^Mmimi!^Mm 
 
 
CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 FROM 
 
 R.S.'Hosiner 
 
Cornell University Library 
 U i)9> I 36 
 
 Manual of ancient history / 
 
 3 1924 027 765 779 
 
 olln 
 
The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027765779 
 
A MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 Ancient History. 
 
 BY 
 
 M. E. THALHEIMER, 
 
 FORMERLY TEACHER OF HTSTORT AND COMPOSITION IN THE PACKER COLLEGIATE 
 
 INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 
 
 WILSON, HINKLE & CO., 
 
 137 WALNUT ST., 
 
 CINCINNATI 
 
 2S BOND ST., 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
Entered according to Act of Cougiess, in the year 1872, by 
 
 WILSON, HINKI.E & CO., 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 
 
 ELECTROTYPED AT TIIK FRANKLIN TYI'E FOUNDRY, CINCINNATI. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Several causes have lately augmented both the means and the 
 motives for a more thorough study of History. Modern criticism, 
 no longer accepting primitive traditions, venal eulogiums, partisan 
 pamphlets, and highly wrought romances as equal and trustworthy 
 evidence, merely because of their age, is teaching us to sift the 
 testimony of ancient authors, to ascertain the sources and relative 
 value of their information, and to discern those special aims which 
 may determine the light in which their works should be viewed. 
 The geographical surveys of recent travelers have thrown a flood 
 of new light upon ancient events ; and, above all, the inscriptions 
 discovered and deciphered within half a century, have set before us 
 the great actors of old times, speaking in their own persons from 
 the walls of palaces and tombs. 
 
 Nor is the new knowledge of little value. If we look familiarly 
 into the daily life of our fellow-men thousands of years ago, it is to 
 find them toiling at the same problems which perplex us ; suffering 
 the same conflict of passion and principle; failing, it may be, for 
 our warning, or winning for our encouragement; in any case, reach- 
 ing results which ought to prevent our repeating their mistakes. 
 The national questions which fill our newspapers were discussed 
 long ago in the Grove, the Agora, and the Forum ; the relative 
 advantages of government by the many and the few, were wrought 
 out to a demonstration in the states and colonies of Greece ; and 
 no man whose vote, no woman whose influence, may sway in ever 
 so small a degree the destinies of our Republic, can afl^ord to be 
 
 ignorant of what has already been so wisely and fully accomplished. 
 
 (iii) 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 Present tasks can only be clearly seen and worthily performed in 
 the light of long experience; and that liberal acquaintance with 
 History which, under a monarchical government, might safely be left 
 as an ornament and privilege to the few, is here the duty of the 
 
 many. 
 
 The present work aims merely to afford a brief though accurate 
 outline of the results of the labors of Niebuhr, Bunsen, Arnold, 
 MoMMSEN, Rawlinson, and others — results which have never, so 
 far as we know, been embraced in any American school-book, 
 but which within a few years have greatly increased the treasures 
 of historical literature. While it may have been impossible, within 
 our limits, to reproduce the full and life-like outlines in which they 
 have portrayed the characters of ancient times, we have sought, 
 with their aid, at least to ascertain the limits of fact and fable. 
 With but few exceptions, and those clearly stated as such, we have 
 introduced no narrative which can reasonably be doubted. 
 
 The writer is more confident of justice of aim than of complete- 
 ness of attainment. No one can so acutely feel the imperfections 
 of a work like this, as the one who has labored at every point to 
 avoid or to remove them ; to compress the greatest amount of truth 
 into the fewest words, and while reducing the scale, to preserve a 
 just proportion in the details. To hundreds of former pupils, who 
 have never been forgotten in this labor of love, and to the kind 
 judgment of fellow-teachers — some of whom well know that effort 
 has not been spared, even where ability may have failed — this 
 Manual is respectfully submitted. 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., Aprils 1872. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I N TRODUCTION. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Sources of History 9. 
 
 Dispersion of Races; Periods and Divisions of History 10. 
 
 Auxiliary Sciences: Chronology and Geography 11. 
 
 BOOK I . 
 
 Asiatic and Afncan Nations, from the Dispersion at Babel to the Rise of the Persian 
 
 Empire. 
 
 Part I.— The Asiatic Nations. 
 
 View of the Geography of Asia 13. 
 
 History of the Chaldeean Monarchy 17. 
 
 The Assyrian Monarchy 18. 
 
 The Median Monarchy. 22. 
 
 The Babylonian Monarchy. 24. 
 
 Kingdoms of Asia Minor 29. 
 
 Phoenicia 30. 
 
 Syria aS. 
 
 Judsea. 34. 
 
 (a~i Theocracy 35. 
 
 ib) United Monarchy 36. 
 
 (c) The Kingdom of Israel 39. 
 
 {d) The Kingdom of Jndah 42. 
 
 Part II.— Thf, African Nations. 
 
 Geographical Outline of Africa 48. 
 
 History of Egypt 50. 
 
 (a) The Old Empire 51. 
 
 (6) The Shepherd Kings 53. 
 
 (c) The New Empire. 55. 
 
 Religion and Ranks in Egypt 61. 
 
 History of Carthage. 66. 
 
 B O O K I I . 
 
 The Persian Empire^ from the Rise of Cyrus to the Fall of Darius, 
 
 Career of Cyrus 73. 
 
 Reign of Carabyses 76. 
 
 Organization of the Empire by Darius 1 79. 
 
 Invasions of Europe under Darius. 83. 
 
 The Behistun Inscription 87» 
 
 Invasion of Greece by Xerxes 88. 
 
 (V) 
 
vi CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Reign of Artaxerxes I. {Longimanus) 92. 
 
 .A^d'X^S J.JL* ■ • • • • • • • • • • • • • t/** 
 
 Sogdianus; Darius II 95. 
 
 Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon). 96. 
 
 Artaxerxes III. ; Arses 98. 
 
 Darius III. ( Codomannus) 99. 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 Grecian Slates and Colognes, from their Earliest Period to the Accession of Alexander 
 
 the Great. 
 
 Geographical Outline of Greece 105. 
 
 History of Greece 107. 
 
 First Period. 
 
 Traditional and Fabulous History, from the Earliest Times to the Dorian 
 
 Migrations 107. 
 
 Greek Religion 110. 
 
 Second Period. 
 
 Authentic History, from the Dorian Conquest of the Peloponnesus to the 
 
 Persian Wars. 116. 
 
 Sparta 118. 
 
 Athens 12i. 
 
 Grecian Colonies 130. 
 
 Third Period. 
 
 From the Beginning of the Persian Wars to the Macedonian Supremacy. 13-i. 
 
 Invasions by Mardonius and Datis 134. 
 
 The Battle of Marathon 135. 
 
 Invasion by Xerxes; Battle of Thermopylae 13S, 139. 
 
 Battle of Salamis, and Retreat of Xerxes 141. 
 
 Battles of Piatsea and Mycale. 144. 
 
 Hellenic League, and Greatness of Athens 145. 
 
 The Peloponnesian War Igl. 
 
 The Sicilian Expedition 169. 
 
 Decline of Athens. 175. 
 
 Battle of ^gos-Potami, and Fall of Athens 179. 
 
 Spartan Supremacy. The Thirty Tyrants 18i. 
 
 The Corinthian War Ig^^ 
 
 Peace of Antalcidas I87. 
 
 Theban Supremacy 288. 
 
 Theban Invasions of the Peloponnesus 192-195. 
 
 fp 
 
 The Social War 195^ 
 
 The Sacred War jgg 
 
 Battle of Chseronea. Supremacy of Philip of Macedou I97. 
 
 BOOK IV, 
 
 History of the Macedonian Empire, and the Kingdoms formed from it, until their 
 
 Conquest by the Romans. 
 
 First Period. 
 From the Rise of the Monarchy to the Death of Alexander the Great. . 201. 
 
CONTENTS. vii 
 
 Second Period. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 From the Death of Alexander to the Battle of Ipsus 206. 
 
 Third Period. 
 
 History of the Several Kingdoms into which Alexander's Empire was 
 
 Divided 209. 
 
 Syrian Kingdom of the Seleucidoe 209. 
 
 Egypt nnder the Ptolemies 210. 
 
 Macedonia and Greece 222. 
 
 Thrace; Pergamus 230. 
 
 Bithynia. 231. 
 
 Pontus 232. 
 
 Cappadocia; Armenia 234. 
 
 Bactria; Partliia 235. 
 
 Judaea, under Egypt and Syria 237. 
 
 Under tlie Maccabees 238. 
 
 Under the Herods 240. 
 
 BOOK V. 
 
 HUtory of Rome, from the Earliest Times to the Fall of the Western Empire. 
 
 Geographical Slcetch of Italy 215. 
 
 I. History of the Roman Kingdom 248. 
 
 Religion of Rome 255. 
 
 II. History of the Roman Republic 260. 
 
 First Period. Growth of the Constitution 260. 
 
 Laws of the Twelve Tables 265. 
 
 Capture of Rome by the Gauls 269. 
 
 Second Period. Wars for the Possession of Italy 274. 
 
 First Samnite War. 274. 
 
 Latin War, and Battle of Vesuvius 275. 
 
 Second Samnite War 276. 
 
 Third War with Samnites and the Italian League. 278. 
 
 War with Pyrrhus, King of Epirus 279. 
 
 Colonies and Roads 282. 
 
 Third Period. Foreign Wars 283. 
 
 First Punic War 284. 
 
 War with the Gauls 286. 
 
 Second Punic War, and Invasion of Italy by Hannibal 287. 
 
 Battles of the Trebia, Lake Tlirasymene, Cannse 288, 289. 
 
 Wars with Antiochus the Great; with Spain, Liguria, Corsica, Sardinia, 
 
 and Macedon 293. 
 
 Third Punic War 294. 
 
 Subjugation of the Spanish Peninsula. 295. 
 
 Fourth Period. Internal Commotions and Civil Wars 296. 
 
 Reforms Proposed by the Gracchi 297. 
 
 Jugurthine Wars, and Rise of Marius 299. 
 
 Defeat of the Teutones and Cimbri 302. 
 
 Servile Wars in Sicily 303. 
 
viii CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Social War 304. 
 
 Exile and Seventh Consulship of Maiius 305. 
 
 Dictatorship of Snlla 306. 
 
 Sertorins in Spain 307. 
 
 War of the Gladiators 308. 
 
 Extraordinary Power of Pompey 311. 
 
 Conspiracy of Catiline 312. 
 
 Triumvirate of Pompey, Ccesar, and Crassus 314. 
 
 Conquests of C'jesar in Gaul, Britain, and Germany 315. 
 
 Civil War; Pompey defeated at Pharsalia 319. 
 
 Csesar Victor at Thapsus, and Master of Romp 321. 
 
 Murder of Csesar in the Senate-house 323. 
 
 Triumvirate of Antony, Csesar Octavianus, and Lepidus 324. 
 
 Antony defeated at Actium ; Octavianus becomes Augustus 325. 
 
 III. History of the Roman Empire 326. 
 
 First Period. 
 
 Reigns of Augustus, 326; Tiberius, 328; Caligula, Claudius, 330; Nero, 331; 
 Galba, Otho, Vitellius, 333; Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, 334; Nerva, 
 Trajan, 335; Hadrian, T. Antoninus Pius, M. Aurelius Antoninus, 336: 
 Com modus, 337. 
 
 Second Period. 
 
 Reigns of Pertinax, Didius Julianus, 338; Severus, Caracalla, Macrinus, 
 Elagabalus, 339; Alexander Severus, 340; Maximin, the Gordians, 
 Pupienus and Balbinus, Gordian the Younger, Philip, Decius, 341; 
 Gallus, jEmilian, Valerian, Gallienus and the "Thirty Tyrants," 342; 
 Aurelian, Tacitus, Florian, 343; Probus, Cams, Numerian, Carinus, 344. 
 
 Third Period. 
 
 Reigns of Diocletian and Maximian with two Ctesars, 345 ; of Constantine, 
 Maximian, and Maxentius in the West — Galerius, Maximin, and 
 Licinius in the East, 348; of Constantine alone, and the Reorganiza- 
 tion of the Empire, 349; of Constantine II., Constans, and Constan- 
 tius II., 350; of Julian, Jovian, and Valentinian I., 3-52; of Valens, 353; 
 of Gratian, Valentinian II., and Theodosius I., 354. 
 
 Fourth Period. 
 
 Final Separation of the Eastern and Western Empires :>5<!. 
 
 Reigns, in the West, of Honorius, 3.56; of Valentinian HI., 358; of Maximus, 
 359; of Avitus, Marjorian, Libius Severus, An themius, Olybrius, Glyce- 
 rius, and Julius Nepos, 360; of Romulus Augustulus, 361. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 SOURCES AND DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. 
 
 1. The former inhabitants of our world are known to us by three kinds 
 of evidence: (1) Written Records; (2) Architectural Monuments; (3) Frag- 
 mentary Remains. 
 
 2. Of these the first alone can be considered as true sources of History, 
 though the latter afford its most interesting and valuable illustrations. Sev- 
 eral races of men have disappeared from the globe, leaving no records in- 
 scribed either upon stone or parchment. Their existence and character can 
 only be inferred from fragments of their weapons, ornaments, and household 
 utensils found in their tombs or among the ruins of their habitations. Such 
 were the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland, and the unknown authors of the 
 shell-mounds of Denmark and India, the tumuli of Britain, and the earth- 
 works of the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 3. The magnificent temples and palaces of Egypt, Assyria, and India 
 have only afforded materials of history since the patient diligence of ori- 
 ental scholars has succeeded in deciphering the inscriptions which they 
 bore. Within a few years they have added immeasurably to our knowl- 
 edge of primeval times, and explained in a wonderful manner the brief 
 allusions of the Bible. 
 
