who enters the service for the first time he examines 
 medically, re-vaccinates him, and enters on a special register the 
 changes, if any, in the man's state of health as they occur; this 
 register is bound to be preserved among the personal papers of the 
 man. In addition to the register of his patients the surgeon has to 
 keep an accurate diary, recording the sanitary condition of the ports 
 visited, the diseases prevalent in them, and their mode of treatment, 
 also the medicines or other non-official restoratives used, their effect- 
 iveness, preparation and mode of employment, and to make minute 
 and accurate reports thereon. 
 
 After twenty years' active service and upon the recommendation 
 of the Medical Director General of the staff, the surgeon is promoted 
 to the rank of fleet surgeon. In this case also an earlier promotion 
 is permitted, but only once every other year and with the limitation 
 that no more than six officers so promoted should exist in the whole 
 corps. Fleet surgeons render medical service on the largest ships 
 and on flagships and medical officers of higher rank are not employed 
 on board ship at all. 
 
 From the body of fleet surgeons are selected according to capacity 
 and merit the DEPUTY-INSPECTORS GENERAL OF HOSPITALS AND FLEETS. 
 These do duty on shore as surgeons of stations and superintendents 
 of hospitals; as a rule they serve first three years abroad and after- 
 wards at home. Service of three years abroad or of five years at 
 home is the condition for promotion to the highest post, that of 
 INSPECTOR GENERAL OF HOSPITALS AND FLEETS, of whom there are 
 only two in existence; these are the heads of the naval hospitals at 
 Haslar and Portsmouth. 
 
144 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 There are 12 deputy inspectors g'eneral of hospitals and fleets, 52 fleet 
 surgeons, ill staff surgeons, 232 surgeons, making, inclusive of the 
 Medical Director general of the navy, a total of 410 Surgeons of the Navy. 
 Table of full pay and half pay of naval Surgeons. 
 
 Rank 
 
 Full Pay 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Half Pay 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Inspector General 
 
 Deputy Inspector General . 
 
 ditto On promotion . . 
 
 After 2 years' full pay service 
 
 in rank ... . . . 
 
 After 4 years' ditto . 
 
 Fleet Surgeon: 
 
 On promotion 
 
 After 2 years' full pay service 
 
 in rank 
 
 After 4 years' full pay service 
 
 in rank 
 
 After 6 years' full pay service 
 
 in rank . . ... 
 
 After 8 years' full pay service 
 
 in rank 
 
 Staff Surgeon: 
 
 On promotion 
 
 After 4 years' full pay service 
 
 in rank 
 
 After 2 years' full pay service 
 
 in rank ■ . . . 
 
 After 4 years' full pay service 
 
 in rank 
 
 After 6 years' full pay service 
 
 in rank 
 
 Surgeons : 
 
 On Entry 
 
 Under 2 years' full pay service . 
 After 2 years' full pay service . 
 After 4 years' full pay service . 
 After 6 years' full pay service . 
 After 8 years' full pay service . 
 After 10 years' full pay service . 
 
 ,5^1003 15 o 
 ^■766 10 o 
 
 £2 15 o 
 ^220 
 
 2 15 o 
 
 ^547 10 o 
 
 ^^■602 5 o 
 
 ^383 S o 
 
 ,^438 o o 
 
 1^209 17 6 
 
 ^246 7 6 
 3^282 17 6 
 
 ^170 
 
 £1 10 o 
 
 £\ 13 o 
 
 £\ 40 
 
 £0 II 6 
 
 £0 13 6 
 £a 15 6 
 
 ^693 ID O 
 
 ^■456 5 O 
 
 5^492 IS o 
 ^529 5 o 
 
 ^310 5 o 
 
 ^346 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 ^365 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^■219 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^237 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 ^255 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 £^11 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 jfi09 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 £\21 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 J'146 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^164 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 £\i2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 s^200 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 £1 5 o 
 
 £\ 7 o 
 £1 90 
 
 £0 17 o 
 £0 18 o 
 £0 19 o 
 J^I o o 
 
 ^O 12 O 
 
 £0 13 O 
 £0 14 o 
 £a 15 o 
 
 £0 6 o 
 ^070 
 £0 ?> o 
 £0 9 o 
 £0 10 o 
 £0 II o 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 145 
 
 The senior medical officer (being a fleet or staff surgeon) of a flag 
 ship bearing the flag of a Commander-in-Chief on a foreign station 
 is allowed 5/— a day in addition to full pay. The senior medical 
 officer (being a fleet or staff surgeon) of the ship of a commodore 
 or a senior officer commanding a foreign station, is allowed 2/6 a 
 day in addition to full pay. 
 
 Retired Pay and Gratuities — Medical 
 
 Officers. 
 
 
 
 Rank 
 
 Gratuities 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Surgeon and Staff Surgeon: 
 
 
 
 
 
 After 8 years' full pay service ... 
 
 ifflOOO 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 After 12 years' full pay service .... 
 
 ^1500 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 After 16 years' full pay service .... 
 
 ^2250 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 Fleet Surgeon: 
 
 
 
 
 
 After 20 years' service (including propor- 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion of half pay time) 
 
 — 
 
 ^365 
 
 
 
 £1 oi 
 
 After 24 years' service (including propor- 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion of half pay time) . ... 
 
 — 
 
 ig'410 li 
 
 6 
 
 £1 2 61 
 
 After 27 years' service (including propor- 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion of half pay time) 
 
 — 
 
 4^456 5 
 
 
 
 £1 5 0' 
 
 After 30 years' service (including propor- 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion of half pay time) 
 
 — 
 
 ^547 10 
 
 
 
 £1 10 o2 
 
 Deputy Inspector General 
 
 — 
 
 ^638 15 
 
 
 
 £1 15 
 
 Inspector General . .... 
 
 — 
 
 ^730 
 
 
 
 i^2 
 
 Incapacity for service, contracted in service of less than 20 years, 
 gives title to half-pay. 
 
 Surgeons in receipt of full pay are not allowed to accept fees of 
 any kind for service rendered. ' 
 
 e. Naval Chaplains. 
 
 In remote times it has been customary in the English navy to 
 conduct prayer twice a day, and to sing a hymn or a psalm on 
 relieving guard; nevertheless it was not till 1626 that orders were 
 issued that a clergyman should be on board of every ship, and even 
 then these orders were not always rigorously adhered to. Many a 
 
 1 To obtain this rate an officer must hold the commission of ileet surgeon. 
 
 2 Or on compulsory retirement at the age of 55. 
 
 10 
 
146 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 commander of a vessel found it inconvenient, that the clerg-yman on 
 board should keep a diary by which the occurrences during- the 
 voyage might become known to undesirable third parties. The posi- 
 tion of a clergyman on board was also for a long time an unenviable 
 one; he as well as the surgeon were paid out of deductions made 
 from the men's wages, and during a combat they had their place in 
 the cockpit with the wounded. Subsequently when an officers' mess 
 was introduced (for the lieutenants) the clergyman very often was 
 not admitted. Take it as you may, the position of a clergyman on 
 board is not an easy one; and with the coarseness of those bygone 
 days it was specially difficult; those gentlemen moreover may pos- 
 sibly not have always conducted themselves with the propriety due 
 to their cloth; still, on the whole, their influence has been highly 
 beneficial and many a one has distinguished himself during combat 
 and in times of danger. 
 
 The SERVICE of the clergy was as early as the end ot the 17th 
 century similar to that of the present day. He preached every morn- 
 ing on the quarter-deck, conducted prayer in the afternoon and 
 moreover taught the cadets and midshipmen, and he watched over 
 the literature introduced on board. It was not till the present century 
 that the status of the clergyman on board, who very often is also 
 naval instructor, has been suitably regulated. 
 
 Any one desirous of being appointed naval chaplain must have 
 been ordained as deacon or priest in the Church of England, and 
 must bring certificates from the bishop of his diocese; or he must 
 have been duly and lawfully appointed preacher in a church allied 
 to the Church of England. He must not be more than 35 years of 
 age and must not be the holder of a benefice; moreover he must 
 be sound in body, fitted for his office, and ready and willing to 
 proceed to any part of the world he may be sent to, and also to 
 do duty ashore on foreign stations. 
 
 Having passed the examination prescribed by the Admiralty he is 
 appointed NAVAL CHAPLAIN with a salary of £219.0.0. a year (12/— 
 a day); after S years' service this is raised to £237. 5. o. (13/- a 
 day), then successively every three years the salary rises by l/- a 
 day, till after 20 years' service it has risen to 18/- a day (£328. 10. O. 
 a year); from now forward the rise of i/- a day takes place yearly, 
 till after 24 years' service the highest amount is reached, viz: £401. 10. O. 
 a year (£1.2.0. a day). A chaplain does not hold any military rank, 
 but he has a marine allotted to him as his personal servant. He 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 147 
 
 has no' clerical superior over him, but the chaplain of the fleet exer- 
 cises some slight supervision. 
 
 The DUTIES OF HIS SERVICE require him to conduct prayer every 
 morning after the crew are mustered and to hold Divine Service 
 every Sunday, using the Liturgy of the Church of England, the naval 
 schoolmaster playing the harmonium, and the choir, formed from 
 among the crew, singing the hymns &c. He is to administer the 
 Sacrament as regularly as possible once a month, all those particip- 
 ating, who desire to do so; in this, as in every other respect, he 
 may rely on the support of the commanding officer, whose duty it 
 is, so to arrange the service of the chaplain, that he should not be 
 exposed to any derogation from the respect due to him. The chap- 
 lain gives religious instruction to all the boys on board and at the 
 wish of the commanding officer also to the naval cadets, excepting ' 
 always those belonging to other religious communities; he holds 
 special prayer-meetings for those who desire it — in short he has the 
 care of the souls of his congregation, which is the whole crew, and 
 he is to be the FRIEND AND COUNSELLOR of all. For that purpose 
 he has an eye on the literature of the ship and may make proposals 
 on that score to the commanding officer, and he may apply for 
 twenty shillings for every lOO men under his charge for the pur- 
 chase of good books. He is to pay daily visits to the patients in 
 the hospital, and give them spiritual comfort; in port he is to visit 
 also the patients of other ships that have no chaplain, and those of 
 his own ship in the hospitals on shore. At their death he is to be 
 present at the funeral. 
 
 In this and in all similar ways, but above all by his own example. 
 the chaplain can overcome the great difficulties of his position on 
 board and can exercise a most beneficent influence; especially if he 
 is supported by the authority of the commanding officer and of the 
 officer second in command. 
 
 The most senior Naval Chaplains are no longer employed on board, 
 but on shore, in the dockyards, in the naval stations, in the hospitals 
 at home and abroad, the head quarters of the Marines &c. Of the 
 1 02 naval chaplains at present employed, the senior is the chaplain 
 of the fleet, 45 are also naval instructors, and 79 are on board ship. 
 
 The PAY of the chaplain has already been indicated; if he com- 
 bines with his office that of naval instructor his pay is raised 50 "/o! 
 accordingly it begins with £328.10.0. a year (18/- a day), and rises 
 in proportion by identical steps as those stated above p. 146 till it 
 
 10* 
 
148 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 reaches the maximum of £602.5.0. (£1.13.0. a day). His half-pay 
 amounts after 3 to 5 years' service to £109. 10. O. (6/— a day), rises 
 then every 3 years by £18.5.0. a year (i/— a day), but after 14 
 years' service by £27.7.6. a year (1/6 a day), from 20 years to 25 
 years by £36. 10. o. (2/— a day), up to the maximum of £292 (16/— 
 a day), half-pay is also largely increased for a chaplain who also does 
 duty as naval instructor. 
 
 Retirement is compulsory at the age of 60, optional at 55, and 
 moreover retirement is always conceded after 5 years' service, if the 
 chaplain is to accept a living as a country-parson. Retired pay how- 
 ever is only given after 10 years' service, viz: £50 a year; after 15 
 years' service £100 a year, and after 20 years' service £150 a year. 
 
 Finally there is yet to be mentioned that at the two largest naval 
 ports at home, at Portsmouth and Devonport, a Roman Catholic 
 clergyman is employed in each for the benefit of the members of 
 that church. 
 
 f. Naval Instructors. 
 
 This class of officials was introduced in 1837 for the purpose of 
 making better provision for the education of the cadets and mid- 
 shipmen on board. To raise the status of the instructor and to main- 
 tain discipline all the more easily a comparatively high military rank 
 has been bestowed on him; he starts with the rank equal to that of 
 a naval lieutenant under 8 years' seniority, or of a captain in the 
 army; after 8 to 15 years' service he ranks with a naval lieutenant 
 over 8 years' seniority, or of a major in the army, after more than 
 15 years' ser\-ice he is the equal of a commander in the navy or of 
 a lieutenant colonel in the army (see Table of Relative Rank p. 112). 
 
 On ENTERING THE SERVICE he must be between 20 and 35 years 
 of age, be bodily fit for the work, and pass a preliminary examina- 
 tion in Lower Mathematics, Elementary Statics &c. and also in Latin, 
 but this is more or less omitted in the case of University-men. Then 
 he receives his appointment and has to go through a special six 
 months' course at the Naval College at Greenwich; but this may be 
 shortened in the case of those who have had a thorough education. 
 During this time he has free quarters at the College "and receives 
 7/6 a day. The Examination following thereupon comprises Naviga- 
 tion, Nautical Astronomy and Surveying, Meteorology, Physics, the use 
 of Instruments, and Acquaintance with the Mechanism of Steam Engines; 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 149 
 
 to these are yet to be added as optional subjects: Chemistry, Draw- 
 ing- and Foreign Languages. When he has passed the examination 
 he is appointed to a ship. 
 
 There it is his duty to instruct the cadets and midshipmen and 
 prepare them in their scientific studies for the officers' examination; 
 he must always be present, when they make astronomical observations 
 and must superintend their calculations thereon; he has also to see 
 that they keep their various diaries and log-books and must inspect 
 these every week. He is responsible for the good conduct of his 
 pupils during school-time and has to keep a register of them; this he 
 submits once a month to the commanding officer and reports to him 
 those who are indolent or ill-disposed. If there is no chaplain on 
 board he has also to manage the school for the seamen-boys. 
 
 There are in all 79 naval instructors, all but eleven of whom are 
 employed on board-ship. More than half, viz: 48 are also chaplains, 
 as has already been said. 
 
 Table of full pay and half pay of Chaplains^ and Naval-Instructors. 
 
 
 
 
 Full Pay 
 
 Half Pay 
 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Under 5 years' Service .... 
 
 a^2I9 
 
 J'o 12 
 
 s^IOg 10 
 
 igo 6 
 
 After 5 
 
 
 ^237 5 
 
 £0 13 
 
 i^i27 15 
 
 1^0 7 
 
 8 , 
 
 
 
 1^255 10 
 
 ^0 14 
 
 5^146 
 
 jgo 8 
 
 ,. II , 
 
 
 
 ^273 15 
 
 £0 15 
 
 J'164 5 
 
 £0 9 
 
 „ 14 , 
 
 
 
 sf 292 
 
 ^0 16 
 
 jgigi 12 6 
 
 £0 10 6 
 
 .. 17 , 
 
 
 
 ^310 5 
 
 ^0 17 Q 
 
 i^2I9 
 
 £0 12 
 
 20 , 
 
 
 
 ^^328 10 
 
 £0 i8 
 
 £2$$ 10 
 
 £0 14 
 
 21 , 
 
 
 
 ^346 IS 
 
 £0 19 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 22 , 
 
 
 
 ag'365 
 
 jgl 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ., 23 
 
 
 
 ^383 5 
 
 £1 I 
 
 — 
 
 3 ■ 
 
 „ 24 , 
 
 
 
 i^40i 10 
 
 £1 2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 . 25 , 
 
 
 
 Maxi 
 
 n. 
 
 ^^■292 
 
 £0 16 
 
 In addition to his pay the Naval Instructor draws a yearly FEE of £5 
 for every pupil and his daily rations, or in lieu of them 1/6 a day. 
 
 Surgeons, chaplains, and naval instructors enter the navy, when 
 they are already grown up, having received their education on shore, 
 mostly at some University; we have yet to describe one branch of the 
 service, whose members must enter in EARLY YOUTH. 
 
 ^ See Navy List. 
 
150 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 g. Accountant Olficers. 
 
 Accountant officers or paymasters belong' to the oldest officials of 
 the Navy; as far back as the 14th century, when they were called 
 '■'■ Pursers" -^ki&y had to administer the distribution of small stores and 
 victuals; sometimes they even contracted for the victualling' of the 
 crew. Like the warrant officers and the cooks the pursers formed 
 part of the permanent officials of the navy, who were appointed by 
 the Admiralty; upon ships of the Reserve they mounted guard jointly 
 with the boatswain and the carpenter; but their social status was 
 hig'her; commonly they were men of means or had friends possessed 
 of means. The position of the purser exposed him to many tempta- 
 tions, for, although he did not in the last century pay wages and 
 salaries to the crew, this being commonly done by special officials 
 in London, when the ship was paid off, still he had to make many 
 payments on the ship's account and came in contact in all parts with 
 contractors , who were wont to pay him per-centages. This speedily 
 led to abuses, till they became glaring in the time of the Stuarts, 
 when the purser purchased his post at a high price. The lists of 
 the ship's crews were kept incorrectly and so on; but the blame did 
 not rest with the purser alone, for he had to share his gains with 
 others, mainly with the officer in command, who was well aware of 
 all his doings. Not uncommonly they were near kinsmen, or even 
 brothers and made a common speculation of it. The moral standard 
 was low, and the organisation of all control was very defective. It 
 was only in 1813 that a regulation was made requiring paymasters 
 to pass an examination after having belonged five years to the of- 
 ficers' mess along with the surgeons and masters. 
 
 The following are the regulations now in force for this career. 
 Candidates between the ages of 16 and 18 must make application 
 for admittance to the entrance examination to the Private Secretary 
 of the First Lord of the Admiralty; they have to produce certificates 
 of good conduct, must be in good health, free from bodily defects, 
 and be able to swim. The entrance examination, which is of limited 
 competition is held twice a year in London; the subjects are: Pen- 
 manship, Ciphering and Arithmetic, modern Geography, English His- 
 tory, Religious Knowledge and a httle French. Those who pass are 
 appointed Assistant Clerks and employed on board in the Paymaster's 
 Office; they receive 2/6 a day, but their friends must pay £20 a year, 
 in half yearly instalments. After a year a second examination is 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 151 
 
 held by three paymasters in presence of a commanding' officer, in 
 which the examinee must shew a fair knowledge of ship's book- 
 keeping, vulgar fractions &c. If he passes he is appointed clerk by 
 the officer in command. In this office he remains li years and re- 
 ceives 4/— a day; the paymaster gives him further instruction in the 
 administration service, but as yet he does not hold a position of 
 responsibility. At the age of 21 he has to pass the paymaster's 
 examination, conducted like the previous one, on board, by three 
 paymasters in presence of a commanding officer; the subjects are: 
 Weights and Measures, Arbitration of Exchange and other financial 
 operations, and the like. If he passes he is appointed AS.SISTANT 
 PAYMASTER by the senior officer on board; he is now a responsible 
 official and, supervised by the paymaster, he administers the stores 
 of clothing; on small vessels he may be employed as acting pay- 
 master. His pay rises gradually from £91. 5. o. a year (5/— a day) 
 to £209. 17.6. (11/6 a day). 
 
 Further PROMOTION is regulated not by rank, but solely by seniority. 
 After six years the paymaster is promoted to the rank of staff pay- 
 master, and after a further six years to that of fleet paymaster. 
 Similarly with his pay, it rises in the course of 27 years from 
 £255. 10. o. (14/— a day) to £602. 5. o. (£1. 13. o. a day). A pay- 
 master acting independently or a ship's paymaster draws an additional 
 allowance of £45. 12. 6. 
 
 The ship's paymaster is responsible to the commanding officer for 
 all the payments made, for the book-keeping and for the accuracy 
 of accounts rendered; likewise for the victualling of the crew, for 
 the administration of clothing and of the provisions; he is to supply 
 the crew with postage stamps and postal orders &c. The library is 
 under his charge, but the issue of the books is the business of the 
 schoolmaster. The paymaster is at the head of the assistant -pay- 
 masters, clerks, and assistant-clerks of his branch, as well as of the 
 writers, of the stewards and his mates assistants, of the cooper &c. 
 From among the clerks the commanding officer selects one to 
 conduct his correspondence, who accordingly ceases to be sub- 
 ordinate to the paymaster. 
 
 The post of the paymaster is both highly responsible and very 
 laborious, seeing the wide range of his duties and the numerous 
 reports, tabulated statements &c. he has to make. The most coveted 
 post therefore is that of SECRETARY TO A FLAG-OFFICER,^ an appoint- 
 
 ' Which, though more pleasant, is generally more laborious. The translator. 
 
152 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 ment conferred by the flag--officer, who is entitled to select his secre- 
 tary for the whole time of his command from among the list of ori- 
 g-inal paymasters. The duties of a secretary are far more pleasant 
 and the pay begins with that of a commodore's secretary amounting 
 to £273. 15. O. a year (15/- a day) and rises after 14 years' service 
 to that of secretary to a Commander-in-Chief, who draws £547. 10. 0. 
 a year (£1. 10. o. a day). 
 
 There are at present (i8th March 1898), 82 Fleet paymasters, 61 
 Staff Paymasters, 72 Paymasters and 190 Assistant Paymasters; in 
 all 405 officers, who are nearly all employed on board. There are 
 moreover 93 paymasters on the retired list, who either receive retired 
 pay or have commuted it. On retirement the}- received for their long 
 and meritorious services the title of Paymaster-in-Chief. 
 
 An intermediate link between the above named commissioned 
 officers and the crew are: 
 
 h. The Warrant-Officers. 
 
 These officers hold their posts not by "Commission" but by 
 "Warrant," which is a diploma of lower rank, conferred by the Ad- 
 miralty; this distinction however does not apply to the whole body 
 of Warrant Officers, the holders of the highest ranks, \iz: of "Chief 
 Warrant Officers" being "commissioned" Officers. 
 
 The existence of warrant officers dates back to a time long anterior 
 to that of naval officers, as no vessel can dispense with the services 
 of a boatswain and of a carpenter, and no armed ship with those of 
 a gunner. Accordingly these men together with the "purser" and 
 the cook have at all times been "permanent" officials on board and 
 their services were retained even after the ship had been paid off, 
 as used to be done regularly every winter. They looked after the 
 ship, kept her taut and trim, and mounted guard; they also administered 
 the stores, and had with them on board a number of subordinates 
 and assistants, who thus formed the nucleus of the crew. In 1731 
 this arrangement was officially recognized, and after 15 years the five 
 grades of warrant-officers became entitled to a pension. At that 
 time the "master" and the surgeon were also included among the 
 warrant-officers, but the former office has since been abolished and 
 the latter promoted to a higher rank. The actual warrant-officers 
 then were and still are , in the order of their respective ranks , the 
 gunner, the boatswain and the carpenter. They have always been 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 153 
 
 drawn from the "men before the mast," who were so called because 
 their quarters were before the mainmast, the cabin and rooms of the 
 officers abaft it. (For centuries, and down to the end of the Middle 
 Ages, ships had only one mast.) The warrant officers are recruited 
 from the most capable of the petty officers. 
 
 Candidates for these posts must produce good certificates for 
 previous discharge of duty, capacity and good conduct; they must 
 not be less than 2i nor more than 35 years of age, must have seen 
 seven years' SEA-SERVICE, and at least one years' service as petty 
 officers in the branch they aspire to. The CANDIDATE FOR THE RANK 
 OF GUNNER must moreover be at ist class seaman-gunner, and he 
 has to pass an examination, conducted by an officer of the navigat- 
 ing branch, three chief warrant officers (two gunners and a boatswain), 
 in presence of a superior officer. He must give proof of being a 
 thoroughly experienced SEAMAN, who knows how to handle a ship 
 and understands the action of the helm, knows the rule of the road 
 at sea, is well acquainted with the rigging and capable of taking 
 charge of the watch on board at sea, and knows how to stow the 
 anchor and erect a derrick. Finally he must be able to write well, 
 work sums in the four rules and manage the stores of his branch of 
 service. His skill in gunnery he must prove by certificate from the 
 gunnery training-ship. 
 
 The examination for BOATSWAIN, who must also be a seaman- 
 gunner, is similar to that of the gunner, but the candidate is further 
 examined in signalling by a signal-officer; in every other respect the 
 composition of the examining-board is similar to that last described, 
 only, if possible, there are to be present two boatswains and one 
 chief-gunner. There is a class of boatswains called SIGNAL BOAT- 
 SWAIN, who are expected to be acquainted with the manoeuvres and 
 organisation of squadrons, and with the signalling code of the army 
 (to facilitate communications between the two services). At the ex- 
 amination for this latter post two senior naval officers experienced in 
 signalling, and a signal-boatswain are to be added to the board of 
 examiners. 
 
 A Candidate for the post of CARPENTER must besides the usual 
 certificates furnish proof that he is a trained and able naval artificer, 
 that he can make masts and yards, and repair those that are injured 
 so as to be fit again for use, and generally be able to execute all 
 carpenter's work required on board; moreover he must be able to 
 write and cipher as described above. The board of examiners con- 
 
154 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 sists of three chief-carpenters. The examination must be repeated in 
 the dockyard, even if it has been passed satisfactorily on board. 
 
 Those who pass these examinations are entered on the lists and 
 are promoted to the ranks of warrant officers as vacancies arise; they 
 rank then higher than midshipmen and paymasters' clerks. They 
 belong to a separate mess, that of warrant-officers, and do duty on 
 board and also administer the stores of their section. PROMOTION 
 to the rank of chief warrant-officer is by selection, by "Commission" 
 of the Admiralty; they take rank with sub-lieutenants of the army 
 and of the Marines. 
 
 Warrant-officers and chief warrant-officers, under 45 years of age 
 may be promoted to the rank of Lieutenant, if they have distinguished 
 themselves by excellent conduct and conspicuous gallantry. 
 
 The pay of warrant-officers amounts in the first S years to £100. 7. 6. 
 (S/6 a day); after S years it rises to £127.15.0. (7/- a day); after 
 10 years to £146.0.0. (8/9 a day); after 15 years to £164.5.0. (9/- 
 a day). Chief Warrant-Officers draw: 
 
 On promotion £182.10.0. (lo/- a day), 
 
 after 2 years' service £191.12.6. (10/6 ,, ,, ), 
 „ 4 „ „ £200. 15.0. (11/- „ „ ), 
 
 „ 6 „ „ £209. 17.6. (11/6 „ „ ), 
 
 „ 8 ,, „ £219. 0.0. (12/- „ „ ). 
 
 To these amounts are yet to be added £9. 2. 6. additional allowance 
 for special duties by warrant-officers, who look after the stores of 
 their department. 
 
 At present (i8th March 1898) there are existing: 
 
 4^ Chief-Gunners, 515 Gunners; together . . 560 
 35 Chief-Boatswains, 401 Boatswains; together 436 
 18 Chief-Carpenters, 205 Carpenters; together 223 
 Total of Warrant-Officers 12 19 
 The large majority of warrant-officers do duty on board; a small 
 number, about 30 of the youngest gunners and carpenters, are on 
 shore, and several of the chief-boatswains, mostly the older men, are 
 engaged in the dockyards. 
 
 Of former chief warrant-officers who are no longer on active duty, 
 57 have been raised to the rank of honorary lieutenant. 
 
 The warrant-officers constitute a very important part of the personnel 
 of the navy; being the executive of the officer in Command and of 
 the gunnery-officers ; they exercise great influence on the smooth and 
 rapid working of the service, on the cleanliness and trimness of the 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 15& 
 
 ship, on the efficiency of the guns, on orderliness of life on board &c. 
 The careful management of the inventories and stores in their charge 
 requires minute vigilance, and the discharge of their multifarious 
 duties claims incessant attention and a keen and lively sense of 
 responsibility. They may well be called the BACKBONE OF THE 
 INNER SERVICE ON BOARD SHIP. 
 
 The warrant-officers of the English Navy have from of old been 
 known as able men in their several spheres; but pre-eminently so as 
 SKILFUL MARINERS. 
 
 Being recruited from the crews and rising to the rank of officers, 
 they form the connecting link with the 
 
 CREW 
 which comprises Seamen, Engine-room Staff, Artificers, Cooks, and ■ 
 Domestics. 
 
 i. Seamen. 
 
 I. Historic Account. 
 
 In ancient times the crews of English ships — independent of cooks 
 and domestics — consisted of sailors only; they were hardy men, born 
 and bred on the sea, bold and audacious mariners, whose homes 
 were on the English shores, mainly in the south and east coast; men 
 who formed the kernel of the seamen of the "Cinque Ports." These 
 Ports were bound in case of need to place at the King's disposal a 
 number of ships with their complement of crews; this was the only 
 compulsory military service in the country and the Conscription in 
 use on the continent is regarded in England as a detestable and 
 insufferable encroachment on individual liberty. Nevertheless, albeit 
 not lawfully, as a matter of fact there has always been even in the 
 Anglo-Saxon times an exception made in the case of mariners, much 
 to their disadvantage. Sailors have at all times been regarded as bound 
 to serve in the Royal Navy, and if they did not enter the service 
 voluntarily, they were forced into it by the PRESS-GANG, often very 
 ruthlessly and cruelly. In the Middle Ages even SHIPS were forcibly 
 seized for the service of the King and the recalcitrant owner was 
 hanged. The whole coast was divided into districts for that purpose 
 and subjected to the Admiralty, so as to have all the Naval forces 
 of the country at all times ready to execute the King's commands. 
 
 When in subsequent times ships and their armaments had grown in 
 
156 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 size, the rigging" had become more complicated, and in the times of 
 the Tudors the Royal Navy was enlarged, the crews also necessarily 
 increased in number and size. Nevertheless the want of men was not 
 painfully felt in the times of Elizabeth, notwithstanding the heavy 
 requirements of the fleet that was fitted out to meet the Armada; 
 but under her successor men were scarce although the navy was 
 allowed to dwindle away; this was due partly to the rapid decline of 
 maritime trade, but mainly to the fact that on account of the ill- 
 treatment the men received on board, service in the Royal Navy was 
 detested and dreaded. From that time forward, when war broke out, 
 or when men were wanted for any other purpose, no reserve whatever 
 existing, recourse was had to the press-gang, not unfrequently to a 
 very large extent; even in the times of the Commonwealth (1649 — 6°)' 
 when men received excellent treatment, the press-gang could not be 
 dispensed with. The number of men required sometimes rose with 
 great rapidity; thus between the years of 1653 and 1658 the numbers 
 rose from 6,000 to 22,000; in 1688 they rose to 42,000 and remained 
 at that figure for many years. Having declined after a long peace, 
 they rose again in 1741 to 40,000 men, and in the Seven Years' 
 War the numbers mounted from 12,000 up to 70,000 men. When 
 vessels had to be manned, the mode of procedure was as follows: 
 Ships that required men sent press-gangs commanded by officers into 
 the ports to seize upon all the available seamen, even bursting into 
 their houses & forcing them on board. This naturally led at times to 
 open riots, nay to formal battles. The man thus forcibly enhsted 
 had a small coin (the "Queen's Shilling" as it now is called) "pressed" 
 into his hand, whence the term press-gang is said to have been 
 derived. To hide seamen was forbidden under severe penalties; 
 giving information of their whereabouts and delivering them up was 
 rewarded. 
 
 When in times of war all this failed to satisfy the requirements of 
 the navy, landsmen were taken on board; in 1664 Charles II. formed 
 a regiment of Marines and in 1672 liberal listing-money was paid to 
 volunteers. But as all this did not suffice, press-gangs seized every 
 adult male they could lay hands on, and in every port of any size a 
 press-gang office was opened, managed by a naval captain, who sent 
 his gangs out to search the town and the surrounding country. 
 Similarly sailors were forcibly taken out of merchantmen, and on 
 one such occasion a struggle arose, in which three men lost their 
 lives. 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 157 
 
 The desire to desert was under such circumstances naturally very- 
 great and leave of absence was therefore refused in all home-ports; 
 by way of compensation men were allowed to be visited by their 
 wives on board; a concession which led to much abuse and immoral 
 scandal which was winlied at by the authorities. 
 
 The War of Liberation of the North-American colonies made heavier 
 claims than ever on the seafaring- population. The numbers of the 
 crews rose from 20,000 men in 1775 to 110,000 men in 1783, most 
 of whom had been driven in by the press-gang. From want of a 
 reserve of officers many men had to be appointed who were wholly 
 unfit for their posts. The chmax was reached, when in the war 
 against the French Republic the requirements of the navy at one 
 bound rose from 16,000 men in 1792 to 85,000 in 1794. In this 
 latter year no less than 86 naval officers, among them 3 admirals and 29 
 naval captains, were engaged in press-gang work, and the violence 
 and ruthlessness of their procedure greatly outstripped the worst of 
 the harsh practices of Frederic William I. of Prussia in his forcible 
 enlistment of tall grenadiers. All these efforts proving still inadequate 
 the counties were assessed to raise a number of men in proportion 
 to their population, paying- bounty-money of £30 or even £70 per 
 man. The counties sent the scum of the population emptying the 
 highways of vagrants and the prisons of criminals; it is obvious that 
 such crews could only be kept in order by the sternest discipline, 
 which joined to the bad food and irregular pay of the men led 
 in the middle of -the war to the terrible mutinies of the navy in 
 1797. 
 
 This peculiar method of recruiting the navy, scorning as it did all 
 law and humanity, had taken such firm root in the habits and mode of 
 thought of the people of England, that even during the long period 
 of peace after Waterloo , when humanitarian principles had taken a 
 strong hold on all Christendom, no attempt was made to abolish the 
 press-gang; down to the middle of the present centuty English 
 Admirals declared, that the press-gang was one of the props of the 
 greatness of England and was absolutely indispensable. But by that 
 time public opinion had resolutely rejected this forcible enlistment, 
 so that in 1852, just in time to derive the benefit of it in the Crimean 
 War, the Admiralty adopted new methods for the recruiting of seamen 
 for the navy, which turned out highly efficacious and led to a 
 complete revolution and to a thoroughly beneficent reform in the 
 manning of the navy. 
 
158 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 2. Continuous Service. 
 
 After several changes and incidents the system of CONTINUOUS 
 SERVICE has shaped itself as follows: 
 
 Lads and adults are allowed to enter tbe navy either on continuous 
 or non-continuous service; in the latter case they bind themselves to 
 five years' service, but skilled workmen are allowed to make a four- 
 years' agreement; the present crews are almost exclusively recruited 
 by lads who have entered the continuous service at an early age and 
 have been trained for it. The normal time for entry is from 15 to 
 i6|. years of age; the lad must be of a respectable family and produce 
 evidence of his parents' consent; he must be able to read and write 
 and do sums; he must be strong in body, sound in health, and free 
 from bodily defects; at the age of 15 he must be at least 5 ft. i§ in. 
 high and measure 30 inches round the chest; at the age of i6i he 
 must be at least 5 ft. 3 inches high and measure 31 inches round the 
 chest. Lads from prison or reformatories are excluded. Final ad- 
 mission is granted upon recommendation of the commanding officer 
 of one of the training-ships, or coast-guard ships, stationed at different 
 ports of the United Kingdom; at present, as a temporary measure, 
 also by officers of the coast-guards and recruiting depots in eleven 
 large towns. On admission the lad binds himself to serve in the 
 navy for 12 years from his i8th year, and he is then placed as a 
 2nd CLASS Boy on board of one of the nine training-ships, mostly 
 •old three-deckers placed in the chief ports on the south coast of 
 England, in Queenstown in Ireland, and Queensferry in Scotland. 
 Three of these ships are in Plymouth, which is regarded as the 
 principal port for the training of sailors; the commanding officer of 
 one of these ships is also inspector of all the rest. On board, the 
 boys at once don the sailor's uniform and are excellently cared for; 
 the food is abundant, the treatment is kind and they are allowed to 
 spend seven weeks every year at home spread over three visits each 
 year; their wages are 6d. a day. They are taught to keep them- 
 selves and their belongings clean and neat, and to wash and mend 
 their clothes. In practical work they are taught splicing and 
 knotting, boarding, handling sails (light sails on the drilling mast), 
 rowing and sailing in boats, swimming, and cleaning the ships; 
 also a little gunnery, practice with small arms and cutlasses; and 
 along with all this they also receive lessons in elementary school- 
 subjects. In recreation-time they have their playgrounds and athletic 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 159 
 
 exercises, and on board chess and draughts and books from the 
 ship's library. Above all they are habituated to strict obedience, 
 respect for their superiors, and good manners. To maintain discipline 
 corporal punishment, though not excluded, for 2nd Class Boys, is 
 restricted to a maximum of 24 blows with the birch, or 1 2 with the cane. 
 One means of training of unsurpassed utility is the SAILING BRIG 
 attached to every training-ship, which makes voyages for exercise five 
 days a week with a number of boys on board and always returns to 
 harbour every afternoon or evening. 
 
 After a tweh'e months' education (with talented lads ten months 
 might be sufficient) the boys are allowed to go in for examination 
 in seamanship and gunnery; this is conducted by the officers of their 
 ship and those that pass are promoted to the rank of Boys ist. class 
 with wages raised to 7^. a day. They then receive more advanced 
 teaching in seamanship, in signalling, in the use of the rigging, of 
 small arms and the cutlass; when they have attained sufficient skill 
 and practice in these several branches, they go on a six weeks' cruise 
 in a sailing brig to continue their education in PRACTICAL SEAMANSHIP. 
 Next they are sent either immediately or after a little while spent in 
 a depot-ship, on board a seagoing training-vessel for a six months' 
 voyage, which is piost advantageous to them in their education; or 
 else they are at once distributed among the men-of-war. At the age 
 of 1 8 the captain promotes them to the rank of ORDINARY SEAMAN, 
 and they are now expected to be able to steer, take soundings, row, 
 splice, knot, furl and reef sails, and understand how to fill every 
 number at the gun, except No. i. The wages then amount to 1/3 a 
 day, or £1.17.6. a month. They continue to receive instruction in 
 seamanship and are trained for service on a man-of-war; as soon as 
 the lad has gained sufficient experience in this service as well as in 
 steering, piloting, signalling, and gunnery-drill, to earn from his 
 officers the certificate of "TRAINED MAN", his commanding officer 
 promotes him at about 20 years of age to the rank of ABLE SEAMAN, 
 (generally indicated by the letters A. B.) and now his wages are raised 
 to 1/7 a day, and his training ON BOARD OF A MAN-OF-WAR is considered 
 finished. Those able seamen, who shew aptitude for leading others 
 are appointed by the commanding officer as LEADING SEAMEN as 
 vacancies arise. These men are employed in posts of more or less 
 responsibility and are suitably superintended. 
 
 Every able seaman is expected as soon as possible to go through 
 a course of practice in a Gunnery School , of which there is one in 
 
160 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 each of the three great naval ports. This course lasts nearly a year 
 and both officers and men are instructed in the use of all arms, in 
 rifle, pistol, and cutlass drill, besides heavy, quick firing, and machine- 
 gun drill, in the use of gun-carriages and ammunition of every kind, 
 and in the working of the hydraulic machinery in turrets and bar- 
 bettes, and also in boat-and field service. Good marksmen, who in 
 the final examination earn the certificate of 1st or 2nd Class, obtain the 
 title of seaman-gunner and an increase of pay of from 2d. to 4</. a 
 day, which is payable for five years, when they have to go through 
 a requalifying course and earn a new certificate. Those who have 
 earned a first class certificate, or are considered fit for the work on 
 other grounds, can be appointed Gunnery Instructors; they have then 
 to go through a second six months' course with special instruction 
 and receive a further increase in pay of %d. per day; they may also 
 go through a torpedo-course, and if they pass, they are appointed 
 Torpedo-coxwains or Torpedo-Instructors. Every step upwards in 
 promotion brings with it increase of pay. As with the naval officers 
 so also with the lower ranks of seamen ample provision is made for 
 a THOROUGH TRAINING in gunnery and torpedo and for singling out 
 and advancing the men that are fittest for the work. 
 
 From among the leading seamen, who wear as a badge of distinction, 
 an anchor on their left arm, and draw 1/9 a day wages, are selected 
 the 2nd CLASS PETTY OFFICERS, and from these again the 1st CLASS 
 PETTY Officers, who draw respectively 2/2 and 2/5 a day. The best of 
 these latter may, if they pass the examination and are recommended to 
 the Admiralty, be promoted to the rank of CHIEF PETTY OFFICER whose 
 number is limited. Warrant officers, spoken of above are commonly 
 selected from the petty officers, but there is no rsgulation to that effect. 
 
 Fault has been found with this system of training, that the boys 
 who enter the training ships, coming as they do, from humble cir- 
 cumstances, are spoiled by their food, and general treatment and are 
 apt to become conceited; also that the time spent by ordinary seamen 
 in the depot-ship, where they are treated like men and get similar 
 leave of absence, does them little good, and that in the ports their 
 morals deteriorate. No doubt their subsequent education as seamen 
 is interrupted by life in depot, and that is clearly a sore point; on 
 the other hand it would be too costly to send those thousands on 
 sea-going training-ships.^ The enormous increase of the materiel of 
 the navy led to a corresponding increase in the personnel of the 
 
 * A special depot-ship has now been instituted for them. The translator. 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 161 
 
 staffs, and yet boys have been entered far beyond the requirements, so 
 that at one time, there were more than 1400 boys in one of the training- 
 ships at Plymouth alone. In the summer of 1894 more than 4200 boys 
 were borne on the lists of the training ships, 1954 on men-of-war in 
 commission, more than 300 on other vessels of the navy, and upwards 
 of 2000 in reserve. And even if it be conceded that all that was 
 expected has not been realized, and that it may possibly be true 
 that the extensive school-education imparted to such enormous num- 
 bers has put a term to the originality and spontaneous dash of the English 
 Sailor on board a man-ot-war, yet the advantages gained are beyond 
 calculation. The former wild life, drinking, and excesses of every 
 kind have all but ceased, and the men on leave are no longer the 
 terror of the peaceable inhabitants of the ports; great attention is 
 given to the practical and technical training which has become indis- 
 pensable, and promotion is regulated by merit. On the steamers of 
 modern days, which have no masts, it is far more difficult than for- 
 merly to foster in the seaman that smartness and ingenuity, that 
 vigilance and hardihood, that faithfulness and sense of duty, and that 
 absolute contempt of danger, which have always characterized the British 
 tar, and have secured for the navy her numerous victories; but the 
 most suitable remedy has been adopted; The EARLY ENTRANCE INTO 
 THE SERVICE at a time of life, when the disposition is still plastic, 
 still open to be influenced by the example set by superiors, especially 
 by officers, must tend to stiffen and strengthen the character, and 
 make the men still do their duty in battle as they were wont to do 
 in the days of old. 1 
 
 Table of Pay of Sailors. 
 
 Ratings 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Boy 2nd Class 
 
 Boy 1st Class . . . .... 
 
 Ordinary Seaman 
 
 Able Seaman 1 . 
 
 Leading Seaman 
 
 Second Class Petty Officer ... 
 
 First Class Petty Officer 
 
 After 4 years' service as Petty Officer ist Class 
 
 Chief Petty Officer 
 
 After 3 years' service as Chief Petty Officer . 
 
 jg^io 
 #22 
 
 ^39 
 
 £^^ 
 
 2 6 
 
 12 II 
 
 16 3 
 
 17 II 
 
 18 9 
 10 o 
 10 10 
 
 2 I 
 
 13 4 
 15 10 
 
 ^006 
 £0 o 7 
 
 if O I 
 
 £0 I 
 £0 I 
 
 £q 2 
 £0 2 
 £0 2 
 £0 2 
 £0 3 
 
 11 
 
162 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 The LENGTH OF SERVICE, lasting up to the age of 30 is an ad- 
 vantage that cannot be overestimated; it renders it possible not only 
 to give thorough training to suitable persons in all the several branches 
 of duty on board, such as the service of guns of various types and 
 sizes and of torpedoes; of sharp-shooting, signalling, and service in 
 the field, in boats, &c. ; but also to employ the men profitably for a 
 ■long time. It is only with a personnel of long service that a ship can 
 ■be brought to the highest possible point of efficiency. Moreover to give 
 emphasis to all the important duties additional allowances are made 
 for the attainment of skill in their discharge, and these allowances 
 are mostly independent of a man's rating; thus a trained gunner or 
 torpedo-man receives id. a day; a seaman-gunner 2d. to 6d. a 
 day; a torpedo-instructor %d. z. day; a captain of turret, in addition 
 to other allowances, '^d. extra; teachers of gymnastics receive ^d. 
 a day extra allowance. 
 
 Good conduct is rewarded by "good conduct badges" and by 
 extra allowances; the badges up to the number of three are con- 
 ferred from time to time, and bring the wearer i^. a day each at 
 least and a man's extra allowances on that score may mount up to 
 3^. a day. By such means a man may increase his income very 
 considerably. An able seaman, for example, may as a First Class 
 Seaman-Gunner with a "good conduct badge" earn at the age of 23 
 £36.10.0. a year, instead of £28. 17. ii; four years afterwards, if he 
 is a 2nd Class petty of^cer with one more such badge, he draws £45. 12.6. 
 All these regulations serve to stimulate the men to do their best. 
 
 After > 12 years' service, which is in reality 14 to 15 years, if the 
 ■time spent in the service as a boy is included, the man has still no 
 claim to a government pension; to gain that he must engage to serve 
 for 10 years more. As a rule 55% of the seamen do this at 
 once, and 12"/^ more after some httle consideration. Of the sto- 
 Icers 73*'/o re-engage in this way at once, and 12°/^ soon after. If 
 the re-engaged man continues to conduct himself well, he may in- 
 crease his income still more. A P. O. 1st class of 13 years standing 
 and who is accordingly about 31 years' old, draws £57. 15. 10. 
 a year, if he has served four years as a seaman-gunner and has three 
 good conduct badges; a Chief petty officer at 33 years of age, if he 
 •conducts himself well and is a seaman-gunner, or a torpedo-man, or 
 instructor in gunnery may even raise his income to about eighty 
 g'uineas a year. 
 
 After 22 years, that is at the age of 40, the man is entitled to a 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 163 
 
 long-service pension. This amounts at least to £i8. 5. O. a year, but 
 as service in the rank of petty officer counts for double time and 
 good conduct may be added on, the pension may rise to £52.0.0; 
 the average pension is about £30. 
 
 On board, the men have frequent opportunity of sending money to 
 their relatives by postal orders, or of putting money by in the savings 
 bank. Moreover they are allowed to receive money value for rations 
 they have not drawn, where however they do not get the full amount. 
 By such means thrifty men may in the course of their long years 
 of service accumulate considerable amounts. 
 
 In conclusion we will enumerate the INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAIN- 
 ING OF BOYS, which are not intended primarily to supply the Royal 
 navy; their aim is to- rear lads for the COMMERCIAL NAVY, and above 
 all to subserve educational and humanitarian purposes; nevertheless 
 some of the boys do enter the Royal navy. The education of the 
 boys is carried on exclusively on board of disused battle-ships; such 
 as obsolete ships-of-the-line and frigates, lent by the Admiralty to 
 benevolent institutions, that devote themselves to the education and 
 even the rescue of boys. Beyond the loan of the ships these associa- 
 tions receive no support whatever from government. There are, as 
 far as we know, no less than eighteen such ships engaged in this 
 philanthropic work; they lie at anchor in the Thames, at Liverpool, 
 and in nine other ports of the United Kingdom; some of them are 
 supplied with tenders similar to Royal Training-ships. Of these 18 
 vessels, 3 are reformatory school-ships, the others are devoted to the 
 education and training of officers and of cabin-boys. 
 
 All these ships, except one, are governed by former naval-officers. 
 The following list gives their names, stations, and number of boys. 
 
 Training Ships. 
 
 
 Name 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 No. of boys 
 
 Stations 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 Worcester . . 
 Conway . . . 
 
 
 4725 
 4375 
 
 155 
 200 
 
 Thames 
 Liverpool 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Havannah . . 
 Arethusa . . . 
 Indefatigable 
 Warspite . . . 
 Exmouth . . 
 
 
 1408 
 
 3832 
 2626 
 
 4579 
 4382 
 
 100 
 300 
 250 
 300 
 600 
 
 Cardiff 
 
 Thames 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Woolwich 
 
 Thames 
 
 8 
 
 Clio . ... 
 
 
 2306 
 
 280 
 
 Menai Straits 
 
 11* 
 
164 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 
 Name 
 
 •Tonnage 
 
 No. of boys 
 
 Stations 
 
 9 
 
 lO 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 Mount Edgeci 
 Wellesley . 
 Formidable 
 Empress . . 
 Southampton 
 Mars . . . 
 
 jmbe 
 
 2300 
 2996 
 
 3594 
 5260 
 2300 
 3842 
 57,24 
 
 250 
 
 300 
 
 350 
 ' 450 . 
 
 250 
 
 400 
 " 250 
 
 Saltash near Devonport 
 
 North Shields 
 
 Portishead near Bristol 
 
 Clyde 
 
 Hull 
 
 Newport (Fife) 
 
 Belfast 
 
 15 
 
 Grampian . 
 
 
 Nos. I and 2 are Naval Colleges for the education of young gentle- 
 men to become officers in the mercantile navy and the Royal Naval 
 Reserve. A certain number are admitted directly into the Royal 
 navy. Nos. 3 to 7 are school-ships for the education of poor and, 
 even homeless boys of unblemished character, for a sea-faring life 
 in the Royal or mercantile navies. 
 
 Nos. 8 to 1 5 are certificated Industrial Schools, to which boys may 
 be sent by the magistrate for minor offences, such as truancy, &c. 
 
 There are also three Reformatory School Ships: 
 
 Reformatory School Ships. 
 
 
 Name 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 No. of boys 
 
 Station 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Cornwall . 
 Akbar . . 
 Clarence 
 
 2917 
 2912 
 4759 
 
 260 
 21Q 
 300 
 
 Thames 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Birkenhead 
 
 From the three last named ships no boys are admitted into the Royal 
 navy; the others supply with lads partly the mercantile navy and 
 partly the Royal navy and a considerable number enter the army. 
 For example the "Warspite" which is a private adventure school and 
 is managed by a former commander R. N. , receives on board only 
 honourable, well-disposed boys, who wish to become sailors, are 
 certified by a surgeon as being physically fit for this calling, and 
 duly developed in body; in the years 1889— 1894 this one institution 
 sent on an average every year 40 boys to the Royal navy and 218 
 to the mercantile navy. For every boy received in the Royal navy 
 the Admiralty contributes £25 to the Society. The "Exmouth" which is 
 devoted to the education of poor children, suppHed in the course of 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 165 
 
 14 years 1000 boys for the mercantile navy and 500 for the army. 
 On the whole these 18 ships send yearly hundreds of boys on board, 
 who have received some degree of professional training; this is of 
 very great advantage to the nation, in view of the vast extent of the 
 Royal and mercantile navies of England, and of the dearth^ of 
 sailors. 
 
 The Personnel of the engine-room is sometimes included among 
 the "Bluejackets," because they wear a similar blue uniform, but they 
 form a special class of the ship's crew. 
 
 k. The Personnel of the Engine-Room. 
 
 The Personnel of the Engine-Room is divided into two organisations, 
 wholly independent of each other; the STOKERS, who attend to the 
 boilers, and the ENGINE-ROOM- ARTIFICERS , who under the superinten- 
 dence of the engineer in charge attend to the engines, effect repairs, &c. 
 and may be employed as engineers in charge in smaller vessels, 
 which are not torpedo-boats. 
 
 A STOKER is only required on entering to be more than 19 years 
 of age, to have a sound constitution, and to be able to read and 
 write. His first appointment is as stoker second class with wages of 
 1/8 a day; he is now instructed on board of a depot ship in the use 
 of the rifle, the revolver, and the cutlass; also in rowing and in gymnastics. 
 He may ihen immediately receive his appointment as stoker and coal 
 trimmer, with wages of 2/— a day (£36. 10. o. a year). Leading stokers 
 and chief stokers are taught to attend to the engines of torpedo- 
 boats in such a manner as to be able to take charge of them; when 
 they have proved their capacity for this kind of employment, they 
 are called TRAINED MEN, indicated by the letters T. M. and receive 
 higher wages. If a stoker shews himself fit for the work and has a 
 good conduct badge, the captain may make him chief stoker with 
 the rank of chief petty officer. He is now put in charge of the 
 eng'ines of tenders, and of the hydraulic apparatus, and he also looks 
 after the double bottom, the watertight doors, &c. and is employed 
 in the issue and account of the stores etc. 
 
 The conditions for promotion from the rank of leading stoker to 
 that of chief stoker are: Ten years' service as stoker,' excellent con- 
 
 • There is really no dearth just now; recently the Admiralty had to reject all 
 special entries to keep the supply down. The translator. 
 
166 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 duct, great experience in the service, and ability to read and write 
 with ease. This promotion is also in the hands of the captain and 
 confers the rank of chief petty officer; he is employed in the most 
 responsible posts within the range of his service, his rank being the 
 highest attainable by a stoker. 
 
 Numerous complaints are made with respect to the training of 
 stokers. No technical knowledge is required of them when they 
 enter, and stokers by trade are hard to get, because their wages on 
 commercial steamers are nearly twice as high as in the Royal navy, 
 where moreover the range of their duties is much larger ; consequently 
 the recruiting officers sent out into the country have met with but 
 small success. 
 
