.',■' ^ ,^ . ;^ ajarncU HmuetBitg ffiibrarg atljata, 5?em ^ork FROM THE BENNO LOEWY LIBRARY COLLECTED BY BENNO LOEWY 1854-1919 BEQUEATHED TO CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cornell University Library DS 156.C5B25 Lares and penates, or Cilicla and its 3 1924 028 605 487 The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924028605487 LAEES AND PENATES; CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS; A SHORT HISTOEICAL ACCOUNT OF THAT PROVINCE FROM TH'&^ EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY : TOGETHER WITH (f( A DESCRIPTION OF SOME HOUSEHOLD GODS OP THE ANCIENT CILICIAJJ^ BROKEN UP BY THEM ON THBIE CONVEESION TO CHRISTIANITY, FIEStV, DISCOVERED AND BROUGHT TO THIS COUNTRY BY THE AUTHOR, WILLIAM BURCKHARDT BARKER, M.R.A.S. MANY YEARS RESIDENT AT TARSUS IN AN OFFICIAL CAPACITY. EDITED BY WILLIAM FKANCIS AINSWOKTH, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS; OF THE ORIENTAL SOCIETY OF GERMANY, ETC. ; HONORARY SECRETARY OF THE SYRO-EGYPTIAN SOCIETY. LONDON: INGRAM, OOOKE, AND GO. 1853. CONTENTS. PAGE Intbodtjctoey Pkbpaob 1 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. CHAPTER I. Early period of Cilician history. Scriptural mention of Tarsus. An- cient religion. Notice of the Cilicians by Herodotus. Cilicia under the Assyrians. Burial-place of Sardanapalus. Dominion of the Medes. Cilicia overrun by Scythian hordes. The Prophet Daniel's tomb. Croesus, king of Lydia. Persian satraps. Invasion of Greece by the Persians. Syennesis, king of CUicia. Treaty of Antalcidas. Alexander the Great in Cilicia. Battle of Issus 11 CHAPTER ir. Plistarchus. Battle of Ipsus. Ptolemy Evergetes. Antiochus the Great. Zeno and Chrysippus. Cilicia under the Seleucidse. In- vaded by Tigranes. Reduced to a Roman province by Pompey. Cicero's campaign in Cilicia. Marc Antony and Cleopatra at Tar- sus. CUicia invaded by the Parthians under Labienus. Atheno- dorus. Vonones slain in Cilicia. St. Paul. Insurrection of the Cliteans. Cossuatianus Papito governor. Polemon, king of Cilicia, marries Berenice. Cilicia declared a Roman province in Vespasian's time. Pate of the Roman empire decided on the plain of Issus. . 23 CHAPTER III. Legend of the Seven Sleepers. Sapor invades Cilicia. Zenobia's con- quests. " Cilicia oviirrun by the Alani. Maximianus dies at Tarsus. Death of Conatantius at Mopsuestia in Cilicia. St. George, patron saint of England, bom at Epiphanea. The Emperor Julian buried at Tarsus. Invasions of the Huns. Belisarius iu Cilicia. Cam- paigns of Heraclius and of Chosroes (Kusru Anushiriwan). . . 36 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. Rise of the Saracens. Cilicia overrun by Harun al RasMd. Al Mamun dies in Cilicia. Exchange of prisoners at Il-Lamas. Sack of Mop- suestia by the Khalif Mutassim. Mopsuestia retaken by Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces. Rise of the Turkmans. Alp Arslan and Romanus Diogenes. Turkman dynasty at Nicasa. Persecu- tion of the Christians. First Crusade. Tancred and Baldwin in CUicia. Alexius annexes Cilicia to the Greek empii-e. . . 45 CHAPTER V. The Emperor John Oomnenus killed in a wild boar hunt in Cilicia. Description of Anazarba. The second Crusade. Third Crusade. Death of Frederick I. (Barbarossa) in Cilicia. Fourth Crusade. Cilicia under John Ducas Vataces. Devastations of Yanghiz or Genghiz Khan 54 CHAPTER VI. Rise of the Osmanlis or ITsmanlis. Victories of Bayazid. Invasions of the Moguls. Capture of Constantinople by Muhammad II. Bay- azid II. Annexes Cilicia to the Ottoman empire. Campaigns of Sulaiman the Magnificent. Amurad IV. invades Cilicia. His house at Adana. Reforms of Mahmud II. Abd'ul Masjid. ... 65 CHAPTER VII. Modern history of Cilicia. Rise of Kutchuk Ali Uglu. His means of revenue. Acts of cruelty. Bayas. Mode of life and character- istics. Seizes the master of an English vessel. Captures, a French merchantman. Bribes the Turks who are sent against him. Puts his friend the Dutch Consul of Aleppo into prison. Forces a cara- van of merchants to ransom him. A characteristic anecdote. . 73 CHAPTER VIII. Dada Bey, son of Kutchuk Ali Uglu. His piratical expeditions. Re- pels the attacks of the Turks. Is taken by stratagem. Is be- headed and burnt. History of Mustafa Pasha. Kil-Aga killed by Haji Ali Bey. Dervish Hamid. Story related of Haji Ali Bey. Conquests of Ibrahim Pasha. Mustuk Bey placed in power. Com- parison between the Egyptian and Turkish governments. . . 84 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. Muhammad Izzet Pasha. A pretender to the Turkish throne . His strange history and rare accomplishments. Disappears at Kuniyah . Ahmed Izzet Pasha. Grants permission to Mustuk Bey to murder his nephew. Sulaiman Pasha. Durwish Ahmed's expedition against Mustuk Bey. His chief officers taken and stripped. Bayas captured and sacked 92 CHAPTER X. Anecdotes of Sulaiman Pasha. Gin-Jusif, rebel of Kara-Tash. Arif Pasha. Murder of a pasha. Hasan Pasha. Anecdotes of the council. Christian members of council. Employes of the Porte. ToUat Kulak Bughaz. Hati Sheriff* Courts of justice. . . 101 CHAPTER XI. Geography of Cilioia. Tarsus and Adana. Missis (Mop suestia). Sis (Pindenissus). Bayas and the coast. Pylse Ciliciae. Population of CUicia. Europeans and their influence destroyed. Consuls and their authority. English consuls allowed to trade. Climate. Stagnant lake (Rhegma). Marsh of Alexandretta. Country- houses. Mmrud. Sea-ports. Kaisanli. Mursina and its road- stead 110 CHAPTER XII. Advantages and disadvantages of Tarsus in a commercial point of view. Tables of navigation. Tabular view of the trade of the interior of Asia Minor. Table of exports. Table of imports. State of agri- culture in Cilicia. Produce of the country. Cotton. Wheat. Barley. Linseed. Wax. Fruit-trees. Silk. Olive-trees. Pay of a day-labourer. Pasture of land. Tenure of land. Timber and woods. Geology and mineralogy. Extracts from Mr. Ainsworth's work. Plain of Tarsus. Falls of the Cydnus. First, second, third, and fourth range of hills. Mines of iron and lead. Argentiferous . Galena. Revenue of the Pashalik 117 CHAPTER XIII. II Lamas (Lamum). Kurkass (Corycus). Aski Shahir. Soli, after- wards Pompeiopolis. Great Mausoleum at Tarsus. Strabo's de- scription of the coast of Cilicia. His account of Tarsus and neigh- bouring towns ' ■^'^° PAGE viii CONTENTS. LARES AND PENATES. CHAPTER I. Introductory . . . . , 145 CHAPTER II. Discovery of the terra-cottas. Lares and Penates of Cilicia. Evidences of promiscuous vrorship. Apollo of Tarsus. Perseus, BeUerophon, and Pegasus. Radiated Apollo. Identity of physiognomy. IJgly faces. Deification of children. Deification of princes. Deification of ladies. Character of Cilician art. Progress of Christianity. Destruction of the Lares and Penates. Atys. Apollo, the Sjrian Baal. Cyhele, Ceres, and Isis. Eleusinian mysteries. Cyhele and Atys, Tsis and Osiris, Venus and Adonis. The cat, dog, and horse, Harpocrates and Florus. Isis and the Nelumbium. Sacred bulls. Egyptian art. Morpheus 152 CHAPTER III. Apollo. Apollo Belvedere. Caricatures of Midas. ApoUo of Tarsus. Senator in the clavus latus. Lion attacking a bull. Telephus or Mercury (?). Ceres. Victory. Date of destruction of the Lares . Metamorphosis of Aotaeon into a stag. Remarks of Mr. Birch. . 184 CHAPTER IV. ON CEKTAIN PORTRAITS OF HUNS, AND THEIR IDENTITX WITH THE EXTINCT RACES OF AMERICA. Monstrous head in a conical cap. Portrait of a Hun (?). Identity with American sculptures. Emigrations of Asiatic nations to America. Testimonies from Stephens, Schomburgk, Humboldt. Analogies of language. Evidences from Klaproth and d'Herbelot. 203 CHAPTER V. ETHNOlOGIOAl StJBJEOT OF THE HUNS CONTINUED. ■ The ugly heads" of the collection. Standard of beauty. Monu- ments of Central America. Parallel case in Hayti. The Hittites of Scripture. Reference to Egyptian sculpture. Effects of the Egyptian invasion of Cilicia. 208 CONTENTS, IX CHAPTER VI. PAGE ADDITIONAL WOKKS OF ART. GODS, DEMIGODS, AND HEROES. Apollo. Mercury. Hercules. Bacchus. Silenus. Fauns and Satyrs. Pan. Minerva. Venus. Cupid. Europa. Marsyas. Leander. Laocoon. ^sculapius. Fortune. Oaius Caligula (?). Priapus. Harpy. Marsyas, Abrerig or Nergal (?). Summary . . .213 CHAPTER VII. SIBYLS AND DOLPHINS AND THEIR RIDERS. Sibyls. An African sibyl. Head-dress of the virgin-prophetesses. A matron sibyl (?). Dolphins and their riders. Apotheosis of de- ceased children. Story of Arion. Radiated heads. The Bulla. . 228 CHAPTER VIII. Magi and Monks 232 CHAPTER IX. Monsters and Idiots 237 CHAPTER X. HUMAN FIGURES. Bards. Priests. Miscellaneous. Female figures. Deified children. Undetermined 243 CHAPTER XI. ANIMALS. Dogs. Oxen. Bulls. Buffalo. Horses. Lions. Panther. Wolf. Boar. Ape. Hippopotamus (?). Cat. Goats. Rams and Sheep. Crocodile. Snake. Eagle. Swan. Ostrich. Cocks. . . . 249 CHAPTER XII. DOMESTIC AND RELIGIOUS ART. Chariots. Vases. Bowls and dishes. Wine-jars and drinkiug-vessels. Lamps. Handles. Table and chair. Ring and glass. Round disc of pottery. Net. Butter-priijt (?) 253 CHAPTER XIII. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. Lyres. Syrinx 259 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. PAGE COMPARATIVE aEOGBAPHY. Arsus (Ehosus). Myriandrus. Iskandrun or Alexandretta (Alexandria ad Isson). Godfrey de Bouillon's fort. Baylan (Pictanus, Brana ?). Primitive Christian church. Castles of Ibn Daub and of Baylan Bustandah. Altars of Alexander. Castle of Markatz. River Ker- sus. Gates of Cilicia and Syria. Bayas (Baise). Issus. Mcopo- lis. Kara Kaya (Castabala). Bpiphanea. Matakh. Tamir Kapu (Iron Gates, Ammanian Gates). Ayas (Ageae). Ammodes. Kara Tash (Mallus and Megarsus). Aleian plain. Pyramus. Mopsuestia. Castles on the plain. Sari Capita. Rhegma of the Cydnus. Yanifa Kishla. Mazarlik. Castle of Kalak Bughaz. Kara Sis. Anabad and Dunkalah 262 CHAPTER XV. ANTIOOH AHD SELEUCIA. The Bay of Antioch. VUlage of Suwaidiyah. Grotto of Nymphseus. Island of Meliboea. Euins of Seleucia Pieria. Projected re-open- ing of the port of Seleucia. Mount St. Simon. Mount Casius. Temple of Ham 267 CHAPTER XVI. NATURAL HISTORY — ZOOLOGY. The ounce. The lynx. Bears. Hyenas, wolves, and jackals. The Fox. Hares. FaUow-deer. White gazelle (ghazal). Greyhounds. Gh'aik, or ibex. . . 276 CHAPTER XVII. GAME BIRDS. Game birds. Manner of taking quails. Manner of taking francolin and partridges. Capture of wild doves. 281 CHAPTER XVIII. Falconry • 284 CHAPTER XIX. Medicinal Plants oqq CONTENTS. XI APPENDIX. PAGE Cfarrative of Nadir Bey, written from his own dictation (in French) . 301 Translation 310 Petition of Nadir Bey (in Italian) 320 Translation 325 Historical Documents : Copy of a Buyurdi from Muhammad Izzet Pasha. Insmrrection of Lattakiyah in 1804. State of North Syria in 1805 and in 1814. Petition from the Chief of the Trades to Mr. John Barker, 1841. Notice of Badir Khan Bey, the extir- minator of the Nestorian Christians. Story of Pahel, chief of the Arabs of the Zor, or forest district on the Euphrates. . . . 328 Burckhardt's Account of Cilicia 355 Commercial Tables : I. Commerce of Kaisariyah with the chief towns of Asia Minor. II. Summary of the Commerce of Kaisariyah oneyear with another. III. Exports of the Pashalik of Adana and Tarsus. IV. Imports of the same Pashalik. V. Prospectus of the Navigation of Mursina, roadstead of Tarsus, 1844. VI. Table of Duties paid at Constantinople 372 INDEX 387 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Orontes- ;w OF Sis . [TSOLEUM AT ElEUSA P OF CiLICIA COPHAGDS AT SeLECJCIA PiERIA [N AT AnAZARBA . CAL TuTAN .... ( IN OF Antioch — Overflow of the DISTANCE .... iSIS ..... !w OF Alexandretta SXANDRETTA AND CaPE KhANZIR ;COPHAGUS AT SeLEUCIA PiERIA 3UND-PLAN OF MAUSOLEUM AT TaRSUS HB AT ELEUSA INS OF AN Aqueduct at Anazarba LLEY OF THE OrONTES . . " FLPTURED Rocks at Anazarba 5-hawk and Falcon jRIL HaDEED, in THE PlaINS OF AnTIOCH . riAS : Summer Residence of Mr. Barker ■. Barker's Villa in the Valley of Suedia Mount Amanus in the Frontispiece, 10 n 35 64 91 109 110 113 116 131 J33 242, 2S8 275 275 283 295 298 300 360 LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS TO LARES AND PENATES. tffion 189 onis aa Apollo 178 olio . 157, 161, 162, 164, 178, 195 is 182 iadne 216 (fs, young 174,227 Bacchante 200 Bacchus 195, 216 Bard playing 243 Boy and Dolphin 230 Caius Caligula 223 Captive, kneeling . 211 XIY LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Ceres 176 Chronos 193 Commodus 167 Cupid and Swan .... 219, 220 Cybele 192 Davus 198 Diana 156, 284 Eros 166, 194 Gladiator 244 Harpocrates 181 Head, tutulated 192 Heads, monstrous .... 203, 204 Hercules 169 Hero 1S3 Horse, leg of 17S „ head of 180 Idiot head 268 Incense-burner 155 Iris 177 Isia 191 Juno 157, 167, 177 Jupiter 157 Lady, head of 168, 188 Lamp 156 Leander swimming the Hellespont 222 Lion attacking a Bull . . . . 187 Macrocephalus, a 238 Magu^ 232 Man riding a Bear .... 225 Mask, comic 177, 178 Mercury 158 Messalina 158 Midas 185 Monster, head of a 236 Musical Instruments .... 260 Osiris 14, 16) Pallas 169 Pan 155 Perseus 197 Phree (the Egyptian Sun) . . 252 Phrygian Head 197 Priest with attributes of Apollo . 164 Priestess 199 Saturn J93 Senator 186 Serapis 14 Sibyl, African 228 Silenus 2I8 Somnus 183 Tartarus 248 Venus 170, 193 Victoria Aleta 189 ■ -5-C®>|>SE^^ 41 was obliged to wiuter tlie troops at Antioch. preparatory to his expedi- tion ; but be was so vexed and annoyed at the conduct of the Christian party there, who lampooned him, that he declared he would pass the next winter in Tarsus : but it was decreed otherwise, for he died a few months after of a wound he received from a javehn whilst animating his troops to battle on the other side of the Tigris. His body was em- balmed and brought back by the army to Tarsus, where he was buried. A stately tomb was erected over his remains on the banks of the " cold Gydnus," in the city he had a few months before appointed to be his residence, and which was now destined to contain only his ashes, — another instance of the vanity of human projects. Julian was succeeded by Jovian, a.d. 384. The latter was suc- ceeded by Valens, during whose reign the king of Persia made many inroads into the Eoman provinces, and particularly turned his victorious arms against Armenia — a country under the protection of the empire. Para, the king, fled to the Eoman camp ; but the general Trajan, acting imder the direction of the Emperor Valens, meditated his destruction, and, under the semblance of friendship and the [^specious pretence of consulting with the emperor, enticed him into his power. The king of Armenia was received with due honours by the governors of the pro- vinces through which he passed ; but when he arrived at Tarsus, his progress was arrested, his motions watched, and he gradually found himself a prisoner in the hands of the Romans. He, however, managed to effect his escape with three hundred faithful followers, and succeeded in crossing the Euphrates and eluding the vigilance of the troops sent in pursuit. Pie thus reached his native country, but was soon after in- duced to come to a banquet prepared by the Eoman general, where he was inhumanly murdered, in defiance of the sacred rites of hospitality. During the succeeding reigns of Theodosius Arcadius and Theodosius the younger, bands of adventurous Huns, who had overrun the north of Europe and Asia, ravaged the provinces of the East, from whence they brought away rich spoils and innumerable captives. They ad- vanced along the shores of the Caspian Sea, traversed the snowy moun- tains of Armenia, passed the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Halys, recruited their cavalry with the fine breed of horses, and occupied the hilly country of Cilicia. Here they came in contact and clashed with the Isaurians, a savage horde who had possessed for several centuries the fastnesses of Mount Taurus, and who from time to time made predatory inroads on the sea-coast. These bold mountaineers had maintained for 230 years a life of plunder and independence, and seriously disturbed at several epochs the 42 CILICIA AND ITS GOVBBJSrOBS. tranquillity of Asia Minor, altliotigli sometimes soothed with gifts, and sometimes restrained by terror. When their cotmtryman Zeno as- cended the throne at Constantinople (succeeding Theodosius Maioi- amis, Leo I. and Leo H.), he invited a large and formidable band^f Isaurians to surround him as a body-guard, and rewarded them by an annual payment of five thousand pounds of gold. After the death of Zeno, his successor Anastasius abolished their pension and banishei them from the «mpire. In revenge for this treatment, they placed a brother of the late emperor at their head and marched towards tlie capital, it is said to the number of 150,000 men (including auxiliarieB), whose standard was for the first time sanctified by the presence of a fighting Christian bishop. The valour and discipline of the Goths, who were sent against these Isaurian rebels, sufficed to drive them back to their fortresses, which were after six years' warfare successively be- sieged. AU their bravest leaders were killed, numbers of those made prisoners were transported to Thrace, and the remnant submitted to Anastasius. Some generations, however, passed before they were com- pletely reduced to the same level of slavery as the rest of the subjects of the empire, for we find from time to time that the Counts of Isawrk, the Prsetors of Lycaonia and Pisidia, were invested with full military power to restrain their licentious practices of rapine and assassination.* No event of any moment occurred during the nine years' reign of JustinL (a.d. 537); but his successor Justinian, in along reign of thirty- eight years, saw his supremacy established in every part of the EomaiB empire in the East, by his victorious general Belisarius, and gained battles as brilliant as those which had rendered the ancient Eomans so distinguished in the time of their republic. On preparing for the African campaign, the mountains of Cihcia contributed their quota of infantry, and the sea-ports furnished their complement of transports and sailors, to make up the number of five hundred vessels and twenty thousand mariners with which Belisarius set out from Constantinople (a.b. 541). Pour years afterwards Justinian undertook the defence of the East, which had been invaded by Nushirwan, king of Persia. Nushirwaa had destroyed Antioch, and carried away the inhabitants captives to colonise the new city he had founded at Ctesiphon ; but Belisarius * The general system of policy, rendered neoessaiy by the weakness of tlie suc- ceeding governments, and which we shall see particularly exemplified as we proceed iB our modern history of these oomitries. — W. B. B. Mr. WUliam J. Hamilton was the first to bring to light in modem times the city of Isaura, the stronghold of the Isamians ; and he has given a peculiarly interest- ing description of the existing niins in his Mesearclies in Asia Minor, Tonta, ie, vol. ii. p. 331.— W. F. A. HERACIITJS — DEFEAT OF THE PBESIANS. 4 compelled him to retreat with precipitation, and in a subsequent cam paign (a.d. 543) repossessed himself of all the cities taken by the Per sian king in Cilicia. He, at the same time, so strengthened the de fences of the country, that no further inroads were made on that pai of the kingdom for many years. After the death of Justinian (a.d. 590), and during the reigns o his successors Justin II., Tiberius H., and Maurice, the Persian war continued without any decided advantage on either side, the Persian never having been able to retain any conquest beyond the Euphrates But in the lifetime of the latter prince, Chosroes, the grandson c Nushirwan, on the revolt of his subjects and the deposition and deatl of his father Hormuz, fled to the Eoman emperor for support. H was ultimately reinstated on the throne of his ancestors, after two bat ties against the usurper had been fought, in which the Eoman troop were the victors. Chosroes was grateful for this signal service; ani until the death of Maurice peace between the two empires was faith iuUy maintained. But the disorders introduced by the tyrant Phocas, who succeede( Maurice (a.d. 611-616), afforded a pretest to Chosroes to invade Syrii and Asia Minor. The pretence was to revenge the death of his frieni and benefactor ; and the first intelligence from the East which HeracliuE the successor of Phocas, received, was the taking of Antioch. In fiv years the armies of Chosroes had overrun all Asia Minor, Syria, Pales tine, Egypt, and Lybia as far as Tripoh, and the Bosphorus; and ; Persian camp maintained its position for some time in sight of Con stantinople. The emperor Heraclius (a.d. 622), roused at length by such extraor dinary successes, prepared to attack the Persians. He embarked hi: forces on board a fleet of transports, and landed near the Syrian gate; (Markaz Kalahsi) in the Gulf of Alexandretta, within the confines o Cilicia. The natural fortifications of that country protected and con cealed the camp of Heraclius, which was pitched near Issus, on the sam( ground where Alexander had defeated Darius. Cilicia was soon encom passed by the Persian army, who were astonished to find the enemy hac taken up a position in their rear. Their cavalry hesitated for som( time to enter the defiles of Mount Taurus ; but by superior manoeuver ing, Heraclius drew them into general action on the plain ; and having defeated and routed them, the emperor was enabled to cross the moun- tains, and winter his army in the province of Cappadocia on the banki of the river Halys. In the next year (a.d. 623) Heraclius sailed by the Black Sea to Tre- 44 CILICIA AND ITS aOVEBNOES. bizond, passed the mountains of Armenia, and penetrated into Persia as far as Tabriz, which, with several other cities, he took and sacked, destroying all the temples and images, and retaUating on the Persianfl the horrors committed on the Christians at the destruction of Jerusaleidi nine years previously by Chosroes. Heraclius next penetrated into the heart of Persia (a.d. 624), and by a weU-concerted succession of marches, retreats, and successful actions, drove the enemy from the field into the fortified cities of Media and Ass3rria. In the spring of the next year, after crossing the Tigris and Euphrates, he returned laden with spoils to the banks of the Sarus, in CiUcia, to maintain that important position. He found the banks of the river lined with barbarian archers ; and after a bloody conflict, which continued tiU the evening, on the bridge of Adana, he dislodged and dis- persed the enemy, a Persian of gigantic size being slain and thrown into the river by the emperor himself In his fourth campaign (a.d. 627-628) Heraclius marched into Persia, obtained a complete victory on the plains of Nineveh over Chosioes (who fell and was put to death by his son Siroes), recovered three hun- ': dred Roman standards, dehvered numerous captive Christians, and re- turned to Constantinople in triumph, after concluding an advantageous peace ivith the Persians. But these signal successes were not attended with any lasting benefit to the empire, for a very few years afterwards the followers of Mohammed possessed themselves of the same provinces which Herachus had recovered with so much labour and bloodshed from the Persians ; and even the kingdom of Persia itself, in less than thirty years from this date, was brought under the yoke, civil and re- ligious, of the Arabian khaHfs. — ^4i*.es=^6eifcMo^— CHAPTER lY. EISE OF THE SARACENS — CILICIA OVERRUN BY HAEDN AL EASHID — AL MAMUN DIES IN CILICIA EXCHANGE OP PRISONERS AT IL-LAIIAS — SACK OP MOP- SXJESTIA BY THE KHALIE MUTASSDI MOPSUESTIA RETAKEN BY NICEPHORUS PHOCAS AND JOHN ZIMSCES RISE OP THE TURKMANS ALP ARSLAN AND EOMANUS DIOGENES TURKMAN DYNASTY AT NIC.EA PERSECUTION OP THE CHHISTLiNS — FIRST CRUSADE TANCRED AND BALDWIN IN CILIOIA ALEXIUS ANNEXES CILICIA TO THE GREEK EMPIRE. The Saracens, who (a.d. 639) had just sprung up ia a corner of Arabia, impelled by reUgious fanaticism, were carrying, under Khaled their chief, STirnamed the Sword of God, all before them in Persia, Syria, and Palestine. Pursuing their progress to the north, they reduced Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus, to obedience. Passiag on, they crossed Mount Taurus, and spread the flames of war as far as the environs of Trebi- zond. These conquests were soon foUowed by the siege of Constan- tinople (a.d. 677), by Sufiyan, general of the khalif Muawiyah, when 30,000 Moslems perished, and the Arabs were obliged to retreat and conclude a peace of thirty years with the Emperor Constantino IV. They also agreed to pay a tribute of three thousand pieces of gold, fifty horses, and fifty slaves ; and the feeble hand of the declining em- pire was once more extended over unfortunate Cilicia. A second attempt was made by the Saracens (a.d. 717), when they, to the number of 120,000, marched again through the provinces of Asia Minor, under Mushmah. Crossing the Hellespont at Abydos, they laid siege to Constantinople on the European side; but after some months of fruitless warfare, their fleet was burnt by the renowned Greek fire, and they were glad to retreat through Asia Minor, dreadfully dispirited and diminished in numbers. Five gaUeys only of their fleet of 1800 ships returning to Alexandria. In the reign of Irene the Great (a.d. 781), Harun al Eashid invaded the Greek provinces at the head of 95,000 men, and the Christians sub- scribed to an ignominious treaty and an annual tribute of 70,000 dinars of gold, which bought the khalifs clemency. The payment of this tribute was delayed after he returned; but at eight difierent times the 46 CIMCIA AND ITS GOVBBNOES. Greeks were taugM to feel that a montli of devastation was more 008% tlian a year of submission. On the accession of Nicephorns (a.d. 800), open war was declared, and Harun al Eashid crossed the Amanus and Taurus in the depth of winter, ravaged^Cilioia and Asia Minor, and sacked Heraclea, on the Black Sea. The famous statue of Hercules, with the attributes of the; club, the bow, and the quiver, and the lion's hide of massive gold, -was demolished by him. Nicephorus was compelled to recognise the right of lordship which Harun assumed; and the coin of the tribute, in servUe obedience to the conqueror, was stamped with the image and super- scription of the khalif and his three sons. Al Mamun, the son of Harua al Kashid, undertook (a.d. 829) an ex- pedition into Asia Minor, when he advanced as far as Tarsus, and took fifteen towns of Cilicia. On his way back he encamped on the banks of a little stream in Cilicia, which the Arabs caU Bazizun, not far from Tarsus. Here he stayed to enjoy the shade of the trees and coohiess of the stream, and expressed a wish to have some dates from Azad, which he said were alone wanting to make his felicity perfect. By an extra- ordinary coincidence, a caravan of mules happened to be just passing, and two baskets of dates, fresh from Bagdad, were set before him. Of these he eat so heartily, drinking at the same time so copiously of the cold waters in the adjacent rivulet, that he was seized with fever, of which he died. His body was transported to Tarsus, and there interred, but no ti'ace now exists of his tomb. Al Mamxm* was a great enoourager of science and literature. During his reign mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry were intro- duced among the Arabs ; and the first library was estabhshed at Bagdad, to which all nations and sects were invited to contribute copies of their works. The Emperor Theophilus, the son of Michael the Stammerer, marched in person (a.d. 838) five times through Asia Minor in his wars with the * An extraordiuacy tale is told by an Arabian wiiter of tke birth, of Al Maminr. His father, Harun al Eaahid, haraQg won at ohess from the celebrated and admired Sit Zibaidah (Zobaide of the Arahian Nights), his wife and cousin, the privilege of dic- tating- to her any caprice which struck his fancy, compelled her to walk barefoot across the centre of the bath, over the hot stones, measuring the. whole distance by putting one foot in succession before the other. Tliis she was obliged to do ; but she resolved to take signal vengeance for this unfeebng frolic on the first opportunity which pre- sented itself after her recovery. She challenged him to renew the game for the same stakes ; and being this time the victor, she chose the ugliest female black slave in the harim, and obliged him to take her to wife. Al Mamim^ was the fruit of this union, born about the same time as Amin the sou of Sit Zibaidah, and he grew up as oleveK as his brother was stupid. SIBaE OF AMOEIUM. 47 Saracens; and in his last campaign lie destroyed the small town of Zabatra ia Syria, in spite of the solicitations and remonstrances of the BJialif Mutaseim,* third son of Harun al Eashid, whose casual birthplace it happened to be. Mutassim levied a large army to resent the affront. The troops of Persia, Syria, and Egypt were collected together in the plains of Cilicia at Tarsus, and moved on over Mount Taurus to Amorium in Phrygia, the birthplace of the father of Theophilus. The emperor hastened the defence of what appears to have been at that time a most flourishing city, but to no purpose ; for although 70,000 Moslems had perished in this war, Mutassim persisted in the siege, and totally ruined the town, slaughtering 30,000 Christians, and carrying off an equal number of captives to Tarsus, Syria, and Persia. These were treated with great cruelty ; for although an exchange or ransom of prisoners was sometimes allowed^ in the national and religious conflicts of these two parties, quarter was seldom given in the field, and those who escaped the edge of tl^e sword were condemned to hopeless sendtude or the most cruel torture. The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus relates with visible satis- faction the execution of the Saracens of Candia, who were flayed aJive or plunged into caldrons of burning oil. Gibbon, in speaking of the taking of Amorium, makes the following observation: " To a point of honour Mutassim had sacrificed a flourishing city, two hundred thousand lives, and the property of millions. The same khalif descended from his horse and dirtied his robe to relieve the distress of a decrepit old man, who with his laden ass had tumbled into a ditch. On which of these two actions did he reflect vrith most pleasure when he was summoned by the angel of death?" * Mutassim was the first khalif, according to an Ai-abian writer (Ibn Shuhny or Shuh-na), who added the name of the Almighty to his own — a practice continued by his successors, as if maintaining their right by divine authority. Thus we have epithets oiBillah, Biamr-illah, Lidin-allah; as we should say. By the grace of God, &o. &c.. Prophet of the Faith, &c. t There is reason to beHeve that Zabatra coiTCSponds with -the place now called Eum-Kalah, or "Castle of the Eomans," on the Euphrates ; but there is great difficulty in determining this point satisfactorily, as the site is only mentioned by the mediajval writers. — W. F. A. Z Abu-1-faraj relates one of these singular and characteristic exchanges as having taken place on the bridge of the Lamas (now H-Lamas), in Cilicia, the boundary of the two empires, and one day's journey westward of Tarsus, where, 44i60 Moslems, 800 women and children, with 100 allies, were exchanged for an equal number of Greeks. They passed each other in the middle of the bridge ; and when they reached their respective friends, they shouted "Mlah AUa/rJ" and "Kyrie Eleisonl" No doubt many o) these were prisoners of Amorium ; but the most illustrious of them {the forty martyrs had been the same year beheaded by order of the khalif. 48 CILICIA AND ITS GOVEENOES. Arabian writers also mention a victory gained by Mutassim. over the Greeks at Mopsuestia, called by them Mamuriyah, and state that 30,000 of the enemy were left on the field of battle. This engagement must havb preceded the taking of Amorium, for from this date Cilicia came under the dominion of the khalifs ; and Tarsus became a capital city of great "importance, from its vicinity to the frontiers of the Muhammadan domi- 1 nions. During the whole of the next century the khalifs of Bagdad,"the sue- cessors of Mutassim, retained possession of Cilicia; and the hostilities car- ried on between this Arabian dynasty and the Greeks were confined to some trifling inroads by sea and land, the fruits of their close vicinity and inde- lible hatred. But towards the middle of the tenth century the intestine broils and revolutions which convulsed the throne of the Abbassides, and reduced the khalifs to the position of royal prisoners, encouraged the Greek emperors Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces to make a last effort(A.D. 963) to obtain possession of the fine provinces which their prede?,' cessors had lost. The twelve years of their military command form the most' splendid period of the Byzantine annals. An immense army laid siege to Adana (erroneously called Mopsuestia by Gibbon*), which double city, divided into two by the Sarus, was surrounded and taken by assault, and two hundred thousand Moslems were led to death and slavery.t * See Colonel Leake's learned work on the A ncient and Modern Geography of A da Minor. 1824. It would appear, however, that Gibbon was in the right as far as regards the city in question being Mopsuestia. The mistake of saying that Mopsuestia was cut in two by the river Sarus originated with Zonaras and Cedrenus : it should be by the Pyramus. Adana does not appear to have been ever divided into two towns by the river Sarus, but Mopsuestia always was by the Pyramus ; hence Colonel Leake ap- pears to increase the confusion by changing the town to meet the error in the name of the river. Mopsuestia was also an important city in the middle ages ; Adana did not rise into notice till after the time of the Khalifs : nor is it hkely that two such excessive populations as those of Adana and Tarsus could have existed so close to one another. It may be remarked also, that Abu-1-fada describes this butchery of Moslems— so much exaggeratedas far as numbers are concerned — to have taken place at Mopsu- estia, not Adana. Sir Francis Beaufort, in his Karamania, remarks that Anna Comnena has made the same mistake, when she describes (Alexiad. lib. xii.) part of Tancred's ai'my as proceeding up the Sarus to invest Mopsuestia. — W. P. A. + "A surprising degree of population," says Gibbon, "which must at least include , the inhabitants of the dependent districts." And yet there is more probability of this number being less exaggerated than that ascribed to Seleuoia, near Antioch, computed to have had upwards of 300,000 ; as the environs of Adana are very extensive and fer- tile, and well calculated to afford sustenance for an infinitely large number, whereas the position of Seleucia is circumscribed within very narrow limits by the sea on one side, and the rocky Mount Ehossus on the other, which ooxdd never have funaishejl sufficient food for such multitudes ; pai-ticularly in the vicinity of so vast a metropolis THE TURKMANS. 49 The city of Tarsus was reduced by the slow progress of famine. The Saracens capitulated on honourable terms, and were dismissed with a safe- conduct to the confines of Syria. " A part of the old Christians had quietly lived under their dominion, and the vacant habitations were re- plenished by a new colony ; but the mosque was converted into a stable, the pulpit was delivered to the flames, and many rich crosses of gold and gems, the spoils of Asiatic churches, were made a grateful offering to the piety and avarice of the emperor ; and the gates of Adana and Tarsus were transported to Constantinople, and fixed in the wall there, a lasting- monument of victory." Antioch was recovered, and subsequently all Syria (except Acre), and many cities on the other side of the Euphrates were overrun and despoiled. The Emperor Zimisces returned to Constan- tinople laden with Oriental spoils, and displayed in his triumph the silk, the aromatics of the East, and three hundred myriads of gold and silver. But this transient hurricane, the last efforts of a declining storm, blew over, and left few traces of its effects ; for shortly afterwards, being unable to maintain their conquests, the Greeks evacuated the Asiatic towns, and the Saracens again purified their mosques, and overturned the idols of the saints and martyrs, the Nestorian and Jacobite Christians preferring their Saracen rollers to their heretical brethren. Antioch, with the cities of Cilicia and the island of Cyprus, were the only possessions re- tained by the Greek Emperor, and the sole advantages of this bloody struggle. The Turkmans, wandering hordes of Scythians who had come from the north and overrun all China and Central Asia, had been invited some years previously (a.d. 1000) by the khalifs into Persia, to prop up by their military energy a feeble and tottering power, opposed by re- bellious and refractory vassals. Converted to Muhammadanism by their nev/ connexion with the Saracen Arabs, they seized upon the monarchy, but suffered the monarch to exist ; they declared themselves the lieu- tenants of the lOialifs, and distributed their numerous clans over the whole of the countries between Bagdad and India, which they divided among themselves: hence the different dynasties oi Sammanides, Gazna- vides, Suljukians, Karizmians, &c., and at length Ottomans or OsmanUs, which last became the most celebrated from the duration and extent of their power, and which they have had the good fortune to retain to the present day. The Turkmans of the court and city have been refined by the business and intercourse of social life, and softened by luxury aud effeminacy ; but the greater number of their brethren stUl as Antioch, which was said to contain 600,000 souls. Commerce alone might havs been equal to the support of such numbers, E 50 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNOUS. continue to dwell in the tents of tteir ancestors, and lead the same wai dering life which they led eight centuries ago. During the life of Tugrul Bay (a.d. 1050), one of the Suljukia family, many parties of Turkman horse invaded the. provinces of tl Greek Empire, and overran a frontier of 600 miles, shedding the bloo of 130,000 Christians. But these incursions did not make a lastin impression on the Greek Empire, which still extended to Antiooh an the boundaries of Armenia. The torrent rolled away in the ope country, obscure hostilities were continued or suspended mth varioi] vicissitudes of good and bad fortune, and the bravery of the Mace donian legions renewed the fame of the successors of Alexander. Th Turkmans, however, had the advantages of a new and poor people ove an ancient and corrupt government, and were besides continually is cruited by fresh hordes of their companions, impelled by the thirst ( rapine, and the necessity of forming new settlements. A.D. 1068. Tugrul Bay left to his nephew and successor, Al Arslan (become, by the overthrow of the Gaznavide dynasty, the moi powerful head of the numerous clans, and who had assumed the title ( Suldan), the care of prosecuting the war against the Christians, and li invaded Asia Minor with a large army headed by his Amirs or general Laden with spoils, which they seized indiscriminately, and careless i discipline, these troops were, in the secru-ity of conquest, scattered i numerous detachments all over the provinces. The Greek empero Eomanus Diogenes, who had been invested by the Empress Eudoc: ■with the purple for the purpose of defending the state against the! barbarians, surprised and defeated them separately, and drove thei beyond the Euphrates in three laborious campaigns. On the report of these losses. Alp Arslan flew to the scene of actic (a.d. 1072) at the head of 40,000 horse, and overcame and captur< Eomanus Diogenes. He accepted, however, a ransom of a millic of gold pieces, and sent him back on promise of paying a tribute ( 360,000 pieoe% But in the treaty of peace it does not appear that h extorted any province or city from the captive emperor, and his reveng was satisfied with the trophies of his victories and the spoils of Anatolii from Antioch to the Black Sea. Sulaiman, the son of Kutulmish, a relative of Arslan, and of tl family of the Suljukians, invaded Asia Minor two years after (a.d. 1074 and declared himself in favour of Nicephorus Botoniates, in oppositic to his rival Bryennius, and materially contributed to the success of tl former, whom he settled on the throne of Constantinople. 2000 Turt were at this time transported into Europe, the first of that nation wl TTJUKMAN DYNASTY AT NIC^A. 51 crossed the Hellespont, — a fatal precedent, for the Turks took th^ op- portunity of fortifying themselves in the country ; and the elevation of a tyrant, who was soon deposed and put to death, was purchased by the sacrifice of many of the finest provinces of the empire; and from this date the Turks could no longer be expelled from Asia Miaor, the whole of which they soon subdued, except Trebizond, which held out to the Greeks. Sulaiman following up his successes, completed (a.d. 1084) the con- quest of Anatolia, and established the new kingdom of the Suljukians of Eoum. At Nicjea, the metropolis of Bithynia, 100 miles distant from Constantinople, " on the very spot where the first general council or synod of the Christians was held, the divinity of Christ was denied and derided; and the Kuran was preached in the same temple which had witnessed the assemblage of the heads of the Christian Church, now converted into a mosque. The Cadis judged according to the laws of the Kuran, the Turkish manners and language prevailed over the cities, a;nd Turkman camps were scattered over the plains and moimtains of Asia Minor. On the hard conditions of tribute and servitude, the Greek Christians were permitted to enjoy the exercise of their religion ; but their holy churches were profaned, their priests and bishops insulted; they were compeUed to suffer the triumphs of the Pagans and the apos- tacy of their brethren, and many thousand captives were devoted to the service or pleasures of their masters." Here I pause to observe how well adapted to the present state of the country is this picture drawn by Gibbon, from contemporary writers, of the degraded state of the Chris- tians in those times, and which has continued to the present day with little or no alteration or diminution. In consequence of this tyranny, they have, in self-defence, been induced to resort to that cunning and deceit which are now their leadiug characteristics, and which alo7ie are the features that distinguish them from their oppressors, for they have in every other respect adopted the manners and prejudices of the Mu- hammadans. None of their churches have been restored to them that were converted into mosques; but they are permitted, on payment of large sums, to build new churches, on heaps of ruins where it is im- possible to say what edifice had stood, whether theatre, bath, or Pagan temple. Under the late Sultan some of the restrictions on Christian worship have been diminished, and firmans are to be obtained with less difiiculty and comparatively moderate fees; and this they owe to the progress of civilisation, consequent on the march of intellect which produced in Sultau Mahmud an enlightened monarch and a man of genius. 52 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. On the establishment of a Turkman dynasty at Nicffia (a.d. 1095), whioli lasted 220 years, the provinces of Asia Minor came under its subjection, and were the scene of slaughter and rapine ; while the pil- grims from every part of Eiirope, who began to flock to- Jerusalem, en- countered innumerable perils ere they were permitted to salute the Holy Sepulchre. A spirit of zeal, engendered by the exclusiveness of Miiham- madanism, prompted these hordes to insult the clergy of every other sect. The Patriarch of Jerusalem, we are informed, was dragged by the hair along the pavement and cast into a dungeon, to extort a ransom from his flock ; and the divine worship in the Church of the Eesurrection was often disturbed by the rudeness of its masters. Peter the Hermit roused the martial nations of Europe to avenge their wrongs ; and the Crusades were undertaken by our ancestors in a spirit of enthusiasm to peril their lives in the defence and rescue of their co-religionists — a feeling which seems to have been entirely extinguished in the hearts of their descendants. KiHtch Arslan, the son of Sulaiman, was king of Nicsea (a.d. 1097) when the army of the first Crusaders besieged that city on its way to the Holy Land, and took it after a siege of seven months. The Turk- man sultan, no way dismayed by the loss of his capital, retreated to Doryteum in Phrygia, and assembling there aU the forces he had in the province, resolutely attacked the Latins, and eventually engaged them in a pitched battle. But ^ictory declared for the Crusaders ; and Kilitch Arslan was compelled to retreat, and implore the aid, by kindling the resentment, of his eastern brethren, which he did, laying waste the countries he traversed. The Crusaders proceeded to Koniy'ah. Arakh, and Marash, and thence over Mount Taurus to Kucusus, no-n Kursun, a town remarkable as having formerly been the place of exile of St. Chrysostom. Two of the chiefs, Tancred and Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, were here detached from the main army, with tlieir respective squadrons of 500 and 700 knights. They overran in rapid career the hills and sea-coast of Cihcia, from the mountainous country to the Syrian gates, and planted the Norman standard on the walls of Tarsus and Malmistra (Mopsuestia). The former of these cities Baldwin, excited by jealousy and ambition, obliged Tancred to deliver into his hands ; and he had the barbarity to refuse admission to 300 of the soldiers of Tancred, who were consequently obliged to pass the night outside the walls, where they were cut to pieces by a strong party of Saracen Turks. But Tancred by his moderation had gained the affection of the soldiers, and Baldwin was soon obliged to retmm to the camp, to endure the reproaches of the Latin chiefs. Tancred for- CIIilClA ANNEXED TO THE OREEK EMPIRE. 53 tified and garrisoned the towns he had taken, and these were the most lasting possessions of all that the Crusades acquired. A.D. 1118. While the brave Tancred and his warlike associates were winning laurels before the walls of Jerusalem and Antioch, the wily- Alexius, Emperor of Constantinople, improved the opportunity afforded by the victories of the Crusaders, and recovered the provinces previously taken from the Greeks by the Suljukian Turkmans, by following in their steps, and taking possession of and fortifying all the towns on the coast, including the islands of Cyprus and Ehodes. The seat of power of the Turkmans was thus confined to the districts of Koniyah, where the dynasty of Alp Arslan fixed their debilitated throne. Their power eventually became nominal ; for in spite of the high titles they assumed, the last of their race were happy to be considered as generals of the Great Mogul, and owe their sway to his bounty, until they were finally destroyed by Gazan in 1298, the year 706 of the Hegira. In the mean- while the ambitious but prudent Alexius had resolved to annex Cilicia to his empire, and that the Syrian gates should be the bomidary of his possessions : for this purpose he made war on Tancred and Bohemond, now tranquil masters of their conquests. Bohemond, unable to cope with this new enemy, left Tancred to govern at Antioch, and returning to Europe, levied an army of 5000 horse and 40,000 foot, with which he returned to punish the faithless Greek. But the sudden death of Bohe- mond happened about this time ; added to which, the venal arts of Alexius, by which he won over his confederates, compelled Tancred to sign a treaty of peace, whereby all Cilicia was restored to the Byzantine empire. Thus the tovms of Tarsus and Malmistra (or Mopsuestia),"so bravely won by Tancred, fell under the government of the Greeks. ■-0^iff5Xr>^3--^ CHAPTER V. THE EJIPEEOr, JOHN COMNENUS KILLED IN A WTLD-BOAE HUNT IN CILICIA— DESCRIPTION OF ANAZAEBA — THE SECOND CRUSADE — THIED CEUSADK— DEATH OF FREDERICK I. (bAEBAROSSa) IN CILICIA — FOURTH CRUSADE— CILICIA UNDER JOHN DUCAS VATACES DEVASTATIONS OF TANGHIZ OE GENCHIZ KHAN. The crafty Alexius was succeeded (a.d. 1143) in the throne of Con- stantinople by his son John Comnenus, -surnanied Kalo Joannes or John the Handsome, a prince whose reign of twenty-five years was marked by virtues rarely met with in such degenerate and guilty times. He intro- duced a gradual reformation in the manners of his capital, without as- suming the tyrannic office of a censor. The only check on the public felicity was love of military glory, — the ruling passion of the emperor. But the frequent expeditions he undertook may be justified in some measure by the necessity of repelling the Turks and repressing their in- roads. The Sultan of Karamania was confined to his capital, the barba- rians were driven to their mountains, and the maritime provinces of Asia enjoyed a tranquillity which was highly appreciated. John Comnenus repeatedly marched at the head of his victorious armies from Constantinople to Antioch and Aleppo; the whole coast of Anatolia to the north and south was subjected to his power, and in the sieges and battles of the Holy War his Latin allies were astonished at the superior spirit and prowess of a Greek. But while the Greek king began to in- dulge the hope of restoring the ancient limits of the empire, the decrees of Providence were about to frustrate his plans; and the thread of his life and of the public happiness was broken by an unfortrmate and rather sing^ar accident. While hunting a wild boar in Cilicia, near the town of Anazarba, he had fixed his javelin in the body of the furious animal, and in the struggle to recover himself a poisoned arrow dropped from his quiver, and a slight wound in his hand produced mortification and proved fatal to him.* * La CUioie d^pendait des rois Seleuoides ; mais Tigranes roi d'Anndnie ayant di- tr6nd oe iirince, la Cilicie, du moins la pai-tie qu'on appellait Campestris, obflt au roi d'Ann^nie jusqu'il I'an 688 de Eome, dans laquelle Tigi-anes fut vainou par Pomp^e. Cette partie resta soumise aux Komains. Jiiles-C^sar oonfirma le titre de M^tropole il la ville de Tarsus. L'Empereur Auguste lui coiiKra de nouvelles gi-aoesj et elle jouit SECOND CRUSADE. 55 The second Crusade, vmder Conrad III. Emperor of Germany and Louis VII. (a.d.1147), experienced the same disasters that befel the first expedition. Misled by the guides in the pay of the perfidious Greek Emperor Manuel, -who succeeded Kalo Joannes, and who was secretly leagued with the Saracens, the unfortunate Conrad and Louis were be- trayed ; and unable to penetrate farther than the Tatirus and the confines du titre et des preeminences do miStropole jusqu'au cinquifeme sifeole de jesus-Christ. Xes -villes d'Anazarba d'Mges (Ayash) et Malliis (Kara Tash), et autres, lui etaient sonmises. La ville d'Anazarba, decor^e du titre de C^saree, dtait illustre ; elle ^prouva les plus grands malbeurs; elle fut renvers^epar im tremblement de teiTe, et I'Em- pereur Nerva la fit bientot r(itablir. Cette ville resta dans un iStat fleiunssant pendant plusieurs siecles ; un autre tremblement de ten-e la ruina sous le regne de Justin ou Justinian. Elle ss releva encore du milieu de ses mines par la munificence des princes, et Vavantage de la situation et la fertUiti^ de son territoire fui'ent cause qu'elle fut bientot rdtablie. Anazarba ricbe, peupk'e, et dans une position avantageuse, par une rivaUte alors commun entre les grandes villes d'une memo province, ambitionna le titre de m^ti-opole, et elle le prit suivant Vaillaut sous le rfegne d'Elagabule ; mais elle I'avait obtenu auparavant: sur un m^daille frappfe en I'honneur de Caracalla I'an baz 232 de I'fere de la ville, 966 de Rome, 214 de J^sus-Christ, quatrifeme du rigne de ce prince, elle prend le titre de MiiTPonOAEni, m^tropole, qu'elle oonserva sous les empereurs suivant ; mais ce titre etait simplement honorifique, sans donner aucune jmisdiction dana la province; il donnoit la pr&Sance aprfes Tarsus, dans les assemblies g^n^rales Pareils bonneui-s furent aocord^s aux vUles de Nio^e en Bythinie, de Laodic^e en Syrie, et de Sidon en Phenicie. La ville d'Anazarba ne se conteuta pas du titre de imetropole ; elle y ajouta I'^pi- tbete d! illustre, ENAOSOYiMHTPonoAEOC, qu'eUe fit graver sm' plusiem-s de ses monnaies. Elle conservait encore ce titre sous le regne de Diocletian. On lit dans les Actes des Martyrs publiees par Don Ruinart, que Taraque, Andronique, et Probus furent mis a mort pour la religion Cbr^tienne I'an 304 de jesus-Christ m 'Awa^ap/Sij) tij evioSif nnxpo- •jToXeh d Anazarba illustre MHropole. — Dissertation sur VEre (EAnazarha "par I'AbbS Belley, in the Memoires de I'Academie, vol. 50, p. 350. Vide Journal, Jan. 18, 1848. Tarsus under the reign of L.Verus had inscidbed on its medals n M K, vrhich has puzzled antiquaries ; the Abbe says it means irpoTur ^firpoTroXeiar KAm/as. Anazarba had the same engraved on its medals, out of opposition. Under the reign of Arcadius, Cilioia vras divided into first and second provinces, of which Tarsus and Anazarba became the chief metropolitan towns. Anazarba, under the Emperor Commodus, obtained the privilege of being avTCMoixos, by which it had the right of choosing its own magistrates, and of being governed by its own laws. — W. B. B. Anazarba, which appears to have been ei-roneously called Ain-zarbeh, — the name being merely corrupted by the natives to Anawarzah, — figm-ed for a short period as one of the most flourishing cities of CUicia. Ptolemy calls it Csosarea ad Anazarhmi; Pliny, Anazarleni qui nunc Ccesarea; Hierocles calls it Metropolis; and it is enume- rated among the Christian episcopacies in the Ecclesiastical Notices of the Low Empire. It was the country of Dioscorides, who is called by Suidas the physician of Anazarba, and of Oppian, the poet of the Cynegeticus. Carolus Stephanns, in his historical dic- tionaiy, says that this writer of elegant verses died of plague at his birthplace, which he calls Zerhus. This splendid tovm was destroyed by a fearful earthquake in the reign of Justinian. This is narrated by Procopius and by Cedrenus. Little was known of the actual condition of this place till it was visited by a party from the Euphrates expedition. The walls stiU remain, but in a^i-uinous condition. 56 CILICIA AND ITS GOTEKNOKS. of Cilicia, they were obliged to embark -with a few retainers only in Greek vessels for the coast of Syria, the one from the Hellespont, and the other from Satalia. The greatest part of their miserable and mis- guided followers, to the number of several thousands, were abandoned to their fate and exposed to the cruelty of the Saracens at the foot of the Pamphylian hills, and in the forests of Mount Taurus. Andronicus, grandson of Alexius and cousin of Manuel, was twice sent during the lifetime of this emperor to govern the important pro- vince of Cilicia. His romantic adventures and hair-breadth escapes would fill a volume ; I can but refer to the most striking passages in his Hfe. In his first campaign he pressed the siege of Mopsuesfia, which had been seized by the Armenians. By day his boldness was equal to his success ; but the nights were devoted to the song and dance, and a band of Greek comedians formed the choicest of his retinue. One evening he was surprised by a sally of the vigilant foe; but while his troops fled in disorder, his invincible lance transpierced the thickest ranks of the Armenians. In his second command of the Cilician frontier, some years afterwards, the Armenians again exercised his courage and exposed his negligence, while he wasted his time at Antioch in balls and toui-naments. Among three princesses whom he seduced was the Queen of Jerusalem, whose shame was more public and scandalous than that of either of her predecessors. He remained twelve years in prison, took the Cross as a Crusader, wandered as an outlaw to Bagdad and Persia, settled among the Tui-ks in Asia Minor, became a robber of Christians and the terror of the kingdom of Trebizond, usurped the throne of Constantinople, and after a bloody reign of three years was put to death in a cruel and ignominious manner by the enraged populace. The third Crusade, under the conduct of Frederic I. Emperor of Germany, sui-named Barbarossa (a.d. 1183),did not eventually meet with much more success than the last. After passing the Hellespont, his army was harassed by innumerable hordes of Turkmans during twenty days that he was traversing the dense forests of Bithynia; but he overcame all obstacles to his progress, and attacked and stormed the capital of the Turk- mans, and compelled the Sultan of Koniyah to sue for peace. But the veteran warrior reaped no harvest from his exertions ; he was not fated Few public buildings exist, however, withiu the walls, beyond an extensive castle of various ages, built upon the top of a rocky hill, and many of the rooms of which are in perfect keeping, — but these appear to belong to the Muhammadan era. A great num- ber of beautifully sculptm-ed and highly ornamented tombs and sarcophagi still attest, however, to the opulence and civilisation of this former metropolis of Cilicia. Kor must we omit to mention the ruins of an aqueduct, which brought water direct fiom the mountains, a distance of many miles.— W, F. A. DEATH OP I'EEBERIC I. — JOHN DTJCAS YATACES. 57 to tread the soil of the Holy Land, nor to terminate the triumphs which he had begtm. He was drowned while crossing a river in Cilicia, which had been swollen by the tropical rains, — the Cydnus according to some writers, and who have taken this occasion to draw a comparison between him and Alexander, to whom this river had nearly proved fatal above a thousand years previously. Btit I am unwilling to give credit to this story, as it seems tmaccountable that a general at the head of his army should be lost in fording a river which is nowhere more than six feet deep ; and I think it more probable that he was attacked by the malignant fever of the country. However this may be, his troops were decimated by sick- ness and famine, and his son, who had contrived to reach the Holy Land with a few remaining followers, expired at the siege of Acre. These losses led succeeding Crusaders, grown wiser by the fate of their prede- cessors, to abandon the overland route, and Cilicia was no longer trampled under foot by the zealous but little disciplined hosts. The fourth Crusade, undertaken by the Venetians and French (a.d. 1204), was diverted from the coast of Syria, to which it was origi- nally directed, by the enticing shores of the Bosphorus ; where, on pre- tence of revenging the death of Alexius, who with his father Isaac had been murdered by Murzufli, the Latins made themselves masters of Constantinople, sacked and burnt the best part of the capital, and elected Baldwin Count of Flanders Emperor of the East. The successors of this monarch maintained themselves in the capital during a period of fifty- seven years. But Theodore Lascaris, the son-in-law and relation of Alexius, having fled, he set tip the standard of the Greeks at Nicsea, and with the alliance of the Turkish sultan he saved a remnant of the falling empire. During a reign of eighteen years, this emperor extended, by his military talents, the small principality of Nic83a to the magnitude of a kingdom, in which Cilicia was included. Theodore Lascaris was succeeded at his death (a.d. 1222) by John Ducas Vataces, his son-in-law, who fixed the throne on a more sohd basis, and in a long reign of thirty-three years displayed both the virtues of peace and the energy of war. In the long administration of this prince, the provinces of Asia Minor, and among them Cilicia, en- joyed the blessings of a good government. The lands were sown with corn or planted vrith olives and vines ; the pastures were filled with cattle and horses ; the education of youth and the revival of learning were also serious objects of his care, and both by his precepts and practice, simplicity of manners and domestic industry were encouraged. It was somewhere about this period that the Venetians and Genoese founded commercial emporia on the coasts of Asia Minor, in Cilicia, 58 ' CILICIA AND ITB GOVEENOES. and in Syria, somewhat after the principle adopted by the early Hel- lenic colonists, fortifying themselves in their positions by adequate defences, and often by castles to command the passes of the interior, or to keep the surrounding populations in awe. Few records of the era of the foundation of these emporia exist, and equally few are to be met which record their history, their prosperity, or their adverses, and their final extinction. Upon this subject the able historian Sismundi says, " The chronicles of the maritime cities of Italy throw very -little light upon the colonies wMcli their citizens foimded in the towns of the East, or even at Constantinople, These colonies governed themselves, they named their own authorities, S and did not receive them from the metropolis ; and whatever their popu-" lation or their wealth, they could not be considered as belonging to the state. Hence it is that the national historians have attached but little importance to the debates of a number of "Venetian and Pisan individuals at the other extremity of Europe, although the residts brought about by them still astonish us in the present day ; while, on the other hand, the continual wars of the Pisans and the Genoese, which appear to us in the light of freaks of pirates, captivated their whole attention.'' There are, however, a few fragments referring to these conquests which it may be interesting to record here. The earliest fleet of the Venetian republic that accompanied the first Crusade, a.d. 1099, was composed of 200 ships, and commanded by the son of the new doge. Vital MiohieU. They fought off Ehodes a bloody battle against the fleet of the repubhc of Pisa, each forgetting that they were Christians and crusaders. The Venetian fleet took Smyrna at a later period, and assisted the land troops of the crusaders in taking Jaffa.* The Genoese republic sent, in August 1100, twenty-eight galleys and six larger vessels into the East. The historian Cafiaro was of the expedition. Another fleet was despatched about this time by the repubhc of Pisa imder the Archbishop Daimbert, who became afterwards Patriarch of Jerusalem. The combined fleets passed the winter at Lattakiya ; and when the death of Godfrey de BouiUon had endangered his new king- dom, they kept the maritime provinces, including Cilicia, in subjection to the Latins. The troops of the two republics undertook the siege of Cffisarea, A.D. 1101. Caput Maho, the Genoese consul, was the first to climb the ramparts, on simple maritime scaling-ladders, and the town was taken from the Musulmans and consigned to pUlage. One -fifteenth of the booty was given to the sailors that remained on board the fleet. * Andrea Danduli Chron. 1. ix. u. 10, p. 256. VENETIANS, GENOESE, AND PISAKS. 59 Constantinople was retaken by the Greeks under Stratigopulas from the Venetians, a.d. 1261 ; and Michael Paleologus, whose troops had been assisted by the Genoese, granted privileges to the latter which he had promised them beforehand, but established them at Galata, out of the city. The Venetians and Pisans formed each a separate quarter, and the three were governed by a separate magistrate, which their re- spective towns sent to them ; and here were formed three small republics, which maintained their liberty and independence, in a city the emperor of which was stiU at war with the Latins. The latter ceded the island of Scio to the Genoese, which was the largest held by them (till 1556), the jealousy of the Greeks having induced them to look with favour upon the occupation of the island by the Musulmans. , The final conquest, by Melek Seraf, of St. Jean d' Acre, when 30,000 Christians were massacred, occurred a.d. 1291 ; and the taking of Tripoli of Barbary by the Genoese admiral Philip Doria, in a.d. 1355. The Genoese of Pera attempted in the year 1376 to take the island of Tenedos, ceded to them by Andronicus, who had been half blinded by his father, John Paleologos. They were prevented by the governor of the island, who remained faithfal to the deposed emperor, and called the Venetians to his assistance, thus defeating the objects of the Genoese. Nicotia was taken June 16th, 1373, by Catani (Genoese admiral of some galleys sent by the Genoese to revenge the massacre), and seventy captive virgins dedicated to Venus were restored to their parents. Famagosta was taken October 3d by Petre di Campo Fregoso, brother of the Doge of Genoa, at the head of thirty-six galleys and 14,000 men. Petro Lusignan, the young king, and son of the deceased king of the same name, was taken prisoner on that occasion, and the island subjugated to the Genoese. The young king, however, attacked the Genoese in Famagosta in 1378, assisted by the Venetian galleys ; but he was repulsed, and forced to quit not only the island, but the seas of Cyprus. Sinope (Samsun), Trebizonde, and Cerasus were taken by Moham- med II. A.D. 1462. Pope Pius II. died in 1464, and thus the hopes of assistance enter- tained by the Christians of the Levant were destroyed. Pope Paul II. endeavoured in vaia to revive an interest in the Christians of the Levant, and the fleet that had assembled at Ancona (a.d. 1465) to proceed to the assistance of the Christians, was sent by the Venetian senate to attack and plunder the island of Rhodes, imder the Great Master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem. Petro Mocenigo, after ravaging, with eighty-eight galleys, the north 60 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. of Asia Minor, attacked, a.d. 1472, Attalia, or Satali, a rich to-wn of Pamptilia, which famished Egypt and Syria with provisions, devastate^ the environs, and then returned to Rhodes. He also ravaged Ionia, opposite Scio, and Smyrna, -without making any distinction between the Christian churches and the Muhammadan mosques. Mocenigo received from Venice, a.d. 1473, the order to put him- self in communication with Ozun Hassan, to whom the republic sent Josaphat Barbaro (a person advanced in age, speaking the Persian fluently, and of great talent and perspicuity), three galleys laden with presents and a great quantity of artillery, together with 100 artizans whom the republic offered to the service of the sovereign of Persia. It was through Cilicia that they had decided on passing into Persia to accom- pany the Persian ambassador. The latter was on his return to his master after having been received at Venice, to negotiate that mutual assistance should be given by the Latins and Persians against their common enemy Mohammed II. The princes of Karamania, two brothers, who had been despoiled by the Muhammadans of great part of their possessions, but who stiU defended themselves bravely in the remainder,* were awaiting them. One of these was besieging Seleucia (Sulufsky), which it seems was a place still of some importance even at so late a period. Mocenigo, with forty-five galleys, two from the Knights of Ehodes and four from the king of Cyprus, proceeded to their assistance. Land- ing first at Cyprus, he had a meeting with Hassan Bay, the younger brother (the eldest, Pyramet,f being in the Persian camp), near Suluf- sky, where his envoy, Victor Seranzo, was informed by the young bay that the Muhammadans kept the people of Karamania, who were devoted to the Christian prince, under subjection by means of three fortresses, Sichesii, Seleucia, and Coryco (Siliin, Sulufsky, and Kiukus), which they could not take for want of artillery. Mocenigo forced the Muhammadan troops occupying these three places to capitulate, and made them over to Hassan Bay.lj: These were the first attempts made to open a communication with the Persians; and they are of an interesting character, not only as re- garding the country we are now engaged upon, but also as pointing out * M. Antonio Satellioo, deca. iii. I. ix. f. 215 verso. Coriol. Cepio, 1. ii. p. 361. f Many of the names used by Mr. Barker in this portion of his narrative are de- rived, as will be seen from the foot-notes, from Itahan writers of the middle ages, and they are exceedingly cormpted. Pyramet, for example, could not be a Turkish name. 'W, F. A. It is a corraption of Pyr and Ahmed, which conjointly mean old Ahmed, or the cte/ Ahmed.