 4. The oldest existing books are the Hebrew Scriptures, which alone* 
 of ancient writings describe the preparation of the earth for the abode of 
 man; his creation and primeval innocence; the entrance of Sin into the 
 world, and the promise of Redemption; the first probation, and the almost 
 total destruction of the human race by a flood; the vain attempt of Noah's 
 descendants to avert similar punishment in future by building a ''city and 
 
 -'Scattered traditions of the same events have been found in several nations. 
 The most remarliable were in the writings of Berosus (see note, p. IS), who, to 
 his account of the Creation, added that the monstrous living creatures which 
 had floated in the darkness of the primeval ocean perished at the appearance 
 of liglit. These must have been the pre-adamite animals which Geology has 
 made known to us only within the present century. Berosus describes a deluge, 
 from which only righteous men were saved. 
 
 (9) 
 
1 INTR on UCTION. 
 
 tower whose top should reach unto heaven/' and their consequent disper- 
 sion. The Bible lays the foundation of all subsequent history by sketching 
 the division of the human race into its three great families, and describing 
 their earliest migrations. 
 
 5. The family of Shem, which was appointed to guard the true primeval 
 faith, remained near the original home in south-western Asia. Of the de- 
 scendants of Ham, a part settled in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, 
 and built the great cities of Nineveh and Babylon ; while the rest spread 
 along the eastern and southern shores of the Mediterranean, and became 
 the founders of the Egyptian Empire. The children of Japheth consti- 
 tuted the Indo-Germanic, or Aryan race, which was divided into two great 
 branches. One, moving eastward, settled the table-lands of Iran and the 
 fertile valleys of northern India; the other, traveling westward along the 
 Euxine and Propontis, occupied the islands of the ^gean Sea, and the pen- 
 insulas of Greece and Italy. By successive migrations they overspread all 
 Europe. 
 
 6. Our First Book treats of the Hamitic and Semitic empires. With the 
 rise of the Medo-Persian monarchy, the Aryan race came upon the scene, 
 and it has ever since occupied the largest place in History. The Hamitic 
 nations were distinguished by their material grandeur, as exemplified by 
 the enormous masses of stone employed in their architecture, and even in 
 their sculpture; the Semitic, by their religious enthusiasm; the Indo-Ger- 
 manic, by their intellectual activity, as exhibited in the highest forms of 
 art, literature, and political organization. 
 
 7. History is divided into three great portions or periods: Ancient, Me- 
 diaeval, and Modern. 
 
 Ancient History narrates the succession of empires which ruled Asia, 
 Africa, and Europe, until the Roman dominion in Italy was overthrown by 
 northern barbarians, A. D. 476. 
 
 Mediaeval History begins with the establishment of a German kingdom 
 in Gaul, and ends with the close of the fifteenth century, when the revival 
 of ancient learning, the multiplication of printed books, and the expansion 
 of ideas by the discovery of a new continent, occasioned great mental ac- 
 tivity, and led to the Modern Era, in which we live. 
 
 8. Ancient History may be divided into five books; 
 
 I. History of the Asiatic and African nations, from the earliest times to 
 the foundation of the Persian Empire, B. C. 558. 
 
 II. History of the Persian Empire, from the accession of Cyrus the 
 Great to the death of Darius Codomannus, B. C. 558—330. 
 
 III. History of the States and Colonies of Greece, from their earliest 
 period to the accession of Alexander of Macedon, B. C. 336. 
 
 IV. History of the Macedonian Empire, and the kingdoms formed from 
 it, until their conquest by the Romans. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 V. History of Home from its foundation to the fall of the Western Em- 
 pire, A. D. 476, 
 
 9. In the study of events, the two circumstances of time and place con- 
 stantly demand our attention. Accordingly, Chronology and Geog- 
 raphy have been called the two eyes of History. It is only by the use of 
 both that we can gain a complete and life-like impression of events. 
 
 10. For the want of the former, a large portion of the life of man upon 
 the globe can be but imperfectly known. There is no detailed record of 
 the ages that preceded the Deluge and Dispersion ; and even after those 
 great crises, long periods are covered only by vague traditions. We have 
 no complete chronology for the Hebrews before the building of Solomon's 
 Temple, B. C. 1004; for the Babylonians before Nabonassar, B. C. 748; or 
 for the Greeks before the first Olympiad, B. C. 776. When its system of 
 computation was settled, each nation selected its own era from which to 
 date events ; but we reduce all to our common reckoning of time before 
 and after the Birth of Christ. 
 
 11. The study of Geography is more intimately connected with that 
 of History than may at first appear. The growth and character of nations 
 are greatly influenced, if not determined, by soil and climate, the position 
 of mountains, and the course of rivers. 
 
 Note. — It is reconinieDded to Teachers that the Geographical sections which 
 precede Parts 1 and 2 of Boole I, Book III, and Book V, be read aloud in the class, 
 each pupil having his or her eye upon the map, and pronouncing the name of 
 each locality mentioned, onli/ when it is found. By this means the names will 
 become familiar, and questions upon the peculiarities of each country can be 
 afterward combined with the lessons. 
 
 Pupils are strongly urged to study History with the map before them ; if pos- 
 sible, even a larger and fuller map than can be given in this book. Any little 
 effort which this may cost, will be more than repaid in the ease with which the 
 lesson will be remembered, when the places where events have occurred ai'e 
 clearly in the mind. 
 
BOOK I. 
 
 Nations of Asia and Africa from the Dispersion at Babel 
 TO THE Foundation of the Persian Empire. 
 
 B. C. (.IBOUT) 2700-558. 
 
 PAET I. ASIATIC JSTATIONS. 
 
 VIEW OF THE GEOGEAPHY OF ASIA. 
 
 12. Asia, the largest division of the Eastern Hemisphere, possesses the 
 greatest variety of soil, climate, and products. Its central and principal 
 portion is a vast table-land, surrounded by the highest mountain chains in 
 the world, on whose northern, eastern, and southern inclinations great 
 rivers have their rise. Of these, the best known to the ancients were the 
 Tigris and Euphra^tes, the Indus, Etyman^der, Arius, Oxus, Jaxar^tes, and 
 Jordan. 
 
 13. Northern Asia, north of the great table-land and the Altai range, 
 is a low, grassy plain, destitute of trees, and unproductive, but intersected 
 by many rivers abounding in fish. It was known to the Greeks under the 
 general name of Scythia. From the most ancient times to the present, it 
 has been inhabited by wandering tribes, who subsisted mainly upon the 
 milk and flesh of their animals. 
 
 14. Central Asia, lying between the Altai on the north, and the 
 Elburz, Hindu Kush, and Himala^'ya Mountains on the south, has little 
 connection with ancient History. Three countries in its western part are 
 of some importance : Ckoras^mia, between the Caspian and the Sea of 
 Aral ; Sogdia^na to the east, and Bacftria to the south of that province. 
 The modern Sam^'arcand is Maracan^da, the ancient capital of Sogdiana. 
 Bactra, now Balkh, was probably the first great city of the Aryan race. 
 
 15. Southern Asia may be divided into eastern and western sections 
 by the Indus Eiver. The eastern portion was scarcely known to the 
 
 (13) 
 
14 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Persians, Greeks, and Romans; and materials are yet lacking for its 
 authentic history : the western, on the contrary, was the scene of the 
 earliest and most imj^ortant events. 
 
 16. South-western Asia may be considered in three portions: (1) 
 Asia Minor, or the peninsula of Anato^lia; (2) The table-land eastward to 
 the Indus, including the mountains of Arme'nia; (3) The lowland south of 
 this plateau, extending from the base of the mountains to the Erythrae^an 
 
 Sea. 
 
 17. Asia Minor, in the earliest period, contained the following countries: 
 Phry^gia and Cappado^cia, on its central table-laud, divided from each other 
 by the river Ha^ys; Bithy^nia and Paphlago^nia on the coast of the 
 Euxine; Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on that of the ^ge^an; Lycia, Pam- 
 phyFia, and Cilic^ia, on the borders of the Mediterranean. It possessed 
 many important islands : Proconne^sus, in the Propon^tis ; Ten^edos, Les^bos, 
 Chi^s, Sa'mos, and Ehodes, in the Jj:gean ; and Cy^prus, in the Levant^ 
 
 18. Phrygia was a grazing country, celebrated from the earliest times 
 for its breed of sheep, whose fleece was of wonderful fineness, and black 
 as the plumage of the raven. The Ango^ra goat and the rabbit of the 
 same region were likewise famed for the fineness of their hair. Cappadocia 
 was inhabited by the White Syrians, so called because they were of fiiirer 
 complexion than those of the south. The richest portion of Asia Minor 
 lay upon the coast of the JEgean ; and of the three provinces, Lijdia, the 
 central, was most distinguished for wealth, elegance, and luxury. The 
 Lydians were the first who coined money. The River Pacto^lus brought 
 from the recesses of Mt. Tmolus a rich supply of gold, which was washed 
 from its sands in the streets of Sardis, the capital. 
 
 19. The Grecian colonies, which, at a later period, covered the coasts 
 of Asia Minor, will be found described in Book III.-' This peninsula was 
 the field of many wars between the nations of Europe and Asia. From 
 its intermediate position, it was always the prize of the conqueror; and 
 after the earliest period of history, it was never occupied by any kingdom 
 of great extent or of long duration. 
 
 20. The highlands of south-western Asia contained seventeen countries, 
 of which only the most important will here be named. Anne^nia has been 
 called the Switzerland of Western Asia. Its highest mountaiu is Ai^^arat, 
 17,000 feet above the sea-level. From this elevated region the Tigris and 
 Euphrates take their course to the Persian Gulf; the Halys to the 
 Euxine; the Arax^es and the Cyrus to the Caspian Sea. Colchis lay east 
 of the Euxine, upon one of the great high-ways of ancient traffic. It was 
 celebrated, in very early times, for its trade in linen. Media was a mount- 
 ainous region, extending from the Araxes to the Caspian Gates. Persia 
 
 tf M 
 
 See Book III, gg 35-37,84-86. 
 
THE GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 15 
 
 lay between Media and the Persian Gulf. Its southern portion is a sandy- 
 plain, rendered almost desert in summer by a hot, pestilential wind from 
 the Steppes of Kerman. Farther from the sea, the country rises into 
 terraces, covered with rich and well-watered pastures, and abounding in 
 pleasant fruits. The climate of this region is delightful; but it soon 
 changes, toward the north, into that of a sterile mountain tract, chilled by 
 snows, which cover the peaks even in summei', and aifording only a scanty 
 pasturage to flocks of sheep. 
 
 21. The lowland plain of south-western Asia comprised Syr^ia, Arabia, 
 Assyr^ia, Susia^na, and Babylo^nia. Syria occupied the wliole eastern coast 
 of the Mediterranean, and consisted of three distinct parts: (1) Syria 
 Proper had for its chief river the Oron^tes, which flowed between the 
 parallel mountain ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. (2) Phceni^cia 
 comprised the narrow strip of coast between Lebanon and the sea. (3) 
 Palestine, south of Phoenicia, had for its river the Jordan, and for its 
 principal mountains Hermon and Carmel. Syria becomes less fertile as it 
 recedes from the mountains, and merges at last into a desert, with no traces 
 of cities or of settled habitations. Yet even this sandy waste is varied by a 
 few fertile spots. The site of Palmy^ra, " Queen of the Desert," may be 
 discerned even now in her magnificent ruins. In more prosperous days 
 she afibrded entertainment to caravans on their way from India to the 
 coast of the Mediterranean. 
 
 22. Arabia is a vast extent of country south and east of Syria, lying 
 between the Eed Sea and the Persian Gulf. Though more than one-fourth 
 the size of Europe, it was of little importance in ancient times; for its 
 usually rocky or sandy soil sustained few inhabitants, and afforded little 
 material for commerce. 
 
 Assyria Proper lay east of the Tigris and west of the Median Mountains. 
 The great empire which bore that name varied in extent under different 
 monarchs, and the name of Assyria is often applied to all the territory 
 between the Zagros Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. The region 
 between the two great rivers and north of Babylonia was called by the 
 Greeks Mesopota^mia. It differed from the more southerly province in being 
 richly wooded: the forests near the Euphrates more than once supplied 
 materials for a fleet to Roman emperors in later times. 
 
 Susiana lay along the Tigris, south-east of Assyria. It was crossed by 
 numerous rivers, and was very rich in grain. Its only important city was 
 Susa, its capital. 
 
 23. Babylonia comprised the great alluvial plain between the lower 
 waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, and sometimes included the country 
 south of the latter river, on the borders of Arabia Deserta, which is 
 better known as ChaldcEfa. When the snows melt upon the mountains of 
 Armenia, both rivers, but especially the Euphrates, become suddenly 
 
16 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 swollen, and tend to overflow their banks. In fighting against this 
 aggression of Nature, the Babylonians early developed that energy of mind 
 which made their country the first abode of Eastern civilization. The 
 net-work of canals which covered the country served the three purposes 
 of internal traffic, defense, and irrigation. Immense lakes were dug or 
 enlarged for the preservation of surplus waters; and the earth thrown 
 out of these excavations formed dykes along the banks of the rivers. 
 The fertile plain, so thoroughly watered, produced enormous quanti- 
 ties of grain, the farmer being rewarded with never less than two hun- 
 dred fold the seed sown, and in favorable seasons, with three hundred 
 fold. We shall not be surprised, therefore, to learn that Babylonia was, 
 from the earliest times, the seat of populous cities, crowded with the 
 products of human industry, and that its people long constituted the 
 leading state of Western Asia. Though the plain of Babylonia afforded 
 neither wood nor stone for building, Nature had provided for human 
 habitations a supply of excellent clay for brick, and wells of bitumen 
 which served for mortar. (Gen. xi : 3.) 
 