 On board the depot ship the novice has scant opportunity of 
 acquiring technical knowledge, and training ships for stokers do not 
 exist. 
 
 Table of Wages of Stokers. 
 
 
 Continuous 
 
 Service 
 
 Non-continuous Service 
 
 Ratings 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Stoker 2nd Class 
 
 ^30 8 4 
 
 ^0 I 8 
 
 ^25 17 I 
 
 £0 I 5 
 
 Stoker & Coal Trimmer 
 
 5^36 10 
 
 ^020 
 
 jf3I 18 9 
 
 £0 I 9 
 
 Leading Stoker 2nd Class 
 
 ^41 1 3 
 
 £0 2 3 
 
 4^36 10 
 
 ^020 
 
 Ditto 1st „ . . 
 
 ^■45 12 6 
 
 ^026 
 
 £ai I 3 
 
 £0 2 3 
 
 Chief Stoker 
 
 
 
 
 
 Under 3 years service as such . 
 
 ^54 15 
 
 ^030 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Over 3 years ditto 
 
 J"63 17 6 
 
 £0 3 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 „ 6 „ „ . . . 
 
 ^73 
 
 J'o 4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 >. 9 n „ 
 
 £?,2 2 6 
 
 J'o 4 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 „ 12 „ „ . . 
 
 ^91 5 
 
 J'o 5 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Engine-room ARTIFICERS were first appointed in March 1868 partly 
 to supply engineers with the assistants, which the ever increasing size 
 of the engines had rendered absolutely necessary, and partly to 
 diminish the very large number of professional engineers on board. 
 The arrangement turned out so satisfactory, and the number of artificers 
 so rapidly increased that in 1889/90 the number employed was 1289 
 and in the year following 1475, one fifth of whom were chief engine- 
 room artificers. 
 
 At present the terms for admission are: — the candidate must apply 
 at one of the large naval ports, and be not less than 21, nor more 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 167 
 
 than 28, years old; he must be sound in body, not less than 5ft.. 
 4 in. in height and measure at least 32 inches round the chest; he is- 
 to be a trained engineer, or boiler maker, or smith, or coppersmith;, 
 must know the four rules of Arithmetic, be able to write fairly well 
 and have a general knowledge of marine engines and their management,, 
 knowing for example what to do in case of priming. On all such 
 points he is examined by two chief-engineers, one being the head 
 engineer of the station; if he passes he receives his appointment as 
 acting Engine-room Artificer drawing £100.7.6. a year (5/6 a day). 
 If he conducts himself well for some years, and on being examined 
 by two engineers in presence of the officer in command proves him- 
 self fit to take charge of the stokehold, the officer in command 
 appoints him Engine-room Artificer ^.th Class; a rank which brings 
 no increase of pay. All subsequent promotion is made by the com- 
 manding officer by selection without further examination. 
 
 Table of Wages of Engine-Room Artificers. 
 
 Rating 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Engine-room Artificer on appointment 
 
 Ditto after 3 years' service as such . ... 
 Ditto after 6 years' service as such . . 
 Ditto after 10 years' service as such on re- 
 engaging for a further term of 10 years as 
 
 such 
 
 Ditto ditto 13 years as such 
 
 Engine-room Artificer 4th Class' (new classification) 
 Ditto 3rd Class 
 
 ^95 16 3 
 3^104 18 9 
 sf igo ID 
 
 5^114 " 3 
 J'liS 12 6 
 jf 100 7 6 
 ^104 18 9 
 4^109 10 
 
 #118 12 6 
 
 £0 5 3 
 £0 5 9 
 Jo 6 
 
 £0 6 3 
 Jo 6 6 
 Jo 5 6 
 Jo 5 9 
 Jo 6 
 
 Jo 6 6 
 
 Ditto 2nd Class .... 
 
 Ditto 1st Class (Provided he has engaged for a 
 further term of 10 years) 
 
 There are two^ higher stages still amongst the engine-room arti- 
 ficers, viz: Those of chief engine-room artificers ist and 2nd class, 
 promotion to which is by selection, and entirely in the hands of the 
 
 ' After 3 years' service an Artificer of the 4th Class may, if he is found fit 
 for the work, be put in charge of the engines of a small ship. Good conduct is 
 indispensable for promotion at every one of these stages, and the Artificer takes 
 equal rank with the C. P. O. during the whole time of his service. 
 
 ^ The rank of "Engineer Artificer" has been recently created; it is that of a 
 warrant officer. The translator. 
 
168 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY, 
 
 Admiralty. The conditions for the attainment of this rank are: an 
 age of not less than 27 years; service of 8 years as engine-room 
 artificer, 5 years of which must have been spent at sea; throughout 
 the whole time of his service excellent conduct and proved capacity, 
 and especially and finally the possession of the required scientific 
 knowledge. The examination is conducted by a chief inspector of 
 machinery and by a senior engineer. For promotion into the ist 
 class the only qualification is 6 years' satisfactory service as chief 
 artificer of the 2nd class, which is consequently impossible before the 
 age of 33. At home this promotion is confirmed by the Admiralty, 
 on foreign stations by the Commander-in-Chief of the station. Both 
 classes rank with the chief petty officers. In consequence of the want 
 of engineers and the scanty numbers of the crew, the chief artificers 
 are often employed on board large ships as engine-room watchkeepers 
 and in small vesjels as in charge of the engines, and draw the cor- 
 responding allowances, although they rank merely as petty officers. 
 
 Table of Wages of Chief Engine-room Artificers. 
 
 Rating 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Chief engine-room artificer (old system) on appointment 
 
 Ditto after 3 years' service as such 
 Chief Engine-room Artificer, 2nd. Class (new classification) 
 
 Ditto 1st class 
 
 ^123 3 9 
 
 a£l27 15 O 
 
 £i2y 15 o 
 ^136 17 6 
 
 ^069 
 £0 7 o 
 J^'o 7 o 
 £0 7 6 
 
 It seems that it is solely the high pay that attracts so many good 
 men into this branch of the service, in spite of the fact that the 
 duties are arduous, the accommodation on many of the new cruisers 
 wretched, and promotion even to the rank of warrant-officers wholly 
 excluded. It appears however that it is intended to remove this latter 
 grievance. * 
 
 The personnel of the engine-rooms is divided into three categories, 
 which are kept rigorously apart; the upper category of engineers, 
 who enter the service at an early age, and may advance to the 
 highest posts accessible to men of technical training, and two lower 
 categories of men, who without any preliminary education, at once 
 enter the practical service, and can never rise beyond the rank of^ 
 petty officer. This peculiar arrangement is another instance of the 
 
 ' This has since been done as stated on foot note on p. 167. The translator. 
 ^ Now Warrant. The translator. 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 169 
 
 lack of systematic organisation, not infrequently met with in England, 
 where people content themselves with remedying evils as they make 
 themselves felt from time to time. During the last lO or 15 years 
 much has been amended in the navy in this respect, but in the 
 organisation of the personnel of the engine-rooms, which many persist 
 in considering a necessary evil, the country has not kept pace with 
 the progress of the times. 
 
 1. The Artificers on Board. 
 
 The Artificers on board (other than engine-room) viz: Carpenters, 
 Caulkers, Sailmakers, Blacksmiths, Armourers, Torpedo- Artificers, 
 Plumbers, Coopers, and Painters are appointed much in the same way 
 as the Engine-room Artificers ; they must have acquired their technical 
 training on shore, and not in the navy, and must furnish proof that 
 they have served to their trade an apprenticeship of a reasonable 
 number of years. 
 
 Some of these branches, or ratings, like the caulkers, plumbers, 
 sailmakers (that is, those of the lowest ratings) and carpenters of the 
 2nd class are allowed to die out, their services being no longer 
 required in iron ships without sails, and the torpedo-artificers are 
 being classed with the armourers. 
 
 The applicant to enter the service must, as a rule, be 18 years of 
 age; he must be bodily fit for the work and pass a practical exam- 
 ination, which is conducted by the respective warrant-officers; for 
 example, the coopers by the chief cooper, the sailmakers by the 
 boatswain and chief sailmaker, but shipwrights, painters and plumbers 
 are examined by technical officials of the dockyard reserve of one of 
 the large naval ports at home, and armourers by officers of gunnery 
 and torpedo school-ships. Armourers may also be appointed by the 
 captain of a school-ship, the men of other branches by the corre- 
 sponding officers on board. The wages are abundant; a carpenter 
 draws £42. 11. 8. a year (£0. 2. 4. a day), the shipwright who must be 
 2 1 years old, and must have served an apprenticeship of 5 to 7 years, 
 and shew satisfactory skill in working in steel, iron, and wood, draws 
 £73. O. O. a year (£0. 4. O. a day).^ 
 
 The main condition for Promotion is, besides good condtict, practical 
 skill, and experience; in some cases one year's service in the preceding 
 
 ' For full tables of Wages see Navy List. The translator. 
 
170 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 rating- is required. The examinations, which are almost exclusively 
 practical are conducted most'y by technical officials of a dockyard 
 at home, and promotion is awarded partly by the officer commanding- 
 the ship, and partly by the Commander-in-Chief. For example the 
 latter appoints the chief carpenter's mate, who must be at least 
 24 years old, must have served one year as mate, be able to read 
 and write well and pass a practical examination in the dockyard- 
 reserve; his wages are £82.2.6. a year (4/6 a day). The blacksmith 
 begins as a mate (petty officer) and draws £50. 3. 9. a year (2/9 a day), 
 and after 5 years' service his wages rise to £60. 16. 8. a year (3/4 a 
 day). The armourer's position merits special attention. He has been 
 carefully trained in the training-ship in gunnery and torpedo-practice 
 and has at each step been examined by officers of this ship. To be 
 appointed armourer's mate he need only be 18 years old and draws 
 £48.13.4. a year (2/8 a day), as armourer £63.17.6. (3/6 a day) 
 and as chief armourer £73. (4/— a day), and after 6 years' service 
 as such he draws £109. lO.O. (6/— a day). To obtain this latter rating 
 he must have excellent conduct and great skill, be recommended by 
 the captain of the said school-ship, and have passed an examination 
 conducted by the staff-officers of the gunnery and torpedo school- 
 ships; the appointment is exclusively in the hands of the admirals 
 commanding at Portsmouth and Devonport. 
 
 Of these several artificers only the carpenters attain the rank of 
 warrant-officers, and the chief carpenter is a commissioned officer. ' Like 
 this latter, all the carpenters are regarded as non-combatants and can 
 under no circumstances, whatever their rank may be, assume any 
 military command, unless perhaps over a boat or over a landing party. 
 
 m. The Ship's Police 
 
 is recruited by volunteer applicants from the seamen or marines, 
 and stokers also are not excluded. There are »three ratings: 
 Corporal 2nd class. Corporal 1st class, and Master-at-Arms. The 
 juni(j(r ratings of the ship's police are appointed by the command- 
 ing officer, if they were originally seamen, and by the Admiralty, 
 if they are drawn from the marines. The qualifications for this 
 appointment are: An age of 25 to 30 years, three years' sea service 
 either as seaman or as marine, very good conduct during the last 
 
 * Often called a Chief warrant-officer for convenience of expression. The translator 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 171 
 
 three years, height at least 5 ft. 7 in., ability to read and write fluently, 
 and to keep the necessary ship's Hsts; he must engage for 12 years, 
 or till he has reached a service of 22 years, which entitles him to a 
 pension. The examination referring thereto is held at home by two 
 instructors of the marines in presence of the commandant. The pay 
 of £42. 1 1. 8. a year (2/4 a day) rises at the rate of £6. i. 8. every three 
 years till after 6 years' service as such the maximum is reached viz : 
 £66. 18.4. a year (3/8 a day). 
 
 The junior ship's police may be promoted to the rank of corporals 
 of the TSt class at the same age, after two years excellent conduct, 
 if they pass the examination satisfactorily; this promotion is re- 
 served to the commanding officer of the general depot at Devonport. 
 
 Promotion to the rank oi Masier-at-Arms is also the prerogative of 
 the Commander-in-Chief at Devonport. The candidate must be more 
 than 25 years of age, must have served at least one year as corporal 
 in the ship's police, but need not have passed through all the grades 
 of this force. He must be well acquainted with the duties in the 
 interior of the ship, especially that of the ship's police, be familiar 
 with its regulations, and be altogether well fitted for the post. The 
 examination is conducted by the commanding officer and a naval 
 instructor. The pay commences with £73 a year (4/— a day), rises 
 every 3 years by £9.2.6. a year (6a?. a day), till after 12 years' 
 service the maximum of £109. 10. a year (6/— a day) is reached. 
 
 We see that the ship's police is handsomely remunerated, but its 
 duties are not pleasant; to keep order on board, to prevent infractions 
 of regulations, to report defaulters of any kind, to keep the punishment 
 register, to inflict the punishments, all these are duties that do not 
 tend to make the men's position other than disagreeable and even 
 painful. 
 
 n. The Ship's Cook 
 
 is an important personage on board, the food and its proper pre- 
 paration being of supreme importance to the crew, who have so few 
 enjoyments of any other kind. Formerly the ship's cook was one 
 of the permanent officers on board, like the warrant-officers appointed 
 by the Admiralty. It is different now. The applicant for the post 
 of ship's cook may be appointed by the Commander-in-Chief at 
 Portsmouth as 2nd ship's cook or cook's mate, if he is 1 8 to 25 years 
 of age, at least 5 ft. 5 in. high, and can cook and bake. He receives 
 
172 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 £22. 16. 3. a year (1/3 a day). If he has succes.sfully passed through 
 the school of naval cookery at Portsmouth, and is willing to make 
 a 12 years' engagement, he may be appointed cook's mate by the 
 commanding officer of his ship, drawing a salary of £28. 17. 11. a year 
 (1/7 a day). The qualifications of a second ship's cook, who has 
 the rank of a petty officer, are: — that he must be more than 24 years 
 old, must have visited the cookery school for six months, and be 
 able to cook and bake for 150 persons, and prepare yeast. The 
 qualification of a first ship's cook are: — that he must be more than 
 26 years old, have served three years as cook's mate and be able 
 to cook for 300 persons. Up to that point the promotion rests with 
 the commanding officer, and the wages are respectively £41.1.3. a 
 year (2/3 a day), and £50.3.9. a year (2/9 a day). The highest 
 rating, that of chief cook, ranks equal with a chief petty officer; it 
 requires an age of more than 28 years and in addition to the above- 
 named qualifications the candidate for that post must have served 
 three years as ship's cook, and be able to cook for more than 
 300 persons. His wages are £54.15.0. a year (3/— a day), and rise 
 after 3 years service as such to £63.17.6. a year (3/6 a day). 
 
 o. The Ship's Steward 
 
 issues the rations and clothing under the superintendence of the pay- 
 master. The ship's stewards boy is drawn from the school at Green- 
 wich to be described hereafter. He must be \\\ to i6|^ years old 
 and pass an examination held by the paymaster. He is then appoint- 
 ed by the commanding officer and draws £10.12.11. a year {jd. 
 a day). At the age of 18 he may be appointed ship's steward's 
 assistant on board, if he proves that he possesses the necessary 
 knowledge in an examination held by a lieutenant and the paymaster; 
 he then draws £24.6.8. a year (1/4 a day), and after 3 years' service 
 as such, and on approval of the Admiralty his wages rise to £33. 9. 2. 
 (i/io a day). Having served three years as assistant, rendered good 
 service , and proved his capacity for the post of steward in an exa- 
 mination held by two paymasters, the Commander-in-Chief at Ports- 
 mouth may promote him to the rating of steward, which confers the 
 rank of chief petty officer. Beyond that he cannot rise , but his wages 
 steadily increase according to the following table: — 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 173 
 
 Service 
 
 On appointment 
 
 After 5 years' service as such and on approval of the 
 
 Admiralty 
 
 After lo years' ditto 
 
 .. 15 , 
 
 ,,20 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 ^'54 15 o 
 
 £n o o 
 
 £<)i 50 
 £10^ 10 o 
 ^127 15 o 
 
 One day 
 
 3 o 
 
 4 o 
 
 5 o 
 
 6 o 
 
 7 o 
 
 The career of a WRITER, who is also drawn as a boy from the 
 school at Greenwich is similar to the one just described; it terminates 
 with the post of chief writer, who draws £91.5.0. a year (5/- a day). 
 
 The candidate for SiCK BERTH ATTENDANT must pass through a 
 six months' course at the Haslar hospital, and may rise after 14 years' 
 g-ood service to the post of chief sick berth steward, ranking- with 
 the chief petty officers and drawing- £73. a year (4/— a day). 
 
 Boys of the 2nd class may be trained as buglers or musicians on 
 board the school-ships, provided they are 14 years old, and that the 
 consent of the commanding officer has been obtained; they are then 
 placed on board of a man-of-war. The corps of musicians is however 
 mostly recruited from professional musicians on shore; in the Medi- 
 terranean principally by Maltese and Sicilians. 
 
 There remain yet to be described as a main constituent part of 
 the complement of men on board, that is to say of the military part: 
 
 p. The Marines. 
 
 I . History. 
 
 In the Middle Ages, battles at sea were mostly fought out by 
 boarding; it was therefore customary to put regular soldiers on board 
 ships intended for fighting; this practice was however gradually 
 dropped, when firing broadsides was introduced. In the struggle 
 against the Armada, the English, as has already been stated, carefully 
 avoided being boarded and the decision was arrived at by firing at 
 long range. Barely 80 years after that, viz: in 1664, Charles II, 
 formed the first regiment of MARINES, of 1200 men, for service on 
 board; partly, no doubt, to facilitate the nianning of the fleet for the 
 anticipated war with Holland; partly also to place at the disposal of 
 the commanders a reliable body of men for the enforcement of 
 
174 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 discipline, and possibly also to have a small standing army at his 
 own disposal, the maintenance of such a force on shore being con- 
 trary to the law of the land. The embarkation of landsmen, who 
 turned sea-sick did not prove advantageous at first; the men had first 
 to become inured to the sea and to be trained in the use of arms 
 on board. In 1698 the number of marines had been raised, so that 
 they now formed four regiments; but during the long time of peace 
 following upon the War of the Spanish Succession, the English fleet 
 ruled the sea, and it seems that the institution of marines was allowed 
 to a great extent to lapse. During the Seven Years' War, under the 
 energetic rule of the Elder Pitt, Admiral Anson greatly increased the 
 number of marines or rather newly created them. Since that time 
 they have forrr^d a permanent and important part of the complement 
 of m,en on board of every man-of-war, and play an important role in 
 all sea-fights and landings. For a long time there existed a certain 
 mutual antagonism between seamen (the bluejackets) and marines (the 
 redcoats); but in consequence of the introduction of the 22 years' 
 service this has all but vanished. Since the disappearance of the 
 rigging, in the service of which the marines were not employed, 
 seamen have ceased to regard marines as inferiors, and at present 
 the latter take part in almost all the work of the bluejackets. 
 
 2. Present State of Affairs. 
 
 Marines are enlisted in the same manner as soldiers of the line. 
 The qualifications for admission are: — the applicant must not be less 
 than 17, nor more than 30 years of age, he must be at least 5 ft. 
 5 inches high, and measure 32 inches round the chest, if under 18 years 
 of age and 33 inches, if over that age. He enlists for 12 years. 
 Recruits for the marines present themselves everywhere, except in 
 London, more readily than for the army on shore. Even men, who 
 have already served in the army, willingly enlist in the marines; partly 
 being attracted by a seafaring life, and partly because the man is 
 materially better off and may marry. After a long voyage a marine 
 sometimes returns home with a nice little sum to the good. 
 
 The recruit receives the same uniform and kit as the soldier on 
 shore; he first joins the depot at Walmer near Dover, where he is 
 drilled for eight months, trained in the duties of a soldier and in the 
 service of ship's guns in a specially constructed practising battery. 
 He is then sent to join his corps, either the artillery or the infantry 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 175 
 
 whichever he prefers. The former, in blue artillery uniform, is stationed at 
 Eastney by Southsea, near Portsmouth; the latter, far more numerous, 
 wears the red coat of the army and is distributed over the three 
 great Naval Ports at home. The marines, especially the gunners, 
 have beautiful large barracks with excellent arrangements for the 
 recreation, amusement, and instruction of the men, such as play- 
 grounds, reading rooms, social halls, libraries, &c. Their training, 
 especially in naval gunnery, is continued, and marines have every 
 opportunity offered them to learn some trade, or to pursue general 
 studies; this lasts, till the man's turn for embarkation has come 
 according to the roster. 
 
 The conditions for promotion to the rank of corporal are : — the man 
 must be an excellent and smart infantry- man or gunner, able to 
 read and write and do some sums, and he must have been six months 
 at . sea. The latter point , which is intended to make the man proof 
 against sea-sickness and accustomed to life on board ought to carry 
 great weight; however this is not uniformly the case, promotion 
 being given by the commanding officer of the division upon the 
 recommendation of the adjutant, and not by the officer in command 
 of the ship. 
 
 On shore the rations of the marines are the same as those of 
 the army, on board as those of the sailors; a marine may there- 
 fore draw a part of his rations in the shape of money and save up. 
 In addition to the uniform customary on land, the marine receives 
 also a white suit with a tropical helmet. He takes part in all the 
 service on board, especially in gun-drill, clearing for action and clean- 
 ing the ship, &c. ; but he is not required to go up aloft. On the 
 other hand, guard is mostly mounted by the marines, and some are 
 employed as mess-attendants, servants, and post orderlies. On board, 
 the marine loses a great deal of his awkwardness; he grows smart 
 and deft, but still he does not wholly get rid of his stiff and rigid 
 bearing. 
 
 The detachments on board are from time to time inspected both 
 at home and abroad by superior officers of the marines. 
 
 When the man returns from embarkation his name is placed at 
 the bottom of the list; gradually he moves upwards till he again 
 stands at the head; this sometimes happens unexpectedly and very 
 rapidly. 
 
176 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Table of Wages of the Royal Marines. 
 
 Ranks 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Light Infantry 
 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Year of 365 days 
 
 One day 
 
 Colour Sergeant 
 
 Sergeant . . .... 
 
 Corporal . . .... 
 
 Bugler ... 
 
 Bombardier 
 
 Gunner . . . 
 
 „ 2nd class . . 
 Private 
 
 £71 
 
 Mz 7 I 
 
 ^-50 3 9 
 ^26 4 %l 
 £45 12 6 
 
 af 26 4 SJ 
 
 ^24 6 8 
 
 ii'o 4 
 seo 3 5 
 
 s^O 2 9 
 
 £0 I Si 
 
 .^026 
 
 £0 I Si 
 £0 I 4 
 
 ^59 6 3 
 s^47 7 II 
 
 ^34 19 7 
 ^22 16 3 
 
 ^""21 5 10 
 
 ^033 
 £0 2 7 
 ^■"o I II 
 £0 I 3 
 
 £0 I 2 
 
 The pay of the artillery men is seen to be much higher than that 
 of the infantry, but on the other hand far higher knowledge and 
 greater skill are expected of the former than of the latter. The 
 artillery of the marines is a picked body of men, so well trained that 
 according to the opinion of some people their power is thrown away 
 on board ship where it has not scope enough to be fully exploited. 
 
 q. Strength of the Naval Forces. 
 
 From the personnel above enumerated the number of men employed 
 in the navy can be calculated. In 1884 the total amounted to only 
 60,000 men, but since then both material and men have been largely 
 increased. 
 
 In the year 1898/99 there were borne on the list: 
 
 Admirals (for the active service of the fleet) . . 
 
 Higher officers and combatants and non-combatants 
 
 Subalterns, combatants and non-combatants 
 
 Warrant-officers 
 
 Petty officers and seamen 
 
 Boys (for the active service of the fleet) . . 
 
 Seamen, engineers, artificers, &c. 
 Marines : 
 
 Officers 
 
 Staff Sergeants and sergeants . 
 Buglers and musicians .... 
 Rank and file . . .... 
 
 Total 
 
 444 
 
 1283 
 
 604 
 
 15476 
 
 IS 
 
 3317 
 
 690 
 
 IIS9 
 
 66828 
 
 3700 
 
 75709 
 
 17807 
 
 Grand Total . . . . 
 Exclusive of Coast Guard 4200, and "Other Services" 8674. 
 
 935i6men.^ 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 177 
 
 To these have yet to be added the personnel for the complements 
 of men on board of the second line, the organisations described above 
 under section B. IV, which are under the authority of the office of 
 naval reserves, the coast-guard, the naval reserve, and the reserve 
 of naval pensioners. 
 
 r. The Coast-Guard. 
 
 up to 1857 the coast guard belonged to the domain of the Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer. They were employed exclusively as custom- 
 house officials, in repressing smuggling, which was carried on on a 
 large scale. In consequence, however, of troubles and inconveniences 
 that arose, especially with the personnel, and as moreover the men 
 had to watch maritim,e frontiers, it was determined to transfer the 
 coast guard to the Admiralty, to give them a military organisation, 
 and to recruit them from officers, warrant-officers, and men of the 
 Royal navy who had honourably served their time. This measure 
 secured a threefold advantage: the custom-house duties were dis- 
 charged very efficiently by able and trustworthy men; the authorities 
 had upwards of 4000 posts at their disposal to provide for their 
 meritorious servants, and the whole force became available as a re- 
 serve of the navy in case of mobilisation. 
 
 This corps of coast-guards (about 4100 men) has now a military 
 organisation and is commanded by 70 energetic naval officers (Com- 
 manders and Captains), who have voluntarily joined the coastguards 
 and renounced all hope of further promotion.^ The force is recruited 
 by seamen who have served their time, have passed through a course 
 of training in gunnery being seamen-gunners, or have been otherwise 
 thoroughly trained (T M.). 
 
 The coast guards are, like the coasts of the United Kingdom them- 
 selves, divided into nine districts, whose headquarters are at the ports 
 of Harwich, Hull, Queensferry (in the Firth of Forth), Holyhead, 
 Kingstown (near Dublin), Tarbert (on the Shannon), Portland, and 
 Southampton. Each of these districts has a coast-guard ship manned 
 by a reduced crew. These ships are either obsolete battle-ships (of 
 these at present there are 5) or large cruisers (at present 4), which 
 lie at anchor in or near their respective harbours. As a rule they 
 leave their stations only once a year for a few weeks to take part 
 in the large annual manoeuvres of the fleet. They form the First 
 
 1 See above p. 124- 
 
 12 
 
178 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Line of Naval Reserves, under the command of the Admiral Superinten- 
 dent of Naval Reserves, whose flag as commanding- his squadron is flying 
 in the battle-ship "Alexandra" at Portland. There are about 700 coast- 
 guard stations; in addition to them the coast-guards man 23 custom- 
 house cruisers, partly steamers and partly sailing-vessels, and a number 
 of small ships besides. The coast-guards' first duty is to repress 
 smuggling, but they also protect the fishing industry along the coast, 
 succour ships in distress, give shelter to ship-wrecked men, take charge 
 of goods washed ashore, &c. Lately they have also been employed, 
 like the light-house men, in watching the coasts. The Admiral in 
 charge keeps up communication with the Commissioners of Custom 
 In all that concerns the custom-house service, and with the Board 
 •of Trade in matters of rescue, &c. Once a year he inspects the 
 coast-guard ships and all the stations and vessels. 
 
 In case of need the Admiralty may at any time call out the coast- 
 guard to join the fleet, so that this first line of naval reserve, consist- 
 ing of none but trained and tried men, is ready at very short notice. 
 
 s. The Royal Naval Reserve 
 
 consists of captains, engineers, and crews of the mercantile navy, 
 who, in return for certain advantages, engage to enter the Royal navy 
 in case of war. To fit themselves for this service they have to pass 
 through a course of training in one of the coast-guard ships, or in one 
 of the nine drill-ships, especially equipped for that purpose. These 
 vessels are chiefly men-of-war of moderate size, mostly obsolete, but 
 a few are new; they are commanded by a commander or senior 
 lieutenant, and stationed in London, North Shields, Leith, Dundee, 
 Aberdeen, Inverness, Liverpool, Bristol, and Southampton, that is to 
 say in the most frequented English and Scotch commercial ports. 
 Thirty-three drill-batteries are erected on different parts of the coast. 
 
 The following are the qualifications for the post of OFFICER IN THE 
 NAVAL RESERVE, who are entered dir-ect from the Mercantile Marine: 
 
 A lieutenant requires to have one year's sea service as Master; a 
 sub-lieutenant must have one year's sea service as First Mate, and 
 must possess an ordinary Master's Certificate of Competency under 
 the Merchant Shipping Act.^ 
 
 Afterwards an officer of the naval reserve must go through a yearly 
 
 * For fuller details on these and other officers' appointments see Na\'y List. 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 179 
 
 This number does not include 
 
 about 200 Honorary officers of 
 
 this force. 
 
 drill of 7 to 28 days' duration in one of the above-named ships, or 
 in an English man-of-war abroad. Similar regulations are in force 
 with respect to midshipmen and naval cadets. During the time of 
 such drill the men draw the regular allowances of their ranks and 
 receive moreover a yearly money retainer of £25 for a Heutenant, 
 £20 for a sub-lieutenant, and £10 for a midshipman. They are bound 
 to report themselves once a year to the Admiralty, and once again 
 immediately on the outbreak of war, and they must forthwith present 
 themselves when called out. 
 
 The following is the number of officers at present employed in the 
 Royal Naval Reserve; 
 
 Lieutenants 352 
 
 Sub-lieutenants 513 
 
 Midshipmen 511 
 
 Senior Engineers .... 57 
 
 Engineers 134 
 
 Assistant Engineers . . . no 
 
 Total number of officers 1677 
 
 A part of these officers have gone through a course of gunnery 
 and torpedo practice of about four months' duration, some have been 
 engaged for a twelvemonth's probationary service in the Royal navy, 
 whilst in the autumn of 1895 the dearth of junior naval officers was 
 so great, that 100 "Supplementary" lieutenants and sub-lieutenants 
 were appointed, with restrictions however in the regulation of their 
 promotion. 
 
 The Crew of the Naval Reserve only requires a yearly drill of 
 28 days' duration on board one of the said ships; but this drill may 
 be gone through on land at one of the drill-batteries. The seamen 
 are divided into two classes, the first receiving £6 money ^retainer, 
 and one suit of clothes a year, the second £2. 10. o. to £3. 15.0. 
 every year and a suit of clothes every other year; stokers also 
 receive £6 a year. On the lists there are borne 10,800 first class 
 seamen, 10,600 second class seamen, and 2500 stokers, about 24,200 
 men, and inclusive of the officers a grand total of close upon 
 26,000 men. 
 
 The actual force will differ but little from the nominal force 
 registered; the deficiency of 17,700 men of 10 years ago was four 
 years ago reduced to about 11 00 men. 
 
 12* 
 
180 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 t. The Seaman-pensioner Reserve 
 
 comprises those pensioners of seamen and engine-room artificers, who 
 volunteer their services, when they still are fit and ready for work; 
 they bind themselves to pass yearly through a fortnight's drill and 
 engage to re-enter the service, if called upon to do so. As seamen 
 are not entitled to a pension till after 22 years' service, not count- 
 ing the service as boy (pensions for wounds always excepted), these 
 men cannot be less than 40 years old; the obligation to serve how- 
 ever terminates with the 55th year. During drill-time and when on 
 duty they draw the usual allowances in addition to their pension, and 
 after their 55th year they are. entitled to an extra allowance, if they 
 have attended drill for six consecutive years. The number of pen- 
 sioners at present exceeds 1200, of whom about 200 are engine-room 
 artificers. The average cost is about £31 a year per man. 
 
 Inclusive of 4200 coast-guards, 25,700 naval reserve-men and 
 1200 pensioners, the total reserve-force of the navy amounts to about 
 31,150 officers and men; of this force about half are abroad and 
 therefore not at once available. 
 
 u. Pensions and Allowances. 
 
 We have so far dealt with the pay and wages of officers and men; 
 also with half pay and retired pay of the officers. There remain yet 
 to be mentioned the Extra Allowances, as well as pensions and special 
 pensions of the men. From of old Prize-money was considered law- 
 ful in the English navy, and prizes have played an important part in 
 English maritime warfare. 
 
 The practice of privateering was based wholly on that law, and in 
 view of the high money-value of some prizes, officers and men were 
 stimulated to extraordinary exertion by the prospect of such great 
 gain. Prizes are captured during peace as well as in war; at present 
 they are mostly slavers on the east coast of Africa. For example 
 in 1889 PI. M. S. "Griffon" captured six dhows, which when sold, 
 yielded the captain £85; H. M. S. "Reindeer" in 1890 took five dhows, 
 yielding the captain £135. By the latest regulation, by Order in 
 Council, dated 3rd August 1886, the Commander-in-Chief of the 
 squadron draws one thirtieth of the prize-money and the captain one 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 181 
 
 tenth of the remainder; every man of the crew has a share allotted 
 to him, all being divided into eleven classes, in the lowest of which 
 the boys are, of whom each receives one share. Second class petty 
 officers receive seven, first class petty officers ten shares and so on. 
 
 Salvage Money, if earned by rendering help, is distributed in the 
 same proportions as prize-money. 
 
 Extra Allowances are granted to "navigating parties," that is to 
 those who take a ship not in commission from one port to another; 
 also for trial trips, and trips to sea to try the guns, &c. ; likewise for 
 repairing engines and boilers, &c. ; and finally for diving, from i/6 to 
 6/— per hour, according to the depth of the water from i to 6 or 
 20 to 25 fathoms. 
 
 For good conduct the men have Good conduct badges awarded them, 
 for each of which the man is entitled to i (f. a day extra. Seamen receive 
 their first badge after three years', marines after two years' good con- 
 duct; the second badge seamen get after eight, marines after six 
 years' good conduct, and the third badge after thirteen and twelve 
 years respectively. If after 15 years' good conduct the man is re- 
 commended by his captain he becomes eligible for a good conduct 
 Medal, and the Admiralty may award him, at their own discretion, 
 a yearly gratuity of £2 for a chief and first class petty officer, j^i 
 for a second class petty officer, and 10/— for a leading-seaman. 
 These several sums, which may mount up to £15 for a chief and 
 first class petty officer, £10 for a second class petty officer, and 
 £7 for a leading- seaman are paid when the recipient retires from 
 the service. A man may also earn a Medal for conspicuous gcdlantry, 
 and in the case of a chief and first class petty officer the Admiralty 
 may accompany it with an annual allowance of £20. 
 
 After 22 years' service a man is entitled to a pension, the good 
 conduct badges being taken into consideration, when its amount is 
 fixed. Without any badges the pension amounts to \id. a day, 
 with them to l/i a day. After 32 years' service the man receives, 
 irrespective of badges, the maximum amount of 1/2 a day; extra 
 consideration however is given for the time served as petty officer, 
 the superior petty officer receiving \d., the inferior \d. d, day over and 
 above the maximum. For men of continuous service these latter 
 allowances are doubled, so that in the most favourable case the pen- 
 sion may mount up to £45. 12. 9. a year. 
 
 A pension is due EARLIER only if the man has become unfit for 
 
lS-2 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 service through no fault of his own. If he is incapable of earning 
 a living and was in continuous senice for lo years he receives 6d. 
 a day for life, if for 15 years 'jd. 3. day. Good conduct of a petty 
 officer receives a double award. 
 
 In addition the man may draw a further allowance for MUTILATION 
 in the service, viz: If he lost two limbs and is comparatively help- 
 less he draws from 1/6 to 2/— a day; for the loss of one limb or 
 of one eye i/— to 1/6 a day; for wounds of less severity he re- 
 ceives an allowance of 3(3?. to i/— a day according to his earning 
 capaciU^, and if he is totally blind 31/. a day extra. 
 
 When a pensioner, who is an old seaman or marine, has attained 
 his 55 th year, he is entitled to the GliEEM\TCH-AGE-PEXSlON, in ad- 
 dition to his regular allowance; this amounts to ^d. a day at the age 
 of 55, if he has been in receipt of his pension for 5 years, and to 
 gd. a day at the age of 65, if he has been in receipt of his naval 
 pension for 10 years. The grant of these pensions rests entirely 
 with the AdmiralU' and depends on the number of vacancies and 
 the means at their disposal. 
 
 There exists also a limited number of SPECIAL Pensions (retired 
 pay) for disabled officers of long sea service, the limit for a captain 
 being a minimum of 15 years, and for a commander of 12 yejirs. 
 There are 81 naval pensions, solely for naval officers, amounting to 
 from 1650 for a heutenant to £80 for a post captain; also 142 Green- 
 wich-Hospital-Pensions for officers of all categories, comprising 23 
 for naval officers amounting to £50 for a lieutenant up to ^150 for 
 an admiral, and 49 such pensions for warrant-officers of £25 to .^^5 
 a year. Moreover the Admiralty disposes of 33 GoOD Service 
 Pensions for superior officers and surgeons, comprising ten pensions 
 of £300 a year for admirals, twelve of 56150 a year each for post 
 captains, three of £100 a year for medical officers, six of £200 a 
 year for generals, and two of £150 a year each for colonels or 
 lieutenant-colonels of the marines; all these pensions ha^-e been 
 awarded. 
 
 Finally there are pensions for wounds received in service bv of- 
 ficers without any limitation of number, distinction being made be- 
 tween wounds received in battle or otherwise. For the loss of an 
 eye, or of a limb, or for being rendered unfit to earn his subsistence 
 the following scale has been fixed \ 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 
 
 183 
 
 Rank 
 
 In battle 
 
 Not in battle 
 
 Post Captain or Colonel . 
 
 Commander 
 
 J'Soo 
 5^260 
 
 a^20O 
 J'lOO 
 
 £10 
 
 £io 
 £m 
 
 ^250 
 
 5^200 
 
 Lieutenant of more than eight years' service, or Major 
 Lieutenant of less than eight years' service or Captain 
 Sub-Lieutenant, lieutenant of the marines, and chief 
 
 warrant officers 
 
 Warrant-officer or Midshipman 
 
 Naval cadet 
 
 J'iSo 
 
 ^25 
 
 If the officer loses more than one limb or eye, the amount of the 
 pension is increased in proportion. At present such pensions are 
 drawn by two admirals of the fleet, one admiral, eight rear-admirals, 
 four post captains, nine commanders, five lieutenants, five medical 
 officers, seven engineers, two paymasters, three warrant-officers, and 
 six officers of the marines. 
 
 An officer wounded in battle, who does not retire, receives in 
 addition to his pay an extra allowance of one year's pay, and the 
 expenses incurred in the cure of his wound. 
 
 V. Greenwich Hospital. 
 
 The Institution long known by that name was first a Royal 
 residence from the year 1300. In that palace Henry VIII. and his 
 two daughters Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth were born. Charles II. 
 had it pulled down and a new building was erected in its place. In 
 1692 Queen Mary, the wife of William of Orange, had it converted 
 into a hospital to receive the numerous seamen wounded and 
 mutilated in the battle of La Hogue. 
 
 The first provision for disabled sailors had been made more than 
 100 years previously by Queen Elizabeth, when Hawkins was purser 
 of the fleet. There were made weekly collections in all the parishes 
 of the country and the amounts thus collected were placed in the 
 "Chatham Chest" for that purpose. Subsequently, under James I., 6d. 
 a month was deducted from every man's pay on board to form a 
 fund for disabled mariners, but it seems that in that deeply cor- 
 rupted time the payments into the fund were far from regular. 
 
 During the reign of Charles II. the sick and wounded were taken care 
 of as much as possible in hospitals of their own native town or coimty; 
 
184 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 but this kind of accommodation was most inadequate during the Second 
 Dutch War; in 1665 there were, according to official reports, more 
 than 5000 sick, wounded, and prisoners on hand in one single spot; 
 these were suffering from want of necessaries, even of bread, and no 
 permanent relief was afforded them. It was Queen Mary, who had 
 the good fortune to immortalise her name by devoting the Royal 
 palace of Greenwich to the reception of the thousands of wounded 
 returning home from the glorious battle of La Hogue. After her 
 death, in 1694, the building was enlarged to the dimensions which 
 it has to this day. Government and private benefactors co-operated 
 
 Royal Naval College at Greenwich. 
 
 in richly and abundantly endowing the institution; in 1696 the regula- 
 tion that 6d. a month be deducted from every man's wages on board 
 was re-enacted by law, and confiscated estates, lapsed prize-moneys 
 and fines were handed over to the hospital. Soon the building, large 
 as it was, was unable to accommodate the number of invalids, and 
 with the corruption that followed in the train of the long- peace that 
 ensued, gross abuses crept in; for example in 1742 no less than 899 
 inmates had to be expelled, an investigation having shown that they 
 had been wrongfully admitted. In 1782 the hospital accommodated 
 2300 men, divided into quarters for boatswains and boatswain's mates; 
 they wore a blue uniform, which was supplied them together with 
 shoes and socks; they had free residence given them and abundant 
 board, and i/- a week pocket money. In the year 171 2 a SCHOOL 
 
V. PERSONNEL. 185 
 
 was added to the hospital, in which 150 boys, sons of pensioners, 
 who eng-ag-ed to go to sea, were educated between the years of 1 1 
 and 16; these also wore a blue uniform. A second school then 
 existing for 600 boarders was in 1829 incorporated with the hos- 
 pital-school, and both together formed senior and junior sections of 
 400 boys each. In 1861 the senior school was abolished; the lower 
 still exists and contains 1000 to iioo pupils. Of these many enter 
 the Royal navy, partly as seamen and partly as engine-room artificers; 
 some are apprenticed to the mercantile navy. Sons of warrant officers, 
 petty officers, and seamen of the navy and of the Naval Reserve, or 
 of other sailors, who have lost their lives at sea, are alone entitled 
 to admission in this school; they must be between 11 and 14 years 
 old, of sound bodily health, and fit for a seafaring life; this latter 
 point is ascertained by a careful medical examination. In addition 
 to the regular school education all the boys are taught swimming 
 and practical seamanship. On leaving school they join the Royal or 
 mercantile navy. The 50 top boys may choose to work, according 
 to their liking, either in the Royal navy or dockyard, or in the mer- 
 cantile navy. 
 
 The girls' school at Greenwich having been abolished, the Admiralty 
 provides for the education of 200 sailors' daughters by paying their 
 school-fees in other schools. 
 
 The eagerness for admission to Greenwich hospital greatly diminished 
 in the first half of this century; most men preferred a pension to 
 free board, residence, and clothes at the hospital, as it enabled them 
 to live in greater freedom with their friends and relatives at home. 
 The Admiralty took that into account in 1865, and the result was 
 that the hospital stood empty, and in 1869 it was finally closed. 
 For four years the palace was unoccupied, containing only the sea- 
 pictures in the painted hall and the relics; at last in 1873 the Royal 
 Naval College was transferred there. Of Greenwich hospital, which 
 for 170 years had been the refuge of all naval invalids, nothing is 
 left but the fund, from which the above mentioned pensions are 
 defrayed; the building however has retained its ancient name. 
 
Igg THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 VI. EDUCATION AND TRAINING. 
 
 up to the middle of the present century little provision was made 
 for the education of common sailors, barring- always the above named 
 Greenwich Naval School. Very little school learning was expected 
 of warrant officers and petty officers; barely more than was required 
 to keep the lists and discharge the current duties of the service; the 
 consequence was that with the very defective school system of those 
 days a man able to write was a rara avis on board. But all this 
 has greatly changed since the introduction of continuous service, and 
 the systematic education of boys on a large scale. When a lad 
 enters he is expected to have received an elementary education, and 
 in the school-ships fpr boys, which are excellently equipped and 
 managed, they are taught reading, writing, arithmetic, &c. in addition 
 to their practical training, which naturally holds a pre-eminent 
 position. 
 
 The education and training in the school-ships aims throughout at 
 practical utility. They are each under the government of a Com- 
 mander; only the original ship, the "Impregnable" at Devonport is 
 commanded by a post captain, who is also Inspector of all the school- 
 ships. In these institutions the boys are well cared for, and are 
 trained from the very outset to be neat, truthful and strictly obedient. 
 Knotting, splicing, &c. , they are taught by skilful petty officers and 
 others. 
 
 Every ship has, on which the boys are taught boarding exercise 
 and sail-drill at least one lightly rigged drill-mast; of special ad- 
 vantage for their training in seamanship are the sailing brigs attached 
 to the schools; their rigging- is adapted to the strength and size of 
 the boys; they manoeuvre splendidly and they are kept so trim and 
 tidy that it does a sailor's heart good to look at them. They are 
 excellently adapted to rouse in the boys a genuine sailor's spirit, 
 which at all times has been, and roer will be, the decisive element in 
 every navy. 
 
 It is felt as a want, which will not be easily supplied, that this 
 kind of education cannot be continued in future in sea-going school- 
 ships as thoroughly as it ought to be; especially for ordinary sea- 
 men this want is felt, there being only one such school-ship in 
 use for them. 
 
 Additional admirable training institutions for sailors are: at Ports- 
 
VI. EDUCATION AND TRAINING. 187 
 
 mouth the school-ships "Excellent" for gunnery and "Vernon" 
 for torpedo -practice; at Devonport the "Cambridge" for gun- 
 nery, and the "Defiance" for torpedo; and at Sheerness there is a 
 gunnery -school fitted up on shore, and a torpedo -school is in 
 prospect. The gunnery-school at Portsmouth is no longer conducted 
 on board, but was transferred years ago to Whale Island; neverthe- 
 less the old name has been retained. All these schools are abundantly 
 supplied with teaching staffs and all appliances; also with tenders 
 and boats, and drill-ammunition; the torpedo-schools have for use. a 
 large number of torpedo-boats, mining launches, vedette boats, &c. 
 
 All Able Seamen are as much as possible expected to go through 
 these schools; the more gifted and more skilful among them go 
 through a course, which mainly practical, but to some extent also 
 theoretical, lasts nearly a year, and raises the men far above the 
 general average. 
 
 The men who go through an additional half-year's course and are trained 
 for Instructors, may be regarded as thoroughly educated gunners 
 or torpedo-experts. This minute and careful provision of the best 
 teaching and training of men in the use of both the main arms of a 
 man-of-war and of experienced Instructors is practical in every way, 
 and in harmony with the principle universally enforced; that the men 
 must be fitted to carry out the main purpose of a navy, which is 
 combat; all other knowledge and skill is of value only in so far as it 
 can be utilized in the employment and preservation of the ship. This 
 is the sum-total of the technical education of the man. 
 
 The arrangements formerly made for the education and training of 
 lads intending to become officers was, up to i860, also very defective. 
 The appointment of volunteers, or King's letter boys, or servants, or 
 boys simply, as described above, proved very valueless. In the 
 beginning of the last century the boys received some instruction on 
 board by the schoolmaster in writing, mathematics, navigation, &c., 
 but with such very poor results, that different plans had to be 
 devised. 
 
 Accordingly a Naval College was opened in 1729 in Portsmouth 
 dockyard for 40 boys of good family, of the ages of 13 to 16 years; 
 they were taught writing, mathematics, navigation, survey, gunnery, 
 fortification, French, drawing, and fencing; in the 2nd year the boys 
 received moreover practical lessons in the yard by the master of 
 naval construction, by the harbourmaster, and by a gunner. It seems 
 that the institution was not very popular, but it was allowed to pro- 
 
188 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 tract its existence till 1 808, when it was re-organized and placed 
 under the direction of Professor Inman, who had returned from a 
 voyage of survey to Australia, and the number of branches of study 
 was enlarged. This arrangement lasted another 30 years, but was 
 abandoned in 1837 in favour of the educational system carried out 
 to this day, by Naval Instructors. 
 
 Candidates for officers' posts in the Royal navy are now educated 
 in the naval school, the "Britannia" at Dartmouth described above; 
 she is the larger of two ships-of-the-line , fitted up for residence and 
 school purposes. At the present moment the regulations are being 
 modified; the age of entry is raised by a year, and the time on 
 board is reduced from two years to 16 months, and instead of the 
 two old ships a large college is to be built on shore. The numerous 
 play-grounds and gymnasia will no doubt be retained, as well as the 
 various kinds of boats and the sloop belonging to the institution. A 
 sailing brig, like those for the ships' boys, would be a very useful 
 addition. 
 
 The "Britannia" is commanded by an experienced captain, a member 
 of the Council of Naval Education, who is changed once every 
 three years; the institution is under the direct government of the 
 Admiralty. The staff consists, besides the senior officer, of five lieuten- 
 ants, a chaplain, surgeons, and paymasters; and as Instructors, a 
 naval engineer for the study of machinery, ten naval Instructors, and 
 six teachers for other branches of study, such as natural science, 
 English literature, French, and drawing. The Principal Instructor draws 
 £841 a year; the Senior Officer £502 a year, the Second Naval Instructor 
 £602 a year, and the 8 Junior Masters draw £490 each; all these 
 are naval Instructors; the teachers for languages, drawing, &c. , who 
 are civilians, receive a salary of from £250 to £350 a year. 
 
 On entry the cadet must come supplied with a sea-chest contain- 
 ing the regulation uniform and appurtenances, linen, bedding, and 
 the fifteen school books in use, besides Bible and prayer-book; also 
 a box of mathematical instruments and a sextant; when at sea he 
 must also have a telescope. Additional allowances from home are 
 forbidden; the cadet must manage to be content with his pocket 
 money. In addition to the pay of the captain the vote for the "Bri- 
 tannia" for the financial year 1898/99 amounted to £25,381. 
 
 Since 1873 the Greenwich ROYAL NAVAL COLLEGE has been located 
 in the whilom Royal palace, and subsequent naval hospital at Green- 
 wich. Nominally the First Lord of the Admiralty is its governor; 
 
VI. EDUCATION AND TRAINING. 189 
 
 the President is a meritorious Senior Admiral, for whom this post, 
 with free residence and a salary of £2000 a year, is a mere sinecure. 
 The real management is in the hands of a so-called Assistant, who 
 is a post captain, and of a Director of Studies, a scholar, both of 
 whom have free residence, and in addition the captain draws £750, 
 and the Director of Studies £1200 a year. They have under them 
 a staff of 33 teachers of mathematics, navigation, nautical astronomy, 
 meteorology, maritime survey, physics, chemistry, applied mechanics, 
 fortification, naval architecture, marine engineering, drawing, and 
 foreign languages; the laboratory employs a dozen assistants and so 
 on. The headmasters and professors have a salary of £600 a year; 
 one of the Naval Instructors, and the Chaplain are still better provided 
 for; they draw, in addition to a honorarium of £100, a salary of 
 £675 ; another naval Instructor receives inclusive of a honorarium of 
 £160, a salary of £476, and the chief Instructor in engineering draws 
 £650. The minimum salary of a teacher is £350; the honoraria range 
 from £100 to £160. 
 
 For the financial year 1898/99 the vote for this college amounted 
 to £39,026 inclusive of £200 for special courses; this sum includes 
 examiners' fees and contingencies. 
 
 The Institution has to serve various purposes. Its primary task is to 
 prep9.re students desirous of becoming sub-lieutenants for the officers' 
 examination in navigation and pilotage; there are also held in the 
 college nine-m,onthly courses • of study for officers qualifying for gun- 
 nery and torpedo duties, as well as for young officers of the marine 
 artillery and infantry; more advanced courses are given to candidates 
 for higher engineers' posts, as well as for those qualifying for naval 
 Constructors, and for future Naval Instructors; moreover there are held 
 short courses for officers of the navy in the history of naval 
 warfare, &c. These are probably the so called special courses; for 
 naval history a lecturer is appointed, but not for tactics ^ and strategy, 
 hygiene,^ maritime law, aiid the law of nations.^ The officers of the 
 English navy and army have thus no opportunity offered them for 
 the scientific study of these important branches. 
 
 The number of students at this college is estimated at loi naval 
 
 ' They get much instruction in the actual handling of fleets and ships. 
 
 ^ The naval hospitals provide this; medical officers are allowed to walk the 
 large civil hospitals on full pay. 
 
 ^ These subjects are very variable; every nation makes national laws to suit 
 ever altering circumstances. The translator. 
 
190 THE BRITISH. NAVY. 
 
 officers, 23 officers of the marines, 22 aspirants for naval architecture 
 and engineering" construction, and 3 officers of the Indian navy; 
 amounting to a total of 149 students, being 15 less than 12 years 
 ago. In reality there are present to-day on the i8th of March 1898: 
 5 full pay captains, 7 half pay captains, 4 full pay commanders, 
 17 officers qualifying for gunnery lieutenants, 10 officers qualifying 
 for torpedo lieutenants, 4 candidates for naval Instructors, 25 acting 
 sub-lieutenants, i major and i captain of the marines, 32 second 
 lieutenants of the Royal marine artillery, 24 second lieutenants of the 
 Royal marine light infantry, 20 assistant and probationary assistant 
 engineers, 3 probationary assistant constructors, and 2 lieutenants, 
 and I sub-lieutenant of the Royal Indian Marine; in all 156 students, 
 being an excess of 5 over the estimate, and an increase of 31 upon 
 last year. 
 