— W. B. B. X M. Ant. Sabellioo, deoa. iii. I. ix. f. 216 vo. Callimachus Experiens de Venetis contra Turoos, f. 409. Coriolan Cepio, 1. ii. p. 362. ULTIMATE DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS. 61 the progress of the human mind. They opened imknown regions to the observations of western nations ; they brought together people that had been long separated ; they threw the first dawn of light on geo- graphy, till then so confused ; and they inaugurated the period ia which we are now living, a period the most remarkable character of which consists in the communication established between all the nations of the globe. After the taking of Sulufsky by Mocenigo, finding it impossible to penetrate into Persia with his suite, Josaphat Barbaro left in Crete the presents with which he was charged, and proceeded with the Persian ambassador to cross these barbarous lands, accompanied only by a few servants. He started from Tarsus through " Little Armenia," no doubt following the usual route that leads by Anazarba and Sis through a passage made in the mountains by the river Pyramus ; thence he crossed Kurdistan, a country that has remained to this day as wild as its inhabitants are intractable. Here he was attacked by robbers ; his companion, the Persian ambassador, was killed, as were also his secretary and two of their followers. Barbaro himself was severely wounded and despoiled of every thing ; he did not, however, lose courage, but proceeded to join Ozun Hassan at Tabriz, with whom he remained five years, and received from that sovereign great marks of kindness and favour. In 1488 he returned to Venice by way of Aleppo. Mocenigo in the mean time proceeded to attack different places on the coast of Asia Minor. He took Myra, having defeated and killed Arasa Bay, the governor of the province, who had come to the rescue. lie then disembarked near Phygas in Caria, where he received a mes- sage from Catherino Zeno, who was accredited by the republic of Venice at the Persian camp, to come to Cilicia, in order to be able to afford any assistance in his power to the Persians, who were then advancing west- ward. On his arrival at Kurkus he received another messenger from Zeno announcing the defeat of the Persians, after their partial success, and their retreat into Armenia. About this time we find that the Genoese still possessed some strong places in Cyprus ; — among others, Famagosta. It would be beyond our limits to enter into the details of the wars between Charlotte, daughter of Janus III., the fourteenth king of Cyprus, and her natural brother Jacques, the Venetians siding with Janus, and the Genoese with the legitimate princess ; suiEce it to say, that in 1444 Famagosta opened its gates to Jacques de Lusignan, after three years' siege. Mocenigo continued up to the year 1473 to make descents on the coast of Lycia, Caria, and Cilicia ; but his attention seems to 62 CILICIA AND ITS GOVEaNOES. have beea principally taken up with subduing the island of Cyprus to the adopted daughter of St. Mark, the niece of Marc Cornaro, a Venetian gentleman established in Cyprus, and who had been an exile from his country. This is the lady whom Jacques de Lusignan married, in order to contract an alliance which should quaUfy him as " son-in-law of the republic."* The Genoese, up to the year 1475, possessed a colony in Caffa in the Crimea, anciently called Theodosia ; it had been more than two cen- turies in the hands of these people, and had acqiiired riches and a population almost equal to its mother city. It was the centre of com- munication between Europe and the East, by means of the Genoese, who received the spices of India, and the stuffs of silk and cotton manu- factured in Persia, by way of Astrakan.j" Caffa was taken by Hamid, a commander of Mohammed II. (a.d. 1475). He conducted the Frank inhabitants to Pera, selecting there- from 1500 youths to be brought up among the Janissaries at Constan- tinople; and thus was destroyed the dominion of the Genoese in the Black Sea. An army of 80,000 men was sent by Bayazid II. (a.d. 1488) to attack Kayit Bay, the sovereign of Egypt, in whose hands, at this time, was Syria and Cilicia. This army, after having taken Adana and Tarsus, was defeated by the jMamluks at Issus, at the foot of Mount Amanus. The Ottoman fleet was dispersed and partly destroyed by a tempest, and the Turks renounced the invasion of Egypt. | Jam or Zezim, son of Mohammed II., and brother of Bayazid 11., aspii'ed (a.d. 1489) to the throne of his father, under the plea that he was " Poi-phyrogenetus," that is, born when Mohammed II. had become sultan, whereas his elder brother was bom during the earlier period of their father's life, before he had reached to the height of empire. He was vanquished, however, in his endeavours to bring about a revo- lution in his favour in Asia Minor, and he took refuge in Cilicia, which which was then under the dominion (as we have just seen) of the Sultan of Egypt. From this he embarked for Ehodes, to solicit the ass'stanoe of the Knights of St. John.§ It would seem that the latter did not dare to keep him on the * Marin Samito Vite du DuoM, f. 1185, vol. x. p. 339. Andrea Navaziero Stor. Veneziana, f. 1127-1131. Annal. Eoolesiast. 147, § 47, f. 229. f Ubertus foUata Genuens Hist. 1. xi. p. 626. J And. Navaziero Stor. Venez. p. 1197, and Eaynaldi An. Eoo. 1488, § 9, p. 389. Sismondi, vol. ii. p. 321. § Eaynaldi Aunal. Eccles. 1482, § 35, f. 312. Tm-co Gra;cia Hist. Politica, 1. i. p. SO. Demetrius Centimir, 1. iii. chap. ii. § 7 and 8, p. 128. MOGULS AXD TARTARS UNDER GENGHIZ KHAN. 63 frontiers of a state that had become so powerful ; they therefore sent him to France, from whence he passed into the hands of Pope Inno- cent Vin. (a.d. 1489), who detained him in honourable confinement by the bribery of Bayazid, who paid the pope 40,000 ducats yearly for the " pension " of his brother ! In the year 156G the Genoese lost the island of Scio, which was taken from the family of the Giustinianis by Sultan Sulaiman. They were on the point also of losing Corsica, which had been invaded by the French in 1553, had revolted in 1564, and continued to repel the op- pressive yoke of this republic until 1568, when it was again brought into subjection. The Venetians signed a treaty (20th October, 1540) by which they ceded to Sulaiman all the islands of the Archipelago already conquered by the Turks. In 1570 the Turks attacked Cyprus, which was defended until 1573 by an immense sacrifice of men and money, tiU the inhabitants were forced to sign a treaty of peace, and abandon the island to its new masters. To resume, however, the thread of our history, in and about A.D. 1255. The three years of the reign of Theodore, son of John Duoas, were marked by cruelty and evil passions ; and although he thrice led an army against the Bulgarians in Europe, he obtained no signal advan- tage. He left at his death the crown to his son John Lascaris, a boy eight years of age, who was soon set aside and blinded by Michael Palasologus (a.d. 1259), one of his relations, who seated himself firmly on the throne of Constantinople two years afterwards, by which event the Latin dynasty was superseded, and the Greek emperors triumphantly entered the metropolis, after a banishment of fifty-seven years (a.d. 1261). But the removal of the seat of empire from Nicsea to Constantinople was fatal to the Greeks, as the countries on the Asiatic side of the Helles- pont were left exposed to the Turkish invaders, and the barrier which had been effectual for so many years against their inroads was removed farther north. The attention of Michael PalaBologus was also almost totally absorbed in propitiating the Eoman pontiff, in order, by artful and hypo- critical means, to avert the western storm which was hanging over his head, so that the eastern part of the empire was neglected and left to its fate. While the Greeks and Latins were engaged in disputes on trifling points of religion, a colossal and irresistible power had over- turned aU the Asiatic kingdoms; and even those of Europe were shaken to their foundation. The whole of Central Asia, China, Persia, part 64 CILICIA AND ITS OOYEKNOES. of India and Eussia, were overrun by tlie Moguls and Tartars, wljo about the year a.d. 1206, under Yanghiz or Genghiz Khan and his followers, rendered themselves masters, during sixty-eight years of unparalleled success, of the greater part of Asia. The sultans of the Suljukian dynasty at Koniyah in vain attempted to stop the torreni,iii its course ; they were swept away by the victorious arms of the Moguls, and Azzaddin fled to Europe, taking refuge in Thrace. The whole of Asia Minor felt the iron sway of the conquerors ; and Hulagu Khan, grandson of Yanghiz Khan, laid the whole country waste with fire and sword. But as these shepherd-kings soon returned to their own country with their spoils and captives, the destructive inundation ceased to flow after a while, and Cilicia once more formed a part of the Greek empire. Michael Palajologus was succeeded by his son Andronicus, (a.d. 1282,) whose long reign of nearly fifty years was disgraced by super- stition and weakened by the disputes of the Greek Church, and this at the very time that a new power, destined to subvert his own, was rising on the ruins of the Suljukian dynasty. EUIN AT AKAZAKBA.— (From a Sketch by Edward B. B. Barker, Esq..) CHAPTER VI. RISE OF THE OSMANLIS OR DSMANLIS — VICTORIES OF BAYAZID — INVASIONS OF THE MOGULS CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY JIUHAMJIAD II. BAYAZID II. ANNEXES CILICIA TO THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE— CAMPAIGNS OF SULAIMAN THE MAGNIFICENT AMURAD IV. INVADES CILICU. HIS HOUSE AT ADANA REFORMS OF ILIHJIUD H. ABD'uL IIASJID. Othman, son of Orthogrul * a Turkman chief of a tribe of fom- hundred families who had settled in Lesser Armenia on the banks of the Eu- phrates, after his father's death enlisted in the service of Ala-addLi, one of the last sultans of Karamania. Becoming emir or lieutenant of the feeble monarch, he founded a kingdom, the seat of which was first established at Brusa, then at Adrianople, and lastly at Constantinople. The formder of the Osmanli dynasty first invaded the territory of Nicomedia, a.d. 1299, and during twenty-seven years he made repeated incursions on the Greek empire. At last, when oppressed by age and infirmities, he received the news in his camp of the taking of Brusa by his son Orchan, which then became the capital of thenew dynasty. Orchan afterwards subjected all the countries of Asia Minor, almost without resistance ; but it appears that he allowed his brother-generals to divide the spoil, for we see that the emirs of Gharmain and Karamania (in the latter of which Gilicia was included) are said to have been in a condition to bring each an army of 40,000 men into the field. From these proceeded the vast tribes of Turkmans established all over Cilicia and Karamania, who maintain their original way of living to this day, and who are a separate race from the wandering tribes to the north, — of those, for example, in the districts of Kaisariyah. The latter are mostly of Kurd origin, and speak a perfectly different language. Orchan, profiting by the civil wars of the elder Andronicus and his gi'andson, caused his emirs to build a fleet and pillage the adjacent islands, and even the sea-coasts of Europe. * It is pi-oper in names so long accepted as Osman oi' Othman, Orthqgnil, and Osmanlis or Ottomans, to retain the accepted orthogTaphies ; otherwise, as there is no in the original, a more correct orthography would be 'Usman, 'Usmanli, 'Urthu- gnil, &c. F 66 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNOKS. John Cantacuzene, who, in conjunction with John PalKologus, son of the younger Andronious, had become emperor, basely invited to Hs aid (a.d. 1346) the public enemies of his religion and country; andOrcIian was induced to come to his assistance by the stipulated condition that the daughter of Cantacuzene should be given him in marriage. Parental tenderness was in this case silenced by the dictates of ambition, and the Greek princess was delivered over to her Asiatic lord without the rites of the Church. The Turks were thus iatroduced into Europe; and in the very first step they made they trod down with contempt one of the first and most sacred rites of the Christians, by taking the daughter of their emperor as a concubine in their harims ! Sulaiman, the son of Orchan, marched at the head of ten thousand warriors into Europe to support the wavering power of his ally. In the civil wars of Eomania he performed a small degree of service and a greater degree of mischief. By degrees the Chersonesus was insensibly filled with a Turkish colony, while the Byzantine court solicited in vain the restitution of the fortresses of Thrace. The walls of Galipoli, the key of the Hellespont, had been thrown down by an earthquake ; they were rebuilt and fortified by the policy of Sulaiman, and Constantinople would have next fallen a prey to the ambition of the Turks, had the Turkish chief not died by a fall from his horse, and the death of his fatlier soon after fortunately intervened to stay for a little while the shock of the impending storm. A.D. 1360. Amurad I., second son of Orchan, succeeded to thej throne, which he removed from Brusa to Adrianople. During a reign| of nearly thirty years he subdued without resistance the provinces of Eomania and Thrace, fi'om Mount Hsemus to the suburbs of Constanti- nople ; and John Palasologus, almost a prisoner in his palace, was obliged,| ivith his four sons, to follow the court and camp of the Ottoman prince. The Bulgarians, Servians, Bosnians, and Albanians were all made tribu- tary, and brought by a famous institution to be, by their bravery, tlie supporters of Ottoman greatness. The redoubtable corps of the -" Janissaries" (Yani-chari), chosen from among the stoutest and most beautifiil Christian youths, became the terror of nations, and in later times of the sultans themselves. It was reserved to Amurad's son Bayazid, who succeeded him, A.D. 1389, to extend the conquest begun by his grandfather to the bound- aries of the Greek empire in the East. All the countries from the Hellespont to the Euphrates acknowledged his sway ; while on the other side, whatever yet adhered to the Greek empire in Thrace, Mace- donia, and Thes'saly, submitted to Turkish masters. Bayazid stationed TIMUR-LANG, 67 a fleet of galleys at Galipoli to command the Hellespont. At Mcopolis lie defeated a confederate army of 100,000 Franks under John Count of Nevers, whom he made prisoner. At length (a.d. 1395) his attention was directed to the conquest of Constantinople; and the dreaded catastrophe was only averted by the consent of Manuel, successor of John Pateologus, to pay an annual tri- bute of 30,000 crowns of gold. But this respite was of short duration ; the truce was soon violated by the restless sultan, and an army of Ottomans again threatened the devoted capital. Manuel in his distress implored the assistance of his Latin " brethren," and a reinforcement of troops from this quarter (a forlorn-hope) protracted the siege until Timtur-lang, known in Europe by the name of Tamerlane, the Mogul conqueror, diverted the attention of Bayazid by invading his Eastern possessions. Thus the fall of Con- stantinople was deferred for some fifty years longer. A.D. 1402. Timur-lang, surnamed the lame, although a descendant of Yanghiz Khan in the female line, rose from the state of a shepherd- lad to the possession of an empire more extensive than that of Alex- ander. His first conquest was Sogdiana; from thence he advanced to the conquest of Persia, took Bagdad, penetrated to the farthest part of India, and on his return from thence he fell upon Syria and Asia Minor. His aid was solicited by the Muhammadan princes whom Bayazid had deposed, as also by the brother of the absent Greek emperor. Timur summoned the Turkish sultan to raise the siege, and the two formidable enemies met on the plains of Ancyra (Angora) in Galatia. After one of the most fiirious battles ever recorded in history, Bayazid was defeated and taken prisoner, and put into an iron cage, according to the vulgar tale.* Thus the Moguls became masters of aU Asia ; and, if they had been possessed of ships they might have overrun Europe. Biit the invasion of these hordes led to no permanent conquests ; Timiu' had no troops to leave behind him to maintain his power, and the popu- lations were abandoned to anarchy, f * Local ti-adition records the exact locality of tMs great engagement to have been the plain of Chibuk-Abad, north of Angora, now Anguri. — W. F. A. •j* The Tui'ks tell a characteristic story regarding the spirit of discord prevalent in Cilicia, which is not equalled in any part of the world. Each inhabitant would, if he could, di-ink the blood of his neighbom-. They say that Timur-lang used to carry with him forty cases containing his trea- sure, and that he had eighty slaves, to whom he confided the guard of his person and these cases, half of whom by turns watched while the other half reposed. Arrived before Adana on his way back, he overheard his guards concerting among each other to kill him, and divide the spoil between them ; and he imderstood them to say that they would wait till their companions awoke, to be all agreed. Upon this Timur-lang, 68 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Of the five sons of Bayazid wIlo after his death contended for the sovereignty, Muhammad I. was the most conspicuous, and obtained the ascendency. He employed the eight years of his reign in eradicating the vices produced by civil discord, and in establishing the Ottoman power over Cilicia and the other provinces of Asia Minor on a firmer basis. His son Amurad II. besieged Constantinople, a.d. 1422, with an army of 200,000 Turks and Asiatic volunteers; but after a siege of two months he was called away to Brusa to quell a domestic revolt excited by his brother. The effete empire was allowed a respite of thirty years, during which Manuel sank into the grave, and his son John Pa- lEBologus II. was permitted to reign in consideration of a tribute which he paid to the Turks of 300,000 aspres, and the renunciation and aban- donment of all the territory without the walls of Constantinople. Amu- rad was much taken up with the Hungarian war, and twice abdicated the throne, preferring the prayers and religious practices of the society of the dervishes to the cares of royalty. John Palffiologus was succeeded by his brother Constantine (a.d. 1443), a youth of fair promise, and who defended his country bravely for a time. But it was ordained that the last of the Greek emperors should bear the same name as the first and founder of Constantinople. ,' On the 29th of May, a.d. 1488, the ill-fated city fell into the hands of Muhammad II., the son of Amurad, who took it after a siege of fifty- three days. Thus was sealed the fate of the Christian government in the East, at the same time that the Turkish government was finally es- tablished in Europe. Muhammad II. marched a large army into Asia Minor against Uzzum Hassan, a powerfol Turkman chief, and obtained a complete victory over him on the plain of Gialdaran in Upper Armenia. Bayazid II. succeeded his father a.d. 1481, and inherited his mar- tial character, but did not meet with all his success in military affairs. During the long wars which his father had carried on in Em-ope the eastern provinces had been neglected, and the sultan of Egypt, taking ad- vantage of this supineness, had made himself master of aU Syria, Cihcia, and part of Anatolia. Bayazid undertook a great expedition into Asia Minor to recover these provinces, and two battles were fought by the rival sultans in Cihcia, and the cities of Adana and Tarsus were taken pi'etending to awake, ordered the whole army in motiouj saying that there must be something treacherous in the very ground whereon they were encamped, which could make the select of his followers so faithless. And that is the reason, say th« Tmta, why he did not take Adana. SULAIMAN, SELIM, AND AMTJRAD. 69 and retaken by both parties witli alternate success. At length Bayazid, although vanquished, had the tact to conclude an advantageous peace, by which all Cilicia was ceded to him as far as the Syrian gates (a.d. 1492). He then returned to prosecute the wars against the Venetians in the Morea ; in which expeditions he caused all the dust from his shoes to be collected, in order that the same being put into his coffin, might witness in his favour at the day of judgment, of his having carried on the w&r against the infidels with unremitting vigilance. Bayazid was succeeded, a.d. 1512, by his son Sulaiman I., who be- gan his reign by poisoning his father and putting his two brothers to death. His next step was to make war on Shah Ismail Sufi of Persia, whom he defeated in the plain of Gialdaran in Upper Armenia (which had before been the scene of Muhammad H.'s victory), and obliged him to retreat to the southern part of his dominions. The city of Tabriz fell into Sulaiman's hands, and he at first resolved on wintermg there, but was dissuaded by his officers on account of the intense cold ; and he re- turned to Amasiyah, and soon after to Constantinople, to prepare for a greater expedition. A very formidable army was again levied, at the head of which he marched into Syria and Egypt, carrying every thing before him, and completely subduing both countries, the military sove- reigns of which were both slain, and he led in triumph to Constantinople the last khahf of the second dynasty of the Abbassides. Sulaiman H., surnamed the Magnificent, a.d. 1520, succeeded liis father SeUm. He is looked upon as the greatest of the Turkish em- j)erors, for, independent of his great victories, he was the friend of litera- ture and art, as well as a just prince. He took Belgrade, and also the island of Ehodes, after a gallant resistance, and won the famous battle of Mohatz (a.d. 1526). In the following year Buda fell into his hands. In his war with Austria he was not so fortunate ; for after having made twenty assaults on Vienna, he was obliged to raise the siege and return to Constantinople. Unable to remain inactive, he set out on an expe- dition against Shah Tamasp of Persia, besieged and took Bagdad, and through the zeal of his lieutenants carried his arms into Africa. Many cities on the coast of Barbary were added to the empire during his long and victorious reign of forty-six years. The short reign of Selim II., who ascended the throne in a.d. 1566, was distinguished by no remarkable event except the taking of the island of Cyprus and the loss of the battle of Lepanto in the Morea, in which it is said that 32,000 Turks perished. Amurad III., son of Sehm, began his reign (a.d. 1574) by strang- ling five of his brothers. The Shah of Persia having invaded his eastern. 70 CILICIA ASD ITS GOVERNORS. provinces, lie marclied to attack him, and retook the city of Tabriz which the Persians had seized during the last reign. Miihammadm., one of the greatest monsters that ever disgraced the annals of history, succeeded the weak Amurad a.d. 1594. He beeah' his reign by strangling nineteen of his brothers, and causing ten of his father's wives to be thrown into the Bosphorus, in the fear that they might prove pregnant. His reign of nine years was marked throughotit by cruelty and treachery, and just before his death he executed his own son and his son's mother on suspicion of treason. Ahmed I., second son of Muhammad IH., succeeded to the throne A.D. 1604, at the age of fifteen; and after a reign of twelve years he was succeeded by his brother, Mustafa I. (a.d. 1617), who made himself so odious by his savage disposition, that he was deposed, by the Janissaries after a reign of three months, and his nephew Osman II. was placed on the throne ; and after a brief reign of four years and four months he also was deposed, and Mustafa I. was once more elevated to the throne by the intrigues of the Janissaries. These were at this time a real Prastorian body, and very soon after put the sovereign of their choice to death. Amurad IV., son of Ahmed I., succeeded (a.d. 1622), and proved as sanguinary a tyrant as his grandfather Muhammad IH. had been ; for he perpetrated aU sorts of excesses, some of which seem to be scarcely credible, — such, for example, as amusing himself by shooting his subjects from a balcony. The Pasha of Erzerum having thrown off his allegiance, and united with the Shah of Persia to devastate some of the Turkish provinces in Asia, Amurad marched at the head of" 200,000 men to stop their progress. "With this immense force he entered Cilicia, and laid waste the Taurus and other countries. Hav- ing reduced Trebizond and Erzerum, he marched into Syria, with the intention of proceeding on a pilgrimage to Mecca ; but it appears that he did not go beyond Damascus, and returned to Constantinople in 1635. Three years afterwards he undertook the conquest of Persia; but after taking Bagdad he was persuaded to sign a treaty of peace, and he again retui'ned to Constantinople, to execute a project he had long been revolving in his mind, which was no less than the utter destruc- tion of the Ottoman race. Death, however, put an end to his design. The house which this sultan inhabited at Adana is stiU to be seen, but in a dilapidated condition. The door leading to the upper story is walled up, as, according to traditionary report, it is unlawful for any one to occupy the seat of the monarch, to prevent which this precau- SULTANS FBOH 1640 TO 1807. 71 tion was taken ; or perhaps, we miglit also conclude, in superstitiotis horror of his character and crimes. Ibrahim I., the brother of Amurad, succeeded him a.d. 1640. This prince fitted out an expedition against Candia. The siege is remarkable in history for the horrible murders and atrocities perpetrated during its progress ; but this island, the pride of the Archipelago, was not an- nexed to the Ottoman dominions till the reign of his successor. Ibrahim I. was strangled by the Janissaries a.d. 1648, and his son Muhammad IV., a boy seven years old, was placed on the throne. In the early part of the reign of this prince the siege of Candia was pushed with vigour, and terminated favourably for the Turks. In the latter part of Ibrahim's life the reverses he had met with in Himgary so enraged him, that he swore he would feed his horse on the altar of St. Peter at Eome. For this purpose he prepared a large army, with which he besieged Vienna in 1683, but was completely foiled and compelled to raise the siege by the bravery of the celebrated Sobieski. After a long reign of nearly forty years he was succeeded, a.d. 1687, by Sulaiman III. his brother, who only reigned three years. Ahmed II., brother of Sulaiman, succeeded in a.d. 1690, and reigned four years. "■ Mustafa 11., a nephew of the two former sultans, was elected by the Janissaries a.d. 1695, and, after a reign of eight years, was deposed in favour of his brother, Ahmed III., who, after an inglorious reign of twenty -seven years, was obliged to abdicate in favour of his nephew Muhammad V., who, raised to the throne a.d. 1730, reigned twenty- four years, and was then succeeded, in a.d. 1754, by his brother, Osman III., who reigned only two years, and was then succeeded by his nephew (a.d. 1757), Mustafa III., son of Muhammad V., during whose reign the wars with Russia began. Mustafa III. was succeeded (a.d. 1776) by his brother, Abd'ul Hamid I., who was not more fortunate in repelling the en- croachments of the Russians on his territory than his brother had been ; at his death the throne was filled (a.d. 1789) by Selim III, the only son of Mustafa III. This ill-fated prince sus- tained repeated losses in his wars with Russia, in spite of the reforms in the army and navy which he introduced, and the adoption of Eiuropean customs and improvements, and which proved so displeasing to the Janissaries that they deposed him, and soon after put him to death. Mustafa V., cousin of Selim III., was proclaimed sultan a.d. 1807 ; 72 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. but he reigned only one year, -when lie was also murdered. Of the pre- tended son of this prince, Nadir Bey, I shall have occasion to speak further on. Mahmud H., the brother of Mustafa V., and the only surviving male of the Ottoman line, was raised to the throne a.d. 1808 by the Janissa- ries, and he proved himself superior to any of his predecessors in poli- tical courage and sagacity. He temporised and cajoled the Janissaries, until he could seize a fitting opportunity, which occurred on the 14tli June, A.D. 1826, when he caused them all to be put to death, and' restored tranquillity to the empire. His name will ever be memo- rable by the reforms he began, and which have since been slowly but steadily carried out by his son, Abd'ul Masjid, the present sultan, who ascended, the throne on the 11th July, 1839, and a few months after, gave to the world the before unheard-of spectacle of a despotic monarch, granting voluntarily a constitution to his people, by the well-known Platti Sherif of Gulhanah.* * As this document is quite unique in Eastei-n history, we give a few extracts : " These new institutions should have thi-ee objects in view : — first, to guarantee to our subjects perfect security of life, honour-, and property ; secondly, the regular levy- ing and assessing of taxes ; and thii-dly, a reg-ular system for the raising of troops, and fixing the time of their service. " For, in truth, are not Hfe and honom- the most precious of all blessings ? What man, however averse his disposition to violent means, can withhold having recourse to them, and thereby injure both the goverament and his country, when both his life and honom- are in jeopardy ? If, on the contrary, he enjoys in this respect full security, he will not stray fi-om the paths of loyalty, and all his actions wiU tend to increase the prosperity of the government and his countrymen. If there be absence of security of property, every one remains callous to the voice of his prince and country. No one cares about the progi-ess of the public good, absorbed as one remains vrith the inse- curity of his own position. If, on the other hand, the citizen looks upon his property as secure, of whatever nature it be, then, full of ardour for his interests, of which for his own contentment he endeavours to enlarge the sphere, thereby to extend that of his enjoyments, he feels every day in his heart the attachment for his prince and for his country grow stronger, as well as his devotedness to then- cause.' These senti- ments in him become the soiu-ce of the most praiseworthy actions." j"3E4^4).^ CHAPTEE VII. MODERN mSTOEY OF CILICIA niSE OF KUTCHUK ALI UGLU HIS MEANS OF KE- VENUE ACTS OF CEUELTY EAYAS MODE OF LIFE AND CHAEAGTEEISTICS SEIZES THE MASTER OF AN ENGLISH VESSEL CAPTURES A FRENCH MEE- CHANTlL'i.N BRIBES THE TURKS WHO ARE SENT AGAINST HIM PUTS HIS FEffiND THE DUTCH CONSUL OF ALEPPO INTO PRISON FORCES A CARAVAN OF MERCHANTS TO RANSOM HIM A CHARACTERISTIC ANECDOTE. The history* of the Ottoman Empire during the last two centuries, till we come to the epochs of Mahmud II. and of his son Abd'ul Masjid, furnishes little or no pleasing retrospect; but is on the whole a dark picture of tyranny, cruelty, and barbarism. The sultans, no longer permitted to be at the head of their armies, were buried in the effeminacy of the seraglio and the mazes of an intriguing court. They gave up the administration of affairs to their officers, who sold the government of the provinces to the highest bidder, while the purchasers were permitted to indemnify themselves by the plunder of the towns and villages. The population, oppressed by repeated acts of injustice, were glad to screen themselves behind a lesser evil, and submit to the usiu'ped rule of factious chiefs who became rebels to the authority of the Porte, and erected de facto petty independent kingdoms, which they left at their deaths either to their children or to the most in- triguing, brave, or impudent of their followers. The weakness of a government enfeebled by venality, and no longer maintained or held together by those principles which called it into existence, pre- vented the adoption of vigorous measures to punish rebellion, and sub- due those chiefs who had availed themselves of the general discontent * If a blank occurs in the history of Ciiicia for the last two hundred years, the reason is, that no archives are kept in the provinces as at Constantinoplej as each succeeding governor cames away with him in a bag the small bundle of official docu- ments ; and that for two reasons : first, because he is afraid to leave behind him any traces of his misrule, which might be employed subsequently by his enemies against him ; and secondly, from the summary way in which business is transacted, — mostly byword of mouth, — very few papers are necessary, and the small stock can be trans- ported with great facility, the whole object and aim of these governors being to make money as quickly as they can before the order for then* recall is obtained by their enemies. 74 CILICIA AND ITS GOVBENOBS. to flatter their followers witla the hope of impunity, and who were thus enabled to depose or set aside the pashas sent to execute the orders of the Porte ; and the ministers at Constantinople, unable to carry on the husi-, ness of the government (or even to maintain themselves in their posts,) from the exhausted state of the treasury, drained by increasing luxury and extravagance, were induced to compound with a power they had not the means to destroy. From these causes may be traced the circumstance that, for a long series of years, many of the provinces, particularly those of Asia Minor, were wrested from the Porte, or merely held in nominal allegiance to it, by the strength of successive chieftains of powerful Turkman tribes, called " Darah Beys," vulgo Darah Begs, among whom the famous family of Kara Osman Uglu, " son of the black Osman," hold a dis- tinguished place. Cilicia has been ia the same position, torn by con- tending factions of chiefs among the Turkman tribes which have in succession contended for the supreme authority; and I think it not irrelevant to my subject to follow up the history of some of these chieftains during the last forty-six years, which may perhaps expose in a clearer point of view the state to which the country has been reduced by the defective system of government above alluded to, and explain the effects of such a system on the provinces, better than a more; studied or elaborate account. One of these Darah Beys, KhalU Bey, better known by the name of Kutchuk Ah Uglu,* was in 1800 a Turkman chief of the mountains in the vicinity of Bayas (near the ancient Issus), which is now almost deserted,! but in his time was a populous and flourishing town, that carried on a considerable trade with Egypt, and produced annually ten * A sketch of the life of Khalil Bey (or Bay, the a pronounced as in nay, say, may, ■faay-tree, &c.), commonly called Kutchuk All Uglu, has been published by Messrs.. Slangles and Irby, and still more lately by Mr. Neale, in both cases from statements or documents obtained from my father, Mr. John Barker ; but as the real facts of the case have been much mutilated at second-hand, and as I shall have to give the life of the chieftain's two sons, which are intimately connected with the history of Cilicia, a more correct and detailed history will not perhaps be unwelcome to the reader, and will serve as an introduction to events in later times. -|- There are in the present day a group of very handsome buildings at Bayas. A spacious stone bazar, or more properly speaking, bazastain, soKdly ai'ohed over, and- approached by noble portals, opens at the centre, to the east, into a khan with a large paved yard, having a fountain in the centi'e, and the usual stables with galleried apart- ments above. To the west, another passage, after leading by some massive domed buildings which constituted the public Hammam or bath, opens into a court-yard, at one end of which is a pretty little mosque (masjid) with a graceful minaret (minar), and at the other the entrance to a polygonal castle of considerable strength and dimensions. This ia in- deed the most complete and compact thing of its kind to be met with perhaps in tjie KUTCHUK ALL 75 thousand pounds of silk. Kutclrak Ali laid the foundation of Ms power by making nocturnal excursions from tlie mountains to rob tlie gardens of Bayas. Some gardeners, with a view to purchase exemption from his depredations, stipulated to pay him a trifling yearly tribute, or hlack- mail. Their example was followed by others, who were petty merchants, glad to seciu:e the mass of their property by entering into similar engagements; and from a rotolo* of coffee, or a few rotolos of rice, the whole town became at length compelled to furnish a stated contri- bution. This fund enabled Kutchuk Ali to support himself at the head of a band of forty or fifty robbers ; and he then aspired to render himself master of the place. He began by waylaying the heads of the principal families ; and in the course of a few years he succeeded in exterminating every individual of such as possessed any weight or influence at Bayas or in its territory. The last member of the most influential of these families, whose adherents he could neither subdue by open force nor corrupt by bribery, successfully contended for some time with him for the supreme authority, tiU at length Kutchuk Ali, having lulled his suspicions by giving him his daughter in marriage, murdered him with his own hands ; and he has often been heard to warn his own children against a male infant the offspring of that marriage ; advising them to crush the crocodile in the egg, lest he should one day revenge on them his father's blood. f With a very inconsiderable number of dependents, who often did not exceed 200 in number, Kutchuk Ali succeeded in impressing with terror and dismay the minds of the people by a system of cruelty, continued for many years ; and he occasioned much trouble to the Porte, between whom and the rebel there existed, however, a East. Every thing that is essential to the nucleus of an oriental city is gathered into the smallest possible compass, and is in excellent preservation. These structures are attributed in the Mecca liinerary to Ibraham Khan-Zadah, better known as Sakali Muhammad Pasha, or the " bearded pasha Muhammad," who was wuzir to Sultan Sulaiman II. The river of Bayas flows past these buildings on the south side ; and at the port, distant about a mile and a half, is a castle with a square bawn and a small village. The modem village of Bayas, where the governor resides, is about two and a half miles north, upon another and lesser rivulet ; and between the two is the village of Kuratas. There is also a small village of Syrians of the Greek Chiurch on the river, a little above the castle and khan of Bayas. This, as the site also of the antique BAliB or baths, was certainly one of the most charming spots on the coast of Syria. — W. F. A. * A rotolo is a Turkish weight, varying in different parts of the empire ; in CSlicia it is equal to five and a half pounds. t Kutchuk AH Uglu's second son, Mustuk Bey, as we shaU see by the sequel, mindful of his father's i^ijunotions, actually put them in practice, and murdered this unfortunate individual. 76 CILICIA AND ITS GOYEBKORS. reciprocal desire to be on a footing of friendship, founded on mutual advantage, and wHch prevented their continuing long on terms of either real or ostensible bostUity. Kutcbuk Ali's territorial government was, it may naturally be imagined, sucb as to afford him but very slender means of drawings wealth from the impoverished inhabitants of Bayas and its environs. His revenue, therefore, in. a great measure, was derived from the casual passage of travellers and caravans through his territory, and whom he laid under such contributions as he thought they would bear, rather than be obliged, by going another way, to make a very inconvenient journey. Sometimes his rapacity and naturally brutal inclinations impelled him to overstep the boimds he meant to prescribe to his own extortions, and then the Porte testified its displeasure by prohibiting travellers from passing through Bayas. As soon as the rebel found his coffers in need of fresh supplies, the Porte succeeded in forcing him to sue for pardon, which was seldom long withheld, on account of the necessity of procuring a safe passage for the annual grand caravan of pilgrims from Constanti- nople to Mecca, which was obliged either to pass through his territory or to make a circuitous and fatiguing journey through the mountains of Cappadocia. When the caravan of pilgrims came into Kutchuk -Ah's dominions, it yielded him a very considerable revenue; for he taxed every individual according to his own caprice, but always, however, with an eye to the rule above mentioned. On the approach of this caravan to Bayas, Kutchuk AU sent some of his household to compli- ment on his arrival the chief of the caravan — a personage of great dis- tinction, who dismissed the rebel's emissaries with rich presents for him. On such occasions, the horses it was customary to present to Kutchuk Ali would be returned, with a hint that they would be preferred com- pletely accoutred in the usual gilt and silver trappings. Much time was invariably lost in negotiating and stipulating the precise tribute required, but as invariably the measure of his rapacity was filled, the caravan was permitted to proceed. In order the better to dispose the pilgrims to submit to his extor- tions, Kutchuk Ali was always careful to exhibit, as proofs both of his power and his cruelty, the spectacle of two bodies impaled at the gate of Bayas. It happened on one of these occasions, when the caravan was approaching, that his prisons were empty, and he had no victims that he could impale. He imparted his embai-rassraent to a convivial com- panion. " The caravan," said he, " will be here to-morrow, and we have not yet prepared the customary execution. Look ye, pick me out two from among my servants." His friend expostulated; and while he KTJTCHTJK ALT. 77 was endeavouring to induce Mm to abandon his design by the assurance that every thing woiild proceed in due order without the execution in question, Kutchuk Ali, still revolving the matter in his mind, and stroking his beard, exclaimed, "I have it: go fetch me Yakub the Christian; he has been four months in bed sick of a fever, and can never recover." The poor wretch was forthwith dragged out of his bed, strangled, impaled, and hung up! When it is considered that the forces of this monster did not exceed two hundred armed men, it becomes a matter of surprise, even to those who are well aware of the once existing weakness and in- difference of the Sultan's government, that such a bandit could have been so long allowed to brave the authority of the Porte. But it was at that time rendered almost powerless by evils and abuses that have since, to a great extent, been remedied and corrected. Kutchuk Ali was well aware that his usurped power rested on the tottering foundation of public opinion, and the little arts he put in practice with a view to conceal his weakness are characteristic and curious. Whenever an individual of distinction came into his terri- tory (which was only to be approached through dense woods), in order to deceive the new comer by an ostentatious display of his forces, he dis- posed his men in the thickets, so as to pass and repass at several points before the traveller like soldiers on a stage ; thus the reports even of an ocular witness became fallacious, and the power of Kutchuk Ali was extolled and exaggerated all over the Turkish dominions. He also erected numerous tall towers, which he scattered along the eminences of *his mountains, and which from afar appeared like the turrets of so many impregnable castles. They were, however, in reality nothing more than rude edifices composed of mud and straw, and white-washed with lime, which a night's heavy rain frequently damaged. Kutchuk Ali also occupied the narrow passage known in history, more especially in the Anabasis, as the Cilician and Syiian gates, as well as the castle of Bayas. It was at this latter spot that Heraclius in his first campaign disembarked, choosing it as the most secure spot in which to strengthen himself and concentrate his forces against the Saracens. Cicero also apparently writes to his friend from this place : " Castra habemus ea ipsa qu83 contra Darium habuerat apud Issum Alexander Imperator, hand paulo melior quam tu aut ego." Its modern name is derived perhaps from the Turkish word hayaz. (white), descriptive of the snow that for a great part of the year is seen on the summit of its grey mountainous cliffs, which descend abruptly 78 CILICIA AND ITS GOVBKNOES. towards the sea, leaving a narrow tract between its precipices and the sea. » Kutclnilc All was short in stature, and in 1800 appeared to be about sixty years of age; his body was thick-set and muscular, and his head disproportionably large. His face was round, bluff, and flat, aud-it was rendered apparently flatter by a chronic disorder which had carried away the bones of his nose, and caused him to snuffle as he arti- culated ; and it is remarkable that his son, Mustuk Bey, speakfi much in the same way, although he is quite free from any infirmity. But this is a fashionable tone prevalent among the Turks, and which they ape from one another, doubtless considering it very .impressive and sonorous. Kutchuk Ali had nevertheless a very insinuating address, and often deceived by his mild and courteous demeanour those who did not discriminate his real character in the tiger-like glances of his restless eye. When he was raised to the high rank of a Pasha of three tails, he altered nothing from the rude simplicity of his way of life when only a Ttuiman freebooter. As an instance of this he had two wives, who so far from being secluded and guarded by eimuchs (yimuks) in splendid apart- ments, were in no way distinguished from the other women of his famUy. They made bread and fetched water from the spring imveUed, having only one distinction, that of occupying exclusively two separate rooms, which were divided by a slight wooden partition, instead of the curtain which served the same purpose in the tents of his forefathers. When- ever he intended to honour one of his consorts with his company, he sent to bid her prepare for the occasion; and the thought being always suggested when he was wholly or partially intoxicated, the poor woman had generally to watch in vain for his appearance, while he gradually sank down on his carpet in forgetfulness of everythmg in this world. But however deep might have been his nocturnal po- tations, he always rose at the first dawn of day to call his men to their daily labours, and in aU seasons and in all weathers accompanied them to the field of their toils. He sat without mat or carpet on the ground to superintend their operations, which were not, as might be supposed, in the chief industry of the country (mulberry-plantations for silkworms), nor in the useful labom-s of rearing garden fruits and vege- tables of which he knew not the want. His habitual occupations were * Between Bayas and Alexandretta is the rivei- Markatz (ancient Kersus), with village and'castle (Markatz Kalahsi) on its banks, and ruins towards the sea-shore ; while beyond is the Macedonian relic now called Sakal Tutan, — the Bomitse or altars of Phny, all oompi-ised within the Cilician and Syrian Gates. — W. F. A. KUTCHUK ALL 79 in pulling down, rebuilding, and changing the form of the -white-washed turrets and sham battlements before described, with the view, no doubt, of preventing revolt among his followers by keeping them constantly- employed in hard labour. He prided himself on the discipline he maintained. " I am not," he would say, " as other Darah Beys are,* fellows without faith, who allow their men to stop travellers on the king's highway; — I am content with what God sends me. I await his good ^lea.snre,a.Tid,AlhumdUllah (God be praised), he never leaves me long in want of any thing.'' Upon Kutchuk All's attaining the rank of Pasha it was thought in- dispensable that he should exchange the Turkman sash and turban for the kauk, a head-dress of distinction. A Tartar accidentally passing through Bayas was commissioned to bring him one, but it proved to be too small for his head: he -wrote for another, but it again fell short of the proper dimensions. Disgusted at his ill-success, he gave up the attempt, coming to the conclusion, as he said, that if hilulcs could not be made for heads, his head could not be made expressly for them. In 1798, Mr. Fowls, master of an English vessel in the harbour of Alexandretta, went with four of his men to water at the Markatz Chai, a river in the territory of Bayas, at a place before alluded to, and called by sailors Jonas' Pillars. Here they were seized by Kutchuk Ali Uglu, and thrown into prison, and a large sum was demanded for their release. Before the necessary arrangements could be made for its payment, the master was driven by despair to put a period to his existence by pre- cipitating himself from a high tower in which he was confined; and all the others perished soon after, except a boy twelve years old, named Charles Edwards, who was sent by Kutchuk Ali as a present to his friend Mr. Masseyk, Dutch consul at Aleppo. It is not kno-^vn exactly what measures were taken by the mission at Constantinople to obtain the necessary satisfaction for this act of violence, but it is certain that none was ever given by the savage perpetrator. Two years after this event (in 1800) a French ship from Marseilles, richly laden with merchandise for Aleppo, was, by the captain's igno- rance of the locality, taken under the walls of Bayas, when the master, with a part of the crew, supposing that they had anchored at Alexan- dretta, landed in search of the consular establishment, and were con- ducted to the governor, who received them -svith every mark of hospi- * Chiefs of Turkman tribes, and self-appointed governors of districts in Turkey, ■whom the Porte used to find it necessary to confirm in then- posts, and even to load ■with presents and raise to various dignities, in order to obtain through their means a portion of the contributions -which they levy,— having no better means to enforce obedience. . . -__ _ t_ -,->_. 80 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. tality ; but while lie was entertaining tliem with a sumptuous repast, his men were occupied in taking possession of the vessels. This accompHshed he immediately unloaded and sunk the ship, sending the crew by land to the French consul at Alexandretta. Eemonstrances were made to him on this act of violence by all the consular authorities at Aleppo and in particular by his intimate friend the Dutch consul, to whom he replied in these terms : " My dear friend, — You know very well that consistently with the friendship subsisting between us, property and life itself are indifferent matters. Nay, I swear by God, that for your sake I would sacrifice my son Dada Bey; but I entreat you not to drive me to the extremity of denying you what it is impossible for me to grant. My dear friend, ]place yourself in my position. I am in disgrace with my sovereign, without having given him any just cause for this displeasure ; I am threatened vriih attacks from the four quarters of the earth ; I am with- out money, I am without means ; and the ever-watchful providence of the Ahnighty sends me a vessel laden with merchandise ! Say, would you in my place lay hold of it or not ? I know very well the Franks will claim restitution of the property from the Subhme Porte, and that is precisely what I want, because an opportunity will then be offered to me of negotiating my pardon." On the receipt of this letter all hopes of recovering any thing by ami- cable means were given up in despair, and the French consul made ap- pHcation to his superior at Constantinople, and obtained several imperial commands on the subject. Three Turkish oaravallas (ships of war) were sent to Bayas to enforce obedience to the orders of the Porte. Kutchuk Ali retired to his mountains. The caravallas fired a few guns against empty houses and dilapidated fortresses, and in a very short time, having consumed their stock of provisions, the officers and men on board were glad to accept such as were liberally tendered them by Kutchuk Ali, who soon obtained, through the customary means of brib- ing with French watches and fine French broadcloth, the good will of all the commanders of the ships sent against him. So great was their astonishment and satisfaction at the rebel's princely magnificence, that they contracted with him solemn engagements of private friendship, and' promised him their intercession in his behalf with the Porte on their return to Constantinople. The dignity of an additional tail was ob- tained for him on this occasion, with an imperial firman pro forma, ordering restitution of the property. In compliance with this order, Kutchuk Ali addressed a letter to the French consul at Aleppo to an- nounce that he was ready to obey the commands of the sultan, but the AEREST Ol" THE DUTCH CONSUL. 81 cargo of the ship in question having been converted to use, he offered as an equivalent to make over to the proprietors of the goods sundry plan- tations belonging to him in the territory of Bayas. The merchants of Aleppo rejected with scorn the proposal, as adding insult to injustice ; particularly as they considered that the environs of Bayas are unhealthy, and their agents would be Uable to take the malignant fever of the place whilst directing such an arduous enterprise as the cultivation of land. The neighbourhood was also reputed dangerous ; and the poverty of the inhabitants was supposed to render it impossible for them to sell any produce for & quarter of its value. Yet the merchants could not obtain any other redress.* In the beginning of 1801, Mr. John Masseyk, Dutch Consul-general in Aleppo, was arrested by Kutchuk Ali Uglu, as he was returning from Constantinople, although furnished with an imperial firman for the ex- ercise of his official functions, at a period when the Porte was at peace with Holland. The proceedings of Kutchiik Ali on this occasion will serve to elucidate his character, which will be exhibited in a curious light when it is considered that there had for many years previous to the detention of the Dutch consul existed between him and the pasha, as has already been observed, habits of the most cordial friendship and interchange of gifts, according to oriental custom. On the arrival of the consul at Bayas he was immediately thrown into prison, bound with chains, and stripped of everything except the apparel he wore. But the pasha, with great circumspection, avoided all opportunities of being thrown in contact with his prisoner ; for it is a peculiarity worthy of remark, that this tyrant, whenever he ordered a bad action to be committed, kept himself personally aloof from the scene of its perpetration, from an idea that it would lower his importance to assume the office of executioner to his own orders, or perhaps in this in- stance from very shame for thus ill-treating an old friend. The sum fixed for the consul's ransom was 25,000 piastres of those days (about 2000Z.); but being unable to produce more than 7500, Mr. Masseyk underwent during the period of eight months every species of ill-usage. Every means was tried to force him to embrace the Muliammadan re- ligion, and to extort from him the money required for his ransom ; to which end they would at one time confine him in a damp dungeon with- * No doubtj feVers prevail at Bayas at certain seasons of the year, as in other parts of the coast of Syi'ia ; hut the situation is open and dry, the soil gravelly yet fertile, and well supplied with clear and rapid streams. The chmate is mild and serene ; there is no marshy ground except at Markatz, which could be easily drained. Altogether Bayas is differently circiunstanced to Alexandretta, and woiild appear to be as healthy, as fertile, and ought to be as w^ealthy, as any spot on the coast of Syria. — W. F. A. G 82 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. out liglit, and often -without sustenance for twenty-four hours. At au- other they would threaten him with immediate death ; and once, in order to shew that their menaces Avere not wholly nugatory, two innocent ■wretches, who had been arrested under similar circumstances with him- self, were impaled before him, for having delayed, as he was informed, to procure the naoney for their ransom. When the news spread abroad that Kutchuk AH had entrapped an European, the mountaineers descended in crowds to see how much humanity the tyrant exhibited ; and Mr. Masseyk used to relate that being one day engaged in writing, a man who had thrust his head through the bars of his prison-window, after contemplating his person and occupation for some time, exclaimed with reproachful indignation, " What, is it possible the wretch is so lost to all sense of shame as to hold an effendi (a clerk) in captivity? " referring evidently to the well-known rights and immunities enjoyed by the learned, as well in this barbarous region as in Europe. This picture indeed resembles more the state of society in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries than that of the nineteenth ; and to those who are unacquainted with Oriental ideas and customs, which have un- dergone so few changes for centuries past, might appear unfaithftil to nature, were it not for what history has related of those dark ages. Although Kutchuk Ali persisted in refusing to admit his prisoner to his presence, he more than once sent to him his lieutenant with consoling messages to assure him of his sympathy. " Tell him," said he, " that un- fortunately my coffers were empty when his fate brought him into this territory ; but let him not despair, God is great and mindful of us. Such vicissitudes of fortune are inseparable from the fate of men of renown, and from the lot of aU born to fill high stations. Bid him be of good cheer; a similar doom has twice been mine, and once during nine mouths in the condemned ceU of Abd'ul Eahman Pasha: but I never despaired of God's mercy, aud aU came right at last,— Alia karim (God is bountiful)." At length, fortunately for this poor man, the arrival at Bayas of a caravan from Smyrna proceeding to Aleppo afforded Kutchuk Ali Uglu an excuse for extorting his ransom from the travelling merchants by obliging them to advance the money on the bond of his prisoner, whom he delivered into their hands as a slave sold to them for 17,500 piastres. This was a debt beyond Mr. Masseyk's means of discharging at once, but he paid it off by instalments, not without the hope that the Dutch Eepublic would come to his assistance. This it did in part, but he never recovered the whole amount. The restriction placed on his person proved, however, beneficial to the consul in one respect, inasmuch AN EFFECTUAL CURE FOB THE GOUT. 83 as he was by means of the rigid prison fare entirely cured of the gout, to which he had been much subjected previous to his incarceration ; and he has frequently remarked to his friends, that Kutchuk Ah had in this respect unwittingly conferred on him an almost priceless favour, and had proved himself a better physician than friend. The Porte at different times sent several pashas with considerable forces against this rebel ; but whether owing to the natural defences that abound in the precipitous mountains, covered with forests into which he retreated, or to the system of compromise already described, the Sultan was never able to subdue him during forty years' existence in open de- fiance of his authority.* Such is the individual whom Mr. John Barker, then British Con- sul at Aleppo, to whom I am mainly indebted for the foregoing facts, had the address to propitiate, in order to facilitate the transmission of despatches from the East India Company, which passed through his hands ; and his influence with the rebel was so great, that he once in- duced him to give up goods to the amount of 6600Z., belonging to British merchants, which he had seized along with other property. * My readers will perhaps be startled on hearing that, in the beginning of the pi-e- sent century, there was so little personal security even in the vicinity of a well-fre- quented harbour like that of Alexandretta, that the crews of two European vessels could have been subjected to such treatment, or that such an afiront as the incarcera- tion of a pubUc officer could have been suffered to pass without redi'ess of any kind having been obtained from the Porte. Let us hope, however, that as time has wrought many changes in Turkey since the establishment of the Nizam, or regidar troops, by Sultan Mahmud, by which some of the chief rebels have been crashed and piracy put down in the Mediterranean, that a new turn to this state of things has been now defi- nitively brought about, and that the light which is dawning even in the benighted East will prevent the recurrence of such scenes. <^.