 24. South-eastern Asia. India extends from the Indus eastward to 
 the boundaries of China, being bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean, 
 and on the north by the Himala''yas, from whose snowy heights many great 
 rivers descend to fertilize the plains. The richness of the soil fits it for 
 the abode of a swarming population ; and roads, temples, and other 
 structures, dating from a very remote period, attest the skill and industry 
 of the people. Herod^'otus ^ names them as the greatest and wealthiest of 
 nations, though he had not seen them. It was only in the fifth century 
 before Christ that the Indian peninsulas became distinctly known to the 
 Greeks ; and it was two centuries later, in the invasion by Alexander, that 
 the remarkable features of the country were first described to the Western 
 world by eye-witnesses. "Wool-bearing trees" were mentioned as a most 
 peculiar production; for cotton, as well as sugar, was first produced in 
 India. The pearl fisheries, however, of the eastern coast, the diamonds of 
 Golcon^da, the rubies of Mysore^, as well as the abundant gold of the river- 
 beds, the aromatic woods of the forests, and the fine fabrics of cotton, silk, 
 and wool, for which India was already famous, f drew the merchants of 
 Phoenicia at a much earlier period to the banks of the Indus. 
 
 25. China was even less known than India to the inhabitants of the 
 ancient world. The province of Se'rica, which formed the north-western 
 
 ':■ Herodotus, the Father of History, was a Greek of Halicarnassus, a Doric city 
 In Curia, and was born B. C. 484. He collected the materials for his works by exten- 
 sive travels and laborious research. 
 
 fOur word "shawl" belongs to the Sanskrit, the oldest known language of 
 India, showing that "India shawls" have been objects of luxury and commerce 
 from the earliest ages. 
 
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CHALDJEAN MONARCHY, 17 
 
 corner of what is now the Chinese Empire, wus visited, however, by 
 Babylonian and Phoenician merchants, for its most peculiar product, silk. 
 The extreme reserve of the Chinese in their dealings with foreigners, may 
 already be observed in the account given by Herodotus of their trade with 
 the neighboring Scythians. The Sericans deposited their bales of wool or 
 silk in a solitary building called the Stone Tower. The merchants then 
 approached, deposited beside the goods a sum which they were willing to 
 pay, and retired out of sight. The Sericans returned, and, if satisfied with 
 the bargain, took a\Yay the money, leaving the goods; but if they consid- 
 ered the payment insufficient, they took away the goods and left the money. 
 The Chinese have always been remarkable for their patient and thorough 
 tillage of the soil. Chin-nong, their fourth emperor, invented the plow ; 
 and for thousands of years custom required each monarch, among the cer- 
 emonies of his coronation, to guide a plow around a field, thus paying due 
 honor to agriculture, as the art most essential to the civilization, or, rather, 
 to the very existence of a state. 
 
 CHALDiEAN MONARCHY. 
 
 26. After the dispersion of other descendants of Noah from Babel, * 
 Nimrod, grandson of Ham, remained near the scene of their discomfiture, 
 and established a kingdom south of the Euphrates, at the head of the 
 Persian Gulf. The unfinished tower was converted into a temple, other 
 buildings sprang from the clay of the plain, and thus Nimrod became the 
 founder of Babylon, though its grandeur and magnificent adornments date 
 from a later period. Nimrod owed his supremacy to the personal strength 
 and prowess which distinguished him as a " mighty hunter before the 
 Lord." In the early years after the Flood, it is probable that wild beasts 
 multiplied so as to threaten the extinction of the human race, and the 
 chief of men in the gratitude and allegiance of his fellows was he who 
 reduced their numbers. Nimrod founded not only Babylon, but E^rech, or 
 O^'rchoe, Ac^cad, and CaKneh. The Chaldseans continued to be notable 
 builders; and vast structures of brick cemented with bitumen, each brick 
 bearing the monarch's or the architect's name, still attest, though in ruins, 
 their enterprise and skill. They manufactured, also, delicate fabrics of 
 wool, and possessed the arts of working in metals and engraving on gems 
 in very high perfection. Astronomy began to be studied in very early 
 times, and the observations were carefully recorded. The name of Chal- 
 dsean became equivalent to that of seer or philosopher. 
 
 27. The names of fifteen or sixteen kings have been deciphered upon 
 
 «See p. 10, and Gen. xi: 1-9. 
 A. H.— 3. 
 
18 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the earliest monuments of the countiy, but we possess no records of their 
 reigns. It is sufficient to remember the dynasties, or royal families, which, 
 according to Bero^sus, '•• ruled in Chaldiea from about two thousand years 
 before Christ to the beginning of connected chronology. 
 
 1. A Chald^ean Dynasty, from about 2000 to 1543 B. C. The only 
 known kings are Nimrod and Cliedorlao^mer. 
 
 2. An Arabian Dynasty, from about 1543 to 1298 B. C. 
 
 3. A Dynasty of forty-five kings, probably Assyrian, from 1298 to 
 772 B. C. 
 
 4. The Reign of Pul, from 772 to 747 B. C. 
 
 During the first and last of these periods, the country was flourishing 
 and free; during the second, it seems to have been subject to its neighbors 
 in the south-west; and, during the third, it was absorbed into the great 
 Assyrian Empire, as a tributary kingdom, if not merely as a province. 
 
 ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 28o At a very early period a kingdom was established upon the Tigris, 
 which expanded later into a vast empire. Of its earliest records only the 
 names of three or four kings remain to us; but the quadrangular mounds 
 which cover the sites of cities and palaces, and the rude sculptures found by 
 excavation upon their walls, show the industry of a large and luxurious 
 population. The history of Assyria may be divided into three periods: 
 I. From unknown commencement of the monarchy to the Conquest 
 
 of Babylon, about 1250 B. C. 
 II. From Conquest of Babylon to Accession of Tiglath-pileser II, 
 745 B. C. 
 III. From Accession of Tiglath-pileser to Fall of Nineveh, 625 B. C. 
 One king of the First Period, Shalmaneser I, is known to have made 
 B. C. 1270. ^^'^^ among the Armenian Mountains, and to have established 
 
 cities in the conquered territory. 
 29. Second Period, B. C. 1250-745. About the middle of the thir- 
 teenth century B. C, Tigliithi-nin conquered Babylon. A hundred and 
 B. c. 1130. twenty years later, a still greater monarch, Tiglath-pileser I, 
 
 extended his conquests eastward into the Persian mountains, 
 and westward to the borders of Syria. After the warlike reign of his son, 
 
 -Bevosns, .1 learned Babylonian, wrote a history of his own and neighboring 
 countries in tliree books, which are unfortunately lost. He drew his information 
 from records kept in the temple of Belus, from popular traditions, and in part, 
 probably, from the Jewish Scriptures. Fragments have been preserved to us by 
 later writers. He lived from the reign of Alexander, a-36-323 B. C, to that of Antl- 
 ochus 11, 201-2^(J B. C. 
 
ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 19 
 
 Assyria was probably weakened and depressed for two hundred years, since 
 
 no records have been found. From the year 909 B. C, the _ ^ 
 
 •^ ' B. C. 1100-909. 
 
 chronology becomes exact, and the materials for history 
 
 abundant. As^shur-nazir-pal I curried on wars in Persia, Babylonia, 
 
 Armenia, and Syria, and captured the principal Phoenician t> i^ oor o-o 
 
 towns. He built a great palace at Ca^lah, which he made 
 
 his capital. His son, Shalmane^ser 11, continued his father's conquests, 
 
 and made war in Lower Syria against Benha^dad, Haza^el, „ ^ ... _^„ 
 
 and A^hab. 
 
 30. B. C. 810-781. Fva-lush (Hu-likh-khus IV) extended his empire 
 both eastward and westward in twenty-six campaigns. He married Sam''- 
 mura'^mit (Semi^ramis), heiress of Babylonia, and exercised, either in her 
 right or by conquest, royal authority over that country. No name is more 
 celebrated in Oriental history than that of Semiramis; but it is probable 
 that most of the wonderful works ascribed to her are purely fabulous. The 
 importance of the real Sammuramit, who is the only princess mentioned 
 in Assyrian annals, perhaps gave rise to fanciful legends concerning a queen 
 who, ruling in her own right, conquered Egypt and part of Ethiopia, and 
 invaded India with an army of more than a million of men. This mythical 
 heroine ended her career by flying away in the form of a dove. It became 
 customary to ascribe all buildings and other public works whose origin was 
 unknown, to Semiramis ; the date of her reign was fixed at about 2200 B. 
 C. ; and she was said to have been the wife of Ninus, an equally. mythical 
 person, the reputed founder of Nineveh. 
 
 31. Asshur-danin-il II was less warlike than his ancestors. The time 
 of his reign is ascertained by an eclipse of the sun, which ^ ^ _. ^_„ 
 
 Jo. U. /71— /5o. 
 
 the inscriptions place in his ninth year, and which astrono- 
 mers know to have occurred June 15, 763 B. C. After Asshur-likh-khus, 
 the following king, the dynasty was ended with a revolution. ^ ^ 753.-45 
 Nabonas'sar, of Babylon, not only made himself independent, 
 but gained a brief supremacy over Assyria. The Assyrians, during the 
 Second Period, made great advances in literature and arts. The annals 
 of each reign were either cut in stone or impressed upon a duplicate series 
 of bricks, to guard against destruction either by fire or water. If fire 
 destroyed the burnt bricks, it would only harden the dried ; and if the 
 latter were dissolved by water, the former would remain uninjured. En- 
 graved columns were erected in all the countries under Assyrian rule. 
 
 32. Third Period, B. C. 745-625. Tiglath-pileser II was the founder 
 of the New or Lower Assyrian Empire, which he established by active and 
 successful warfare. He conquered Damascus, Samaria, Tyre, ^ ^ 745-727. 
 the Philistines, and the Arabians of the Sinaitic peninsula ; 
 
 carried away captives from the eastern and northern tribes of Israel, and 
 took tribute from the king of Judah. (2 Kings xv : 29; xvi : 7-9.) 
 
20 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Shalmaneser IV conquered Phcenicia, but was defeated in a naval assault 
 upon Tyre. His successor, Sargon, took Samaria, which had revolted, 
 and carried its people captive to his newly conquered provinces of 
 Media and Gauzanitis. He filled their places with Babylonians, whose 
 king, Merodach-baladan, he had captured, B. C. 709. An interesting 
 inscription of Sargon relates his reception of tribute from seven kings 
 of Cyprus, "who have fixed their abode in the middle of the sea of 
 the setting sun." The city and palace of Khor^sabad^ were entirely 
 the work of Sargon. The palace was covered with sculptures within 
 and without; it was ornamented with enameled bricks, arranged in 
 elegant and tasteful patterns, and was approached by noble flights of 
 steps through splendid porticos. In this " palace of incomparable splen- 
 dor, which he had built for the abode of his royalty," are found Sar- 
 gon's own descriptions of the glories of his reign. "I imposed tribute 
 on Pharaoh, of Egypt; on Tsamsi, Queen of Arabia; on Ithamar, the 
 Sabjean, in gold, spices, horses, and camels." Among the spoils of the 
 Babylonian king, he enumerates his golden tiara, scepter, throne and 
 parasol, and silver chariot. In the old age of Sargon, Merodach-baladan 
 recovered his throne, and the Assyrian king was murdered in a con- 
 spiracy. 
 
 33. His son, Sennacl/erib, reestablished Assyrian power at the eastern 
 
 and western extremities of his empire. He defeated Mero- 
 
 B. C. 705-680. ^ 
 
 dach-baladan, and placed first an Assyrian viceroy, and 
 
 afterward his own son, AssaranaMius, upon the Babylonian throne. He 
 
 quelled a revolt of the Phoenician cities, and extorted tribute from most 
 
 of the kings in Syria. He gained a great battle at EFtekeh, in Palestine, 
 
 against the kings of Egypt and Ethiopia, and captured all the "fenced 
 
 cities of Judah." (2 Kings xviii : 13.) In a second expedition against 
 
 Palestine and Egypt, 185,000 of his soldiers were destroyed in a single 
 
 night, near Pelusium, as a judgment for his impious boasting. (2 Kings 
 
 xix : 35, 36.) On his return to Nineveh, two of his sons conspired against 
 
 him and slew him, and E^sarhad^don, another son, obtained the crown. 
 
 His reign (B. C. 680-667) was signalized by many conquests. He defeated 
 
 Tii-^hakeh, king of Egypt, and broke up his kingdom into petty states. 
 
 He completed the colonization of Samaria with people from Babylonia, 
 
 Susiana, and Persia. His royal residence was alternately at Nineveh and 
 
 Babylon. 
 
 34. Under As^shur-ba^ni-pal, son of Esarhaddon, Assyria attained her 
 B c GG7-G17 gi'eatest power and glory. He reconquered Egypt, which 
 
 had rallied under Tirhakeh, overran Asia Minor, and im- 
 posed a tribute upon Gyges, king of Lydia. He subdued most of Armenia, 
 reduced Susiana to a mere province of Babylonia, and exacted obedience 
 from many Arabian tribes. He built the grandest of all the Assyrian 
 
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ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 21 
 
 palaces, cultivated music and the arts, and established a sort of royal 
 library at Nineveh. 
 
 35. The reign of his son, Asshur-eniid-ilin, called Saracus by the Greeks, 
 was overwhelmed with disasters. A horde of barbarians. 
 
 from the plains of Scythia, invaded the empire, and before 
 it could recover from the shock, it was rent by a double revolt of Media on 
 the north, and Babylonia on the south. Nabopolassar, the Babylonian, 
 had been general of the armies of Saracus; but finding himself stronger 
 than his master, he made an alliance with Oyax^ares, king of the Medes, 
 in concert with whom he besieged and captured Nineveh. The Assyrian 
 monarch perished in the flames of his palace, and the two conquerors 
 divided his dominions between them. Thus ended the Assyrian Empire, 
 B. C. 625. 
 
 36. The Third Period was the Golden Age of Assyrian Art. The 
 sculptured marbles Avhich have been brought from the palaces of Sargon, 
 Sennacherib, and Asshur-bani-pal, show a skill and genius in the carving 
 which remind us of the Greeks. A few may be seen in collections of col- 
 leges and other learned societies in this country. The most magnificent 
 specimens are in the British Museum, the Louvre at Paris, and the Oriental 
 Museum at Berlin. During the same period the sciences of geography and 
 astronomy were cultivated with great diligence ; studies in language and 
 history occupied multitudes of learned men; and modern scholars, as they 
 decipher the long-buried memorials, are filled with admiration of the mental 
 activity which characterized the limes of the Lower Empire of Assyria. 
 
