fl- Km eiv) that the expression yeaypacpia, commonly used among the Greeks from the third century B.C. onwards to signify earth- mapping (the older synonyms being yijs nepioSos, ncpi- I.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 5 jjyijo-ir, and analogously x a P°yP a< t>' la — mapping of countries) became later the designation of the Science ■ itself. Hence Strabo is called by the Byzantine scholars ko.t e£ XV v ° yeoypdtpos (the geographer^?- excellence). 2 Other constructors of maps of the earth (generally accom- panied by descriptive writings) were, after the first attempt of Anaximander of Miletus (about 350 B.C.), who certainly relied for the most part on Phoenician sources, the Milesian Hecataeus (about 500), then the Mathema- tician Eudoxus of Cnidus (about 360), Pytheas of Massalia (celebrated for his voyages of discovery, about 330, on the Western Ocean as far as Britain, Thule and the mouths of the Elbe) and the Peripatetic Dicaearchus of Messana, (about 320-10) who might already have worked in the material newly acquired through Alexander's conquests in Western Asia. After Eratosthenes pre-eminent service was done to the cause of geography by the greatest of Greek astronomers, Hipparchus of Nicaea(about 165-125), who, without carrying out any independent geographical works, discovered the stereographical projection which, with some modifications, prevails to the present day (that is, the almost precisely similar transfer of the graduated surface of the globe to the plane of projection). To make up to some extent for the materials collected by the older geographers whom we have lost, we must avail ourselves of the geographical and ethnographical information given in some Greek historical works, and founded on the authors' own travels and investi- gations ; such are those of Herodotus (about 440) over the East, and of Polybius (about 130) over the West of the ancient world. The remaining works not here quoted by name which deal with geography (the so-called Geographi Graeci Minores) are mostly of later date and of no scientific value. Among them however, besides mere school- books and excerpts, are several descriptions of roads and coasts, in some cases with special information as to distances, (nepmkoi, oruSunriiot), which are useful in reconstructing maps of ancient geography. 5. The geographical activity of the Romans did not begin till the empire. It was confined in literature to abridged compilations, chiefly after Greek sources (Mela, Pliny in the first century), and in practice to registeiing the distances between the stations on all the military roads for administrative and military purposes according to 6 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Julius Caesar's plan, which was carried out under Augustus, chiefly by M. Agrippa, and repeatedly brought again to perfection in later imperial times. From this were de- veloped the detailed maps of the earth, with distances marked, which were, even in Augustus' time, publicly exposed in Rome, and later also in most of the larger towns of the empire. These were afterwards multiplied in smaller form for hand use. A manuscript copy of one of these, made in 1264, but of an edition belonging to the third century a.d., has been preserved, the so-called Tabula Peutingeriana, now in the Imperial Library at Vienna. These maps, as well as those itineraries which are only made out in a tabular form (such as the so-called Itinera- rium Antonini, 333, a.d., and the like) which resemble the guide-books of to-day, afford the most important help, through the data they contain as to names and num- bers, in the reconstruction of maps representing ancient geography. 6. Ethnographical Survey. — Besides the purely mechanical formation of the earth's surface and its local distinctions according to. quality of soil and climate, the organic nature which fills this surface is also matter of geographical observation. And in this department the human race takes a pre-eminent place, on account of the almost unlimited freedom with which they move from place to place, and their power of inuring themselves even to the most extreme conditions of climate. The human race moreover has to be considered in its particular divisions, known as nations, and these not regarded, as in anti- quity, as children of the soil which from time to time they have chanced to inhabit, but rather quite apart from it and in connection with their mutual resemblances or specific distinctions. This branch of knowledge, entirely the growth of modern times, and for which, in accordance with older analogies, the name of Ethnography or I.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 7 Ethnology has become usual, teaches us also to distin- guish particular nations (independently of their chance geographical distribution, subject as time goes on to con- stant change) by means of their physical and mental (or linguistic) characteristics (which however do not everywhere agree); and again following the analogy of those tests to collect them into smaller and larger groups which can be traced to original unity of stem, and are from a linguistic point of view known as Families of Nations, or from a physical point of view as R a c e s. 1 1 The geographical position of such originally-connected groups, whether those that now exist and have in a measure suffered little change for centuries, or those which have changed within historical times, may with moderate certainty be explained. by the course of the wanderings of great masses of population previous to all historic tradition. At the same time the following out of such a series of deductions back to an assumed first starting-place of a great family, or even race, of nations, will always belong merely to the region of much-contested ' hypothesis. This idea remained quite foreign to classical antiquity, with its more limited area of observation and its lack of interest in the comparison of strange (or barbarous) tongues. For the striking bodily formation of particular nations, which from our point of view form part of great races, bordering upon one another, though distinct, the Greek philosophers tried to account by the greatly exaggerated inriuence of climate (for instance, attributing the yellow skin of the Scythians to the cold, and the dark brown or black skin of the nations on the Upper Nile to the heat). Some of the old civilised nations of the East, living as they did in the midst of many- coloured races, besides this purely external characteristic seem to have defined such distinctions more precisely by their use of language also. So we have the Hebrews with their threefold successors of Japhet (the white), Shem, and Ham (the black), and the Egyptians with their four races, often represented in colour on their monuments after the fifteenth century B.C. ; these were the reddish-brown Egyptians, the black peoples of the Upper Nile, the yellowish-brown Asiatics (of Semitic race), and the white North Africans (or Libyans). 8 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. 7. Leading Families of Speech among the Nations of the Ancient World. — There is one classification of peoples answering to their historic im- portance, to which the bodily characteristics which are still visible or handed down by historic tradition, and subject moreover to gradual change, do not extend, and which supplies us only with the knowledge of their lan- guages and the means of judging from this basis of the nearer or more distant relationship or even the radical distinction between them. Our knowledge on this head must necessarily remain incomplete because of the entire loss or the preservation only in scanty fragments of the idioms of many of even the historically important nations of antiquity ; on the other hand, it gains in extent over the area of experiment among now-existing languages, through the preservation in writing of older forms of 1 language, or at least of special types of language which have either perished or undergone a Change of organism (the so-called dead languages). 1 1 Among the literary languages of antiquity the two that are par excellence called classical are well known ; of those that are related to them the literary representatives are the old Indian (Sanskrit) and Bactrian (Zend) ; of the Semitic languages there are Hebrew, Syrian, Aethiopian ; another is Egyptian in its later form (i.e. Koptic), which only became extinct two centuries ago. No less in number are the ancient languages of which more or less record remains in the form of inscriptions, and which, if we except Phoenician, which is identical with Hebrew, have become known almost entirely within the last half century. To these belong the Old Egyptian, deciphered from hieroglyphics, the Assyro- Babylonian, Susianic, and Old Persian, made out through the deciphering of various forms of cuneiform writing ; beyond these the South Arabian, written with a particular modifi- cation of the Phoenician alphabet (Himyaric or Sabean), and finally several which make use (with certain extensions) of the old Greek alphabet, and can therefore be read with greater certainty ; of these we find in Italy Oscan, Um- brian, and Etruscan, in Asia Minor Lycian and Phrygian ; I.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 9 the materials for determining the linguistic affinity of the three last named being still insufficient. The same would have been true of Libyan and Keltic, from the insignificance of the inscriptions preserved in these languages, had not im-. portant branches of them maintained themselves alive, though in a greatly altered form. Besides these there are in Europe in the still existing Basque and Albanian (already in rapid course of decay) the remnants of the old Iberian and Illyrian tongues, as Well as the Germanic (Teutonic) ; while in Asia the languages of the Caucasian countries, of Armenia and of Arabia, are to be % added to the store of the languages of the old civilised world'which can only be recognised through' their present forms. The number then of further languages, be- longing to stems from Asia Minor, Thrace, Raetia, and Liguria, which have either completely perished or leave only scanty traces in proper names, is not so great as to add a perceptible uncertainty to the classification of ancient peoples. 8. The science of language generally distinguishes three great classes Of speech, according to the method they adopt to express the relations of ideas td one another. These methods are (1) the purely syntactical; in the languages which are quite without form (isolating or monosyllabic); (2) the loose stringing together (by prefixes, suffixes, and insertions) of unchangeable roots, in the so-called agglu- tinative languages; (3) external and internal changes of the word-stems, in the so-called inflectional lan- guages. The nations of isolating speech spread over Eastern Asia, amongst whom the Chinese, with their primeval culture, take the first place, were hardly known except by name to the classical world of the West. Nations of the second class of speech (especially the nomad tribes of interior Asia) also only touch the outskirts of that world, and did not till the middle ages take a firm footing on the ruins of the old culture of Asia Minor and South-eastern Europe. All the civilised nations of the Mediterranean countries and South-western Asia who played an active part in classical antiquity belong, in their language, to the third class, which again falls into three great families,' io ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. according to the degree of change in inflexion, and internal affinity in the material of speech. 1 i The collective names of these larger groups of nations which here follow, and are pretty generally adopted by modern philology and ethnology, are of course newly formed, for the sake of brevity, upon the affinity of stem first recognised by recent science, and are not, like the particular names of the folk-stems, founded upon old usage, but still very uncertain and open to dispute. 9. The flamitic Family (to follow Hebrew -nomenclature) embraces the nations of the north coast of Africa and of the Middle and Lower Nile region; at their head are the Egyptians, distinguished for their ancient civilisation, but also first to perish as an indepen- dent nation; their colour was reddish-brown. A similar colour, though darker and varying even to black, appears in the peoples of the southern part of the so-called Nubia, bordering on the Nile-district, as well as in some of the Abyssinians, but as in the case of the Egyptians the colour is conjoined with a type of face similar, to that of the white races, and quite distinct from that of the negro. The Greeks grouped all these nations together with the negroes under the designation of Aethiopes (answering to the Egypto-Semitic name K u s h), derived from their colour. We find a much lighter colour, and in some places not differ- ing from that of the Southern Europeans (the same too as is assigned to them in Egyptian paintings) in the Libyan tribes who inhabit North Africa up to the Western Ocean, as well as in the nomads of the Steppes and the Desert. Successors of these peoples have maintained themselves under the Arabian conquerors, by whom, according to Roman precedent (barbari), they are even now called Berbers. 10. The Semitic Family (first so called about a century ago, in accordance with their own tradition, which assumes S h e m , to be the forefather of the greater part I] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. n of their race) takes a middle place between the Hamitic and the Aryan, both in degree of linguistic development and also in view of its ancient dwelling-place being confined to a part of South-western Asia. The following important nations, differing from one another in language, still belong to this family : (i) The Assyrians and Babylonians, the original inhabitants of the lower country of the Tigris and Euphrates. (2) The Aramaeans (or Syrians, as the Greeks called them) and some smaller tribes of Asia Minor connected probably with both the preceding ones. (3) The inhabitants of Canaan, both the dwellers on the coast, whom the Greeks called Phoenicians, and the Hebrew tribes inland (Israelites, Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites). (4) The Arabians, of the Peninsula, with their offshoot, the Semitic Aethiopians on the Upper Blue Nile. These two nations are, but for scanty remnants of the Syrians, the only speaking representa- tives of the Semitic race that still hold their ground. The Arabian branch has even spread far beyond its ancient borders. ir. The Aryan Family (also called Indo-Ger- manic or Indo-European according to the local extension of their class of speech, as established rather more than fifty years ago), though the youngest, excels all the rest not only in the early maturity of its language and intellect, but also in historical importance. Since the palmy days of Greece and of Rome it has been the most active promoter of the advance of human culture, as in modern times it is the only one that is always progressing and expanding. It shows us at the same time the richest variety in its national life, over an extent of earth covering, since the beginning of historical recollection, an enormous area, from the East Indian to the Atlantic Ocean. The individual branches of this wide-spread stock may be divided into three great groups, according to the 12 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. habitation assigned to them by history, and according to the greater or less similarity of their languages. I. The Asiatic: — (i) The Aryan Indians, the civilised people of Northern India, of light complexion, and of the Brahmin religion. (2) The Arianian (or as they are now called Iranian) nations of the eastern part of Anterior Asia. 1 (3) The Armenians, with their nearest connections on the inner highlands of Asia Minor. II. The South-Eurdpean: — (4) The Greeks ((Hellenes), including the northern tribes to whom they were closely related, such as the Macedonians. (5) The Thracian and Illyrian peoples (it is uncertain whether they were really distinct in speech, or whether these were only different names for the Eastern and Western divisions of one large grdup). (6) The L i g u r i a n s and probably some other peoples of the Alps (possibly more closely allied to the Illyrian s). (7) The Italian \pr more correctly Middle Italian) peoples, i.e. Latins, Sabines, Urn- brians, and Oscans, with those of the same stock. I Both these Eastern branches of the great family to which they belong adopted in the very earliest times the name Arya, or " lords, masters " (evidently as conquerors pf their historic fatherland), which has been conveniently extended by modern philology to the aggregate of tribes related to them. I.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 13 III. The Middle and North European :— (8) The Keltic peoples of Western Europe (in- cluding the British Isles, where part of their successors even now preserve their language), who have also spread, in the course of many wanderings, in times well known to history, through Spain and over the Danube countries as far as Asia Minor. (9) The Germanic peoples. (10) The peoples known fo the classical nations only by the name of Aestuans and Venedians, from whom are descended the so-called Lituan- ians and Slavs, the two chief Aryan nations of Eastern Europe (called in antiquity Sarmatia), and who are closely allied in language. 12. Isolated Tribes of the White Race. — Although in point of language we cannot establish a nearer relation between the Aryan and the two other families that have been named, still an original connection, prior to the formation of language, seems probable from the fact that all those peoples, whose habitations include about the middle zone of the ancient world, when compared with the remaining nations of Africa and of Eastern and Northern Asia, show a remarkable similarity, and to a great extent even sameness in bodily structure, particularly in type of face, and with unimportant exceptions in colour of skin ; they form pre-eminently that great race of mankind which from the lighter colour of by far its greater part we are in the habit of calling, most conveniently, the white race. 1 There are exceptions, however, for the same physical peculiarity, in some cases even with great perfection of bodily type, is possessed by particular nations, whose still living languages, while not belonging to the inflectional 14 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. class, are entirely distinct not only frpm the three above- named families of speech, but also from one another. To these belong especially the inhabitants of the Caucasus and of the southern districts at the foot of the Caucasus (Colchis and Iberia, reaching probably in old times even further west as far as Asia Minor), and on the other hand in Western Europe the once wide-spread Iberian nation, the last remnants of whose language, in course of destruc- tion, is represented by the modern Basques of the Western Pyrenees. Between these two probably lay, as far as an- tiquity is concerned, the Raeto-Etruscan people, whose language fell before the influence of Latin, leaving only remnants which still need interpretation; All these groups must be regarded as remnants of an original population, in primeval times far more widely spread, but afterwards driven back by the powerful Aryan family. i The name Caucasian to express this race, which, for want of one more convenient, has been pretty generally adopted since Blumenbach first proposed it about a century ago, had better be avoided, because its too distinctly local significance (implying that the Caucasus was its original seat) is apt to create secondary ideas which are erroneous. 13. The Other Races of the Ancient World. — The regions to the north and east of the ancient continent; which remained for the most part unknown to the classical nations, embracing Northern Europe, together with Northern, Central, and Eastern Asia, were inhabited by a race more or less unlike the white nations, which now (again following the precedent of Blumenbach) is usually, though inconveniently, designated as Mongolian, from one particular tribe which is distinguished by very strongly marked physical characteristics. 1 As far as number goes, by far the preponderating portion of this race is represented by the Eastern-Asiatic peoples, who even in very I.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 15 early times independently attained to a certain degree of civilisation, and among these are especially to be noted the Chinese; they lie, however, almost entirely beyond the sphere of the classical world of culture in the West. This world came on the other hand into nearer and almost hostile rela- tions with several nomad tribes of the same race, who bordered on its domains, and were commonly called by the Asiatic Aryans (the Medes, Persians, and Indians) by a name transferred from that of one particular tribe, the S a c i a n s, and by the Greeks in the same way, Scythians. In place of these indefinite names modern ethnology uses more appropriately the name Turanians, borrowed from the mediaeval usage, of the Iranians, to express collectively all those nations who are known by the special names of Finnish, Turkish, Mongolian, and Tungusian, and who occupy the wide regions of Central and Northern Asia as they did formerly also nearly the whole of Northern Europe, with a comparatively scanty population, answering to the physical character of their country and the manner of life which it implies. Only the westernmost portion of them, by modern nomenclature called Finns in Northern Europe, and Turks in Asia, were known, and that little more than by name, to the classical nations. 1 The most striking are prominent cheek-bones, pointed brow and chin, yellow skin, thick and stiff black hair, and scanty growth of beard ; a remarkable transition from this type, which is first fully described by ancient authors in the case of the Huns of the fourth and fifth centuries A.D., to the bodily form of the white race is shown, however, in the western- most tribes (the modern Finns and Turks), and precisely those with which the classical nations were more nearly acquainted ; this was probably in consequence of consider- able mixture of blood with the nations of white race. 14. Besides these restless pastoral tribes, repeatedly en- gaged in destruction, until at last in the middle ages they 'succeeded in forcing their firm establishment upon the old 16 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. civilised world, there remain the foreign neighbours of the branches of the white, race, farthest outlying in Africa and Southern Asia, and themselves unlike in the duskiness of their skin to their fellows in breed, I mean the peoples of the black race, properly so called, or, as the Greeks called them, Aethiopians, a race now quite passively giving way, and especially in Asia— where originally they seem to have been more widely spread— almost disappearing under Semitic and Aryan domination. * i These dusky tribes, still living sporadically in south-eastern Iran and in India, are moreover sharply distinguished from : the African negroes by the formation of their skull, and smooth, not woolly, hair (iflilr/Dt^er, not ovXorpi^es, as Herodotus already was aware). The Greeks in Homer's time had already heard of both black races (AlBiowes, 01 Si'x a dedoiaratj eo-^arot uvSpcov, ol fxev dvvofieyov 'YTreplovos, oj 8' aviovros). The Kushites of Eastern tales, in South Arabia and the lower country of the Tigris and Euphrates, seem to have formed a connecting link, which has quite disappeared. The Greek authors knew also of Aethiops in Syria and Susa in prehistoric times. GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 15. Oldest Divisions of the Earth. — The usual names for the three principal parts of the ancient world, separated from one another by the Mediterranean basin, while remaining unknown even in the latest times to the civilised nations of the East, were adopted by modern Europeans immediately from Italian (or Roman) usage, which had retained two only of them from Greek usage, in- troducing A f r i c a in place of the third Greek name Libya. Both names were, according to the usual process, extended from the limited name of the district which first happened to become known to each of the two nations, to the whole boundless expanse which lay behind. This change of name betokens the knowledge of the name of Africa on the Italian I.} GENERAL INTRODUCTION. i 7 coasts at a time when Libya was not yet regarded among the Greeks as a separate division of the earth, but still counted as belonging to Asia in the wider sense. The two older names, Asia and Europe, the origin and meaning of which was already in the time of Herodotus (fifth century B.C.) unknown to the Greeks, and vainly sought for in their own language, are derived from the afu and irib of the lately-deciphered Assyrian monuments, meaning East and West, and answering to the Homeric expression, 71-.00S rj!o r)t\i6vT€ and irpos £,6v ddXacrcra, or in the earliest times, as being the one sea that was traversed by Greeks, briefly 17 8d\acrTT)s, 'Yapmris, now Ravi, Vzftd(d, "Yiraais, "Y apyvpa, ^aA/ciTis, the iatter lying in the interior of the modern Laua or Laos, still celebrated for its copper mines. The inhabitants belonged then, as now, to the yellow race of Eastern Asia, related to the Chinese, though they received the Bhuddist religion and other elements of culture in quite early days from Aryan India, which was at least in commercial relations with the coast-districts, and, it is even probable — judging from certain Sanskrit names applied by Ptolemy to places and rivers — founded particular settlements. Such settle- ments can only be identified with certainty on the island which formed the furthest south-eastern extremity of the world as known to the ancients, I mean Java, already called by Ptolemy 'Idfia-Siov (from the Sanskrit stems yava "millet," and diu the popular form of dvipa "island"), and described correctly enough as Kpidr/s vrjo-os, or "island of barley." l 30 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. i The intervening groups of smaller islands, St'rdat, MavioXai, and others, corresponding in position with the Andamanian and Nikobarian islands, are also marked on the ancient maps and even (in accordance with later Arabian tales) as inhabited by cannibals. SINAE AND SERICA. 27. The extreme eastern district of Asia beyond the Indian coasts was known in the second century a.d. only just by name and through the researches of a single Greek sailor. 1 It was ruled over by the %Zvat (hence, with some alteration, the name ®ivai applied to the chief town of the interior), but inhabited in these southern coast-lands by a people called Aethiopians, probably a branch of the low- statured Australian negro race which was widely spread also in Further India and the Indian islands. 2 The northern half of China, which was civilised far . earlier, became known to the Greeks under another name — it was therefore regarded as quite distinct from Sinae — and by a different route, that is, a land route. Its most valuable product, silk — which first reached the regions of the Oxus (not probably before the first century B.C.) by caravans through Central Asia — gave occasion for calling the land of its origin simply "Silk-land" S^pi/c^ (sc. X»P a )j the inhabitants Si?pes, and the capital %rjpa. Sera, as the terminating point of this traffic, was the easternmost town then known. 3 It is represented by the modern Si-ngan-fu, on the Wei-ho, a tributary of the Hwang-ho. 1 His name was Alexander. The furthest point he gained, the great emporium of Kattigara, must, according to the scale of distances adopted in Ptolemy's map, be looked for near the mouth of the Yang-tseu-kiang. 2 In accordance with this we learn from Chinese sources, that the southern part of Modern China, taking in Tung-king, which now belongs to Annam, was first conquered as a district inhabited by barbarous tribes about 200 li.c. II.] EASTERN ASIA. 31 3 The data given On this point by our sole classical authority, the map of Ptolemy, rest on information supplied by Asiatic (probably Indian) merchants, for the Greeks themselves never reached those regions, and especially not Central Asia. SCYTHIA (CENTRAL ASIA). 28. By means of the only line of communication between East and West, or between Northern China and the Bactro- Sogdian district, I mean the just mentioned caravan route of commerce, the Greeks and Romans came in the first century B.C. to have a rather more intimate knowledge also of the wide and for the most part desert. regions of Middle Asia, whose almost entirely nomad inhabitants of Turanian stock had been familiar to them since Alexander's con- quests on the borders of the Oxus and Jaxartes under the name of Sacians or Scythians (§ 13). This name and the consequent name of the country was trans- ferred later on to the whole great region of kindred character and inhabitants, as far as the political frontiers of Serica, although systematic geographers drew a distinction between a hither and further Scythia (%Kvdia 77 evros and Iktos '1/jlo.ov opo-us), according to their position in rela- tion to the mighty snow range which had to be crossed midway. To this range, called by the Chinese Tianshan (" mountains of heaven," the Turkish Tengri-tau), the name Himavat (" the snowy," see § 21) must have been given by the first Indian travellers, to whom the Greeks owed their lcnowledge. As this lofty glacier-abounding chain runs almost directly from east to west, and not, as the ancients wrongly described their so-called Scythian Imaus, from north to south, their inner and outer Scythia does not express the western and eastern, so well as the northern and southern parts of interior Asia. The latter includes the district known to our complete earth-survey in a narrower sense as Central Asia, a lofty inland basin 32 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. surrounded by mighty mountain walls, and only in the middle falling into desert spaces which in prehistoric times had been covered with water. Though possessing no outlet to the exterior there are yet some well-watered and cultivable oases along the southern foot of the Tianshan, so that even Ptolemy knew of a few towns in this further Scythia. The inner or fore Scythia of the ancients, on the other hand, embraces the plains to the north of the Jaxartes and the Sea of Aral, inhabited only by the Sacae, Massagetae, and other nomad tribes (probably ancestors of the modern Kirghizes) ; the continuation of these plains to the north and east remained unknown to the ancients. Of its inhabitants only the westernmost tribe, the Sacae (Sa/cat), became subject from time to time to the Persian and later to the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom. III.— V. WESTERN OR ANTERIOR ASIA. 29. Review of the Physical Features. — The greater part of Western Asia consists of highlands, mostly poor in water, which in their furthest extension from east to west abut on the so-called Taurus chain, touching too, on the South, its greater Eastern (Iranian) half, on the north its smaller continuation, on the west the so-called peninsula of Asia Minor; while the connecting midland, the Armenian highland, thickly studded with mountain ranges, is moreover accompanied on the north by the still loftier parallel belt of the Caucasus. Far to the south, connected with the Taurus-highlands only by the smaller belt of the Syrian mountain district, which running north and south bounds the Mediterranean on the east, stretches the isolated highland which occupies the greater part of the HI.] WESTERN OR ANTERIOR ASIA. 33 Arabian peninsula. Surrounded by these broad swellings of the earth's surface, lies in a direction from north to south, and carried on through the Persian Gulf, a depression, whose upper part forms the central plain of Anterior Asia, the district watered by the parallel streams of Euphrates and Tigris, while the lower alluvial district, only second to the Indian in extraordinary fertility, takes also a first rank for density of population and wealth ; it has on this account exercised for centuries a political ascendency over the whole of Western Asia. On the other side the eastern part of the Taurus highland falls away northwards to a still more extensive plain, which forms the passage into Interior Asia, and is also watered by a mighty pair of streams, the O x u s and Jaxartes. The much narrower limit of cultivated ground, owing to far scantier rainfall, touching on deserts of enormous extent ; the ruder climate consequent on its northern position and the want of a mountain barrier in that direction ; lastly, the exclusion from the world's commerce resulting from the outflow of the twin streams into an isolated inland sea — these are disadvantages which sufficiently explain the com- paratively secondary historic significance of this North- Eastern, half Turanian, plain. 30. Historical Review. — Owing to its position in the centre of the whole continent, near the two western con- tinents, Europe and Africa, Anterior Asia exercised down into the later middle ages a far more important influence on the destinies of mankind than the more remote south and east of the continent (India and China). Its population is more varied than that of the outer regions of the ancient world : of the four historically important families of nations, three have been represented there within historic times ; the supremacy going in succession through the Semitic, Aryan, and Turanian. The first-named, so far as history goes back, had its home on the narrower territory D 34 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. comprised in the central and south-western part of Anterior Asia ; with the downfall of the kingdoms of Assyria, Babylon, Cilicia, and Lydia, it loses its political indepen- dence in favour of Aryan nations, though not an that account suffering actual diminution of territory. Aryan nations are found living from the earliest known times in the northern highland which stretches from the borders of India through Iran (Persia) far into the peninsula of Asia Minor ; here also were Semitic colonies and the remnants of an original population probably allied to the inhabitants of the Caucasus. Lastly, into the north-eastern plains which border on Central Asia wandering Turanian tribes have pressed from quite early times in great numbers, isolated in various spots as far as Asia Minor, but always dwelling in smaller numbers as compared with the predominant Aryans. It was not till late in the middle ages that the same tribes, under the name of Turkomans, Seljuks, and other Turkish hordes overflowed nearly the whole of the northern highland of Western Asia, and, while in a great measure assimilating it to their language, extended their political sway conclusively also over the Semitic (Arabic- speaking) southern portion of this continent. III. ARIANA (IRAN). 31. Name, Soil, and Climate.— The name of "Aryan land," Ariana, 'Apiavrj, is applied by native usage (which though known to the Greek geographers was not univer- sally accepted by them) only to the eastern half of the countries, alike in language, situation, and religion, which since the restoration of the national kingdom by the Sas- sanides have been designated by the form Airan, Eran, in-] ARIANA. 35 or according to modern pronunciation Iran. We, in regard to natural connection, extend this, which was originally an ethnological name, also to some adjoining districts, not inhabited by Aryans. In its wider sense the ancient Ariana or Iran also com- prises within its smaller northern division the plains watered by the Oxus and Jaxartes (cf. § 29). 1 The larger division, stretching southwards from these rivers and the Caspian Sea, and to which in its narrower sense the Iranian name has been preserved, consists mainly of a mighty upland whose edges in the form of -mountain chains rising to Alpine altitudes descend abruptly on the east to the level valley of the Indus, on the west to that of the Tigris, on the south to the Indian Ocean, on the north-west to the Caspian sea, while on the north-east it slopes gradually to the valley of -the Oxus and its smaller tributaries. Still lower is the ' ' depression inland to a double basin, occupied by salt deserts once covered with water. 2 In this the scanty and for the most part saliferous inland streams find their end ; so that a third or more of the area -of the Iranian plateau is withdrawn from cultivation or permanent habitation, and though traversable by camel caravans is not so by armies. The great commercial routes communicating with civilized countries and larger towns are confined to the outer circle. They lie along the foot of the surrounding mountain chains at an average height above the sea of 3,000-6,000 feet, and experience therefore a severe winter as well as an im- moderate heat and drought in the summer. Even the south coast land along the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean suffers from a hot and waterless climate, which over a great part of Iran stunts the growth of trees to an extraordinary extent. Only the western regions sloping to the alluvial district of the Tigris, and still more those on the north which descend to the south coast of the Caspian Sea have a large rainfall and in consequence dense forests, d 2 36 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [CHAP. i The name Turan (cf. § 13) or Turkistan ("Turks' land") applied by modern geography to these districts, is only justified by present conditions dating from the middle ages ; successive invasions and conquests of Turkish hordes continually increasing in strength (from 130 B.C. to 1500 A.D.) have not however by any means displaced the original Iranian population (which to this day speaks Persian) though they have greatly diminished it. 2 The utterly parched salt desert in the west (between the ancient Media, Parthia, and Karmania) sinks to a thou- sand feet and even lower probably in the inaccessible interior. In ancient times the higher basin in the east contained in its lowest part (about 1,600 feet) a great salt lake (the 'Apeia Xi/11/7;) fed by the Etymandros (Hilmand), a large and probably in old days rather more ample inland river, whose alluvial deposit has formed fertile plains on the eastern bank of the lake, as have smaller tributaries on its northern ; even this low-lying lake (the Hamfai, or ' salt marsh' of the Afghans) is now dried up into a very scanty remnant. 32. Historical and Ethnological Division. — The character of the country that has been delineated, and which implies the want of a natural centre to command the whole of Iran, is the principal cause of the inner weakness of all the states which in the course of history have existed in this region. The prevalence of fertile soil and therefore denser population in particular districts of the East (Bactria) and West (Media) — widely sundered by the intervening deserts — has, at shorter intervals of connection, now again led to its division into at least one Western and one Eastern kingdom. This split is manifested also in the dialectic dis- tinction between the Iranian languages : as in the middle ages and at the present time between New Persian and Afghan, so in antiquity between the Old Persian deciphered only from the inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes (cf. § 7, N. 1, the Median must have been identical with it save for small dialectic peculiarities), and the O Id- Bac trian (usually called Zend) — the ancient speech of the whole of Eastern or original Ariana — known only from few extant remains of their religious writings (the so-called Avesta). in.] EASTERN ARIANA. EASTERN ARIANA. 33. Sogdiana or 'SovySiavrj — Old-Persian Sughuda — is the northernmost of Asiatico-Aryan countries. Its central and more cultivated portion, the well-watered plain of the Polytimetos (now Zerafshan) was in the middle ages still called Soghd , in it lay the capital Marakanda (Samar- kand). Under the Persians and Macedonians Sogdiana reached northwards to the middle course of the river which formed the frontier of the kingdom against the Scythian nomads, the Jaxartes (called by the Scythians Silts and still known in Turkish as Syr) ; here was the ancient Persian border fortress of Kyra or Kyrhchata, the Greek Alexandreia rj kcrxa-r-q (" the most remote," probably the modern Kho- jand). It was separated from the regions next named, on the south by high mountain ranges and spurs of the so- called Imaus of Interior Asia, on the further west by deserts. 34. Bactriana, Old Persian Bakhtarisch, native Bakhdki (hence the later form Bakhl, and the New Persian Balkh), is the rich plain, famed far and wide for its breed of horses, which is watered by the principal river of all Ariana, the Oxus (Old Persian Wakhshu, still called in the highlands Wakhsh-ib), after its issue from the niountains. The most thickly populated and therefore the most powerful country in Eastern Ariana, it was the seat of an extensive ancient kingdom, afterwards annexed to that of the Medes, and later of a Greek one, split off from that of the Seleukidae after 250 B.C., and after 180 B.C. extended also over the Indus district. Lastly, it became the seat of the kingdom founded between T65 and 150 B.C. by Turanian conquerors of the Sacian tribe (§ 28). Its ancient capital was 38 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Zariaspa, to which was usually transferred the name of the country, Bactra (ra.Ba.KTpa, now Balkh). 1 I The eastern mountain system, belonging to the Baktrian and Sogdian district is in the history ot the Macedonian conquest called Iiapan-aKj/j/jJ, that is parvataka "the mountainous." 35. Chorasmia, Old Persian Huvarazmi, now Khwarizm or Kharizm (probably meaning " Netherland,") is the fertile alluvial plain stretching along the lower Oxus down to the lake at its mouth (Sea of Aral), 1 and separated from Bactria by the great deserts. In antiquity it was probably rather more cultivated, and was inhabited by a people (probably of Turanian descent) strong in cavalry, which had in Alexander's time its own princes, independent of the Persian kingdom. Margiana, Old Persian Marghu, now Merv, which gets its name from the river Margos (now Murgh-ab), is the higher- lying fertile plain at the northern foot of the great Iranian upland. Belonging in ancient times to the province of Bactria, it formed already before and after the Macedonian conquest a separate satrapy, and as part of the Seleucid kingdom received in its capital the powerful Greek military colony of Antiocheia Margiana, (in the middle ages, and now, called Merv). 1 The Greeks knew the connection between the Oxus and this lake, the modem Sea of Aral, which they therefore, call 'Qfceiavfj Xipvi), but they wrongly made the principal arm of the stream, which in that alluvial plain is divided into many, flow into the Caspian Sea. They were misled by the existence of a deep bay, and of an old river bed which cuts through the desert for almost 500 miles ; this which is still dry is even now recognizable, but can only have conducted water in prehistoric times. They made the same mistake in attributing to the Ochos, and still more to the Jaxartes itself a similar embouchure into the Caspian. 36. Areia, 1 Old Persian Haraiva, is a level valley, more loftily situated, and called after the stream which runs paral- HI.] EASTERN ARIANA, 39 lei with the Margos in the south-west, the'Apeios, Persian Mart or Hen, (whiclvin its lower course towards the desert, is now called Tejend, but in antiquity *fix os ) > hence the colony founded by the Macedonian conquerors, 'A\e£av- Speia 'Apeiav, now Herat, the older capital (or probably only an older name for the same) being Artakoana. The high eastern range ending in the Imaus (Himalaya), from which the two rivers just named take their rise, which forms the chief waterparting between the Upper Oxus and the Indus, and over the high passes of which (Hindu-Kush 13,000 feet) leads the main route between Bactria and India, received from the Macedonians as they climbed it on this journey, the name of Indian Caucasus, though pro- bably it was in this case arbitrarily applied ; later, however, even the Greeks called it by its native name Para- pa n i s u s, (not -wzisus as it is commonly written). The whole mountain region, especially the southern Indian slope, forms therefore the satrapy oftheParapanisadae, capital Ortospana or Kabura, now Kabul, in the high Valley of the Kophen. 2 One of its tribes, the Gandhara (Ta.v8a.pai), belonged, by their language, to the Indian branch of Aryans. 1 It must be noted that though in its Greek form 'Apcia, — ■ written like the names Indus, India without the initial h — and also in its Latin form, Aria, this name is very similar to the national name of the Aryans, it has really nothing whatever to do with it, either in sound or meaning. 2 Here at the southern foot of the mountain passes wei*. the Greek military colonies of Ni'xaia and ' AXet-av bpeta irpux KauKacrfr. 37. Arachosia (Pakty'ika) and Drangiana. The cold upland south of the Parapanisus (4,000-6,000 feet), more used for the breeding of cattle than for tillage, and inhabited by the Paktyes, (Ila/ci-ves, still calling them- selves Pakhtu, though the Persians call them Afghans), falls abruptly into the Indus valley, but more gently to the 40 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chak inland sea basins in the south-west, into which the rivers ^rv/juavSpoi, {Haitumand, "the [river] of many bridges," now Hilmand), and 'Apaxavrivq, Armenian Dzaph, Syrian Qdph&ti), whose princes under Roman protection frequently assumed independence of E 2 52 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. the Armenian kingdom and even bore the title of king. The most important town in this region was Amida, 2 situated on a level rocky height beyond the Tigris, but which did not become of historical importance till the time of the Emperor Constantius, who made of it the Roman border fortress towards Persia. 1 Destroyed again as early as Lucullus' campaign B.C. 69 it ceased to be a residence, and appears never to have recovered importance, 2 Its inhabitants know the town even now under the name of Kara-(black) Amid, though it is usually designated by the Arabic name for the whole region, Diarbekr. 49. Regions belonging to Armenia on the North. A belt of northern mountain districts with a foreign population independent of the later Persian Empire, was first united to Armenia by the conquests of Artaxias. These partly answer to the northern slope towards the Pontus and Kyros, but partly extend to the lofty bleak and unforested regions about the sources of the Araxes and western Euphrates. Among the latter is the country of the Qatriavoi (Xenophon Anab. ; Armenian Basean, now Pasin), called after the river So-is (now Pasin-su), which is practically the original stream of the Araxes. On the uppermost course of the Euphrates may be mentioned the country of the XdXvftts (known later as XaA.Sa.toi, Armen. Chalti), where after the downfall and partition of the Armenian kingdom the Emperor Theodosius II., on the part of the Romans, built the new border fortress ofTheodosi- o p o 1 i s, the modern . capital Erzirum on the site of the ancient town of Karana (6,500 ft. above the sea ; and still called Garin by the Armenians). Differing entirely from these forestless and cold pla- teaus, in a mild rain-abounding climate and dense forests, are the valleys which fall away northwards towards the Pontus. Among these the largest is that of the ancient iv.] REGIONS OF THE CAUCASUS. 53 Akampsis (now the Jorokh or Charuk) of which the centre is formed by the district of Sper (now Ispir, 'YcnripS.TL, fj TLovtik-tJ (whence in the middle ages came Penteraklia, now Eregli), one of the most powerful of commercial cities, which held in sway as subjects the Mariandyni, the original inhabitants of the eastern portion of Bithynia as afterwards extended. Heraklea was still flourishing as a free town under the Roman empire. 1 I To its region belonged, towards the east beyond the Par- thenios (now Bartin), the boundary river of Paphlagonia, the ancient harbour town of Sesamos, which Dionysios, tyrant of Heraklea, about 300 B.C. re-named after his Persian wife Amastris (now Amasra). 63. Galatia. — Various bands of the Keltic or, as at the time they were more particularly designated by the Greeks, Galatian warriors, who had pressed forward on their eastern wanderings about 300 B.C. from Gaul to the lower Danube, after being employed by Nikomedes I., king of F 66 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [Chap. Bithynia, in his war against the kingdoms of Pergamon and Syria, broke loose and fell to plundering for a long time the interior and western parts of Asia Minor, until about 235 B.C. the kings of Pergamon, and especially in 189 B.C. the Roman advance against their new ally, King Antiochos of Syria, confined them within narrower limits. The district which they henceforth permanently occupied — without entirely suppressing the earlier inhabitants— and which therefore received from the Greeks the name of G a 1 a t i a, belongs to the main plateau, and is traversed by rugged mountain chains of greater height. It excels as a pasture land, especially for the fine-woolled sheep and goats still famous as the Angora breed. The district east of the Halys, which had formerly belonged to Cappadocia, was occupied by the tribe of T r o k m i. The larger Phrygian district west of the Halys was divided between the T o 1 i s- t o b o j i and the Tektosages, the central point of the former being the temple-town of Pessinits, a famous resort for pilgrims on account of its worship of Cybele, of the latter, Ankyra (now Angora, Turk. Engiiri), which in Roman times, after 25 B.C., became the capital of the province. 1 1 Not long before the state of the Galatians (or Gallograeci as the Romans called them because of their adoption of the Greek tongue), which previously had been split up into twelve districts with aristocratic governments — four to each of the three tribes, and so called rerpapxiai. — had been for the first time united into one kingdom under Dejotarus, to whom Pompeius as a reward for his services against Mithradates of Pontus granted the kingly title and the western portion of the Pontic region. This part of the country accordingly retained the name Pontus Galaticus even after its reunion with the province of Pontus. 64. Phrygia.— Originally the whole interior highlands of the peninsula west of the Halys, and the central desert with the source districts of the rivers flowing northwards (Sangarios, Rhyndakos) and westwards(Hermos, Maeandros). IV.] ASIA MINOR. 67 In the interior there are only individual groups of mountains, with much fertile tillage land, especially on the western slope. The Phrygian kingdom is among the oldest in Asia. Its towns famous in mythology (Pessiniis, Midaeion, Gor- dieion, the towns of kings Midas and Gordios, Dorylaeion, Kotyaeion, now Kiutahia), and the sepulchral monuments of its ancient kings, rock-hewn and adorned with carving, lie in the northern part of the country on the Sangarios and its neighbour stream, the Tymbres. Phrygia, after being conquered about 620 b.c. by the Lydian kings, became with their kingdom a Persian province ; it was afterwards with a more limited area (the northern and eastern borderlands being conquered by the Bithynians, 1 Galatians, and Lyca- onians) annexed to the kingdom of Pergamon, and then, though not till 90 B.C., to the Roman province of Asia. In the southern district, on the borders of a Pisidian population, 2 was the ancient residence of the kings, and later of the Persian satraps, Kelaenae, on the abundant sources of the Maeandros, on a height beyond the valley in which King Antiochus III. of Syria built the town of A p a m e a (surnamed Kt/?G>ros), which in Roman times was the most important trading town of the interior of Asia Minor. Further to the south-west in the central basin of the Maeandros, at the point where it receives the Lykos from the south,* was Laodikea, built by Antiochus II. and called after his wife — in Roman times the capital of south-western Phrygia. Near it was Hierapolis, with its famous hot springs, yielding an abundant deposit of calcareous tufa, and Kolossae, enriched by its woollen industry. 1 This northern district, in consequence of the Roman campaign of 189 B.C., was again won for the kingdom of Pergamon and hence called r\ iiriKTrjTos 'EX.Xrjcnrovra (the term Hellespontos having a wider sense), was the name applied by the Greeks to the southern coast of the Propontis, 1 because at the time of their first acquaintance with these regions (on the occasion of the founding of the Aeolian colonies in western Mysia) it was subject to the Phrygians, who had then carried their con- quests westwards, and even pressed across the Hellespont iv.] ASIA MINOR. 69 into Europe. Later on Thracian tribes made an inroad out of Europe (the Doliones, Mygdones, and Odrysae), and possessed themselves of the rich northern plains. After the seventh century B.C. the best situated points on the coast of the Propontis were occupied by I o n i a n s from M i- 1 e t o s. Their most important town was K y z i k o s, lying between two harbours on the narrow neck, pierced by a canal, of the mountainous peninsula of Arktbnnesos ; independent of this were the towns of Apollonia and Miletopolis, on the great plains through which flow the Rhyndakos and Makestos. The island of Prokbnnesos with its famous marble quarries (whence the modern name Marmara, and the name now applied to the Propontis) was also colonised by the Milesians. I The name of Hellespontic Phrygia is also improperly extended to the northern portion of Greater Phrygia on the Sangarios : a result of the administrative division of the Phrygian province under the later Persian kings, by which Daskylion on the Propontis was the seat of the satrapy of the so-called Lesser Phrygia (Aao-KuATris traTpdireia). 67. Troas. — The north-westernmost of the great penin- sulas of Asia Minor which jut out between the Hellespont and the Adramyttenic Gulf is occupied, from the high peaks of I d a {rj "IS17, 5,600 ft.) in the south-east right down to the shore,by a mountainous and hilly country, with only one small coast-plain on the lower course of the largest of the rivers flowing from Ida, the Skamandros (still called Menderez). In this plain lay I lion or Troia (Tpolrj), the city of the Troes, a prehistoric nation settled also in Lycia, whose kingdom, which included also the neighbouring tribes of Dardani, Teukri, and others, was destroyed probably by the inroad of Thracian hordes, though their name (T r o i. s) was still borne by the country 1 after the Achaeans and Aeolians, who had been driven out of the Peloponnesus by the Dorian invasion, had settled there. ;o ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. The more northern harbour towns on the Straits (the "EAAiys 7rovTos of the ancients, called by the Byzantines JDardanellia after the old city of Dardanos) were occupied by the Milesians about 700 B.C. ; such as Abydos, at the point where the passage is usually shortest (7 stadia broad), Lampsahos (now Lapsaki), Parion. The more southern towns, on the other hand, were Aeolian, as Rhoeteion and the new I/ion with its harbour town Sigeion. On the west coast, at the beginning of the period of the Diadochi, a new Greek city of great size was built with an artificial harbour, which received the name of Alexandria-Troas; later it was a Roman colony ; it is now represented by extensive ruins known as Eski-Stambul. 1 The Troad was sometimes improperly included under the general name of Hellespontic Phrygia or (in Roman times) Mysia. 68. Southern Mysia. — South of the Ida range is a level coast land, the most important town in which, A t r a- m y 1 1 i o n (still in Greek Adramyti, Turk. Edirmid), was annexed by the Lydian kings to their particular territory, to which it was also counted as belonging in Persian times. The Mysians, moreover, were at this point confined to the interior about the Kaikos valley or the district specially called Teuthrania, in which lay the old stronghold of Per- g a m o n, where in quite early times Aeolian Greeks had settled themselves near the Mysians. After the partition of Alexander's kingdom it was used by Lysimachos as the strongest fortress of his kingdom, which embraced Thrace, Mysia, and Lydia. On his death it passed into the pos- session of his lieutenant-governor Philetaeros, whose suc- cessors Eumenes and Attalus afterwards extended the small dominion to a kingdom embracing the whole western half of Asia Minor, and made the city of Pergamon, beautifully enlarged and -adorned with famous works of art and libraries, IV.] ASIA MINOR. 71 into their residence. It remained, after their dynasty had come to an end in 130 B.C., the capital of this complex mass of countries, which were eventually transformed into the Roman province of Asia. 69. Aeolis. — On the coast of this Mysian district were Aeolian colonies, founded principally by Achaeans and Boeotians, and forming a confederation of twelve rather un- important cities, some of which lay back from the coast in the fertile plains about the mouth of the Hermos. The most notable among them were Kym£, Elaea, Pitant, the last two as being ports for Pergamon. In consequence of these settlements and those founded from them on the northern shore of the Adramyttenian Gulf at the foot of the Ida range (which, however, did not belong to the closer confederation, such as Antandros, Gargara, Assos), the whole stretch of coast, which in early days assumed the character of a Greek-speaking country, received the name of Aeolis. The portion of this Aeolian territory which was historically most significant, and also the most important in wealth of soil, especially in the production of oil and wine, was formed by the outlying islands, T e n e d o s (which pre- serves its ancient name unchanged) and the great Lesbos (■fj Aeo-/?os). The latter was divided into five (or originally six) communities forming a close confederation, their capital being M y t i 1 e n e (whose name, pronounced in modern Greek Mytilini, Ital. Metelino, Turk. Midillii, was in the middle ages transferred to the whole island), with ex- tensive possessions on the mainland opposite. A second town was Methymna, now Molivo. 70. Ionia. — The part of Asia, Minor which usually carries the palm for its numerous harbours, the rich soil of its alluvial plains, and its mild climate, is the central district of the western or Aegean coast, with the outlying islands. It seems to have been inhabited chiefly by the Carian race, 72 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. when in the eleventh century B.C. thelonians, driven out of Europe by the Doric conquests, and joined by many other Greek and even foreign sections of population, settled there permanently, and, coming into closer contact with older Asiatic civilised nations, raised this district to the highest pitch of material and the earliest of intellectual prosperity in the whole Hellenic world. Politically Ionia was composed' of a federation of twelve republics, which in the reign of Croesus belonged only conditionally to the Lydian and then to the Persian Empire, but in a far more real sense depended after thePersian wars under the name of theFederal Association first upon Athens, then upon Sparta. Having been after Alexander's time dependent on the kingdoms of Syria and Pergamon, it was finally made part of the Roman province of Asia.* Owing to their advantageous sites at or near the mouths of the greater river valleys descending from the inner high- lands, those, namely, of the Hermos, Kaystros, Maeandros, several of these Ionian coast towns, such as P h o k a e a, Smyrna, Ephesos, and Miletos, grew into the richest and by sea the most powerful of Greek places of com- merce. 2 The first two lay in districts formerly occupied by the Aeolians.3 Of less importance were the towns lying on or near the mountainous peninsula which juts out west- ward ; Klazomenae, Erythrae, Lebedos, Kolophon, as well as Priene and Myus in the south, on Carian ground, at the mouth of the Maeandros. Of far greater note, on the other hand, and in point of naval power hardly second to the Milesians, were the island states Chios (with its famous manufacture of wine and mastic) and S a m o s, to whose domain seem to have belonged several smaller islands, such as Ikaria or Ikaros. i The religious centre of the Confederation was the primeval (even prae-Hellenic) sanctuary of the Ephesian Artemis (which later became a marvellously beautiful temple in Ionic IV.] ASIA MINOR. 73 style) ; the place of meeting for the regular festivals was a sanctuary of Poseidon, called Panionion, lying in the district of Priene, at the foot of Mount Mykali. 2 Ephesos has been ruined through the alluvium of the Kaystros ceaselessly advancing, filling up the harbours and extending the plain into the sea, while the Maeandros, which has land-locked the single island Ladi, and turned the bay of Latmos into an inland lake, has done the same for Miletos. Smyrna too, which still at the present day flourishes under its ancient name as the largest town of Anterior Asia, is threatened by the same fate through the southward trend of the delta of Hermos, which, having grown immensely since ancient times, is already filling up what was once a wide gulf, and converting it into a narrow arm of the sea. On the contrary, the harbour, surrounded by heights, of the now unimportant Phokaea (Turk. Focha) is preserved entirely from this fate. 3 The Aeolian Smyrna, which was destroyed by King Alyattes of Lydia, lay on the northern shore of the bay which cuts deep into the mainland ; opposite to it on the southern side, on the site of the modern city, was the new town first rebuilt by King Lysimachos, which took in the Ionic Confederation the political place of the ruined little city of Myus. 71. Lydia. — The central region of the western slope of Asia Minor includes the most fertile and most highly cultivated stretch of the peninsula, the level valleys about the upper course of the Kaystros and the middle course of the Hermos, divided by the chain of Tmolos (more than 6,000 ft. high), inhabited by the LydianorMaeonian people, and the seat of a very old and powerful kingdom. From the beginning of the last dynasty of the Mermnades, in 713 B.C., the Lydian name is the only one used for the whole country, the Maeonian (Ionic Mijioves), which is employed by the older Greek poets, being confined to the hilly district eastwards on the upper Hermos : I it seems to have been extended to the lower country only at times, in consequence of an older conquest there. The so-called dynasty of the Herakleidae, which held sway here in earlier times (according to Herodotus frorri 1273 B.C. onwards) was of Assyrian origin ; through its means strong Semitic 74 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. elements seem to have been grafted into the Lydian race (whose affinity remains in other respects obscure). Sardes (SapSeis, Ion. SapSts), situated at the southern border of the plain and on. the Paktolos (a tributary to the Hermos), which carries down gold from Mount Tmolos, remained the capital of the district also in Persian times and under the Diadochi ; under the Pergamene and Roman Em- pires it was still a populous and notable provincial town (the ruins are still called Sart). 2 Of other towns in the district, -the most important are Magnesia, on Mount Sipylos, which was thickly populated by Greeks in quite early times (it is still a place of some note under its ancient name, of which the Turkish form is Manisa), and Thyateira (now Akshehr), newly so named in the times of the Diadochi (under Seleucus, its earlier name being Pelopeid), and Phila- delphia (so called after Attalos Philadelphos), now Alashehr. 1 Called by the Greeks "the burnt land," r) itaraKcitovjie'i/i) X°>p a , on account of the- volcanic nature of its soil, and famed for the excellence of its wine. 2 Near the lake Koloe or Gygaea are preserved the very numerous and in some part colossal grave mounds of the Lydian chiefs and kings, among them that of King Alyattes, father of Croesus, which is about ioo feet high. 72. Caria. — The south-western coast land of Asia Minor is cut up by deeply indenting gulfs of the Aegean Sea (the lassie, Keramic, and Doric), and runs out into several rocky peninsulas which abound in bays and harbours, and, finding a continuation in the outlying islands, formed a school of navigation for those who dwelt upon them. The C a r i a n s 1 appear at the outset of known history as a nation ruling the sea, who were spread over almost the whole west coast of Asia Minor, and over most of the islands of the Aegean Sea, as far as certain points in the European coast. It was not till the growth of the Hellenic tribes, and notably the emigration of the Ionian, and in a more limited degree IV.] ASIA MINOR. 75 of the Dorian colonies, that they were pressed back on to the Asiatic mainland. Here, in conjunction with a strange population whom they subdued (Phrygians, Pisidians, Leleges, especially in the eastern districts), they occupied the mountain district 2 which rises in a broad mass inter- rupted by small and lofty basins, above the south coast, its highest peaks (more than 6,000 ft.) soaring in the east as Salbakos, and in the north-east as Kadmos. Moreover, sunk between this mountain district and the long chain of Messogis, which runs parallel with it on the north (the natural boundary towards Lydia), there lies the broad and extremely productive lower plain of the Maeander.3 In this lay the greatest and richest cities in the country, especially Tralleis (now Aidin) and Magnesia (called " on the Maeander," to distinguish it from the Lydian town on the Sipylos), apparently a very ancient Greek town, which, after its destruction by Thracian hordes in the seventh century B.C., was again rebuilt by the Ephesians and Mi- lesians, though it never belonged to the Ionic Confederation. In the smaller but very highly fertile coast plain to the south-west was Mylasa (now Milas), seat of the Carian princes, who maintained their rank under Lydian and Persian sway, but finally transferred their residence to the Greek coast town of Halikarnassos. After the Macedonian conquest and division of empire the whole of Caria re- mained a province of the kingdom of the Seleukidae (to this time belong the names Antiochia and Stratonikea) until 189 B.C., when the larger northern division was annexed to the Pergamene kingdom, and the southern coast land to the state of Rhodos by the Romans, who finally in 129 again united the whole as part of the province of Asia.4 1 Their nationality remains doubtful (though they probably belong to the Semitic family ?). We learn only that they considered themselves to be related to the Lydians, worshipped, like them, many Semitic deities, and took part in Phoenician 76 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. colonies, even in distant seas. On the other hand, they assumed Greek civilisation and speech earlier than any other Asiatics, while all their coast towns belonged to the confederation which was formed among the Greek maritime states under the leadership of Athens, with Delos for its centre. 2 With no general name, it was regarded by the ancients as the beginning (the western extremity) of the Taurus system. 3 The numerous sharp bends in the river's course which naturally form themselves in the soft alluvial soil led to the Greeks applying the name of Maeander proverbially to such formations. All the more inappropriate was such a course to serve as a boundary line, and it is only improperly that the ancients sometimes assumed that the cities lying north of the Maeander were separated from the rest of Caria, and belonged to Lydia. 4 The coast town of Ktmnos on the south-east .border is remark- able, because its inhabitants differed from the rest of the Carians in speech and descent (they were supposed to have come from Crete). In the mountains of the interior were the towns of Tabae (now Davas) and Aphrodisias, also called Ninoe {i.e. NinevS), the latter appellation obviously arising from the time of Assyrian sway in Lydia. 73. Doris. — Only the northern portion of the west coast of Caria, where lay the three southernmost cities of the Ionic Confederation, was completely occupied by Greek settlements. Further south such colonies, principally be- longing to the Dorian stock, were placed only at a few points on the coast, and especially on the outlying islands. To these belonged four of the six (later five) large Greek cities that formed the confederation of the Dorian Hexa- p o 1 i s. The northernmost of them, which was excluded from the league as early as the time of the Persian War, Halikarnassos (now Budnimj), had moreover (as is testified by its ancient inscribed state documents) a pre- dominating Ionic population. It became in the fourth century B.C. the capital of the Carian princes, who adorned it with beautiful buildings' (such as the Mausoleum). The political and religious centre of the league was K n i d o s, iv.] ASIA MINOR. 77 a city lying further south, though still on the mainland, being placed on the extreme cliff of a peninsula which runs far out into the sea, and is connected with the mainland by a low isthmus only 1,200 paces broad (Xtpa-ovrjcros KvtSia). To the island states belongs the long, massive, and moun- tainous island of K 6 s (still so-called), which lies opposite, famous for its school of medicine (Hippocrates) and its weaving. Especially, too, must be named the large and extremely fertile island of Rhodos (Rhodes), in ancient times a Phoenician colony, 1 and even then famous for its foundries, but later on occupied, as were the other islands, by the Dorians of the Peloponnesus. Its three confederate cities, Lindos, I&lysos, and Kameiros, joined about B.C. 408 in building a common capital on the level northern point, with a large and artificial harbour, which from that day to this bears the name of the island itself, Rhodos. It continued to flourish by means of extensive sea trade, and by the cultivation of art and science, from the period of the Dia- dochi to that of the Roman Empire, and it acquired a territory, varying in size at different times, on the Carian mainland — the so-called Rhodian Chersonesos. 2 1 The highest peak in the island (4,400 feet) bears the Phoenician name of Atabyrion {TabSr, i.e. "height") to this day (Atairo). 2 It remained a free state until 44 A.D., when it was annexed to the Roman province of Asia. After Diocletian, Rhodes became the capital of the new P?-ovincia insularum. The smaller Doric islands Nisyros, Telos, Kalymnos, Syme, Karpathos, Kasos, which have all preserved their names unchanged, never became members of the strictly Doric Confederation. 74. Lycia. — The peninsula traversed only by the single broad valley of the Xanthos, which with broad and lofty mountain masses (the peaks of Kragos and Mas- tikytes being more than 10,000 feet) runs out far into the sea 78 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. to the south, was inhabited by a peculiar civilised people, calling themselves Tramili (Tpe/itXat, Tep/xiXai), but called Av'kioi by the Greeks, who attributed to them the construc- tion, in quite primaeval times, of mighty buildings (the so- called Cyclopean walls of Greece). Very numerous relics of their skill have been preserved till now in the form of tombs and sculptures, many of them accompanied by in- scriptions in an alphabet peculiarly formed under Greek influence. 1 The Lycians — alone among the nations of Western Asia — defended their freedom successfully against the Lydian kings, and stubbornly, though in the end giving way, against the Persians. They afterwards joined the league formed against these latter under the guidance of Athens, and formed from the time of Alexander's conquests down to 189 B.C. a confederation of twenty-three republics, under the nominal suzerainty of the Seleucid kingdom, but after- wards quite independent ; the six largest of these were dis- tinguished by a double right of voting, namely X a n t h s (Lycian Art no), the chief place of the league, with Patara, Pinara, and Tlos, all in the Xanthos valley, and Myra and Olympos on the east side of the coast. 2 The country had become entirely Greek in manners and language when in 43 a.d. it was annexed to the Roman Empire as an appendage to the province of Pamphylia, preserving, however, its po- litical organisation. The interior highlands of the Roman province of Lycia, containing wide level wastes, and only unimportant places, was called M i 1 y £ s, a name which the coast land also seems to have borne in very early times. 1 These fragments of the ancient language of the country have still not sufficed hitherto to settle the question of the nationality of the Lycian people. Probability alone is in favour of our regarding them as a remnant of the original population spread over Asia Minor before the Semitic and Aryan wanderings. 2 Phaselis, the harbour-town on the east coast and on the border towards Pamphylia, which is supposed to have been iv.] ASIA MINOR. 79 inhabited by Dorian colonists, did not belong to the league, and its position is marked by the defile formed by the mountain of Solyma (i.e. in Phoenician "steps" ; in Greek called /cXi/idg), which juts out into the sea with rugged walls of rock. 75. Pamphylia. — This name appears to have been given to the level coast district, only gradually rising inland and consisting of waterless chalky soil, which lies about the great bay of southern Asia Minor, by the Greek (Aeolian) colonists who (at what time is uncertain) founded the harbour-towns Olbia and Sidi, and extended their in- fluence also to the cities of PergS, Sylleion, Aspendos? which lie above the harbourle'ss shore. A new capital, At tali a (now Adalia), on the site of the ancient Olbia, was granted to the district when it had been added to the Pergamene kingdom under Attalus II. 1 The river Eurymedon, which flows past Aspendos, is famous for the sea-fight won at its mouth by Cimon over the Persians. Aspendos itself is famous as possessing one of th-. finest and best preserved of extant Greek theatres. 76. Pisidia. — The extremely rough and impassable calcareous mountains of the Taurus, rising beyond the Pamphylian plain, and only containing glens of limited area on the rivers which break through them, the Kestros, Eury- medon, and Melas, were inhabited by several tribes, certainly belonging to the original population of Asia Minor, who are first mentioned in 405 B.C. as independent of the Persian dominion under the collective name of IlicrtSai, and afterwards on account of the stubborn resistance they offered to Alexander's passage through their country. Their towns, first named on this occasion, Termessos, Sagalassos (now Aghlasiin), Kremna (now Girme), Selge (now Seriik), Pednelissos, and others, were placed, as their very im- portant remains show to this day, on rocky inaccessible crags: The whole mountain region remained until 189 8o ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. B.C., and the eastern half until 102 B.C., in doubtful depend- ence on the Syrian kingdom. It afterwards formed part of the Roman province of Pamphylia. Pisidians were also in a great measure, in conjunction with Phrygians and Lydians (conquerors of later importa- tion), the inhabitants of the highland district of Kab alia, between Caria, Mily^s, and Pamphylia, which contains the wide plains on the upper Indos. This belonged under the Persians to the Lydian satrapy, formed later a separate principality (first mentioned on the occasion of the Roman campaign of 189 B.C.) with the capital Kibyra (whence the country is also called Ki by rat is), and in 44 a.d. was added to the Phrygian portion of the Roman province of Asia. 77. Lycaonia. — The northern slopes of the lofty Taurus chain and the table-lands of the inner steppe country which end in them, with lake basins devoid of outlet, and water sources draining themselves into salt deserts, were inhabited by the tribe of Lycaonians, who, like the Pisidians, maintained their independence in later Persian times. At that time Iconium (now Konia), the most important town, from its position on the richly watered slope on the high table-land (1,000 feet), of the afterwards more extensive district of Lycaonia, belonged to the Persian satrapy of Phrygia ; the remaining places never attained any importance, and the whole region, thinly populated and little cultivated, was used chiefly for the pasture of sheep. When the native dynasty came to an end in 25 B.C., it formed part of the Roman province of Galatia. 78. Isauria was the name given to the loftier mountain ranges in the Lycaonian district within the Taurus chain, which surround the large but shallow lake basins of Karalis (now Kerelii) and Trogitis (now Sighla), with the capital Isaura. First after the Greek conquest and then repeat- edly in Roman times, the Isaurians are mentioned as a IV.] ASIA MINOR. 8 1 highly warlike mountain folk, who harried their civilised neighbours with frequent robber-raids. After the fourth century a.d. the name was also extended to the mountainous coast land on the southern border, the " rugged Cilicia " (Ke.Ai.Kta i-pa^eia) of earlier times. 79. Cilicia. — In its narrowest sense (as an Assyrian conquest called Khilaku as early as 830 B.C.) this name implies the coast plains lying to the south of the eastern part of the Taurus chain of Asia Minor, formed by the alluvium of the streams which break through the mountains, Saws and Pyramos (now Seihun and Jihan) ; hence the distinctive name for this district, KiAi/cia 71-cSias '(Cilician plain). The climate, rendered unhealthy near the coast by stretches of marshland, is over the whole plain extremely hot, the vegetation resembling that of North Africa, and showing extraordinary luxuriance in the well-watered districts, especially on the mountain-slopes. The Country was there- fore through all periods of antiquity among the wealthiest and most densely populated regions of the peninsula, and formed from very early times the seat of a kingdom which subdued to itself the surrounding mountain districts, and extended over them the Cilician name. 1 Even under the great kings of Persia the country maintained its own dynasty (with the princely name or title of Syennesis), and in the time of Darius I. (though not after about 400 B.C.) included, on the further side of the Taurus, the southern part of Cappadocia northwards as far as the Halys, and eastwards to the Euphrates (cf. § 56). A continual union subsisted between this kingdom and the wooded district on the west, occupied down to the coast by the lofty ridges of Taurus, and called by the Greeks "rugged Cilicia" (KiAiKia ^ i-paxeta). 2 The ancient capital of the kingdom was Tarsus (now Tersus), founded by the Assyrian kings in the plain on the river Kydnos, which even in Greek and Roman times was a populous and o 82 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. flourishing dominion. Adana (still so called), in the middle of the plain on the Saros, seems to have been a more ancient capital. The coast towns, Soloi, Mallos, Aegaeae (now Ayds), had already in Persian times a numerous Greek population, as had also the harbours of Nagldos and Kelen- deris (now Kilindria) in rugged Cilicia. Here also was Selmkia (now Selefke), the Greek capital newly founded under the Syrian kings. I s s o s, on the small eastern plain, surrounded by mountains, is famous for the battle fought there in B.C. 333.3 1 In regard to the nationality of the Cilicians proper, it remains doubtful whether they are to be counted as belong- ing to the neighbouring North Semitic (Aramaic) tribe, or whether we should assume only a strong admixture of this and of the Phoenicians who founded their settlements on the coast, as is made probable by various names, religious forms, and traditions, and above all by the Cilicians taking part in distant Phoenician colonies. 2 The western half is superior to the eastern in facilities for navigation, abounding, as it does, in excellent shipping timber and numerous small bays cut in the rocky coast-line. It was therefore sought after in quite early times by small Phoenician and Greek settlements, and became afterwards in the Hellenistic period a coveted possession for the great powers of Syria and Egypt and a bone of contention between them. After their fall it was the scene of the Cilician pirate state which made the whole eastern half of the Mediterranean unsafe, until the expedition of Pompeius destroyed it and planted the country with new Greek settlements. 3 The mountain A m a n o s, which, ending northwards in Taurus, follows the east coast of the I s s i a n Gulf, the innermost corner of the Mediterranean, forms the natural boundary line between Cilicia and Upper Syria, whence the place usually regarded as the frontier, where it runs down to the coast with steep cliffs, is called the Syro-Cilician Gate (n-vXat KiXtKi'ar v irorafiSiv (sc. xiapa), was the name given in strict geographical sense by the Greek conquerors to the district through which the Tigris and Euphrates flow in their middle course after their issue from the spurs of Taurus (about 1,000 ft.) and as far as the Babylonian plain. 1 It is a plain sloping gently from north- west to south-east, the upper part of which, on the Eu- phrates, is watered sufficiently for purposes of cultivation, , while the lower and greater half, downwards from the Khabor, a tributary of the Euphrates, and from the separate mountain group of Singara, forms a steppe waterless for the greater part of the year, and in some places mere salt deserts serving rather as hunting than as pasturage grounds. This Mesopotamian district accordingly belonged, ethnographically, to the three great Semitic tribes which locally adjoined it ; the eastern stretch on the Tigris to the Assyrians; the north-western, between the Khabor and the Euphrates to the Aramaeans (Syrians); the southern steppe to the Arabian nomad tribes ("Apa/Jes o-Kiyni-at), through the midst of whose territory the caravan route, only available during and after the rainy season, led 94 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. from Upper Syria and Assyria to Babylon, avoiding the windings of the river. This lower Mesopotamian region is called by Xenophon, the only eye-witness at the time of the Persian dominion, merely 'Apa/Jta, 2 while he calls the upper plain, west of the river 'Apce^s (i-e. of the Khabor), %vpla; the latter answers to the designation "Aram of the two rivers " (Aram-nahara'imy, known to us in the Old Testament. 1 This limitation answers to the ordinary way of speaking ; only an exaggerated stress on the meaning of the word leads to the name being extended by some writers downwards to the Babylonian mid-river-country, and upwards as far as the sources of the Tigris to die district lying quite inside the front ranges of Taurus, and belonging all through politically to Armenia. 2 Places only on the river banks, some on. the Euphrates and others again on the islands in the river, as a security against the Arabian robber hordes, were probably inhabited rather by Syrian settlers only. On an oasis in the interior was the town of Hatra (the ruins are now called Khadr), whose strong wall inclosed the only good springs in the district, so that it could not be taken even by the Roman army (under Trajan, and under Septimius Severus) ; at that time it is mentioned as the seat of an Arabian Prince. As Aram never, either in an ethnographical or in a geo- graphical sense, reached to the Tigris, by the second river we can only understand the Khabor, so that the name Aram- naharaim has a far narrower sense than Msiroirornfiia, by which the Septuagint translators rendered it. 90. This region, running eastward as far as the mountains of Singara, inhabited for the most part by Syrians, and only in some ill-watered districts by Arabians, but also on account of its political importance as a link between the eastern and western parts of Anterior Asia occupied by numerous Graeco-Macedonian colonies, was after the fall of the Seleucid kingdom divided into several small states under Parthian overlordshjp, until after the transient successes of Trajan it was at length in 156 a.d. finally wrested from their grasp' by L. Verus, the colleague in v.] SOUTHERN (SEMITIC) ANTERIOR ASIA. 95 empire of Marcus Aurelius, and formed for half a century the Roman province of Mesopotamia. It is separated from the upper Tigris-plain, belonging to Southern Armenia, by the broad, massive and lofty mountain-zone of M a s i o s (with peaks of 5,000 feet and more), and is watered by many considerable streams which there take rise and unite in the lower plain to form the river K h a b 6 r. Among these the main source was and still is recognised by the inhabitants in the westernmost and very abundant R e s a i n a (Syr. Hish-'ainA, Arab, now Rasu' l-'ain, " head of the source ") in the town which bears its name. Among its far lbnger tributaries coming from the N.E. the most important is. the Arabian Ifirmds, called Mygdonios by the Greek settlers (who transferred to this region the name of the Macedonian Mygdonia), on which lay the primeval (Assyrian) town of N i s i b i s (now Nsebtn), which as a Greek colony of the Seleucid kingdom was further called Antiochia Mygdonia, and afterwards, until its abandonment to the Persians in 364 a.d., became one of the most important border fortresses of the Roman Empire, its position at the nar- rowest point of the cultivated plain at the foot of the mountains enabling it to command the main line of communication between the Upper Euphrates and the Tigris, that is to say between Eastern and Western Anterior Asia. 1 1 The extreme Roman outpost to the south-east was in the oasis of Singara (Syr. Shig&r, Modern Arabian Sinj&r) surrounded by deserts, and formed by an isolated mountain tract abounding in springs. 91. A smaller stream the Bilechas (now Belik), flowing out from the slopes of the Taurus and Masios waters the district of Anthemusias (the Shar&goi the Syrians, and Sertij of mediaeval and modern Arabians), which was also named in Seleucid times after a canton of Macedonia. At its ^embouchure into the Euphrates stood the Greek town of 96 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Nikephorion founded by Seleucus I., and given the further name of Kallinikos by Seleucus III. after his own cognomen : it is now called Rakka. On a tributary of the Bilechas stands the primeval town of Kharan, as it is still called, known as Karrhae by the Greeks, who had founded a very important settlement on this spot at least as early as the time of Seleucus I. At the sources of the same streamlet was the Syrian town Urhai (modern Arab. Ruha., Turk. Urfa), Greek Orrhoe, which adopted another name from the Macedonian town E d e s s a, a name which remained most commonly in use, especially in Roman times, but also in the middle ages among the Christians. After 136 B.C. it became under Parthian supre- macy the seat of a Syrian dynasty, who called themselves princes ofOsroene (Osdroene, Orrhoene), either adopting the city name with slight alteration, or because the founder's name (Osroes) being similar had been transferred to the district which belonged to them. The district still retained the name when at the close of this dynasty in 217 a.d. it became annexed to the Roman Empire, and was united with the neighbouring Greek towns to form an adminis- trative district. (In Diocletian's time it became a separate province in addition to Mesofiota7?iia.) ' SYRIA. 92. Natural Features. — Of the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean, those on the east are more uniform in character than those on the north (including the coasts of Southern Europe and Asia Minor), and resemble rather those on the south (North Africa), as the form of the coast line shows. The north and south direction is followed by the mountain upheavals of Syria, which in length and height are inferior to the Taurus chain v.] SOUTHERN (SEMITIC) ANTERIOR ASIA. 97 (running east and west) of Anterior Asia, and by the long and extensive valleys which run parallel to the ridges on the east and west. The maximum elevation of the mountain (Lebanon, upwards of 10,000 feet), almost in the middle of the whole stretch of coast, forms at this spot the highest point of the accompanying depression (Bik'a- Valley, 4,000 feet), with a watershed from which two great valleys descend northwards and southwards. The former is watered by the O r o n t e s (modern Arab. Nahr-el-'Asi), which breaks through the mountains of the coast by a cross valley at the northern extremity of Syria, and debouches into the Medi- terranean. The southern valley, watered by the Jordan, is sunk far below the sea level along its whole course, and ends in the inland lake known by the name of the Dead Sea, or Sea of Asphalt. The remaining waters belong almost with- out exception to short cross valleys, the most abundant being naturally on the western slopes towards the sea, where the rainfall is greater. Some streams running in an easterly direction come to an end in the shifting marshes of the high- lying desert plains which slope from the mountains of Eastern Syria to the level of the Euphrates valley. These plains, which are only at times available as pasture land, are reckoned both in ancient and modern times as belonging to Arabia. 93. Names and Nations. — The oldest national name in common use as regards the country between the Eu- phrates and the deserts of Southern Arabia, Kheta or Khatti ( = Hittites)', is known to us through historic inscriptions of Egypt (as early as the sixteenth century B.C.) and Assyria, and occurs in the Old Testament under the form KMt (with plural Khittim), to describe still only a subdivision of C a n a ' a n. The latter name, which probably means " the lower country," was applied by native usage in early times to the whole coast district, which the Greeks, having in mind almost the same area, called v), which was likewise transformed into B e r o e a, preserves its ancient name in the Arabian Haleb (vulg. Aleppo). The northernmost district of Syria runs into the spurs of Taurus with the name which it bears in the records of the conquests of Assyrian kings of the ninth and eighth centuries B.C., preserved in inscriptions, viz., Kumukh, or in Greek form Kommagene, which does not appear again in history till the time of the principality which the last of the ioo ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Seleucids held after the ruin of their kingdom until 73 B.C., when it too became a Roman province. Their capital was Samosata, on the Euphrates (Syr. Shamish&t, now Samsat, or Arab. SomeisHt). 1 Arpad, Karchemish are known from the Old Testament as well as from Assyrian sources ; Mambog (Baju^vKij, Arab. Membij, " Source," an oasis in the eastern desert) was celebrated as a town sacred to the Syrian deity Derketo, and hence called also Hierapolis. Thiphsach, i.e. " Passage," Bd\jraKos, was an important commercial town on the lowest ford of the Euphrates (between 3 and 4 feet deep at "low water). 2 After personal names of the Greek dynasty were : Alexandria, Antiochia, Seleukia, Apamea, Laodikea; after localities of Ma- cedonia : Beroea, Chalkis, Europos, Kyrrhos, Larissa, Pieria. 95. Coele- Syria, 17 Kotfoj ~%vpCa, "hollow Syria," was the name given by the Greek conquerors first to the high- lying depression between the Lebanon and the range parallel with it on the east, called by them 'AvrtXifiavos, one half of which falls away northward as the upper valley of the Orontes ; the other, splitting into two, slopes south- ward, partly to the sea as the valley of the Litani, partly as the upper valley of the Jordan. 1 The name was afterwards, without reference to its strict meaning, extended to the whole southern part of Syria proper (Aramaea), including the uplands which slope eastward from Antilibanos. Among these, at a height of 2,000 feet above the sea, lies a level trough, watered' and covered with most fertile alluvial soil by several abundant streams 2 bursting out of the foot of the eastern mountains ; it forms then an ever green oasis in the midst of a wide stretch of surrounding desert. The ancient city of Damascus (Hebr. Dam- mesek, Syr. Darmsuk, Arab. Dimeskk) has therefore at all times been one of the greatest centres of population in Anterior Asia, and formed before its conquest by the Assy- rians in 810 B.C., the seat of an important Aramaic king- dom, and under Persian rule the capital of the Satrapy of v.] SOUTHERN (SEMITIC) ANTERIOR ASIA. 101 Syria. After the downfall of the Seleucid kingdom it again became the seat of an independent principality (as is sup- posed of a dynasty which 'pressed in as conquerors from Arabia), and it was not till 105 a.d. that the city with its huge territory was annexed to the Roman Empire. The town which after Damascus rose to be the most important commercial centre in South -Eastern Syria was Palmyra, lying on a well-watered oasis in the heart of the great deserts (the Syrian Tadmor, i.e. "place of palms," founded, according to Hebrew tradition, by Solomon, at the time of the greatest extension of the Jewish kingdom as far as the Euphrates). At the height of its prosperity in the third century a.d., it was under an Arabian dynasty, which held sway from this point over the whole of Syria during the internal disorders of the Roman Empire, but was put an end to by Aurelian in 272 a.d. 3 1 The names for this region were Hebraeo-Phoenician Bik'd (Lat. Buccd), modern Arabia Bka'a meaning simply " valley." Among its ancient cities was Ba'albek (as it was originally called) on the very watershed near the source of the Litani, to which the Greeks gave the name 'HXtov-iroXw, Heliopolis after the divinity worshipped there (beautiful ruins of the temple of the Sun still remain, belonging to the second century A.D.). Oa the Orontes facing the north end of the valley was Hemesa (ja "E/ua\TiTLs, or, even as early as the second century a.d., the name usual among modern Europeans, ®d\a{3a ; the ruins are now called Rabba) re-named Areopolis. 1 In this region the ancient name of 'Mount Gilead' for the highest elevation of the ground (more than 3,500 feet) has been preserved among the Arabians in the form Jebel Jela'ad. 2 Further east and north Kanatha, and according to some authorities Damascus, also belonged to the league. They did not form any definite geographical district, but only, as free cities enjoying Greek institutions, stood apart from the intermediate districts inhabited only by Arabs, Syrians, &c, and directly subordinate to their princes and afterwards to the Roman Governors. 3 Still earlier, before the Israelite conquest, a kingdom of the Amorites existed here (cf. § 100) with Heshbdn for its capital. 105. The Borderlands of Palestine and Syria. — The tableland (from 2,600 to 2,700 ft. in the middle) of rich clay soil, which stretches east of the mountains of Gile'ad and Peraea proper, was called in antiquity, Hebr. Bash in, Syr. Bathnen, and hence Gr. Baravaia. Before its occupation by part of the tribe of Menashe it was the seat of an Amorite kingdom (§ 100) with the chief cities of l Ashtardth-Karndim and 'Edre'i (Ruins, 'Ashtere, and Dera'a). The name Khavran on the other hand (Gr. Avpavtrts) was applied by the old inhabitants only to the southernmost part of this region, to which after the ex- tinction of the name Batanaea it was extended. Eastwards 112 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. beyond the level country the Hauranian mountains rise in a series of volcanic peaks to a height of 6,000 ft. This was in antiquity the country of the Ituraeans (Jetur, reckoned among the Ishmaelite Arabians). The streams of lava which in prehistoric times flowed from these peaks northwards and north-westwards, formed at a low eleva- tion one of the most rugged, difficult and inaccessible of rocky districts, hence called by the Greeks Tpaxv, Trachonitis. These regions, which were only temporarily occupied by the Israelites, after the conquest and' again under the Idumaean princes, had a mixed population of Aramaeans (Syrians) and Arabians. They afterwards formed, with their chief town B o s t r a (Hebr. Arab. Bofrd) part of the Nabataean kingdom, which in 105 a.d. was conquered by Trajan and turned into the Roman province of Arabia. ARABIA. 106. Collective Names. The Arabian Desert. — The south-western extremity of Asia, which was not re- cognised by the Greeks as a peninsula until the extension of Egyptian commerce under the Ptolemies, was known to the Babylonians and Assyrians under its old Semitic name of " Desert " ('arabd) earlier than to their neighbours on the north-west, the Hebrews {'ArMm is first used by Isaiah and then in a very limited local sense) who in ancient times used the collective designation bni-Kedem, " Sons of the East," or the patronymic, the I s h m ' a 6 1 i t e s, for the nomad hordes of northern Arabia (Cf. § 100 n. 2). Individual tribes on the eastern border of Palestine were the KM&r (" the black "), Hagar and Yettir (cf. § 105) of the Old Testament, which after the Greek conquest of Syria were called respectively KeSpaioi or K.e8a.pr)voi, 'Aypaioi or ' Ay a p-rjv 01, and v.] SOUTHERN (SEMITIC) ANTERIOR ASIA. 113 'Irovpaloi. 1 Their places of abode, which extend from Palestine as far as the cultivated regions of the Lower Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, and northwards across the river throughout Southern Mesopotamia (§ 89), belong to the barrenest regions of the earth from the prevailing stoniness of the soil, the want of considerable elevations, and therefore of flowing water, and the scanty winter rain- fall. On this account the Greeks, on first becoming acquainted with this region, distinguished it by the name of "Desert Arabia," r/ eprjp.os 'Apa/3ia, from the, in their view, " blessed " central and southern part of the peninsula, the so-called 'Apa/Jia evSa.in.aiv, Arabia felix, though in fact this was only cultivated on the edges by the coast, being in the interior quite as waterless as the other, if not more so. 1 In the same country arose in Roman times the name "2apaia)voi, which in later centuries attained a gradually wider significance, but was first applied only to one particular tribe on the borders of western civilisation, living alongside of the Arabs who were already quite settled in the same region. The name is probably derived from the Arabian word shark = "east" (which does not occur in the other Semitic languages) ; it is therefore synonymous with the Hebrew term bni-Kedem, mentioned above. 107. Arabia Petraea (Idumaea, Nabataea). — The north-western extremity of the peninsula, together with the smaller so-called S i n a i t i c peninsula » formed by the splitting up of the Arabian Gulf into two smaller ones, is the immediate continuation southwards of the mountain system of Syria. It is here divided into an eastern and western group by the long ravine of the Jordan valley and the Dead Sea which, continued southward, forms at its extremity the Aelanitic Gulf running into the great Arabian Gulf, while it extends from sea to sea as a broad waterless valley (Hebr. and Mod. Arab. 'Araba, ' desert,' § 99). The mountains rising to the east of this desert (Hebr. 1 H4 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Se'ir, the highest peak being Hor, about 4,5°° ft-) contain many rich valleys watered by abundant streams, and were therefore in ancient times cultivated in parts by the people of Ed 6 m ('iSu/iaioi), whom the Israelites regarded as by descent their elder brethren, and whom they (first David and then again in 870 and 770 B.C.) subdued to their kingdom, in order to maintain their connection with the Southern Sea. In the time intervening between the downfall of the Jewish kingdom and the expedition of Alexander, the Edomites (Idumaeans) were driven into southern Judaea and their old country taken possession of by the Arabian tribe of Nabataeans, whose dominion extended also over a part of the adjoining southern coast as well as of eastern Palestine (§ 105), and by caravan traffic between Syria and Southern Arabia attained some degree of prosperity, until in 105 a.d. it was conquered by Trajan and made into the Roman Province of Arabia. The capital of the Edomite kingdom, as later of the Nabataean, lay in a rock-surrounded valley beneath the highest peaks of the Seir mountains, and was thence called by the Hebrew name Sela, 'rock,' which being translated by the Greeks into P e t r a 2 eventually gave its name to the whole region, Arabia Petraea. Its harbour town on the Arabian Gulf was A'ila or Aelana (Hebr. Elath "Palm- grove," now Akaba) which took the place of the older harbour of Efiongeber lying higher up the gulf but after- wards choked with sand. It was from the latter that in Solomon's time Phoenician ships plied to Ophir (India). 1 This is not an old name, but one formed by modern geo- graphers after the central mountain of the peninsula, the Sinai of the Old Testament (the highest peak is over 10,000 feet), which itself again is named after the sand desert of Sin which runs along the west coast. In the mountain slopes to the north are copper mines which, as we learn from in- scriptions on the spot, were worked bv the Egyptians as v.] SOUTHERN (SEMITIC) ANTERIOR ASIA. 115 early as the thirty-fourth century B . C. The Amalekites, named in the Old Testament as nomad inhabitants of this district, had already disappeared when the Greeks became acquainted with it. 2 Still a flourishing commercial town in Roman times, from which are preserved the beautiful buildings and rock sculp- tures still existing in a ruined state and called Wadi MUsa or " Valley of Moses." 108. The Coasts of the Arabian Gulf. — Southern Arabia, as the home of frankincense and the highway for the products of India, first became known to the civilised peoples of the north through their commercial route along the east coast of the Arabian Gulf, the navigation of which was difficult on account of rocks and coral banks, and did not become usual until the Greek occupation of Egypt and the re-opening of trade by sea to India. The inhabitants of these coasts are described in the accounts given by classical authors as civilised and particularly active in commerce, though unwarlike. In the north, within the borders of the Nabataean kingdom and the later Roman province were the Madianites (the Midian of the Old Testament), in the central region, the Kassanites and M i n a e i, in Yemen, i.e. in the south, were the S a b a e i (Hebr. Shebd, Arab. Scba) who were regarded as the wealthiest people of " Happy " Arabia, and lived in nume- rous well-built towns, among others the famous capitals of Mariaba (now Marib), and Negrana (Nejran), and the much frequented sea-ports Muza (of which the ruins are now called Mauza'a, near Mokha.) lying within, and Adana (Aden) lying outside the straits. 1 In the ancient country of the Sabaei the Homerites (Arab. Himyar) became powerful after the first century a.d., but were subdued in the fourth century by the rulers of Axome on the opposite African coast. 1 This region, the furthest south on which the Roman army ever set foot, was in 24 B.C. the object of the fruitless campaign of Aelius Gallus, then Governor of Egypt. I 2 n6 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. 109. The Southern and Eastern Coasts of Arabia. — The southern edge of the interior highlands of Arabia, looking down upon the coast district of the so-called Red (Erythrean) Sea, or rather of the Indian Ocean, rises in parts into ridges of more than 8,000 ft., and as the valleys running between its different spurs are proportionately well watered, it was a country of old civilisation and possessing important towns. This was the district called Chatramotitis (Hebr. Hagarmawth, Arab. Hadramaui), whose capital, Sabattha (now Sabwa), formed of old the chief mart for the trade in frankincense. This was probably among those regions of Arabia which paid tribute, of course on the score of the frankincense, to the Old-Persian kingdom. It was afterwards also subdued by the Sassanides, as were the coast districts which adjoin it further east. Of these, that which projects furthest towards the east, the modern 'Oman, an isolated mountain region divided from the rest of Arabia by wide stretches of absolute desert, was described in antiquity as the country of the M a c a e as apart from the Arabian province of the Persian kingdom. At that time therefore it does not appear to have been yet occupied by Arabs, its population being probably non- Semitic. 1 The west coast of the Persian Gulf, the district called el-Akhsa by the Arabians, is for the most part sandy and very dry, containing but few places fit for cultivation. In one of them was G e r r a (Arab. Jera'a, "desert ") the com- mercially active head-quarters of the tribe of the G e r r a e i, supposed to have been a colony sent out from Babylon. Its importance is chiefly due to the fact that the southern half of the gulf, which abounds in reefs and islets, is rich in pearls and corals which have been worked here since very early times. 1 The chief commercial centre on the south coast of the Persian Gulf, Vrp/ixa, Ra'ima, mentioned in the Old Testament as one of the abodes of the Kushites, is of course ascribed to a dusky race, differing from the Semitic (§ 9). VI.] AFRICA. 117 CHAPTER VI. AFRICA. no. The northern half of this continent, as known to the classical nations, falls into two sharply denned divisions. The eastern half comprises the region of the Nile, the greatest of Mediterranean tributaries, which was opened up by conquest and by trade from the lower country of Egypt in quite early times, even as far as its upper course, though the real source was never reached ; besides this, the east coast, which though not known till about Ptolemaic times, was afterwards explored by sea further south and even beyond the equator. The western half comprises countries which in point of cultivation are of but limited breadth, the districts namely, watered by small rivers, which form the south coast of the Mediterranean. These districts are divided by the great desert (which hems them in on the south but also over wide areas runs with its gravel hills and rocky banks right down to the sea), in the region of the Katabathmi from the Egyptian valley, on the shore of the Syrtis from one another, so as to form two centres of civilisation of very unequal extent. In the east were the Cyrenaiic highlands, occupied by G r e e k s ; in the west was the region colonized by the Phoenicians, and which is now commonly called Mount Atlas, after the high chain of that name which towers in the south-west. The remainder of Western and Central Africa was known to the ancients only as the abode ot nomads of the great Libyan family. Of the fertile regions which stretched south of the great' desert, watered by great rivers and peopled by Aethiopians (Negroes), they had only indirect and very indefinite information. u8 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. AEGYPTUS. in. This name (probably that given by the natives to one of the mouths of the river Nile) was applied by the Greeks, when their seafaring brought them here for the first time in the Homeric age, to the whole river, which later on they called simply NeiAos. 1 ' Hence they transferred it to the coast land about its mouth, which by the natives was called Khemi or Kemi, "the black" 2 from the colour of the Nile mud. Egypt in this sense begins on the south with the entry of the Nile into its lower valley, where at a height of 500 feet above the sea, it breaks, in a series of powerful rapids, through the last granite mountains which confine its bed. It c6nsists of this valley, which, being 550 miles in length, and varying in breadth from two to ten or twelve miles, is shut in by the edges of the eastern and western desert plateau, and of its flat extension protruding into the sea, the so-called Delta. The rich black soil in both districts (valley and delta) is merely the deposit of the essence of the earth which is brought down by the river itself from the upper mountain district, and in the period of floods which lasts throughout the summer and autumn, is spread over the whole surface of the country. The higher country surrounding this valley belongs to Egypt only in a geographical and political, not in a physical sense. Towards the west (on the Libyan side) is a level waste limestone plateau with some few deeply-sunk valleys, richly watered, and therefore cultivated — the so-called Oases. 4 On the east (the Arabian side) are steep rocky ledges, rising at places into mountain chains of 6,000 feet, rich in excellent stone for purposes of building and sculpture, but containing only a few valleys poorly watered ; this district has accordingly never been inhabited, save by a few nomad tribes, though it has vi.] AFRICA. 119 been kept alive by the commercial routes which pass through it to the harbours of the Arabian Gulf. 1 The native name is A'ura or Yaroj in the Old Testament Year, 2 In all Semitic languages only the name Miqr (Hebrew uses the dual form for Upper and Lower Egypt, Mi^raini) is recognised ; hence the old Persian Mudrdya. 3 January therefore is the seed time, April and May the harvest. Besides the natural region of inundation, small strips of land lying rather higher were able to be won to cultivation by the laying down of parallel canals. These, in the lower half of the valley and as far as the western edge of the Delta, conducted the Nile water at a greater height along the side of the valley, with a narrower fall than that of the main- stream, divided it into numerous pools for irrigation, and in places also collected it into large lake-like reservoirs (such as Lake Moeris). 4 "Oao-is, Avacris which comes from the Egyptian word Uah = "station," "resting place," was the name given from their position in the midst of the desert. 112. History. — The Egyptian people, belonging to the white race in its wider sense (here showing a brownish red colour, still observable in the modern inhabitants), appears as a conquering nation from very ancient times to have kept in subjection by a stringent caste system a numerous dark- skinned population. The smaller states which it founded in the valley of the Nile were, at latest in the fortieth century B.C., united into one kingdom. This kingdom, after existing for considerably over three thousand years, under more than twenty national dynasties, interrupted by one long, and in the end by several shorter periods of foreign rule, became — though still retaining with little change its old forms of national life and of speech 1 — successively a Persian, Greek, Roman, and Arabian province, and then under Greeks and Arabians was again the seat of a separate kingdom, extending itself by conquest. Among the subject provinces of the oldest Egyptian kingdom we know only the neighbouring countries on the 120 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. East (the so-called Sina'itic peninsula under the fourth dynasty, about 3500 B.C., cf. § 108) and South (the negro tribes on the Upper Nile, during the sixth dynasty). The conquest and domination (lasting probably for several centuries) of Egypt by Semitic nomad tribes 2 ended in their being driven out by the national rulers of Upper Egypt (the Thebaic eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties) after 1700; and soon after 1600 came the conquest by the Egyptians of Syria (Kheta) and Mesopotamia (Naharina, cf. § 89). Under the nineteenth dynasty (of which the most celebrated king was Ramses II., called by the Greeks Se'trwo-Tpis, in the fourteenth century) conquests were pushed on into Africa, southwards on the Upper Nile and westwards as far as the Lesser Syrtis. With the rise of the Assyrian Empire, about the middle of the thirteenth century, came the loss of the Asiatic provinces ; and the kingdom, confined to the narrower limits of Egypt, was itself for a time held subject from without, about 725 by the so-called Aethiopian dynasty on the Upper Nile, and in 680 by the Assyrian king Asurakhidin. Freed from foreign domination in 6 do by the founder of the twenty-sixth and last native dynasty, Psametik I., the kingdom was again extended by the conquest of Cyrene and Cyprus (under Amasis, in 567), and with these dimensions it was in 525 annexed to the Persian Empire. 1 In its later form, which as a popular dialect did not quite die out till the seventeenth century A.D., it was usually called K o p t i c, a corruption of the Egyptian name. 2 The Egyptians cilled them simply Shasu, "shepherds," and it is accoHingly their rulers — not the actual people, as is incorrectly assumed — who are designated as 'Ykctcos [Hek = "king" in Egyptian) by the Greek historians drawing from native sources. 113. Division of the Country. — The ancient dis- tinction between the upper and lower country (Egypt, to-res VI.] AFRICA. 121 to-mhil), between the Nile valley and the Delta, answers to the natural formation of the ground. The further divisions of the two halves into at first seven- teen, and later twenty-two districts, were called in Egyptian Aesp, and in Greek (as also under Roman rule) vp/xoi. It was not till under the Ptolemies, who, like the Romans, preserved the ancient forms of local administration, that the new middle district of the country, Heptanomis, was formed out of the uppermost of the nomes that had hitherto belonged to Lower Egypt, the Memphitic, and the six lowest in the Nile valley ; while the upper part of the Upper country was called T he bals, after its old capital. The cultivated borderland west of the western arm of the Nile, called Ai/3ukos vofics, after the inhabitants that prevailed there, as well as the Oases, and by Augustus the Nubian borderland above the cataract, was added to Egypt proper. 1 i In regard to the nomenclature of cities which are for the most part very ancient, it is to be observed that from Graeco- Roman sources we can recognise only a few in a form adapted to the Egyptian form, the rest only in Greek transla- tions or modifications. These latter, which were mostly borrowed from the prevailing local cultus, and multiplied under the Ptolemies by new names given in honour of the rulers, were naturally held as official during the thousand years that Greek was predominant as the language of ad- ministration. Native names of places, confining themselves strictly to their Semitic forms (Hebrew in the Old Testament, Arabic in modern popular speech) were to be found formerly only in the late Egyptian (Koptic) form in ecclesiastical documents reaching back to the time of the Roman Empire. These are actually in accord with the popular (so-called demotic) names of Egyptian antiquity, as they have come to light from the deciphering of the Hieroglyphic inscriptions, but are radically distinct from the sacred (so-called Hieratic) names revealed by the same source, and which are far more akin in meaning to their Greek equivalents. 114. Lower Egypt (The Delta). — As might be ex- pected from its extent of cultivable alluvial soil, which, 122 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. allowing for the stretches of marsh and lake which it en- closes, still by far surpasses the whole area of the Egyptian Nile valley, 1 the Delta was covered even in quite early times with very numerous towns, built one and all on artificially- raised foundations to protect them against the high tide of the river. Some of the larger of these towns grew to high importance as residencies of some of the later dynasties, as for instance Tan is (Heb. Coan, Arab. Can, as the ruins are still called), so used even under the Hyksos, and after- wards under the twenty-first and twenty-third dynasties (from the eleventh to the ninth centuries B.C.), Bubast is (Egypt. Pe-basht, Hebr. Pi-beseth ; now the ruins of Tell Basra, near Zagazig) under the Ethiopian dynasty, Sals (ruins of Sa-el-hagar) under the twenty-sixth. Under the same dynasty Naukratis was founded by the Ionian Greeks who were then for the first time allowed to trade in Egypt. I Numerous remains of ancient buildings are found not only within the above-mentioned marshes and lakes and now lying in some cases, in consequence of the sinking of the whole soil in the course of ages, below the level of the water, but also in what, owing to the ruin of ancient canals and the general elevation of the ground, have become water- less stretches on the edges of the Eastern and Western desert (of the latter especially in the Mareotic district near Alexandria). Hence we can see that the ancient area of cultivated land was considerably greater than the modern, while the rapid advance of the land towards the coast, caused in old times by the alluvium of the river, has ceased or suffered extraordinary diminution for many centuries, owing not only to the continuous sinking of the ground but to the sea carrying away the alluvium. A more important change is that which the Delta has undergone from the varying quantity of water in the different arms of the river. Those which according to ancient witnesses were the deepest and navigable throughout, the extreme Eastern and Western, or the K a n o p i a n and P e 1 u s i a n branches, are now among the smallest, the latter scarce carrying any water, while the greater mass of water has been in modern times diverted to the central branches. A computation answering exactly to the conditions of the water at the various periods of antiquity VI.] AFRICA. 123 is now impossible owing to the uncertain information given by ancient authors. The network of streams and canals usually given in our maps of Ancient Geography is therefore in the highest degree hypothetical. 115. Beyond the Delta proper, as enclosed by the outer- most and most abundant branches of the Nile, lay at its apex (the limit of Upper Egypt) the city of Pe-ra, or Ales-ra ("House or Throne of the Sun"), famous for its school of priests, and better known under its Greek name of H e 1 i o p o 1 i s. On the mouth of the easternmost arm of the river was Perema, Greek P e 1 u s i o n (modern ruins of Tine), an important border fortress commanding the coast route to Syria. On the western extremity of the coast, quite outside the alluvial district, and on the flat limestone hills which here rise to a height of more than 100 feet (and therefore on what was properly Libyan ground), was built after Alex- ander's plan by his successor, Ptolemy I., the Greek capital Alexandria, which was supplied with water by a canal drawn from the western (or Kanopian) arm of the Nile. Its double and roomy harbour was formed by the laying down of a dam of seven stadia in length, 1 which connected the outlying island of Pharos (with its celebrated lighthouse, so called, and 400 feet high) with the city. This site, taken in connection with the wealth of the territory lying behind, and its nearness to the Arabian Gulf, which could be reached through canals, 2 and to the sea route to India, made Alex- andria the most important commercial centre in the Graeco- Roman world, and the most populous town, next to Rome itself, in the Roman Empire. It was, too, during the eight centuries of its ancient existence, of great importance from its devotion to culture, and its museum contained the largest library of antiquity. I Hence its name 'TLm-acrTa&iov ; it had cuttings, bridged over, to connect the two harbours, but in the middle ages was 124 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. turned by the alluvium of sea sands into a broad isthmus, on which and on the former island of Pharos, now a peninsula, the modern town (called in Arabic Skcmderle) stands. 2 The connection of the Eastern arm of the Nile, by means of a canal passing through a valley sunk in the high ground of the desert, with the salt lake of the Isthmus,— which was afterwards dried up (though now again filled with water owing to the formation of the Suez Canal), but must in. primeval times have formed the upper part of the Arabian Gulf— and so with the gulf itself, was carried out as early as by Ramses II. (1394 — 1328) and was protected against Arab hordes by fortresses (the towns of Pakhtum, Hadov/ws and Ramses, pro- bably the 'Hpaav Irakis of the Greeks who named the Upper Gulf after it Heroopolites). The rulers named as having restored this canal for navigation, after it had been repeatedly blocked up through neglect, are Nekho (about 600 B.C.), Darius I., Ptolemy I. and II., and Trajan; from the latter it received the name of Amnis Augustus. 116. Central Egypt (Heptanomis). — The prim- eval royal city of M e m p h i s (Egypt. Men-nefer, " the good abode"), the seat even of the first dynasty, four thousand years B.C., with its so-called "white fortress" (Xcvkov tei^os, still the residence of the Governor in Persian times), and its whole nomos, was reckoned as part of Lower Egypt in the time of the independent kingdom, although it lay quite outside the Delta proper, and in the lowest part of the actual Nile valley. From the time of its greatest prosperity down to the Graeco-Roman period, when it was still always the wealthiest of Egyptian cities next to Alexandria, the circumference of its walls was 150 stadia (seventeen and a half miles). 1 A sidelong extension of the area of cultivation, sur- rounded on the north-west and east by rocky deserts, forms west of Herakleus-polis (Egypt. Khnh) the basin of Fayum, as it is still called (Old Egyptian phHom nte-meri, " the lake of the inundation," of which the Greeks made the name Moeris). A quarter of its whole area is occupied by an artificial lake between strong dams, constructed at latest in the twenty-third century, so as to be filled at high water to feed the canals for irrigation in time of drought. 2 vi. AFRICA. 125 1 Not far west of the city, on the lower edge of the limestone ridge of the Libyan desert, stand in long array the numerous tombs of the oldest dynasties, the brick pyramids of the third, and the colossal limestone pyramids of the fourth (Khufu, Khafra, Menkeura, respectively 446, 450, and 204 feet high). 2 Here are the remains of a colossal palace, an object of great wonder to the Greeks under the name Aaj3lptv8os, built by the same man who constructed the dams, Amenemha III., whose colossal statue is also preserved. The lake Birket-Kerun now existing in this valley is quite distinct from the old lake of Moeris, which is now dried up. 117. Upper Egypt (Thebais). — This region, owing to the remarkable durability of the stone which forms its surface, surpasses the lower country in the number of still extant monuments of architecture, sculpture and paint- ing, the oldest of them reaching back to the twelfth dynasty (the twenty-third century B.C.), though many of the most conspicuous are not earlier than Ptolemaic and Roman times. In the latter period the important Greek town Ptolemdis Hermiu grew to be the capital ; but during the independent kingdom this place was held by T h e b a e, or D i o s p o 1 i s (the latter a translation of the Egyptian Pe- Aniun, " House of Ammon," the former a Greek adaptation of the popular name t-ape, " the capital"), a city covering the valley, at this point very, narrow, for ten miles, with its fine buildings and the tombs, rich in historic pictures and inscriptions, of several dynasties, especially of the eighteenth and nineteenth (1500-1200 B.C.) which here took their rise. Even under the Ptolemies, however, it was in ruins and only partially inhabited. 1 After the upper border town Syene (Kopt. Suan, Arab. Assuan), near the lowest cataract of the Nile, the stone which is quarried here, and much used in Egyptian architecture and sculpture, has been called Syenite. 2 I The few groups of ruins still preserved bear the Arabic name Luksor (properly el-Kusur "the castles"), Karnak, Medinet- Habu. 126 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. 2 The valley above the cataracts, which was occupied by Egyptian colonists in quite early times, though not till Augustus' day united with the province of Egypt, was called r/ Ba>8eKa/8aTai (whence the country was afterwards called Nubia), and the reddish-brown nomad tribes, related to the Egyptians, the Blemmyes (the modern fiega or Bishari), in the mountains between the Nile and the Arabian Gulf. The old capital Napata (modern ruins of Merawi) was destroyed in Nero's time by a Roman army. Meroe (of which numerous pyramids and other remains in Egyptian style exist near the modern Shendi) lying further south, high up on the wide plain watered by the Nile, and even fertilised by the tropical rains, was likewise down to the time of its destruction in the first century B.C. an Egyptian colony of priests, holding sway over aborigines mostly of negro race, and a flourishing centre of commerce. Still further south on the Nile and vi.] AFRICA. 127 its eastern tributaries, 1 must have stood the Egyptian colonies of the so-called Sembrites, especially after the emigration which followed the revolt of a great part of the military caste against Psametik ; of the after fate of these nothing is known. 2 1 The long peninsulas formed with the main stream by the rivers Astap&s, Astasobas, Astaboras (now Bahr-el-azrak or the Blue Nile, Dender and Rahad, Atbara or Takazie) were, especially at flood time, turned into actual islands by tbe marshes at the foot of the Abyssinian highlands. Hence the name Island of Meroe given by the Greeks to the whole river district. 2 The capital Safle is certainly identical with SSba, the ancient centre of the mediaeval Christian kingdom of Sena'&r, whose ruins still bear an Egyptian character, though devoid oi inscriptions. 119. The Axomitic Kingdom. — The country where _ the eastern tributaries of the Nile take their rise is a lofty region, difficult of access, with snowpeaks soaring to 14,000 feet, falling away sheer towards the Arabian Gulf. On account of the number of different tribes congregated there- in it was called by its Arabian neighbours Habash (whence the inhabitants were known as 'A/3a p. o 6 p o s ^litpa, apwparwv aKptoT-qpiov), and by the general name of Barbaria. In Azania, on the south-east coast towards the equator, they found Arabs already settled and in possession of the trade with the interior. From no informants but these can they have gleaned that knowledge of the mighty snow mountains lying in this direction, and of the great lakes situated to the west of them and from which the waters of the Nile flow northward, which is preserved to us from antiquity in the Ptolemaic maps alone. 1 I The name o-eA^y opos given to these mountains in the maps in question is to be explained by a confusion of the Arabic designation JibAl el-kamar " mountains of the moon " with Jibdl-komr "blue mountains." vi.] AFRICA. 129 LIBYA IN ITS NARROWER SENSE. 121. Marmarika. — The whole northern coast of the continent, west of the Nile Delta, was inhabited by a large family of peoples divided into numerous for the most part nomad tribes. This race, though related to the Egyptians, was physically distinguished from them by a much lighter colour, and was the forefather of the modern so-called Berbers. The name of the easternmost of these tribes, immediately on the Egyptian border, given in Egyptian inscriptions as L.bu or R.bu, Hebr. Lehabim, Gr. At/3ues, obtained, as did the local name derived from it, a wider extension as the knowledge of civilised peoples advanced westward. In its narrower sense it was applied (especially by the Romans) to the region between Egypt and the Great Syrtis, which of all Libyan countries first became known in Europe owing to the settlement there of Greek colonies. The eastern part of this region is low, rocky and ill- watered ; and it is therefore only fitted for the pasture of sheep and goats. Its inhabitants were the-nomad tribes of the Adyrmachides andGiligammes according to ancient, of the Marmarides according to later Greek authorities; from the latter came the name Marmarika applied to the country under Roman dominion. In the interior of this district is included the deeply sunk (more than 100 feet below the sea?) and well-watered valley of the Ammonian Oasis (now Siva) with an ancient Egyptian colony, settled at the sanctuary and oracle of Amun (Zeus Amnion). 122. Cyrenaica (Greek Libya). — Between the steppes of Marmarika on the east, and the Great Syrtis on the west, a tableland of height averaging from 1500 to 2500 feet runs northward into the Mediterranean with steep 130 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY [chap. cliffs. Though containing no constant streams it is rich in springs, and has abundant rains in winter, so that it was cultivated even by its Libyan inhabitants, the tribes of Auschises, Asbysti, and Kabalii. In the seventh century B.C. it was occupied by Doric Greeks from the Peloponnesus and the islands (especially Thera), who besides several coast towns, such as Euhesferidae, Tau- cheira, and Apollonia, founded on the promontory itself the town Cyrene {YLvp-qvt], Dor. Kupcu/a, modern ruins of Krenna). This town, as the seat of the dynasty of Battos and Arkesilas which reigned under Persian supremacy, gave the common name of Kvprjvaia or Kvp-qva'iK-q to the whole district The western half of it formed after about 540 B.C. a separate principality, of which Bark a, with a mixed population of Greeks and Libyans, was the capital ; this name was in the middle ages transferred to the whole district. Under the supremacy of the Egyptian Ptolemies these Greek cities afterwards formed a confederation of five free states (Pen t a p o 1 i s). Of these Taucheira and Euhesperidae took the new names Arsino'e and Berenice, borrowed from princesses of the house of Ptolemy. The harbour town of the ruined Barka came into the confederation as fifth under the name Ptolemctis (ruins now Dolme"ta). Through a collateral branch of the Ptolemies (117-96) the country came in 67 B.C. under Roman rule, and was united with Crete to form a province. PHOENICIAN (PUNIC) AFRICA. 123. The Region of the Syrtes (Tripolis). — The largest bay on the south coast of the Mediterranean, known by the name of the Great er Syrtis (17 /xeyaA^ Supris), washes the shores of a for the most part dry and waterless VI.] AFRICA. 13 1 tract, inhabited in antiquity, as now, chiefly by nomad tribes, of which the most important were the Nasamones. They were dependants of Carthage at the time of her greatest power, her trade with the interior of Africa finding here its shortest and most convenient line of communi- cation, as it is actually used still by caravans. In the north-west of this coast district, inhabited by the Libyan tribe of the M a c a e, and containing fertile tillage land on the slope of mountains rising to 2,000-2,400 feet, several colonies were planted in very early times by the Phoenicians of Sidon. The wealthiest of them, L e p t i s (usually called " the greater,'' to distinguish it from a simi- larly named city further west; its ruins are now called Lebda), long maintained its independence of Carthage, as did its neighbours Oea and Sabratha (Gr. 'Aftporovov). These three towns were commonly known among the Greeks as Trip ol is, a name afterwards transferred to the province constituted by Septimius Severus, and so to its capital, the ancient Oea, the Tripoli of modern Europeans (the Arabians call it Tar&bulus). Emporia, "the marts " par excellence, was, the name given by the Greeks to the shores of the Lesser Syrtis, which with their old Phoenician harbour towns (the most important of which were Takape, now Gabes, and the island of Girba or Meninx, now Jerba) also remained independent of Carthage, and after its overthrow were annexed first to the kingdom of Numidia, and then to the Roman province of Africa Nova. 1 1 In the interior, divided from the shore of the Lesser Syrtis only by a small low hill tract, are old lake basins stretching far to the west, and now for the most part dried up and filled with salt, their surface lying considerably below the level of the Mediterranean. The lakes of Tritonis and Pallas, placed here by the old Greek authors, were at that time regarded as navigable, and even as being connected with the Mediterranean. K 2 IJ2 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. 124. The Territory of Carthage (Byzakion and Zeugis). — The name Afri for the inhabitants, and Africa for the country denoted first, before by Italian usage it was extended to the whole continent, that part of the coast which lay most immediately opposite to Italy and Sicily, together with the part of the interior lying just behind. This was a region traversed by moderate mountain ranges, for the most part well watered, and containing wide and extremely fertile plains and hills. Even its ancient Libyan inhabitants were distinguished, as tillers of the soil, from the nomad Libyan tribes of the Syrtes and of Marmarika. From the names of these tribes, the Zaueces in the north and Gyzantes or Byzantes in the south, the individual districts of the territory afterwards in its narrower sense subdued to Carthaginian rule, were called 'Bv££ouo-a, whence the modern Suza). But the number of greater and smaller towns supported by tillage and by the cultivation of fruit and of wine in the whole of this Roman province exceeded 300, and an extraordi- narily large proportion of them, preserved from the later period of Roman rule, still exist in ruins, often bearing a corrupt form of their ancient names.3 1 The remains of this Roman Carthage, still called Kartajina by the Arabians, are very scanty, owing to the destructive proximity of the new capital Tunis (which bore the same name in antiquity but was then of no consequence). 2 It was ruined by the alluvium of the Bagradas (now Mejerda), the largest river of the district, choking up the harbour. The ruins are therefore now five miles from the sea. 3 The following are respectively the ancient and modern names of the most inmortant : on the coast Clyfiea Kelibia, 134 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Ciirubis Kurba, Neapolis Nebel, Leptis Lamta, the island Cercina Kerkena ; in the interior Vaga Beja, Thibursicum Tebursuk, Thuburbum {minus) Teburba, Sufes Sbiba, Sufetula Sbitla, Thysdrus el-Jemm, Capsa Gafsa. 126. Numidia. — The coast district lying west of the strictly Carthaginian territory contains only a limited area of fertility in valleys shut in between lofty mountain ranges (rising to 7,000 feet), but abounds, on the other hand, in rocky hill country, which in antiquity was wooded ; while further south stretch steppes suited rather for pasturage than for cultivation. The greater part of this country was not won to civilisation until the days of Roman dominion, which lasted for nearly eight centuries. The numerous aboriginal Libyan tribes, of whom the most important were the M a s s y 1 i i and Massaesyli, lived almost exclusively the life of shepherds, and were on that account called by the Greeks collectively No^aSes. This name passed into Latin as N u m i d a e, and hence arose the name usually applied by foreigners to the country. It acquired political importance when Gala, prince of the Massylii, and ally of the Romans against Carthage, received after the fall of that city the Phoenician coast towns, and the title of king of the Numidians. His son Massinissa chose one of these towns, the western Hippo (hence called by the Romans H. regius, now Bona), to be his residence ; and his son again, Micipsa, honoured in the same way the town of C i r t a, which lay in the interior (Phoen. Kartha, " town," later and to this day called Constantino). This extensive territory was diminished after Jugurtha's conquest in 104 B.C. by the handing over of the western half, and in 46 B.C. of a still broader stretch of land as far as the river Amp- saga, to the princes of Mauretania. The small remaining eastern part, which retained the name Numidia in or- dinary usage, received in conjunction with the region of the Syrtes, the official title of A f r i c a Nova. 1 VI.] AFRICA. 135 1 The most important towns of the interior and containing extensive remains of Roman building are : Sicca, now Kef, Theveste, now Tebessa, and Lambaesis, now Tezzut, which has lately been rebuilt and renamed Lambese. The Libyan inhabitants of the southern mountains of Audits or Aurasius (still called Aurgs) were notorious for their repeated rebellions against Roman rule. 127. Mauretania. — -This name, derived from the national name of the Mauri (Maurusii), designated until the first century B.C. the north-western extremity of the African coast, bordering on the Straits of Gades (or as they are now called, of Gibraltar) and the Atlantic Ocean, and stretching inland as far as the highest peaks (more than 13,000 feet, according to Hooker and Ball) of the Atlas range, as the Greeks called it, or Dyrin, as it was known among the natives ; it answered, therefore, to the modern kingdom of Marocco. The princes of the Mauri received from the Romans, after the conquest of Jugurtha, the western half of Numidia and the title of king, in return for their services against him. The Phoenician seaport town of lol was chosen as his residence by Juba II., the last king of Mauretania, and was called Caesarea in honour of Augustus (it is now Shershel). It remained the capital of the eastern half of the new province (the former Numidia), which was again separated after its annexation in 42 a.d. to the Roman Empire, and hence received the name of Mauretania Caesariensis. The western half, the original land of the Mauri, was called Mauretania Tingitana, after its capital Tingis (now Tanja, vulg. Tangiers), also an old Phoenician port. 1 1 Other important towns still existing in Mauretania Caesarensis are Siti/i,now 'oz.'&ijgilgili, Jijeli, Saldae, Bujaya (vulg. Bougie), Icosium, Algiers, Cartenna (Phoen. Karthaim "double town") Tenez ; in Mauretania Tingitana, Russaddir, Mlila, Zilis, Arzilla, Lixus, ruins on the river Lukkus. The numerous Phoenician coast towns whose names begin with R£s are called after their position on the capes or headlands (Hebr. Rosh, "head"). i 3d ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap- WESTERN AETHIUPIA. 128. The Coasts. — Beyond the more remote southern borders of Mauretania, on the side of Atlas, which were crossed by the Romans only now and again, and were never within the range of their settlements, only the coasts were explored by the Carthaginians, and colonies planted in a few places for purposes of commerce." In the same way by crossing the river Chremetes, or Stachir (now Senegal), abounding in crocodiles and hippotamus, they penetrated to plains* occupied by a dense negros population. Through these journeyings became known also the islands whose lofty mountain peaks could be seen from the main- land, and which in antiquity bore the name of the "blessed" (Maxapuv vrjcroi, Insulae fortunatae), on account of their splendid climate and luxuriant vegetation. It is in the highest degree probable that Phoenician settlements were planted there, though there is no evidence to the fact. Plans of colonisation devised later on by the Romans were never carried out ; but that a lively trade went on between them and Roman Spain is testified by the names of the islands which have come down to us exclusively in Latin form, and among which Canaria, re-applied after its new discovery in the fourteenth century, has been transferred to the entire group. 1 Especially the islet of Kerne (Phoen. Keren, "horn," now Agadir) on the slopes of the Great Atlas. 2 The mountain demv o^ij/xa (" chariot of the gods ") was the last point reached by the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno (about 500 ?), and the knowledge of the Roman period did not extend beyond this. 3 As mixed peoples on the borders of the black (Aethiopian) and of the Libyan race ancient authorities set down in this region the so-called "white and red Aethionians" vi.] AFRICA. 137 (AevKaiBLoire s, AWlcmes iroppaioi), who are regarded as the fore- fathers of the race of brownish red colour now known as Pulo, Fulbe or Fell&ta. 129. The Interior. — The larger oases of the desert of Sahara were in ancient times, as now, occupied by Libyan tribes, and only here and there cultivated. Of these tribes the most important in the north-west, on the borders of the Roman province of Mauretania, were the G a e t u 1 i, in the central region the Garamantes, through whose territory ran the shortest and safest route from the Great Syrtes (§ 123) to the interior of Africa; it is still used in preference to any other. The most thickly populated part of their domain, containing the capital Garama (ruins now called Jerma), was the district Phazania (now Fezzan), the extreme point reached by a Roman army in an expedition made under Cornelius Balbus in 19 B.C. Even in antiquity trading caravans made their way south- wards across the desert to the well-watered tillage lands of the Blacks (biiad-es- Stiddn, according to Arabic nomen- clatuie), or, as they were then called, the Aethiopians, and with them, or in company with marauding incursions of the Garamantian chieftains against the Negroes, went in the first and second centuries a few Roman merchants, who reported on what they saw. The very confused results of their travels are known to us only from the Ptolemaic maps. The most important of these results was the confirmation of the existence of the river courses running from east to west, which are mentioned even in the ancient records of natives (as quoted by Herodotus), or, as was almost uni- versally supposed, of o n e great stream traversing northern Africa, and which many of the ancients, as well as all the Arabian and European geographers of the Middle Ages, regard as the upper course of the Nile. 1 For this, or at least for the westernmost and largest river system, whose 138 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. southern outlet to the Atlantic Ocean was not discovered till 1830, the name used was only the common word in the Libyan language for flowing water : Gir, negirreu, especially in the form Nigir (Niy^p), 2 while its neigh- bours were called Nigrites, "river people." The same word being used for some of the larger of the rivers flowing south from the Atlas (one of which is still called Wadi Ghir) led to a confusion, very hard to unravel, in the geographical survey of this continent by the ancients. 1 Not Ptolemy however, whose Nigeir is only erroneously brought into connection with the great central marsh-lake which he calls Libya (the modern Tsad). Between this and the Nile he knows of two other lake basins, Nuba and Chelonides, which have not been re-discovered, and have more than probably been dried up — as we may conclude from numerous like instances. 2 The form Niger, which has become common in modern times in resumption of this name, is a mistaken accommodation to the well-known Latin word, which has really nothing to do with the name of the river. CHAPTERS VII.— X. EUROPE. 130. Of the continent now known under the name of Europe, only that half which lies towards the south and west gradually in antiquity emerged from its obscurity ; the regions north of the Danube (the Istros, which even Hero- dotus imagined to bisect the whole of Europe) not till the days of the Roman empire, and the north of Gaul only half a century earlier. Only the coastlands of the Mediter- ranean can show relatively ancient seats of civilisation in this part of the world, especially the three great peninsulas which jut out into that sea, and whose very different vii.] EUROPE. 139 historical significance answers to the difference in their natural configuration which was already noticed by Greek geographers. It was not only its nearness to the East with its earlier civilisation, but pre-eminently too the abundance of islands in the stretch of sea which severs Europe from Asia, the manifold horizontal articulation of its coasts by deeply in- denting gulfs, the rich variety of hill and dale over a com- paratively small area, which gave to the Greek peninsula the foremost place among all the civilised countries of Europe. The Italian peninsula is far more uniform, not only in its coastline (especially on the eastern side), but also in the structure of its one great mountain system. Still its moderate breadth in proportion to its remarkable length secures to it even more than to the northern parts of Greece the advantage of a maritime climate prevailing as far as the interior. The western, or Iberian peninsula, among all those that border the Mediterranean (not excluding that of A sia Minor), shows most strongly the character of rigidity (resembling in this point its neighbour Africa), as seen in its inarticulate horizontal configuration, and still more in the upheaval of its interior in the form of extensive plateaus, with a bleak continental climate and scanty water supply, in sharp contradistinction to the coast districts. Again, this western peninsula, of the three we have mentioned, is the most sharply divided from the main stem of the continent by the chain of the Pyrenees, which is of almost uniform height, is in no place deeply cut, and only leaves a small space on the east and west for circumvention. The Alpine system itself, though from its position pushed out in advance of the inner framework of the continent on the same side — so that, embracing the Po-district, and following the natural formation of the Italian peninsula, it has a far more considerable breadth and loftier peaks — is still, on account of its deeply-cut passes, more easily penetrable, and Ho ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. hence allows a close connection between Italy and Central Europe. Even closer is the connection with the eastern peninsula as it broadens out northwards and is lost in the main body of the European continent, answering there to the entire region of the Danube. It is in no sense cut off from the main continent (as ancient geographers and their successors down to quite modern times erroneously supposed) by an Alpine chain running from Hadria' to Pontus, but only by a watershed, which consists of a stretch of moderately high plateaus running between individual mountain masses (Ber- tiskos, Skardos, Orbelos, Haemos), and thus affording easy means of communication between the Danube region and the Aegean coasts. The result has been that the mountain slopes and hills on either side belong to the same depart- ment alike of ethnography and of history. VII. EUROPEAN GREECE. 131. Names, — Of the three European peninsulas, it is only the south-eastern that in its wider sense has never had a general name, for the reason that at every period of its history it has been inhabited by different, though for the most part allied, populations. The most important race among them, that which since the beginning of historical knowledge has held the southern and most strictly peninsular part of the country (save for a few mountain tracts of the interior), bore the national name of H e 1 1 e 11 e s, never taken into use by its neighbours ; while their dwelling-place did not obtain the name of Hellas, originally confined to a narrow district in the north, till a comparatively late period of its history. In their earliest epic writings the race is vii.] EUROPEAN GREECE. 141 collectively designated by the name Achaean s, which was that of the tribe then politically predominant. In the same way other names of its individual tribes were applied by its neighbours to the nation as a whole. Thus all the peoples of the East used' the name of the Ionians (originally 'Iaoves), because they had spread in early times across the island sea to the Asiatic coasts ; while the Illyrians and Italians, whose example has been followed by all other European nations, used the name of a north-western (Epeirot) branch, the Graeci, TpaiKoi (Greeks). This name and that of the country G r a e c i a have always in- cluded the northern Greek tribes of Epeiros and Mace- donia, and therefore were of wider significance than the national name Hellenes and the local name Hellas, which were used during the period of Greek freedom in a sense relating to degree of culture, and excluded those half barbarous countries. The latter name, on the other hand, extended far beyond the strict geographical limits of the peninsula, and even beyond the borders of Europe, being rather taken to include all branches of the nation which had their language, manners, and culture, in common, without regard to the position or extent of their abode. It embraced then not only the entire islands and coasts of the Aegean and of Southern Italy (the so-called fieydXr] 'EXAas), but also the colonies scattered over the whole basin of the Mediterranean and of Pontus, and which introduced countries only partially coherent with Greece proper (as in Cyprus, Libya, and Liguria). 1 1 Not till Roman times was the name Hellas misappropriated to the central region of ancient Hellas, lying between the specially named regions in the south (Peloponnesos) and north (Thessaly and Epeiros), but which itself had no particular name. The name A c h a i a, on the contrary, again became universal down to the time of the absorption of Greece into the Roman Empire, on account of the political importance of the Achaean League. 142 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. 132. Mountain Structure. — The Greek peninsula proper is almost entirely filled with mountains which em- brace only a few plains of any extent; it is therefore by nature difficult of access, and so thrown back upon its connection with the sea. The most important ranges in point of continuity, length, and especially of height, run in a nearly due north and south direction ; it is these which in the centre of the peninsula form the chief watershed between the Aegean and the Ionian Seas, and part of which, commanding the Thessalian plains which lie beneath it to the east, bore in antiquity the name P i n d o s (the highest peaks have been measured at about 7,500 feet). 1 A southern continuation of this chain includes the highest peaks of Central Hellas (Korax 8,300 feet, Parnassos 8,000 feet), and of the Peloponnesus (Kyllene and Tay- geton 8,000 feet). Parallel with this main chain on the east, only with a steeper eastern incline, there runs towards the south a second line of elevation, following the coast of the Aegean, and rising in the centre, at the northern limit of the old Hellenic country, to the greatest height of the whole peninsula inOlympos (9,750 feet). It is distinguished, however, from the central chain (the so-called Pindos sys- tem) in that it consists rather of individual groups (Ossa, Pelion, the Euboean mountains from 6,600 — 5,000 feet) in- terrupted by deep clefts (river valleys and fiords), and finally, with ever-increasing breaks and lower summits, loses itself in the double line of the Cyclades. 2 The cross ranges which run east and west between these two, and in some places connect them (such as those which bound the plains of Thessaly on the north and south), are far behind them in point of elevation, and easily passable by means of cols of moderate height (2,000 — 2,400 feet). The ridges of Oeta, Parnassos, Kithaeron, Parnes, with peaks ranging between 5,000 and 6,000 feet, which run across the centre of Hellas in a like direction, do not form vil.] EUROPEAN GREECE. 143 a connected chain, but are separated by deep depressions, and in parts by broad valleys. It is not till we come south of the Corinthian Gulf that we find running parallel with it from east to west a quite complete and connected chain of mighty peaks (Erymanthos, Aroania, Kyllene, 7,000 — 8,000 feet), which form the northern edge of the central Arcadian plateau, and reach into the Argolic peninsula. But the most important elevations running in an east and west direction on true Greek soil are to be found in the island of Crete. 1 All the other names of mountains handed down by the ancients are local and apply, according to the nature of the country, to individual mountain groups divided from neighbouring heights by low cols. 2 At the extreme limit of this insular elevation, that is on the southernmost of the Cyclades, T h e r a, volcanic force is still present, though only active at long intervals, while products of volcanic origin are frequently found on the islands (Melos in the south-west, Nisyros in the south-east, Lemnos in the north and others) and around the coasts of the Aegean. At these and other points (the peninsula of Pattene on the Macedonian coast, the north-west point of Euboea) eruptions have taken place within the range of historical recollection, while at one place, Methana on the Saronic Gulf, the memory of them dates only as far back as the third century B.C. The mountain formation which distinguishes the eastern coast districts of Attica and Laconia, as well as the islands, allows for the occurrence of crystalline limestone (marble) and of metals (Laconian iron, silver from Laurium, gold from Siphnos, and both in the districts north of the Aegean), which are utterly wanting in the limestone mountains which fill the remainder of Continental Greece. 133. River Systems. Cultivation. — The rainfall is in this climate only moderate and confined to late autumn and winter. Its greatest extent occurs in the districts of the western slopes when the west wind prevails. Even in antiquity, when forests were more abundant, the rainfall did not suffice to fill the valleys, which are on account of the narrow horizontal dimensions of the country for the most 14-4- ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. part only short, though on the other hand deeply sunk, with perennial watercourses. As such only the following deserve mention, and these are scarcely navigable even in their lower courses. In the Peloponnesus : the Alpheios, with the Ladon, Eurotas, Pamlsus, and the Elean Peneios ; in Central Hellas : the Boeotian Kephisbs (with the lake into which- it flows, Kopdis), Spercheios, Euenos, Acheloos; in Thessaly, the Peneios, with its many tributaries. Only the two last are to be compared in abundance of water with the far more important rivers of the regions of Northern Greece, Macedonia, and Thrace. 1 The greater number of the smaller river courses marked in the maps are only winter torrents (xe'V a PP ot > x a P°-^P al )> an ^ ' n tne height of summer are dry ; this is the case even with the far famed streams of the Athenian plain. Of alluvial soil fit for cultivation, which has been brought down by flowing water from the mountains and spread over the plains and valleys, there is therefore but little in the peninsula. What there is is to be found in individual basins shut in by mountains, whether at a considerable height (as in Arcadia), or in the low ground about the greater river courses, as in Boeotia and Thessaly ; as also on the lower Acheloos, and on the coasts of Elis and Messenia. The shores and plains of Macedonia and Thrace, however, have it in far greater abundance. In most parts of Greece, therefore, the cultivation of corn, that is of wheat, did not suffice in antiquity for the then larger population, but it had to be imported from abroad. On the contrary, the dry and rocky hill soil is pre-eminently adapted all over the country for the cultivation of the vine, the olive, figs, and other fruits. l Many streams on the higher tablelands, especially of Arcadia, Epeiros, and Upper Macedonia, find an apparent end in the clefts and chasms peculiar to limestone mountains {fiapaBpa, Xdvuara, modern Greek KaraPoOpai), to break out again in vil] EUROPEAN 'GREECE. 145 abundant springs (dvo/SoXcu, avaxoat, modern Greek v\ai, though without local connection. The most important demes in point of numbers and possessions, naturally belonged to the P e d i a s (among them were especially Thria, Acharnae, and Dekeleia, on the borders of the Diakria, which as commanding the road to Euboea, was long occupied by the Spartans during the Peloponnesian war). Two of the larger localities were also dignified with the title of xoXis (though with no political significance) : Brauron on the east coast (in the Paralia, now Vraona), and E 1 e u s 1 s (now Levsina ') celebrated for its cultus of the so-called mysteries of the deities of earth. The island of S a 1 a m I s which shuts off the Eleusinian Gulf, an arm of the Saronic, was in ancient times an independent community. Then, after submitting for a long period to the sway of Megara, it was conquered by Solon, and became part of the Athenian territory, though without being reckoned in the number of the Demes. 1 From the processions incident to these festivals the road between Athens and Eleusis acquired the name of ' sacred ' (If pa 686s). 154. Athena e, the only actual city (aa-rv) in the Attic State, lies between four and five miles from the shore of the Saronic Gulf around the rocky hill of the ancient citadel Kekropia (500 ft. above the sea), afterwards called the Akropolis (car i£oxyv, which contains the oldest temples, and especially the Parthenon (6 TLap&evuv) beautifully m 2 164 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. rebuilt after the Persian wars. The hills on the west and south-west dedicated to Ares and the Muses ("Apeios Ti-ayos, Movo-etov) and the depression which lies between them on the south as far as the only abundant fountain Kallirrho'e or Enne&krunos, near the bed of the brook Ilissbs, which in summer is dry, formed the most ancient part of the city. It was afterwards extended by building on the north side of the Acropolis, when it had been entirely destroyed by the Persians. The city walls eventually pushed outwards in all directions till they covered a circuit of forty-four stadia, including, besides the oldest city deme Kydathenaion, several other either wholly or in part, so that some among them, e.g. Kerameikbs, were distinguished as the "outer" and "inner." The bay of Ph&leron, lying near at hand (35 stadia = 4 miles) though little sheltered, served the Athenians for a harbour in very early times. After the Persian wars the rather more distant hilly peninsula of Peiraieds, with its two naturally shut in basins, was turned into a regularly constructed harbour, and the two headlands were joined to the city by strongly fortified walls (i-a paKpa t«i'x»7, t» o-ke'A.17, "the legs"). Pericles added to these a third wall between the two others running direct to Munychia, the eastern of the Peiraic harbours, with a view to secure a connection between the city and the Peiraieus towards the open shore of Phaleron (to 81a /tecrov ret^os, or to votiov as it is called in contradistinction to the first Peiraic wall, or to /Jopeiov). 155. Boeotia. — Beyond the border mountains of Attica (§ 152), the central region of Greece is on both sides closely bounded by the sea, being traversed rather by particular mountain groups of but moderate height, while only in the south-west is the country occupied by the loftier wooded range of HelikSn (peak 5,150ft.). Between the moun- tains the land stretches out into broad plains, whose rich vii.] EUROPEAN GREECE. 165 clay soil and abundance of water, implying a moist and cloudy climate, favoured the growth of corn to such an extent as even to admit of its exportation. This holds good in a lesser degree for the southern region, the valley of the Asopos which lies open to the east, as especially for the plains which were once covered by lakes, and thus formed by alluvial deposit, while they have no outlet to the sea. These are the central (so-called Aonian) plain on the brook Ismenos, and that on the north-west which is watered by the lower course of the K e p h I s 6 s (now Mavroneri = " Blackwater " ) the principal river on the east side of Central Greece. The greater part of its waters finds a subterranean outlet to the Euboean Gulf through natural clefts in the limestone (Katabothra, fiepedpa, cf. § 133, n. 1). Its overflow, especially in winter and spring, spreads in the lowest part of the plain (almost 320 ft. above the sea) into a level marshy lake, called either Kephisis from the river, or Kopais from an ancient town which stood on its edge. It is so far dried up in summer as to be almost entirely available for tillage, in favourable years even allowing two crops. 1 This country was in primaeval times for the' most part inhabited by prae-hellenic tribes — the so-called Thracians on Helikon, Minyans in the great maritime plains, Kad- means, i.e. probably Phoenician invaders in the interior and on the east coasts, Gephyraeans in the valley of the Asopos. Shortly, as is supposed, before the great Doric in- vasion it was conquered by the Boeotians, a tribe of Aeolian Hellenes who pressed in from Thessaly, and who gave the country its permanent name. 1 This inundation was in antiquity turned to more complete and timely account by means of artificial galleries bored at a lower stratum through the limestone rocks. These galleries existed even before the Boeotian invasion and; were probably constructed by a prae-hellenic people (the Minyans according to legend). 166 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. 156. The Boeotian Confederation consisted originally of thirteen republics, among which Thebae took the first place, with a representative council called BoiwTapxai. In the latter days of Greek freedom only seven of these States remained. Thebae, at ®^/3ai (now y ©7//3a, vulg. Phivd) was, owing to the straggling way in which it was built, one of the largest cities in Greece, though in point of population it did not equal Athens, Corinth, or even Chalkis. It was how- ever destroyed by Alexander, and though restored by Kassander, prolonged its existence only as a small town. Its citadel Kadmeia seems before the Dorian invasion to have been the only stronghold occupied by the Phoenician settlers in the interior of Greece. The town of most note in Southern Boeotia was Tdnagra. It took part in maritime trade through its harbours, Aulis, Delion, and in ancient times, Oropbs, the possession of which was after about 500 B.C., long a bone of contention between the Athenians and Boeotians. The southwestern cities, Plataeae (the scene of the battle of 479 B.C.) with its district, Leuktra, also celebrated for its battle, and Thespiae on Mt. Helikon, preserved from antiquity remnants of an I o n i c population, and therefore, especially the first named, entered into close alliance with Athens in the period from the Persian to the Peloponnesian war. In the maritime plain on the north, at the point where the Kephisos issues from the mountains, stood r c h q- mends, the second largest city in Boeotia, and the standing rival of Thebes. It had even mythical celebrity as the seat of the Minyan kings, and was probably at that time a member of the confederation of maritime States which had its centre in Kalaureia (§148); Chaeroneia, famous for the battle fought there in 336, belonged to its domain as a country town. Lebadeia owes no doubt to the secluded va.] EUROPEAN GREECE. 167 position of its valley the distinction of being the only Boeotian town which has lasted through the middle ages to the present day, when it is still called Livadia. The re- maining independent members of the league were Korbmia, where was held the annual festival of the Ila/i^onSTio, Haliartos, on the pass at the southern edge of Lake Kopa'is, Kopai itself, and the little maritime town Anthedon. 157. Phokis includes in its northern division the broad upper valley of the Kephisos, here consisting of light chalky soil. In its larger southern division is comprised the broad mountain system of Parnassds (peak 8,000 ft.), and its off-shoots, the south-western arm of which on the largest fiord in the Corinthian Gulf, the so-called K r i s a e a n Gulf, always formed in the times that are known to us a distinct political district from the rest of Phokis. Its centre was at first Kris a, 1 a town prosperous through trade, and com- manding a small plain along the coast. This being de- stroyed in the so-called Sacred War of 585 B.C., gave place to the oracle town Delphoi, lying higher up (2,400ft.), in the narrow rocky valley of the Pleistos. The temple of Apollo at this spot gained political importance as the seat of a very ancient political gathering (Amphiktiony) of all the northern Greek and probably of some semi-Greek tribes, as also of the Pythian games which were connected with the meeting. On this account the town though small in itself was extremely wealthy, and adorned with beautiful buildings and numerous works of art through the joint devotion of all Hellenic States. The remaining twenty-two members of the Phokian League were confined to a limited locality, and were natu- rally thrown into the shade by the prominence of Delphoi. Only a few towns among them owed any importance to their site ; such as Eldteia, which commanded the highway across the border mountains on the north, and the seaport towns, Antikyra on the Corinthian, and Daphnus on the 1 68 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Euboean Gulf. The latter, which bisected the coast territory of the Lokrians, was permanently occupied by them after the' third so-called Sacred War had ended unluckily for Phokis. I This town of which the ruins are still called Chryso is distinct from Kirrha, the neighbouring port of Delphoi, with which it is frequently confused. 158. Lokris is the name given to two mountainous stretches of coast divided from one another by the Phokian valley of the Kephisos. From their respective positions on the Euboean and Corinthian Gulfs, they were distinguished as Eastern and Western (rjoloi Ao/cpoi, ia-irepiot A. 1 ). The eastern comprised only the small stretch of coast which tuns along the Euboean Gulf beneath the moderately high mountains which form the northern boun- dary of the Kephisos valley. These in their central and highest part were called K n e m i s, and hence came the name Epiknemidian or Hypoknemidian, which is applied to these Lokrians equally with the name Opun- t i a n, derived from the not unimportant town of Opus ('0 7rovs), which lies in a broader part of the coast plain. These two names were also used specially for the eastern and western parts of the region, which was divided at its centre by the Phokian port of Daphnus (§157) though it always remained a single state. Its eastern boundary in- cluded at times the originally Boeotian coast town Ldrymna, which however reverted to Boeotia at the time of the Achaean League. 1 The Lokrian name, which probably belonged to a tribe of prae-hellenic inhabitants, obviously included, before the invasion of Boeotian and Phokian Aeolians from the north, the central region also, the later Phokis. 159. The Hesperian or Western Lokrians, as they called themselves (on coins and in inscriptions) were Vll.] EUROPEAN GREECE, 169 usually known among other Greeks by a bye-name of humorous significance, Ozolian (Aoxpot 01 '0£o\ai). They inhabited the coast of the Corinthian Gulf west of Phokis, which among other unimportant harbour towns contained on its very border in a continuation of the Krisaean (or Delphic) valley, the most important town of the district, the strongly fortified Amphissa (now S£l6na). On its western border near the narrowest part of the Gulf was the harbour town of Naupaktos (now Epakto, vulg. Italian Lepanto), which gained consequence from its nearness to the Peloponnesian coast. It was occupied by the Athenians in 455, and handed over to the exiled Messenians. Afterwards, together with the neigh- bouring coast, it came into the possession of the Achaean League, and under the Roman Empire belonged to the Latin colony of Patrae in Achaia. The interior of this Lokris is filled with wild mountains rising even above Parnassos in height, and only sundered by narrow valleys. In antiquity therefore it was little cultivated, and was split up into small cantons with fortified strongholds, and of very limited extent, which had no historic significance. 160. Doris. — Between the valleys of the Kephlsos and the Spercheios, and parallel to them both, running that is from east to west, was interposed the mass of Mt. O e t a (17 O1T77, with a peak 7,000 ft. high), in primaeval times the seat of the D r y o p e s, probably not of Hellenic race. The southern slope of the mountain and the region where the Kephisos takes rise was occupied when the great emigration took place from Olympus by a portion of the Doric tribe, and was therefore in later times regarded as the mother country of the Dorians who wandered farther south into the Peloponnesos. Its inhabitants bore the simple name of the tribe (Awpteis i< tj}s ix.-qTpoir6\zu>s among the Amphiktiones). The most important of their four towns was Kytinion. After Alexander's time the whole i7o ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. region and the country round about was taken possession of by the Aetolians. 161. Malis, Oetaea. — The northern slope of Mount Oeta formed in the west the country of the O e t a e a n s ; in the east, together with the level coast land, that of the Malian s (MaXtets, M^Ateis, whence the bight MaXia- kos koXttos), who in history always appear in close con- nection with the Dorians. Their country was separated from Lokris by a spur of Oeta called Kallidromon, running right down to the coast. The pass so formed (now ob- literated by the alluvial formation of new land) was called Thermopylae r from the hot springs which arise at the spot. In the Malian territory, besides the ancient town Trachis, was the Dorio-Aeolian fortress of H e r a k 1 e i a, surnamed Trachinia, founded by Sparta and her allies in 427 B.C. as a defence against the repeated inroads of the Oetaeans and Thessalians. In 371 however it was conquered by the Oetaeans and adopted' as their capital. It afterwards be- longed to the Aetolian League. The name Malis on the other hand clung persistently to the northern part of the region between the Spercheios and the border mountains of Thessaly (the continuation of Mount Othrys). Its capital was Lamia (in the middle ages Zituni, now again called Lamia), important for its position at the foot of the easiest mountain pass (only 2,800 ft.) on the highway from north to south. The upper and larger half of the valley of the Spercheios (the P h t h i a of mythical times) was occupied, after the great national movement in which the Dorians played the foremost part, by the Aenianians (AZviaves or Aivieis, Ion. 'Evii)ves) whose capital Hypata, in the middle ages Nedpatra, has like Lamia now recovered its ancient name. 2 1 Anthela at the west end of the Pass was a place of meeting for the Pylaean Amphiktiony, which alternated with the Delphian. vil] EUROPEAN GREECE. 171 2 All these regions, as well as the higher mountain district on the west about Tympkrestos (more than 7,500 feet) which was occupied by the probably non-hellenic tribe of D o 1 o p e s, were first permanently (that is for the period of Roman do- minion) united with Thessaly through the conquests of the last Macedonian kings. 162. Aetolia in its most ancient sense, consisted of the small marshy coast plain running from the foot of Mount Ardkynthos (now Zygds, summit above 3,000 ft.) to the mouth of the Acheloos. Its small towns Kalydon and Pleuron were of only mythical celebrity. The best harbours on the coast outside the strait of Rhion were Chalkis and Moly- kreia, which were very early occupied by the Corinthians, and remained under their control till Alexander's time. This Aetolia was afterwards extended inland so as to in- clude the great plain on the middle course of the Acheloos and Lake Trichords. A loose tie of confederation existed even at the time of the Peloponnesian war between it and the inhabitants of the northern highlands, the pastoral tribes of Apodotians, Eurytanians, Op hi 6- n i a n s, and Agraeans (a name preserved in tihe modern district of Agrapha). 1 These were extremely doughty in war, but until the second century B.C. were regarded by the rest of the Greeks as barbarians or semi-barbarians. With this extension Aetolia formed after Thessaly the largest State in Hellas proper, though its density of population was not in the same proportion. After Alexander's time it became for a century actually the most powerful State of all, owing to the close confederation in which it was joined also by Western Lokris and the regions about Mount Oeta. A new and beautiful capital, Thermon, then arose in the interior on Lake Trichonis, after the destruction of which by Philip V. of Macedon in 218 B.C., the Aetolian League found headquarters alternately in Naupaktos, Herakleia, and Hypata. 172 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. i The K u r e t e s (? Kretans) were regarded as the most ancient prae-hellenic inhabitants of this region, specially named Aeolis. Politically the country was even during the Pelo- ponnesian War so insignificant that its coasts, with Kalydon, were in possession of the Achaeans of the Peloponnesus. 163. Akarnania. — This name, derived from that of a probably aboriginal and non-hellenic tribe, was given to the westernmost peninsula of central Hellas, with a coast con- sisting entirely of lofty mountains. It is not mentioned in literature till the time of the Peloponnesian war, while three centuries earlier (in the Odyssey) in the common parlance of the outlying Greek islands, it is included simply under the name of the 'mainland,' 17 ^Treipos. The best har- bours were quite early occupied by colonies of Corinthians, the most important of which, Anaktorion, at the entrance to the Ambrakiot Gulf, was in 425 taken pos- session of by the Akarnanians, whose federal sanctuary afterwards became the temple of the Aktian Apollo, at the point of the low tongue of land (d/cri? whence "Aktlov) which is celebrated for the naval battle fought there in 31 B.C. The stretch of coast inhabited by the A m p h i 1 o c h i, in the interior of the same gulf, which belonged alternately to Akarnania, Aetolia, and Epeiros, received a Doric colony from Ambrakia into its capital Argos, surnamed Amphi- lochikbn. This colony seems to have been the special agent in hellenising the originally barbaric (probably Illyrian) tribe of the Amphilochi. Besides unimportant towns in the interior of the Akarna- nian highlands, there was only one larger town, Stratbs, before its conquest by the Aetolians in 300 B.C., the seat of the confederation which was situated in the only large and very fertile inland plain, that watered by the Achtloos. This river by frequent deposits of clayey mud (hence dpyu/uoSu'ijs, and now acrirpos Trora/AQs "white VII.] EUROPEAN GREECE. 173 river "), has produced a constant increase of the plain at its mouth, which even in antiquity reached as far as the nearest outlying rocky islets (ofeiai "pointed," or e^ii/aSes "the sea-urchin islands "). In the interior, however, even now it is occupied far inland by marshes and lakes, in the midst of which, and therefore in a naturally strong position, was situated the ancient town Oeniadae, long contested between the Akarnanians and Aetolians. ISLANDS OF THE IONIAN SEA. 1 64. L e u k d s, the apparent continuation of the mainland of Akamania, was only separated from it by a narrow and low strait ("the dug through" ij AtdpuKi-os), not navigable for large ships without its being artificially deepened. In ancient times the island was occupied by a Corinthian colony, but after the fourth century it belonged to the Akarnanian League, whose meetings later on took place in its capital, also called Leukas. The larger islands, which lie in a row further south facing the opening of the Corinthian Gulf, Ithaka, Kephal- 1 e n i a, and Zdkynthos, were, as is known, taken together in the legends represented in Epic poetry as one of the primaeval Greek (Achaean) principalities. Its special seat was held to be in Ithaka, the very smallest and least cultivable of the islands, consisting entirely of rugged masses of limestone. In known historical times, however, it had no significance, and is hardly ever mentioned. In later times it was acknowledged that the inhabitants of Zakynthos were Achaean s, whereas no information is given as to the nationality of the Kephallenian s (a name which in the Epos embraced the whole group of islands). It was only on the larger island, containing four city domains, and which in antiquity bore the same name as 174 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. its chief city, Samos or Samt, but later the national name K e p h a 1,1 e n i a, that Corinthian colonists settled, and then only in the town of Pali on the low peninsula on its west coast (now Paliki). The two larger islands contain lofty mountains, among which may be specially mentioned Mount Aenos in Kephal- lenia, whose peak rises more than 5,200 ft. The hill country is extremely fertile, and in the highest degree suitable for the cultivation of vines and olives. After the second century B.C. the islands collectively belonged to the Aetolian League, and on its breaking up were joined, together with the whole of Akarnania, to the Roman province of Epirus. 1 1 The names now used for the islands, especially since their union with the Hellenic kingdom, are simply the old ones pronounced in modern fashion. The names current in European commerce are the debased forms which arose during the period of Venetian occupation : Zante, Cefalonia, Thiaki, and the name borrowed from the fortress of Santa Maura for the island which its modern Greek-speaking inhabitants have never called otherwise than Levkdda. 165. Kerkyra (Attic) or Korkyra (native Doric, also in Latin Corcyrd), the largest of the islands off the coast, consists of extremely fertile uplands with a few mountain groups of moderate height. It was inhabited by Illyrian Liburnians when Ionians from Euboea first settled there. The Corinthians who followed them in 734 b.c. made the whole island a Greek commercial State, powerful at sea, and speaking the Doric tongue. After being annexed to the Epeirot kingdom under Pyrrhos, and then occupied by Illyrian pirates, it became in 229 b.c. nominally free, though in fact subordinate to the Roman State. By the Romans it was later on united once more to the province of Epiros. The capital, which bore the name of the island, was very favourably placed between two vil.] EUROPEAN GREECE. 175 natural harbours. Jt had two citadels (a/cpou-oAeis), called 01 KopvdoC ("the peaks"), whence came the Italianised popular name Corfu, extended by foreigners to the whole island. EPEIROS. 166. "Axeipos "the mainland" (Ionic and Attic "H7reipos) was the name given in their dialect by the Dorians of Kerkyra to the coast which lay opposite to their island, and to the country lying behind. Its inhabitants, not of Hellenic race but belonging to the great Illyrian group of nations, and divided into many small tribes, they called 'A Treipfi Tat, a collective name which in default of any of native origin was adopted by the people themselves when, especially after the Peloponnesian war, they had through increased intercourse with their Greek neighbours begun to adopt Greek language and manners. The prevalent character of the country is mountainous, and it abounds in forests of oak, beech, and fir. On its eastern border towards Thessaly rises the chain of P i n d o s with passes of 5,000 ft, and peaks of from 6,000 to 8,000 ft. Parallel therewith run from north to south ranges which occupy the whole eastern part of the country, between which the main valleys of the Inachos (an upper tributary of the Acheloos), the Aratihos or Arachthos (now Arta) and others of less size slope towards the south. Not only do these rivers, and others which flow south-west directly to the Ionian Sea, pass in their lower course through alluvial plains, which save for wide stretches of marsh are extremely fertile; but the interior also contains such at a greater elevation, especially the central plain, lying 1,650 ft. above the sea, and containing the Lake Pdmbotis (now the Lake of Ioannina, Janina), the water from which finds a subter- ranean outlet into the river Thyamis (now Kalamas). 176 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. To Epeiros also belong the broad plains on the north- western slope which accompany the river system of the Ados or Auas (now Vovussa). The watershed between these and the southern slope consists of a series of easy elevations scarcely 2,000 ft. in height, and not as has often been erroneously supposed in modern times of one lofty and continuous chain. In accordance with the latter sup- position the rocky mass of the Akrokeraunian moun- tains, which rise sheer from the coast to a height exceeding 6,500 ft., was regarded as a western spur of such a chain. 167. Molottis (vulg. and Lat. Molossis) was a name confined in early times to the inner district of the Drynos (the seat of the Atintanes, subdued during the Peloponnesian war by the Molossian princes) and the sur- roundings of the lake-valley. It was then extended by conquests southwards through the valley of the Aratthos, and under Pyrrhos, who after subduing the coast districts first called himself king of Epeiros, included also the plain at the mouth of that river. Here lay Ambrakia (now Arta), an important commercial town colonized by Corinthians about 630 B.C., and henceforth the royal residence as well as the political capital of the whole of Epeiros. Among the mountains of the interior, on what was of old the Thesprotian territory, was the famous oracle of D o d n a, dating back to primaeval Pelasgic times. After Pyrrhos' death the Epeirote kingdom assumed the form of a republic, and Ambrakia joined the Aetolian League. The eastern cantons, Athamania, Tymphaea (on Mount Tymphe), and Parauaea ("on the Auas"), still however maintained themselves under their own princes until the Roman conquest in 168 B.C. 1 63. Thesprotia and Chaonia, the northern and southern coast districts, when they made their first ap- pearance in history during the Peloponnesian war, had already exchanged their ancient monarchy for the republican vu.] EUROPEAN GREECE. 177 form of government. On the coast plain of the latter, opposite to Kerkyra, was Phoenike (ruins Phiniki), a town of some note, which after Pyrrhos' time was a seat of the Epeirote confederation : on the coast itself was Buthroton (ruins Butrinto), afterwards a Roman colony. Thesprotia was before the conquests of the Molos- sian kings the most powerful state in Epeiros, with the ancient town of Pandosia, on the plain near the Acherusian lake, for the seat of its princes. This region stretched southwards as far as the entrance of the Ambrakiot Gulf, the scene of the battle of Actium, the name of which was borrowed by Augustus for the beautiful new capital, A k t i a N i k o p o 1 i s (great ruins near the modern Preveza), which he founded on the jutting peninsula. Its position was made a more central one foi the province by the annexation of Akarnania and the islands of the Ionian Sea. THESSALIA. 169. Natural Features. — Of all true Hellenic countries this northernmost is the only one where side by side with a girdle of mighty mountain peaks the plain formation actually prevails in extent. The great basin which forms its principal part is again divided into a higher (600 — 800 ft.) western and a lower eastern plain, by a range of lower hills running parallel with the mountains on the eastern and western border, and only broken at one spot. The eastern plain, which is only separated by low hills from the Pagasaean Gulf on the south, preserves its main line of descent towards the sea, and its waters, col- lected into the Penei6s (now Salamvrias), find their out- let through a narrow valley between the rocky cliffs of the loftiest peaks of Olympos and Ossa (cf. § ^2), which bore the special name of "the cutting," ra.Te.in.Tvq. To this river system therefore belong nearly all the flowing waters of 178 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. the country (with the exception of the small coast plain on the Pagasaean Gulf, and the valley of the Spercheios, which, strictly speaking, is not included in Thessaly, cf. §1^7), most of them belonging to the upper plain, bordered by Pindos and Othrys (of these the most important were the Apidanos and the Ertipeus). To the abundance of the waterflow and the narrowness of the outlets of both valleys is due the entirely marshy character of their lowest parts, especially in the lower plain (the marshy lakes of Nessonis and Boebeis), the relic, as even the ancients rightly re- cognized, of the complete inundation of primaeval times. The heavy clay soil which characterizes the plains thus alluvially formed makes Thessaly a country most fertile for purposes of agriculture. And from the levelness of the plains, the breeding of horses flourished here more than in any other part of Greece. 170. Population. Divisions. — The names by which the Epos distinguished the three main natural divi- sions of the country were these : P h t h i a for the southern region in and about the valley of the Spercheios (§ 161), Hellas in its original strict sense, or Aeolis, for the west, or the upper plain, and HeXao-yiKov "Apyos for the lower plain, after its ancient inhabitants and cultivators of Pelasgic race, among whom the M i n y a n s are also to be reckoned. These were subsequently subdued, though probably not wholly driven out by Hellenic invaders of Aeolo-Achaean stock; the Dorians too must have dwelt in the extreme north, on Mount Olympos, before their great emigration. These Hellenes again were either subdued or driven further south by the Thessalians (Attic ®£ttoXoi), a branch of the Thesprotians from Epeiros, and like them probably of Illyrian descent, who conquered the country in the eleventh or tenth century B.C. But they adopted the language and manners of the Hellenes they subdued, and became members of the Amphiktiony of Hellenic tribes. Vli.l EUROPEAN GREECE. 179 Four alliances of communities (m-paSes) had been founded by the vanquishers of the country, and their names still remained in a geographical sense even after the extinction of those political unions. These were, Thessaliotis for the southern and central part of the upper plain, where the Thessalians had first settled when entering from the west ; Hestiaeotis, after the name of some primaeval tribe, for the northern part, including the mountain district of Perrhaebia; Pelasgiotis for the lower plain, and Phthiotis orAchai'a Phthiotis for the southern hill and mountain country about Mount Othrys, where the remnant of the Achaeans held their own. The mountainous coast district of Magnesia on the east, which had never been conquered by the Thes- salians, retained its independence, but had no political significance. After the Macedonian rule established by Philip II. over the whole of Thessaly had been broken through by the Roman invasion in 197 B.C., the Achaeans of Phthiotis and the Magnesians joined the Achaean League. The remaining divisions of the country formed a league of their own (koivov ®eTTaX.S>v). When Achaia was subdued by the Romans in 146 B.C., the whole country, including the territory of the Aenianians, the Oetaeans and the Malians (§ 16 r), was united to the province of Macedonia. 171. Among the important cities of Thessaly were, in the lower (Pelasgiot) plain : L i. r I s a on the Peneios, the seat of the Aleuad dynasty (it is still, under the name Larissa, the capital of the region), and P h e ra e, (now Velestino) the seat of a dynasty' which from 374 to 336 B.C. held the whole of Thessaly in subjection. In the upper plain were the Thessaliot P h i. r s a 1 o s on its southern verge and T r i k k a, in Hes- tiaeotis, on its northern. On the coast of the Pagasaean Gulf, quite near the legendary harbour of Idlkris, the strong Macedonian fortress Demetrius was newly built n 2 iSo ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. in 290 B.C. by Demetrios Poliorketes. Under the Romans also it remained the second largest town in Thessaly, MACEDONIA, 172. All the northern coasts of the Aegean Sea, where from the east as far as Mount Olympos Thracian tribes (Bisaltes, Sithones, Mygdones, Pierii) were the earliest known inhabitants, were down to the time of the Pelo- ponnesian war included under the name T h r a k S. The Greek colonies settled there were accordingly counted in the Athenian maritime confederation as belonging to the Thracian tribute-province (©paKios 6pos). The name Makedones, not known till the 7th century, was probably that of a primaeval Greek tribe closely related to the Dorians. It included in the first instance only the inland region west of the Axios. As with the rest of the Thracian coast districts, its princes were forced by Darian I. to recognise the Persian overlordship. They afterwards extended their dominion by conquest westward (to Illy- ria), northward (to Paeonia), and eastward (to Thrace), until at last under Philip II. they reached the H^lles- pontos and the Greek colonies on its coast, so that at the time of its conversion into a Roman Province the name Macedonia embraced a multitude of different, tribes, all however employing Greek as the language of common intercourse. A sort of natural boundary for this extended Macedonia, not however quite falling in with the race limits of antiquity, is formed towards the west by the northern continuation under various local names of the chain of P i n d o s, towards the east by the broad mountain masses of O r b e 1 o s (now Perim) and Rhodope (now Despot- Planina) ; on the south besides the sea there is at least at one spot the lofty peak of Olympos. Towards the north, on the other hand, VII.] EUROPEAN GREECE. 181 a natural boundary is altogether wanting, while the main watershed for the tributaries of the Danube presents rather the character of broad plateau-like ridges (with passes only from 1,300 to 1,600 feet), varied only by isolated mountain groups rising from their midst to a far higher elevation (such as S k a r d o s, now Shar, 7,150 feet ; of the rest no ancient names have come down to us). These northern ridges, as well as the upper valleys of the rivers which flow from them to the south, lie beyond the historical borders of Macedonia. 173. Of the three main river districts lying north and south, the easternmost, that of the Thracian Nestos (now Mesta) bekxigs almost entirely to the mountain region, while those of the Strymon (now Struma) and Axids (now Vardar) lie much lower. In consequence of the frequent intersection of ranges running from north to south and from east to west their valleys consist of a succession of basins descending in steps and hemmed in by moun- tains. Many of these basins hold lakes in their deepest parts, which however have in some cases become dried up since ancient times. In consequence of a strong upheaval of the soil westward in the -direction of Illyria the two river courses of the E r i g 6 n (now Tcherna, a main tributary of the Axios) and of the Haliakmon (now Vis- tritza), which debouches straight into the sea, stand in a second rank, and their very high-lying upper valleys were even in antiquity designated as Upper Macedonia. Only the Axios and its lower tributaries flow at last through a wide coast plain, while the lowest part of the Strymon valley, mostly filled by a lake, has the form of a basin and is separated from the seashore by a line of heights. These lower valleys, together with the coast districts and penin- sulas, have a climate resembling that of Southern Greece, allowing the culture of the olive and vine, while the upper valleys, forming the greater part of the area of cultivable 182 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. land, are cool, and in winter abounding in snow ; beeches and firs prevail in the mountain forests. 174. Lower Macedonia or "Emathia, the coast plain which is watered by the lower course of the Axios and Haliakmon, and between them by the shorter Ludias or Rhoedias, was the birthplace of the Macedonian Empire. A e g a e, later called E d e s s a (now Vodena), the earliest seat of its princes, lay beyond the western edge of the plain on a lofty wall of rock, broken through by mighty water- falls. Philip II. was the first to fix his residence in the plain, at the town of P e 1 1 a (ruins near the modern Iannitza), which owed its strength to its being placed among lakes and marshes. In the southern part of Emathia, which was also called B o 1 1 i a e i s after its ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants, the Bottii, stood at the foot of Mount Bermios the very important town of Beroea (still called Vema.) The name P i e r i a, derived from that of a Thracian tribe which dwelt there in ancient times, was given to the coast district beneath Mount Olympos, abounding in springs, and early conquered by the Macedonians. Its most im- portant town was Dion. Ionian colonists from Euboea settled in Pieria, probably in the 7th or 8th century, in the towns of Methone (which became Macedonian in 353), and Pydna, which was conquered before the Persian wars and destroyed by King Archelaos in 411, after an insur- rection. It was then moved between two and three miles further inland (a battle fought there in 168 b.c. was the death-blow of the Macedonian Empire). 175. Upper Macedonia. — Of the higher regions which border on the western side of ancient Macedonia, all in- habited by tribes seemingly belonging to the great 1 1 1 y r i a n race, the nearest, E o r d a e a, was quite early united with the Macedonian kingdom, while Elimeia and Orestis on the Haliakmon, and Lynkestis on the Erigon, VII.] EUROPEAN GREECE. i83 maintained their own tribal princes, which oply acknow- ledged the supremacy of the kings of Macedonia after the Persian wars. Not till the latest days of the Empire, and then under Roman dominion, do they seem to have ac- quired the practice of building towns (their most important was Her&kleia-LynKstis, now Bitolia). The northern division of later Macedonia was called P a e o n i a (capital, Stobi). It was not actually united with the Empire but by Roman conquest, though as early as Philip II. a similar condition of vassalage held between the Paeonian princes and the Kingdom to that existing in Western Macedonia. In ancient times the Paeonians, of whose nationality nothing certain has come down to us, though they are expressly differentiated both from Thracians and Illyrians, spread southward to the coast along the Axios and Strymon in many separate branches. One of these, the A g r i a n e s, on the Upper Strymon, still had its own princes under Alexander the Great. 176. Eastern Macedonia. — That part of the coast plain which lay east of the Axios was called M y g d o n i a after its ancient inhabitants ofThracian stock. Shortly before the Persian wars it was conquered by the Macedonian kings, who immediately after those wars subdued also the mountain region bordering it on the east, and abounding in silver. This was the territory of the Bisaltes, likewise Thracians. On the coast of Mygdonia stood the commercial town of Therm e, so called from its neighbourhood to some hot springs. Placed in the innermost corner of the Gulf which bore its name (Thermaic), it was probably one of the earliest northern settlements of the Ionic Greeks. After Alexander's death it was enlarged into a new residence by King Kassandros, who named itThessalonike after his wife King Philip's daughter. Under Roman dominion it was the political capital of the province and the most populous 184 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. town of European Greece. Owing to its favourable position for trade it has maintained its importance down to modern times, preserving also its ancient name (modern Greek Saloniki, Turk Selanik, Bulgar Soliin). The plain through which flows the lower course of the Strymon, and which was partially covered by the Kerkinitic Marsh, was in ancient times inhabited by Paeonian tribes, but after the Macedonian conquest of Mygdonia the Thracian tribe of the Edones ("HS 'E\.\ri5 00 feet in height. The oldest inhabitants on all of these islands are supposed to have been the Tyrsenian Pelasgi(cf. § 214), from whom must have been received the mysterious cult of the Kabiri (®eol ficyaXoi), still celebrated in Samothrake in Greek times. They were Hellenized partially, we may suppose, by settlements of the Asiatic Ionians, but not com- pletely till they were conquered by Athenians from the Chersonese, and the territory divided among Attic settlers. Hence it was that at least Lemnos and Imbros remained under Roman dominion still united with the province of Achaia. 184. Greek Cities on the Propontis and on Pontos. — Ionic colonies founded by Samos were Bisanthe, with the Thracian name Rhaedestos, now Rodosto, and the important and strongly fortified Pe'rinthos, founded in 399 B.C., which in the fourth century a.d. was also called Herakleia, now Eregli. Byzantion, aDoric town, was founded in 667 B.C. under the direction of Megara, with help from the Argives and Boeotians, soon after Kalchedon, which lay opposite on the Asiatic side. viii.] CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE. 191 Owing to its favourable position on a low tongue of land between the Propontis,theBosporos, and its own deep natural harbour (Chrysokeras, Golden Horn), it attained an extra- ordinary degree of commercial prosperity ; from the time of Darius' Scythian campaign down to 478 b.c. it remained the chief fortress of the Persians on the European side ; it maintained its independence against the Macedonians, and preserved even under the Romans the status of a free and populous Greek town, until after its destruction by Septi- mius Severus it for the first time received from Constantine its new rank as an imperial capital. To its domain belonged the whole shore of the Bosporos and the small town of Selymbria, now Silivri. Mesambria, now Misivri, the only Doric place on the Pontic coast of Thrace, was founded by fugitive Byzantines in 493, at the time of the Persian conquest. The remaining small cities on this line of coast were Milesian, that is Ionian, colonies, such as Apollonia (re-named Sozopolis after the Christian era), Anchialos (still so called), O d e s s d s (now Varna), Krunoi or Dionysopolis (now Akrania), Kallatu (now Mangalia), Tomoi or Tomis (later Constantina, now Kostanza, Kostenje), and htros or Istropolis, on the southern mouth of the river of the same name, that is, the Danube. The population of these chiefly unimportant trading towns had a strong admixture of Thracian elements, and were regarded by the rest of the Greeks as only //.i^eAA.^i'es. 185. Moesia (Mysia). — The open country between Mount Haemos and the Istros (Lower Danube), which passes from the lower slopes of the mountaininto a low fertile upland, though on the side of the stream it falls away with a steep edge, strongly contrasted with the quite level and marshy northern bank, was inhabited by a few but larger tribes of the same Thracian stem. From the sea westwards there were in succession the Krobyzi, Getae and 192 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap: T r e r e s, once belonging to the great Odrysian kingdom. The Mysians in the central mountain district maintained their independence, and so especially did the T rib alii, who inhabited the for the most part level region lying on the Middle Danube and its southern tributary, the Margos (now Morawa, in more ancient times Bpoyyos), that is, the modern Servia. These tribes were driven down the stream in the fourth century by the invasion of Keltic tribes from the north-west j the Mysians (Muo-oi, Lat. Moesi) were accordingly the first hostile Thracian people of these regions with whom the Romans came in contact on the borders of their Macedonian province (75 B.C.). 1 After they had been subdued as far as the Danube in 29 B.C., the country under the name of M o e s i a was for the first time annexed to the pro- vince of Macedonia ; this name was afterwards extended further down stream to the southern bank as far as its debouch- ment into the Pontus, which was conquered in 15 B.C. The whole river bank was under Tiberius administered as a separate province of M o e s i a, which under Vespasian was divided into an upper (the original Moesia) and lower (the northern border country of the former Thracian kingdom) province, Moesia Superior and Inferior. In this whole Danube district Latin soon became the prevailing language of administration, and remained so until the Slav conquest in the middle ages, it being only on the coast that a weak Greek element was preserved. The ancient cities which did not grow up till the second century a.d., and then almost entirely out of Roman border fortresses, are therefore generally known only under their Latin names. The Roman capital of Moesia Superior was V i m i- nac.ium (ruins at Kostolatz). Other important towns on the Danube were Taurunum, now Belgrad, Bononia, now Bodun or Widin, Ratiaria, now Artcher. In Moesia Inferior lay in succession along the Danube the important colony of vm.] CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE. 193 Oescus, on the mouth of the river of that name ; Prista, now Rustchuk ; Durostolum (or Durostorum ; now the Bulgarian Drister, better known under the Turkish form Silistria) ; and the provincial capital T r o e s m i s (ruins at Iglitza). 2 Novio- dunum (' New-town ') is the only local name which has come down from the time of the temporary Keltic conquests in the third century B.C. 3 1 The D a r d a n i were subdued at the same time, and put under the administration of Macedonia ; they are, however, expressly called an 1 1 1 y r i a n, and not a Thracian, people. Their country,, which afterwards belonged to the province of Moesia Superior, stretched southward towards the watershed as far as the Upper Axios, where lay their capital Scupi (now Skoplia, Turkish Uskiib) ; Naissus, now Nish, towards the north also belonged to them. 2 Nicopolis, in the interior (its ruins are still called Nikup, and it is not to be confounded with Nikopoli on the Danube, which did not come into existence till the sixth century A.D.), owes its name to Trajan's Dacian victories. Trajan also founded Marcianopolis. 3 The region of peninsular form which lies between the lowest course of the Danube and the sea coast, a treeless steppe with low hills (the modern Dobrudja), was several times occupied by nomad hordes of Scythians from the regions north of the Pontus, and was hence after the first century A.D. called Little Scythia. 186. Dacia. — The fertile plain which bounds the lower Danube on the north, the modern Wallachia or Roumania, rises beyond into an upland surrounded by broad and wooded mountains 1 (the modern Transilvania). Its general slope is southward and westward ; the rivers of the interior valleys break into it through narrow defiles in the mountains : the Alutus or Aluta (now Oltu, Alt) southwards to the Danube, the Maris or Marisia (now Marosh, Mieresh) westward, the Samus (now Szamosh) to the north-west, both joining the largest tributary of the Danube, whose ancient name was probably Tisia or Tissus (also, but erroneously, o i 5 4 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. written Pathissus, now Tisza, Teiss). These highlands, abounding in gold, were, when the Greeks first came to know of them in the fifth century B.C., in the possession of the Agathyrsae, while the Danube plain was held by the Pontic Scythians, ruling over a sedentary Thracian population. At least after Alexander's time the Thracian Getae (Term) lived independently in these plains, while the Dacians (Dad, or Dam, Aaoi), belonging to the same race, are named as inhabitants of the highlands. From these latter there arose about 50 B.C. a conqueror Boerebistes (Burvista), who extended his kingdom eastward as far as the Borysthenes, southward to Mount Haemos, and westward to the Noric Alps. This kingdom, after being repeatedly divided and again united, became so dangerous a neighbour to the Roman Danube provinces that Trajan, between 101 and 107 a.d., was obliged to subdue it and convert it into a new province, D a c i a. This was so quickly and completely Romanized by numerous military colonies that even after the withdrawal of the Roman legions and citizens in Aurelian's time (271 a.d.) a vulgar Latin dialect, the modern so-called Roumanian or Vlachian, maintained itself almost exactly within the borders of the ancient Dacia. 2 Sarmizegetusa, the , residence of the last king Decebalus (ruins Varhely or Gradishtye), was also the capital of the Roman province, though alternately with the colony of Apulum (now Karlsburg), which stood close to the gold mines. The most mountainous part of the highlands, as well as the whole lowland, was little culti- vated under Roman administration. The eastern and lower part, between the rivers lerasus (Seret), Pyretus (Prut), and Tyras (Dniester), was by the Romans united with the province of Moesia. i The ancients called the Eastern mountain range the Alfies Bastarnicae, after a German people, the Bastarnians, who nil.] CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE. 19; dwelt there after the first century; the analogous name, " Transilvanian Alps," is of new and arbitrary formation. 2 In consequence of the new settlement of Romano-Dacian colonists in the mountain region south of the Danube, on the borders of Moesia Inferior, M. Superior, and Dardania, the name Dacia (Aureliani) was transferred to this newly formed province. COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE PONTUS (SCYTHIA, SARMATIA). 187. The Lowlands of Eastern Europe.— The north coasts of the Pontus are only in some places — at the western extremity of the Caucasus, and in part of the Tauric peninsula — formed by mountain slopes. On the north- west they consist partly of the lower but steep edges of wide plains, but for the most part of low sand-dunes, behind which at some distance from the coast gently rises an extremely fertile upland with stiff black arable soil. From this upland, which in ancient times contained in its inner hollows still more extensive lakes and marshes than now exist, are collected the waters which feed the great rivers running southward to the Pontus and its northern con- tinuation, which owing to its unsignificant depth is usually designated only as the Maeotian Marsh (Xlfivri, palm Maeotis). These were the Tyras (in late Roman times also called Danaster), now Dniester ; H y p a n i s, now Bug ; and especially the two largest which come from the remotest part of the interior : the Borysthenes (later Danapris), now Dnieper, and Tanais, now Don. The largest river of Eastern Europe, the modern Volga, whose upper district lies in the higher upland north of the sources of those just mentioned, and runs southward parallel with their middle course, but then bends eastward to the Caspian Sea, was known to the ancients, though not till the second century a.d., under the name Rha {raw = 'river' in Finnish), but their knowledge of it was only general. o 2 196 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. The coast which encircles this great lowland, with poor soil and but a moderate rainfall, only allowing the growth of sufficient grass in spring, forms a steppe increasing in breadth towards the east, and passing in the direction of the Caspian Sea into complete desert. This region has always served as a pasture ground for nomad tribes, driven repeatedly westward out of interior Asia ; as since the middle ages various Turkish or Tatar and Mongolian tribes, so in more remote antiquity the Scythians, Sarmatians, and similar Turanian nationalities. 188. The Scythians. — The people who occupied the northern coasts of the Pontus when Greek colonists began to settle there in the seventh century B.C. were by them called Scythians (SkvOcli, a name probably in use among the Thracians), though they called themselves Skolotae. According to prevalent tradition, they had wandered hither in very ancient times from the east (interior or northern Asia), and had in a great measure . preserved in their new home the nomad habit of life which suited the nature of the soil, especially as regards the use of tent-waggons as individual abodes, and the living ex- clusively on horseback from their earliest youth. This was especially true of the most powerful tribe, whose dynasty represented the supremacy over the whole Scythian nation, the so-called royal Scythians (/SaertXeioi "2,K.v6at). The country they occupied when their wander- ings were ended included the eastern region from the Tana'is as far as the level part of the Tauric peninsula, while some tribes dwelling further westward on the Bory- sthenes and Tyras up to the Istros (the so-called %kv6o.i apor^pes, ytmpyoi) either themselves pursued agriculture or more probably had the work done by an older and subject population. 1 As their knowledge of countries advanced, the Greeks extended the Scythian name from this people to the nomad Vlll.] CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE. 197 tribes whom they found on the north-east borders of the Persian Empire and further into the interior of Asia. It thus became generalised into a kind of race name. The most obvious reason for this lies in similarity of habits among the various nations, but it is no more to be taken as absolute evidence of kinship than are the extremely barbarous customs described as existing among the Pontic Scythians, but quite foreign to the peoples of white race. Such a connection, however, may be assumed with the Turanian peoples of the interior of Asia on the authority of distinctive race marks noticed by many Greeks among the Pontic Scythians, such as a dusky yellow colour of skin (irvppov), a lack of beard, prevalent obesity, and generally speakings — as the older Greek writers express themselves with a still very limited knowledge of foreign races — a physical distinctness from all other known peoples. 2 1 The northward extension of the Scythian territory is attested by the royal tombs which lie near their borders in the district of Gerrhos, on the Borysthenes, fourteen days' journey up stream (not forty, according to the common reading of Hero- dotus). These are colossal mounds of conical shape, which still are in great measure extant in the hill country through which the Dnieper forces its way about 250 to 300 miles above its mouth. 2 The contrary view taken by many philologists, who regard the Pontic Scythians as belonging to the Aryan family, rests on a few traditional words, and especially names of persons and deities, which certainly show an unmistakable analogy to Iranian (Medo-Persian) words, but afford no convincing evidence of the actual origin of the people, especially when we have to set against it the possibility, vouched for by numerous examples, that this linguistic store was borrowed from without, during the lengthened residence of a Turanian horde on Iranian soil. 189. The Sarmatae, called by the older Greeks %avpoft.a.Ta^ ^vpfx-drai, were a nation resembling the Scythians in habits and language. In early times they led a nomad life on the steppes east of the Tana'is and 198 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. as far as the Caspian Sea, but in the third century B.C. they overthrew the Scythian kingdom, which had been weakened just at that time by inroads of the Kelts pushed as far as the Borysthenes. They then subdued the whole low country to the north of the Pontus, to which the name Sarmatia was transferred in later Graeco-Roman usage. As the country further north became more known, the name received a far wider than its mere ethnographical significance. It was extended after the first century a.d. to all the parts of the great northern plains that were not inhabited by German tribes, as far as the eastern shore of the so-called Suevic (Baltic) Sea, so that even the primaeval and fixed populations of those plains, belonging to Slavonic and A e s t u a n (Lituanian) stock, and not definitely known to the civilised nations of antiquity, were included under it, though as far as a common origin is concerned, they are certainly as distinct from the Sarmatians as from the Scythians. 1 As subdivisions of the Sarmatians in the stricter sense, we hear, on the other hand, of a few nomad tribes under separate princes, who came in contact with the Roman Empire on the borders of Dacia and Moesia, such as the Alani, Roxalani, Iazyges, and Kostoboces. I To these Slavonic tribes appear to have belonged the Neuri, Budini, and other peoples on the northern borders of the Scythian kingdom, i.e. in the interior of modern Russia. We have the express testimony of Herodotus for differentiating their language from that of the Scythians. 190. Greek Cities on the Coast. — Greeks from Asiatic Ionia and particularly from M i 1 e t o s began about 650 B.C. to work the resources of the interior by means of settlements on the north coasts of Pontus, and especially by the export of great quantities of grain. Hence flourishing trading towns grew up especially at the mouths of the great rivers, with a very mixed (Helleno-Scythian) population. Such were T y r a s on the river of like name, and 1 b i a viii.] CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE. 199 (or Olbiopolis, called also by other Greeks Borysthenes) on the estuary of the Hypanis, which joins the larger estuary of the Borysthenes. The latter, after being hard pressed and well nigh destroyed by Keltic and Getic assaults in the first and second centuries B.C., put itself under Roman protection, and belonged from the time of Trajan to the Roman province of Lower Moesia. In the extreme north-east on Lake Maeotis was the town of Tana'is, at the mouth of the river of that name. It also was of Milesian origin, though probably indirectly, being founded by Milesian colonists from the Kimmerian Bosporos. It was the centre of a very important trade between the Lower Rha (Volga) and the Caspian Sea. 191. The Tauric Chersonesos. — The great peninsula which since the middle ages and its occupation by Turkish nations has been called Krym (Crimea) is joined to the main- land by an isthmus only 5 miles wide between two shallow bays of the Pontus and of Lake Maeotis. In the flourishing period of the Bosporan kingdom this isthmus was shut off by a wall and trench. The northern half of the peninsula consists of arid level steppe, the centre of good arable soil, the southern edge of mountains (with peaks more than S,ooo feet) which descend in sheer and rocky cliffs to the sea. These, when the Greeks first landed here, formed the seat of the Tauri, a people quite distinct from the Scythians, but, like them, extremely rude and formidable as pirates. They were evidently the remnant of a popu- lation preceding the Scythians, which had been driven back to the mountains. The Greeks called the whole peninsula after them, just as they called the strait which bounds it on the east, and divides it from the spurs of Caucasus, forming the entrance to the Palus Maeotis, the Kim- merian Bosporos, after the K i m m e r i i, another primaeval race, which according to tradition had likewise succumbed to the Scythians. 200 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Westward the south coast of the latter peninsula runs out into a low rocky ledge indented by deep bays. This extreme point was occupied — though probably not till after the Persian wars — by colonists from the Pontic Herakleia (in the later Bithynia, § 6r), who founded there Cher- son e s o s — so called from its position, though it also bore the name of Herakleia (X. 'HpaK\eio>TiKrj), the only Doric town in these regions. It carried on foreign trade and fishing, and especially the cultivation of vines and fruit, on the soil of its little territory, excellently suited for this purpose, but ill adapted for corn-growing. It maintained itself as a free state from the second century B.C. under the protection of the Bosporan kings, from Vespasian's time under that of the Roman Empire until the middle ages, when it usually went by the abbreviated name Chersdn. There are scanty remains of the city near the modem Sebastopol. 192. The Kingdom of the Bosporos embraced the remaining Greek cities on these coasts, lying in the east, and belonging as Milesian colonies to the Ionic race. Among these we may first mention Theudosia, whirh stood at the eastern extremity of the lofty range of mountains which lines the coast. In the middle ages it was known under the name Kafa as one of the largest trading towns in these parts; it now again bears its old name in Russian form, Feodosia. Eastward towards the Bosporos the Tauric Chersdnesos runs out into a small low peninsula, very fertile in the interior, but falling away with steep cliff edges towards the south and east (hence its name Xepo-ovrjao's rpayjla., "rugged"). The best harbour on the side of the strait was occupied by the Milesians with the town P a n t i k a- paeon, called by the rest of the Greeks simply Bos- poros (now Kertch, but also Vosp6r), whose hereditary archons called themselves after the fourth century B.C. kings of the Bosporos, and also held sway over the viii.] CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE. 201 peninsula which lay opposite on the Asiatic side, and consisted of very fertile alluvial land about the mouth of the Hypanis (Kuban). Besides other smaller towns there stood on this eastern side of the strait the second royal residence of these kings, Phanagoria, built by Phana- goras from Teos in Ionia. The tribes of the Sindi and Maites or Maeetes (Maeotes), who dwelt here, also obeyed their rule. This Bosporan kingdom was after the close of the Spartokid dynasty occupied by Mithradates VI. of Pontus, who extended it over the Tauric Peninsula and the coasts of the Palus Maeotis. When the Pontic dynasty came to an end, the kingdom continued with these boundaries under a new native line of princes. In Augustus' time it assumed the character of a client state recognizing Roman overlordship, but it was not until the middle of the fourth century a.d. that it, together with Chersonesos and Tanais, was directly annexed to the Eastern Roman Empire. ILLYRIAN COUNTRIES. 193. Illyris (very seldom IHyria) was the name given by the Greeks, Illyricum (sc. regnum) by the Romans, to the whole eastern coast district of the Adriatic Sea with the mountains lying behind, inhabited by homo- geneous tribes of one great nation. The southern half consists of a broad belt of limestone mountains, whose inner ranges, forming the northern continuation of Pindus and containing Mounts Bo'ion and Barnus (highest peak 7,500 feet), on the borders of Macedonia, are divided from the outer broad ridge of Kandavia (with passes 3,250 feet) on the west by the long valley of the Drilon (now Drin) with Lake Lychnitis. At the foot of the western ridge, and north of the Akrokeraunian Mountains, lies an ex- tremely fertile coast plain, interrupted only in places by lower 202 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. mountain spurs, and chiefly occupied by marshes and lakes abounding in fish. The larger northern half of Illyria, on the other hand, where the mountain chains and coast line follow a south- east and north-west direction parallel with Italy and the Apennines, is with a few unimportant exceptions quite without plains. The whole country with the outlying islands is filled with the parallel stages of a broad zone of limestone mountains, lofty only in parts, but throughout steep, riven, impassable, and almost devoid of water. These mountains end at last in the Alpine chains of the east, and as far as the northern part is concerned even bore the name of Alps in ancient usage. 1 Only a few short rivers {Naro, now Narenta or Neretva, is the largest) flow into the Adriatic from this mountain district, which over a wide extent comes down to. the coast in high rocky cliffs. On the other hand, its north-eastern slope towards the Danube is richly watered ; the tributaries of its neighbour stream, the S a u s (Save), which are within the borders of ancient Illyria (the modern Bosnia) — the largest are the Drinus, now Drina, and Bas- sanius, now Bosna — flowing through several wide valleys of great fertility, while the mountain ridges on this side — no longer belonging to the limestone formation — are rich in minerals, such as gold, silver, copper, iron, and salt. The vegetation of this interior slope has a Central European character, while the Adriatic slope, on the other hand, has a much warmer climate, and the prevailing scarcity of water along the coasts and on the islands renders the soil only suitable for the cultivation of vines and olives. i Besides the Julian Alps, which form the link between Italy and Pannonia, some authors mention the Dalmatian Alps, and others in the same region the *AX/3iox, or 'AXfiavov Spos. This seems also to have been a kind of general desig- nation for the whole mountain region. The greatest eleva- tion, about 8,100 feet, is attained in the south near the valley of the Drilon by the group of Mount Bertiskos, now Kom. vin.] CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE. 203 1 94. Southern Illyri a. — Two important trading settle- ments were founded in the lllyrian coast plains in 634 and 627 B.C. by Corinthian colonists: Apollonia (ruins now called Pollina), with its harbour Anion (modern Italian Valona, Albanian Vliora), and E p i d a m n o s, or, to give it its more ancient name, afterwards reintroduced by the Romans, Dyrrhachion 1 (modern Italian Durazzo, Albanian Dratch). Both these towns were in Roman times ordinary points of transit for the land intercourse between Italy and the Greek provinces. They lay within the territory of the Taulantii, at that time the most powerful of lllyrian tribes, who occupied the whole stretch of coast plain and in the third century B.C. even annexed these Greek cities to their king- dom. It was only under Alexander's regime that they were in a certain degree dependent on Macedonia. On the other hand, the tribe of the Dassaretes, who occupied the inner mountain region about Lake Lychnitis with Lychnidos (now Okhrida) for their capital, were subdued to the Mace- donian kingdom as early as the time of Philip II. After the Roman occupation, which began with the coast towns in 229 B.C., both territories were in 130 B.C. annexed to the province of Macedonia, until, when the empire was portioned out anew in the fourth century a.d., they were at length made into a separate province as E p i r u s Nova. In the northern part of the plain about the Drilon and the Labeatic Lake there was formed by the union of several tribes — especially the Autariates and A r d i a e i (Var- daeans) — who had been driven from their northern seats in the fourth century B.C. by the inroads of Keltic hordes, a kingdom which in a narrower sense bore the name of lllyrian, with a capital S k o d r a (still the Albanian Shkodra, Italian Scutari). It attained its greatest extent about 250, when it stretched northward beyond the Naron and southward as far as the borders of Epiros. Curtailed when 204 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. the Romans occupied this southern portion in 205 B.C., the kingdom was in 168 completely conquered by them, and first put under the province of Macedonia. In 118 it was administered as a separate province of Illy ri cum, and was at last in imperial times annexed to Dalmatia. 2 1 The territory of the Parthini on the coast about Dyr- rhachion, formed only a subdivision of the Taulantian domain. 2 In this whole southern half of ancient Illyria, including the north-western half of the mountain region ofEpiros, the successors of the ancient inhabitants have preserved their existence and their peculiar dialect, in which they call them- selves Shkyipetari. By their neighbours they are called Albanians, the name of a particular tribe already men- tioned in ancient times ('AX^ai/oi'). The Italians (and there- fore other Europeans) call them Albanesi, the Slavs Arbanashi, the Greeks ' Kpfiavvrai, and the Turks- Arnaut. 195. Dalmatia or Delmatia, the mountainous cen- tral part of the coast land, was in early times subject to the kingdom of Skodra, but in 180 B.C. it became an independent league of several autonomous tribes, who gave themselves the collective name ofDalmatae, and had Debninium for their federal capital. Conquered by the Romans in 1 18 b.c and annexed to the province of Illyria, the country formed in imperial times the separate province of Dalmatia, in which, in contradistinction, to the strongly Hellenised Southern Illyria, the Latin language shortly became preva- lent. The capital under Roman administration was S a 1 o n a e, also of great importance for its trade r ; other Roman colonies of note were Nardna and Epidaurum (now Old Ragusa). Lib urn i a was the name given to the north-western half of this mountainous coast region. Its inhabitants were likewise of Illyrian stock, and, like the other Illyrians of the coast, formidable pirates. 2 They stood in lasting enmity towards the Dalmatian League, and accordingly as early as the second century B.C. voluntarily put themselves under Roman protection. In imperial times the country was viit.] CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE. 205 united with the province of Dalmatia, forming its third judicial district (conventus), with the capital Scardona (still so called in Italian, Slav. Skradin), besides which we have Jader (now Slav. Zadar, Ital. Zara) mentioned as a flourishing and active centre of commerce. Liburnians formed also the original population of the numerous islands lying off the coast as far south as the Epeirote Kerkyra before it was occupied by the Greeks. At the same time we find on several of the islands lying off the Dalmatian coast Greek settlements, though not founded till between 390 and 380 b.c. by Dionysios of Syracuse. These were specially on I s s a (afterwards a chief station for the Roman fleet, now Lissa),3 Pharos (modern Slav. Hvar, Italian Lesina), and K o r k y r a, called " the black," ij /jtiXaiva K. to distinguish it from its Epeirote namesake (modern Slav. Karkar, Ital. Curzola).* 1 The modern town of Spalato consists of the palace which Diocletian built in the neighbourhood of this the town of his birth, in the village of Sfialatum. 2 Liburnicae naves were celebrated among the Romans for their specially light build and swift sailing. 3 It possessed also trading settlements on the mainland in the little towns of Tragurium (modern Slav. Trogir, Ital. Trail) and Epetium. 4 Cf the remaining islands, only the most important have retained their ancient names : Melita, now Meleda (Malta) ; Brattia, Brazza ; Solentia or Olynta, Solta ; Curicta, Slav. Krk, Ital. Veglia ; Crexa, Slav. Tchres, Ital. Cherso. 196. Pannonia. — The low country which lies northward at the back of Dalmatia, and about the course of the rivers Sans (Sau, Sava) and Draus (Drau, Drava), and the great lake of Pelso or Peiso (Balaton, Plattensee), and as far north as the Danuvius, 1 was inhabited, when Roman armies first set foot on it in the first century B.C., by various tribes belong- ing partly to the Illyrian, partly to the Keltic family. These were collectively called by the Greeks P a i o n i a n s (the same name as that borne by the population of Northern 206 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Macedonia, cf. § 174), but by the Italians Pannonians. To the Kelts, who pressed in here from the west in the fourth century B.C., belonged the Carni on the Upper and the Scordisci on the Lower Saus, whose rule reached far into what later became Upper Moesia. As they had supported the Dalmatians in the stand they made against Rome, they were subdued when the Dalmatians submitted in 34 B.C. In the first century B.C. the Keltic Boii, who had been driven out of Boiohemum (Bohemia) by the Germans, made themselves almost entire masters of Pannonia, but were for the most part extirpated in the wars carried on under Augustus down to 9 B.C. After this the whole of Pannonia as far as the Danube became a permanent border province under Roman occupation, first as part of Illyricum, to which it was allied both by position and its prevailing population ; under Vespasian it was made a separate province apart from Dalmatia, and under Trajan divided into Pannonia Inferior and Superior. The capital of Eastern or Lower Pannonia was Sirmium (now Mitrovitza in the district of Sirmia), important both as a commercial and strategic centre. Other important colonies dating from the middle of the second century were Mursa (now Eszeg) and Aquincum (Alt-Ofen). The capital of Upper Pannonia as early as the days of Claudius was Savaria (Stein am Anger). Of other important towns in the north on the German border may be mentioned Carnuntum, an extremely active commercial centre (ruins of Deutsch-Altenburg, near Haimburg), and Vindobona (Vienna), both in ancient times belonging to the Noric Kelts. In the south on the Draus was Poetovio (Pettau) ; on the Saus, Segestua or Siseia (Siszeg) and Emona (Laibach), the latter a vigorous trading town at the eastern outlet of the lowest pass over the so-called Alpis Julia, then reckoned as part of Italy without regard to its position beyond the natural frontier. VIII.] CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE. 207 1 This, and not Danuiius, is the correct form of the Keltic name for this river, which was adopted by all the later dwellers on its banks (Byzantine Aoivadis, Slav-Magyar Duna, Vlachian Dunarea), and even entirely supplanted the name Istros given by the Thracians to its lower course. 197. Noricum. — The eastern third of the Alpine region, whose spurs run northward as far as the Danube, but also include wider plains on this river, the Drau and the Mur, than are found in the Central or Western Alps, was, like the more remote Pannonia, completely occupied and ruled by Keltic peoples (who were probably in a minority beside the ancient Illyrian inhabitants). Their special name was Taurisci, * but after the town of Noreia, probably the seat of their kings, they were also called N o r i c i and their country itself Noricum (sc. regnum), a name which after its conquest by Drusus in 15 B.C. was retained for the pro- vince which in Roman imperial times counted as part of Illyria. 2 The Roman capital seems to have been V i r u n u m (ruins in the Zollfeld plain near Klagenfurt). The most im- portant towns beside were Celeia (Cilli), Iuvavum (Salz- burg), Ovilava (Wels), and Lauriacum, a border fortress and naval station on the Danube (ruins of Lorch at the mouth of the Enns, the ancient Anisus). 1 This name testifies to the high antiquity of the designation Tauern still current for the passes over the Central Noric Alps, though it does not happen to occur in the older literature. 2 Noric (or, as in modern times it is called, Steiric) iron was celebrated among the Romans, and was largely exported to Italy and beyond. The procuring of salt from the beds of rock salt and from salt springs was also carried on even in prae-Roman times, when on the other hand the yield of the gold dust from the Alpine Streams, which was also much talked of by the ancients, cannot have been considerable. 1 98. Raetia. — The central region of the Alps, whose main cutting is marked on the northern side by the valleys of the Aenus (Inn) and the Rhemcs (while the 2oS ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. upper valley of the Licus, Lech, is closely secluded), on the southern by those of the Athesis (Adige, Etsch) and the Addua was after a stubborn resistance subdued by Roman armies under Drusus in 15 b.c. It was inhabited by numerous tribes without any political connection, and called after the principal valleys. Of these, all that open southwards into the valley of the Po, with the exception of the territories of the Venostae (Vintschgau, on the Upper Etsch) and Isarci (on the Eisack, a tributary of the Etsch), were at once united with Italy. From the latter valley ran the ancient chief trade route over the lowest cross pass of the Central Alps, the Brenner (4,400 feet), which preserves the name of the Raetian Breones. The name current in Italy for all these tribes, who made their living for the most part only by breeding cattle and cutting wood, and paid but little attention to tillage, was Raeti. Of their origin it was only known that they were closely related to the Etruscans of Italy, and even generally regarded (though without doubt erroneously) as successors of those Etruscans who had been driven out of Upper Italy by the Gallic conquest. Only a few places in the larger valleys grew into little towns under Roman dominion, such as Curia Raetorum (now Chur, Rom. Coira, in the Grisons) and Veldidena (Vilten a suburb of Innsbruck). The whole mountain district was, generally speaking, late in adopting the Roman language. 199. Vindelicia. — Roman conquest next encroached upon the fertile plains stretching from the north foot of the Alps as far as the Danube, from the Lake of Constance, the Lacus Venetus or Brigantinus of the ancients, down to the lower course of the Inn. The population in these re- gions consisted, until the invasion of the Germans in the fifth century, of Keltic tribes, known by the common name of V i n d e 1 1 c i. They had also some few towns which retained their Keltic names under Roman rule, such as Brigantium (Bregenz), Cambodunum (Kempten), ix.] ITALIA. 209 Sorviodurum (Straubing), and others. To these were added Roman settlements, and especially the Roman stationary camps on the borders of the Danube, which in later imperial times grew into towns through their trading intercourse with the Germans. Such were Castra Regina (Regensburg, called after the little river Reganus, now Regen, which flows into the Danube over against it), Castra Batava (Passau) called after its garrison which consisted of Batavians ; its suburb was the old Keltic town Boiodurum; and, above all, the new provincial capital of Raetia (to which the whole of Vinde- licia was added as a subdivision), the colony of Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg). The region gained by the pushing on of the north-western frontier beyond the Danube under Hadrian was likewise annexed to Raetia, and the border fortress built to protect this district against the Germans was called limes Raeticus. CHAPTER D 200. Name. — The use of the name Italia for the whole country south of the Alps begins in Roman official parlance with the time of the Emperors, but with Greek geographers (Polybius) as early as the second century B.C., owing to the greater attention which they paid to the natural configuration of the earth's surface. The name had reached the inhabitants of the centre of the peninsula, who in the so-called Social War of the first century B.C. called themselves by the common title Italici, through the medium of the Greek settlers in Southern Italy. These settlers, however, had in the fourth century (the time of Thucydides) still used it only for the southern peninsula, 210 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. excluding Iapygia (Apulia), and still earlier the Greeks in Sicily had applied it only to the southern extremity, the coast land lying opposite the strait which was inhabited by the small tribe of 1 1 a 1 i. It was only therefore after this gradual extension of the name of the country that the Alps became recognised as the natural northern boundary of Italy, though not without many deviations from the line of the main watershed, through which the passes run north, north-west, and north- east. These passes or yokes (juga) first became known and distinguished by different names in the course of trade. 1 Accordingly as early as the second century B.C. the western Ligurian coast route, where it crosses high rocky spurs of the mountains, was called Alpis Maritima, while in the north-west towards Central Gaul were the Alpis Grata, already used by Hannibal, and the Alpis Poenina (the Little and Great St. Bernard, 7,080 feet and 7,410 feet), while due north towards Raetia was the Breonic pass (Brenner • cf. § 198). Pompeius was the first to open up a shorter route to Southern Gaul, the afterwards so-called Alpis Cottia (Mt. Genevre, 6,030 feet), and Augustus the north-eastern route to Pannonia over the Alpis Julia (§ 196). It was not till the later times of the empire that the intermediate passes, which are still nearly all in use, were made prac- ticable, and their names extended to the neighbouring mountain ridges, in a more or less, though nowhere strictly defined, degree {Alpes Lepontiae, Raeticae, Venetae, Carnicae). Their limitation to certain natural divisions in the mountain system is owing to entirely arbitrary theories on the part of modern geographers. 1 On this account the ancients paid less attention to the lofty- peaks which so keenly interest us moderns. Of these, only Vesulus (Monte Viso, 12,500 feet) is named, and this on account of its striking form, which led to its being erroneously regarded as celsissimum Alpium cacumen (Pliny), and of its position at the source of the Padus. Far mightier peaks, such IX] ITALIA. 211 as Mont Blanc, and Monte Rosa, which is visible from the whole plain of Upper Italy, remain quite without mention. 201. Apenninus. — The mountain chains which first bore this name on Ligurian soil, follow the north coast of the Mediterranean onwards from the valley of the Rhodanus (Rhone), and, directly joining the Western Alps, run at first in a parallel line with the Central and Eastern Alps, that is, generally speaking, from west to east. In the usage of the period during which the whole peninsula became subject to the Roman State, the western half of this coast range as far as its lowest saddle above Savo (about 1,300 feet) was included under the name of Maritime Alps. The name Apennines did not begin till this point, but was on the other hand arbitrarily extended to the southern point of Italy. In its northern part, which was inhabited by Ligurian tribes and bordered Etruria on the north, this mighty lime- stone range consists of a commanding ridge for the most part following the main watershed (the highest peak is more than 7,000 feet, the passes from 2,400 to 3,300 feet) with a steep descent towards the south and spurs far extended towards the north. The central part of the range, according to its length, lying in the domains of the ancient Sabini, Marsi, Vestini, Paeligni (the modern Abruzzi), is at the same time the broadest part, owing to its being split into several parallel ranges of almost equal height, including lofty plains of from 2,000 to 2,300 feet. It attains its maximum eleva- tion — 8,000 to 9,500 feet — in the central peaks, and especially those which stand out towards the north-east, and even in the height of summer are covered with snow ; their ancient names are quite unknown to us. Further south, on the other hand, in ancient Samnium, the range Joses itself in separate groups of less elevation, and plateau-like protuberances (the watershed between the Calor and the Aufidus is hardly 2,000 feet). The main line of its axis is interrupted by several loftier ridges running from east to p 2 212 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. west (peaks on the northern and southern borders of Lucania are respectively 5,800 feet and 6,800 feet). In the southern peninsula, the ancient Bruttium, which is almost entirely- occupied by broad and lofty mountain masses, the highest peaks rise again to 6,000-6,500 feet. The southern ex- tremity, however, the wooded mountain region which the ancients called S i 1 a, is separated from the limestone system of the Apennines proper by a depression at the narrowest part of the peninsula barely 1,000 feet in height. As its geological formation is wholly different, it ought not, strictly speaking, to be reckoned as part of the Apennines. 202. Secondary Mountains of Italy. — The main ridges of the Apennines fall away to the Adriatic Sea in several stages of off-shoots. Quite isolated from these, the plateau-like limestone mass of Garganus stands out into the sea (peak about 3,300 feet). Further south the low chalk plateau of the Calabrian (Messapian, Sallentinian) peninsula joins the loftier ranges, and forms their immediate continuation eastward. Its coasts are low but steep, and, like the whole coast of the Adriatic, with but few exceptions, they are without harbours. The south-western extension of the Italian peninsula into the Tyrrhenian Sea is of far more manifold formation. It consists, in the first place, of mountain groups belonging throughout to the limestone formation, but representing individual off-shoots from the Apennines, 1 between which spread the valleys, capacious and split up into numerous branches, of the Arnus, Tiberis, Liris, and Volturnus. In addition to these groups, there are the volcanic up- heavals running out in the same direction parallel with the Apennines. Some of these are still permanently active, while many others are burnt-out craters, afterwards, and in some cases even now, filled with circular lakes. They occur in the hilly coast regions of Southern Etruria, Latium (Mons Albanus), and Campania (the north end of Mt. IX.] ITALIA. 213 Massicus, the Phlegraean hills near Puteoli, Vesuvius, the Pithekussian and Pontian islands), and further on have pro- duced the Aeolic or Volcanic islands, and Mt. Aetna. 2 1 No collective names for these groups have either come down to us from antiquity or are now in use among the people. We can only designate them, as has been done by geographers in the case of some, by the ancient names of the districts, calling them North Etrurian, Sabine, Volscian, and South Campanian mountains. 2 North of the Apennines are the Euganean hills, rising from the Venetian plain; south-east is Mt. Vultur in Apulia, a former volcano. West of the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the exten- sion of a line drawn through it and Vesuvius, mountains of volcanic origin rise on the western shore of the island of Sardinia. 203. Climate and Tillage. — Owing to the moun- tain structure of the peninsula, the slope towards the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Sea, which is already distinguished by a greater extent of superficies, enjoys in consequence of the prevailing west winds a more moderate temperature and abundant rainfall than the more uniform Adriatic side. The mildness of the climate in winter, attested in the lower regions by a great wealth of evergreen trees and shrubs, favours the cultivation of the olive, not only in the whole southern half of the peninsula, but also in the northern part of the west coast. Oil and wine, which were probably first introduced by Greek colonists, remained down to the later times of antiquity, when they were produced also in Gaul and Spain, the most valuable articles of export from Italy into western and northern countries. Moreover, besides the very productive soil of Upper Italy, the valley of the Arnus, of Campania, and of Apulia (this last had, however, the drawback of a more scanty rainfall), a very large part of ' the ground, such as the undulating highlands of Southern Etruria and Latium, which consist of volcanic tufa, the mountain slopes in Picenum, Samnium, Lueania, and far higher stretches, reaching from 2,500 to 3,000 feet, was 214 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. made available for the growth of corn and beans to a far higher degree than in Greece. Besides the oak forests which covered the lower slopes, and the beeches and firs which covered the higher parts of the mountains up to 5,000 feet and more far more densely in ancient times than now, a large part of the mountain region, especially of the Apennines, owing to the steep and rocky character of the ground, remains unsuited for any other purpose but cattle feeding, and this in the higher regions is confined, as in the Alps, to the summer months. A regular interchange of cattle and sheep according to the seasons, such as is now usual, already went on in antiquity, as, for instance, between Samnium and Apulia. 204. Population. — Four groups of peoples are to be regarded as having been original dwellers in the country which was afterwards called Italy, before the Greeks came by sea to settle themselves as colonists and conquerors in the south, and the Kelts by land in the north. Among the inhabitants of the Adriatic coasts the Veneti and Istri in the north, the Iapyges (Apulii) in the south-east, and the Choni (Chaones, as in Epeiros, § 168) in the southernmost penin- sula all belonged to the 1 1 1 y r i a n nation which was widely spread eastward of the Adriatic. We have no means of discovering whether these tribes stood in any close relation to the Ligures (Atyves), the collective name by which the inhabitants of the coast mountains in the north-west and of Corsica were still known in historical times, and among whom were also reckoned a part of the most ancient population of the south-west coasts, namely, the S i c u 1 i (SiikcXol), who dwelt in Southern Etruria, in Latium, and in Southern Italy. A third nation, totally distinct from those that have been named, and which, as it in many cases subdued or drove out Ligurian tribes, must have belonged to a later invasion, were the E t r u s c i (or, as the Greeks called them, T y r s e n i), who were long the dominant IX.] ITALIA. 215 and most civilised people in Northern and Western Italy. The remains that are preserved of their language do not as yet supply us with any plausible theory as to their ethno- graphical position, and only confirm what ancient writers tell us as to its entire strangeness. Finally, the larger re- maining part of Central Italy was occupied, so far as our historical knowledge goes, by a number of tribes closely connected with one another in language. These were the Umbri, Latin i, S a b i n i, with their smaller neighbours, the O p i c i or O s c i, of whom the latter were the first to come in contact with the Greeks, so that their name (Ottikol) was frequently extended to the whole group. The same has been done by modern scholars with the name Ausones (properly only the Greek form of the name Aurunci, borne in historic times by only a small part of the Oscan-speaking population), which the Roman poets were fond of using for the primaeval age of Italy, so that the above-named and closely related dialects are conveniently designated by the collective title of A u s o n ian (or some- times Central-Italia n). 1 The nations of this group, which within the great Aryan (Indo-European) family stand in point of speech in closest relation to the Greeks and Kelts, are clearly to be regarded as having been the last to come into the peninsula by land before the dawn of historic tradition. Their movement southward did not come to an end until about 400 B.C., at the time of the conquest of Campania, Lucania, and Bruttium by the Samnites. Its further development is to be seen in the political annexation and linguistic assimilation, first of the whole of Italy, then of Western and Central Europe, by one of its tribes which' was originally confined to very narrow borders, the Latins. 1 It is less appropriate to use, as is frequently done, the general name of the Italian tribes and languages in this limited sense, when the ethnology of this particular people, from whom 2i6 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. the general name of the country has been taken, is com- pletely obscure, and the derivative title, Italici, was used in a political sense in the so-called Social War of the first century B.C. with a different extension. 205. Division of the country. — While the territory of the Roman republic was spreading over the whole of Italy, the individual states which had been annexed to it maintained their former limits, though these were extraordinarily unequal in extent. This is true equally of the northern region between the Apennines and the Alps, which took the form of a province (Gallia cisalpina, including the Ligures, Veneti, and Cami), and of the islands. It was not until imperial times that arbitrary limitations and combinations of these territories came to be introduced with a view to uniformity of admin- istration. Augustus was the first to make a division of the whole of Italy, including the now annexed region of the Padus, into eleven districts (regiones). These were 1. Latium and Campania (including the south-western part of Samnium); 2. Apulia and Calabria (to which was added the district of the Hirpini, formerly part of Samnium) ; 3. Lucania and Bruttii ; 4. Samnium (the central and northern part of that region), which contained also the cantons of the smaller tribes of Sabini, Aequi, Marsi, Paeligni, Marru- cini, and Vestini; 5. Picenum ; 6. Umbria; 7. Etruria; 8. Cispadana; 9. Liguria (south of the Padus); 10. Venetia and Histria (to which were added the earlier Keltic settle- ments of the Carni and Cenomani); n. Transpadana (the western part of the old Gallia Transpadana, together with the Ligurian settlements lying north of the Padus). An altera- tion in boundaries and also to some extent in names resulted from the new general division of the empire which took place under Diocletian and his immediate successors. The mainland of Italy was then divided into fifteen provinces, some of which received new names from the great roads IX.] ITALIA. 217 which ran through them, such as Valeria, Flaminia, Aemilia. We may remark also the extension of the name Campania to Latium (the modern Campagna di Roma) and the trans- ference of the name Liguria to what had formerly been the district of Transpadana, while the ancient Liguria south of the Padus received thenceforth the provincial name of Alpes Cottiae. UPPER ITALY. 206. Histria, Gr. I stria. — In front of the coast moun- tains of Illyria, at the point where .they end in the Alps and bear the special name Carusadius (modern Italian Carso, German Karst), lies a low plateau completed by a peninsula with cliffs descending sheer to the sea and in- dented by deep bays. The inhabitants of this region, the Istri, like their neighbours, the Liburni and Dalmati, an Illyrian race, were renowned as daring sailors and pirates. This addiction to piracy led to their being sub- dued in 177 B.C. by the Romans, and in consequence rapidly Romanised. On this account and owing to its natural limitation by the mountain chains on the east the whole peninsula as far as the little stream of the Arsia (now Arsa) was in B.C. 12 annexed by Augustus to Italy. The capital of Histria even in prae-Roman times was P 1 a (now Pola) which on the strength of its roomy and well-sheltered harbour became in Augustus' time the chief station of the Roman fleet in the Adriatic. Tergeste (Trieste), one of the points of issue of the Eastern Alpine passes towards Pannonia, was at that time of less import- ance owing to its want of a natural harbour. 1 1 The little river Timaus, in the extreme northern corner of the Adriatic, celebrated by Roman poets, is only remarkable for the abundance of its water, which bursts out from numerous springs after a subterranean course of between fifteen to twenty miles, and for the shortness of its course above ground down to its mouth (about 1,500 yards). 218 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. 207. The Carni, a Keltic tribe, who came from the Eastern Alps into the north-eastern part of the great plain of Upper Italy during the great invasion of the fourth century B.C., were subdued by Roman armies in 115 b.c. and added to the province of Gallia Cisalpina. The low marshy coastland belonged to the province at an earlier date, and was therefore likewise reckoned as Carnian territory. 1 It was here that was built in 181 B.C., to pro- tect the north-east border of Italy, the strong fortress of A q u i 1 e i a, at once a great commercial town and from the time of Augustus the capital of the district of Venetia et Histria (extensive ruins exist near the small modern town of Aquileia). Inland at the foot of the mountains were the Carnian towns Julium Carnicum (now Zuglio) and Forum Julium {now Cividale), mot built until the time of Augustus. The latter name was extended in the middle ages to the whole region (Friuli, German Friaul). 1 The name is preserved in those Alpine regions which in ancient times helonged politically to Noricum and Pannonia : Camiola, Krain ; and Carantania, Karnten. 208. Venetia. — The plain lying between the low northern coasts of the Adriatic, which consist for a long distance of marshes and shallow lagunes, and the Carnian Alps is covered by the alluvial deposit of rivers 1 flowing from these limestone mountains with boulders and light, not very fertile soil. Being protected on the west along the course of the Athesis by wide stretches of marsh, it was never conquered by the Kelts who invaded Italy, but remained in the possession of its oldest inhabitants the V e n e t i (called by the Greeks *EyeTot). Belonging by speech to the Illyrian peoples, they were yet distinguished from their ruder kindred in the eastern mountain region by an ad- vanced civilisation, especially in trade and industry, and they occupied flourishing cities when in 215 B.C. after the IX.] ITALIA, 219 overthrow of the Cisalpine Gauls by Rome they joined themselves to the Republic without a struggle. Their capital Patavium (now Padova) was even in imperial times next to Rome the wealthiest, if not absolutely also the most populous town in Italy. Other large towns were Vicetia (this is the spelling confirmed by inscriptions, not Vicewtia, though we have the modern Vicenza), Tar- visium Treviso, Opitergium Oderzo, and Altinum at the northern end of the navigable lagunes (the so-called septem marid), now the village of Altino. 2 i These, on account of their changeable volume of water, are quite unnavigable. In the case of Sontius, Isonzo, Tilavemp- tus, Tagliamento, Liquentia, Livenza, Plavis Piave, the an- cient name has been preserved, while it is lost in that of the Medoacus, now Brenta, and the Eretenus, now Bacchiglione. The latter name seems to have given the Greeks the op- portunity of placing at this spot the fabulous river E r i d a- n o s, a title even transferred to the Padus. This fashion the Roman poets also were in the habit of following. 2 The inhabitants of Aquileia and Altinum, when their towns were destroyed by the Huns in 452 A.D., fled to the small islands lying in the midst of the lagunes, and to the town which there sprang up transferred the name of their old country, Venetia (Venice). 209. The Valley of the Padus (Circumpadani Campi Liv.). — The Padus (or Bodincus, as it seems to have been called by the Ligurians, now the Po), in spite of the moderate length of its course, was regarded by the ancients as one of the most important rivers of Europe, on account of the volume of water which almost down to its mouth it receives from a large number of tributaries. Of these the less important are those that flow from the Apennines on the south (among many smaller ones we may mention Tanarus, Trebia, Tarus, Renus, still called Tanaro, Trebbia, Taro, Reno), which are partly dried up in the height of summer, while in spring they often overflow the plains. A far greater quantity of water is brought down to the main stream from the Alps on the north, partly at first through 220 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. the deep lake basins of the lower slopes, and then in a more peaceful course through the richest part of the great alluvial plain. Beginning from the upper limit of its naviga- bility there are the Titinus (Ticino) flowing through the Lacus Veibanus (Lago Maggiore), the Addua (Adda) flowing through the Lacus Larius or Comacinus (Lago di Como), the Ollius (0;4io) flowing through the Lacus Sebinus (Lago d'Iseo), the Mincius (Mincio) flowing out of the Lacus Bendcus (Lago di Garda). In the lower course both of the Padus and of the Athesis (Ital. Adige, Germ. Etsch) which flows parallel with it eastward to the sea, the alluvial land formed by the rivers themselves, owing to the extraordinary amount of soil which they carry along with them, is still over wide stretches incompletely filled up and therefore of a marshy character. In antiquity these marshes were of far greater extent (reaching in the second century B.C. as far as the mouth of the Ticinus). In this soft soil as well as in the delta which runs far out into the sea at the mouth of the Padus the direction of the different arms of the stream has undergone repeated changes. Instead of the northern arm forming the chief mouth as it now does and has done since the twelfth century, even before the days of the Empire the most abundant arm was the central one, called Volanus (now Po di Volano), while in the most ancient times of Greek commerce on these coasts this position was occupied by the now quite insignificant southern arm, the modern Po di Primaro, then called Padusa or Ostium Spineticum (after a commercial town, Spina, which had already perished in Roman times). 210. Etrusci in the Padus region. — Down to the Gallic conquest about 400 b.c. this plain — though probably with the exception of the upper western part occupied by the free Ligurian tribes — was in the possession of the Etruscans, among whose cities on the north of the Padus Melpum (probably on the site of the later Medio- IX.] ITALIA. 221 lanium — Milan), on the south Felsina, the later Bononia, are mentioned as the largest in the confederation, which con- sisted of twelve members. Even after most of these cities had been lost to the Gauls, some of them, protected by the marshes which surrounded the lower plain and the sea coast, remained Etruscan, such as Mantua, Hatria (Greek Adria), and Ravenna (which retains its name unaltered). The commercial importance of Hatria follows from the name 6 'ASpias koAttos, mare Hairiaticum, Hadriariuin, which was given to this sea by the Greeks and Romans. Ravenna, which stood on an island among lagunes and canals (filled up in the middle ages by alluvial deposit so that the modern town lies nearly three miles back from the sea-shore), became in Augustus' time the chief naval station on the Italian side of the Adriatic, and after 404 a.d. was a residence of the Roman Emperor. 211. Gallia Cispadana. — The Gallic or Keltic hordes who forced their way over the north-western (Graian, Poenine) passes of the Alps about 400 B.C. subdued the Etruscan territory in a direction advancing south-east, so that the tribe of the Senones, who were the last of the invaders, occupied the coast between Ariminum and Ancona, which had been inhabited by the Umbri. This district was conquered by the Romans as early as 282 B.C., and being annexed to Italy proper as the ager Gallicus, never formed part of the province of Gallia (Cisalpina). The lower country towards the delta of the Padus was occupied, so far as it did not remain Etruscan, by the L i n g 6 n e s, while the inland plain lying beneath the slopes of the Apennines (where a conquered Ligurian population retained its seat) fell to the B o i i, by far the greatest and most powerful of Gallic peoples. First subdued in 224 B.C. their conquest was carried in 191 to the verge of annihilation -on the ground of their alliance with Hannibal, when their country was occupied by colonies of Roman citizens, the most 222 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. important of these being Bononia (the Gallic name for the Etruscan Felsina, now Bologna) and P 1 a c e n t i a (Pia- cenza) newly built in 219, at the point where the great military road, the via Aemilia, constructed in 186 B.C., crosses the Padus. Among the smaller towns the most noteworthy were Parma and Mutlna (Modena) strengthened by Roman colonies in 183. 212. Gallia Transpadana consisted, of the districts occupied by the two great Keltic tribes which were the first to press in across the Alps, in the east the Ceno- m a n i, in the west the Insubres. The former chose for their capital the Old Raetian city Verona, besides which they occupied in Roman times the towns of Brixia (now Brescia), and Bergbmum (now Bergamo), which originally belonged to the Insubrian territory. The Insu- brians built in place of the Etruscan Melpum, which they destroyed in 396, a new capital, Mediolanium (this form is more correct than Mediola?za»z ; now Milano, Milan), in the richest part of the plain. By the fourth century a.d. this had become an imperial residence and* the most populous town in Upper Italy. The Roman colony of Cremona was founded also on Insubrian territory in 219. Other important towns therein were Ticinum (now Pavia), Laus Pompeii (Lodi Vecchio), Comum (Como), Vercellae (Vercelli), Novaria (Novara). The valleys which debouch from the foremost spurs of the Alps into the plain remained in possession of the ancient occupiers of Raetian stock, who were not conquered till the time of Augustus, but then at once united with Italy. Their names have been in a great measure preserved in the modern names of the valleys. So we have the Lepontii, Orumbovii, Camuni, Trumpli, Anauni, commemo- rated in the Val Leventina (on the upper course of the Ticino), Brembana, Camonica, Trompia, Val di Non, (Germ. Nonsberg). The few important towns in these ix ] ITALIA. 223 Alpine valleys were also foundations of Augustus. On the eastern border on the banks of the Athesis stood the Raetian Tridentum (Trento, Trient), on the western border in the valley of the Duria (Dora Baltea), inhabited by the S a 1- a s s i, stood the newly-built colony of veterans, Augusta Praetoria (Aosta), commanding the pass over the Poenine and Graian Alps (the Great and Little St. Bernard). At the point where this Duria valley issues into the plain lay the old Keltic town Eporedia (now Ivrea), which by way of making the road over the pass more secure was as early as 101 B.C. likewise occupied by a Roman colony. 213. Liguria was the south-western part of Upper Italy, for the most part stony and filled with mountains, while even in the upper plains of the Padus, Tanarus and their higher tributaries, the average of fertility is low. Its ab- original population, resembling that of south-eastern Gaul, were renowned for their strenuous industry and unres- trained love of liberty. The numerous tribes were separated from one another by the nature of the ground and had no political connection, so that the Roman armies in a series of small wars lasting from 187 to 154 subdued them in succession from the easternmost the Apuani and Friniates (in what is now Frignano), dwelling in the Apennines between Etruria and Gallia Cispadana, to the tribes of the later Italian coast district on the extreme west, the Ingauni and Intimilii (about the modern Albenga and Vintimiglia). This country of tillers and herdsmen had in ancient times only towns of small importance. In the interior the capital of the most powerful Ligurian tribe, the T a u r i n i, already in Hannibal's time called Taurasia, and from Augustus' days onwards Colonia Augusta Taurinorum (the modern Torino, Turin), and the Roman colony Dertona (now Tortona), founded in 148 B.C., were alone of any importance. Among harbour towns on the coast for the export of the raw produce of the country (timber, cattle, hides, wool, etc.), 224 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. we may specially name Genua, situated at the mouth of the- shortest, if not absolutely the lowest, pass in the Apennines. In the extreme south-west, beyond the coast pass, the Alpis Maritima in its strict sense, which even in Julius Caesar's time formed the border between Gallia Cis- and Transalpina, was a region reaching as far as the river Varus, which was united to Italy by Augustus. Here lay the Greek settlements of Morwekos (Monaco), and Nikaea (Nizza, Nice), founded by and dependent on Massalia (Mar- seilles). On the other hand the Alpine valley of the southern Duria (Dora Riparia), running westward from the upper course of the Padus into the country of the Taurini, at that time remained, together with the pass over Mount Matrbna (Mont Genevre), outside the political borders of Italy. With its small capital Segusio (now Susa), and including several valleys of the western slope of the Alps in the river system of the Druentia, it formed the possession of a dependent family of Gallic princes, the C o 1 1 i i (whence the region was called Rtgnum Cottii and the pass itself Alpis Cottid). When this dynasty came to an end in 66 B.C., the whole region was added to Gallia Narbonensis, but did not become part of Italy till the second century A.D. CENTRAL ITALY. 214. Etruria (in later imperial times also Tuscia, hence Toscana, Tuscany, Greek Tyrsenia, Tyrrhenia), is, next to Campania, the most remarkable district on the west side of Italy for the fertility of its soil, and moreover its mineral wealth. Its ancient population,' owing to its intercourse by sea with the Greeks and the nations of the East, was the earliest civilised and had the richest artistic development in the whole peninsula. Indeed in many departments of civic life — as in the use of weights and numbers, the mode of reckoning time, of building houses IX.] ITALIA. 225 and temples, and in costume — their influence was strongly- exercised on their neighbour Rome. In speech however and in manners they were entirely distinct from all other Italian peoples, nor has any certain information been handed down or is to be obtained as to their origin and race.' So much only is clear from the accounts of Roman his- torians, that the population consisted of two classes sharply distinct from one another, not only in political organisation (the rule of nobles over numerous serfs), but even in language. The subject portion of the people seems to have belonged to one of the tribes (Umbrians or Ligurians ?) that were widely spread over Central Italy in primaeval times. The maritime power of the Etruscans on the sea which bore their name — the Tyrrhenian Se a — which lasted from the eighth century b.c. and was strengthened by their conquest of the Campanian coast, was broken up in the fourth century by the Sicilian Greeks, at the same time that their land power in Upper Italy gave way before the inroads of the Gauls. Henceforward began the absorption of their territory by the Roman Republic advancing steadily north- ward, and completed by the war in 280 B.C. It was facili- tated by the loose connection which existed between the members of the confederation of twelve republics.3 1 Their national name is given as Rasenna, but it was not known to other nations. The usual names are all derived from the root Turs; hence in Egyptian inscriptions we have Turisha, in Umbrian Turske, softened by the Romans into Tuscus, or with a vowel prefix, Etruscus and analogously the more ancient form of the name of the country, Etrusia. By addition of a Greek ending to the same root come Tu/><7!jvos (so in Thucydides) and the later popular form Tvpprjvos* 2 The well-known tradition of their L y d i a n origin, supported also by the Romans, at least indicates, as do the traditions of Pelasgic settlements at various points on the coast, the belief in a conquest from the sea by a people already powerful on that element. Q 2 2 6 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. 3 This full number of duodecim populi Etruriae seems during the time of Etruscan independence to have been always main- tained, so that when any states came to ruin, others not pre- viously autonomous stepped in to fill their place. At no time however do we find mention byname of the twelve mem- bers together. 215. Northern Etruria is a region of limestone formation. The Apennines must have formed its boundary as against the Etruscan Confederation of the Padus valley ; but after the loss of the latter territory to the Gauls the frontier was pushed back as far as the Arnus, while the Ligurian inhabitants of the mountains on the north regained their independence. In this region, which was not re-united with Etruria till the time of Augustus, were planted the Roman colonies of Luca and Luna (hence the celebrated marmor Lunense coming from the quarries that are now called Carrara). Of Etruscan towns north of the Arnus there were only Pisa, already at that time a wealthy commercial town, and Faesulae (now Fiesole), within whose territory was built during the first century B.C. in the river valley itself, which was not drained till later, the Roman military colony F 1 o r e n t i a, which in imperial times became the wealthiest city in Etruria. On the western mountain ridges lay the town of Volaterrae (now Vol- terra) 1,600 feet above the sea, and of great importance for the circumference of its so-called Cyclopean walls. To its territory, rich in metals, belonged in ancient times probably also the coast town of Populonia (later an inde- pendent state), and the island of Ilva (now Elba, Gr. Aethalia), which even in antiquity yielded much iron. In the upper valley of the Arnus was Arretium (now Arezzo), one of the most powerful of the old Etruscan cities, and within its domain the high-lying Sena (now Siena). The upper valley of the Clanis (now Chiana, a tributary of the Tiber) as far as the large but very shallow Lake Trasi- tnenus (famous for the battle fought in 217 b.c. in the pass ix] ITALIA. 227 on its northern shore), is commanded on the north by the high-lying C o r t o n a, on the south by the more important town of C 1 u s i u m (now Chiusi). On the high ridges (more than 1,600 feet) between the lake and the upper valley of the Tiber was the very important town of P e r u s i a (now Perugia). 216. Southern Etruria is a region of volcanic tufa. The town of V o 1 s i n i i commanded the valley at the point where the Clanis debouches into the Tiber. In this valley, on a steep crag, stood the old city (now Orvieto = urbs vetus) destroyed by the Romans in 280 b.c. Within its domain lay the great Volsinian lake on whose north-eastern shore was afterwards built the new Roman colony which bore the name Volsinii (now Bolsena). Further down the valley of the Tiber were the territories of F a 1 e r i i (older form F a 1 e s i i, whence the inhabitants were called Falisci) with a population related rather to the Sabines and Latins than to the Etruscans (their old stronghold — now Civita Castellana — being conquered by the Romans in 34r B.C., was destroyed and built up again on a level flat close by as the Colonia Junonia Faliscd), and of V e i i, the well-known powerful rival of Rome, whose domain in ancient times reached down to the mouth of the Tiber. After its annihi- lation in 396 B.C. the country town of Capena which de- pended on it also soon passed into Roman possession. A Roman Veii was built again on the ancient site, but not till the early days of the Empire. In the coast district going from north to south were the following towns : Rusellae and Vetulonia, once important to judge from the size of their walls, but lying in a region which is at present quite desolate on account of its malarious atmosphere ; Void, with its harbour town Cossa (a Roman maritime colony from 323 s.c.) ; Tarquinii, the most remarkable city in Etruria for its artistic develop- ment under Greek influence and as presumably the original Q 2 228 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. political and religious centre of the League (ruins of Turchina near Corneto) ; the new seaport Centum Celiac (now Civita Vecchia) was founded in its territory by Trajan. Lastly we have Caere (with an ancient, probably Pelasgian name Agylla, now Cerveteri; i.e. Old Caere) which through its harbours Alsium, Pyrgi, and Punicum, drove an active trade with the Greeks and Carthaginians. In 390 b.c. it was by friendly agreement annexed to the Roman Republic. 217. Umbria, the small remnant, shorn by Etruscan and Keltic conquests, of what was in the foretime of Italy the very extensive Umbrian territory. It consisted of the region in the Apennines and on the Upper Tiber, which in 308 b.c. joined the Roman Republic, and of the stretch of coast along the Adriatic Sea which was occupied soon after 400 by the Senonian Gauls. Upon their conquest by the Romans in 280 B.C. it was re-united to Italy as the Ager G a 1 1 i c u s. Here lay the important town and colony of Ariminum (now Rimini), 1 and further along the coast Pisaurum, now Pdsa.ro, Fanum Fortunae, Fano, and Sena (surnamed Gallica to distinguish it from the Etruscan Sena), now Sinigaglia. The interior, though extremely mountainous, has a few small plains in between, which were formerly lake-basins. These are of great fertility, and in them lie the more important towns. In the upper valley of the Clasia (now Chiascio) was Iguvium, now Gubbio ; on the Clitum- nus (now Clitunno) Asisium, now Assisi, Fulginit, Foligno, Mevania, Bevagna, Sfioletium, Spoleto ; on the larger river Nar (Nera) were Interamna, now Terni, and Nequinum, called Narnia as a Roman colony, now Narni. On the east side of the mountains was the most important town of all, Camerinum, now Camerino, whose inhabitants were called Camertes. I Ariminum is only incorrectly counted as being in Umbria, for it was not severed from the Gallic province and annexed to IX] ITALIA. 229 Italy until 82 B.C. In 42 B.C. it was again added to the Cispadane region, so that only for these forty years did the stream Rubicon form the boundary of Italy towards the Gallic province. 218. Picenum, a district included under 'O^jipiK-fj by the more ancient Greeks, and embracing, besides a very fertile strip of coast, the eastern slopes of the Apennines. Down to the time of its conquest by Rome in 268 B.C. it consisted of a league of small communities, among which A s c u 1 u m (also called A. Picenum to distinguish it from the Apulian town of the same name), now called Ascoli, was the political capital, while Firmum (now Fermo) and Auximum (Osimo) attained importance through the intro- duction of Roman colonies. The inhabitants of the south- ernmost part, which abounds in lofty mountains, bore the special race-name of P r a e t u t i i (in the middle ages Aprutium, now Abruzzo). Here were the not unimportant towns of Interamnium and Hatria (now Teramo, Atri). The only natural harbour is formed in the otherwise un- broken coastline by a mountainous promontory, Gr. ajKwv, " elbow,'' a name which passed on to the town founded here by Dionysios of Syracuse in 380 B.C., Lat. A n c o n a. From its favourable position it has always remained one of the most important towns on the Adriatic Sea. 219. Sabini, and. the neighbouring mountain regions (Marsi, Paeligni, Vestini, Marrucini). — These regions include the mountain district of the Cen- tral Apennines, together with the upper valleys which they enclose. Lying as a whole higher than Umbria or Picenum, they are therefore colder, and produce only inferior wine, little corn, but much cattle. The population, even in Roman imperial times, was noted for its bravery and persistence in old and simple habits of life. In the Ager Sabinus (Gr. rj %aftivri) Reate (now Rieti), lying in the upper basin of the Avens (now Velino) in the midst of 230 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. lakes and marshes, was held to be the political, Cures (Correse) in the lower valley of the Tiber the mythical capital, while Amiternum, called after the Aternus which flows round it, was regarded as the oldest settlement. The four small cantons in the south-eastern continuation of the main mountain range, on the middle and lower course of the Aternus (now called respectively Aterno and Pescara in its upper and lower course), were only politically distinct from the Sabines whose language they shared, being divided according to the main valleys into small peasant republics, which usually (though not always) held together in a kind of lax confederation. Their capitals, which were of small importance, were: among the Vestini, Pi?ina, now Penne ; among the Marrucini, Teate, now Chieti ; among the Paeligni, Sulmo, now Solmona, and espe- cially Corfinium, which, owing to its central position, was, under the name Italica, appointed in 90 B.C. by the Italian States allied together against Rome as their federal capital. Lastly among the Mar si, there was Marruvium, lying 2,200 feet above the sea in the small plain about Lake F u c i n u s, which itself covers forty square miles of most fertile soil. In order to win this to cultivation, the lake was, in the time of Claudius, drained into the Upper Liris by means of a channel 15,400 feet long driven through the rock. (This drainage was repeated in 1865.) 220. Latium. — This name appears originally to have meant plain. Older in form than the derivative name of the people, Latini, it was applied in history to the plain 1 — covered with low hills, and remarkable rather for its central position about the largest river in the peninsula proper than for the wealth of its soil — which stretches from the Tiber to the Pontine marshes, between the parallel limestone spurs of the Apennines and the level and for the most part sandy shore. This marsh district itself, which occupies the southern and lowest part of the plain, is the IX.] ITALIA. 231 remnant, only incompletely filled up by the overflowing of the mountain streams Ufens, Amasenus and others, of an older arm of the sea surrounded by sand-dunes. Repeated attempts to drain this district both in ancient and modern times have failed from want of fall for the water. The malarious marsh air carried hence to the upper part of the plain by the prevailing south wind, has from the earliest times driven the inhabitants to build towns on the healthier elevations, and since the interruption of regular cultivation of the plain (owing to the large importation of foreign grain) dating from the later days of the Republic, many low-lying towns, flourishing in ancient times, have become desolate. 1 In the midst of this plain, quite cut off from the limestone mountains of the Aequian and Volscian country on the N.E. and S.E., rises the group of extinct volcanoes, with crater- lakes, some still existing, others dried up even in antiquity, which is now usually reckoned as part of the Albanian mountain system. The highest peak is the Moris Albanus of the ancients, now Monte Cavo, 3,000 feet. The lava flowing from these volcanoes afforded in old Roman times, as it does still, the hardest material for binding together the great military roads (silex), while the conglomerate of tufa, con- sisting of the lighter masses thrown down, which was spread over the plain, was the commonest material for building, and its weather-worn surface made the most fertile soil for tillage. 221. Roma. — The city in its later extension lay on the north-western spurs, rising from 100 to 130 feet above the river (130 to 160 feet above the sea), of the low hill country of the Latin plain, at the point where this most nearly approaches the loftier hills on the Etruscan side (Janiculus is already over 200 feet) and therefore where the valley of the Tiber is at its narrowest. The westernmost hills which lie nearest the river, and are separated from those behind by low depressions, especially Capitolium and Palatium (and in a lesser degree the Aventinus) formed the earliest site of the city (Roma quadrata on Mons Palatinus). The 232 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. oldest suburbs arose in the east on the hill which was hence called Exquiliae, Mons Ex- or Esquilinus (from ex and colere as opposed to inquilinus, incola), and in the south-east on Mt Caelius : the individual parts of these heights formed together the most ancient " town of the seven hills," Septi- montium. This name was afterwards extended also to the heights built upon later, Aventinus in the south-west, Quiri- nahs and Viminalis, or the specially so-called colles (hence the regio and porta Collina). Under the last kings (the Tarquins) this whole area was enclosed by a stone wall which followed the edges of the hills, and on the low spur of the eastern hill running from the porta Collina to the porta Esquilina was strengthened by a broad wall of earth (the agger of Servius Tullius). 1 This wall with its sixteen or eighteen gates was maintained till towards the end of the Punic Wars, but was then neglected and overbuilt, so that for half a century Rome remained an open city with suburbs and gardens stretching out for miles along the great roads. 2 1 The fortress (arr) built on Mount Janicuhts, on the right bank of the river, to protect the passage across, had no con- nection with the older wall of the city. 2 The older division of the city (dating as is supposed from the time of the kings) into the fourregiones Suburana, Pala- tum, Esquilina, Collina, answered to the four city tribes : the Capitolium and the Aventinus, occupied by Latin colonists, were excluded in this division. The division of the extended city for political purposes into fourteen regiones took place in the time of Augustus. 222. For a. — When the hollows between the hills had been drained by means of sewers (cloacae) — likewise in the times of the last kings — the so-called Forum Romanum became the centre of city intercourse and of political life (comitia tributa). This was an open place of irregular form, 250 paces long by from 30 to 60 broad, paved with freestone and surrounded with covered porticoes. Here stood the oldest sanctuaries, after the temple of Capitoline ix] ITALIA. 233 Jupiter : the temples of Saturnus, of Janus, of Castor and Pollux (aedes Castorum), of Vesta with the Regia (the official residence of the Pontifex Maximus), as well as the Senate House, the Curia Hostilia, with the space in front of it, the Comitium, reserved for the meetings (Comitia Curiata) of the Patricians and raised above the Forum. At the edge of the Comitium, towards the Forum, was the orator's tribune (suggestum, afterwards called rostra from the prows of conquered ships which were brought to adorn it). As population and business grew, covered halls for the exercise of justice, which had formerly been administered in the open air on the Forum, were raised within its precincts, after an example set by Cato (Basilica Porcia, built in 184 B.C.). These buildings were called basilicae, after their prototype, the o-roa ftaaiXiicrj at Athens. The largest and handsomest of those built in the Forum, the Basilicae J^ulia and Aemilia, were completed under Augustus. Later on, in the quarter of the town adjoining on the east, and which in earlier times had been closely built upon, there arose in consequence of the increase of business a row of open places (fora) surrounded by porticoes, and containing Basilicae and Temples, which after their founders received the names Forum Caesaris, Augusti, Vespasiani, Nervae, Trajani. 223. Next to the sites of the Fora the greatest transforma- tions of the ancient city in imperial times were wrought on the Palatine Hill, whose northern slope towards the Forum was much in request among wealthy householders even in the latter days of the Republic. After Augustus the re- sidences of the Imperial family which had been built here were continually added to and extended over the whole hill as far as its southern slope (by Septimius Severus). Hence the altered meaning of P a 1 a t i u m. 1 After the great fire in Nero's time these extensions of the imperial palaces reached as far as the western part of the Esquiline hill (domus aurea 234 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Ncronis), but they were afterwards replaced by the public buildings of the Flavian Emperors, the Baths (Thermae) of Titus, the Amfhiiheatrum Flavium (vulg. Coliseum). Besides this amphitheatre the popular love of pleasure was served even probably from the times of the kings by the Circus, which occupied the whole length and breadth of the " Myrtle-valley " (vallis Murcid). Races were held there in the first instance between temporary rows of wooden seats on the slopes of the Palatine and Aventine hills, and it was not till Caesar's time that the place was converted into a fine stone building, the largest in the whole city, and there- fore afterwards, when other such buildings had sprung up in more distant parts of the city, called Circus Maximus. Similar colossal masses of building existed in Imperial times almost exclusively in the suburbs adjoining the very closely built ancient city. Such were the fortified headquarters of the body-guard {Castra Praetoria) and later the Thermae, 2 which besides the bathing saloons and swimming tanks contained roomy playgrounds, gardens, and the like ; the largest of these were those of Antoninus Carcalla on the south and of Diocletian on the north-east of the city. Besides these we must mention that in the last centuries of the Republic, and more particularly under the Emperors, the low plain, frequently under water, on the Tiber, in the north-west of the city, which earlier had been set aside for military exercises, and was therefore called Campus M a r t i u s, was occupied with a row of public edifices which made it one of the most beautiful parts of the town. Among these were a second circus (C. Flaminius, built as early as 220 B.C.), three permanent theatres, the first of which was built in 55 B.C. by Pompeius (up to that time temporary wooden structures had probably served the purpose), the so-called Septa, halls for the voting of the centuries, a number of temples surrounded with porticoes, rooms, gardens, &c, and the like. IX.] ITALIA. • 235 1 To the Emperor's private property belonged also the villas and parks which had been laid out on the higher hill to the north of the city (called Pincius after the fifth century A.D.J by the grandees of the latter days of the Republic, Pompeius, Lucullus, Sallustius, and others. To these the hill owed the name collis hortorum. 2 The oldest of these baths is that of Agrippa on the Campus Martius in connection with the beautiful temple, the so-called Pantheon, which alone is in almost complete preservation at the present time. 224. Later City-Walls, Bridges, Aqueducts, and Harbours. — It was in consequence of the inroads of bands of German warriors into Italy that between 271 and 276 a.d., under Aurelian and Probus, the now extended city was surrounded with a new wall of defence (for the most part still existing), the gates in which, as given in the plan (Plate IX. of my Ancient Atlas) were called after the high roads which led through them. Communication with the smaller part of the city, the ancient suburb on the right bank of the Tiber beneath Mt. Janiculus, was in old times kept up across the island in the centre of the stream by means of a wooden bridge {pons sub- licius). The first bridge on stone pillars was the pons Aemilius built in 179 B.C. Most of the bridges, espe- cially those leading from the Campus Martius to the garden suburbs of Mons Vaticanus, date from Imperial times. The want of a sufficient water supply in the tufa of the city hills could only be met by aqueducts to bring water from the more distant mountain regions. Of these the most ancient {Aqua Appia, 312 B.C., eight Roman miles long, and Anio Vetus, 273 B.C., forty- three Roman miles) were entirely subterranean, while the later ones were partly, and especially in passing through cross-valleys supported on stone or brick piers and generally kept at a higher level. Such were Aqua Marcia, 144 B.C., sixty-two Roman miles, Tepula, 127 B.C., Julia, 33, and Virgo, 20 B.C., the last two 236 ANCIENT GEOGRAFHY. [chap. being both constructed by Agrippa. Those called Claudia and Anio novus, sixty miles in length, were the loftiest of all. The city domain strictly included the harbours at the mouth of the Tiber, which after their destruction by the overflowings of the river about the end of the Roman Empire came to lie between two and three miles further inland. These were Ostia, the most ancient, which was used even under the kings, and Portus Augusti, founded by Claudius at the opening of the northern arm of the river mouth, and extended by Trajan. (Hence the via and porta Porttiensis.) 225. Latium vetus (the territory of the Prisci- L a t i n i) was the plain which encircles the isolated group of the Alban hills, and which was probably inhabited by Sieiili (§ 204) before the Latins took possession of it. Herein lay the federal sanctuaries of the Latin people, the lucus Ferentinae at the foot, the temple of Jupit;r Latiaris on the summit of Mans Albanus, and in ancient times had stood, on the lake which bears its name, the town of Alba 1 (Longa), the political centre of the district, a position which after its destruction passed over to its neighbour town Aricia. More important in extent of territory and popula- tion was T u s c u 1 u m, lying 2,200 feet ap on the ridge of the northern boundary wall of the Alban group, Mons Algidus, frequently mentioned in the Aequine Wars of the Romans. This was the first Latin town to enter (in 3S1 B.C.) into permanent alliance with Rome (as a municipiuni). On the southern slope of the mountain towards the Pontine plain lay a town of some note, V e 1 i t r a e, now Velletri, of old Latin origin, though occupied in the fifth century b.c. by Volscians. Still more important, owing to the natural strength of their position at the entrance to the valleys which open out eastward from the Aequine mountains to the plain, were Tibur (now Tivoli) and Praeneste (now Pales- ix.] ITALIA. 237 trina, at a height of 2,500 feet) with its celebrated Temple of Fortune. The town of S i g n i a (now Segni), lying up among the south-eastern mountains on the Volscian border, was one of the oldest of Roman colonies, and belonged throughout to Latin territory. Most of the thirty towns of the Latin League which lay in the plain and among the hills remained, on the other hand, of no importance and existed in imperial times only as village communities ; if they were not wholly obliterated as were Lanuvium (now Civjta Lavinia), Lavi- nium, Ardea, Corioli, Collatia, Gabii. To the north of the Anio (which did not till Augustus' division of the city into regiones become the boundary towards Sabine territory) lay a few old Latin towns, such as Crustumerium, Nbmentum (now Mentana), and especially Fidenae, which long formed part of the territory of Veii and served as an Etruscan outpost on the left bank of the Tiber. 1 The suburban town which sprang up on the Via Appia near the lake towards the end of the Roman Republic, and was greatly extended under the Empire, received the name Albanum (now Albano), as standing on the site of ancient Alba. 226. Aequi. — These inhabitants of the north-eastern mountain district, neighbours and probably very close kins- men of the Sabines, had in the wars of the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. repeatedly attempted to extend their territory over the Latin plain, and still possessed, when in 304 they were finally subdued by Roman armies and annexed to Latium, more than forty fortified though very small towns. Of these we need only mention Carsioli (ruins near the modern Carsoli) and especially Alba, surnamed Fucens or Fucentia from its commanding the northern edge of Lake Fucinns (§ 219), and therewith the main road into the Sam- nite mountains. The Romans accordingly on coming into possession of it immediately placed there a strong Roman colony (ruins now called Albe). 238 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Hernici. — This tribe, likewise closely related to the Sabines, occupied the broad valley which is watered by the Tolerus or Trerus (now Tolero or Sacco), a tributary of the Liris, and the spurs of the Apennines which rise from it on the north. This district was reckoned as part of Ancient Latium, as was also the great high road, called the Via Latina, which runs eastward through the main valley, when once the Hernican state as early as the beginning of the fifth century had allied itself by treaty to the Romano- Latin League. It consisted of at least five cities of moderate size, whose names, and circumference walls com- posed of colossal blocks of rock, have been completely preserved : Anagnia (probably the centre of the League), Ferentinutn, Frusino, Aletrium, Verulae, now Anagni, Ferentino, Frosinone, Alatri, and VerSli. 227. Volsci. — In the territory of this people, at the time of their hostile relations with the Roman Republic, besides the isolated mountain region which stretches down to the coast by Tarracina, now commonly called the Volscian Mountains, there were included also the two plains which these mountains sever from one another. Firstly, the eastern plain on the Upper Liris, which together with the bordering spurs of the Apennines seems to have formed the original seat of the Volscians, but was afterwards con- quered by the Samnites, and being torn from them by the Romans in 345 and 305 B.C. was consequently annexed to New L a t'i u m. Secondly, the western plain on the sea, occupied for the most part by the Pontine Marshes, which must be regarded as part of Latium Vetus. In the latter plain the Volscians, after the downfall of the Latin capital, Alba, extended their borders as far as Velitrac (§ 225). Between 420 and 390 this stretch of country, with the old Latin towns Cora, Norba, Setia, Privemum, Tarracina or Anxur (now Cori, Norma, Sezze, Piperno, Terracina), was reconquered by Rome, though it was not IX.] ITALIA. 239 till 338 that the most powerful of the Volscian cities, the port of Antium (Porto d' Anzo), held in ancient times by the Etruscans, fell into her hands. The mountain towns of the valley of the Liris have also retained their ancient names almost unchanged : Sora, Arfiinum (birthplace of Marius and of Cicero), Atina, Aquinum, Casinum, Fabrateria, now Sora, Arpino, Atina, Aquino, Montecasino, Falvaterra. Fregellae, once one of the greatest of Volscian towns, has per- ished (it probably stood on the site of the high-lying modern Arce, i.e. Arx Fregellana) ; after its destruction in the uprising of 125 B.C. the derived name Fregellanum passed on to an insignificant place in the plain, the modern Ceprano. 228. Aurunci (Gr. Avcroves, cf. § 204). — This people, in ancient times, that is before the Etruscan conquest, more widely spread over Campania, were found by the Romans, when in 357 they joined the Republic, in possession of the stretch of coast beyond the Volscian Mountains and about the mouth of the Liris. This region, remarkable for its mild climate and great fertility, formed afterwards the southern portion of Latium Novum or Adjectum. Among its towns the largest was Minturnae (ruins near Traetto) ; Sinu- essa (now Mondragone) has perished ; the remainder, in- cluding Formiae (which has lately resumed its title in place of that hitherto in use, Mola di Gaeta), have preserved their ancient names, as Fundi, Caieta, Suessa, now Fondi, Gaeta, and Sessa. During the last century of the Republic the whole sea-coast was occupied by the villas of wealthy Romans. The marshy ager Caecubus near Fundi, and the slopes of the volcanic Mt. Massicus belong to the most famous wine-growing districts of Italy. 229; Samnium. — The general name of the Sabine or Sabellian people was transferred, as they pushed their way to the south-east, to the region, at times stretching from sea to sea, which was called by the natives Savinim, by the Latins Samnium, by the Greeks %avviov; whence again the 240 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. derivative forms Samnites, 2 a. witch, applied to the people. The individual cantons in this region, having only a loofe political connection with one another, bore separate tribal names. The northern hill and coast district inhabited by the Frentani, with the narrow parallel valleys of the Sagrus, Trinius, Tifernus, Frento (now Sangro, Trigno, Biferno, Fortore), and the small towns Ortona, Anxanum. Larinum (now Ortona, Lanciano, Larino), was quite early separated from the rest of Samnium, and during the Samnite War (in 319 B.C.) was dependent on Rome. The waters drained by broad and in some degree level valleys from the lofty mountain region, which includes only a part of central Samnium about the sources of the rivers above mentioned, and from its lower continuation to the south-east, which is traversed by the old road of communi- cation between the two seas, are united on the southern slopes through the Calor, Tamarus, and Sabatus, into the one main stream of the Voltunius (the modern Calore, Tamaro, Sabbato, and Volturno). This region was inhabited by the most powerful of Samnite tribes, the P e n t r i and the Hirpini, who more than once fought single-handed against Rome. Near them were two insignificant peoples who make no appearance in history, the Caraceni on the north-western, the Caudini 1 on the south-western border. The most important town in the whole country, from its position at the point of junction of several large valleys, was the Hirpine capital Maluentum, whose name was changed to Beneventum when in 268 B.C. it was occu- pied by a Roman colony. The following towns in the country round have also retained their ancient names, Aufidena, Aesernia, Bovianum, Saepinum, Vena/rum, Allifae, Telesia, Abellinum, Compsa, Aqirilonia (now Benevento, Castel del Sangro near Alfidena, Isernia, Bojano, Altilia near Se- pino, Venafro, Allife, Telese, Avellino, Conza, Lacedogna.) IX.] ITALIA. 241 1 After their capital, Caudium (now Montesarchio), the pass which became celebrated for the capture of the Roman army in 321 B.C., and which leads through the mountains to the Cam- panian plain, was called Furculae Caudinae (" Caudine Forks "). 230. Campania. — This name was originally given to the coast plain watered by the Volturnus in its lower course. Under Roman dominion the name was extended to the volcanic hill country of the southern coast surrounded by the plain and with Vesuvius as its centre, and even to the far loftier mountainous peninsula to the south-east which repeats the limestone formation of the Apennines. The oldest Greek name for this region was 'Oiracrj, country of the Opsci or Osci, after a native name meaning " peasant " applied to the population, which was hardly at all distinct from the Ausones or Aurunci (§ 228). Probably soon after 600 B.C. they were subdued by Etruscan invaders who established here a league of twelve cities (cf. § 214) and ruled the land for nearly two centuries. Between 440 and 420 B.C. came Samnite invaders, who henceforth called themselves Campani (Samnitis of the plain), and in 343 recognized the supremacy of the Roman Republic. The Republic in its turn appropriated the most fertile part of the plain as ager publicus, and founded there strong colonies of Roman citizens, through which the country became in a short time so completely Latinized that by the beginning of Imperial times the Oscan dialect only existed in the mouths of the peasants. The capital Capua (now S. Maria di Capua) lay near the slopes of the Apennines but still in the open plain, and was fortified by strong walls six Roman miles in circum- ference. From Etruscan times down to its destruction in the Second Punic War it was the most populous town in all Italy, and became again the second after Rome, when it had been restored and turned into a colony by Caesar. Its extensive territory formed the ager Campanus in its strict R 242 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap- sense, and included many populous but dependent towns, such as Casilinum (a strong fortress at the passage of the Volturnus, which has appropriated the name of Capua since the middle ages), Atella (near the modern Aversa), Acerrae (Acerra), Calatia, Suessula, and others. To Capuan terri- tory belonged moreover the ager Falernns, a region rising into low hills on the north side of the Volturnus, and celebrated for its wine. On the other hand the adjoining towns of T e a n u m and C a 1 e s (now Teano, Calvi) on the higher hills, and inhabited by an offshoot of the Auruncan people under the name of Sidicini, remained independent. The towns lying in the south-eastern comer of the plain, on the upper Clanius and the Samus, N o 1 a, which stood next to Capua and after its fall became the greatest town in Campania, as well as A b e 1 1 a and N u c e r i a (surnamed Alfaterna to distinguish it from the Umbrian town of the same name), likewise remained independent of Capua, and were united in a political confederation (now Nola, Avella Vecchia and Nocera). 231. Greek Colonie s. — On the volcanic islands and peninsulas, abounding in harbours and most advantageously situated for the settlements of sea-faring peoples, Ionic Greeks from Chalkis in Euboea had planted themselves for purposes of commerce in very early times (in the eleventh century B.C. according to a not very probable tradition), and possibly even Phoenicians had been there before them. The island of Aenaria or Pithekussa (now Ischia) was the first spot to be occupied, and then on the opposite peninsula was built the town of K y m e" (Lat. Cumae), where Greek speech and manners held their own even after its conquest by the Samnites in 420 B.C. 1 Its territory embraced at that time the whole circumference of the Cuman Gulf which bore its name, and especially the so-called Phlegraean (" scorched ") fields as far as Vesuvius. Along this stretch of coast new cities sprang up as new colonists came in from Greece. Dikaearchia, IX] ITALIA. 243 called in Italian Puteoli, was built in 520 B.C. by Ionians from Samos (in Roman times, owing to the lack of harbours on the coasts of Latium, it was largely used as a seaport for the capital itself, and so became populous and wealthy ; now Pozzuoli), who, with the aid of Athenian exiles, afterwards founded Neapolis (its older name is supposed to have been Parthenope), the youngest Greek city on these coasts, but the only one which maintained its independence, not merely against the Samnites, but even in its relations with the Roman Republic (from 326 onwards). To its territory belonged in early times, and again under Augustus, the island of Aenaria, and down to Augustus' time the rocky islet of Capreae (now Capri). The Osco-Etruscan cities on the coast must also be regarded as half Greek ; such as Herculaneum and Pompeii at the very foot of Mt. Vesuvius, whose destruction by the first historically authenticated eruption of the volcano in 79 a.d. is well known, and, on the south-eastern peninsula, Surrentum and Salernum (now Sorrento, Salerno). The latter, with its coast plain as far as the River Silarus, was still during the second Samnite War in possession of the Samnites, whose territory extended at that time from sea to sea. After the overthrow of Picenum by the Romans in 268 B.C., a number of its inhabitants were settled in this district, having for their chief place a town which received the name Picentia (now Vicenza), while the district was called ager Picentinus. I The ancient harbour of Kyme, the Lake Lucrinus, which was almost completely separated from the sea by a dam of basaltic rock, was under Augustus connected with the neighbouring and wholly isolated crater of Lake Avernus, and so con- verted into a naval harbour, the portus Julius (again cut off from the sea by the volcanic eruption of 1538). At the same time a second and larger naval port, the portus Misenus, was constructed in the bay formed by the southernmost rocky promontory of the peninsula, the promunturium Misenum, and formerly uninhabited on account of its scarcity of water. R 2 244 ' ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap: The shore between these two ports, containing several hot sulphur springs, formed in Roman Imperial times, under the name of Baiae, a much frequented bathing resort, and was adorned with numerous villas of the great Romans. LOWER ITALY. 232. Iapygia or Apulia. — The plains which lie between the Samnite Mountains and the Adriatic Sea, and are watered by the Cerbalus and Aufidus (Cervaro, Ofanto), as well as their higher rocky waterless continuation through the south-eastern peninsula, were inhabited in Greek and Roman times by several small tribes of Illyrian stock, who went by the collective name of TaTi-vyes, Apuli. The greater number of these adopted the Greek language, manners, and style of art, from the neighbouring Greek city of Taras (Tarentum). Among such we may name the two kingdoms which existed here until the fifth century B.C., of the D a u n i in the north-western plain, and the P o e d i- c u 1 i, or as the Greeks called them LT en kIt tot, in the central hill country. In the former was the old city of A r p i (ruins of Arpa near Foggia), one of the largest in Italy, and others which remained independent until the Romans took complete possession of the country in 317 B.C. : Teanum, Canusium (Canosa), Ausculum (or Asculwn Apu- lum, now Ascoli), Luceria (Lucera), Venusia (the birthplace of Horace, now Venosa), Cannae, famous for its battle, and on the low coast Salapia (ruins of Salpi), and Siponlum (near Manfredonia), beneath the oak-clad limestone mass of Mt. Garganus. P e u k e t i a contained, besides the port of Barium (Bari), only unimportant places along the coast, the interior con- sisting mostly of unproductive stony pasture grounds, whose chief product was its fine and highly-prized sheep's wool. 233. Calabria or Messapia. — The low rocky eastern peninsula, more productive of vines and excellent olives IX.] ITALIA. 24s than of corn, was by Roman usage excluded from Apulia, though the Greeks reckoned it part of Iapygia. It seems repeatedly to have received an accession of native population across the sea from Illyria, so that the national language maintained itself here alongside of the Greek, after the Romans had completed their occupation in 266 B.C., and down to imperial times. The national names which occur in this peninsula, Messapii, Calabri, Sallentini, probably referred originally to individual tribes or cantons, and were then without distinction used to designate the whole country and its inhabitants. Among the numerous small towns Brundisium (Gr. BpevTeo-iov, now Brindisi) alone, owing to its excellent natural harbour basin, almost the only one on the west coast of the Adriatic, attained real importance in intercourse between Italy and Greece. It was accordingly in 244 B.C. occupied by a Roman colony. The south coast of the peninsula possesses a no less remarkable harbour on the so-called Tarantine Gulf, in the ancient city of Tar as (Tapas, gen. Tapairos, Lat T a r e n t u m), which lay on a low, narrow, and rocky tongue of land almost completely enclosing a lake-like basin. Occupied by Dorians from Laconia in 708 B.C., it soon grew into the most flourishing trading and manu- facturing town of Lower Italy. The smaller Greek seaports on the Messapian coast were dependent on it : Kallipolis within the Gulf, and Hydruntum CYSpovs, 'YSpoCi'Tos) on the outer strait of the Adriatic, now Gallipoli and Otranto. 234. Magna Graecia. — The westernmost of the two Italian peninsulas runs out far to the south, and unlike the eastern peninsula is occupied almost entirely by lofty moun- tains. Since the middle ages it has borne the name of Calabria. When the Greeks first made acquaintance with its coasts it was inhabited by various tribes, among which at least the Chaones or Chones on the coast of the 246 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Tarantine Gulf, and probably also the Oenotri on the west coast, and their Iapygian neighbours, were of Illyrian descent. Besides these, in the southern portion of the peninsula the remnant of the S i c u 1 i or S i k e 1 i, who had mostly passed over into Sicily, and especially the I tali or Italietes, 1 who gave Italy its name, are cited as the most ancient inhabitants (cf. § 204). These comparatively weak tribes were gradually subdued by the Greek colonists (chiefly of Achaeo-Aeolian origin), who arrived in great numbers during the eighth century B.C., and so completely assimilated that the whole country in the time of its highest prosperity, the sixth and fifth centuries B.C., was regarded as one in Greek speech and manners, and received the name of peydXri 'EAAas (MagnaGraecia, Gr. major). This Greek supremacy was checked and confined to a few individual small states by the inroads of Samnite scans under the name of Lucani (Acwavoi), which took place about 400 B.C. or shortly before. Down to the middle of the fourth century almost the whole peninsula as far as the Strait was subdued by them. The southern half however, where the original Hellenized population largely preponderated in numbers, split off and formed the new state of the Bruttii (B per not), while the Lucanian name was henceforth limited to the northern and broader part of the country between the two seas. Lucania, about 300 B.C., joined the Roman Republic, which, after occupying the Greek cities of the coast, subdued also in 272 the Bruttians of the interior. Under Roman rule the penin- sula was, as it is now, a country thinly populated, little cultivated, and doomed to decay. Inland it is covered with vast pinewoods, especially on Mount Si/a (now Aspromonte). 1 This must be distinguished from the name 'IraXiwTai, which only designates the Greeks who dwelt in the original and narrower It^-ly. ix.] ITALIA. 247 235. Lucania. — The coast towns are entirely of Greek origin. On the Tyrrhenian sea was Poseidonia, once the remotest town in the domain of Sybaris. When Sybaris fell it became independent, but after its conquest by the Lucanians about 400 B.C. it became known only under its Italian name P a e s t u m (celebrated for its ruined temples). Velia, Gr. Ye A. 17 or 'EAe'a was founded about 540 by Ionians from Phokaea, P y x u s, Lat. Buxentum (Policastro di Busento), about 467 by Ionians from Rhegion ; Laos, on the river of like name (now La'ino), was an Achaean settlement from Sybaris. On the Tarantine Gulf was Metapontion (Lat. Metapontuvi), which arose about 700, and was the northernmost of Achaean settlements. To the same period belonged S i r i s, founded by Ionians from Kolophon. After its destruction by the Achaeans (before 500 B.C.) and a long struggle for the possession of this very fruitful country, H e r a k 1 e i a was built in the same region in 432, jointly by the people of Tarentum and Thurii as a new federal capital for the whole body of the Italiotes. All these communities, built on a coast devoid of harbours and subsisting only by tillage, had already disappeared by imperial times. Among the numerous Osco-Lucanian towns in the moun- tains of the interior, 1 only Grumentum (ruins near Saponara) and Potentia (Potenza) lying in broad valleys were of any importance. 1 This mountain region is watered on the west by the Silarus with the Calor a.r\d Tanager, now Sele, Calore, Tanagro; on the east by the Bradanus, Casuenius, Acalandrus, Aciris, Siris or Simnus, now Bradano, Basiento, Salandrella, Agri, and Sinno. 236. Bruttii. — The interior contains only one broad valley, that of the Krathis (Crati), in whose upper plain the Bruttii founded their capital, Consentia (Cosenza). All the remaining towns of any importance were on the coast, and inhabited by Greeks. 248 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Sybaris, founded about 720 B.C. by Achaeans and Troezenians in the very fertile lower valley of the Krathis, held sway at the height of its prosperity, when it was regarded as the wealthiest city of the whole Greek West, even over the west coast of the later Lucania, ruling in all four different peoples and twenty-five cities, until in 510 B.C. it was conquered by the people of Croton and completely destroyed. On its site was founded in 443, under Athenian direction, the new joint Hellenic colony of Thurii (®ovpioi, or ®ovpia). This, however, could not withstand the Lucanian conquest of the whole surrounding region, and, being occupied by the Romans as early as 282, was forced in 194 to admit into its walls the Latin colony of Copia. The city never attained great prosperity, and has perished without a trace. Croton (now Cotrone), founded in 710 also by the Achaeans, possessed a large territory down to the Lucanian conquest. To it belonged the ancient Oenotrian towns, Petelia, Skylakion (Squillace), and Temesa or Tempsa celebrated for its copper mines. The cities of K a u 1 o n i a and Terina, which likewise had their origin in Croton, raised themselves into independent Achaean communities. Lokri, called Zevpioi, or 'Eiri^cjjvpioi, after the neighbouring Zephyrian promontory, was a settlement dating from 675 of the western Lokrians, of Aeolic descent. Its domain extended over the wooded Mount Sila to the west coast, where lay the cities of Medma or Mesma (the river is still called Mesima) and H i p p o n i o n. The latter eventually asserted its independence and became a Roman colony under the Oscan name Vibo Valentin (now Bivona). Owing to the possession of the only good harbour on these coasts it had some maritime trade, while the remaining towns, even the largest, being wholly without harbours, depended on agriculture and industries alone. Rhegion, on the strait itself, was the oldest city in IX.] ITALIA. 249 Magna Graecta, having been founded by Ionians from Chalkis in Euboea in 725. In consequence of the Messe- nian war it received a strong accession of exiles from that country, and formed for a time, under the tyrant Anaxilas (495-476), the centre of a dominion which embraced also the • Messenian district in Sicily. Owing to its favourable position for commerce it maintained itself down to Roman times, and even to this day (when it is still called Reggio) enjoys moderate prosperity. ITALIAN ISLANDS. 237. Sicilia. — This island, owing to its triangular form, running out into the capes Peloron (C. di Faro), Pachynon (C. Passera), Lilybaeon (C. Boeo), was called by the Greeks TpivaKpia (poet. ®pivaKia). It is for the most part filled with limestone ridges of moderate height, descending sheer on the north, but sloping gently towards the south ; to the north-east these ridges abut against a higher granite range (Ne- /3pw8ri optj, the highest peak Maroneus, now Monte Madonia, 6,400 feet), while in the east they are overshadowed by the isolated crater of Aetna (Gr. fern. 19 Airvrj), which rises from a base of roo square miles to a height of 10,800 feet. At its south foot lies the only large plain in the island, the Aauo-rpvyoviov ireSiov, very fertile and watered by the Symaethos, almost the only perennial stream, for the re- maining watercourses which cut deep into the mountain and hill region, even the larger ones, which are designated as rivers, the two Himerae, the Halykos, and others, are completely dried up in the height of summer when no rain falls. In winter, however, when rain is abundant, even the higher ridges are extremely productive in wheat (Sicily in the later centuries of the Republic was the "granary of Rome "). Its historic names %iKaia-Tov, Vulcani insula, also called ©ep/iecro-a from its springs of hot sulphureous water ; now Volcano. The largest island, and that on which there has been most building, L i p a r k (now Lipari), alone bore a town, founded by Dorians from Rhodes and Cnidus in 580 B.C. The islands as a whole belonged to its domain, and were therefore called at t£>v Ki.ira.pai.uiv vrjcroi. 1 Malta was the only point in the Western Mediterranean where the manufacture of cotton was practised in antiquity (the vestes melitenses of the Romans). 243. Sardinia, Gr. SapSw, was wrongly supposed by the ancients to be the largest island in the Mediterranean. In the east it is filled with jagged limestone mountains, whose peaks however do not exceed 6,000 feet (among them were the monies insani, so called from the storms that were dreaded on the dangerous rocky coasts), in the west with separate and partially volcanic groups of mountains. Between these lay extensive and very fertile plains, but, from their marshy character, breeding fever. Large gangs of convicts were introduced in Roman times to cultivate them. The oldest inhabitants seem to have been of Iberian (or, according to other authorities, Libyan) stock. They maintained themselves among the mountains unmixed and practically independent down to Roman times. After the Etruscans, who quite early occupied particular points on the coast which abounded in metals, the whole coast at least of the island passed into the hands of the Carthaginians, who put an end to the several Greek attempts at colonization. The Roman provincial capital was the Phoenician colony of C a r a, 1 i s (now Cagliari). The most important Phoenician 256 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. settlements beside were Sulci on the island which lies off the south-west coast (now Isola St. Antioco) and Turn's Libyssonis (now Porto Torres). Neapolis and Olbia (Nabui and Terranova) were probably, as their name implies, of Greek origin. 244. Corsica, Gr. Kvpvos (probably the old Phoenician name, Keren, i.e. " horn "), whose Italian name was derived from its inhabitants, the Ligurian tribe of Corsi, who dwelt also on the north coast of Sardinia, possesses on its western side lofty mountains, in antiquity abounding in excellent timber (Mons Aureus, M. d'Oro, 8,500 feet), while the eastern side consists of marshy coast plain. Here arose the first town settlement, Alalia (later on, as Aleria it was the capital of the island), first of all founded, about 560, by Ionians from Phocaea, who in 544 were driven out by the Etruscans. These worked the metallic resources of the island, until between 259 and 231 it was captured by the Romans, and a new colony, Mariana, besides Aleria, was founded by C. Marius. The island was administered under the praetor of Sardinia. CHAPTER X. WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. HISPAN1A. 245. Natural Features. — The south-western pen- insula of Europe closely resembles that of Asia Minor, but differs from those of Greece and Italy, in having its centre filled with lofty table-lands (1,000-3,000 feet), falling away in short slopes to the coast edges, which are only in parts accompanied by plains. Hence even the greater river- courses are only navigable for short distances, while the X.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 257 high-lying interior is rugged and ill watered. The main mountain chains run from east to west, parting from one another and from the northern and southern coasts the great river districts. No more in antiquity than now, were there collective names for these ranges. The names Ilipula (now Sierra Nevada, peak 11,700 feet) in the south, Vindias or Vinnius in the north, Orosfieda and Idubeda in the east, denote only individual ridges rising for a short distance to a greater height than those around. The only mountain chain which since ancient times has borne a general name is that of the Pyrenees (II vp-qvala oprf), which is entirely separated from the central highlands by the valley of the Iberus (Lat. also Hiberus, "Ifi-qp, Ebro). Parallel with the Ebro several smaller river-valleys run S.E. to the Medi- terranean : those of the Turis, now Turia (or by the Arabic name Guadalaviar) ; Sucro, now Jucar ; Tader, now Segura. The remaining streams of any size descend in a parallel W.S.W. direction from the highest plateau elevation (3,000- 4,000 feet) in the eastern half of the peninsula to the Atlantic Ocean, the valleys through which they flow rising gradually from the plain in the south to the highlands in the north ; these are those of the B a e t i s, now Guadalquivir (Arabic name = "Great river"), Anas, Guadiana, Tag us, Span. Tajo, Port. Tejo, Durius, Span. Duero, Port. Douro, and lastly the M i n i u s, Mino or Minho, which rises in the north- western mountain spurs. The districts on the Atlantic coast, especially those to the north, enjoy a plentiful rainfall and luxuriant vegetation ; on the south coast rain falls only in winter ; while the highlands of the interior, having a rude and waterless climate, here and there completely assume the steppe character, and as they contain but a small extent of cultivable soil have always been far less thickly populated than the coast districts. 246. Population. History. — The Greeks of Mas- salia, who were the first to circumnavigate the Mediterranean s 258 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chai>. coasts of the peninsula, found as far up as the Iberus a population mingled with Ligurian tribes, while further on it was distinct from these tribes in point of language, having a uniform language of its own. To this population they transferred the name of Iberi ( v I/3ijpes), originally given to the people dwelling on that river, and hence afterwards called the whole interior of the country Iberia. The name of "West Country," 'Eo-n-ep/a, originally of wider application and including Italy, was still in use side by side with Iberia, at least in poetic parlance, and from this appears to have come the name H i s p a n i a, commonly used in Italy for the whole peninsula. It was not till later that some of the races of the interior and the west became known, who differed from the Iberians in physical formation and in language. These belonged to the great Keltic nation, and had made their way across the western Pyrenees before the beginning of historic tradition (though probably not earlier than the fifth century B.C.). By the Greeks they were sometimes called simply KeA.-n.Koi {Celtici), and some- times, on account of their strong admixture with the original inhabitants, KeXn'/J^/Des (Celtiberi). Like the Iberian tribes, they bore no common national name. The conquests of foreign powers, confined in early days to the occupation of a few points on the coast, began in 237 B.C. with the campaigns of Hamilcar Barcas, who converted the southern half of the peninsula into a Cartha- ginian province. In 218 there ensued the Roman conquest, which was carried out in the interior by a victory over the Keltiberi in 179, in the west by the subdual of Lusitania in 138, but not finally brought to an end on the north coast till under Augustus in 25 B.C. To this gradual course of conquest corresponds the organization of the newly acquired province. In the time of the Republic it consisted of Hispania citerior (the east coast and the interior) and ulterior (the south, and later also the west); X.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 259 Augustus split up the latter into the two provinces of Baetica and Lusitania, while under Hadrian the north-western province of Gallaecia-Asturia was constituted as an offshoot from Hispania citerior, or, as it was usually called after Augustus' time from its new capital, Tarraconensis. As subdivisions of the provinces we hear only of those into convenlus juridici for purposes of jurisdiction. 247. Baetica. — The wide fertile and thickly populated plain through which flows the Baetis was known, as a country distinct from Iberia proper, to the ancient Greeks under the name TapTjjcro-o's, to its earlier discoverers, the Phoenicians, under the name T a r s h 1 s h. Both appear to be inflexions of the native name of the inhabitants, Turti, who were divided into the two great tribes of the Turdetani in the upper, and T u r d ii 1 i in the lower district. They were distinguished from the rest of the Iberians by a very ancient civilization and a want of warlike spirit, in conse- quence, no doubt, of the supremacy of the Phoenicians which was first established in their country. The most ancient settlement of this commercial people on the coast of this country, rich in natural products and precious metals, was Gadir (i.e. " the fortress," ra TdBeipa, Lat. Gades, now Cadiz), founded about 1100 B.C. on a small island lying off the coast close to the mouth of the Baetis. This town maintained its independence against the younger and more powerful Carthage, and as it passed over to the side of the enemies of its rival preserved even in the Roman province a very independent position and its ancient Semitic nationality. Up stream the Baetis is navigable as far as H i s p a 1 or H i s p a 1 i s (now Seville), which accordingly became a centre of commerce and the most populous town in the whole Baeti- can region. Close to it was founded by Scipio in 206 b.c. a military colony, Ilalica, from which point the whole country s 2 260 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. was speedily Romanized. In the territory of the Turdiiii the town of Corduba (now Cordova), lying higher up at the upper edge of the plain, where the river is only navigable by small vessels, was chosen from its central position as the residence of the Roman praetor of Hispania ulterior, and later of the legate of the province of Baetica. 1 Of less importance were the old Phoenician towns lying in the territory of the B a s t u 1 i on the Mediterranean coast, as Carteja on the strait, where in 171 B.C. was founded the first Latin colony outside Italy, close to the rock fortress of Calpe (Gibraltar), and those which lay at the southern foot of the mountains and depended chiefly on mining and fishing, as Malaca and Abdara (now Malaga, Adra). I There were in Baetica a very large number of towns. Of those which have preserved their ancient names, we may mention Auticaria now Antequera, Asido Sidonia, Astapa Estepa, Astigi Ecija, Carmo Carmona, Illiberis Elvira near Granada, Laus Loja, Nebrissct Lebrija. Sisapo, now Almaden (the Arabian for "mine"), was so called from a mine of quicksilver, the only one known to the ancients. The site of Munda, which became famous for the two battles fought there in 216 and 45 B.C., has not yet been identified with certainty. 248. Lusitania. — The very fertile stretch of western coast which lay between the Tagus and the Durius was occupied by the Lusitani, who under Viriathus (150-140 B.C.) became the most powerful people in the whole pen- insula. The new province which was constituted under Augustus, accordingly bore their name. Its ancient capita) was 1 i s i p o (Lisboa, Lisbon), which derived importance from its position on the mouth of the river Tagus being favourable for commerce. On political grounds, however, the very large colony of veterans, Emerita Augusta (now Merida), founded on the Anas by Augustus, rose to be the centre of administration. Closely connected with the Lusitani in the Roman wars, x.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 261 and therefore subdued with them and distributed into the same province, were the Vettones, who inhabited the higher and poorer country in the interior, which depends for its revenue principally on the breeding of fine sheep — the modern Spanish Estremadura. Their capital was Salmantica or Hermantica (Salamanca). The southern part of the province, which likewise con- sisted of poor and stony soil, and where Augustus founded a second colony, Pax Julia (now Beja), was in the hands of a tribe of Keltic invaders who lived principally a pastoral life, and are for the most part described simply as C e 1 1 i c i. The south coast, the region of the Cunetes or Conii (Kvv-qo-ioi) as far as the "sacred promontory," prom, sacrum (Cape St. Vincent), which was wrongly regarded by the ancients as the westernmost in the whole known world, belonged properly speaking to Turdetania, and was not separated from it until the distribution of provinces by Augustus. 249. Gallaecia-Asturia (the only regions which have preserved their ancient names, Galicia and Asturia). — This north-westernmost region of the peninsula, being filled with a complete system of wooded mountain ridges and narrow well-watered valleys, was divided politically into a large number of individual cantons with a lax federal connection (populi or civitates to use the Roman term). Of these 40 are named as among the Calla'ici and 20 among the Astures. Their submission to Roman rule followed naturally in 136-135 B.C. upon that of the Lusitanians, with whom they had up to that time been in very close relations. The whole region is rich in silver and tin mines, which were worked in quite ancient times. In the Roman provincial administration the 24 southern districts of the Callai'ci (this is the true form, which was Romanized into Gallaea), which open out towards the valley of the Durius, were subordinated to the colony of 262 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Bracara (now Braga) as their capital ; they were there- fore called collectively Gallaeci Bracarenses. 1 The inhabitants of the loftier northern hill and coast country received the designation of Gallaeci Lu censes after their administrative centre Lucus Augusti* (now Lugo), which, however, was not founded till the time of Augustus. Only the northern coast district of ancient Asturia, where the old name has been preserved, the territory of the Astiires transmontani, belongs to the zone of wooded mountains ; it has remained, however, down to modern times without any important towns. The political centre of the people, the town ofAsturica Augusta (now Astorga), lay in the larger and level southern part, which belongs to the arid and rugged plateau. Near to it was the Roman military station built by Vespasian, which bore only the name of the body of troops quartered there, the Legio VII. Gemina, and from which grew the mediaeval town of Leon. 1 The harbour of Bracara at the mouth of the Durius, the modern Porto, was called Calej from the conjunction of Portus Cale arose, as is known, the name of the kingdom of Portugal which spread from this point. 2 The Artabri or Arotrebae who inhabited the extreme north- western coast district are named as one of the Keltic tribes which settled permanently on Spanish soil. 250. Hispania Tarraconensis contained, even after the branching off of Gallaecia, half the whole area of the peninsula, but by far the least productive and least populous half. It was divided into four very extensive judicial districts (conventus) whose centres were the towns ol Carthago, Clunia, Caesaraugusta, and Tarraco. In the extreme south of the Mediterranean coast, in the territory of the Baste tani or Mastiani, the "new town," which bore the name of its metropolis in Africa, Carthago, and by the Romans was usually called A'ova X.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 263 Carthago, was built by Hamilcar Barcas immediately after the conquest of the region as a seat of administration, and surrounded with extremely strong fortifications. The shore here is stony, desolate, and waterless, but distinguished by the excellent harbour of the town, and the neighbourhood of the most productive silver mines in the whole ancient world. This town, the largest in so-called Hither Spain, still remained a provincial capital in the time of the Roman Republic (now Cartajena). The coast district of the Contestani, which adjoins on the north, consists for the most part, as far as its eastern- most promontories, of rugged mountains, at the foot of which only a few small but well watered plains around the towns of Ilici and Lucentum (Elche and Alicante) in the south, and Saetabis (JaUva) in the north, admit of better cultivation. In the more level and in parts extremely fertile coast territory of the E d e t a n i was built after the conquest of the Lusitani in 138 B.C., with colonists introduced from thence, the new town of Valentia, which first became important, as Valencia, in the middle ages. On the northern border lay the town of Saguntum (Murviedro, lately renamed Sagunto), famous for its defence against Hannibal in 218, and restored after the war by Roman aid. It's inhabitants included Greeks as well as Iberians. In the territory of the Ilercavones or Ilurga- vones, which comes next on the north, there was only the important town, D e r t o s a (Tortosa), at the mouth of the Iberus. Beyond, in the modern Catalonia, there stretches away to the Pyrenees a mountainous coast, devoid of harbours, which was in ancient times divided into a number of small tribal domains, those of the Cessetani, Laeetani, Ausetani, Jndigites, and others ; of towns there were but few, for the modern city of Barcelona was still an unimportant place, as the Roman Barcino. The origin of 264 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. the first town of any size was due to the extension of the primaeval rock fortress of Tarraco to the coast, a mile distant, and the construction of an artificial harbour by- Augustus, who placed here the seat of administration of the province of Hispania Citerior (now Tarragona). Close to the slopes of the Pyrenees, on the only good natural harbours, the Greeks of Massalia founded the two trading towns of Rhodae and Emporiae (now Rosas, Ampu- rias. originally an island, but long since become mainland by the silting up of the old harbour). 251. The interior of Hispania Tarraco- n e n s i s. — In the central highlands, about the sources of the Baetis and the Anas, lay the territory of the O r e t a n i with the capitals of Lamimum and Castillo (ruins Cazlona, near the famous silver mines, and the passes of the saltus Castulonensis, now Sierra Morena). In the central Tagus district were the Carpetani, one of the most powerful of Iberian peoples, who successfully resisted the Cartha- ginian generals ; their capital was Toletum (Toledo), a place of great natural strength. Lastly, in the centre of the Durius region were the V a c c a e i with the capital Pa- lantia, and the towns Cauca, Septimanca, and Rauda (now Palencia, Coca, Simancas, and Roa). The highest and most desolate plateaus about the sources of the Tagus and the Durius, where the soil is for the most part only adapted for pasturage, remained in the possession of the six so-called Keltiberian tribes, formed by the fusion of the conquering Keltic invaders with the Iberian aborigines. Among these the Pelendones with the capital Nitmantia (celebrated for its long defence against the Romans in 133 B.C. ; ruins near the modern Soria), and the A r e v a. c i with the towns Clunia, Segovia, Uxama, and Segontia (now Segovia, Osma, Siguenza) held the first place. Inland from the Mediterranean there dwelt in the valley x.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 265 of the Iberus the Ilergetes, whose stronghold Ilerda (Lerida) on the river Sicoris (Segre) played a prominent part in Caesar's operations against the adherents of Pom- peius. Their small town Salduba was raised by Augustus into a large colony and judicial centre under the name of Caesaraugusta (now Saragossa), while Osca (Huesca) became known from the silver mines in its neighbourhood, and as the head-quarters of Sertorius in his wars against the Romans. The upper part of the Iberus valley, the modern Navarre, was inhabited by the V as cones, whose chief place took the name Pompaelo (now Pampluna) in honour of Pompeius. This people, and the small tribes which adjoin them in the northern mountains as far as the coast of the Atlantic, form the only exception to the otherwise complete Romanizing of Spain, while within narrower borders they have preserved the old Iberian language, still called Basque after their ancient name. Their western neighbours on the north coast, the Cantabri, were first subdued by Augustus in 25 B.C., the last Spanish race to submit to Roman rule. 252. The Balearic Islands. — The name usually applied by the Greeks to this group of islands is Yv^vrjo-iai, though what the word means or to what language it belongs is not known ; the Iberian name seems to have been Baleares or Baliares. Its inhabitants are described as an extremely rude race, resembling the Libyans of Northern Africa. The whole group were probably occupied in quite early times by the Phoenicians, and then passed into the possession of Carthage, and so in 123 B.C. of Rome. The two eastern islands are distinguished, according to their size, as B a 1 e- aris major and minor, whence arose the forms Ma- jorica, Minoriea, used as early as the sixth century a.d., now Majorca, Minorca. On the former the only towns were Palma and Pollentia (Palma, Pollenza), either founded or re-named as Roman colonies ; on the latter were the towns 266 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. called by the Phoenician names Jamo (Ciudadela) and Mago (Mahon). The larger island lying nearer to the Spanish coast was called in Phoenician i-busim, "island of firs," whence the Roman E b u s u s (now Iviza), rendered by the Greek IIiTuoijo-o-a, a name which in the plural was at once extended to the smaller neighbouring island, the so-called "snake-island," 'Ocfuovcrcra or Colubraria (now Formentera), GALLIA. 253. Name and Physical Characteristics. — The country between the Alps and Pyrenees, the Mediter- ranean and the Atlantic, with a north-eastern border originally undefined but afterwards fixed by the Roman conquests on the Rhine, was inhabited principally, if not entirely, by Keltic or Gallic tribes. It was accordingly called by the Greeks in the fourth century B.C. KeXriK-rj, and later VaXaria, KeXroyaXaria, while the Italians named it Gallia transalpina, to distinguish it from the region acquired by Gallic conquest in Upper Italy. The ancients soon observed the extremely favourable conforma- tion of the surface for purposes of tillage and commerce ; the easy accessibility of the interior by means of large navigable rivers; and the prevalence of level or slightly undulating fertile and well watered soil over the mountain groups of moderate height, which lie in the centre of the country and are separated from those on the border by low lying valleys. Of these central groups only one ancient name belonging to the chain at the southern edge of the country, has come down to us, Cebenna, K^juevov (now Cevennes). The mountains on the north-east border, which are also still called by their ancient names, Jura, Vosagus or Vose- g u s (Vosges, Wasgau), Arduenna (Ardennes), are of insignificant height, and also so cut off from one another by broad valleys that they can be easily traversed. In antiquity more considerable impediments to communication lay in X.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 267 the thick woods 'and wide stretches of marsh which filled the northern half of the country, and particularly the north-west coast, and in the extraordinary amount of rain and cloud which characterised the climate of this region. The names of rivers have been preserved almost throughout with little change. The more important are : among Mediterranean streams the R h o d a, n u s, Rhone (in Upper Valais still called Rodden), with the Arar or Sanconna, Saone ; Isara, Isere ; Druentia, Durance, besides the Arauris, Herault, and Atax, Aude ; among those that flow to the Atlantic, the Garumna, Garonne, with the Veronius, Aveyron ; Tarnis, Tarn ; Oltis, Lot ; Duranius, Dordogne; the Liger or Ligeris, Loire, with the Elaver, Allier ; the Sequana, Seine, with the Icauna, Yonne, Matrona, Marne, Isara, Oise, Axona, Aisne ; Samara, Somme; Scaldis. Schelde (Escaut) ; Mosa, Maas (Meuse), with the Sabis, Sambre; the R hen us, Rhine, with the Mosella, Moselle or Mosel. 254. Population and History. — Even after the inroad of the Kelts across the Pyrenees into Spain the northern slopes of the mountains remained in possession of Iberian tribes, as well as the low country lying to the west along the Atlantic shore, for the most part sandy and unproductive, and called by the general name of A q u i t a n i a. The Mediterranean coast between the Pyrenees and the Alps was called Aiyuo-riKi; by the early Greeks, who when they first made acquaintance with these regions (in the seventh century B.C.) found it occupied by Ligurian tribes. These gave way in parts, especially in the valley of the Rhodanus and the level coast to the west of it, though not till between 500 and 400 B.C., to the Kelts who pressed in here from the north ; but over the greater part of the Alpine district which lies east of the river they held perma- nent sway. This stretch of coast which had only partly 268 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. become Gallic, and whose chief harbours had been occupied in the sixth century by I o n i c Greeks, was not taken possession of by the Romans till 154 B.C., when the successful conquest of Spain by sea had necessitated a secure connection by land. This new Provincia 1 was in 124 extended northwards up the valley of the Rhodanus beyond the territory of the Allobroges, and in 106 westwards as far as the upper Garumna. The unmixed Keltic or Gallic tribes, sharply dis- tinguished from the muscular but small and deep brown Iberians and Ligurians by lofty stature, light eyes, and long curling fair hair [Gallia comata), occupied chiefly the large region north of the central mountain group. Those among them who inhabited the northernmost part between the Sequana and Rhenus are distinguished from the main body, to whom the Keltic name strictly applied {qui Galli Nostra, ipsorum lingua Celtae appellantur, Caesar), by a far ruder and more warlike character, and an admixture of German invaders. Thus the Keltic region proper falls into two main divisions, C e 1 1 i c a and B e 1 g i c a, and each of these again comprises a number of states or tribal divisions (civitates, populi)" ; of these 64 in all existed in Aquitania, Celtica, and Belgica, when these regions were in a few years from 58 B.C. subjected by Caesar to Roman rule. By way of introducing greater uniformity in the admini- strative districts, a new division of provinces was made by Augustus in 27 B.C. The old Provincia maintained its former extent, increased by the conquest of the intervening Alpine valleys, and received from the capital the new name of Gallia Narbonensis; similarly the central strip of the old Celtica was called Lugdunensis after its capital, but the south-western part of it was added to the province of Aquitania, and the south-eastern to Belgica; lastly, under Claudius, the borderland along the Rhine was constituted as a separate province, G e r m a n i a. X.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 269 1 That this name, the province par excellence, was quite early used as an actual local designation is shown by its preserva- tion in the south-eastern part of this region as Provence. 2 These were governed, entirely in oligarchic fashion, with the limitation of the formal office of the prince or king, by a numerous senate of nobles and especially by a priesthood, the so-called Druids, which formed a privileged class among the nobility. These nobles, busied only with war and the chase, ruled a far larger number of serfs to whom was left the sole management of the land and the household. An independent class of burghers, such as existed in Italy and Spain, was here quite wanting, while the common possession of landmarks which after stated periods were constantly re-arranged denotes a low standard of agriculture. On the other hand, the existence of great military roads is clear from the preservation by the Romans of the native measure of distance, the leuga (league). 255. Gallia Narbonensis. Eastern Coasts. — The rocky coast, abounding in small bays, which lies east of the Rhodanus, was inhabited by Ligurian tribes, among whom the most important were the Salluvii (SaXues). It gradually assumed a half-Greek character after the Ionians of Phokaea had occupied about 600 B.C. the harbour which lies nearest to the mouth of the Rhodanus, the easiest mode of access into the Keltic interior, and had built there the town of Massalia (Lat. Massilia, Marseilles), which speedily attained great prosperity. After the fall of Carthage Massalia was the largest centre for the trade and manufactures of the west, and as an ally of the Romans in the Punic and Gallic wars, received important extensions of territory, while preserving its Greek manners, language, and autonomous constitution down to later imperial times. The other smidler Greek ports were dependent upon it, such as Tau- roeis, Telonion (Lat. Telo Martius), Olbia, Antipolis, Nikaea, Monoekos (now Tarente, Toulon, Eoubes, Antibes, Nizza (Nice), and Monaco) ; the two latter were already annexed to Italy in the time of Augustus (§ 213). The only town among them of purely Roman origin was the naval harbour of Forum Julium (Fre"jus) founded by Caesar. 270 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. 256. The Eastern Interior. — The region which is occupied by the spurs and offshoots of the Alps remained for the most part in the possession of its original Ligurian inhabitants. Only the broad valleys of the Druentia (Durance) and the upper Isara (Isere) which lead to the main Alpine passes, were occupied by Gauls, the former by theCaturiges with the towns Segustero, Vapincum, Ebu- rodunum, Brigantio (now Sisteron, Gap, Embrun, Briancon), the latter by the Ceutrones. Keltic domination was more widely spread in the main valley of the Rhodanus itself, reaching down to its mouth, so that even the Sal- luvii were in later times described as a mixed people (KeXroAiy ves). In their territory, which consists chiefly of a succession of hills and plains, was founded after their subjection to Roman sway in r22 B.C., the town of Aquae Sextiae (Aix), deriving its name from warm springs in the neighbourhood, and famous for the victory of Marius over the Teutons in 101 B.C. Of more ancient towns we may mention Cabelfio, Vindalium, Avenio, Tarasco, (now Cavaillon, Vigan, Avignon, Tarascon), and especially the Keltic trading town A r e 1 a. t e (Aries), inhabited also by Greek colonists, which lay on the eastern arm of the Rhone delta, and in the fourth century a.d. became the political capital of the whole of Gaul. Further up the Rhone valley pure Keltic tribes had their seat : the Cavari with the towns Carpentorade, Arausio, Vasio (now Carpentras, Orange, Vaison), and where between the middle course of the Rhodanus (flowing east and west) and the lower Isara the valley widens into a great plain, the Allobroges, whose territory was conquered as early as i2r B.C., but was not formally annexed to the Provincia until the time of Caesar. Their chief town, one of the largest in Roman Gaul, was Vienna (Vienne), and next in importance was the Roman colony of Valentia (Valence). Their territory stretched along the two great river valleyb X.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 271 as far as the mountains, where besides many smaller towns, Cularo on the Isara, renamed Gralianopolis (now Grenoble) in 379 a.d., and Genava (Genf, Geneva) at the point where the Rhodanus issues from the lake, belonged to them ; it was here, too, that Caesar repulsed the attack of the Helvetii upon the Roman province. 257. The Western Regio n. — In front of the slopes of the Cebenna range, planted with vines in the first century of the empire, there stretches between the Rhodanus and the Pyrenees a broad level sandy shore, filled in a great measure with shallow marshy lakes. Here, on the dunes and hill- spurs, there were only a few unimportant Massaliote trading settlements, such as Setion and Agathe (now Cette, Agde), which in ancient times carried on commerce with the Liguro- Iberian inhabitants of the country. The region of the highest fertility was afterwards subdued by the V o 1 c a e, a Keltic people, which was divided into two states : the Arecomici in the east as far as the Rhodanus, the Tectosages in the west. The former had for their capital Nemausus (Nimes), which under the Romans was the second largest town in the province, and is still conspicuous for its important monuments of antiquity. The far larger territory of the Tectosages stretched west- ward as far as the upper basin of the Garumna, on which stood their, capital Tolosa (Toulouse) with its great national sanctuary. Through this almost level region between the slopes of the Cevennes and the Pyrenees ran the shortest trading route to the ocean, which was used in quite early times. Its point of issue towards the east was the seaport-town Narbo (Narbonne) at the mouth of the Aiax (Aude). From its favourable position for commerce it became as Narbo Martius in 118 b.c. the seat of the first colony of Roman citizens beyond Italy, and the residence of the Proconsul ; it was not till the later middle ages that it was ruined by the silting up of the ancient harbour. 272 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. Other towns worthy of mention among the Tectosages were Baeterrae and Carcaso (now Beziers, Carcassonne) ; at the foot of the Pyrenees, in the territory of the Iberian Sordones, was Ruscino, whose name survives in the district of Roussillon. 258. Aquitania. — The 20 very small districts of Iberian population, lying between the Pyrenees and the Garumna, which were originally included under this name, had no historical significance, and equally unimportant were their small towns. Of these only Elimberris, called Auscii (now Auch) in the fourth century after the name of the district, and Aquae Tarbellicae (now Dax), deserve mention, while the old village names Lapurdum and Beneharnum survive in the districts of Labourdan and Be"arn. The western region between the Garumna and the Liger, inhabited by Keltic tribes, to which the name of Aquitania was extended in the time of Augustus, 1 in history stands almost entirely in the background, and not being completely Romanized till a late period, contains almost no Roman monuments. The names of the populi or civitates have been preserved here since the middle ages, with few excep- tions, in a double form : as applied to districts and to their capitals, to which they were extended in official usage as early as the fourth century. ANCIENT NAMES. MODERN NAMES. Tribes. Capitals. Districts. Capitals. Biluriges Vivisci Burdigala — Bordeaux Nitiobroges Aginnum — Agen Cadurci Divona Quercy Cahors Ruteni Segodunum Rouergue Rodez (7aba.l1 A nderitum Gevaudan Javols Vellavi Revessio Velay ■ — A rverni Nemossus, later A ugustonemetum Auvergne Clermont Biturigcs Cubi Avaricum Berry Bourges Lemovices Augusturitum Limousin Limoges Petrocorii Vesunna Pdrigord Pdrigueux Santones Mediolanum Saintonge Saintes Pictones (Pictavi) Limonum Poitou Poitiers x.J WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 273 Of the towns named only B u r d i g a 1 a was of importance as a seat of commerce at the western exit of the high road from the Mediterranean (§ 257); Avaricum for its naturally strong position among marshes (it stood a long siege by Caesar) and as capital of the B i t u r i g e s, who in the fifth century B.C. seem to have been the leading people in the whole of Gaul, a position afterwards acquired in the second century by the A r v e r n i, whose mountain region played an important part in Caesar's wars, owing to its numerous natural rock-fastnesses (among others Gergovia, famous for its defence by Vercingetorix). 1 The ancient name, vulgarised into Guienne, was retained in the middle ages only for this larger northern region, while the original Iberian Aquitania was included as early as the sixth or seventh century under the name of the Spanish Vasconia (cf. § 251) which in French became Gascogne. 259. Gallia Lugdunensis (the central part of the ancient Celtica). — Lugdunum (Lyons) the capital of the Ambarri, lay on the western heights commanding the confluence of the Rhodanus and the Arar (Saone). After its occupation by the Romans it became from its central position, in a precise line with the main passes of the Alps, the capital of the whole of Gaul and at the same time a flourishing centre of trade and manufacture. The hill country which borders it on the north between the upper valleys of the Arar, Liger, and Icauna, and the three main declivities to the S.W. and N., a region inter- sected by the main trading routes of the country, was occupied by the A e d u i, who in Caesar's time were the rivals of the Arverni for the supremacy among Gallic peoples ; their strong city Bibracte was afterwards renamed Augusto- dunum (Autun). 1 With the exception of these two and the two last named in the following list, the ancient names of peoples and cantons in central and northern Gaul have been transferred T 274 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap to the respective capitals, and in this usage have been preserved in modern form. « f A gedincum of the Senones* now Sens g „ Augustobona* „ Tricasses „ Troyes uc J Iatinum ,, Meldi „ Meaux Lutetia* „ Paruii „ Paris Autricum „ Carnutes % ,, Chartres Mediolanum Aulerci Eburovices Evreux m I, d Noviodunum of the Aulerci Diablintes nowjublains Aulerci Ccnomani „ Lemans ,, Tours „ Angers „ Nantes now Vannes „ Guement? „ Corseult „ Rennes ,, Avranches „ Bayeux „ Vieux „ Lisieux . Caesarodunum 1 Juliomagus i I Condivicnum Condate Legedia A ugustodurum 3 Turones Andecavi Namnetes Dariorigum of the Veneti 6 — „ Osismii „ Curiosolites Redones Abrincatui Bajucasses Viducasses Lexovii s Noviom&gus Rotomagus Juliobona's Vellocasses Caleti (Rouen, District " ( ofVexin fLillebonne,Dis- " \ trict of Caux (Both of these still belonged to Belgium in Caesar's time.) i To the territory of the Aedui belonged the districts (pagi) of the Segusiavi (chief place frorum Seg., now Feurs), Aulerci Brannovices, Mandubii with the fortress of Alesia famous for its siege by Caesar, and Boii—the only remnant still left in their original seat of this great Keltic race, whose principal divisions have preserved the same name, scattered as they are far and wide in the eastern countries which they subdued, along the Po, the Danube and the Elbe, and as far as Asia Minor. Other ancient towns in the Aeduan district were Matisco, Cabillonum, Decetia, Nevirnum, now Macon, Chalon, Decize Nevers. 2 In their territory we may notice Autessiodurum, now Auxerre. 3 These names are Roman innovations, in favour of which the old Keltic names were entirely forgotten. 4 A more correct form is the Keltic (also Greek) Lukotitia; in Caesar's time the name was confined to the little island in the Sequana which at this point becomes navigable after receiving x/i WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 275 the waters of the Matrdna (Marne) ; in the fourth century it is named as a temporary imperial residence, and still as a small town. 5 The town of Cenabum on the Liger, held a more important position in their territory than the political capital ; it was renamed Aureliani in later imperial times, now Orleans. 6 The Veneti were from a maritime point of view the most important of all Gallic coast-races ; they traded as far as Ivernia (Ireland) and Hispania. 260. Celtica ; the eastern part, which in the time of Augustus was annexed to Belgica. The H e 1 v e t i i were in early times settled in the region of the Maine. They had not long been in possession of the district which afterwards bore their name, the western and lower part of modern Switzerland in the basin of the Arurius (Aar) as far as Lake Lemanus (lac Leman, Lake of Geneva), and were intent on pushing further south down the Rhodanus, when in 58 B.C. they were driven back by Caesar and confined to the territory they had previously occupied. 1 This was afterwards organised by Augustus as part of the Belgian province, and traversed by a high road from Lake Lemanus to the Laacs Venetus (Boden See, Lake of Con- stance), along which Roman settlements sprang up. On the southern and northern boundary were the colonies of Noviodunum and Vindonissa (Nyon and Windisch), while in the centre was the larger country town of Aventicum (Avenches, Germ. Wifiisburg). 2 The upper valley of the Rhodanus, the so-called V a 1 1 i s P o e n i n a (now Valais, Wallis), belonged only indirectly, and perhaps not finally till the third century a.d., to this division of Gaul ; it was inhabited by four small tribes, which were subdued together with the rest of the Alpine peoples, but not till the time of Augustus.3 The S e q u a n i were a powerful Keltic people who held wide sway in southern Gaul prior to the ascendency of the Aedui. They occupied the country between the Jura range and the Arar (Saone), especially along the narrow T 2 2 ;6 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. rocky valley of the Dubis (Doubs), a tributary of the Arar, beyond which, on heights very difficult of access, lay their strong capital, Vis on tio (Besangon). To their territory still belonged in Caesar's time the district of the R aurici on the Rhine, which afterwards became independent ; their chief place is first mentioned under the name of Augusta Rauricorum (Augst near Basel). In the north-eastern part of the ancient Celtica, amidst the western spurs of the Vosagus range, dwelt the Lingones, Leuci, and Me- diomatrici. Of these names only two have been transferred, as over the greater part of Gaul, to the capitals : Andematunnum (now Langres), and Divodurum (now Metz). The towns of the Leuki : Nasium and Tullum as Naix and Toul, and Virodunum among the Mediomatrici as Verdun, have preserved their ancient names. i The higher Alpine valleys, so far as they were not at that time still covered with wood, seem to have been inhabited rather by a Raetian than a Keltic population. 2 Helvetic towns of small importance, which have preserved their names from antiquity are the following, taken in order from south to north : Viviscus Vevey, Lousonna Lausanne, Urba Orbe, Eburodunum Yverdun, Minnodunum Moudon or Milden, Salodurum Solothurn (Soleure), Turicum Zurich, and Vilsdurum Winterthur. 3 This region, together with the territory of the Ceutrones, which borders it on the south-west, formed in the I st and 2nd centuries A.D. a small procuratorial province under the name of Alpes Graiae et Poeninae, which at times was subordinated to the administration of Raetia. Ancient places there were : Octodurus, now Martigny, Sedunum, now Sion or Sitten. 261. Germania Superior. — The plain between the Rhine and Mt. Vosagus (including the northern continuation of this range, the modern so-called Hardt mountains) seems not to have been invaded' by Germanic tribes until the time of Caesar (probably in the train of the great Suevian army of Ariovistus) : among these we hear under Augustus of the Vangiones, Nemeti, and T r i b 6 c i, the two latter notably bearing Keltic names. Of Keltic origin x.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 277 also were the places' which were converted into border fortresses by the Romans : as Argentoratum, Strassburg, Noviomagus, Speier, Borbetomagus, Worms ; and especially the most important of all as a strategic point, M o g o n t i- acum, Mainz, the seat of administration for Upper Germany, when this had been organised under Claudius as a separate province. 1 The Rhine valley on the east side of the river, with the ' region of its tributary stream the Nicer (Neckar), and the intervening mountain district of the Abnbba (Black Forest) and Alba (the Rauhe or Swabian Alb), which also in remote antiquity was occupied by Keltic tribes (especially the Helvetii, § 260), was taken possession of at latest in the first century B.C. by the Germanic Suevi, with whom Caesar made acquaintance as neighbouring on his borders. Under Domitian the territory was wrenched from them and annexed to the Roman Empire, while the new and shorter frontier against the Germans was under Hadrian protected by a continuous row of fortresses ending in the limes Raeticus. The district afterwards principally occupied by colonists from Gaul, under the name of the Agri Decumates, formed for a century and a half, until in Aurelian's time it was conquered by the Alemanni, a part pf the upper German Province ; 2 it was intersected by Roman roads and cultivated in Roman fashion. 1 Besides these chief places of the district we may name : Argentovaria Artzenneim, Breucomagus Brumat, Tabernae Zabern, Saletio Seltz, Concordia Altenstadt near Weissen- burg, Alteja Ahei, Bauconica Oppenheim, Bingium Bingen, at the mouth of the Nava Nahe. 2 In this part of Germany it is only by chance that ancient names have become known for a few among the extremely numerous towns which contain remains of Roman building : as, Tarodunum Zarten near Freiburg, Arae Flaviae Rottweil, Sumelocenna Rottenburg, Clarenna (Cannstadt ?), Aquae Aureliae Baden, Lifpodunum Ladenburg, Aquae Mattiacae Wiesbaden. 278 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. 262. Germania Inferior. — Pure Germans from be- yond the Lower Rhine were first transported in a mass into Roman territory in the time of Augustus. Among these were notably the U b i i, who were formerly settled opposite to the mouth of the Moselle ; in their new territory lay the administrative capital of the whole Lower Rhine district, or the so-called Lower Germany, a colony of veterans which under Claudius received the name of Colonia Agrip- p i n a (Koln, Cologne), after his consort, the daughter of Germanicus, who was born here. 1 From ancient times the islands of the Rhine delta, of which one is still called Betuwe, " good meadow,'' were inhabited by the Germanic tribe of the Batavi (Batavi or Batmii). Their relation to " the Roman Empire was that of an alliance free from tribute ; but their territory was reckoned nevertheless as part of the Province, for it was traversed by Roman military roads, and occupied by Keltico- Roman towns, among which Lvgdunum and Noviomagus (Leyden and Nimwegen) are the most important. 2 The truly Germanic {i.e. Teutonic) population was ac- cordingly confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the Rhine banks, the province owing its formation mainly to military considerations ; while the far more extensive re- mainder of the interior was inhabited by Kelts, the most notable among whom were the M e n a p i i in the sandy and marshy plain on the lower Mosa (Maas), and, among a number of smaller tribes in the higher forest district of the Arduenna, the Tungri (about Tongres) and the Eburones. But it was just these pure Kelts to whom, by their Gallic kinsmen, was first applied the collective name of Germani, which probably meant "dwellers in the forests," and in this sense was transferred by the Gauls, from whom the Romans borrowed the name, to the similarly constituted region beyond the Rhine, and to its inhabitants. X.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 279 1 Other Roman towns in this district, which in the fourth century became entirely German (Frankish), are as. follows, going down stream : Vosolvia Ober-Wesel, Bontobrica Boppart, Confluentes Coblentz (so called from its position at the junction of the Mosella and the Rhehusj, Antunnacum Andernach, Rigomagus Remagen, Bonna Bonn, Durnomagus Dormagen, Novaesium Neuss, Geldiiba Gellep, Asciburgium Asberg, Vetera (sc. castrd) Xanten ; in the western hill- country Juliacum Jiilich, Marcodui-um Dtiren, Tolbiacum Zulpich, Marcomagus Marmagen ; on the eastern bank of the Rhine, which was protected by a continuous boundary wall (following on that for the Upper Rhine § 261) against the attacks of the Germans, the fortified bridge of Cologne : Divitio Deuz. 2 Other ancient places in the district were : Batavoduritm Durstede, Trajectum Utrecht, Durotrajeclum Dordrecht. One district of the country of the Batavi was composed of the Caninefates in the modern Kennemerland (North Holland) between the sea-shore and the inland lake Flevo ; the outlet of this lake into the sea, which at that time bore the character of a river, preserves its name Vliestrom, but it has undergone extension owing to the gradual sinking of the country in the twelfth century, so that the modern Zuydersee covers, like an open though shallow oceanic gulf, a far wider stretch of land formerly inhabited and cultivated. This change in the coast formation, from the want of exact data from ancient times, can only be hypothetically indicated on our maps. 263. Belgium. — -The remaining peoples of northern Gaul from the Mosa to the Sequana, bore the general name of Belgae, and were distinguished from the Gauls of the so-called Celtica, not so much in language, as by the tradition, relating probably only to the military nobility, of aGermanic origin. They appear to have been a mixed population resulting from an ancient Germanic conquest (analogous to the Frankish conquest in the fourth and fifth centuries a.d.), among whom however the Keltic idiom of the greater number finally prevailed. Among these half German peoples, though not strictly belonging to the Belgae, was reckoned also the powerful state 6f the T r e v e r i in the valley of the Mosel and Saar. Their capital, which as a colony of the Emperor Claudius 2 8o ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. was called Augusta Treverorum, possessed a circum- ference far exceeding that of the modern Trier or Treves (though this is rich in monuments of Roman times) and attained great prosperity. 1 In the Belgium proper of Caesar's time the most powerful tribe were the Rem i, while the supremacy among all Belgian tribes, including those of Southern Britain, was at that time enjoyed by the king of the smaller tribe of the Suessiones. Most of the district names were in the fourth century transferred to the capitals, and have so been preserved : as, Durocortorum of the Remi now Reims " Augustomagus „ Silvanectes „ Senlis Noviodunum,\aitx Augusta „ Suessiones „ Soissons Caesaromagus „ Bellovaci „ Beauvais Augusta ; , Viromandui „ Vermand Samarobriva „ Ambiani „ Amiens Nemetacum or Ne?netocenna „ Atrebales ,, Arras (Flem. Atrecht) The only names that have perished are those of the two northernmost tribes, the Morini (" dwellers on the sea ") and Nervii, who were regarded as the rudest and most war- like of all the Belgians, and were not subdued until after many years' struggle in their impracticable marshes. 3 1 Other ancient places in the country of the Treveri were Orolaunum Are! or Arlon, Beda Bitburg, Noviomdgus Neumagen, Rigodulum Reol. 2 In their territory was Durocatalauni, now Chalons sur Marne, remarkable for the Roman victory over Attila in 451. 3 In the territory of the Nervii the chief town -was Bagacum Bavay ; other ancient places which did not however become important till later, were : Camarticum Kamerijk Cambray, Turnacum Doornik Tournay, Cortoriacum Kortrijk Courtray. In the country of the Morini were Taruetma The"rouanne, Gessoriacum, later called Bononia Boulogne sur Mer, and Partus Itiits (Wissant, now silted up), which is named as the station of Caesar's fleet before he crossed to Britain. x.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 281 BRITANNIA. 264. Names and History. — The large islands of the northern ocean, which to the ancient Greeks were known only through uncertain Phoenician information as " Tin islands" Nijcroi ica.o-o-n-?7pi8es, were first geographically fixed by the navigator Pytheas of Massalia (cf. § 4, n. 2) under the Keltic names Bepyioj/ (vergyn " the western ") and "A\/3iov {alba-inn "the mountainous island," in the dialect spoken in Ireland, because its mountainous side is turned towards Ireland). But the merchants of Massalia traded also with the " Tin land," i.e. the south-western mountain district of Albion, by land through Gaul, and on the north coasts of Gaul they heard the designation Bperravol, i.e. brython " painted," applied to the very rude inhabitants of the islands, who were in the habit of painting the naked parts of their bodies. Hence the larger island was by them named BperraviK^, and by the Romans, who first made acquaintance with the island by the same route, Britannia. After Caesar's fruitless expeditions, which were undertaken on account of the part taken by the British Belgae in the Gallic wars, it was not until 43 a.d., in the time of Claudius, that the south-eastern low country (Britannia inferior) was occupied by Suetonius Paullinus, while the western and a great part of the northern mountain region (Br. Superior) was taken possession of in 78 — 85 by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian. Yielding up the northern half of the island Hadrian had a strong boundary wall, strengthened by seventeen castles and many towers, drawn in 122 across the smaller part of the island from sea to sea to protect the province ; this after- wards again formed the boundary in the third and fourth centuries (during the wars of Septimius Severus). In the 282 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. meantime Antoninus Pius had in 142 again occupied the northern borderland as far as the narrowest isthmus in the island, which lies between the gulfs or estuaries of the Clota (Clyde) and the Bodotria (Firth of Forth) — what is now Northumberland and the south of Scotland — and secured it by an outer wall half the length of that of Hadrian. The same northern boundary was fixed anew in 369 under Valens, but not long afterwards came the entire withdrawal of the legions and colonists from the island before the attack of the Picts from the north and the Anglo-Saxons from the east. 265. Roman Town s. — The Romanizing of the Keltic population in Britain was carried out less completely than even in the extreme west and north of Gaul. Roman civilisation was confined to the colonies which sprang up out of the camps of the legions, and which spread from south to north according to the time of their occupation. First Camulodunum the oldest provincial capital, also called briefly Colonia (hence Colchester), in the east and Glevum Gloucester in the west at the mouth of the Sabrina (Severn) ; then Lindum (Z. colonia = Lincoln) in the east and Deva (Chester on the river Dee) in the west ; lastly Eburacum on the Avus (York on the Ouse), which was in Trajan's time the headquarters of the Roman army, and was after- wards at times the residence of the Emperor. In point of commerce however even in those times these military towns were far outdone by Londinium (London), owing to its advantageous position at the upper end of the entry of the sea^ tide into the wide estuary of the Tamesa (Thames), lying opposite to the neighbouring continent. 1 Of the ancient Keltic names of peoples and districts only those on the south coast have been preserved : Cantii, Dvrotriges, Dumnonii, as Kent, Dorset, Devon, the last two with altered limits, for the Cornavii, driven from their northern home, have planted their name in the south-western x.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 283 peninsula of Cornwall: Of the rest, who utterly perished in the Anglo-Saxon conquest, the Belgae, Atrebates and Parisii should be mentioned as being native also in the north of continental Gaul, whence they evidently made their way into Britain. The inhabitants of the western mountain region (the modern Wales i.e. Gallic country) have preserved their Keltic speech down to the present day ; among them the Silures are noticed by Tacitus for their dark skin and hair, wherein they deviated remarkably from the Kelts and resembled the Iberians. 1 Other towns of Roman Britain, which from their preserved remains are not without importance, are Camboritum Cam- bridge, Conovium Conway, Dubris Dover, Durnovaria Dorchester, Durovernum Canterbury, Isca Dumnoniorum Exeter, Isca Silurum Caerleon (Keltic "town of the legion"), Luguv allium Carlisle, Mancunium Manchester, Rutupiae Richborough, Sorbiodunum Old Sarum near Salisbury, Venta Belgarum Winchester, Venta Jcenorum Norwich, Venta Silurum Caerwent, Viroconium Wroxeter. The name endings in modern England which have arisen out of castrutn — caster — Chester — caistor — xeter, universally denote an ancient site. 266. Caledonia. — This name, for the mountainous North, which belongs to the Keltic dialect of Southern Britain, answers to its natural features, meaning " thicket of woods." The inhabitants belonged to another branch of the Keltic race, and are described as extremely rude and warlike ; repeated though always in the end fruitless attacks were made by the Romans upon their inhospitable country, which was dreaded for its cold and rainy climate. 1 So also the groups of rocky islands which lie to the north- west and north, the Ebudae or Hebudes (called in modern times, on the strength of a false reading, Hebrides), and the O r k a d e s (Orkneys) were visited by Roman fleets, but no attempt was made to conquer them. The further- most island (or rather group of islands, for the Shetland Islands were intended) became known to the first Greek 284 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. discoverer, Pytheas, under the name of T h u 1 e ; it was regarded in antiquity as the end of the known world. Ivernia Gr. 'lipvTj, corrupted by the Romans into Hibernia, (cf. Bergion § 264) was also circumnavigated by Pytheas, and afterwards by Agricola, but its conquest was never attempted. It contained several small kingdoms of Keltic tribes, among whose names are repeated those of the Manapii and Brigantes already known from Northern Gaul and Britain, while that of the Nagnatae has survived in the name Connaught. Owing to the extremely rainy climate there was no cultivation of any importance, the inhabitants mainly subsisting by cattle-breeding on the luxuriant meadows in the plains. 1 The position of the mountain Graufiius (commonly but falsely written Gra?«pius) named by Tacitus in connection with Agricola's campaigns in Caledonia is quite uncertain; the modern application of the false reading of the name to the central chain of the Scotland of to-day ("Grampian Moun- tains ") is quite without authority. GERMANIA. 267. The country beyond the borders of the empire fixed by Caesar at the Rhine and by Augustus at the Danube, was called by the Romans Germania magna to distin- guish it from the so-called German province on the left bank of the Rhine (§ 261, 262). It was in Caesar's time inhabited in the south along the Danube and almost as far as the Main, as well as in the upper basin of the Elbe, by Keltic peoples (Helvetii, Boii, Tectosages), whose frontier against the Germans was formed by the wide belt of uninhabited forest-clad mountains which stretches from the central course of the Rhine to the Carpathians, and which bore the general name of Hercynia (or 'ApKvvia, 'Opuvvia, i.e. the heights), belonging to the Keltic languages. Only x.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 285 the basins of the Amisia, Visurgis, Viaduct (Ems, Weser, Oder) were already quite German land at the dawn of historical knowledge, while those of the Rhenus with its tributaries the Lupia and Moenus (Rhine, Lippe, Main) of the Albis (Elbe), and of the Vistula (Weichsel) were at first only partially so. The information given by the ancients, and depending on Roman military records, especially of the campaigns between the Rhine and the Elbe, and on a few narratives of trading journeys (especially in Eastern Germany, from the Danube to the amber coasts of the Baltic in Nero's time) is but of little use for geographical purposes. We can only form therefrom a vague idea of the whereabouts of the chief tribes, especially those in the west ; the main mountain ranges * are scarcely'named, and only a few of the strong abodes (not towns, for the Germans of that time had no notion of them, nor even villages, but merely wooden towers) can be identified with any probability. 1 We can only be sure of: Taunas, the modern Hohe, again called Taunus during last century, near the Rhine, Gabreta Bohmerwald and Luna Manhart near the Danube ; and of Sudeta Erzgebirge and Asciburgius Riesengebirge (called last century Sudetes by a misusage). There is moderate probability for Semana Thuringerwald, and Melibocus Harz. But there is no certainty about Bacenis, or about Teuto- burgiensis Saltus, famed for the battle fought there, and which many investigators two hundred years ago regarded as the mediaeval Osning (the now again commonly so-called Teutoburger Wald>, while others with quite as good reason identified it with the heights around Beckum in Westphalia. 268. The peoples ofWestern Germany. — The native tradition preserved by Tacitus and Pliny of the descent of the chief races from the three heroes "sons of Mannus, the son of the earthborn god Tuisco," in accordance with which they are distinguished as Istaevones, Inguaeones and Herminones, refers only to the peoples of Western and Central Germany and answers as it happens to the collective 286 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. names which became general in the third century for the three main groups, differing in point of dialect, of the Franks, on the Rhine, the Saxons on the sea-coast, and the T h u r i n g i a n s in the central region. To the I s t a e v 6 n e s belonged those peoples with whom the Romans first came into hostile relations on the Rhine, though they admitted some of them as peaceable colonists within the borders of the empire and on the left bank of the Rhine; such as the Ubii (§ 262), the "Usipii and T e n c t e r i, the S u g a m b r i and M a r s i in the mountain region of what was afterwards Westphalia, names which after the third century gave way to the general name of the Ripuarian Franks. 1 On the other hand, the traces of the peoples settled in the northern plain from the Lippe z onwards, as the Bructeri, Tubantes, Chamavi, Chattuarii, survived longer in the mediaeval district names of Borahtra, Twente, Hamaland and Hattera. 1 The people that appeared about 200 A.D. on the Roman border under the new name of A 1 a m a n 11 i, and who in the fourth and fifth centuries conquered the whole Upper Rhine province, seem to have been formed out of Usipii and Tencteri, who in Caesar's time wandered further up the Rhine, and probably out of some other small tribes. 2 On the Lufiia (Lippe), on the borders of the Marsi and Bructeri, who at that time were subdued by Roman armies, Drusus built in 11 B.C. the castle of Aliso to protect the newly created province and to serve as a starting place foi further enterprises. After the defeat of Varus it was again destroyed by the Germans ; its position, which depends upon that of the Teutoburgian Forest, can be identified with the less certainty that in this whole stretch between the Rhine and the Weser many and equally important remains have been found of Roman fortresses, and of the boundary walls which connected them (Landwehren). 269. The Inguaeones on the coast of the North Sea (the Germanic Ocean of the ancients) included the afterwards powerful tribes of the Frisians and Saxons, of whom the former (called by the Romans Frisii, Frisiones, x.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 287 Frisiavones) were found in their original seat 1 when Germanicus first circumnavigated the coast, as were their neighbours the C h a u k i, who dwelt in the marches of the Lower Weser, and whose name was afterwards merged in that of the Frisians. The Saxon (Saxones) name on the other hand, which in the middle ages embraced all the tribes of Lower Germany, denotes, when it is first mentioned in the second century a.d., only a small district at the mouth of the Elbe, close to those of the Angrivarii (Engern), Teutonovari (Ditmarschen), 2 and A n g i 1 i, which were afterwards subordinated to it, and of the race of the K i m b r i, which after the great exodus in the second century B.c. (supposed to have been occasioned by a devastating flood tide) utterly disappeared from here ; their name remained only in the great northern peninsula, the Chersonesus Cimbrica of classic authors (now Jutland). 1 Here are placed the low islands off the coast, where the amber driven there in greater abundance then than now was , collected (Germ, glesum, hence the name Glessariae insulae). The islands themselves were more numerous in those days, for the gradual sinking of the whole soil of the continent on this side in the course of many centuries, has led to the disappearance below the sea level of parts of what were once, larger islands, as well as of some entire islands. Only one of these islands bears a particular name among the ancients : Burchana now Borkum. The northern group of islands, on the west corner of the Kimbrian peninsula, which in the middle ages was included under the name of Northern Frieslmd, formed probably the seat of the Germanic race of the Aviones, from avi = island. 2 This is probably the remnant, who had remained in their old home, of the Teutones, who were formerly of more importance. Pytheas came across them before 300 B.C. and introduced them into his Geography as the first German people ; a large part of them Ijowever afterwards joined the Kimbri in their wanderings. 270. Central andEastern German orSuevian People s. — The name of Swabians, which after the move- ments of population in the fourth and fifth centuries was 288 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. confined to one Germanic race which had pushed its way far to the south, was specially used in the ancient form of S u e v i, handed down by the Romans, for a very important people, the Semnones, who dwelt in the plains between the Elbe and the Oder, and formed the religious and political centre of a large national confederation. It was afterwards used in a wider sense for the whole central and eastern series of Germanic tribes from the Upper Rhine to the Vistula and the north-eastern (Baltic) Sea, which after them was called Oceatius Suevicus. To the Suevi in this wider sense belonged the eastern or innermost of the three tribal groups above mentioned, that of the Herminones, which consisted principally of the three great peoples of the Cheruski on the Upper V i s u r g i s (Weser), the C h a 1 1 i (Hessen) between the Werra and the Rhine, 1 and the Hermunduri (i.e. great Dures, whence the later form Durinc, Thuringt) who even in the second century a.d. reached as far as the Upper Danube. It was from among the Hermunduri and the Semnonian Suevi that the warriors went forth, who under the new name of " bordermen,'' Marcomanni, pressed southwards across the Herkynian belt of woodland and driving the Keltic Boii (cf. § 196) out of the upper basin of the Elbe, which has retained the local name of B o i o h a e- m u m (Bohemia), acquired there a large Suevian kingdom, which under Maroboduus in the time of Augustus extended from the Danube to the Baltic Sea. It seems to have been a branch from them which dwelt more to the S.E., and received from its neighbours the nickname of Q u a d i ("wicked"). 2 The Suevian peoples of the northern lowland from the Lower Elbe to the Vistula abandoned, as we know, between the third and fifth centuries, the unproductive soil and rude climate of their home, which was still inhabited rather in nomad fashion, and obtaining new seats in the Roman X.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 289 provinces were thus lost (as were a great part of the Franks) to the German nationality. Only of the north-westernmost of them, the Langobardi and R u g i i, has trace been preserved in their former abode, in the mediaeval Barden- gau (near the town of Bardewiek) and the island of Riigen. The seat of the G u 1 1 6 n e s (not written Gothi till the fifth century) was known from the abundance of amber on their coast, which of all German territories alone reached beyond the Vistula. On the other hand, our information about the basin of the Oder, which lay very remote from Roman commerce, is very unimportant, and the abodes there of the Burgundiones and of the various tribes included under the general name of L u g i i 3 are only given hypo- thetically. No less uncertain is it whether the tribe of the Bastarnae or Basternae, which extended even in the second century a.d. from the upper basin of the Vistula to the Lower Danube, ought to be ascribed, as Tacitus tells us, to the Germanic peoples, or as Greek authorities assert, to those of Keltic race. 1 In their territory we hear of a so-called town or fortress Mattium (probably the modern Maden) near the river Adrana, Eder. The salt springs on their border towards the Hermunduri, which were a bone of contention between the two peoples, are probably those in the valley of the Werra. 2 Both names had already disappeared in the fourth century and were in the fifth replaced by the new name of the B a i w a r i (Bavarians), under which the people advanced southward into Roman territory. 3 This name which does not appear again after the second century probably gave way to that of the V a n d a 1 i (Vandilii, Vindilii is used by Pliny even in. the first century, though quite wrongly, as a general name for the Eastern Suevians), for the V a n d a 1 i a n mountains are named at that time as the centre of the sources of the Elbe. In the third century the Vandali reached southward to the Danube, probably within that region which had formerly been occupied by the Quadi. 290 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [chap. THE EXTREME NORTH AND EAST OF EUROPE. 271. Of the tribes who dwelt on the hither side of the river which ancient geographers were fond of regarding as the eastern border of Germany, the Vistula, and in the upper highlands which abounded in metals, the O s i and Gothini or Cotini were famous as workers in iron, but they are expressly mentioned (by Tacitus) as not German, the former being regarded as belonging to the Pannonians, the latter to the Kelts (?j. For the Slavic population of the great plains of Eastern Europe beyond the Vistula, the information about which was only of the most general nature, the Romans likewise employed a collective name, which had been in use among the Germans from very early times, that of Wends, V e- n e d a e. They are expressly distinguished by their habits of living in houses and fighting on foot from the nomad swarms of Sarmatian horsemen, whose name was wrongly applied, though only in a geographical sense, to their wide territory (cf. § 189). Their northern neighbours, the A estui, are also rightly distinguished from them in point of language. They in- habited the coasts of the Baltic where amber was most abundant, and were the ancestors of the tribes who in the middle ages are called Pruzzi (Prussians) and Lietuwa (Litavians). The geographical knowledge of the second century a.d. reached in this direction along the coast to a little beyond the mouth of the Diina. Still further along the name of the F e n n i (Finns) that is, the dwellers in the fens, was just known to antiquity from German sources as a miserable race of hunters. Northwards beyond the Suevian (Baltic) Sea men had heard even in the first century of the great island S c a t i- n a v i a (later on written also S c a n d i a, i.e. Skane, Schonen, x.] WESTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE. 291 the southernmost part of Sweden), a name which was ex- tended also to the neighbouring Danish islands (Scandiae). The inhabitants of these islands were collectively called by the Germanic name Hilleviones, " rock-dwellers " ; among them the Germanic tribes of the G a u t a e and Sueones (in Gothland and Svea-rike, Sweden proper), who lived in the south, are distinguished from the northernmost known race of the Sitones, evidently an offshoot of the Finnish aborigines of Scandinavia, who still partially survive in the northern and inner parts of the peninsula. u 2 INDEX OF NAMES. The orthography here is exclusively Latin, so that names of Greek origin which in the text are written with k, will in the Index be found under c. Names of countries and peoples, as well as those of places, stand without any addition, while those of rivers, lakes, mountains, pro- montories, and islands, are respectively followed by the letters r., 1., pr., m., i. Distinctive surnames applied in antiquity to places bearing the same name are given in full, while where necessary the position of such places is indicated by the addition in abbreviated form of the name of the country. The figures denote the Paragraphs, not pages; the small figures refer to the Notes. Abantes 134, 139 Abaseni 119 Abasgi 51 Abdara Hisp. 247 Abdera Thrac. 182 Abella 230 Abellinum 229 Abisares 22 Abnoba m. 261 Abrincatui 259 Abrotonum 123 Abydus 67 Acalandrus r. 235 1 Acampsis r. 49 Acanthus 177 Acarnania 163 Acco, Ace 97 Acerrae 230 Acesines r. 20 2 Achaei 131, 135, 164, 234 Achaia 141 Achaia Phthiotis 170 Acharnae 153 Achelous r. 163 Achradina 239 Aciris r. 235 3 Acrae 239 Acroceraunii m. 166 Acrocorinthus 149 Acroria 142 Acte 148, 1 J2, 179 Actium 163 Adana 108 Addua r. 198, 209 Adiabene 88 Adramyttium 68 Adrana r. 270 j Adranum 239 Adria Pic. 218 Adria Ven. 210 Adrianopolis 181 Adriaticum mare 210 Adule 119 Adyrmachidae 12 1 Aedui 259 Aegae Mac. 174 Aegaeae Cil. 79 Aegaleos m. 152 Aegates i. 242 Aegina i. 148 Aegium 141 Aegosthena 151 Aegyptii 9 Aegyptus m sq. Aelana 107 Aelia Capitolina 103 s Aemilia prov. 205 Aenaria i. 23 1 Aenianes 161 Aenus 182, 198 Aenus m. 164 Aeoles 135 Aeoliae i. 242 Aeolis As. 69 Aeolis Eur. 162 17 170 Aequi 226 Aesernia 229 Aestui 271 Aethalia i. 215 Aethiopes 9, 14, 38, 84 4 294 INDEX OF NAMES. Aethiopia interior 128, 129 Aethiopia orient. 118 Aetna m. 237 Aetoli 142 Aetolia 162, 164 Africa 15, no Africa nova. 123, 126 Agareni 106 Agathe 257 Agathyrsi 186 Agbatana 42 Agedincum 259 Aginnum 258 Agraei Arab. 106 Agraei Gr. 162 Agrianes 175 Agrigentum 240 Agylla 216 Agyrium 239 Ai'la 107 Alalia 244 Alamanni 268 t Alani 189 Alarodii 45 2 Alba m. 261 Alba Fucentia 226 Alba Longa 225 Albana, Albania 53 Albani 194 ,, Albanum 225 x Albanus m. 111. 193 1 Albanus m. It. 220 u 225 Albion i. 264 Albis r. 267 Albius m. 193 1 Aleria 244 Alesia 259 1 Aletrium 226 Alexandria Aeg. 115 • — Arachoton 37 — Arion 36 — Caucasi 36 2 — eschate 33 — ad Issum 94 — ad Tigrem 86 — Troas 67 Algidus m. 225 Aliso 268 ., Allifae 229 . Allobroges 256 Alpes 200 — Bastarnicae 186 j — Cottiae 205, 213 — Grajae 260 3 — Juliae 193 j, 196 — Maritimae 213 — Poeninae 260 3 Alpheus r. 143 Alsium 216 Alteja 261 1 Altinum 208 Alutus r. 186 Amalecitae 107 x Amana r. 95 2 Amanus m. 79 3 Amardi 43 Amasenus r. 220 Amasia 57 Amastris 62 1 Amathus 81 Amazones 59 j Ambarri 259 Ambiani 263 Ambracia 167 Amida 48 Amisia r. 267 Amisus 59 Amiternum 219 Ammonitis 104 Ammonium 121 Amnis Augustus 1 15 s Amorrhaei 101 Amphilochia 163 Amphipolis 177 Amphissa 159 Amyclae 146 Anactorium 163 Anagnia 226 Anaphe 137 Anas r. 245 Anauni 212 Anchialus 184 Ancona 218 Ancyra 63 Andania 145 Andecavi 259 Andematunnum 260 Anderitum 258 Andros i. 138 Angrivarii 269 Anisus r. 197 Antandrus 69 Antaradus 97 Anthedon 156 Anthela 161 1 Anthemusias 91 Anticaria 247 a Anticyra 157 Antilibanus m. 95 Antiochia Car. 72 Antiochia Marg. 35 Antiochia Pisid. 64 2 Antiochia Syr. 94 Antiochia Tigr. 86 Antipatris 1 03 3 Antipolis 255 Antitaurus 56 2 Antonini vallum 264 Antunnacum 262 j Anxanum 229 Anxur 227 Aones 134 Aous r. 166 Aous m. 80 Apamea Bith. 62 Apamea Phryg. 64 Apamea Syr. 94 Apenninus 201 Aphnitis 1. 65 Aphrodisias 72 4 Apidanus 169 Apodoti 162 Apollonia Cyr. 122 — Illyr. 194 — Mys. 66 — Thrac. 184 Apuani 213 Apulia 232 Apulum 186 Aquae Aureliae 261 2 — Mattiacae 261 2 — Sextiae 256 — Tarbellicae 258 Aquileja 207 Aquilunia 229 Aquincum 196 Aquinum 227 Aquitania 254, 258 INDEX OF NAMES. Araba 99, 107 Arabes scenitae 89 Arabia 105 sq. Arabia felix 106 Arabia Petraea 107 Arachosia 37 Arachotus r. 37 Arachthus r. 166 Aracynthus m. 162 Aradus 97 Arae Flaviae 261 s Aramaei 89, 93 Arar r. 253, 259 Ararat 45 Aratthus r. 166 Arausio 256 Araxes r. Arm. 44 Araxes r. Mesop. 8q Arbela 88 Area 97 Arcadia 143 Arcticus oceanus 17 Arctonnesus i. 66 Arcynia m. 267 Ardea 225 Ardiaei 194 Arduenna m. 253, 262 Arecomici 257 Arelate 256 Areopolis 104 Argaeus m. 56 Argalicus sinus 24 Arganthonius m. 65 2 Argentoratum 261 Argentovaria 261 1 Argilus 177 Argolis, Argos 147 Argos Amphiloch. 163 Argyra 26 Aria 36 Ariaca 24 Ariana 31 Ariavarta 19 Aricia 225 Arii 11, 19, 42 3 Ariminum 217 Arius r. 36 Arms lac. 3 1 2 Arizanti 42 3 Armavir 46 1 Armenia 44 Armenia minor 45 Arnus r. 215 Aromata pr. 120 Arotrebae 249 2 Arpi 232 Arpinum 227 Arretium 215 Arsacia 42 Arsanias r. 44 Arsesa 1. 44 Arsia r. 206 Arsinoe Cyr. 122 Artabri 249 2 Artacoana 36 Artaxata 46 Artynia 1. 6J Arurius 260 Arverni 258 Arzanene 48 Ascalon 08 Asciburgium 262 a Asciburgius m. 267 1 Asculum Apul. 232 Asculum Pic. 218 Asia 15, 18 prov. 68 Asia Minor 54 Asido 247 T Asine Arg. 148 Asine Mess. 145 x Asisium 217 Asopus r. Boeo. 15S Asopus r. Sicyon 150 Aspadana 42 Aspendus 75 Asphaltites 1. 99 Assorus 239 Assyria 83, 85, S7 Assyrii 56 Assus 69 Astaboras r. 118 1 Astacus 6 1 Astapa 247 1 Astapus r. 1 18 [ Astaroth Carna'im 105 Aslasobas r. 118 x Astigi 247 , Asturia 249 295 Asturica Augusta 249 Astypalaea i. 137 Atabyrius m. 73 j Atax r. 253, 257 Atella 230 Aternus r. 219 Athamania 167 Athenae 154 Athesis r. 198, 208, 209 Athos m. 179 Atina 227 Atintanes 167 Atlanticus Oceanus 1 7 Atlas m. 127 Atramyttium 68 Atrebates Brit. 265 Atrebates Gal. 263 Atropatene 43 Attalia 75 Attica 152 Aturia 87 Auas r. 166 Audus m. 126 x Aufidena 229 Aufidus r. 232 Augusta Praetoria 2iz — Rauricorum 260 — Suessionum 263 — Taurinorum 213 — Treverorum 263 — Vindelicorum 199 — Viromanduorum 263 Augustobona 259 Augustodunum 259 Augustomagus 263 Augustoritum 258 Aulerci 259 Aulis 156 Aulon Illyr. 194 Aulon Syr. 99 Auranitis 105 Aurasius m. 126 1 Aureliani 259 6 Aureus m. 244 Aurunci 204, 228 Auscii 258 Ausculum 232 Ausetani 250 296 INDEX OF NAMES. Ausones 204, 228 Autariatae 194 Autessiodurum 259 : Autricum 259 Auximum 21S Auxumis 119 Avaricum 258 Avenio 256 Aventicum 260 Aventinus m. 221 Avenius 1. 231 j Aviones 269 1 Avus r. 265 Axius r. 173 Axome 119 Axona r 253 Azania Afr. 120 Azania Gr. 144 Azotus 98 Babylon 86 Babylonia 85 Bacenis 267 , Bactra 34 Bactriana 34 Baeterrae 257 Baetica 247 Baetis r. 245, 247 Bagacum 263 3 Bagastana 42 Bagradas r. 125 2 Baiae 231 j Baiucasses 259 Baleares i. 252 Bambyce 94 1 Barbaria 120 Barca 122 Barcino 250 Bardines r. 95 s Barium 232 Barnus m. 193 Barygaza 24 Bassanius r. 193 Bastarnae 270 3 Bastetani 250 Bastuli 247 Batanaea 105 Batava castra 199 Batavi 262 Batavodurum 262 2 Bauconica 261 1 Beda 263 1 Belgae 263, 265 Belgica 254, 260 Belgium 263 Bellovaci 263 Benacus 1. 209 Beneharnum 258 Beneventum 229 Berenice Aeth. 119 2 Berenice Cyren. 122 Bergamum 212 Bergiutn 264 Bermius m. 174 Beroea Mac. 174 Beroea Syr. 94 Bertiscus m. 193 x Berytus 97 Betogabris 103 3 Bibracte 259 Bilechas r. 91 Billaeus r. 61 Bingium 261 1 Bisaltae 1 76 Bisanthe 184 Bithynip. 61 Bituriges 258 Bizye 181 Blemmyes 118 Bodotria 264 Bodincus r. 209 Boebe'is 1. 169 Boeotia 155 Boius m. 193 Boji 196, 211, 259 x Bojodurum 199 Bojohaemum 270 Bonna 262 1 Bononia Gal. 263 3 ■ — Ital. 211 — Moes. 185 Bontobrica 262 1 Borbetomagus 261 Borysthenes r. 187 Bosporus Cimmerius 191 Bosporus Thrac. 61, 184 Bostra 105 Bottiaeis 174 Bovianum 229 Bracara 249 Bradanus r. 235 a Brannovices 259 1 Brattia i. 195 4 Brauron 153 Breones 198 Breucomagus 261 T Brigantes 266 Brigantinus 1. 199 Brigantio 256 Brigantium 199 Brilettus m. 152 Britannia 264 Brixia 212 Bructeri 268 Brand isium 233 Bruttii 234, 236 Buana 46 Bubastis 114 Bucca 95 1 Bucephala 22 x Burchana i. 269 j Burdigala 258 Burgundiones 270 Buthrotum 168 Buxentum 235 Byblus 97 Byrsa 1 25 Byzantium 184 Cabalia 76 Cabellio 256 Cabillonum 259 1 Cabura 36 Cadmea 156 Cadme'i 155 Cadmus m. 72 Cadurci 2.58 Cadusii 43 Cadytis 98 Caecubus ager 228 Caelius m. 221 Caere 216 Caesaraugusta 250, 251 Caesarea Capp. 56 Caesarea Maur. 127 Caesarea Pal. 103 Caesarea Paneas 10 1 INDEX OF NAMES. Caesarodunum 259 Caesaromagus 263 Caieta 228 Calabria 233 Calatia 230 Calauria 148 Calchedon 62 Cale portus 249 1 Caledonia 266 Cales 230 Caleti 259 Calingae 24 x Callaici 249 Callatis 184 Callidromus m. 161 Calliena 24 Callinicum 91 Callipolis 233 Calliupolis 182 , Calor r. Samn. 229 Calor r. Lucan. 235 x Calpe 247 Calydon 162 Calymnos i. 73 2 Camaracum 263 3 Camarina 239 Cambodunum 199 Camboritum 265 1 Camerinum 217 Camirus 73 Campania 230 Camulodunum 265 C a muni 212 Canaan 93, 96, 99 Canaria i. 128 Canatha 104 2 Candavia m. 193 Caninefates 262 2 Canogiza 23 r Canopicum ost. 114 j Cantabri 251 Cantii 265 Canusium 232 Capauta 1. 43 Capena 216 Capitolium22i Cappadocia 56, 57 Capreae i. 231 Capsa 125 3 Capua 230 Caraceni 229 Caralis 243 Caralis 1. 78 Carambis pr. 60 1 Carana 49 Carantania 207 , Carcaso 257 Cardia 182 Carduchi 47 Carduene 47 Cares 70, 134 Caria 72 Carmana, -ia 40 Carmelus m. 97 Carmo 247 1 Cami 196, 207 Caniuntum 196 Carnutes 259 Carpathos i. 73 2 , 137 Carpentoracte 256 Carpetani 251 Carrhae 91 Carsioli 226 Cartenna 127 1 Carthaginensis prov. 241 Carthago 125 Carthago nova 250 Carystus 139 Casilinum 230 Casinum 227 Casmenae 238 Casos i. 73 2 , 137 Caspiae pylae 41 2 Caspii 41 „ 49 1 Caspiraea 22 Cassandria 179 Cassanitae 108 Cassiterides i. 264 Castulo 251 Casuentus r. 235 1 Catacecaumene 71 1 Catana 238 Cataonia 56 Cattigara 27 , Catthaei 22 Caturiges 256 Cauca 25 1 Caucasus m. 50, 53 297 Caucasus Indicus m, 36 Caucones 134 Caudini. 229 Caudium 229 l Caulonia 236 Caunus 72 4 Cavari 256 Cayster r. 70 Cebenna m. 253, 257 Cedareni, Cedraei 106 Celaenae' 64 Celeja 197 Celenderis 79 Celtiberi 246, 251 Celtica 253, 254, 259 260 Celtici Hisp. 248 Cenabum 259 5 Cenchreae 149 Cenomani Gal. 259 Cenomani Ital. 212 Centuripae 239 Ceos i. 138 Cephallenia i. 164 Cephisus Att. 152 — Boeo. iss, 157 Cerasus 59 Cerbalus r. 232 Cercetae 53 2 Cercina i. 125 3 Cercyra i. 165 Ceme i. 128 ! Cerynia Ach. 141 s — Cyp. 81 Cessetani 250 Cestrus r. 76 Ceutrones 256 Chaberus r. 20 j Chaboras r.82 2,89,90 Chaeronea 156 Chalcedon 62 Chalcidice 178 Chalcis Eub. 139, 162, 231 Chalcis J^yr. 94 2 Chalcitis 26 Choldaea 85 Chaldaei 49 Chalybes 49, 58 2gS Chalybon 94 Chamavi 268 Chaonia 168, 234 Characene 86 Charax Spasinu 86 Chatramotitis 109 Chatriaei 22 Chatti 270 Chattuarii 268 Chauci 269 Chelonides 1. 129 1 Chersonesus Heracle- otica 191 Chersonesus Rhodia 73 — Taurica 191 — Thracica 192 Cherusci 270 Chetaei 93, 160 Chios 70 Choaspes r. 84 Choathras m. 43 5 Chones 234 Chorasmia 35 Chremetesr. 128 Chryse 26 Chrysoceras 1 84 Chrysorrhoas r. 95 2 Cibyra 76 Cilicia 56, 79 Cimbri 269 Cimmerii 191 Cimolus i. 137 Cinnamomophoros regio 120 Cirrha 157 j Cirta 126 Cissia 84 Cithaeron m. 152 Citium 81 Cius 62 Clanis r. 215 Clarenna 26 1 5 Clasia r. 217 Clazomenae 70 Cleonae 147 2 Clitor 144 Clitumnus r. 217 Clota ae^t. 264 Clunia 250, 251 INDEX OF NAMES Clusium 215 Clypea 125 3 Cnemis m. 158 Cnidus 73 Cnosus 136 Coelesyria 95 Colchis 51 Collatia 225 Collina regio 221 2 Coloe 1. 71 2 Colonia Agrippina 262 Colonia Brit. 265 Colophon 70 Colossae 64 Colubraria i. 252 Comana Capp. 56 Comana Pont. 57 Commagene 94 Compsa 229 Comum 212 Concordia 261 x Condate 259 Condivicnum 259 Condochates r. 21 , Confluentes 262 : Conii 248 Conovium 265 , Consentia 236 Copae 156 Copais 1. 155 Cophenr. 36 Copia colonia 263 Cora 227 Corax m. 132 Coraxici m. 53 Corcyra i. 165 Corcyra nigra i. 195 Corduba 247 Corduene 47 Corfinium 219 Corinthus 149 Corioli 225 Cornavii 265 Corone 145 Coronea 156 Coronus m. 42 4 Corsica i. 244 Cortona 215 Cortoriacum 263 3 Cos i. 73 Cossa 216 Cossaei 84 Cossoanus r. 21 , Cossyra i. 242 Costoboci 189 Cotini 271 Cottii regn. 213 Cotyaeum 64 Cotyora 59 Cra^us m. 74 Crathis r. 236 Cremna 76 Cremona 212 Crenides 176 Creta 136 Crexa i. 195 t Crisa 157 Crobyzi 185 Croton 236 Cruni 184 Crustumerium 225 Ctesiphon 86 Cubi Bituriges 258 Cularo 256 Cumae 231 Cunetes 248 Cures 219 Curetes 139, 162 1 Curia Kaetonim 198 Curicta i. 195 4 Curiosolites 259 Curium 81 Cutatisium 51 2 Cyclades i. 138 Cydnus r. 79 Cydonia 136 Cyllene 132, 141 Cyme As. 69 Cyme Ital. 231 Cynesii 248 Cvnuria 144, 146, 'i47 Cyparissiae 145 Cyprus 80 Cyra, Cyreschata 33 Cyrene 122 Cyrnos 244 Cyrrluis 94 2 Cyrus r. 44, 49 lt 50 INDEX OF NAMES. 299 Cytaea 51 2 Cythera i. 146 Cythnos i. 138 Cytinium 1 60 Cyzicus 66 Dachinabades 19, 24 Dacia 186 Dalmatia 195 Dalmaticae Alpes 193 1 Damascus 95, 104 „ Danapris 187 Danaster 187 Danuvius 196 Daphnus 157, 158 Dardania 185 x Dariorigum 259 Dascylium 66 x Dassaretae 194 Datum 177 Daunia 232 Decapolis PaL 104 Decelea 153 Decetia 259 x Decumates agri 261 Delium. 156 Delos i. 138 Delphi if 7 Delta in, 113, 114 Demetrias S icy on 150 Demetrias Thess. 171 Dertona 213 Dertosa 250 Deva 265 Diablintes 259 Diacria 152 Diala r. 88 Diamuna r. 21 Dicaeai-chia 231 Dicte 136 Diolco< 149 4 Dionysopolis 184 Dioryctos 164 Dioscurias 5 1 Diospolis Aeg. 117 Diospolis Pal. 103 3 Dirphys m. 139 Dium Mac. 174 Dium Syr. 104 Divitio 262 j Divodurum 260 Divona 258 Dodecaschoenos 117 2 Dodona 167 Doliones 66 Dolopes 161 2 Dores 135, 137, 170 Doris Asiat. 73 Doris Gr. Eur. 160 Dorus 97 Dorylaeum 64 Drangiane 37 Draus r. 1 96 Drepana 241 Drilon r. 193 Drirms r. 193 Druentia r. 253, 256 Dryopes 134, 138, 139. H8, 160 Dubis r. 260 Dubris 265 1 Dumnonii 265 Duranius r. 253 Duria r. 212, 213 Durius r. 245, 248 Durnomagus 262 x Durnovaria 265 1 Durocatalauni 263 2 Durocortorum 263 Durostorum 185 Durotrajectum 262 s Durotriges 265 Durovernum 265 1 Dyrin m. 1 27 Dyrrhachium 194 Ebraei 100 2 Ebudae i. 266 Eburacum 265 Eburodunum Helvet. 260 2 Eburodunum Narb. 256 Eburones 262 Eburo vices 259 Ebusus i. 252 Ecbatana 42 Ecdippa 97 Echinades 163 Ecretici 51 s Edessa Mac. 174 Edessa Mesop. 91 Edetani 250 Edones 176 Edre'i 105 Egesta 241 Eion 177 . Elaea 69 Elaeus 182 Elatea 157 Elaver r. 253 Elea 235 Eleusis 153 Eleutherna 136 Eleutherolacones 146 1 Eleutheropolis 103 s Elimea 175 Elimberris 258 Elis 142 Elymai's 84 Elymi 241 Emathia 1 74 Emerita Augusta 248 Emesa 95 1 Emmaus 103 3 Emodus m. 21 Emporia Afr. 123 Eniporiae Hisp. 250 Enipeus r. 169 Enna 239 Eordaea 175 Epetium 195 3 Ephesus 70 Ephyra 149 -, Epicnemidia 158 Epictetos 64 j Epidamnus 194 Epidaurum 111. 195 Epidaurus Gr. 148 Epiphania 94 Epipolae 239 Epirus 163, 164, 1 66 Eporedia 212 Eretria 139 Eridanus r. 208 t Erigon 173 Erymantnus m. I4t Erythrae 70 Eryx 241 300 Esquiliiras m. 221 Eteocretes 136 Etruria 214 Etrasci 204, 210, 230 Etymander r. 31 2 , 37 Euboea 139 Euganei m. 202 „ Euhesperidae 122 Eulaeas r. 84 Euphrates r. 29, 44, 82 Euripus 139 Europa 15, 130 Europus Med. 42 Europus Syr. 94 2 Eurotas r. 146 Eurymedon r. 75 v 76 Eurytanes 162 Euxinus pontus 17 Exquiliae 221 Fabrateria 227 Faesulae 215 Falerii 216 Falernus ager 230 Fanum Fortunae 217 Felsina 210, 211 Fenni 271 Ferentinum 226 Fidenae 225 Firmum 218 Flaminia pro v. 205 Flevo lac. 262 2 Florentia 215 Formiae 228 Fortunatae i. 128 Forum Julii Ital. 207 Forum Julium Gall. z 55 Forum Segusiav. 259 j Franci 268 Fregellae 227 Frentani 229 Frento r. 229 Friniates 213 Frisii 269 Frusino 226 Fucinus 1. 219, 226 Fulginii 217 Fundi 228 INDEX OF NAMES. Gabali 258 Gabii 225 Gabreta m. 267 1 Gadara 104 Gades, Gadira 247 Gadrosia 38 Gaetulia 129 Galaadilis 104 Galatia 63 (253) Galilaea 101 Gallaecia 249 Gallia cisalpina 205, 207 Gallia cispadana 211 — transalpina 253 — transpadana 212 Gallicus ager 217 Gallograeci 63 1 Gandarae 36 Gangaridae 23 2 Ganges r. 21 Gangra 60 Ganzaca 43 Garamantes 129 Garganus m. 202, 232 Gargara 69 Garumna 253 Gaudos i. 242 Gaugamela 88 x Gaulonitis 104 Gautae 271 Gaza 98 Gazaca 43 Gedrosia 38 Gela 240 Gelae 43 Gelduba 262 1 Genava 256 Genezareth 1. 99 Genua 213 Georgia 52 Gephyraei 155 Gerania m. 151 Gerasa 104 Gergovia 258 Germania inf. 262 ■ — magna 267 — sup. 261 Gerrha 109 Gerrhus 188 , Gessoriacum 263 3 Getae 185, 186 Giligammes 121 Gir r. 129 Girba i. 123 Glessariae i. 269 r Glevum 265 Gnossus 136 Gordieum 64 Gordyaei, — ene 47 Gortys 136 Gothi 270 Gothini 271 Graecia 131 Gratianopolis 256 Graupius m. 266 1 Grumentum 235 Guttones 270 Gygaea 1. 71 , Gymnesiae i. 252 Gytheum 146 Hadriani vallum Brit. 264 Hadriani vallum Germ. 261 Hadriaticummare2lo Hadrumetum 125 Haemus m. 181 Haliacmon r. 173 Haliartus 156 Halicamassus 73 Halycus r. 237 Halys r. 54 Harmozia 40 Harmozica 52 Hatra 89 2 Hatria Pic. 218 Hatria Ven. 210 Hebraei 100 2 Hebron 103 Hebrus r. 181 Hebudes i. 266 Hecatompylos 41 j Helice 141 2 Helicon m. 155 Heliopolis Aeg. 1 1 5 — Syr. 95 Hellas 131 Ilellespontus 67 INDEX OF NAMES. 301 Helvetii 260, 261 Hemesa 95 x Hemodus m. 21 Henna 239 Heptanomis 113, 116 Heptastadium 115 1 Heraclea Chersonesns igi Heraclea Ital. 235 — Minoa 240 r — Pontica 62 — Trachinia 161 Heracleopolis 1 16 Heraclium 136 2 Herculaneum 231 Hercynia silva 267 Herminones 268, 270 Hermione 148 Hermunduri 270 Hermus r. 70, 71 Hernici 226 Heroopolis 115 2 Hesperia 246 Hesperidae 122 Hesperii Locri ■ 158, 159 Hestiaei 139 Hestiaeotis 170 Hibernia 266 Hierapolis Phryg. 64 Hierapolis Syr. 94 x Hierapytna 136 Hiericus 103 3 Hieron Aesculapii 148, Hierosolyma 103 Hilleviones 271 Himera 238 Himera r. 237 Hippo regius 126 — Zarytus 125 Hipponium 236 Hirpini 229 Hispalis 247 Hispania 245 Hispania citerior, ul- terior 246 Histiaea 139 Histria 206 Homeritae 108 Hyantes 134 Hyarotis (Hydraotes) r. 20 2 Hydaspes r. 20 2 Hydrea 148 Hydruntum 233 Hymettus m. 152 Hypanis r. As. 192 Hypanis r. Eur. 187 Hypasis, — phasis r. 20 2 Hypata 161 Hyperacria 152 Hyrcania 41 Iader 195 Ialysus 73 lamnia 98 Iamo 252 Iapygia 232 Iatinum 259 Iaxartes 29, 31, 33 Iazyges 189 Iavadiu i. 26 Iberes As. 50 Iberes Eur. 12, 246 Iberia As. 52 Iberia Eur. 246 Iberus r. 245 Icaria i. 70 Icauna r. 253 Iconium 77 Icosium 127 j Ida m. Cret. 136 Ida m. Tro. 67 Idubeda rn. 245 Idumaea 107 Ierasus F. 186 Jerusalem 103 Igilgili 127 j Iguvium 217 Ilercavones 250 llerda 251 Ilergetes 251 Uici 250 Ilipula 245 Ilium 67 llliberis 247 L Illyrii 204, 206, 208 Illyris 193 Ilurgavones 250 Ilva i. 215 Imaus m. Ind. 21 Imaus m. Scyth. 28 Imbros i. 183 Inacbus r. Epir. 166 Inachus r. Pelop. 147 Indabara 23 2 India 19 India exterior 26 Indicus Oceanus 17 Indigetes 250 Indoscythia 22 Indus r. 19 Ingauni 213 Inguaeones 268, 269 Insani montes 243 Insubri 212 Interamna Lat. 217 Interamnium Pic. 218 Internum mare 1 7 Intimilii 213 Iol 127 Iolcus 171 lomanes r. 21 Iones 131, 135, 138 139, 148, 156 Ionia 70 Ioppe 97 Iordanes r. 99 Iris r. 54 Isara r. Belg. 253 Isara r. Gall. Narb. 256 Isarci 198 Isaura, Isauria 78 Isca 265 j Ismenus r. 155 Issa i. 195 Issus 79 Istaevones 268 Ister r. 184, 196 j Istria 206 Istropolis 184 Itali 200, 234 Italia 200 Italica 247 Italietes 234 Italiotae 234 ! Ithaca i. 164 Ithome 145 3°2 INDEX OF NAMES. Itius portus 263 3 Ituraei 105, 106 Judaea 103 Juliacum 262 l Juliobona 259 Juliomagus 259 Julium Camicum 207 Jura m. 253 Juvavuui 197 Iveraia 266 Kison r, 101 Labyrinthus 116 2 Lacedaemon 146 Laconica 145, 146 Lade i. 7° 2 Ladon r. 143 Laeetani 250 Laestrygonius cam- pus 237 Lambaesis 126 1 Lamia 161 Laminium 251 Lampsacus 67 Langobardi 270 Lanuvium 225 Laodicea Phryg. 64 — Syr. 94 Lapethus 81 Lappa 136 Lapurdum 258 Larica 24 Larinum 229 Larissa Assyr. 87 — Syr. 94 2 — Thess. 171 Larius 1. 209 Larymna 158 Latium 220 — novum 227, 228 — vetus 225, 226, 227 Lauriacum 197 Laurium 152 Laus Hisp. 247,-, Laus Lucan. 235 Laus Pompeii 212 Lavinium 225 Lazi 51 „ Lebadea 156 Lebedos 70 Lechaeum 149 Legedia 259 Legio (VII. Gemina) 249 Leleges 72, 134 Lemanus 1. 256, 260 Lemnos i. 132 2 , 183 Lemovices 258 Leontini 238, 239 Leontium 141 2 Lepontii 212 Lepreum 142 Leptis magna 123 — minor 125 3 Lesbos i. 69 Leuca m. 136 Leucaethiopes 128 3 Leucas i. 164 Leuci 260 Leucosyri 56, 58 x Leuctra 156 Lexovii 259 Libanus m. 92, 96 Liburnia 195 Libya 15, 121 Libycus nonius- 1 13 Libyes 9 Libyssonis turris 243 Licus r. 198 Liger r. 253 Ligures 204 Liguria 213, 254 Ligyes Asiat. 53 2 Lilybaeum 237, 241 Limonum 258 Limyrica 24 Lindum 265 Lindus 73 Lingones Gall. 260 Lingones Ital. 211 Lipara 242 Liquentia r. 208 , Lixus 127 1 Locri Epizephyrii 236 Locris 158 Londinium 265 Lopadusa i. 242 Lousonna 260 2 Luca 215 Lucania 234, 235 Lucentum 250 Luceria 232 Lucrinus 1. 231 x Lucus Augusti 249 Lugdunensis Gallia 254. 259 Lugdunum 259 LugdunumBatav. 262 Lugii 270 Luguvallium 265 x Luna 215 Luna silva 267 x Lunae montes 120 1 Lupia r. 267, 268 2 Lupodunum 261 2 Lusitania 248 Lutetia 259 Lycaeus m. 143 Lycaonia 77 Lychnidus 194 Lychnitis 1. Arm. 44 j — 1. Illyr. 194 Lycia 74 Lyctos 136 Lycus r.. Ass. 88. Lycus r. Capp. 58 Lydda 103 3 Lydia 71 Lyncestis 175 Lysimachia 182 Lyttos 136 Macae Arab. 109 Macae Lib. 123 Macaria 145 Macedonia 172 (194) Madianitae 108 Madytus 182 Maeander r. 64, 70 2 , 72 Maenalus m. 143 Maeonia 71 Maeotae 192 Maeotis 1. 187 Maesolus r. 20 1 Magna Graecia 234 Magnesia Eur. 170 — Maeandri 72 — Sipyli 71 INDEX OF NAMES. Mago 252 Maiorica 252 Ma'itae 192 Malaca 247 Malis 161 Malli 22 Mallus 79 Maluentum 229 Mamertina 238 Manadas r. 20 x Manapii Ivern. 266 Mancuniurn 265 j Mandubii 259 x Maniolae i. 26 j Manrali 51 2 Mantianus 1. 43 Mantinea 144 Mantua 210 Maracanda 33 Marathon 152 2 Marathus 97 Marcianopolis 185 2 Maixodurum 262 x Marcomagus 262 x Marcomanni 270 Mareotis 1 14 1 Margiana 35 Margus r. As. 35 Moes. 185 Mariaba 108 Mariana 244 Mariandyni 62 Maris, Marisia r. 186 Maritima i. 242 Marmarica 121 Maroneus ni. 237 Maronia 182 Marrucini 219 Marruvium 219 Marsi Germ. 268 Marsi Ital. 219 Martius campus 223 ' Masius m. 90 Massaesyli 126 Massagetae 28 Massalia; Massilia 255 Massicus m. 228 Massicytes m. 74 Massylii 126 Mastiani 250 Matiani 43, 87 x Matisco 259 1 Matium 136 2 Matrona r. 253, 259 4 Matrona m. 213 Mattium 270 j Mauretania 127 Mazaca 56 ' Mecone 1 50 % Media 42, 87 j Media minor 43 2 Mediae murus 85 L Mediolanium Ital. 212 Mediolanum Aulerc. 259 MedioIanurnSant.258 Mediomatrici 260 Medma 236 Megalopolis 144 Megara 151 Megara Hyblaea 239 Melas r. Capp. 56 Melas r. Pamph. 76 Meldi 259 Melibocus m. 267 ! Melita i; Dalm. 195 4 Melita i. Ital. 242 Melitene 56 Melos i. 132 2> 137 Melpum 210 Memphis 116 Menapii Gal. Germ. 262 Meninx i. 123 Meroe 118 Mesambria 184 Mesene 86 Mesogaea 152 Mesopotamia 89, 90 Mespila 87 2 Messana 238 Messapia 233 Messene, Messenia 145 Messogis 72 Metapontum 235 Methana 132 2 Methone 174 Methora 23 -, Methymna 69 3°3 Mevania 217 Midaeum 64 Miletus 70 ( 190) Miletopolis 66 Milyas 74 Minaei 108 Mincius r. 209 Minius r. 245 Minnodunum 260 2 Minorica 252 Mmturnae 228 Minyae 155, 170 Misenum 231 x Moabitis 104 Modura 24 Moenus r. 267 Moeris 1. 116 Moesia 185 Mogontiacum 261 Molossis, Molottisl67 Molycria 162 Monoecus 213 Morini 263 Mosa r. 253, 262 Moschi 50, 58 Mosella r. 253 Motye 241 Munda 247 1 Munychia 154 Mursa 196 Mutina 211 Muza 108 Muziris 24 Mycale 70 j Mycenae 147 Mygdones 66 Mygdonia Mac. 176 — Mesop. 90 Mylae 238 Mylasa 72 Myra 74 Myriandus 94 Mvrlea 62 Mysia65, 68 (185) Mytilene 69 Myus 70 Nabataei 107 Nagidus 79 Nagnates 266 3°4 Naharmalcha r. 85 1 Naissus 185 j Namadas r. 20 1 Namnetes 259 Nanaguna r. 20 j Napata 118 Nar r. 217 Narbo 257 Narbonensis Gallia 254. 255 Narnia 217 Naro r. 193 Narona 195 Nasamones 123 Nasium 260 Naucratis 114 Naupactus 159 Nauplia 147 Nava r. 261 1 Naxos i. 138 Naxos Sic. 238 Neapolis Afr. 125 8 — Camp. 231 — Datenon 177 — Palaest. 102 — Sard. 243 Nebrissa 247 1 ' Nebrodes m. 237 Nee'tum 239 Negrana 108 Nemausus 257 Nemeti 261 Nemetocenna 263 Nemossus 258 Nequinum 217 Nervii 263 Nessonis 1. 169 Nestus r. 173 Nevirnum 259 1 Nicaea Bith. 61 Nicaea Ind. 22 1( 36 2 Nicaea Lig. 213 Nicephorium 91 Nicer r. 261 Nicomedia 61 Nicopolis Actia 168 — Moes. 185 2 — Palaest. 103 3 Nigir r. 129 Nigritae 129 INDEX OF NAMES. Nilusr. 16, ill Nineve, Ninus 87 Ninoe 72 4 Nisaea 42 2 Nisibis 90 Nisyros i. 73 2 , 132 a Nitiobroges 258 Nobatae 118 Nola 230 Nomentum 225 Norba 227 Noreja 197 Noricum 197 Novaesium 262 1 Novana 212 Noviodunum Aulerc. 259 — Helvet. 260 — Moes. 185 — Suess. 263 Noviomagus Bat. 262 — Lexov. 259 — Trever. 263 1 — Vang. 261 Nuba 1. 129 j Nubae 118 Nuceria 230 Numantia 251 Numidia 1 26 Oases III 4 Oceanum mare 17 Oceanus Arcticus 17 — Atlanticus 17 — Suevicus 270 Ocha m. 139 Ochus r. 36 Octodurus 260 3 Odessus 184 Odrysae 66, 180 Oea 123 Oeniadae 163 Oenoe 59 Oenotria 234 Oescus 185 Oescus r. 181 Oeta m. 160 Oetaea 161 Olbia Bith. 61 — L 'g- 255 Olbia Pamph. 75 — ■ Pont. 190 — Sard. 243 Oliaros i. 138 1 Olisipo 248 Ollius r. 209 Oltis r. 263 Olympia 142 Olympus 74 Olympus m. Cypr. 80 — m. Mys. 61 — m. Thess. 132, 169 Olynta i. 195 4 Olynthus 178 Ophiones 162 Ophiussa i. 252 Opici 204, 230 Opitergium 208 Opus 158 Orbelus m. 172 Orcades i. 266 Orchoe 86 x Orchomenos Arc. 144 Orchomenos Boe. 156 Oreos 139 Orestias 181 Orestis 175 Oretani 251 Orminius m. 61 Orneae 147 2 Orolaunum 263 1 Orontes r. 92 Orontes m. 42 Oropus 156 Orrhoe 91 Orthocorybantii 43 3 Ortona 229 Ortospana 36 Ortygia 239 Orumbovii 212 Osca 251 Osci 230, 234 Oscius r. 181 Osi 271 Osismii259 Osroene 91 Ossa m. 169 Ostia 224 Othrys 169 Ovilava 197 INDEX OF NAMES. Oxiae i. 163 Oxianus 1. 35 , Oxus r. 29, 31, 34, 35 1 Ozene 24 Ozolae 159 Pachynurn pr. 237 Pactolus r. 71 Pactyes 37 Padus r. 209 Paeligni 219 Paeonia 175 (196) Paestum 235 Pagae 151 Pa'ithana 24 Palaestina 93, 98 Palaetyms 97 Palantia 251 Palatium 221, 223 Pile 164 Palibothra 23 Pallas 1. 123 j Pallene 132 2 , 179 Palma 252 Palmyra 95 Pambotis 1. 166 Pamisus r. 133 Panacbaicus m. 141 a Pandiones 24 Pandosia 168 Pangaeus m. 176 Panionium 70 x Pannonia 196 Panormus 24 1 Panticapaeum J92 Paphlagonia 60 Paphos 81 Parachoathras m. 43 l Paraetacene 34 t Paralia 152 Parapanisus m. 36 Parauaea 167 Paricanii 38 Parisii 259 Parma 211 Parnassus m. 132, 157 Parties m. 1 52 Parnon m. 146 Paros i. 138 Parrhasia 144 Parthenius r. 62 1 Parthenope 231 Parthia, Parthyene 41 Parthini 194 x Paryadres m. 58 Pasargadae 39 Pasitigres 84 Patara 74 Patavium 208 Pathisus r. 186 Pathumos 1 15 2 Patrae 141 (159) Pax Julia 248 Pedias Att. 152, 153 Pedias Cilicia 79 Pednelissus 76 Pelasgi 134, 183 Pclasgicum Argos 1 70 Pelasgiotis 170 Pelendones 251 Pella Mac. 174 — Pal. 104 Pelopia 71 Peloponnesus 140 Pelorum pr. 237 Pelso 1. 196 Pelusiacurn Nili os- tium 114 1 Pelusium 115 Peneus r. 169 Pentapolis Cyren. 122 Pentellicus m. 152 Pentri 229 Peparethos i. 139 3 Peraea 104 Pergamum 68 Perge 75 Perinthus 184 Perrhaebia 170 Persarmenia 45 Persepplis 39 Persis 39 Perusia 215 Pes.->iniis 63, 64 Petelia 236 Petra 107 Petrocorii 258 Peucetia 232 Phalerum 154 3°i I'hanagoria 192 Pharnacia 59 Pharos i. Aeg. 115 — i. Dalm. 195 Pharsalus 171 Pha&eiis 74 2 Phasiani 49 Phasis 5 1 1 Phasis r. 16, 49, 50 Phazania 129 Pheneos 144 Pherae 171 Philadelphia Lyd 71 ■ — Palaest. 104 Philippi 176 Philippopolis 181 Philistaei 93, 98 Phlegra 179 Phlius 150 Phocaea 70 2 (255) Phocis 157 Phoenice 93, 96, (247) Phoenice Epir. 168 Pholegandrus i. 137 Phorbantia 242 Phryges 55 Phrygia 64 — minor 66 Phthia 161 Phthiotis 1-70 Picentia, -tini 23 1 Picenum 218 Pictavi, Pictones 258 Pieria 174 Pinara 74 Pincius m. 223 Pindus m. 132, 166 Pinna 219 Piraeeus 154 Pisa, Pisatis 142 Pisae 215 Pisaurum 217 Pisidia 76 Pitane 69 Pithecussa i. 231 Pityussae i. 252 Plauentia 211 Plataeae 156 Plavis r. 208 ! Pleuron 162 3o6 Poediculi 232 Poenina vallis 260 Poetovio 196 Pola 206 Polemonium 59 Pollentia 252 Polyrrhenia 136 Pompaelo 251 Pompeii 23 1 Pomptinae pal. 220 Pontus 57 Pontus Euxinus 17 Populonia 215 Portus Augustus 224 Portus Julius 23 1 j Posidonia 235 Potentia 235 Potidaea 179 Praeneste 225 Praetutii 218 Prasiae 146 Prasii 23 Priene 70 Prista 185 Privernum 227 Proconnesus 66 Provincia 254 Prusa 61 Psophis 144 Pteria 56 3 Ptolemais Aeth. 119 2 Ptolema'is Cyren. 122 Punicum 216 Puteoli 231 Pydna 174 Pylos El. 142 Pylos Messen. 145 Pyramus r. 79 Pyrenaei m. 245 Pyretus r. 186 Pyrgi 216 Pyxus 235 Quadi 270 Quirinalis ra. 221 Rabbathrnoba 104 Raetia 198, Uamses 115 2 Ratiaria 185 INDEX OF NAMES. Rauda 251 Raurici 260 Ravenna 210 Reate 219 Redones 259 Reganus r. 199 Regina castra 199 Remi 263 Renus r. It. 209 Resaina 90 Revessio 258 Rhaedestus 184 Rhagae 42 Rhegium 236 Rhegma 109 Rhenus r. 198, 253, 267 Rhion r. 50 Rhodae 250 Rhodanus r. 253, 256, 259 Rhodope m. 172, 181 Rhndus i. 73 Rhoeteum 67 Rhypes 141 2 Rigodulum 263 a Rigomagus 262 1 Koma 221 sq. Rotomagus 259 Roxalani 189 Rubico r. 217 j Rugii 270 Ru>addir 127 , Ruscino 257 P-u^ellae 216 Rutenl 258 Rutupiae 265 l Sabaei 1 08 Sabatha 109 Sabatus r. 229 Sabini 218 Sabis r. 253 Sabratha 123 Sabrina r. 265 Sacae 13, 22, 28, 34, 37. 49 1. 55 2 Sacaseoe 49 l Sacastane 37 Sacrum pr. 248 Saepinum 229 Saetabis 250 Sagala'-sus 76 Sagartii 41 Sagrus r. 229 Saguntum 250 Sa'is 114 Salamis Cyp. 8l Salamis i. 153 Salapia 232 Salasy 212 Salbacus 72 Saldae 127 1 Salduba 251 Salernum 231 Saletio 261 1 Salice i. 25 Sallentini 233 Salluvii, Salyes 255 Salodurum 260 2 Salonae 195 Samara r. 253 Samaria 102 Samarobriva 263 Same 164 Hamnites 230. 23 1 , 234 Samnium 229 Samos i. 70 Samosata 94 Samothrace i. 183 Sandrophagus r. 20 2 Sangarius r. 54 Santones 258 Saoce m, 183 Sape 11S 2 Sarabus r. 21 1 Saraceni 106 j Saranges 37 Saravus r. 263 Sardes 71 Sardica 181 1 Sardinia 243 Sarmaria 189, 271 Sarmaticae pylae 52 1 Sarmiregetusa 186 Sarnus r. 230 Saron, Saronicus s 148 Sarus r. 79 Saspires 45 2 INDEX OF NAMES. 307 Sauconna r. 253 Saus r. 193, 196 Savaria 196 Saxones 269 Scaldis r. 253 Scandiae i. 271 Scardona 195 Scardus m. 172 Scatinavia 271 Sciathus i. 139 3 Scodra 194 Scolotae 188 Scordisci 196 Soupi 185 j Scylacium 236 Scyros i. 139 3 Scythae 34, 41 Scythia As. 28 — Eur. 188 — minor 185 3 Scythopolis 104 Sebastia Pal. 102 Sebastia Pont. 57 Sebastopolis 51 1 Sedunum 260 3 Segesta 241 Segestica 196 Segodnnum 258 Segontia 251 Segovia 251 Segusiavi 259 L Segusio 213 Segustero 256 Seleucia Cil. )g — Pieria 94 — Tigr. 86 Selge 76 Selinus 240, 241 Sellasia 146 2 Selymbria 184 Semana silva 267 L Senibritae 118 Semnones 270 Sena 215 Sena Gallica 217 SenonesiGall. 259 — Ital. '211 Sephela 98 Septemmaria 208 Septimanca 251 Sequana r. 253, 259 4 Sequani 260 Sera, Serica 27 Serendiva i. 25 Sesamus 62 ^ Setia 227 Setium 257 Sicani 237 Sicca 126 j Sicilia 237 Sicoris r. 25 1 Siculi 204, 225, 234, .237 Sicyma(Shechem) 102 Sicyon 150 Side Pamph. 75 Side Pont. 59 Sidicini 230 Sidon 96, 97 Sielediba i. 25 Sigeum 67 Signia 225 Sila m. 201 Silarus r. 231, 235 1 Silis r. 33 Silvanectes 263 Simnus r. 235 1 Simylla 24 Sina m. 107 x Sinae 27 Sindae i. 26 ^ Sindi 192 Sindus r. 19 Singara 90 x Sinope 60 Sipontum 232 Sipylus m. 71 Siris235 Sirmium 196 Sisapo 247 1 Siscia 196 Sitbonia 179 Sitifi 127 ! Sitones 271 Smyrna 70 Sogdiana 33 Solentia i. 195 4 Soli Cil. 70 Soli Cyp. 81 Soluntum 241 Solyma m. 74 2 Sontius r. 208 1 Sonus r. 21 j Sophene 48 Sora 227 Sorbiodunum 265 l Sorviodurum 199 Spalatum 195 r Sparta 146 Sperchius 1. 133 Spina 209 Spoletium 217 Sporades i. 137 Stachir r. 128 Stagirus 177 Stenyclarus 145 Stobi 175 Stratonicea 72 Stratus 163 Strongyle 242 Strymon r. 173, 176, 177 Stymphalns 144 Snani 5 1 Suburana 221 2 Sucro r. 245 Sudeta m. 267 l Sueones 271 Stiessa 228 Suessiones 263 Suessula 230 Suevi 270 Sufes 125 3 Sufetula 125 3 Sugambri 268 Suindinum 259 Sulci 243 Sulmo 219 Sumelocenna 261 2 Surrentum 231 Susa, Susiane 84 Sybaris 236 SydrusY. 20 s Syene 117 Sylleum 75 Symaethus r. 237 Syme i. 73 a Syracusae 239 Syrastrene 22 Syria 83, 92, 93 3oS Syri Cappadoces 56 Syrtes 123 Tabae 72 4 Tabernae 261 1 Tader r. 245 Taenarum pr. 146 Tagus r. 245, 248 Tamalites 23 x Tamarus r. 229 Tamesa r. 265 Tanagra 156 Tanai's 190 Tanai's r. 16, 187 Tanarus r. 209 Tanis 114 Taprobane i. 25 Tapuri 43 Tarasco 256 Tarentum 233 Tarnis r. 253 Tarodunum 261 = Tarquinii 216 Tarracina 227 Tarraco 250 Tarraconensis prov. 250 Tarsus 79 Tartessus 247 Taruenna 263 3 Tarus r. 209 Tarvisium 208 Tatta 1. 54 Tauchira 122 Taulantii 194 Taunus m. 267 , Tauri 191 Taurica cberson. 191 Taurini 213 Taurisci 197 Tauroentum 255 Tauromenium 238 TauTunum 185 Taurus m. 18, 29 Taygetus m. 132, 146 Taxila 22 Teanum Apulum 232 Teanum Sidicinum 230 Teate 219 INDEX OF NAMES. Tectosages As. 63 Tectosages Gal. 257 Tegea 144 Telesia 229 Telo Martius (Telo- nium) 255 Telos i. 73 2 Temesa, Tempsa 236 Tempe 169 Tencteri 268 Tenedos i. 69 Tenos i. 138 Teredon 86 Tergeste 206 Terina 236 Termessus 76 Termilae 74 Teuthrania 68 Teutoburgiensis Sai- tus 267 j, 268 2 Teutones 269 2 Teutonovarii 269 Tbapsacus 94 1 Thasos i. 177 Thebae Ae£. 117 Thebae Boe, 156 Thebais 113, 117 Themiscyra 59 Theodosiopolis 49 Theon-ochema m. 128 2 Thera i. 132 2 , 137 Therma Mac. 176 Thermae Sic. 238, 241 Thermessa i. 242 Thermodon r. 59 Thermopylae 161 Therm um 162 Thespiae 156 Thesprotia 168, (170) Thessalia 169 Thessalintis 170 Thessalonice 176 Theudosia 192 Theveste 126 x Thibursicum 125 3 Thinae 27 Thospitis 1. 44 Thrace, Thracia 172 Thraces 61, 155, 176 Thria 153 Thule i. 266 Thurii 236 Thyamis r. 166 Thyatira 71 Thyni 61 Thyrea 146 Thysdrus 125 3 Tibareni 58 Tiberias 101 Tibur 225 Ticinum 212 Ticinus r. 209 Tifernus r. 229 Tigranocerta 48 Tigris r. 29, 44, 82 Tilavemptus r. 208 5 Timaus r. 206 j Tingis 127 Tiryns 147 Tisia, Tissus r. 186 Tlos 74 Tmolus m. 71 Tolbiacum 262 2 Tolerus r. 226 Toletum 251 Tolistoboji 63 Tolosa 257 Tomi 184 Torone 179 Trachea Cilicia 79 Trachis 161 Trachonitis 105 Tragurium 195 3 Trajanopolis 181 TrajectumBatav.262 2 Tralles 72 Trasiuienus 1. 215 Trebia 209 Treres 185 Trerus r. .226 Treveri 263 Triballi 185 Triboci 261 Tricasses 259 Tricca 171 Trichords I. 162 Tridentum 212 Trinacria 237 INDEX OF NAMES. 3°9 Trinius r. 229 Triphylia 142 Tripolis Afr. 123 — Phoen. 97 — Ponti 59 Tritonis 1. 123 t Troas 67 Trocmi 63 Troesmis 185 Troezen 148 Trogitis I. 78 Troia 67 Trumpli 212 Tubantes 268 Tuburbum 125 3 Tulluin 260 Tunes 125 x Tungri 262 Turdetani 247 Turduli 247 Turicum 260 2 Turis r. 245 Turones 259 Turris Libyssonis 243 Tusculum 225 Tyana 56 Tymphaea 167 Tymphrestus m. 161 2 Tyndaris 239 Tynna r. 20 j Tyras 1 87, 190 Tyrasr. 186 Tyrrhenum mare 214 Tyrus 97 Ubii 262, 268 Ufens 220 Umbria 217 Urba 260 2 Usipii 268 Utica 125 Utii 40 Uxama.251 Uxii 84* Vaccaei 251 Vaga 125 3 Valentia Gall. 256 Valemia Hisp. 250 Valentia prov. 264 Valeria prov. 205 Vandali 270 3 Vangiones 2b 1 Vapincum 256 Vardaei 194 Varus r. 213 Vasio 256 Vascones 251, 258 x Veldidena 198 Velia 235 Velitrae 225, 227 Vellavi 258 Vellocasses 259 Venafrum 229 Venedae 271 Veneti Gall. 259 Venetia It. 208 Venetus 1. 199, 260 Venostae- 198 Venta 265 x Venusia 232 Verbanus 1. 209 Vercellae 212 Verbna 212 Veronius r. 253 Verulae 226 Vestini 219 Vesulus in. 200 j Vesunna 258 Vesuvius m. 230 Vetera 262 , Vettones 248 Vetulonia 216 Viadua r. 267 Vibo Valentia 236 Vicetia 208 Viducasses 259 Vienna 256 Viminacium 185 Vfminalis in. 221 Vindalium 256 Vindelicia 199 Vindilii 270 s Vindius m. 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