^-=^<^>^^iS;*^Xi>^3--~-^ CHAPTER VIII. DADA BEY, SON OF KUTCHUK ALI UGLU HIS PIRATICAL EXPEDITIONS — EEPEL8 THE ATTACKS OF THE TURKS IS TAKEN BY STRATAGEM — IS BEHEADED AND BURNT HISTORY OF MUSTAFA PASHA KEL-AGA KILLED BY HAJI ALI BEY — DERVISH HA^AHD — STORY RELATED OF HAJI ALI BEY CONQUESTS OF IBRAHIM PASHA MUSTUK BEY PLACED IN POIVER — COMPARISON BETWEEN THE EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH GOVERNMENTS. In 1808 Kutchuk Ali Uglu died, and was succeeded by Ms son Dada Bey. Mr. Masseyk, while in prison, having gained the goodwill of Dada Bey, conceived the hope that he might be induced to make him some reparation for the ill-treatment he had met with at his father's hands ; and he wrote him a letter of condolence on his recent bereave- ment, in which he toolc occasion to remind him of the reprobation he had always expressed of his late parent's cruelty, and in a particular manner of his injustice to himself. Dada Bey received Mr. Masseyk's application with the usual tokens of sympathy and affection, but replied, " My dearest friend, you know very well that were I called upon to make restitution of all the money my late father (God have mercy on his soul !) unjustly acquired during a long life, all the stones of the' mountains of Bayas converted into gold would not suffice." Dada Bey was of large stature, and had an expressive countenance and a fine full black beard: he was about thirty years old when he suc- ceeded to his father. He had not, however, the same tact and cunning,; as he evinced in the circumstance of his being unable to keep out of the grasp of his enemies for more than nine years; and during this period he encouraged his people in all kinds of piracy, and his boats infested the coast, attacking vessels at anchor off Alexandretta, and among others a large ship belonging to Abdalla Bey, son of Abd'ul Eahman, Pasha of Baylan. An individual still living, who formed one of an expedition under- taken to cany off some ships at Kaisanli, the roadstead of Tarsus, related to me the following fact : " We were twenty-two in number, and started one night from Kara- Tash (Black Eock, ancient JMallus and Megarsus,) in a small boat. We found eleven small brigs of the counti-y moored at Kaisanli, loading and ATTACK ON DADA BEY. 8o unloading. We attacked them one by one with as little noise as possi- ble. As they were not armed, and were taken by surprise, we had no difficulty in binding such of the crew as made any resistance ; and having cut the cables, we made use of the lads on board to manceuvre the ves- sels, which we brought safely to Bayas, where they were detained till their proprietors sent large sums to ransom them." Amin Pasha Chiapan Uglu, who governed at Uzgat, received an order from the Porte to send the head of Dada Bey to Constantinople. The Turkman chief of Uzgat sent 2000 irregular troops of those days to accompany an expedition which he ordered to be assembled from among the various Turkman tribes in the district of Tarsus and Adana : Kur- mud-uglu Ali Bey, Kalaga, Bashaga, Tur-uglu, and Takal-uglu, from the territory of the former ; and Osman Bey Jarid (son of Hussain Pasha), Malamangi-uglu, Kara Hajili, Karagiya, and Hamid Bey, father of Haji Ali Bey, from that of the latter. These chiefs collected about twelve or fifteen thousand men, and encamped on the sea-shore near Bayas for many days, without being able to make up their minds what plan to adopt in attacking the lion in his den ; at last they agreed with Abd'ul Eahman Pasha of Baylan, and Chulak-uglu of Mar'ash, to fall upon him on all sides at the same time. Dada Bey, who had more friends than enemies in this motley band, composed of all his neighbours, being informed by his spies of the position of the tent which contained the ammunition of the troops, sent a boat in the night, with two cannons of wood filled with powder and old nails. These were disembarked by some of his men, who having succeeded in placing them near the tent, set fire to the match and retreated to the boat. Only one exploded, and it had no other efi^ect than that of awakening the astounded chiefs, who the next morning gave orders for a general attack. Dada Bey wished for nothing so much as to try the mettle of his men against a multitude of peasants, who he knew were assembled against their inclination to make war on a person whom they considered invincible. He posted Jin Yusuf of Karatash and a few men in the fort, with strict orders not to fire till the enemy arrived so close that every shot might tell, and to wait the signal of a discharge of two cannons from the turret above. He himself, with about 100 picked horsemen, fell on the troops in the rear; while Jin Yusuf, on the first volley, killed forty men ; and the roaring of the cannon from above, the shot of which came over the heads of the dismayed Turkmans, sufficed to inspire all the terror he could desire. In half an hour there was no one to oppose him in the field, from which the soldiers retreated to Adana, and the Turkmans dispersed to their respective homes. Thus it constantly happened be- 86 CILICIA AND ITS 60VBRN0EB. fore the institution of the Nizam, that when any of the Turkman chiefs revolted, the Porte had no effectual means of compelling them to obe- dience, btit was obliged to have recourse to the neighbouring tribes, who were unwilling to excite a lasting feud among their relatives (as they all intermarry), and only made a feint of attacking them. Thus the govern- ment was obliged to conform to their desires by coming to a compromise, ■wherein the outward dignity of the Porte was only consulted, whilst all the interests of these petty rebels were attended to, inasmuch as they were only submissive as long as it suited their purpose. That which could not be effected by open violence was, however, effected by treachery. Mustafa Pasha, son of Abd'ul Rahman, Pasha of Baylan, Dada Bey's neighbour and personal enemy, seized on an ac- cidental opportunity of destroying him. During four years that Mustafa had been pasha at Adana, he had endeavoured, by influence and in- trigues at Constantinople, to obtain from the government an order that the whole of the country as far as Baylan, his native town, should be placed under his orders. Having accomplished this object, the first thing he did was to summon Dada Bey to submit to his authority, which of course the latter refused to do. Whereupon Mustafa Pasha sent his brother Ismail Bey, with four or five thousand men, to Bayas. Dada Bey, happening to pass alone at this time through a village close by, was betrayed by an old woman into the hands of a Baylanli named Tal-uglu, who chanced to be there. This man, with the assistance of a few others, succeeded in taking Dada Bey by surprise, when they bounds? him and took him prisoner to Adana. The people of the country Lad; such an instinctive dread of Dada Bey, that it is reported that even the pasha refused to see him till he had been heavily chained. Dada Bey retorted upon his exulting enemy in terms of indignation all the insultsii he had received, and expressed infinite contempt for " a wretch who could so abuse the power which chance had given him over a fallen ■ lion.'" His head was nevertheless cut off and sent to Constantinople, and liis body was burnt in the court-yard under the windows of the palace," and the ashes scattered to the winds. Such was the insatiable feud that existed between these families I Mustafa Pasha had in earlier years killed his brother MuUa Bey, in order to become master of Baylan ; but another brother, Abdullah Bey, raised the populace against him and drove him away. He pro- ceeded to Constantinople, where he obtained the pashalik of Adana, which he held seven years; he was then sent. to Erzerum, and after- wards to Aleppo, where he remained two years. From this place he went to Acre, to attack Abdullah Pasha of that place; and he acted as MTJSTUK BEY. 87 lieutenant to Durwish or Dervish Pasha, commander-in-chief of the troops. He then returned to Aleppo for another year and a half, and was thence removed to the governorship of Damascus; and when at that place, he laid Jerusalem under heavy contributions. He was after- wards transferred to Bosna and Kurk-Elisa, and subsequently he ob- tained the command of some troops, with whom he treacherously at- tacked the Russians in time of a truce or peace. On the Russian mission representing this perfidy to the Porte, he was, in outward appearance, disgraced and sent to Brusa, where he was lately living, as a private individual, in the enjoyment of his ill-acquired wealth, the reward of his crimes and cruelties. Few such adventurers, however, meet with stich good fortune. They rarely escape the intrigues entered into against them, and generally return to the same state of obscurity as that from which they emerged, unless possessed of extraordinary ability, or of means to bribe their way to other employments as lucrative, by large sums which they have had time to amass during their stewardship. When well supported, they frequently secure the pecuniary assistance of their Armenian bankers (sarraffs), which they repay with an interest of 50 per cent. People may have read in the newspapers published at Constantinople of such an effendi, to whom every virtue is attributed, having been pro- moted for his patrintic conduct to a post of distinction, and might have been led to imagine these men to be something above the common order of Tiu'ks ; whereas those who, like myself, have had opportunities of knowing the truth, are aware that they were generally chosen from among the servants of older pashas. On the death of Dada Bey, a.d. 1817, his brother Mustuk Bey, then twelve years old, took refuge in Maraash with Kalandar Pasha, and with whom he remained for some years, till after the departure of Mustafa Pasha; and during his minority often years, his uncle Zaitun- uglu governed for him. On his retui'n to Bayas in 1827, Mustuk Bey was attacked by Haji Ali Bey ;* at the same time that a certain Kel-Aga, chief of the Turk- man tribe of Kiigiuli, whose residence was in the mountains to the * This man had constituted himself master of Adana and independent of the Porte's authority^ and he had driven Muhammad Pasha (who had bought, the post of governor of this province, and was on his way to take possession of his goi^rnment) back from Kulak Bughaz. Muhammad Pasha was by this flagrant act of rebellion reduced to the necessity of returning to the capital, where he complained of his having been sent to occupy a post, which had cost him a large sum, of which he could not take quiet possession ; and the pashalik of Erzerum was assigned to him to compensate him for his loss. After the usual delays in nominations of this kind, he was installed governor of that district. OO CILICIA AND ITS GOVBENORS. north-westward of Taurus, and who had become absolute master of this last-mentioned town, thinking this a favourable moment to take Adana, had proceeded against that town with a large body of followers. Haji All Bey, hearing of this movement, made peace immediately with the young Mtistuk Bey, and by a forced retrograde march reached Adana; and coming suddenly upon the encampment of Kel-Aga at night, and in the outskirts of the town, he surprised the chief, who was found dead drunk, and had his head cut off on the spot. The father and grandfather of Kel-Aga both lost their heads in rebellion, the one by means of the bands of Tur-uglu, and the other by Sadik Aga; and Durwish Ahmed, son of Kel-Aga, is not an un- worthy descendant of such ancestors. As a young man, Ahmed held the government of all the villages to the westward of Tarsus, in which Mursina and Kaisanh are included. Being related to most of the in- fluential famiUes of the country, he did what he pleased with impunity, abandoning himself to all and every imaginable excess. A dczen horsemen accompanied him wherever he went, and were made the ministers of his pleasures and vices by dragging instantly to his pre- sence any woman or child he might call for in his drunken fits. The inhabitants of the villages in his district were obliged to submit to his heavy impositions, and to furnish the sum requisite to complete the taxes due from nearly a thousand persons whom he exempted from all contributions, because he shared with them the produce of their lands. This system of " protection," as it is termed, used to be very general in the Ottoman dominions; the ayans or nobles of all the large cities appropriating to themselves a large tract of country by sharing the produce with the proprietors, who give up a third or fourth of their income for the advantage of being exempted from paying the dues to government. This exemption the nobles were enabled to afford them, being members of the council of the city, to whom all political affairs were referred in conjunction with the pasha. The pasha himself was generally, if not invariably, won over to their party, for without their participation he could not hope to carry on public business. Thus they contrived to protect each other's interests, and the whole weight of taxa- tion fell on the poorer classes and those who had not the advantage of an "ayan's support.'' This system resembled in some respect the feudal, and took its oli^in when the country was ruled by rebel chiefs, whose partisans were ffespected by their independent colleagues in return for the same courtesy mutually shewn to one another. Intrigue and the love of power perpetuated this state of things after the cause which had given rise to it had vanished, and it was carried CAPTUHE OF HAJI ALI BEY. 89 on in miniature in all the villages, eact elder having his protected. Durwish Ahmed had led this dissipated hfe for some time after his father's death, vrhen his cousin, Mustafa Aga, was induced to bribe the governor of Tarsus with 15,000 piastres to appoint him instead of Ahmed; and he was accordingly summoned to Tarsus, where he agreed to appear at the governor's house, on the guarantee of his father-in-law and chief of the Zaims (Turkish irregular troops). On this occasion, an account of the revenue that had passed through his hands was demanded of him, and he was brought in a debtor to the government of 95,000 piastres. Ahmed evaded paying any portion of this by privately bribing the governor with a sum for hi?nself of 30,000 pi- astres; and he might, probably, have been re-established in his post, had not the governor been shortly afterwards recalled. But to return to Haji Ah Bey. A year after the death of Kel-Aga, (a.d. 1828,) Hussain Pasha, general-in-chief of the army sent into Syria against Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, arrived in Cilicia at the head of his troops. Haji Ali Bey, unable to resist so overwhelming a force, was compelled to dissimulate; and therefore, putting on the semblance of perfect submission, he went as far as Kulak Bughaz to meet the com- mander-in-chief, and busied himself in procuring means of transport for the army, at the same time furnishing the troops with provisions of all kinds. Plussain Pasha, acting under the orders, doubtless, of the Porte, .was glad of an opportunity of destroying a Darah Bey who had become so formidable and independent as to have refused to receive a pasha seat by the Sultan to his district, and who might cause some uneasiness by tampering with the Egyptians. He accordingly resolved to manage matters so as to induce him to go to Constantinople; and in order to lull his suspicions, treated the Turkman chief with marked distinction until the army had passed the formidable pass of the Cilician gates, when the pasha having no further need of his services, he exhibited a firman he pretended to have just received, but which he had had long by him, wherein Haji Ali Bey was ordered to proceed to Constantinople, and promised that there he should be preferred to great honours for his late services. The Turkman chief fell into the snare, and on his arrival at Constantinople he was put under arrest, and soon afterwards dis- appeared, in the same way as many others have done before him. As the head of Haji Ali Bey was exacted from his keeper, that of some other man, who may have died about that time, was procured; and the escape of the Haji having at the same time been connived at, he found his way from a Turkish bath, disguised in a Frank dress, on board a vessel then setting sail for Italy. The bribes requisite for this 90 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNORS. manoeuvre had completely stripped him of every thing of any value, and he was maintained by the government of the Pope, as a convert to the Catholic religion, under the name of Signer Giovanni, on an allowance of a dollar a day. His family, hearing of his escape, sent an old Christian servant who had brought him up to see and identify him, and if possible to persuade him to return. The man came back with assurances that Haji Ali Bey was really alive, and passing under the assumed character of a Christian in Europe ; but that he refused to return to his country until his great' enemy old Khusru Pasha should be no more. It was further reported that Haji Ali Bey, during the long period of his exile, had once visited the province in European costume, and that a Turk who saw him at the French consulate in Tarsus was observed to say, " That Frank, sir, is so like Haji Ali Bey, that were it not for his being in this dress, and his ignorance of Turkish, I should have no doubt it was he, in spite of his being reported dead." When the army of the sultan was routed by Ibrahim Pasha in 1832, MustukBey did not fail to conciliate the favour of the conqueror by pillag- ing the vanquished, and he was confirmed in his government of Bayas, which he kept for several years ; but he could not bear the restraint of the regular and strict discipline of the Egyptian soldier, and he retired to the territory of Marash. Ibrahim Pasha, however, finding it difficult to maintain order among the turbulent factions of the Turkmans, who were continually in revolt and committing all kinds of disorders, and his time being too much taken up with more important matters to admit of par- ticular attention to the mountain of Bayas (over which he was obliged, however, to lead his forces twice in person, to reduce the turbulent mountaineers both of Amanus and Taurus to obedience), he thought it expedient to invite Mustuk Bey to return, and resume the direction of the thirty Darahs of whom he is the chief, and over whom he has much influence. When the Egyptian army evacuated Cilicia, Mustuk Bey did aU he could to restrain his people from plunder until the troops had passed the strait of Bayas, in order that the army might not be provoked in its passage to lay waste a country which he felt was more particularly returning under his own immediate control ; but as soon as the army had passed his own domain he fell on its rear, robbing all the loiterers and runaways. It is but justice to Ibrahim Pasha to say here, that the affairs of the province of Cilicia were ably and efficiently administered in his time by Selim Pasha and Hamid Minikli. These worthy individuals GOVERNMENT OF IBRAHIM PASHA. 91 did an immense deal of good in being the first to introduce the adminis- tration of justice into the province; and they are still much regretted, although the people suffered considerably in their time from military conscriptions. Ibrahim Pasha is said to have maintained at one time as many as 20,000 men in this province out of its own revenues, and yet to have saved money. He re- opened the long-closed mines in the Taurus ; he exported to Egypt vast quantities of timber from Mounts Ehosus, Ama- nus and Taurus ; he introduced the sugar-cane, and favotired agricul- tural pursuits; and he founded in the gates of Cilicia, at Kvdek Boghaz, a line of defences which were constructed with great engineering skiU, but which were blown up by the army previous to their retreat. SACOAL TUTAN. A ruin at a place near Alexandretta, known by sailors as " Jonas's Pillars," and supposed to be the gates mentioned by Xenophon, and called by him the gates of Syria and Cilicia ; they are on the battle-field of Issus, and from the top of these Alexander may be supposed to have witnessed the retreat of Darius's army before his brave troops. OHAPTEE IX. MUHAMMAD IZZET PASHA A PEETENDEE TO THE TUEKISH THEONE HIS STEANGE HISTOET AND EAEE ACCOMPLISmiENTS DISAPPEAES AT KUNIYAH AHIIED IZZET PASHA — GRANTS PEEMISSION TO MUSTUK BEY TO MUEDEE HIS NE- PHEW SDLAIMAN PASHA DUEWISH AHMED'S EXPEDITION AGAINST MUS- TUK BEY HIS CHIEF OFFICEES TAKEN AND STRIPPED BAYAS CAPTURED AND SACKED. I NOW proceed to the history of the last five pashas who have succes- sively governed the province of Cilicia since the evacuation of the Egyptians in 1840, and to narrate the various facts of note that have taken place since that epoch. Muhammad Izzet was the first appointed by the Porte to preside over this province. He is one of the employes of the Porte that I have known who most deserves well of his country. This worthy man fiUed his post with dignity and honour, and combined much of the munificence of the "old school" with the simplicity of the new. This good man fell into diso-race without meriting it, and remained some time neglected, until he obtained, throtigfa the grealest pecumary sacrifices, the post of governor at Uzgat, where he died. He was so mtich beloved, that on his leaving Adana the people actually wept at tlie loss they were about to sustain; and this is a fact for which I can vouch as an eye-witnfess. But per- haps, although I would not detract from his merit, this mildness of temper was owing in a great measure to the times he lived in as governor of Cilicia ; becaiise as he was the first appointed after the evacuation of the Egyptians, he would no doubt have had particular instructions to be extremely lenient. It was during the administration of Muhammad Izzet Pasha that an event occurred in Cilicia which I must pause to relate, for the facts are as extraordinary as they are inexplicable. In February 1843, an individual calling himself Nadir Bey, accom- panied by an amiable young Englishman of good family and education, whose parents live in London, arrived at Tarsus. The former (Nadir Bey) appeared to be little past thirty, of a very prepossessing cast of NADIR BEY AND HIS PRETENSIONS. 93 countenance and engaging manners, highly accomplished, and acquainted with fourteen languages, which he appeared to know as well as a native of the countries whose language he spoke. He had been in the service of Ibrahim Pasha, under the assumed name of Murali Mahandas (Grecian engineer), and was well known to the inhabitants of Tarsus and Adana. Indeed, he seemed to know every- body all over the Levant. It was remarked that on his former visit to Tarsus, while in the Egyptian service, he used to gamble a good deal, and often lost of an evening all he had about him, frequently large sums, upwards of 20,000 piastres (2001.) ; and the next day his purse would be replenished as usual. He had, however, maintained his incognito ge- nerally, and only confided to a few of his private friends his real history, which was that " being the son of Sultan Mustafa, and the elder brother of Mahmud, he was the rightful heir to the throne." His knowledge of English was perfect, and he sang Italian music like a vocalist of that country ; and I have since been informed by his companion that he had at Palermo a palace filled with a large collection of first-rate paintings of the old masters, chosen by himself, and " a live portrait" of a young and beautiful Circassian whom he looked upon as his wife. He had passed in all the courts of Europe under an assumed Italian name. Count Eicchi of Corfu, and was much respected and beloved by all who knew him. Indeed, his companion has since assured me, that one day having called unexpectedly on the brother of the King of Naples, who was at dinner, that prince rose from table to receive him with more e?npresse- ment than even the greatest courtesy could exact or court etiquette allow. As I cannot doubt the veracity of my friend the young Englishman, who has since informed me that he believed Nadir Bey was allowed 5000Z. a year by the Emperor of Morocco, I am at a loss how to proceed in my history, as I have to state that these two gentlemen arrived in Tarsus without any pecuniary means whatever, and on the wildest of all imagi- nary schemes ! Nadir Bey applied to a friend in Tarsus for a small sum in order to obtain a suit of Turkish clothes, as he was dressed in the European costume. Having obtained what he desired, he departed for Adana the third day of his arrival, leaving his friend in Tarsus ; and the latter has repeatedly declared that he was only his travelling companion, and had no idea of the rash step Nadir Bey was about to take, or he cer- tainly would not have allowed him to go, as he was very much attached to him. Nadir Bey had two private interviews with the former governor of the city, who had been MutsiUim, or town-governor, in the time of 94 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Ibrahim Pasha, and who it seems knew him well. They agreed to go to the Mufti's ; and the next day, on presenting themselves there, whilst smoking the first pipe, and before they could enter on the subject of Nadir Bey's views, the Tufankji Bashi, or chief officer of poHce, sum- moned them to appear before the pasha in council, where they found all the ayans (nobles) assembled. When Nadir Bey entered, he proceeded to take his seat next to the pasha, and began a discourse in Turkish, saying that he felt it a duty he owed his country to take the present step, inasmuch as his heart bled to see it suffering under the present tyranny, and that if they would rise and declare him sultan, he would make them aU his ministers; " for," said he, " you must know that I am the rightful heir to the throne, being the son of Mustafa V., the elder brother of the late Sultan Mahmud. On the murder of my father, my mother escaped on board a Russian vessel, and I was born a few months after her escape to her family in Georgia.'' He had subsequently been sent to Russia, where he was educated. To support his claims, he shewed them a letter addressed to him by Jluhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt, wherein he is styled " Effendim Sultanim," and recognised as the lawful heir to the throne.* The pasha observed that his proposed enterprise could only be undertaken with a large body of men^ and much money would be requisite. To this he replied, that if they would only promise to rise, he would engage that early in the spring there should arrive 25,000 men on the coast, and that pecuniary means should not be wanting. The Nakib then observed, " Our pashalik is small, and we think you had better go to Kuniyah and have a conference with the pasha of that place, whose district is much more extensive. Yes," said the pasha, "that is the best place; so you had better retire to the coffee-room" (where the principal attendants of the pasha remain in waiting, and which often serves for a more honourable confinement to a person of distinction than a pu'olic prison), " until two Tufankjis (military police) can be got ready to accompany you." * I cannot suppose this letter authentiCj because I must also note that he had last come from Egypt, which country he and his companion had been obliged to leave so suddenly on board an Egyptian frigate bound for Tarsus, that the latter had not time to apprise his fiiends of his destination, and he had to wait some time before he could hear from them and receive remittances. The officers of this Egyptian man-of-wai' have often asked me very anxiously concerning him, and .acknowledged that he had confided his secret to them during the passage. They appeared to idoHse his memory, for he contrived to engage the affections of every one wherever he went ; but I cannot help thinking that his sudden departure from Alexandria was in consequence of Mu- hammad Ah's determination not to be compromised personally, though he allowed him to try his luck, or rather risk his life, in attempting to raise the people elsewhere. ARREST OP NADIR BEY. 95 Nadir Bey remained twenty-four hours under tMs arrest, weeping, and vouching for the truth of yrhai he advanced, and saying that now his life would be the forfeit of his patriotism. " Yes,'' he ex- claimed, " I am a sacrifice for my poor people ; stiU my rights shall be recognised." He then would cheer up with the delightful prospect with which his madness deceived him, that he would obtain justice eventually, and then again he would relapse into despair. Mounted on a bad horse, he set off the 4th of March, 1843, under the escort of two ai-med men, to Kuniyah. Before leaving the town, he called at the house of a French resident at Adana, and without being allowed to dismount, asked him for a little money and a cloak to screen him from the inclemencies of the season. Having obtained the latter, he then begged him earnestly to send a portfolio he had taken the pre- caution to confide to his care previous to his entering on this mad enter- prise, to the English consul at Tarsus, with a request that he should take notice of the papers contained therein, and immediately inform the British embassy of his position, " that, if necessary, the ambassador may intercede to save his life, as he had already done once before.'' This is in allusion to a statement which is also current, that Nadir Bey had been a great favourite with Sultan Mahmud, who entrusted him with the government of a province in Europe, where he tried to excite a conspiracy, and being brought to Constantinople would have lost his life but for the humane intercession of his excellency. I have seen the contents of this portfolio, wherein there is no paper of any consequence except a -very urgent one from the Emperor of Morocco to the late Sultan Mahmud, recommending Nadir Bey very strongly to his kindness, as " his nephew and own flesh and blood." This letter I have perused with great attention, and have no doubt of its authenticity ; but I have not heard how or by what means of per- suasion it was obtained. Here I should mention, that when Nadir Bey was seized by the pasha, the British consular agent at Adana thought it his duty to claim him as a person furnished with a passport, and consequently under his jurisdiction ; but the pasha smiled and said, " No, no, we know this man well ; his name is Ahmed, and we have all along been on the look-out for him." Nadir Bey reached Kuniyah in safety, and a European, who had been apprised by letter of his coming, immediately went to the palace of the governor to inquire after him. He was informed that such an individual had arrived, and had prosecuted his journey to Con- stantinople. The people of the country, who all took interest in his fate, said 96 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. that at Kuniyah he had been recognised by the Mullah Khunkar, or chief of the dervishes, on whom devolves the duty of buckling on the sword of every newly-elected sultan, and that he was presented with a good mule, and furnished with money and servants to proceed to the capital as became his rank. Be this as it may, nothing more has evM' been heard of this mysterious young man. Two or three months after this event, the British vice-consul at Samsun, who had been informed of what had occurred in Cilicia, taking a ride, saw a horseman who answered the description given of Nadir Bey. He was in Egyptian clothes,* and was whistling as he rode before him into town an Italian air with the greatest correctness. The resemblance of this man to what he had heard of Nadir Bey did not at the time strike Mr. C ; but he had scarcely reached his home before the thought occurred to his mind that this might be the same individual, and he immediately sent people to all the public khans and coffee-houses, and to every place where he could suppose it possible he could go, to find him out; but although the town is small (not containing 6000 inhabitants), he was not able to discover any person agreeing to the description he gave of the individual he had met that afternoon ! This is all I have been able to ascertain and collect regarding this extraordinary character, who has interested me exceedingly, and the more so as I found that he was universally beloved and esteemed by all who have known him per- sonally. I regret that I did not see him (being at the time confined to ■my room by fever), to be enabled to give a more particular description of his person. There appeared, some days later, an article in one of the Constantinople papers saying that an impostor had been seized in Tarsus who pretended to the throne, and that he had been sent to Constan- tinople, where he was daily expected; but his arrival there was never announced. But the circumstance of his appearing in Cilicia as a claimant to the throne of Constantinople alone and without fnnds, to create a revolt in a country where he was well aware the natural feelings of patriotism are unknown, and where the inhabitants are driven like sheep by the strongest or by those who pay them, at the best, can only be reconciled to common sense by supposing that he must have lost his senses be- fore entering on his project : for what reasonable hope could there be of exciting a sympathy or enthusiasm in a population reduced by poverty to the last stage of indifference, and that too in the character of a man who had passed the greater part of his hfe among infidels, the * Like those purchased by Nadir Bey at Tarsus, previous to proceeding to Adana on his inexplicable undertaking. QUARRELS AND INTRI&TJES OF TURKISH OFFICIALS. 97 enemies of their religion and nation, Hmself tainted by the odium of having been allied to the hated Jawurs, and hence unfitted for the sacred office of defender of the faithful, — a prejudice impossible to eradicate from the minds of those who aspire to be strict Mussulmans, and who form by far the great majority of the population?- Politically speaking, the attempt was madness ; and we are lost in a maze- of conjecture when we reflect on the infatuation of this individual, who was well acquainted with the country and people, and who in aU other respects excited the astonishment while he captivated the hearts of all who' knew him.* The second pasha who was appointed (12th May, 1843) to govern Cilioia after the evacuation of the Egyptians, was Ahmed Izzet Pasha,']" son-in-law of old Ali Pasha of Bagdad. Ahmed was jealous of the influence which the Muhassil (financial agent of the Porte) AbduUah Rushdi exercised, and by which he could appropriate to himself all the emoluments arising from bribes. He therefore pers-uaded Mustuk Bey to quarrel with the Muhassil, in order to frighten him out of his post. The pasha hoped thus to get a more complaisant- Muhassil, who would allow him to take into his own hands the advantage' of directing through him the financial government of the Porte in the country. Mustuk Bey accordingly seized the earliest opportunity of quarrelling with the Muhassil, and which presented itself as they were seated during Ramadan at the door of a large caravansarai, enjoying the coolest place they could find in that sultry town. Mustuk Bey began by threatening to take away the Muhassil's hfe, and made a shew of drawing his pistols for that purpose. But the Muhassil, so far from being intimidated, wrote to Constantinople, and had, it appears, sufficient influence to get the pasha dismissed. In the meanwhile, however, before an answer could come from Con- stantinople, and it could be known which influence would ultimately prevail, Mustuk Bey had nothing to fear from the resentment of the Muhassil; but as family matters called him to Bayas, he took his leave of the pasha at Adana and returned home, whilst the latter set ofi^ in a contrary direction for Tarsus, " to make hay while the sun shone," that * I must also add, for the satisfaction of the reader, that his friend and companion, before leaving Tarsus, did not fail to pay whatever debts Nadir Bey had incurred during his passage through Tarsus. See Appendix. t The Porte had been for some time uneasy about old AU Pasha of Bagdad, not knowing whether he would submit or throw off his allegiance. This man undertook to persuade Ali to be faithful to the Sultan, and proceeded to Bagdad, where he ingra- tiated himself so completely in the old man's good graces that he gave him his daughter in marriage, and, as a proof of his obedience to the Porte, agreed to give up his post and accept the pashalik of Damascus,, in order to spare the bloodshed of the faithful' consequent on civil war amongst Muhammadans. H yo CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. is, to profit by Hs position and make a tour among the Turkman tribes, from eacli of wliom it was customary that every new pasha should receive one or more horses, valued at from lOZ. to 201. sterling, the number of which in this province generally amounted to a hundred given to each pasha. These horses were afterwards taken away to be sold, in the interior or at Constantinople, by the pasha when he was recalled, and thus the coun- try was drained of all its best steeds. The money to purchase these horses was raised by contribution from the inhabitants of the district the pasha visited, and they were charged by their chiefs at twice their value!* Ahmed Izzet Pasha had just arrived at Tarsus, when he was aston- ished to see Mustuk Bey make his appearance there, at a time when he thought him at Bayas. I happened accidentally to be present at their imeeting, and witnessed the .embarrassment of the pasha, who was per- suaded that something very serious could alone have brought him thus suddenly to Tarsus. He was soon, however, relieved from his anxiety to know the cause of this sudden visit, by Mustuk Bey's informing him privately, that he was come to obtain his sanction to make away ■with his own relation, who had conspired against him during his absence from Bayas, whilst paying his court to the pasha at Adana. Mustuk Bey ob- tained the permission he had come to solicit and returned home, where, the better to cloak his design, he soon after made peace with his nephew Hassan Aga Zaitun Uglu, the very individual against whom his father had warned his children, and whose father, as has already been stated, Kutchuk All Uglu had murdered. Mustuk Bey accepted from his nephew a dinner of reconciliation, and went with his followers to visit him. Soon after dinner Mustuk rose to depart, and ordered his nephew's followers to escort him, leaving his own to finish their meal ; and when the master of the house, who is required by the etiquette of the East to be the last to rise from the table, had just got up, and was in the act of washing his hands, his cousin Osman Aga shot him with a pis- tol, and the rest despatched him with their swords, after which they mounted their horses to follow their master. The dying man is said to have exclaimed, "Is such treachery possible?" referring to the maxim common to aU nations, that there should be " honour among thieves." Mustuk Bey resembled his father ; his face was large and flat, with rather a scanty beard, becoming grey. He also spoke through his nose * When a new pasia arrwed, all tie local officers employed by his predecessor were expected to make him a present of greater or less value, according to the importance of their office, in order to be continued in their posts, which was generally done till the pasha had had time to look about him, when he took occasion to turn them out, and place in some of his dependents. GOVERNMENT OF STJLAIMAN PASHA. 99 like his father. His conversation was pleasing, his manners very polished, and he treated all travellers who visited him, particularly the English, very kindly, and with much respect. He occupied a little palace above Bayas, which his predecessor Rustam Bey, the governor appointed by Ibra- him Pasha, had embellished after the Turkish fashion.* His great gene- rosity reduced him to be often in want of the necessaries of life ; and the debts he contracted towards the government by reason of his munificence afforded an opportunity to his enemies wherewith to work his ruin. The moment Ahmed Izzet Pasha had lost his post through the superior influence of the Muhassil Eushdi Effendi's friends and sup- porters at Constantinople, the latter availed himself of his power to bring Mustuk Bey into disgrace. Sulaiman Pasha, who succeeded Ahmed Izzet Pasha in the month of November 1843, was, under the advice of the Muhassil, induced to sum- mon Mustuk Bey to appear in Adana. He replied, that he was ready to obey as soon as the Muhassil should be recalled, or else to enter the city with a suite of 500 horsemen; whereupon the Muhassil took secret mea- sures to induce the Porte to believe that Mustuk Bey refused to pay the tribute he owed to the government, the greatest of all crimes in the estimation of the ministry. In order further to excite the government against his enemy, the Muhassil gave private orders to the Tartar bearer of letters from Da- mascus to Constantinople not to pass through Bayas, but to take a boat and go across the (rulf of Alexandretta to Kara-Tash. The post having thus been delayed in its progress, the Muhassil had a pretext for accus- ing Mustuk Bey of interrupting public communication, although caravans and passengers were never in the least molested, and although that very week two Hajjis arrived from Syria, after having been treated on their way by Mustuk Bey with his usual hospitality. The Porte, giving ear to these insinuations, issued an order to attack Mustuk Bey. Two conscripts, one on foot, the other on horseback, were exacted from every village; and such, of course, were sent as could best be spared from agricultural labours. These were therefore boorish shepherds, many of whom had never used any other arms than those given them by nature, unless it were a club or stone against the wolves that attacked their sheep, and were equally imacquainted with riding. Each man was also famished by the village to which he be- * He was in great favour with the first two pashas after the evacuation of the Egyptians, and was honoured with a Nishan Iftichar, and the title of Kapitohi Bashi, by the Sultan, — an honorary grade given to governors of towns and chiefs of Turkman tribes who render themselves useful to the Porte. 100 CILICIA AND ITS GOTERNORS. •lotfged witli a hundred piastres for his expenses during the campaign, a pound of powder, and four leaden bullets. In this manner five or six thousand men were collected outside the gates of Adana, where biscuit and barley were the only things provided by the government for the use of their levies. On the other hand, 1800 cartridges were discovered in the comer of some magazine, and were broken open in order to distribute the powder therein contained to the Turkmans by the handful. No chief would at first condescend to lead such a rabble; and this honour was finally reserved for Durwish Ahmed, son of Kil-Aga, who was the only man who had the courage to march against the redoubtable Mustuk Bey. For more than a month the conscripts were stiU assembling, and the encampment had been transferred to Kurt-Kulak, twelve hours' ride from Adana. In the meanwhile the caravan of Mecca was approaching ; and the Tufankji Bashi and Oda Bashi, or chamberlain, resolved to advance with about sixty followers, with the impudent boast of their doing so in order to protect the caravan. Mustuk Bey received their vahant on- slaught with a handful of his followers, took them all prisoners, and ignominiously stripped them of their clothes, sending them back with a message to the effect that he would not make them pay with their lives the insult they had offered him, and that the only thing he would retain would be their horses, in part payment for a herd of cattle which the enemy had a few days previously carried off. These fellows, ashamed and disgusted, returned to Adana. The caravan passed with all due hon- ours, and the chief undertook to intercede at Constantinople for Mustuk Bey, and to explain the exact state of things. Mustuk accordingly, satisfied with the hopes which the promises of the Suramini had inspired, and unwilling to be the cause of the effusion of " Muliammadan blood," as also not to implicate himself stOl further, retired to his mountains, although he coidd, as the people expressed it, " have eaten them up all at once." As soon as Durwish Ahmed heard of Mustuk's retreat, he fell on Bayas, and pillaged and burnt every thing that came in his way, even to the wood for building belonging to merchants of Adana that happened to be on the sea-shore ready for embarkation. Neither the sex nor the rank of one of Mustuk Bey's harim, who remained behind, saved her from being stripped and ill-treated — an act unprecedented in the annals of the East, as women are always respected by the most barbarous. Mus- tuk Bey went to Mar'ash and afterwards to Aleppo, where he was hospi- tably received by the pasha, who took him with him to Beyrut, and thence to Constantinople. CHAPTER X. ANECDOTES OF SDLAIMAN PASHA — aiN-JUSIF, EEBEL OF KAEA-TASH AEIF PASHA MURDER OF A PASHA HASAN PASHA ANECDOTES OF THE COUNCIL CHRISTIAN MEMBERS OF COUNCIL EMPLOYES OF THE POETE TOLL AT KULAK BUGHAZ HATI SHERIFF COURTS OF JUSTICE. During this period, as I have already stated, Sulaiman Pasha governed Adana. This old man was of all pashas the most stupid, except in matters relating to money, the sound of which alone could awaken his attention. During his government, an oke of sugar as a bribe would not be refused by him or his officers when nothing more valuable could be had. On his arrival to take the reins of government, this pasha told me that he had been named for his peaceable disposition, in opposition to that of his predecessor ; and in this the Porte really shewed great discri- mination. He was rich, although he maintained a whole troop of women servants, together with a wife. On the landing of the latter at Mursina, the wife of the doctor of quarantine called to pay her respects. To excuse her very ordinary apparel, and the tattered garments of her children, she said, " Pray do not look at these clothes ; I have some with four fingers' width of gold lace on them." But this was not likely, as, contrary to our customs, the people of the East always travel in their finest and newest apparel. When Sulaiman Pasha first arrived at Mursina from Constantinople, he was also met on the sea- shore by the director of the quarantine, who caused a sheep to be slaughtered in honour of his disembarkation, lodged his excellency with all his suite for the night, giving up to him his own apartment, and standing before him all the while to serve him, &c. The next day he accompanied him to Tarsus, to swell the number of his cortege. After remaining twenty-four hours in attendance, as the pasha was to proceed to Adana, he came forward to take his leave ; and kneel- ing down, kissed the hem of his garment, requesting permission to return. Will it be believed, that the pasha actually asked him who he was ? 102 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. The power of the Porte was mucli shaken in Kara-Tash about this time. Yusnf, son of the man whom we have seen defending the castle of Bayas under Dada Bey, had killed his brother and usurped his post. This man was a peasant of the Ansairi tribe, but he had no particular religious belief. His domestic estabhshment was composed of seven women, among whom were the sister and mother of his wife ! He col- lected all the rogues he could, by screening them from the pursuit of justice ; and Kara-Tash was fast passing from under the jurisdiction of the pasha, when Jin Yusuf was enticed to Adana and put into prison. But as the government thought he might one day be required for the purpose of setting him against his other brother Mustafa, his life was spared. Tired of such restraint, Jin Yusuf sent one of his followers to shoot Mustafa, knovring that he would then be necessary to govern- ment at Kara-Tash. It turned out as he expected: Mustafa died of the wound he received from a bullet, and the pasha being about to quit Adana in disgrace, was glad to take 10,000 piastres (equal to about 901.), which Jin Yusuf paid him for his release, and which sum he soon after recovered, levying it by contributions on the villagers in his district of Kara-Tash ; and Jin Yusuf is at this moment the right-hand man of one of the ayans of Adana, and the pasha, in a letter to me, styles him kiz-agasi, a title equivalent to lord-lieutenant of a county. Old Sulaiman Pasha having been a sufficient time at his post to make up more than the sum he had defrayed to obtain it, he was re- called A.D. 1844, and Arif Pasha was named to succeed him ; but the pride of this man soon led to his downfall. Kuzan Uglu, chief of the Turkman tribes that dwell near Sis, and a friend of Mustuk Bey, had been summoned to Adana; but he refused to appear, suspecting Abdullah al Eushdi, the muhassil, of treachery. On the guarantee of the Armenian patriarch, he ultimately consented to answer the summons ; but on his arrival he was treacherously put under arrest. The mountaineers hearing of this breach of faith, prepared to attack the city, and would certainly have pillaged it, had not the pasha invested Kuzan Uglu with a pelisse of honour, and sent him back to quell the insurrection. The Turkman tribe of Kuzan Uglu has al- ways been, to a certain extent, independent alike of Ibrahim Pasha and of the Porte. Shortly after this, a pasha of Mar'ash (a young man whose name I have forgotten) was killed by some of the Aushir tribes, neighbours of Kuzan Uglu ; for having gone among them to levy tribute, and with a dozen of his followers he fell a victim to his imprudence. Arif Pasha, in consequence, made some demonstration of his intention to invade THOnOUGH CHANGE OP GOTERNMENT. 103 the Kuzan Tagh, which constitutes a portion of the Taurus mountains ; but the demonstration came to nothing. The unsettled state of the country was indeed at its height during AriTs government. He actually refused to convict a thief without com- petent witnesses, although some of the stolen property was found upon him, because this individual had powerful friends, and bribed the cadi with 500 piastres. Abdulla Eushdi at last fell into disgrace ; but he contrived to leave Adana with upwards of a hundred horses and forty-two panther-skins, together with several thousand purses (of qI. each) wherewith to in- trigue for new honours. He was succeeded by another intriguer, who had united with the chiefs of the country to get Arif Pasha dismissed. In 1846 the Porte, having been repeatedly petitioned by these peo- ple, and worn out by their importunities, as well as tired of their com- plaints, determined to make a complete change in the officers of the' pashalik of Adana; and Hassan Pasha was deputed, with a suite of fresh- imported employes, to fill up the various vacancies. This fat illiterate man was one of the Janissaries of old, who had, in the time of the reformation of Sultan Mahmud, willingly submitted to the new disciphne called Nizam, and was consequently spared the fate' of his companions in arms. His stupid, coarse manners corresponded with his appearance.* Mustuk Bey, who had been to Constantinople with his patron Waji Pasha, availed himself of the change of ministry at Adana to return ^ and he accompanied Hassan Pasha in the Turkish steamer. On their arrival I took occasion to recommend Mustuk Bey to him, on the ground of his being the only man who could keep the Turkmans in order ; for the roads had been infested vrith robbers during his absence, which was never the case when he was at the head of his tribe. Hassan Pasha contemptuously answered, " that neither Mustuk Bey nor any one else, not even himself, could presume to consider that he was indispensable to the Daulat il Aliyah (Sublime Porte), whose breath * An Arabic story is told of a governor, who surpassed his father and grandfather In tyi'anny, going out in disguise one day to hear what people said of him. He was surprised to find that an old woman alone, out of all his subjects, prayed God to prolong his life, — " AUa yitawall amru." He accosted her, and entering into familiar conversation, desired to be told why she prayed for the prosperity of a tyrant hated by every body. She informed him that " the grandfather of Eifendina was tyrannical his father still more so, and Effendina was worse than both ; should God Almighty, therefore, in his vengeance deprive us of him, he could at this rale send us none other than Eblis (Satan) himself 'Azlam,' more just than Effendina (our lord), whom God preserve : and that is why I pray for the long life of Effendina, as we can only change for the worse." 104 CILICIA AND ITS aOVERNORS. alone supports or exterminates all naen !" I could not help smiling at this assumption of grandeur, having been witness of the little power of the government he so much lauded only a few days previously, when the Turkmans had carried off with impunity between two and three hundred head of cattle within half an hoiw's ride of Adana. Arif Pasha, with a spy-glass in his hand, had actually seen from his window some travellers stripped on the other side of the river, and dared not afford them assistance ; nor could the post ever pass without an escort of Dali Bashis (" mad heads," irregular cavalry). But the weakness of the Cilician governors is in some degree ex- cusable when we consider that they are thrown in a strange land with- out sufficient means to enforce their authority, being scarcely allowed the pay of fifty saimans (irregular troops). They are thus placed at the mercy of the chiefs of the country, who oiFer them the option, viz. on one side the opportunity of becoming rich, and on the other, opposition in every thing, which woidd completely cripple their power ; and they are induced, by want of principle, to choose that which is most con- ducive to their private advantage. It sometimes happens that, in consequence of the mutual jealousies of the members of the council, they submit to receive a Mutsalhm, or governor, among them: but this man, as well as his master the pasha, with whom he, shares his profits, becomes a tool in their hands ; and as soon as one of the members contrives to get the ascendant of the rest, the Mutsallim is set aside without any scruple or ceremony. This is perhaps the case in this province more than in any other, the members of the council being chiefs of Turkman tribes supported by 2000 or more followers, who are encamped within call at a few hours' ride from the towns.* Thus we see that this pashalik is governed only nominally by the envoyes from the Sublime Porte, and that the real authority is in the hands of the ayans, who retain the power of levying the Saliyan, an arbitrary tax originally paid by the people for the purpose of de- fraying the travelling expenses of Pashas, Kapitchi Bashis, and other officers of the Porte, while resident in the towns, and which has con- tinued in force, although since the financial reforms of the sultan it has been fixed on more regular principles, and the reasons for its exaction have long ago been cancelled. This tax is levied twice a year, and from the uncertain nature of the sum, holds out a wide field for pecu- lation. It is divided into so many portions, generally double the sum required by the Porte, and it is exacted from the chiefs of the several * Some of the tribes are muoh more powerful. Malamanji Uglu could unite from 800 to 1200 gima. TAXATION IN CILICIA. 105 districts, villages, or departments, -who in their turn also spectdate on its advantages to their own profit ; so that the poor villagers have to pay three times what the Porte receives, and they are also the greatest sufferers, as the ayans contrive to exempt their own people ; and this tyranny falls so heavily on the villagers, that they often find no other chance of escaping the exactions of the ayans than emigration, which takes place to a great extent,* although a husbandman is not allowed by law to quit his district ; so that when unable to pay the dues fixed upon them at the capricious option of the chiefs, they wander about from place to place, and leave their children to the mercy of strangers. f This system is also put in practice in its several ramifications by the sheiks of the villages, who mimic their superiors in the council; and they enjoy the same immunity from punishment. Nothing can be more detrimental to the public weal than this combination of six or ten persons who act in concert. The more individuals in power, the more channels of extortion, and the more subjects exempt from taxation to the prejudice of the rest of the community. This council, presided over by the Pasha and Muhassil, is composed of the Mufti, Cadi, Nakib, and some of the chiefs of the Turkman tribes, who, by the venal means above alluded to, have contrived to establish an influence indispensable (without regular troops) to the collecting of the taxes. These keep up a good understanding among themselves as to what regards their individual interests, and cede by turns to each other every advantage they can avail themselves of to monopolise and * Karadughar (Anchiale) and Kaisanli, formerly two flouristnBg "villages, were in 1847 nearly desei-ted, in consequence of the heavy exactions of the government-people, who, seeing a populous village, fixed a sum to he paid in Saliyan far beyond the means of the poor inhabitants, who, having been reduced to sell every thing they had to satisfy the extortions of their petty tyrants, and their lands proving bar- ren in consequence of the want of rain, were aU dispersed, each seeking refuge in some distant place, — some going to Cyprus, and others to Syria, while those who had any relations in the country were too happy to become their servants in the culture of the ground, to obtain food for themselves and their distressed families. Happy it is that such a state of things is rapidly going by ! Out of some forty families in Karadughar, only six famiUes remained ; and these being requii-ed to pay 18,200 piastres of the SaUyan of the village when it was populous, tried to run away to Syria by embarking in a small boat at night. The number of the families at Kaisanli was seventy, and they were reduced by desertion to a dozen, in the same state as those of Karadughar ; and many other villages, such as Kara- jUlas, Nisani, &c., were reduced to the same condition. All these villages were peopled with Ansairi peasants, a quiet and laborious race of men. f This is certainly a remains of the feudal system ; and I have repeatedly heard of two neighbouring chiefs quarrelling, and reclaiming from each other the taxes due by their several serfs, who had taken refuge and been received by another chief from his neighbour's territory : and often these individuals are compelled to return to their for- mer place, and submit to the still greater exactions of theii- exasperated chief. 106 CILICIA AND ITS GOTEUNORS. extort, allowing to the Pasha and Muhassil a fair portion of the booty for their co-operation. The introduction of Christians into the councils, as ordained by the Porte, has not in Cilicia as yet gone beyond the summoning of some illiterate follower of the Messiah, who sits on his knees near the door, and never opens his mouth but with low obeisances to confirm their nefarious decrees. He is generally a servant of the Mufti, and officiates as SarraiF or banker of the government, a lucrative employ- ment, which throws much floating capital into his hands. He is sup- posed to be the most respectable of his co-religionists ; but the Turks pay little regard to the rank he holds as representative of the Christians and member of the council, for he often gets the bastinado to quicken his accounts.* In this council all the " appaltos" (monopolies) of the government, which have not been abolished, are sold yearly, although in the treaty with England a heavy duty of twelve per cent is estabUshed by the last tariff on condition of their being set aside ; and here I may notice, that from time immemorial it has been observed that in Turkey a new tax very seldom cancels old ones, but is added to them, in spite of all arrangements to the contrary. The Pasha and Muhassil buy in the name of their servants the most profitable monopolies, without any one outbidding them, as they distribute to each of the members a suffi- cient number of such " appaltos" as regards their various districts. Last year a present or bribe of 25,000 piastres (250Z.) was offered to the Muhassil to allow the monopoly of tobacco to be sold freely, but he preferred keeping it to himself This dignitary, by this one fraud alone, collected yearly several thousand pounds sterling. I perfectly recollect the first arrival of Abdalla Rushdi Effendi in Mursina, where he had occasion to accept of my hospitality. The first question he asked was, whether there were any dresses to be had ready-made at Adana ! He had actually arrived at his post without a change of clothes; and yet on dismounting from his horse at Adana he found a house furnished for him with such magnificence, that he was enabled to treat those who called upon him with pipes and coffee in cups set with diamonds, and * A remarkable instance of this took place on tlie ai-rival of Arif Pasha, who, on inspecting the pubUo records, found a deficit of about 300/. to 400?., and required its immediate payment. The money was not owed by the sarraff of Tarsus, but by the effendis of the council, who had each taken what they required ; and yet the san-aff was afraid to explain this knotty point, and at first received 500 bastinados, and was afterwards obliged to disburse the money out of his own purse. He had even to pre- tend that the money was due by different Christians, friends of his, who acknowledged the debt, which was paid by the sarraff, in order to conceal the tricks of the ayans, who are always trifling with the public revenue. CHAEACTBR OP TAX-GATHEEEES. 107 which had been prepared for him by the officious ayans. We have seen how he left Adana after three years' residence there. The Cadi of 1844, on his arrival to take possession of his post in Adana, had not wherewith to pay his horse-hire from Mursina to Tarsus ! Very large salaries have of late been paid to all the employes by the Porte, in the hope that this may induce them to give up their habits of venaHty ; but unfortunately the instability of their appointments, at least in Cilicia, renders them anxious to profit by the opportunities afforded them, in order to be enabled by their ill-gotten wealth to bribe in their turn their superiors at Constantinople when they are recalled, — an event which takes place every few months, in consequence of the many com- plaints that reach Constantinople of their venal practices, and which is generally brought about by one intriguing against the other. By this constant change of oppressors, the people are always falling into fresh hungry hands, which must be satisfied, lodged, and maintained; and although very strict commands are issued from time to time by the Porte to prevent these irregularities, in distant provinces like Cilicia little or no attention is paid to the wishes and good intentions of the government.* But the great source of local mal- administration is the influence of the members of the council, whose whole energy is directed to the support of its members and dependents at the expense of the Porte and people. An useless, unprincipled, and in most cases an igno- rant oligarchy, ruinous to the country and to the treasury of the Sultan; and untU some very effective measures are taken to crush the power it has usurped, no hope can be entertained of any amelioration in the legislature. Individual despotism is always to be deplored ; but an oppressive oligarchy is the perfection of tyranny. It had been agreed upon between the Porte and the European powers, that there shoidd be no more monopolies ; still these exist in full force : and the Bage or toll levied at Kulak Bughaz is not one of the least * At Antioch the tax-gatliererS "used to exact the tithes in money; and as they fixed a larger sum than even the produce of the land, the villagers found it so ruinous^ that they preferred leaving a great portion of their grounds uncultivated, and actually cut down their trees. This came to the cognisance of the Porte, and a firman was issued to forbid such abuses ; and it was therein clearly specified that the tithes should be always collected in kirid: and each of the Ayans of Antioch, who are not, like those of Cilicia, supported by Turkman tribes (not belonging to any), was himself com- pelled to read in his district this firman before the assembled people, for the purpose of giving due publicity to the intentions of the Porte. That year some attention was paid to this order : but they soon returned to their original mal-practices ; and the tithes are now actually paid in cash at a price double the value of what the produce could be sold for in Antioch. But great changes are taking place for the better every year even in these remote districts; none more important than the abolition of the Saliyan in 1846, which has not been renewed since that period. 108 CILICIA AND ITB GOVERNORS. onerous. Three piastres per load, and one oke* in kind, is exacted in soap, coffee, tumbac, &c., wliicli makes the road-tax amount to more than 12 per cent. The MuhassU, who has the chief interest in this oppres- sive toll, gives it his energetic support, and has not allowed it to be sup- pressed, in spite of many orders from the Porte obtained by the French and English ambassadors for that purpose. Although the Porte had declared that personal taxation should be abolished, and a tax on property be established in lieu thereof, this has not taken place, at least in Cilicia, where the members of the council being almost the sole landed proprietors, they would have been the chief sufferers ; and as the executive power is in their hands, they have not allowed such an innovation to come into force. Nor have many advantages accrued to this province as yet by the Tanzimat Khairiyah, or Hatti Sheriff of Gulhana, so deservedly applauded as a charter granted by the Sultan to his subjects. The people, at least in Cilicia, are under the same tyrannical subjection, and are exposed to the same rapacity of their governors as ever they were; the latter never fail to avail themselves of the slightest excuse that can be found to put them in prison, whence they are never freed, however innocent, before they have paid a sum in proportion to their means, which imposition they call ex- penses of the prison, and which is fixed at the arbitrary caprice of the Tufankji Bashi. The Cadi also takes advantage of his position to carry on measures of intrigue very foreign to his station and profession. The great license allowed by the Turkish law, the facility of procuring false witnesses, and the difiiculty of appealing to Constantinople for redress, enable him to carry through, by the connivance of the council, any mea- sure, however detrimental to the public weal. Indeed, the whole ad- ministration of justice, if such it can be called, may be summed up in the great facility of procuring false witnesses, and the extraordinary article in the Turkish code of condemning individuals sued against, how- ever false the accusation, to pay the costs. Innumerable instances may be brought forward of innocent persons prosecuted solely from motives of ill-will on the slightest pretences, to obligfi them to pay the costs ; and the officers of law, to whose profit this system accrues, give naturally en- couragement to such mal-practices. These abuses, and many more, are adopted by the pasha and officers of police, in order to make up for the loss of the privilege they formerly enjoyed, of imprisoning a man known to be rich, for the avowed purpose of making him pay an arbitrary tax for the private use of the pasha's kitchen. In order to render the pre- sent plan as lucrative as the old one, it is in too many instances made ♦ Two pounds and three-quarters English. MAL-ADMINISTRATION OH JUSTICE. 109 as general as possible, by encouraging the population to complain one against the other; and although a person is falsely accused, the accuser is not punished, nor do the costs of the suit, as I have already observed, fall upon him, as they should do. If any sum is recovered, the creditor pays seven to ten per cent, besides what is given to the constable for his trouble by the latter, and what is secretly paid by the creditor to the judge, generally about a third of the sum. I trusted to be able to conclude the present chapter with more con- solatory words of hope to the friends of Turkey, of which, notwithstand- ing its faults, and the difficulties the Porte has to fight against, I may truly say that I rank as one, and indeed as a' most zealous well-wisher. It has been my endeavour throughout these pages to lay before my readers only simple facts which speak for themselves, to enable them to judge of the actual state of a province so remote and so peculiarly circumstanced as Cilicia. Nearer to Constantinople, the Turkish go- vernment is enabled to carry into more effective operation the many excellent regulations that are daily issued at the Porte for the benefit of the people. PLAIN OF ANTIOCH— OVEBFtOW OF THE ORONTES ; MOUNT AMANOS IN THE DISTANCE. (From a Sketch by C. F. Barker, Esq.) (From a Sketch by Edward B. B. Barker, Esq.) CHAPTER XI. GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA — TARSUS AND ADANA MISSIS (mOPSUESTIA) SIS (PIN- DENlSSns) BAYAS AND THE COAST PYLiE CILICIA POPULATION OF CILICIA ^EUROPEANS AND THEIR INFLUENCE DESTROYED — CONSULS AND THEIR AUTHORITY ENGLISH CONSULS ALLOA\'ED TO TRADE CLIMATE — STAGNANT LAKE (uHEGMa) — MARSH OF ALEXANDRETTA COUNTRY-HOUSES NIMRUD SEA-PORTS KjVISANLI MURSINA AND ITS ROADSTEAD. Having traced the history of Cihcia down to the present day, I pro- pose now to say a few words on its geographical position, statistics, com- mercial resources, natural productions, and antiquities. The so-called paslialik of Adana, which coiTesponds pretty nearly to ancient Cilicia Campestris, is comprehended in a plain that extends from Sulufska (Seleucia,) to Ma'rash, in a north-easterly direction, about 120 miles between the Taurus and Jawur or Giaour Tagh, which last, running north and south, forms with the sea a triangle in which the province is composed, and which is called by the Tui'ks Chukur Uvah, and GEOCfRAPHY OF CILICIA. Ill corresponds to the Aleian plain of old. Tarsus is situated on this plain, at the foot of Mount Taurus, about twelve mUes from the sea, and a branch of the river Cydnus passes through the city, taking its rise in the adjoining chain of mountains, and emptying itself into the sea about twelve miles from Tarsus. Adana, fabled by Stephanus to have been founded by Adam (vide AinswortKs Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks), stands to the north-east, and is also on the plain at the foot of the Taurus range, and about thirty mUes from the sea. It has another and larger river, Saihun, ancient Sarus, passing by it, which, running parallel to the Cydnus, empties itself near the mouth of the latter. Missis, anciently called Mopsuestia, is said to have been founded by Mopsus, a celebrated prophet, son of Manto and ApoUo, during the Trojan war; he bad three daughters, Bhoda, Meliade, and Pamphylia. It is now a ruined village about twenty-five miles north-east of Adana, and through it flows the Jaihun (Pyramus), a river still larger than the two last mentioned. The Pyramus springs from the other side of Ma'rash, whence it passes winding along the plain to Sis and Missis, and finishes its course in the Bay of Ayass (^gse), which is opposite Alex- andretta.* Sis (Pindenissus) is to the north of Missis, about sixty miles dis- tance, at the foot of Taurus, which the people of the country call at that point Kusan Tagh, after the name of the tribe of Turkmans who inhabit the district. At this place is a monastery of greait antiquity, the . residence of an Armenian patriarch, who has some influence in the country, but who, notwithstanding his high rank, when he comes to Adana to visit the pasha, is as obsequious to the Turks as the rest of the oppressed Christian subjects of the Porte. A view of Sis, with the Armenian patriarch in the foreground surrounded by his bishops, is given in the frontispiece. Bayas (Issus) is on the gulf of that name, sixty miles to the south- east of Missis. Alexandretta is sixteen miles more to the south-east, at the foot of the Jawiir Tagh, which rises almost perpendicularly behind it, constituting the farthest limits of the pashahk at Bailan (Pylse Syrise), where the confines of Syria begin in a very tortuous and difiicult pass. Arsus (Ehossus) is to the south of this town; it has the sea on one * This place, that is, Ayass, is remarkable for its extraordinary number of sea- turtle, which are very easily caught as they come out on the sea-shore in the night to lay their eggs in the sand. Fish is also very abundant ; but when taking it with a seine or draw-net the tm-tle fill up the sack ; so that before it can reach the shore the fishermen have to go into the sea, which is not deep near the beach, to take them out, two or three times successively. On one occasion (May 1842) the crew of H.M.'s steamer Becate, Captain Ward, took more than 150 turtles in less than twenty-fom: hours. 112 CILICIA AND ITS G0VERN0B8. side and Mount Rhossus towering above it on the other.* The latter projects into the sea, and forms Cape Khanzir, or Wild-boar Cape, (Scopulus Rhossicus), so formidable to sailors in leaving the Bay of Alexandretta. Karatash is a village opposite Arsus, on the extreme side of the gulf, and has a little harbour affording a precarious shelter to smaU boats of the country, and is about sixty miles east by south of Tarsus. At Kidak Bugbaz (Pylse Cilicis) is the pass into this province to the north-west from Anatolia, which is the most convenient road for beasts of burden, and was that principally used in all the military expeditions of the ancients. It was repaired by the Romans so as to admit of their chariots passing, but being neglected, has fallen to ruin, and m the narrow part you have now to pass through a stream two or three feet deep for more than a hundred yards. But I must, for a more minute description of this celebrated pass, refer to Mr. Ainsworth's work entitled Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Ghaldea, and Armenia. It was here that Ibrahim Pasha caused to be conveyed to the crest of the pass some very fine pieces of artillery of such a size that the present government have not been able to bring them down, and have been obliged to content themselves with twenty- eight small pieces of brass- artillery, which they sent to Constantinople to be melted down into bishlics (five-piastre pieces of the country), worth something less than a shilling. At the same time six vessels of 250 tons were laden for Constantinople with powder and military stores, which had remained and been overlooked by the Egyptian army at the moment of departure, although by order of Ahmed Minikli Pasha some of the magazines were blown up. This shipment was made, not only to turn to account the leavings of the Egyptian army, which woidd have been useless in Adana, but also to keep such dangerous articles out of the people's reach. Ibrahim Pasha had had constructed at Kulak Bughaz by a clever Polish * Arsus is now a small village built on the site of ancient Ehosus ; and in the vicinity are many fragments of walls, arches, and some remains of a temple with Corinthian columns. The most remarkable ruin in the neighbom-hood is, however, an extensive aqueduct can-ied on arches, and which formerly brought water direct from the moun- tains to the town, although a rivulet of clear water flows through it. Nothing indicates that this town, whither, according to Plutarch, Demetrius re- paired fi'om Seleucia Pieria, was ever an extensive site. It is, however, a spot still much frequented by Syiian Christians, with whom its chm-ch is in great sanctity ; thus preserving, to a cei'tain extent, the ecclesiastical importance which belonged to it in the middle ages, and which enabled it to send its mitred repi-esentatives to the Chris- tian Synods of the East. Eusebius, it is true, only notices Ehosus as a pai-ish ; but Socrates (iii. 25) mentions Antipatrum as Bishop of Rhesus ; and it is also noticed as an episcopacy in the Acts of the Synod. The name is variously rendered Ehosus, or Eossus, by the Greeks and Latins ; the Acts of the Synod have it Ehosopolis, and the Theodoman Tables Ehosus. W. F. A. s o VYJjM CIJACIM. 