 Kings of Assyria. 
 
 For the First and more than half the Second Period, the names are 
 discontinuous and dates unknown. We begin, therefore, with the era of 
 ascertained chronology. 
 
 Kings of the Second Period. 
 
 Asshur-danin-il I 
 
 died 
 
 B.C. 
 
 909. 
 
 Hu-likh-khus III 
 
 reigned 
 
 
 909-889. 
 
 Tiglathi-nin II 
 
 
 
 889-886. 
 
 Asshur-nasir-pal I 
 
 
 
 886-858. 
 
 Shalmaneser II 
 
 
 
 858-823. 
 
 Shamas-iva 
 
 
 
 823-810. 
 
 Hu-likh-khus IV 
 
 
 
 810-781. 
 
 Shalmaneser III 
 
 
 
 781-771. 
 
 Asshur-danin-il II 
 
 
 
 771-753. 
 
 Asshur-likh-khus 
 
 
 
 753-745. 
 
22 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Kings of the Third Period. 
 
 Tiglath-pileser II, usurper, - . . . B. C. 745-727. 
 
 Shalmaneser IV, " 727-721. 
 
 Sargoii, usurper, " 721-705. 
 
 Sennacherib, '' 705-680. 
 
 Esarhaddon, " 680-667. 
 
 Asshur-bani-pal, .... about " 667-647. 
 
 Asshur-emid-ilin, " 647-625. 
 
 A kingdom of mighty hunters and great builders is founded by Nimrod, B.C. 
 2000. Chaldoea becomes subject, first to Arabian, then to Assyrian invaders, but is 
 made independent by Pul, B, C. 772. Tlie Assyrian monarchy absorbs the Chal- 
 deean, and extends itself from Syria to the Persian mountains. After two hundred 
 years' depression, its records become authentic B. C. 909. Iva-lush and Sammuramit 
 reign jointly over greatly increased territories. The Lower Empire is established 
 by Tiglath-pileser II, whose dominion reaches the Mediterranean. .Sargon records 
 many conquests in his palace at Khorsabad. Sennacherib recaptures Babylon and 
 gains victories over Egypt and Palestine. The Assja-ian Empire is increased by 
 Esarhaddon, and culminates under Asshur-bani-pal, only to be overthrown in the 
 next reign by a Scythian invasion and a revolt of Media and Babylonia. 
 
 MEDIAN MONAKCHY. 
 
 37. Little is known of the Medes before the invasion of their country 
 by Shalmaneser II, B. C. 830, and its partial conquest by Sargon, f in 710. 
 They had some importance, however, in the earliest times after the Deluge, 
 for Berosus tells us that a Median dynasty governed Babylon during that 
 period. The country was doubtless divided among petty chieftains, "whose 
 rivalries prevented its becoming great or famous in the view of foreign 
 nations. 
 
 -The student's memory mny be aided by some explanation of the long 
 names of the Assyrian kings. They resemble the Hebrew in their composition; 
 and, as in that language, each may form a complete sentence. Of the two, three, 
 or four distinct words which always compose a royal appellation, one is usually 
 the name of a divinity. Thus, Tiglathi-nin = " Worship be to Nin " (the Assj-rian 
 Hercules); Tiglath-pileser =" Worship be to the Son of Zira;" Sargon -"The 
 King is established;" Esar-haddon - " Asshur has given a brother." 
 
 In Babylonian names, Nebo, Morodach, Bel, and Nergal correspond to Asshur, 
 Sin, and Shamas in Assyrian. Tlius, Abed-nego (for Nebo) is the "Servant of 
 Nebo ;" Nebuchadnezzar means " Nebo protect my race," or " Nebo is the protector 
 of landmarks ;" Nabopolassar - " Nebo protect my son "-the exact equivalent of 
 Asshur-nasir-pal in the Assyrian Dynasty of the Second Period. 
 
 t See g 32. 
 
MEDIAN MONARCHY. 23 
 
 38. About 740 B. C, according to Herodotus, the Medes revolted from 
 Assyria, and cbose for their king Dei^oces, Avhose integrity as a judge had 
 marked him as fittest for supreme command. He built the city of Ecbat^- 
 ana, which he fortified with seven concentric circles of stone, the innermost 
 being gilded so that its battlements shone like gold. Here Deioces estab- 
 lished a severely ceremonious etiquette, making up for his want of hered- 
 itary rank by all the external tokens of the divinity that " doth hedge a 
 king." No courtier was permitted to laugh in his presence, or to approach 
 him without the profoundest expressions of reverence. Either his real 
 dignity of character or these stately ceremonials had such effect, that he 
 enjoyed a prosperous reign of fifty-three years. Though Deioces is de- 
 scribed by Herodotus as King of the Medes, it is probable that he was 
 ruler only of a single tribe, and that a great part of his story is merely 
 imaginary. 
 
 39. The true history of the Median kingdom dates from B. C. 650, 
 when Phraor^tes was on the throne. This king, who is called the son 
 of Deioces, extended his authority over the Persians, and formed that close 
 connection of the Medo-Persian tribes which was never to be dissolved. 
 The supremacy was soon gained by the latter nation. The double kingdom 
 was seen by Daniel in his vision, under the form of a ram, one of whose 
 horns was higher than the other, and " the higher came up last." (Daniel 
 viii : 8, 20.) Phraor^tes, reinforced by the Persians, made many conquests 
 in Upper Asia. He was killed in a war against the last king of Assyria, 
 B. C. 633. 
 
 40. Determined to avenge his father's death, Cyaxares renewed the war 
 with Assyria. He was called olf to resist a most formidable incursion 
 of barbarians from the north of the Caucasus. These Scythians became 
 masters of Western Asia, and their insolent dominion is said to Lave lasted 
 twenty-eight years. A band of the nomads were received into the service 
 of Cyaxares as huntsmen. According to Herodotus, they returned one day 
 empty-handed from the chase; and upon the king's expressing his dis- 
 pleasure, their ferocious temper burst all bounds. They served up to him, 
 instead of game, the flesh of one of the Median boys who had been placed 
 with them to learn their language and the use of the bow, and then fled to 
 the court of the King of Lydia. This circumstance led to a war between 
 Alyat^tes and Cyaxares, which continued five years without any decisive 
 result. It was terminated by an eclipse of the sun occurring in the midst 
 of a battle. The two kings hastened to make peace ; nnd the treaty, 
 which fixed the boundary of their two empires at the River Halys, Avas 
 confirmed by the marriage of the son of Cyaxares with the daughter of 
 Alyattes. The Scythian oppressions were ended by a general massacre of 
 the barbarians, who, by a secretly concerted plan, had been invited to ban- 
 quets and made drunken with wine. 
 
24 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 41. Cyaxares now resumed his plans against Assyria. In alliance with 
 Nabopolassar, of Babylon, he was able to capture Nineveh, overthrow the 
 empire, and render Media a leading power in Asia. The successful wars 
 of Cyaxares secured for himself and his son nearly half a century of peace, 
 during which the Medes rapidly adopted the luxurious habits of the nations 
 they had conquered. The court of Ecbatana became as magnificent as 
 that of Nineveh had been when at the height of its grandeur. The 
 courtiers delighted in silken garments of scarlet and purple, with collars 
 and bracelets of gold, and the same precious metal adorned the harness of 
 their horses. Keminiscences of the old barbaric life remained in an 
 excessive fondness for hunting, which was indulged either in the parks 
 about the capital, or in the open country, where lions, leopards, bears, 
 wild boars, stags, and antelopes still abounded. The great wooden 
 palace, covered with plates of gold and silver, as well as other buildings 
 of the capital, showed a barbarous fondness for costly materials, rather 
 than grandeur of architectural ideas. The Magi, a priestly caste, had 
 great influence in the Median court. The education of each young king 
 was confided to them, and they continued throughout his life to be his 
 most confidential counselors. 
 
 4:2. B. C. 593. Cyaxares died after a reign of forty years. His son, 
 Asty^ages, reigned thirty-five years in friendly and peaceful alliance with 
 the kings of Lydia and Babylon. Little is known of him except the 
 events connected with his fall, and these will be found related in the 
 history of Cyrus, Book II. 
 
 Known Kings of Media. 
 
 Phraortes died B. C. 633. 
 
 Cyaxares reigned " 633-593. 
 
 Astyages " " 593-558. 
 
 NoTF,. — It is impossible to reconcile the chronology of the reign of Cj'axares Avith 
 all the iineient accounts. If the Scv^thian Invasion occurred after the beginning of 
 his reign, continued twenty-eight years, and ended before the Fall of Nineveli, it is 
 easy to see that the date of tlie latter event must have been later than is given in 
 the text. The French school of Orientalists place it, in fact, B. C. 606, and the 
 accession of Cyaxares in 634. The English school, with Sir H. Rawlinson at their 
 head, give the dates which we have adopted. 
 
 BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 43. For nearly five hundred years, Babylon had been governed by 
 Assyrian viceroys, when Nabonassar (747 B. C.) threw ofi* the yoke, and 
 established an independent kingdom. He destroyed the humiliating 
 records of former servitude, and began a new era from which Babylonian 
 time was afterward reckoned. 
 
BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. 25 
 
 44. Merodach-baladan, the fifth king of this line, sent an embassy to 
 Hezekiah, kino- of Judah, to cono;ratulate him upon his _ ^ 
 
 ' ° . . . B- C. 721-709. 
 
 recovery from illness, and to inquire concerning an extra- 
 ordinary phenomenon connected with his restoration. (Isaiah xxxviii : 
 7,8; xxxix : 1.) This shows that the Babylonians were no less alert for 
 astronomical observations than their predecessors, the Chaldaeans. In fj\ct, 
 the brilliant clearness of their heavens early led the inhabitants of this 
 region to a study of the stars. The sky was mapped out in constellations, 
 and the fixed stars were catalogued ; time was measured by sun-dials, and 
 other astronomical instruments were invented by the Babylonians. 
 
 45. The same Merodach-baladan was taken captive by Sargon, king 
 
 of Assyria, and held for six years, while an Assyrian viceroy occupied his 
 
 throne. He escaped and resumed his government, but was again dethroned 
 
 by Sennacherib, son of Sargon. The kingdom remained in a troubled 
 
 state, usually ruled by Assyrians, but seeking independence, _ 
 
 B. C. C80-Go7. 
 
 until Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib, conquered Babylon, 
 
 built himself a palace, and reigned alternately at that city and at Nineveh. 
 
 His son, Sa^os-duchi^nus, governed Babylon as viceroy for 
 
 B. C. 667-647. 
 
 twenty years, and was succeeded by Cinnelada''nus, another b. C. 647-625. 
 Assyrian, who ruled twenty-two years. 
 
 46. B. C. 625. Second Period. Nabopolas'sar, a Babylonian general, 
 
 took occasion, from the misfortunes of the Assyrian Empire, t^ ^ ^ - „ 
 
 B. C. 625-604. 
 to end the long subjection of his people. He allied himself 
 
 with Cyaxares, the Median king, to besiege Nineveh and overthrow the 
 empire. In the subsequent division of spoils, he received Susiana, the 
 Euphrates Valley, and the whole of Syria, and erected a new empire, 
 whose history is among the most brilliant of ancient times. The extension 
 of his dominions westward brought him in collision with a j30werful 
 neighbor, Pha'raoh-ne'choh, of Egypt, who actually subdued t, r- «ne 
 
 the Syrian provinces, and held them a few years. But 
 Nabopolassar sent his still more powerful son, Nebuchadnez^zar, w^ho 
 chastised the Egyptian king in the battle of Cai*^chemish, 
 and wrested from him the stolen provinces. He also be- 
 sieged Jerusalem, and returned to Babylon laden with the treasures of the 
 temple and palace of Solomon. He brought in his train Jehoi^akim, king 
 of Judah, and several young persons of the royal family, among whom 
 was the prophet Daniel. 
 
 47. During his son's campaign, Nabopolassar had died at Babylon, and 
 the victorious prince was immediately acknowledged as 
 
 king. Nebuchadnezzar made subsequent wars in Phoenicia, 
 Palestine, and Egypt, and established an empire which extended westward 
 to the Mediterranean Sea. He deposed the king of Egypt, and placed 
 Amasis upon the throne as his deputy. Zedeki^ah, who had been elevated 
 A. H.— 4. 
 
26 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 to the throne of Judiih, rebelled against Babylon, and Nebuchadnezzar set 
 out in person to punish his treachery. He besieged Jerusalem eighteen 
 months, and captured Zedekiah, who, with true Eastern cruelty, was com- 
 pelled to see his two sons murdered before his eyes were put out, and he 
 was carried in chains to Babylon. In a later war, Nebuzar-adan, general 
 of the armies of Nebuchadnezzar, destroyed Jerusalem, burned the temple 
 and palaces, and carried the remnant of the people to Babylon. The 
 strong and wealthy city of Tyre revolted, and resisted for thirteen years 
 the power of tbe great king, but at length submitted, and all PhoBnicia 
 remained under the Babylonian yoke. B, C. 585. 
 
 48. The active mind of Nebuchadnezzar, absorbed in schemes of con- 
 quest, began to be visited by dreams, in one of Avhich the series of great 
 empires which were yet to arise in the east was distinctly foreshadowed. 
 Of all the wise men of the court, Daniel alone was enabled to interpret 
 the vision ; and his spiritual insight, together with the singular elevation 
 and purity of his character, gained him the affectionate confidence of the 
 king. (Read Daniel ii.) 
 