 The Training School for Engineer Students at Keyham in 
 the Devonport-Keyham dockyard is managed by a commander; at 
 that institution the students pass through a five years' course on the 
 theory and practice of naval engineering. The staff consists of only 
 8 persons, viz: Three naval engineers, one Head-master, and four 
 assistant masters. The Head-master draws the highest salary, viz: 
 £560, that of the others ranges from £250 to £350 a year. The 
 lower staff numbers 54 persons, one half of whom are pensioners in 
 attendance on the students. The total budget of the school amounts 
 to £13,630. The number of students' is estimated at 190 as com- 
 pared with 164 of two years ago. The arrangements, courses of 
 instruction, and examinations have already been given above. 
 
 In addition to all these there exist 7 DOCKYARD SCHOOLS, five at 
 home, being one in each of the following ports: Portsmouth, Devon- 
 port, . Chatham, Sheerness, and Pembroke for 712 apprentices and 
 boys; and two abroad in Malta and Bermuda for 59 apprentices and 
 248 children of dockyard labourers. 
 
 The former are managed each by i to 3 naval school-masters, the 
 head-masters drawing £350 to £400 a year; the latter each by five 
 masters and mistresses. The budget for all seven schools amounts 
 in round numbers to £3000. 
 
 The depots for marines have each two Barrack-Schools, one for 
 bigger boys with i to 4 teachers, and one for little boys and girls 
 with 6 to 10 masters and mistresses; the former accommodate about 
 1900 pupils, the latter 1600 boys and girls. The costs amount in 
 round numbers to about £3350. 
 
VII. UNIFORMS. 191 
 
 There remain yet to be mentioned the OBSERVATORIES at Green- 
 wich and at the Cape; from the former the longitude at sea is counted, 
 and both are maintained out of the budget for the navy. The ex- 
 penses for Greenwich amount to £8100, and for the Cape to £4250; 
 to these have yet to be added £330 for Greenwich, and £300 for 
 the Cape for the construction of photographic charts of the heavens. 
 Moreover there are the COMPASS AND CHRONOMETER SECTIONS, and 
 the office for the Nautical Almanac, the preUminary vademecum 
 of all the manuals required by every navigator. Finally we have yet 
 to mention two, albeit small, contributions for Learned Societies, being 
 £300 for the Royal United Service Institution, and £250 for the 
 Institution of Naval Architects. Both these societies have ren- 
 dered and are rendering great service to the English navy by the 
 papers read at their meetings, as well as by their publications. They 
 stimulate the study of, and explain obscure points in, the domains 
 of organisation, warfare, and technical skill; this is all the more im- 
 portant because there exists no military or technical High School for 
 naval officers and engineers. 
 
 VII. UNIFORMS. 
 
 a. Historic. 
 
 Uniforms for both officers and men were introduced so late in the 
 English navy, that with our^ military notions we can hardly believe 
 it. Officers' uniforms were not introduced till 1748, just before the 
 Seven Years' War, and the men's uniform not till 1857 after the 
 Crimean War. In all the great wars and battles, inclusive of Trafalgar, 
 to which England owes her world-wide power, the men fought in 
 very various, often gay, costumes. 
 
 Badges to distinguish friends from foes were, of course, customary 
 even in the Middle Ages, such as for example the Cross of St. George — 
 a red upright Cross in a white field. Just as the English wore this 
 sign in the battles of Crecy and Poitiers in 1346 and 1356 in a large 
 
 1 i. e. German. The translator. 
 
192 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 shape in the front and on their back, so probably also did the sea- 
 men of the Cinque Ports at the same time; that they did so at the 
 beginning of the i6th century can be proved. It was worn on their 
 white cotton coats over the scutcheon of their native Port. It seems 
 that similarity of dress had been customary in the Royal ships and 
 in those of the Cinque Ports even in the 15th century, but no posi- 
 ti\-e information has been handed down to us. In later times the 
 most various and most peculiar costumes were in vogue; such as 
 skyblue coats, gray jackets with red facings, scarlet jackets, &c. 
 
 b. For Officers. 
 
 Up to 1748 the dress of officers was regulated by fashion, and all 
 patterns and colours were represented; the favourite combination was 
 scarlet with blue facings, or blue with scarlet facings, In the 17th 
 century admirals frequently wore suits of mail. The dress was gener- 
 ally regulated by the captain or commander of the squadron. 
 
 In 1745 the officers of a ship-of-the-line were all clad in gray 
 mounted with silver, or with scarlet facings; but red coats were then 
 customary, young officers on entering the Mediterranean buying them 
 of the soldiers at Gibraltar and having them faced with black. At 
 that time however the necessity of a settled costume began to be 
 felt, and Admiral i-\DSon, being one of the Lords of the Admiralty, 
 took the matter in hand. The selection of colour, cut, and the 
 preparation of sample suits took some years, but at last, in April of 
 1748, King George II. selected the UNIFORM FOR NAVAL OFFICERS. 
 He decided in favour of blue with white facings according to a dress 
 of the Duchess of Bedford, which a little while previously he had 
 seen and Hked in Hyde Park. Orders were issued accordingly to 
 all commanding officers, and samples were exhibited at the Navy- 
 Office and at the dockyards. Regulations in reference thereto were 
 however not issued, and thus it happened that a considerable time 
 elapsed ere the uniform, which was to be regarded as "full dress", 
 was universally adopted. It consisted of a blue coat with white facings 
 and embroidery for the Admirals, but without collar, in the place of 
 which there was worn a lace-necktie, or lace-collar, and of a cocked 
 hat, which had been in use for some time before. This uniform was 
 in force for naval officers and cadets, but the rest of the ship's com- 
 plement were bound by no regulations but such as the commanding 
 officer chose to issue. 
 
VII. UNIFORMS. 193 
 
 In 1767 the regulations concerning the uniforms of naval officers 
 were issued with some modifications by an Order in Council; anchor 
 buttons, white trousers, and an "undress uniform" for the daily ser- 
 vice, were introduced in 1774; in 1783 embroidered emblems of rank 
 on the sleeve-facings of Admirals, and in 1787 uniforms were decreed 
 also for warrant-officers. In 1795 EPAULETTES became obligatory, 
 the English navy therein following in the wake of other nations, with 
 whom they had been in use ever since 1780; the English epaulettes 
 were of gold with bullions, and for an Admiral adorned with one, 
 or two or three silve'r stars according to his rank, ^ a captain of more 
 than 3 years' service had both epaulettes, but without any star; one of 
 less than three years' service had only one epaulette on the right 
 shoulder; a commanding officer of less rank had only one epaulette 
 on the left shoulder, and the lieutenant had no epaulettes at all. 
 This, together with a white waistcoat and breeches, was the uniform 
 of naval officers up to 181 2. The sword was worn by younger of- 
 ficers with a broad belt from the shoulder. Midshipmen began to 
 wear a dirk, but it only became obligatory in 1856. Meanwhile in 
 1 805 , uniforms were fixed for surgeons also , and in 1 807 for pay- 
 masters and sailmakers. Next there was prescribed for lieutenants 
 one epaulette for the right shoulder, and buttons with anchor and 
 crown. 
 
 The uniform underwent frequent modifications; for example from 
 1833 to 1843 red facings were prescribed instead of white. In 1837 
 the uniform for engineers was introduced. Up to 1846 the hat had 
 always to be worn on shore; it was three-cornered for a long time, 
 then it became two-cornered and worn breadthways on the head; 
 afterwards in undress, the cap with' gold band was allowed on shore. 
 In 1856 a black band with badges indicating the rank was intro- 
 duced instead of the gold band on the cap; midshipmen received 
 the dirk. 
 
 c. For the Crews. 
 
 The Dress of the Crews was to some extent influenced by the 
 fact that ever since about 1600 the cloth and even ready-made clothes 
 were sold by the paymasters on board ship. In 1 706 the men were 
 ordered to wear a uniform, viz: gray jackets with red facings, red 
 
 ^ At present the device on the epaulette of an Admiral of the fleet is : a crown, 
 crossed batons, surrounded by a wreath of laurel, without star. The translator. 
 
 13 
 
194 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 waistcoats and red trousers; but in 1740 green and blue woollen 
 garments had come into use. A very peculiar piece of dress was 
 adopted and stood its ground for centuries, a sort of small petticoat 
 reaching down to the knee somewhat like the kilts of the Scotch 
 Highlanders; it was worn as far back as the 14th century and re- 
 mained in use down to the present 19th centurj-. It was made of 
 sailcloth, sometimes tarred, it protected the trousers and kept the 
 men warm. Allied to ; this was a broad brimmed tarred hat also 
 xnade of sailcloth, and called tarpauUn. These tarred garments 
 suggested the good-natured nickname "Jack Tar", equivalent to 
 "Blue jackets." The tarred hat was subjected to many changes 
 of fashion; it remained in use from the middle of the 17th 
 century down to 1780, when it was supplanted by soft hats or caps 
 of fur or wool; after that a better sort of stiff glazed hat had 
 been introduced and remained in use till a few years ago. About 
 1802 straw hats imported from the West Indies became fashionable. 
 
 About 1760 the garments in use were: blue jackets, long gay 
 waistcoats, white kneebreeches protected by the petticoat, blue stock- 
 ings, shoes with buckles, gay neckcloths, and tarred hats. 
 
 Towards the end of the last century the men used frequently to 
 wear red and blue striped trousers, waistcoats and shirts to match the 
 jackets of blue wool or yellow nankin and sailcloth petticoats. About 
 1800 blue jackets and white trousers came into use, but new-comers 
 used to continue wearing their civilian clothes, and the whim of the 
 commanding officer exercised great influence. Occasionally a com- 
 mander or captain would prescribe the men's clothes; for example, 
 as late as 1840 the commanding officer of the frigate "Vernon" 
 ordered his men to wear woollen blouses and shawls; another, blue 
 and white striped jerseys, and a third in 1854 red shirts and gay 
 caps. From of old it was the custom that the commanding officer 
 regulated the clothes of the men of his gig; for example, after Anson's 
 return from the circumnavigation of the world, which had brought 
 him in large amounts of prize-money, his gig's crew wore scarlet 
 jackets with silver badges on the sleeves, and blue silk waistcoats; 
 as late as 1853 the commanding officer of the "Harlequin" ordered 
 his gig's men to be dressed as harlequins. The UNIFORM OF THE 
 CREWS similar to that in use at present was finallj' settled by reg'ula- 
 tion in 1857; in 1867 badges were added for seamen -gunners and 
 Instructors, and in 1868 also for torpedo-men; the blue cloth jackets 
 and stiff hats were abolished in 1891. 
 
THE NAVY: VARIOUS 
 
 Cap baripe for ofncers 
 of the NiLval Hcocrvt' 
 
 HeU piRte for ufflcers J>evlce on cuff of offlcera Sh«iiilder ntnip 
 
 of tlic Niiviit Ri^eice of th« Naval Renervp of the Naviil R«seiv 
 
VII. UNIFORMS. 
 
 195 
 
 The men of the last century used to wear their HAIR full and long, 
 and the pigtail which had become fashionable in the latter half of 
 the century was not popular in the navy for any length of time, and 
 had in 1826 completely disappeared. 
 
 Up to 18 1 5 the officers use to shave their whole face, then long 
 mutton-chop whiskers became fashionable, the chin in the middle 
 being shaved to the width of about three fingers. Lately, thanks to 
 the Duke of Edinboro' (of Coburg), full beards trimmed to a point, 
 have been allowed, but not moustaches alone. 
 
 d. Modern Uniforms. 
 
 The present regulations concerning the UNIFORMS decree, that 
 every man oh board must wear the prescribed Uniform, which is: 
 
 A. Officers : 
 
 Dresses 
 
 Occasions 
 
 No. I. 
 "Full" 
 
 No. 2. 
 "Ball". 
 
 No. 3. 
 "Frock coat 
 
 with 
 epaulettes". 
 
 No. 4. 
 Frock coat" 
 
 Full Dress Coat, Epaulettes, Laced 
 trousers, Cocked hat, Sword, Full 
 dress belt, Decorations and 
 Medals. 
 
 Undress tail coat, Epaulettes, 
 Laced trousers. White waistcoat. 
 Decorations and Medals. 
 Frock coat. Epaulettes, Morning 
 waistcoat, Trousers plain blue 
 or white, Cocked hat. Sword, 
 Undress belt. Ribbons of Deco- 
 rations and Medals, Stars of 
 Orders. 
 
 Frock coat, Morning waistcoat, 
 Trousers plain blue or white. 
 Cap, Sword, Undress belt. Rib- 
 bons of Decorations and Medals, 
 (Stars of Orders optional). 
 
 a. State occasions at home and 
 abroad, b. When receiving the 
 Sovereign or other Crowned 
 Heads, c. At ceremonies or enter- 
 tainments at the discretion of the 
 Senior Officer. 
 
 At official or public balls, dinners, 
 and evening receptions. 
 
 a. When receiving their Royal 
 Highnesses, the Prince and Prin- 
 cess of Wales, Heirs to Thrones, 
 or other Member-s of the English 
 and of Foreign Royal Families; 
 at Ports at home and abroad. 
 All Masthead flags being hois- 
 ted, b. Courts-Martial, c. Funer- 
 als, d. Boarding foreign ships- 
 of-war. e. Exchanging visits of 
 ceremony with ' Foreign Officers 
 or Functionaries, 
 a. See a No. 3. All Masthead flags 
 not being hoisted, b. Divisions on 
 Sunday, candd. Inspections by or 
 visits to Commander-in-Chief or Se- 
 nior Officer, e. Attending examina- 
 13* 
 
196 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Dresses 
 
 Occasions 
 
 No. 5. 
 ' Undress ' 
 
 No. 6. 
 "Mess 
 Dress". 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 "Mess 
 
 Undress" 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 "White 
 
 Undress", 
 
 Undress coat, Morning waistcoat, 
 Trousers, plain blue or white. 
 Cap, Sword, Undress belt, Rib- 
 bons of Decorations and Medals. 
 
 Jacket, Evening waistcoat (blue). 
 Laced trousers. Ribbons of Dec- 
 orations and Medals, or Minia- 
 tures of ditto. 
 
 Jacket, Evening waistcoat (blue). 
 Plain blue trousers. Ribbons of 
 Decorations, and Medals, or Rib- 
 bons of Miniature ditto. 
 
 In Hot Climates. 
 White undress coat, Shoulder 
 straps, White trousers, Helmet 
 
 tions. Surveys at hospitals, 
 f. Officer of the Guard (exception 
 see No. 3 (d). g. Ordinary occa- 
 sions of duty and ceremony on 
 shore. ><' h. On leave in day- 
 time, receptions in daytime, dances 
 and entertainments on board and 
 ashore in daytime. Receptions. 
 a i. Sunday in harbour after divi- 
 sions, aj. Officer of the watch in 
 harbour (with sword belt). 
 
 a. Drills and exercises with or 
 without sword according to the 
 nature of the drill or exercise. 
 
 b. Patrol, dockyard duties, and 
 landing parties. H c. Officers at 
 Home Ports going to and from 
 their residences, a d. On all 
 other ordinary occasions afloat 
 or in H. M. Dockyards. 
 
 a. Dinner in Harbour at tables 
 of Flag Officers and of Officers 
 of corresponding rank, unless 
 Ball dress is ordered, b. Evening 
 dances and entertainments on 
 shore and afloat, c. Dinner at 
 Military mess, and entertainments 
 given by Military Officers appear- 
 ing in their Mess Dress, 
 a. Dinner at sea, at Flag Officers' 
 tables, and in harbour, when guests 
 are not entertained, b. Dinner 
 at the tables of Captains and Of- 
 ficers in Command. Wardroom 
 and Gun-room messes, c. Dinners 
 at the messes of the Royal Naval 
 Colleges, Barracks and Medical 
 Establishments. 
 
 a. Occasions prescribed for No. 3. 
 (b) and (c) Note:— With Helmet. 
 
 b. Occasions prescribed for No. 4 
 
 ' X indicates that swords are not to be worn, unless otherwise directed by 
 the Senior Officer present. 
 
NAVY: TAIL COATS, WAISTCOATS, AND TROUSERS 
 
 Full-dress coat for Flag Officers, Full-dress coai for CoinmanderB Undress Tail-coat for Officers 
 Commodores and Captains and Lieutenants of all ranks 
 
 Frout view of Full-dress coat Back view of Full-dress coat 
 for Chief Gunner for Chief Gunpei 
 
 Evening waistcoat 
 for warrant officers 
 
 Evening waistcoat 
 
 White Evening waistcoat Gold-laccd trousers Plain trou8t*rs 
 
 White Irousers 
 
NAVY: DEVICES ON CUFFS 
 
 .dtniral ot the Fleet 
 
 Rear- Admiral und 
 Commodore 1st. Glass 
 
 Commodore "Jnd. Class 
 
 Captntu 
 
 -40-. 
 
 CDmnmnder 
 
 J^leuteuaut 
 of over B years' 
 
 lileutemmt 
 or uuder 8 yeare' 
 
 Sub-Lieu tenant 
 
 Chief Gunuer and 
 Chief Boatswain 
 
 CiuDuer and 
 
 Boatswain 
 
 over 10 jeai^s' 
 
 service 
 
 Gunner and 
 
 Boats^vain 
 
 of under 10 years' 
 
 sen- Ice 
 
 tlidshipman and 
 Navfil CadL't 
 
 Inspector General 
 of HoflrIt:il8 
 
 Fleet Surgeon 
 
 raymaHter-ln-chlcf 
 
 Staff- Paymadter 
 and fay master 
 
 Clerk and Assistant 
 Cleik 
 
 Chief Inspector 
 uud luHpector 
 of Machinery 
 
 Staff and Chief 
 RDglueer 
 
 Assistant Euglnecr 
 
 Naval Instructor 
 of 15 years' 
 
 Naval Instructor 
 
 of under 8 yeara' 
 
 seriice 
 
 Pun-dress collar for Officers 
 
NAVY: EPAULETTES 
 
 Admiral of the Fleet 
 
 Vice-Admiral 
 
 Rear- Admiral 
 
 Commodore 2nd. Clnss Captain 
 
 and Captain of under 3 years' sci-vioc 
 
 or over 8 years' sen-Ice 
 
 Commander 
 
 L eutenant 
 
 of over 8 years' aen'icc 
 
 Sub-Lieutenant 
 
 Staff -Com mander 
 
 Inspector General 
 of Hospitals 
 
 Secretary to an Admiral 
 of tbe Fleet 
 
 Inspector of Machineiy 
 
 of under 8 years' service 
 
 Chief Carpenter 
 
 Fleet Surgeon 
 
 Naval Instructor 
 
 of SyearM' service 
 
NAVY: SHOULDER STRAPS 
 
 AdiiiintI 
 
 Artmiral Vicp- Admiral Rrar- Admiral 
 
 Commortni-p 
 Isl. OlnM 
 
 rDDiinodore 
 Slid riasK 
 
 CommaDder Lieutenant Lieuteiiuot Sub-Lieutenant Clilef Gunner and Gunner and Gunner imd i 
 
 of n\er 8 yenrs* of under " j'l^ars' Clitef Bnat«wain Boatawalu BoatHwaln j 
 
 apfvioc service of over 10 years' of under 10 years' i 
 
 service service I 
 
 in^Vcfitui' (jenorni Oepnty TnH|iei;t4)r fleet Surgeon SiaS Rurtfeon 
 of HoHpllalt General 
 
 of HospitalH 
 
 Intpector nnd Fleet Engfueer 
 
 Chief Inspector 
 of Machinery 
 
 raynKiKler-in-ohief Fleet Fjiyma«ter Staff FaymJistu- 
 
 AseiittaDt Assistaot AfslfttADt Naval Instructor 
 
 I'ayniMter Paymaster I'ayniaster of \& yearn' 
 
 of ISyefira' of years' of nnder service 
 
 service senlce years' senice 
 
VII. UNIFORMS. 
 
 197 
 
 Dresses 
 
 Occasions 
 
 or cap (White cover), Sword, 
 Undress belt. Ribbons of Decor- 
 ations and Medals (optional). 
 
 (b) (c) (d) (a), and (f ). c. Occasions 
 prescribed for No. 4 (g), subject 
 to order by Senior Officer present, 
 d. Occasions prescribed for No. 5 
 (a) and (b). H e. Occasions pres- 
 cribed for No. 4, (h) (i) and (j). 
 a f. Occasions prescribed fbr 
 No. 5 (d). 
 
 For further and moi-e minute regulations see Navy List. 
 
 B. Crews, a. In Sailors' Dress (Class II). 
 
 Petty Officers of the first and second Class — Seamen — 
 Artificers — Stokers — Boys and all other ratings not specially 
 
 PROVIDED FOR. 
 
 The Regulation Kit for Petty Officers, and others above mentioned 
 (Class II), is as follows, and is to be strictly adhered to. 
 
 Kii. 
 
 I Monkey Jacket, i Jersey, i Comforter, 2 Pairs of Cloth Trousers, 
 2 Pairs ditto Serge, 4 pairs ditto Duck, 2 Jumpers Serge, 3 ditto 
 Duck working, 2 ditto Duck with collar and bound, 2 Serge Frocks, 
 2 ditto Drill with Collars, 2 Check Shirts with short sleeves, 3 Flan- 
 nels, 2 Pairs of Woollen Drawers, 2 Cholera Belts, 3 Collars Jean, 
 2 Pairs of Socks, 2 Black Silk Handkerchiefs, 2 Cloth Caps, 2 Cap 
 Covers, i Sennet Hat, i Case for Sennet Hat, 2 Hat or Cap Ribbons, 
 2 Towels, I Type, i Pair of Half Boots, i Knife, 2 Knife Lanyards, 
 I Bed, I Blanket, 2 Bed Covers, i Duck Bag for Brush, i Soap 
 Bag, I Clothes Bag and Set of Combs, i Scrubbing Brush, i Clothes 
 Brush, I Boot Brush for blacking, i ditto hard, i Ditty box, 24 
 Clothes Stops, I Housewife complete. The following are optional: 
 I Waterproof coat, Sou'wester, and Leggings, i Pair of shoes of 
 Uniform Pattern, i Cap Box, i Razor, i Pair of Scissors, i ditto 
 Gloves, I ditto Mittens, i ditto Stockings. 
 
 The following are the contents of a "Housewife." 
 Beeswax i oz., 16 large metal Buttons, 6 small ditto, 16 stained 
 bone ditto, 2 skeins white Cotton No. 24, 12 short needles, 12 darn- 
 ing ditto, i oz. Pins, i piece (18 yards) I inch white Tape, i piece 
 
198 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 (9 yards) i inch white Tape, 2 pieces (8|- yards) ts inch Dutch Tape, 
 
 1 tailor's Thimble, 25 skeins of whited brown thread, 25 ditto black, 
 
 2 oz. blue Worsted. (For Kits of other ratings and full descriptions 
 of articles see Navy list.) 
 
 A newly entered Boy receives £c, to purchase his Kit of clothes, 
 £1 for his bedding; on being promoted to the rank of First Class 
 Boy he receives a further SW~ ^° complete his Kit of clothes; the 
 full Kit of a Man costs about £13. 10. o and that of a Petty Officer 
 about £20. 
 
 The several suits are worn as follows: 
 
 Petty Officers and Men, dressed as Seamen, Class II. 
 
 In temperate climates 
 
 In hot Climates 
 
 Occasions when worn 
 
 No. I. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 4. 
 No. 5. 
 
 Serge frock, with gold 
 
 badges , collars , and 
 
 cloth trousers. 
 
 (Mustering suit.) 
 
 Serge frock, with red 
 
 badges, collars and cloth 
 
 trousers. 
 
 Serge jumper and ti'ou- 
 sers and collars. 
 
 Serge jumper and 
 trousers. 
 White working jumper 
 and duck trousers — 
 check shirt and woollen 
 drawers are to be worn 
 in cold or wet weather 
 — and jerseys, if being 
 
 worn or especially 
 ordered. 
 
 White drill frocks and 
 duck trousers. 
 
 Duck (bound) jump- 
 er with collar and 
 duck trousers , or 
 Serge jumper, collar 
 and duck trousers. 
 
 Serge jumper and 
 
 trousers. 
 
 White working jumpers 
 
 and duck trousers. 
 
 At Inspections, Musters, 
 Ceremonial occasions, 
 and on Sundays in 
 harbour. 
 On leave on week days, 
 on Sundays at sea. On 
 working days, for all 
 ordinary duties, i. e. 
 usual drills, boat, and 
 
 other ordinary work. 
 For night clothing and 
 in wet weather. 
 By working parties, 
 when coaling, refitting, 
 general cleaning of ship, 
 and other extra-ordinary 
 duties, when better cloth- 
 ing would be spoilt. 
 
 Sailors make their own clothes on board, or have them made there ; 
 which is mostly accomplished very satisfactorily. The materials are 
 supplied with great accuracy by the victualling yards, and stores of 
 them are always kept on board; as these are of the best quality, and 
 sold better and cheaper than they could be purchased on shore, and 
 in colour and substance accurately comply with the regulations, the 
 men nearly without exception make their purchases on board. 
 
VIII. FLAGS. 199« 
 
 b. Not in Sailor's Dress. 
 
 This concerns mostly the marines, whose uniforms are too com- 
 plicated to be described here. In a few words it may be pointed 
 out that in the uniform of Artillery officers helmet, coat,, messjacket 
 and trousers are blue; Infantry officers wear scarlet coat and mess- 
 jacket and blue trousers; in the Tropics both arms are clad in white. 
 The same colours are used by the privates, who receive their clothes: 
 ready made, as is done in the army. They receive a kit of clothes 
 and other equipment when they first join the corps; afterwards there, 
 is issued to them a pair of trousers, boots, and a shirt once a year; 
 three coats every two years, and a helmet and a greatcoat once every 
 four years. If on a foreign station there happen to be no clothes in 
 store the privates are credited, instead of clothes, with 30/—, the ser- 
 geants with i£3. 
 
 The other men not clad as sailors are the police, sick-berth- 
 staff, writers, stewards, cooks, domestics, and musicians; they do 
 not wear serge frocks, but are clad in blue cloth jackets and 
 waistcoats. 
 
 VIII. FLAGS. 
 
 History. 
 
 The National flag of the English War Navy is white, twice as long 
 as it is broad, with the upright red cross of St. George, which divides 
 the flag into 4 equal rectangles; the upper rectangle by the flag-staff' 
 has the Union-Jack, the symbol of the Union of the three Kingdoms,, 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland, by combining the three national 
 crosses of St. George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick. The Union-Jack 
 was officially introduced by James I. in 1606, when Scotland and 
 England were united; it differs somewhat from the present design, 
 because the Cross of St. Patrick was absent, still it was the emblem 
 of national Unity. The present design, which includes the Cross of 
 St. Patrick, was adopted early in 1801 since the inclusion of Ireland 
 in the United Kingdom. Since the year 1864 this white War-flag 
 has been adopted to the exclusion of every other; it was already 
 
200 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 partially in use in the early part of the century. The White Flag 
 with the Cross of St. George (without the Union Jack of course) was 
 the national flag of England as early as the Crusades, under Richard I. 
 .or Edward I., probably since the year 1274. 
 
 National Flags had at that time not yet become customary. Flags 
 lof Command or as marks of distinction to indicate the home ports 
 are the more ancient flags. The ships of the Cinque Ports, for example, 
 flew in remote times the flags of their respective ports, and these 
 stood their ground till comparatively lately, when they were super- 
 iseded by the flags of the dockyard ports. The symbols of com- 
 mand date probably from the early Middle Ages, when the knight 
 •on taking command of a ship attached a pennon to his lance, the 
 baron a broad pendant, and the earl or the duke a flag. The Cross 
 ■oi St. George in the white field, as flag, pendant or pennon has, 
 with a short interruption, been the emblem of command up to the 
 present day. As far back as 1350 it was enacted by law, that this 
 should be the NATIONAL FLAG OF ENGLAND. In the Middle Ages 
 it flew on the Royal ships from the top of the only mast the ship 
 had; the Royal Standard floated on the forecastle and the flag of the 
 home port on a flagstaff at the stern. When ships with three masts 
 came in, the flag of St. George still remained superior, viz: on the 
 main mast, especially on the main mast of an Admiral's ship in the 
 Narrow Seas, before which every foreign ship had to dip its flag, 
 and lower its topsails. The Lord High Admiral, and he alone, flew 
 the Royal- Standard as emblem of his command. In 1606 James I. 
 ordered that the new Union Jack, as the National Emblem, should fly 
 from the main-mast of all merchantmen and men-of-war; English ships 
 flying in addition the flag of St. George from the truck of the fore- 
 mast; Scotch similarly the flag of St. Andrew; but as this led to some 
 confusion and troubles, his son altered this regulation in 1634 and 
 placed the Union Jack as a mark of distinction on the Royal war-ships 
 alone. Some years before, in 1627, in a large expedition against 
 France, the fleet was divided into three squadrons distinguished by 
 red, blue, and white flags for centre, van, and rear respectively; flags, 
 however, with the Cross of St. George in the upper field by the flag- 
 staff" (analogous to the modern Jack) were introduced for the first 
 time in the Commonwealth for the three squadrons of the fleet: the 
 red for the centre; the white (formerly the blue) for the van, and 
 the blue (formerly the white) for the rear. (The white flag with the 
 Cross of St. George was the National Flag for both merchantmen 
 
NAVY: BADGES OF THE CREW 
 
 ^ 
 
 *. 
 
 X 
 
 Petty Officer 1st Class Tetty Officer 2nd Class T^.nclinff Seaman Gunnery instructor 
 
 and Shipwright 
 
 ill 
 
 Seaman-gunner 1st Class Ream an- gunner 2nd Class 
 
 X 
 
 Seaman- gunner 
 & torpedo-man 
 
 Torpedo instructor Leading torpedo-man 
 
 # 
 
 Signalling instructor Qualified signalman 
 
 Signalman Marksman's budge 1st Class 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Marksman's badge 3rd Class 
 Marksman's badge 2nd Class Gymnastic instructor Chief Stoker and meclaanic 
 
 Y 
 
 
 Stoker 
 
 Armourer's mate Blacksmifh, plumber, 
 
 and crew paintc-r 1st Class, carpenter's 
 
 mate and shipwright 
 
 X 
 
 All other artificers 
 
 Ship's police 
 
 f?irk-l\ii]i Staff Good contlatt badges 
 
 All thijii' liai-J'^f'-i ■■ui; emlirnirii'ri'il in ■:<>].] m, ijl.-,ll 
 (,r \Mjit!Dg ul'jtbe.4 ill blue cott.-.ti. Tb.- Ili--:t tla* 
 
 liL-^r h\w lio-xc frni-ks ; on iillifc ■ 
 lt>-- <■( .-^ii.ik. Mill Mil' good L'liiiilii 
 tin: rifilii ^.lei-;vi>. 
 
 1 iPil wnriicd, .niii] on whitf" 
 03 oii rho W\i sloc\e, !iU the 
 
NAVY: FLAGS 
 
 Umon Jack 
 
 Pilot Jack 
 
 While this translation was goinfj through the jiress these two flafjs have undergone an alteration. That 
 
 of the rear-admiral carries the te'*ond Ijall in the ijn;irter below that in which it is htro shevfij, and the 
 
 diam-iter of the ball In either flaj^ is half the deplli of the qiiarrer in \^'lieh it is carried. A ball has been. 
 
 added to the upper (juartcr of the pendant oE a commodore 2nd class. 
 
VIII. FLAGS. 201 
 
 and men-of-war.) Every squadron had three Admirals and by way 
 of distinction they placed their flags at different mast-heads; the 
 Admiral at that of the main-mast, the Vice-Admiral at that of the 
 fore-mast, and the Rear-Admiral on the mizen-mast. But as the 
 Admiral was Commander-in-Chief of the whole fleet, he flew as a 
 special mark of distinction the Union Jack and not the Red Flag 
 from the main-mast. These gradations applied also to the rating of 
 the Admirals, so that thore were up to 1864 Rear-Admirals, Vice- 
 Admirals, and Admirals of the Blue, the White, and the Red, with 
 the exception howevor (in consequence of the practice just named) 
 that the Admiral of the Red, of the highest rank, flew the Union Jack, 
 which did not become legal till 1805, when, after Trafalgar, it was 
 bestowed on the Navy as a special mark of honour. 
 
 After the execution of Charles I. the Union Jack was altered, but 
 at the Restoration it was re-instated. About that time and down to 
 1876 the captains of men-of-war flew as emblems of their command 
 pendants, which had three stripes lengthways; blue, white, and red, 
 terminating in one, or like a swallow-tail, in two points. 
 
 When in 1707 Scotland and England legally united formed the 
 Kingdom of Great Britain, the white flag received the Cross of St. 
 George with the Union Jack in the upper corner, which, with the 
 exception of the alteration made in 1801 in the Union Jack, was the 
 origin of the present war-flag. The Union Jack was now flown only 
 exceptionally as the emblem of highest command; in the whole of 
 the 1 8th century only three times; the last time by Admiral Howe 
 in the Naval campaign, which ended with the glorious battle of the 
 1st of June 1794.^ 
 
 The white flag of St. George flew from all the English ships during 
 the victorious battles of the Nile and of Trafalgar, and that was prob- 
 ably one of the reasons, why it was on the 5th of August 1864 made 
 the sole national and command flag of England. As national flag it 
 is oblong in form and carries the Union Jack in the upper corner 
 near the flagstaff; as the command flag it is square-shaped without 
 the Union Jack. Only the Admiral of the Fleet, who however now 
 never goes afloat, carries the Union Jack at the main truck as his 
 emblem of command. 
 
 On a three-masted vessel an Admiral carries his flag of command 
 at the main-truck, the Vice-Admiral at the foretruck, and the Rear- 
 
 ' The battle of Ushant, see p. 30. 
 
202 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Admiral at the mizen-truck. In vessels without any rigging the rank 
 of the flag officer is indicated by the flag itself; the Rear-Admiral's 
 flag has two red balls in the upper square near the flagstaff, the 
 Vice-Admiral's one red ball, and the Admiral's has the simple cross 
 without any balls. A Commodore of the First Class flies the broad 
 swallow-tail pendant with the St. George's Cross from the main-truck; 
 a Commodore of the Second Class flies the same flag from the fore- 
 truck ; a Senior Officer a similar, but smaller pendant from the mizen- 
 mast. The Union Jack serves numerous purposes. Flying from the 
 main-truck, as has already been said, it is the flag of command of the- 
 Admiral of the Fleet; from the fore-truck it indicates that the ship is 
 entering the harbour or leaving it; from the mizen-truck that the ship 
 is on guard-duty; from the peak that a court-martial is being held 
 on board, and finally it is also used as a jack flying from a flag-staff 
 on the bowsprit or stem-head on Sundays or festive occasions (see 
 diagram of the flags). 
 
 The RED English flag — wholly red with the Union-Jack — once the 
 flag of the highest rank — was made in 1864 the FLAG OF THE MER- 
 CANTILE NAVY; the BLUE flag — wholly blue with the Union-Jack — 
 is flown by ships in the service of the state, or of the colonial govern- 
 ments, by chartered transports, or by subsidised steamers and the 
 like; also by a number of ships, just now S3 in number, that are 
 commanded by officers of the Naval Reserve with crews of the Naval 
 Reserve on board, the right to fly the flag having been previously 
 granted to them; such officers may then also fly a small blue 
 pendant. 
 
 Merchant-men must, under penalties not exceeding £100, hoist the 
 national flag on entering or leaving port, on meeting men-of-war, 
 passing fortresses and so on; under similar penalties they are for- 
 bidden to fly flags, or pendants, &c. similar to or resembling those 
 flown by men-of-war. Every captain of a man-of-war is authorized to 
 keep watch over this and to lay an embargo on an offending vessel. 
 
 Signalling with flags was practised in very early days; in England 
 it is proved to have been in use in the 13th century; systematic 
 signals were first introduced in 1655 by Admiral Penn; they were a 
 very simple matter, being limited to flying the usual flags (blue, white, 
 red) from different parts of the rigging. It remained at this simple 
 stage down to the end of the last century, when Lord Hood in 1784 
 made an attempt to introduce a code of signals with special signal 
 flags. This code was not adopted till 1793, after it had been also 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 203 
 
 extended to night signals and was called "LORD HOWE'S SIGNALS"; 
 it was superseded in 1805 by a new CODE, that of POPHAM, which 
 is the foundation of the one still in use. How defective it was is 
 evident from the fact that althoug-h improvements had already been 
 made, yet Nelson's famous signal; "England expects every man to 
 do his duty" required 31 flags with 12 single signals, so that the 
 signalling was not yet finished, when the "Victory" was already 
 engaged. 
 
 Modern signalling and the signal books are kept secret by the 
 English navy as by all other navies. 
 
 IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON 
 
 BOARD. 
 
 a. Historic. 
 
 The main duties of the service on board, such as watch-keeping, 
 steering, keeping a look-out, &c. are discharged according to the 
 ancient custom at sea, as it gradually took shape since the early 
 Middle Ages and during the expansion of navigation by sails. These 
 usages, based on the very nature of sea-navigation and recognized as 
 valid by seafaring men, have been collated and recorded; for western 
 seas in Oleron, an island on the west coast of France, and for the 
 eastern seas in the Hanseatic town of Wisby in Gothland. These 
 codifications of maritime regulations have formed the basis of judicial 
 decisions and have thus acquired legal validity. The regulations of 
 Oleron for the western seas were adopted in England also, probably 
 in consequence of the marriage in 1 1 5 2 of Henry II. with Eleanor 
 of Guienne, which led to close relations between England and wes- 
 tern France. They formed the principal basis for the enactments of 
 the so called "Black book" of the Admiralty, which was decisive 
 for the Admiralty-Courts; they bore on the conduct of mariners in 
 port, at sea, and in foreign waters. This highly important code, of 
 which only one copy was in existence, had actually been lost towards 
 the end of the i8th century; it had disappeared, as it seemed, be- 
 
204 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 yond recovery. A substitute was compiled from different manuscripts, 
 and legal awards were based on this compilation, but in 1874 the 
 missing volume turned up; it was accidentally discovered in an old 
 chest of books in the cellar of the Registration-office of the Ad- 
 miralty-Court. It could now be proved that some of its regulations 
 dated back to a time anterior to the reign of Edward III. who as- 
 cended the throne in 1327; the manuscript itself was however of a 
 later date. 
 
 In addition to the Oleron regulations judicial awards were pronounced 
 according to Orders in Council, or to former decisions of the Ad- 
 miralty-Court, or to the sense of equity of the judges. This is the 
 origin of the English maritime law, just as the English Common Law 
 partly reaches back to prehistoric times. Skippers and sailmakers 
 exercised jurisdiction on board; in them was vested the power to 
 inflict the punishments, which were exceedingly stern, A murderer 
 was tied to the body of his victim and thrown overboard alive. A 
 stab with a knife, that drew blood was punished by the loss of one 
 hand; for a blow with the hand the offender was dipped three times 
 in the sea by a rope tied to the yard arm; a thief was landed in 
 the nearest port, his head being tarred and feathered. The punish- 
 ment for having fallen asleep when on the look-out, was that the 
 delinquent was whipped naked in the presence of the whole crew 
 and afterwards dipped three times in the sea; this latter punishment 
 was also inflicted for disobedience, and if it occurred three times it 
 involved the loss of wages and the eventual share in the freight. 
 
 On the other hand the skipper was bound in certain cases to con- 
 sult the crew, as for example on going to sea in doubtful weather. 
 Every man had to supply his own armour and arms and had to be 
 ready to use them at need. 
 
 These regulations \,cre valid for centuries both on boSrd of mer- 
 chantmen and of men-of-war; although their harshness was complained 
 of, yet their disciplinary punishments such as dipping in the sea, 
 keelhauling, fasting, whipping, &c., were retained till the end of 
 the 17th century. In the year 1645 the Long Parliament instituted 
 Courts-Martial for naval officers; the trial was to be 'protocolled 
 and grave sentences had to obtain the sanction of the Admiralty. 
 Soon after the Restoration the first ARTICLES OF WAR were formulated 
 upon a motion in the House of Lords. In 1749, during Anson's 
 time, their number rose to 36, and they mostly decreed a conditional 
 or unconditional death-penalty and terminated with the phrase that 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 205 
 
 all crimes not punishable with the capital sentence should be dealt 
 with according- to the ancient laws and regulations of the sea; the 
 disciplinary authority was still therefore very extensive. Under 
 George II. the competence of courts-martial to reduce punishments 
 was greatly enlarged; in all other respects the. articles remained in 
 force till 1847, when the naval Disciplinary Laws, known as the 
 "Articles of War" were issued. Its preamble runs in the ancient 
 500 years old phrase, which is characteristic of England: "Whereas 
 it is the Navy, whereon, under the good Providence of God, the 
 wealth, safety, and strength of the Kingdom chiefly depend, &c." This 
 law, which has undergone repeated modifications together with the 
 "Queen's Regulations and Admiralty Instructions", determines the 
 regulation of the service and the maintenance of discipline on board. 
 
 As far back as the 17th century it was "customary for Admirals in 
 Command, with the consent of the Admiralty-, to collate regulations 
 and to give them legal force over the whole range ' of their com- 
 mand. In the year 1730 the Admiralty compiled and perfected these, 
 had them printed under an Order . in Council, and circulated them in 
 the year following for the observance of the navy. This was the 
 first edition of the "Royal Regulations, &c.", which has since been 
 followed by others, under constant enlargements, till the latest edition 
 of 1893, which fills 1329 pages. The arrangement has remained un- 
 changed, and as for the system and the general view afforded by 
 the publication, there is room for improvement. New regulations are 
 published from time to time in book form as "Addenda"; nevertheless, 
 and in spite of the great bulk of the "Queen's Regulations and Ad- 
 miralty Instructions" many additions have to be made and are pub- 
 lished in the quarterly editions of the "Navy List" covering some 
 800 pages. The simple monthly "Navy Lists" merely publish alpha- 
 betical lists of names and seniority of officerSj„anidshipmen^ engineers, 
 surgeons, superior officials, warrant-officers in active service, coast- 
 guards, naval reserve, together witjh a complete list of all the vessels 
 of the navy and their several staffs. 
 
 We see then that the service and disciplinary regulation developed 
 very slowly and steadily, but Life on Board has undergone many 
 changes. When, about the year 1500,. broadside artillery was intro- 
 duced ships grew larger and larger, but the number of guns was 
 multiplied much faster and out of all proportion; it was a fault of 
 the English navy for centuries that the ships were too heavily armed 
 and loaded; thereby they suffered in seaworthiness and reduction of 
 
206 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 speed, besides requiring- a larg-e increase in the ship's complement 
 of men. In 1545 the "Mary Rose" foundered in the roadstead of 
 Portsmouth; she was of 500 tons measurement, and, according- to 
 modern systems of measurement, she might perhaps be considered 
 to have been of 750 tons displacement. Her crew numbered 700 men, 
 being very nearly one man per ton, whilst modern battle-ships, such 
 as for example the "Royal Sovereign", and the "Renown" have one 
 man to every 20 tons. This disproportion changed, but only very 
 gradually. *The "Triumph" of 1578 was of iioo tons measurement, 
 and had a crew of 780 men. How these men slept, hammocks being 
 as yet unknown and not introduced till 1597) seems to us moderns 
 unimaginable. The first Threedecker, the "Sovereign of the Seas" 
 of the year 1637 measured 1637 tons and had a crew of 800 men. 
 
 The crowding of the men on board was dreadful, and the space 
 for stores very scanty; moreover the hold in the wooden ships could 
 only be kept clean with difficulty or not at all, so that the water 
 lodged there soon became stagnant and foul and poisoned the air; 
 the interior wood of the ship quickly rotted; disinfection and ventila- 
 tion were carried on in the most primitive manner; the foul drinking 
 water only became fit for use after it had passed through this repul- 
 sive stage; the victuals, intended to last for months, were delivered 
 in bad condition, the medical branch of the service was badly 
 neglected down to the middle of the last century; the attendance 
 on the sick left much to be desired, and preventive measures were 
 not so much as thought of. All these circumstances, and much 
 besides, led to such a state of things on board, that now-a-days we 
 cannot conceive how the men could endure those sufferings, to our 
 notions so inhuman and degrading. Evil consequences speedily 
 ensued; scurvy and other painful diseases often raged on board and 
 sometimes made havoc of the crews. Immediately after the defeat 
 of the Armada, for example, disease and great mortality broke out 
 in the English ships, and rendered them unfit for action; of a crew 
 of 500 men in a certain ship 200 were swept off within 3 or 4 weeks, 
 and no clearing out of the hold or primitive disinfecting was of any 
 avail. Subsequently Admiral Blake himself died of scurvy. 
 
 On the occasion of Admiral Anson's voyage round the world, there 
 were left at the 'end of the first year 1740/41 on board of the 
 three surviving ships of the squadron only 335 men out of his total 
 complements of 961, that is to say two thirds of his men had 
 perished. Blockading squadrons outside Brest had more than once 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 207 
 
 been put hors de combat by disease, and had to return home. In 
 the Seven Years' War the navy lost only 1512 seamen and marines 
 in battle, but 133,708 men, that is 90 times as many by death from 
 diseases and by desertion. The only remedy for scurvy then in use 
 was beer, but with the abuses then rampant in the victualling- depart- 
 ment the beer supplied to the ships was often sour, spoilt, and unfit 
 for use. The intentions in high quarters were g-ood and the rations 
 were abundant enoug^h. In 1689 for example the men's daily rations 
 consisted of IJ lb. of fresh bread or biscuit, 2 lbs. of fresh or salt 
 meat, and i g-allon of beer; and 8 oz. of butter and cheese every 
 month besides; in the year 1622 the daily rations were i lb. of bis- 
 cuits and I g-allon of beer; 4 days in the week the men received 
 2 lbs. of salt beef or i lb. of pork with peas, and 3 days in the week 
 haddock, and 2 oz. of butter and 4 oz. of cheese; but the Contract 
 and Purchase Department of those days was badly org-anized and 
 corruptibility of men in high posts was no rarity. Down to the early 
 thirties of the present century beer was used as a remedy against 
 scurvy, althoug-h lemon-juice was known in 1795 to be a very effica- 
 cious anti-scorbutic, which had largely reduced the number of deaths 
 from that malady. Of rum, at first served out neat, each received 
 nearly i pint a day, — too large a ration, which must have produced 
 a bad effect; but since 1740 it was half mixed with water, and re- 
 ceived the name of "Grog"; later on the ration was diminished in 
 quantity and when in 1824 tea was served out the evening- grog- was 
 abolished, and afterwards the men were allowed to receive money 
 in lieu of the grog- they had declined. From 181 5 the water no 
 longer was stoi:#d in wooden casks, where it became foul, but in 
 iron tanks. 
 
 From the above it is obvious that in bygone centuries the seaman's 
 calling was far more than that of the soldier "a rough and violent 
 trade" ^ roughness, if not rudeness being inseparable from it. If more- 
 over it is taken into consideration, what elements of the populace 
 the press-gang had driven on board, and what were the abuses that 
 dogged its footsteps, it is clear that a rigorous, nay at times even 
 stern, discipline had to be enforced. Its chief instrument was the 
 cat-o-nine-tails , which being inflicted not only by legal decision but 
 also discretionally by an officer, was not rarely abused. The punish- 
 ment was always dealt out in presence of the whole crew, and its 
 
 ' Our author quotes here, a well-known passage from Schiller's " Die Piccolo- 
 mini". "Es ist der Krieg ein .rauh gewaltsarh Handwerk". This translator. 
 
208 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 brutality brutalized the men still more. The complete irresponsibility 
 of the commanding officer of a vessel sailing alone in the wide ocean, 
 the absence of clear regulations and control, the want of all self- 
 restraint and gentleness of disposition led at times to regrettable 
 occurrences. 
 
 b. Present Circumstances, 
 
 During the last 50 years the mode of Hfe on board has radically 
 changed. More humane views have gained ground; by precise regu- 
 lation of punishments, by careful watching over the administration 
 of justice on board on the one hand, and by giving prizes and re- 
 wards for good conduct on the other hand, the organisation has been 
 greatly improved; by the introduction of continuous service in all the 
 branches, by education and training given to the boys, the character 
 of the sailors has been completely altered; it is actuated by gentler 
 motives and by the sense of a corporate existence. This is further 
 aided by the respect paid to religion, and by the regulation that the 
 crew .are to hear the Word of God every day. 
 
 Like the complements of men, so the ships also have been comp- 
 letely altered during the last half century. The wooden sailing-vessels 
 of former days were all very similar in structure, in internal arrange- 
 ments, in armament, and in rigging; the smooth bore guns and their 
 ammunition were of the simplest possible kind, and only the rigging 
 required intelligent effort to understand, handle and keep in trim; to 
 some extent like the modern engine, which however is not managed 
 by sailors. The modern man-of-war is built of steel, without rigging, 
 propelled only by steam, and equipped not merely with the ship's 
 engines, but also ^vith numerous other smaller contrivances for the 
 most various purposes, some new and some formerly accomplished 
 by the hand of man; every ship is more or less armoured, the engines, 
 the rudder and the ammunition store-rooms- being protected on all 
 vessels; the guns are rifled breach-loaders on very complicated gun- 
 carriages, and are no longer placed by the dozen in a single battery, 
 but each is mounted separately behind its armour-clad shelter, and 
 to all this is added that most difficult weapon the torpedo. Hardly 
 one of these things has a counterpart in the ship of 50 years ago; 
 nevertheless the service on board ship is essentially unchanged although 
 the drill is very different, and the co-operation of the whole crew on 
 the rigging and of a large part of it in battery drill has disappeared. 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 209 
 
 Formerly, when a ship was put in commission the captain, appointed 
 by the Admiralty, received the mere ship's hull with bare lower masts, 
 and he was only supplied with officers and warrant-officers. He had 
 gradually to enlist his crew and to rig, equip, clean a,nd paint his 
 ship. Althoug-h this was to some extent instructive for him and his 
 officers, yet it required three months or more ere the ship was ready 
 to go to sea. 
 
 To-day the procedure is totally different. As has been explained 
 above in the chapter on "Stations and Dockyards" the ships that are 
 prepared for service, but are laid up in ordinary, are kept in readiness 
 as a Fleet-Reserve in three great naval dockyards at home; they are 
 fully equipped and have everything on board except ammunition and 
 such victuals as would be spoilt by being kept; they are in charge 
 of a crew with reduced numbers, are kept clean and in good trim, 
 needing only that the bulk of the complement of men should go on 
 board. The senior officers on half pay come from their several homes, 
 the younger ones from the schoolships and other vessels, the T. M. men 
 (Trained men) for gunnery and torpedoes from the corresponding school- 
 ships, the engine-room artificers and stokers from the steam-reserves 
 of the port, the other bluejackets from the guardship of the port or 
 from the barracks, the boys from their schoolships, the marines are 
 sent on board in a body from their divisions, cooks and domes- 
 tics &c. are specially engaged — and in 24 hours the ship has its full 
 complement on board. 
 
 The STAFF of a vessel, from a Second Class Cruiser upwards, com- 
 prises besides the captain, and executive officer, a navigating lieute- 
 nant, a gunnery lieutenant, and a torpedo expert (generally a lieute- 
 nant, but sometimes a gunner); every ship, however small, even a 
 gunboat, has a navigating officer on board, torpedo-boat destroyers 
 alone being without one. 
 
 The Executive Officer now points out to every man his post 
 and instructs him as to his duties, which is done by distribution of 
 cards. The Watch-bill forms the basis for the organisation of the 
 service; it rests on the ancient practice, that the crew divided into 
 two halves take the watch by turns. To obviate the inconvenience 
 of the same men having always the same watch, a daily alternation 
 is effected by dividing the day, not into six, but into seven watches, 
 by breaking up the hours from 4 to 8 in the afternoon into two- 
 hourly watches, viz: 4 to 6 and 6 to 8. In England these watches 
 are designated as the first and second dog-watches, a term applied 
 
 14 
 
210 THE BRITISH NAVY, 
 
 by the Germans to the night watches, from midnight till 4 a. m. Every 
 half-hour of the watch is indicated by sounding the ship's bell m 
 continuous number, so that the "Eight bells" indicates the end and 
 rehef of the watch, 
 
 The two halves of the Crew are designated as ''Starboard and 
 Port Watches" from the two sides of the ship, the Starboard, or 
 the righthand side and the Port or the left hand side of the ship 
 (looking from aft forward). By the Watch-bill the men are numbered 
 consecutively, the starboard-men having odd, the port-men even 
 numbers. Every man's number applies to all his posts, his sleeping 
 place, and his hammock. Formerly the classification of the crew for 
 working the sails was connected with this system; the men were 
 divided into forecastle, foretop, maintop, mizentop or after guard on 
 both sides of the ship; but with the disappearance of the rigging this 
 classification has been abandoned. The arrangement that marines, 
 stokers, and artificers should remain in compact bodies in the watch- 
 bills has been retained, and they also sleep together and have their 
 separate messes. As badges of their different watches the bluejackets 
 wear a stripe ^ on their right or left arm, being red on a blue material 
 and blue on white or working clothes. Every watch is divided into 
 two halves, the first and second; every half is subdivided into quar- 
 ters, so that if any work has to be done the whole complement, or 
 a needful part of it, may be called up. 
 
 The distribution of the men in the boats is also regulated accord- 
 ing to the above classification — the starboard watch take their seat 
 on the starboard benches and work the starbord oars; the port watch 
 those of the port. If a boat has to be sent off, its complement of 
 men is drawn from the several sections, to prevent any one watch 
 being too largely reduced. The larger boats, such as launches and 
 pinnaces, are manned by older men; cutters and gigs by young men, 
 and the smallest, jollies and dingies, by boys. 
 
 By the numbers of the watch-bill the sleeping places also are regu- 
 lated, as they are written up near the hammock-hooks fixed in the 
 beams. The boatswains' places are near the hatchways, to enable 
 them to come on deck quickly; the marine watches sleep in a separate 
 place; and so do the men undergoing punishment as well as the duty 
 boat's crew in harbour. The sleeping places on the airy decks are 
 far and away the best, as every square foot of the limited space has 
 
 ' Recently abolished, except for boys in training ships. The translator. 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 211 
 
 to be utilized, and a man's hammock has often only i ft. 3 in. to 
 I ft. 6 in. breadth allowed to it. This crowding of the men renders 
 the air so close, and at times offensive, that breathing becomes diffi- 
 cult. This is specially felt in bad weather, when the hatchways of 
 the upper deck have to be shut down, although one watch remains 
 then on deck and does not occupy its hammocks. 
 
 In the service of alternate watches, "watch and watch" as it is 
 called, only a part of the men on board is employed; the men who 
 are at work all day, such as cooks, artificers, &c. being exempted 
 from this duty; they are called "daymen" or sneeringly "idlers",* 
 simply because they may sleep all night through and regardless of 
 their being well occupied all day. 
 
 The mess tables also are occupied in accordance with the watch- 
 bill. These tables are moveable and usually triced up (suspended) 
 between the beams; when wanted they are lowered to the usual height 
 of a dinner table; the benches are similarly triced up and put in 
 position, when wanted. The men may within limits choose their own 
 mess, but every mess must consist of halves of the two watches, and 
 the daymen must be equally distributed over all the messes. It is 
 the business of the master-at-arms to see to this. When all is ar- 
 ranged the list of the mess is made out accordingly. 
 
 The Quarter-bill, that is the distribution of the men among the 
 guns, is settled by the gunnery officer on the principle that starboard 
 guns are served by starboard watch, port guns by port men. The 
 S. G. (Seamen-Gunners) take numbers i and 2; next come the 
 T. M. (Trained men), &c. In the tops good marksmen are posted 
 to work the quickfiring guns aloft. Among the men of every gun 
 are some marines, but the marine Artillery work some guns of their 
 own exclusively under their own officers. The midshipmen, sub- 
 lieutenants, and lieutenants have suitable parts of the armament 
 allotted to them. The sets of men for the several guns form the 
 division; their lieutenant is answerable for their general appearance, 
 bearing, and conduct. The gunner's-mates are stationed in the powder 
 and shell magazines and the daymen are employed in carrying am- 
 munition. A strong fire-brigade consisting of artificers and spare 
 stokers, and commanded by a lieutenant, is stationed in the lower 
 compartments; similarly a number of riggers is placed under a boat- 
 swain on the upper deck to make repairs. The men at the helm 
 
 ' This term is falling into disuse for the reason here given. The translator. 
 
 14* 
 
212 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 and those engag-ed in sounding and signalling are under tlie command 
 of the navigating officer, and they attend to the transport of the 
 wounded. 
 
 One of the principal arrangements is the FiRE BILL; the men must 
 be so distributed, that a fire breaking out in any part of the ship 
 can be combatted at once with all the disposable means on board, 
 and that the large boats can be immediately lowered to rescue the 
 men in case of need. 
 
 Sentinels, with rifles loaded with ball cartridge, guard against inten- 
 tional lowering of the smaller boats, or breaking into the spirit stores ; 
 the gunner stands ready under the command of the gunnery officer 
 to flood the magazines; the engineer and his crew stand ready at 
 the steam-pumps and so on. 
 
 When the men have all had their parts allotted to them, and the 
 grouping into classes for conduct and leave being kept in sight, small 
 arms, perishable and other provisions for the messes are taken on 
 board, and ammunition is taken in in the stream^ or roadstead and 
 now the ship is ready for sea. 
 
 Now the gunnery officer issues the small arms to the men, select- 
 ing those suitable for boarding, for landing, 'and for manning the 
 torpedo-boats. The landing partly consists of marines and of blue- 
 jackets armed with muskets and cutlasses, and formed into companies 
 of infantry commanded by an officer; also of gunners for the field- 
 guns, artificers to act as pioneers, stokers to act as ambulance men, 
 men carrying reserve ammunition, and finally the guard boats which 
 are manned by a coxwain and crew, and commanded by a sub- 
 lieutenant. 
 
 According to the boat's watch-bill^ used at landings, the landing 
 party is distributed over all the boats in such a manner, that on 
 every boat, even the smallest, some marines are stationed as marks- 
 men. Each of the larger boats is armed with a 3 inch Nine-pounder, 
 and these guns are used after landing as field-artillery. All this, as 
 well as signal flags, biscuit, and drinking water, is always kept in 
 readiness for immediate use. 
 
 The executive officer regulates among the crew the work of keep- 
 ing the ship in good order and clean. Each deck is under the super- 
 vision of a separate officer; the cleaning of the several compartments 
 
 ^ With the modern ammunition this is generally now done in harbour in the 
 stream. 
 
 ^ i. c. "Man and Arm Boats." 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 213 
 
 is entrusted to certain sections of men, so that men, whose duties in 
 other respects are in the forecastle should be employed in the fore- 
 castle and so on. The boats, of which cutters are on duty in har- 
 bour by alternate watches, are to be kept in good order by their 
 respective crews. Moreover the duties are distributed for the various 
 manoeuvres, such as anchoring and weighing anchor, clearing the 
 deck for action and the like, and the men are practised each in his 
 own particular duty; from every watch some men are selected to be 
 on the look-out, and others to steer by day and by night; crews 
 are set aside for the cutters to serve as life boats in case of danger, 
 and these boats are at all times to be ready for immediate use, by 
 being supplied with sailing gear, biscuit, and drinking water in quan- 
 tities sufficient to last for some days. 
 
 Close attention is necessary for the wise distribution ot the duties, 
 and for watching over their accurate and punctual discharge. It 
 requires insight into human character, close attention, incessant 
 activity, and persistent practice of the men in their several branches 
 of the service. The one purpose, to which every other must give 
 way, is: To keep the ship as much as possible ready and efficient for 
 battle. Months of uninterrupted drill and toil must be spent, ere this 
 aim is adequately realised; every change in the personnel, especially 
 of the officers, is detrimental. It may be regarded as a maxim that 
 the longer a ship is in commission, the more efficient she becomes. 
 
 c. Service on Board. 
 
 The duties on board are regulated by daily and weekly routine 
 pretty much the same in the ships of all navies in the world. They 
 are carried out both in harbour and at sea, in foul weather or in 
 fair, albeit that modifications are caused by, and the service is adapted 
 to, temporary needs and circumstances. Prolonged changes are in- 
 troduced only in the tropics on account of the heat. 
 The Daily Routine in the English navy is as follows: 
 
 A. M. 
 
 4. 30. Watch scrub and wash decks. 
 
 6. o. Watch below and daymen lash up hammocks. 
 
 6. 15. Down mess tables and stools. Up hammocks. 
 
 6. 30. Breakfast. 
 
 7. o. Quarters, clean guns. 
 7. 25. Secure guns. 
 
214 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 7. 30. Watch clean wood and brass. Watch below clean 'tween- 
 
 decks (particularly those where the men have breakfasted), 
 o. Hoist colours. Parade (i. e. Stand to attention and salute). 
 15. Watch below clean and polish wood and brass. 
 30. Shift into the dress of the day. 
 
 8. 45. Stow clothes-bags. Clean up mess decks and flats. 
 
 9. o. Muster. Prayers, conductq^ by captain in presence of the 
 
 whole crew. Then watch fall in for exercise and morning- 
 drills. 
 
 11. 30. Clear up decks (end of drill). 
 
 11.45. Down mess tables and stools (for dinner). 
 
 12. O. Dinner. 
 P. M. 
 
 12. 30. Grog served out. 
 I. 10. Out pipes and smoking lanterns. 
 I. 15. Quarters clean guns. Clear up mess decks and flats. 
 
 Watch fall in for afternoon drill. 
 4. o. Watch fall in; clear up decks (end of drill). 
 4. 15. Down mess tables and stools (for supper). 
 
 4. 30. Supper. Shift into night clothing. 
 
 5. O. Out pipes and smoking lanterns. Cooks clear up mess decks 
 
 and flats. Clean arms. 
 5. 10. Muster. Coil down ropes; hoist boats. 
 7. 15. Watch and daymen down hammocks. 
 
 7. 30. Stand by hammocks. 
 
 8. 30. Stow clothes bags. 
 
 8. 45. Out pipes and smoking lanterns. Cooks clear up mess decks. 
 
 9. o. Rounds. 
 
 10, o. Out lights in junior officers' mess. 
 
 11. O. Out lights in officers' mess. 
 
 In the tropics the cooler hours of the morning and evening are 
 more utilised and the dinner hour rest is correspondingly lengthened. 
 
 The Weekly Routine in Harbour. 
 
 Monday. 
 
 Forenoon. General drill. Prepare for action and rig out torpedo- 
 nets. 
 
 Afternoon. Small-arm drill and gymnastics. 
 
 6 p. m. Wash clothes. Inspection of guns. 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 
 
 215 
 
 Tuesday. 
 Forenoon. Scrub hammocks every other week. Torpedo exercise. 
 
 Drill by divisions. 
 Afternoon. Boat sailing-. Small-arm drill. Gymnastics. 
 
 Inspection of guns. Exercise manoeuvres of steamboats. 
 
 Wednesday. 
 Forenoon. Torpedo exercise. Out torpedo-nets. Field gun drill on 
 
 shore if possible. Marines drill. 
 Afternoon. Cutlass exercise. Inspection of mines, Electric Cables and 
 
 circuits of guns. Midshipmen and boys at gun, small arm 
 
 and cutlass drill. 
 
 Thursday. 
 
 Forenoon. Exercise landing parties, ashore if possible. Drill in pass- 
 ing up ammunition. Test hydraulic machinery. Muster 
 clothes and bedding. 
 
 Afternoon. Make and mend clothes — smoking permitted. 
 
 Friday. 
 Forenoon. General Quarters for action. 
 Afternoon. Boat drill. Test gun cotton. 
 
 Saturday. 
 Clean ship. 
 One Monday in the month the bedding- is aired on the ridge ropes 
 and hammock nettings. Thursday is muster day twice a month for 
 the whole complement of men to ascertain the numbers; once every 
 two months to inspect bedding; once every three months general 
 inspection of clothes. Once every quarter the Articles of War are 
 read out and new regulations are made known. The captain examines 
 the list of men recommended for promotion and so on; promotion 
 is given solely to merit, to good performance and good conduct, 
 which is indispensable. On Fridays at 9.30, "general quarters" is 
 sounded, and the ship is cleared for action and drilled for an hour; 
 in the afternoon the boats are armed or an anchor is laid out. On 
 the last Friday in the month fire alarm is practised and on Saturday 
 the pumps are tried. On Sundays the ship cleaning is limited to 
 what is most necessary and indispensable; at 9.30 the captain holds 
 muster by divisions, inspects the men, and the ship afterwards. Divine 
 Service is held by the chaplain. 
 
216 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 On a ship with well-trained crews the drill-practice proceeds rapidly 
 and silently at the command of the captain; the other officers only 
 give signs to the officers and men under them, mostly using small 
 convenient flags for the purpose. The boatswain and his mates use 
 their whistles on needful occasions, the bugler stands steady, watching 
 the Commanding Officer to sound "still", whereupon every one stops 
 and stands immovable till "carry on" is sounded, when drill is pro- ■ 
 ceeded with, or a new order is carried out. 
 
 The crews are practised incessantly and their emulation is stimu- 
 lated; cruising in a squadron, always preferable to independent 
 cruising, offers excellent opportunity for this. Main stress is laid 
 on gunnery practice, which is engaged in daily; the aim being 
 to make every bluejacket aT. M. -^j not only in gunnery, but also in 
 the use- of all arms. Clear ship for action is practised as nearly as 
 possible to represent reality, as though in presence of an imaginary 
 enemy, or in repairing a supposed damage, &c. Once every three 
 months target-practice is engaged in; one half of the ammunition 
 allowed for that purpose may be expended in port, but the other 
 half must be used at sea. Once a year prizes are competed for, the 
 ship steaming past the target at full speed; all the guns take part, 
 and good aim and rapidity of fire gain the prize ; there are also prizes 
 given for rifle practice. On sailing days the boats are. assembled in 
 a squadron by the flag-ship; they are separated in Divisions and 
 practised by the flag-captain tactically and in signalling; the same is 
 done with the steam-boats after the manner of a steam-squadron. 
 Lowering, and arming of boats and laying out anchor are also prac- 
 tised competitively. It is reported that on a certain ship the men 
 lowered the three large boats without the aid of machinery in less 
 than five minutes and replaced them in five minutes. The large steam 
 pinnace is fitted up for torpedo work, and once every three months 
 it engages in extensive operations, occasionally experimenting firing 
 with the electric battery ; once every six months a torpedo is exploded 
 charged with loolbs. of explosive materials. The squadron also 
 practises laying of mines, the ships having spare mines on board for 
 that purpose. 
 
 Much is done therefore to find a substitute for the rigging which 
 has been abandoned, and which was an unrivalled means for the 
 training of sailors. Efforts are also made to advance the education 
 of the younger men by formal instruction, not however with very 
 
 ' "Trained Man," see supra, page 209. 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 217 
 
 marked success, the men's time and energy being- heavily taxed by 
 the exigencies of the service. The schoolmaster keeps school for the 
 boys and for such men as feel the want of schooling. 
 
 This seems the proper place for adding a few words on the employ- 
 ment of Naval Brigades which, owing- to the wide distribution of 
 Eng-lish possessions over the whole globe and to the small wars 
 incessantly waged, have frequently to be sent ashore to support the 
 land forces, which are small in proportion, more especially when their 
 position has become critical. An iron-clad can furnish 400 men, viz: 
 about 200 bluejackets and 80 marines formed into 4 to 5 companies, 
 two 3 inch guns, and one machine gun, making a total of 76 artillery 
 men; to these are added 4 pioneers, 12 ambulance bearers, 17 men 
 to carry reserve ammunition, 4 to carry medicines and surgical dress- 
 ings and bandages, 3 armourers, 4 signalmen, 4 buglers, and 20 officers ; 
 in all 405 men, being about four sevenths of the ship's complement; 
 a corvette furnishes in similar proportions 215 men. These parties 
 are all fully equipped, carrying haversacks, gaiters, waterflasks, hats, 
 puggarees, and a kind of knapsack, with which ships are now supplied. 
 
 According to this scale a squadron, as for example that of the 
 Cape, would be able to send ashore a naval brigade of about 1460 
 men. In many small wars such forces have rendered excellent service ; 
 in Birmah in 1824 and 1852; in China in 1841, 1857, 1859, ^nd i860; 
 in New Zealand in 1844, 1845, i860, and 1862; subsequently also in 
 Abyssinia, in Ashanti, in Zululand, and in Egypt. The "Shannon" 
 and the "Pearl" Brigades earned great distinction in the Indian Mutiny. 
 The former force advanced from Calcutta to Lucknow under the 
 command of Captain Peel, a son of the eminent Premier; they brought 
 up some heavy ship's artillery 68 pr. shell-guns, for which the artificers 
 had first to build the gun carriages, and they took a prominent part 
 in storming the town. It is seen then that by taking part in the 
 wars on land the English Navy became an important factor in the 
 maintenance and expansion of the British world-wide dominion, 
 
 d. The Provisions. 
 
 The Dietary has been carefully considered, and the provisions are 
 abundant; the articles supplied by the victualling yards are without 
 exception of excellent quality and deserving of all praise, and great 
 care is also taken to introduce variety in the preparation of the viands. 
 The rations are calculated to supply the men's constitution wi^h the 
 needful elements in due proportions. 
 
218 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Scale of Victualling-. (Seaman's full allowance). Daily: Biscuit 
 i|lbs. or soft bread li lbs., spirits \ pint, sugar 2 oz., chocolate i oz., 
 or ditto soluble V2 oz., tea J oz., when procurable, fresh meat i lb., 
 vegetables f lb. 
 
 Weekly. Oatmeal 3 oz., mustard i oz., pepper J oz., vinegar J pint. 
 When fresh provisions are not procurable : every other day: Salt pork 
 I lb., split peas f lb., celery seed \ oz. to every 8 lbs. of spUt peas put 
 into the coppers; on one alternate day: Salt beef i lb., flour 9 oz., 
 suet i lb., raisins ifoz. ; on the other alternate day; Preserved meat 
 I lb., with either (i) preserved potatoes 4 oz., or (2) rice 4 oz., or: 
 preserved potatoes 2 oz. plus rice 2 oz. ; or: flour 9 oz., suet J oz., 
 raisins if oz. When it is necessary to issue substitutes, the equivalent 
 proportions are regulated with great precision. The issue of spirits 
 is managed with utmost care, and no spirits whatever are issued to 
 persons under 20 years of age. After a fortnight's use of salt provisions 
 lemon juice is issued. Lord George Hamilton calculated in 1892 the 
 money-value of the ration to be 9| d., this low figure is no doubt due 
 to the purchases being made on a large scale and therefore at the 
 lowest possible price; generally the ration is calculated at i/— . 
 There is a regulation, that, if a man does not draw in kind a 
 part of the ration due to him, its value is paid him in cash as 
 "savings" ; this happens mainly with the grog, as the temperance 
 movement in the fleet is gaining ground; of course, the men do not 
 get the full value of the purchase money, the cashier deducting about 
 lO^/pfor expenses; thus a saving is effected, which Lord George 
 Hamilton estimates at £45,000. 
 
 The man then receives for breakfast cocoa and bread, for supper 
 tea and bread, at dinner in port daily fresh meat and soup with 
 vegetables; once a week by way of change, salt pork with pea-soup ; 
 at sea alternately salt beef with plum pudding, and salt pork with pea- 
 soup, and once a week preserved meat with preserved potatoes 
 or rice. 
 
 At 12. 30 p. m. the grog is served out, being half rum and half 
 water. Mustard, vinegar, pepper, salt, and oatmeal are used for sea- 
 soning or accessories. 
 
 The grouping of men in messes has been explained above. The 
 Master-at-arms, the School-master, and the Writers form a mess by 
 themsehes ; similarly the Chief and first class petty officers and at times 
 also the 2nd class petty officers; also the marines, stokers, and musi- 
 cians ; the boys are distributed over all the messes. Every mess has its 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 219 
 
 mess caterer, a Petty Officer or Leading Seaman; attendance — lowering' 
 the tables, placing- the stools, fetching and serving the food, cleaning 
 up the mess and table gear, replacing tables and stools — the men take 
 by turn. The man in charge of the attendance curiously enough is 
 called "cook of the mess," although he has nothing to do with the 
 cooking, which is attended to in the ship's kitchen by the cook and 
 his assistants.' 
 
 The utensils for general use, such as bread-pans, vessels for grog, 
 vinegar and water, for mustard, pepper, and salt, kettles for cocoa, 
 tea, and soup, pans for pudding and baked meat as well as spoons, 
 are supplied by the victualling yard, when the ship is put in com- 
 mission. Then the members of each mess contribute to a common 
 fund, which is administered by the mess caterer, who purchases 
 drinking-vessels , dinner-service, &c. , according to a pattern which is 
 prescribed by the captain for the sake of uniformity. At the end of 
 every* three months the mess caterer receives the savings from the 
 paymaster. These amounts vary of course very greatly according- 
 to the number and -the nature of the members of the mess and the 
 ship's station; a mess of 12 men, for example in the Channel Squadron, 
 may save £6 a quarter, in the Mediterranean possibly £8, in the 
 Pacific £'/.io.O.; messes of 18 men obviously save correspondingly 
 more. The money goes into the common fund of the mess; some 
 save it all up and distribute the total, when the ship is paid off; 
 others purchase delicacies, such as fruit, &c, but most commonly the 
 men are particular in keeping their mess in fine style; the plates and 
 the whole service are kept in such brilliant trim and condition that 
 the mere sight of it is a gratification. And the men are proud of it, 
 free hand being allowed them in this and in other matters pertaining 
 to the mess to make their lives pleasant and comfortable. Strict 
 discipline is however maintained in this matter also, extravagances are 
 not permitted, and good manners are insisted on. 
 
 Articles in general use, such as soap and tobacco, the men can 
 buy of the paymaster at a low price and of good quality. If there 
 is room on board, and the Commanding Officer gives his consent, 
 a canteen may be opened, but not for spirituous liquors ; the Executive 
 Officer is chairman of the board of managers, on which another Naval 
 
 ' But the "cook of the mess" prepares the food up to the point, where it is 
 handed over to the ship's cook for cooking. The translator. 
 '^ Monthly, as a matter of fact. The translator. 
 
220 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 ■Officer must also have a seat. The bye-laws of the canteen must be 
 confirmed by the Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 One more word about the messes of Officers, &c. On every ship 
 of large dimensions there are three such messes, independent of the 
 captain, who takes his meals alone, (i) the officers' mess in the 
 wardroom, comprising all the officers of the vessel down to the 
 Lieutenant inclusive; also those surgeons, engineers, paymasters, chap- 
 lains, instructors, and officers of the marines, who hold equivalent 
 ranks; (2) the sub-lieutenants, midshipmen, and officials of equivalent 
 rank, form what might be called the mess of the subaltern officers in 
 the gunroom; (3) the warrant-officers mess. The dinner-service &c 
 for these messes is supplied by the victualling yard free of charge, 
 when the ship is put in commission, and may be renewed after having 
 been in use for three and a half years. For the supply of additional 
 articles and of stores, the members of the two highest messes may 
 have £3. 10. o. per officer advanced to them. The mess is administered 
 by a committee of 3 to 4 members, the senior executive officer being 
 chairman. It is the duty of the captain to watch over the management 
 of the messes and especially over the supply and consumption of 
 wines and spirits. The mess-bills are to be settled by the members 
 every month. The warrant-officers' mess is not allowed to keep a 
 store of wine, but with the consent of the captain they may obtain 
 it from the officers' mess. 
 
 All that concerns the Uniform and the clothing of the men has 
 been explained under the head "Uniform." 
 
 Libraries provide amusement for the men. As far back as the 
 beginning of last century, the chaplains were wont to supply the men 
 with good literature by the distribution of religious books and tracts; 
 but these were unsubsidised, private efforts. In the year 1816 each 
 of two officers on equipping his ship, proposed to the Woolwich 
 dockyard of those days to supply the ship with an official library, 
 and their proposal was accompanied by the offer of their own con- 
 siderable collection of books. This movement received the support 
 of the famous philanthropist Mrs. Elizabeth Fry, who had previously 
 induced the Admiralty to furnish libraries to the naval hospitals and 
 the coast-guards. Different benevolent societies also and private 
 persons made contributions to ships' libraries, which in those days 
 consisted principally of religious books. The supply of libraries on 
 board ship was not conceded by the Admiralty till 1838; 24 years 
 afterwards, in 1862, secular literature was allowed to take the place 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON B OARD. 221 
 
 of the books, which up to then had been mostly of a religious 
 character, and it was left to the chaplains to furnish the required 
 religious literature. Further changes were subsequently made prin- 
 cipally in 1889, when the existing books were superseded by more 
 attractive works. Finally in 1892 the long felt want of libraries for 
 officers and on stations waS' supplied — the former contain principally 
 valuable books of reference; the latter belong to a whole station and 
 circulate on the ships of the corresponding squadron. 
 
 In consequence of these searching organic improvements, of the 
 progress in science and in technical attainments, and of private and 
 official efforts to improve the lot of sailors, their behaviour has during 
 the last half century so largely altered for the better, that there is 
 hardly any resemblance left to the state of things of former days. 
 Men on leave of absence from an English man-of-war used to be an 
 object of terror to the port they happened to visit; they were guilty 
 of the rudest and most repulsive excesses, but now-a-days their con- 
 duct is that of orderly and well-behaved members of society. This 
 is especially true on board, both on duty and off duty; and this is: 
 dictated to them by their own interest, as they are perfectly well 
 aware, that good conduct is the indispensable condition of promotion, and 
 that this is moreover rewarded by good conduct badges and by in- 
 crease of pay. By good conduct alone the man can make sure of a 
 good income and a satisfactory pension. This they are all the more 
 anxious to secure, because most of them marry early, and — which is 
 another strong contrast to former days — mostly respectable girls, 
 with whom they live in happy and honourable wedlock. An ex- 
 perienced English naval officer draws attention to the surprising fact 
 that, in the applications for retirement after service of 12 or 22 years, 
 the men as a rule have certificates of "very good" conduct. The 
 enforcement of discipline has consequently changed altogether in 
 character. 
 
 e. Discipline on Board 
 
 is regulated mainly by the provisions of the NAVAL DISCIPLINE AcT 
 of 1866, the first section of which contains the ARTICLES OF WAR, 
 which are exhibited in a prominent place in every ship, and are read 
 out to every man on board once every three months. The first 
 Article refers to Divine Service, which is to be held, according to 
 the liturgy of the Church of England, solemnly, orderly, and reverently;. 
 
222 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 the Sunday is to be observed by Divine Service and by abstention 
 from all work that is not indispensable; every morning- a short 
 prayer is to be offered after muster. 
 
 Next the articles of war deal with the punishments for bad conduct 
 in presence of the enemy, for not pursuing him when defeated, and 
 so on; also for swearing, immorality, cruelty to subordinates, looting, 
 and bad treatment of prisoners, and finally it is decreed, that all 
 offences against naval discipline, not expressly enumerated, should be 
 punished according to Maritime Law and Usage. 
 
 The legal punishments are: Death, Penal Servitude, Discharge from 
 the service with disgrace. Imprisonment for a period not exceeding 
 two years. Corporal punishment up to 48 strokes, Discharge from the 
 service, in the case of officers Loss of seniority for a certain period, 
 Discharge from the ship, grave or simple Reprimand, Degradation to 
 a lower rank in the case of subaltern and petty officers. Loss of pay, 
 pension, medals, &c., and with deserters also of clothes, &c. To these 
 are yet to be added disciplinary punishments 
 
 A Court-martial can be instituted by a Commander-in-Chief, or, 
 if at least three ships are assembled, by the Senior Officer on the 
 spot; this latter must after previous careful examination be convinced 
 that there is a prima facie case for a searching investigation of the 
 charge, which must be made in writing. He then appoints the officers 
 to serve as judges, and the president of the court, who is responsible 
 for the due conduct of the proceedings. The accused is treated as 
 a prisoner and brought before the court; he must receive a copy of 
 the charge at least 24 hours before the assembling of the court; he 
 may choose a counsel for his defence, or he may plead himself; he 
 may call what witnesses he likes and freely conduct his case before 
 the court. As a rule, the prosecutor is he who moved for the 
 appointment of a court-martial. When the court meets, a gun is fired 
 on board the ship, where the meeting is held, and the Union Jack is 
 hoisted at the spanker gaff, where it flies till the court rises. 
 
 The case is heard in public; witnesses are examined and cross- 
 examined exactly as in a civil suit; after the prisoner has been 
 removed and the court has considered the case, the verdict is given, 
 the youngest officer present voting first. Then the accused is again 
 brought in, and is told his sentence, which the president must forth- 
 with report to the convening officer, who has to subject it to a 
 rigorous re-examination. If corporal punishment is awarded, the sentence 
 requires the consent of the Admiralty, before it is carried out. 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 223 
 
 The Disciplinary Punishments are of far g-reater importance for 
 the regulation of the service and the maintenance of discipline than 
 the courts-martial, which occur but rarely. These disciplinary pun- 
 ishments are: Discharge from the service with disgrace, simple 
 discharge, corporal punishment not exceeding 25 strokes; for desertion 
 and other crimes imprisonment for a period not exceeding- three 
 months, reduction to the ranks (for which special regulations exist), 
 loss of good conduct badges and medals, transfer into the second 
 class for conduct, confinement in cells, deprivation of grog, and taking 
 meals under the supervision of a sentry coupled with punitive work, or 
 standing on deck during non-working time for a period not exceeding 
 a fortnight, deprivation of grog and at dinner time standing on deck for 
 a period not exceeding a week, stoppage of leave of absence for a 
 period not exceeding- three months, deduction from pay for absence 
 without leave, or for drunkenness deprivation of grog for a period not 
 exceeding 30 days, removal to a lower class for leave of absence, 
 carrying- hammock or clothes bag for an hour daily for no more than 
 three days, reprimand by the captain, extra turn of lee wheel, or stand- 
 ing on deck on the look-out, for not more than two hours; marines 
 to mount punishment guard for a period not exceeding seven days, 
 boys to receive 24 strokes with the birch on their bare breech or 
 12 strokes with the cane over their trousers. 
 
 The penalties to be inflicted for the various acts of misdemeanor are 
 regulated with great care; thus: discharge with disgrace for indecent 
 assaults, &c, also for mutiny, theft, concealing or misusing the royal 
 stores or money, and for maliciously charging others with these 
 misdeeds. In most cases several punishments may be combined, for 
 example leave of absence may be withheld and deductions made from 
 pay as well; or privation of grog may be added to reduction to a 
 lower class for leave; or reduction to the second class for conduct 
 may be joined to the same penalties and to arrest as Well, with extra 
 work, and withdrawal of leave of absence. Disciplinary penalties thus 
 gain considerable enlargement, but on the other hand they are 
 limited by strict regulations which determine with accuracy the 
 penalties to be inflicted for the various kinds of misconduct. For 
 some cases this has already been mentioned above, and exceptions 
 are made for petty officers and leading seamen. Corporal punishment 
 can only be inflicted for mutiny and for assaulting superior officers, 
 and this is moreover so restricted by special regulations, that it hardly 
 occurs except with boys. The sterner punishments, excepting discharge, 
 
224 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 can only be awarded upon a charge made in writing and in presence 
 of an officer higher in command, who must give his consent; all 
 punishments are awarded only after minute, calm investigation and 
 never in haste. Punishments are awarded by the Captain alone, but 
 he may delegate a portion of his authority to the executive officer, 
 and for marines to the officer of marines. As regards the execution 
 of the punishments, the Sunday is to be as much as possible kept 
 free from it, irons and handcuffs are to be avoided as much as 
 possible, the gag is forbidden, as well as locking men up in the 
 coal-bunkers. The punishments are all to be entered by the captain 
 in the punishment register, and a return is to be sent in once 
 every three months; that of grave penalties is forwarded to the 
 Admiralty. •'■ 
 
 As disciplinary measures are to be mentioned: the divisions of the 
 men into two classes of conduct, every man's class being determined 
 by his certificate from the previous ship; moreover the men are 
 grouped into four classes for leave of absence; 1st for special leave; 
 2nd for privileged leave; 3rd for general leave; 4th for habitual leave 
 breakers.^ The first class comprises the petty officers, they leave 
 about 6 p. m. or earlier, and if they are off duty, they need not return 
 before 6 a. m. The men of the second class have leave of absence 
 granted them generally twice a week, those of the third twice a 
 month, those of the fourth only with the consent of the captain, but 
 at least once every three months. For the boys there are no classes 
 of conduct or of leave ; they are never allowed to stay away the night 
 and only get leave of absence in the afternoon and as a rule not at 
 the same time as the men. Six months good conduct entitles a man 
 to promotion into a higher leave of absence class. Leave of absence 
 being generally conceded as liberally as possible, leave breaking is 
 punished by the heaviest deductions from pay. 
 
 The following are The statistics of disciplinary PUNISHMENTS 
 for 1897: There have been held in all 153 court-martials, who con- 
 demned in all 151 individuals, viz: 51 on home stations, and lOO on 
 foreign stations. The number of breaches of discipline thus expiated 
 is considerably greater, amounting to 281 ; the most common were in 
 46 cases theft and embezzlement; then there were 97 cases of assault 
 of a superior officer, 52 cases of wilful disobedience, 35 cases of 
 
 ' As a matter of fact, the whole return is forwarded to the Admiralty. The translator. 
 2 This System has been altered, whilst the book was going through the press. 
 
 The translator. 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 225 
 
 disrespect shewn to superior officers, 25 cases of threatening an 
 officer, &c. Desertion no more than 16 cases, drunkenness only 
 6 cases,, mutiny, swearing and shamming illness not at all. Of the 
 154 defendants, 3 were found not guilty, one was condemned to penal 
 servitude, 87 to imprisonment and discharge with disgrace, or simple 
 discharge, 57 to imprisonment with hard labour, 3 to disrating; the 
 death-penalty and corporal punishment were not inflicted at all. With 
 all the men it had been their first case. As there were 106,309 men 
 on board, these numbers must be regarded as highly favourable; 
 the cases of misconduct have ever since 1885, if not steadily yet on 
 the whole diminished in absolute number, still more relativelv, seeing 
 that the personnel oi i)ie navy has risen from less than 50,000 to more 
 than 100,000, that is by more than So^'/g. 
 
 The number of Disciplinary Punishments amounted in the same year 
 to 45,148 on home stations and 44,500 on foreign stations, being 
 89,648 in all, but the bulk of them viz: 81,663, ^^ more than 9l*'/o 
 were trifling affairs. 
 
 Discharge with disgrace was inflicted on 7 persons, simple discharge 
 on 196 persons, 1731 were sent to prison, 461 were disrated, and 
 5323 were confined in cells, and finally 60 boys were caned, but 
 other corporal punishment did not occur. 
 
 The sentences by court-martial are in strange contrast with the 
 mere disciplinary punishments. Of the former the sentences on foreign 
 stations were nearly twice as numerous as those on home stations; 
 of the latter the numbers were reversed ; surprising is the great number 
 of imprisonments viz: 990, and of cells viz. 2981 at home, whilst 
 abroad they were only 741 aud 2342 respectively. On the whole 
 the proportion is less than one disciplinary punishment per man per 
 year, and this has remained pretty constant since 1885, and the last 
 4 years were still more favourable. 
 
 Of the regulations for the maintenance of discipline on board it may 
 yet be mentioned, that duelling and challenging to a duel is strictly 
 forbidden; that it is forbidden to accept gratuities, which are of uni- 
 versal occurrence in semi-civilized countries; that women are not allowed 
 on board, or only if permission has been previously obtained from 
 the Admiralty; and that the sale of spirituous liquor on board is wholly 
 forbidden. Great importance is attached to the regulation that Su- 
 periors should at all times and in all circumstances be treated with 
 the deference due to them. 
 
 16 
 
226 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 f. Hygiene. 
 
 As in every other respect, so also in the matter of HYGIENE the 
 men are carefully looked after; first by careful medical examination 
 of the men on being- appointed, then again, when they go on 
 board; next by watchful attention to their food, clothing-, and occu- 
 pations in the discharg-e of their duties; for example in hot or wet 
 weather, and finally also by direct hygienic reg-ulations such as 
 thoroug-h ventilation of the rooms, washing-, bathing-, and liberal 
 equipment of hospitals and dispensaries. The state of health on board 
 naturally varies with the healthiness of the several stations, but it is 
 good on the whole. In the year 1891,-^ of 55,670 persons 52,866, 
 or 95 ''/o were under medical treatment. Of these 27,200 persons 
 distributed over 85 ships, &c. were on home stations, and only 20,265 
 or 74.5 "/p came under medical treatment; a very g-ratifying result 
 especially considering that this number included 191 3 cases of in- 
 fluenza. The number of deaths was only 124 (4-55 per thousand); a 
 very small number. Far less favourable was the result in the Medi- 
 terranean station, where the proportion of men under medical treatment 
 was I20"3 per cent, and the number of deaths was 73 (8"44 per 
 thousand), being almost double the proportion on the home stations. 
 Much of this was due to the insanitary condition of the port of Malta, 
 which has since then been somewhat ameHorated by shutting up 
 unwholesome wells, &c. But on foreign stations young people who 
 are not yet inured or seasoned are exposed to numerous dangers. 
 
 g. Conclusion. 
 
 On the whole then, the state of things in the English navy with 
 respect to the bearing and conduct of the men, to their discipline 
 and the care taken of them, has during the last fifty years been 
 improved beyond recognition. The late Sir Alexander Milne, Admiral 
 of the Fleet, who died at an advanced age not very long ago, more 
 than anybody else contributed to secure this gratifying result. Already 
 in the forties of this century, he, being one of the Lords of the 
 Admiralty, introduced essential improvements in the life on board, 
 
 1 Comparing these returns with those of 1896 (1897 not being- yet pubUshed) 
 the result is still more favourable; the cases under medical treatment being reduced 
 to 91%, and this year's Report is "altogether the most satisfactory that has been 
 furnished since 1856." 
 
IX. SERVICE AND DISCIPLINE ON BOARD. 227 
 
 such as the distillation of drinking water, the institution of canteens 
 on board, starting- a school of cookery in Portsmouth, introducing 
 good conduct badges with increase of pay, granting of pensions to 
 warrant officers who up to then had only the workhouse to look to, 
 the creation of the ranks of Chief Petty Officer and Leading seaman, 
 raising the prize money, and granting the men salvage money, &c. 
 We must also mention Admiral Sir W. Martin, who was Commander- 
 in-Chief in the year 1859 in the Mediterranean; from his time dates 
 the commencement of the excellent discipline of the present day. 
 
 The establishment on shore of various INSTITUTIONS, founded by 
 Private charitable Persons in the great ports, for the accommo- 
 dation of men on furlough or temporarily unemployed has proved a 
 great benefit. The men are supplied with decent society and com- 
 fortable homes at a very low charge. Such are: the Royal Sailors' 
 Home in Portsmouth, founded by three naval officers in 1850, and 
 the three houses in Portsmouth and Devonport, called the Royal 
 Sailors' Rest, which owe their existence to the devoted, philanthropic, 
 and self-sacrificing energy of Miss Weston. The former has 352, the 
 Royal Sailors' Rest has 350 small rooms fitted up like ships cabins 
 for the night's shelter. The meals are good and cheap, excellent 
 baths are provided, as well games and good literature. In the chapel 
 attached to the building Miss Weston, supported by numerous as- 
 sistants of both sexes, holds prayer-meetings to which everybody has 
 free access; moreover she publishes every month a letter adapted to 
 the men's mode of thought, of which more than half a million copies 
 circulate in all the ships of the Royal Navy, and in numerous ships 
 of the mercantile fleet. The same holds good of a very full and 
 well-edited illustrated paper, pubhshed by a lady friend of Miss 
 Weston. These highly beneficent institutions are self-supporting; they 
 are so popular and so much frequented that they have continually to 
 be enlarged. Sailors' Missions too, and the Temperance movement 
 are meeting with ever increasing success. In almost every man-of- 
 war there is a branch of the Temperance Union, a matter of no 
 small importance considering the previous prevalence of intemperance 
 all over the country, and especially in the naval ports. 
 
 All these endeavours have proved highly profitable to the country, 
 but the radical change for the better that has taken place is no doubt 
 to be ascribed to the introduction of continuous service, and to the 
 recruiting of sailors by boys trained for a sea-faring life in school 
 ships; two systems which must be the envy of every navy not pos- 
 
228 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 sessing- them. In the present day, when the requirements of a sailor 
 are so much higher than they were in former days, long service is 
 indispensable both to give the man the needful training, to keep him 
 up to the highest level of efficiency when trained, and fully to utilize 
 his powers in the service of the country. 
 
 X, MATERIAL 
 
 A. Ships. 
 
 I. Historic development. 
 
 The theory of Naval Architecture has not even yet reached its 
 final stage. In the last century the subject was not even discussed 
 in the English navy, as the English at all times have been and to 
 some extent still are, adverse to theory. It is quite true that James I. 
 had founded the "Shipwrights' Company" under the management of 
 Phineas Pett, the architect of the "Sovereign of the Seas", but it 
 seems that in the subsequent political troubles this society was 
 dissolved. Down to the present century, ship building was carried on 
 as mere handicraft, according to traditional use and wont; the con- 
 sequence was that, English ships were inferior to French, and even 
 Spanish vessels, in size, fitness for carrying artillery, and above all in 
 the quality of highest moment , speed. It therefore became the practice 
 to use prizes taken from the enemy as models for new ships. Thus 
 in the middle of the 17th century a Dunquerque privateer became 
 the model for the frigates, which then came into use; in the second 
 half of the 18th century a French ship-of-the-line , the "Foudroyant" 
 served in 1799 as model for Nelson's flag ship of the same name; 
 this was a few years ago sold to be broken up, then bought back, 
 and is still in existence;^ the same was the case with the French 
 ships "Invincible", "Courageux", and the frigate "Hebe", with the 
 Spanish ship "Glorioso", and many others. But as a rule, the 
 English copies were already antiquated ere they could be brought 
 into action, the foreigner having meanwhile, thanks to his theoretical 
 studies, made further improvements in ship-building. For example 
 the French ship "Canopus" of 80 guns taken in the battle of the 
 Nile was larger than English ships-of-the-line of 98 guns. 
 
 ^ Since wrecked. The translator. 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 229 
 
 The earliest commencement of a scientific education of naval archi- 
 tects was made in 1806 by estabHshing a SCHOOL OF NAVAL 
 Architecture for practical skilled shipbuilders in the dockyards; 
 this was, however, given up again as unnecessary when Sir James 
 
 "Duke of Wellington" 
 
 Three-decker of 131 guns. 
 
 Graham in 1832 carried out his re-organisation of the Navy. The 
 English continued following foreign types, and it is said that as late 
 as 1850 the build of one third of the English Navy consisted of 
 mitations of foreign vessels. 
 
230 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 When the School of Naval Architecture was g-iven up Captain 
 W. Symonds , afterwards Sir William Symonds , in his capacity of 
 Director of the technical department introduced scientific methods in 
 the art of naval architecture. By a system of comparative experiments 
 with different classes of ships he was led to the invention of new 
 lines, rejecting- the usual lines of construction below the waterline 
 and their hitherto arbitrary proportions.. 
 
 These new proportions turned out a success. Up to then the pro- 
 portion of beam to length had been i :3-6 up to 3-9, and this was 
 now changed to i : 3|. The types of those days were : the two-decker 
 "Vanguard" of 80 guns and 3542 tons displacement built in 1835, 
 and the three-decker "Queen" of no guns and 4476 tons displace- 
 ment built in 1839; these were unheard-of dimensions in those days. 
 With greater beam, higher 'tweendecks and more spacious batteries 
 they were steadier and swifter than the ships of older types. After- 
 wards, in the fifties, this system led to the construction of large three- 
 deckers which marked the culminating point of Eng-lish sailing men- 
 of-war; these were the "Duke of Wellington" of 131 guns and 6071 
 tons displacement; the "Marlborough", the "Victoria", and the "Howe", 
 of 121 guns each and respectively 6300 tons and 6557 tons displace- 
 ment; the two latter were not launched till i860. These types were 
 already obsolete when they were laid down, and were hardly at all 
 employed; notwithstanding that they had received powerful engines; 
 they were, and still are, only used for harbour-service. The English 
 Admiralty had not kept pace with the times and once more had 
 allowed itself to be outstripped by France. The Screw steamer "Na- 
 poleon" of 92 guns, 960 I. H. P. (indicated horse-power) and 14 knots' 
 speed, built by the gifted French naval architect Dupuy de Lome 
 had astonished everybody and far surpassed everything existing in 
 England up to then. It was now evident, that the day of sailing 
 vessels was past and of paddle steamers also, and the screw, for a 
 long time opposed in England, now became the universal means of 
 propulsion. 
 
 The employment of steam as a motive power met from the very 
 beginning with determined resistance at the hands of the Admiralty. 
 In 1804 they scornfully refused Fulton's plans, and when three years 
 afterwards he produced on the Hudson his first efficient steamer, the 
 "Clermont", they took no notice of him, nor yet of the rapid pro- 
 gress made in navigation in the subsequent decade and a half. At 
 last, upon the advice of the famous engineer Brunei, they resolved in 
 
X. MATERIAL. 231 
 
 1822 to order two small paddle steamers, but for all that it took a 
 long- time ere the importance of steam to navigation in general was 
 recognized. Up to 1830 steamers were only employed as tugs and in 
 other similar services, but at last five larger paddle steamers of 830 tons 
 displacement and 220 I. H. P. were built, with complete rigging; they 
 were called corvettes and were intended for war purposes. Twelve 
 years afterwards, in 1842, the first steam-paddle frigate the "Firebrand" 
 was built, of 11 90 tons displacement and 400 I. H. P. In the same 
 year the first experiment was made with the SCREW proposed by 
 Smith and Ericson in 1836. Two sister-ships were built of 770 tons 
 displacement and 200 I. H P., the "Rattler" and the "Alecto"; they 
 were alike in every respect and only differed in their mode of pro- 
 pulsion; the "Rattler", a screw-steamer, completely defeated the "Alecto" 
 a paddle-steamer. Nevertheless, and although within a year the United 
 States had launched the "Princeton", a Screw corvette with engines 
 below the .waterline, ten more years elapsed ere the "Agamemnon", 
 the first Screw-propelled ship-of-the-line , was launched, a number of 
 lai^e paddle frigates having meanwhile been built, carrying on deck 
 the heavy 68 pr. 95 cwt. gun. 
 
 Then came the mighty impulse of the Crimean war. It furnished 
 indubitable proof, that the time of sailing-vessels had gone by, but 
 the Admiralty did not admit this officially till 1859. At the bom- 
 bardment of Kinburn, the employment of three French iron-clads with 
 surprising success, furnished proof of the fitness and utility of the ar- 
 mour. Now England hastily built armoured vessels according to the 
 French model, and of a number of wooden ships-of-the-line partly 
 finished and partly still building, the hull was lengthened; they were 
 propelled by screw and supplied with auxiliary engines; moreover 
 they built some large screw-propelled wooden frigates of the "Shannon" 
 type of 2667 tons measurement and 600 I. H. P. Alarm was after- 
 wards caused, in 1857, by the appearance in the Thames of the United 
 States' frigate "Niagara" of 4750 tons, and a number of very large 
 ships of the type "Orlando" were built of 3740 tons measurement 
 with very powerful engines of 1000 I. H. P. and heavy armour, but 
 they did not prove a success, the fastenings of the long wooden ships 
 being too weak. 
 
 a. Armour-Plated Men- of -War, 
 
 It was in France meanwhile that the first armoured war-ship fitted 
 for ramming was built after the plans of Dupuy de Lome. She was 
 
232 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 the "Gloire" of 5000 tons with greatly diminished rigging; was launched 
 in 1858 and caused great alarm in England by her successful trial 
 trip, in which she made 12 knots an hour and exhibited good man- 
 oeuvring capacity. Then arose the rivalry in the building of such 
 ships more and more nearly perfect, a contest which is not yet ended. 
 The first counter-move on the English side was to build in 1859 
 two powerful ships of 9210 tons displacement and 4000 H. P., the 
 "Warrior" and the "Black Prince", just like ordinary frigates with over- 
 hanging bows and with complete and heavy rigging, but with armour- 
 plated batteries. These were placed on the stocks at Blackwall and 
 
 Glasgow and got 
 ready as quickly as 
 possible. It is worthy 
 "Warrior." of note that both 
 
 these ships were 
 built of iron as a consequence partly of unsatisfactory experiments 
 made with long wooden ships, and partly of the development of the 
 art of building iron ships in the English mercantile navy upon the 
 advice of the engineer Scott Russell, the builder of the "Great Eastern". 
 The use of iron for ships of war had been proposed as early as 
 1834 by Admiral Sir G. Cockburn, after it had been proved to be 
 the best for merchantmen and mail packets; nevertheless the target 
 practice, undertaken experimentally against iron plates, gave such un- 
 satisfactory results, that the Admiralty declined entering upon it. At 
 last, in 1855, a pair of iron frigates were built, but after renewed targ-et 
 practice with unsatisfactory results they were not fitted up for fighting 
 purposes, but employed as transports. The destruction of a Turkish 
 squadron of frigates in the roadstead of Sinope in November 1853 
 by a Russian squadron of ships-of-the-line proved the terrific effect 
 of shells upon the walls of a wooden ship in so striking a manner, 
 that opinions changed in favour of iron almost everywhere, but with 
 the English Admiralty only to small extent. As late as i860 they 
 gave orders for several wooden two and three-deckers and demanded 
 a Million Sterhng to replenish the stores of timber. The result was 
 that not many years afterwards, when the conviction had gained 
 ground that it was no longer possible to send unarmoured wooden 
 ships into battle, they were sold as useless at a ruinous sacrifice. The 
 transition from wood to iron concerned the Admiralty all the more 
 nearly, as the inexhaustible supply of iron, which the country yields 
 in most favourable positions, would not only prove highly advantageous 
 
X. MATERIAL. ' 233 
 
 to home industry, but also make the country independent of the 
 foreigner, whose timber was indispensable for wooden ships — a cir- 
 cumstance which had made itself painfully felt on former occasions. 
 
 The "Warrior" was already launched at the end of i860; the "Black 
 Prince" two months later; both vessels were armed at first with smooth 
 bore 68 pr. guns, but afterwards with rifled guns of 7 inch calibre 
 and 6i tons weight. They behaved well, and made 141 knots an 
 hour; but in consequence of their great length as compared with 
 their beam, viz: 380 ft. to 585 ft., or about 6i: i they were not very 
 manageable, and would probably have fared badly with their unar- 
 moured waterline in a combat against vessels such as the "Gloire" 
 and the numerous sister- 
 ships, which speedily follow- I I PI |T| 
 ed her, fully armed and 
 fitted with rams. Both these 
 armoured frigates are still "Arincourt." 
 serviceable, in consequence 
 
 of the indestructibility of strongly built iron ships, but for some years 
 they have been placed in the class of armoured cruisers as being no 
 longer suitable for the line of battle. The "Black Prince" is at. 
 present used as a training-ship in Queenstown harbour. They are the 
 oldest ships of the fleet which are still effective. 
 
 Whilst the French were building in great haste a number of so- 
 called armoured frigates and two armoured ships-of-the-line (two- 
 deckers) after the model of the "Gloire", with such improvements as 
 did not in any essential point depart from the model, there followed 
 in England a number of types of the most varied character; first came 
 two iron-clads of the second class, next 1861/1863 the "Achilles" of 
 9820 tons and 4000 H. P. with a complete belt of armour and four 
 full-rigged masts; this was followed, 1861/ 1866, excluding smaller 
 vessels, by three ships of the "Agincourt" type of 10,600 to 10,780 tons 
 and 4000 H. P., 400 ft. long and 60 ft. beam, = 67 -i, and five 
 masts. The overhanging bows were abandoned in all these ships, and, 
 except the battery, the armour-plating was extended along the whole 
 water line, and the thickness was increased from 41. inches to 5| inches; 
 the armament consisted of guns of 9 inch instead of 7 inch calibre, 
 but they answered the helm scarcely better than the "Warrior" did. 
 These ships also have been transferred for some years to the first 
 class of cruisers. 
 
 ' For the English equivalents of these metric magnitudes see page 295. 
 
i34 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 In the early sixties there were also built two wooden armoured 
 frigates, and five wooden ships-of-the-line were converted into ar- 
 moured frig-ates, and finally the three-decker, "Royal Sovereign", 
 
 "Minotaur" (of the "Agincourt" type). 
 
 Harbour-Defence Ship, "Royal Sovereign" (of the year 1863). 
 
 was converted into a ship without rigging for harbour defence and sup- 
 plied with four revolving turrets. This was done upon the proposal 
 of Captain Cowper Coles, who had recommended armour-plated re- 
 
^ 
 
 (fi 
 
X. MATERIAL. 235 
 
 volving- turrets with cupolas as early as 1855, six years before the 
 construction of Ericson's "Monitor". At the same time a similar iron 
 ship was built, the "Prince Albert", which is still in use. '^ 
 
 Then the Constructor-in-Chief of the navy was succeeded by the 
 highly gifted engineer E. Reed, now Sir Edward Reed. He had been 
 educated in the ship-building school at Portsmouth re-established in 
 1848, but closed again in 1853, owing to the ungracious treatment 
 it had received at the hands of the Admiralty. In spite however of 
 its short existence it supplied the Navy with five Constructors-in-Chief, a 
 striking proof, to which not even the Admiralty could be blind, of 
 the high value of thorough scientific culture to naval constructors. At 
 the instance of the INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS a new school 
 of ship-building was established at South Kensington, intended for 
 merchantmen as well as men-of-war. It has contributed so greatly to 
 the advancement of the art of ship-building in England that, from 
 having been in a state of complete prostration in the early part 
 of the century, it now holds a high, if not the highest, rank in 
 the world. 
 
 With Sir Edward Reed began the building of casemated ships with 
 strong armour plating down to the water line only; short in pro- 
 portion to the beam, easy to manoeuvre, and with casemates amidships 
 mounted with a limited number of heavy ordnance. To this type 
 belong the "Bellerophon", the "Hercules", and the "Sultan" built 
 in 1863 — 70, of 7550 to 9290 tons, 6520 to 8500 H. P. and 14-2 
 
 ■'Bellerophon." "Hercules." 
 
 to IS'3 knots' speed. Their length was only 302 to 324 ft. with 
 55 to 62 ft. beam, being 5-5:1 and 5-2:1. The casemates were 
 each mounted with ten guns of 9 inch, or eight guns of 11 inch 
 calibre. These proved excellent in every respect, as did also the 
 very similar ships constructed by Sir Edward Reed for the German 
 Navy, the "Kaiser" and the "Deutschland". All the three English 
 
 ' In existence, more strictly. The translator. 
 2 See p. 295. 
 
236 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 ships have during recent years been converted, and now appear in 
 the Navy List as battle-ships of the third class. 
 
 A similar but smaller type of ship is represented by the second 
 class battle-ship, "Audacious." She has still shorter casemates 
 
 "Bellerophon.' 
 
 carrying- six 9 inch guns standing in two tiers, and is of 6010 tons 
 and 3300 H. P. Of this type there were built six vessels between 
 1867 and 1870, which are still serviceable, except one which was 
 accidentally destroyed. These are borne on the list as battle-ships of 
 the third class. To these had yet to be added a high-freeboard 
 
 -^^^^QSfSSSi^ 
 
 'Invincible", of the "Audacious" type 
 
 "Monarcl- 
 
 turret-ship, the "Monarch" of 8320 tons and 8000 H. P. with four 
 12 inch guns placed in pairs in two turrets, which has lately been 
 modernised, and is doing duty as guard-ship at the Cape. 
 
 At the same time there was built at the instance of Captain Cowper 
 
 ' See p. 295. 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 237 
 
 Coles a low-freeboard turret-ship after the type of the large North- 
 American "Monitor"; but she was made sea-going- with full heavy- 
 rigging like all the English armoured ships up to that date — and with 
 iron tripods instead of the masts and shrouds incompatible with this 
 kind of structure. Being added to the Channel Squadron she was 
 struck on the 6th of September 1870 near Cape Finisterre by a heavy 
 squall, capsized and foundered with the whole crew. 
 
 In spite of this the Admiralty adhered to the "Monitor" type. In 
 addition to the smaller but heavily armoured rams, the "Hotspur" 
 and the "Rupert" of 4070 tons and 5440 tons respectively, they 
 
 ";:, ^.^A ^_ 
 
 "Devastation.' 
 
 "Hotspur." "Rupert." 
 
 built between 1869— 187 1 seven high-freeboard Monitors of from 
 2900 to 4910 tons, two of which were handed over to the Indian 
 government for coast defence, 
 and also two powerful battle- 
 ships, the "Devastation" and 
 the "Thunderer" of 9330 tons 
 displacement, with an armour 
 of from 12 to 14 inches thick 
 and with two revolving turrets. 
 These were the first seagoing 
 battle-ships without rigging and 
 all of them were propelled by twin screws. Now at last a rupture 
 with the traditions of centuries was effected, and this may be regarded 
 as the line of demarcation between the old and the new period of men- 
 of-war , albeit that in reality the actual change had been effected a 
 full decade earlier. For about 250 years ships had been classified 
 according to their rigging, but when rigging was abandoned a new 
 principle of classification had to be adopted. 
 
 The first of the old system of classification dates from 1546, the 
 time of Henry VIII. It classified the ships of the fleet into ships, 
 galeasses, pinnaces, and rowing galleys. The next classification dates 
 from 1 61 2; it divided the ships: (i) into large vessels of from 1200 
 
 ' See p. 295. 
 
238 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 to 800 tons; (2) into ships of medium size of from 800 to 600 tons; 
 (3) into small ships of from 600 to 300 tons, and lastly (4) into 
 pinnaces under 300 tons. In 1626, in the reign of Charles I., ships 
 were "■rated" into 6 ranks, which remained in force till about 30 years 
 ago. At first the basis of classification was the size of the crews, 
 but since Cromwell's time, in 1652, the ship was rated according to 
 the number of her guns. 
 
 The vessels of the four highest rates formed the battle-Une, the 
 fifth comprised the frigates, the sixth the corvettes, brigs, cutters, &c. 
 In Nelson's time the ships of 100 or more guns constituted the first 
 class, those of 98 to 90 guns the second class, 80 to 64 guns the 
 third class, 50 guns the fourth class, 44 to 32 guns the fifth class, 
 and 28 guns the sixth class. Vessels like fireships, bomb-ketches, &c. 
 were not rated. In those days only the ships of the first three rates 
 were placed in battle line; ships of 50 guns have been excluded from 
 it ever since the Seven Years' War. 
 
 In 1 7 19 limits were drawn to the magnitude of the ships of the 
 several classes, which was most disadvantageous to the expansion of 
 the fleet. The rate of progress since the battle of Blenheim, won in 
 1704 by Eugene and Marlborough, can be illustrated by one single 
 enumeration and tabulation of 4 ships: 
 
 
 ■J) >■ 
 II 
 
 Rate 
 
 c 
 3 
 be 
 
 6 
 
 tn 
 C 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 hi) 
 C 
 4) 
 
 lU 
 
 Ratio of 
 
 length to 
 
 Beam 
 
 Is 
 
 No. of tons 
 per man of the 
 Complement 
 
 I 
 
 1709 
 
 Ship of the Line 2nd rate . 
 
 90 
 
 1557 
 
 161 
 
 47 
 
 3-44 : I 
 
 750 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 I76I 
 
 ditto . . . 
 
 90 
 
 1827 
 
 175-5 
 
 48 
 
 3-6 :i 
 
 750 
 
 2-4 
 
 3 
 
 I8I3 
 
 Ship of the Line 3rd rate . 
 
 74 
 
 1832 
 
 175-8 
 
 48 
 
 3-6 :i 
 
 590 
 
 3-1 
 
 4 
 
 1890 
 
 Cruiser ist class . . . 
 
 30 
 
 9000 
 
 375 
 
 65 
 
 5-77:1 
 
 590 
 
 15-25 
 
 Of the ships I, 2, and 3, the size is given in tons measurement of 
 former days, of 4 in tons displacement; but even if the old measure- 
 ment were estimated at So'/q more when translated into tons dis- 
 placement, yet there results a very large increase in the size of the 
 
 
 
 Proportion per gun 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Men 
 
 Tons 
 
 No. 
 
 Men 
 
 Tons 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 8i 
 8-1 
 
 17-3 
 
 20-3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 I9| 
 
 27-5 
 300 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 239 
 
 ship in proportion to the strength of the ship's complement of men, 
 and to the number of tons as compared with that of guns. The 
 next striking change is the proportion of length to beam. The men 
 have now much more room on board, and far fewer are employed in 
 working the guns; in the "Blenheim" of the present day very many of 
 the crew are engaged with the engines of 21,400 H. P., which with 
 boilers and coal-bunkers occupy a large part of the space of the ship. 
 The "Devastation" and the "Thunderer" were followed in 1875 
 
 "Dreadnought." 
 
 'Inflexible.' 
 
 and 1876 by two similar, still larger, turret-ships without masts, the 
 "Dreadnought" and the "Inflexible" of 10,820 and 11,880 tons 
 respectively, the latter armoured with plates 16 to 24 inches thick 
 and armed with 4 muzzle loaders of 16 inch calibre and weighing 
 80 tons; this marks the highest points reached in that direction both 
 with respect to the thickness of the armour and the weight of the 
 guns, which add 3000 tons to the weight of the ship. To these 
 
 3ism. 
 "Agamemnon." 
 
 were added at that time two pairs of casemated ships, one pair pro- 
 pelled by single screws was purchased from insolvent foreign govern- 
 ments, and the other pair, propelled by twin screws in accordance 
 with the practice followed ever since 1870. One of these, the "Temeraire", 
 ' See p. 295. 
 
240 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 had four heavy guns placed after a French model in fixed armoured 
 hLrrets (EN BARBETTE), each being of a type of its own. Towards the end 
 of the seventies there were built two somewhat smaller, very broad turret- 
 ships, which made only 1 2 knots and were not very manageable ; the last 
 iron battle-ships of the fleet, the "Agamemnon" and the "Ajax." These 
 were followed in 1882 by two similar, but greatly improved and larger 
 turret-ships, the "Colossus" and the "Edinburgh" making easily 14 knots 
 an hour, but built of steel, which henceforward was used exclusively. 
 Between 1882 and 1886 were built the six ships called the "Admiral 
 Class", because, essentially, they are. all of one type and are named 
 after famous admirals; although they are not exactly like each other — 
 for they vary in weight between 9500 and 10,600 tons — yet there is 
 great similarity between them, all being built of steel and armoured 
 on the waterline only about \ of their length, the fore- and after-parts 
 protected by a turtle-backed armour-deck; they are propelled by 
 twin screws and their heavy guns are placed in barbettes, one in the 
 fore-, and the other in the after-part of the ship, and between them 
 is an unarmoured battery of 6 to 10 quick-firing guns of 6 inch 
 calibre, in addition to a considerable number of smaller quick-firing 
 and machine guns. The heavy artillery however varies greatly; the 
 "Be^bow" of 10,600 tons has two guns of i6t inch calibre weighing 
 III tons , four other ships have each four guns of 131. inch calibre 
 weighing 67 tons; the "Collingwood" of 9500 tons has four guns of 
 
 /«5 
 
 305 305^ 
 
 "Benbow." "Collingwoofi." 
 
 12 inch calibre and weighing 45 tons. But all this variety notwith- 
 standing, it is obviously intended to produce a large number of ships 
 of otte type , i. e. of like tactical character. These were followed be- 
 tween 1885 and 1888 by powerful ships of a totally different type, 
 viz: two turret-ships, the "Nile" .and the "Trafalgar" of. nearly 
 12,000 tons displacement, being improved "Dreadnoughts"; each 
 carrying two guns of 13I inch caHbre and 67 tons weight in each 
 ' See p. 295. 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 241 
 
 turret, and having- an armoured battery of six quick firing guns of 
 4J inch calibre amidships; also two ships, the "Victoria", which has 
 gone to the bottom, and the "Sans pareil", of 10,740 tons with a 
 single revolving turret forward, within which there are placed two 
 gigantic guns each of iii tons weight, and having abaft a 29 ton 
 gun of 10 inch calibre, and amidships an unarmoured battery of 
 6 inch quick-firing guns. 
 
 "Sans pareil." 
 
 'Nile." 
 
 It appears then that the armoured battle ships .built between i860 
 and 1888 — independent of the rams and coast defences and slight 
 differences like those mentioned in the Admiral class — represent no 
 less than 25 different types of very unequal tactical qualities, making 
 them either merely conditionally fit, or entirely unfit for co-operation 
 in battle. 
 
 b. Cruisers. 
 
 With respect to cruisers also^ the plans had up to that period been 
 neither consistent nor well considered. When sailing vessels were 
 abandoned such as the frigates and corvettes of former days, which 
 used to accompany battle-ships as scouts and served to protect com- 
 merce, the Admiralty, anxious not to be outstripped by the United 
 States' ship, the "Niagara", built beautiful, large steam frigates fully 
 rigged like the "Shannon", the "Orlando" and others, which made 
 I if to 13 knots under steam; but they were wooden ships, whose 
 structure was not strong enough to stand the strain of the powerful 
 engines of 3500 to about 5000 I. H. P. Nevertheless the Admiralty 
 made no change in their plans till the early sixties, when the iron 
 "Warrior'^ was already completed, and had proved very efficient both 
 under steam and under canvas. Also the great wooden screw frigates 
 
 ' See p. 295. 
 
 16 
 
242 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 "Octavia" and others, as well as the powerful wooden screw-ships- 
 of-the-line "Victoria" and several others, were put in commission only 
 once and soon afterwards discarded. 
 
 Then there ensued a pause in the building- of fast cruisers, till 
 towards the end of the sixties the English navy had nothing- to be 
 compared with the "■coi'vettes rapides" of the French. But then in 
 1868 there appeared the cruiser "Inconstant", built by Sir Edward 
 Reed; she was of 5780 tons, propelled by a single screw, the first iron 
 ship whose submerged part was sheathed with wood and coppered. 
 
 Her engines built by J. Penn of looo nominal H. P., indicated 
 7360 H. P. in the trial-trips, so that the I. H. P. was more than seven 
 times the nominal H. P. and the ship made i6'5i knots, a speed 
 which up to then had not yet even approximately been attained by 
 any man-of-war. Her capacity for keeping the sea for a long time 
 was also very good; for example, on the 6th of September 1870 the 
 ship was astern of the ill-fated "Captain," and she brought to Ply- 
 mouth the news of her foundering off Finisterre, travelling at an 
 average rate of 1 5 j knots. The enormous difference between nominal 
 and indicated H. P. shewn in this ship was the occasion for abandon- 
 ing in 1872 the former, antiquated and unmeaning designation. Under 
 sail too the Inconstant behaved exceedingly well, but she laboured 
 under the disadvantage of having small coal bunkers , so that, steam 
 ing at full power, she could keep the sea only 2\ days, and at 10 knots 
 an hour could only make a voyag-e of about 2000 nautical miles. This 
 cruiser, which was considered very large in those days, was followed 
 in 1869 by two similar ones made of iron and sheathed with wood, &c., 
 but considerably smaller and cheaper, the "Active" and the "Volage" 
 of 3080 tons. Under steam they attained the high speed of 1 5 knots 
 and acquitted themselves excellently in every way. Like the "Incon- 
 stant" they are not only in existence to this day, but they are still 
 useful, having these ten years uninterruptedly rendered good service 
 as part of the Training squadron. Nevertheless the Admiralty ceased 
 building cruisers of this type, but wholly failing to appreciate the 
 value of speed in maritime warfare, especially for cruisers, they built 
 smaller, comparatively slow cruisers of wood and iron of 2000 tons 
 displacement and of about the same number of H. P. making 12 to 
 13 knots. The armament, proportionally light, consisted of muzzle- 
 loaders in positions adopted at the time of saiHng vessels, which had 
 grown obsolete. The French, on the other hand, built after the war 
 of 1870/71 their modern, large, and swift iron cruisers, the "Tour- 
 
X. MATERIAL. 243 
 
 ville" and "Duquesne" of about 5800 tons displacement, and having- 
 a speed of 17 knots, with heavy guns placed in embrasures for bow 
 and stern fire,. &c., and the "Duguay Trouin" of 3660 tons and 
 16 knots, which are serviceable to this day, whilst the corresponding 
 English ships have disappeared all but one. 
 
 The English only built a few large cruisers from time to time, such 
 as, in 1873, the "Shah" of 6250 tons, 7840 H. P. and 16 knots' speed, 
 a decided retrogression as compared with the "Inconstant"; also in 
 1870/71 the "Raleigh*' of 5200 tons and only 14 knots' speed, the 
 "Euryalus" and the "Bacchante" of 4130 tons, 5250 H. P. and 
 15 knots' speed, all of which have disappeared by this time. How 
 little these unprotected and lightly armed cruisers were adapted to 
 the circumstances of modern warfare was seen, when the "Shah", 
 aided by a smaller cruiser was unable, in a fight of several hours' 
 duration, to do any harm to the Peruvian iron-clad the "Huascar" 
 which was a ship of only 2000 tons displacement. 
 
 At the same time a new type of ship was commenced, viz: IRON- 
 CLAD CRUISERS, therein following the lead of Russia, who had built 
 some years previously vessels of that type. In 1875/76 three such 
 cruisers were launched, the "Shannon" of S390 tons, the "Nelson" 
 and the "Northampton" of 7630 tons, but all these lacked the one 
 quality needful to cruisers, speed. Next in 1877/78 the Admiralty 
 made an abrupt innovation by building the first unarmoured vessels 
 wholly of steel, the "Iris" and the "Mercury" of 3735 tons and 
 7000 H. P. ; they were altogether lightly built, and lightly arriied, 
 with twin screws, whilst the afore-named ones had all simple screws. 
 As a perfect contrast to previous procedure every thing was in these 
 ships sacrificed to speed, and the object was gained in a brilliant 
 manner, for the "Mercury" made i8| knots an hour, thus surpassing all 
 previous achievements. In consideration of their small fighting capacity 
 these ships were called "despatch vessels"; about the same time the 
 old names frigates, corvettes, &c. were given up, and superseded by 
 the designations of cruisers of ist, 2nd. and 3rd. class, despatch-boats, 
 gun-boats, &c. 
 
 Now at last a proper kind of cruisers was commenced; swift 
 vessels suitably armed, and supplied according to the plans of the 
 able and meritorious Admiral Scott with a protective deck of steel 
 I '5 inch thick, to protect the engines, boilers, ammunition stores, &c. 
 from the enemy's fire; these were 4 cruisers of the "Amphion" type of 
 4300 tons, 5000 H. P. and 17 knots; they were built of steel and 
 
 16* 
 
244 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 had twin screws like all cruisers built from now forward. Then 
 followed two powerful iron-clad cruisers, the "Warspite" and the 
 "Imperieuse" of 8400 tons displacement lO.ooo H. P. and 17 knots' 
 speed; the compound armour belt for | of the ship's length was 
 10 inches in thickness; they had an armour deck 3 inches thick, turrets 
 en barbette, &c, and powerful armament. In the years 1885/87 seven 
 more cruisers of the 1st class of the "Aurora" type were protected 
 
 & -s!«t@> — [^- -^-Hg— 
 
 " Imperieuse." 
 
 by an armour belt; they were ships of 5600 tons, 8500 H. P. and 
 17 to 195 knots speed. These were the last cruisers, whose sides 
 were protected by armoured belts, and even the far larger vessels, 
 the "Blake" and the "Blenheim" of 9000 tons, which are the last 
 
 ships built at that time,, 
 have only an armoured 
 deck, extending however 
 from stem to stern. 
 
 We see then that, up 
 
 to 1889, the large cruisers: 
 
 also were constructed on 
 
 various types, those of the 
 
 2nd half of the eighties being very serviceable ships ; nevertheless: 
 
 there was no general drift or method observable. 
 
 Along with the swift cruisers, the "Iris" and the "Mercury" of 
 1878/84 there were built Smaller CRUISERS of the 3rd class of three 
 different types, the "Pylades", the "Calliope" and the "Cordelia," 
 none of which were up to date ; they were propelled by single screws, 
 were only partially covered by a protective deck, and had a speed 
 of only III to 14I knots. 
 
 Then for a time a kind of ship was built, when the endeavour was 
 made to secure a maximum performance of the engines with a 
 minimum of space and weight. These ships were: eight of the: 
 ' See p. 295. 
 
 "Blake." 
 

 ;' h '.' ■ 
 
 '.''1 
 
X. MATERIAL, 245 
 
 "Archer" type of 1770 tons and 3500 H. P. built in the years 1885/87 
 (one of which, the "Serpent", was lost with the whole crew off Cape 
 Orteg-al); five of the "Medea" and "Magicienne" types of respectively 
 2800 and 2950 tons and 9000 H. P. built in 1887/88; four of the 
 "Barrossa" type of 1580 tons and 3000 H. P. built in 1889, and two 
 of the "Bellona" type of 1830 tons and 4700 H. P. built in 1 889/90. 
 Their serviceableness was limited; they gave much occasion for com- 
 plaint as mishaps to the engines were very frequent; three of the 
 largest are already being used as drill ships. With respect to cruisers 
 of the 3rd class, then, the Admiralty was still in the experimental 
 stage. 
 
 Finally there sprung up in the seventies a kind of boat destined 
 to acquire great importance : the TORPEDO-BOATS. The first torpedo- 
 boat was built in 1873 for the Norwegians by Thbrnycroft (a firm 
 eminent in this kind of shipbuilding); it was a spar-torpedo boat of 
 only 57ft. length, 17! tons displacement and 15 knots' speed; but, in 
 spite of this wonderful performance, the Admiralty took no notice of 
 it. Not till four years afterwards, when Russia built torpedo-boats in 
 great numbers, did they order of Thornycroft the first English torpedo- 
 boat, also for spar-torpedo, the "Lightning"; she was 85ft. long with 
 27 tons displacement, and with 460 H. P. she attained a speed of 
 19 knots. Now immediately there were ordered of several firms a 
 dozen torpedo-boats of l8§ knots speed for Whitehead-torpedoes, all 
 of which proved successful; the palm however was carried off by 
 Yarrow, whose boat attained a speed of 22 knots. But at that time 
 the Whitehead-torpedo was still so unreliable and its, track so irregular, 
 that opinions about its utility and about torpedo-boats generally were 
 very much divided among the English naval authorities. Accordingly 
 in 1880/84 the Admiralty only ordered a number of 2nd class torpedo- 
 boats making 17 knots to be used as coast defence; they carried a 
 torpedo suspended in dropping gear each side, as also did steam 
 pinnaces subsequently. 
 
 When at last in 1885 Russia had 115, France 50, and England only 
 19 first class torpedo-boats, then the Admiralty ordered and purchased 
 immediately 60 of these boats, on which occasion the firm Yarrow 
 for the first time introduced the turtle deck. Then there ensued a 
 pause once more, and not till 1887 was a further number of torpedo- 
 boats ordered including the "Number 80", which had a length of 
 1 341 ft. 1 540 H. P. and made 23 knots; since that time the number 
 of torpedo boats was increased, but at a slow rate, their tactical 
 
246 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 value not being considered very high. They did not any longer 
 receive names, but were numbered consecutively. 
 
 In harmony with the latest views on the future war opera/ions at 
 sea, and on the duties the English Navy would have to discharge, 
 and also on the basis of the experience gained in the great manoeuvres 
 of the fleet introduced in 1885, the conclusion was arrived at, that 
 torpedo-boats were too little seaworthy and had too limited a capacity 
 for keeping the sea to be of any effectual service in the aggressive 
 movements the English navy would have to carry out, and that to 
 accompany the fleet and ward off the enemy's torpedo-boats, there 
 were needed larger vessels that were seaworthier and had greater 
 staying power, rather than superior speed and artilleristic efficiency, 
 in one word TORPEDO -BOAT CATCHERS. But this only produced 
 a number of disappointments. The first two vessels of this kind 
 of 950 tons and 1200 HP., built in 1885/86, were much too slow; 
 of the fiext series of four boats built in 1885/87 only one was satis- 
 factory, viz: the "Rattlesnake", built by Laird Bros; but her engines 
 considerably exceeded the stipulated weight. The other three, as 
 well as the next following 13 of the "Sharpshooter" type of 735 tons 
 and 3500 H. P. suffered incessantly from breakdowns in consequence 
 of their slight structure, their too light engines, and the employment 
 of forced draught. With respect to torpedoes then, the English were 
 in 1889 still groping in the dark. 
 
 2. Latest Developments. 
 The same year 1889 however opened a new era with respect to 
 the Material of the English navy; the epoch of systematic and care- 
 fully reasoned out plans of naval development, such as found ex- 
 pression in the "NAVAL DEFENCE AcT." This important enactment 
 stands out as a mark, which should be observed and imitated by all 
 the navies of the world. It decrees the building of a sufficient number 
 of vessels of the several kinds, with a determined type for each 
 kind; to be carried out in five years, which is a stretch of time not 
 too long for technical prevision, and at the same time ways and 
 means were at once found for the whole sum required. These are the 
 only terms on which a naval administration can rapidly and resolutely 
 advance, can utilize every chance as it offers itself, and can, in the 
 shortest possible time and at a minimum of cost, create a force that 
 is a wisely ordered organism in all its parts. History will record it 
 as a permanent credit to the Salisbury Cabinet, that in the mother- 
 
•a 
 <p 
 
 10 
 
X, MATERIAL. 247 
 
 country of parliamentary government, it has dared to break with old, 
 deep-rooted parliamentary traditions, and has embodied in a single 
 demand, for years in advance, the means needful for the building of 
 the navy, the chief and almost the only instrument at the disposal of 
 the country to enforce its political ends. 
 
 The Ministers have the credit of it, but the first impulse was given 
 by ncwal officers. These latter have often been reproached, and not 
 unjustly, as is proved by the events of a not very remote past, for 
 adhering too rigidly to old traditions. Their stubborn resistance to 
 the introduction of steam-engines, to shell-guns, to screw-propulsion, 
 to breach loaders, to iron ship building, &c. ; their obstinate retention 
 of smooth bore guns, of rigging, and of obsolete types of ship- 
 building were the main cause of the constant technical inferiority of 
 the navy of England to the navy of France, which more than once 
 missed a favourable chance of gaining maritime preponderance both 
 in the Channel and elsewhere. 
 
 During the last 1 5 years however, English naval officers have proved 
 that this rigid conservatism was no inherent quality of theirs, and that 
 all their shortcomings were due to a want of insight into what was 
 just and necessary. Since then, from about the time when the Naval 
 Intelligence Department was created, that is since 1882 a RADICAL 
 CHANGE in the right direction has set in; intellectual activity has been 
 displayed, which exercised an irresistible and far-reaching influence 
 on the Admiralty, the government, and the whole nation. All parties 
 are now agreed, that only 10 years ago the navy was not adequate 
 to the duties it had to discharge, and that it is necessary not only 
 to keep it up to its present high level of efficiency, but that it must 
 be permanently and continuously strengthened. In connection with 
 this movement special mention must be made of the merits of the late 
 Admiral of the Fleet, SiR GEOFFREY HoRNBY, who was admittedly -the 
 most eminent English naval officer, as well as of LORD CHARLES 
 Beresford, who preferred resigning his high office as one of the 
 Lords of the Admiralty to consenting, if even by mere silence, to 
 measures, for which he could not accept his share of responsibility. 
 But for the firm insistance of these two men and of many other naval 
 officers besides, on enforcing their views without fear and without regard 
 of consequences to themselves the rapid, systematic and clear-sighted 
 expansion of the navy, such as we have witnessed since 1889, would 
 never have taken place. 
 
 In the said year 1889 the navy numbered only 42 battle-ships, in- 
 
248 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 elusive of the oldest vessels, like the "Warrior", as well as those of 
 2nd and 3rd class; and even of these, ten were out of repair; also 
 6 armoured and 53 unarmoured cruisers, one ram, one torpedo-boat 
 destroyer, 80 torpedo-boats of ist class and 51 torpedo-boats of 2nd 
 class; and there were building 7 battle-ships, 6 armoured cruisers, 
 32 unarmoured cruisers, 12 torpedo-boat destroyers and 16 torpedo- 
 boats. The 32 battle-ships that were in readiness did not represent 
 a force corresponding to their number, owing to their great variety 
 of types, -several of which had already become quite obsolete; they 
 were therefore wholly inadequate to discharge the numerous and multi- 
 farious duties of the English navy. Still greater was the deficiency in suit- 
 able and rapid cruisers required for the protection of English Commerce, 
 which had assumed enormous dimensions during the preceding decade. 
 
 The Naval Defence Act of the 31st of May 1889 decreed the 
 building of 70 men-of-war within a period of five years, and the total 
 cost estimated at £22,500,000 was voted at once, and in consequence of 
 an increase in the wages and in the price of materials, the amount 
 rose afterwards to £22,800,000. The 70 ships consisted of: 8 battle- 
 ships of the first class, each of 14,150 tons and 13,000 H. P, which 
 surpassed in magnitude any existing ship; 2 battle-ships of the second 
 class, which are larger than the German first class men-of-war; 9 pro- 
 tected cruisers of first class each of 7350 tons and 12,000 H. P.; 29 pro- 
 tected cruisers of second class each of 3400 tons and 9000 H. P.; 
 4 ditto each of 2575 tons and 7500 H. P., and 18 torpedo-boat 
 destroyers each of 753 tons and 4500 H. P. It thus appears that there 
 were to be built battle-ships of the largest dimensions, superior to 
 every existing hostile vessel and in such numbers, that they would 
 form a very strong squadron of equal tactical units; 42 cruisers also 
 superior in size, power and speed to any existing rival of like kind, 
 and finally a number of very swift torpedo-boat destroyers, but no more 
 torpedo-boats; — all this points to decisive aggression directly con- 
 trary to the title of the law, but in harmony with the nature of a 
 fleet and with the operations of all great naval commanders. 
 
 As far as concerns the 8 first class battle-ships of the "Royal 
 Sovereign" type, the principle underlying this type has undergone 
 numerous improvements, viz: strong, long, but not complete com- 
 pound armour-belt of about two thirds of the ship's length; to it is 
 joined fore and aft a vaulted armour deck, terminating in a ram for- 
 ward. Over the ends of the armour belt, and separated by an ar- 
 moured battery or breast work, there rise two armoured turrets en 
 


 O 
 
 H 
 (D 
 
 K 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 249 
 
 "Royal Sovereign. " 
 
 barbette, within each of which there are placed on racerpaths 2 breach 
 loaders of 131 inch calibre and 67 tons weight. The ship's side 
 between the turrets is lightly 
 armed with steel plates up 
 to the upper deck, where 
 ten 6 inch quick firing 
 guns are placed behind 
 armoured shields; besides 
 these there are on deck 
 and in the fighting tops, 38 
 smaller quick-firing and machine guns, and finally there are held in 
 readiness 7 torpedo tubes of 18 inch calibre. Only one of the 8 ships 
 carries the 4 heavy guns 
 in closed revolving turrets, 
 but resembles the others 
 in every other respect. The 
 two smaller battle -ships 
 "Barfleur" and "Centurion" 
 of 10,500 tons each are 
 constructed on the same 
 principles , only naturally 
 weaker in armour and guns, 
 the latter weighing 29 tons "Barfleur." 
 
 and worked by hand; their turrets are shielded by armoured cupolas, which 
 give them a great advantage over the "Royal Sovereign", where the tur- 
 rets are open. The speed of 
 the 8 large ships is 1 7 to 
 1 7|. knots, that of the two 
 smaller is iSiknots, speeds 
 not previously attained by 
 any battle-ships. 
 
 Of the 9 first class crui- 
 sers, 4, built on the "Cres- 
 cent" type, have the ships' 
 bottom sheathed with wood 
 and coppered, so as to 
 enable them to keep the sea for a long time and serve as flagships on 
 foreign stations; this has brought their weight up to 7700 tons; the other 
 five, of the "Edgar" type, have a weight of 7350 tons, as' originally 
 
 ^ See p. 265. 
 
250 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 C • 57 . . . 
 
 i c t c b c h 
 ^ — ' ^ — ' y •* y p 
 
 e a- — 
 
 ■ - ^. II ^. -I "^ L 
 b c b c i c b 
 
 "Astrasa." 
 
 planned. They all are without side-armour and have only a strong 
 armoured protective deck, shields for a part of the guns and strongly 
 protected conning towers. Their speed can be raised to 20 knots; if 
 they travel at the rate of 10 knots their store of coals will carry them 
 a distance of 14,000 nautical miles (= upwards of 16,000 statute 
 miles). The 29 second class cruisers, like all the ships of the Naval 
 
 Defence Act, are built of 
 steel, propelled by twin screws 
 and have an armoured deck 
 over engines , ammunition- 
 stores and steering appar- 
 atus; 8 of them of the type 
 "Astraea" are of 4360 tons, 
 10 of the type "^olus" 
 are of 3600 tons, and 11, of 
 the type "Apollo", are of 
 3400 tons; all are armed 
 with quick firing guns, among 
 which there are two of 6 inch calibre; their speed is 20 knots and 
 their coalstore is sufficient for 7000 to 9000 nautical miles. 
 
 All the ships of the Naval Defence Act, except a few of the smaller 
 ones, were actually finished within the appointed 5 years, that is to 
 say in the month of May 1894, and they have turned out well; it is 
 true the vessels of the type "Royal Sovereign" had to be supplied 
 with bilge keels to reduce their heavy rolling due to their transverse 
 section, but that was all. Battle-ships of this type formed the Channel 
 squadron as early as 1895 at the opening of the Baltic Canal; the 
 first cruiser^ serve as flagships on foreign stations and so on. The 
 29 torpedo-boat catchers of the Naval Defence Act actually included 
 13 of the "Sharpshooter" type, which was launched as far back as 
 1888. They all turned out failures, notwithstanding the repeated 
 changes in the plans of the Constructor-in-Chief. To this circumstance 
 must be ascribed the fact that they were not completed till long after 
 the stipulated time. When the "Sharpshooter" type of 735 tons turned 
 out a failure, recourse was had to a still larger type, that of the 
 "Alarm" of 810 tons and 4500 H. P., and in 1892/93, 11 boats of 
 this type were constructed, and finally they adopted the "Dryad" type 
 of 1970 tons, but it all was unavailing; the 5 vessels of the last type, 
 being more than double the size originally planned, made only 
 ^ See p. 295. 
 
M 
 o 
 n 
 
 a 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 251 
 
 i8i knots, and were in fact slower than the smaller vessels. For the 
 purpose in view a speed is required greater than that of torpedo-boats, 
 and this can only be attained by vessels of similar structure. 
 
 They had thus fallen back upon small vessels, which are not fitted 
 for making, after the manner of torpedo-boats, unobserved attacks of 
 surprise, such as are expected of torpedo-boat catchers. These 29 
 vessels are now borne upon the lists as gunboats of the first class, 
 and in the summer of 1893 the Admiralty suddenly reverted to building 
 numerous small lorpedo-boat de stroyers similar to torpedo-boats. Imme- 
 diately the firm Yarrow had built the "Havock",^ the first vessel of 
 the kind, according to their own designs, and had attained the pro- 
 mised speed of 27 knots, and now 42 boats were ordered from a 
 number of eminent shipbuilding firms, ere Parliament had voted the 
 money or even been consulted about it. The firms in question, at 
 present 14 in number, have ever since been working in emulation on 
 their own designs and not on those of the Constructor-in-Chief; all 
 they have to do is merely to observe certain general directions. From 
 year to year ever greater successes are recorded. 
 
 The liberal Gladstone Rosebery Ministry, that succeeded the con- 
 
 b- TSZ ., S.F. 
 C- 66 , S.F. 
 
 "Renown." 
 
 servative Salisbury Ministry, was forced by the irresistible national 
 current of feeling in favour of a powerful navy not only to continue, 
 
 1 More remarkable than even the "Havock" was her sister ship the "Hornet", 
 built simultaneously by the same firm. Not only did the "Hornet" surpass the 
 "Havock" in speed, but she is the first war-vessel of any size and importance 
 that was fitted with "express" water tube boilers, and she has become a type of 
 vessel, which is being adopted as rapidly as possible by every naval power in 
 the world. The translator. 
 
 •" See p. 295. 
 
252 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 but to expand the shipbuilding' schemes of their predecessors in office. 
 At first this was not done as heartily by them as it had been done 
 by their opponents, and all parliamentary usages were observed; 
 nevertheless 3 first class battle-ships were put on the stocks. These com- 
 prised the largest men-of-war in the world, the "Majestic" and the 
 "Magnificent", each of 14,900 tons, and the "Renown" of 12,350 tons; 
 also 2 gigantic cruisers the "Powerful" and the "Terrible" of 14,200 tons 
 each, which far surpass all the cruisers in existence. They are of 
 4000 tons, that is 40 % larger than the first class German battle-ships 
 of the type "Brandenburg"; further the Liberals built 3 second class 
 protected cruisers of 5600 tons each, and finally in the summer 
 of 1893 the above-named 42 torpedo-boat destroyers. In the beginning 
 of 1894 the ministry felt the necessity of coming forward with 
 a magnificent new shipbuilding programme comprising 71 vessels, the 
 first instalment of which amounting to £4,600,000 for the financial 
 year 1894/95 was voted at once. The programme included in ad- 
 dition to the 3 above-named battle-ships and 5 cruisers, 7 more battle- 
 ships of the "Majestic" type, that is of 14,900 tons each, 6 more 
 protected cruisers of 5600 tons each, 4 small cruisers, 36 torpedo-boat 
 destroyers and 10 first class torpedo-boats. 
 
 The "Majestic" type is practically the "Royal Sovereign" over 
 again, but with essential improvements, all the technical progress made 
 
 "Majestic." 
 
 in the meantime having been fully embodied in the construction. 
 Although the new vessel exceeds the old by 750 tons displacement, 
 yet her armoured belt is shorter and only half as thick, viz: 9 inches 
 instead of 18 inches, but its material of hardened nickel steel has 
 much greater power of resistance; moreover the principal pieces of 
 ' See p. 295. 
 
a 
 
 o 
 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 25a 
 
 ordnance are of 12 inch instead of 131 inches cahbre and weigh 
 46 tons, but they are wire-wound guns of a newer and more efficient 
 kind. The rest of the armament is increased, there being twelve 
 in Ueu of ten 6 inch quick-firing guns, all of which are placed behind 
 
 "Terrible." 
 
 6 inch armour; the torpedo tubes are submerged like the stern tube,, 
 and 3 of the 4 steamboats are fitted for torpedo work. 
 
 The two gigantic cruisers of 14,200 tons and 25,000 H. P., make 
 22 knots, and have room for 3000 tons of coal, sufficing at 10 knots- 
 an hour for a distance of 25,000 nautical miles. In building these 
 ships a leap was made in order to have vessels superior to the dreaded 
 commerce destroyers of the United States, and to the large, new, 
 Russian armoured cruisers. They ventured to make the experiment 
 of supplying them with 
 
 11-1 r 1 1 a-t5Zmm.S.T. 
 
 water tube boilers 01 the \ *■"" 
 
 Belleville type, which up 
 
 to then had been tried in 
 
 England only in small 
 
 craft but they have turned 
 
 out a complete success. 
 
 The second class pro- 
 tected cruisers of the 
 "Eclipse" type of 5600 
 tons and 9600 H. P., with 
 protective steel deck of 
 li to 3 inches thick, have 
 given equal satisfaction; their armament consists of five 6 inch guns,, 
 
 ' See p. 295. 
 
 'Eclipse." 
 
254 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 six 4|- inch guns, 14 smaller quick-firing- g"uns, and 3 torpedo tubes. 
 These cruisers have attained a speed of 20 knots. 
 
 In a similar manner the enlargement of the fleet is being continued. 
 The excessive dimensions of 14,900 tons for battle - ships , and 
 14,200 tons for cruisers have been abandoned; nevertheless none but 
 first class battle-ships are being built, and these so strong that they 
 are superior to all foreign vessels of a similar kind. The principles 
 universally observed are: All ships are to be built of steel, and to 
 be propelled by twin screws, worked by vertical triple expansion 
 engines with water tube boilers mostly of the Belleville type; the 
 armour is to be of hardened steel, the heavy armament of wire-wound 
 guns of the newest type, the rest to consist of none but quick firing guns, 
 the guns to be placed singly and as much as possible behind shields ; the 
 torpedo tubes to be placed below water, and great speed secured for 
 all vessels: for battle-ships i8i knots, for first class cruisers 2oi knots, 
 for second and third class 20 knots, for torpedo-boat destroyers up 
 to 33 knots, and withal great ease in manoeuvring, and second class 
 cruisers are to have double rudder for ramming manoeuvres. In 1896 
 there were building: 13 first class battle-ships, 10 first class cruisers, 
 16 second class cruisers, 7 third class cruisers, and 48 torpedo-boat 
 destroyers. 
 
 Moreover 3 older vessels and 15 cruisers are being reconstructed 
 or renewed, as has been done for years with ships that are still 
 serviceable for war purposes. The estimates for 1896/97 provide for 
 new construction of: 5 first class battle-ships of 12,900 tons, 4 first 
 class cruisers of 11,000 tons, 3 second class cruisers of 5600 tons, 
 6 third class cruisers of 2135 tons, and 28 torpedo-boat destroyers. 
 Of these, 3 battle-ships and one first class cruiser are, with the excep- 
 tion of the engines, to be built in the Royal dockyards, and the rest, 
 viz: 2 battle-ships, 3 first class, 3 second class, and 5 third class 
 cruisers, as well as the 28 torpedo-boat destroyers, are to be built in 
 private yards, a practice universally observed with torpedo-boats and 
 launches. 
 
 The new battle-ships of 12,900 tons, accordingly by 2000 tons less 
 than the "Majestic", and with 2 feet diminished draught, were built 
 on the improved type of the "Renown" with partial armoured belt 
 of 6 inch hardened steel and a protective deck of 2i inch; the large 
 guns of 12 inch calibre and 46 tons weight in turrets en barbette 
 under armoured covers; the armament then agrees with that of the 
 "Majestic", which is larger; the engines are of 13,500 H. P., and 
 
X. MATERIAL. 255 
 
 with natural draught they are said to be capable of i8i knots or 
 1 1 knots more, and being- supplied with the more economical water- 
 tube boilers, they are expected to keep the sea longer with an equal 
 coal storage. The new first class cruisers of the "Diadem" type of 
 ii,ooo tons, therefore 3200 tons less than the "Powerful", are also 
 sheathed with wood and coppered, in order not to reduce their speed; 
 with 16,500 H. P. they are to make 2oi knots and have storage for 
 2000 tons of coal, which gives an extraordinary capacity for length 
 of time to keep the sea; they are to receive a protective deck 2i to 
 4 inches thick, an armoured conning tower and shields for twelve out 
 of their sixteen 6 inch quick-firing guns, which, together with twelve 
 47 inch and thirteen smaller quick-firing guns, are to be their whole 
 armament. The 6 inch guns then are the heaviest which these large 
 cruisers receive. The new second class cruisers of the "Arrogant" 
 type of 5600 to 5750 tons have a protective steel deck i| to 3 inches 
 in thickness; with natural draught they are to run 18 knots, with 
 forced draught 20 knots and have storage for looo tons of coal; 
 they are to receive five 6 inch, and six 4"7 inch quick-firing guns, 
 besides some smaller ones. The third class cruisers of the type "Pelorus" 
 of 2135 tons have a 2 inch protective deck and an armament of eight 
 4 inch quick-firing guns, &c.; with 7000 H.P. they are to make 20 knots, 
 and be able to travel 7000 nautical miles at a 10 knot rate with a coal 
 storage of 250 tons. For further details concerning these and other of 
 the above named vessels see "The British Navy" pp. 296 et seq. 
 
 A short time only has been allotted for their construction; but 
 considering the extraordinary performances of both the Royal and 
 the private yards in the building of battle-ships since 1889 it cannot 
 be doubted that the term will be kept. The "Royal Sovereign", for 
 example, of 14,150 tons, built in Portsmouth dockyard (barring the 
 engines, which were supplied by Messrs. Humphreys & Tennant) was 
 finished, put in commission, and enrolled in the Channel fleet within 
 32 months from the laying down of the first keel plate, having satis- 
 factorily stood all the tests. Of the still larger battle-ships, the 
 "Majestic" and the "Magnificent" of 14,900 tons each, the former 
 was built and finished in Portsmouth within only 22 months, and the 
 latter in Chatham within 24 months. These achievements are great 
 beyond all precedent and were previously considered impossible. 
 From them accrue benefits not only to the navy in these particular 
 instances but to the whole defensive power of the country. It has 
 been said before: "gutck building spells cheap building", and per contra 
 
256 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 "slow building spells dear building;"; but not only the mere saving of 
 money and the rapid preparation of war-ships is to be taken into con- 
 sideration, but also the fact that, during a slow progress of construction, 
 all sorts of alterations and modifications are suggested, which not 
 only still further retard the completion of the ship, and increase the 
 cost, but even impair the original design and the efficiency of the 
 vessel. This happened in France, where they took ten years to build 
 a battle-ship, and when finished it shewed such great defects, that it 
 entailed costly reconstruction of a ship only just completed. This is 
 a positive wrong inflicted on the constructor. If the work is to be 
 carried out promptly and in a practical manner a firm hand guiding 
 the wliole technical department is indispensably necessary, and of this 
 advantage the Admiralty has been in full enjoyment ever since 1889. 
 Pari passu with the building of new ships, old battle-ships and 
 cruisers are modernised, if they are considered still fit for the pur- 
 poses of Avar, and worth the estimated outlay. Of the older ships, 
 still to some extent powerful, 17 are armed with heavy ordnance, 
 consisting of short muzzle loaders; but to replace these by long 
 breach loaders would entail an expenditure out of all proportion; 
 however they have all been gradually armed with 20 to 30 quick- 
 firing guns, and have also in other respects been adapted to modern 
 circumstances. Vessels, which are no longer serviceable for war, 
 are unhesitatingly rejected. 
 
 B. Armour. 
 
 The plates used for the first armoured batteries at the time of the 
 Crimean war, and also for the first armoured vessel, the "Gloire", 
 were of forged wrought iron. They were of comparatively small 
 dimensions, those for the "Gloire" measuring 5 ft. by 2 ft. by \\ inches. 
 In the United States they used for the "Monitor", as late as 1862 
 and long after, the so called "laminated armour", consisting of several 
 one inch plates joined together with bolts. The fact was, that the 
 manufacture of stout plates was as yet nowhere understood. The 
 laminated armour had far less resisting power than the soHd plates, 
 and the thinner the plates were the less was their power of resistance. 
 When iron-clads began to be built in England, Mr. John Brown, an 
 Englishman, hit upon the idea of using ROLLERS for the manufacture 
 of the plates, and made a great success of it. He produced for the 
 "Warrior" 4^ inch plates of much larger dimensions; those made 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 257 
 
 Tracer ISmrtb h^eX&nJduSz 
 
 "Warrior." 
 
 in 1862 measured 18 ft. by 4 ft., and in 1863 his plates were 
 12 inches thick. 
 
 The plates of the "Warrior" were backed by 18 inch teak wood 
 (which rust does not injure) in two layers; one vertical, and the other 
 horizontal; they rested upon the 
 inner iron skin, the real wall of 
 •the ship, and this in its turn was 
 supported by the ribs, &c. of the 
 vessel. This armour, presenting 
 a hard front upon a backing that 
 was elastic and yielding, proved 
 impenetrable to the heaviest Eng- 
 lish artillery of those days, which 
 were 8 inch 68 pr. 95 cwt. smooth 
 bore guns, and firing with a charge 
 of 16 lbs. of powder a ball weigh- 
 ing 68 lbs. Upon this followed the 
 introduction of rifled guns, which 
 led to the contest between guns and armour, which is still undecided. 
 
 Wooden ships were armoured by having the plates fixed with bolts 
 upon the sides of the ship,^which gave a backing of 21. ft. The ships 
 of the "Minotaur" type 
 were clad with 51. inch 
 armour, backed by teak 
 of only 9 inches, but this 
 structure proved scarcely 
 any stronger than the 
 armour of the "Warrior", 
 and accordingly with the 
 
 "Hercules" and the 
 "Thunderer" recourse 
 was had to the earlier 
 process, the inner skin 
 having meanwhile in the 
 
 "Bellerophon" been 
 made li inch thick and 
 
 streiigthened by special iron girders between the beams of the wooden 
 backing. This proved successful and has since been adhered to. 
 
 The sides of the "Hercules" were constructed as follows: 9 inch 
 
 "• See p. 295. 
 
 17 
 
 serikreis.. 
 
 Hisenbl 
 
 'ZZSTTimlhnaer 
 
 
 JageXenkheh.'mitZ'&ngstragBni, 
 
 'Hercules" 
 
258 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 wrought iron upon lo inch teak wood streng-thened by iron girders; 
 the whole resting upon a double i inch iron wall; behind this there 
 were vertical iron stringers, and the intervals were filled with wood, 
 then there came 9 to lO inch layers of wood and finally the |. inch 
 iron ship's wall supported by the ribs and by vertical iron stringers. 
 This wall proved capable of great resistance. 
 
 A few years afterwards COMPOUND ARMOUR was invented. It was 
 due to the progress made in artillery, and especially in the conical 
 projectiles, whose hardened point readily entered the comparatively 
 soft surface of the wrought iron plates. This compound armour was 
 proposed by the two firms John Brown and Charles Cammpll & Co. 
 Sheffield. About one third of its thickness is of steel, and the 
 remainder of wrought iron; the layer of steel is on the surface to 
 receive the hostile shot, and it rests upon the comparatively soft and 
 elastic wrought iron backing — in fact the old principle over again. 
 The interval between the wrought iron plate and the thin steel plate 
 placed at a suitable distance was filled up with molten steel, and the 
 solid plate thus formed was afterwards heated and rolled. 
 
 The Compound Armour proved decidedly superior to that of 
 wrought iron. A 12 inch Palliser shot was fired from a 38 ton gun 
 against one of Cammell's 18 inch compound iron plates, 5 inches of 
 which were steel and the rest wrought iron. The projectile was 
 shivered and produced no effect on the plate; consequently compound 
 armour was universally adopted, and this all the more as the English 
 works were not yet able to manufacture stout steel plates. In the 
 English navy compound armour was first used in 1877 in building 
 the battle-ship, "Inflexible." 
 
 A new impulse was given by the surprising progress made in the 
 United States in the latter years of the eighties. Schneider's steei 
 plates of Creusot gave satisfactory results in competitive trials and 
 proved superior to Cammell's compound armour, but these were ex- 
 celled in their turn by the North American steel plates, which had 
 an alloy of about 3 "/^ of Nickel, the so called NiCKEL SXEEL. At 
 the same time, Harvey, a North American expert, invented a process 
 for hardening the surface of the nickel steel plates by an addition 
 of carbon, whereby the resisting power of the armour was increased 
 by 25 to 30 "/o- The best armour-projectiles were shivered against 
 this HARDENED NICICEL STEEL ARMOUR, SO that it was universally 
 adopted in spite of its being' very expensive. In England, steel plates 
 are manufactured on a large scale by Messrs. Vickers, Jones & Co. 
 
X. MATERIAL. 259 
 
 of Sheffield; in 1891 trial was made upon one of the Harveyised 
 hardened steel armour plates, and as it proved entirely successful, 
 the thinner armour and shields of the "Centurion" were ordered 
 of that material. 
 
 The "Renown" of 1893, and all the battleships after her had their 
 armour belt and the strong breastworks of nickel steel, which, in spite 
 of all the eager rivalry of inventors, remains unsurpassed up to this 
 day, although the great improvement since made in armour-piercing 
 projectiles has dissipated the belief in its invulnerability. 
 
 C. Steam-Engines. 
 
 How stubbornly and resolutely the Admiralty and the majority of 
 the influential naval officers closed their eyes to the importance of 
 steam-power and its application to navigation has been mentioned 
 above under "Naval Construction." When in 1822, upon an impulse 
 given from without, a beginning was made, small paddle-steamers were 
 employed in the navy merely as tugs, &c., but not for war purposes, 
 whereas, in the mercantile navy they were already rendering useful 
 services for long voyages and as postal packet-boats. It must be 
 admitted that it militated against the use of steampower in the navy 
 that none were known except paddle-steamers with their ponderous 
 balanced beam engines above water, and far projecting paddleboxes, 
 which made turning a lengthy and tedious process; moreover, 
 paddleboxes, wheels, and engines were opposed to the long accus- 
 tomed use of rigging and broadside armament, and were easily in- 
 jured by the enemy's fire; the consumption of coal too was very 
 large, and the working of the engines therefore very expensive, and 
 finally, with the slight pressure of those days of only 4 lbs. to 6 lbs. 
 on the square inch, the speed attained was barely 6 to 7 knots an 
 hour. Down to 1837, the nominal horse-power (nom. H. P.), which 
 in those days indicated the power of the engines and did so in 
 official language up to 1872, gave only 2i indicated or real horse- 
 power, but by 1869 it had risen to 7 indicated horse-power (I. H. P.), 
 that is to say it was nearly trebled. In 1827 Maudslay invented the 
 Oscillating Engine^ which was introduced into the navy the very next 
 year,, but on the whole met with little acceptance; afterwards it was 
 improved by John Penn. In the first 5 decades of this century nearly 
 all the engines for the navy were supplied by the factories of these 
 
 17* 
 
260 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 two eminent experts as well as by those of Humphries; the Royal 
 yards did not construct engines till 12 years ago. 
 
 According to the Navy List, the Royal navy in 1827 contained only 
 14 steamers, and as late as 1840 no more than 30 steamers; this was 
 probably due to the aversion of Sir W. Symonds, the then Chief of 
 the technical department, to this kind of vessel. Of these 30 steamers 
 27 still had the heavy beam engines and all were supplied with flue 
 boilers. In 1867 the "Gorgon" was the first vessel supplied with 
 direct acting engines,, which were 40*'/q lighter, and FiRE-TUBE 
 BOILERS were first introduced in 1843 on board the paddle steamer 
 "Penelope" of 659 H. P. This vessel had been converted from a 
 sailing frigate of 46 guns into a paddle steamer by having her hull 
 lengthened. Both these innovations, the direct acting engines and the 
 tubular boilers, speedily found a wider acceptance. In 1846 was 
 finished the mightiest war-steamer then in existence, the jjaddle steamer 
 "Terrible" of 1850 tons and 800 H. P. In the years 1846/49 the 
 paddlebox frigate, "Inflexible", of 11 22 tons and 328 H. P. circum- 
 navigated the World, partly under sail, and partly under steam. 
 This was the first war-steamer that had accomplished this feat. 
 
 About this time the opposition to the introduction of the ScREW 
 began to give way; it had been proposed and tried successfully by 
 Smith and Ericsson as far back as 1836. In 1842 comparative trials 
 had been made between the two sister-sloops, the "Rattler" and the 
 "Alecto" each of 'jj'] tons and 200 H. P.; they had identical engines, 
 but one was propelled by the screw, the other by paddles; the trial 
 proved the superiority of the screw, but the Admiralty disreg-arded 
 it. This is all the more surprising, seeing the obvious advantages the 
 screw offers in the special case of a man-of-war; it, as well as the 
 engines, being hidden under water and thus protected from injury, 
 and moreover it allowed the retention of the old accustomed shape 
 of the ship , the full broadside armament and the complete rigging 
 with a comparatively slight check on the sailing capacity. In 1849 
 a similar experimental trial was made between the screw-steamer 
 "Niger" and the paddle -steamer "Basilisk", of 400 H.P. each and 
 the results were identical. 
 
 Now the building of screw-frigates, which made 8 J Icnots, was taken 
 in hand, and moreover wooden saiHng ships-of-the-Hne were lengthened 
 and converted into screw-steamers, which attained a speed of 7 knots. 
 Nevertheless, at the outbreak of the Crimean war, in 1854 a large part 
 of the navy still consisted of sailing vessels, but the experiences- 
 
X. MATERIAL. 261 
 
 made in the war so expedited matters, even without any naval en- 
 gagements, that within one year, in 1855, all the sailing vessels were 
 replaced by steamers. 
 
 By 1850 tubular boilers had nearly everywhere superseded flue 
 boilers, and the geared engines were superseded by direct acting 
 engines, and the paddle had been wholly abandoned, one of the last 
 ships, on which it was used was the "Duke of Wellington", a great 
 three-decker of 607 1 tons and 2000 I. H. P. and 131 guus; the flagship 
 of Admiral Napier in the Baltic. In 1853 the first High-PresSURE 
 Engines, with 60 lbs. pressure per square inch, were built for the navy 
 by J. Penn. They were put on board the screw-sloop, "Malacca" 
 of 1034 tons and 200 H. P., but did not turn out a success. A few 
 years afterwards large wooden frigates of 3740 tons, and 1000 nom. H. P. 
 were built, but they proved too weak in construction for these power- 
 ful engines. Marked progress was made in naval construction - in 
 1859 and i860 by the substition of iron for wood with the first iron- 
 clads the "Warrior" and the "Black Prince", but the engines supplied 
 by J. Penn were still of the old kind with pressure of only 25 to 
 26 lbs per square inch. In order to diminish the consumption of 
 coal, which was so much greater in the Royal than in the mercantile 
 navy, competitive trials were instituted in i860 between the three 
 large firms of J. Penn, Maudslay, and Randolph & Elder, each of 
 whom supplied one of three equally large screw-frigates with engines 
 of their own respective designs, viz. with a trunk engine, a three 
 cylinder expansion engine, and a six cylinder high pressure compound 
 engine with 60 lbs steam pressure per square inch; but the ships did 
 not prove a success; they could only be put in commission once 
 and the competition yielded no useful result. The compound engines 
 were used successfully for the first time in 1866 for the iron-clad 
 corvette "Pallas" of 3780 tons and 3581 I. H. P. with superheater and 
 surface condensation; these engines built by Humphries and Tennant, 
 with a reduced consumption of coal attained a speed of 13-4 knots. 
 This kind of engine soon came into universal use, but the high steam 
 pressure of at least 60 lbs. per square inch necessitated stronger 
 boilers. The Pallas had oval shaped' boilers, but soon cylindrical 
 tubular boilers came into vogue instead of the four cornered box 
 boilers. 
 
 Twin Screws had been proposed as early as 1 86®, but they were 
 not employed till 1868 with one of the larger vessels of the navy, 
 viz: the "Penelope" of 4470 tons and 4700 H. P., an iron-clad battle-ship 
 
262 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 of the first class designed by E. Reed. These twin-screws gave such 
 good results, that they soon became the rule and for the last 25 years 
 have been adopted for all kinds of ships; only two armoured ships 
 of the "Audacious" type built towards the end of the sixties were 
 propelled by a single screw, and 3 cruisers built about the same time, 
 the "Inconstant", the Active and the "Volage" also were constructed 
 with a single screw only. In the frigate "Inconstant", a very large 
 cruiser of 5780 tons, built by Sir E. Reed, the engines of looo nom. 
 H.P., built by Penn in 1869, indicated 7360 H.P., so that this ship— the 
 first iron vessel sheathed with wood and coppered — attained a speed 
 of 16-51 knots, the highest on record up to that time. 
 
 In 1874 rigging was for the first time wholly abandoned on a man- 
 of-war; it was in the "Devastation", which joined the Channel squadron 
 without it. 
 
 An innovation was made in 1876 with the cruisers "Iris" and 
 "Mercury", which were built solely for speed, and, in order to reduce 
 the weight, mild steel was used and the shafts were hollow and of 
 Whitworth steel. The "Mercury" attained a speed of nearly 19 knots 
 and was the swiftest vessel of the day. In later constructions the 
 armoured deck over the engines, boilers, etc., recommended by Admiral 
 R. Scott, made it possible to give to the engine a vertical instead of 
 the horizontal position in use up to then; this greatly reduced both 
 friction and wear and tear. 
 
 The year 1883 initiated a new epoch with respect to the engines 
 of the navy, because the first c7-msers, being large armoured cruisers 
 like the "Warspite" were now built without rigging and received only 
 fighting masts. 
 
 In 1886 Triple Expansion Engines were introduced into the navy 
 for the first time; they were built by Messrs. Laird Bros, for the 
 torpedo gunboat "Rattlesnake"; their weight was in excess of the 
 contract, but they proved very efficient; in fact the vessel was unique 
 amongst ships of like kind. The firm had to pay a heavy fine for 
 this excess of weight, but the money was refunded to them afterwards, 
 when the pre-eminent performance of the engines was taken into 
 consideration. 
 
 The endeavour to attain the highest possible performance from the 
 engmes was at that time carried to the extremest limit of what was 
 permissible, and sometimes even beyond it. This was due to the 
 circumstance that the Chief Constructor of the navy used his pre- 
 ponderating influence to reduce immoderately both the weight of the 
 
X. MATERIAL. 263 
 
 engines and the space allotted to them on board. This not only 
 increased the difficulty of working the engines and reduced at times 
 to a dangerous degree the spaces between the boilers and the coal 
 bunkers, but the boilers and engines were subjected to an excessive 
 strain, if the speed aimed at in the design of the ship was to be 
 attained. For that purpose the steam pressure was raised to from 
 1 60 to 200 lbs per square inch and, to reach that, a forced draught 
 was generated by air being driven into the stokeholds. 
 
 Forced draught had been used in England in mail steamers as 
 early as 1843, but in the navy not till 1883 in the "Conqueror", &c., 
 the French navy having shewn the way with advantage some years 
 earlier. The favourable results attained thereby, viz. a one inch 
 water column with slight air pressure, led to exaggerated increase of 
 pressure up to 3 or 4 inches of water column, which no fire-tube 
 boiler could stand; the tubes began to leak and, endless mischief, and 
 accidents not a few followed. It seemed as if the fire tube boilers in 
 use had ceased to be serviceable and were to be rejected; this would 
 have caused enormous expense, and many ships of the navy would 
 have been unfit for employment for some years; but in 1892 two en- 
 gineers invented a ferrule to be fitted into the fire-tubes, giving tem- 
 porary relief. This was adopted with all the double-ended boilers, 
 forced draught was forbidden, and pressure was not allowed to be 
 higher than § inch to i inch at the utmost. 
 
 At the same time there came into use the WATER TUBE BOILER, 
 which had long been tried and had been employed by Messrs. 
 Thornycroft as far back as 1884. At first it was tried tentatively 
 on steam launches, and then the Admiralty resolved, on the basis of 
 their own and of French experiments, to employ these boilers on the 
 largest scale, viz: on the gigantic cruisers of the "Powerful" type. 
 Each of these vessels received 48 Belville boilers, the firm Maudslay 
 having purchased of the inventor the exclusive right to make them. 
 In the trial trips held a short time previously, they had turned out 
 a marked success and were ordered to be employed on the new 
 battleships and on first and second class cruisers; third class cruisers 
 also were supplied with water-tube boilers, but of English types, and 
 in torpedo-boat destroyers such boilers, of 6 different types, were 
 also used almost to the exclusion of every other. Three SCREWS 
 had yielded good results on cruisers of the Italian, German, North 
 American, and French navies, but have not yet been tried in the 
 English navy. 
 
264 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Auxiliary machinery, independent of that used in working the 
 large engines, first became necessary on powerful ships like the 
 "Warrior" and the "Agincourt", &c. Up to then a rudder had been 
 used which was pivoted on the leading- edge; when travelling at the 
 high speed of 14 knots it could only be moved very slowly by 
 manual power, and could barely and with difficulty be put hard over; 
 and as the "Warrior's" mai^uvring capacity was naturally feeble, 
 she needed 9 mins. and 10 sees, to describe a circle of 3150 ft. in 
 diameter. ^ This led to the introduction of the balance rudder (where 
 the axis is moved one third further back, so that one third of the 
 surface of the rudder lies before the axis) which largely remedied 
 this defect; nevertheless in the vessels "Bellerophon" and "Hercules" 
 designed by Sir E. Reed steam-power was employed to work the 
 steering gear. To this were gradually added all the workings requir- 
 ing great mechanical force, such as weighing anchor, working the 
 pumps, turning the turrets, hoisting hea^'y boats, ammunition, ashes, &c., 
 ventilating the different compartments of the ship, generating atmos- 
 pheric pressure for forced draught, and for charging and propelling 
 the torpedoes, for distilling drinking water, for working the electric 
 light of the ship and the search lights, &c. The battteships "Sans 
 pareil" built in 1885/87, received 58 auxiliary engines in addition to 
 the main engines of the vessel. The torpedo depot-ship, the "Vulcan" 
 received, besides its 30 torpedoes, 98 engines, and some vessels have 
 more than 100 auxiliary engines on board. 
 
 Building of ship's engines was not begun in the Royal dock- 
 yards till ten years ago. During the first decades the three firms 
 John Penn of Greenwich, Maudsley & Field of London, and Humphreys 
 & Tennant of Deptford were the chief contractors for large ship's 
 engines; since then their number has been largely increased by such 
 firms as Laird Brothers of Birkenhead, J. & G. Thomson of Glasgow, 
 Palmer of Jarrow, Earle of Hull, Hawthorne & Leslie of New- 
 castle, &c. In building engines for torpedo-boats and torpedo-boat 
 destroyers, the two firms Yarrow and Thornycroft on the Thames are 
 pre-eminent. It is seen then that there is great competition in the 
 market, and this all the more as the Admiralty generallv gi\-e the 
 contract to the lowest tender. 
 
 With respect to the Shifs Engines a fixed system has now been 
 
 ^ Reckoning the ratio of the circumference to the diameter as 314:1 and the 
 knot at 6080 ft,, it would result that the speed of vessel was reduced in the 
 cun'ilinear movement by about 3-35 knots an hour. The translator. 
 
X. MATERIAL. 265 
 
 adopted; all the vessels are supplied with inverted triple expansion 
 engines, so that there is very little difference in the designs of the 
 competitors; but with respect to the Boilers, there is ample room for 
 innovation, as none of the numerous types of watertube-boilers in use 
 fully satisfies all the requirements. It is a wise regulation of the 
 Admiralty that the building of new ship's engines is superintended by 
 the ship's engineer, who has the greatest interest in their working, and 
 moreover, by this superintendence, becomes intimately acquainted with 
 their structure. 
 
 For the various Auxiliary engines there exist a number of factories, 
 which manufacture solely their several specialities, and contractors 
 generally entrust these engines to them. For example Messrs. 
 Maudsley contracted to supply all the auxiliary engines of the battle- 
 ship "Renown", but they employed 30 smaller firms working in 
 15 different towns. 
 
 With respect to the FUEL also, England is, as in many other 
 respects, more favoured by nature than any other country in the 
 world. South Wales produces close to the coast, and in exhaustible 
 quantity, an all but smokeless coal, which is of special advantage to 
 men-of-war. In consequence of the evet increasing demand, the pro- 
 duction of coal has risen enormously during the last 50 years. In 
 1854 it amounted to 641 million tons, and in 1892 to 1851 million 
 tons, being little short of three times the quantity. 
 
 This is probably the reason, why so little attention has been given 
 to liquid fuel. Of the heating power of coal only \0^\^ is practically 
 made use of; with petroleum refuse, the so called ASTAKI, the space 
 on board can be utilized far more profitably, and this fuel possesses 
 moreover greater heating power; according to the opinion of a certain 
 expert it excels coal by 85°/^. As early as 1868 experiments had 
 been made with this kind of fuel on the paddle-steamer "Oberon"; 
 but they were kept secret and apparently dropped altogether; since 
 1889 petroleum experiments have been resumed in England, good 
 results having been secured by Russia, Italy, and France in their 
 trials of this fuel; but the English experiments were made only on 
 a torpedo-boat, and led to no noteworthy result. 
 
 D. Ordnance. 
 
 The decided aversion of the English Admiralty and naval officers 
 in general to change of every kind had brought it about that, in 
 
266 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 the construction of ordnance, as in shipbuilding, the English navy- 
 was outstripped by foreign navies, especially by that of France. A 
 new kind of gun had been introduced into the navy in 1779. 
 Originally it had been constructed in 1774 according to the plans of 
 General Melville in the "Carron" foundry situated on the river Carron 
 in Scotland, whence the name of the weapon, the CarronADE. It 
 was more characteristic than ingenious — a simple, short, light, smooth- 
 bore gun of large calibre, throwing large projectiles with small charges. 
 Solid balls being too heavy, hollow balls (grenades) were cast, but 
 these were not charged from fear of danger. The range being short, 
 the carronade could be used only in close combat, where however 
 it proved very effective for firing grape shot against the enemy's 
 decks, especially when it was the practice to place the men in close 
 array on the poop and forecastle. As the English always sought, an 
 engagement at close quarters, the carronade soon rose in favour, and 
 was universally adopted. After 1797 it was found in all the ships- 
 of-the-line, but up to 1817 it was not numbered in the guns of the 
 ship, so that, up to that date, the number of guns in English ships 
 was always indicated below the actual truth, which led to numerous 
 recriminations, especially in the war of 1812 — 181 5 with the United 
 States. At first they used the 32 pounder of 6'4 inch calibre, but 
 this was soon supplanted by the then unprecedented and much 
 dreaded calibre of 8 inches, the 32 pounder being still the heaviest 
 gun in use. 
 
 It is true that guns of large calibre had been in use previously; 
 for example a 58 pounder of 8 inch calibre was used in the second 
 half of the 17th century, and in the time of George I. the three- 
 deckers carried 42 pounders of 7 inch calibre on the lower deck; 
 but these were rejected after the Seven Years' War as being too 
 unwieldy and straining the ship too much. From now forward the 
 32 pounder of 6-4 inch calibre was the heaviest gun in the navv and 
 remained so up to 1838. It is probable that the general adoption 
 of the carronade was due to this circumstance. 
 
 An invention of far greater importance and consequence was that 
 of the GRENADE-GUN by the French General Paixhans in 1821; this 
 was a long, smooth-bore gun of large calibre, which fired charged 
 shells with great accuracy at long range. At the very first trial it 
 secured a grand result against the wooden walls of a vessel by the 
 bursting of a single shell, nevertheless, owing to the then unfavour- 
 able state of things in the French nav)-. even that navy adopted the 
 
X. MATERIAL. 267 
 
 Paixhans gun very slowly. But when in 1837 grenade-guns of 
 8 inch calibre were universally adopted as part of the arraansient of 
 French men-of-war and the first "scare" arose on the other side of 
 the Channel, the carronade was given up, and the French example 
 was followed. From that time forward till 1865 the 8 inch shell 
 gun was the principal arm of the English navy, being especially suit- 
 able for the large paddle-steamers then coming into use. The heavier 
 numbers fired solid balls; the greatest favourite was the 95 cwt. gun, 
 firing a 64 lb. shell charged with a good 2 lb. of blasting powder and 
 10 to 16 lbs. charge for the gun. 
 
 Slight as were the performances of the navy in the Crimean War, 
 yet it was this war, which speedily led to correct views on naval 
 affairs. The annihilation at Sinope of a Turkish squadron of frigates 
 in November 1853 by a Russian squadron of large ships-of-the-line 
 proved the destructive effects on wooden ships of shells fired by 
 large shell-guns, and the bombardment of Kinburn in 1855 demon- 
 strated the futility of smooth-bore guns even of large calibre against 
 armoured ships. The practical consequence of this lesson also was 
 only slowly understood in England. It is true that RiFLED CANNONS 
 had been used on shore already in 1854. In 1855 Sir Wm. Arm- 
 strong constructed his first light rifled gun with an inner steel lining 
 of many groovings and strengthening hoops of wrought iron; it was 
 also a breech-loader with a wedge fitted in from the top and screwed 
 down. The gun had a lead jacket which however frequently flew off, 
 when the gun was fired. This weapon proved very efficient in 1855 
 at Shoeburyness, and was especially distinguished for accuracy in 
 aiming. It was adopted in the following year and in 1860/61 the 
 20 pr., 40 pr. , and lOO pr. (of 3|, 4|, and 6 inch calibre) were in- 
 troduced in the navy. 
 
 The first armament of the first English iron-clad, the "Warrior" 
 (1861) nevertheless consisted of 38 smooth-bore guns of 75 cwt. and 
 8 inch calibre, throwing a projectile of 68 lbs. with a charge of 
 16 lbs.; of these 36 stood in the battery, and only 2 behind pro- 
 tective armour. They commanded an arc of fire of about 50" only. 
 But when this kind of gun proved ineffective against the sides of the 
 "Warrior" it was superseded by a 7 inch rifled gun- of 6i tons, the 
 projectile of which, weighing upwards of i cwt. and fired with a charge 
 of 22 lbs., was nearly three times as effective. This initiated, as has 
 been said above, the still undecided contest between gun and 
 armour. 
 
2 68 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Already, some time before, attempts had been made in England to 
 utilize the extensive stores of heavy, smooth-bore cast iron guns, tiy 
 cutting groovings into the inner surface of the gun, and strengthening 
 the breech by a wrought-iron jacket, but it did not work. Better 
 results were obtained by inserting an inner lining of steel, but even 
 these were not satisfactory, so that the utilisation of cast-iron tubes 
 for rifled guns had to be abandoned. 
 
 These tubes were muzzle-loaders as heretofore; and even with the 
 built up tubes they returned to muzzle-loaders \n 1865, some accidents 
 having occurred with the breechblocks due to the loading-mechanism, 
 which was too complicated. Broadside ordnance being still in use, 
 the guns had of necessity to be short. Armour plating being made 
 ever stronger and of greater resisting power, the penetrative force of 
 the guns had to be increased proportionally and this in its turn 
 entailed a continual augmentation of calibre. Thus the "Bellerophon" 
 of 1865 received 12 ton guns of 9 inch calibre firing projectiles 
 weighing 248 lbs. with a charge of 43 lbs. The "Hercules" of 1868 
 had 18 ton guns of 10 inch calibre firing projectiles weighing 398 lbs. 
 with a charge of 60 lbs.; the, "Monarch" of the same year had 
 25 ton guns firing projectiles of 600 lbs. with a charge of 70 lbs.; 
 the "Thunderer" of 1872 had guns of the same calibre but weighing 
 30 tons, the shot of which was fired with a charge of 99 lbs. The 
 rifling studs required for muzzle-loaders caused incessant difficulties and 
 accidents with the ever increasing weight of shot and charges, and did 
 a good deal of harm; in spite of all trouble that was taken and of all 
 experiments that were made a satisfactory solution could not be found, 
 and moreover the guns were quickly worn out. The small-grained 
 black powder used with smooth-bore guns burned too quickly and 
 acted too suddenly; it was therefore superseded, first by coarse- 
 grained powder and then by pebble-powder, and finally by brown, 
 slow burning "cocoa-powder" in six-sided prisms with a hole through 
 the middle; in spite of the increase of calibre and of the heavier 
 charges the initial velocity of the projectiles of the short guns kept 
 on diminishing from 1430 ft. with the 7 inch calibre to 1210 ft. with 
 the 12 inch calibre. With the "Inflexible" at last they went so far, 
 that that gigantic vessel of 11,880 tons was armed with only four 
 guns placed in turrets in pairs; but these were 80 ton guns of 
 16 inch calibre, firing a projectile weighing nearly 1700 lbs. 
 
 In spite of the difficulties in the employment of muzzle-loaders 
 growing more and more numerous, and of the increasingly favourable 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 269 
 
 results gained with breech-loaders in France and in Germany, the 
 War Office, which at that time still had charge of the ordnance of 
 the navy, adhered to muzzle-loaders up to 1880. Then at last it was 
 induced to make trial of Armstrong's newly constructed, heavy 
 breech-loaders the excellence of which had been proved two years 
 previously. The results now obtained at once led them to return to 
 the System of Breechloaders, — adopting the French lock as previously 
 they had adopted French rifling. They now built a 14 ton 8 inch 
 gun, and then in rapid succession the other heavy guns still in use 
 of 29, 45, 67, and finally ill tons, according to the Armstrong 
 sytem adopted at Woolwich, viz: steel internally with wrought iron 
 coils, as per following table: 
 
 Calibre 
 in inches 
 
 Nett 
 
 Weight 
 
 of gun in 
 
 tons 
 
 Length 
 
 of bore in 
 
 calibres 
 
 Weight I 
 projectile 
 
 n lbs. of 
 charge 
 
 Initial 
 
 velocity in 
 
 feet 
 
 Power of 
 Penetration 
 
 through 
 
 wrought iron 
 
 muzzle in 
 
 inches 
 
 16 
 
 iioj 
 
 30 
 
 1795 
 
 8971 
 
 2086-6 
 
 38 
 
 n\ 
 
 67 
 
 30 
 
 1274I 
 
 629 
 
 2014-4 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 121 
 
 45 
 46 
 
 ^54 
 351 
 
 712 
 849 
 
 257* 
 ? 
 
 1912-7 
 2401-6 
 
 26-7 
 38-5 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 500 
 
 251 
 
 2040-7 
 
 26-7 
 
 9-2 
 
 22 
 
 31* 
 
 378-4 
 
 165 
 
 2034 
 
 24-4 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 29i 
 
 209 
 
 118 
 
 2149 
 
 22-8 
 
 ' A wire gun. 
 
 The first battleships that were armed with breech-loaders were the 
 "Colossus" and the "Edinburgh", both in 1882. 
 
 The no ton, i6i inch guns supplied by Armstrong were placed 
 only in three ships, the "Sanspareil", the "Benbow", and the ill-fated 
 "Victoria" lost in 1893, as they were soon found to be at fault. 
 Although the guns of the ship were ordered as early as 1883, yet 
 the "Sanspareil", ready in every other respect in June 1890, had to 
 wait another year for her guns. 
 
 Some missed fire, in some the carriage gave way, the long tubes 
 bent out of the straight as much as 2I inches, one gun was damaged 
 at the muzzle on being fired, so that a piece had to be cut off, and 
 the duration was assumed to be only 75 to 95 shots. Add to this 
 that the gun, independent of the carriage, cost no less than £16,830, 
 and every single shot with a full charge cost, inclusive of the wear 
 
270 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 and tear of the arm, ^327. The 67 ton gun of 13J inch calibre 
 turned out a success on the whole, but it cost £10,900 and a single 
 shot fired cost about £165; it is too heavy to be worked by hand. 
 The 45 ton 12 inch gun which may possibly be worked by hand 
 costs £6300, and each shot costs £100. 
 
 Ever since 1875 HYDRAULIC POWER was employed in working and 
 moving the heavy guns; first on the "Thunderer", where it was uti- 
 lized also in moving the turrets. The mechanism introduced by 
 
 Six pounder, 2|- inch quick-firing gun behind armour shield. 
 
 Weight of gun 3 tons, of shell 5 lbs., of charge 7^oz. cordite. 
 
 Messrs. Armstrong proved very efficient for the purpose and was so 
 widely adopted, that by 1895 it was introduced on more than 30 ships. 
 Next STEAM-POWER was introduced on the new battle-ship, "Cen- 
 turion", for hoisting shot, revolving the turn.-tables, and working the 
 guns, but in such a manner, that in case of need working by hand 
 should still be possible; a point of considerable importance in case 
 of derangement of such comphcated mechanism. Of late, ELECTRIC 
 ACTION has begun to be employed. 
 
 For centuries and up to 1 864 the clumsy wooden gun-carriage with 
 blockwheels had been in use, requiring 14 men to work a 32 pounder. 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 271 
 
 Four inch quick-firing gun; opened, behind armour shield. 
 
 Weight of gun 21 cwts., of shell ai lbs., of charge 4 lbs. cordite. 
 
 Five inch quick-firing gun, opened. 
 
 Then the iron -frame gun carriage with bow and plates invented 
 by Admiral R. Scott was introduced; it turned out a success and is 
 
272 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 still in use. The bow compressor was subsequently superseded by 
 the compressor brake, which in its turn was replaced in the "Teme- 
 raire" by the HYDRAULIC BUFFER. 
 
 In 1883 this also was improved by the gradually closing- valve 
 originally invented by Vavasseur. Now no more than half the former 
 number of men is required for the working of a gun. In the build- 
 ing of gun-carriages the English navy has taken the lead. 
 
 The fme-grained black powder, used with the smooth bore 68 prs., 
 
 Six inch quick-firing gun in armoured casemate on the upper deck, back view. 
 
 Weight of gun 7 tons, of shell loo lbs., of charge 13 lb"!, cordite. 
 
 turned out to be too rapid of combustion for rifled guns ; the powder 
 which burnt more slowly was therefore tried; first coarse grained hXdiClL 
 powder, then in succession pebble powder, z.nd prismatic ^oy^dex, and 
 finally, towards the end of the sixties, brown powder, consisting of 
 hexagonal prisms with a hole through the middle; it was called 
 COCOA-POWDER from its resemblance to compressed cocoa. Messrs. 
 Abel and Noble had for some years been making experiments at' 
 the Woolwich Arsenal to produce smokeless powder. At last in 
 1889/90 they succeeded so far that, subject to further trials, their 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 273 
 
 n! to 
 
 CI M 
 
 3 !2 
 
 ho o 
 o 
 
 (U " 
 
 5 s 
 
 0) =1 
 
 (U ^ 
 
 u 
 
 ci5 
 
 18 
 
274 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 powder was adopted for the 47 inch quick-firing guns. It is called 
 "Cordite" from its shape resembling cord or string, which is peculiar 
 to it. In the trials both under tropical heat and in the most rigorous 
 winter cold, and aiso in the ammunition rooms on board, this powder 
 gave excellent results. Moreover, after firing from a 47 inch gun 
 1 2 19 shot with full charge, the gun had suffered no more than it 
 would have done with common powder. After further satisfactory 
 trials in 1893 with a 6 inch gun, it was adopted for this calibre on 
 the cruiser "Spartan", and finally for all quick-firing guns. A charge 
 of cordite weighs less than half that of common powder. With heavy 
 guns cordite has not yet been employed. 
 
 In the manufacture of quickfiring guns Armstrong had led the way 
 independently, without receiving any support from government. In 
 1886 he exhibited to the officers of the gunnery schoolship at Ports- 
 mouth a 4| inch quick-firing gun, which was warmly recommended 
 by the then Captain Fisher, principal of the said training ship (at 
 present Vice-Admiral and Controller of the Navy). In view of the 
 great number of torpedo-boats built in France and in Russia, and 
 of the unique nature of the armament of many English battle-ships — 
 the "Inflexible", for example, carrying only four gigantic guns in 
 closed turrets, which are quite unable to repulse an attack of a torpedo- 
 boat — it was simply impossible to refuse adopting these quick-firing 
 guns. It is true that Gatling, Gardner, and Nordenfeldt machine guns 
 were already in existence, that hundreds of i'8 inch and 2t inch 
 revolving or quick-firing guns of small calibre by Hotchkiss & Nor- 
 denfeldt had already been ordered in the spring of 1885 both for battle- 
 ships and cruisers , that these, although of varying construction, could 
 still be worked with uniform ammunition and cartridge; nevertheless 
 it was impossible to dispense any longer with quick-firing guns of 
 greater penetration and range, seeing the enormous rapidity with which 
 torpedo-boats deliver their attacks. 
 
 Accordingly the 47 inch quick-firing gun of Armstrong was adop- 
 ted, but the 6 inch gun was only adopted in 1892, after further severe 
 trials. Since that date guns of these two calibres have constituted the 
 chief armament of cruisers and the secondary armament of battle-ships. 
 With what rapidity the new armament of the fleet was carried on can 
 be seen from the fact that, as late as 1886, it possessed only 450 breech- 
 loaders and 33 quick-firing guns, whilst in 1892, that is only 6 years 
 later, it possessed 1868 breech-loaders and 1700 quick-firing guns, 
 582 of the latter being of 4 7 inch and 6 inch calibre. The accuracy 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 275 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 0^ u 
 
 S " 
 
 3 H 
 bo B 
 
 .S § 
 
 Ji ° 
 
 
 18* 
 
276 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 of aim of the 6 inch quick-firing- guns was demonstrated on the 
 "Royal Arthur", the flagship of the Pacific squadron, at the usual 
 three-monthly firing practice. Whilst the ship was travelling at the 
 rate of 8 knots an hour a target, 6 yards by 3 yards, was aimed at 
 from a distance of from 1400 to 1600 yards. Within 3 minutes 
 18 shots were fired, and 14 of these struck the targ-et. The rapidity 
 of firing is as follows: 
 
 the 6 inch quick-firing gun fires . 
 
 ;i 4--^ » 5) !5 r ;i ■ ■ 
 
 „ 31 „ „ „ ,, „ . ■ 14 „ 1 per minute. 
 
 ,, I „ Maxim machine gun fires 
 
 The 6 inch breech-loaders on cruisers have frequently been con- 
 verted into quick-firing guns, but the cost of conversion amounts tO' 
 two thirds of the price of a new gun. Heavy quick-firing guns have 
 not been introduced in the navy, although Armstrong has for some 
 time been making them as well as good gun carriages; these have 
 been tried for the armament of ships and are used by foreign gov- 
 ernments. 
 
 6 
 
 shot 
 
 12 
 
 ;) 
 
 14 
 
 !1 
 
 30 
 
 !7 
 
 300 
 
 JJ 
 
 8 inch quick-firing gun made by Armstrong, placed behind armour shield; closed. 
 
 Weight of gun 15^, tons, of shell 209 lb., of charge of cordite 44 lb. 
 
 The defective organisation of the ordnance department used to 
 cause many inconveniences; for example new ships had often to wait 
 a long time for their guns, and so on. This was finally remedied in 
 the latter eighties, the votes for the supply of ordnance for the navy 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 277 
 
 being- included in the naval estimates and placed under the control of 
 the Admiralty. Private works were now employed to a larger extent, 
 and in many other respects improvements were effected. 
 
 It had long been admitted that heavy guns should be constructed 
 on Longridge's method; these are the so-called WiRE-GUNS, and ever 
 since 1882 the principle has been accepted that Steel is the only 
 Material fit for the manufacture of guns; but not till 1891 
 did they begin to make wire-guns in the Woolwich arsenal according 
 
 Eight inch quick-firing gun, behind armour shield, made by Armstrong, opened. 
 
 Weight of gun i5"5 tons, of shell 210 lbs , of charge 44 lbs. cordite. 
 
 to the so-called Woolwich process. These guns are inte nally -of 
 steel and firmly wound round with very durable rectangular i inch 
 steel wire and of A inch in cross section. The extraordinary power 
 of these guns can be seen from the table on page 269; the 46 ton 
 gun has greater penetration than Armstrong's gun of 1 1 1 tons. 
 
 When hardened steel armour was introduced and none but Steel 
 projectiles proved "effective, there arose a great demand for armour- 
 piercing projectiles df steel. Woolwich arsenal, albeit that it is so 
 extensive and efficient, still does not manufacture steel, but draws the 
 
278 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 supply it needs, for example for the interior lining- of guns, &c., from 
 large private firms, such as Whitworth, Firth, Vickers and Cammell. 
 Consequently the arsenal was unable to manufacture the required 
 armour-piercing- projectiles, and the said private firms being equally 
 unable to supply the need, the War Office having done nothing in 
 that direction, the Admiralty was under the necessity of employing 
 foreign makers. Since that time this has been altered, and the firm 
 Firth and others construct excellent steel projectiles. At present the 
 fleet uses four different kinds of projectiles. 
 
 E. Mines and Torpedoes. 
 
 I. Mines. 
 
 The idea of inflicting injury on hostile ships by submarine action 
 is not ne-w; as far back as 1692 Papin had described a submarine 
 craft fitted for rising and sinking, and provided -with motive pcwer, 
 rudder, apparatus for renovation of the air, and WEAPON OF ATTACK. 
 In 1771/75 Bushnell, an American, built a small craft of that kind 
 propelled by a screw, worked by one man only, and in the War of 
 Independence he made an attempt to destroy an English man-of-war, 
 but without success. In 1801 Fulton, the inventor of steamers, being 
 encouraged by Napoleon, built the "Nautilus", a larger craft of similar 
 kind, and experimented with it upon a vessel placed for that purpose 
 in the roadstead of Brest. He succeeded in blowing it up, but found 
 it impossible to get near an English man-of-war. Submarine mines — 
 then called torpedoes from the electrical eel, which discharges electric 
 shocks on being touched — were employed first by the Russians in 
 1854 in Kronstadt, then in 1859 by the Austrians in Venice, and in 
 1864 by the Danes in Alsen sound. They all proved ineffectual, but 
 still the explosion of a mine in Kronstadt between two English ships 
 was not without considerable moral effect. But in the American War 
 of Secession mines became of great importance in maritime warfare. 
 In 1862 the Confederates estabhshed a "Torpedo-bureau" under Captain 
 Maury, the famous hydrographer, which quickly developed the sys- 
 tematic employment of mines, in spite of the lack of means of 
 every kind. Seven ironclads and eleven wooden vessels of the 
 Northern States were destroyed in the course of the war, and many 
 others were put hors de combat. Most of the mines were contact 
 mines moored, charged with 50 to 55 lbs. of powder, or mines fixed 
 
X. MATERIAL. 279 
 
 to poles charged with about 25 lbs of powder; subsequently mines 
 were constructed which contained 2000 lbs of powder and were to 
 be fired by electricity. Repeated attempts were made to let mines 
 drift down stream ag'ainst the enemy's ships, but with small effect, 
 except on one occasion; some boats were, however, destroyed by 
 Spar Torpedoes and torpedo-boats. 
 
 These results led to the introduction of marine mines in all navies, 
 and to experiments with torpedoes with respect to their construction, 
 explosions, firing, moorings, &c. In 1863 a Torpedo-Commission was 
 appointed in England, and since that time great care and attention 
 has been bestowed by the English on all matters connected with 
 torpedoes. In 18 74. the "Oberon" an old, iron, paddle-steamer was 
 used to test the effect of gas tension in the explosion of mines 
 charged with from 30 to 500 lbs. of damp gun-cotton; this was con- 
 tinued in subsequent years, till at last the ship was destroyed. On 
 the^ basis of these experiments the adoption of damp gun-cotton 
 for the charge and of dry gun-cotton with fulminating mercury for 
 the detonation was determined upon and the proportions of these ex- 
 plosives were fixed for the different purposes. 
 
 The Harbour-Defence in the more restricted sense, and consequently 
 the preparation and maintenance of minefields in the home waters 
 and in the naval ports, is in charge of the corps of engineers of the 
 army, who have large resources at their disposal; nevertheless the 
 personnel of the navy, and especially the torpedo-men, are carefully 
 instructed in all that concerns mines, as they might easily have to 
 protect some foreign port or base of operations selected for some 
 special purpose; or they may have to block up some foreign water- 
 way by a distribution of mines, or remove mines for an intended 
 attack on an enemy's harbour. This education then is necessary also 
 for an effective aggression. 
 
 At present two kinds of mines are in use; one with a charge of 
 500 lbs. which serves as an observation-mine, and as a counter-mine, 
 and the other with a charge of 70 lbs., is an electro contact mine. 
 The observation-mine is made of sheet iron | inch thick; it is cy- 
 lindrical in shape, 2 ft. 10 inches high and has a diameter of 2 ft. 8 in.; 
 its buoyancy amounts to 100 lbs. It is held in position by a circular 
 mushroom anchor, flat at top and hollow beneath and held by a 
 2 inch wire cable; it acts destructively over a circular area of 60ft. in 
 diameter. To lay these mines launches 40 ft. in length are used, and 
 each is able to place 6 mines at a time; some vessels have boats 
 
280 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 specially fitted for Ihis kind of work. Assuming- the enemy's ship to have 
 60 ft. beam, a row of six mines placed at intervals of T 20 feet would 
 bar a waterway of upwards of 700 ft. wide. The extreme points of 
 the bar are marked by buoys, which are all that is visible; to mis- 
 lead the enemy other buoys are scattered about in the neighbourhood 
 When the enemy's ships pass between the buoys at the extremities 
 of the line of mines, these are fired by pressing the button of the 
 electric firing- apparatus. The most convenient depth for the position 
 of the buoys is considered to be 50 ft. beneath the surface and 12 ft. 
 above the electric cable, because this latter is easily destroyed pre- 
 maturely by the explosion. 
 
 The CONTACT-MINE with a charge of about 70 lbs. of damp gun- 
 cotton — which is sufficient to destroy the strongest ship — is also made 
 .of iron, cylindrical in shape with rounded -off edges. The mines 
 laid out are connected with the shore by electric cables, and can at 
 any time be made harmless by breaking" the current. But if this is 
 not done, the enemy's ship on driving against the mine causes it to 
 tip over about 70", and this produces an overflow of quicksilver, 
 which completes the circuit. These mines do not have fuses with 
 outside detonators. The contact-mines are laid at a depth of 10 to 
 1 5 ft. beneath the surface of the water, with fixed anchor-cables of 
 corresponding length; a suitable method for an automatic adjustment 
 of the mines to keep them at uniform depth at all stages of the tide 
 has not yet been invented. The contact-mines are also used as 
 scattered mines, but if so employed the electric battery ife inserted 
 in the mine; the ends of the electric wires are kept asunder by 
 melted sugar, which is allowed to grow hard again; by the admission 
 of water the sugar is gradually dissolved, after the mine has been 
 laid. Nevertheless care must be taken in laying the mine that it 
 retains its upright position, and in no case may it heel over to an 
 angle of 70". All ships are supplied with contact- mines , and the 
 laying of mines forms part of the drill even in the school-squadrons ; 
 it is consequently carried out with great rapidity. 
 
 Considering the importance of mines in mccritim£ ivarfare provision 
 is also made to extemporise mines, be it for lengthening a regular 
 bar already laid, or for independent use. They are made of casks, 
 which are stiffened inside and outside, and thickly coated with tar; 
 these, however, cannot be laid at a greater depth than about 70 ft., 
 as the casks leak under greater pressure of water; the charge consists 
 of gunpowder, as the ships have no store of gun-cotton on board. 
 
X. MATERIAL. 281 
 
 A cask of about 50 gallons contains nearly 500 lbs. of gunpowder 
 and can withstand waterpressure at a depth of 30 to 35 ft.; one of 
 25 gallons contains about 225 lbs. of gunpowder, and withstands a 
 pressure of between 60 and 70 ft. of water. The explosion is effected 
 in the same manner as with the regular mines of contact and scat- 
 tered mines. SMALL MINES also to be fastened to submerged poles 
 are provided. 
 
 Great attention has been bestowed on DESTROYING, OR EFFECTING 
 A BREACH IN, AN ENEMY'S LINE OF MINES and three different systems 
 are in vogue. 
 
 When the enemy keeps his line of mines under fire the system of 
 simplest application is destruction by counter mines, each containing 
 a charge of 500 lbs. of gun-cotton, twelve of ^^'hich form a line. They 
 are placed together with three mark buoys on a launch, loaded with 
 4 tons of iron ballast and carried on planks resting on the gunwale 
 like outriggers ready to be dropped overboard. The launch is then 
 dragged full speed by a steam-tug across the bar, the mines being 
 let drop one by one by breaking the stoppers; as soon as all have 
 been dropped a signal is given (at night by a rocket) and the whole 
 line of mines is exploded, which in their turn cause the enemy's 
 mines to explode and thus a breach in the bar is formed. The 
 second system, ^'sweeping", is employed, when the enemy does not 
 keep the bar under fire: it is too complicated to be here fully des- 
 cribed, but the general principle is, that two boats drag a cable about 
 40 yards long and provided with drags and with explosives at the 
 extremities; this cable is swept along the bottom right athwart the 
 water-way up to the point where the field of mines is placed. The 
 cables, &c. of the enemy's mines are grappled and destroyed by firing 
 the explosives. The third system, "CREEPING", is not employed to 
 destroy the enemy's mines, but to search for and cut their cable; for 
 that purpose a SPECIAL APPARATUS is carried requiring drags and 
 2 lbs. of explosives. The boat engaged in that kind of work travels 
 along the shore, where the enemy's observing station lies or is sup- 
 posed to lie; grapples the cable and severs it by exploding the 
 charge. The ships are also provided with explosives calculated to 
 destroy anchor chains and booms. 
 
 The Intelligence Department is kept steadily and accurately informed 
 of all the arrangements and contrivances for booms made by foreign 
 nations, and it elaborates plans of attack even in times of peace. 
 There is no doubt that when the occasion should arise an English -fleet 
 
282 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 would immediately on appearing before an enemy's port explode, counter- 
 mines, make a gap in the enemfs torpedo-defence and proceed to a 
 vigorous attack. English naval officers have never been deficient in 
 pluck in dangerous enterprises. It will be advisable not to rely too 
 confidently on the protection afforded by lines of mines. 
 
 2. Spar-torpedoes. 
 
 The Spar-torpedo, i. e. a small mine or charge fixed at the end 
 of a long pole or spar was used with great success in the American 
 War of Secession as a weapon of attack, especially by Lieutenant 
 C. Cashing of the Northern States, who sank the iron-clad "Albe- 
 marle" in an audacious attack by night. In 1884 the French also 
 under Admiral Courbet made good use of this arm at Futchow against 
 the Chinese. Although this weapon is not without danger to the 
 aggressor, yet being simple and very formidable, the English have 
 devoted great attention to it, have introduced it into their navy, and 
 retained it to this day. 
 
 Spar-torpedoes are employed mainly by steam-pinnaces 40 to 50 ft. 
 long. The equipment consists of six spars about 40 ft. long, 5 to 
 8 inches thick, the end to receive the torpedo being mounted with 
 iron. The torpedo is made of sheet iron, is cylindrical in shape, and 
 charged with 33 lbs. of damp and 2\ lbs. of dry gun-cotton, and 
 fitted to be fired by electricity. The spar Ues forward in the boat 
 
 on a small block on rollers. 
 gun-cotton ^^^^ ^^ ^ distance of about 60 
 
 yards from the enemy the 
 command is given "Run out", 
 and the spar is pushed for- 
 ward to the extreme end, and 
 Spar-torpedo. the point then naturally dips 
 
 under the water. On being 
 fired the torpedo should be at least 10 ft. under water and 30 ft., 
 measured horizontally, distant from the boat. On contact with the 
 enemy's ship the explosion is to take place as near as possible under 
 the engine-room. The spar broken by this operation can be replaced 
 by another. 
 
 3. Torpedoes. 
 
 sPar 
 
 Of the numerous torpedoes that have been invented, some even 
 in England, the War Office has selected for coast-defence the Brennan- 
 
X. MATERIAL. 
 
 283 
 
 Torpedo, having purchased it from the inventor, an AustraHan clock- 
 maker for £150,000. The first model was exhibited by Brennan in 
 1877; it was cig-ar-shaped, set in motion and steered by electricity; 
 subsequently it was greatly improved by him and by English Engineer 
 officers. The Brennan-Torpedo at present in use was perfected in 
 1887; its charge weighs 200 lbs. and it is said to be very effective. 
 
 In the navy the WHITEHEAD -TORPEDO only is employed; after 
 numerous experiments, it was bought by the Admiralty for £15,000; 
 it was afterwards perfected with utmost care and then introduced into 
 the navy. It travels at the rate of; from 8i knots for a distance of 
 about 200 yards, to 28 to 29 knots for 900 yards; its charge is from 
 60 lbs. to 200 lbs. ; the deflection sideways on being fired above water 
 is 30", the speed of the vessel being only 9 knots; at the rate of 
 18 knots this deflection is diminished to 3" or 4*^. The arm is manufac- 
 tured in England in three different places , viz : in Woolwich arsenal, 
 in Whitehead's factory at Portland, and at the works of Greenwood 
 and Batley in Leeds. The great requirements of the fleet keep all 
 three fully employed. It has happened that the Admiralty has ordered 
 420 torpedoes all at once. The cost is about £350 a piece. 
 
 In consequence of the numerous improvements and alterations that 
 have been made, there are no less than 24 different sorts of White- 
 head-torpedoes in store, 19 of which are for above-water tubes. All 
 
 Whitehead-torpedoes. 
 
 a. Older model with pointed head and longititudinal tins, 
 
 b. Present model, mark VIII, with blunt head. 
 
 are cigar-shaped 14 to 19 ft. long and 14 to 18 inches in diameter. 
 At first the head was made to end in a sharp point, but a blunt form 
 was subsequently found to be more suitable. The model mark VIII 
 most commonly employed in the newest ships, has this shape. The 
 longitudinal fins originally attached above and below the torpedo 
 have been abandoned and replaced by two upright rudders. 
 
 The torpedo is fired off either by compressed air having a pressure 
 
284 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 of 300 lbs. to 600 lbs. pr. square inch/ or with 4 to 41 oz. of powder; 
 submerg-ed torpedoes are fired off only by compressed air, lateral 
 deflection of the head of the torpedo being counteracted by a guid- 
 ing- rail pushed out to the front. In France this deflection now 
 amounts at most to 7° to 15°. With the revolving tubes of torpedo- 
 boats, only powder is used for firing; of late they have been using 
 cordite. The second class torpedo-boats, and the pinnaces fitted up 
 for the use of torpedoes do not carry the torpedoes in tubes, but 
 the torpedoes are suspended lengthways on dropping-gear at the 
 sides. By opening the claws and the stopper which restrains the 
 engine, the torpedo is urged forward by its own mechanism. 
 
 Careful account is kept of every torpedo, and the torpedo crews 
 are trained with the greatest care. Once every three months firing 
 practice is engaged in by all the vessels fitted with torpedoes. From 
 every tube four shots are fired, two when the ship is at rest, and two 
 when it is in motion. Each torpedo tube is worked by a crew of 
 six men. 
 
 4. Miscellaneous. 
 
 The FIRST TORPEDO-BOAT was built in 1873 by Messrs. Thornycroft, 
 not for England but for Norway; she displaced "j:^ tons and ran 15 knots. 
 Not till four years afterwards did the Admiralty order a torpedo-boat, 
 the "Lightning" ;• she was 85 ft. long, displaced 27 tons, and attained 
 the surprising speed of 19 knots; she was intended for spar-torpedoes, 
 not Whitehead's. This was followed in 1877/78 by the first dozen 
 of torpedo-boats, of which that supplied by Messrs. Yarrow & Co. 
 attained a speed of nearly 22 knots. Subsequently, however, from 
 distrust of the Whitehead torpedoes, whose accuracy of aim left much 
 to be desired, the Admiralty advanced with halting steps, and allowed 
 itself to be outstripped by foreign navies, as has already been men- 
 tioned under head a. (page 245). 
 
 As a protection against torpedoes Bullivanfs torpedo-nets were in- 
 troduced. They consisted of pieces of strong netting 15 to 20 ft. 
 long, made of steel rings and steel wire and joined together so as to 
 enclose the whole ship. 
 
 The net is held at a distance of 9 to 10 yards from the sides of 
 the vessel by hollow steel spars. But Captain Wilson of the torpedo- 
 school-ship, "Vernon", has invented a so-called Net-CUTTER, which 
 
 * One kilogram pressure on one square centimetre = 147 lbs. pressure on one 
 square inch = one atmosphere. A remarkable and very useful property of the 
 metric system. The translator. 
 
X. MATERIAL. 285 
 
 makes a clean cut through the net, even if it strikes it obliquely, 
 and thus renders this apparently powerful protection very unreliable. 
 
 An equally unreliable protection on board against the insidious 
 attacks of torpedo-boats is the Search LIGHT; nevertheless they are 
 in use not merely in all the ships, ■ but also in torpedo-boat destroy- 
 ers, in torpedo-boats and even in picket-boats. The search lights can 
 be used with advantage in lighting up the entrance into port, and on 
 board ship for signals at night. It is said that with a clouded sky 
 the bright gleam is visible at a distance of no less than 6o miles. 
 
 The first English ship armed with the RAM was the "Bellerophon", 
 built by Sir E. Reed in 1866; the ironclads "Valiant" and "Agin- 
 court" previously built had indeed something like the ram, but it 
 was very rudimentary. At present it is" usually found on all battle- 
 ships and even on large cruisers. 
 
 The SMALL ARMS . in use are : the Lee-Metford magazine rifle of 
 •3 inch calibre for smokeless powder, carrying 10 cartridges in the 
 magazine. The length of the rifle is 50 inches, and inclusive of the 
 sword bayonet it weighs lol lbs. The barrel has seven grooves, the 
 projectile weighs 216 grains and the charge 30 grains; the initial 
 velocity is about 2200 ft, and it can be sighted to a distance of 
 nearly 3000 yards. This rifle is made in the Royal arms factory at 
 Enfield and costs £3. 16.6. 
 
 There are also in use three kinds of revolver, and the cutlass, 
 which is a short broad sword with a large hilt. 
 
 F. The Strength of the Navy. 
 
 The MATERIEL OF THE NAVY has been completely changed during 
 the last 40 years; of the vessels of those years, but few are still in 
 existence, and even these have for some decades been employed in 
 mere harbour- duty. 
 
 In i860 the fleet consisted of 518 ships, inclusive of 153 gun-boats 
 121 vessels, &c. for harbour service, and 47 small craft for the coast- 
 guard. Of this number 314 ships, &c. were in commission, 202 of 
 them being on 10 foreign stations, the China station being the largest 
 of them, and 1 1 2 vessels were employed on harbour-duty or on other 
 special service. The Mediterranean Squadron numbered 41 ships, the 
 Channel Squadron 19, and amongst them not a single iron-clad. There 
 wejre building 38 large ships, 13 of which were still wooden screw- 
 propelled ships-of-the-line of 91 — ^131 guns, and 7 frigates of 51 guns. 
 
286 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 A small number of armoured vessels partly wooden and partly iron 
 formed the nucleus of the NEW NAVY. The reorganisation of the 
 personnel was taken in hand in 1852; it was carried out zealously 
 and systematically, but not yet quite thoroughly. Permanent prac- 
 tice squadrons had been kept up for some years in the Channel and 
 in the Mediterranean. 
 
 In 1868 the number of large iron-clads had risen to 28 of various 
 types, and of smaller iron-clads there were 8 corvettes, 8 monitors 
 •and a few floating batteries. Of unarmoured ships there were 
 55 screw-propelled ships-of-the-line, 34 frigates, 52 corvettes, 63 des- 
 patch boats, 99 gunboats, 19 troop-ships and finally about lOO sail- 
 ing vessels. Iron-clads were first put in line with the practising squa- 
 drons in 1866, but they did not join the manoeuvres successfully. 
 
 By 1876 the ironclads had been increased to 49 ships, and three 
 more were being built. Among these were 14 wooden ships of 
 doubtful utility, which were quickly worn out; also 11 monitors and 
 small vessels, and 10 obsolete iron battle-ships no longer fit for 
 battle. Of useful battle-ships there were 12, and 2 rams; for a fight 
 near home S monitors could have been brought up besides. Even 
 then, that is 21 years ago, the "Hercules", the prototype of the 
 German "Kaiser" and "Deutschland" was in England no longer consid- 
 ered as fully up to the mark for battle. In consequence of the rapid 
 waste and of the rejection of wooden vessels and gun-boats, the 
 number of ships in the navy was largely reduced. 
 
 The Naval Defence Act gave a mighty impulse to the increase 
 of the number of ships, or more correctly to a renewal of the navy 
 suited to the times. , 
 
 In the summer of 1 896 the strength of the navy consisted of: 1 3 new 
 ships built since 1889, 32 older vessels, which were still fit for battle, 
 part of them being mighty battle-ships; 17 of these had however still 
 muzzle-loaders for heavy ordnance, but all of them were supplied 
 with 20 to 30 quick-firing guns; also 29 first class cruisers, inclusive 
 of 9 obsolete ones, like the "Warrior" and the "Nelson", mainly 
 armed with muzzle-loaders, whilst the other 20 were all new; also 
 41 second class and 39 third class cruisers, one third of which were 
 of an earlier date than 1885, and all provided with protective decks; 
 moreover 16 unprotected cruisers of various sizes; 15 iron-clads and 
 rams for coast-defence from the years 1863 — 79, mostly armed with 
 muzzle-loaders for their heavy ordnance, but one half of them still service- 
 able for battle near the coast; 35 rapid torpedo-craft, 42 torpedo- 
 
X. MATERIAL. 287 
 
 boat destroyers, and loi first class torpedo-boats. There were building : 
 12 first class battle-ships of 12,950 tons to 14,900 tons, lO first class 
 cruisers of 11,000 to 14,200 tons, 12 second class cruisers of 5600 
 to 5700 tons, 7 third class cruises of 2135 tons, all with protective 
 decks and 48 torpedo-boat destroyers of 300 to 400 tons. These are 
 the classes of ships, of which the fleet intended for battle will ere 
 long- be exclusively composed; battle-ships of other than first class 
 and unprotected cruisers are no longer being built in England and 
 but few torpedo-boats. 
 
 According to the estimates of 1897/98 there are yet to be added 
 to the above numbers: 4 large battle-ships, 3 third class cruisers, 
 12 river gun-boats of shallow draught, that can be taken to pieces 
 and are to be used for special purposes and 2 torpedo-boat destroyers, 
 which are all to be finished at latest by the year 1900. Considering 
 the extraordinarily great resources of the Royal yards and private 
 factories in England, there is no doubt whatever that the ships will 
 be ready within the specified time. In the year 1900 the fleet will 
 possess 29 first class battle-ships, 21 first class, 45 second class, and 
 26 third class cruisers as well as 92 or more torpedo-boat destroyers, 
 all perfectly nezv and built since iSSg. 
 
 In a few years then the English navy iti active service will consist of 
 none but modern ships up to date; the battle-ships without exception 
 of largest type, and the cruisers also, superior in size and number to 
 those of corresponding class of all other nations; the torpedo-boat 
 destroyers, one hundred or more in number, of unapproached speed 
 and fitted by day to go in search of the enemy's torpedo-boats in 
 their own waters, or by night to encounter the advancing torpedo- 
 boats of the enemy and to destroy them. 
 
 For war in the home waters there would yet have to be reckoned 
 with: 30 to 40 older iron-clads and monitors, about 30 torpedo gun- 
 boats, and finally about 100 first class torpedo-boats, built between 
 1877 and 1896; 28 of these are of 130 tons, and with from 360 to 
 2690 H.P'. they make 17 to 24 knots. Barring No. 93 they are all 
 propelled by single screws, and 3 have water-tube boilers. Of course, 
 for the purposes of war the older boats are of comparatively slight value. 
 
 The ninety torpedo-boat destroyers built between 1893 and 1896 
 are of 240 to 300 tons and are propelled by twin screws. The 
 boilers are of seven different types-locomotive; and six types of 
 water-tube boilers; of French types only the Normand type is re- 
 presented. Of torpedo-tubes, all of which have a calibre of 18 inches 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 the six oldest of the "Havock" type have a fixed tube in the bow 
 and a double revolving- tube on deck; they are armed with one 3 men 
 and three 2"2 inch quick-firing- guns. All the others are provided *itn 
 two simple revolving tubes on deck, one 3 inch and five 2-2 inch quick- 
 firing guns. The engines have been raised from 3100 H. P. to 6000 H. r. 
 and are to be still further augmented to 10,000 H. P. The original 
 speed of 27 knots has been raised to 30 knots and is to attain 
 33 knots. The destroyers are supplied with search lights, and their 
 crews number from 45 to 68 men. 
 
 Of second class torpedo-boats there are existing 76 of the years 
 1879/96, of 12 to i6itons displacement, 120 to 130 H. P. and 12-6 to 
 17 knots speed; they are all propelled by a single screw. Nine of them 
 are built of wood and fitted for spar-torpedoes. These craft are not 
 suited for sea-voyages, but two TORPEDO DEPOT-SHIPS have been fitted 
 out, so as to. utilize these torpedo-boats also at sea. One of these the 
 "Hecla" is an old ship, of 1878, of 6400 tons, making 12 knots, 
 and storing 3000 tons of coal in her bunkers; the other is the 
 "Vulcan", a new ship of 1889, of 6620 tons, and 12,000 H. P. making 
 20 knots; both ships are armed with guns and torpedo-tubes, but 
 they are principally fitted up as workshops for repairs of all kind, 
 which is an indispensable addition to a squadron engaged in warlike 
 operations. Both carry large stores of mines and torpedoes, as well 
 as respectively five and six second class torpedo-boats, and the 
 "Vulcan" has also two large boats for laying countermines. 
 
 Tha Auxiliary Cruisers will prove useful in such warfare as is 
 waged by cruisers. There are eleven of them; they are subsidized 
 vessels of the years 1887 to 1893, and are all transoceanic mail- 
 steamers drawn partly from European and partly from Pacific lines. 
 They are of 7000 to 30,000 H. P. and have a permanent speed of 
 i6§ to 20 knots. The subsidies of the several ships range between 
 £2438 and ^7500, and the sum total is ^48,620. In addition to 
 these three, other large Steamship-companies have offered their 
 vessels to government in case of war, without receiving a subsid-v 
 These include 17 ships of the years 1871 to 1889, of 3888 to 8128 
 tons measurement, 3600 to 14,500 H. P. and making permanently I c to 
 igi knots. The Admiralty accordingly disposes of 28 large and sw'ft 
 Auxiliary Cruisers, whose armament lies ready for them partly in Jio 
 and partly in foreign ports, as for example Hong-Kong. This m 
 be the place for pointing out that the Admiralty have from th 
 outstart steadily kept in view the employment of swift merchant-steam 
 
W 
 
 
X. MATERIAL. 289 
 
 for war purposes. As early as the thirties, when the Admiralty still 
 had a very low opinion of the utility of steamers in battle, they duly 
 recognized the value of rapid vessels in war, and made contracts with 
 the first steamship company plying between Britain and Ireland for 
 the eventual employment of their vessels in case of war. 
 
 There remain to be enumerated as part of the navy to be employed 
 in service abroad 17 small sloops of the years 1876 — 1895, of 925 to 
 1 170 tons, 750 to 200HP. and making 14I knots; also 18 first class 
 gun-boats of the years 1885 — 1889 of 715 to 755 tons, lOOO to 
 1200 H. P. making 13 knots, and finally two stern-wheel river gun- 
 boats on the Zambesi, of shallow draught, drawing barely one foot of 
 water; these were brought there in sections and put together at the 
 river's mouth. ^ 
 
 Of DESPATCH BOATS there are extant only two of the year 1885 of 
 1600 to 1700 tons, 3000 H. P., making 17-8 knots, with a thin pro- 
 tective deck and light armament. No value is attached in England 
 to this kind of craft and justly so, as their slight fighting capacity 
 fits them neither for scouting duty, nor for cruising; at best they can 
 be used to carry news, and for that purpose the mercantile navy 
 supplies craft in sufficient number. 
 
 For the training of lads and ordinary seamen there are maintained 
 8 sailing . vessels , sloops, and brigs; one of these is in the Medi- 
 terranean. 
 
 The large steam troop-ships which used formerly to be part of the 
 navy have mostly gone out of use and are no longer extant. The. 
 enumeration of other craft for surveys, protection of fishery, of coast- 
 guard service, of tugs and yard craft, of hulks for coals and provis- 
 ions, which are stationed mostly in home, but partly also in foreign 
 ports, would lead us too far; we will however mention the Royal 
 yachts, the "Victoria and Albert" of the year 1855 (which is accord- 
 ingly 43 years old), of 2470 tons and making about 16 knots; also 
 the "Osborne" of the year 1870, of 1850 tons, and making 15 knots; 
 finally the Admiralty Yacht, the "Enchantress" of the year 1865 of 
 1000 tons and making 13 knots; all three being wooden paddle- 
 
 ' These boats are the "Mosquito" and the "Herald," and there is also the 
 "Dove", a side-wheeler. The "Herald" and the "Mosquito" were built in floatable 
 sections, so that they were connected tip very rapidly on arrival, thus avoiding' 
 the troublesome business of rivetting together and launching. The builders were 
 Messrs. Yarrow & Co. The translator. 
 
 10 
 
290 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 steamers. There ought further to be mentioned three floating- work- 
 shops and six hospital ships, two of the latter being in Hong Kong. 
 
 The governments of India, Canada, and Australia maintain a number 
 of ships, that have some military value. The INDIAN Navy comprises 
 2 monitors of the year 1870, 2 torpedo gunboats, and 7 torpedo-boats, 
 8 troop-ships of 930 to 5000 tons measurement, 2 despatch-boats and 
 8 river-steamers; they are under the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian 
 Station and commanded by British officers. CANADA only possesses 
 16 vessels for custom-house-, hydrographic- and survey-service, and 
 for the protection of fishery. The AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENTS, how- 
 ever, have had built in England 5 third class cruisers of 2525 tons, 
 7500 H. P. and making 19 knots, as well as a torpedo gun-boat, all 
 for the protection of their own waters; they also maintain the monitor 
 "Cerberus" of 3430 tons, 8 gun-boats, 11 torpedo-boats and two old 
 screw ships. All these vessels are under the command of the Com- 
 mander-in-Chief of the Australian Station. Finally there is yet to be 
 mentioned the MiNlNG-FLOTILLA. It does not exactly belong to the 
 navy, being under the management of the corps of engineers of the 
 army; but it is of importance for coast-defence. It numbers no less 
 than 102 vessels, viz: 8 rather large steamers of 300 to 620 tons, and 
 300 to 750 H. P.; 22 smaller steamers and steam-pinnaces of 27 to 
 165 tons, and 20 to 200 H. P., 4 sailing vessels of 160 to 175 tons, 
 and 68 mine-layers of 15 to 144 tons, mostly without engines, but 
 some have engines of 65 to 295 H. P. 
 
 Of serviceable torpedoes there are in all 4000 in store; of these 
 about 950 are in the principal depot at Portsmouth, and 350 to 400 
 in each of the depots at Devonport and Chatham, and 20 to lOO in 
 each of the nine foreign depots, and their number is being continu- 
 ally increased. 
 
 G. Naval Estimates. 
 
 The Naval Estimates being intimately related to the materiel of 
 the navy, we must add a few words about them. At the time of 
 Queen Elizabeth they amounted in times of peace to only £6000 ; 
 the war expenditure was calculated separately. In 1588, the year of 
 the Armada, the expenditure rose to £90,000, but this did not in- 
 clude the cost of provisions &c., nor the compensation given to the 
 several ports for the ships they had sent into the fight. In the 
 Napoleonic wars the estimates and the materiel attained an enormous 
 
X. MATERIAL. 291 
 
 height; the personnel had risen to 135,000 men or more; in the year 
 1809, the fleet numbered 709 ships in commission, inclusive of 113 
 ships-of-the-line. During the long peace following upon these wars, 
 government allowed those numbers to drop so low as to be incom- 
 patible with the duties the navy had to discharge. As early as 18 14 
 there were only 14 ships-of-the-line in commission. The period how- 
 ever of the deepest ignorance of the state of affairs, was after the 
 reform bill had been carried. In 1830 the naval budget still amounted 
 to £4,335,000, but in 1834 it was reduced to £3,060,000, and in 
 1835 — 36 still further to £2,800,000. In consequence, the materiel 
 of the navy was naturally also largely reduced, causing "scares" from 
 time to time, which jerked the estimates up by fits and starts. Down 
 to the middle of the eighties they remained under £10,000,000, whilst 
 the army cost half as much again or more; for example, in 1886/87, 
 the army estimates amounted in round numbers to 1 8 i million pounds. 
 With the Naval Defence Act, however, a permanent change set in. 
 In 1893/94 the naval estimates amounted in round numbers to 
 141 milUon pounds; in 1894/95 to 177 million pounds; in 1895/96 
 to upwards of 19 million pounds; in 1896/97 to £21,823,000; in 
 1897/98 to £22,250,000, and in the current year 1898/99 to 
 £24,733,822.1 
 
 The principal items of these last estimates are: 
 
 Effective Services: 
 
 1. Wages &c. of Officers, Seamen, and Boys, Coast Guard and £ 
 Royal Marines: 5,105,185 
 
 2. Victualling and Clothing for the Navy: 1,921,325 
 
 3. Medical Establishments and Services: 190,900 
 
 4. Martial Law: 11,427 
 
 5. Educational Services: 116,027 
 
 6. Scientific Services: 79,629 
 
 7. Royal Naval Reserves: 257,113 
 
 8. Shipbuilding, Repairs, Maintenance, &c. : 
 
 Section I. Personnel: 2,230,915 
 
 „ II. Materiel: 3,132,000 
 
 „ III. Contract Work: 5,649,440 
 
 9. Naval Armaments: 2,584,700 
 
 10. Works, Buildings, and Repairs at home and abroad: 657,100 
 
 :i. Miscellaneous Effective Services: 243,127 
 
 12. Admiralty Office: 256,700 
 
 Total Effective Services ^"22,435, 588 
 
 ' Exclusive of Mr. Goschen's Supplementary Estimates , the details of which 
 are not yet published. The translator. 
 
 19* 
 
292 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Non-Effective Services: 
 
 Brought forward ^22,435,588 
 
 13. Half Pay, Reserved and Retired Pay ^764,803 
 
 14. Naval and Marine Pensions, Gratuities and Com- 
 passionate Allowances .... afi, 104,808 
 
 15. Civil Pensions and Gratuities . ^333i323 
 
 Total Non-Effective Services ^2,202,934 
 
 Extra Estimate for Services in 
 Connection with the Colonies: 
 
 16. Additional Naval Force for Service in Australasian Waters. 
 
 Annuity payable ... 95,3°° 
 
 Grand Total J'24,733,822 
 constituting an increase of nearly 2i Millions upon last year. If the Supplement- 
 ary Estimate is added to this amount, the increase will probably be unparalleled 
 in the history of Naval Estimates. 
 
 It is probable that the estimates will remain at a great height in 
 subsequent years, seeing that the English nation has adopted the 
 principle that its navy must be superior to any possible combination 
 of two powers, and has made this principle the basis of its maritime 
 policy. 
 
 XL CONCLUSION. 
 
 When at the battle of Trafalgar, the navies of the two greatest 
 maritime powers of the day had been absolutely annihilated, and when 
 in the years immediately following thereupon the smaller European 
 navies had been captured, England was absolute mistress of the sea, 
 and the English nation abandoned itself to the enjoyment of that 
 undisturbed supremacy without considering the efforts and sacrifices 
 required for retaining it. All that was aimed at was the exploitation 
 of the great successes of the navy for the increase of trade, industry, 
 and wealth. 
 
 Occasional "scares" frightened the nation for a time out of its 
 fancied security, and even the Crimean war had no other permanent 
 efTect than to give an impulse to the adaptation of the materiel to 
 the requirements of the day. The huge economic expansion and re- 
 volution which had taken place in consequence of that very predom- 
 
XI. CONCLUSION. 293 
 
 inance at sea, the enormous increase of manufacturing industry and 
 maritime trade, added to agricultural depression, made the country 
 dependent on its colossal import trade in provisions and raw mate- 
 rials; all these were consequences that had not been foreseen. It 
 may well be assumed that the military events of the two great wars 
 of 1866 and 1870/71, and the political consequences flowing there- 
 from had roused the attention of a wider circle of thinkers in Eng- 
 land, and caused them to reflect deeply on the position of the country. 
 Had this not been the case, General Chesney, for example, would 
 not have created so great a sensation by his "Battle of Dorking", 
 which described the imaginary landing of a German army on English 
 soil. Since then the ball has been kept rolling, and the institution of 
 the Naval Intelligence Department, in 1882, and the passing of the 
 Naval Defence Act in 1889 may be regarded as the two principal 
 stages on the road to the present state of affairs. 
 
 The Great Naval Manoeuvres, which have taken place yearly ever 
 since 1885, have largely contributed towards forming public opinion, 
 opening the eyes of the nation to the dangers of an enemy's supe- 
 riority at sea, and enhancing and widening the interest of the people 
 in the warlike capacity of the navy. This end was mainly gained by 
 two parties being opposed to each other in the manoeuvres. Although 
 these operations may not have led to any tactical or strategic con- 
 clusions, yet they have, in spite of shortcomings in their plans, fur- 
 nished valuable information about the enforcement of blockades in modern 
 circumstances, about the value and utility of different classes of ships, es- 
 pecially of torpedo-boats and torpedo-boat destroyers, about harbour de- 
 fence, about the despatch of intelligence, &c. The scouting practice of 
 squadrons of cruisers, to which great value is attached in France as well 
 as in England, merits special attention; it has established the fact that only 
 cruisers in good fighting condition, not swift despatch boats, can render 
 useful scouting service in time of war. It is not known, whether any 
 tactical principles have been based thereupon, but strategically it is 
 undoubtedly settled that the practice followed by the British navy at 
 its most glorious period, of an immediate, resolute, and unhesitating 
 offensive, such as found expression in the famous order: "Sink, burn, 
 destroy", will also be the practice of the future. In principle, the English 
 probably intended to remain true to their great historical traditions, 
 but the half- measures taken by European navies in the wars waged 
 during the last seventy years are in flat contradiction to this maxim. 
 
 The return to sound and time-honoured principles has become 
 
294 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 decisive for the development of the new navy. In order to carry out 
 these measures, when the occasion arises, detailed plans of attack for 
 all eventualities are worked out in the Intelligence Department and 
 the materiel of the navy is adapted accordingly. 
 
 It can be foreseen that it will not occur again in the future as it 
 did at the time of the Crimean war, that a great English fleet would 
 appear in the Baltic without knowing what it can do or ought to do. 
 It will assuredly proceed to an immediate and resolute attack .upon im- 
 portant ports, and will not allow itself to be scared away by siipposed 
 bars and the like, and merely enforce a blockade at a considerable dis- 
 tance from the coast. 
 
 The creation of a mighty new fleet, such as England has accomplished 
 during the last nine years, does not stand without parallel in history. 
 Colbert, the great minister of Louis XIV., performed an equally diffi- 
 cult task in an astonishingly short time. But while in France this was 
 the work of a man of exalted genius, carrying out the commands of 
 a despotic ruler, the new British navy, which safeguards the interests 
 of the country, owes its existence to the co-operation of a number of 
 men of correct insight who clearly recognized and steadily kept in 
 view the objects to be aimed at, each supporting the other and thus 
 advancing the common cause. Primarily the agitation began with 
 officers of the navy and of the army, but speedily statesmen, men 
 of science, merchants, and manufacturers, joined the movement, 
 spread it far and wide, and made it the cause of the people, of the 
 nation. And it was no small achievement to give persuasive force 
 to the idea that British naval predominance is an indispensable 
 necessity. This is now admitted right through the country, and it is 
 a power that no one can withstand. 
 
 It is impossible to think meanly of the spirit of a nation, of the 
 institutions of a country, of the organisation of a government, which 
 have made such things possible, which have mightily laid hold of 
 such a thought and have energetically carried it out. With the inex- 
 haustible resources at the disposal of the country, the new navy will 
 be created in an incredibly short time, a political instrument of enor- 
 mous power — May English policy ever use it with justice, wisdom, and 
 moderation! 
 
295 
 
 English Equivalents of the metric magnitudes occurring in the 
 diagrams on pp. 249 et sequ. 
 
 I m (metre) = 39-37 inches. 
 
 1 cm (centimetre) = 3937 inches = | inch very nearly. 
 
 I mm (millimetre) := '03937 inches = -^ inch very nearly. 
 
 igmm^ 748 inch = 
 25mm= -984 „ = 
 38 mm =1-496 „ = 
 47 mm:= 1-85 
 51 mm = 2-0 
 56mm = 2-2 
 57 mm:^ 2-24 
 
 63 mm = 2-48 
 
 64 mm^ 2-52 
 
 inches. 
 
 65 mm = 2-56 
 
 66 mm = 26 
 73 mm = 2-87 
 75 mm = 2-95 
 
 100 mm = 3-937 
 loi mm = 3-976 
 102 mm = 4-015 
 
 inches. 
 1 14 mm = 4-45 
 120 mm ^4-72 
 125 mm ^4-92 
 127 mm= 5 
 132 mm = 5-2 
 
 152 mm=: 5-98 
 
 153 mm = 6-02 
 178 mm = 7 
 203 mm= 7-99 
 205 mm = 8-07 
 
 228 mm = 8-98 
 
 229 mm = 9-02 
 234 mm = g-2i 
 
 inches. ' 
 
 I inch very nearly. 
 
 = Ii2- 
 n 2 0" 
 
 inches = 2 inches. 
 
 very nearly. 
 
 rather morelithan 2i 
 
 very nearly. 
 
 = 2f 
 
 3 n » n 
 
 T" 55 J) )) 
 
 ^^ 4 J) n n 
 
 = rather more than 4 
 
 = 4|- inches very nearly. 
 
 42r » » » 
 
 ^5 
 = 54 
 
 :6 
 
 very nearly. 
 
 = 7 
 
 = 8 „ very nearly. 
 
 a 2 
 
 T? » " » 
 
 fi49 
 
 °?7 II II II 
 
 = 9,V II 
 
 = rather more than 9| 
 
 254 mm = 9-96 inches 
 
 273 mm =10-75 II 
 
 279 mm =10-98 „ 
 
 304 mm =11-99 ,1 
 
 30s mm =12-01 „ 
 
 318 mm =12-52 „ 
 
 inches. 
 
 343 mm =13-5 „ 
 
 355 mm =13-98 I, 
 
 nearly. 
 
 356 mm =14-01 „ 
 
 2 inches. 
 
 385 mm =15-16 „ 
 
 387 mm =15-23 „ 
 
 405 mm =15-94 „ 
 
 406 mm =15-98 „ 
 
 407 mm= 16-02 „ 
 
 408 mm= 1606 „ 
 427 mm =16-81 „ 
 
 inches. 
 
 430 mm =16-93 ,1 
 
 inches. 
 
 431 mm =16-97 „ 
 
 nearly. 
 
 437 mm =17-2 „ 
 
 456 mm =17-95 n 
 
 457 mm =17-99 „ 
 
 482 mm =18-98 „ 
 
 483 mm=: 19-02 „ 
 
 507 mm =19-96 „ 
 
 508 mm = 20-00 „ 
 510 mm = 20.08 „ 
 
 = gfl inches. 
 
 = I foot very nearly. 
 = rather more than i ft. 
 = rather more than 12J 
 
 = 13^ inches. 
 
 = I foot 2 inches very 
 
 = rather more than i ft. 
 
 = i5§inches very nearly. 
 
 = ^5z II II I' 
 = ^Stu II 
 = 'St5 II 
 
 = rather more than i6| 
 
 = i6|§ inches very 
 
 = 1 7| inches. 
 = '7z^ „ 
 
 very nearly. 
 
 = i9ifc 
 
 Translation of the terms in the diagrams on page 257: 
 
 senkr. eis. Trager = vertical iron support — eis. Innenhaut = iron skin plating — Hinterlage 
 
 Teakholz = teakwood backing — Panzer = armour — Eisenblech = iron sheet — Hinterlage 
 
 Teakholz mit Langstragern = teakwood backing with girders. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS, 
 
 used in the following' list of vessels: 
 
 b. 
 
 barbette. 
 
 bldg. 
 
 building. 
 
 B. L. 
 
 Breech Loader. 
 
 comp. 
 
 compound. 
 
 c.t. 
 
 conning tower. 
 
 H.P. 
 
 Horse Power. 
 
 H.S. 
 
 Harvey steel. 
 
 L. 
 
 light guns. 
 
 M. 
 
 Machine guns. 
 
 N.S. 
 
 Nickel steel. 
 
 ?»■■ 
 
 pounder. 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 quick firing. 
 
 subm. 
 
 submerged. 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
The British! 
 
 The ships are all built of steel with triple expansion engines and twin screwis; S' 
 
 (6080 ft), reckoned at the rate of ten knots an hour; if- 
 
 Name and Class 
 
 J3 
 o 
 a 
 
 Dimensions in feet 
 and inches 
 
 bo 
 
 m 
 
 3 
 
 V i> 
 bo u 4_, 
 rt rt pj 
 
 HQ 
 
 6 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 9* 
 
 C/3 
 
 Armour 
 
 Side 
 
 
 
 bo 
 c 
 
 A) First Class 
 Battleships 
 
 b. Royal Sovereign 
 
 b. Empress of India 
 
 b. Ramillies 
 
 b. Repulse 
 
 b. Resolution 
 
 b. Revenge 
 
 b. i?flya/ Ofl^ 
 
 1891—92 
 
 380 
 
 75 
 
 27 ft. 6 in. 
 
 14,150 
 
 18—5 
 Comp. 
 
 16 
 Comp. 
 
 17 
 Comp 
 17—6 
 Comp 
 
 17 
 Comp 
 
 17 
 Comp, 
 
 17 
 Comp. 
 
 17 
 Comp. 
 
 17 
 Comp. 
 
 I 
 
 t. Hood (revolving 
 turrets) 
 
 1891 
 
 380 
 
 75 
 
 27 ft. 6 in. 
 
 14,150 
 
 18 
 Comp. 
 
 17 
 Comp. 
 
 18—6 
 Comp. 
 
 b. Barfleur \ 
 
 b. Centurion f 
 
 b. Majestic 
 
 b. Magnificent 
 
 b.' Victorious 
 
 b.^ '^ Prince George 
 
 b. Mars 
 
 \>} Caesar 
 
 b. Jupiter 
 
 \)} Illustrious 
 
 b.' Hannibal 
 
 ^ Have }i L. in 
 addition to the 
 armament 
 
 * No M. guns. 
 
 1892 
 
 360 
 
 70 
 
 25 ft. 6 in. 
 
 10,500 
 
 wood 
 sheathed 
 
 and 
 coppered 
 
 1894 
 1896 
 
 390 
 
 75 
 
 27 ft. 6 in. 
 
 14,900 
 
 12 
 Comp. 
 
 9 
 H. S. 
 
 12 
 Comp. 
 
 14—9 
 H. S. 
 
 2V.-2 
 
 14-6 
 H. S. 
 
 4-2' 
 
Navy. 
 
 ;tiie distance that can be run with, the store of coals is indicated in nautical miles 
 in reality it will probably be considerably less. 
 
 !! 
 
 Armament 
 
 e2 
 
 Boilers 
 
 H. P. 
 
 
 Coals 
 
 "H 
 
 -1 
 
 -3 
 
 Kind 
 
 2 
 
 ■■5 
 u 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 Kind 
 
 c 
 S 
 
 j; 
 
 o 
 
 4-1 
 
 Distance in 
 naut. miles 
 at 10 knots 
 
 ■a 
 
 i 
 
 f 4 
 
 10 
 15 
 12 
 
 8 
 2 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 12-pr. 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 M. 
 
 L. 
 
 13-5 
 6-in. 
 
 7 
 
 4 Broadside 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 8 
 
 single-ended 
 cylindr. 
 
 13,000 
 
 17-5 
 
 1,800 
 
 7,900 
 
 730 
 740 
 730 
 730 
 730 
 730 
 730 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 Q. F. 
 6-pr. 
 3-pr. 
 
 M. 
 
 L. 
 
 13'5-in 
 6-in. 
 
 7 
 2 Subm. 
 
 8 
 
 single-ended 
 cylindr. 
 
 13,000 
 
 17-5 
 
 1,800 
 
 7,900 
 
 730 
 
 ! 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 sJ-8 
 
 fl2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 f 4 
 12 
 
 ■ 18 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 Q. F. 
 6-pr. 
 3-pr. 
 
 M. 
 
 L. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 12-pr. 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 M. 
 
 10-in. 
 4-7 
 
 12-in. 
 6-in. 
 
 7 
 2 Subm. 
 
 5 
 
 4 Subm. 
 
 8 
 
 single-ended 
 cylindr. 
 
 13,163 
 13,214 
 
 12,000 
 
 18-5 
 18-51 
 
 17-5 
 
 1,240 
 2,200 
 
 9,700 
 7,600 
 
 606 
 622 
 
 757 
 
300 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Name and Class 
 
 X) 
 v 
 
 Si 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 Dimensions in feet 
 and inches 
 
 ■S 
 
 ho 
 C 
 
 
 ho 
 
 3 
 
 Si, " 
 
 o .a 6 
 
 o 
 
 J3 
 
 Armour 
 
 Side 
 
 XI 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 ffl 
 
 O g 
 
 bf-B 
 
 u 
 
 b. Formidable 
 b. IntplacabU 
 b. Irresistiblt 
 
 b. Renown 
 
 b. Albion 
 
 b. GVc^y 
 
 b. Canopus 
 
 b. Goliath 
 
 b. Ocean 
 
 b. Anson 
 
 b. Benbow 
 
 bldg. 
 
 1895 
 
 1895 
 
 bldg. 
 
 bldg. 
 
 bldg. 
 
 bldg. 
 
 1889 
 
 1888 
 
 400 
 
 380 
 
 390 
 
 390 
 
 390 
 
 390 
 
 390 
 
 330 
 
 830 
 
 75 
 
 72 
 
 74 
 
 74 
 
 26 ft. 9 in. 
 
 26 ft. 9 in. 
 
 25 ft. 5 in 
 
 25 ft. 5 in. 
 
 74 25 ft. 5 in. 
 
 74 
 
 74 
 
 68 ft. 
 6 in. 
 
 8 ft. 
 ! in. 
 
 25 ft. 5 in. 
 
 25 ft. 5 in. 
 
 27 ft. 3 in. 
 
 27 ft. 3 in. 
 
 15,000 
 
 12,350 
 
 12,950 
 
 12,950 
 
 12,950 
 
 12,950 
 
 12,950 
 
 10,600 
 
 10,600 
 
 wood 
 sheathed 
 
 and 
 coppered 
 
 8-6 
 H.S. 
 
 8 
 H.S. 
 
 6 
 H.S. 
 
 6 
 H.S. 
 
 6 
 H.S. 
 
 H.S. 
 
 18 
 Comp. 
 
 18 
 Comp. 
 
 10—6 
 H.S. 
 
 10 
 H.S. 
 
 3—2 
 
 6 12—5 3—2 
 H.S. H.S. 
 
 12 
 H.S. 
 
 12 
 H.S. 
 
 12 
 H.S. 
 
 12 
 H.S. 
 
 16 
 Comp. 
 
 16 
 Comp. 
 
 12—5 
 H.S. 
 
 12-5 
 H.S. 
 
 12—5 
 H.S. 
 
 12-5 
 H.S. 
 
 14—12 
 Comp. 
 
 14-2 
 Comp. 
 
 3—2 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-2 
 
 10-15 
 
 3-2Va 
 
 12-15 
 
 3-2'/» 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 301 
 
 Armament 
 
 Kind 
 
 ni 
 U 
 
 !3 u 
 
 X) S 
 o 
 
 Boilers 
 
 Kind 
 
 H. P. 
 
 o 
 
 Oh 
 
 Coals 
 
 .S S £3 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 B. L. 
 Q. F. 
 12 pr. 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 M. 
 29 ton. 
 Q. F. 
 12-prs. 
 
 3-prs. 
 M. 
 L. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 smaller 
 
 L. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 smaller 
 
 L. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 smaller 
 
 L. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 smaller 
 
 L. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 smaller 
 
 L. 
 
 Q. F. 6-pr. 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 M. 
 
 L. 
 
 Q. F. 
 3-pr. 
 
 M. 
 
 L. 
 
 12-in. 
 6-in. 
 
 10-in. 
 6-in. 
 
 12-in. 
 6-in. 
 
 12-in. 
 6-in. 
 
 12-in. 
 6-in. 
 
 12-in. 
 
 12-in. 
 6-in. 
 
 18-5 in. 
 6-in. 
 
 16-25 in. 
 6-in. 
 
 5 
 
 4 subm. 
 
 5 
 4 subm. 
 
 5 
 
 4 subm. 
 
 5 
 
 4 subm. 
 
 5 
 4 subm. 
 
 5 
 4 subm. 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 single-ended 
 cylindr. 
 
 Belleville 
 
 Belleville 
 
 Belleville 
 
 Belleville 
 
 Belleville 
 
 15,000 
 
 12,900 
 
 13,500 
 
 18,500 
 
 13,500 
 
 13,500 
 
 13,500 
 
 11,500 
 
 11,500 
 
 18 
 
 18-75 
 
 18-25 
 
 18-25 
 
 18-25 
 
 18-25 
 
 18-25 
 
 16-9 
 
 16-75 
 
 1,00 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,850 
 
 1,850 
 
 1,850 
 
 1,850 
 
 1,850 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,200 
 
 12,000 
 
 750 
 755 
 755 
 
 674 
 
 700 
 
 700 
 
 700 
 
 700 
 
 700 
 
 515- 
 
 50» 
 
302 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 cl 
 I) 
 
 Dimensions in feet 
 
 o 
 
 Armour 
 
 
 and inches 
 
 Side 
 
 T3 
 
 V 
 
 J3 
 -^ 
 
 3 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 
 §:l 
 
 bo 
 
 ho -a 
 
 a t 
 
 Name and Class 
 
 ■B 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 pq 
 
 ho 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 Tonnage 
 Displace- 
 ment 
 
 b. Camper down 
 
 1889 
 
 330 
 
 68 ft. 
 6 in. 
 
 27 ft. 8 in. 
 
 10,600 
 
 
 18 
 Comp. 
 
 16 
 Comp. 
 
 12 
 Comp. 
 
 10-15 
 
 3-2V2 
 
 i 
 
 b. CoUingwood 
 
 1886 
 
 325 
 
 68 
 
 26ft. lOin. 
 
 9,500 
 
 
 18 
 Comp. 
 
 16 
 Comp. 
 
 12 
 Comp. 
 
 17-10 
 
 b. Ilowt 
 
 1889 
 
 325 
 
 68 
 
 27 ft. 8 in. 
 
 10,800 
 
 
 18 
 Comp. 
 
 16 
 Comp. 
 
 Comp, 
 
 15-12 
 3-21/., 
 
 b. Rodney 
 
 1888 
 
 325 
 
 68 
 
 27 ft. 3 in. 
 
 10,800 
 
 
 18 
 Comp. 
 
 16 
 Comp. 
 
 11 
 Comp. 
 
 15-12 
 
 3-2''/., 
 
 t. Trafalgar 
 
 1890 
 
 345 
 
 73 
 
 27 ft. 6 in. 
 
 11,940 
 
 
 20—16 
 Comp. 
 
 18-14 
 Comp. 
 
 18 
 Comp. 
 
 6 
 8 
 
 b. Vengeance 
 
 bldg. 
 
 390 
 
 74 
 
 26 
 
 12,950 
 
 
 6H. 
 
 N. S. 
 
 12 H. 
 
 N. S. 
 
 12-6 
 H. S. 
 
 4 
 2-1 
 
 if 
 
 t. Nile 
 
 1890 
 
 345 
 
 73 
 
 27 ft. 6 in. 
 
 11,940 
 
 
 20-16 
 Comp. 
 
 18-14 
 Comp. 
 
 18 
 Comp. 
 
 6 
 3' 
 
 ! n 
 
 t. Sans pareil (iron) 
 
 1889 
 
 340 
 
 70 
 
 27 ft. 3 in. 
 
 10,470 
 
 
 16—18 
 Comp. 
 
 16 
 
 Comp. 
 
 18 
 Comp. 
 
 6 
 8 
 

 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 
 
 
 303 
 
 
 Armament 
 
 o 
 
 Boilers 
 
 H. P. 
 
 i2 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 a. 
 
 Coals 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 Kind 
 
 '■3 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 a; 
 
 Kind 
 
 C 
 o 
 
 _g 
 o 
 
 C u: m 
 
 v 
 
 B 
 
 V 
 
 r 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 C/3 
 
 55 
 
 O S rt 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 13-5 -in. 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 11,500 
 
 16-9 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 515 
 
 f ■& 
 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 Q. F. 6-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' ','* 
 
 
 12 -in. 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 9,500 
 
 16-5 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 480 
 
 6 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 6-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 .4 
 
 
 13-5-in. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 11,500 
 
 16-8 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 515 
 
 ■6 
 
 5 ton. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 12 
 
 6-pr. 
 Q. F. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 10 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 13-5-in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 6 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 11,500 
 
 16-75 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 515 
 
 ■ 12 
 
 6-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '■ 10 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 18-5-in. 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 6 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 16-7 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 572 
 
 1 8 
 
 6-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 • 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 B. L. 
 
 12-in. 
 
 
 
 
 13,500 
 
 18-25 
 
 800 
 
 
 750 
 
 1 12 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 12 
 
 12-prs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 smaller 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 guns 
 
 18-5 -in. 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 16-7 
 
 1200 
 
 
 558 
 
 6 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 4-7 -in. 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 6-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 ■ M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 2 
 
 
 16'25-in. 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 14,000 
 
 17-2 
 
 1200 
 
 
 583 
 
 1 
 
 
 10 -in. 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 6-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
304 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Name and Class ■ « 
 
 Dimensions in feet and inches 
 
 Armour 
 
 - I: 
 
 B) First Class 
 Cruisers 
 
 Andrormda 
 
 Blenheim 
 Crescent 
 
 Diadem 
 
 Edgar 
 
 hndyrn.'jn 
 
 1890 435 69 
 
 Argonaut 
 
 1%&7 
 
 435 \ 
 
 i 
 
 69 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 Ariadne | 
 
 bidg. 
 
 435 
 
 69 
 
 Ampkitrite 
 
 1807 
 
 435 
 
 69 
 
 Blake '■• 
 
 1889 
 
 375 
 
 65 
 
 wood 
 25 ft. Sin. 11,000 ! ^\vc2ilAieA 
 I and 
 j coppered 
 
 25 ft. 3 in. 11,000 i ditto 
 
 : H.S. 
 
 25 ft. 3 in. 11,000 
 
 25 ft 3 in, 11 //jO 
 
 25 ft. 9 in. i 9,000 
 
 1-96 4.% 69 
 
 1%90 1 
 1%91 / "'' 
 
 ditto 
 
 3-6 
 1 H..S. 
 
 ditto 
 
 j 3-6 
 H..S. 
 
 ditto 
 
 " 6 
 
 4'/, 3-6 
 
 4 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 
 1890 sister-ship to Blake in ever>- rt'.ptct. 
 
 I wood ' 
 
 1%92 .560 60 ! 23 ft, 9 in. 7,700 sheathed 6 -5-1 
 
 i and 
 
 coppered 
 
 26 ft. 11 //OO ditto 4' J ' S— » 
 
 ditto 
 
 5—1 
 
 Euf^'d 
 
 Wfi 4.% 69 26 ft. 11.000 ditto 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 305 
 
 
 ArraameDt 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 Boilers 
 
 
 Speed 
 
 Coals 
 
 S 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .S sa 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 'A 
 
 Kind 
 
 
 o 1 
 
 No. 
 
 Kind 
 
 H. P. 
 
 in 
 knots 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 e2 
 
 
 
 
 
 C/3 
 
 a^n 
 
 U 
 
 16 
 
 
 6 -in. 
 
 3 
 2 Subm. 
 
 80 
 
 Belleville 
 
 16,500 
 
 20'6 
 
 2,000 
 
 y 
 
 60» 
 
 14 
 
 12 -pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 -pr. 
 boat 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 6 -in. 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 12.p.-. 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 30 
 
 Belleville 
 
 18,000 
 
 20-75 
 
 1,000 
 
 ? 
 
 67T 
 
 12 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 -pr. 
 boat 
 
 LUt 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 see Argons 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 30 
 
 Belleville 
 
 18,000 
 
 20-75 
 
 1,000 
 
 ? 
 
 677 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 80 
 
 Belleville 
 
 18,000 
 
 20-75 
 
 1,000 
 
 •? 
 
 809' 
 
 2 
 
 
 9-2 in. 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6 -in. 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 y 
 
 ? 
 
 20,000 
 
 21-6 
 
 1,500 
 
 ? 
 
 570 
 
 16- 
 
 8-pr. 
 Q.F. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I;:' 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 9-2 in. 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 fiin. 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 6 
 
 double -end. 
 
 12,000 
 
 19-7 
 
 1,260 
 
 14,000 
 
 560 
 
 12 
 
 6-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 cylindr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 8pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 L 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 16 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 . 14 
 : 12 
 
 12 -pr. 
 
 8-pr. 
 
 12-pr. 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 80 
 
 Belleville 
 
 16,500 
 
 20-25 
 
 2,000 
 
 f 
 
 600 
 
 ' 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 boat. 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 9'2 in. 
 
 
 10 
 12 
 
 r 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 6 
 
 double -end. 
 
 12,000 
 
 20 
 
 12,000 
 
 ? 
 
 544 
 
 6-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 cylindr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .) 
 
 8-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-- 
 
 L 
 Q.F. 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^i! 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 14 
 12 
 
 12-pr. 
 8-pr. 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 30 
 
 Belleville 
 
 16,500 
 
 20-25 
 
 2,000 
 
 •y 
 
 600 
 
 7 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 I, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
306 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 
 a 
 
 Dimensions in feet and 
 
 inches 
 
 Ship's Bottom 
 
 1 Armour 
 
 Name and Class 
 
 
 Beam 
 
 Draught 
 
 Tonnag-e 
 Displace- 
 ment 
 
 Gun 
 Position 
 
 Deck 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 1892 
 
 360 
 
 60 
 
 28 ft. 9 in. 
 
 7,700 
 
 wood 
 sheathed 
 1 and 
 coppered 
 
 ! 
 
 1 6 in. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 5-1 
 
 Grafton 
 
 1892 
 
 360 
 
 60 
 
 28 ft. 9 in. 
 
 7,350 
 
 
 ■ 6 
 
 5—1 
 
 Hawke 
 
 1891 
 
 sister- 
 
 i II 11 
 ship to Grafton in every respect except complemenl 
 
 t. 
 
 Niohe 
 
 1897 
 
 435 
 
 69 
 
 26 
 
 11,000 
 
 wood 
 sheathed 
 
 and 
 coppered. 
 
 4V. 
 
 3-6 
 
 Powerful 
 
 1895 
 
 500 
 
 71 
 
 29 
 
 14,200 
 
 ditto 
 
 (i 
 
 8-6 
 
 Royal Arthur 
 
 1891 
 
 360 
 
 60 
 
 27 ft. 9 in. 
 
 7,700 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 ditto 
 
 6 
 
 5—1 
 
 St. George 
 
 1892 
 
 360 
 
 60ft. 8in. 
 
 23 ft. 9 in. 
 
 7,700 
 
 j 
 
 ditto 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 6 
 
 5—1 
 
 Spartiate 
 
 bldg. 
 
 435 
 
 69 
 
 26 
 
 11,000 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 ditto 1 
 
 4Vs 
 
 3-6 
 
 Terrible 
 
 1S95 
 
 500 
 
 71 
 
 27 
 
 14,200 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 ditto 
 
 li 
 
 3-6 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 307 
 
 
 Armament 
 
 o Tubes 
 nber i 
 
 
 Boilers 
 
 H. P. 
 
 Speed 
 in 
 
 Coals 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 4) g 
 
 .S 5£! 
 
 S JO 
 
 • a rt „ 
 
 i 
 
 
 Kind 
 
 I 
 
 ■a a 
 
 1^ 
 
 No. 
 
 Kind 
 
 
 Knots 
 
 V* O 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P rt rt 
 
 
 
 see Edga 
 
 r 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 Subm, 
 
 6 
 
 double -end. 
 
 12,000 
 
 20 
 
 1200 
 
 ? 
 
 544 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 cylindr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 see Edga 
 
 r 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 6 
 
 double -end. 
 cylindr. 
 
 12,000 
 
 20 
 
 1200 
 
 ? 
 
 560 
 544 
 
 16 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 6 -in. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 12-pr. 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 30 
 
 Belleville 
 
 16,500 
 
 20-25 
 
 2,000 
 
 ? 
 
 600 
 
 12 
 
 8-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 L 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 9'2in. 
 
 
 12 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 6 -in. 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 48 
 
 Belleville 
 
 25,000 
 
 22 
 
 3,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 894 
 
 18 
 
 12-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 8-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 L 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 9-2 in. 
 
 
 12 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 6 -in. 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 6 
 
 double -end. 
 
 12,000 
 
 19-5 
 
 1260 
 
 14,000 
 
 567 
 
 12 
 
 6-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 cylindr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 L 
 
 
 4 
 2 Subm. 
 
 6 
 
 double -end. 
 
 12,000 
 
 19'5 
 
 1260 
 
 14,000 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Q, F. 
 
 9'2in. 
 
 <)-in. 
 
 559 
 
 12 
 
 6-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 cylindr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 8-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 M 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 Q, F. 
 
 6 -in. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 12 pr. 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 80 
 
 Belleville 
 
 16,500 
 
 20-75 
 
 1000 
 
 ? 
 
 600 
 
 12 
 
 8-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 pr. 
 boat 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 92 in. 
 
 
 12 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 2 Subm, 
 
 48 
 
 Belleville 
 
 25,000 
 
 22-4 
 
 3000 
 
 25,000 
 
 894 
 
 18 
 9 
 
 12-pr. 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 pr. 
 boat 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20* 
 
308 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 
 o 
 
 Dimensions in feet and inches 
 
 i 
 
 Armour 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^.J 
 
 
 
 Name and Class 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 
 o 
 pa 
 
 
 
 
 
 1) 
 
 
 t 
 
 o .a 6 
 
 a 
 
 o S 
 
 Q 
 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 J 
 
 
 P 
 
 HQ 
 
 ,« 
 w 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 Theseus 
 
 1892 
 
 360 
 
 60 
 
 23 ft. 9 in. 
 
 7350 
 
 
 6 
 
 5—1 
 
 Sixteen of the Armoured Cruisers launched previous to 1890 have been turned into the First- 
 There are 20 Armoured Cruisers, of which 13 are steel-built and 7 iron-built. They were 
 The iron -built ships with the exception of the Nelson and the Northampton (which have two) 
 vessel are wood -sheathed and coppered. i 
 
 Three vessels of the 'Formidable' (1st Class Battleship) type are building. '* 
 
 Four vessels of the 'Cressy' (Armoured Cruiser) class, H. P. 21,000, tonnage 12.000, 31 Guns, 
 
 C) Second Class 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cruisers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Apollo 
 
 1891 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Andromache 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Latona 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Melampus 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Naiad 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sappho 
 
 1891 
 
 300 
 
 43 
 
 16ft. 6in. 
 
 3400 
 
 — 
 
 4^2 
 
 2—1 
 
 Scylla 
 
 1892 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sybille 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Terpsichore 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thelis 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trilmne 
 
 1891 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 9 M. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aiolus 
 
 1892 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brilliant 
 
 1891 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indefatigable 
 
 1891 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Intrepid 
 
 1891 
 
 
 
 
 
 wood 
 
 
 
 Iphigenia 
 Rainbow 
 
 1891 
 1891 
 
 300 
 
 43 ft. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 17 ft. 6 in. 
 
 3600 
 
 sheathed 
 and 
 
 4'/. 
 
 2—6 
 
 Retribution 
 
 1891 
 
 
 
 
 
 coppered 
 
 
 
 Pique 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sirius 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spartan 
 
 1891 -• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Astraa 
 
 1893 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bonaventure 
 
 1892 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cambrian 
 
 1898 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Charybdis 
 Folra 
 
 1893 
 1893 
 
 320 
 
 49 ft. 
 6 in. 
 
 19 ft. 
 
 4360 
 
 ditto 
 
 4'/^ 
 
 2—1 
 
 Forte 
 
 1893 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fox 
 
 1893 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Heniiione 
 
 1893 -• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 309 
 
 Armament 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 Boilers 
 
 H. P. 
 
 Speed 
 
 in 
 knots 
 
 Coals 
 
 4-1 
 
 1 
 
 Kind 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Kind 
 
 
 Distance in 
 naut. miles 
 at 10 knots 
 
 f 
 
 2 
 
 
 9-2 in. 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 6 
 
 double -end. 
 
 1,200 
 
 20 
 
 12,000 
 
 ? 
 
 544 
 
 12 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6-pr. 
 3-pr. 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 cylindr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Class Cruiser list. 
 
 launched 1864—1889 with a tonnage varying from 5600 to 12,000, H P. from 2500 to 21,000. 
 
 have one propeller; the steel -built ships have two propellers. Three iron and one steel-built 
 
 Complement 615 type are building. 
 
 ( 2 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 4-7 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 6-pr. 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 9,000 
 
 20 
 
 535 
 
 9,000 
 
 273 
 
 4 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 2 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 4-7 in.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 1 
 
 6-pr. 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 cylindr. 
 
 9,000 
 
 20 
 
 535 
 
 8,500 
 
 273 
 
 4 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ 1 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 2 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 4-7 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 6-pr. 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 9,000 
 
 20 
 
 535 
 
 7,000 
 
 318 
 
 4 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
310 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 
 13 
 1) 
 
 1 
 d 
 
 Dimensions in feet and 
 
 inches 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Armour 
 
 Name and Class 
 
 5 
 
 bo 
 g 
 
 1 
 P3 
 
 A 
 be 
 a 
 
 ho jj 
 rt n! id 
 
 i.ta 
 
 a 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 Eclipse 
 ^ Minerva 
 "- Talbot 
 
 1894 
 1895 
 1895 
 
 jsso 
 
 53 ft. 
 
 20 ft. 6-in. 
 
 20 ft. 6-in. 
 
 21 ft. 
 
 5600 
 
 wood 
 sheathed 
 
 and 
 coppered 
 
 4'/^ 
 
 1V.-3 
 
 Diana 
 
 Dido 
 
 Doris 
 
 1895 
 1896 
 1896 
 
 1350 
 
 54 ft. 
 
 21 ft. 
 
 5600 
 
 ditto 
 
 i'k 
 
 2V« 
 
 Ms 
 Juno 
 
 1896 
 1895 
 
 I 360 
 
 54 ft. 
 
 21ft. 
 
 6600 
 
 ditto 
 
 4V. 
 
 2'/, 
 
 Venus 
 
 1895 
 
 350 
 
 54 ft. 
 
 21 ft. 2 -in. 
 
 5600 
 
 ditto 
 
 4V. 
 
 2Vi! 
 
 Arrogant 
 
 1896 
 
 320 
 
 57 ft. 
 6 -in. 
 
 21 ft. 
 
 5800 
 
 — 
 
 4'/. 
 
 1-2 
 
 Furious 
 Gladiator 
 
 |l896 
 
 820 
 
 57 ft. 
 6 -in. 
 
 22 ft. 
 
 5800 
 
 wood 
 sheathed 
 
 and 
 coppered 
 
 4'/. 
 
 1—2 
 
 Vindictive 
 
 1896 
 
 320 
 
 57 ft. 
 6-in. 
 
 20 ft. 6 -in. 
 
 5800 
 
 " 
 
 4V. 
 
 1—2 
 
 Hermes 
 
 highflyer 
 
 Hyacinth 
 
 jbldg. 
 
 350 
 
 54 ft. 
 
 21 ft. 
 
 5600 
 
 wood 
 sheathed 
 
 and 
 coppered 
 
 4'/^ 
 
 lV«-3 
 
 In addition to the above there are 13 Second-Class Cruisers built between 1868 and 1886, 
 and 6,000). Nine are of steel with twin screws, four of iron with single screws. 
 
 * I i2-pr. boat. ^ I L. 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 311 
 
 
 Armament 
 
 
 
 
 Boilers 
 
 H. P. 
 
 Speed 
 
 in 
 knots 
 
 Coals 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Kind 
 
 1 
 
 No. 
 
 Kind 
 
 c 
 
 u O 
 
 O Fh 
 
 .S Sis 
 111 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 Z 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 e2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 U 
 
 5 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6-in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 4-7 in. 
 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 single-end. 
 
 9,600 
 
 19'5 
 
 1000 
 
 ? 
 
 437 
 
 9 
 
 12-pr 
 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 4-7 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 12-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 single-end. 
 
 9,600 
 
 19-5 
 
 1076 
 
 ? 
 
 450 
 
 4 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 12-pr. 
 boat 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 single-end. 
 
 9,600 
 
 19-5 
 
 1076 
 
 ? 
 
 450 
 
 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Q F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 4-7 in. 
 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 single-end. 
 
 9,600 
 
 19-5 
 
 1076 
 
 ? 
 
 450 
 
 8 
 
 12-pr. 
 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 12-pr. 
 boat 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 4 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 4-7 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 12-pr. 
 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 18 
 
 Belleville 
 
 10,112 
 
 19-5 
 
 400 
 
 ? 
 
 480 
 
 3 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 12-pr. 
 boat 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 4 
 6 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6-in. 
 4-7 in. 
 
 ] 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 18 
 
 Belleville 
 
 10,000 
 
 19 
 
 500 
 
 ? 
 
 480 
 
 1 
 
 12-pr. 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 2 Subm. 
 
 18 
 
 Belleville 
 
 10,000 
 
 19-5 
 
 500 
 
 ? 
 
 450 
 
 5 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 12-pr. 
 boat 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (!.; 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 6-in. 
 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 10,000 
 
 20 
 
 550 
 
 ? 
 
 477 
 
 Q.F. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 smaller 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with tonnage varying from 3,080 to 5,600, and H. P. from 2,400 to 6,000 (mostly between 5,000 
 
312 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 J3 
 U 
 
 q 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 Dimensions in 
 
 feet and inches 
 
 Ship's Bottom 
 
 Armour 
 
 Name and Class 
 
 
 
 A 
 ho 
 
 3 
 
 Q 
 
 Tonnage 
 Displace- 
 ment 
 
 o 1 
 
 Oh 
 
 (U 
 
 Q 
 
 D) Third Class 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cruisers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pallas 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-1 
 
 Pearl 1 
 Fhiloviel \ 
 
 1890 
 
 265 
 
 41 ft. 
 
 15ft. 6 in. 
 
 2575 
 
 
 4" 
 
 Phoebe ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pelorus 
 
 1896) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pomone 
 
 1897 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pactolus 
 
 1897 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perseus 
 
 1896 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prometheus 
 
 1896 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pegasus 
 
 1897 \ 
 
 bldg. 
 
 1896 
 
 300 
 
 36 ft. 6 in. 
 
 17 ft. 
 
 2135 
 
 
 •22 
 
 o 
 
 Pyramus 
 Proserpine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pioneer 
 
 Pandora 
 
 Psyche 
 
 bldg. 
 bldg. 
 bldg.J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 There are besides, 38 third-class cruisers, built between 1878 and 1890. Their 
 built hull, the rest are all of steel, fourteen being wood-sheathed and coppered 
 vessels belonging to Austraha are included in this class. 
 
 E) Torpedo Gun- 
 boats 
 
 Grasshopper 
 Sharpshooter 
 Alarm 
 Dryad 
 
 1887 
 
 200 
 
 23 ft. 
 
 8 ft. 9 in. 
 
 525 
 
 Conning 
 tower 
 
 1 in. 
 
 Deck 
 
 ■7 in. 
 
 Four vessels of the "Grasshopper" type are building. 
 
 — II 230 I 27 ft- I 8 ft. 3 in. | 735 || || 1 in. | 
 
 Thirteen vessels of the "Sharpshooter" type launched 1888— 189 1. 
 
 — II 230 I 27 ft. 1 8 ft. 9 in. | 810 || || _ | 
 
 Eleven vessels of the "Alarm" type launched 1892 — 1893. 
 
 — II 250 I 30ft. 6 in. I 9 ft, | 1070 || 11 _ 1 
 
 Five vessels of the "Dryad" type launched 1893—1894. 
 
TEE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 313 
 
 Armament 
 
 o 
 
 Boilers 
 
 H. P. 
 
 Speed 
 
 in 
 knots 
 
 Coals 
 
 S 
 
 u 
 
 (U 
 
 1 
 
 Kind 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Kind 
 
 OH 
 
 .s s ^ 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 4-7 in. 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 J 7,500 
 
 19 
 
 440 
 
 6,000 
 
 217 
 
 4 
 
 M 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Water tube 
 
 7,000 
 
 20 
 
 250 
 
 7,000 
 
 224 
 
 8 
 
 3-pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 onnag-e and H. P. vary between 1400 and 9000. Four of these have a composite- 
 Dwenty-four are propelled by twin screws, the rest by single screws. The four 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Radius 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Action 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in Miles 
 
 
 1 
 
 B. L. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 2700 
 
 19 
 
 80 
 
 2,400 
 
 63 
 
 6 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 P/, in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 4»/, in. 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Water tube 
 
 3500 
 
 19 
 
 160 
 
 3,200 
 
 91 
 
 4 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 P/, in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 4«/, in. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 3500 
 
 19'/4 
 
 100 
 
 2500 
 
 85 
 
 4 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 I'i, in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 4^/4 in. 
 
 5 
 
 _ 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 3500 
 
 18'/2 
 
 100 
 
 2500 
 
 115 
 
 4 
 
 Q. F. 
 
 2V4 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
314 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 
 T3 
 
 -a 
 o 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Dimensions in feet and inches 
 
 S 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 PQ 
 
 CO 
 
 Armour 
 
 Name and Class 
 
 c 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 ni 
 u 
 
 Q 
 
 Tonnage 
 Displace- 
 ment 
 
 Gun 
 Position 
 
 Q 
 
 F) Torpedo-boat 
 destroyers 
 
 Ninety to a 
 
 hundred vessels of the "Havock" 
 
 "Hornet", "Griffon", and 
 
 Havock 
 
 1893 
 
 180 
 
 18 ft. 6 in. 
 
 5 ft. 3 in. 
 
 240 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Hornet 
 
 1893 
 
 180 
 
 18 ft. 6 in. 
 
 5 ft. 8 in. 
 
 240 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Griffon 
 
 1896 
 
 200 
 
 20 ft. 
 
 5 ft. 3 in. 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Express 
 
 4897 
 
 227 ft. 
 7 in. 
 
 22 ft. 
 
 9 ft. 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 To these Lists must be added the vessels named in the additional programme 
 and 12 Torpedo-boat destroyers. 
 
 ' Many of these are now completed. 
 
THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 315 
 
 Armament 
 
 a. .^ 
 o 
 
 Boilers 
 
 H. P. 
 
 Speed 
 
 in 
 knots 
 
 Coals 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 Kind 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Kind 
 
 to 
 
 Distance in 
 naut. miles 
 at 10 knots 
 
 "a, 
 
 e 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "Express" type are building.' 
 
 12-pr. 
 Q. F. 
 
 Sin. 
 
 Q. F. 
 12-pr. 
 Q. F. 
 
 2^4 in. 
 3 in. 
 
 6-pr. 
 Q. F. 
 
 2V4 in. 
 
 12-pr. 
 Q. F. 
 6-pr. 
 Q. F. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 2^4 in. 
 
 12-pr. 
 Q. F. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 6-pr. 
 Q. F. 
 
 2'(4 in. 
 
 — 80 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 3,500 
 
 26-77 
 
 57 
 
 — 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 4,000 
 
 27-3 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 6,000 
 
 30-11 
 
 58 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7,700 
 
 83 
 
 80 
 
 — 
 
 43 
 
 — 60 
 
 of Mr. Goschen's Supplementary Estimate: 4 more battle-ships, 4 more cruisers, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 (The numbers refer to the pages.) 
 
 I. Admirals. 
 
 Alfred, Prince, Duke of 
 Coburg Gotha 127. 
 
 Anson 21, 22, 23, 43, 59, 
 80, 192, 206. 
 
 Ascue 14. 
 
 Beechey 43. 
 Benbow 114. 
 Beresford 41, 80, 247. 
 Blake 12, 13, 14, 46, 79, 
 
 113, 206. 
 Boscawen 23, 24. 
 Bridport 30. 
 Byng 23. 
 
 Chateau Renault (French) 
 
 18. 
 Cockburn 232. 
 Colbert (French) 17. 
 Colomb 80. 
 Conflans (French) 24. 
 Courbet (French) 282. 
 
 Darby 28. 
 
 De Grasse (French) 27. 
 
 Duckworth 36. 
 
 Duncan 31. 
 
 Du Quesne (French) 18, 20. 
 
 Fisher 274. 
 
 Fitzroy 43. 
 
 Hawke 22, 23, 24, 59, 80. 
 
 Herbert 18. 
 
 Hornby, Sir Geoffrey 247. 
 
 Hotham 30. 
 
 Howe 23, 28, 30, 201. 
 
 Hozier 59. 
 
 Hughes 27. 
 
 Jervis 30, 3i. 39, 47, 59, 
 80. 
 
 Keppel 26. 
 
 La Gallissonifere (French) 
 23. 
 
 Napier 261. 
 
 Nelson 30, 3', 32, 33, 34, 
 35, 80, 127, 203. 
 
 Parker 32. 
 Parry 43. 
 Penn 15, 202. 
 
 Rodney 23, 26, 27. 
 Rooke 19. 
 
 Ruyter (Dutch) 14, 16, 17, 
 18. 
 
 Scott 243, 262, 271. 
 
 Suffren (French) 27, 32, 
 Senjavin (Russian) 37. 
 Smyth, W. H. 43. 
 
 Tourville (French) 18, 20. 
 Tromp (Dutch) 14. 
 
 Villeneuve (French) 34. 
 
 Wales, Prince of 127, 128. 
 Wallis, Sir Provo 114. 
 Warwick (Kingmaker) 45. 
 William H., German Em- 
 peror 126, 128. 
 With, De (Dutch) 14, 16. 
 
 II. Ships. 
 
 Achilles 233. 
 Active 242, 262. 
 Admiral Class 240. 
 vEolus 250, 308. 
 Agamemnon 231, 239, 240. 
 Agincourt 233, 264, 285. 
 Ajax 240. 
 Akbar 164. 
 Alarm 250, 312. 
 Albemarle 282. 
 Albert 289. 
 Albion 300. 
 Alecto 231, 260. 
 Alexandra 56, loi, 178. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 317 
 
 Amphion 243. 
 Amphitrite 304. 
 Andromache 308. 
 Andromeda 304. 
 Anson 300. 
 Apollo 250, 308. 
 Archer 245. 
 Arethusa 163. 
 Argonaut 304. 
 Ariadne 304. 
 Arrogant 255, 310. 
 Astraea 250, 308. 
 Audacious 236, 262. 
 Aurora 244. 
 
 Bacchante 243. 
 Barfleur 249, 298. 
 Barrosa 245. 
 Basilisk 260. 
 Bellerophon 37, 235, 236, 
 
 257, 264, 268, 285. 
 Bellona 7i, 245. 
 Benbow 240, 269, 300. 
 Black Prince 40, 232, 233, 
 
 261. 
 Blake 244, 304. 
 Blenheim 238, 239, 244, 
 
 304. 
 Bonaventure 308. 
 Brandenburg (German) 252. 
 Britannia 118, 188. 
 Brilliant 308. 
 
 Caesar 298. 
 Calliope 244. 
 Cambrian 308. 
 Cambridge 187. 
 Camperdown 302. 
 Canopus (French) 228. 
 Canopus (English) 300. 
 Captain 40, 242. 
 Centurion 249, 259, 270, 
 
 298. 
 Cerberus 290. 
 Charybdis 308. 
 Clarence 164. 
 Clermont (American) 230. 
 Clio 163. 
 
 CoUingwood 240, 302. 
 Colossus 240, 269. 
 Conqueror 263. 
 Conway 117, 163. 
 Cordelia 244. 
 Cornwall 164. 
 "Corvette rapides" 242. 
 Courageux (French) 228. 
 Crescent 249, 304. 
 Curlew 71. 
 
 Defiance 187. 
 Deutschland (German) 235, 
 
 286. 
 Devastation 237, 239, 262. 
 Diadem 255, 304. 
 Diana 310. 
 Dido 310. 
 Doris 310. 
 Dove 289. 
 
 Dreadnought 239, 240. 
 Dryad 250, 312. 
 Duguay Trouin (French) 
 
 243- 
 Duke of Wellington 229, 
 
 230, 261. 
 Du Quesne (French) 243. 
 
 Eclipse 253, 310. 
 
 Edgar 249, 304. 
 
 Edinburgh 240, 269. 
 
 Empress 164. 
 
 Empress of India 93, 298. 
 
 Enchantress 289. 
 
 Endymion 304. 
 
 Europa 304. 
 
 Euryalus 243. 
 
 Excellent 38, 119, 122, 123, 
 
 125, 132, 187. 
 Exmouth 163, 164. 
 Express 314. 
 
 Firebrand 231. 
 
 Flora 308. 
 
 Formidable 164, 300. 
 
 Forte 308. 
 
 Foudroyant (French) 228. 
 
 Fox 308. 
 
 Furious 310. 
 
 Gibraltar 306. 
 Gladiator 310. 
 Gloire (French) 40, 232, 
 
 233, 256. 
 Glorioso (Spanish) 228. 
 Glory 300. 
 Goliath 300. 
 Gorgon 260. 
 Grafton 306. 
 Grampian 164. 
 Grasshopper 312. 
 Great Eastern 232. 
 Griffon 180, 314. 
 
 Halcyon 71. 
 
 Hannibal 298. 
 
 Havanna 163. 
 
 Havock 251, 287, 314. 
 
 Hawke 306. 
 
 Hebe (French) 228. 
 
 Hecla 288. 
 
 Henry Grace k Dieu 8, 9. 
 
 Herald 289. 
 
 Hercules 235, 257, 264, 
 
 268, 286. 
 Hermes 310. 
 Hermione 308. 
 Highflyer 310. 
 Hibernia 103. 
 Hood 298. 
 Hornet 251, 314. 
 Hotspur 237. 
 Howe 230, 302. 
 Huascar (Peruvian) 243. 
 Hyacinth 310. 
 
 Illustrious 298. 
 Impdrieuse 244. 
 Implacable 300. 
 Impregnable 186. 
 Inconstant 134, 242, 243, 
 
 262. 
 Indefatigable 163, 308. 
 Inflexible 239, 258. 260, 
 
 268, 274. 
 Intrepid 308. 
 
318 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Invincible (French) 228. 
 Invincible 236. 
 Iphigenia 308. 
 Irresistible 300. 
 Iris 243, 244, 262. 
 Isis 310. 
 
 Juno 310. 
 Jupiter 298. 
 
 Kaiser (German) 235, 286. 
 
 Latona 308. 
 Lightning 245, 284. 
 
 Magicienne 245. 
 Magnificent 92, 252, 255, 
 
 298. 
 Majestic 252, 254, 255, 298. 
 Malacca 261. 
 Marlborough 230. 
 Mars 164, 298. 
 Mary Rose 206. 
 Medea 245. 
 Melampus 308. 
 Mercury 243, 244, 262. 
 Minerva 310. 
 Minotaur 234, 257. 
 Monarch 236, 268. 
 Monitor 235, 237, 256. 
 Mosquito 289, 
 Mount Edgecumbe 164. 
 
 Naiad 308. 
 
 Napoleon (French) 39, 230. 
 
 Nautilus (French) 278. 
 
 Nelson 243, 286. 
 
 Niagara 231, 241. 
 
 Niger 260. 
 
 Nile 240, 241, 302. 
 
 Niobe 306. 
 
 Northampton 243. 
 
 Number 80, 245. 
 
 Oberon 265, 279. 
 Ocean 300. 
 Octavia 242. 
 Orlando 231, 241, 
 
 Osborne 289. 
 
 Pactolus 312. 
 
 Pallas 261, 312. 
 
 Pandora 312. 
 
 Pearl 217, 312. 
 
 Pegasus 312. 
 
 Pelorus 255, 312. 
 
 Penelope 260, 261. 
 
 Perseus 312. 
 
 Phoebe 312. 
 
 Philomel 312. 
 
 Pioneer 312. 
 
 Pique 308. 
 
 Pomone 312. 
 
 Powerful 252, 255, 263, 306, 
 
 Prince Albert 235. 
 
 Prince George 298. 
 
 Princeton (American) 231. 
 
 Prometheus 312. 
 
 Proserpine 312. 
 
 Psyche 312. 
 
 Pylades 244. 
 
 Pyramus 312. 
 
 ; Queen 230. 
 
 Rainbow 308. 
 
 Raleigh 243. 
 
 Ramillies 298. 
 
 Rattler 231, 260. 
 
 Rattlesnake 246, 262. 
 
 Reindeer 180. 
 
 Renown 206, 251, 252, 254, 
 
 259, 265, 300. 
 Repulse 298. 
 Resolution, 93, 298. 
 Retribution 308. 
 Revenge 298. 
 Rodney 302. 
 Royal Arthur 276, 306. 
 Royal Oak 298. 
 Royal Sovereign 71, 92, 
 
 206, 234, 248, 249, 250, 
 
 252, 255, 298. 
 Rupert 237. 
 
 Sans Pareil 241, 264, 269, 
 302. 
 
 Sappho 308. 
 
 Scylla 308. . 
 
 Serpent 245. 
 
 Shah 243. 
 
 Shannon 217, 231, 241, 
 
 243- 
 Sharpshooter 246, 250, 312. 
 Sirius 308. 
 Southampton 164. 
 Sovereign of the Seas 11, 
 
 206, 228. 
 Spartan 274, 308, 
 Spartiate 306. 
 St. George 15, 306. 
 Sultan 235. 
 Sybille 308. 
 
 Talbot 310. 
 
 Temeraire 239, 272. 
 
 Terpsichore 308. 
 
 Terrible 252, 253, 260, 306. 
 
 Theseus 308. 
 
 Thetis 308. 
 
 Thunderer 237, 239, 257, 
 
 268, 270. 
 Tourville (French) 242. 
 Trafalgar 240, 302. 
 Tribune 308. 
 Triumph 206. 
 
 Valiant 285. 
 
 Vanguard 230. 
 
 Vengeance 302. 
 
 Venus 310. 
 
 Vernon 119, 122, 125, 132, 
 
 187, 284. 
 Victoria 124, 230, 241, 242, 
 
 269. 
 Victorious 298. 
 Victory 88. 
 Vindictive 310. 
 Volage 242, 262. 
 Vulcan 264, 288. 
 
 Warrior 40, 232, 233, 241, 
 248, 256, 257, 261, 264, 
 267, 286. 
 
 Warspite 163, 164, 244, 
 262. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 319 
 
 Wellesley 164. 
 Worcester 117, 163. 
 
 III. Various. 
 
 Abel and Nobel 272. 
 Able Seamen 187. 
 Aboukir, see Nile 32, 201. 
 Abuses in Administration 
 
 47. 
 Abyssinia, war with 217. 
 Accountant General of the 
 
 Navy 73. 
 Accountant Officers 150. 
 Accounts Branch 70. 
 Acting Sub-Lieutenant 119. 
 Addington's Ministry 33. 
 Aden 38. 
 Admiral of England (first) 
 
 45- 
 Admiral Superintendent of 
 
 Naval Reserves, Office 
 
 of 56. 
 Admiralty Committee 47. 
 Aixla-Chapelle, peace of 
 
 22. 
 Aix, Isle of 36. 
 Alberoni, Cardinal 20. 
 Algesiras 28. 
 Algiers 15. 
 Alfred the Great 4. 
 Allowances, Extra 180, 181. 
 America, North 16, 2I, 22, 
 
 25, 26, 29. 
 American War of Liberation 
 
 157- 
 Amiens, peace of 33. 
 Ancient Usage at Sea 45. 
 Anglo-Dutch Wars 14, 16, 
 
 17- 
 Anglo-Saxons 4. 
 Anne, Queen 46. 
 Antigua 68, 108. 
 Antilles, Lesser 16, 25, 27. 
 Armada 3, 10, 59, no, in. 
 Armour of hardened nickel 
 
 steel 258. 
 Armourers 169. 
 
 Armstrong 97, 267, 274. 
 
 Armstrong System at Wool- 
 wich 269. 
 
 Articles of war 204, 205, 
 221. 
 
 Artificers on board 169. 
 
 Artificers on board, ex- 
 amination 170. 
 
 Artificers on board, pro- 
 motion 169. 
 
 Artificers on board, wages 
 169. 
 
 Ascension 60, 68, 107. 
 
 Ashanti, War with 217. 
 
 Assiento 19. 
 
 Assistant Engineers 137. 
 
 Assistant Engineers, Prob- 
 ationary 137, 138. 
 
 Astaki 265. 
 
 Atlantic 15, 19. 
 
 Australia 43. 
 
 Australian Governments 
 290. 
 
 Austraha Station 105. 
 
 Austria 19, 34, 36, 278. 
 
 Auxiliary Cruisers 288. 
 
 Auxiliary Machinery 264. 
 
 Auxiliary Engines 265. 
 
 Baltic 294. 
 
 Bantry Bay, battle of 18. 
 
 Barbary States 12. 
 
 Barracks 100. 
 
 Barrack-Schools for Mar- 
 ines 190. 
 
 Bart, Jan t8. 
 
 Batavian Republic 30. 
 
 Beachy Head 5, 33. 
 
 Beachy Head, Battle of 18. 
 
 Bearhaven no. 
 
 Beaufort 43. 
 
 Belcher 43. 
 
 Belleville boilers 263. 
 
 Bermudas 15, 60, 68, 108, 
 igo. 
 
 Birmah, War with 38, 217. 
 
 Birmingham 98. 
 
 Black book 203. 
 
 Black Prince 7. 
 Black Sea 102. 
 Blacksmiths 169. 
 Blue jackets 194. 
 Blenheim, battle of 238. 
 Boatswain 153. 
 Boatswain Signal 153. 
 Bombay 60, 68. 
 Bonaparte 32, 33. 
 Boulogne, camp of 33, 34. 
 Breda, peace of 17. 
 Breech-Loaders 269. 
 Brennan-Torpedo 282, 283. 
 Brest 30, 31, 34, 59, 206, 
 
 278. 
 "Britannia" 116, 118, 120, 
 
 188. 
 "Britannia", Captain of 
 
 188. 
 "Britannia", Staff of 188. 
 British Seas 3, 4, 15, 17. 
 Brown, John 256, 258. 
 Buckingham, Duke of 45. 
 BuUivant 284. 
 Burgoyne, General 25. 
 Bushnell 278. 
 Bute 25. 
 Byron 43. 
 
 Cabot 43. 
 
 Cadiz 10, 15, 31, 34. 
 
 Caesar, Julius 4. 
 
 Calcutta 217. 
 
 Cammell, Charles & Co. 
 
 258, 278. 
 Camperdown, Battle of 31. 
 Canada 19, 24, 25, 29, 290. 
 Canteen 220. 
 Cape of Good Hope 31. 
 
 37, 60, 68, 107, 108. 
 Cape of Good Hope and 
 
 West Africa, Station 107. 
 Captain, promotion to rank 
 
 of 126. 
 Captains, duties of 125. 
 Captains, number of 128. 
 Carolina 17. 
 Carpenters i6g. 
 
320 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Carpenter, Candidate for 
 
 rank of 153. 
 Carron 266. 
 Carronade 266. 
 Carteret 25, 43. 
 Caulkers 169. 
 Certificates first class 123. 
 Ceylon 27, 33. 
 Channel Isles 12. 
 Channel Squadron, Range 
 
 of lOI. 
 Chaplains, pay of 147, I49- 
 Charitable Institutions, 
 
 private 227. 
 Charles I. 11, 12, 14, 16, 
 
 45, 59, 201. 
 Charles II. 16, 17, 46, q6, 
 
 114, 156, 173, 183- 
 Chatham 17, 68, 87, 97, 
 
 183, 190, 290. 
 Chatham Chest 183. 
 Chesney, General 80, 293. 
 Chief Engineer; promotion 
 
 to rank of I39- 
 Chief Engine-Room Arti- 
 ficers, table of wages 
 168. 
 Chief Inspector of Ma- 
 chinery, promotion to 
 rank of 140. 
 China Sea 42. 
 China, Station 105. 
 China, Wars with 38, 217. 
 Cinque Ports 6, 7. 
 Civil Branch 54. 
 Civil Departments 47. 
 Civil (,6th) Lord 52. 
 Clergy, Service of 146. 
 Close Hauled 16. 
 Coarse grained black pow 
 
 der 272. 
 Coast Guard 177. 
 Coast Guard, Districts of 
 
 177- 
 Coast-Guard, Headquarters 
 
 of 177. 
 Cocoa Powder 272. 
 Colbert 17, 294. 
 
 Columbus 43. 
 
 Commander, promotion to 
 rank of 124. 
 
 Commander, employment 
 of 124. 
 
 Commander in-Chief on 
 foreign stations loi. 
 
 Commencement of a De- 
 finite Organisation of 
 England's power at sea 6. 
 
 Commissaries of the Navy 
 12. 
 
 Commission for the Coast- 
 Defence 109. 
 
 Commissioners for execut- 
 ing the office of Lord 
 High Admiral &c. 46. 
 Commodore in Command 
 
 lOI. 
 
 Compass and Chronometer 
 
 Sections 191. 
 Compound Armour 258. 
 Compound Engines 261. 
 Constantinople 36. 
 Constructive Branch 61. 
 Contact Mines 278, 280. 
 Continental System 36. 
 Continuous Service 158. 
 Contract and Purchase 
 
 Department 73. 
 Controller of the Navy 51. 
 Cook, Captain 25, 114. 
 Cook Ship's 171- 
 Cook Ship's, pay of 172. 
 Copenhagen, battles of 32, 
 
 36. 
 Coquimbo 60. 
 Cordite powder 274. 
 Cornwallis, General Lord 
 
 27- 
 
 Corporal 1st class 170. 
 
 Corporal 2d class 170. 
 
 Corps of Naval Officers, 
 foundation of 114. 
 
 Corruption in Administra- 
 tion 31. 
 
 Council of Naval Educa- 
 tion 188. 
 
 Courts Martial 204, 222. 
 
 Creeping 281. 
 
 Cressy, battle of 7, 191. 
 
 Crew 155. 
 
 Crimean War 39, 260, 267, 
 
 294. 
 Cromwell 12, 14, 15, 16, 
 
 23, 46, 79, 23S. 
 Gushing, Lieutenant 282. 
 Custom-House Officers 177. 
 
 Damme, battle of 6. 
 
 Danish fleet 29. 
 
 Danube 40. 
 
 Davis 9, 43. 
 
 Denmark and Danes 33, 
 36, 278. 
 
 Department of the Medical 
 Director General of the 
 Navy 57. 
 
 Department of the Secre- 
 tary of the Admiralty 54. 
 
 Department of Works 71. 
 
 Deptford Dockyard 45, 60, 
 
 68, 97. 
 Deputy Inspector General 
 of Hospitals and Fleets 
 
 H3- 
 Despatch vessels and boats 
 
 243, 289. 
 Destroying enemy's mines 
 
 281. 
 Devonport 68, 87, 97, g8, 
 
 190, 290. 
 Dietary 217. 
 Director of Dockyards 68, 
 
 69. 
 
 Director General of Artil- 
 lery 98. 
 
 Director of Naval Con- 
 struction 68. 
 
 Director of Ordnance 67. 
 
 Director of Transports 58. 
 
 Director of Victualling 60. 
 
 Director of Works 71. 
 
 Disciplinary punishment 
 223, 224. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 321 
 
 Disciplinary punishment, 
 
 statistics of 224, 225. 
 Division of ships in the 
 
 Reserve: A— E 89. 
 Dockyard Schools 190. 
 Dogger Bank, battle of the 
 
 28. 
 Dominica 12, 25. 
 Dominica, battle of 27. 
 Dorking, battle of 293. 
 Dover, battle of 6. 
 Dover, Forts of no. 
 Dover, straits of 15. 
 Drake, Sir Francis 9, 10, 
 
 43- 
 Dry-Docks in Commercial 
 
 Ports 98. 
 Duelling forbidden 225. 
 Dugay-Trouin 18. 
 Dungeness 18. 
 Dungeness, battle of 7. 
 Dunquerque 11, 16, 19, 
 
 28, 79. 
 Durban 68. 
 Dutch, see Holland. 
 Duties of Defence 81. 
 
 Earl, Hull 264. 
 East Indies 22, 24, 27, 30. 
 East Indies, Station 104. 
 Edward III. 8, 204. 
 Edward III., Lord of the 
 
 Narrow Seas 7. 
 Edward VI. 9. 
 Effective and non-effective 
 
 services 78. 
 Egypt, war in 217. 
 Eleanor of Guienne 203. 
 Electric Action 270. 
 Electro Contact Mines 279. 
 Elizabeth, Queen 9, 59, 
 
 79, 96, III, 183, 290. 
 Elliott 28. 
 Employment of the Navy 
 
 in War 83. 
 Enfield 98. 
 Engineer-in-Chief of the 
 
 Navy 51, 64, 65. 
 
 Engine-Room Artificers, 
 
 134, 165, 166. 
 Engine-Room Artificers, 
 
 table of wages 167. 
 
 Engine-Room ArjowKc/ 168. 
 
 Engineer Artificer 167. 
 
 Engineers , Education of 
 136, 137. 
 
 Engineers , Entrance Ex- 
 amination 136. 
 
 Engineers , promotion of 
 140. 
 
 Engineers , recruiting of 
 136. 
 
 Engineers, table of pay 
 141. 
 
 Engineer Students' Train- 
 ing School 190. 
 
 Entrance Examinations are 
 
 Competitive 117. 
 Entrance into Navy at 
 
 early age 120. 
 Epaulettes 193. 
 Esquimalt 60, 68. 
 Estimates, preparation of 
 
 78. 
 Estimates 1896/97 291. 
 
 ditto 1898/99 291. 
 Eugene 238. 
 Examinations 117. 
 Examination Certificates 
 
 137- 
 Examination, Officers' 119. 
 Extent of Work in the 
 
 Home Yards 94. 
 
 Falkland Isles 38. 
 
 Falmouth no, 
 
 Ferrol 34. 
 
 Ferrule for fire-tubes 263. 
 
 Finisterre, Cape, battles of 
 
 22. 
 Fire Bill 212. 
 Fire Ships 16. 
 Fire-tube boilers 260. 
 First English Fleet 4. 
 First Line of Defence 84. 
 
 First Line of Naval Re- 
 serve 177, 178. 
 
 First Lord 48, 49. 
 
 Firth 278. 
 
 Flags, History of 199. 
 
 Flag Officers, number of 
 128. 
 
 Flags of Command, posi- 
 tion of 201, 202. 
 
 Flag of Mercantile Navy 
 202. 
 
 Fleet Engineer, promotion 
 to rank of 140. 
 
 Flinders 43. 
 
 Florida 25, 28. 
 
 Flushing 36. 
 
 Followers 116. 
 
 Forced Draught 263. 
 
 Foreign Stations of the 
 Navy 87, 108. 
 
 France and French 6, 7, 
 II, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 
 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 
 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 
 
 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 46, 
 97, 263, 265, 266. 
 
 Franklin, Sir John 43. 
 Frederick the Great 23. 
 Fry Elizabeth 220. 
 Frobisher 9, 43. 
 Fuel and hquid ditto 265. 
 Fiinen, island of 37. 
 Fulton 278. 
 
 Gardner 274. 
 
 Gathng 274. 
 
 Generals and Admirals at 
 Sea 12. 
 
 George, Prince of Den- 
 mark 46. 
 
 George II. 23, 192. 
 
 German Empire 18. 
 
 German Ocean 28. 
 
 Ghent, peace of 37. 
 
 Gibraltar 19, 23, 24, 28, 
 60, 68, 104, 108. 
 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 43. 
 21 
 
322 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY, 
 
 Gladstone Rosebery 
 
 Ministry 251. 
 Good Conduct Badges 162, 
 
 181. 
 Goschen, Rt. Honble. G. 
 
 J- 49- 
 Gosport 60, 61. 
 Graham, Sir James 39. 
 Gravelines 10. 
 Greenwich-Age-Pension 
 
 182. 
 Greenwich Hospital 72, 
 
 183. 
 Greenwich Naval College 
 
 125, 184, 188. 
 Greenwich-Observatory 
 
 igr. 
 Greenwood & Batley 283. 
 Grenade-Gun 266, 267. 
 Grog 207. 
 Guiana 15. 
 Gun Carriages 270. 
 Gunner, Candidate for rank 
 
 of 153. 
 Gun Wharves (home) 98. 
 Gunnery and Torpedo 
 
 School 122. 
 
 Halifax 22, 60, 68, 107. 
 Hamilton , Lord George 
 
 218. 
 Harbour Defence 279. 
 Harold, King 5. 
 Harland & Wolff 93. 
 Harvey 258. 
 Harveyised hardened steel 
 
 259- 
 Harwich 177. 
 Hastings, battle of 5. 
 Haulbowline 60, 68, 94, 97. 
 Havana 24. 
 Havre 34. 
 
 Hawkins, Sirjohn 9, 10, 96. 
 Hawthorne and Leslie, 
 
 Newcastle 93, 264. 
 Heads &c. of Departments 
 
 of Portsmouth Dockyard 
 
 96, 97. 
 
 Head Engineer, duties of 
 
 135- 
 Helgoland 37. 
 Henry II. 203. 
 Henry III. 6, 
 Henry IV. of Lancaster 8, 
 
 45- 
 Henry V. 7. 
 Henry VI, 8, 45, 48. 
 Henry VII. 8, 43. 
 Henry VIII. 8, 9, 45, 96, 
 
 III, 183, 237. 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, Prince 
 
 of 19. 
 Heyn, Peter 14. 
 High Pressure Engines 
 
 261. 
 Holland 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 
 
 25, 28, 29, 32, 33, 36, 
 
 37- 
 Holyhead 177. 
 Home-Stations, ranges of 
 
 88. 
 Hong-Kong 38, 60, 68, 
 
 105, 288. 
 Hood, Lord 202. 
 Hoofden 14, 16, 17. 
 Hotchkiss and Nordenfeldt 
 
 274. 
 Hospitals 99. 
 Hubert de Burgh 6. 
 Hubertusburg, peace of 25. 
 Hudson, Henry 43. 
 Hull 177. 
 Humphries & Tennant 93, 
 
 261, 264. 
 Hydraulic Buffer 272. 
 Hydraulic Power 270. 
 Hydrographic Department 
 
 55- 
 Hygiene 226. 
 Hygiene, Statistics of 226. 
 
 Imperial Defence Act 42. 
 Indian Navy 290. 
 Inman, Professor 115, 188. 
 Inspector of Dockyards 
 68. 
 
 Inspector General of Hos- 
 pitals and Fleets 143. 
 
 Inspector of Machinery, 
 promotion to rank of 
 140. 
 
 Institution of Naval Archi- 
 tects 191. 
 
 Institutions for training 
 boys 163. 
 
 Instruction, other courses 
 of 123. 
 
 Intelligence Department 
 41, 50, 281. 
 
 Invasion of England, plan 
 of, by Napoleon 34. 
 
 Ionian Island 37. 
 
 Iron-clad cruisers 243. 
 
 Italy 265. 
 
 Jack Tar 194. 
 
 Jamaica 15. 
 
 James I. 10, 11, 14, 183. 
 
 James II. 17, 46. 
 
 Java 36. 
 
 John, King 6. 
 
 Joint Naval and Military 
 
 Committee of Defence 
 
 77- 
 Junior (4th) Naval Lord 
 
 50. 
 
 Keyham Naval College 
 
 138, 139- 
 Keyham Training College 
 
 for Engineers 190. 
 Kinburn, bombardment of 
 
 231, 267. 
 King's Council 44. 
 King's Letter 114. 
 Kingstown 177. 
 Kinsale, Ireland 12. 
 Kronstadt 278. 
 
 La Hogue, battle of 18, 
 
 183, 184. 
 Laird Bros. Birkenhead 93, 
 
 97, 262, 264. 
 Large Docks 97. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 323 
 
 Large Yards at home and 
 
 abroad 68. 
 Leaving Examination 137. 
 Legal branch 54. 
 Length of Service 162. 
 Lee-Metford Magazine Rifle 
 
 285. 
 Libraries 220. 
 Lisbon 12. 
 Lieutenant, rank of 113, 
 
 119, 121. 
 London, forts of 110. 
 London, peace of 15. 
 Longridge 277. 
 L'Orient, battle of 30. 
 Lords Commissioners 48, 
 
 49. 
 Lords of the Admiralty 46. 
 Lord High Admiral 8, 16, 
 
 45, 46. 
 Louis XIV. 17, 18, 19,294. 
 Louis XV. 21. 
 Louis XVI. 29. 
 Louisiana 19. 
 Lough S willy no. 
 Ldvi'estoft, battle of 16. 
 Lucknow 217. 
 
 McChntock 43. 
 
 McClure 43. 
 
 Magazine Rifles 285. 
 
 Magelhan 10. 
 
 Mahon, port of 19, 23. 
 
 Malaga, battle of 19. 
 
 Malta 15, 33, 60, 68, 104, 
 190. 
 
 Manila 24. 
 
 Manoeuvres 40, 293. 
 
 Marines , Artillery Candi- 
 dates 132. 
 
 Marines , first introduced 
 156, 173- 
 
 Marines , Infantry Candi- 
 dates 132. 
 
 Marines, Promotion 132, 
 
 175- 
 Marines, table of pay (Of- 
 ficers) 133. 
 
 Marines, Enlistment of 1 74. 
 Marines, History of 173. 
 Marines, kit and uniform 
 
 174, 175- 
 Marines, rations 175. 
 Marines, table of wages 
 
 176. 
 Maritime trade of Great 
 
 Britain 82. 
 Marlborough 238. 
 Mary of Orange 183, 184, 
 Mary Tudor 9, 183. 
 "Master", a Naval Officer 
 
 III, 116, 131. 
 Master-at-Arms 170, 171. 
 Mastery over the sea im- 
 portant to England 3. 
 Mates 116. 
 Maudsley & Field 93, 259, 
 
 261, 263, 264, 265. 
 Maurice of the Palatinate 
 
 12. 
 Mauritius 37. 
 Maury, Captain 278. 
 Maxim 276. 
 Medical, Director-General 
 
 of the Navy 57. 
 Medical Officers , retired 
 pay and gratuities 145. 
 Mediterranean 12, 19, 21, 
 
 28, 42. 
 Mediterranean, Station 102. 
 Men before the Mast 153. 
 Mercantile Navy (British) 
 
 82. 
 Mercantile Navy, flag of 
 
 202. 
 Methuen, treaty of 19. 
 Midshipmen 118, 119. 
 Mihtary branch 54. 
 Milford Haven 68. 
 Minefields 279. 
 Mines 278. 
 
 Mines of Contact 280. 
 Mines, improvised 280. 
 Mines, position of 279, 280. 
 Mines, removal of 281. 
 Mining flotilla 290. 
 
 Minorca 19, 23, 28. 
 
 Miquelon 28. 
 
 Mississipi 19. 
 
 Mitchell & Co. , Newcastle 
 
 97- 
 Monk 14. 
 Mutiny of the Nore &c. 
 
 31. 
 Muzzle-Loaders 268. 
 
 Naples 15. 
 
 Napoleon 18, 32, 34, 35 
 36, 37, 278. 
 
 Nares 43. 
 
 Narrow Seas 3, 7, 14, 16. 
 
 Natal 68. 
 
 National Flag of England 
 200. 
 
 Nautical Almanac 191. 
 
 Naval Architects, institu- 
 tion of 191, 235. 
 
 Naval Architecture, School 
 of 229. 
 
 Naval Branch 54. 
 
 Naval Brigades 217. 
 
 Naval Cadets 115, 118. 
 
 Naval Chaplains 145. 
 
 Naval Chaplains, table of 
 pay 149. 
 
 Naval College at Green- 
 wich 184, 186. 
 
 Naval College at Keyham 
 138- 
 
 Naval College at Ports- 
 mouth 115, 187, 
 
 Naval Construction and 
 Armaments Co. Barrow 
 at Furness 98. 
 
 Naval Constructors, corps 
 of 138. 
 
 Naval Defence Act 84, 
 246, 248, 250, 286. 
 
 Naval Discipline Act 221. 
 
 Naval Dockyards, abroad 
 
 60. 
 Naval Dockyards at home 
 
 (three) 60. 
 Naval Estimates 290, 291. 
 21* 
 
324 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Naval Forces, Strength of 
 
 176. 
 Naval Instructors 187. 
 Naval Instructors, entering 
 
 Service 148. 
 Naval Instructors, table of 
 
 pay 149- 
 Naval Intelligence Depart- 
 ment 41, 54, 80. 
 Naval Lords 48 et seq. 
 Naval Manoeuvres 293. 
 Naval Officers, foundation 
 
 of corps of 114. 
 Naval Officers, Permanent 
 
 Staff of 115. 
 Naval Officers, Recruit- 
 ment of 113. 
 Naval Officers, Scale of 
 
 Pay 128, 129. 
 Naval Ordnance Store 
 
 Department 66. 
 Naval Reserves, first Line 
 
 of 178. 
 Naval Reserve Officers, 
 
 number of 179. 
 Naval Reserve, drill of 
 
 Crew of 179. 
 Naval Reserve, pay of 
 
 Crew of 179. 
 Naval Reserve, numbers 
 
 of Crew of 179. 
 Naval Stations abroad 100. 
 Naval Stations (Nine) 102. 
 Naval Store Department 
 
 69. 
 Naval Surgeons, table of 
 
 pay 144- 
 Naval Surgeons , Retired 
 
 pay and gratuities 145. 
 Naval Transport Office 58. 
 Navigating Branch 116, 
 
 121, 130. 
 Navigation Act 14. 
 Navy Board 8, 45, 46. 
 Navy Estimates 66. 
 Navy List, Monthly 205. 
 Navy List, Quarterly 205. 
 Net-Cutter 284. 
 
 Netherland (see Holland). 
 
 Neutrality armed of North- 
 ern Powers 25, 32. 
 
 New Amsterdam 16. 
 
 Newfoundland 19, 28. 
 
 New Guinea 68. 
 
 New York 16. 
 
 New Zealand 38, 217. 
 
 Nickel Steel 258. 
 
 Nickel Steel , Armour 
 Hardened 258. 
 
 Niger 107. 
 
 Nile, battle of the (Abou- 
 kir) 32, 228. 
 
 Nordenfeldt 274. 
 
 Nore 31. 
 
 North America and West 
 Indies, Station of 107. 
 
 North Pole 43- 
 
 Nova Scotia 15, 19, 22- 
 
 Observation Mines 279. 
 
 Observatories 191. 
 
 Offensive Action and Opera- 
 tions 79, 81. 
 
 Office of the Admiral 
 Superintendent of the 
 Naval Reserves 56. 
 
 Officers, scale of pay 128, 
 129. 
 
 Officers of Marines, scale 
 of pay 133. 
 
 Officers of Royal Naval 
 Reserve 178, 179. 
 
 Oleron 203, 204. 
 
 Orange, Prince of 32. 
 
 Orders in Council 48. 
 
 Ordnance 265. 
 
 Ordnance Department 66. 
 
 Orfordness 33. 
 
 Oscillating Engines 259. 
 
 Pacific Station I06. 
 
 Painters i6g. 
 
 Painted Hall, Greenwich 
 
 185. 
 Paixhans, French General 
 
 38, 266, 267. 
 
 Palmer of Jarrow 264. 
 Papin 278. 
 
 Paris, peace of 25, 40. 
 Parliamentary and Finan- 
 cial Secretary 47, 53, 76- 
 Parma, Duke of 10. 
 Parry 43. 
 
 Passaro Cape, battle of 20. 
 Patent 48. 
 Paul, Czar 33. 
 Paymasters 150. 
 Paymasters, Promotion of 
 
 151- 
 Paymasters , Responsibili- 
 ties of 151. 
 Pebble Powder 272. 
 Peel, Captain 217. 
 Pembroke, Earl of 46. 
 Pembroke, Milford Haven 
 
 68, 93, 97. 
 Pembroke' Dockyard 
 
 School 190. 
 Penn, John 93, 259, 261, 
 
 262, 264. 
 Pensions and Allowances 
 
 180. 
 Pensions due earlier 181. 
 Pensions for wounds 182, 
 
 183. 
 Pensions, Special 182. 
 Pensions (33) for good 
 
 service of officers and 
 
 surgeons 182. 
 Permanent Secretary 47, 
 
 53- 
 
 Personnel of ships in com- 
 mission go. 
 
 Petroleum 265. 
 
 Pett Phineas 228. 
 
 Petty Officers 153. 
 
 Petty Officers, first class 
 160. 
 
 Petty Officers, second class 
 160. 
 
 Petty Officers, Chief 160. 
 
 Pevensey 5. 
 
 Pitt, the elder 24, 25, 29, 
 30. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 325 
 
 Pitt, the younger 29, 33. 
 Plate river 38. 
 Plumbers 169. 
 Plymouth 10, 15, 60, 61, 
 
 87. 
 Poitiers, battle of 7, 191. 
 Police, Ship's, 170. 
 Police, Ship's, pay 171. 
 Police, Ship's, promotion 
 
 171. 
 Pope, the 15. 
 Port Admiral 90. 
 Portland 68, 97, no, 177. 
 Port Royal 60, 68, 107, 108. 
 Portsmouth 8, 68, 109, 190. 
 Portsmouth, Dockyard 45 
 
 68, 87, 97, 98. 187, 290 
 Portugal 12, 19, 33, 36. 
 Press-Gang 20, 156, 157. 
 Private Yards 97. 
 Prize-Money 180. 
 Promotion of Officers of 
 
 the Marines 132. 
 Protective Deck 243. 
 Provisions 217. 
 Provisions, cost of per man 
 
 218. 
 Purser 150. 
 
 Quarter Bill 211. 
 Quebec, battle of 24. 
 Queen's Regulations and 
 
 Admiralty Instructions 
 
 205. 
 Queensferry 177. 
 Queenstown 68. 
 Quiberon, battle of 24, 25, 
 
 27. 
 Quick building spells cheap 
 
 building 255. 
 Quick firing guns 274. 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter 3, 9, 
 
 10, 43- 
 
 Ram 285. 
 
 Recruiting of Naval Offi- 
 cers 113. 
 
 Randolph and Edler 261. 
 
 Reed, Sir Edward 235, 242. 
 262, 264, 285. 
 
 Red, White, and Blue 16, 
 200. 
 
 Reformation, the 9. 
 
 Relative Rank, table of 
 112. 
 
 Religious Service of the 
 Navy 58. 
 
 Repression of piracy 42. 
 
 Reserve forces. Strength of 
 180. 
 
 Reserve Squadron loi. 
 
 Restoration 16. 
 
 Retired Pay 131. 
 
 Retirement of Marine offi- 
 cers 133. 
 
 Retirement of Naval offi- 
 cers 131. 
 
 Richard Coeur de Lion 6. 
 
 Richard II 8. 
 
 Rifled guns 257, 267. 
 
 Rigging abandoned 262. 
 
 Rochefort 34, 37, 59- 
 
 Rochelle, la 8. 
 
 Rollers 256. 
 
 Ross 43. 
 
 "Rotten to the core" 31, 46. 
 
 Royal Marine Office 56. 
 
 Royal United Service In- 
 stitution 191. 
 
 Rupert Prince 12, 17, 46. 
 
 Rupert's Bay 12. 
 
 Russell Scott 232. 
 
 Russia 32, 243, 245, 265, 
 267, 274, 278. 
 
 Russian flag 29. 
 
 Russian squadron 37. 
 
 Ruyter 14, 16, 17. 
 
 Ryswijk, peace of 18. 
 
 Sailmakers 169. 
 
 Sailors' Kit 197. 
 
 Sailors' table of pay 161. 
 
 Saleh 15. 
 
 Salisbury Ministry 246, 251. 
 
 Salvage Money 181. 
 
 Samarai 68. 
 
 San Francisco 43. 
 
 Santa Cruz de Teneriffe 15. 
 
 Sardinia 19. 
 
 Scale of Pay, Officers 128, 
 
 129. 
 "Scares" 39, 40, 41, 80, 
 
 267, 291, 292. 
 Scheme of Ship-building 
 
 41, 42. 
 Schneider of Creusot 258. 
 Scilly Isles 12, no. 
 Screw 260. 
 Seaman Able 159. 
 Seaman Ordinary 159. 
 Seaman Trained (T. M.) 
 
 159. 
 Seamen, Education of 159. 
 Seamen-pensioners Reserve 
 
 180. 
 Search Light 285. 
 Sea Service 120, 153. 
 Sebastopol 39. 
 Secretary of the Admiralty 
 
 Department of 54. 
 Secretary to Flag Officer 
 
 151. 
 Senegal 25. 
 
 Seniority of Service super- 
 seded 115. 
 Senior Naval Lord 50, 51, 
 
 52. 
 Senior Officer on the coast 
 
 of Ireland j)4. 
 Servants 114, 115. 
 Service and Duty of Clergy 
 
 146, 147. 
 Service on Board 213. 
 Seven United Provinces 
 
 15- 
 Seven Years' War 23, 30, 
 
 43, 59, 174, 238, 266, 
 Seychelle Islands 37. 
 Sheerness 17, 68, 96, 97, 
 
 190. 
 Ship's Engines building of 
 
 264. 
 Ship Money 11. 
 Shipwrights' Company 228. 
 
326 
 
 THE BRITISH NAVY. 
 
 Shoeburyness 267. 
 Sierra Leone 68, 107. 
 Signalling with flags 202, 
 203. 
 
 Silver Streak 3. 
 
 Singapore 38. 
 
 "Sink, bum, destroy" 23. 
 
 Sinope, battle of 232, 267. 
 
 Sixth or Civil Lord 52. 
 
 Sluys, battle of 7. 
 
 Smaller Cruisers 244. 
 
 Smith & Ericsson 231,260. 
 
 Smokeless Powder 272. 
 
 Somerset first 'Admiral of 
 England' 45. 
 
 Southampton 8, no, 177. 
 
 South East Coast of Ame- 
 rica, Station of 106. 
 
 South Wales, coals of 265. 
 
 Spain and Spaniards 7, 10, 
 II, 12, 15, 18, 19, 20, 
 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 
 
 29, 30, 33, 36, 37. 
 Spar torpedoes 279, 282. 
 Spithead 31, 109. 
 Staff- Engineer 140. 
 Staff-Engineer, promotion 
 
 to rank of 140. 
 
 Staffs of ten foreign sta- 
 tions 108. 
 Steamer, first 38. 
 
 Steam Engines 259. 
 
 Steam Power 230, 270. 
 
 Steel Projectiles 277. 
 
 Steel the only material for 
 guns 277. 
 
 Stoker 165. 
 
 Stoker, table of wages 
 166. 
 
 St. Eustace 28. 
 
 St. Helena 68, 107. 
 
 St. Lawrence 24. 
 
 St. Lucia 37, 108. 
 
 St. Pierre 28.. 
 
 St. Valery 5. 
 
 St. Vincent Cape, Battles 
 . of 24, 30. 
 
 Steward, Ship's 172. 
 Steward, Ship's boy 172. 
 Steward, Ship's pay 172, 
 
 173. 
 Steward table of pay 173. 
 Sub-Lieutenant, Acting 119. 
 Sub- Lieutenant, Rank of 
 
 116, 121. 
 Sub - Lieutenancy , attain- 
 ment of 121. 
 Subsections of Admiralty 
 
 54- 
 Suez 68. 
 Suez Canal 84. 
 Supplementary Lieutenants 
 
 179- 
 Supremacy at sea 26. 
 Surgeon General 142. 
 Surgeons, Examination of 
 
 142. 
 Surgeons, Pay of 142, 143. 
 Surgeons Retired Pay and 
 
 Gratuities 145. 
 Surgeons table of pay 144. 
 Surinam 28. 
 Sweeping 281. 
 Swedish fleet 29. 
 Sydney 5o, 68. 
 Symon(is, Sir W. 260. 
 
 Table Money 115, 130. 
 
 Tarbert 177. 
 
 Technical Department 61. 
 
 Temperance 218, 227. 
 
 Teneriffe 15. 
 
 Test Act 46. 
 
 Texel 31, 34. 
 
 Thames 8, 17, 31. 
 
 Thames Iron Works, Black- 
 wall 98. 
 
 Thompson, J. & G. 93, 97, 
 264. 
 
 Thornycroft & Co. 245, 
 263, 264, 284. 
 
 Three Screws 263. 
 
 Tilsit, peace of 36. 
 
 Tobago 29, 37. 
 
 Torpedo-Artificers 169. 
 
 Torpedo-Boats 245, 284. 
 TorpedoBoats first 284. 
 Torpedo-Boat Destroyers 
 
 246, 251. 
 
 Torpedo-Bureau 278. 
 Torpedo-Commission 279. 
 Torpedo-Depot Ships 288. 
 Torpedoes 98, 282. 
 Torpedo-Nets 284. 
 Torpedo-Students 122. 
 Toulon 12, 29, 30, 34. 
 Toulon battle of 21, 23, 26. 
 Torres Vedras 36. 
 Trade Maritime of Great 
 
 Britain 82. 
 Trafalgar, battle of 34, 201. 
 Trained Men (T. M.) 165. 
 Training Squadron loi. 
 Transports, Director of 58. 
 Transport Office 46. 
 Trincomalee 27, 28, 58, 60, 
 
 68. 
 Trinidad 33. 
 Trinity House 8, 45. 
 Triple Expansion Engines 
 
 262. 
 Tripoli 15. 
 
 Tromp, the Elder 14. 
 Tubular Boilers 261. 
 Tunis 15. 
 
 Turrets (en barbette) 240. 
 Tuscany 15. 
 Twin Screws 261. 
 
 Uniforms 191. 
 
 Uniforms for Crews 193. 
 
 Uniforms Modern for Crews 
 197, 198. 
 
 Uniforms Modern for Offi- 
 cers 195. 
 
 Uniforms Officers' 192. 
 
 Uniforms Undress 193. 
 
 Union Jack 199, 200, 201. 
 
 United Provinces of Hol- 
 land 14, 15. 
 
 United Service Institution 
 191. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 327 
 
 United States of America 
 
 9, 27, 29, 37, 256. 
 Upnor 98. 
 
 Ushant, battle of 26, 30. 
 Utrecht, peace of 19. 
 
 Vancouver 43. 
 Vavasseur 272. 
 Venice 278. 
 
 Versailles, peace of 28. 
 Vickers, Jones & Co. 258, 
 
 278. 
 Victualling Department 59. 
 Victualling, Scale of 218. 
 Victualling, Yards at home 
 
 61, 99. 
 Vigo 19. 
 Virginia 17. 
 Volunteers (Gentlemen) 1 14, 
 
 IIS. 
 
 Wales, Prince of 12. 
 Wallis 25, 43. 
 Walpole 20, 21. 
 
 Waltham Abbey 98. 
 
 War of Secession 278, 282. 
 
 Wardens of the Cinque 
 Ports 6. 
 
 Warrant Officers 152. 
 
 Warrant Officers, ' pay of 
 154- 
 
 Warwick (Kingmaker) 45. 
 
 WatchbUl 210, 212. 
 
 Watches, port and star- 
 board 210. 
 
 Water tube boilers 263. 
 
 Wellington 36. 
 
 West Indies 15, 25, 27, 28 
 30, 33, 34, 42. 
 
 Weston, Miss 227. 
 
 Whale Island 187. 
 
 Whitehead factory 283. 
 
 Whitehead Torpedoes 245, 
 283, 284. 
 
 Whitworth 278. 
 
 Whit worth steel 262. 
 
 Wight, Isle of 18, 109. 
 
 William IV. 46. 
 
 William of Orange 18. 
 William the Conqueror 5. 
 Wilson Captain 284. 
 Winchelsea, battle of 7. 
 Wire Guns 277. 
 Wisby 203. 
 With de 14, i5. 
 Wolfe, General 24. 
 Woolwich Arsenal 98, 272, 
 
 277, 283. 
 Woolwich Dockyard 45, 98. 
 Woolwich process 277. 
 
 Yarrow & Co. 245, 251, 
 
 264, 284, 289. 
 Yokohama 68. 
 York, Duke of 16, 17, 127. 
 Yorktown 27. 
 
 Zambesi 107, 289. 
 Zanzibar 107. 
 Zululand 217.