113 engineer, Colonel Shutz, fortifications which were intended to repel an invader, and at the same time serve as a model to instruct officers in every branch of fortification. These works were executed by the Colonel, but they were in great part destroyed by the Egyptians on their retreat, before they were completely finished, after having cost immense sums of money and eight years' constant labour of 10,000 men. The population of this pashalik amounts to about 300,p00 souls ; but it is not easy to make an exact calculation, as the reports of the Turkmans are either false or exaggerated. Adana contains 18,000 inhabitants ; Tarsus, 6000 : of this one-third are Mussulmans, more than a third An- sayrii or Ansarians, generally Deists, and the rest Armenians and Greeks. There are more than 300 villages on the plain, which average 200 souls each, and the inhabitants of which are for the most part Ansayrii, and a few Muhammadans. At Sis the population is almost entirely Armenian, and numbers about 2000. Missis and Bayas contain 200 to 300 in- habitants altogether, and Alexandretta and Arsus as many. The Turkman tribes, who dispersed in the plains, vaUeys, and moun- tains of this province, feed their flocks in the pasturages of the Jaihun, Saihun, and their tributaries, in winter, and repair to the uplands of Taurus in summer, make up the sum of the rest of the population, as above stated. There are at Tarsus a few families from Cyprus, who lead the same monotonous existence to which they are accustomed in their native town of Larnika. The few Europeans who inhabit Tarsus live a life of great privation, devoid of all intellectual society ; they ap- pear to exist only in the hope that some day or another the relative commercial advantages of the place will at length be fully appreciated and settled ; they will then be the first to profit thereby. There are English, French, Russian, Dutch, and Neapolitan consul- ates established in Tarsus. The English system of allowing a consul to trade is very disadvantageous to commercial interests, and frustrates the very intention for which he is appointed — that of encouraging British commerce. It brings him into constant personal collision with the local government, and detracts from his respectability and authority. Besides, his position gives him such an advantage over other merchants, that few Englishmen can settle in any place where such is the case ; and therefore, as I have just observed, the desire and interest of England to extend her commerce is thus counteracted for the saving of a few hundred pounds a year of salary. This is particularly the case in Tarsus ; and indeed we may observe, that in few places in the Levant where a British consul is allowed to trade have we any commercial houses, and this fact speaks for itself: although consuls have been appointed in those places for I 114 CILICIA AND ITS GOVEENOES, ^^^y years, and altliough a good deal of real business migbt be carrie on by the m-eans of Englisb houses of commerce, were their interest properly supported by disinterested individuals. The climate of Cilicia is not more unhealthy than the rest of Asi Minor, but the air of Tarsus is very much so, particularly during th months of July and August, when the town and its environs are subjec to exhalations productive of putrid and intermittent fevers. The prin cipal cause of this evil is a stagnant lake about -thirty miles in cttcum ferenee, now a few miles from Tarsus, which formerly communicate with the sea, but which is now separated from it by a sand-bank. Thi is the harbour mentioned by Strabo, which he says was the port c Tarsus (and that there were in his time the remains of the arsenar Indeed, its position leads us to infer that the sea once came up t Tarsus ; but as the alluvium of the river has raised the ground con siderably, it would be easy to dry this lake by drains, which would no cost more than 2001., and the deleterious state of the atmosphere wouli be permanently obviated; and not only would many diseases be pre Tented, but the ground would become weL. adapted to the cultivation c sesam, cotton, and wheat, and its incomparable fertility the first yea would no doubt repay a thousand- fold aU expenses.* This lake lie between Tarsus and the sea, and thus its putrid exhalations are con veyed to the town by the sea-breezes- It is the opinion of medical mei that the pores of the skin being opened by the great heats of the daj are much influenced by the damp and cold vrind of the mountain £ night ; and this combined with the malaria above mentioned occasioi congestions of the brain, and hence bilious and gastric fevers, which, : not properly treated by bleeding and other active remedies, wUl carr off the patient in three or four days, as the fever soon ceases to be intei mittent and assumes a mahgnant type. Ibrahim Pasha caused the small lake of Alexandretta to be drains at the suggestion of M. MartineUi, as also subsequently of Mr. Hayi her Majesty's consuls there, and for two or three years afterwards n deaths took place, whereas previously there were accidents oocurrin every few months. The canal for carrying oflF the water has, howeve: since unfortunately been allowed to fill up, and Alexandretta is now th -tomb of aU who inhabit it for any length of time -without change ( * A few years ago, in consequence of a great dearth, part of this lake having drif up, the people of the adjoining village sowed and reaped melons twice in one seaso] the seed of the second crop being from that of the first, and the quahty produced wi most excellent. VILLAGES NEAR TAESTJS. 115 TLe inliabitaiits of Tarsus and Adana go to the mountains to pass the summer, at a place called Nimrud, sixty miles distant, where there is a castle which they attribute to Nimrod and call it after his name. There are evident traces of its having been built at three different periods, and it was at one time in the possession of the Crusaders. It is built on the summit of a hill, which I should calculate to be certainly 3000 feet above the level of the sea, and it is not commanded by any of the adjoining heights. It was probably here that Syennesis first re- tired on the approach of Cyrus to Tarsus, B.C. 401 (vide Ainsworth's Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand GreeJcs). The country around Nimrud is arid, with scarcely any running water ; but the water of the wells is not bad and is abundant, and the air is fine. Each habitation stands in a little vineyard, and this extends the cultivation of the moun- tain for many loiles ; and the luxuriance with which the vine, cherry, and walnut-trees grow is very remarkable. All who come up here lead a life of perfect indolence, and the poor man will sell any thing he may possess rather than fail to take his family to the mountain during the summer months. This constant shifting of residence prevents the in- habitants from building good houses either in Tarsus or in the Yaila,. as they call their summer quarters. The merchants of Tarsus and Adana*. are chiefly strangers, and during the hot season they visit their families, in Kaisariyah, and in the other towns in the interior of Asia Jliaoij. whence they return in the months of September and October. Kaisanli is a village containing about a hundred families, establishedL in the point of the bay nearest to Tarsus (about twelve miles distant).. It is in this place that Arab lombards come from Syria to load and uur- load; but on the slightest appearance of bad weather they are obliged. to take- shelter at Mursina (Zephyrium), more to the westward of the- bay, about eight miles further, where the roadstead is excellent, and,, according to some captains, is preferable as a safe anchorage to that of' Alexandretta or any other on the coast of'Syria.* Two French vessels and some Arabs have been driven on shore ; but in every ease the- fault has been from their chains or cables breaking, and not from bad; bottom in the anchorage, English vessels, at the same time and in the same storm, sustaining no damage whatever. The only inconvenience they experienced was that their erew were prevented from communi- cating with the sea-shore for three days till the storm had subsided ; but this is of very rare occurrence, and generally speaking, morning and evening the business of embarking and disembarking is not inter- * The sea-breeze is stronger here than any where else on the coast ; hence its an- cient name perhaps. I had a beautiful brass medal struck here, which I have mislaid. 116 CILICIA ANB ITS GOVBRNORS. rupted. About midday there is a little swell, and tlie want of a small pier alone prevents the working of merchant-ships' boats all the year round. This could be easily made for the trifling sum of 501. ; but the governors of the country, although in landing to take possession of their posts they have often got wet, always talk of having one made ; as soon as they reach Adana, their head-quarters, they forget entirely that such a place as Mursina exists. Mursina is a name compiled from the Greek, fivpalv-q, myrtle, because formerly immense bushes of that plant were the only characteristics of the place. When I first went to Tarsus, in 1838, there was only a small magazine and a few miserable huts at this place, and the bales of cotton were left out under the rain until French vessels came to ship them for Marseilles. In the hope of drawing the commerce of the inte- rior and rendering this a place of transit for such produce as is usually conveyed overland to Smyrna, I built large magazines capable of hold- ing the cargoes of fifteen vessels at one time. As I had anticipated, this convenience, so much wanted previously, induced people to avail themselves of them, and deposit therein goods which were shipped to Europe and Smyrna. Commerce taking a new course, three other magazines were built, and other persons settled there. ALEXANDKETTA AND CAPE KHANZIB. — (From a Sketch by C. F. Barker, Esq.) CHAPTEE XII. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TARSUS IN A COMMEECIAL POINT OP VIEW TABLES OF NAVIGATION TABULAR VIEW OF THE TBADE OF THE INTERIOR OF ASIA MliNOK TABLE OF EXPOUTS TABLE OF IMPORTS— STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN CILICIA — ^PRODUCE OF THE COUNTRY COTTON ■ WHEAT BARLEY LINSEED WAX FRUIT-TREES SILK OLIVE-TREES PAY OF A DAY-LABOURER PASTURE OF LAND ^TENURE OF LAND TIMBER AND WOODS GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY EXTRACTS FROM MR. AINSWORTh's WORK : PLAIN OF TARSUS FALLS OF THE CYDNUS FIRST, SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH RANGE OF HILLS MINES OF IRON AND LEAD ARGENTIFEROUS GALENA REVENUE OF TaE JPASHALIK. Tarsus being the nearest port to the several large towns of Asia Minor, — Adana, Maraash, Nighdah, Kaisariyah, and others, — it would seem to be the best adapted to embark goods from^ but the inhabitants of the interior have long been accustomed to go to Smyrna and Constantinople by land (five times further oiF), where they have the advantage of find- ing more buyers who are ready to compete with ^ach other in the purchase of their merchandise, whereas in Tarsus the competition is trifling, as there are few if any merchants; and these only acting as factors, they cannot make large purchases without consulting their principals, who are too far oif to allow of any activity in their opera- tions. For these reasons Tarsus will remain for many years in the background: but attention to the causes of malaria would soon eradi- cate the greatest evil, and then many respectable merchants with their families would be induced to reside in Tarsus, otherwise not a disa- greeable residence, and one of the most fertUe spots in the world; and they would profit by the advantage of its vicinity to the interior of Asia Minor, inasmuch as goods can be shipped twenty per cent cheaper here than by taking them overland to Smyrna, where the produce of the country now chiefly goes for want of a nearer mart, and to reach which place on camels' backs, wool and madder-roots are deteriorated in qua- lity by being exposed to rain on the road; but the merchants of Anatohg, do not mind that, as the weight is thereby increased ! Albertus Aquensis, according to CeUarius, talks of 3000 ships sail- 118 CILICIA AND ITS GOYBENOES. ing from the port of Tarsus at one time (vide Ainswortli's Asia Minor, p. 83). At present its coramerce, although increasing within the last eight years, is confined to twenty or thirty Arab vessels, that come suc- cessively to load here for Syria, bringing a little soap, coffee, and English manufactures for the consumption of the pashalik. About twelve French vessels also load sesam and wool for Marseilles yearly : one or two Au-strian and Sardinian. An English vessel may visit this road- stead in the course of the year to take up a part of her cargo for Leg- horn or Smyrna, which they get in Alexandretta. A few Greets also from Cyprus keep up a traffic in the products of their country, taking wheat in exchange. Steamers have been put on this route from Smyrna two or three times ; but in consequence of the irregularity of their ar- rivals and departures no dependence could be placed on them, and nothing was done satisfactorily. (See the accompanying Table on the Trade and Navigation of Tarsus, No. 1.) Tarsus might, at least for the present, serve as a convenient depot for the produce of the interior, were the agents there more to be depended on ; but what man would live there who could gain his bread elsewhere, particularly as the means of business are less than any where else, and the disadvantages of ill-health and difficulties of getting and executing orders greater than any where else ? But in order to give some idea of the impulse that might be given to the trade of Asia Minor through Tarsus were the difficulties alluded to removed, I shall accompany this notice with a report or table of the trade of Anatolia as regards Kaisariyali and the towns of Asia Minor, which I drew up from researches on the spot and upon the best authority. (Vide Table in the Appendix.) The principal exports, a table of which I also adjoin in the Appendix, consist in cotton, wool, wheat, barley, wax, sesam-seed, and linseed from the interior, from whence might be brought Caraman madder-roots in great quantities, Persian yellow-berries from Kaisariyah, buifalo-hides and cow-hides, and all the minor produce of the country. All kinds of imports, such as English manufactures, sugar, coffee,, indigo, cochineal, soap, and Persian tobacco, are brought from Syna ; but the want of cash in the country renders the sale precarious. The seller is compelled to wait months for payment, and frequently money is lost by the failure of the buyers, who are as insolent as they are needy. The import trade is very discouraging; but in exports some- times a good profit is to be obtained, particularly in wheat, which is remarkably cheap : often it may be had at a price that enables the buyer to deposit it in the London Docks at 20s. the English quarter. During Ibrahim Pasha's administration, the government was put to the COMMERCE OF TARSUS. 119 deplorable necessity of pressing the population into miUtary service, by seizing the strong and able-bodied, in order to recruit his troops in Syria. As he could not well do this in the border territories, from an apprehension of their deserting, he made the latter labour at public works, and this interrupted the course of agriculture. Grain was in consequence dear, but since the departure of the Egyptians the people do not suffer from this grievance, and being more at leisure, have ap- plied themselves to the culture of the land, which is extremely fertile ; and were it not for the fatality which seems to be attached to this ill- fated province, brought on from mal-administration, this might be the happiest instead of the most miserable district of the Ottoman dominions. Its chief produce is cotton, of which 20,000 cantars, of 180 okes, are annually produced, and sent chiefly to Tarabuzun (Trebizond) and Erzerum by caravans. It is inferior to Egyptian cotton, and not well cleaned. The cotton costs about three piastres, or 7^A the oke (of 2^ lbs.). In 1845 the crop failed entirely for want of rain. More than 400,000 quarters of wheat are produced annually, half of which is exported to Syria; the current price is sixty to eighty piastres per quarter, which the people call kilu or kaily, equal to eight measures of Constantinople. A soft kind of wheat comes from Karamania, the flour of which is whiter, and is sold at 100 piastres the kilo, same mea- sure as barley. More than 150,000 quarters of barley are grown yearly, which barely suffice for the consumption of the country, many making bread of it when the price of wheat rises, which it invariably does toward the end of the season. The current price is from 40 to 60 piastres, same measure, weighing 130 okes. Of sesam are annually produced 15 to 20 m. kilos, of 130- okes weight, of which the current price is 200 piastres. The quantity pro- duced is yearly increasing, as people find it gives better returns than any other agricultural product, and it obtains the readiest sale, as merchants make advances for several months to obtain it. Of linseed, about 40 m. okes are produced. I was the first person who introduced this seed on trial ; but as it was sown by the farmers too late in the season, the plant was burnt up by the heat of the sun, two years successively, before it all came to maturity, and the farmers were discouraged from attending to it : price current, 40 paras or 1 piastre the oke. Of wax, scarcely more than 8 to 10 m. okes are produced; but the quality is good and the price moderate: 18 piastres the oke. I also introduced the best kind of Muscatel grapes, peaches, and 120 CILICIA AND ITS GOTBRKORS. apricots with a sweet kernel, and the finest cherries ; as also the tomato or love-apple, the French bean, and the artichoke, which were pre- TioTisly unknown to the inhabitants. Generally speaking, I found the gardeners prefer not having any superior kind of produce to distinguish their gardens, because it attracts the attention of the ayans (nobles'), who are then induced to visit them daily, and with their horses and servants commit depredations, for which they never think of making any remuneration to the proprietor. There are a great many magnificent mulberry-trees, which serve as trellises to support a kind of grape which does not ripen till Christmas ; but very few silk- worms are brought up, because the heats come on too soon, and kill the worm before it begins to spin. The people of the country wind it off with their hands, using small pebbles to prevent it entangling, and it comes out very coarse, which they like, as they work it out in pieces for silk shirts. The sloping sides of most of the hills in the province are planted with olive-trees, which no doubt were universally cultivated by the ancients, especially between Tarsus and Sulufka, along the shore, for a distance of 120 miles in length and several miles in breadth. All these trees were in fall bearing in the time that the Genoese were masters of the country; but having since been neglected, they are overgrown with brush- wood, and in many instances lost in a forest of pines. Many old trees were also cut down, but new branches have sprung up from their roots, which now bear a small wild olive used by the Turkmans. In some places there are as many as several thousand trees upon each acre of land, and it woidd be extremely easy and profitable to restore them to their pristine state ; but the want of hands is one of the many draw- backs in the East to improvement. A labourer in the harvest-time is paid 2s. a day, besides his food ; and people often come from Cyprus and Syria to avail themselves of such high wages for a season, returning to their homes to restore their health, which is invariably impaired by hard labour in the great heats. The Turkmans who gather the cotton take one-tenth for then- trouble ; the man who separates the cotton from the seed takes another tenth • the government takes also a tenth ; added to which is a very heavy duty of 27 piastres on its value, which goes under the head of customs ! The occupation which attracts more particularly the attention of Turkmans is the pasture of their cattle, inasmuch as it is the easiest kind of work. The produce of their dairy is excellent and abundant, although their animals are remarkably small, except their sheep, which are magnificent, and have extraordinary large tails, aU fat, and which, CULTIVATION OP THE SOIL. 121 when melted down, is used instead of butter in cooking. The wool produced yearly in this province amounts to from 600 to 1000 cantars, of 180 okes each cantar, of which one- third is white and two-thirds black or grey. The texture is fine, but it is generally very dirty, and if washed would lose forty per cent in weight. Europeans find no difficulty in buying land, as they can legally piurchase it in the name of females, either really appearing or repre- sented by proxy, all women bom in the country being regarded as Eayas in the eye of the law ; or rather I should say, that the property of the harim is considered so sacred, that any European stating that such property belonged to his wife, no questions would be asked of what nation she were, or if she even existed at all. Title-deeds thus obtained in the name of any female of the country are then made over to the purchaser, in token of a bond for a supposed debt, and this effectually seciires to the European purchaser every right to the property. The land may be cultivated by taking into service farmers of the country, whom it is usual to interest by granting a quarter, or a third share, or a half, according as the case or agreement may be. On my arrival in this country, I had purchased some land advantageously situated near the sea ; and I caused it to be cultivated by the vUlagers whom I established on the estate; and I induced them to turn their attention principally to the produce of vegetables and fruits for the use of the shipping. I also erected in the magazine a machine for pressing wool and cotton, and I omitted nothing that could assist in facilitating commercial operations ; but the extreme apathy of the people renders it very difficult to change the course of things, or to introduce any innova- tions in the habits they have had handed down to them from their fore- fathers. In this province remarkably fine timber for building pur- poses is produced, chiefly fir. The oak is also very common near Arsus. Timber is cut of aU sizes, and exported from Alexandretta, Bayas, and Arsus to Egypt. Ibrahim Pasha used to have more than 10,000 mag- nificent trees out every year, which he sent to Alexandria for the use of the arsenal. To the north-west of Mursina a smaller kind is cut, which serves for the building of Arab bombards in Tripoli, on the coast of Syria. The people also trade in boards, which the Turkmans bring from the mountains, and which are sawn by their women. These are sent to Syria, and cost on the average one piastre and a half per board, ' and are of aU sizes and thickness. The smell of turpentine contained in the pine-wood is supposed to be an antidote to bugs ; in Tarsus they are seldom seen, except when imported from Cyprus, and even then 122 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. they speedily disappear, being destroyed by the obnoxious smell of th( turpentine.* Mount Taurus presents a rich field for the researches of the mineralo- gist. Three hundred specimens of stones and minerals were collected bj the mineralogists appointed to work the lead-mines by Ibrahim Pashaj some of which were very beautiful, and some very interesting. I havt by me some specimens of metals which I procured at Kulak Maaden, Here I cannot do better than quote from Mr. Ainsworth's work befon mentioned. •]• '^ Plain of Tarsus. — From within three miles of Adana to beyond Tarsus, in a westerly direction, the plain is composed of humus and alluvia, which have an average depth of from twenty to thirty feet, and repose upon rubbly limestone. These plains are mostly cultivated, and villages are numerous. '■'■Falls of the Cydnus. — The country to the north of Tarsus rises gradually up towards the Alpine region of Cilician Taurus, remarkable at this point for its bold precipices and rugged grandeur of scenery, The falls of the Cydnus and the gi-otto of the Seven Sleepers are in ar out- lying range of supra-cretaceous limestone and limestone conglomerate. " The river issues through deep ravines, with perpendicular walls oi limestone, and on entering the plain falls over a ledge of roeks of lime- stone breccia, about forty feet in width and eighteen in height. * The forests of the Cilician mountains consist chiefly of pines {Pinus maritimm anc Halepensis) and Balanea or Valonia oaks (Qiterciis hallota, osgilops, and infedoria) The mountain-peaks are clad with the gloomy foEage of the cedar-juniper (Jumperm excelsior). In the yailaks^ or mountain-pastm-eSj we find thickets of dwarf holly-oal (Quercus coccifera), berberryj and yellow jasmine. The low hills are covered witl myrtle, arbutus, Daphne, Phlomis, Styrax, CSstus, and Lentisk. The Eleagnus, thf oleander, the chaste-tree, and colutea, are the most conspicuous shi-ubs on the borders of the plains. Christ-thorn (Paliunis) abounds in sterile places, especially in th( rook of Anazarba. The waste ground is studded with bushes of juniper {Junipen: Phoenwea), spiny bumet (Poierium spinosum), spiny cichory (Cichoriwm spinoswm), ane Lithospermum hispidulum. On the sands of the sea-shore, the Tamarisk attains almosi the port and bearing of a tree, and great bushes of tree-spurge (Euphorbia dendroides are mingled with more humble, but more gaily-flowering, phaenogamous plants. In the highlands of Cilicia there are plantations of walnut-trees, apples, apricots cherry-trees, Lombardy-poplars, and pollard-willows. The Oriental planes are not S{ common or so large in Cilicia as in other parts of Asia Minor ; but the number of carob trees in the plain of Adana is remarkable. The dark cypress not only adorns thi cemeteries of the Mussulman, but also grows wild in the ravines. The almond an( manna-ash also grow wild among the rocks, and the bay and Judas-tree in the ravines Mr. Barker has alluded to the fine groves of oranges, lemons, and pomegranates The palm-tree also adorns the gardens of A dana ; and a few specimens of this tree probably the refuse of gardens, are also met with on the shore near the Cilician an' Syrian gates. W. F. A. ■f Sesearches in Assyria, Babylonia, a^nd Chaldea, p. 327. GEOLOSY OF TARSUS. 123 "First lowest range of hills. — Proceeding to the north-east, the out- lying and lowest range of hills is composed of marles and gypsum in the lower beds ; and superimposed upon these are beds of brecciated rocks. The gypsum is snow-white, granular, or lamellar. This range is divided from the second by level, low, and often marshy plains. "Second range of hills. — The upper beds are composed of coralline limestone — grey, friable, fracture uneven — almost entirely composed of stony polypiferous masses with steUiform lamella;, or waved laminar furrows. " The lower beds consist of green marles and greenish -white calcareous marles ; the first are argillo-calcareous, earthy, friable, greenish, brownish- green, and yellow; the second are compact, even, non-fossiliferous. " This second range consists of low hills, rounded or of a conical form, frequently cultivated, with little wood, but often villages on the summits. " Third range of hills. — The upper beds consist of ostracite sandstones, compact, earthy, friable, frequently divided on the surface into polygonal and rhombic masses, like a tessellated pavement. Ostraoese (ostieae and aviculse) are very abundant. An ostrea, pi'obably not different from ostrea gigantea, attains sometimes from a foot to eighteen inches in length. " The lower beds are composed of ferruginous sands, yellow and red, and sometimes of pink-coloured sandstones. " Beneath these are argillaceous limestones, alternating with marles (valley of Yani Kushlak) and with slaty beds (hill of village of Yuruks). " Fourth range of hills. — The upper beds consist of blue anthracitous limestones, compact, fine granular, glistening fracture, blue and dark- blue colour. The lower beds are white limestones, compact, fine granu- lar, or more cretaceous, with chalk fossils. Both beds appear to belong to the chalk formation. " Mica schist with limestone (Cipolin of Alex. Brongniart). — On the summit of this range, not far from an ancient Roman arch, and by an antique causeway, a formation is met with of mica and argillo-cal- careous schist, sometimes forming a solid schistous rock. " The limestones after this begin to form a truly Alpine country, some- times towering up in lofty and perpendicular precipices upwards of 1000 feet in height ; at others forming lower and rounded hills, covered, when not lofty, with shrubbery and forest-trees, but when lofty, vpith oak and pine alone. Sometimes the cliffs are tomb-excavated, as at Mizar-lik ; at other times, isolated knoUs of limestone bear castellated ruins. " Kulak Bughaz. — The formation downwards, from Kulak Bughaz to the plaia of Adana, presents pretty nearly a similar succession of deposits as above Tarsus. 124 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNOKS. " Tertiary deposits. — At Khan Katlah'Uglu, a travertine formation covers a marley and limestone deposit. " At the village of Durak, granular gypsum occurs in ferruginous sand and common clay. The sand and clay alternate beyond the sand- stones, slaty, ferruginous, coarse-grained, in thin strata, and very deter- minate rhombic cleavage. " Polypiferous or coralline limestone succeeds to the rhombic or ostracite sandstone, the litture polypi occurring in groups, or at other times forming the whole mass of rock. The formation also contains botryoidal heematites. " The coralline limestone, or coral rag, alternates in its lower part with dark-coloured clays, which are replete with bivalve shells belong- ing to the genera tilhna and lucina. " At Khau Kusan Uglu, ferruginous sandstones and sandstone con- glomerate underlie the clays and polypiferous limestones. Below Khan Sarashi, oirithia and conide limestone succeeds to the central chalk for- mation, and between the two formations is a deposit of Umestone, breccia, and argillaceous shale. " In the valley of Khan Kusan Uglu, the conide limestone descends in precipitous chft's to the south-east, which cliffs are deeply fissured, and wrought into fantastic forms. " To the north, the limestone is capped by ferruginous sandstones, above which again are coralline Umestones; while to the south, beneath the coral rag and sandstones, are sandstone conglomerates. The friable nature of the last three formations has given rise to many curious effects of denudation ; tall columns and masses, in various fantastic forms, rising up in pictui-esque confusion. " The chalk formation of the central chain is ahnost every where the same, a hard and compact limestone containing few organic remains, and rising up in bold precipitous rocks, with castles on their summits ; or sweeping circularly, as if to block up the road with their gigantic gates, called those of Taurus or Cilicia."* Mines. — Above Adana, in that part of the Taurus which is occupied by the tribe named Karasanti-Uglu, there are iron mines, which are * The formations here described evidently correspond to our Eooene formations ; chalk or new Alpine limestones ; plastic clay, sandstones, with hgnite ; London clay and calcaire grossier ; siliceous limestones, gypsums {in large beds at foot of Mount Casius), and marles. These are the beds in which large and thick oysters occur in wondrous abundance ; some weigh at least twenty pounds. Sandstones and sands above the gypsum, fresh-water deposits, coralline rag, &o. These beds are full of organic remains, and would furnish a rich harvest to a geologist who had time and opportunity to explore the country, especially between Tarsus and Kulak Bughaz, leisurely and carefully. W. F, A. EEVENTJE OF PASHALIK. 125 worked by the people of the country on their own account, and with very little difficulty. The quality is more esteemed than Eussian iron, being softer and more malleable ; it is sold at two piastres the oke. Near Kulak Bughaz there are lead mines, which are worked for account of government. The samples I possess of this mineral in its pristine state are extremely rich. It has lately been discovered by an ItaHan mineralogist, M. Boriani, that together with this lead there is a good deal of silver, and he extracted a small quantity in proof thereof. The local government is not aware of this, and very possibly regular veins might be easily discovered. Towards Sis there are also many mines of great value ; but the Turkmans there used to hide them, in order not to be interfered with by the local authorities.* The revenue of this pashalik exceeds 10,000,000 piastres, and is collected in the following manner : Saliyan 3,500,000 Kharaj (personal tax on Christians only) .... 5,000,000 Spinji (ditto ditto, 3 piastres per head) 4,000 Miriof the Fallahs (Ansayriis) 5,000 Customs (lately increased to Ij millions of piastres) . . 1,200,000 Monopoly of tobacco 68,000 snuff 30,000 spirits of wine 30,000 the manufacture of candles .... 2,000 the burning of coffee 3,000 auctions 17,000 salt 15,000 dues exacted at Kulak Bughaz, 5 piastres per head {■worth much more than) . . . 70,000 tax levied on the Tinrkmans that come down to the plains in the winter .... 5,000 10,024,000 The expenses of the Government are for the Pasha alone . 600,000 ,^ for the Muhassil 144,000 for the Governor of Tarsus . for the foiuteen mem- 60,000 bers of Council 140,000 for the chiefs of the Turkmans 100,000 ,. for the subalterns 100,000 1,144,000 * At the time that the Euphrates Expedition was at Suwaidiyah, an Englishman arrived, who had been invited to the country by Ibrahim Pasha to work the mines of argentiferous galena, near Sis. The unfortunate man, however, soon feU a victim to the climate. "W. F. A. 126 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNOES. Besides, no doubt, a large sum -whicli the pasha contrives to pass in hii account for the maintenance of troops that never existed. The rate of twelve per cent duty to be paid to custom -house! was calculated in Constantinople on merchandise of first-rate qua- lity ; but although the produce of the provinces often only costs hall the price of that quality in the capital, still the same fixed duty is exacted ; so that the merchant of the interior, paying a duty calculated by the same tariff, actually pays often as high as twenty-five per cenl instead of twelve per cent as intended. This has considerably retarded the activity of commercial interests and relations, as no article can pro- perly bear such a high duty. The better to illustrate this subject, I shall add a table, wherein the value of each article, and the per-centage duty to be paid is noted ; and from which it will be seen how much the com- merce of these countries lies imder a disadvantage by being obhged to pay so much per cent duty more than what merchants in Constantinople pay. This was a mistake of such as had the establishing of the rates of the tariff, and who fixed each quota according to what the article was worth in their market, and not by an average value of the whole, which would have facilitated commercial operations. It is impossible to impress the people of the East with a conviction of the salutary effects of a quarantine establishment : they cannot divest themselves of the idea that it is only a pretext of the government to enable it to pry into private relations and interfere with the personal liberty of the subject, at the same time that it is another excuse for raising money. They are the more readily led to this conclusion by the shameless conduct of the employes, who exact all manner of presents to exempt the donors from various kinds of restraint, such as being con- fined in the jnosi filthy holes, and to be eaten up by vermin of aU sorts. When a man desires to perform the spoglio (which is done by passing through water and putting on uncontaminated clothes), he gives secretly a suit of clothes to the chief " guardian.'''' The next morning this man brings the bundle, and cries out, " Mr. A. or B., your friend sends you this packet of clothes : come and perform the spoglio.^' Generally speak- ing, an oke or two of every article that enters the quarantine maga- zine is abstracted, and the merchants in vain call for redress. I have seen notes made out by the merchants wherein their sacks of soap, coffee, &c., had been specified as found wanting ten per cent in the weight by going through the hands of the quarantine ; and when bales of goods are opened, generally a piece or two of stuffs disappear. One of the magazines built at Mursina serves for a quarantine es- tablishment, although in the centre of the place. But the pilgrims com- QTJAEANTINE LAWS. 127 ing overland are obliged to perforta quarantine in tents at Adana, exposed to all the inconveniences of tlie weather; but to that they are accustomed. If two persons present themselves at the gate of Adana, the one with a teskere or passport from Aleppo, and the other from Alexandretta or Bayas, as an inhabitant of the latter places, the former is put in quar- antine for fifteen days, while the latter is admitted to free " pratique," although they have been journeying on together for the last three or four days, and been in constant communication. What are the people of the country to think of such a quarantine ? _-^.^A=SiP^ffea=«c>^- 128 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. CHAPTEE XIII. IL LAMAS (lAMUm) ^KURKASS (COETCUs) ASKI SHAHIE SOLI, AFTERWARDS POMPEIOPOLIS GREAT MAUSOLEUM AT TARSUS STRABo's DESCRIPTION OF THE COAST OF CILICIA HIS ACCOUNT OF TARSUS AND NEIGHBOURING TOWNS. Antiquities. — As this province was on the high road between the great contending powers of ancient times, the Greek, Roman, and Persian empires, it has passed and repassed into many hands ; and this may account for the very few perfect remains of art which are to be met with, the country having suffered greatly by the inroads of troops with almost every successive generation. There are several castles built on eminences by the Persians, Sara- cens, Crusaders, and Genoese; but although the Turkmans continued for some time to make use of them, they have gradually fallen into ruin, as doubtless the jealousy of the Porte does not care to allow such facilities of defence to exist among people always disposed to rebel. Il Lamas. — At II Lamas there is an aqueduct of some extent, which conveyed water from a distance of eight or ten miles through hills and across valleys to Kurkass Castle, which is on the coast between Selef- keh and Mursina. This castle is built on a rock in the sea, and is of a very ordinary style of architecture, as are all the ruins that are to be seen on the coast. The aqueduct is now dry, and in some places im- passable, as the damp of the mountain above oozes, and forms, drop by drop, as it were, icicles of petrified water (travertine). The waters that formerly ran through it are now lost in a little stream which runs into the sea at a short distance from their source, where Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort's boat took in water. Near the entrance of the aqueduct are still to be seen the remains of a Saracenic tower, which no doubt was built to defend it from invasions of pirates. Above the aqueduct at II Lamas, and at a distance of three miles inland, a rocky mountain rises perpendicularly to the height of about 3000 feet. In the centre of this precipice, half-way up, may be observed, out of the reach of man, two cannons in bronze, that sparkle in the KALAHT KTJRKASS. 129 morning sun, deriding for centuries past the vain efforts of the Turks to bring them down ; and the marks of many bullets may be seen, fired at them by Arnaut troops as they have passed the spot. They are in a port-hole, as it were, the one almost erect, but in an oblique position, and the other protruding horizontally. They appear to be about sixteen feet long; the bore-, perhaps, a foot in diameter. They were probably placed there to^ defend the aqueduct; and it is very likely that there is behind them an excavation in the mountain that served for military stores. A part of the mountain having fallen down, the ancient road to them is thus cut off, and' they have remained isolated and inacces- sible to any one using ordinary means. A road might be cut to them with very little expense, or a person might be let down from above ; but the latter would be a dangerous experiment, as the rock projects above, and it would be requisite to swing the rope backwards and forwards till the person hanging at the end could catch at the port- hole and enter. This place unfortunately was not visited by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort, otherwise the jolly tars of old England would certainly have brought them down. Strabo says of Coracesium (present Kalaht Kurkass), that it is situated on a rock close to a small bay, which forms a small harbour for boats of the country,, having an entrance on each side of the castle ; and he adds, that Diodorus, surnamed Tryphon, made use of it as a place of defence, and a depository for arms, when he detached Syria from the power of the Seleueians. He was so formidable as to pretend to the throne of Syria,, and maintained himself with various success, drawing his resources from Apamea and its surrounding towns, such as Larissa Cassiana (his native place), Megorus and Apollonia, until Antio- chus, son of Demetrius, compelled him to take refuge in a fort, where he killed himself* It was this same Tryphon who first gave the Cili- cians the idea of organising a company of pirates, in order to take ad- vantage of the weakness of the different princes who reigned in succession at this epoch over Syria and CiUcia ; being the first to rebel, and with so much success, that others followed his example. As to the ruling princes, says Strabo, " we may remark, that discord having broken up the union in which brothers ought to have lived, placed the country at the mercy of any one who chose to attack it." But what principally encouraged crime and plunder, were the great profits that accrued in the sale of persons reduced to slavery. Independently of the facility of making slaves, the robbers had the advantage of being near a place of * Vide Appiau de rebus Syriae, cap. 67, 68, £(ud Justin, lib. xxxvi. cap. 1. 130 CILICIA AND ITS GOVEUNOBS. commerce of some importance, viz. the island of Delos, wliich was rich enough to receive and send off to various places several thousand slaves per day ; and this had suggested the proverb, " Merchants anchor and discharge, for all is already sold," referring to the facility of meeting with a good market in this island. The Romans also contributed to these lawless deeds by the encouragement they gave in the purchase of slaves, who had become a matter of necessity to them; the destruc- tion of Carthage and Corinth having rendered them so rich, that they accustomed themselves to be served by a great number of slaves; and the pirates profiting by this opportunity of administering to their luxm'y, wandered boldly forth to pillage and seize all whom they met. The kings of Cyprus and Egypt also contiibuted to the encourage- ment of these pirates, by reason of the hatred they had of the Syrian princes; and the inhabitants of Rhodes, a maritime power that could have suppressed these lawless brigands, being jealous of the Syrians, did not choose to come to their assistance. Add to this, that the Eomans'at this time did not care much for the countries on the other side of the Taurus. It is true that Scipio ^milius, and after him other officers were sent to visit these countries ; and they soon discovered that the cause of these robberies proceeded from the cowardice of the successors of Seleucus Nicator ; but they did not choose to interfere with them, or deprive them of a government which they had themselves guaranteed to the family of this prince. The weakness of these kings, says Strabo, was the cause that Syria fell under the domination of the Parthians, who became masters of the country beyond the Euphrates, and after them the Armenians pushed their conquest beyond the Tiiurus as far as Phoe- nicia, exterminated the kings and their race, and left the sea open to the depredations of the Cilicians. The Romans, who had not at first taken energetic measures to stop the progress of the Cilicians in their lawless conduct, were obliged to have recourse to armies of considerable force, in order to destroy the power of the pirates. But Strabo excuses the Romans by saying, that they had at home so many things of greater interest to look to, that it is not to be wondered at if they neglected what was passing at a distance from the metropolis. PoMPEiOPOLis* (Soli). — On the coast, five miles to the westward of Mursina, are the ruins of Pompeiopohs. They are in a delightful situa- ♦ See T)r. Holt Yates's description and plan of the ancient rains, from Captain Prissiok's report, which ■n:ill illustrate my remarks ; Modem History and Condition, of Egypt, &c. (Smith and Elder). We have already quoted Admii-al Sir Francis Beau- fort's admirable account of these ruins from his Karamania, pp. 249, 259 et seq. RUINS OF POMPEIOPOLIS. 131 tion, but at present deserted. Here and there a little plot of ground is cultivated; the rest is overgrown with pines and brushwood. The only public buildings that can be distinguished out of such a heap of ruins are, 1st, the place of the amphitheatre, which was built of white marble, and had at the top aU round a cornice with wreaths in alto relievo, between each of which was sculptured a tragic mask. In this place was found the centre part of a Venus of full size, in white marble. 2dly, Some hundred columns, forty-two of which are still standing: they are composed of several pieces, and are about thirty feet high. Their capital above is ornamented with sculptured heads of Venus, Hercules, &c. There are six fluted columns, which stand out beyond the others. The whole are of very inferior work and taste. It is sup- posed that these columns served for an aqueduct, because it is difficult to explain exactly for what other object they were erected. Sir Francis Beaufort states that possibly the whole colonnade was once a covered street. The people of the country call Pompeiopolis Aski Shahir, "the old town:" Mazatli is a village higher up inland. There is a tradition that Soli was built by " Hahnun" a Jew, who erected for his daughter " Hind" a castle two miles above the town, which is still standing on the banks of the river, but in ruins, and appears to be of Saracenic origin. Sdly, and that which attracts the attention of the antiquary above all other remains, are some tombs which have certainly a very ancient origin. One that is out of the town to the eastward, near the river, in a field, has been opened. It contained two large sarcophagi, more than twelve feet long ; one is overturned, and the other still in its place. They are of marble, without any ornament, not having been SAECOFHAGUS AT SELEUCIA PIEKIA, Oi'ENED BY JIB. W. B. BARKEK. intended to be seen, but to be completely buried in the masonry. They have been originally covered all over by a composition formed of pebbles, sand, quick-lime, and pieces of brick, which has become petri- fied. Some inquisitive persons have succeeded in detaching this com- 132 CILICIA AND, ITS GOTERNOES. position from the sarcophagi when opening the tomb, and they are no-n quite empty.* Another tomb, which has not been opened, lies in the town to the west of the amphitheatre towards the sea, and is overgrown with brush- wood. It appears to be eight times the size of the last described. The French consul some years back tried to force it open; but although he cut the monument nearly half through at the centre, as he did not hap- pen to light upon either of the sarcophagi, they have remained enveloped in their pristine mass of mortar. Judging from what we see here, I conclude that the great monument at Tarsus, which so highly deserves the antiquary's attention, and which has frustrated every historical inquiry as to its origin, contains similar sarcophagi. It is of the same epoch and composition as the last men- tioned in Pompeiopolis, but at least one hundred times larger. It has two parallelograms that may be about 80 feet square each; they are at a distance from one another of about 200 paces, surrounded by a wall of the same composition, which is 30 feet high and 22 broad. To the north are two similar walls parallel to the monuments ; and a third that was begun and remained unfinished, because (I suppose) it was not required to contain any more sarcophagi. 1. Here a large hole has been made, but nothing found. 2. Vain attempts at an opening. 3. Here a tunnel was made sideways in the monument at the base till it reached the centre, and then the French consul dug down perpen- dicularly till he came to water, without finding any thing in this conglo- merated mass of lime and pebbles, except the first and second fingers of a man in marble, of gigantic size, joined together, but not as if they had belonged to the hand of a statue, but a finished work in itself 4. Here are holes in the wall made to support beams, which must * Here I may mention having opened two similar sarcophagi of very massive stone at the ancient Seleucia Pieria near Suwaldiyah, or Suedia^ a few yeaa's back. There was this difference^ that these sarcophagi were of a yellow stone^ and had a bas-relief ornament in the shape of a garland of ordinary work on their side and on the lids, for they were at first intended to be exposed to view, and not buried in any mortar what- ever. The cover or lid was so large, that although it had been broken in several pieces, it required some trouble to move the fragments. Both these sarcophagi were found empty for about a foot, beyond which there was a layer of clay three inches deep ; then below this were several large stones regularly built in, like the building of a wall ; and where the right ear should be, we found a small jar of very ordinary terra-ootta work in each. The only difference between these two sarcophagi was, that in one the ashes of the dead were collected in the little jar ; but in the other the jar was empty, and the ashes were strewn between each layer of the stone masonry built in the sarcophagus. On one were the remains of a Greek inscription quite illegible. See the sarcophagus in the preceding page, as well as the one in page 35. ANCIENT TOMB. 133 have been placed against it to form shelter for some Turkish cavalry ia modern times. The whole of what is now standing is, as it were, only the interior of a wall, the facing, composed of large fine marble stones, WALL UNFINISHED. j WALL 30 F-T HICH. -'ZZ_.BROAD [ WALL 30 FT HIGH ZZ BROAD WALLSOFT HIGH 22 BROAD GKOUND-PLAH OF THE GREAT MAUSOLEUM AT TABSDS. has aE been taken away and used elsewhere. I imagine that these walls also contain sarcophagi of some branch of the family of an ancient king, and that they were laid in the walls and fiUed up and covered with the mortar as the persons died; for the last wall to the north has remained 184 CILICIA AND ITS GOTERNORS. ■unfinished for want of tenants. In the centre there was space reserved as it is said, for Sardanapalns himself, whn, however, could not have required this mausoleum, having destroyed himself by fire in his palace, at Nirnis. Some assert that he was buried in a similar monument at Anchiale on the coast, and that, in conformity to his desiie, an inscrip- tion was erected over it commemorating his having built Tarsus and Anchiale in one day, as a trophy of his greatness and power. Where Anchiale stood, there are now the remains of such a mcJnument ; but it is insignificant compared with this one. Many vain attempts have been made to open this monument ; and it remains a question worthy the attention of antiquaries, inasmuch as it has hitherto frustrated tlie in- vestigation of the learned ; and all hypotheses formed upon its pristine object and the date of its construction are as vague as any proposed concerning the pyramids.* Strabo, remarking upon this portion of the coast, says, that Cape AnamoTir (Anemurium) is the nearest point of the land to Cyprus, being 350 stadia ; and he calls the distance from the frontiers of Paraphilia to this cape 820 stadia along the coast of Cilicia. " The rest of the coast, of about 500 stadia, terminates at Soli." Strabo further observes, that some persons considered Cilicia to begin at Celenderis (Kilindriya), and not at Coracesium (Kurkass); but this is no doubt in reference to those who divide Cilicia into two, Campestris and Trachea; Celenderis belonging to the latter, and Kurkass to the former. Strabo mentions two philosophers among the illustrious men born in Seleucia, Athenseus and Xenarchus. The former, he sa}-', was friend of Murcia, who had revolted against Augustus, and fell into disgrace, having been taken prisoner with his friend; but having proved his innocence, was set at liberty by order of this prince. On his return to Rome, being cross-questioned by some persons who met him, he replied, desirous of avoiding any political discussions, " I have just * The people of the country call it Dnnec Dash — Pierre renversh — and foolishly imagine that it is a temple tm-ned upside downj with its fomidations upwards ! W.B.B. We have seen in a note upon Selinus, afterwards Trajanopolis, that Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort identified a low massy edifice of seventy feet by fifty, composed of large well-cut blocks of stone, and containing a single vault, with the tomb or mauso- leum of Trajan. Mr. Barker describes similar remains at Soli or Pompeiopolis. These appear to be the massive mausolea in which the sarcophagi of the great were imbedded before and at the early part of the Christian era. May not the great mausoleum at Tarsus be the tomb of Julian, with which others have been aftei'wards connected? A maiusoleum of similar characters, but of later date, has been joined to that of Trajan, on one side of which is. a sepulchral inscription to Chrestion, the son of Ehsestus. The existence of more than one mausoleum within the precincts of Julian's tomb would not thus naiUtate against the vaUdity of the identification. W. P. A. MOUNTAINS AND FORTIFICATIONS. 135 left the residence of the dead, and been freed from the gates of the lower regions." He was killed by the fall, during the night, of a house which he inhabited. Xenarchus passed his life chiefly in Alexandria and Athens, and the latter part in Rome. He enjoyed the friendship ofAreus,* and afterwards the goodwill of Augustus;, and was much respected to the last, dying in an advanced age, after having lost the use of his sight. Strabo does not omit to say that he had been one of his disciples, " and followed his lessons." Strabo says that at the extremity of the Taurus ridge, high up, was Mount 01 jmpus^ called, no doubt, after the Olympus of classical celebrity, whereon was a castle of the same name, and from whence you might see Lycia, Pamphilia, and Pisidia, and which sensed as the stronghold of the pirate Zenicetus.- This must be a way of speaking allegorically to express the great height of the Taurus near the sea at this place ; for Strabo could not, had he ever been there, make this assertion, as the mountains to the north of Sulufska, and which run along the coast, intervene between the eye and Lycia. The ridge is here sufficiently high to see therefrom the island of Cyprus, or some sixty miles off; but it cannot overtop the mountains that intervene between it and Lycia. This country was much fortified, as may be seen by the many remains of old castles all along the coast, many of which- have been repaired by the Genoese, and adapted to resist the attacks of modern warfare. Strabo says, that the Romans considered it too unsettled and too much exposed to be attacked both by sea and land, to undertake to govern it themselves by means of officers or proconsuls, and that they preferred it should be governed by kings, who might be always present to suppress any insurrection or incursion of pirates ; and they " gave Cilicia Trachea to Archelaus, who already possessed Cappadocia." The pirate Zenicetus, Strabo tells us, burnt himself and his whole family in his castle, when Publius Servilius, surnamed Isauricus, became master of the mountain. He was at the time also " master of the Cape Corycus, and of the town of Phaselis and other places in Pamphilia, which were all taken by the general previous to Pompey's occupation of the country" (year of Rome 674, c. 679). f Next to Lamus (the present Illamus) comes Soli, whence begins Cilicia Proper (Campestris). It was founded by the Acheans and the people of Rhodes, from the town of Lindus; and when Pompey subdued the pirates, as the number of inhabitants was much reduced, he established therein such of those whom he had conquered as he * See Plutarch in Anton. § 81. f Vide Eutrop. lib. vi. cap. 3. 130 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. deemed worthy of pardon, and changed Uie name of the town, calling it Pompeiopolis, after himself. The illustrious men of Soli enumerated by Strabo are, Chrysippus, a Stoic philosopher, son of an inhabitant of Tarsus who had settled in Soli ; Philemon, a comic poet, and Aratus, author of a poem entitled The Phenomena. There were two capes that bore the name of Zephyrium, one near the Calycadnus rivei' of Sulufska, and the other in sight of Anchiale. Near this latter is the present village of Mursina ; at its extremity are the ruins of an ancient building, which the people of the country have dubbed with the title of Church of St. George ; and the Christians repair thither once a-year and pay their devotions under a large tree, which they have consecrated in their minds. The whole of the hill at this cape was covered with the foundations of ancient buildings, most of which I caused to be excavated, to build therewith a large maga- zine and house, which commands the finest prospect on the coast, and are both a kind of landmark to v-essels approaching the roadstead of Mursina. The people of the country not being allowed the use of bells, which only Europeans may have or ring, there being a Mahomedan prejudice against them, arising from a notion that the idol worship of Baal is attached to them, I recollect one day being specially requested to allow my dinner-bell (which was a large ship's bell) to be sounded in order to inspire extra devotional feelings in those who had assembled near my house to pay their devotions to St. George on the day set apart for that saint according to the Armenian calculation. At Anchiale (the present Karadujar), says Strabo, citing Aristo- bulus, was the tomb of Sardanapalus, and a statue of stone representing him snapping his fingers, with this inscription below it : " Sardanapalus, the son of Anacyndaraxes, caused the town of Anchiale to be built in one day, and also that of Tarsus. Passer-by, eat, drink, and divert thyself; for every thing else is not worth that" (meaning a snap of the fingers). The poet Chasribus mentions also this inscription, which is no longer in existence. But there is an old ruin, the mortar of which is petrified, and which may stand for the supposed tomb above mentioned. To the north of Anchiale was a fort, called by Strabo Cymda, where he says that " the kings of Macedonia deposited their treasure,* and which Eumenes carried off when he rebelled against Antigonus." Forming a triangle with this fort and Soli, at the foot of the Taurus * Strabo, it appears, looked upon the generals of Alexander of Maoedon as Mace- donians, and therefore gives to Antigonus this title, although he was master chiefly of Asia Minor as far as Syria. EIVBR CtDNUS AND LAKE EHEGMA. 13? was Olbus. This town had a temple to Jupiter, founded by Ajax, son ofTeuca; and the priests of this temple, says Strabo, were formerly masters of CiUcia Trachea, which is very expressive of the influence of the priests in those times, considering the difficulties of the road, and the distance from their temple into another province so much separated by nature as Cilicia Trachea and Campestris. Later, continues Strabo, the country was taken possession of by marauders, and converted into a stronghold ^or brigands. When they were destroyed, "which took place in our time," this province took the title of Principality of Teucer, and even "Priesthood of Teucer ;" and the greater part of the priests of the temple bore the name of Teucer or Ajax. " Alba, daughter of Zenophanus, having married one of the Teucer family, took possession of this province, which had been under the regency of her father. She was confirmed in her rule by Antony and Cleopatra ; but afterwards, at a later period, she was dethroned, and the government restored to the family." " Next to Anchiale," says Strabo, " is the mouth of the Cydnus, at the place called Ehegma, which is a lake, and where you may still see the remains of stocks for building of ships. Into this lake the Cydnus falls." The river at present circumvents the lake, which is a marsh of about thirty miles in circumference. The modern Tarsus is watered by a canal from the Cydnus, and this, after passing through the town, used to fall into the marshes ; but the Mufti, at my suggestion, caused a road to be cut for it to return into the river, in hopes that the waters of the marsh would diminish, and, in case there was no spring in the lake, that it might eventually be dried up, which would make the resi- dence much more salubrious. At present, the exhalations from the marsh, which are blown over the town by the sea-breeze, render the place most unhealthy; and the fevers that are engendered thereby are of the most pernicious kind, often carrying off the persons attacked by them in three days. As I have observed in another part of this work, the lake had been at one time drained, and the remains of a canal to carry ofi' the waters and turn them into the Cydnus may be seen close along the shore at the mouth of the river. I also believe that this lake was once a port, and communicated with the sea through a passage which is now but slightly blocked up by the sand. Strabo confirms this idea by adding : " This river has its source in that part of the Taurus which is above Tarsus, and it traverses this town (the ancient Tarsus, on part of which only the present town stands) before reaching the lake ; so that this latter serves as a port to the town." 138 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Strabo tells us that " Tarsus was founded by Triptolemus (a priest of Argos) in his search after lo ;" and there were at Tarsus and An- tioch monuments to prove that lo had been in their neighbourhood, and that they were colonies of Argos.* Strabo i'urther says, that as the sources of the Cydnus are not far from the town which it traverses, directly after leaving a deep valley, its waters are cold, and the current strong. " These," he adds, " are considered good for persons or animals suffering from «)rains or in- flamed limbs ;" as if the good effects of the cold water, which we fancy to be a discovery of modern times, were known and had recourse to in his time. Strabo proceeds to say, that the inhabitants of Tarsus had distin- guished themselves so much by their application to philosophy and literature, that this city in that point surpassed Athens, Alexandria, or even any other town where schools and colleges were to be met with directed by philosophers and learned men. " The only difference is, that at Tarsus those who apply themselves to literature are all Tarsiots, and that it is visited by few strangers ; even those who are born there do not remain in this town, but leave it to go and perfect themselves elsewhere ; and they remain away from home willingly, except a small number, who return to their country. This is quite the contrary in the other towns that I have referred to above (except Alexandria) : many strangers go there to study, and fix themselves in them, whilst few of their inhabitants leave their town out of love of science, or seek to instruct themselves at home- — two things that take place in Alexandria, whose inhabitants receive many strangers in their schools, and send a great many of their young men to the schools of other towns." — " Tarsus possesses schools for every kind of instruction. It is furthermore populous and powerful, and must be regarded as a capital." Of the illustrious men whom this city has produced, Strabo men- tions Antipater, Archimedes, and Nestor, Stoic philosophers, and the two Athenodori. Antipater was disciple and successor of Diogenes, the Babylonian (not the cynic of Sinopi, but the disciple of Chrysippus), about 80 B.C. according toLempriere; but Smith places him 144 B.C. Feeling his deficiency in the powers of disputing verbally with his opponent and contemporarj', Carneades, hp confined himself to writing, whence he was called Kalamoboas. Cicero praises his acuteness, and Plutarch speaks of him with Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus, as one of the principal Stoic philosophers. * Vide Smith's Dio. of Greek and Rom. Biog. and Myth. STOIC PHILOSOPHERS. 139 I find no particular mention of Archimedes and Nestor in Smith's Biography; but of the Athenodori we find that the first was called Cananites, from a town in Cilicia, although he was a native of Tarsus ; and Cicero calls him Athenodorus Calvus. He was in great favour with Augustus, whose government became milder in consequence of his attending to his advice, and the young Claudius was instructed by him. He retired to Tarsus, where he died at the age of 82, much beloved and respected in his own native city, of which he has written an account, as well as other works.* The other Athenodorus, surnamed Cordylia, was also a native of Tarsus, and a Stoic philosopher. He was keeper of the library at Pergamus; and in his anxiety to preserve the doctrines of his sect in their original purity, used to cut out from the works of the Stoic writers such parts as appeared to him erroneous or inconsistent. He removed from Pergamus to Rome, and lived with M. Cato, at whose house he died.j Strabo enters into a long account of the first-mentioned Atheno- dorus, how, on his return to Tarsus, finding Boethus and his faction intractable, he availed himself of the power confided to him by Augustus, and banished them. This same Boethus, Strabo tells us, was as bad a citizen as a poet, and maintained himself in power over his fellow townsmen by flattering Antony, whom he compared to Achilles, Aga- memnon, and Ulysses, in his verses, which he had the impudence to insinuate were like those of Homer. " These philosophers," says Strabo, " whom I have mentioned, were Stoics ; but the sect of the Academicians has furnished us in our days with one other distinguished man, Nestor, who was preceptor to Mar- cellus, son of Octavia, sister of Augustus. This philosopher was at the head of affairs in Cilicia, after Athenodorus, whom he succeeded, and he enjoyed to the end of his days the esteem of the governors (sent from Rome) and that of his fellow-countrymeru'' As to the other philosophers " whom I know and specify ly their names^'' says Strabo, quoting, this line of Homer, "there are two, Plu- tiades and Diogenes, both among those who pass from city to city, to shine in society by making their talents appreciated. Diogenes pos- sessed, moreover, the power of improvising, like a man inspired, on aU. kinds of subjects — poems, for the greater part, of a tragic turn."| This Diogenes mentioned here is not, I should suppose, the Diogenes Laertius, the historian of philosophers, although it is remarkable that * Vide Hoffman Dissert, de Athen. Taraensi, Lips. 1732 ; Sevin, in tte M^moires de I'Aoad. des Insor xix. 14. t Vide Smith's Myth. t Vide Laertius, lib. iv. sigm. 58. 140 CILICIA AND ITS G0TBRN0R8. lie is also one of the celebrated men of whom Cilicia can boast, as he received his surname from being a native of the town of Laerte in Cilicia. Of Plutiades I found no mention elsewhere, except that Smith seems to think him to be the same as Plution, who was a celebrated teacher of rhetoric ; and Westerman places him in the period between Augustus and Hadrian. " The grammarians that came from Tarsus," says Strabo, " are Artemidorus and Diodorus. This town also produced Dionysides, an excellent tragic poet, and one of the seven who composed what is called the Pleiad." This Artemidorus is supposed to be the same as the gram- marian of that name surnamed Aristophanius, from his being a disciple of the celebrated grammarian Aristophanes of Byzantium, at Alex- andria, who had also another disciple named Diodorus, and who may be, perhaps, the person above referred to by Strabo. There was in the time of the Emperor Valens a person of this name, who was appointed Bishop of Tarsus (a.d. 378) by Melitus, the Bishop of Autioch. Diodorus attended the Council of Constantinople (a.d. 381), at which the general superintendence of the Eastern churches was en- trusted to him and Pelagius of Li'odiceia. Of Dionysides nothing further is known than what Strabo says above, that he was one of the best of the composers of the Tragic Pleiad of the Alexandrian grammarians, and regarding whom historians are not so well agreed as regarding their number. Hephaestion the scholiast makes them contemporary with Ptolemy Philadelphus, and calls them Homer (not the author of the Iliad), Sositheus, Lycophron, Alexander (cited by Strabo in more places than one), OEantides, Sosiphanes, and Philisous. Others place Aratus, Apollonius, Nicander, and Theocritus at the head of the list, although none of these poets wrote any tragedies. " It is particularly in Eome," continues Strabo, " that we may procure information regarding the great number of men of letters pro- duced by Tarsus ; for it is fuU of learned men from that city, as well as from Alexandria. But," he concludes, "this is enough regarding Tarsus." From this Strabo passes on to the Pyramus, which, he says, comes from Cataonia, and he refers to his account of this river, where he de- scribes the country whence it takes its rise, alluding at the same time to the deposits of mud which this stream makes, and which, he says, gave rise to an oracle, which declared " that the time would come when posterity would see the Pyramus reach the island of Cyprus, by means of its deposits on the continent ;" and, indeed, the sea is rather shallow FABLES MENTIONED BY STRABO. 141 at the mouth of the Pjrramus : when the drag-nets are thrown, the men have to wade in the water for a quarter of a mile, as ropes of a general length are too short to reach the shore ; and what is remarkable is, that such is the abundance of turtle on this coast, that they fill the sack of the net, and have to be extracted therefrom three times before the net can reach the shore, by which time, however, it is generally found abundantly provided with fish. The mention of the mouth of the Pyramus naturally leads Strabo to notice Mallos, now a little ruin, and which, he tells us, was founded by Amphilochus and Mopsus. The latter, however, remaining master of the place on Amphilocus's voyage to Argos, refused to admit him to share in his authority on his return ; on which a mortal combat ensued, wherein both perished; and they were buried at a distance from each other, so that the tomb of the one could not be discerned from that of the other, " in order that their enmity should cease after death." Strabo also mentions two fables regarding the death of Calchas, the greatest of the Grecian soothsayers at Troy. "Hesiod," says he, "ar- ranges this fable in the following manner. Calchas proposed to Mopsus this enigma: 'I am astonished at the quantity of figs on this wild fig- tree; could you guess the number of them?' Mopsus replied, 'There are ten thousand of them, which make a medim measure, and there remains one over; and this you are not capable of understanding.' Thus spoke Mopsus ; and the measure having been found complete (or cor- rect), the sleep of death closed the eyes of Calchas. " But," continues Strabo, " according to Pherecydes, the subject of the enigma was a sow with young. Calchas asked Mopsus how many pigs it bore. Mopsus replied three, and one of which a female. Cal- chas, finding Mopsus right, died of grief. Others say that he proposed the enigma of the sow, and that Mopsus in his turn proposed that of the fig-tree; and that Calchas, not having been able to guess rightly, died of vexation, as it had been predicted to him by an oracle. So- phocles, in his ' Vindication of Helen,' says that the oracle had de- clared to Calchas that he was destined to die as soon as he met with a soothsayer cleverer than him. This same poet places this dispute and death of Calchas in Cilicia. But this is enough^" says Strabo, " of these ancient fables." " Hallos'' (or Mallus), says Strabo, " was the birth-place of the grammarian Crates, of whom Panoetius tells us he was a disciple." This Crates was son of Simocrates, and lived in the reign of Ptolemy Philo- meter, and was contemporary with Aristarchus. This would give us some clue to the epoch in which his disciple lived, and regarding whom 142 CILICIA AND ITS GOYBBNORS. tliere is some uncertainty as to the year of Ms birth or death.* Crates was brought up at Tarsus, and afterwards removed to Pergamus, where he founded a school about the year 157 B.C. He was sent by Attalus ambassador to Rome, where, having by accident broken his leg, he was compelled to lead a sedentary life, and this enabled him to find time to hold frequent grammatical lectures. This, says our historian, is aU that is known of the life of Crates. We are told by Strabo that, whilst Philotas conducted the cavalry of Alexander through the Aleian plains — taking, no doubt, the route which is the high road of the present day through Adana and Missis — the latter conducted the infantry from Soli along the coast to Issus. He must, of course, have passed by Mallos ; and Strabo says that it was reported that Alexander offered libations on the tomb of Amphilochus, in consideration of their common origin from the city of Argos.-j- After mentioning different places on the coast, such as .^geus (Ayas), the Pyte AmanidEe, Issus, Rhosus (Arsus), and the Pylse Syriaj, he says that the first Syrian town on leaving the latter is Seleucia Pieria, the Suedia described in this work, " near which the Orontes river dis- charges its waters. From this town to Soli the navigation in a straight line is about 1000 stadia."| He then concludes with the following - passage regarding the origin of the Cilicians : " As the Cihcians of Troy whom Homer mentions § are very far from the Cilicians of Mount Taurus, some peojole pretend that the latter issued from the first ; and they shew places bearing the same name as those of Trojan Cilicia, such as Thebes and Lernassus in Pamphilia. Others, on the contrary, consider the Cilicians of Troy to be descended from those beyond the Taurus, and equally point out among them a plain which is called Aleium (after that in which is Tarsus)." * Vide Smith's Myth. + Vide An-ian de Exped. Alexand. lib. ii. cap. 5. J I have crossed it by a sixteen hours' sail in an open boat. § niad. lib. vi. rers. 395-397. •"^ ^(p^^ipiHyxi^^*^^ — ~ LARES AND PENATES HOUSEHOLD GODS OF CILICIA. LARES AND PENATES. OHAPTEE I. liTTEOB'EICTOET. Laees and Penates were tlie names of the household gods of the an- cients. Many derivations have been found for both : the Lares from their descent from Lara; but the most likely is that given by Apuleius {De Deo Socratis), from lav, familiaris. The Penates appear to be essen- tially of Eastern origin, and the etymology of the word, it has been said, must be sought in the Phrygian ; although Cicero and others have given it a Latin origin, quod penitus insident, or again, quia coluntur in penetralibus, " because they are worshipped in the innermost recesses of the house.'' A mythology or pantheism of this kind dates from the most remote antiquity ; it is probably one of the first soothing fictions by which the great Deity was brought into immediate contact with persons and actions. The Egyptians had their four gods, for example, who presided over the birth of children — Genius, Fortune, Love, and Necessity. These were subsequently called Pe^stites, [j" Quod prsestaut ocvilis omnia tuta siiis" — Ovm. Fast; and were supposed to take care of particular houses and families. We trace the same faith lingering in poetic rather than admitted notions of angelic and saintly interference in our own times. The Penates were divinities, or household gods, who were believed to be the creators or dispensers of all the well-being and gifts of for- tune enjoyed by a family, as well as an entire community. It is not clear whether all or which of the gods were venerated as Penates ; for L 146 LARES AND PENATES. many are mentioned of both sexes, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Vesta, Nep- tune, Apollo, &c. ; but every family worshipped one or more of these, whose images were kept in the inner part of the house, the tablinum, situated beyond the atrium. They are represented in various ways on coins and medals. Mr. Eieh gives an example in his Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary and Greek Lexicon, from the Vatican Virgil, in which they appear as old men, with their heads veUed like priests officiating .at a sacrifice. The occurrence of such an illustra^ tion would tend to throw some light on the bearded and hooded figures met with in the Tarsus collection, and the origin of which will be after- wards discussed under various points of view. The Lares, as tutelary spirits, were also sometimes confounded with the souls of deceased persons. Thus Apuleius tells us that the private or domestic Lares were no more than the souls of departed persons who had lived well and discharged the duties of their station ; whereas those who had done otherwise were vagabond, wandering about and frightening people under the name of Larvas and Lemures. The Lares were sujjposed to exercise a protecting influence over the interior of every man's household, himself, his family, and property ; and yet they were not regarded as divinities like the Penates, but simply as guardian spii'its, whose place was the chimney-piece, and whose altar was the domestic hearth (focus) in the atrium, and where each individual made ofierings of incense .to them in his own home. Many illustrations of these descriptions of private or domestic Lares occur in the Tarsus col- lection. According to Ovid there were but two Lares ; and these, like the Penates, were worshipped in the form of little figures or images of wax, earthenware, or terra cotta, and of metal, more especially silver. They were dressed in short habits, to shew their readiness to serve, and they held a sort of cornuoopise in their hands, as the emblem of hospitality and good house-keeping. Rich says they are constantly represented in works of art as young men crowned with a chaplet of laurel leaves, in a short tunic,* and holding up a drinking-horn (cornu, not the cornu- copice,) above their heads ; and he gives an example from a bas-relief in the Vatican, under which is the inscription, " Laribus Augustis."-!- Examples are met with in the Tarsus collection. * Succinctis Laribus. Pers. v. 31. ■f" The Lares were also represented as yoimg boj^s, with dog-skins about their shoulders, and with their heads coyered, which was a sign of that freedom and liberty which men ought to enjoy in ihe'ir own houses ; their symbol was a dog, to denote their fidelity,.and the service .that animal does to man. in preseiwingand .watching 'Over DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LAEES. 147 The accessory of the drinking-horn has induced many antiquaries to take these figures for oup-beaiers (pocillatores) ; but the inscription just mentioned is sufficient evidence of their real character, and they are repeatedly seen on the walls of the Pompeian houses, in kitchens, bakehouses, and over street-doors, standing in pairs, one on each side of an altar, in the same attitude and drapery. Great houses and per- sons of wealth had their Lararia, a sort of shrine, small chapel, or apart- ment, where the statues of the Lares, as well as of other sanctified or deified personages, were placed and worshipped.* Tatius, king of the Sabines, is said to have bmlt a temple to the Lares. Plutarch distinguishes the Lares, like the Genii, into good and evil ; and there were also public and private Lares. The pubhc Lares were sometimes called Compitalis, from compitum, a cross-way ; and Viales, from via, a way, or public road, as being placed at the intersection of roads and in the highways, and esteemed the patrons and protectors of tra- vellers. The Eomans also gave the name TJrbani, that is. Lares of the cities, to those who had cities under their care ; and Hostilii, to those who were to keep off their enemies. There were also Lares of the country, called Rurales, as appears from several ancient inscriptions ; and also Lares called Permarini, who, it is probable, were the Lares of ships ; nor is it unreasonable to suppose that these floating houses should have their tutelar deities as well as others. They had even their grunt- ing Lares ; the Lares called Grundiles having, according to tradition, been instituted by Eomulus, in honour of a sow that brought forth at one time thirty pigs. The name Grimdiles was given to them a grun- nitu, from grunting. When the Roman youths laid aside the bull (a golden ornament shaped hke a heart, but hollow, which they constantly wore till four- teen years of age), they consecrated or hung it up to the Lares. Slaves likewise, when they obtained their freedom, hung up their chains to these deities. The Eomans at first offered young people in sacrifice both to the the places allotted to their charge, on which account the dog was particularly conse- crated to them. The number of heads, and other portions of " deified boys," in the Tarsus collectionj is quite remarkable, and would tend to sliew that the intention of these figures was the same in Cicilia as it was at Eome. Figures of dogs are not so common, but several instances occur, sufficient indeed to lead us to beUeve that the same tradition with regard to these faithful domestic animals as obtained among the Eomans was also accepted by the Cicilians. They appear to have been the hoarders up of the mythological traditions of almost aU the countries by which they were surrounded, or by which they were successively conquered. * Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 29, 31. 148 LAKES AND PENATES. Lares and Penates; but those barbarous rites were ultimately super- seded by more harmless oiFerings, — hogs in public, and wine, incense, heads of poppies, bandages of wool, and images of straw in priyate ; they also crowned them with flowers, particularly with the violet, myrtle, and rosemary. The term Lares, according to Mr. Bryant's mythological theory, was formed from laren, an ancient word by which the ark was represented ; and he supposes that the Lares and Manes were the same domestic deities under different names, and that by these terms the Hetrurians and Latins denote the Dii Arkits, who were no other than their Arkite ancestors, or the persons preserved in the laren or ark, the genius of which was Isis, the reputed parent of the world. He observes further that they are described as daemons and genii, who once Hved on earth, and were gifted with immortality. Arnobius styles them. Lares quosdam genios et fimctorum animas ; and he says that, according to Varro, they were the children of Mania. Flutius* ^dds, that Mania had also the name of Laranda, and she is styled the mother of the dsemons. By some she is called Lara, and was supposed to preside over families ; and children were offered at her altar in order to procure her favour. In lieu of these they in after-times offered the heads of poppies and pods of garlic. This accounts somewhat for the discrepancy of the ancients as to their origin. For example, Varro and Macrobius say that they were the children of Mania; Ovid makes them the issue of Mercury and Lara or Larunda; Apuleius assures us that they were tKe posterity of the Lemures; Nigridius, according to Arnobius, made them sometimes the guardians and protectors of houses, and sometimes the same with the Curetes of Samo-Thracia, which the Greeks call Idcei dactyli. Nor was Varro more consistent in his own opinions, sometimes making them the manes of heroes, and sometimes gods of the air. In CiHcia we have a faint tracing of the admixture of Egyptian and Samo-Thracian mysteries in the national Pantheism, in the existence of a terra-cotta crocodile, a crocodile river, Kersus of Xenophon, Andricus of Pliny, and a " Mons crocodilus." With respect to the Penates, they were of three classes : those who presided over empires and states, those who had the protection of cities, and those who took the care or guardianship of private families ; the last were called the lesser Penates. According to others, there were four classes : the celestial, the sea-gods, the gods of heU, and aU such heroes as had received divine honours after death. * Demonst. prop. iv. p. 139. PENATES OF EOMB. 149 Authors are not agreed about the origin of the Dii Penates, which are generally admitted to have come originally from Asia, and were known as the tutelary gods of the Trojans. Dionysius Halicarnassus tells us that ^Eneas first lodged these gods in the city of Lavinium, and that his son Ascanius, upon building the city of Alba, translated them thither, but that they returned twice miraculously to Lavinium. The same author adds, that in Rome there was stUl seen a dark temple, shaded by the adjacent buildings, wherein were the images of the Trojan gods, with the inscription " Denas,'' which signifies Penates. These images represented two young men sitting, each of which held a lance. I have seen, says Dionysius, several other statues of the same gods in ancient temples, who all appear like young men dressed in the habit of war. Varro brings the Penates from Samothraoe to Phrygia, to be afterwards transported by ^neas into Italy. It is a popular qiiestion among the learned, who were the Penates of Rome ? Some say Vesta, others Neptune and Apollo ; Vives says Castor and Pollux, with whom agrees Vossius, who adds, that the reason of their choosing Castor and Pollux in the quality of Penates might be the important service they rendered the Romans in some of their wars. When Macrobius says that Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva were the Penates of the Romans, it does not follow from that that they were the Penates of Rome. It seems, indeed, to have been in the option of every master of a family to choose his Penates ; and hence it was that Jupiter and some of the superior gods were often invoked as patrons of domestic afiairs. The positive domestic and public deities selected by a country or province and its inhabitants were, perhaps, never before so fully illus- trated as in the instance of the remarkable collection now brought to light, discovered also in a country of great antiquity, and which per- haps, more than any other in the East, forms the connecting link between Assyrian and Greek mythology, and with Lycia between As- syrian and Greek art. The light they may yet be made to throw upon these relations wUl, in all probability, be found to be very considerable, and to present a field of investigation as yet almost un- touched. The Assyrians of old recognised in the stars of heaven golden chariots of heavenly hosts.* Zeus or Baal, as the most perfect leader of the most perfect chariot, was drawn by the finest and largest horses of Asia ; while the god of the sun had only one single Nisasan horse, or was represented * Grotefend on the Mythology of the Assyrians, according to the Sculptures of the Palace at Nimrud, 150 LAKES AKD PBNATBS. upon a winged horse, whose image Layard* found embroidered upon the garment of the ting.! Lilie the tradition of Bellerophon and Perseus, whom, according to Herodotus,! the Persians declared to "be an Assyrian, the designation of this horse by the 'name of Pegasus seems to be of Assyrian origin, espe- cially since Tai-sus, whose inhabitants, according to Dio Chrysostonius,§ worshipped Perseus, together with Hercules or Sandon,|| and the tri- dented ApoUo, is said to have been built by an Assyrian king.^ "We ha-ve here, then, at once accurate legendary information as to the Penates of Tarsus, and tolerably satisfactory testimony as to the Assyrian origin of some of them. Perseus himself has been recognised in this collection; and it has been ingeniously suggested that Tarsus winged, feathered, pinioned, may have reference to the conqueror of the Gorgon. Keasons have been elsewhere given for a preference to an etymology which brings Tarsus more into connexion with the story of Bellerophon, and the frequent fragments of horses' feet have been sug- gested to have some reference to Pegasus ; while the circumstance of the Apollo of Tarsus being winged might be made to bear reference to either or both of these local traditions. "W^e may observe that Apollo was the chief object of superstitious worship at Tarsus ; that his image was no doubt in every house ; that his remains are more numerous than the other objects of heathen idolatry; and that he is represented in many various ways. "We have also a head of a horse which, it has been suggested, may be one of the horses of the sun ; a surmise which is further said to be sup- * Vol. ii. p. 461, fig. 84. i* Grotefend describes, from Layard, a slab at Nimrud upon which is sculptured a flying horseman, who bore a helmet with curved crest. The Persians themselves, Layard remarks, vol. i. p. 443, may have recognised the Assyrian source of their reli- gion, when they declared Perseus, the founder of their race, to have been an Assyrian. Herodotus, i. vi. c. 64. The head of Perseus occurs on two of the Babylonian cylinders engraved by Mr. CuUimore for the Syro-Egyptian Society. Some traditions made this Perseus a gi-eat astronomer, who instructed men in the knowledge of the stars, nepo-ei'? 6 HXtor, Perseus is the sun, says the scholiast in Lycophr. v. 18. According to some, he married Astarte, the daughter of Belus. All these traditions point to his Assyrian origin. I only iind in Layard, vol. i. p. 376, mention of a horseman wearing a helmet with a curved crest, pursued by two Assyrian warriors ; but in vol, ii. p. 461, is figured the winged horse, " so closely," says Layard, " resembling the Pegasus of the Greeks, that we can scarcely doubt the identity." J Herodotus, vi. 64. § Orai, xxxiii. init. and p. 407, ed. Man. II Compare Raoul Eochette, Mlmoire sur VHercuh Assyrien, p. 489 et seq. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus writes of Tarsus, xiv. 8, Saud condidisse Perseus memo- raiuTf vet certe ex A7ichi{al)o profectus Sandoii quidem nomine/ vir opulentus et nohilis. THE TAESUS COLLECTION. 151 ported by another fragment existing in the collection whicli shews the head of a second horse coupled to it as if attached to a chariot, and also hy the many votive memorials of horses' limbs before alluded to. "We have in the collection several heads of Hercules, one of which is radiated, and figures of Hercules with the mace. The Assyrian Hercules, Sandes, Sandon, or Sandok,* but more properly Dayyad the Hunter, was represented on a colossal winged figure holding a -mace, and also as bear- ing a stag on one arm, and a flower with five blossoms in the right hand. It does not appear that this latter form of the divinity was accepted by the Tarsians. It is sufficient, however, that we certainly find traces of Assyrian mythology interwoven into a compound worship — the Egyptian, Syrian, Grecian, and Eoman characters of which are elsewhere developed, — and which combination has been justly pointed out to have arisen from the local position of Tarsus and its commercial connexions. " I believe," remarks Mr. Abington, " that there has never before been presented to this world so striking a proof of the easy plastic character of the old mythology as we find in this precious collection of antiquities." A further development even to this view of the matter is given when we add an Assyrian origin to the most characteristic of the Tarsus divini- ties, and to the before-mentioned Egyptian, Syrian,.Grecian, and Eoman combinations. It need only be added, that some further curious and remarkable illustrations of the same affinity — that is, of Cihcian and Assyrian mythology — will be found in the chapter devoted to the description of certain gods, demi-gods, and heroes represented in the Tarsus terra- cottas, and which arrived in this country, and were described, at a period subsequent to the examination of the first portions of the col- lection. * Tacitus, An. xii. 13. <^^c::-0^i!!^XD'^ - CHAPTER II. DISCOVERY OF THE TEEKA-COTTAS LARES AND PENATES OF CILICIA EVI- DENCES OF PROMISCUOUS WORSHIP APOLLO OF TARSUS PERSEUS, BELLE- EOPHON, AND PEGASUS RADIATED APOLLO IDENTITY OF PHYSIOGNOMY UGLY FACES DEIFICATION OP CHILDREN DEIFICATION OF PRINCES DEIFICATION OF LADIES CHARACTER OF CILICIAN ART PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY DESTRUCTION OF THE LARES AND PENATES ATYS APOLLO, THE SYRIAN BAAL — CYBELE, CERES, AND ISIS ELEUSINEAN MYSTE - EIES CYBELE AND ATYS, ISIS AND OSIRIS, VENUS AND ADONIS THE CAT, DOG, AND HORSE HARPOCRATES AND FLOEUS ISIS AND THE NELUMBIUM SACRED BULLS EGYPTIAN ART — MORPHEUS. " The incarnations, which form the principal subjects of sculpture in the temples of idolatry, are above all others calculated to call forth the ideal perfections of the art, by expanding and exalting the imagination of the artist, and inciting his ambition to surpass the simple imitation of ordinary forms, in order to produce a model of excellence worthy to be the corporeal habitation of the Deity ; but this no nation of the earth, except the Greeks, and those who copied them, ever attempted,, Let the precious wrecks and fi-agments, therefore, of the art and genius of that wonder- ful people be collected with care, and preserved with reverence, as examples of what man is capable of under pecuHar circumstances, which, as they have never occurred but once, may never occur again." — R. P. Knight oti the SymhoUcal Language of Mythology. It has been my good fortune to discover such remains as are above alluded to in the extract from Mr. E. P. Knight's learned and interesting work. During a residence of eight years in Cilicia, I was, in the year 1845, at different intervals, presented with one or two of these terra- cotta heads by an Armenian, who passed a great part of the day rum- maging among old ruins, which is frequently the case with lazy fellows, who pass for moral men or " saints" of the modern Eastern population, and who have an ulterior object besides that of seclusion : the desire of discovering hidden treasures, or of imposing on the credulity of their countrymen, by pretending to supernatural knowledge in the secret of finding the same. I had in vain questioned him regarding the place DISCOVBBY OF THE COLLECTION. 153 where he had found these objects. He had naturally an interest in avoiding to satisfy my curiosity, as I paid him handsomely for every thing he brought me ; and he pretended that he used to write magical words on pieces of paper, which he would throw up in the air, and then he would dig in those places whereon they fell ! Such is the kind of nonsense which he no doubt endeavoured to impose on his credulous neighbours. One day a friend observed the Armenian scratching the earth on the slope of a hill at no great distance from my residence. He suspected what the man was looking for, and on informing me of the circumstance, I proceeded to the spot, where I discovered the rich mine from which I have drawn the whole of my coDection. Having set workmen to clear away the rubbish, I collected all I could get, and these are the objects of which I now offer sketches to the public. These drawings I have taken care should be done as correctly as possible ; yet such is the artistic merit of the originals, that no one can do them sufficient jus- tice. Still I have endeavoured to give such an accurate delineation of these objects as shall bear the closest critical inspection. On the ancient wall of Tarsus a hill leaned (if I may be allowed the expression), which must have been many centuries there, inasmuch as on its summit, and towards its base, there exists a fabric, the founda- tions of which are of Eoman cement, which was used for the interior of waUs, and which, petrifying, becomes a conglomeration of mortar, sand, and pebbles, of different sizes, and harder to break up than the rock itself The inhabitants of the present town do not trouble themselves to go to the mountains to cut thence the stones they may require for their buildings ; they prefer using such as those who hved in the same spot before have left them ; and they carry away, wherever they find them, all the large square stones they require. After using up all that they could find on the surface of the ground, they dug up the founda- tion of the old city of Tarsus. This foundation is now as low down as forty feet under ground, such being the speed with which alluvial deposits accumulate in a country so near to the high ridges of the Taurus, and in a city on which several towns have been built in suc- cession. In the coiu-se of time the wall on which the hill leaned was thus carried away stone by stone, and a secant of the hill left exposed to view. In the centre of this secant it was that I first discovered these precious objects ; and by beating the earth down the hill, I had it well examined, and carried off, as I imagined, every thing worthy of notice, until no more objects were exposed to view by working in the hUl. The curiosity excited by this discovery was naturally great, and it was 154 LARES AND PENATES. impossible to prevent the inhabitants from crowding to the spot. They were all much pleased with the lamps found among the rubbish, all of which were more or less perfect, and in a state ready for use ; these I could not prevent them carrying off: but as they took no interest in any thing else (heads being perfectly useless to them), and as they were aware that I would have purchased all that were presented to me, I have every reason to believe that nothing of any consequence escaped me except these lamps, of which; however, I secured a great many, rejecting such as were of common workmanship, or devoid of interest, from their having no basso relievo or inscription to recommend them to notice. It was thus that I obtained this unique collection af ancient Cera- mic art. At first I imagined that I had lighted upon the site of a Ceramicus, and that the mound might have been formed of the waste of a manufac- tory, or what is technically called " sherdwreck,'' many of which are now accumulating, and will disclose their secrets to some future genera- tion. But on further inspection of the articles themselves, I have no doubt that Mr. Abington's* suggestion wiH be found correct, that these precious vestiges are the Penates of the ancient Cilicians, and conse- quently of a much more interesting character, inasmuch as they bear witness and testify to the triumphs of Christianity over the superstitions of the Gentiles. The following are some of the reasons that lead to this conclusion. 1st. None of the articles appear to have been rejected by the maker on account of defective workmanship ; though the work of some of them is very slight, yet even these have evidently been in use ; they had been sent out by the manufacturer as finished ; had been applied to the pur- poses intended, and subsequently broken, either by design or accident ; " and if they had been, used," Mr. Birch, observed, before he had seen * Here I am Happy in an opportnnity of expressing publicly my great obligation to Mr. Leonard J. Abington, of Hanley Potteries, Staffordshire, for tbe valuable infor- mation he has fiimished me with ; indeed, without him, I question if I should have been able to bring these valuable remains of antiquity into notice. He not only mounted each piece on a pedestal adapted to it, and thereby presented the object in the most advantageous position to be viewed, but he addi'essed to me a series of remarks doubly interesting : first, as coming from a person who seems at home on every subject, ancient and modern ; and second, as emanating from one who could speak artistically as well as scientifically, he being connected with one of the largest establishments of China pottery in England. These observations are incorporated in the following re- marks, and foi-m the basis of what I woiild turn the attention of the reader to, leaving (as I have already observed) to others to work upon the subject, which is of great in- terest, and affords matter for many volumes X)y more abl6 pens. PENATES OF THE CILICIANS. 155 NO. 1. — HEAD OP PAN. the objects, " they would have been covered with lime, and painted in fresco, traces of which must be sought upon them." Now they have all been painted ; indeed, some of them have been painted more than once : see the head of Pan, No. 1, which had been painted blue, and afterwards with a thick coat of red ; many were painted in party-colour — the flesh and the gar- ments different. In a mounted headless bust of ApoUo Belvidere there are two or three spots of the colour remaining ; the body was red, and the garments green ; and a careful examination of many of the pieces, after breathing upon them, will discover traces of co- lour which would not be suspected on a cursory view. The rays upon deified figures are generally painted blue, and sometimes the eyes are of the same colour. The head of Pan, No. 1, was not thrown aside because of any defect making it unsaleable ; except a little damage to the edge of the garland with which it is crowned, it is as perfect as- when the maker sold it. The mortar, which still remains, by which it was fixed upon the stile which supported it, proves that it had been put up in the place which superstition had assigned to it, and from which it was afterwards deposed and cast out. This remaining mortar or cement proves further, that it had been applied to the purpose for which the heads of Pan and Bacchus usually were, in woods, pastures, and vineyards : it escaped the destruction which came upon its fellows by reason of its solid and al- most spherical form. 2dly. The Incense-Burner, No. 2,. has not been rejected by the maker on account of any failure in the workmanship. It had left the manufac- tory, and been in use in the worship of some household idol; this is certain, by the carbonaceous stain still remaining in the bottom of the crater. This piece, therefore,, after having been consecrated to , religious use, was afterwards broken and thrown out, either by accident or design. NO. 2. — ^INCENSE-BUBNEE. 156 LARES AND PENATES. Sdly. The same argument may be drawn from tHe Lamp, No. 3, which had been long m use. The stag upon it suggests the thought NO. 3. — LAMP. NO. i. — HEAD AND STATUE OF DIANA. that it has been used to burn before an image of Diana, whose head we have. No. 4, and who was honoured in Lesser Asia. Another Lamp is entire, and fit for service ; and it was not likely to have been thrown away as rubbish. The symbols upon it indicate that it has been used for religious purposes. Such articles would certainly be rejected, as contaminated by the use for idol- worship, on the owners embracing the " glorious Gospel of the blessed God." The circular arched form of the lamps woidd enable them to bear considerable vio- lence without breaking, and would account for such a number having been found whok and perfect, although subjected to the same inten- tional destruction which the rest of the pieces of the collection have ex- perienced. JTJPITEB, JUNO, AND APOLLO. 15^ 4thly. Some of tlie fragments are votive offerings, consecrated to the honour of the gods, and attesting their .condescension to suffer- ing humanity, and their power to help. To damage or remove such would have been con- sidered the highest act of desecration. The most wicked man would have been shocked at such a crime. What, then, could have caused such a sweeping act of sacrilege ? Here he the prized memorials of relief obtained from the gods in time of trouble, and the very gods themselves lying in the same indiscriminate ruin. There lies the Olympic Thunderer with his jaw broken. No. 5, and the head of his saucy wife for a companion, in the dirt, No. 6. His wings could not save the patron, No. 7, a winged Apollo, NO. 5. — HEAD OF JUPITEE. NO. 6. — JUNO. NO. 7. — ^APOLLO WINGED. the honoured of Tarsus, from the general break-up ; nor even the honesty of little Mercury, No. 8, exempt him from the common lot. 158 LABES AND PENATES. There is no fact in history to account for this sacrilegious devastation, but the resistless progress of the Gospel in apostolic times. 50. 8.— MBKOUET. NO. 9. — HEAD OF MESSAIilNA, THE riTTH 'WII'E OF THE EMPEBOB OLAUDIAN. Sthly. The age to which we must attribute the production of these works 'of art coincides with this supposition. Additional oonfirmation of this is aiForded by some coins found with them, and which are knoivn to date no further back than a century and a half to two centuries B.C. The fashion of the hair in the head No. 9 will admit of our fixing the date of the destruction of these objects in the first century. I am not aware that we have any account of the introduction of the Gospel, or of its triumphs at Tarsu-s; but it is not unlikely that this rejec- tion of the objects of si^erstitious reverence might have taken place before the close of the first century; and doubtless St. Paul would have been anxious for the conversion of his immediate friends and re'ations ; and if he could not have superintended it in person, he would have early sent his most able and efficient disciples to carry on this work of grace. This question flow meets us, "Was this casting away of idols the act of private individuals, clearing their habitations of these abominations, at the risk of persecution from the authorities, and burying them outside DESCRIPTION or FIGURES EO0ND. 159 ■the gates ? or was it a general cleansing of the city by the force of public opinion, such as is described in Acts xix. 18-20 ? In either case we find here accumulated every variety of idol, including the compound worship (which had been carried on for years) of Assyrian, Egyptian, Syrian, Gre- cian, and Roman mythology, — this combination no doubt arising from the local position of Tarsus and its commercial connexions ; and if some person competent to the study would take up the subject, I feel per- suaded that much might be elucidated of further interest to the archseo- logist and to the divine, which would bring us to the firm persuasion, that their being purposely mutilated and thrown away was to be attri- buted to the influence of apostolic missionaries of the Christian faith in the first century of our Lord. A proof of the promiscuous worship of the people of Tarsus, and a picture of their religious superstition, before the establishment of Chris- tianity, is afforded by the accompanying list of some of the figures found, which will shew how comprehensive their religious faith must have been : here we have Apollo, Adonis. Isis. Atys. Venus. Bacchus. Jupiter. Pan. Serapis. Horus. Mercury. Apis. Diana. Anubis (the Egyptian Juno. Mercury). PaUaa. Typhon. Pluto. Iris. Eros. .(EsGulapius. Fortune— Victory. Phre— (the Hawk, the Egyptian Hercules. Sun). and a multitude of deified men, women, and children, to whom it is impossible even to assign names. The religious system, therefore, prevailing at Tarsus must have been a compound of all the creeds existing at that epoch. Such a combination was perhaps common to the cities of Asia Minor ; but was more likely to be found at Tarsus, it being a place of resort from aU the surrounding countries, on account of its schools, as well as of its commerce. It has been before remarked, that there has never been presented to the world so striking a proof of the easy, plastic character of the old mythology as we find in this precious col- lection of antiquities. Unlike Christianity, which treads alone in all the rigid inflexibility of eternal truth, and wiU not amalgamate with any thing earthly or of man's device, we find ready adoption of any 160 LAEBS AND PENATES. thing or every thing likely to fascinate the people, and to bring traffic to the temples. In order to read these vestiges intelligibly, it will not be uninterest- ing that we should review the peculiarities of the place of their disco- very. Tarsus was " no mean city;'' its foundation was in the earliest autiquity; and when it came under the power of the Eomans it was made a metropolis, as appears on its coins ; its schools rivalled those of Athens and Alexandria, to which it often furnished professors in eloquence and philosophy. One of the supposed derivations of its name may have been from the Greek. The most fanciful derivations were certainly sometimes represented in works of art. Have the wings any thing to do with Perseus, who has a great place in Tarsian my- thology ? Tarsus, says Mr. Birch, is an old name, certainly as old as the twentieth Egyptian dynasty, or fourteen centuries B.C. " Tar- sus'' signifies winged — feathered — pinioned, which the following obser- vation on one of these relics, a sketch of which is given under No. 7, elucidates, and affords a solution to a great mystery.* ' TapcTof is used by the writers of old not only to express a wing, but also the palm of the foot and hand. In anatomy tarsus is distingtrished as belonging to the foot, carpus to the hand, Dionysius, sumamed Periegetes, from his poem of Periegesis, or " Surrey of the World," refers the name of the city of Tarsus to Pegasus haviDg landed Bellerophon there, leaTrng the mark of his hoof, or foot, in the ground. The passage runs as follows : ^LObvov re (rxoXtoto jl^criv dia Tapabv lovTOf, Taptrov eyKTt/ievrji/, 061 dfj ttotc Tlrjyavo^ imrof Tapcrof d^eif, xw'pf* \inev ovvo^a, T^/ior a0' 'tTTTTOv Ef Ator le^evos jreffev riptiif BeAXepo06vTr]r. There are here three Tarsuses, a play upon words, which may be freely rendered : " Tortuous Cydnus, through Tarsus' centre flowing. Well-built Tarsus ; where once most ti-uly Pegasus Placed its foot : leaving it thus a name. There 'twas That Jupiter caused the fall of Bellerophon." Avienus, who is distinguished for his ingenuity displayed in varying the expression of the constantly recurring ideas of the Alexandrian, thus records the same myth ; " Cydnus item mediae discemit micnia Tarsi. Pegasus hoc olim suspondit cespite sese, Impressseque solo Uquit vestigia calcis : Esset ut insignis revoluta in ssecula semper Nomen humo. Clari post ultima Bellerophontis Hie cespes late produoit Aleius arva." The fall of Bellerophon here alluded to is not contained in ApoUodorus, nor in all the versions of the legend ; but it is in Pindar, with the variation of Pegasus being stung by a gad-fly, and hinted at by Horace : ' ' Et exemplum grave prsebet ales Pegasus, terrenum equitem gravatus Bellerophontem." APOLLO, IQl The figure is rayed, and probably crowned with the symbol of fecun- dity, which would giye it an Egyptian character; but what gives this piece Its singular interest is the fact of its being " winged." Apollo was the tutelar god of the place ; here, then, we have him in character as the Apollo of Tarsus, " the winged." A coin of Tarsus has Apollo standing on the back of a lion; he holds a lamp in his hand (the lamp of science ?), and has wings to his shoulders. These attributes had never been sufficiently explained ; but the accompanying figure now renders their signification evident. There is also another symbol confirmatory of this view. There hangs upon the wing a cluster of grapes; grapes were used in the decoration of the great temple of Baalbec, and on the images of Baal (the Sun) grapes are hung round the neck. The grapes, therefore, shew the Syrian cast of the mythology of Tarsus, and identify its _ Apollo with Baal, as No. 22 „„. 22.-l-oi,i,o as osihis. connects him with the Osiris of Egypt. The (With the Neiumbium.) fluted chalice in which this head terminates was probably intended Homer also represents Bellerophon as wandering over the Aleian plain on which Tarsus stands : — " Forsook by heaven, forsaking human kind, Wide o'er the Aleian field he chose to stray, A long, forlorn, uncomfortable way ! " Stephanus, speaking of Tarsus, also says that it was so called iw6 tTis toS BeXXepo- ^oi/Tou TTTftiffewf, from the fall of Bellerophon ; adding, t^? kutzivov xwXei'ac vTo/ivTifiLa 7Totovfiii'tai> tSi- apxatbiv, in reference to the lameness produced by the fall, and which is alluded to in Pindar's version of the fable. CeUarius also says, " A Pegasi, ungula quam ibi ami- serit, nomen urbis fingunt, quia Tapo-ir etiam planta pedis est." Scenes of the story of Bellerophon, it has been justly remarked by Dr. Leonard Sohmitz, were frequently represented in ancient works of art. His contest with the Chima;ra was seen in the throne of Amyolae, and in the vestibule of the Delphic temple. On coins, gems, and vases, he is often seen fighting against the Chimsera, taking leave of Proetus, taming Pegasus, or giving him to drink, or falling from him. But until the recent discoveries in Lycia by Sir Charles FeUows, no representation of Bellerophon in any important work of art was known ; in Lycian sculptures, however, he is seen riding on Pegasus and conquering the Chimsera. The several pieces of Cilician art in this important colleotion made by Mr. W. Burckhardt Barker, wiU suggest a reference to this same story with many ; and it is not a Uttle singular that among these works of art a great number of single horses' feet were found, which upon this fabulous origin of the name of Tareus, as here given, being communicated by me to Mr. W. Burckhardt Barker, that gentleman ingeniously suggested might not impossibly have reference to the very point in question. The more ancient fable of Bellerophon's fall from Pegasus at that spot may just as well have been represented in Cilician works of art as that which refers to Perseus. W. F. A. 162 LARES AND PENATES. to contain incense or lustral water. Mr. Birch calls this the head of Isis ; but whether it be Isis or Apollo, it still proves the existence of Egyptian worship in Cilicia. Here I must refer to another head, No. 23, which Mr. Birch has ( This is mentioned by Mr. Birch as Apollo represented on the Co los- sus at Rhodes.) NO. 23. — HEAD OT APOLLO RADIATED. recognised as the same as that upon the gold and silver coins of Ehodes. He says it is the Apollo (Helios), or the Sun, and is a copy of the Colos- sus at Rhodes. It is radiated. This radiation was not usual with the Eomans and Greeks ; but in the present case it admits of an easy expla- nation. Tarsus, bordering upon Phoenicia, and having ready access to Egypt, would have its mythology tinctured with that of its neighbours. Baal of the Phoenicians, Osiris of Egypt, and Apollo of the Greeks, all embody the myths originating in the worship of the sun. This pecu- liarity in the figure before us quite accords with the locality where it was found. There is a coin of Tarsus on which Apollo is seated upon a mount, with a lyre in his hand, indicating the presiding influence of that deity at the schools. It is believed that Apollo had an oracle in that place. Of this god the collection offers many specimens, all more or less diversified by some peculiarity or other. A large portion of these terra-cottas are of a sacred character, but they are not of a magnitude or material to make us suppose that they could have had a place in the public temples. They must have been for use in domestic lararia or chapels, or rather oratories* It is likely * Lares, the presiders over housekeeping aifaii-s, occupied a place in the house by the iire-places and chimney-comers. Penates were the protectors of masters of families, wives, and children. Lares had short habits and cornucopias in their hands, symbols of servitude and hospitality. Ovid says, " two Lares with a dog at their feet." Plu- tarch, *' good and evil Lares, or Genii, also 'public and private larea." Apuleius says DEIPyiNa MEN, 163 that the owners did not restrict the honour of a place there to one or two deities, but that people of opulence had a collection of such as had been duly consecrated by the priest, which were all honoured in turnj or as their special help was required. Alexander Severus is said to have preserved the images of all the great men who had been raised to the rank of the gods, and rendered divine honours to them in the ^me manner as to the most holy souls. Among these he had Apollonius Tyaneus, Jesus Christ, Abraham, Or- pheus, Virgil, Cicero, &c. &c. The lararia of private persons could not have been so well furnished, and the common people must have been content with still less. Before these idols it was the custom to hght lamps, to burn incense, to offer flowers, fruits, meat, and wine; also votive memorials of benefits received were consecrated to them : many such small ex votos we have in this collection. See No. 32, p. 175, which is selected out of a great many, and which I imagine to be of this description, and devoted to Apollo. The custom of canonising or deifying men seems to have arisen from the idea that all which made them eminent for their talents or actions proceeded by emanation from the Divine Essence. Hence the simple rites which express veneration for the dead grew into direct and explicit acts of worship to the shades of renowned men : these splendid qualities, dazzling the minds of inferior men, soon obtained for them divine honours, as having exhibited and exercised the attributes of the gods upon earth. These deifications multiplied greatly under the Macedo- nian and Roman empires ; and many worthless tyrants were by their own preposterous pride, or the abject servility of their subjects, exalted into gods, Nero himself not forming an exception. The most usual mode of expressing this deification was by repre- senting the figure naked, or with the simple cblamys, or cloak, as often given to the gods. The head, too, was generally eadiated, and the bust placed upon a square inverted obehsk. The cornucopia was often given as a symbol to the statue. The loose and indeterminate system of ancient mythology presented the Lares represented the souls of departed pei-sons who had lived wall and done good . Lares are also called Penates, images of silver, wax, and earthenware. Public Lares were called Compitales, from compitum, a cross-way ; and also Viales, from via, a way or road. These pubho Lares were placed at meetings of roads, as protectors and patrons of travellers. There were also Urbani, i.e. Lares of cities, as well as the country. The Lares were also genial gods, having the care of children from their birth. Bryant holds the Lares of Egypt and Rome to have been the same. Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, buUt a temple to the Lares. The custom was observed of burial in the highways ; a hog was offered in sacrifice. Lara was the mother of the demons ; children were offered in sacrifice to her. 164 lARfiS AND PENATES. very feeble barriers to the innovations and mutations whicli were con- stantly taking .place, througli intercourse with nations following different practices and other fables.* This collection affords ample proof of this plastic character of the mythology of Tarsus, and of the medley of Grecian, Syrian, and Egyptian worship which went to form it. Every man felt himself at liberty to honour those whom he loved with his adorations and offerings, without waiting for a public decree of canoni- sation. The object of his admiration, gratitude, or esteem might receive any religious rites, provided they did not disturb others, or do any thing in violation of the established forms of religious worship. This conse- cration, however, was not properly a deification, but what the Eomish Church still practises under the title of canonisation, the object of it being considered rather a saint than a god ; wherefore a deified Eoman emperor was not called deus^ but divus. These facts will explain many of those difficulties which present themselves on a view of this collection ; such as heads which have no trace of the orthodox form or ideal beauty of the deities whose attri- butes and symbols they bear; but which, on the contrary, .are unques- tionably jiortraits of mortal men and women, and give us illustrations of the practice of conferring divine honours upon magistrates, philosophers, priests, and relatives, as the feelings of respect or affection might suggest. To exen^plify this remark we have nineteen heads bearing the same expression of face, but with different attributes. Most of these heads have striking resemblance ; they all have the hair knotted in the orthodox fashion distinguishing the figures of Apollo. But this deity is almost always -characterised by unearthly ideal beauty of form : these are re- markable for gross sensuality. Saeh overfed, bloated faces, with an ex- pression of merriment and cunning, would, with tonsure and cowl, have made excellent monks. It seems that it was no unusual thing to make the gods in the hke- ness of mortals. The emperors, la- dies of high rank, and priests of the chief order, were thus comphmented. Is not No. 24 a chief priest, thus in divine character ? and it has the * See quotatioii from R. P. Knlgat, jirefixed to this chapter. NO. 24. — JIUEST WHH ATTSIBIJTES OF APOLLO. DEIFICATION OP ROMAN EMPEHOES. 165 attributes of Apollo more fully preserved. Here is the wing, the torch, the painting, &c. ; but the leering of the eyes and the elevation of the corners of the cunning and merry mouth are any thing but divine, and as far removed from that calm repose by which the ancients always sought to characterise their gods as it is possible to conceive. Whether this was done during the life of the priest, or whether it was only a compliment paid to him after his death, we have not at present the means of knowing. In Josephus* we find a story which shews the depravity of the priests of Isis at Rome, and which caused Tiberius to destroy both them and their temple. May we not imagine that we see these rogues in some of these heads? — a, family likeness, no doubt. Several other heads are of this family,, and are worthy of careful study; they all represent the same individual, though they have been wrought by different hands.- Some are a piratical copy of the others. Such a piracy indicates that the demand for the figure must have been great. The hair is knotted on the top of the head, in the mode peculiar to Apollo, and shews that the person had been deified ; yet there is no- thing mythological in the face, which is that of a bloated sensualist. As such, it would do well for Vitellius ; but I do not think that he had the honour of apotheosis, though he was rather popular in Asia Minor. The men of Tarsus were very prone to flatter the Eoman emperors, and often changed the name of their city in compliment to their imperial masters. After the great earthquake, a.d. 17, Tiberius gave relief to the unfortunate cities of the province of Lesser Asia, for which their gratitude would be due. When Tiberius died, he was i-aised to the rank of the gods ; and that these heads represent a deified emperor there is no doubt. If it is Tiberius, it must be his likeness after his mode of life and debauchery in the island of Capri, and not as he appears upon the medals struck of him. As such medals of him in his deified cha- racter would not be made until after his death, such a difference in the likeness might be expected. Or we may take another view of the question. It was not unusual to pay divine honours to the images of the emperors which were erected in the cities of the empire during their lifetime. The city of Tarsus may have honoured one of its masters by an image in which he was flattered by being invested with the attributes of Apollo, their tutelar deity, before he was dead ; and in that case we may imagine these to be cheap copies for the use of the million. Every way they are of much interest • and it would be desirable to have the opinion of more compe- * Antiquities of the Jews, book xviii. chap. 3. 166 LABES AND PENATES. tent judges in tlie investigation, -which, by publishing drawings of some of these, and others in this collection, I hope to afford persons the opportunity of making, who may not be able to see the objects them- selves. It was usual at the birth of a child to name it after some divine personage, who was supposed to receive it under his care ; but this name was not retained beyond infancy, when the bulla was given up; after which a name was given expressive of some quaUty or peculiarity of body or mind, or after its kindred. If the child died in infancy, parental affection would indulge itself in the worship of the idol of the heart, under the character of that god to whom it had been consecrated: the image would be formed vritli rays, &c., the sign of its exalted state, and honoured accordingly; nor is it unlikely that parental fondness might in some cases be carried as far, even before death. With this view I lay before the reader Nos. 2.5 and 26. Here we have a beanti- HO. 25. — EROS WINGED. MO. 26. — HEAD OF A CmLD. ful head of a boy (Eros), with the arm turned over it. Does not this indicate heavenly repose? And the fact of similar other figures being rayed, would go to prove the supposition of deification having been added to the endearing epithets of the departed spirit. People very commonly worshipped the manes of their ancestors, supposing them to have influence in heaven, and cognisance of human affairs. The devices which were stamped upon the coins of ancient nations were of a religious character, and held so strictly sacred, that the most proud and powerful monarohs never ventured to put their own portraits upon them, until the practice of deifying them, and giving them the title of divine, was begun. Till after the time of Alexander the Great, nei- ther the Kings of Persia, Macedonia, nor Epirus, nor even the tyrants of Sicily, ever took this liberty ; the first portraits which we find upon money being those of the princes of the Macedonian dynasties, whom the flattery of their followers (in imitation of Eastern pomp) raised to divine MGTJEES OP KINOS ON COINS. 167 honours. The artists had, indeed, before this, found a way of gratify- ing the vanity of their patrons -without offending their piety; which was by blending their features with those of the deity whose image was to be impressed on the coin. This artifice was practised on the coins previous to the custom of putting portraits upon them. The coins of Archelaus, Amyntas, Alexander, Philip, and Seleucus I., oi are first noticed by Dionyaius Periegetes in the time of Augustus ; and Ptolemy writes the word Xedvoi, strongly aspirated, which may be found again in the geographical name of Clmnigard. F f See Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. iii. 1828^ Dr. Banking's paper. THE HTJNS AND AMERICANS. 205 " We have toritten descriptions of tlie inliuman appearance of the Huns who devastated the nation ; but I never met with any representa- tion of them either pictorial or sculptural. Perhaps you have the gratification of first bringing before the world a true and exact repre- sentation of that once terrible but now fo%3tten raxse, and that too by an illustration probably unique; also of removing the veil which has hitherto concealed the mysterious origin of the men who have left the memorials of their peculiar conformation upon the sculptured stones of America, but who have been long extinct." Sir Eobert Schomburgk, in a letter he addressed to Humboldt, says, " The hieroglyphical figures are more widely extended than you had perhaps supposed They extend, as ascertained by actual observa- tions, from 7° 10' to 1° 40' north latitude, and from 57° 30' to 66° 30' ,west longitude. Thus the zone of pictured rocks extends, so far as it ' has been at present examined, over a space of 192,000 square geogra- phical miles ; comprising the basin of the Corentyn, the Essequibo, and the Orinoco; a circumstance from which we may form some inference r. -respecting the former amount of population in this part of the con- tinent." I find confirmation of Mr. Abington'e idea in Humboldt's Aspects of nature, and will proceed to quote his remarks that bear the most on this subject in his Annotations, p. 176. He says, " I regard the existence of ancient connexions between the inhabitants of Western America and Eastern Asia as more than probable ; but by what routes, or with what Asiatic nations the communications took place, cannot at present be decided. Our knowledge of the languages of America is still too limited, considering their great variety, for us as yet entirely to relinquish the hope of some day discovering an idiom which may be spoken, with certain modifications, at once in the interior of South America and in that of Asia; or which may at least indicate an ancient affinity. Such a dis- covery would be one of the most brilliant which can be expected in re- ference to the history of mankind." I am aware that the analogy of one language to another must be sought in the organic structure, and the grammatical forms resulting from the workings of the human intellect and character. Still, when we have no opportunity of following up such research, as in the case of the Americo-Indian languages, it is interesting to trace the similarity of sound in the words which are handed over to us.* For instance, I * I have a catalogue of many words that resemble each other in different languages. I found, however, so many in the German and English having evidently the same origin, that I forbore collecting them, as they would form a little volume in them- 206 LAKES AND PENATES. find itz-cuin-tepotzotli to signify a humped-backed dog. Now itz I trace to eet, the Tartaric appellation of a dog ; cuin is the Turk- ish for a sheep ; therefore itz-cuin would be a sheep-dog, or shepherd's dog: tepotzotli I take to be the same as teppeh, the Turkish for a MU; and the terminative particle U or lu is quite Tartaric, and always used to express a property or possession: thus, topal, lame; topalli herif, a lame man; ciir, blind of one eye; corli avret, a one-eyed woman. I find, moreover, that, some miles from the Encaramada, there rises in the middle of the Savana the rock Tepu-Mereme, or "painted rock." Observe here the similarity of t^pu to t^ppe, and the construc- tion so Semitic, having the substantive first; here is stiU greater affinity; for the " me " may be the same as the " mu" in Arabic ; and be the form used to express the adjective. You would in Arabic, using the word ndksh, paint, say jebel mwBaccash, a rock painted. But wha^ I find contradictory is, that the construction of this word is more Semi- tic than Hindo-Germanic ; for we find the substantive to precede the adjective, and we have dog-shepherd; humped- back, and not humped- hacJced shepherd-dog. The Arabic form would be TceUmn rayee^wn dhdaJb, precisely like the Americo-Indian. Would this lead us to trace an affinity between the two, and to suppose that a Semitic tribe traversing through Asia on its way eastward, adopted words from the people with whom it came in contact, and which it afterwards perpetuated in America, preserving, however, its original Semitic construction? I find further, that some etymologists have thought they recognised in the American word camosi, the sun, a similarity to camosh, the name of the sun in one of the Phcenician dialects, and to Apollo, Chomeas, or Balphegor. Humboldt's further remarks are most interesting, and bear on this ethnological subject. He says : " In looking at Peruvian carvings, I have never remarked any figures of the large-nosed race of men so frequently represented in the bas-reliefs of Palinque in Guatemala, and in the Aztec paintings. Klaproth remembered having seen individuals with similar large noses among the Chaloas, a northern Mogul tribe. It is well known that many tribes of the North American red or copper- Belves. The resemblance between many words of the German and Tartaric language was more interesting ; and I have a list which would in itself alone prove the connexion between the Alemagui and the tribes in the' east, were such proof requisite, or were the fact at all doubted. But what astonishes me is to find a great many words in German that appear certainly to possess a Semitic origin. These words must have been adopted in consequence of the communion between the wandering tribes in earlier times, who, it will be observed, kept to their own construction, although they borrowed the use of words or sounds. SPECULATIONS ABOUT THE HUNS. 207 coloured Indians have fine aquiline noses, and that this is an essential physiognomic distinction between them and the present inhabitants of Mexico, New Granada, Quito, and Peru. Are the large-eyed, compara- tively fair-complexioned people spoken of by Marchand as having been seen in 54° and 58° lat. on the north-west coast of America, descended from an Alano-Gothic race, the Usiini of the interior of Asia ?" It is very interesting to read the above question in connexion with what we now have in hand. Following up this idea, I find fiirther, that " the southern Huns or Hajatelah (called by the Byzantines Euthahtes or Nepthalites, and dwelling along the eastern shore of the Caspian), had a fair complexion. They cultivated the ground, and possessed towns. They are often caUed the white or fair Huns ; and D'Herbelot even declares them to be Indo-Scythians. For an account of Panu, the leader or tanju of the Huns, and of the great drought and famine which, about 46 A.D., caused a part of the nation to migrate northwards, see Deguignes' Histoire Gen. des Huns, des Turcs, <^c. 1756 , t. i. pt. i. p. 217 ; pt. ii. pp. Ill, 125, 223, 447. All the accounts of the Huns taken from the above-mentioned celebrated work have been subjected to a learned and strict examination by Klaproth. According to the result of this research, the Hiongnu belong to the widely-difiused Turkish races of the Altai and Taugnu Mountains. The name Hiongnu, even in the third century before the Christian era, was a general name for the Ti, Tukui, or Turks, in the north and north-west of China. The southern Hiongnu overcame the Chinese, and in conjunction with them destroyed the empire of the northern Hiongnu : these latter fled to the west, and this flight seems to have given the first impulse to the migration of nations in Middle Asia." Might not some families of these tribes have embarked in some fishing-boats, and been cast on the western coast of North America, in the inhospitable chmate of from 55° to 65°; and civilisation thus introduced, like the general movement of population in America, have proceeded successively from the North to the South ?* * Humtoldt, Relation Historiqne, t. iii. pp. 155-160. At Weston-super-Mare, in Somersetshire, have lately been found, outside a Eoman camp, the bodies of three men of rather a large size by persons excavating. The heads seemed to have been forced in between two ricks, and to have sustained some injury from violence. The crania were examined and compared with Mr. Lawrence's work on the species of man, and no similarity could be traced between them and any of the crania described in that work, except to the head of the Caribbean Indian. It is supposed that these must be the remains of some of the tribes of the Huns that found their way into Britain, as they had done into Rome, marking their progress by acts of cruelty, and causing, by their extreme ughness, horror to those they vanquished. CHAPTEE V. ETHNOLOGICAL SUBJECT OE THE HUNS CONTINUED, " THE UGLT heads" OF THE COLLECTION STANDARD OF BEAUTY ^MONU- MENTS OF CENTRAL AMERICA PARALLEL CASE IN HATTI THE HITTITES OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCE TO EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE EFFECTS OF THE EGYPTIAN INVASION OF CILICIA. On a first examination of a few of the ugly, monstrous heads of the collection, I had imagined that they represented Midas. Apollo being a great favourite at Tarsus, it was natural to conclude that Midas would be there jeered at and caricatured. But, at a later period, when Mr. Abington had pointed out the extraordinary resemblance he had traced between No. 55, p. 203, and the heads sculptured on the rocks in Central America, I was led to look closer into the subject; and by setting apart all the heads of that kind, I found a family likeness to prevail through the whole lot, which consists of upwards of fifty heads, that justifies me in coming to the conclusion that they are the representatives of a nation or tribe, if not of a single family, such is the likeness that prevails among them. These heads have, for the most part, been radiated. The female heads bear the same form of head-dress as that given by the CUicians to heads representing persons they deified ; as if the chiefs of the con- quering tribes, hearing that it was customary in the country to have such a compliment paid to the rulers of the land, and to include their ladies, insisted on their being represented by the same effigy. That this was done may be ascertained by an examination of the other heads in the collection, wherein the Junes are represented with the features of the favoiirite empress of the day; or, to reverse the case, the features of the ladies of that period may be seen bearing the attributes of Juno, Venus, Cybele, Ceres, &c. And on many of these heads may be traced the head-dress of ApoUo, with the hair knotted in front, — of Jupiter, DEII'ICATION OP UGLINESS. 209 ■witli tlie radiation, &c. Now it is not at all liliely that any of the monsters of Grecian mythology would have that compliment paid them ; and certainly Midas, who would rather be an object of derision, could never be thus represented. Now it would seem that when the power of these tribes passed away, the artists, as if ashamed of their subserviency to the people who had ejected them, carefully cut off all the rays on the heads ; and only one male and two females have remained perfect enough- to teU the tale of their fellows, who are only mutilated about the forehead. Let not their extreme ugliness be considered a reason why they should not have been deified by the Cilicians or by the people of America. What shall be imagined to be the standard of beauty which shall be acknowledged by all people 2 The negro is shocked at the first sight of a European. The thin lips, the narrow lengthened nose, oval face, and long hair, are so far from all his notions of beauty as to be ugliness unmitigated. The ugly fellows, whose likenesses we now possess in this collection,, would not be ashamed of their peculiarities, nor take ofience at their true effigies, any more than the Chinese would be offended at being represented with their ugly cheek-bones, oblique pig-eyes, and Tartar noses, even a little exaggerated.. One of these, now in London, is so monstrously ugly, that it would be difficult for a modeller to shew him up worse tlian he is. How hideous are the heads and faces of many of the holy fakirs of India in the present day ! And I have no doubt but that we might find rivals to the ugliest of these heads among many people both in the East and in the West. Further, the monuments of Central America must be looked upon as bearing a mythological character, and representing objects of adora- tion—persons who conferred benefits on their feUow- creatures by the introduction of civilisation ; holy men, priests, and priestesses, whom the sculptor would not wantonly degrade by giving them features to cause them to be treated with derision ; yet we find them character- ised by ugliness of the superlative degree. We must not, therefore, be surprised at finding such features radiated with the same glory which is applied to Apollo, the perfection of the Circassian type of beauty. If men of one tribe were eligible for divine honours,. others of tribes less favoured in physical beauty were equally so. The deification was for other qualities than personal beauty, and that too judged of by an arbitrary standard. These priests, conquerors, or chiefs of the people — call them what you please — pretended no doubt to be versed in the doctrines of astrology, divination, mesmeric arts, and wonders ; their ugly countenances would serve to increase the distance between them p 210 LARES AND PENATES. and the people ; there would be nothing to prevent the modeller from even exaggerating thia difference ; and the priesthood would never take offence at it, if it tended to make the deluded multitude stand in awe df them as beings of another and higher order. We have a case in point to refer to, in modern times, which bears on this question. The Emperor Soulouque of Hayti has caused Corradi to take portraits of himself and all his family and government, civil and military. However desirous the artist might be to flatter his imperial highness, the latter would not be pleased or accept of his likeness, if he were represented with Grecian features, but would rather insist on the delineations being as nearly like to nature as possible. He might con- sider himself and family a great deal handsomer than the European ; and an exaggeration of his ideal beauty, although a monstrosity in our sight, might only be comphmentary to him.* As yet I have called the people represented by these heads Huns, to use an appellation kno^vn to all; but I believe that their original name was Khita — perhaps the Hittitea of the Scriptures, — a people who were aborigines of Asia Minor, if not of the province of Cilioia itself, and whose chiefs were taken into captivity by Raraeses III. In Rossalini's great work on Egyptian Antiquities there are repre- sented four bodies kneeling, with their arms tied behind them ; each has a line of hieroglyphics stating who he is. The first says, " This is the vile slave from Tarsus of the Sea ;" its features are unfortu- nately disfigured, but alongside there is another captive whose fea- tures are complete. The hieroglyphic writing of this says, " Phodr khasi em Khita en Sacca enk," — " The chief of the IChita as a hving captive." Now the fact of these two figures having stood in such propinquity on the monuments in Egypt, erected doubtless to com- memorate the conquests of the Egyptian king over the nations of the north of Syria, and the coincidence of the heads found in Tarsus re- sembling so much the second as to identify them with the same race it least, if not the same individual, would lead to the conclusion that if the Khita were not the inhabitants of this city, they were some of its imme- diate neighbours, and that it was their chief who had been carried into bondage by the Egyptian conquerors of the country. I will leave this point to be discussed and settled by more competent judges ; and will only add, in support of my conclusion, that directly I exhibited the head. No. 55, to Mr. Birch, he exclaimed at once, and * These portraits have been published in a handsome lithographed album, and a fuU accomit of them will be found in an extract from the New Yorh Herald^ in the Times of Oct. 14, 1852. CONNEXION TVITH EGYPT. 211 witliout hesitation, " I will tell you what people this head represents ;" and he turned immediately to the plate in Eossalini's work before- mentioned, t Indeed, if we admit similarity of features as a guide in discerning the difference of races, there can be little doubt on the subject. It might be imagined that these two heads (No. 55, p. 203), and the one copied out of Eossalini's work herewith introduced, not only represented the same race of men, but were even intended to portray the same A KNEELING CAPTIVE — FROM ROSSALINI. individual, with some twenty years' difference in age, only such as he would be at forty and at sixty. Eameses III. was of the 18th dynasty, and must have effected his conquest 1200 or 1500 years B.C. : my Lares and Penates have been proved to have been destroyed about the year 70 of the Christian era ; so that if these heads represent the Khita, as I have no doubt they do,* * Mr. Layard discovered in the mound of Nabbi Yunus, or of the Prophet Jonah, near Mosul, a head earned in a yeUow silex (Bisen Kiesel ?) with singularly grotesque features, which he considers to belong to the later Assyrian period, and an mutation 212 LARES AND PENATES. they had been accumulating in Tarsus, together with many other gods and idols of all nations from the East and West, which were found with them, upwards of 1200 years. How interesting is this fact ! and what light may not these monuments throw on ancient history, on times of which we have now no written records ; on times -when sculpture formed the basis of the means for perpetuating historical events ; and how precious will be such memorials — how useful in the hands of the learned archseologist, who could find leisure to devote a little attention to a closer scrutiny of them ! The Cilicians at a later period became a mixed race, and lost their resemblance to these horrid faces, who, as I have already observed, were possibly tribes that conquered them ; but if these were the aborigines of CiHcia or Asia Minor, what was the effect of the Egyptian invasion and conquest ? Did it disperse them ? Were they the stock from which the ancient Scythians descended ? Or were they all from one common origin ? How did these wandering tribes, who fought and conquered the West, find their way eastward to America ? Can we infer that the American monuments are of a higher antiquity than heretofore supposed ? These are aU questions to which, at present, we are obhged to " pause for a reply." of the head of the Egyptian deity, which some beheve to represent death. (Layard's Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 214 ; Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, plate 41, vol. iv.) This head is now in the British Museum. It has an inscription in cuneiform letters in the crown and back ; it might otherwise^ Mr. Layard says, be mistaken for a Mexi- can rehc ! Mr. Birch suggests that, as a similar head is frequently represented on Egyptian monuments, on vases brought as tribute by an Asiatic people ; and is, more- over, found on the Phoenician coins of Abusus, as that of the deity ; it may be the Semitic Baal or Typhon. There is a representation on one of the Babylonian cyHnders, engraved by the Syro- Egyptian Society, of a female divinity of horrid aspect, and very slightly clothed ; she stands upon a dragon, and holds three articles in her hands, which, if keys, Mr. Abing- ton remarks, would mark her as the Cybele of the Babylonians, There is something round her cap, which, if intended for oak-leaves, would also distinguish her as that --?- mains ; but quite enough to make us regret that there is not more. There is also in the collection part of a bold rehef figure of the same roUioking demi-god. NO. 57.— HEAD OF SILENUS. -A-S Ulustrative of other followers of Bacchus we have the head of a young faun or wood demon, with the wattles under his throat Uke a goat. It is a good thing, and worthy of care. The top of a satyr's head, large size, and the lower part of a faun's head, with a characteristic sensual grin. Among the terra-cottas is also a head of Pan, or of a satyr, with a crown of fir-leaves and cones. It is a work of high art, and exhibits a freedom and facihty of touch which could only come from the hand of a first-rate artist. The expression of the lower half of the face is admi- rable, and the sensuality of the mouth, &c. &c., is wonderfully charac- teristic. It is seen to great advantage on the three-quai-ter face, with MINBRYA AND CUPID. 219 the right cheek presented to the spectator. There is also the base of a figure of Pan; all that remains is the end of his crook. Also a very- excellent head, the expression of the mouth shewing it to be a Pan or wood demon. There are also the lower part of the face of Pan, and a/ small head of the same character. We have among the CiUcian terra-cottas a figure of Minerva as Pallas, in white clay ; a work of art in which there is much graceful ease, though the facial angle is remarkably round. And it may be remarked here, in connexion with the Lares and Penates of cities, that as Pallas was essentially the city guardian and protector, so the Palladium, an image of Mineiva, which gave security to those cities in which it was placed, was emblematic of the great fact that those kingdoms and cities flourish and prosper where wisdom presides. Also a figure of the same goddess, holding a ram; the ram was sometimes represented on her helmet, together with the sphynx. There is also another head with the fore part of a helmet remaining, apparently the same deity. The workmanship is tolerably good. Among the terra-cottas is a fragment of a female figure, only the thigh and left fore-arm remaining. She has taken Cupid captive, who is struggling to escape. It does not appear certain whether this was a figure of Venus or of a Nymph, who, having captured Cupid, is scourg- ing him. The portion of drapery remaining is stiff' and formal. Among the numerous figures of Cupid that are met with in the Tarsus collection is one winged, bearing the club of Hercules. This was a not uncommon form among the Egyptians, where Horus was in like manner represented, according to the custom of the Neomenia, with different attributes, some- times with the wings of the Ete- sian wind ; at others with the club of Hercules and arrows of Apollo; and at others riding on a lion, driving a bull, or tying a ram. The powerful child, celebrated for disarming both gods and men, is often repre- sented with some trophy of this character, such as the helmet of Mars, &c. &c., to denote the triumphs of love over the strongest of men. Another Cupid (No. 58) occurs, caressing a swan ; the head is radiated. NO. 58. — onrm and swan. 220 LAKES ANB PENATES. It is a pleasing group : the association of Cupid and the swan was very common. It is altogether a sweet little piece, both in composition and execution ; but the neck appears to be too short to represent a swan's, and what corroborates the doubts entertained on this subject is, that Mr. Major, of St. John's Wood (Abbey Eoad), possesses a dozen terra-cotta images, found in Italy, of great beauty, among which there is a similar form of a bird, the neck of which is quite as short, and of which Mr. Major has kindly allowed a copy to be taken. It is of very superior finish, and must be of the time when the Eomans had arrived at their highest degree of perfection in the art of sculpture. Here we have th? neck quite as short, although most graceful, and it certainly seems to be intended to represent a more ignoble bird than the swan. We have in the same collection a fragment which represents Europa riding upon Jupiter in the form of a buU. A portion of the buU's head remains ; he is turning and rubbing his neck against her foot. Several fragments of bulls appear also to have formed parts of illustrations of the same popular fable. The well-known fable of Marsyas was not passed over by the CiU- cians. Several illustrations of this strange and ungodhke story are met with. In one of these Marsyas is represented bound to the tree and flayed alive. This favourite subject was never better expressed than in this particular fragment. The anatomy is perfect, and must have been carefully studied from nature ; and the agony of the face, as the MARSYA8 PLAYED ALIVE. 221 head sinks upon the right shoulder, shewing the approach of death, is most impressive. This fragment must take its place in the iirst class for excellence : — " The satyr's fate, whom angry Phoebus slew. Who, raised with high conceit, and puffed with pride At his own pipe, the skilful god defied. Why do you tear me from myself ? he cries. Ah, cruel ! must my skin be made the prize 1 This for a silly pipe, he roaring said ; Meanwhile his skin from off his limbs was fla/d All bare and raw, one large continued wound. With streams of blood his body bathed the ground. The blueish veins their trembhng pulse disclosed. The stringy nerves lay naked and exposed. His guts appeared, distinctly each express' d ; And every shining fibre of his breast." Ovid. Met. vi. Upon another very remarkable anatomical figure of Marsyas being flayed alive and holding something, possibly his flute, in the hands, ■which it clasps to the breast, Mr. Abington remarks, that " it is but a sketch with very little finish, but of the highest merit. The marking of the bones, though not exactly correct, is very striking: the brim of the pelvis and the trochanters of the thigh-bones are very well displayed. The head and right breast form a very bold relief. The skin is flayed off the face and turned back over the scalp, and its cut edges are seen covering the hair. The expression of agony is so intense as to make it a model for study: the staring eyeballs, the swoUen corrugations of the eyebrows, and the distressing spasmodic action of the muscles of ex- pression on the face, strike us with horror, while they so fascinate by the interest felt in so much suffering, that we can hardly turn away from the sight." Another fragment of a very stout athletic figure, bound by the middle and kneeling, is supposed by Mr. Abington to represent Marsyas supplicating Apollo previous to his being flayed. Four other fragments are described by the same distinguished artist and antiquary as belonging to the same subject. In the same collection is a remarkable fragment representing a man swimming on his back ; he is in the act of drawing his legs up to strike, or tread the water from him, while he is dashing the water open with his hands. Only one-half the figure is left ; the head and hands are wanting. Also the right arm and part of the body of a man swim- ming. He is in the act of scooping the water back with his arm. It is slight, but very expressive. There are other fragments relating to the 222 LAKES AND PENATES. same subject. It would appear, from joining some of these pieces toge- ther, that the subject is Leander swimming the Hellespont. HO. 59. — LEANDEE SWIlUnNG THE HELLESPONT. " Alone at night his wat'ry way he took ; About him and above the billows broke ; The sluices of the sky were open spread, And rolling thunder rattled o'er his head." Another interesting fragment represents the body of Leander thrown up by the billows upon the shore. The wave which has cast him on the land is retreating in a volume from the dead bodyj leaving " His floating carcass on the Sestian shore." — VlBGIL. We have also in the Tarsus collection the lower part of a figure of Laocoon, or of one of his sons ; and also a very beautiful figure of Escu- lapius. The dignified ease of the attitude agreeing so well with the CAIUS CALIGULA. 223 repose of the face, is much to be admired ; the softness of the drapery- is well expressed. Also the foot of a figure of Fortune standing upon an orb. And then, again, the fragment of a -winged figure ; only the right arm re- mains, and drapery falls from the shoulder. The feathering is remark- ably bold ; which would also seem to belong to the same subject. Also the left arm of winged Fortune holding up a ivreath. The figures of Isis we have seen, however, have often been confounded with those of Fortune. Among the terra-cottas are also fragments of bodies clothed in the lorica or corselet of scale- armour as worn by generals and superior officers, both Greeks and Eomans, sub- sequently to the Homeric period, and more or less or- namented. Now, it is not a little remarkable that the Emperor Caius Caligula, when he had reigned with moderation for about two years, took a fancy for ho- nours of a higher kind, and ordered his statue to be erected in all the cities of the empire. Josephus gives a full account of the in- flexible resistance of the Jews, and of the dangers incurred by it, and of their happy deliverance by the death of the tyrant. The commander who was entrusted with the carrying out of this edict came from Syria, and it is not likely that he would find the priests of Antioch and Cihcia quite so scrupulous upon the subject. Images of Caligula must have been in great demand during the short-lived divine honours which were universally paid to him through- out the provinces of the enslaved empire. And it is not totally impos- sible that these figures of a deified person in Eoman armour, or, at all events, of a Eoman armed chief, admitted among the Lares and Penates of Tarsus, may have some reference to the canonisation of Caius Cahffula. NO. 60.- -BUST OF OAinS CALIGULA WIIH THE LOKIOA. 224 LARES AND PENATES. "We come now to a more delicate subject, but one which is so inti- mately interwoven with all the ancient religious systems of the East, that a mere mawkish regard for modern prudery should not exclude its consideration from our pages. It is part of the great philosophy of nature, and reappears in a hundred different forms in the Pantheons of Assyria, Babylonia, India, and Egypt, and at all the first cradles of thought, sentiment, and worship. In the Cilician forms we find the rudest representation of the mysterious principle of fecundity mixed up with that of the well-known fish-god of the East — the Dagon of the Philistines, of Ashdod, and the Annedoti of the Babylonians, which Layard found as a man-god (Cannes ?) at Khorsabad, and the worship of which was afterwards associated in one common form of icthyolatry in Derceto or Atergates. To the present day we see fish venerated in the East, just as the crocodile was for similar reasons in Egypt and elsewhere, and familiar examples of which occur at Urfah, ancient Ur, and Edessa ; at Tashun, in Luristan, and at other places. Among the Cilician terra-cottas there is a phallus broken from a figure with which it was connected, the body of which formed into a fish. This combination was very common, and not unfrequently the fish alone was used to express the same idea of fecundity. There is also in the same collection the lower portion of a female figure in full drapery, the left hand of which holds the symbol of the fish and phallus. In the Bacchanalian orgies the women carried this symbol in their processions. Such facts illustrate St. Paul's testimony in the epistle to the Romans, 1st chap. v. 18-32, and in Ephesians, v. 12: "It is a shame even to speak of the things which are done of them in secret." The most extraordinary work of art, however, that comes under this strange category is the head and upper half of a figure closely draped ; the head at first view seems to be covered with a helmet drawn over the face. But the extraordinary character of this symbolical figure appears on farther examination, and is apparently unique. The head is a phallus ! Layard, it may be observed, discovered at Nimrud (ancient Athur) a broken earthen vase, on which were represented two Priapean human figures with the wings and claws of a bird, the breast of a woman, and the tail of a scorpion, or some similar reptile. (See vol. i. p. 1 28.) There is also among the CiUoian terra-cottas the figure of a naked man bearing a huge shell on his shoulder ; he has a wild expression ; and we have before remarked upon the shell being appropriated to Priapus. There occurs also in the collection the following fragments, having reference to the same worship : the middle part of a female HAEPIES. 225 carrying the phallus ; she has two large bosses on her shoulders. Another also bearing the phaUus. A phallus, simply and hond fide such ; as also another, with the body of a fish, — a very common way of bearing it. Further, part of a Priapean figure bearing a pitcher ; and lastly, a mask representing a female head of monstrous features, sur- mounted by a phallus. Here also we have the two bosses at the side of the head, such a^ we find on the foreheads of certain priests, to be here- after described, and which identify them as connected with the same obscene rites. The Harpies appear to have had their original in Egypt. That country being very subject, during the months of April, May, and June, to vicissitudes of weather and the visitations of noxious insects, the Egyptians of old gave to their emblematic figures of these months a female face, with the bodies and claws of birds. The strange forms that the poetic and artistic mythology of Greece and Eome attached to these imaginary demons or genii were as numerous as they were fantastic. Among the Cilician terra-cottas we find a harpy, the lower part of the body of which is vulture-shaped, with wings, the extremities of which are wanting. The face is very expressive of the horrid nature of these fabled beings. It seems in the very act of uttering its cry. Another fragment represents the head and wings of a harpy, which ■seems to have formed the angle of an altar of incense, or some such article. The head bears a sort of capital, which probably supported the moulding forming the summit. On a fragment of a vessel in the shape of a trough or shallow laver, in the same collection, and the sides of which are formed of rows of leaves, the end is supported by a harpy. There are also in the same collection a harpy in relief, and a harpy which has been the handle to some hollow vessel. In describing this portion of the collection, it may perhaps also be noticed, that the ancient Assyrians, according to Dr. Grotefend, recog- nised in the stars of heaven golden chariots of heavenly hosts. They imagined a supreme ruler dwelling in the centre of all the revolutions of the stars ; the most perfect leader of the most perfect chariot. The seven bright stars in the n.orth (the Great Bear) were compared to a four-wheeled chariot, drawn by three fiery horses, upon which the Creator was riding in eternal rotation. We apparently see a trace of the same tradition in the CiUcian terra- cottas in the figure of a man in the act of riding a bear. He has the dress of a charioteer, his loins girded with straps ; his right hand seems to hold a whip, with which he is urging the animal forward ; the left 4 226 liAEES AND PENATES. hand holds a rein connected with a collar round the neck of the beast. As Baal or Zeus rode the pole-star, this must hare been an inferior deity. Possibly Abrerig, Nerig, or Nergal, the shining Bar, god of the starry shies and tutelar deity of the Assyrian monarchs. HO^ 61. — MAN RIDIUa A BEAE, We find from this examination of a second group of the Lares and Penates of Tarsus, that although in early times an Assyrian city, the Assyrian character is very little preserved, and that only in a partial degree. There is no member of the Assyrian Pantheon, in the whole collection, simple and undefiled by more modern traditions and more recent art innovation. The reason of this is well explained by the fact before debated upon, as to their having been blended with others or mo- dified in form by their transition with respect to place and time. In the Babylonian cylinders we have Hercules in the earliest representation of that hero which the world perhaps possesses. We have also the thyrsus of the Indian Bacchus as preserved in the hands of the winged figures of Assyria ; the mythological figure of a charioteer riding the bear ; the female figure with conical cap, like the Diana of Assyria ; the worsliip of the fish-god ; the lion of Ehea ; the winged horse, the Pegasus of the Greeks, which we have seen so identified with the story of Tarsus, and which is also found among the embtematical forms and types of Assyria. We have also illustrations of the story of Perseus. According to Herodotus (hb. vi. c. 54), a great astronomer who instructed men in the knowledge of the stars, and according to the scholiast in Lycophron, MYTHOLOaY OP TARSUS. 227 V. 18, the same as the sun, and all the traditions connected "with whom, more especially his reputed marriage with Astarte the daughter of Belus, Layard points out (vol. ii. p. 443) to have reference to his As- syrian origin. We have Asarao or Nisrooh, the same as Horus and Harpocrates, viewed as the incarnation of a deity through a female divi- nity — Mylitta or Isis — one of the oldest and most important traditions of the East, viewed in all its bearings. We have also the Eas Majusi, or head magi of the Persians, transmitting an original Babylonian and Assyrian form, just as Mithra effects the transition of Nergal to Apollo; and Layard has shewn that the Assyrians knew also the obscene rites of Priapus. The collection, taken in all its parts, truly shews that the mythology of Tarsus was (as indeed might have been anticipated from what is known of its history — its boasted Assyrian origin — its mercantile re- nown — its connexion with Greece and Eome, and its celebrity as a school of philosophy and religion) of such a mingled character, Assyrian, Egyptian, Indian, Syrian, Greek, and Eoman, that it wiU. always be dif- ficult to unravel it. Yet in this very fact consists in a great measure the value, the interest, and the great peculiarity of this remarkable collection. 62.— ATYS. 63.— AKOTHElt EEPBESENTATION OF ATTS. CHAPTER YII. SIBYLS AND DOLPHIKS AND THEIR RIDBHS. SIBYLS — AN AFRICAN SIBYL HEAD-DRESS OF THE VIRGIN PROPHETESSES — ^A MATRON SIBYL(?) DOLPHINS AND THEIR EIDERS APOTHEOSIS OF DE- CEASED CHILDREN STORY OF AEION RADIATED HEADS THE BULLA. It is not surprising that tlie Cilioian terra-cottas, which, we have seen, embrace so iarge a field of Oriental, Egyptian, Greek, and Eoman my- thology, shonld also contain illustrations of oracular beings and virgin prophetesses, who played an important part in the rise of Christianity; whose books were largely used by the ancient fathers of the Church, as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, Tertullian, Lactan- tius, Eusebius, St. Jerome, St. Austin, and others, against the Pagans, and whose prophecies did not fall before the light of a new rehgion for nearly four centuries after the advent of Jesus. Among the various female heads, for example, which adorn this interesting collection, is one (No. 64) with African features, broad nose, and projecting jaws. It is a female of rank. The hair is well dressed, and formed into a circle or crown of plait on the top. Of this head Mr. Abington re- marks : " It is remarkable as being one of a class of heads of which there are several examples, having a hole in the basis of the cranium to receive an axis for its support. There is no appearance of their having been in any way con- nected with a body, unless it was in the manner in which the Chinese heads upon their figures of Mandarins, &c., which are centred upon an axle, to which is appended a balance to counterpoise the head. By this the head has the free motion which makes it nod and bow to a spectator , on the slightest agitation being communicated to the image. The head , — AFEIOAH SIBYL. SIBYLS. 299 in question might be some priestess or sibyl of African origin and of Celebrity; and it remains a matter of conjecture if such heads were not used, as above described, for purposes of divination." The same remarks apply to a female head chiefly differing from the former in the prolongation of the nose. It is crowned with a kind of cap made of plaited work, with an arch or bow on the top. Such a face, pretending to the possession of sibylhne foresight, would have great influence with the multitude. The following also possibly come under the same category: 1st, a female head, with the hair in great profusion, worked into plaits, which are doubled and crossed on the top of the head, so as to form a noble tiara. The face is pleasing from its tranquillity, though not of the first order as a work of art. Another female head, with the locks of hair twisted and carried back, so as to be bound together behind the head. This style of twisting, instead of plaiting, is partly seen in the preceding head. Also, another head of a lady crowned with a very graceful head- dress or turban, which is formed of materials folded and bound together. It is a very pleasing face, though much damaged. Again, the head of a lady in fine red clay; the ears are ornamented with large pendants, and the head covered with hair-work, which may probably be artificial, finishing with a rosette on the top : altogether it is a very pleasing figure. We have also other heads and busts of ladies, who cannot but be classed in the category of sibyls. In one of them the hair is dressed so as to spread very fully round th« face, and gathered into a knot behind ; over the forehead is a jewel which supports what appears to be a further expansion of the hair. The ears are decorated with large spherical pendants, probably pearls. In another the hair is elaborately dressed in front and plaited behind. The bust is beautifully modelled, and the head gracefully set. Jewels adorn the ears. It is a well-pro- portioned and pleasing figure. Also the bust and right arm of a female in rehef. She is holding some object in her right hand, which she is looking at with earnestness and complacency. Her hair is plaited, and a jewel in the ear; but there is not enough of the subject to found more than a conjecture. Also, the head of a lady with a tiara, and her hair full dressed ; there are jewels in the ears. The right side is in the best preservation, and gives a very pleasing expression. There is also another female head of the same family likeness in the nose and mouth. She wears a bonnet or small cap much ornamented. Further, a woman's head with a high cap, conical in the front, and flattened at the sides. The round masses with which it is decorated are perfectly plain, as if they were globular buttons; but not a, touch of the tool to give them 230 LAEES AND PENATES. tlie expression of roses or any other flower, nor is there the least bond of connexion between them to give the idea of " chaplets." Lastly, we. have a small female head with a tiara, the hair turned back in the style of the figures of Pallas. It is much polished, as if it had been moulded from. And the face and bust of a matron, full-faced and plump, crowned with a tiara, the hair arranged in curled rolls, diiferent from any we have yet seen. The ears have jewels pendent from them ; a robe is drawn closely over the shoulders. Could a sibyl have been a matron ? A very interesting illustrated work on the various modes of dressing the hair, as practised by the ladies of old time, might be written from- the Tarsus collection of CiHcian sibyls, and the other female heads in the collection. We also fiind in the Tarsus collection a remarkable number of illus- trations of dolphins and their riders, which, as in the instance of other works of art, are studied to the greatest advantage, taken, not singly, but in an order of connexion with each other. This group comprises nearly thirty pieces, among which are no fewer than five heads of dolphins, all of them most effectively modelled; two parts of the bodies and two taUs. One, the posterior end of a dol- phin, having the tail perfect, has also connected with it the right arm of a boy riding the fish and holding a ship's rudder. Another, the tail end of a dolphin, has the right thigh of a youth riding it. A third, the middle part of a dolphin, with the right leg and thigh of the naked young rider. A fourth, the same on a smaller scale. On a fifth, the leg only of the rider remains. A sixth is the tail of a dolphin held by the right hand of the rider; but in what attitude he was placed it is difficult to imagine. A seventh, the head of a dolphin with a boy riding. He has a rein in the fish's mouth, which he holds tightly. Only the leg and forearms of the rider remain. This NO. 65. — EOT AND DOIiPHIN. BOYS ON DOLPHINS. 231 appears to have been a lamp, tlie snout of tlie dolphin being formed into a spoilt to carry a wick. Lastly, the body and arm of a boy (No. 65), with part of the head of a dolphin, to which he holds on as he rides. Nine other examples have been previously described. In the whole of this series of figures mounted on dolphins, all the riders, it is to be observed, are children ; and the placing of figures upon a fish, especially the dolphin, was a sign of apotheosis, or that consecration of deceased children which prevailed in CiHcia, to which we have so often had our attention called. There are in the collec- tion a number of these deified Jittle ones, which, from their attitude and the position of their arms, appear to have been riding the dolphin. Several of them wear the bulla round the neck, and all are radiated. We should not have suspected their having been connected with the symbol of the dolphin but for the clue afforded by the preceding fragments. Another fragment presents the right arm and part of a figure in drapery, with the hands resting upon the head of a dolphin. In this interesting work of art, the arm seems to be that of an adult and not of a child; the drapery is also in a different style from aU the rest. It does not seem to sit on the fish upon whose head the hand rests. It is possibly a fragment of the beautiful story of Arion, who, after having charmed the dolphins by his music, leaped into the sea to escape from his murderers, and was conveyed by them safe to land. In the same group is the head and bust of a chubby boy, wearing the bulla, and in the same attitude as the rest ; but instead of the head being radiated, it is cro^vned with the Stephanos, which was worn by persons engaged in sacrifice. Little boys were employed to hold the incense- box, and the crowns and garlands used at sacrifices; the same as children are employed for similar duties at the Mass in Komish churches. This head is that of a deceased boy who had been so offici- ally employed, probably the son of a priest ; his attitude indicates that, like the rest, he was riding, and, from the analogies, it may be presumed that it was on a dolphin. The figure of another radiated boy differs from the others by having a broad girdle or belt roimd his middle. It is not certain if this figure was not mounted on a horse, as there is some appearance of a mane before him ; but the work of that part is too defective to be read intel- ligibly. It also differs from the others in the attitude, the face looking back over the right shoulder. We shall describe other examples of deified children in the chapter devoted to the description and general illustration of human figures. CHAPTER VIII. MAGI AND MONKS. Among the more remarkable relics which assist in iUustrating the traBsition of Oriental systems into Greek and Eoman mythology are the evidence, in the existence of two miniature figures of Magi (No. 66), of the wise men of the East having formed part of the Cilician Pantheon. These figures are bearded, and dressed in close round cloaks, with a hood or mitre, all in one piece, which must have been put on like a blouse. The Chaldean magi enjoyed a long period of prosperity at Babylon. A pontiff ap- pointed by the sovereign ruled over a col- lege of seventy-two hierophants. They were also established at Memphis and at Tibet, where the costume is preserved by the priests to this day; they also extended their in- fluence and doctrines into Etruria. When the Medes and Persians overthrew the reign- ing power at Babylon, they put down the old mythology, and set up their own re- ligion. The Chaldeans, to recover their lost influence, brought in one of their own num- ber, Smerdis the magian, as king ; but the imposture was detected, and he was slain. After this they revolted in the absence of the Persian king, and set up a Babylonian of their own choice ; but Xerxes returned, the city was taken and sacked, and the people slaughtered (b.c. 487). The defeated Chaldeans fled to Asia Minor, and fi^sed their central college at Per- gamos, and took the palladium of Babylon, the cubic stone, with them. HO. 66. — A MAGUS. MAGI AND HONKS. 233 Here, independent of state control, they carried on the rites of their re- ligion, and plotted against the peace of the Persian empire, cabaUing ■with the Greeks for that purpose. They brought forward Alexander as a divine incarnation, and by their craft did as much as the Greeks by their prowess to overthrow the Persian power. These figures will render good service in the study of the mythology of Tarsus, and wiU account for the mixture of Eastern superstitions with those of the West. These suggestions are, however, only thrown out for the right use of them ; but there is every reason to believe that these two little figures win be found to be keys to a rich store of treasures of thought and of discovery. The words magi and magii, it may be added, no doubt, originally carried with them a very innocent, nay laudable meaning ; being used purely to signify the study of wisdom and the more sublime parts of knowledge. But in regard as the ancient magi engaged themselves in astrology, divination, and sorcery, so, apart from the consideration that the vulgar looked upon the knowledge of the most skilful mathemati- cians and philosophers of the age as supernatural, they were also, by their very arts, entitled to be looked upon from a very early period more or less in the hght of necromancers and practisers of occult science. The Egyptians, as well as the Chaldeans and Assyrians, believed in magii and indsemons; and these superstitious notions, which had spread all over the East, the Jews imbibed during their captivity in Babylon. Hence we find them in the writings of the New Testament attributing almost every disease to which they were incident to the immediate agency of devils. Many of the same impious superstitions were brought from Egypt and Chaldea by Pythagoras, and transmitted by him and his followers to the Platonists in Greece. This was at the time that magic still cherished its mysteries in the caverns of Dakki, Akmin, and Dum- daniel, or shadowed forth its secrets in the mysteries of Isis, the prac- tices condemned by the Jewish prophets, the Samo-Thracian orgies, and those in vogue at Delphi, and in almost every pagan temple throughout the world. Modern mesmerists or magicians would have us believe that " the powers with which the early race of man was endowed seem never to have been entirely lost." (See Warburton's Crescent and the Cross, vol. i. pp. 148-50.) Such is also the basis of the doctrine of apostolic inheritance. " Oh ! never rudely will I blame hia faith In the might of stars and angels : 'tis not merely The human being's pride that peoples space With life and mystical predominance." — Sohelleb. 234 LARES AND PENATES. It would be curious to know in which light, that of learned and pious teachers, or that of practisers of occult arts, the Cilicians admitted the magi among their Lares and Penates. Their dress would seem to indicate a foreshadowing of that system of monasticism which both ui Europe and Asia, under Christianity and Buddhism alike, has always been something exclusive and mischievous, — something that cloaked and hooded itself, and has ever shunned the light of day. In connexion with the subject of monasticism, it may be remarked on another perplexing head among the Cilician terra-cottas, that we have the head and shoulders of a man exactly like one of the bonzes of Japan ; his head plucked clean of all its hairs, Tartar features, with long moustaches hanging from his upper lip, and his shoulders covered by a robe. The question arises, how came such a figure at Tarsus ? This cannot be very satisfactorily answered; but a few thoughts may be ventured on the subject. It is now pretty well understood that at Babylon, the cradle of superstition, all the idolatries of the world had their origin. There was a pontiff, orders of men bound to cehbacy, and devoted to a religious life. The divinity was represented as a Triad: the eternal father, MyUtta the female, and Assarac the incar- nate son. Mylitta we have in Syria as Astarte, in Egypt Isis, in Greece Aphrodite, and Assarac as Horus and Harpocrates. We have this Triad all through the East, under other names; and it is to be apprehended that the more this is studied, the more clearly it will appear that all the diversified forms of superstition are from one source. All have the same monkish orders, set apart for the benefit of the rest. Whether we knoAv them as bonzes, lamas, talapoins, fakirs, derwises, monks, or friars, all are found to bear the same character, and came from the same common source. When the Medes and Persians introduced another religion into the great erripire of the East, this rascahty was after many plottings driven out, and found a, refuge in Asia Minor, which became their head-quar- ters. Their holy brethren in all quarters would keep up correspondence with them, and cause a strange mixture of heads. It is also not a httle curious to observe that these heads are shaven, just like the other monkish orders, with the exception of the Christian monks, who affect to retain a memorial of the crown of thorns, by leaving a circle of hair; It is not unlikely that at the time these figures were made, there was a closer community of feeling and of interest among all the diversified orders of holy men than we are aware of; and the seat of their autho- rity being shifted from Babylon to Pergamos would cause a great resort of them to Asia Minor. MAGI, BONZES, AND FAKIRS. 235' The problem is — " wliy do we find bonzes, fakirs, &c. &c. at Tarsus," and why they should seem to be objects of religious respect ? That in their dispersion they found refuge and a safe asylum in Asia Minor is an historical fact, and that they brought their own mythology with them is equally clear. This mythology was essentially the same as that of Egypt, Baal for Osiris, Mylitta for Isis or Aphrodite, Assarac for Horus or Harpocrates. The priests of Isis were a profligate, sen- sual lot, notwithstanding their shaven crowns and vows of celibacy. It would appear that many of the bare-heads in the Tarsus collection re- present these priests of Isis; and that they were not natives of the country, but men of the east, preferred for their sanctity and great powers. Such men were proficient in many occult arts, and strange things were done by them in that day. Versed in the doctrines of astrology, divination, mesmeric arts and wonders, their ugly counte- nances would sei-ve to increase the distance between them and the people. There would be nothing, as I have already observed in chap- ter v., to prevent the modeller from even exaggerating this difierence, and the priesthood would never take ofl^ence at it, if it tended to make the deluded multitude stand in awe of them as beings of another and a higher order. We have in the Tarsus collection what appears to be a perfect head of a Buddhist bonze. It might have been recently brought from Japan ! As also numerous heads of rehgious devotees, such as are to be seen daily in India by the road-sides. For this unexpected and per- plexing enigma we want a solution. The only one which can well be imagined is, that though there is now a great gulf of separation between those people and the western countries, there was at, or before the Christian era, a wide-spread diffusion of these monkish fellows through all the heathen countries ; but that, through the influence of Christianity, their occupation was gone, and they disappeared, or made their exit from a stage no longer suited to their action. May these very tribes not be represented by our gypsies as their descendants, who practise similar arts as far as the manners of the age permit, and are of unques- tionable antiquity, and of Oriental descent; many of their words being known to be pure Sanscrit? " In Antioch, the Oriental element of superstition and imposture was active. The Chaldean astrologers found their most credulous dis- ciples in Antioch. Jewish impostors, sufficiently common throughout the East, found their best opportunities here. It is probable that no populations have ever been more abandoned than those of the Oriental (rreek cities under the Roman empire ; and of these cities, Antioch was 236 LARES AND PENATES. the greatest and the worst Juvenal traces the superstitions of heathen Eome to Antioch."* This quotation is given here as bearing upon the matter of our in- quiry ; for whatever may be said of Antioch may be applied to Tarsus. In an account of Pococke's India in Greece, given in Blackwood's Magazine, it is said, " By an original method of interpretation, applied to documents existing in the Greek and Sanscrit languages, the author has discovered important facts, illustrative of the most obscure periods in ancient universal history. The interpretations introduced consecutively into this work, and accompanied by the true Sanscrit text in heu of the corrupt Greek version, produce abundant and interesting results, espe- cially in relation to early Grecian history, of which results the following is a brief summary. "In the great conflict between the Brahminical and Buddhistic sects in India, the latter being defeated, emigrated in large bands, and colo- nised other countries. It is demonstrated in this work that the princi- pal locality from which this emigration took place was Affghanistan and North-western India; that the Indian tribes proceeding thence, colo- nised Greece, Egypt, Palestine, and Italy ; that they also produced the great Scandinavian families, the early Britons inclusive; and that they carried with them to their new settlements the evidences of their civili- sation, their arts, institutions, and religion." Surely this goes to confirm the fact of a connexion between the East and West in old time, and to support the opinion as to the great value of the Cilician or Tarsus collection, as containing some hidden mysteries in history, which will be opened in due time by some one competent to the work. The contest between Brahma's disciples and the followers of Buddha is a dark page in history, but the issue of it in the dispersion of the lat- ter is a known fact. If we must go to the Sanscrit for the solution of these things, we shall find a new field opening before us, the results of a thorough exploration of which it would be difficult to anticipate. * Conybeare and Howson, Life of St. Paul, 135, CHAPTER IX. MONBTBKS AND IDIOTS. Among what may truly be termed the curiosities of the Tarsus collec- tion are many heads of monsters and idiots, among the first of which we may describe a small head (No. 67), much damaged, but still retainrag all the horrible expression of its original state. The brows are enormously swollen, and the eyes seem starting from their sockets; the mouth is in keeping with all the other ugly features. It has a chaplet round the head, binding two large round tufts to it for ornament ; but what they were formed of, or intended to represent, we can- not distinguish, as they are only marked by the impress of a small square punch. Is this, it might fairly be inquired, male or female, human or divine ? It is horrible enough for Typhon himself, or one of his ministers. Then, again, we have the aqui- line nose and hairy upper lip of a monstrous face ; the view of the left side shews the strange outHne most strikingly. There is a work called the Magus, or Celestial Intelligencer, in which are heads of spirits, one of which has a nose and lip just like this. In the same category is a fragment of the lower part of a nose with the upper jaw. The nose is turned up, as if by the expression of scorn and hatred; the lip rises in harmony with that feehng, laying bare the teeth. It is made of red clay, and the teeth have been painted white. Also, more or less associable vsdth the same order of ideas, and yet in another category, is a head with strongly-marked features, having a kind of cap upon it. It is loose, having, like others, a hole for an axle. It is of the same class with many others as to beauty. The expanded NO. 67. — HEAD OF A. MONSTEK. 238 LARES AND PENATES. A MACEOCEPHALUS. ears, long nose, and slavering moutli, give it mucli of the expression of an idiot, whicli also agrees with the miserably-contracted cranium. Was this image sarcastic ? or were idots, as in modern times in the East, looked iipon as sacred or mysterious beings ; beings labouring under an occult dispensation, and more particularly taken under divine pro- tection ? However bad superstition may generally be, whoever first promulgated this, although in some instances public nuisances are entailed, secured kind treatment among a semi-barbarous people to an afflicted humanity. Among the same group is a very remarkable head (No. 68) with Afri- can features, and large thick ears; the cranium is of an extraordinary length from front to back. This ap- pears to be a head of the Macroce- phab, a tribe of Asia Minor, who took liberties in shaping the heads of their children as the Chinese do with their ladies' feet. There are also in the collection two other heads of Macrooephali.; one is remarkable for a bump above the organ of firmness ; his mouth, however, seems to indicate much bodily pain, as if he were roaring. Among the other monstrous heads is one with horrid teeth, yet it would seem to be a lady by the dress ; the malignity of the eyes is most repulsive. Another monstrosity (No. 69) is the repre- sentation of a man's head with no brains, the tongue projecting from his slavering mouth ; the ears project like a dog's. The expression is that of animal pain. It would seem to be as dangerous to draw ethnological deductions from the monstrous productions of the Cilician ar- tists, as it would for some Australian of the year 4000 to discuss our national pe- culiarities from the grotesque heads that adorn many of the old religious buildings, supposed, in some cases, to illustrate the spite and antagon- ism of rival monastic orders. Among the heads of a more particularly idiotic character is one with a face with projecting chin and pug-nose, giving a very straight facial line. The mouth is monstrous, and the expression mahgnant. HEAD OF AN IDIOT. IDIOTS, BOOLS, AND DWAEFS. 239 Another idiot face has tlie skull shelving back where the brains ought to lie. Yet it is radiated ! Was it a portrait of such a character deceased ? Possibly so. "We have before remarked that idiots are stUl looked upon in the East as beings under a mysterious dispensation and divinely protected. Another curious head is that of a merry fool, who has been painted white and red, like Joe Grimaldi. He looks as if he could keep a regi- ment in good humour, in spite of his ugly face. In another, again, the reverse, or extreme bodily pain, is well expressed. It is almost enough to give one the tooth-ache to look at it. It would require a spoonful of magic embrocation to make him smile. Poor fellow! it is no sham. There is also another ox-eyed head represented as in a woful plight. It is very rudely sketched, but tells its tale. There is also in the collection the head and right shoulder of a figure which, hke some others, indicates the lowest degree of mental debasement. He turns to look over his shoulder without any particular expression of pain or pleasure, but as if he were giving utterance to some unmeaning sound. The hair is woolly like a negro's. Among the same group are two monstrous heads with caps, which, unnatural as they are, are doubtless correct representatives of persons then existing. Fools, dwarfs — out of the very sport of nature — were formerly kept in the establishments of great people and in king's courts. Negro servants were much employed in this country, and dressed fan- tastically, a century ago. Might not monstrous productions be sought out and retained about the temples ? We have also half the face of another of the same kind, and the lower face of another, but the mouth and chin of better mould. An- other, again, with the chin almost nil; and another with a better chin. It would seem as if there had been wens upon the bottom of the cheeks, which have been broken off. If it is so, these goitres would confirm the preceding suggestions, and prove that they were cretins. It does not appear, however, that such have as yet been met with in the mountain- ous districts of Asia Minor. It does not follow, however, that they do not exist in the secluded and little-frequented valleys of Taurus ; per- haps near to Tarsus. Among heads and faces of a similar character is part of one, the brows of which are contorted and indicative of much suffering, which the eyes also express ; and another which is almost all face, the cra- nium excessively small. This, like some of the others, is thoroughly idiotic. What were the superstitions (it may well be inquired on viewing 240 LAKES AND PENATES. such deified heads,) of that age respecting idiots ? Were they not thought to be in more immediate connexion with the gods ? If so, these may be portraits of some such unhappy beings. In the same strange category we may also place another unnatural head, with huge project' ing ears, and a pinched narrow forehead, and the face utterly unintel- lectual. Two heads in slave's caps, not quite so monstrous as the last, but most intolerably ugly; another head of the same class, but with a sly sinister expression about the eyes, yet low intellectual faculties for want of brain ; a small head of the same breed as the preceding, but somewhat better, except the chin, with a cap on painted blue ; also two other heads of the same parentage ; large eyes, heavy noses, thiclf buUock mouths, and enormous ears. One of them seems in pain; but it looks like mere brute suffering. Another, again, is a fragment of ahead; the nose and mouth monstrous. It is a fact, that a small receding chin, and an open mouth with relaxed lips, as if never used but to take in food, is always accompanied by defective intellect. Look at the chins of George Washington and Napoleon, and the close grip of their Hps, and contrast the chin of George III. and the mouth of the late Charles X. of France. Another has an enormous goitre hanging on the throat ; and the little of the face which remains is in keeping with it. There can be no doubt from this that some of these idiots were true cretins. Of another there is not much left, but enough to exhibit the ma- niac — the demoniac — in whom dwelt a god ! Then again we have two other fragments of heads of the same description, perfect idiots. In another the cheek is hairy, and the nose and mouth extravagantly out of proportion. Monstrous features and forms of head, or countenances of idiotic ex- pression, are not confined to men. There is in the collection the frag- ment of a female head in which the nose is monstrous, the mouth, the chin, and the forehead idiotic. The hair in this figure is plaited and carried back. We have also a female head, the hair of which is dressed and the ears jewelled ; but the mouth and chin identifying it with the same class. It may be remarked upon these strange works of art, that if such characters were held in superstitious veneration, it is Ukely that they were supported by the temples, and used by the priests for the pro- motion of their own objects. The female head having a high cap or bonnet, ornamented with orbicular masses, like buttons, aU over its surface, suggests curious thoughts. If she is of that class of vn- happy beings referred to, may not the round projecting objects on her IDIOT HEADS. 241 cap be spherical bells ? They are- all of one size, and' have as great a projection as the potter's motdd would allow. Such a belled cap- was worn by the fools and jesters of kings, popes, and nobles in the middle ages. It is not less probable that this head may give us the only re- maining memorial of the ancient and- original fool's cap and bells. In this view the head is perhaps unique; There is more disagreeably suggestive matter connected' with the subject of the deification of idiots, contained in the following letter. It is, however, borne out by the well-known fact, that at the present day Egyptian fellah women will assemble and veil witfc theisr bodies, as it were, an idiot engaged in the indulgence of his disgusting sensual propensities. Mr. Abington writes, under date of August 10, 1852 : " I have thought much on the subject of the idiot (cretm) heads, so numerous; and having read some papers on matters- of a similar character by a learned but anonymous writer,. I obtained fids address, and informed him in general terms of yoar valuable collection ; of the articles it comprises, especially of these heads, I asked whether such unhappy beings were not supposed to be in more immediate connexion with the gods ? Whether it is likely that they might be kept and fed at the expense of the temples ; being used by the priests for their super- stitious purposes, and generally for the promotion of their craft. I pointed out also the occurrence of figures similar to the Buddhist priests and the fakirs ot India. " He replies : ' I do not recollect that they were permanently at- tached to the temples ; but I take it that reverence was paid them as being preternaturally endowed with sensual propensities. I believe that cretins are much given this way. Fakirs, we aU know, are won- derfully so given, inasmuch that no notice or resentment is ever shewn at any insult by them to a female, even in open daylight, or even by a husband. A military friend of mine in India, who had wandered shoot- ing into a village about forty miles from Nypore, which no European had entered before, came suddenly upon a religious festival, at which all the maidens of the neighbourhood were assembled to wait upon and feast a set of naked fakirs, who were sitting in a circle with fool's caps upon their heads ; their carcasses were painted like harleqiuns. He was at once requested to withdraw ; but expresses his belief that the old rites of Astarte were about to foUow.' " All this so fully agrees with my own surmises respecting these creatures being associated with the figures of the gods, that I could not forbear sending it to you. I believe that the same remarks will apply R S42 LABES AND PENATES. to both eexes, where you find the cranium faithfully represented as formed almost entirely of animal propensities, without any adequate proportion of the sentiments to balance them. Certainly nothing can be imagined too gross and beastly for them to have embodied in their religion, when we recollect the free use of the obscene phallus in their public rites. But it is an impleasant subject to dUate upon." TOMB AT ELEUSA, FEOM A SKETCH ET MB. LATAKD. CHAPTEE X. HrilAN PIGTJEES. BARDS PRIESTS MISCELLANEOUS FEMALE FIGURES DEIFIED CHILDREN UNDETERMINED. Among the fragments of human figures which do not belong to any of the categories before described, may be enumerated, in the first place, that of a bard reciting his verses. This figure is far more ancient than any other piece in the collection ; he is playing on an instrument that is ujiknown, but of which there are two other pieces that will throw some light on this subject. These will be referred to in a subsequent chapter, where mention is made of a boy playing on a pan-pipe and of a syrinx. Next, two figures of priests bearing a bas- ket or some vessel on their heads, to which their hands are applied for support. These figures are altogether of an ori- ental character. There are two bosses, or balls, on the head- dress, which help to identify them as to their occupation, which was undoubtedly in the temple or rites of Priapus. There is also a figure of another bearded man, which resembles the preceding, but has no chap- -t^ 1 1. l_ ll ^'°- 67.— ANCIENT BAUD PLATING OK SOME let on the head, though the unknown iNsiBUMENr. 244 LAEES AND PENATES. hands are elevated to support a burden under which he seems to bend. Another figure represents a priest of the same order, but standing at ease ; he bears in his hand something which appears Hke the links of a chain folded up. Was it for inflicting penance ? We know that self- mortification was carried to great lengths by some orders of the ancient heathen priests, the same as is now practised in India. These figures go to confirm the previous suggestions made with regard to the con- nexion of the mythology of Cilicia with Buddhism. Besides the above heads of bards and priests, we have also a man's head, probably a portrait, from its peculiar expression; the ears are remarkably long. Also a cloaked figure, the head of which is well- modelled and interesting; the hair is very ample and curly. Then, again, we have a head painted white. There is another such on a lamp ; it has a helmet ; the twist of the nose and mouth in a con- trary direction gives it a ludicrous appearance. This was probably a likeness of some well-known character employed about a temple. There is also the bald head of a man. It has a well-developed cranium, over which a cloth is thrown. It was connected with something on the back, which is too scanty to give any idea of what it was. One of the heads in the same group is more of a grotesque character, and from its pecu- liarity and natural propor- tions, a portion of one who was " no fool." In the same collection we have the upper part of the body of a conquered gladia- tor; a relic of art so full of expression, so eloquent in its mute agony, that we have introduced it here. Then again we have the middle part of a figure bear- ing a wine-sack, as if pouring it out. Part of a figure which has the thigh extended, as if sitting on a horse; the mor- ■gl "s^' -^i^H^^ tar by which it was fastened to the seat remains. Also the left side of a man, half CONQOEBEn GLiDIATOB. ^^^^^^ .^g^ modeUcd. ThC left hand of a bearded figure, holding up something which is broken off. PBAGMENTS OF FiaURES. 245 Thea part of the body of a man, having a cloak over his shoulders in the style of Apollo. Then an old man's head with a cap, very expres- sive ; his bushy eyebrows give great force and character to it. We have also the upper face of a man with his head bound up, as if he was sick; his eyes and brows seem to indicate the same. It is well modelled. Also a fragment of a head with a very bushy brow ; there is a wen on the forehead. And lastly, the lower face of a man with a full-developed chin: indicating that he could both raise and enjoy a laugh; but the lips are gone. The above are male: there are also fragments of female figures, as exempHfied in the left arm and drapery of a female reclining. The lower limbs of a female; they are crossed, while drapery painted red falls down behind her. It has been a graceful figure, well drawn. Also a sitting figure of a naked female. The head is wanting. It has been found lately and proved that she represented a sibyl on her seat of in- spiration. It was used as a fountain; the base is formed into a pipe, through which the water or wine would ascend ; and the seat on which she is placed inclines downward, to give a free flow to the fluid. Among miscellaneous fragments, we have an arm holding up a tripod, possibly part of a priestess of Apollo. Also part of a female and child. Then, again, the right half and head of a female with a tiara and veil; possibly a Venus. Also a female bust in relief, the left breast and shoulder naked ; stiff and inferior. Another fragment repre- sents the upper half of a female figure, having all the character of a divinity ; but the right hand of a man is placed on her right shoulder. And another is the head of a dignified lady, the hair fuU dressed, stand- ing on a pediment. Among other fragmeii,ts we have part of a circular medallion, con- taining a female in relief; the hand and part of the body remain, sufficient to shew that it refers to the rites or honours of Cybele. It was probably votive. Then, again, we have part of an elegant figure of a female bearing a veU, which floats in the wind. Also another pleasing head, little, but good, of a lady in full dress, with jewels in her ears. Another pretty head in a close dress, the veil hanging down full behind, and shewing the gathering of the hair at the back of the head. Again, a female divinity, with the hair knotted, and the diapery flowing. Then the bust of a female carrying a bird. Also the head of an old woman ; she wears a cap most unique, ornamented with buttons or other round objects. And the lower part of a head, which is female, from the ringlet hanging on the cheek. Lastly, we have the upper part of a figure of a woman dressed in a garment which is wrapped close round her, and is 246 LARES AND PBNATBS. drawn over her head ; in her left arm she bears a naked boy. It has been painted. It would do for a Madonna, but must be of a date long prior to any such representations of Mary and her child. There are two of these, and they both appear to be far more ancient than the generality of the pieces, if we may judge from their style of sculpture, and from the blackness of the terra- cotta. In the same category may be classed the following interesting works of art, being chiefly figures of deified chUdren. 1. A fragment representing a child with wings, and in close drapery; the hair of the head is knotted on the top. There is connected with it an ornamented ring, apparently to hang it by. " It is possibly a me- morial," says Mr. Abington, " of a deceased and deified child." 2. A boy with wings and a radiated crown, reposing, with his right arm over an object covered by a cloth or skin, which hangs in folds over it, and which has been painted blue. The crown also was painted the same colour, and the hair red. The figure appears to be slumbering. 3. The bust of a deified chUd, with the head radiated, and the right hand elevated in valediction. i. A little fragment, having a winged infant, in rehef 5. Head of a deified child, bearing a vase, probably to receive hha- tions. There are also the following pieces. A fragment of a Bacchanalian group of boys, in high relief; one kneeling, with an armful of grapes. There appears something like a bow by the side ; but it may be the trunk of a vine. Another fragment of a well-executed figure of a boy reminds us of Flamingo's models. An excellent figure of a boy looking upward. The balancing of the body is well managed; while it seems bent out of the perpendicular, it stands firm. , A bust «£a deified child. Upper portion of a boy ; another is holding him by the chin ; his eyes are shut. A boy in a tunic, as if ascending upward on wings : a me- morial of the dead. Part of a boy holding a sickle, with which he is gathering grapes. A naked boy with a cock ; on his left shoulder there is a foot like that of an eagle. This is possibly a Ganymede. Another winged boy, not improbably Eros. A boy closely cloaked, very imper- fect, and a young child, led by a female. The head of a youth, with the left hand elevated with much energy. A boy carrying a basket of grapes on his back ; he looks as if he was conscious of having stolen them. An imperfect fragment of a youth: good, but much decayed. A young student ; a good study for the historical painter ; it is com- plete except the feet. The hands of a boy carrying a goose. A youth's hands crossed in front, as if standing in the presence of his FRAGMENTS Or MGtURES. 247 superiors. A fragment of two boys ; they seem engaged in drawing a carriage of some kind. A boy's head, with the hair disposed in ring- lets, in the style of theatrical masks. A small chaplet is placed on the crown, to which were attached large bunches of ivy-berries ; it is surrounded by a copious radiation of ivy-leaves. The expression is peculiar, though quite juvenile. StUl more interesting is a very beau- tifdl boy's head, the hair thin and scanty, radiated. The more this is studied, the more it must be admired. Flamingo or Cipriana might have been proud of the production of it. And lastly, a trunk of a boy, naked, except a cloak, fastened by a fibula on the right shoulder; he carries in the cloak a variety of fruits, among which grapes and the pine are the most conspicuous. There are several fragments in the collection, the character and gender of which it is not so easy to determine. Among these are, part of a figure bearing a square vessel or chest, covered with drapery. A left hand, belonging to a figure in drapery holding something like a modern book. The lower portion of a closely clothed figure, with shoes on the feet. It is remarkable that the legs are cut free behind, and the back drapery worked. It was sitting. Also three fragments of sitting Egyptian figures, apparently connected with the worship of Isis. And lastly, a number of detached arms and hands, not requiring any individual description. Among the Cilician terra-cottas, the true character of which has not been as yet satisfactorily determined, may also be noticed a fragment of a figure in a sitting posture ; only the lap and legs remain. It is closely clothed, and the left hand rests on the thigh, holding with the fingers and thumb a remarkable portion of the dress, consisting of two tablets hanging from the girdle. The style is altogether Egyptian, and if not a deity, it has been some sacerdotal officer. Also part of a figure formed into a cup at the top, probably for the purpose of holding perfume. The head only remains, which is bonneted; the features are youthful, with curled locks, and the right hand is elevated, to hold the cup which rises out of the figure. Again, a fragment of a relief, which shews the left arm of a slave carrying fish, which are suspended in a bundle at the end of a pole. There is also another similar fragment ; but instead of fish, a basket or net hangs at the end of a pole. The contents are so slightly modelled, that it is difficult to say what is intended. We may perhaps be permitted to include in this chapter a notice of the following, among the strange fragments contained in the Tarsus collection, viz. several images of the lower human jaw, one with the 248 LARES AND PENATES. symphysis anarked very deep, -a row of inckor teeth, and the left canine teeth. Another, with the teeth still, more strongly marked, the canine tooth being much, curved ; and others with slight variations. All these remnants are portions of flat, circular medallions or reliefs ; and all have the ground within the jaws, modelled to represent flames, ,'and have been painted red. Among the works of our early painters of Church legends, and of the temptations of saints,, &c., we often find representations af heaven and hell. The latter is generally depicted .as the wide yawning jaws of a great monster with enormous teeth, and belching out fire and flames. Do not these fragments shew us that .such a mode -of repre- senting a fiery infernal region was but traditionary? Are .they not personifications of the Tartarus of the,, ancients? If ..so, was the fact ever known before ? ■BHPEESEMTATION OF TARTAKTJ3. Lastly, several masks occur in the same collection. Among these is the half of the mask of a bald-headed man. Also a very expressive tragic mask. Again, a figure in a mask, excessively rude and imperfect in every point. In another part of a mask the hair is .in short curls, and is dressed to a great height. A pair of wings ornamented the front of it. It has been painted. Is it Perseus ? The variety of masks, both tragic and comic, is too numerous to be entered upon here, and they would require more illustrations than ,the nature of .this work permits. OHAPTEE XL ANIMA.LS. DOGS OXEN BULLS BUFFALO ^HORSES LIONS — PANTHEE — WOLF BOAK — APE ^HIPPOPOTAMUS (?) CAT — GOATS RAMS ASD SHEEP — CROCODILE SNAKE — EAGLE — SWAN OSTRICH — COCKS. BoTn wild and domestic animals have tkeir illustrations among the Tarsus terra-cottas ; some with a mythological meaning, as in the in- stance of the lion, the ape, the cock, and others. The meaning of others is more difficult to detect, unless as accompaniments to figures and personages wanting in the work to make it complete. Among such is the hind half of a dog in relief, which seems to have been the top of a lamp ; also the hind legs of a dog in relief, behind which is a basket. Also, a dog sitting by the side of a figure, the foot of which only remains. This may have been Diana and a hound, as it forms the I linth of a statue. Further, the rump of a shaggy dog in the act of running ; and a dog whole length appears to be climbing; and lastly, a hound's head at full speed — good. There are also several hind-quarters of dogs, which do not require particularising. Among these zoological fragments are also a very fine head of a young ox, and the forehead of a bull, with the hole in front by which the golden disk wap fastened, shewing it to have been divine. Also, a good bull's head, one horn wanting ; the expression is admirable. An- other bull's head, probably a fragment of a group, with a Hon on his back. Again, a head which appears to have belonged to an Indian buffalo. The buffalo, it may be remarked, is a common animal in the marshes of Asia-Minor and Syria; and the Indian buffalo is met with on the Euphrates and Tigris. The bull may be partly illustrative of Egyp- tian, or also of Greek and Eoman mythology. Besides the numerous fragments of horses attached to chariots or 250 LAKES AND PENATES. , otherwise, and the still more numerous horses' feet, the meaning of whicli has been previously discussed, fragments of horses and of equestrian figures are common in the Tarsus collection. Among these, we may notice as deserving of separate mention : A boy riding a horse, of which the hind half only remains. Part of a horse with a saddle, and naked leg of a boy-rider. Also, the thigh and leg of an equestrian figure, who, by the bend of his body, wotild seem to be at full speed. Also, the upper part of a horseman: his loins are belted, and he seems to be racing. And then, again, part of a group of horses — the bridled head of one, and the shoulder and neck of the other harnessed. We have also, in part of a circular tablet in bas- relief, the fore-leg of a horse, and the booted leg of a man running by the side of him. By putting all these and other pieces before him, the sculptor has been enabled to restore several complete figures that are most interesting. Among animal relics of another order, we have a small head of a lion; when viewed on the left side, the efiect is admirable. It was attached to some other object on the right side, which is therefore un- finished, not being intended to be seen. Also, the head and paw of a lion's skin, hanging by the side of a throne — only one leg of which re- mains : it is formed of a chimsera head and lion's paw. Also, a detached lion's head, and a hon's skin, from the figure of Hercules. As also a lion with a figure riding upon it. The left arm and drinking-cup re- mains. And the same subject, but only the head of the lion is left. Then, again, we have a panther, probably part of a bacchanalian group, in high reUef The head of a wolf, and the fore part of a boar wanting the snout. The figured face of an ape is a sohtary instance of the kind: it has a cap on the head: this animal is rarely found in Greek sculptures, but it was a sacred animal among the Egyptians. Isis is sometimes represented riding upon a monkey. It was in some such association that this figure was used. Also, the fore part of an animal, thick, clumsy, and short-legged, which might be taken for a fragment of an hippopotamus, sacred to Typhon ; and in the collection there exists the snout of this intelhgent animal. Among figures of other familiar creatures are the head of the long- eared Syrian goat ; another goat's head ; a fragment of the same, and a fragment of a boy riding a goat. Also, the top of the head of a ram ; a ram's horn, and part of a sheep kneeling on a plinth. The ram had mostly reference to the rites of Minerva. Among the same relics we find the mutilated or imperfect repre- sentation of the crocodile. "We have had occasion to remark elsewhere, CROCODILE AND BIRDS. 251 that there exists in CUicia, a river called Andricus by Pliny, as also a mons crocodilus, and that both are connected geographically as well as by name. This river, now called Markatz Su, and remarkable as flow- ing between the walls of the antique Syro-Cihcian gates, is of too small a size ever to have been frequented by so remarkable a saurian. But the same river is called Kersus by Xenophon — -a word derived from a Coptic and Syriao idiom, and which refers to the ancient crocodile wor- ship, being met with in the Aido-Kersus of the Samo-Thracian mys- teries, and is explained by Soega and Munter, as the great principle of fecundation ; and hence it was expressed by Pliny by the word Andri- cus, whilst the mons crocodilus rose up above it. It is to be observed that the crocodile worshipped by the Syrians was also called Succoth ; but the able commentators of Pancoucke's PHny suggest an identity between the Syriac Kersus and the Egyptian Kamses, the name of a ferocious crocodile, which has been ascertained to be a different species from the sucko or succoth. In this same class we have also a snake winding round a staff, the symbol of ^sculapius, and probably part of his statue. There are also several fragments of figures of birds ; and to take the most noble birds first among fragments of this description, there is a foot of an eagle ; the ground has been painted blue. It was of great size, and probably connected with a figure of Jupiter. Also the fuU figure of an eagle, which has been connected with some object at the side, most likely the throne of Jupiter, to whom the eagle would then be looking up. Then, again, we have the figure of an ostrich, with a loop behind for suspension; as also of a swan, the head of which is supported by a human hand. The crane is also here represented and the dove. Among the other ornithological fragments may be noticed three cocks, probably relating to .^Isculapius ; as also two cocks' heads. Nergal, the Assyrian Abrerig, god of the starry sky, and the tutelar deity of the king, was also, it is to be observed, conjectured, according to the presumed Semitic or Indo-European origin of the name, to have reference to a fire-worship, or to that of the sun under the form of a cock.* * * See Layard, vol. ii. p. 459. It is worth mentioning, however, that being at the mines of Ishik Tagh, near Angora, in the year 1839, we were surprised one day to find a cook, in the midst of great scarcity, newly killed, yet not eaten, in front of the houses. Upon inquiry, we ascertained that the miners, who were Christians by name, of the Greek Church, had killed it in order to propitiate some genius of the mines, and that a sacrifioe must not be eaten. Tliis was evidently a remnant of the old superstition of cocks being sacrificed to Pluto for the same objects. See Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, &c. vol. i. p. 131.— W. F. A. 252 lAEES AND PENATES. We have also in tte collection the figure of the hawk — a bird, like the eagle, of quite as great importance in the Assyrian pantheism as the Egj'j^itian ; and of which we introduce an illustration. PHREE, THE EGYPTIAN SUN. CHAPTER XII. DOMESTIC AND RELlGIOrS ART. CHARIOTS VASES BOWLS AND DISHES WINE-JARS AND DRINKING- VESSELS LAMPS HANDLES TABLE AND CHAIR RING AND GLASS ROUND DISC OF POTTEET NET BUTTER-PRINT (?). Objects of domestic and religious art are not so numerous in the Tarsus collection as might a priori be imagined. Among these are fragments of the wheel of a chariot, with the hind leg of the lion which is drawing it. It was painted red. The lion was connected with the worship of Cybele ; and the'goddess Ehea, with her lions, as described by Diodorus, may be recognised with similar accompanimpnts in the Assyrian sculptures ; so also Hera, the Assyrian Venus, stands erect on a lion in the rock tablets of Pterium and those of Assyria.* Also, of a more or less similar character, a chariot driven by a naked boy; the wheel is partly covered by what appears to be the tail of the animal drawing. Also the hand of a boy, holding the reins and driv- ing a chariot ; and the two hands of a boy in the same action. He holds the reins with much apparent skill and energy. And lastly, a chariot, in which sits the lower half of a boy, with a portion of drapery thrown across him. If they are horses' legs immediately before the wheel, they are very stiff and out of place. Add to which, a boy's hands grasping reins, and several detached chariot-wheels, two of which are bored as if placed free in their axles. In the same collection are several fragments of vases, of greater or less interest both in an artistic and an archseological point of view. One is ornamented with vine-leaves and annular handles. The foot is wanting. Only one side of it is wrought, shewing that it was fixed against a wall. The cavity is shallow. It was, perhaps, used for libations to Bacchus, and was possibly placed on the head of a figure. Another is somewhat like the preceding, but not ornamented. This * See Layardj vol. ii. p. 456. 254 I/ARES AND PENATES. appears to have been borne on the head of a figure, and supported h the right hand. Another part of a vase is of very elegant design, but slight -work manship. It is a portion of the foot only ; the plinth part is ornamentei •with festoons of fruit, supported on ox-heads, and on the shoulders c winged boys. The cove rising to the leg of the vase is very gracefull' fluted. There is also part of a cup or vase in the Egyptian style. It i formed of two rows of lotus-leaves representing a flower, and very lik the capitals of some columns of Egyptian temples. Eound the botton there is a row of animals, such as are seen on some cornices in thi British Museum ; but whether they are hooded snakes cannot well hi made out. There is also, among fragments of a similar character, one that pre sents a very graceful design for the support of a vase, or for an incensi altar. It is formed of three leaves, giving it a tripod character. Thi intervals between the leaves are occupied by swans couching, with theii pinions advanced over their breasts. This would indicate its applicatioi to the rites of Pan or Venus. Another fragment seems to have been intended as a leg or supper for some article. We have a round base, upon which is a well-formec lion's paw, which passes into the figure of a crouching man, who graspi the two handles of a drinking vase. It has very much the aspect of i Babylonian work. Lastly, we have two vases, one between two animals. There is £ hole in it, and the vase being in the shape of an amphora, indicate! that it was part of a vessel to hold wine. And another with draperj thrown over it, in modern iunereal style. Among the minor objects of art having a similar tendency, and illus- trative both of art and feeKng, are a portion of the side of a drinking bowl in red clay (No. 54). It bears a bas-relief of the head of a Bac- chante, crowned with ivy and bearing a thyrsus, that is, a long pole, with an ornamental head, formed by a fir-cone, or by ivy or vine- leaves, which was carried by Bacchus and his votaries at the celebratioH of their rites. The back of the Bacchante is turned toward the eye, and her face is looking over the left shoulder, from which the tunic is sliding ofi" : nothing could be better conceived ; it must have come from the hand of an artist of the first order, though it has somewhat degenerated in the hand of the potter. Altogether this is a precious fragment, and wiU bear comparison with any thing which has hitherto been discovered of ancient ceramic art. DIIINKING-YESSBLS. 255 Among objects of a similar character are a fragment of a Bacchana- lian bowl ; it has a moulding of beads and buttons round the top, under which is a border of vine-leaves and grapes. On the body is a mask, and a nymph, slightly draped, beating upon an instrument Uke a drum or gong. This vessel was painted red, and by its curvature must have been seven and a quarter inches in diameter. Also a portion of a bowl of a different shape from the preceding. It was of a beautiful shape, though the ornamentation is very rude and' slight. The leaves, &c. were pressed on with a die after the bowl had been thrown by hand upon the wheel. It is also red ; the diameter is about five inches and three eighths. Eeclining on a large wine-jar or amphora is the figure of a come- dian performing his part in a play. He is in the attitude of one at a banquet, has the comic mask on, and sandals (baxea) on his feet. The baxa, or baxea, worn on the comic stage,* and by philosophers who affected simplicity of dress,t are, it may be observed, sometimes indi- cated on the feet of Egyptian statues, and many originals have been discovered in the Egyptian tombs ; some made with close sides and upper leather, like a shoe ; others with a leaf, forming a mere strap, like a clog, across the instep ; and others with a band across the instep, and another smaller leaf on the fore part of the sole, intended to pass the great toe through. We have next to notice a fragment in yellow clay (No. 58), part of a cylindrical drinking- vessel, three inches in diameter, similar to our modern mugs. A relief has been made out of a plaster-mould, and laid upon it ; but the body of the vessel was thrown upon the potter's wheel. The subject is a female, slightly clothed, holding in her hand a branch of sesamum, which she is attentively watching to observe the opening of the seed-capsules, a mode of divination often resorted to for the solution of love-questions. The modelling is very good, except the breasts, which are out of place. The back part of the vessel was decorated with ivy. This vessel might, it may also be observed, possibly, have been an oil- jar ; and the female contemplating the common oil plant (sum-sum of the Arabs) be poetically emblematic of the uses of the vase. "The piece," says Mr. Abington, " is interesting to a potter, as it shews that the an- cients laid reliefs upon their works in the same manner as is practised now; but the workmanship on the part of the ancient potter was un- worthy of the beautiful models supplied to him by the artist, and would not be tolerated in a modern pot-work." Among the minor objects of art in the additional collection are many * Plant. Men. ii. 3, 40. t Apul. Met. xi. p. 244. 256 lABES AND PENATES. fragments of lamps -well deserving of mention. Among these are t} upper portion of one with a bas-relief of a centanr bearing a wine-va! upon his back, and about to drink from a bowl. The modelling of th beautiful fragment is truly admirable. Another fragment of the top i a lamp has a relief representing Vulcan occupied in his workshop. E sits with one foot upon his anvil, and upon his raised knee is a shieli which he is fashioning into shape with a finishing hammer. His pincer or tongs, are lying upon the ground. This is one of the pleasing deif cations of the most humble art, ennobled in this case by the object i which the artist is engaged, and a tribute to the imaginary iiiTentor ( forges, and the first teacher of the malleability and polishing of metali Another part of the top of a lamp is adorned with the figure of a Eoma herald, bearing his staff and an ensign. This fragment is painted rec and is of inferior merit as a work of art. Lastly, another has the hea of a satyr on the top, and is like the former of rude workmanship. The designs for handles found among the Tarsus terra-cottas ai sometimes very elegant. Among them may be particularly noticed most elegant handle of a lamp : it is formed of a horse's head of first-rat execution, emerging from foliage most gracefully drawn. Also a lamp handle very plain, but the lines graceful and well drawn ; as well as th handle of a lamp with a slight relief of the conventional honeysuckle in pure Greek style, on the triangular face of the top. There are figure of such in many works of antiquity. Well worthy of notice also is th< handle of a lamp in the form of the prow of a ship; there is the figun of a bird upon it. This piece was burned so hard in the fire as to b vitrified in the surface. Also a very primitive handle of a lamp; th ornamentation is such as is attempted by men in their earliest efibrts The handle of a vase, with a head, the tragic Muse. A ring-handle with a fragment of the vessel with which it was connected, very perfect and then, again, a portion of a handle, with a human head upon it This is remarkable for having a glazing upon it of vitrified lead. Par of a good handle terminating in a chimsera head, with a frill of leavei behind it. Also the handle of a lamp, with chimsera head. A vine leaf, forming the handle of a bowl or dish ; and lastly, parts of twc snakes, probably connected as handles to a vessel ; and a harpy's head which served as a handle. We have next to notice the handle of a flat dish or tazza, the orna- ment of which, though rude, is complex, and appears to have a mytho- logical meaning. It has a circular altar or short column in the centn supporting a basket ; on each side of which a humped buffalo or Indiai buU is couching ; over these are two human heads, apparently female HOUSEHOLD ARTICLES. 257 and behind tliese, fishes : there are others below the fishes, the character of which is not easily determined. The bulls, the fishes, and the female heads have a mythological meaning in harmony with the purpose to which the vessel was appropriated, which was religious. The dish was large, the diameter being nearly 14^ inches, and coated with a red varnish. Also another handle from the same mould, with a small portion of the bowl- part of the dish ; this fragment shews the ornamentation was all on the under side, and would be unseen when the dish was in use ; when out of use, it would be reversed, the concave part would be unseen, and the decorated Hbottom exposed to view ; the very opposite to the construction anJ use of our dishes. Does not this illustrate a passage in the Bible ? 2 Kings, chap. xxi. 13, "I will wipe Jerusalem as a man wipeth a dish, turning it upside down." Next, a small fragment of a red dish, with a part of the handle, having a flower, the syrinx of Pan, and a figure like a running dog. It is on the same plan as the preceding. And in the same category may be placed a very good head of Medusa, in relievo, painted red. It had been applied as an ornament to some vessel, from which it is detached, leaving part of its hair behind. The head of Medusa, it is well known, is sometimes depicted as one of the most beau- tiful, and at others as one of the most shocking objects in the world; the noble head in the Strozzi collection at Eome is an example of the former. Lastly, a fragment of a beautiful bowl, the outside of which has been ornamented with leaves impressed on it by a punch or die. The handle or lip projected from the rim, and was decorated with scrolls. In the department of furniture, we find a fragment of a relief, repre- senting a tripod table, with chimsera legs, and some provisions lying upon it; also the side of a chair of state, with a well- formed chimsera in the front. Both these objects appear to have belonged to temples, most probably dedicated to Apollo. Among the same objects, also, we may notice a ring of glass. It was coated with an enamel made of oxide of silver, and consequently of a yellow or amber colour; but the maker of it did not use silex enough in the composition of the enamel to make it permanent. The article bemg buried so long in the earth, and thereby exposed to moisture, the enamel has been decomposed, the alkali in it has been carried ofi', and the oxide of silver, losing its oxygen, has returned to the metallic state, now forming a coat of pure silver upon the glass. The silver being in an imperfect state of crystallisation, causes the spangled appearance. There are several such silver enamels in the British Museum which have not suffered decomposition, having been preserved in dry tombs, &c. As to the purpose for which this ring was used s 258 LARES AND PENATES. ythen covered with a smootli coating of enamel, it is more fit to guessed than described. It was connected mth rites which could i stand before the purifying influence of the Christian religion. In the same collection we find a round disc of pottery, having a h to hang it by. The panel in front has the character M upon it. It probably a numeral of the Greeks representing 40. We manufacti similar labels for the purpose of hanging in wine-cellars to distingui different lots ; this was probably used for some lUie purpose. Among more miscellaneous objects may be briefly described, ornamented net containing flowers, and something like our bu1*er-pria but the subject is in cameo. TOMB AT ELEUBA, FBOM A SKJiTOH BY ME. LATAED. OHAPTEK XIII. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. LTEES — SYEINX. There are several fragments of lyres in the collection, one of them painted red ; another with a hand resting upon it, and which formed part of a Muse. These fragments do not throw any light upon the oft- discussed questions as to the original inventor of the lyre and the num- ber of its strings. It is more interesting to us to remember that the Abyssinians have a tradition that this instrument was brought from Egypt into Ethiopia by Thot in the very^ first ages of the world; and even Greek and Eoman authorities will be found to bear out the opinion, that the invention of the primitive lyre with three strings was due to the Egyptian Mercury, Hermes. Layard found only one musical instrument depicted by the As- syrians, and that was a triangular lyre, the strings of which were nine or ten in number. The god, says Layard, which Mr. Birch now conjectures to be Baal, is represented at Talmis playing on a triangular lyre.* These last discoveries may well be considered as disposing of the story of Mercury's first affixing thongs to a tortoise-shell; of Chorsebus, the son of Atys, adding a fifth string ; Hyagnis, a sixth ; Terpander, a seventh; and according to some, Pythagoras, or according to others, Lychaon of Samos, an eighth string, by which the octave, which con- sisted of two disjoint tetrachords, was produced; and which discoveries are seriously discussed by Mr. Spence, Dr. Burney, and others, and which may be now fairly consigned to the same fabulous repositories as Mercury's peace-ofiering to Apollo, Apollo's vindictive jealousy of Marsyas, the rage of the Theban women against Orpheus, and the building of the seven gates of Thebes to the seven strings of Amphion's lyre. In this department of the collection may be classed the upper * EosseUini, M.C., Teste, torn. iii. p. 19, ta¥. ann. Layard, vol. ii. p. 412. 260 LARES AND PENATES. portion of a youth playing the syrinx or Pandean organ, the fah origin of which, from the conversion of a beautiful naiad pursued Pan into a tuft of musical reeds, is so well known. The instrum appears to be suspended by a band to his neck, and he regulates it w his right hand, while the left seems to have been free. The pipes more numerous, and those in the bass part of the instrument m\ longer than is usually represented. The player seems quite satisl with his performance. There is also another fragment giving the middle portion of anot! figure playing upon a red instrument of a more perfect form. Th seems to be little doubt that our modem complicated organs are to traced to Pan's pipes as their origin. In Hawkins' History o/Musu an engraving of an ancient monument at Rome, in which is the rep sentation of a primitive organ. It is a small chest placed on a tat in the front is a female playing on keys, and on the other side is a n LNSIRUMENT CONNECTING THE PAN-PIPE WITH THE OBQAN. NO. 69. — YOUTH PLAYING THE SYRINX. blowing into the box with a pair of bellows. This, I believe, is only known link connecting the organ with the Pandean syrinx. . does not this fragment supply another link in the chain of improvem and take its place between the simple reeds of Pan and the rude or just described ? It may be unique, and of value in its bearing on history of music. Let us look at it again. The instrument consists of a vertical : of pipes, the length unknown, as the lower portion is wanting ; they MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 261 inserted into a small air-chest, wliicli appears' inflated in the middle part. The pight hand is operating upon it with a kind of cushion or compress, by which he forces the air into the pipes, and which he seems to apply to different parts at will. There appears to have been a pro- longation of the central part of the instrument across the left arm : the loss of this is much to be lamented, as that would have shewn us more of its construction, and also how the left hand was employed in playing it. It is firmly fixed to the body ; but the upper ends of the reeds are too low for the performer to blow into them with his mouth. The openings in the tops of the reeds are all perfect, nothing is deficient at that end. This may be looked upon as the very first application of a pneumatic chest to the Pandean organ, which still retains its place on the breast of the player, though he no longer operates upon it with his mouth. It is most desirable to restore this figure ; we should then see whether the left hand or the foot was employed to blow the air into the machine. In the same collection we have also the representation of a syrinx detached from some figure : there is a fracture on the front, marking the place from which the hand that held it was broken ofil The reeds are bound together by a broad ornamented band. Part of the top of the instrument is perfect, and likewise the lower ends of the five treble pipes, but the bass is broken. <^^<="^^iG$XD'^=^J OHAPTEE XIV. COMPARATIVE GE06EAPHT. AESU3 (rHOSUs) MTEIANDKUS ISKANDBUN OR ALEXANDBETTA (ALEXAN- DRIA AD ISSON) GODFRET DE BOUILLON'S FORT BAYLAN (PICTANUS, ERANA ?) PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN CHURCH CASTLES OF IBN DAUD AND OF BATLAN BUSTANDAH -ALTARS OF ALEXANDER CASTLE OF MARKATZ RIVER KERSUS — GATES OF CILICIA AND STRLi — BAYAS (bALe) — ISSUS — NICOPOLIS KARA KATA (cASTABALA) EPIPHANEA MATAKH — TAMIR KAPU (iron gates, AMANIAN gates) ATAS (aGE^) AMMODES — KARA TASH (mAT.LUS and MEGARSUS) AIEIAN PLAIN ^PYRAMUS MOPSUESTIA CASTLES ON THE PLAIN SARI CAPITA EHEGMA. OF THE CYDNUS ^YANIFA KISHLA MAZABLIK. CASTLE OF KALAK BUGHAZ— KARA SIS -ANABAD AND DUNKALAH. This chapter has reference to the sites of ancient towns or cities in Cilieia, which ought not to be passed over in silence in a general account of the antiquities of the country. Commencing at the south-easterly extremity of the province, the olden episcopacy of Rhosus or Ehosopolis, now Arsus, we have seen still presents some interesting remains of olden time. There are re- mains of a Christian church with Corinthian columns, and of an exten- sive aqueduct, besides other fragments of art. The existing Greek church also presents many features of archaeological interest. According to the distances given by Xenophon of five parasangs from the gates of Cihcia and Syria, the site of Myriandrus (which still remains to be discovered) ought to be on the way from Markatz to Arsus, unless, as is not improbably the case, it was situated at the foot of the Baylan pass, or within the pass itself. At Alexandretta are the ruins of the Levantine factory, and a httle to the southward is a polygonal fort of massive masonry, the construc- tion of which is traditionally attributed to the crusaders tmder Godfrey de Bouillon ; beyond this, again, are fragmentary ruins at a spring BAYLAN — JONAS' PILLAES. 263 called JacoVs Spring by some, but Joseph's Well by Pococke, and which has been supposed by Rennell and others to be the site of Myriandrus. Baylan is a remarkable town on the crest of the gorge forming the Syrian gates, and it corresponds to the Pictanus of the Jerusalem Itinerary, which was nine miles from Alexandria and eight from Pan- grios (Pagrse). It appears also to represent the Pinara of Pliny and Ptolemy, placed by both in the neighbourhood of Pagrse or Pagras, as also, by corruption, the Erana of Cicero, which is described as being in the mountain above the region in which the altars of Alexander are situated. , The mosque of Baylan was built, according to the Mecca Itinerary, by Sultan Selim, and the Khan by Sultan Sulaiman the Magnificent. There are also remains of a causeway, of an aqueduct, and of a bridge, appertaining to the time of the Romans. Higher up in the mountains, and a few miles northwards of Baylan, are the remains of a well- constructed Christian church of the earhest form after the Basilica ; being an oblong area, with colonnades at the sides, supporting an arched or vaulted roof ; and at the end opposite the entrance, a semicircular space surmounted by a half cupola. Dr. Po- cocke, it is also to be observed, met with several Christian sites in the district between Mount Ehosus and Coryphasus. On the Syrian side of the Baylan pass, we have, to the south, the ruins of a Saracenic castle called that of Ibn Abi DMd, at the site of the ancient Pagras or Pangrios ; to the east, the ruins of Khan Karamut ; and to the north, within the hills, is the castle called Baylan Bustandah, one of the apartments of which is used as a sepulchral chamber, and within which are preserved many arrows — reminiscences of medieval warfare. To return to Alexandretta : the colossal marble fragment known as Jonas's Pillars is familiar to all travellers. There is much reason to believe, as we have before pointed out, that these are the remains of the altars erected by Alexander to commemorate his victory over the Persians. It was in vain that the traces of such were sought for on the Pinarus. Quintus Curtius may have been in error when he stated that this commemorative monument was erected on the banks of that river. Pliny says that the " Bomitffi," or altars, were between Amanus and Ehosus ; and the monument or gateway in question belongs ap- parently to the Macedonian era. Beyond Jonas's Pillars (Sakal Tutan of the Mecca Itinerary), and to the right on the acclivity of the hills, is a Saracenic castle, called Markatz Kalahsi. Beyond this, again, the 264 GEOGRAPHY OF OILICIA. Markatz Su, the Kersus of Xenophon and Andricus of Pliny, close by Mount Crocodile. The way in which the Kersus of Xenophon came to be called Andricus by Pliny is curious, and exemplifies the great diffi- culty which the comparative geographer sometimes experiences in arriv- ing at a correct identification. There would seem to be at first no sort of relation between Kersus and Andricus. But the Markatz Su, called by Pliny the Andricus, was caUed by Ptolemy Xepaiag. PUny has also a Mons Crocodilus on the Andricus, evidently the precipitous rock that rises up above the villages of Markatz, and the site of the Syrian and Cilician gates. The word Kersus, derived from a Coptic and Syriao idiom, refers to the ancient crocodile worship, and is met with in the Axio-Kersus of the Samo-Thracian mysteries. It is explained by Zoega and Miinter as the great principle of fecundation; and hence it was ex- plained by PHny by the word Andricus, which term becomes identified with Kersus. It is to be observed that the crocodile worshipped by the Syrians was also called succoth ; but the able commentators of Pan- coucke's Pliny suggest an identity between the Syriac Kersus and the Egjrptian Kamses, the name of a ferocious crocodile which has been as- certained to be of a different species from the sucko or succoth. It has been seen before that we have the crocodile preserved in the terra- cottas of Tarsus. The ruins of a wall can be traced north of the southerly branch of the Markatz Su, from the precipitous rocks to the sea-side, where it terminates in a tower; and to the north of this are also ruins of a' tower on the shore, marking the extremities of the other wall, which were three stadia apart. These are the remains of the gates of Cdicia and Syria, to gain which both Cyrus and Alexander despatched a fleet of boats in advance of their respective armies. It is not improbable that it Avas because the Macedonian hero had gained this point, and attained the heights of the Sakal Tutan, which command the whole Issic Gulf, before he returned to give battle to Darius, that he afterwards erected his altar of thanksgiving at that point. Bayas has been described in a note to the text ; so also with regard to the supposed site of Issus. We have only the authority of Stephanus of Byzantium, that Issus was called Nicopolis after the great victory won there by the Macedonians ; but what city in Cilicia is there so worthy of the name ? The fact, however, of Strabo and Ptolemy noticing Nicopolis as distinct from Issus renders the identification very doubtful. The remarkable and extensive ruins of Epiphanea have also been described ; and by the distances given of twenty- six Koman miles from ANTIQUITIES. 265 ^gse, and sixteen miles from Bais (Baise), there can lie little doubt but that the castle and ruins of Kara Kaya, " the Black Rock," represent the Catabolon of the Antonine Itinerary and the Castabala of writers, as also the castle near Epiphanea, to which Cicero i-epaired. There are remains of a Roman causeway and of arches leading from Epiphanea across the Burnuz Su to the mounds and ruins at Matakh, and the Amanian gates, near to the Cyclopean arch, called the Tamir Kapu or iron gates. At Kurt-Ktdak there is a fine but ruinous old khan. The castle of Ayas, ancient Mgese, is a dilapidated structure of various ages, the walls and towers at the angles alone remaining. To the westward is a round tower with an Arabic inscription ; and Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort's party copied a Greek inscription at the same place, which will always possess a melancholy interest as the spot where the much- esteemed hydrographer received a severe wound, and a young . midshipman of the Frederikssteen was killed. This is the site also of a plaintive story related by Gibbon, of Maria, the Christian maiden of Carthage. The Ammodes, or sandy cape, noticed by Mela Pomponius as being between the Pyramus and the Cydnus, and now so celebrated for its numerous turtle, leads the way to Kara Tash, a promontory of rock with a port for boats, a village and caravanserai, a ruinous castle like that of Ayas, of various ages, and other fragments of ruins around. A variety of curious considerations, which it is needless to enter upon now, led me at one time to identify Mallus with that portion of Mopsuestia which was on the east or further side of the Pyramus ; but a further study of all' the details of the question has induced me to return to the views entertained by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort and by Colonel Leake, and to identify the site of the city of Amphilochus and of the fane of Minerva (Megarsus), as well as of the tombs built out of sight the one of the other, with the ruins at Kara Tash, which are minutely described in Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort's work. North of Kara Tash is the great Aleian plain, now called Tchukur Uvah ; and up the existing bed of the river Pyramus ( Jaihun Su) are the ruins of Mopsuestia ;* to the east, terminating the rocky ridge called the Jibal al Nur or " Mountain of Light," and overlooking the vast ex- panse of plain beyond, is the i-uinous castle designated as Shah Maran Kalahsi ( Jihan Numa, p. 603), or the Castle of the King of the Serpents. Beyond this again, on rocky knoUs rising out of the plain, are Tum Kalahsi and Saliyath Kalahsi, which we did not explore ; and beyond that again, at the junction of a tributary flowing from the Kuzan Tagh • See page 110. 266 GBOSBAPHY OF CILICIA. with the Pyramiis, are tlie ruins of Anazarba, before noticed, and crowned by a similar rock isolated castle. Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort has so ably discussed tlie positions along the coast of the Sari Capita of Pliny, of the second promontory called Zepbyrium by Strabo, and of the twice historically united and twice separated waters of the Sarus and the Pyramus, that it is un- necessary to aUude to these here. His work contains also a detailed description, with a neatly engraved plan, of the ruins of Soli and Pom- peiopoHs, which, with the description given of the ruins at Karaduvar (Anchiale?) are more perfect than any that we yet possess of other CiUcian cities. From the extensive ruins at Parshandy to Korghos, ancient Corycus, and thence to Ayash (Sebaste and Eleusa), and for several nules east- ward of the latter, the same authority describes the shore as presenting " a continued scene of ruins, aU of which being white, and reheved by the dark-wooded hills behind them, give to the country an appearance of splendour and populousness, that serves only, on a nearer approach, to heighten the contrast with its real poverty and degradation." To return inland, c^ into what the olden geographers called Medi- terranean CiHcia: on our way from Tarsus to the renowned Cilician gates (Kulak Bughaz) are traces of a Eoman causeway, with an arch ; a ruinous castle called Yanifa Kishla ; and a ravine, with sepulchral grottoes and an inscription, now called Masarlik or " the Place of Graves." A castellated building also crowns the crest of the rugged rooks at the narrowest portion of the pass, where the work of the chisel to widen the road is very manifest. We are indebted to Mr. Barker for the first notice of a castle in the same neighbourhood, called after Nimrod, a name which would give evidence of great antiquity, and to which he supposes Syenuesis to have retreated. The coimtry of perpetual rebels, of the lawless Tibareni, of the Cliteans, of the predatory Armenians, and of the imconquered Aushir and Kusan Ughhi tribes, contains, in the present day, the old castles of Kara Sis, and of Andal Kalah, which may correspond to the Cadra and Davara of the Chteans ; and the pass of the Pyramus through Taurus into Cilicia, the bridle-way to Marash, so minutely described by Straho, is also characterised by its defensive structures, among which the castles of Anabad and Dun Kalah are the most remarkable. CHAPTEE XV. ANTIOCH AND BBLETJCIA. THE BAY OF ANTIOCH — ^VILLAGE OF SUWAIDIYAH GROTTO OF NTMPaEUS — ISLAND OF MELIBCEA -RUINS OF SELEUCIA PIERIA PROJECTED RE-OPENINa OF THE PORT OF SELEUCIA AMOUNT ST. SIMON MOUNT CASIUS— TEMPLE OF HAM. The bay of Antioch extends from Kas al Khanzir, or Cape Boar, on. the north, to Eas Pussit (Ancient Posideum), on the south, a distance of about thirty miles. Hemmed in by Mount Casius — Jibal Akrab, or bald mountain (so called from its summit being covered with snow the greater part of the year), and Anti-Casius to the south ; it is bounded to the north by Mount Moses (Jibal Musa), above which again rise the lof- tier peaks of Jibal Akma, in ancient Ehosus, which attain an elevation of 5,550 feet ; and these two ranges are united by low, wood-clad hills in the back-ground, to Mount Saint Simon, a hill that stands in advance of Mount Casius, from which it is separated by a narrow and precipi- tous but wooded and picturesque ravine, through whose shady depths the river Orontes (Al Asi, " the rebel") forces its way, flowing onwards by the ruins of a monastery, church, and khan — all that remains of the old port of St. Simon — and then by a hamlet or two, constituting the modern port, into the sea. The modern village of Suwaidiyah, or Suedia, as Seleucia is orien- talised, or as it is more commonly called Zaitunli, "the place of olives," embosomed in luxuriant groves of mulberry, olive, grape-vine, pome- granate, and apricot trees, occupies the range of the lower hills ; and there are also several large villages in the mountains to the north and south, and on the south bank of the Orontes. Close by the latter is a small grotto, with a spring of clear water ; connected with which are many large hewn stones and other fragments of antiquity. The site appears, from a variety of circumstances, to correspond to that of nymphoeum cum specu of Strabo, situated between the mouth of the Orontes and Mount Casius. 268 GEOGRAPHY OP CILICIA. If ever Melibcea, of poetical celebrity, was an island at the moutli of the Orontes, it must be now joined to the mainland, which is not at aU an improbable circumstance. We have the explicit authority of Op- pianus* in favour of the first fact ; and the fabled lover of Orontes, and the nymph of Melibosa, would bear out the latter, as well as the physi- cal features of the soil, the alluvium slowly but steadily adding to the extent of the coast. On the other hand, we have the combined testimonies of Virgil, " Victori cMamydem aiiratam, quam plurima circum Purpura Mgeandro duplici Melibcea cucurrit." — iENEm, v. 251. and of Lucretius, " Jam tibi barbariose Testes, Meliboeaque fulgens Purpui-a Tbessalico concbarum tincta colore." — Lib. i. v. 499. that Melibcea was a Thessalian island ; but this would only shew, what is frequently the case, that there were two of the same name.^ The Une of coast from the Orontes northwards is low and sandy on the shore, but pastoral or marshy in the interior to the foot of the hiUs. Nearly half way to the ruins of Seleucia Pieria is the neatly white- washed tomb of a holy Mohammedan, which being a ziyarat, or place of pilgrimage, has some ruinous buildings attached to it. Close by is a well of fresh water. The ruins of the city and port of the SeleucidaB are beyond this at the foot of the rocky range of Jibal Musa, formerly called Uupia, or Pierius, when Seleucia of Antioch was distinguished from other cities bearing the same name, by the epithet Seleucia Pieria. Strabo calls Mount Pierius a continuation of Amanus ; but it is rather an outlying range of Rhosus, or Ehossus. The bare cliffs of Mount Pierius rise at this point abruptly from the low level plain below, and advance in rude promontories into the sea on the other, and the ruins of the once strong, populous, and weU-frequented port are still indicated by the now fiUed-up basin or * Cyneget. vers. 115 to 120. + There is at tbe mouth of the Orontes a piece of ground of about a hundred acres, which the Orontes forms (by winding round it) into a peninsula, and which the people of the country call " Gezir^," the island, because it is evident that the neck of land has also been traversed by the river at no very distant period. This piece of land be- longs to Mr. Barker's garden at Suedia, it being customary there to have a piece of land for each garden, in order that the people who rear the silkworms may have a place on which to cultivate the wheat and barley they require for their immediate use. Without such land it is difficult, almost impossible, to get any one to take charge of a garden. ' The most delicious melons grow on this peninsula, and the crops are very fertile in consequence of the propinquity of the water in that warm chmate. The two vessels which afterwards navigated the river Euphrates were landed at this point, which was called by Colonel Chesney, in his defipatohes, Amelia Depflt. 8ELEUCIA PIERIA. 269 dock, the cnimbling gates and ramparts, tumbled-down buildings and houses, numerous sarcophagi, and still more interesting sepulchral grot- toes, and the remarkable extensive hollow way or excavation cut through the mountain, and attesting in so singular a maimer to every successive visitor the industry and perseverance, as well as the skill and ingenuity, of the older inhabitants of this free port. The walls of the city appear to have been quadrangular, and they had a double line of defence ; the northern extremity abutting on the hill, whose summit was crowned by the acropolis. There were also walls of a suburb, triangularly disposed, and reaching down to the mole, traces of which are still extant. A gate led from the suburb to- wards the sea, and on the opposite side another opened towards Antioch, which was adorned with pilasters, and defended by handsome towers. The space occupied within the walls had a circumference of about four miles, and is filled with the ruins of houses. The basin is 2000 feet long by 1200 feet wide, occupying an area of 47 acres, and was in fact as large as the export and import basins of the East and West India Docks together. The inner port is entirely excavated, and its canal is 1000 feet long; the area of the outer port is about 18,000 feet square, and it affords good shelter, but is obstructed by sand. There are two moles, 240 paces apart, constructed of enor- mous stones, and a pier called that of St. Paulse, which runs west 80 paces, and then turns N.W. Colonel Chesney proposed some years back to open this port* to modern commerce. Since that time. Captain "William Allen, E.N., who so distinguished himself in exploring the river Niger, has surveyed and carefully mapped this interesting basin ; and his calculations of the ex- pense of clearing the port of mud, and opening it to navigation, chiefly by the natural means formerly used by the inhabitants of letting down the winter floods by the ravine, which is their natural channel, instead of turning them off into the excavated and artificial channel, corresponds almost precisely to that made by Colonel Chesney (30,000Z.). Dr. Holt Yates, who has erected a handsome house in the neigh- bourhood, near the Orontes, has also entered warmly into a project which promises to be of so much benefit to commerce and to the im- mediate neighbourhood, and has read a paper on the subject to the Syro-Egyptian Society. The great advantages to be gained by opening this port are, that it is nearer at hand than that of Iskandrun or Alex- andretta ; that it avoids the difficult navigation of the Gulf of Issus ; * Description of Seleucia Pieria, in Journal of Royal Geographical Society, vol. viii, p. 228. 270 GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA. that, whereas Alexandretta is infamous as one of the most unhealthy spots on the coast of Syria, and hence few can be induced to reside there, Seleucia is a comparatively healthy spot, and would, if opened to commerce, soon become in all probability a flourishing town ; that the road from Seleucia to Antiooh, Aleppo, and the Euphrates, is com- paratively open, while that from Alexandretta has to cross the for- midable Syrian gates — the mountain pass of Baylan (ancient Erana), between Amanus and Ehosus ; and lastly, that while Cihcia is con- stantly disturbed by local dissensions and the rebellion of races, the neighbourhood of Seleucia, chiefly tenanted by peaceful Christians, is re- markable for its tranquillity and security; and lastly, Seleucia would con- stitute the safest harbour (especially for steamers), on the whole coast of Syria, and would, from that circumstance, and from its greater proximity to Antioch and Aleppo, entirely supersede the ports of Bayrut or Beirut, of Tripoli, and Latakiyah. The same circumstances that have existed from the period of Mr. John Barker's settling here, and which induced Colonel Chesney to adopt it as the site for landing the steam-boats and equipments of the Euphrates expedition, stiU exist ; and at a very mode- rate outlay, Seleucia might be again rendered what it once was, the most capable, the most flourishing, the most fertile, the most populous, the most wealthy, the most beautiful, and the most healthy port of Syria. As to the effect which the opening of such a port would have upon the commerce of the interior, the promises it holds out as the key to North Syria, the Euphrates, Mesopotamia, the Tigris, Kurdistan, and Persia, and the line of communication that could be opened, as originally pro- posed by Colonel Chesney, by this route to India, such subjects are of too great a magnitude to be entered upon here ; but once the port opened, they 'would force themselves upon the Turkish authorities, the Anglo- Indian government, and all concerned or interested in the amehoration of the countries in question, in the progress of commerce, and the general advance in civilisation. On the side of the city opposite to the harbour are the ruins of two temples, and of an amphitheatre partly cut out of the rock, as is so fre- quently the case ; and here also commence the numerous sepulchral excavations, which extend nearly two miles along the face and up the ravines of the mountain, and in front of which many hundreds of sarco- phagi, some of which Mr. W. B. Barker opened, are scattered. One portion of the excavations, called the Tomb of the Kings, has a fa9ade entrance, and suites of apartments, with columns and staircases leading to a set of chambers above. In some of the grottoes were traces of paintings, with remarkably bright colours ; in general, however, they POET AND RiriNS OV SELBUCIA. 271 were ordinary excavations, devoid of architectural ornaments, and many appear to have been used subsequently as broglodyte dwellings. They are now, however, only tenanted by foxes, jackals, and porcupines. But the most remarkable feature in the ruins of Seleucia is the great out or hollow way before noticed, and by which the inhabited and tomb-dotted portion of the mountain is separated from the heights above. This extraordinary work takes its origin from an open valley in Pieria, which is prolonged in a north-easterly direction to beyond the city, upon which it opens to the south-west, above the inner ex- tremity of the harbour. This opening being artificially dammed up, the cutting led the waters away through the mountain to the sea, or to the mouth of the harbour to the north of the city. It is altogether 3074 feet in length, and attains in places an elevation of 120 feet, averaging a width of 22 feet, and it terminates abruptly over the sea. This great excavation is divided into portions, the greater part being an open, hol- low way; interrupted, however, by two tunnelled portions or covered ways, the one 102, and the other 293 feet long. The cut is also crossed in its eastern part by an aqueduct supported by a single arch, and its western extremity by another arch, bearing a mutilated inscription of the time of the Caesars. A recess, with sepulchral grottoes, occurs in another portion. Water was carried along this hollow way, in addition to what may have flowed along its base, by a Httle channel hewn in the face of the rock, 18 inches in width; and in one part a narrow staircase leads down to within about 14 feet of the base, and which Colonel Chesney thinks was the ordinary level of the waters. The waters of the valley before mentioned, although no longer artificially dammed up from their natural course, appear still to flow at times along the bed of the hoUow way, which they seem to have deepened, for the Une of demarcation be- tween the hewn portion and that which has been since excavated by the waters is very distinct, and these waters have forced a passage for them- selves through the south-western sides of the excavation leading down to the mouth of the harbour; and hence, according to some, used to keep that mouth open. But the excavation can be traced beyond this opening towards the sea, although the traces of running waters are no longer discernible in that direction. Appian relates in his Syriacs (p. 202), that Seleucia was founded in obedience to an intimation to that effect, obtained from the thunder. Hence it was dedicated to the thunder-god, as may be seen on a coin recorded by Spanheimus, " Jupiter fahninans Seleucensium,'' and this thunder-god was identified by the Eomans with Jupiter Casius. 272 GEOGRAPHY OP CILICIA. Seleucia was embellislied and strengthened by Seleucus Nicator, who gave the place his own name. It was so strongly fortified, that Strabo designates it an impregnable city ; and it was made a free port after the conquest of Syria by the Romans under Pompey, as is recorded on coins belonging to the times of Caius Csesar, Trajan, and CaracaUa. It was one of the foiu- most distinguished cities of the Macedonian dynasty of the Seleucidse, and which, including Antioch, Apamea (Kalah Mudik), and Laodioea (Latatiyah), were called sisters, on account of the concord which existed between them. Mount St. Simon, so called from the tomb of that well-known Syrian ascetic, but also denominated Bin Kihsa, or " the thousand churches," from its extensive remains of ecclesiastical structures be- longing to an early Christianity, has been described by Mr. Barker, and it need only be added here, that the memory of this fanatic, whose feats of penance have been misrepresented by Lucian, and justly derided, and that without any indecent allusions, by Gibbon, is as much venerated by the Muhammedans as by the Christians of the country; and the Mecca Itinerary contains especial injunctions to pilgrims, on their arri- val at Antioch, to pay their respects to the tomb of Hazrat Simun — the holy, or beloved Simon. This will not appear at all extraordinary to those who are aware how much of the legendary and historical por- tion of the Kuran is borrowed from what had been long before adopted by Syrian monks and priests, and their followers, the Byzantine chro- nographers. Indeed this use of Christian-Syrian materials is made evident by a comparison of the narrative of the Prophet of the Islamites with the writings of Ephrem Syrus — the Euphrates of the Church, as he has been called by his admirers ; yet who was one of the earliest propounders of those systems of scriptural astronomy and geography, for refuting which Galileo was thrown into a dungeon ; as also with the works of Syncellus, and the Paschal Chronicle* Mount Celsius attains an elevation of 5318 feet above the sea. This was determined by angles taken from the two extremities of a base, measured on the plain below, and by the simultaneous comparison of two barometers, one at the top of the mountain, the other at its base. * The founder of the sect of the Stylites, the fanatical pillar-saint, Simeon Sisanites, the son of a Syrian herdsman, is said to, have passed thirty-seven years in religious contemplation on the summits of five successive pillars, each higher than the pre- ceding. The last pillar was forty ells high. He died in the year 461. For seven hundred years there continued to be men who imitated this manner of life, and were called " Sancti oolumnares" (piUar-saints). Even in Germany, in the diocese of Treves, it was proposed to erect such aerial cloisters ; but the bishops opposed the undertaking. (Mosheim, Institut. Hist. Eooles. 1765, p. 215.) MOUNT CASITJ&. 273 Tlie foot of the mountain is mainly myrtle-clad, at ait elevation of 1500 feet; this is succeeded by oak, and the oaks are again succeeded by gloomy pine-forests, which, at an elevation of 3500 feet, are them- selves succeeded by open glades of birch, and occasional wild pear, apple, quince, and medlar trees. Vegetation is both luxuriant and beautiftdj and in April the patches of gaudy scarlet peonies alternate, and are re- lieved by patches of yellow asphodel, not far from the snow-clad sum- mit, where violets and pansies are succeeded by dark-green fennel. The extreme summit is composed of naked limestone rock.. Mount Casius is, with the exception of Mount Lebanon, Mount Sinai, and a few hiUs in Palestine rendered more famHiar from frequent Scriptural references, the most celebrated in Syria.* Sacrifices to the Thimderer were offered on its summit from the most remote antiquity, and they were said to have originated with the descendants of Tripto- lemus, settled at Seleucia, and whom Seleucus. Nicator invited to An- tioch. These sacrifices were kept up by the Csesars, who dedicated them to Jupiter Casius. Julian the Apostate, discomfited at Daphne, cheered himself with a hecatomb on Mount Casius ; and Pliny relates that Jupiter, yielding to prayers addressed to him on Mount Casius, sent the birds called Seleucidse, the roseate thrush {Twdus roseus), to destroy the scourge of the country — the locusts. But the most curious tradition connected with the mountain, which the Emperors Hadrian and Julian went especially to witness, and which is described at length by Aristotle (Jtfeieor. i. 16) and by Pliny (v. 18), is, that at the fourth watch, or at the second crow of the cock, as Am- mianus relates it, day and night are, by the walk round of a few paces, seen at the same time. The elevation of the mountain we have before observed, is 5318 feet above the sea. Now, the rising of the sun com- mences about one minute sooner at an elevation of 1000 feet than at the level of the sea. Hence the world below is, in these countries, where there is little twilight, wrapped in darkness for five minutes after it is day on the summit of Mount Casius. * Boohart (Phaleg, p. 333) derives Casius (as more particularly applied to the Phoenician Casius^ which was on the boundaries of Syria and Egypt) fi-om the Hebrew signifying a boundary. Another Hebrew origin might be found in Kas, " straw or stubble," as used in Psalm Ixxxiii. 14, and Jer. xiii. 24. Homer {lUad, v. 499) uses Achne in the same sense ; and Pliny says of an island of Rhodes, " Casus ohm Achne." A'more likely origin may, however, be found in the Syriao and Chaldean Kas, "shin- ing," in reference to its bald summit, whence its actual Arabic name, Jibal Akrab, "Mount Bald." Tin, and also lead, according to Mela and Pliny, were probably called by the Greeks Kasiteros, fi-om then- lustre. Tin (in Numbers xxxi. 22) is read Kastira by Jonathan ; and in Arabic, Kasdir. This was the origin also of the British Cassiterides. T 274 GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA. On tte acclivity of the same mountain, to tlie eastward, are tlie ruins of a very pretty temple or church, now embosomed among woods. It was constructed in the form of the Basilicum, but not so simply so as some of the early Christian churches. The oblong area within the walls is divided into nave and aisles by a handsome row of columns supporting a vaulted roof, and the semicircular space opposite the en- trance is supported by a half cupola. This little remnant of early times, placed in so remarkable a position, has been id«ntified by Colonel Ches- ney with the site of the Pagan temple described by Sanchoniatho (see Cory's Ancient Fragments, p. 11) as having been consecrated to Cronus or Hamon on Mount Casius by the descendants of the Dioscuri. It is also noticed by Strabo (xvi. 750) and by Ammianus MarceUinus (xxii. 14). We cannot do better than close this chapter with an extract from Strabo,'* premising that tetrapole, a title given to Antioch, means a city consisting of four parts, each fortified separately, and the four collectively forming one city. " Seleucus Nicator also gathered together at this place the descendants of Triptolemus, of whom I have spoken before. This is why the inha- bitants of Antioch render to Triptolemus heroic honours, and celebrate a feast in honour of him at Mount Casius near Seleucia. It is said that this hero, sent by the Argives in search of lo, who had for some time past disappeared from Tyre, and was wandering in Cilicia, was in that country abandoned by some of the Argives who axicompanied him, and they founded the city of Tarsus. The rest continued to follow him along the shores of the sea, but despairing of succeeding in the object of their search, they established themselves with Triptolemus on the plains watered by the Orontes. Gordys, the son of Triptolemus, went and founded a colony in Gordiseus f {ToploLa), with a portion of those who had followed his father, the others remained in the country; and it was the descendants of these people that Seleucus united to the inhabi- tants of Antioch. Forty stadia further on is Daphne, an inconsiderable suburb. An extended and dense wood is met with there, which is watered by live springs ; and in the centre there is a sacred enclo- sure which serves as an asylum, as also a temple of Apollo and of Diana. The people of Antioch and of the neighbourhood are in the habit of assembling there to celebrate festivals. The circumference of the wood is eighty stadia. The Orontes flows near the city. This river, which has its sources in Coelo-Syria, passes under ground, then * Vol. V. p. 202. Britisli Museum. + Gordiffius was the most southerly part of Assyria, or of the present Kurdistan, near Lake Van. The inhabitants of Gordiajus have also borne the name of Cardrichi, whence the modem name Kurd. n ^ \Bmmm 'W\ RIVER ORONTBS, 275 shews itself again, to flow through the territory of Apamea and water that of Antioch ; and after having passed near the town, it enters the sea near S'-leucia. This river, called Orontes, from the name of the person who Ijuilt a bridge over it, was first called after Typhon ; and according to fable, it was in this place that the adventures of Typhon and Arimes (Inarimes) took place. It is said that Typhon, struck by lightning, fled, seeking refuge ; this dragon in his flight furrowed the ground so deeply as to cause the source of this river to spring up, and he gave to it his name. The sea is to the west, and is above the territory of Antioch on the side of Seleucia. It is near this latter city, situated forty stadia from the sea and one hundred and twenty stadia from Antioch, that the Orontes flows into the sea. The ascent from the mouth of the river to Antioch can be effected in a day." KUINS OF AN AQUEDUCT AT ANAiJAIlBA : PEOM A SKETCH BY MR. E. B. B. BARKER. CHAPTEE XVI. NATURAL HISTORY — ZOOIOGY. THE OUNCE THE LYNX BEAKS — HYENAS, WOLVES, AND JACKALS THE POX HAKES FALLOW DEER — WHITE GAZELLE (gHAZAL) — GKEYHODNDS GH'Am, OR IBEX. There are diiFerent species of wild animals in the mountains of Cilioia, among whicli we may note tlie ounce, the skin of which is much esteemed by the Turks, who use it chiefly to cover their saddles.* I saw a lynx which had been caught in Mount Taurus, but it died after a few months of an inveterate mange, which communicated itself to all the domestic animals in the mansion, and was so virulent that even the fowls died of it. This malady in this incurable state seems to be as indigenous to Tarsus as the fever of the place, which I consider worse than any other: inasmuch as, firstly, it carries off the patient in three days (unless copious bleeding is had recourse to) ; and secondly, that it is almost impossible to eradicate it out of the system even for years afterwards. The most efiective relief I have found to be following up the cold-water system ; this seems to possess the best means of alleviating, if not of entirely cur- ing, the evil effects of continued attacks of fever. But with regard to the mange in dogs I will relate one instance that is remarkable. I had been requested to procure Count Pourtalles two brace of greyhounds, of which the Turkmans possess a very fine breed. One of these greyhounds had had the mange, but was considered cured by a preparation of gunpowder and oil ; and as he was quite a champion, and celebrated for his feats, I was tempted to send him among the num- ber; and I have since been informed by the Count, whom I had the honour of visiting when ambassador for Prussia at Constantinople, that * The largest animal of the feline tribe seen by our party in Cilicia was rather a leopard or panther than an. ounce. It was called Nimar by the natives, and was pro- bably the same animal that is called Kaplan in Lycia. A smaller species, apparently corresponding to the Felis pardina of Oken and Teraminok, was very common. A lynx with black ears (kara kulak) was also met with. — W. F. A. BEARS AND PORCUPINES. 277 the malady broke out again and communicated itself to the other dogs, and that they all four died in spite of every exertion to cure them that European knowledge and treatment could afford. From the same malady I have lost the most valuable dogs. At last I discovered that dogs at Tarsus generally died either of this or of the yellow fever, unless they were washed daily with cold water and soap, and confined in a court- yard and kept from all contact even with the ground trodden on by other dogs wherein the seeds of the malady might be left ; for I suspect that it is caused by some minute insect that gets into the skin of the animal, and nothing can drive it out that would not be equally pernicious to the life of the dog. Bears are to be found in Mount Taurus; but as they only prowl about at night, they are not frequently met with. I have had them shot, or rather they shot themselves by a not very ingenious contrivance of the people of the country. As the bears come down into the gardens nearest the mountains to feed upon the vegetables, they walk along the paths and leave mai-ks of their footsteps. The gardener ob- serving this, puts across their road a string which is connected with the trigger of a gun that is set so as to fire on the poor creature as it passes, and the gardener hearing the gun go off, comes up and finishes the work of destruction. The flesh of this animal is remarkably fat, and not unlike beef, but it is not eaten by the people of the country. I have seen one ham which weighed 60 lbs. The flesh of the porcupine when young is good and tender. The gipsies are constantly in search of them ; but it requires some cleverness and patience to get a shot at them ; their acute sense of hearing renders them sensible to a person's being in wait, and they cannot easily be compelled to leave their burrows. The native sportsmen even pretend that it is necessary to cover the flint lock of the gun with the left hand when firing, as they discover the flash and dip back into their holes before the shot can reach them ! The Turks do not consider them unclean, but few eat them ; their flesh is white, and tastes like some- thing between a sucking-pig and a hare. Hyenas, wolves, and jackals abound, and prowl aboiit at night in search of carrion. I have heard the hyenas howling within a few yards of me, when I have slept on the sands of the sea-sjiore, where we would light a fire to keep off the innumerable mosquitoes that infest the coast. The people plant the stems of four fir-trees and form a kind of table on the top with branches and leaves ; here they climb to the height of twenty to thirty feet, and endeavour to sleep in the air out of the reach of this plague, the most irritating of all insects, and which is believed 278 NATURAL HISTOEY — ZOOLOGY. to have a peciiliar relish for a stranger's blood. The jackals frequent the marshes ; they are very numerous and noisy, but are so thick-skinned that it is a difficult matter to kill one with a club. I have had to do this with one that had been attacked by my dogs, and I can speak from experience as to their toughness ; if a cat has nine lives, the jackal may be said to have nine times nine ! There are two kinds of foxes ; the one large and grey, the other small and brown. These, as well as the jackals, appear to have a fine scent, and they hunt for them- selves, destroying a great deal of game, which is, however, very abundant in spite of their depredations. A friend of mine assured me that some years previous to my coming to Tarsus he had been out shooting, and had first counted a hundred francolins, which he put up in the course of an hour and a half, after which he desisted from counting any more. There is but one kind of hare in Cilicia, the large heavy hare. It is of a darker colour than the desert hare, found to the east of Syria. This latter kind is very small, and wiU often beat the grey- hounds in a straight hne, without their being able to turn her once. A gentleman of veracity residing at Aleppo related to me an incident hav- ing reference to the hare of the desert which I may be allowed to repeat here. He was out coursing on the desert side of the city; and, strange to say, the strength of the hare, dogs, hawk, and horses was so per- fectly matched, that after a long chase they all came to a full stop. First the hare came to a stand ; then the dogs, out of breath, a few paces behind ; next the horses of the sportsmen brought to a perfect stand -still; and lastly, the hawk resting on a stone close by quite exhausted ! The gentleman's servant dismounted and took up the hare in his hands. On the plains of Adana a kind of fallow-deer is met with, called by the natives yumurgia ; their skins are dyed and used by the Muhammadans as carpets to say their prayers upon. This animal is very large, but is by no means so swift as the gazelle ; the latter are very abundant, and may be seen in flocks of fifty or sixty. They afford the chief sport for cours- ing, and are seldom taken except by an extraordinary dog, unless they can be driven into a muddy field after heavy rains, which they have the instinct to avoid, by making for the high road as soon as they apprehend pursuit. It requires a great deal of tact and ingenuity to manoeuvre so as to get them into the predicament requisite to make them flounder till the dogs can come up to them. I recollect when at Mosul being instrumental in the capture of two, which we took on the plains of Nineveh vnth dogs that my friend the French consul had in vain taken out on. several occasions. The flesh of the red gazelle is barely eat- GAZELLES AND DOGS. 279 able, — it is always lean and dry; whereas the rimi, or white gazelle of the desert, is very fat, and is, perhaps, the most dehcious of all venison. The gazelle supplies a tribe of Arabs called Slaih with food, raiment, and tents. These people have a simple method of taking large herds of them for their winter provisions. They build a wall of loose stones about four feet high and about a quarter of a mile long, dis- posed in a semicircle. In the centre they leave a breach, behind which they dig a deep pit. When they have contrived to drive the gazelles along this cul-de-sac, which is effected by the whole tribe turning out to- gether, the poor animals, seeing no other exit, jump through the breach and fall into the pit, where the men are ready to slaughter them. Their flesh is dried in the sun, and is said to form the only food of the tribe ; their skins also serve as covering for the body, and are used as tents to shelter them from the rays of the sun. This Slaih tribe is a remarkable one; with the exception of a very few donkeys, they possess no worldly goods either of camels, sheep, or horses, whereby to tempt the cupidity of their neighbours, with all of whom they are thus enabled to keep at peace. The dogs used for coursing in Cihcia are very beautiful, having silky hair on their ears and tails ; they are bred in the higher regions of Mount Taurus and AnatoUa, and are brought down by the Turkmans in the winter, and return to their yailas in the summer, as they cannot hold out against the heat of the plains. They are very tajjie, and, tmUke any other dog of the Turks, are much petted, and allowed to lie on their carpets and beds. They are very susceptible of cold, and are always kept covered with cloth-felt. A good dog is much prized, and is often not to be had in exchange for a cow or a horse and a measure of wheat. Such as take hares may be had from half a guinea to a guinea ; but one that has taken a gazelle, under the most favourable circumstances, will fetch 21. 10s. at least ; and then the proprietor will only part with it when constrained to do so by his superior or by his superstitious preju- dices ; for the Orientals think that if they refuse to part with an animal they have been asked to dispose of, it wiU be struck with the evU eye and die, or be lost or stolen. They profess, indeed, to despise dogs, and express their contempt of any one refusing to give a dog or horse ; and yet the Turkman will never give away either if good for any thing, nor sell either but at an exorbitant price. They have a very fine breed of shepherd-dogs, which they bring up on milk, as they seldom have any bread to spare. (The greater part of their wheat is purchased with the money produced by the sale of their cattle.) This breed is promulgated all over the north of Asia Minor, and I have seen it as 280 NATURAL HISTORY— ZOOLOGY. perfect on the borders of the Lake of Urumiyah in Persia. It is a large handsome dog, of a light-brown colour, with long woolly hair, and is faithful, courageous, and hardy. Some have been known to possess a good scent, and I have seen them used to find game, and to attack the wild boar, which is very large, and does much mischief to the crops of the villagers, who each pay so much a year to people who make a busi- ness of hunting this monster of the marshes. While hunting or hawking I have often come across a sow vrith seven or eight young ones ; but my pointers had no chance with them, and it required larger dogs to over- come them. I recollect encountering one on foot with a lance, and I had to keep the lance in the huge beast to save myself until my com- panions came up and put a ball into the animal. There is a kind of antelope in the higher regions of Mount Taurus which the people call Gha-ik. It is remarkable for the length of its horns, which are sometimes four feet long, and curve over its back in a semicircle without branching off at all. It is as large as the fallow- deer, and its skin is much esteemed by the Muhammadans ; it has a strong musk smell, is hard and short in the hair, which is brown, with a darker streak along the back and a dirty yellow white on the stomach. Some years ago one of these animals being caught before it was three days old, it was brought up by a goat in a village near Kulak Bughaz Castle. If not taken very young, it is impossible to have one aUve, and there is much»difEculty in getting a shot at them, as they are very alert and live among the highest rocks of Mount Taurus. I offered the sports- men of Nimrud a handsome present for a live specamen, but in vain.* * This is evidently the ibex (Capra ihex) which occurs throughout Taurus, and is described by Professor Edward Forbes as inhabiting the moiuitainous parts of Lycia, where it is known by the same name, spelt by him Caik or Caigi. Professor Forbes says (Travels in Lycia, vol. ii. p. 62) that it is specifically identical with the ibex of Switzerland. The " wild goat" of Crete, whose horns are .figured in Mr. Pashley's work, is the same species. A specimen was procured ahve and kept tame as a pet on board the Beacon {Capt. Graves). In Lycia the ibex frequents the summits of the highest mountains in summer. In the month of October 1841, dmdng Mr. Hoskyn's tour, a herd of them was met with on the summits of the Massicytus, travelling in single file over the steep rocks, at an elevation of 9000 feet. In the winter they are said to descend from the heights. The wild goat of Crete mentioned by Aristotle, and of which he reports that, when wounded, it is said to seek the herb dictanjnus, was doubtless this ibex. Its modern name Professor Forbes thinks is only a corruption of the ancient aVf . — W. F. A. CHAPTER XVII. GAME BIEDS. GAME BIEDS — MANNER OF TAKINfi QUAILS MANNER OF TAKING FEANCOLIN AND PARTRIDGES CAPTURE OF WILD DOVES. Quails and woodcocfcs are very abundant in their respective seasons of passage. The former afford amusement to the peasants, who take them in a very curious manner. A lad walks about till he sees a quail, which he intimidates from rising by holding a jacket extended by two sticks over his head, which the quail mistakes for the wings of a large bird or hawk, 'and by shaking either of these " wings" he drives the poor httle creature in the direction he pleases, till he conducts it into a small net he has fixed some yards further off, and then he takes it with the hand. I witnessed another plan for entrapping the quail used by the Arabs on the coast of Egypt, which I will here note. The Arab sticks two branches of the date-tree in the earth; and these are joined about afoot high at the top, forming a triangle, of which the ground is the base, and he fastens thereto a small net opposite the side facing the sea ; of these he makes several hundred, planting them in regular rows at ten paces from each other ; the quails arrive during the night, or rather very early in the morning, and as soon as they begin to feel the heat of the sun, they naturally seek for shade, which is no where to be found in the sandy desert (between Alexandria and Eosetta) except under these ar- tificial bowers, where they are induced to take refuge. About ten o'clock, the Arab knows that all the quails have repaired under his treacherous cover, and he has nothing ftu'ther to do but to present him- self Qn the side facing the sea, which is open, and the quail, if it attempts to fly at aU, must be entangled in the net on the other side. In this way thousands are taken daily and brought in cages to market ; but they are never so good as those shot, because they soon fret in captivity and become lean. Some of the peasants of the plain of Tarsus and Adana employ 282 GAME BIBBS. sparrow-hawks, whicli they capture a few days before tlie passage of the quails (whicli takes place from the 15th of April to the end of May, and again between the 15th of September and 15th of October), and train them to take quails, letting them go again when the sea- son is over. If this useful little hawk is kept two years, it is capable of taking partridges and francohns, to do which it is requisite to prac- tise it at the young birds, which he will continue to take until they are full fledged. But it is the most delicate of all hawks, and it is very seldom that any remain free from accident for so long a period. Cilicia abounds in francohns and partridges ; the latter are of the red-legged species and keep to the mountains, coming down into the hilly part of the plains in the winter, and are at that time to be met with in vast numbers among the bushy mounds of sand on the sea- shore. The former is a morass bird, and never to be found at any distance from vrater; the female is exactly hke the hen pheasant, but not so the male, which has a little tail; but is quite as variegated in colours and as courageous as any of the gallinaceous breed. The people of the country have a curious way of taking these two kinds of birds, namely, by galloping them down ; for when they have flown tvpice, they generally allow themselves to be taken ivith the hand, probably from exhaustion. The same method is practised in regard to the cormorant in the shallow waters of some rivers ; and Sir John Malcolm, in his Sketches in Persia, mentions the circumstance of the Persians taking the partridge in the same manner in the envfrons of Bushfre (Abu Shahir), when he was on his way from that place towards the capital. The natives sometimes keep a decoy bird, which they expose in spring-time in its cage, when, by its crowing, it attracts other male birds which come to fight with it, and which are thereupon shot from behind a wall or hedge. It is remarkable that the cock wiU eat the brains of its fallen enemy, which, are generally given to it; and it is curious to see it crow and quite glut itself as if triumphing in its, repast. Partridges and francohns are also approached by a man holding in his hand a light framework, on which is fijxed a checkered linen cloth, two feet by six, mth a smaU hole to peer through, till he comes within shot, when he sticks it in the ground and fires from behind. Turkman children have also an ingenious way of catching larks or any other small bird. The contrivance is this : they tie at one end of a horse -hair four inches long, a piece of dry sheep or goat's dung, and to the other end an insect or grub of any kind ; they throw several of these on the ground and retire to a distance ; when they see that a bird has swallowed one of these baits, they run to it, and invariably, on its flying, its wings CATCHINa DOVES. 283 get entangled in the horse-liair, whicli is kept hanging down by the weight attached to it, and the bird is thus soon caughf. The natives of Galata, to the west of Mursina, have also a simple yet efficacious method of capturing wild doves ; these, like all other birds of passage, on their iirst arrival, fly in a direct line, never deviating thirty paces to the right or left; the people know this, and in the twilight be- fore sunrise they place across their road a net six feet high by fifty long. On each side of the road, six or eight men stand with crooked branches of trees about three feet long in their hands, and when they see the doves coming, they throw these dark branches up in the air, and the doves imagining them to be hawks coming down upon them fly very low, and consequently come in contact with the nets, and as they go in flights of thirty or more, many are taken in this way. SCULFTUKED BOOKS AT ANAZARBA : FROM A SKETCH BY MR. E. B. B. BARKER. DIANA STARTING FOB THE CHASE.' CHAPTER XVIII. FALCON HY. Thk ancient and aristocratic sport of falconry, formerly mucli in vogue in CiUcia, has latterly fallen into disuse ; even in that province the rich have degenerated to such a point that they cannot conceive any gratifi- cation in activity, and the poor are too much occupied in matters more profitable than attending to their hawks, which require constant care and trouble. Still, man is by nature a sportsman, and the Turkmans appre- ciate the qualities of a good falconer, the term avgi being stiU a lauda- tory one, and many of their chiefs feel flattered by it. When they see a European excel in their own line, they are much pleased, and look upon him as one of themselves. Some of the young chiefs keep hawks ; but their dogs are badly trained: when young they are allowed to run wild, * From the original plaster of Paris sketch modelled by Mr. J. Hancock of New- oastle-on-Tyne. HAWKING. 285 and are therefore never afterwards under command. They hunt, how- ever, with considerable activity; but it is for themselves, as they gene- rally eat the game they get hold of, if they are not closely watched. In- deed, I once saw a dog swallow a quail — bones, feathers, and aU— with- out giving his master the chance or time to get it out of his mouth. Of course they cannot be expected to bring the game on which they are fed, to " induce them to be sharp ajid look after it!" as a young Turk- man told me ; considering it as a matter of coiu-se that a dog would not hunt without such incentive. As soon as the dog seizes the bird the master calls out, " HuS^t ! husht !'\ throwing a stone or any thing he can at him to make him let go the bird, in order to get hold of it him- self, and cut its throat before it dies ; for if it dies of itself, or is killed by the dog, they look upon it as strangled, and their religion forbids their eating it. But some confirmed sportsmen laugh at this, and cut the bird's throat subsequently, in order to make it appear that this prescribed formahty has been gone through in proper time, and thus induce their women to cook the game for them. The Turkmans have but one kind of sporting dog. It appears to be of a somewhat similar breed to the Scotch terrier, and is well adapted to go through the bushes, as its hair is long, and it is a hardy beast. It is called boji; is small, and has long bristly hair (generally grey, and abounding about the eyes and nose). It is an intelligent animal, and were it brought up by a European, might be rendered subservient and useful for the hawk ; and as they are natives of a hot climate, they can stand the heat well, and remain longer without water. Such qualities are valuable ; for I have seen my dogs quite knocked up as late in the year as the 25th of November, and chiefly from the heat of the season. These Turkman bojis have not so acute a scent as some of our best dogs in England, but they are as good as the generality of common breeds, and very persevering. It is reaUy astonishing how these poor creatures hunt at all, for they are nearly starved. Besides the sparrow-hawk (accipiter nisus), hasheh in Arabic, atmajia in Turkish, the Cihcians are acquainted with three species of hawks : The gos-hawk, doghanj autour of BulFon, aster palumbarius of Linnseus. The lanner, seifee ; falco gentilis or lanarius of Linnseus. The peregrine, sheheen; falco nohilis or peregrinus of LinnKus.""' * The sparrow-hawk is the falco nisus ; the gos-hawk the falco palumbarius ; the falco gentilis is the greater buzzard, falco gallinaxius of Temminck. According to the latter author, the falco peregrinus of Linnseus and the falco lanarius of GmeUn are different ages of the true blue-backed falcon. — ^W. F. A. 286 FALCONRY. The doglian or gos-hawk is a native of Mount Taurus. It is fre- quently brought up from the nest, as bad sportsmen imagine that by that means a hawk becomes tamer, and not so likely to fly away. But this is an error ; and I do not know that there is really any benefit to be derived from an eyas ; and I can point out several disadvantages. One is, that unless very carefiilly and constantly fed when young, it gets into the habit of " calhng" when it is hungry — a great vice, and one that is catching in birds. No sportsman would keep such among his hawks, as it wouJd spoil the whole lot. Further, the hawk takes to scratching, and win not easily give up the game it seizes, which it often nearly tears to pieces. Besides these disadvantages, the hawk having never caught any thing in the wild state, must be taught ; and it requires some time to develop its instinct : whereas haggards, that is, hawks taken by the net full-fledged, know what they have to do, having hunted on their own account, and it is merely necessary to tame them in order to ren- der them useful birds. They are also more careful of their wings, the advantages of which they can appreciate better than a bird that has never flown, and they are soon brought into the use of their faculties ; whereas the nestling or eyas has to be taught to fly, and practised a long while before it can be brought into wind. On the whole, therefore, I lean towards the haggard; and the doghan is so tractable a creature, that in the course of ten days it may be brought to be as tame as can be desired. Generally speaking, a much longer time is taken to train them by timid or inexperienced falconers ; but I have myself hunted a doghan and made him take a partridge the eighth day ; but then I had dogs accustomed to hunt under the hawk, which is of great consequence, as a dog that does not know what hawks are will do more harm than good. In England hawks are '■'■flown at hack ;" that is, when brought from the nest, they are kept in a shed, where they are regularly fed, and allowed to fly away and return in the evening to their roost.* This is a great advantage, as it enables you to keep your hawk much fatter; and in after times, when hunting, if it is lost or flies away, you know ' that it will return home. And this is particularly advantageous in case of hawks of the lure, which are most prone to wander. The doghan is so steady a bird that it is extremely difficult to lose it; and he must be a very inexperienced falconer who would allow it to. be in that state which would induce it to fly away. Thus, on the whole, the doghan gives the least trouble of any kind of hawk, and requires the least train - * The falconers in the East cannot do this, as they would be sui'e to have their hawks stolen. PRACTICE OP HAWKING. 287 ing ; and we shall see further that it is the bird the best adapted for the present state of the coimtry. I have lately perused a work of much interest, called Game Birds and Wild Fowl, their Friends and their Foes, by A. E. Knox, M.A., F.L.S. The author devotes a chapter to falconry, and gives a graphic account of this exhilarating sport from the experience of his friend. Colonel Bonham, of the 10th Hussars, who, he says, although a good shot and a practised stalker, laid aside the gun and the rifle for the en- joyment of the " noble craft." " Would that others could be tempted to follow his example !" To this I would add, as an inducement, my persuasion, that those who have not felt all the excitement experienced by the falconer cannot be said to have tasted of all the pleasures of Ufe ; and surely if there remain to them still one enjoyment which is so re- fined and innocent, it is worth their while to give it a fair trial, which all can do who have the means of keeping a man, two horses, and a dog, and have the run of an open country. Knox's description (page 164) of the perfection to which dogs can be brought goes far beyond my experience, as I have not had the advan- tage of seeing dogs in such good training ; and I considered that one dog I had for seven years had reached the acme of what dogs were capable of; but I find, from what he says, that the intelligence of the Eussian set- ters leads them to distinguish and appreciate the nature of the different characters in which they were alternately required to appear; and when the game was sprung, and the bird fell or flew away, no attempt was made, no inclination was evinced, to break the point; they would " down charge" as instantaneously and perfectly as if the discipline usual in such cases had never been' for a moment relaxed in their sport under the hawks. Dogs, in hawking, are expected to run in upon the game directly it rises, and foUow the hawk as closely as possible. I had a pointer that would cross the river and hunt alone under the hawk who had pursued the quarry to the other side, and would be on the top of a bush waiting the arrival of his coadjutor to raise the game, which generally takes refuge on the first flight in the closest cover at hand. Doll would first go round the bush to make sure that the partridge had not skulked out, and then entering, would raise it. The bird would then try to fly back to the side of the river from whence it was first started, and would sometimes be struck close to my feet by the hawk. Sometimes the bird fell into the river at the moment of being seized. In this case the hawk would not let go his prey ; but both might be seen sailing down the stream, until DoU, swimming back to me, and see- ing how matters stood, could go to the rescue, and land hawk and 288 PALCONRY. partridge on my side of the river. If tlie quarry drops in the river be- fore it is caught, the doghan will not lay hold of it, but -will return to his master. But it happens tha,t he sometimes overtakes it before it is quite in the water, and yet not sufficiently in the air to enable him to carry it, which he can easily do, to a distance of a couple of hundred yards, when at a sufficient height in the air. Can you imagine any sight more attractive and picturesque than the repose of the party after the excitement of an exploit Uke the one just mentioned ? Often might you see the dog actually hunt alone with the hawk across the river, and return with the hawk, or be in time to rescue it from the stream. My Arab mare appeared, upon these occasions, to understand what was going on, and to take as much interest as the falconer in the sport.* And as the hawk (after having been duly fed) was perched on her back, she would turn round and look approvingly (for horses can look approv- ingly) at the intelligent victor, while the dog, having shaken off the water from its back, would be jumping up to lick her mouth ; the sportsman caressmg all the three, wondering which he loved best, his gallant hawk, his generous mare, or his faithful dog! Mr. Knox acknowledges that the movements of the gos-hawk in cover are exceedingly rapid and effective. Its short wings enable it to pass more easily through the interstices of boughs ; while with its long and fan-Hke tail it steers its way and performs marvellously intricate evo- lutions, as it pui'sues the pheasant, the black-cock, the hare, or the squirrel, through the tangled labyrinths of coppice and underwood. But he says, " its character is altogether devoid of that energy and per- severance that are so conspicuous in the falcon. If the quarry should gain an advantage at the beginning of the chase, it frequently relin- quishes the pursuit altogether, and, settling on the nearest branch, pre- pares to dart upon the next passer-by." This is the general complaint made by sportsmen against the gos- * I am not exaggerating the intelligence of these noble creatures ; and I declare that my horse would always distingnoish between a hare and any other animal^ be- tween the game I sought and any common bird^ of which it would take no notice^ but alwaj's start off in pursuit of the quarry, when put up, if I happened to be looking a different way. It is a known fact, that the Arab horse, when let loose to graze while his master is reposing, will always come up and snort, to apprise him of the approach of an intruder on the privacy of the desert. In the East the saddles are made to cover the gi-eater part of the back of the horse, and are much more convenient than the English saddle for mounting and dismounting, with the embarrassment of the hawk on the hand, which it is very often requisite to do. The pommel is large enough to form a hold for the left hand ; and the hind part of the saddle is raised, so that it is often convenient to perch the hawk upon it. An English rider mounts by the mane of the horse, and not the pommel, in order not to throw too great a strain upon the saddle and saddle-girths. THE eOS-HAWK. 289 hawk, but my experience has sliewn me that these defects are not in- herent in the hawk ; but originate generally with the sportsman. If a gos-hawk is properly trained, and given something (say the head) of every thing he takes, he will never give up the pursuit until he reaches the bush wherein the quarry has taken refuge ; but the dog and the falconer must be alert, and come to his assistance, and never give up the search for that identical bird. If the bird is let go, and the sportsman looks after another, the hawk, whose mind and soul are set upon that particular bird, which he will distinguish from among any number that may rise, and will never fail to pursue in preference to the rest, is dis- couraged from the sport. Mr. Knox proceeds : — " It was not without reason, therefore, that this species, and some other hawks of similar structure, habits, and character, were styled ' ignoble ' by our ancestors, to distinguish them from the long-winged, high-flying, or ' noble' falcons." I am sorry to differ from an authority of such high standing as the naturalist above quoted; but I would beg to suggest a very different reason for the epithet in question. The gos-hawk, and those of his structure, are birds so much easier to train and keep than the falcons, which require a man for each, that the vulgar herd used them when they could not afford to keep those of a higher flight, which were thus left to the privileged aristocratic and rich falconers. That the gos-hawk is more efficient than the peregrine is clear from the fact that Colonel Bonham, according to Mr. Knox, acknowledges that " three grouse were sufficient to take from a falcon in one day." Colonel Bonham being a great proficient, and having had great practice, must be allowed to be a fair judge ; and I am assured that, in general, the peregrine cannot be brought to take so many. One flight, or two at most, daily, is all that is expected of him by the falconers of the present day. Now, the dog- han will take as many birds as ycru can fly him at ; and I have repeat- edly taken fifteen to twenty francolins in a country where there were no preserves, and where we had to hunt out our game. What would the doghan not do here in England, provided always he had the head of the quarry given him to encourage him ? That our forefathers did not look upon the gos-hawk as really ignoble, may be seen from the many elaborate treatises published in the way of treating and hunting this hawk alone ; and that they appreciated his good qualities may be inferred from their always keeping one " to feed their falcons with" that is, to secure game for them when the peregrine was not in humour to hunt, a thing of constant occurrence. Indeed, I believe that the uncertainty and ca- prices of this latter bird have been the chief cause of the noble art of 290 FALCONRY. falconry falling into disrepute. People could not afford to keep several of these birds (for each of which, properly speaking, a man is required) in order to secure one flight or two. Sometimes the falconer might, in his zest for the sport, invite a party of friends to witness his exploits, and twenty to one but they were all disappointed, and told that the bird, on being tried out in the field, was not in the humour ; was too fat, or too thin, or some other excuse ; and you are never sure what your bird will do till you have had th'e trouble of going out to fly him. Now the gos-hawk, when properly broken in, requires little or no attention ; his master need keep no servants or falconer to attend upon him, and carry him day and night on the hand, which is requisite with the peregrine ; if in proper trim, he is ready to hunt, and you can count upon him, and you may fly him as often as you please in the course of a day. I do not recollect over seeing my hawks done up from flight after flight, for six hours consecutively ; and I have known a gos-hawk belonging to Eizu Kuli Mirza Nayebel Ayaly, a Persian prince residing at Bagdad, take twenty-one francoUns consecutively. The prince as- sured me, and I firmly believe him, that he made strre of the quarry every time he let him fly from his hand. I have myself taken four hares and a dozen francohns, with several minor birds, and some larger birds, in one day ; and I invariably found my gos-hawk improve by ex- ercise, — the more I hunted him, the more he was anxious to continue the sport. If ever falconry is to be revived in England, this bird will be the one to which we must have recourse. The enclosed state of the country has been generally brought forward as a reason for this sport having been discontinued. Such may be the case ; and it constitutes the chief impediment in hunting with the peregrine, where life and death are in the scale ; for if you do not arrive in time to assist your falcon, he may be kiUed by the crane or heron. But in following the gos-hawk, you need never go faster than a hand canter ; and you will not find more impediments in your way than a fox-hunter is prepared to meet : surely, therefore, this should be no discouragement. Besides, if your dogs know what they are about, they will follow the hawk while you go round by a gate ; and when you come up, you will be just in time to see the game raised, and the hawk waiting your arrival on the nearest bush or tree ; for the gos-hawk flies in a straight line at his quarry, which he never allows to go beyond a thousand yards from the place it first stai'ted from. Indeed, the sport with the gos-hawk is so gentle, and, in a tolerably open country, so easy, that I think it particularly adapted for ladies; and I 60S-HAWK8. 291 shall be happy to hear of some of our noble-minded countrywomen setting the example to the sex, and give every encouragement to the sportsman by honouring him with their presence, and cheering him by an interest in his success. With such inducements of so refined a character, I have no doubt that the art of falconry would be revived ; and it would be delightful to strive, by patience and attention to our hawks, to gain the approving smile of beauty. Indeed, the presence of the fair sex consti- tuted in former times, no doubt, half the charm of falconry. Let me not be thought desirous of detracting from the merits of the peregrine or the lanner. The latter is one of the most perfect of its race; but both require much attention and an open country, and must be left to those who have attained great perfection in the art of falconry. Gene- rally speaking, the gos-hawk will answer the purposes of most sportsmen. At the Zoological Gardens there are now five or six gos-hawks imported irom Germany ; one of these I have trained and sent into the country, consigning it to the care of F. H. Salvin, Esq., KiUingbeck Hall, Leeds, who has succeeded in making it take rabbits ; and latterly " Juno" has disting)iished herself, and taken hares, which is an inter- esting sight, and one that no person in England has witnessed, except myself and a friend who visited me in GUicia. I trust this bird, by her feats, may be the cause of once more attracting the attention of the public to an amusement now almost extinct.* I cannot speak too highly of Mr. Salvin's inteUigence, patience, and perseverance. He has carried his refinement so far, as to hunt with the otter, and has performed mi- racles with some cormorants, which he tamed and trained to take fish for him. I am happy that he has turned his attention to the gos-hawk, as, having kept falcons some years back, he will no doubt be better able to do justice to this bird than any one else. Mr. John Hancock of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, a gentleman well known as one of our first naturahsts, has, I beheve, carried falconry to perfec- tion. He has kept every kind of hawk, and understands well their habits and mode of Ufe". His collection of stuffed birds and their eggs is quite unique both in its variety and in the way they are got up. No one who has seen them can forget the specimens of taxidermy he exhi- bited in the transept of the Great Exhibition ; and I am happy to hear that he is about to favour the public with lithographic drawings, done by himself, of what I may very properly caU " anatomical specimens of stuflTed birds,'' and which stand prominent in the art which he has * I have since received two trained gos-hawks from Tarsus. They were three months in a cage on their way to England^ and came in perfect health. They have just finished moulting in the Zoological Gardens. 292 FALCONRY. carried to such perfection, as to rank, in my opinion, with the first Falconry is, indeed, not quite extinct in England ; for I find that the Duke of Leeds takes an interest in this noble sport ; and C!olonel Thorn- ton, Lord Orford, Sir Thomas Sebright, Colonel Wilson, and the late Duke of St. Alban's (the Grand Falconer of England), have all kept hawks. So late as 1839, there was a Hawking Society, called the Norfolk Hawking Club ; and on its being dissolved, some of the members, such as the Duke of Leeds, the late Honourable C. Wortley, and Mr. E. Cluff Newoome, joined the Loo Club patronised by the present King of Holland. Mr. Newcome, as well as Captain Verner and some others, still pursue this sport with great success ; and I cannot but express the greatest interest in their pursuit, and wish their example may be fol- lowed by others. I am also informed that there are plenty of open districts still in England, upon the chalk formation, suitable to falconry, such as the country between Lincoln and Peterborough, the Berkshire and Wilt^ - shire Downs, seen from the Great Western Eailway, and the country about Brighton, Winchester, &c. Those who cannot find tims or con- venience to go to these places, let them keep the humble, unassuming, useful, and efficient gos-hawk, which I have hunted^suocessfully in a country as bushy as any that nature has produced and as wild as can be well imagined. The dense thickets that occur^ between Mount Tau- rus and the sea-shore, are, indeed, remarkable. J The dog can scarcely penetrate them, and sportsmen would generally flinch from flying a hawk there ; but living as I did in the vicinity at Mursina, I used to try, day after day, and I soon learned the " dodges" requisite to ensure a good day's sport, even with such difficulties to surmount. I find that Colonel Thornton and the Earl of Orford were the last sportsmen who took the hare and the kite with the Iceland falcon towards the close of the 17th century (1700). In 1844, Mr. E. C. New- come, of Hockwold Hall, Brandon, Norfolk, took, with a cast of old " passage-hawks," fifty-seven herons.* I also hear from my fellow-admirers of this sport, that his Grace the Dulie of Leeds, when Marquis of Carmarthen, and living at Dunotar * The herons are not killed ; but being taken alive from the hawk, a copper ring, with the name of the captor and date upon it, is fixed to its legs, and it is tm-ned off again ; and as the heron is a long-Uved bird, I have read of their being recaptm-ed many years after. Indeed, in one instance, a bird was shot at the Cape of Good Hope, bearing on its leg a date so ancient that / am afraid to venture upon noting it here. FEAT OP A HAWK. 293 House, near Stonehaven, in KincardinesMre, Scotland, killed with one peregrine, an old eyas tiercel, " the General," 180 partridges out of 133 flights in one season. These instances, and Colonel Bonham's suc- cess in Ireland, should, I think, encourage others to enter the field of competition ; and I should be happy to aiford them every assistance and information in my power, having had great experience for many years, during my residence in the East, in the training of hawks. Indeed, when I visited Persia, Malek Kasem Mirza, the viceroy of Azerbigian, declared to his officers that he had learned a great deal from me in con- versation on the subject, when I passed some twenty days in his happy valley near the borders of the lake of Urimiyah ; and I confess that I also learned much from him, for the Persians have carried falconry to the greatest perfection possible. As an example of which I will cite one case. Timour Mirza Seif-il-dowly, great grandson of the King of Per- sia, Feth Ah Shah, now residing with his two elder brothers at Bagdad, when at Aleppo some years ago, was accompanied by my brother in a hawking expedition. He had only a gos-hawk with him, having left his other falcons (of which he has more than a dozen, chiefly lanners) at home. He rode with his slave behind him equally well mounted. On coming to the place where partridges were expected to be found, two rose at the same time. He let off' his hawk, which seized one of them immediately in the air at a few paces off". The prince dismounted and took it from the hawk, which he raised in his right hand, concealing the prize with his left. The hawk looked forward, and seeing the other partridge still flying in the open country, proceeded in pm-suit of it. The prince remounted, giving the first partridge to his man, and gal- lopped off' after his hawk, coming up just after it had overtaken and seized the partridge that had flown upwards of a quarter of a mile, thus effecting " un coup double .'" This he did three times successively, taking six partridges one after the other, to the astonishment of my bro- ther, who was aware of the difficulty that is experienced by falconers in extracting the quarry out of the hand of the hawk, so as to enable it to look forward, instead of looking after the missing bird. I must note, however, that the country where this took place was clear of any bush, and that the partridge could scarcely hide itself any where, except under a stone ; and that it is not extraordinary that it should be taken in such an open country ; the wonder lay in the bird's patient obedience to its master, in allowing him possession of the partridge, and flying im- mediately after the second. In that open country, I have myself taken forty-two partridges in three days, with a bird I had not had in train- ing ten days, and which Ibrahim Pasha had given me ; and I believe 294 FALCONET. that there is no limit to the number of birds a gos-hawk wotild take when in proper condition — quite as many as he may be flown at, always provided he is not discouraged by being deprived of his right to the head. Sportsmen have found that it is necessary to keep each falcon to a distinct species of quarry, i. e. you cannot properly fly them at fur and feather indiscriminately. But although this rule applies also to the gos-hawk in some degree, I have found that it is by no means unexcep- tionable ; for I used to fly my gos-hawk (one I kept seven years) at every thing ; and I remember often returning home with every kind of game that I had met with, including hares, ducks, geese, partridges, franco- lins, curlews, water-birds, small herons, quails, rails, and even crows, and birds of rapine, three times his size ! Indeed, there was nothing he would not fly at, if I would let him go ; and he once actually attacked a vulture, which had carried ofi" one of his companions, a gos-hawk belonging to a sporting friend, who was out with me, and who had neglected his bird in pursuing the game his dogs were hot upon. Besides the German gos-hawk, there is at the Zoological Gardens, Eegent's Park, a precious and beautiful specimen of the Australian gos- hawk ; it is perfectly white, and its eyes are the colour of bright rubies. This is a hawk of considerable value for the sportsman ; its hands are larger in comparison to the other European and Asiatic gos-hawks, as it is smaller in body. But judging from appearances, I am led to believe that it woidd be swifter m flight, and, on the whole, a more efEcient bird. I have had the pleasure of taming this bird, and could, I think, promise to turn it out a perfect hawk. This is the only specimen in England ; but I believe that Mr. Mitchell, the secretary to the society, is daily expecting some more of them from our antipodes. It forms, in my opinion, the beau idea of perfection in a hawk. I consider it worthy of a princely hand, and should be happy to see his Royal Highness Prince Albert patronise the training of this bird to afford amusement to our young Prince of Wales. It is without a defect, and might be brought to perform wonders. There are also peregrines and Iceland falcons to be seen in the same collection. Hitherto, indeed, the natural history of hawks has been much neglected, and we must look forward to more correct and valuable drawings, which we are promised by Mr. Hancock. The two accompanying illustrations have been kindly furnished me by my friend Mr. John Hancock, to exhibit the different forms of the two tribes of " hawk of the lure" and " hawk of the fist."* * I cannot avoid making a few remarks here on the wanton destruction of life ANTIQUITY OF FALCONRY. 295 In England, hawks are divided into long-winged and short-winged • in the East, they foUow the same division, but call them black and yellow-eyed ; the peregrine and lanner being of the former, the gos- hawk and sparrow-hawk of the latter. And it is remarkable how, on almost every point, the sportsmen of the East and West are agreed. Although the communication between them has been interrupted for centuries, the general system of treatment, the many ingenious con- trivances, either discovered or - handed down from posterity, are in THE GOS-HAWK. THE FALCON. both alike. Each use bells, jesses, leashes, hoods, and gauntlets, that are much aUke. They imp the broken feathers in the same way ; and both bathe and weather their hawks, give castings, and feed them in the same manner. This alone would prove the ancient origin of falconry, which appears to have had one source, and probably to have been in- troduced by the Indo-Germanic race from the plains of Hindustan, so favourable to hawking. It appears from aU accounts that falconry is more generally attended to there than in any other part of the world ; and it was there that Colonel Bonham seems to have acquired his valu- able experience, " in spite of Thugs, tigers, and fever," and where his which, the mania for coUeoting eggs and birds to stuff has generated. At the late sale of the valuable and interesting zoological coUeotion at Knowsley, many a rare animal was bought in order to kill and stuff it ; and the exertions made in collecting eggs, an unfeir practice and a morbid taste, will soon deprive us of many an interesting bird, unless put a stop to by the execration of public opinion, expressed on all possible occasions. 296 FALCONRY. perseverance has been rewarded by the acquisition of many a sporting trophy. There is a kind of hawk called by the Easterns ispir. I have oxdy seen one of these. They are much esteemed and fetch a great price : I have heard it said that 5Z., a dog, a horse, a camel, a donkey, a cow, a goat, and a sheep, have been given in exchange for one of these birds. They are very rare in Syria, and always haggards ; but I must confess that I have not been able to make a real distinction between them and the doghan, except that, when they have moulted, their eyes remain yellow, the pristine colour of the first year, whereas that of the doghan changes into a ruby red. They are certainly more powerful and swifter of flight, flying up hill after partridges, and taking them often compre- hensively, that is, flying at ike covey, and not singling out any particular bird, by which means the whole lot is brought to a stand- still in a small space, while the hawk is flying about from bush to bush making a whistling noice, which so frightens the partridges that they allow them- selves to be taken by the dogs rather than fly again. When the sports- man has thus secured the whole covey, he throws up one to the hawk in waiting, who seizes it in the air, and gives it up, after having been rewarded with the head for his patience and assistance, and is ready to renew the sport until evening, when, of course, he must be well fed on the last taken. Modern sportsmen, in these degenerate days, will perhaps call this proceeding a species of poaching ; but when we consider the difficulty and merit of training hawks to be so tractable, we must not, in consideration of the tastes of others, desecrate the noble art of falconry with such an appellation ; and we must recollect that, in the East, the chief point looked to is the quantity bagged, which, by the by, is much the same with our present generation, who go out in a preserve to shoot at game as if they were so many barn-door fowls, and glory in the number they bring down without any exertion or trouble. It is related of Charles X. of France, that a shooting day used to cost him thousands of francs in powder alone, as he had a party of keepers sent round to drive up the game (by firing at it in the air without shot), and bring it under the aim of the royal gun ! The yellow-eyed hawks, or hawks of the fist, are never hooded; those of the lure are accustomed to the hood, because, I believe, that, as the latter sit more forward on the hand than the former, they cannot ba- lance themselves so well; and it is necessary to blind them in order to carry them about, as by that means you compel them to have recourse to their " hands," instead of constantly opening their " sails," to help themselves ia their balance. This is the only use I can discover of the THE PBRBSRINE. 297 hood, and I would never recommend it, except on particular occasions, when necessary to keep the bird quiet. But otherwise I consider the use of the hood shotdd be deprecated. The songhur* is a larger species of peregrine. It is sometimes taken in the north of Asia Minor; but I have not seen a specimen of this falcon. It is considered by the Turkmans as the king of birds, and they have assured me that all the feathered tribes " tremble in its presence." The peregrine of the cliffs of Mount Taurus is smaller than the Eng- lish peregrine, but more beautifully variegated in plumage. It is known as the " Barbary falcon.'' It is generally kept in the East by rich men, who can afford to have one man, or even two men, for each bird. The hand of the falconer should be its only perch. Thus treated, its natural wildness is conquered, and it may be brought to take any thing, although it is generally kept to protect the doghan from the attacks of its natural enemies, the eagle and vulture. So we see that the peregrine acts but a secondary, although a loyal part, in the estimation of Eastern falconers. The lanner, I have said, is the perfection of birds. The older it grows, the more perfect it becomes, it is so gentle and so tractable ; but it requires a very experienced sportsman to bring it to hunt at all. K he once succeeds, the bird is without price. It is the hawk most in use in Bagdad, where they are divided into several species, each having a separate name and employment. Some are trained to assist the dogs in taking the gazelles of the neighboiiring desert, which it does by fasten- ing itself on the head of the females, which have no horns, imtil the dogs come up. It is a native of the centre of Asia Minor ; and I am told that you may see a nest on every tree in front of the habitations of the people of Bur and Nigdy. If naturalists have not called this hawk the " falco gentilis,^' they have given a misnomer to any other species, and deprived it of its rights. Its eyes are of a bluish-black colour ; its beak grey, with whitish-grey feet, and black claws. It is not unlike in feathers to the English peregrine in its first year's plumage. I cannot, however, be expected to enter here into a dissertation on the treatment and training of hawks. To do this effectively a separate volume should be devoted to the subject. I have only mentioned cursorily what I thought might be of most interest, and which I trust will attract the attention of the sporting world. Falconry is a source of healthy and innocent enjoyment; and it is very desirable that some person of distinction should patronise its re- vival. Being conducted on horseback, quietly, it is more adapted to the "f The Turkish appellation of this falcon. 298 IfALCONIlY. generality of sportsmen than fox-hunting or shooting, both of which are too violent exercises for many persons, and subject to many serious accidents, from which falconry is quite free. This " noble craft" com- bines every advantage, and let us hope will be brought into fashion once again; that we may see, as our ancestors did, those scenes so gra- phically portrayed by our immortal Walter Scott and other celebrated novehsts, when describing this pageant of past glory. GESEIL HADEED, IN THE PLAINS OE ANTIOOH : EROM A SKETCH BT MR. C. F. BARKER. CHAPTER XIX. MEDICINAL PLANTS. Among the medicinal herbs that have fallen imder my notice, I must mention the Adiantum capillus Veneris, or maiden-hair, of which the people of the country make a strong decoction to remove dysentery and violent diarrhoea. There is also a black seed, like a dried black bean, of which I have not learned the name (nor is it, perhaps, used in the materia medica, if known at all). It is remarkably useiul in the above maladies ; it is a tasteless astringent, and one or two seeds pounded up and taken in coffee bring about the desired effect. The Colocynth, or bitter apple, which grows wild on the sea-coast. The Palma Christi, or castor-oil plant, which the inhabitants culti- vate for domestic as well as medicinal purposes. Mount Taurus produces also the Scammony plant, and the gum is collected from the wild plants by persons who come to Tarsus from Latachia expressly for the purpose. And, lastly, the Scilla maritima, which is to be found every where on a sandy ground. The biilb of this plant is dried in an oven and reduced to powder ; it forms an excellent gum or glue, used by shoe- makers instead of their wax ; when required, it is simply rubbed up gradually with a httle cold water into a paste, and after it is used and has dried, it becomes impervious to moisture, and no insect will touch it. In the state used in Turkey, it is of a brown colour ; but I think that, by sifting it of the rind, the remaining pith would be white, and it might be made available in book-binding, saddlery, &c. I brought some of it with me to England, and it has been declared to possess many valuable qualities. In Europe, the squiR is a well-known medicinal agent for coughs and consumption ; but these maladies are unknown in lilioia and Syria. So true is this, that the ancient Greek and Eoman ysicians were in the habit of sending their consumptive patients from Qjpe to Antioch and Suedia, on account of the beauty and salubrity CO 296 MEDICINAL PLANTS. of tlie climate : an example which, it is to be hoped, our countrymen will soon learn to follow; for in few places can so fine a climate, such beautiful scenery and vegetation, such resources in learned or philan- thropic pursuits, or in field-sports, and such cheap hving, be found united together. The country would also benefit infinitely by the occasional residence of our valetudinarians at Suedia, Betias, or the neighbourhood. The reason that these districts have hitherto attracted so Uttle attention is because travellers generally confine themselves to the beaten tract from Beyrut to Palestine. In this respect Mr. Neale's work, lately pubHshed, is calculated to do some good. betias: MR. BAKKEKS SUMMER EESIDEHCE ON MOUNT RHOSSUS. FROM A SKETCH BY MR. E. B. B, BARKER. APPENDIX. NABRATIVE OF NADIR BEY, WRITTEN FROM HIS OWN DICTATION.* Depots I'instant oi Dieu tout puissant or^a dans le ciel I'^toile qui devait marquer mon existence, et depuis lejour de ma naissance jusqu'i I'age de onze ans, enfant, je ne savais rien, je n'avais rien vu, si ce n'est les pleurs de ma bien-aimee et tres-honor^e m^re, poss^dant una &me cfleste, qui, au milieu d'un chagrin continuel, n'avait pu m'apprendre autre cliose qa'k I'ai- mer et a partager ses peines. J'appris aussi, avant de I'avoir jamais vu, que mon bien-aim6 empereur et pSre avait ^t^ assassine par son propre frfere qui par-Ii a imprim^ sur le front de mon oncle une tache de sang, qvie rien ne pourra effacer de son vivant, et qtii souillera sa memoire lors- qu'il aura rejoint ses ancetres dans I'eternite. J'appris encore qu'S, I'epoque du massacre des innocentes dames de son harem, ce Dieu tout puissant et misMcordieux, qui m'a donn^ I'^tre, se servit de la main mgme d'un des assassins pour sauver les jours de ma tendre mere — barbare assassin, qui montrait des sentimens de g&^rosit6 et d'humanit^ sup^rieurs a ceux d'un oncle souill^ de sang — empereur de droit, mais de fait un assassin, qm s'abreuvait du sang de sa propre famille. De cette ^poque, quoiqu'en- fant, mon jeune coeur ^prou-vait toutes les angoisses d'rme pareiUe tra- * The mistakes left are those in the original, which, though incorrect, is very good for a Turk to dictate to an Italian amanuensis. (For Translation, see p. 310.) It may be proper to premise here, that the author m no way pretends to guarantee the authenticity of the above extraordinary document. The improbability of the events and the incoherence of the vrriter are manifest throughout. Little faith can therefore be placed in the princely origin claimed by its author. StiU there are such strange things enacted in a country circumstanced as Turkey is, and which receive such frequent illustration in its past history, and there is so much that is romantic in the life of this Oriental adventurer, that there is every excuse for presenting so curious a biography in his own words. If necessary, a further excuse might be found for such a publication, in the fact that the existence of such a personage as Nadir Bey — as a pretender to the throne of the Osmanlis — was very generally known in the countries that border the Mediterranean. Miss Romer, as we shall afterwards see, has already published some account of "the Turkish pretender," as that lady designates him ; and frequent allusions have also been made in the Maltese and other newspapers of the day to the same extraordinary personage, whose story has now for some time excited the greatest interest and curiosity in many parts of the world, but has never before been given in the author's own words. 302 APPENDIX. gedie de mon pauvre pfere, que mes yeux n'avaient pas eu le bonheur de voir, mais que mon coeur avait d6via6, et je d^testais I'actioii horrible de mon oncle. Comma enfant, je partageais les chagrins de ma royale mfere, Fobjet de mon affection la plus devou^e dans mon enfance, et de mon respect, de mon amour, dans I'adolescenoe, et mon unique consolation dans I'^ge vixil. Mais h^las ! peu de tems aprfes le chagrin qui la con- sumait termina les join's de cette auguste dame, et elle s'enyola, comme je I'espere et le crois fermement, vers les regions du bonheur ^ternel. EUe me laissa par droit d'heritage les droits -de prince imperial, titre que la puissance divine m'accordait, et qu'aucun pouvoir humain ne pouvait me contester, et dont on ne pent sans crime me priver ; mais en meme tems eUe me l^gua aussi un chagrin profond, et une douleur dont la puissance humaine ne pouvait adoucir I'amertume. EUe me laissa aussi un vStement superficiel que nul ne pouvait d^chirer a I'exception de moi- mSme ; elle me laissa un sentiment de vengeance dont moi seul pent connaitre la profondeur ; elle me laissa des diamants, preuve de la muni- ficence imp^riale de son auguste ^poux le sultan, et son amant ; elle me laissa des papiers ^cris de son auguste main — ajoutez a cela quelle me confia aux soins, h. la prudence, et a la protection de Joaniza, homme d'environ soixante-dix ans, qui avait surv^cu a sa femme et ses enfants, ^tre d^vou^ et fidele au service de ma m§re, et reconnaissant des bont^s et des bienfaits qu'elle avait repandus sur liu pendant sa vie. EUe lui recommanda de me conduire h, Constantinople, ayant soin de ne faire connaitre ni mon nom ni ma naissance, mais de me faire donner une education ottomane aussi brUlante que possible; et lorsque je arriverais a Ykge de majority, de declarer mes droits, et de m'engager a les faire valoir. C'est ainsi que la plus cherie des mferes expira dans cet espoir. Mais il ne fut pas r^alis6 ; car " I'homme propose, et Dieu dispose." L'honnete vieiUard, fidSle ex^cuteur des ordres de sa bienfaitrice, essaya de me conduire a Constantinople, sans s'inqui^ter de ses propres infirmites et de son age avance. Peu de tems apr§s la mort de ma mere nous partimes de Caffa, ville de la Crim^e, ovi ses saintes cendres imp^- riales reposent : nous arrivames a Odessa dans I'intention de nous rendre h la capitale oli avaient regn^ mes ancStres; mais nous fUmes arr^ti^s dans notre voyage par les lois arbitraires de la Eussie, qui ne permettent a aucun sujet de passer la frontiSre ; et quoique le vieux Joaniza fUt descendu d'une famiUe de la Moldavie, et devenu sujet de la Eussie par suite d'un sijovii de plusieurs anndes dans cet empire, o)i la justice est inconnue. Cependant, aprfes avoir ^te retenu pendant trois ans dans cette ville, le bon vieiUard termina sa carrifere, et je restai sans protection, isol6, et sans un seul ami, k I'age de quinze ans. Je connus NAaRATITB OF NADIR BEY. 303 alors la situation deplorable dans laquelle je me trouTais placi5. Je rappellai a ma m^moire les derni§res paroles de ma noble mere, que me redisait souvent le bon vieiUard, et ce iut alors que la vengeance prit rdellement possession de mon coeur ; et ayant arrange mes projets, j'im- plorai dans les larmes la protection de Dieu seid, et pla9ant toute ma confiance en lui, j'appellai la prudence et le courage k mon aide, et quittai la ville, accompagne d'un Grec nomm^ Maoris, qui allait en Mor^e, passant par Trieste pour servir son pays, disait-U. Arriv^ a Bulta, les Juifs astucieux d^couvrirent un air de mystfere existant entre moi et mon compagnon, attendu que, n'ayant point de passeport, je comptais sur sa prudence; malgr^ que j'eusse acbetd chferement Tamiti^ de ces Juifs, les mallieureux n'en suivirent pas moins leurs dispositions k la duplicity, et aussitot que j'en eus connaissance, je quittai cette rille et mon compagnon, et seul je gagnai Mozilow sur le Dniester, hk je fus assez tranquille, et je fis tout ce que je put pour gagner I'amitie de cliacim, et apprendre tout ce que je pouvais. Li j'appris un peu le Polonais; de-lijemerendis aLozensk, oil, par hasard, je me suis procure un document d'Elefthery, en Greo, sorte de passeport, qui me mit k meme ensuite de voyager en Eussie sous ce d^guisement, et d'etre admis dans la meilleure soci^te de cet empire. Je fus a meme d'etudier sa force et sa politique, ses lois, et la faiblesse de ses ressources ; en un mot, je put appr6cier son gouvernement avec justesse. Li j'ai vu I'en- nemi puissant de mon pays, et par consequent de mon coeur ; enfin, je quittai la Eussie pour me rendre en Pologne, oii je trouvai ce peuple guerrier, brave et g&^reux, et sa brillante arm^e ; je commen9ai des lors a m'attacher a la th^orie et aux tactiques de leur armee; et j'arrivai k dix-huit ans connaissant parfaitement la politique astucieuse de la Eussie, et p^n^tre des soufirances qu'enduraient mon pays natal par suite de la revolte des Grecs. Je fus oblig6 de quitter la Pologne a cause des soup^ons que j 'avals inspire k la police, et je passais en Galicie dans I'intention de me rendre en Moldavie, et de-ik dans la capitale de mes anc^tres. Mais k Lembergh on me demanda dans rh6tel ou j'^tais descendu, d'oft je venais; mais ne d^sirant pas les satisfaire sur ce point, ou plutSt craignant le gouvernement russe, je r^pondis que j'arrivais de la Moldavie, sans penser aux consequences qui en pouvaient r^sulter. Lorsqu'on me demanda ou j'avais fait quarantaine, je balbutiai, et r^- pondis, " Nulle part." Cette r^ponse ^tonna tout le monde, et on me dit que je serais pendu pour m'etre soustrait a cette mesure de precau- tion. Ce que je compris facilement ; mais ne voulant pas etre traits comme coupable sans avoir commis un crime, je quittai cette ville, et, sous r^gide de la protection divine, je gagnai, sans 6tre inquiete, la ville 304 APPENDIX. de Jassy en Moldavie, faisant partie de I'empire que gouveniait mon oncle. La, refl^chissant sur ma situation, j'acousai souvent le destin. En peu de tems j'appris la langue moldavienne, seul avantage que je retirais de mon sejour. Je me mis en route pour Constantinople, pouss^ par la vengeance, et formant des projets imaginaires, batailles, et vic- toires; la tSte pleine de ces reves je cheminais, et de cette maniSre je me trouvai lance au milieu d'une nation ^trangfere, quoique ce fut ma patrie; des moeiu's et des manieres toutes nouvelles pour moi ; et lorsque j'etais a etudier ce nouveau pays, la guerre ^clata avec la Eussie dans les anne^s 1828 et 1829. Je n'y comprenais rien, croyant qu'il ^tait de mon devoir de prendre parti contre les agresseurs de mon pays. Je vis alors I'armee des Turcs, lions de courage, honnete par nature, mais com- mandfe par des g^n^raux aussi ignorans que des agneaux, sans en pos- seder la douceur, qui, dans leur vanity, se croyaient nis pour gouverner. Je ne pouvais que les plaindre et pleurer sur mon pays, et sur le mal- heureux r^sultat qtii eut lieu a Adrian opie, et je le consid^rai comme un chatiment inflig^ par la providence k mon oncle le Sultan Mahmout. Je me rendis alors au tombeau r^v6r6 de mon legitime empereur, mon pere bien-aim^, oil je versai les pleurs filiales, et ensuite je vis son assassin plac6 dans des circonstances les plus critiques, et ce tableau horrible rappellant I'affreuse trag^die dans laquelle mon auguste p§re avait perdu la vie, mes sens s'^garferent, et je ne r^vai plus que ven- geance ; mais bien malheureux est I'homme qui en fait son idole. N&nmoins me trouvant dans mon pays natal, j'aper9us I'activit^ qu'il mettait a le civiliser et k en reformer les abus ; j'approuvai ces principes ; mais malheureusement il ne pouvait communiquer h, d'autres ce qu'il ne oonnaissait pas lui-meme, comme la suite I'a d^montr^ ; ses id^es ^taient nobles et g^n^reuses, mais il ignorait sur quelles bases il fallait les fonder. Je ne saurais exprimer les combats qui s'flevaient en moi : d'un cot^ brulant de vengeance, et de I'autre retenu par la prudence et I'amour de mon pays, qui devait §tre sauve, mais non pas remu6 par des revolutions, me firent prendre la resolution de le hair, mais de ne pas I'arreter dans la voie de r^forme qu'il avait en vue, et plut.6t le seconder comme empereur de ma patrie ador^e. Pour ce faire, il 6tait n^cessaire de connaitre mieux notre empire, et je me rendis en Asie pour examiner de quoi est compos^e cette grand e nation ; et aprSs avoir satisfait ma curiosity sur ce point, je revins a la capitale dans I'intention d'etre utile k mon pays. II faUait connattre les Siemens du gouvernement ; je fis la connaissance de tous les amis de mon pfere, de ceux qui correspondaient avec ma mfere sublime, pour qui j 'avait des lettres d'elle, et qui en con- sequence sont devenu mes vrais amis, et qui me sont encore ; en suite je NAEEATIVB OP NADIR BEY. 305 fis la connaissance de Eeis Effendi et de Tinterprfete de la Sublime Porte : ils devinrent mes vrais amis ; et me confiant k leur amiti6, je d^couYris ^ ce dernier la plaie que j'avais dans le cceur, mon nom, ma naissance, et quelles ^talent mes projets. Le brave homme, honnSte Mussulman, parut frappd de la foudre, et apr^s un moment de rMexion, il s'exprima ainsi, les yeux baign^s de larmes : " Prince, ayez confiance en Dieu, mais jamais dans les hommes. Cachez bien votre origine imp^riale, et suivez vos intentions pacifiqueds; aimez votre pays, et Dieu vous sera en aide. Quant k moi, je vous suis d^voue jusqu'J, mon dernier moment ; mais n'oubUez pas que votre vie est en danger, que vous devez la conserver pour votre pays ; ains-i, que la prudence vous guide, et que Dieu vous protege." J'ai suivi ses conseils ; et en peu de terns je fis beaucoup d'amis ; et Hosref Pacta, alors g^n^ralissime, qui ^ cette ^poque igno- rait mon origine, me eonfia le commandement d'un regiment de cavalerie qu'on devait former h, Aldana. Arriv6 1^, je m'oocupai de recruter les soldats; et lorsque j'eus le complement, je re9us I'ordre de les discipliner pour I'infanterie, ce que je fis avec le plus grand zlle. Je contractai IS, un engagement d'amitie fraternelle avec Hagi Ali Bej', gouverneur de la place, et fils du fameux Hassan Pacba d'Adana. H. Ali Bey avait sous ses ordres environ 19,000 hommes de cavalerie, les plus l)raves, je crois, du monde entier, et entieremetit h sa disposition et h. la mienne. Ce fut le moment le plus propice pour venger la liiort de mon pSre ; mais ayant d^j^ resolu de servir mon pays en assistant et participant a la r^forme dont il avait besoin, je renon9ai Jl inqui^ter mon oncle dans ses projets. Quelques tems apres, comme j'avais un gout prononc^e pour la cavalerie, je demandai la permission de me rendre a Constantinople, afin de faire tta ^change et de passer de I'infanterie dans la cavalerie ; et en ayant re9u Fauto- risation, je me rendis k la capitale. Independamment de mes appartemens. du Seraskier, je pris un logement particulier h Pera, afin de me trouver en rapport avec les Europ^ens, et apprendre le Fran9ais. Peu de tems aprfes les Strangers vinrent K moi, m'appellant Moszinski, h, ma grande surprise ; et quoique je ddclinasse I'honneur que Ton me faisait, mes devices furent inutiles ; et bient6t, en ddpit de moi-meme, tout Pera m'appeUa de ce nom, me fflicitant de ce que j'etais si bien avec le gou- vemement turc, et dont le motif m'a occasionn^ dea persecutions de la Eussie (motif imaginaire). Un jour, en mon absence, la grande incendie de Pera eut lieu ; et lors- que, comme tout le monde, je fus pour sauver ce que je poss^dais, j'arrivai au moment oii tout 6tait en cendre. Pres de-la j'aper9us une femme grecque, seule et sans assistance. Le feu avait d^j^ gagn6 sa maison • son denuement excita ma compassion ; et avec I'assistance de mes 306 APPENDIX. gens, je sauvais sa vie et ses objets les plus pr^cieux ; car ses propreS domestiques I'avaient abandonn^e k p6rir, pour se livrer au pillage de sa mais-Dn. Apres avoir mis en surety ce qui avait ^t^ sauv6 dans le mai- son de Monsieur Black, qui est batie en pierre, je conduisit cette dame, encore toute effrayi^e, dans une maison floignte de I'incendie ; Ik je lui demandai ses clefs pour aUer chercber ses bijoux, argent, et papiers, parceque je eonsid^rais prudent qu'elle les efit en sa possession, dans la crainte que dans une confusion semblable ils ne fussent perdus. Je m'aper9us qu'effray^e ; elle craignait de se confier k un Stranger ; cepen- dant les larmes aux yeux, et avec cette d^licatesse feminine, elle me les rfimis. Je la quittai, et me dirigeai de suite vers la maison de M. Black; mais beureuBement pour elle je rencontrai par basard en cbemin des gens inconnus, qui emportaient ses malles, qu'il-s avaient enMvee dans la con- fusion du moment; et quoique j« n'en fussent pas ps^cis^ment certain, j".arr«tai les frippons, «t ouvri-t les malleS -avec les clefs qu'elle m'avait remises. J'-en sortis les bijoux et papiers, et mis le reste en suret6 dans la maison de M. Bersolesy ; je retournai de suite aupria de I'afflig^e Mariola (elle s'appeUait ainsi), et lui lemis ses bijoux et papiers, qu'elle avait oru perdus, et que le hasard seul m'avait fait d^couvrir. Mariola, 6tonn6e d'une semblable cbance et de I'bonnStet^, comme elle le disait, d'un Stranger, me remercia de la maniSre la plus gracieu-se m'exprimant sa reconnaissance, et me disant qu'il n'^tait pas possible que je fusse un des Chretiens du pays ; car la probite et la gi^n^rosit^ que j'avais montr^e ^talent bien rare «hez eux. Et pourtant, je consid^rais que je n'avais fait que mon devoir. Je donnai alors I'ordre k mes gens de lui procurer une maison k Amaut Kivy, comme eUe le d^sirait ; et aprfes avoir fait transporter ce qui avait it& sauv6 de rincendde, je I'accom- pagnai dans la maison qu'on avait pr^par^e pou