 49. The reign of Nebuchadnezzar was illustrated by grand public works. 
 His wife, a Median princess, sighed for her native mountains, and was dis- 
 gusted with the flatness of the Babylonian plain, the greatest in the ancient 
 world. To gratify her, the elevated — rather than "hanging" — gardens 
 were created. Arches were raised on arches in continuous series until they 
 overtopped the walls of Babylon, and stairways led from terrace to terrace. 
 The whole structure of masonry was overlaid with soil sufficient to nourish 
 the largest trees, which, by means of hydraulic engines, were supplied from 
 the river with abundant moisture. In the midst of these groves stood the 
 royal winter residence; for a retreat, which in other climates would be most 
 suitable for a summer habitation, was here reserved for those cooler months 
 in whiih alone man can live in the open air. This first great work of land- 
 scape gardening which history describes, comprised a charming variety of 
 hills and forests, rivers, cascades, and fountains, and was adorned with the 
 loveliest flowers the East could afford. 
 
 50. The same king surrounded the city with walls of burnt brick, two 
 hundred cubits high and fifty in thickness, which, together with the 
 gardens, were reckoned among the Seven AVonders of the World. During 
 his reign and that of his son-in-law, Nabona^dius, the whole country Avas 
 enriched by works of public utility: canals, reservoirs, and sluices were 
 multiplied, and the shores of the Persian Gulf were improved by means of 
 piers and embankments. 
 
 51. Owing to these encouragements, as well as to her fortunate position 
 midway between the Indus and the Mediterranean, with the Gulf and the 
 two great rivers for natural highways, Babylon w^as thronged with the 
 merchants of all nations, and her commerce embraced the known world. 
 
BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. 27 
 
 Manufactures, also, were numerous and famous. The cotton fabrics of the 
 towns on the Tigris and Euphrates were unsurpassed for fineness of quality 
 and brilliancy of color ; and carpets, which were in great demand among 
 the luxurious Orientals, were nowhere produced in such magnificence as in 
 the looms of Babylon. 
 
 52, It is not strange that the pride of Nebuchadnezzar was kindled by 
 the magnificence of his capital. As he walked upon the summit of his 
 new palace, and looked down upon the swarming multitudes who owed 
 their prosperity to his protection and fostering care, he said, "Is not this 
 great Babylon, that / have built for the house of the kingdom by the 
 might of my power, and for the honor of my majesty?" At that moment 
 the humiliation foretold in a previous dream, interpreted by Daniel, came 
 upon him. We can not better describe the manner of the judgment than 
 in the king's own words (Daniel iv : 31-37) : 
 
 "While the word was in the king's mouth, there fell a voice from heaven, 
 saying, King Nebuchadnezzar, to thee it is spoken; The kingdom is de- 
 parted from thee. And they shall drive thee from men, and thy dwelling 
 shall be with the beasts of the field : they shall make thee to eat grass as 
 oxen, and seven times shall jmss over thee, until thou know that the Most 
 High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever he will. 
 The same hour was the thing fulfilled upon Nebuchadnezzar : and he was 
 driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen, and his body was wet with 
 the dew of heaven, till his hairs were grown like eagles' feathers, and his 
 nails like birds' claws. And at the end of the days, I, Nebuchadnezzar, 
 lifted up mine eyes unto heaven, and mine understanding returned unto 
 me, and I blessed the Most High, and I praised and honored him that 
 liveth forever, whose dominion is an everlasting dominion, and his king- 
 dom is from generation to generation At the same time my reason 
 
 returned unto me; and for the glory of my kingdom, mine honor and 
 brightness returned unto me; and my counselors and my lords sought unto 
 me; and I was established in my kingdom, and excellent majesty was added 
 unto me. Now I, Nebuchadnezzar, praise and extol and honor the King 
 of heaven, all whose works are truth, and his ways judgment : and those 
 that walk in pride he is able to abase." 
 
 53. The immediate successors of Nebuchadnezzar were not his equals in 
 character or talent. Evil-merodach, his son, was murdered 
 
 Jo. C obi-ooy. 
 
 after a reign of two years by Nereglis^'sar, his sister's husband. 
 This prince was advanced in years when he ascended the throne, having 
 been already a chief oflficer of the crown thirty years before ' 
 at the siege of Jerusalem. He reigned but four years, and 
 was succeeded by his son, La^borosoar^chod. The young king was mur- 
 dered, after only nine months' reign, by NabonaMius, who became the 
 last king of Babylon. The usurper strengthened his title by marrying a 
 
28 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 daughter of Nebuchadnezzar— probably the widow of Nereglissar — and 
 afterward by associating their son Belshaz^zar with him in 
 the government. He also sought security in foreign alli- 
 ances. He fortified his capital by river walls, and constructed water-works 
 in connection with the river above the city, by which the whole plain north 
 and west could be flooded to prevent the approach of an enemy. 
 
 54. A new power was indeed arising in the East, against which the 
 three older but feebler monarchies, Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt, found it 
 necessary to combine their forces. After the conquest of Lydia, and the 
 extension of the Persian Empire to the ^gean Sea, Nabonadius had still 
 fifteen years for preparation. He improved the time by laying up enor- 
 mous quantities of food in Babylon ; and felt confident that, though the 
 country might be overrun, the strong walls of Nebuchadnezzar would enable 
 him cheerfully to defy his foe. On the approach of Cyrus he resolved to 
 risk one battle; but in this he was defeated, and compelled to take refuge 
 in Bor^sippa. His son Belshazzar, being left in Babylon, indulged in a 
 false assurance of safety. Cyrus, by diverting the course of the Euphrates, 
 opened a way for his army into the heart of the city, and the court was 
 surprised in the midst of a drunken revel, unprepared for resistance. The 
 young prince, unrecognized in the confusion, was slain at the gate of his 
 palace. Nabonadius, broken by the loss of his capital and his son, surren- 
 dered himself a prisoner; and the dominion of the East passed to theMedo- 
 Persian race. Babylon became the second city of the empire, and the 
 Persian court resided there the greater portion of the year. 
 
 Deioces, the first reputed king of Media, built and adorned Ecbatana. Phraortes 
 united the :\Iedes and Persians into one powerful kingdom. In the reign of Cyax- 
 ares, the Scythians ruled Western Asia twenty-eight years. After their expulsion, " 
 Cyaxares, in alliance with the Babylonian viceroy, overthrew the Assyrian Em- 
 pire, divided its territories with his alljs and raised his own dominion to a hi"li 
 degree of wealth. His son Astyages leigned peacefully thirty-five years. 
 
 Babylon, under Nabonassar, became independent of Assyria, B. C. 747. Mero- 
 dach-baladan, the fifth native king, was twice deposed, by Sargon and Sennacherib 
 and tlie country again remained forty-two years under Assyrian rule. It was de- 
 livered by Nabopolassar, whose still more powerful son, Nebuchadnezzar o-ained 
 great victories over the kings of Judah and Egypt, replacing the latter with vice- 
 roys of his own, and transporting the former, with the princes, nobles, and sacred 
 treasures of Jerusalem, to Babylon. By a thirteen years' siege. Tyre was subdued 
 and all Phcenlcia conquered. From visions interpreted by Daniel, Nebuchadnezzar 
 learned the future rise and fall of Asiatic empires. He constructed the PIancrin<T 
 Gardens, the walls of Babylon, and many other public works. Plis prido was 
 punished by seven years' degradation. Evil-merodach was murdered by Nere*'- 
 lissar, who after four years bequeathed his crown to Laborosoarchod. Nabonadius 
 obtained the throne by violence, and in concert with his son Belshazzar tried to 
 j)rotect his dominions against Cyrus; but Babylon was taken and the' empire 
 overthrown, B. C. 5.38. 
 
KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR. 29 
 
 KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR. 
 
 55. The Anatolian peninsula, divided by its mountain chains into 
 several sections, was occupied from very ancient times by different nations 
 nearly equal in power. Of these, the Phrygians were probably the ear- 
 liest settlers, and at one time occupied the whole peninsula. Successive 
 immigrations from the east and west pressed them inward from the coast, 
 but they still had the advantage of a large and fertile territory. They 
 were a brave but rather brutal race, chiefly occupied with agriculture, and 
 especially the raising of the vine. 
 
 5G. The Phrygians came from the mountains of Armenia, whence they 
 brought a tradition of the Flood, and of the resting of the ark on Mount 
 Ararat. They were accustomed, in primitive times, to hollow their habita- 
 tions out of the rock of the Anatolian hills, and many of these rock cities 
 may be found in all parts of Asia Minor. Before the time of Homer, 
 however, they had well-built towns and a flourishing commerce. 
 
 57. Their religion consisted of many dark and mysterious rites, some 
 of which were afterward copied by the Greeks. The worship of Cyb^ele, 
 and of Saba^zius, god of the vine, was accompanied by the wildest music 
 and dances. The capital of Phrygla was Gor'dium, on the Sanga^rius, 
 The kings were alternately called Goi-^dias and Mi^das, but we have no 
 chronological lists. Phrygia became a province of Lydia B. C. 560. 
 
 58. In later times Lydia became the greatest kingdom in Asia Minor, 
 both in wealth and power, absorbing in its dominion the whole peninsula, 
 except Lycia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia. Three dynasties successively bore 
 rule: the Atyadce, before 1200 B. C. ; the Heraclidce, for the next 505 years; 
 and the Mermnadce, from B. C. 694 until 546, when Croesus, the last and 
 greatest monarch, was conquered by the Persians. The name of this king 
 has become proverbial from his enormous Avealth. When associated with 
 liis father as crown prince, he was visited by Solon of Athens, who looked 
 on all the splendor of the court with the coolness of a philosopher. 
 Annoyed by his indifference, the prince asked Solon who, of all the men 
 he had encountered in his travels, seemed to him the happiest. To his 
 astonishment, the wise man named two persons in comparatively humble 
 stations, but the one of whom was blessed with dutiful children, and the 
 other had died a triumphant and glorious death. The vanity of Croesus 
 could no longer abstain from a direct effort to extort a compliment. He 
 asked if Solon did not consider him a happy man. The philosopher gravely 
 replied that, such were the vicissitudes of life, no man, in his opinion, 
 could safely be pronounced happy until his life was ended. 
 
 59. Croesus extended his power over not only the whole Anatolian 
 peninsula, but the Greek islands both of the ^gean and Ionian seas. He 
 made an alliance with Sparta, Egypt, and Babylon to resist the growing 
 
30 ANCIENT BISTOBY. 
 
 empire of Cyrus; but his precautions were ineffectual; he was defeated 
 and made prisoner. He is said to have been bound upon a funeral pile, 
 or altar, near the gate of his capital, when he recalled with anguish of 
 heart the words of the Athenian sage, and three times uttered his name, 
 ''Solon, Solon, Solon!" Cyrus, who was regarding the scene with curi- 
 osity, ordered his interpreters to inquire what god or man he had thus 
 invoked in his distress. The captive king replied that it was the name 
 of a man with whom he wished that every monarch might be acquainted; 
 and described the visit and conversation of the serene philosopher who 
 had remained undazzled by his splendor. The conqueror was inspired 
 with a more generous emotion by the remembrance that he, too, was 
 mortal; he caused Croesus to be released and to dwell with him as a 
 friend. 
 
 Kings of Lydia. 
 Of the First and Second Dynasties, the names are only partially known, 
 
 and dates are 
 
 wanti 
 
 ng- 
 
 
 
 
 Atyadce : 
 
 
 Heraclidce, last 
 
 six : 
 
 Mermnadce : 
 
 Manes, 
 
 
 Adyattes I, 
 
 
 Gyges, 
 
 B. C. 694-678. 
 
 Atys, 
 
 
 Ardys, 
 
 
 Ardys, 
 
 " 678-629. 
 
 Lydus, 
 
 
 Adyattes II, 
 
 
 Sadyattes, 
 
 " 629-617. 
 
 Meles. 
 
 
 Meles, 
 
 
 Alyattes, 
 
 " 617-560. 
 
 
 
 Myrsus, 
 
 
 Croesus, 
 
 " 560-546. 
 
 
 
 Candaules. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PHfRNICIA. 
 
 
 60. The small strip of land between Mount Lebanon and the sea was 
 more important to the ancient world than its size would indicate. Here 
 arose the first great commercial cities, and Phoenician vessels wove a web 
 of peaceful intercourse between the nations of Asia, Africa, and Europe. 
 
 61. Sidon was probably the most ancient, and until B. C. 1050, the 
 most flourishing, of all the Phoenician communities. About that year the 
 Philistines of Askalon gained a victory over Sidon, and the exiled inhab- 
 itants took refuge in the rival city of Tyre. Henceforth the daughter 
 surpassed the mother in wealth and power. When Plerodotus visited Tyre, 
 he found a temple of Hercules which claimed to be 2,300 years old. This 
 would give Tyre an antiquity of 2,750 years B. C. 
 
 62. Other chief cities of Phoenicia were Beiy^tus (Beirut), ByVlus, 
 Tri^polis, and Ara^dus. Each with its surrounding territory made an 
 independent state. Occasionally in times of danger they formed them- 
 selves into a league, under the direction of the most powerful ; but the 
 
PHCENICIA, 31 
 
 name Phoenicia applies merely to territory, not to a single well organized 
 state, nor even to a permanent confederacy. Each city was ruled by its 
 king, but a strong priestly influence and a powerful aristocracy, either 
 of birth or wealth, restrained the despotic inclinations of the monarch. 
 
 63. The commerce of the Phoenician cities had no rival in the earlier 
 centuries of their prosperity. Their trading stations sprang up rapidly 
 along the coasts and upon the islands of the Mediterranean ; and even 
 beyond the Pillars of Hercules, their city of Gades (Kadesh), the modern 
 Cadiz, looked out upon the Atlantic. Tiiese remote colonies were only 
 starting points from which voyages were made into still more distant 
 regions. ^Merchantmen from Cadiz explored the western coasts of Africa 
 and Europe. From the stations on the Bed Sea, trading vessels Avere fitted 
 out for India and Ceylon. 
 
 64. At a later period, the Greeks absorbed the commerce of the Euxine 
 and the jEgean, while Carthage claimed her share in the Western Medi- 
 terranean and the Atlantic. By this time, however. Western Asia was 
 more tranquil under the later Assyrian and Babylonian monarchs; and 
 the wealth of Babylon attracted merchant trains from Tyre across the 
 Syrian Desert by way of Tadmor. Other caravans moved northward, and 
 exchanged the products of Phoenician industry for the horses, mules, 
 slaves, and copper utensils of Armenia and Cappadocia. A friendly inter- 
 course was always maintained with Jerusalem, and a land-traffic with the 
 Red Sea, which was frequented by Phoenician fleets. Gold from Ophir, 
 pearls and diamonds from Eastern India and Ceylon, silver from Spain, 
 linen embroidery from Egypt, apes from Western Africa, tin from the 
 British Isles, and amber from the Baltic, might be found in the cargoes 
 of Tyrian vessels. 
 
 65. The Phoenicians in general were merchants, rather than manufac- 
 turers; but their bronzes and vessels in gold and silver, as well as other 
 works in metal, had a high repute. They claimed the invention of glass, 
 which they manufactured into many articles of use and ornament. But 
 the most famous of their products was the " Tyrian purple," which they 
 obtained in minute drops from the two shell-fish, the buccinum and murex, 
 and by means of Avhich they gave a high value to their fabrics of wool. 
 
 66. About the time of Pygma^lion, the warlike expeditions of Shal- 
 maneser II overpowered the Phoenician towns, and for more than two 
 hundred years they remained tributary to the Assyrian Empire. Frequent 
 but usually vain attempts were made, during the latter half of this period, 
 to throw off" the yoke. With the fall of Nineveh it is probable that Phoe- 
 nicia became independent. 
 
 67. B. C. 608. It was soon reduced, however, by Necho of Egypt, who 
 added all Syria to his dominions, and held Phoenicia dependent until he 
 himself was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar (B. C. 605) at Carchemish. 
 
32 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 The captive cities were only transferred to a new master ; but, in 598, Tyre 
 revolted against the Babylonian, and sustained a siege of thirteen years. 
 When at length she was compelled to submit, the conqueror found no 
 plunder to reward the extreme severity of his labors, for the inhabitants 
 had secretly removed their treasures to an island half a mile distant, where 
 New Tyre soon excelled the splendor of the Old. 
 
 68. Phoenicia remained subject to Babylon until that power was over- 
 come by the new empire of Cyrus the Great. The local government was 
 carried on by native kings or judges, who paid tribute to the Babylonian 
 king. 
 
 69. The religion of the Phoenicians was degraded by many cruel and 
 uncleanly rites. Their chief divinities, Baal and Astar^te, or Ashtaroth, 
 represented the sun and moon. Baal was worshiped in groves on high 
 places, sometimes, like the Ammonian Moloch, with burnt-offerings of 
 human beings ; always with wild, fanatical rites, his votaries crying aloud 
 and cutting themselves with knives. Melcarth, the Tyrian Hercules, was 
 worshiped only at Tyre and her colonies. His symbol was an ever-burning 
 fire, and he probably shared with Baal the character of a sun-god. The 
 marine deities Avere of especial importance to these commercial cities. 
 Chief of these were Posi^don, Ne^reus, and Pontus. Of lower rank, but 
 not less constantly remembered, were the little Cabi^ri, whose images 
 formed the figure-heads of Phoenician ships. The seat of their worship 
 was at Berytus. 
 
 70. The Phoenicians were less idolatrous than the Egyptians, Greeks, or 
 Romans; for their temples contained either no visible image of their dei- 
 ties, or only a rude symbol like the conical stone which was held to repre- 
 sent Astarte. 
 
 Kings of Tyre. 
 
 First Period. 
 Abibaal, partly contemporary with David in Israel 
 
 Hiram, his son, friend of David and Solomon, . B. 1025-991. 
 
 Balea'zar, u 99i_984. 
 
 Abdastar^tus, << 984-975. 
 
 One of his assassins, Avhose name is unknown, . " 975-963. 
 
 ^startus, u 963-951. 
 
 Aser^ymus, his brother, =< 951-942. 
 
 Phales, another brother, who murdered Aserymus, " 942-941 . 
 
 Ethba^al,* high priest of Astarte, " 941-909. 
 
 Bade'zor, his son, " 909-903. 
 
 =>His daughter Jezebel became the wife of Ahab, king of Israel. His reign is 
 marked in Phoenician annals by a drought which extended throughout Syria. 
 
SYBIA. 
 
 33 
 
 Matgen, son of Badezor and father of Dido, . . B. C. 903-871. 
 
 Pygmalion, brother of Dido, " 871-824. 
 
 For 227 years Tyre remained tributary to the Eastern Monarchies, and 
 we have no list of her native rulers. 
 
 Second Period. 
 
 Ethbaal II, contemporary with Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 597-573. 
 
 Baal, , : " 573-563. 
 
 Ec^niba^al, judge for three months, " 563. 
 
 Chel^bes, judge ten months, " 563-562. 
 
 Abba^rus, judge three months, " 562. 
 
 Mytgon and Gerastar^tus, judges five years, . . '" 562-557. 
 
 Bala^tor, Jiing, " 557-556. 
 
 Merbal, king, " 556-552. 
 
 Hiram, king, " 552-532. 
 
 SYRIA. 
 
 71. Syria Proper was divided between several states, of which the most 
 important in ancient times was Damascus, with its territory, a fertile 
 country between Anti-Lebanon and the Syrian Desert. Beside this were 
 the northern Hittites, whose chief city was Carchemish; the southern 
 Hittites, in the region of the Dead Sea; the Pate^'na on the lower, and 
 Hamath on the upper Orontes. 
 
 72. Damascus, on the Abana, is among the oldest cities in the world. 
 It resisted the conquering arms of David and Solomon, who, with this 
 exception, reigned over all the land between the Jordan and the Eu- 
 phrates ; and it continued to be a hostile and formidable neighbor to the 
 Hebrew monarchy, until Jews, Israelites, and Syrians were all alike over- 
 whelmed by the growth of the Assyrian Empire. 
 
 Kings of Damascus. 
 
 Hadad, contemporary 
 
 with David, about B. C. 1040. 
 
 Rezon, 
 
 
 Solomon, " 1000. 
 
 Tab-rimmon, 
 
 
 Abijah, '' 960-950 
 
 Ben-hadad I, 
 
 
 Baasha and Asa, " " 950-920 
 
 Ben-hadad II, 
 
 
 Ahab, " 900. 
 
 Hazael, 
 
 
 Jehu and Shalmaneser II, " 850. 
 
 Ben-hadad III, 
 
 
 Jehoahaz, " 840. 
 
 Unknown until Rezin, 
 
 
 AhazofJudah, " 745-732 
 
 A. H.— 5. 
 
 
 
34 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 JUDJ^A. 
 
 73. The history of the Hebrew nice is better known to us than that of 
 any other people equally ancient, because it has been carefully preserved 
 in the sacred writings. The separation of this race for its peculiar and 
 important part in the world's history, began with the call of Abraham 
 from his home, near the Euphrates, to the more western country on the 
 Mediterranean, which was promised to himself and his descendants. The 
 story of his sons and grandsons, before and during their residence in 
 Egypt, belongs, however, to family rather than national history. Their 
 numbers increased until they became objects of apprehension to the 
 Egyptians, who tried to break their spirit by servitude. At length, Moses ^^^^^^\ 
 gr°ew up under the fostering care of Pharaoh himself; and after a forty 
 years' retirement in the deserts of Midian, adding the dignity of age and 
 lonely meditation to the " learning of the Egyptians," he became the 
 liberator and law-giver of his people. 
 
 74. The history of the Jewish nation begins with the night of their 
 exodus from Egypt. The people were mustered according to their tribes, 
 which bore the names of the twelve sons of Jacob, the grandson of Abra- 
 ham. The sons of Joseph, however, received each a portion and gave their 
 names to the two tribes of Ephraim and Manas^seh. The family of Jacob 
 went into Egypt numbering sixty-seven persons ; it went out numbering 
 603,550 warriors, not counting the Levites, who were exempted from 
 military duty that they might have charge of the tabernacle and the 
 vessels used in worship. 
 
 75. After long marches and countermarches through the Arabian 
 desert — needful to arouse the spirit of a free people from the cowed and 
 groveling habits of the slave, as well as to counteract the long example of 
 idolatry by direct Divine revelation of a pure and spiritual worship — the 
 Israelites were led into the land promised to Abraham, which lay chiefly 
 between the Jordan and the sea. Two and a half of the twelve tribes — 
 Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh — preferred the fertile 
 pastures east of the Jordan ; and on condition of aiding their brethren in 
 the conquest of their more westerly territorj^, received their allotted portion 
 there. 
 
 76. Moses, their great leader through the desert, died outside the 
 Promised Land, and was buried in the land of Moab. His lieutenant, 
 Joshua, conquered Palestine and divided it among the tribes. The inhab- 
 itants of Gibeon hastened to make peace with the invaders by a stratagem. 
 Though their falsehood was soon discovered, Joshua was faithful to his 
 oath already taken, and' the Gibeonites escaped the usual fate of extermina- 
 tion pronounced upon the inhabitants of Canaan, by becoming servants 
 and tributaries to the Hebrews. 
 
JUDJEA, 35 
 
 77. The kings of Palestine now assembled their forces to besiege the 
 traitor city, in revenge for its alliance with the strangers. Joshna hastened 
 to its assistance, and in the great battle of Beth-horon defeated, routed, 
 and destroyed the armies of the five kings. This conflict decided the pos- 
 session of central and southern Palestine. Jabiii, "king of Canaan," still 
 made a stand in his fortress of Hazor, in the north. The conquered kings 
 had probably been in some degree dependent on him as their superior, if 
 not their sovereign. He now mustered all the tribes which had not fallen 
 under the sword of the Israelites, and encountered Joshua at the waters of 
 Merom. The Canaanites had horses and chariots; the Hebrews were on 
 foot, but their victory was as complete and decisive as at Beth-horon. 
 Hazor was taken and burnt, and its king beheaded. 
 
 78. The nomads of the forty years in the desert now became a settled, 
 civilized, and agricultural people. Shiloh was the first permanent sanctu- 
 ary ; there the tabernacle constructed in the desert was set up, and became 
 the shrine of the national worship. 
 
 79. Jewish History is properly divided into three periods: 
 
 I. From the Exodus to the establishment of the Monarchy, B. C. 1650- 
 1095. 
 
 II. From the accession of Saul to the separation into two kingdoms, 
 B. C. 1095-975. 
 
 III. From the separation of the kingdoms to the Captivity at Babylon, 
 B. C. 975-586. 
 
 80. During the First Period the government of the Hebrews was a 
 simple theocracy, direction for all important movements being received 
 through the high priest from God himself. The rulers, from Moses down, 
 claimed no honors of royalty, but led the nation in war and judged it in 
 peace by general consent. They were designated to their office at once by 
 revelation from heaven, and by some special fitness in character or person 
 which was readily perceived. Thus the zeal and courage of Gideon, the 
 lofty spirit of Deb^orah, the strength of Samson, rendered them most fit for 
 command in the special emergencies at which they arose. The "Judge" 
 usually appeared at some time of danger or calamity, when the people 
 would gladly welcome any deliverer; and his power, once conferred, lasted 
 during his life. 
 
 After his death a long interval usually occurred, during which "every 
 man did that which was right in his own eyes," until a new invasion by 
 Philis^tines, Ammonites, or Zidonians called for a new leader. The 
 chronology of this period is very uncertain, as the sacred writers only 
 incidentally mention the time of events, and their records are not always 
 continuous. The system of chronology was not settled until a later period. 
 We have given in the list the dates which seem most probable. 
 
36 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Rulers and Judges of Israel. 
 
 Moses, 
 
 Joshua, 
 
 Interregnum 30 years, . 
 
 Servitude under Chuslian-rishathaim, . . . . 
 
 Othniel, 
 
 Interregnum 5 years, 
 
 Servitude under Eglon, king of Moab, . . . 
 Ehud, (during his and the following reign, ) 
 Shamgar, the land had rest 80 years.) i 
 
 Servitude under Jabin, king of Canaan, 20 yrs., 
 Deborah. (Land had rest 40 years.) . . . . . 
 
 Servitude under Midian 7 years, 
 
 Gideon, 
 
 Abimelech, king, 
 
 Interregnum 5 years, 
 
 Tola, 
 
 Jair, 
 
 Interregnum about 5 years, 
 
 Servitude under Ammon 18 years, 
 
 Jephthah, 
 
 Ibzan, 
 
 Elon, 
 
 Abdon, 
 
 Interregnum about 5 years, 
 
 Servitude under the Philistines 40 years, . . 
 Samson, in south-western Palestine, during the 
 
 last 20 years of the above, 
 
 Eli, high priest and judge, 
 
 Samuel, last of the judges, 
 
 about B. C. 1650-1610. 
 
 1610-1595. 
 « 1595-1565. 
 
 1565-1557. 
 " 1557-1517. 
 
 " 1517-1512. 
 
 " 1512-1494. 
 
 1494-1414. 
 
 1414-1394. 
 1394-1354. 
 1354-1347. 
 1347-1307. 
 1307-1304. 
 1304-1299. 
 1299-1276. 
 1276-1254. 
 1254-1249. 
 1249-1231. 
 1231-1225. 
 1225-1218. 
 1218-1208. 
 1208-1200. 
 1200-1195. 
 1195-1155. 
 
 1175-1155. 
 1155-1115. 
 1115-1095. 
 
 81. Second Period. The Israelites at length became dissatisfied with 
 the irregular nature of their government, and demanded a king. In com- 
 pliance with their wishes, Saul, the son of Kish, a young Benjamite distin- 
 guished by beauty and loftiness of stature, was chosen by Divine command, 
 and anointed by Samuel, their aged prophet and judge. 
 
 82. He found the country in nearly the same condition in which Joshua 
 had left it. The people were farmers and shepherds ; none were wealthy ; 
 even tlie king had "no court, no palace, no extraordinaiy retinue; he was 
 still little more than leader in war and judge in peace." The country 
 was still ravaged by Ammonites on one side, and Philistines on the other; 
 and under the recent incursions of the latter, the Israelites had become so 
 
JUD^A. 
 
 37 
 
 weak that they had no weapons nor armor, nor even any workers in iron. 
 (I Samuel xiii : 19, 20.) 
 
 83. Saul first defeated the Ammonites, who had overrun Gilead from the 
 east ; then turned upon the Philistines, and humbled them in the battle of 
 Michmash, so that they were driven to defend themselves at home, instead 
 of invading Israel, until near the close of his reign. He waged war also 
 against the Am^alekites, Mo^abites, EMomites, and the Syrians of Zobah, 
 and " delivered Israel out of the hand of them that spoiled them." 
 
 81. He forfeited the favor of God by disobedience, and David, his future 
 son-in-law, was anointed king. Jonathan, the son of Saul, was a firm friend 
 and protector of David against the jealous rage of his father. Even the 
 king himself, in his better moods, was moved to admiration and affection 
 by the heroic character of David. 
 
 85. In Saul's declining years, the Philistines, under A^chish, king of 
 Gath, again invaded the country, and defeated the Israelites at Mount 
 Gilboa. Saul and all but one of his sons fell in the battle. Ishbo^sheth, 
 the surviving son, was acknowledged king in Gilead, and ruled all the tribes 
 except Judah for seven years. But David was crowned in Hebron, and 
 reigned over his own tribe until the death of Ishbosheth, when he became 
 ruler of the Avhole nation. 
 
 86. He conquered Jerusalem from the JeVusites, made it his capital, and 
 established a kingly court such 
 as Israel had never known. 
 The ark of the covenant was 
 removed from its temporary 
 abode at Kirjathje^arim, and 
 Jerusalem became henceforth 
 the Holy City, the seat of the 
 national religion as well as of 
 the government. 
 
 87. The Avars of David were 
 still more victorious than those 
 of Saul, and the empire of Is- 
 rael was now extended from 
 the borders of the Red Sea to 
 those of the Euphrates. Moab 
 was rendered tributary, the 
 Philistines punished, and all 
 the Syrian tribes east and 
 north of Palestine subdued. 
 (2 Samuel viii.) 
 
 88. Great as was the military glory of David, his fame with later times 
 is derived from his psalms and songs. He was the first great poet of Israel, 
 
 JERUSALEM 
 
 
38 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 and perhaps the earliest in the world. The freshness of the pastures and 
 mountain-sides among which his youth was passed, the assurance of Divine 
 protection amid the singular and romantic incidents of his varied career, 
 the enlargement of his horizon of thought with the magnificent dominion 
 which was added to him in later life, all gave a richness and depth to his 
 experience, which were reproduced in sacred melody, and found their fitting 
 place in the temple service; and every form of Jewish and Christian wor- 
 ship since his time has been enriched by the poetry of David. 
 
 89. This great hero and poet was not exempt from common human sins 
 and follies, and the only disasters of his reign sprang directly from his 
 errors. The consequences of his plurality of wives, in the jealousies which 
 arose between the diiferent families of princes, distracted his old age with 
 a succession of crimes and sorrows. His sons AVsalom and Adoni'jah at 
 different times plotted against him and assumed the crown. Both. were 
 punished for their treason, the one by death in battle, the other by the 
 sentence of Solomon after his father's death. 
 
 90. Solomon, the favorite son of David, succeeded to a peaceful kingdom. 
 All the neighboring nations acknowledged liis dignity, and the king of Egypt 
 TD n 1AI- gave l»im his daughter in marriage. The Israelites were now 
 
 the dominant race in Syria. Many monarchs were tributary 
 to the great king, and the court of Jerusalem rivaled in its splendors those 
 of Nineveh and Memphis. 
 
 91. Commerce received a great impulse both from the enterprise and 
 the luxury of the king. Hiram, king of Tyre, was a firm friend of Sol- 
 omon, as he had been of David his father. Cedars were brought from 
 the forests of Lebanon for the construction of a palace and temple. 
 Through his alliance with Hiram, Solomon was admitted to a share in 
 Tyrian trade ; and by the influence of Pharaoh, his father-in-law, he 
 gained from the Edomites the port of Ezion-ge^ber, on the Red Sea, where 
 he caused a great fleet of merchant vessels to be constructed. Through 
 these different cliannels of commerce, the rarest products of Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa were poured into Jerusalem. Gold and precious stones, sandal- 
 Avood and spices from India, silver from Spain, ivory from Africa, added 
 to the luxury of the court. Horses from Egypt, now first introduced into 
 Palestine, filled the royal stables. By tribute as well as trade, a constant 
 stream of gold and silver flowed into Palestine. 
 
 92. The greatest work of Solomon was the Temple on Mount Moriah, 
 which became the permanent abode of the ark of the covenant, and the 
 holy place toward which the prayers of Israelites, though scattered 
 throughout the world, have ever turned. The temple precincts included 
 apartments for the priests, and towers for defense, so that it has been said 
 that the various purposes of forum, fortress, university, and sanctuary were 
 here combined in one great national building. The superior skill of the 
 
JUDjEA. 39 
 
 Phoenicians in working in wood and metal, was enlisted by Solomon in the 
 service of the temple. Hiram, the chief architect and sculptor, was half 
 Tyrian, half Israelite, and his genius was held in equal reverence by the 
 two kings who claimed his allegiance. More than seven years were occu- 
 pied in the building of the temple. Tlie Feast of the Dedication drew 
 together a vast concourse of people from both extremities of the laud — 
 "from Hamath to the Eiver of Egypt." And so important is this event 
 as a turning point in the history of the Jews, that it constitutes the begin- 
 ning of their connected record of months and years. 
 
 93. The early days of Solomon were distinguished by all the virtues 
 which could adorn a prince. In humble consciousness of the greatness 
 of the duties assigned him, and the insufficiency of his powers, he chose 
 wisdom rather than long life or riches or great dominion, and he was re- 
 warded by the possession of even that which he had not asked. His wisdom 
 became greater than that of all the philosophers of the East; his knowledge 
 of natural history, improved by the collections of rare plants and curious 
 animals which he gathered from all parts of the world, was considered 
 miraculous. (1 Kings iii : 5-15; iv : 29-34.) 
 
 94. But prosperity corrupted his character. He introduced the licentious 
 luxury of an Oriental court into the Holy City of David, and even encour- 
 aged the degrading rites of heathen worship. His commerce enriched him- 
 self, not his people. His enormous and expensive court was sustained by 
 the most exhausting taxes. The great public works which he carried on 
 withdrew vast numbers of men from the tillage of the soil, and thus 
 lessened the national resources. 
 
 95. The glory of Solomon dazzled the people and silenced their com- 
 plaints, but on the accession of his son the smothered discon- 
 
 . ... B. c. 975. 
 
 tent broke forth. Rehobo^am, instead of soothing his subjects 
 
 by needed reforms, incensed them by his haughty refusal to lighten their 
 burdens. (1 Kings xii : 13, 14.) The greater number of the people im- 
 mediately revolted, under the lead of Jerobo^'am, who established a rival 
 sovereignty over the Ten Tribes, henceforth to be known as the Kingdom 
 of Israel. The two tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to the 
 house of David. 
 
 Kings of the United Monarchy. 
 
 Saul, B. C. 1095-1055. 
 
 David at Hebron, and Ishbosheth at Mahanaim, " 1055-1048. 
 
 David, over all Israel, " 1048-1015. 
 
 Solomon, " 1015-975. 
 
 96. Third Period. The Kingdom of Israel had the more extensive 
 and fertile territory, and its population was double that of Judah. It 
 
40 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 extended from the borders of Damascus to within ten miles of Jerusalem; 
 included the whole territory east of the Jordan, and held Moab as ii tribu- 
 tary. But it had no capital equal in strength, beauty, or sacred associa- 
 tions to Jerusalem. The government was fixed first at She^chem, then at 
 Tir^zah, then at Sama^ria. 
 
 97. Its first king, Jeroboam, in order to break the strongest tie which 
 bound the people to the house of David, made golden calves for idols, and 
 set up sanctuaries in Bethel and Dan, saying, "It is too much for you to go 
 up to Jerusalem; behold thy gods, O Israel, w^hich brought thee up out 
 of the land of Eg37)t!" A new priesthood was apjDointed in opposition 
 to that of Aaron, and many Levites and other faithful adherents of the 
 old religion emigrated into the kingdom of Judah. 
 
 OS. The people too readily fell into the snare. A succession of prophets, 
 gifted with wonderful powers, strove to keep alive the true worship ; but 
 the poison of idolatry had entered so deeply into the national life, that it 
 was ready to fall upon the first assault from without. In the time of Elijah^ 
 onlv seven thousand were left who had not " bowed the knee unto Baal ; " 
 and even these were unknown to the prophet, being compelled by persecu- 
 tion to conceal their religion. 
 
 90. The kings of Israel belonged to nine different families, of which 
 only two, those of Omri and Jehu, held the throne any considerable time. 
 Almost all the nineteen kings had short reigns, and eight died by violence. 
 The kingdom was frequently distracted by wars with Judah, Damascus, and 
 Assyria. Jeroboam was aided in his w^ar with Judah by his friend and 
 patron in days of exile, Shishak, king of Egypt. Nadab, son of Jeroboam, 
 was murdered by Baasha, who made himself king. This monarch began to 
 build the fortress of Eamah, by which he intended to hold the Jewish 
 frontier, but w^as compelled to desist by Ben-hadad, of Syria, who thus 
 testified his friendship for Asa, king of Judah. 
 
 100. Ahab, of tJie house of Omri, allied himself with Ethbaal, king of 
 Tyre, by marrying his daughter Jez^ebel ; and the arts of this wicked and 
 idolatrous princess brought the kingdom to its lowest pitch of corruption. 
 Her schemes were resisted by Elijah the Tishbite, one of the greatest of 
 the prophets, who, in a memorable encounter on Mount Carmel, led the 
 people to reaffirm their faith in Jehovah and exterminate the priests of 
 Baal. (1 Kings xviii : 17-40.) The evil influence of Jezebel and the Tyrian 
 idolatry were not removed from Israel until she herself and her son Jehoram 
 had been murdered by order of Jehu, a captain of the guard, who became 
 first of a new dynasty of kings. Jehu lost all his territories east of the 
 Jordan in war with Hazael, of Damascus, and paid tribute, at least on one 
 occasion, to Asshur-nazir-pal, of Assyria.* His son Jehoahaz also lost 
 cities to the Syrian king; but Joash, the grandson of Jehu, revived the 
 
 * See p. 19. 
 
JUDjEA. 41 
 
 Israelite conquests. He defeated Ben-hadad, son of Hazael, and won back 
 part of the conquered territory. His son, Jeroboam II, had the longest and 
 most prosperous reign in the annals of the Ten Tribes. He not only re- 
 gained all the former possessions of Israel, but captured Hamath and 
 Damascus. But this was the end of Israelite prosperity. Two short reigns 
 followed, each ended by an assassination, and then Men^ahem of Tirzah 
 made a vain attempt to renew the glories of Jeroboam II by an expedition 
 to the Euphrates. He captured Thapsacus, but drew upon himself the 
 vengeance of Pul, king of Chaldcea, who invaded his dominions and made 
 Menahem his vassal. 
 
 101. In the later years of Israelite history, Tighith-pileser, king of 
 Assyria, desolated the country east of the Jordan, and threatened the 
 extinction of the kingdom. liosh^ea, the last king, acknowledged his 
 dependence upon the Assyrian Empire, and agreed to pay tribute; but 
 he afterward strengtliened himself by an alliance with Egypt, and revolted 
 against his master. Shalmaneser came to chastise this defection, and be- 
 sieged Samaria two years. At length it fell, and the disgraceful annals of 
 the Israelite kingdom came to an end. 
 
 102. According to the despotic custom of Eastern monarchs, the people 
 were transported to Media and the provinces of Assyria; and for a time 
 the country was so desolate that wild beasts multiplied in the cities. 
 People were afterward brought from Babylon and the surrounding country 
 to take the places of the former inhabitants. 
 
 Kings of Israel. 
 Jeroboam, B. C. 975-954. 
 
 Nadab, " 954-953. 
 
 Baasha, " 953-930. 
 
 Elah, '' 930-929. 
 
 Ziinri, slew Elah and reigned 7 days, " 929. 
 
 Omri, captain of the host under Elah, " 929-918. 
 
 Ahab, " 918-897. 
 
 Ahaziah " 897-896. 
 
 Jehoram, " 896-884. 
 
 Jehu, " 884-856. 
 
 Jehoahaz, " 856-839. 
 
 Joash, " 839-823. 
 
 Jeroboam II, " 823-772. 
 
 Zechariah, reigned 6 months, " 772. 
 
 Shallum, murdered Zechariah and was himself murdered, " 772. 
 
 Menahem, " 772-762. 
 
 Pekahiah, " 762-760. 
 
 Pekah, " 760-730. 
 
 Hoshea, " 730-721. 
 
42 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 103. The Kingdom of Judali began its separate existence at the same 
 time with that of revolted Israel, but survived it 135 years. It consisted 
 of the two entire tribes of Judali and Benjamin, with numerous refugees 
 from the other ten, who were willing to sacrifice home and landed pos- 
 sessions for their faith. The people were thus closely bound together by 
 their common interest in the marvelous traditions of the past and hopes 
 for the future. 
 
 104. Notwithstanding danger from numerous enemies, situated as it was 
 on the direct road between the two great rival empires of Egypt and 
 Assyria, this little kingdom maintained its existence during nearly four 
 centuries; and, unlike Israel, was governed during all that time by kings 
 of one family, the house of David. 
 
 ' The first king, Kehoboam, saw his capital seized and plundered by 
 Shi'shak, king of Egypt, and had to maintain a constant warfare with the 
 revolted tribes. Abijam, his son, gained a great victory over Jeroboam, by 
 which he recovered the ancient sanctuary of Bethel and many other towns. 
 Asa was attacked both by tlie Israelites on the north and the Egyptians on 
 the south, but defended Ijiuiself victoriously from both. With all the re- 
 maining treasures of the temple and j^alace, he secured the alliance of 
 Ben-hadad, king of Damascus, who, by attacking the northern cities of 
 Israel, drew Baasha a\vay from building the fortress of Kamah. The 
 stones and timbers which Baasha had collected were carried away, by order 
 of Asa, to his own cities of Geba in Benjamin, and Mizpeh in Judah, 
 
 105. Jehosh^aphat, son of Asa, allied himself with Ahab, king of Israel, 
 whom he assisted in his Syrian wars. This ill-fated alliance brought the 
 poison of Tyrian idolatry into the kingdom of Judah. In the reign of Je- 
 horam, who married the daughter of Ahab, Jerusalem was captured by 
 Philistines and Arabs. His son, Ahaziah, while visiting his Israelitish 
 kindred, was involved in the destruction of the house of Ahab; and after 
 his death his mother, Atbali^ah, a true daughter of Jezebel, murdered all 
 her grandchildren but one, usurped the throne for six years, and replaced 
 the worship of Jehovah with that of Baal. But Jehoi^ada, the high priest, 
 revolted against her, placed her grandson, Joash, on the throne, and kept 
 the kingdom clear, so long as he lived, from the taint of idolatry. 
 
 lOG. Amaziah, the son of Joash, captured Pe^tra from the Edomites, but 
 lost his own capital to the king of Israel, who carried away all its treasures. 
 Azariah, his son, conquered the Philistines and the Arabs, and reestab- 
 lished on the Red Sea the port of Elath, which had fallen into decay since 
 the days of Solomon. During a long and prosperous reign he strengthened 
 the defenses of Jerusalem, reorganized his army, and improved the tillage 
 of the country. But he presumed upon his dignity and the excellence of 
 his former conduct to encroach upon the office of the priests, and was pun- 
 ished by a sudden leprosy, which separated him from humaii societv the 
 
JUDJEA. 43 
 
 rest of his days. In the reign of Ahaz, his grandson, Jerusalem was be- 
 sieged by the kings of Israel and Syria, who carried away from Judah two 
 hundred thousand captives. Ahaz invoked the aid of Tiglath-pileser, king 
 of Assyria, and became his tributary. The Assyrian conquered Damascus, 
 and thus relieved Jerusalem. Ahaz filled the cities of Judah with altars 
 of false gods, and left his kingdom more deeply stained than ever with 
 idolatry. 
 
 107. Hezekiah, his son, delivered the land from foreign dominion and 
 from heathen superstitions. He became for a time tributary to Sennach- 
 erib, but afterward revolted and made an alliance with Egypt. During a 
 second invasion, the army of Sennacherib was destroyed and his designs 
 abandoned; but the kingdom of Judah continued to be dependent upon 
 the empire. 
 
 108. Manasseh, the son of Hezekiah, brought back all the evil which 
 his father had expelled. Even the temple at Jerusalem was profaned by 
 idols and their altars, and the Law disappeared from the sight and memory 
 of the people, while those who tried to remain faithful to the God of their 
 fathers were violently persecuted. In the midst of this impiety, Manasseh 
 fell into disgrace with the Assyrian king, who suspected him of an inten- 
 tion to revolt. He was carried captive to Babylon, where he had leisure to 
 reflect upon his sins and their punishment. On his return to Jerusalem, 
 he confessed and forsook his errors, and wrought a religious reformation in 
 his kingdom. 
 
 109. His son Amon restored idolatry ; but his life and reign were speedily 
 ended by a conspiracy of his servants, who slew him in his own house. 
 
 The assassins were punished with death, and Josiah, the rightful heir, 
 ascended the throne at the age of eight years. He devoted himself with 
 pious zeal and energy to the cleansing of his kingdom from the traces of 
 heathen worship; carved and molten images and altars Avere ground to 
 powder and strewn over the graves of those who had officiated in the sacri- 
 legious rites. The king journeyed in person not only through the cities of 
 Judah, but through the whole desolate land of Israel, as far as the borders 
 of Naphtali and the upper waters of the Jordan, that he might Avitness the 
 extermination of idolatry. This part of his work being completed, he le- 
 turned to Jerusalem to repair the Temple of Solomon, which had fallen into 
 ruins, and restore, in all its original solemnity, the worship of Jehovah. 
 
 110. In the progress of repairs an inestimable manuscript was found, being 
 no less than the " Book of the Law of the Lord, given by the hand of Moses." 
 These sacred writings had been so long lost, that even the king and the 
 priests were ignorant of the curses that had been pronounced upon idolatry. 
 The tender conscience of the king was overwhelmed with distress as he read 
 the pure and perfect Law, which jDresented so stern a contrast with the 
 morals of the people; but he was comforted with the promise that he should 
 
44 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 be gathered to his grave in peace before the calamities which the Law fore- 
 told, and the sins of Judah had deserved, should come upon the kingdom. 
 In the eighteenth year of Josiah's reign a grand passover was held, to 
 which all the inhabitants of the northern kingdom who remained from the 
 captivity were invited. This great religious festival, which signalized the 
 birth of the nation and its first deliverance, had not been kept with equal 
 solemnity since the days of Samuel the prophet. The entire manuscript 
 lately discovered was read aloud by the king himself in the hearing of all 
 the people, and the whole assembly swore to renew and maintain the cove- 
 nant made of old with their fathers. 
 
 111. The end of Josiah's reign was marked by two great calamities. A 
 
 wild horde of Scythians, '>' from the northern steppes, swept 
 over the land, carrying off flocks and herds. They advanced 
 as far as As^calon, on the south-western coast, where they plundered the 
 temple of Astarte, and were then induced to retire by the bribes of the king 
 of Egypt. One trace of their incursion remained a thousand years, in the 
 new name of the old city Bethshan, on the phiin of Esdrae^lon. It was 
 named by the Greeks Scythopolis, or the city of the Scythians. This was 
 the first eruption of northern barbarians upon the old and civilized nations 
 of southern Asia and Europe. Later events in the same series will occupy 
 a large portion of our history. 
 
 112. The r)ther and greater calamity of Josiah's reign arose from a dif- 
 ferent quarter, Necho, king of Egypt, had become alarmed by the growth 
 of Babylonian power, and was marching northward with a great army. 
 Though in no wiiy the object of his hostility, Josiah imprudently went 
 forth to meet him, hoping to arrest his progress in the plain of Esdraelon. 
 B.C. 609 ^^^ battle of Megid^do followed, and Josiah was slain. 
 
 Never had so great a sorrow befallen the Jewish people. 
 The prophet Jeremiah, a friend and companion of Josiah from his youth, 
 bewailed the nation's loss in his most bitter ''Lamentation": ''The breath 
 of our nostrils, the anointed of the Lord, was taken in their pits, of whom 
 we said, Under his shadow Ave shall live among the heathen." For more 
 than a hundred years the anniversary of the fatal day was observed as a 
 time of mourning in every family. 
 
 113. In the reign of Jehoiakim, son of Josiah, Nebuchadnezzar, prince 
 of Babylon, gained a great victoiy f over Necho, and extended his father's 
 kingdom to the frontier of Egypt. Jehoiakim submitted to be absorbed 
 into the empire, but afterward revolted and was put to death. 
 
 Jehoiachin, his son, was made king; but, three months after his ac- 
 cession, was carried captive to Babylon. Zedeki^ah, reigning at Jerusalem, 
 
 - See § 40, p. 23. 
 
 t The battle of Careliemish. See p. 25. 
 
RECAPITULA TION. 45 
 
 rebelled and allied himself with Apries, king of Egypt. Upon this, the 
 ever active Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to the revolted city. In the second 
 year it was taken and destroyed ; the king and the whole nation, with the 
 treasures of the temple and palace, were conveyed to Babylon, and the 
 history of the Jews ceased for seventy years. 
 
 Kings of Judah. 
 
 Rehoboam, B. C. 975-958. 
 
 Abijam, *' 958-956. 
 
 Asa, " 956-916. 
 
 Jehoshaphat, " 916-892. 
 
 Jehoram, " 892-885. 
 
 Ahaziah, slain by Jehu after 1 year, *' 885-884. 
 
 Athaliah, murders her grandchildren and reigns, " 884-878. 
 
 Joash, son of Ahaziah, " 878-838. 
 
 Amaziah, '' 838-809. 
 
 Azariah, or Uzziah, *• 809-757. 
 
 Jotham '' 757-742. 
 
 Ahaz, *' 742-726. 
 
 Hezekiah, '' 726-697. 
 
 Manasseh, '' 697-642. 
 
 Amon, " 642-640. 
 
 Josiah, " 640-609. 
 
 Jehoahaz, dethroned by Necho after 3 months, . '^ 609. 
 
 Jehoiakim, tributary to Necho 4 years, .... " 609-598. 
 
 Jehoiachin, '' 598-597. 
 
 Zedekiah, " 597-586. 
 
 The Phrygians, earliest settlers of Asia Minor, were active iu tillage and trade, 
 and zealous in their peculiar religion. Lydia afterward became the chief power 
 in the peninsula. At the end of three dynasties, it had reached its greatest glory 
 under Croesus, when it was conquered by Cyrus, and became a province of Persia, 
 B. C. 546. 
 
 The first great commercial communities in the world were the Phoenician cities, 
 of which Sidon and Tyre were the chief; their trade extending by sea from Britain 
 to Ceylon, and by land to the interior of three continents. Tyrian dyes, and vessels 
 of gold, silver, bronze, and glass were celebrated. Phoenicia was subject four hun- 
 dred years to the Assyrian Empire, and became independent at its fall, only to pass 
 under the power of Necho of Egypt, and, in turn, to be subdued by Nebuchadnezzar 
 of Babylon. Baal, Astarte, Melcarth, and the marine deities were objects of Phoe- 
 nician worship. 
 
 Syria Proper was divided into Ave states, of which Damascus was the oldest and 
 most important. 
 
 The Hebrew nation began its existence under the rule of Moses, who led his 
 people forth from Egypt, and through the Arabian Desert, in a Journey of forty 
 
46 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 years. Joshua conquered Palestine by the two decisive battles of Beth-horon and 
 the waters of Merom, and divided the land among the twelve tribes. Judges ruled 
 Israel nearly six hundred years. 
 
 Saul, being anointed as king, subdued the enemies of the Jews; but, becoming 
 disobedient, he was slain in battle, and David became king, first of Judah, and 
 afterward of all Israel. He made Jerusalem his capital, and extended his dominion 
 over Syria and Moab, and eastward to the Euphrates. His sacred songs are the 
 source of his enduring fame. Solomon inherited the kingdom, which he enriched 
 by commerce and adorned with magnificent public works, both for sacred and 
 secular uses. The Dedication of the Temple is the great era in Hebrew chronology. 
 The wisdom of Solomon was widely famed, but the luxury of his court exhausted 
 his kingdom, and on the accession of Rehoboam ten tribes revolted, only Judah 
 and Benjamin remaining to the hou.se of David. 
 
 Jeroboam fixed his capital at Shechem, and the shrines of his false gods at 
 Bethel and Dan. In spite of the faitliful warnings of the prophets, the kingdom 
 of Israel became idolatrous. The nineteen kings who ruled B. C. 075-721 belonged 
 to nine different families. Ahab and Jezebel persecuted true believers and estab- 
 lished Tyrian idolatry ; but their race was exterminated and Jehu became king, 
 Tlie Ten Trilies reached their greatest power and wealth under Jeroboam II. In 
 the reign of Menahem they became subject to Pul, of Chaldcea. A revolt of Hoshea 
 against Assyria led to the capture of Samaria, and the captivity of botli king and 
 people. 
 
 The kingdom of Judah, with a smaller territory, had a people more united in 
 faith and loyalty, and was ruled four hundred years by descendants of David. 
 Jehoshaphat made a close alliance with Aliab, which brought many calamities 
 upon Judah. In the reign of Jehoram, Jerusalem was taken by Arabs and Philis- 
 tines; and after the death of Ahaziah, Athaliah, daughter of Jezebel, usurped the 
 throne. Joash, her grandson, was protected and crowned by Jehoiada, the high 
 priest. Tlie prosperity of Judah was restored by the conquests and efficient policy 
 of Azariah. Ahaz became tributary to Tlglath-pileser, of Assyria, and degraded 
 his kingdom with idolatry. Hezekiah resisted both the religion and the supremacy 
 of the heathen. Manasseh was carried captive to Babylon, and on his return re- 
 formed his administration. Josiah cleansed the land from marks of idolatry, 
 rebuilt the Temple, discovered the Book of the Law, and renewed the celebration 
 of the Passover. The Scythians invaded Palestine. Josiah was slain in the battle 
 of Megiddo, and his sons became va.ssals of Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar subdued both 
 Egypt and Palestine, captured Jeiusalem, and transported two successive kings 
 and the mass of the people to Babylon. 
 
 QTjjusTioisrs FOR ii,e:~^^ie^^. 
 
 Book I. — Part I. 
 
 1. What are the sources of historical information? §§ 1-4. 
 
 2. Describe the character and movements of the three families of the sous 
 
 of Noah 5, 6. 
 
 3. Into what periods may history be divided? 7,8. 
 
 4. Name six primeval monarchies in Western Asia 
 
 5. What were the distinguishing features of the Chaldtean Monarchy? . 2(3. 
 
 0. Name the principal Assyrian kings of the Second Period. . . . 29-31. 
 
 7. Who was Semiramis? 30. 
 
 8. Describe the founder of the Lower Assyrian Empire 32. 
 
 9. What memorials exist of Sargon? -32. 
 
 10. Describe the career of Sennacherib 33. 
 
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 47 
 
 11. "What was the conditiou of Assyria under Assliur-bani-pal? . . . § 34. 
 
 12. What under his son? iio. 
 
 13. What was the early history of Media? 37,38. 
 
 14. Whatof Phraortes? 80. 
 
 15. