CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 924 067 870 018 Introductory Manual for the Study and Reading of Agrarian History The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924067870018 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL FOR THE STUDY AND READING OF AGRARIAN HISTORY WILLIAM TRIMBLE, Ph. D. Professor of History and Social Science North Dakota Agricultural College 5 Z, oil TSS Printed for the Department of History and Social Science of the North Dakota . Agricultural College by authorization of the President of the College and the Board of Regents of the State. Copyright 1917, by William Trimble Price Thirty- Five Cents, Post Paid THE COLLEGE BOOK STORE Agricultural College, Fargo, North Dakota PREFACE The plan of this introductory manual is to afford references and suggestions for a survey of the general history of agri- culture and for a more detailed study of 'that of the United States. The work at the present stage is tentative and necessarily incomplete; yet the compiler ventures to hope that it may be of some use to the many who are interested in this comparatively fresh phase of the study of history, and especially because it embodies bibliographical data and comments from both historians and technical agriculturists. So many friends in both callings have kindly and even eagerly cooperated that it does not seem feasible to try to enumerate all of them individually; but the author can not forego acknowledgement of counsel and assistance from Professor Dana C. Munro of Princeton, Professor W. L. Westerman of the University of Wisconsin, Professor A, C. Krey of the University of Minnesota, and President Albert F. Woods of the Maryland Agricultural College. Special thanks are due also to Mr. Cyrus McCorroick, Jr. for access to his unique and valuable private library and to Mr. Herbert Kellar, its curator. Some of the other contributors are in- dicated in footnotes. The short-comings of the work belong to the author alone. President E. F. Ladd of the North Dakota Agricultural College has given constant sympathy and encouragement to the project. Since the manual is only of a preliminary nature, sug- gestions, criticisms, and inquiries will be welcomed. Fargo, North Dakota, June, 1917. CONTENTS PART ONE Ancient and Medieval Agriculture Page I. Egypt S II. Palestine 6 III. The Euphrates Region 8 IV. Grecian Agriculture 9 V. Roman Agriculture H VI. Medieval Agriculture IM- PART TWO A Survey of the History of Modern Agriculture I. England 19 II. Germany 22 III. Holland 24 IV. France 24 V. Miscellaneous References 25 Spain— Russia— Italy— China— Switzerland — Japan — Denmark — West Indies — Norway — Peru — Australasia PART THREE The United States I. General 29 II. Aboriginal Agriculture 31 III. Colonial Agriculture 31 IV. Land Tenure 32 V. Agricultural Implements 34 VI. Livestock 36 VII. Special and Regional Studies 37 VIII. The Rise of the Great Surplus in Food Production 40 IX. Political and Associational Activities of Farmers 40 X. The Agricultural Press 42 XI. Sciences Contributory to Agriculture 44 XII. Summary of the Agrarian History of the United States... 45 PART ONE ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL AGRICULTURE I. EGYPT References Balk, W. L — Egypt of the Egyptians. Deals with "Methods of controlling the water of the Nile for irrigation purposes and its influence upon the agriculture of the country, the methods of growing crops, and the types of agricultural people." Breasted, James Henry — History of Egypt, Chap. I, also pp. 191-195. Cunningham, W. — Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects, Vol. I, pp. 10-39. A useful book to have in one's library. Erman — Life in Ancient Egypt, Chap. XVII, also pp. 488-493. Very satisfactory. "Egyptian Agriculture," Bulletin of the Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. Vol. XIII, No. 2, Sept., 1912, pp. 13-24. This study and the following are adapted to pupils in the grades, but are ser- viceable also for older persons. "The Land of Egypt," ibid.. Vol. XIII, No. 4, March, 1914, pp. 10-20. Maspero, G. — The Dawn of Civilization. See index under agriculture. Suggestions Items of importance are the unique physiography; the inundation, with special attention to supplementary work and manner of control ; crops and methods of cultivation; the high regard paid to animal husbandry. Note also the primacy of wheat and barley, the signifi- cance of the papyrus, the early use of the Delta as a range, and, lastly, the connections of v^at supply of Egypt with Roman politics. INTRODUCTORY MANUAL II. PALESTINE* References Aaronsohn, Aaron — Agricultural and Botanical Explorations in Palestine, Bulletin, U. S. Dept. Agr., No. 180. Claims wheat indigenous to Palestine. Barton, G. A. — Archaeology and the Bible, Chap. VII, Roads and Agriculture, pp. 132-140. Biblical References : Ruth Song of Songs Psalms 29 and 104. Ahab vs. Naboth, I Kings 21:22-34 Parables of Jesus (See also under "Kent" below) Cunningham, W. — Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects, Vol. I, pp. 40-53. Encyclopedia Brittanica (11th ed.), Vol. XX, pp. 601-605. Hastings, James — Dictionary of the Bible, Article on Agriculture, including refer- ences to Flax, Olives, Ox. etc. Important. Huntington, Ellsworth — Changes of Climate and History, Amer. His. Rev., Vol. XVIII, Jan., 1913, pp. 213-232. Civilization and Climate. Josephus — Antiquities of the Jews, Vol. Ill, Chap. Ill, pp. 12-15. A descrip- tion of Galilee, Samaria and Judea. Kent, C. F.— Israel's Laws and Legal Precedents. Citations to following sub- jects : Masters and Hired Servants. Dt. 24:14, IS. Lev. 19:13b; 25:6; 22:10b. *In the preparation of the bibliography both of Egypt and Palestine valuable suggestions have been made by Dr. W, N. Steams, of Fargo College. AGRARIAN HISTORY Slaves. Ex. 21 :2-ll, 20-21, 26-27, 32. Dt. IS :12-1S, 18 ; 23 :15, 16 ; 12:17, 18; 16:10, 11. Lev. 2S :39-SS. Sabbath. Dt. 5:12-15. Land Ownership and Redemption. Lev. 25 :8-38. Care of animals. Dt. 25 :4. Gleanings. Dt. 24:19-22. Macalister, R. a. S. — A History of Civilization in Palestine. Deals with pre-Israelitish period. Robinson and Breasted — Outlines of European History, Part I, pp. 101-109. Suggests Jehovah as god of needy shepherds and farmers as opposed to the city "baals" of wealth and luxury; former became later urban god of social justice, hating oppression and ex- ploitation. Stearns, W. N. — A Manual of Hebrew Private Life: Agriculture, pp. 11-13; Social Life, pp. 30-31 ; Food, pp. 32-35. Smith, G. A. — The Historical Geography of the Holy Land : a. The Form of the Land, pp. 43-59; b. Climate and Fertility, pp. 61-90; c. Roads and Wheeled Vehicles, pp. 32-35. The standard work for the subject. Stimulating and suggestive. VoGELSTEiN, Herman — Die Landwirtschaft in Palaestina sur Zeit der Mishnah. Interest- ing, and particularly instructive as to actual farming pro- cedure. A translation made at the North Dakota Agricul- tural College awaits publication. Suggestions Contrasts to Egypt: (1) physiography and climate extremely varied; (2) rainfall natural, and risk element, therefore pronounced; (3) population creative and assertive. Wheat and olive probably indigenous. (Note importance of latter in Mediterranean economy.) Agricultural economics of the Bible is noteworthy, especially land tenure and labor humanitarianism. Many biblical figures of speech INTRODUCTORY MANUAL are derived from agriculture, a characteristic in particular of the imagery of Jesus. Ideas, allusions, figures of speech from Hebrew agriculture have been broadcasted over the world and are intermixed with the most exalted and tender sentiments of humanity. One must know the agriculture of Palestine before he can well understand its religion. III. EUPHRATES REGION References Encyclopedia Brittanica, (11th ed.) Vol. Ill, pp. 99-102; Vol. IX, pp. 894-898. Hammurapi— (date about 2123-2081 B. C.) The Code of Hammurapi, edited by R. F. Harper. Also found in Hasting's Bible Dictionary, extra vol., pp. 584-612. This the first great systematization of laws. Agricultural pro- visions: paragraphs 42-65, 215-223, 226-231, 241-272. Handcock, Percy S. P. — Mesopotamian Archaeology, pp. 1-28 and 364-391. Rogers, R. W.— History of Babylonia and Assyria, (1915 ed.), Vol. I, Chap. XI, pp. 401-406. Very good as a whole ; but the statement on p. 421 in regard to the origin of wheat and barley shows unfamiliarity with the work of Aaronsohn. Robinson and Breasted — Outlines of European History, Part I, pp. 56-85. Jastrow, Morris — The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 283-366. Consult also index. Much of the information on agriculture is taken from code above mentioned. Suggestions Babylonian plain reclaimed from a "pestiferous and uninhabitable swamp." Situation more exposed to attack than Egypt, and agriculture more dependent upon artificial irrigation. Nevertheless, made the most fertile region of the ancient world. Here Garden of Eden. AGRARIAN HISTORY Irrigation and civilization start together. We see here markedly the im- portance of the system of canals, which was directly related to engineering, transportation, defence, community life, law, and govern- ment. The date palm was very important; probably the most valuable tree known to horticulture. IV. GREECE References Aristotle — On the Constitution of Athens. (Pure Food Laws) BOTSFOSB AND SiHLER — Hellenic Civilization. Contains much important material. Following citations are interesting : "Country People in the Peloponnesian War," 314-15; "Back to the Country," 318-19; "On a Rainy Day," 320-21; "State Regulation of the Grain Trade," 426- 30; "Farmers and Shepherds," 462-65; "The Management of a Household," 494-508; "Government of Egypt under Alex- ander, and the Wheat Market," 583-591; "The Land System in Ptolemaic Egypt," 590-598. Cunningham — Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects, Vol. I, pp. 71-91. GULICK — Life of the Ancient Greeks, pp. 216-226. Interesting description of agricultural practices. Hesiod — Works and Days. Hesiod, a farmer-poet who lived about 700 B. C, wrote the first great work on rural economy. "No other piece of ancient literature brings us into so close and realistic touch with country people and rural conditions." He gathers up in pithy and often witty fashion the shrewd farmer lore of the time. The book has a rare flavor, and should be read to be appreciated. Lysias — Oration against the Grain Dealers. Oration on the Sacred Olive. INTRODUCTORY MANUAL Loudon — Encyclopedia of Agriculture, (8th ed.) Sec. Ill, pp. 9-11. Plutarch — Lives of Illustrious Men, Solon. Theophrastus — The Causes of Plants. Xenophon — Economicus. Deals with the management of an estate and of a household. The view is that of an aristocratic gentleman farmer. His work is in dialogue form, and, in contrast with the Works and Days of Hesiod may be regarded as a scientific treatise on rural economy. ZiMMERN — The Greek Commonwealth : (a) Geography, Pt. I, pp. 13-40; (b) Work on the Land, Pt. Ill, pp. 222-229. An excellent treatise. Suggestions 1. Realistic portrayal of domestication of animals on Vaphio cups. 2. The non-servile use of the horse: Parthenon sculptures — Alexander's cavalry — Thessalian plain. 3. Importance of olive. "The olive was pre-eminent over all the productions of the Attic soil for the variety of its uses and for the interesting parts which it played in many departments of public and private life." 4. Rural vs. urban ideals as illustrated in Sparta and Athens. 5. Importance of grain-trade to Athens, sources of supply, governmental regulation, comparison with English situation and policy. Summary of Greek Agriculture in Homeric Times (Translated from Wendt, Ulrich, Die Technik als Kulturmacht, p. 4.) "The tribe is also settled, it lives by stock-raising and agriculture. Summer-fallowing is understood, and the plowing is done with oxen. The estates of the lords possessed herds of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats. If the land was a plain, horses appeared also, as, for example, in Argos, whose horse-breeding was famous. Crops consisted of AGRARIAN HISTORY n wheat, barley, spelt, clover and oats. * ♦ * Not only cows, but also sheep were milked. Cheese-making was understood. Gardening was highly developed, peas and beans were cultivated, and orchards of pears, pomegranates, olives, figs, and apples, were reared. The gardens were enclosed by hedges of interwoven thornbushes. The Greeks loved honey, and the cultivation of the vine stood on a high plane. The mountains were shadowed with forests. Hpre the noble stag had free course, and likewise the impetuous wild boar and the mountain sheep. On the other hand predatory animals, as the fox and the wolf, were a great hindrance, and even leopards and lions exacted their tribute." V. ROME References Arcere, Louis — De I'Etat de V Agriculture ches les Romains, depuis le Commence- ment de la Re Publicque jusqu' au Siecle de Jules Cesar, relativement au Gouvernement, aux Moeurs & Commerce, Paris, 1777 Abbott — The Common People of Ancient Rome (Diocletian's Price Edict and the high cost of living), pp. 145-178. BeaureedoNj J. — Voyage Agricole ches les Anciens, ou I'Economie Rural dans I'Antiquite, Paris, 1898. Breasted, J. H. — Ancient Tim.es, pp. 574-577. Cato — De Agricultura (Concerning Farming). One of the world's great books of agricultural wisdom, written by a shrewd and vig- orous man of wide experience. The happiest and soundest translation is that by "a Virginian farmer" under the title of Roman Farm Management. This book includes the work of Varro mentioned below. The introduction and notes reveal a wide knowledge of agricultural history and are full of interesting information. INTRODUCTORY MANUAL Columella — De re rustica (Concerning Rural Affairs). Columella was a Roman Spaniard whose book appeared during the reign of the second Emperor, Tiberias, 14-37 A. D. The above author speaks of the work as one of "detail and suave elegance." Chiron — A Veterinary Treatise. Davis — The Influence of Wealth on Imperial Rome, pp. 138-lSl and 237-247. Daubeny^ Charles — Lectures on Roman Husbandry, 1857. Important and interesting. Dickson, Adam — The Husbandry of the Ancients, Edinburg, 1788, 2 vol. Feerero, Guglielmo — The Greatness and Decline of Rome, Vol. I, Chap. III. The Gracchi and the New Italy, pp. 49-77. Is Extravagant America Riding to a Roman Fall? World Today, Vol. XXI, No. 8, Feb., 1912. The Vine in Roman History, McClure's Magazine, Vol. XXXIII, No. I, May, 1909, pp. 93-98 Gradman, Robert — Der Getreidebau im Deutschen and Roemischen Altertum; Beit- raege ztir Verbreitungsgeschichte der Kulturgewachse. HOSKYNS — Inquiry into the History of Agriculture, pp. 40-52. Huntington, Ellsworth — Climatic Change and Agriculture Exhaustion as Elements in the Fall of Rome, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Feb., 1917. Loudon — Encyclopedia of Agriculture, (8th ed.) Sec. IV, pp. 11-33. Should be consulted. Lavisse — Histoire de France, Vol. II, pt. 2, p. 334. AGRARIAN HISTORY 13 McBryde, J. M. — Ancient Husbandry, Rome and her Provinces. Journal of Ameri- can Agricultural Association, Vol. I, No. 3-4, pp. 37-50. Pliny — Natural History, Vol. IV, pp. 8-135, scattered references. Plutarch — Lives of Illustrious Men: Tiberius Gracchus Gaius Gracchus Marcus Cato Robinson and Breasted — Outlines of European History, pp. 394-400. SiMKHOVITCHj V. G. — Rome's Fall Reconsidered, Pol. Sci., Quar., Vol. XXXI, Tune, 1916, pp. 201-243. Smith, J. Russel — The Dry Farmers of Rome, The Century Magazine, May, 1916, pp: 75-82. Interesting account of North Africa. Stephenson — Public Lands and Agrarian Laws of the Roman Republic, J. H. U. Studies, 1891. Varro — Rerum Rusticarum (Of Rural Affairs). Varro, a very learned man, wrote this book in 36, B. C. It is the "best practical book on the subject which has come down to us from anti- quity." See Cato above. Westerman, W. a. — Economic Causes of the Decline of Ancient Culture, Amer His Rev., Vol. XX, July, 1915, pp. 723-43. A thoughtful study. Story of the Ancient Nations a. Distinction between rich and poor, 260-261. b. The Gracchi and the democratic party, 331-339. c. Growth of great estates in the provinces and the coloni 360-361. d. Vergil, 391-393. e. Organization of the Emperor's domains, 406. f. Signs of weakeniE^ and causes of decline, 442-443. 14 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL Vergil — Georgics. The greatest poem on agriculture ever written. ZuLUETA, Francis de — De Patrociniis Vicorum, Oxford Studies on Social and Legal History, Vol. I, second part. An illuminating work on patronage in the later empire. Bears on development of serfdom. Suggestions 1. History of Roman agriculture an immense subject. Distin- guish between (a) early period of primitive conditions as illustrated by Cincinnatus, (b ) later republic when slave labor was dominant, and (c) empire, when a serf system developed. Latter period demands regional study: e. g., Egypt, northern Africa, Guadalaquivir Valley, Gaul, etc. 2. Agricultural methods of later republic and early empire highly developed. Romans had practically all domestic animals and crops as used until discovery of America. Drew scientific ideas to some extent from Carthaginians. Understood to a considerable degree irrigation, drainage, seed sanitation, fertilization, farm management, and crop rotation. They furnished the foundational knowledge for modern European agriculture. 3. But Rome failed on wider questions of rural economy. Prob- lems of farm labor and of land tenure were of supreme importance all through Roman history. Roman leaders lacked vision of agricultural statesmen and failed to comprehend social factors. VI. MEDIEVAL PERIOD References Allen, W. F.— Agriculture in the Middle Ages. Reprinted in Carver's Selected Readings in Rural Economics, pp. 151-162. Deals mostly with England; not very important. Braungart, Richard — Die Urheimat der Landwirischaft alter Indogermanischen Volker an der Geschichte der Kulturpflansen und Ackerbaugerate in Mittel-und Nordeuropa. Heidelberg, 1912. AGRARIAN HISTORY 15 Forrest, J. Dorsey — The Development of Western Civilization. Chap. Ill on The Organization of Agriculture (pp. 108-185) is suggestive. HOSKYNS — Short Inquiry into the History of Agriculture, pp. 53-94. Ingram — History of Slavery and Serfdom. Munro and Whitcomb — Medieval and Modern History. Feudalism, Ch. V. pp. 40-50. Life of the People, Ch. XIV. pp. 148-159. Preston, Helen G. — Rural Conditions in the Kingdom of Jerusalem during the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. SiMKHOVITCH — Hay and History, Political Science Quar., Sept., 1913. Suggestive study based on development of Russian mir. See— Les Classes Rurales et le Regime Dominial en France au Moyen Age. Robinson and Breasted — Outlines of European History, pp. 394-400. Walter of Henley — Dite de Hosehondrie (Treatise on Husbandry). Advice about managing agricultural estate, 13th century. Wekgeland, Agnes M. — Slavery in Germanic Society during the Middle Ages. On the Manor — Ashley, W. J. — English Economic History and Theory, Vol. I, Pt. I., pp. 5-49. Andrews — Old English Manor. CUTTS — Parish Priests and Their People. i6 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL Hone — The Manor. LUCHAIRE — Comtnunes Francaise. Maine — Village Communities. Seignobos— The Feudal Regime. Seebohm — The English Village Community. SiMKHOVITCH — (above) Vinogradov — Growth of the Manor. Vinogradov — Origin of the Manor. On Monasteries — Adams, G. B. — Civilization during the Middle Ages, pp. 131-136. Cunningham — Western Civilization .in its Economic Aspects, Vol. II, pp. 35-40. GOODELL, H. H. — Influence of the Monks on Agriculture. Address at summer meeting Mass. Board of Agr., 1902. Savine, a. — English Monasteries on the Eve of Dissolution, Oxford Studies in Social and Legal History, Vol. I, First Part. Jessopp — The Coming of the Friars. An essay on village life six hundred years ago. AGRARIAN HISTORY 17 MUNRO AND SeLLERY — Medieval ■ Civilization, 114-28. , Cambridge Medieval History, I, Chap. XVIII. MONTALEMBERT — Monks of the West, VI, pp. 247-298 et passim throughout other volumes. Suggestions Of basic importance not only in the history of medieval agricul- ture, but in that of modern agriculture, is clear comprehension of the village organization and the open-field system of farming. The disputes concerning the origin of the manor have not the intensity of interest for the American student that they have for the European, but it is important to observe that the political unit tended to ap- proximate the economic. The activities of Charlemagne in regard to agriculture are important. Very influential was the work of the monks. They preserved Roman knowledge, they dignified labor, they reclaimed waste lands. The monasteries were the experiment stations and agricultural colleges of the Middle Ages. They have had an abiding effect upon agri- culture, as Merino sheep and the Mendelian Law testify. Agriculture in Spain under the Arabs was highly developed and deserves study. There were important changes in agrarian life and practice due to the growth of towns, a fact particularly true in the Netherlands and in northwest Germany. The development of markets (at first local) and their call for a surplus; the coming of money economy from the time of the Crusades onward (a process greatly accelerated by the precious metals which later poured in from America) ; scarci^ of labor due to competition of the towns and the prevalence of scourges such as the Black Death — ^these were some of the causes which began to modify the village system, helped to produce the peasant uprisings that so often occurred from the middle of the fourteenth century onward, and led finally to the freeing of the serf and the emergence of modern agriculture. PART TWO A SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF MODERN AGRICULTURE (Excluding United States) GENERAL Hale, P. H.— History of Agriculture by Dates (5th ed.). Contains a mass of interesting and often valuable information. Authorities not cited. Includes United States. Hayes, Carlton J. H. — Political and Social History of Modern Europe. Vol. I, pp. 28-36 and 395-398. These portions are surveys of European agricul- ture in the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. The first is particularly valuable. a International Review of AgeicultureEconomics (Formerly Bulle- tin OF Economic and Social Intelligence). Few publications sweep the world as does this. Items, resumes, points of view, and occasional articles bear on agricultural history. Ogg, F. a.— Economic Development of Modern Europe (1917), Chapters I, IL VI, VIII, IX. Suggestion The greatest transforming force in modern agriculture has been the gradual development and extension of markets until they are now approximately world-wide for many products. I. ENGLAND References Ashley, W. J. — English Economic History and Theory, 1, pt. II. pp. 259-304. Bland, Brown, Tawney — English Economic History, Select Documents, 3d ed. 1915. 20 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL Cadbury and Bryan — The Land and the Landless. CURTLER — A Short History of English Agriculture. A reliable compendium of facts. Davenport — Economic Development of a Norfolk Manor. Foedham — A Short History of English Rural Life. Interesting and sug- gestive. Fitzherbert — The Boke of Husbandry. Garnier — History of the English Landed Interest, 2 vol. Gras — The Evolution of the English Corn Market from the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Century. Harvard Econ. Studies, Vol. XIII. Gray — English Field Systems, A learned treatment of a very important subject. Hasbach — History of the English Agricultural Laborer. An important study. Johnson — The Disappearance of the Small Landowner. LlPSON^ Economic History of England, I, The Middle Ages, ' Chs. I-VI. Gets close to the life of the people. Mortimer — The Whole Art of Husbandry. Moore — Classified List of Works relating to English Manorial and Agrarian History from the earliest times to 1660. AGRARIAN HISTORY 2£ McDonald — Agricultural Writers, 1200-1800. Contains much general informa- tion. Ogg— Social Progress in Contemporary Europe, pp. 62-82. Prothero — English Farming Past and Present. The best book on the sub- ject. It is both scholarly and interesting. It well illustrates how intimately and extensively agrarian history enters into every phase of a nation's history. Pollock — The Land Laws. Rogers — History of Agriculture and Prices in England, Stephens — Book of the Farm. Taylor, H. C. — The Decline of the Land-Owning Farmers in England. Bull. Univ. Wis., 1904. Tawney — The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century. TUSSER — Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry. TuLL, Jetheo — Horse-Hoeing Husbandry (ed. 1733). Noteworthy book, sur- prisingly modern; remarkable plates illustrating the drill. Young, Arthur — Lists of the works written by Young and an account of his life may be found in Prothero (supra), 19S-206. Few writers have had such far-reaching influence upon agriculture. Suggestions The most significant themes in English agrarian history are the breaking up of the village system by the process of enclosure and the almost total supprepion of the small land-owner. Important INTRODUCTORY MANUAL factors in these movements were the development of a market for wool, increase in money supply, commercialism, improvements of agriculture (especially from about 1732 onward), the Industrial Revolution, parliamentary acts favorable to landlords, pressure of the Napoleonic wars, and competition of American farm products. II. GERMANY References FucHs, Carl J. — The Epochs of German Agrarian History and Agrarian Policy. Translated in Carver's Selected Readings pp. 223-253. This article is indispensable for understanding German agrar- ian development. Fraas, Carl N. — Geschichte der Landbau-und Forstwissenschaft, seit dem sech- zehnten Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart, 1865. Fife, R. H.— The German Empire between Two Wars, pp. 139-158. Fischer, Gustav — Die Sociale Bedeuting der Maschinen in der Landwirtschaft, igo3. Fruwirth, Carl — Die Fortschritte der Theorie und Praxis der Landwirtschaftliche Pflanzen Production in Oesterreich, 1848-1899. GoLTZ, Theodore — Geschichte der Deutschen Landwirtschaft, 1902-03. vol. 2. This is the standard work. Deserves translation. Hulme, Edward M. — The Renaissance, the Protestant Revolution and the Catholic Reformation, Ch. XIII, The Social Revolution, pp. 241-257. LiCHTENBERGER, HeNRI — , Germany and its Evolution in Modern Times, pp. 7-61 ; especially, pp. 28-47, The Effect of Capitalistic Enterprise upon Agri- culture. AGRARIAN HISTORY 23 MiCHELSON AND NeDDRICH — Geschichte der Deutschen Landwirtschaft. An interesting pre- sentation in small compass. Should be translated. Ogg, F. a.— Social Progress in Contemporary Europe, pp. 100-120. Suggestions Of basic importance in German agrarian history are the "dualism" between West-Elbean and East-Elbean development and the solidarity of the junker class in the latter region; next, the difference within the West-Elbean region between the northwest and the southwest. The unhappy ending of the peasants' revolts (1476-1S2S) and the destruction wrought by the Thirty Years' War (1618-48) retarded the prosperous growth of German agriculture. Improvement was plain, however, in the time of the Great Elector of Branderburg (1640- 88), who fostered fruit-growing and the production of potatoes, borrowed experts in animal husbandry and drainage from the Nether- lands, and encouraged immigration of Huguenots from France. Freeing of the serfs progressed from the time of Frederick the Great (1740-86), and was greatly accelerated by the effects of the French Revolution and by the work of Stein and Hardenburg, both by the way from the West-Elbean region. The era of modern scientific agriculture was ushered in in large part through the activities of Albrecht Thaer (17S2-1828), one of the greatest men in the history of the science. The publication of Liebig's great work on agricultural chemistry (1840) was an event of international im- portance. The greatest specific force influencing German agriculture in more recent times was the competition of the great surplus-producing countries, the United States foremost. Because of this competition old methods had to be abandoned, and various protective measures had to be adopted. Among these protective measures were tariff acts, use of machinery, better treatment of laborers, increased fer- tiliEation, new crops (particularly the sugar beet), application of science to farming and attention to education, and greater develop- ment of rural credit arrangements and cooperative enterprises. These measures were a part of the nationalizing agrarpolitik. 24. INTRODUCTORY MANUAL It is to be noted that the agriculture of every country of western Europe was profoundly affected by the flood of food products which came after 1875 from the United States and other countries. III. HOLLAND BlinKj Hendrik — Geschiedenis van den Boerenstand en den Landbouw in Neder- land, een Studie van de Ontwikkeling der Economische, Maat- schappelijke en Agrarische Toestanden. Gronigen, 1902-04. 2v. De Nedeklandsche Landbouw in het tijdvak, 1813-1913 Directie van den Landbouw. The Netherlands have been a center of regenerative influences in European agriculture. From here spread knowledge of drainage, the use of artificial grasses, crop rotation, and improved animal husbandry especially dairying. IV. FRANCE (The studies of the author at their present stage do not warrant an attempt at characterization of the development of agriculture in France and in other countries named below, but items of bibliography are offered.) Brutails, J. A. — La Condition des Populations Rurales du Roussillon au moyen-age. Delisle, L. — La Classe agricole en Normandie. Etudes sur la condition de la classe agricole et de I'etat de I'agriculture en Normandie pendant mo^en-age. Lavisse — Histoire de France, Vol. II, pt. z, pp. 334ff; Vol. Ill, pt. I, pp. 2l8ff., 390ff. LUCHAIRE — Social France in the Time of Philip Augustus. (Trans, by Krehbiel) AGRARIAN HISTORY 23 Renard, G. F. & DuLAc, Albert — L' evolution Industrielle et Agricole depuis cent cinguant Ans., 1912. Reville, a; et Petit-Dutaillis — Les Paysans en France au Xllle et au XlVe siecles. RiNGELMAN, M. — Essai sur I'histoire du genie rural. See — Les Classes Rurales en Bretagne du i6e siecle a la Revolution, 1902. Usher — The History of the Grain Trade in France, Harvard Econ. Studies, IX. MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCES SPAIN ESPINOSA, F. — The Evolution of Agriculture in Spam (Prog. Agr. y Pecuario, 19, (1913), Nos. 843, pp. 661-663; 845, pp. 695-696; 846, pp. 709-11). "The author traces the history of agriculture in Spain, shows the influence of the Romans and Arabs, and gives the principal crops and the changes in the systems of culti- vation for each period in its development." ITALY Caggese, R. — Classi e Communi Rurali nel medio Evo Italiano, 1907. SWITZERLAND Rappard^ Wm. E. — Le Facteur Economique dans I'Avenement de la Democratic Moderne en Suisse- L' Agriculture a la fin de I'ancien regime. DENMARK Brinkman, Theodor — Die Danische Landwirtschaft : Die Entwicklung ihrer produc- tion seit dem aufstreten der internationalen konkurrenz und ihre anpassung an den weltmarkt vermittels genossenschaft- lichen organization. Jena, 1908. 26 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL NORWAY Skappel, Simen — Traek af Det Norske Agerbrugs Historie Tidsrummet, 1660-1814. Kristiana, 1904. RUSSIA General Outline of the New Russian Land Reforms, Bull. Economic and Social Intelligence, Vol. 35, No. 11, Nov. 1913, pp. 119-134; Vol. 37, No. 1, Jan. 1914, pp. 132-160. The Great Agrarian Reform of 1907-14 and its Results, ibid. Vol. 54, No: 6, June, 1915, pp. 103-116; Vol. 55, No. 7, July, 1915, pp. 97-117. Mavor, James — An Economic History of Russia, Vol. I, pp. 18-100, 185-433; App. I & III; Vol. II, pp. 251-357. CHINA King — Farmers of Forty Centuries. JAPAN ASAKAWA, K. — The Origin of Feudal Land Tenure in Japan, Amer. His. Rev. Vol. XX, No. I, October, 1914, pp. 1-23. WEST INDIES Root, J. W.— The British West Indies and the Sugar Industry. Phillips, U. B. — A Jamaica Slave Plantation, Amer. His. Rev., Vol. XIX, No. 3, April, 1914, pp. 543-558. Authentic and vivid. Wright, I. A. — The Commencement of the Cane Sugar Industry in America, Amer. His. Rev. July, 1916. PERU Cook, A. F. — Stair-Case Farms of the Ancients, Nat. Geog. Mag., 29 : 474- 534, May, 1916. AGRARIAN HISTORY S7 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND Collier, James — The Pastoral Age iri Australasia, Important. Knibbs, G. H. — (Agriculture in Australia), Off. Yearbook Australia, 6 (1901-12) pp. 265-444. "This section of the Australian Yearbook treats of land tenure and settlement and pastoral and agricultural production, and traces the history of agriculture in the var- ious colonies from their early settlement to the present time." Wallace, Egbert — The Rural Economy and Agriculture of Australia and New Zealand, 189L PART THREE . UNITED STATES* References I. GENERAL Special note — Of great importance at outset of study are the use of reports of the United States Geological Survey and of the Bureau of Soils. Particularly valuable is Bulletin No. 96 from the latter bureau, by Marbut, Bennet, et al. (edition 1913). "Almanack' and "Encyclopedias." Much in vogue among farmers of an earlier day. BOGART, E. L. — Economic History of the United States. 2nd ed. a. "Agriculture and Land Tenure," Qiap. III. b. "The Systems of Labor," Chap. V. c. "Cotton and Slavery," Chap. X. d. "The Westward Movement," Chap. XIV. e. "Public Lands and Agriculture," Chap. XIX. f. "The Application of Machinery to Agriculture," Chap. XX. g. "Slavery and the South," Chap. XXI. h. "The Production and Export of Food and Raw Materials," Chap. XXII. i. "Agriculture as a Business," Chap. XXIII. BOGART AND THOMPSON — Readings in the Economic History of the United States. Callender, G. S. — Selections from the Economic History of the United States. Carver, T. N. — Principles of Rural Economics, pp. 29-116. I Selected Readings in Rural Economics, pp. 1S1-3S1. *BibllogTapliical suggestions, particularly concerning colonial agricul- ture, have been kindly furnished by Professor Albert H. Sanford, and work In association with Professor John I. Falconer under the superintendence of Professor H. C. Taylor for the Carnegie Institution contributed to the back- ground of the period 1840-1860. 30 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL Channing, Hart and Turner — Guide to the Study and Reading of American History (Index under Agriculture). Census — Volumes on Agriculture of the Eighth Census (1860), Tenth (1880), and Twelfth (1900) are of exceptional value. Coman — The Industrial History of the United States. a. "Land Tenure," pp. 32-38. b. "The Labor Supply," pp. 41-46. c. "Agriculture under British Control," pp. 48-63. d. "The Westward Movement," pp. 1S6-174. e. "Land Speculation," 203-206. f. "Industrial backwardness of the South," pp. 236-241. g. "Agricultural Machinery," pp. 261-262. h. "Conservation," Chap. XL Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. IV, Chap. II, pp. 23-87. A good survey. GiBBINS, H. DE B. — Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century, pp. 405-423. Experiment Station Record, Division of Rural Economics. Reports — (1) United States: a. Patent Office, Volume on Agriculture, 1839-62. b. Commissioner of Agriculture, 1862-89. c. Department of Agriculture, 1889 — . d. Year book of the Department of Agriculture, 1894 — . (2) State: ^ a. Reports of various kinds. b. Transactions of State Agricultural and Horticultural Societies. The above are basic sources. Sanford — The Story of American Agriculture. Useful and interesting. AGRARIAN HISTORY 31 II. ABORIGINAL AGRICULTURE Cook, O. R— Food Plants of Ancient America, Smithsonian Inst. An. Rpt., 1903, p. 481-497. Rev. of Article on American Origin of Agriculture, Pop. Sci. Monthly, October, 1902. Jenks, a. S. — The Wild Rice Gatherers, U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, 1902. Parkek, a. C. — Iroquois Uses of Maize. Sanfobb — Story of Agriculture, pp. 1-11. Wenz, Alfred A. — In the Heart of the Corn Country, Dakota Farmer, Oct. 16, 1916. Description of the growing of corn by the Mandan Indians. Wessler, Clark — Aboriginal Maize Culture as a Typical Culture Complex, Ameri- can Journal of Sociology, Vol. XXI, p. 6S6. Wilson, Gilbert L. — Agriculture of the Hadatsas. III. COLONIAL AGRICULTURE [Some of the following references include material lapping over into the succeeding period; but the leading characteristics of colonial agriculture remained almost unchanged for a generation after the Revolution. Many references to works of travelers could be advantageously added.] American Husbandry, \775, 2 vol. Published anonymously. An indispensable source. Bassett — The Virginia Planter and the London Merchant, Amer. His. As Rpt, 1901. 32 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL Bruce — Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century, 2 vol. Valuable. Crevecoeur — Letters from an American Farmer. , A charming expression of American rural idealism. Bears on democracy. Everyman's Library, SO cents. CoxE, Tench — A View of the United States of America. Observations on the Agriculture, Manufacture and Commerce of the United States. Eliot, Jared — Essays on Field Husbandry in New England, 1749-59. Collected and published in 1760. Said to be the first work published in America concerning agriculture. Haworth — George Washington, Farmer. 1915. Contains much valuable ma- terial. Kalm — Travels into North America. Varlo, C. — A New System of Husbandry, 1785. Weeden — Economic and Social History of New England. IV. LAND TENURE Adams, H. B. — Village Communities of Cape Ann and Salem, J. H. U. Studies, IX-X, 1883. American State Papers, volumes on the Public Lands. Extensive, and basic for study. Donaldson — The Public Domain, 1884. Contains a large amount of material. AGRARIAN HISTORY 33 Eggleston — Land System of the New England Colonies, J. H. U. Studies, VII. FoKD, Amelia — Colonial Precedents of our National Land System, Bulletin Uni- versity of Wisconsin, His. Series I, 2. Hill, R. T.— The Public Domain and Democracy, Col. Univ. Studies, Whole No. 100. HiBBAED, B. H. — The Settlement of Public Lands in the United States, International Rev. of Agr. Economics, Vol. LXI, No. 1, Jan., 1916, pp. 97-117. History of the Public Lands, An address by the Commissioner of the General Land Office, 51st Cong., 1st and 2nd Sess., Sen. Doc. No. 449. History of Problems relative to the Public Lands, 62nd. Cong. 1st and 2nd Sess. Sen. Doc. No. 38. Orfield, M. N. — Federal Land Grants to the States with Special Reference to Minnesota, Studies in the Social Sciences, The Univ. of , Minnesota, No. 2. Report of the United States Commission on the Public Lands, 1905. Sato — History of the Land Question in the United States, J. H. U. Studies, 1886. Sanborn, J. B. — Congressional Grants of Land in Aid of Railways, Bull. University of Wisconsin, 1899. Schafer, Joseph — The Origin of the System of Land Grants for Education, Bull. University of Wisconsin, His. Series, I, 1. Treat, P. J.— The National Land System, 178S-1820. 34 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL Trimble, William — The Influence of the Passing of the Public Lands, Atlantic Month- ly, June, 1914. Wellington, R. G. — The Tariff and the Public Lands, 1828-33, Amer. His. As Rpt., 1911, Vol. I. V. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS Allen James T. — Digest of Agricultural Implements Patented in the United States from 1789 to 1881. Ardrey, Robert L. — American Agricultural Implements; a Review of Invention and Development in the Agricultural Implement Industry of the United States, 1894. Casson, H. N. — ■ The Romance of the Reaper. Cyrus Hall McCormick. Deering Harvester Co. — Official Retrospective Exhibition of the Development of Harvest- ing Machinery. Dunlap, M. — Agricultural Machinery, Rpt. U. S. Commissioner of Agr 1863 pp. 416-435. ' Flint, Charles — A Hundred Years Progress, Rpt. U. S. Com. of Agr., 1872 on 274-304. Fowler, E. M. — ■ Agricultural Machinery and Implements, Depew, One Hundred Years of American Commerce, V. 2, pp. 3S2-6. Green, T. L. — Life of Obed Hussey. AGRARIAN HISTORY 35 March, C. W. — Recollections. Miller, M. F. — The Evolution of Reaping Machines, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bulletin, No. 103. New York State Agr. Soc. — Trial of Implements at Geneva, July, 1852. New York State Agr. Soc. — Second National Trial, July, 1866 Periodicals — Note — The most unique and revolutionary contribution of the United States to the world's agriculture has been in the use of machinery. The rise of publications devoted to the dis- semination of intelligence concerning new devices was, there- fore, significant. These papers are not only a mine of infor- mation about mechanical science, but they furnish also a digest of the best contemporaneous thought on many subjects. The Mechanics' Magazine and Register of Inventions, New York, 1833. "Its pages will always be open for the communications of the intelligent of all classes, but to the practical artizan we trust we shall be indebted for many useful accounts of their experiments, inventions, and discoveries." The Farmer and Mechanic, New York, 1843. The Scientific American, New York, 1845. "The Advocate of Industry and Journal of Scientific, Mechanical and Other Improvements." The Plough, Loom, and Anvil, Philadelphia, 1848. • The first editor was John G. Skinner. H. C. Gary, a well-known writer on economics was a frequent contributor. Reports of the United States Patent Office. Quaintance, H. W. — The Influence of Farm Machinery upon Production and Labor, Pub. Amer. Economic Association, Third Series, V. 4. Todd, Sereno Edwards — Improved Farm Implements, Rpt. U. S. Gom. of Agr., 1866, pp. 255-288. 36 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL Williamson, Joseph — Agricultural Mechanism; or a display of the several properties and powers of the vehicles, implements, and machinery con- nected with Husbandry. London, 1810. WooDCRO'FT, Bennett — English Patents. Includes both English and American patents. A basic work. VI. LIVESTOCK Allen, E. F. — American Cattle. Adams, Andy — Novels dealing with range life, such as The Log of a Cowboy, etc. BUSBEY — The Trotting and Pacing Horse in America. Carr — History of the Rise and Progress of the Killerby, Studley, and Warlaby breeds of Shorthorns, Louisville, Ky. 1875. Census, Tenth Census — Supplementary Report on Livestock. Very important. Ford — Wool and Manufactures of Wool- Killebrew — Sheep Husbandry, Nashville, 1880. LoMAx, John A. — Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads. MacDonald — Pood from the Far West. Illuminating survey of conditions in the later seventies by a competent Scotchman. Love, Clara M. — The Cattle Trade of the Southwest, Southwestern His. Quar April and July, 1916. AGRARIAN HISTORY 37 McCoy, Joseph G. — Historic Sketches of the Cattle Trade of the West and Southwest, Kansas City, Mo., 1874. NiMMo, Joseph, Jr. — Report on the Range and Cattle Industry, 48th Cong., 2nd Sess., Ex. Doc. No. 267. Indispensable for study. Paxson, F. L.— The Cow Country, Amer. His. Rev., Vol. XXII, October, 1916, pp. 65-82. Salmon, D. E. — Special Report on History and Present Conditions of the Sheep Industry of the United States, S2nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Misc. Doc. No-. lOS. Sheppekd, W. — Prairie Experiences in Handling Cattle and Sheep. Speed — The Horse in America. Wright — Wool-growing and the Tariff, Har. Econ. Studies, V. A very important contribution. VII. SPECIAL AND REGIONAL STUDIES Be ATT Y, Adam — Essays on Practical Agriculture, Mayville, Ky., 1844. (Kentucky) Bidwell, p. W.— Rural Economy in New England at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts & Sci., 20 (1916) pp. 243-399. This is a careful investigation which emphasizes the effects of markets upon rural industry and organization. It contains many suggestions as to bibliographical material. BURKETT, C. U. — History of Ohio Agriculture. 38 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL Brooks — The Agrarian Revolution in Georgia, Bull. Univ. Wis., His. Series No. 639. Caird, James — Prairie Farming in America^ 1859. (Illinois). Coulter, J. L. — Industrial History of the Valley of the Red River of the North, Collections of the State His. Soc. of North Dakota, Vol. Ill, pp. 529-672. Ellsworth, Henry — The Valley of the Upper Wabash. Farnham, Eliza W. — Life in Prairie Land, 1837. Faust — The German Element in the United States, Vol. I, pp. 131-139, et passim. FiTE, E. D.— Social and Industrial Conditions in the North during the Civil War, Chapter I, Agriculture, pp. 1-23. A masterly review. Gerhard — Illinois as it Is, 1857. Hammond, M. B.— The Cotton Industry. Hess, R. H.— The Beginning of Irrigation in the United States, Jour. Pol. Econ., XX, 807-833. Hibbard — History of Agriculture in Dane County, Wisconsin, Bull. Univ Wis. 1904. HiTTELL, J. S. — Resources of California, pp. 208-295, San Francisco, 1879. OCH— Der Deutsch-Amerikanische Farmer. AGRARIAN HISTORY 39 Parker — The Prairie as It Is. (Iowa) Phillips, U. B. — Documentary History of American Industrial Society, Vols. I and II, Plantation and Frontier. PooLEY, W. v.— The Settlement of Illinois from 1830-1850, Bull, Univ. Wisconsin, No. 220. Robinson, E. V. — Ealry Economic Conditions and the Development of Agriculture in Minnesota. Studies in the Social Sciences, Univ. of Minn., No. 3. Contains elaborate and valuable charts. It is in fact an atlas of agricultural development. Robinson, L. G. — The Agricultural Activities of the Jews in America. Robinson, Solon — Facts for Farmers (Indiana and Iowa). SioussAT, St. G. L. — Teaching the History of the New South, His. Teachers" Mag., Sept. and Oct., 1916. Contains suggestive bibliography. Stone, A. H. — The Cotton Factorage System of the Southern States, Amer. His. Rev., April, 191S, No. 3, pp. 5S7-56S. Illuminating article. Thompson, J. G. — The Rise and Decline of the Wheat-growing Industry in Wiscon- sin, Bull., Univ. Wis., 1908. Turner, F. J. — , The Rise of the New West, Ch. VI, pp. 84-95. Trimble, William — The Mining Advance into the Inland Empire, Bull., Univ. Wis., No. 638. Treats of the beginnings of agriculture as sub- sidiary to mining in eastern Oregon and Washington, British Columbia, Idaho and Montana. 40 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL VIII. THE RISE OF THE GREAT SURPLUS IN FOOD PRODUCTS AFTER THE CIVIL WAR [American competition caused much interest in Europe as to agricultural conditions in the United States, and gave rise to many earnest studies. Following are some of the titles.] JUNGST^ WiLHELM — Der Ackerbau von Indiana und Ohio, Berlin, 1881. Levasseur, E. — L'Agriculture aux etats-unis, Paris, 1894. MacDonald — (See under "Livestock" above.) Ramm^ E. — Die Landzvirtschaft in den Vereingten Staaten von Nord Amerika, Stuttgart, 189S. Report U. S. Dept. Agr., 1883, pp. 323-354. Sering, Max — Die Landwirtschaftliche Konknrrenz Nord Amerikas in Gegenwart und Zukunft, Leipsig, 1887. An important contribution. , StrakoscHj Siegfried — Amerikanische Landwirtschaft , Vienna, 1905. WOHLTMAN, F. — Landwirtschaftliche Reisestudien uber Chicago und Nord Amerika, Breslau, 1895. IX. POLITICAL AND ASSOCIATIONAL ACTIVITIES OF FARMERS [The production of a great surplus after 1862 was made possible by entrance upon world markets, and reactions of marketing condi- tions were a main factor in developing the greatest organized political movements among farmers that have ever occurred]. GENERAL Buck, Solon J. — The Granger Movement, Harvard Univ. Studies, XIX. A com- prehensive and authoritative work. AGRARIAN HISTORY 41 CURRIE, B. W. — A Great Upheaval, (The Non-Partizan League), The Country Gentleman, Apr. 7-May 12, 1917. Dunning, Nelson A. — The Farmers' Alliance History and Agricultural Digest, Wash., 1891. Emerick, C. F. — An Analysis of Agricultural Discontent in the United States, Carver, Selected Readings, pp. 699-763. Fox, Leonard — The Populist Party in Colorado. Haynes, Fred E. — Third Party Movements with Special Reference to Iowa. A val- uable study. McVey, T. L.— The Populist Movement. Refsell, O. N. — The Farmers^ Elevator Movement, Jour. Pol Econ., Nov. and Dec, 1914. The Patrons of Husbandry — Atkeson, Thomas C. — S emi-C entennial History of the Patrons of Husbandry. Darrow, J. W. — History of the Grange. Hibbard, B. H.— The Order of the Patrons of Husbandry, Bull. Economic and Soc. Intelligence. Int. Inst. Agr., June, 1915, pp. 1-16; Oct. 1915, pp. 1-11. The Ohio Farmer, Nov. 11, 1916; The National Grange Monthly, Oct., 1916. MiCHEAL, H. — The Grange in Canada, Queen's Univ., Bull. No. 13. 42 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL X. AGRICULTURAL PRESS [The development of the agricultural press in the United States has been of fundamental importance. Particularly significant was the activity prior to 1840. The following items from an immense field are selected for representative character. The date of first issue is given]. GENERAL Bailey, L. H. (Ed) — Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. IV, pp. 78-87. Tucker, Gilbert M. — American Agricultural Periodicals. REPRESENTATIVE OR REGIONAL The American Farmer, Baltimore, 1819, Apr. 1. The Plough Boy, Albany, 1819, June 5. The New England Farmer, Boston, 1822. The Southern Agriculturist, Charleston, 1828. The Farmers Register, Shellbanks, Va., 1833. The Southern Planter, Richmond, Va., 1841. The Cultivator, Albany, 1834. The Cultivator subsequently took over. The Genesee Farmer, which was started in 1831. The combined paper was merged later with the Country Gentleman, appearing under that title today. The series gives good opportunity for investi- gation of the history of American agriculture. The Prairie Farmer, Chicago, 1840. The Valley Farmer, St. Louis, 1850. The California Farmer, San Francisco, 1850. XL ACTIVITIES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Atherton, G. W. — The Legislative Career of Justin S. Morrill, Wash., 1901. Greathouse, C. H. — Historical Sketch of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 3. AGRARIAN HISTORY 43 James, E. J. — Origin of the Land Grant Act of 1862, Univ. of III. Studies, Vol. IV, No. 1, 1910. Learned, H. B. — The Presidents Cabinet, The Secretaryship of Agriculture, pp. 292-345. A careful account containing much information. True, A. C— Origin and Development of the Agricultural Experirhents Stations in the United States. Washburn, Carl D. — Federal Aid to Agricultural Education, Master's Thesis, MS., 1916. Dept. of American History, Ohio State University. 44 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL XII. SCIENCES CONTRIBUTORY TO AGRICULTURE [Achievements in other sciences have made possible the science of agriculture. The development of such a great institution as the United States Department of Agriculture, for example, has been greatly aided by the rise of auxiliary sciences.] a. Horticulture. Bailey — The Evolution of our Native Fruits. LODERMAN, E. G. — The Spraying of Apples, pp. 1-114. Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, Vol. Ill, pp. 1563-1603. b. Botany. Dana and Farlow — Biographical Memoir of Asa Gray. Makers of British Botany, Cambridge Univ. Press. Sachs^ History of Botany. A standard work. c. Bacteriology. Encyclopedia Brittanica, Art., on Bacteriology. Marshall, C. E. — Microbiology, Introduction. Smith, E. F. — Bacteria in relation to Plant Diseases, Vol. I, p. 151. d. Agricultural Chemistry. Brown, J. C. — A History of Chemistry, pp. 369-385 and 450-456. Meyer, Ernst — A History of Chemistry, pp. 272-280 and 569-594. Shenstone, W. a. — Justus von Liebig, His Life and Work. AGRARIAN HISTORY 45 XIII. SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNITED STATES The agrarian history of the United States may be divided broadly into two periods : the earlier, extending to about 1839-41, may be characterized as chiefly that of woodland agriculture; the second dominatingly as prairie and plains agriculture. The most powerful single modifying force common to both periods and effective almost to the present day was cheap or free lands. There was comparatively little change in the technique of agri- culture during the woodland period. Even the introduction of new crops ultimately invaluable in rotation — corn, potatoes, timothy — failed very materially to modify customs and practices ancient as the pyramids. The most important departure from European farm management, namely, the development of the plantation system, was not unlike a reversion to Roman slave estates. Even so, however, the plantation system — and especially the South Carolina type — with its subjected labor, its routine work, its staple products, its distant markets, constitutes a very important phenomenon. In land tenure distinctive innovations were made. The village organization, transferred from the Old World both to Virginia and New England, faded away in the presence of unrestricted land area — rapidly in Virginia, more gradually in New England. It was replaced by individual holdings, a system which greatly facilitated later the adoption of machinery. /Tenure and transfer under various feudal restrictions gave way to title in fee simple and divided in- heritance. Methods of disposal of public lands became increasingly democratic. Improvements are to be noted after the Revolution in the forma- tion of agricultural societies, the importation of better livestock (especially of Merino sheep during the war of 1812), the invention of the cotton gin and the grain cradle and the improvement of the plow, and the emergence of an agricultural press. 11. A focalization of forces about 1839-41 ushered in the greatest transformation ever made in agriculture. These forces were : 46 INTRODUCTORY MANUAL a. Beginning of the settlement of the prairies. b. The development of harvesting machinery. c. The development of transportation and markets. d. Activities of the Federal Government, as evidenced in an appropriation (1839) for an agricultural report and by inclusion of agricultural statistics in the Census of 1840. e. The Preemption Law of 1841, guaranteeing land titles to settlers. f. General growth in freedom and intelligence of farmers and mechanics. These forces were accelerated in the later forties by : a. The repeal of the English tariff on grain. b. Immigration from Europe due mainly to failure of potato crop and to revolutions. c. The discovery of gold in California. Again, in 1862 a group of agrarian laws contributed to the success of the transformation. These were : — a. The establishment of the Department of Agriculture. b. The Morrill Act for establishing land-grant colleges. c. A series of enactments concerning slavery, including the Emancipation Proclamation. d. The first Pacific Railway law. e. The Homestead law. The revolution in agriculture becomes clearly apparent after 1862. The chief features were : — a. Rapid disposal of the public domain. b. Immense extension of cultivated area. c. Specialization in production; e. g., wheat in Red River Valley, cattle on plains, sheep in mountain states. d. Use of efficient machinery on a big scale; e. g., binder, com- bined harvester, gang plow. e. Emergence of agriculture from the humdrum of the ages; it acquired romance and gained prestige. AGRARIAN HISTORY 47 f. Extensive farming and exploitation of soil. g. Multiplication of governmental activities. h. Transportation agencies of all sorts were increased and differentiated; e. g., rail and steamship lines, refrigerators, elevators, stock yards, packing houses, etc. i. Entrance upon a world market. j. The production and exportation of an immense surplus of agricultural products, causing in older parts of the United States and in Europe depression of agricultural conditions. k. Manifestations of political and social discontent; e. g., Patrons of Husbandry, Farmers Alliance, Greenback Party, Populist Party. With the passing of the easily available public lands in the last decade or two a new set of conditions has appeared, and a new era has opened in the development of agriculture in the United States and in the world. ,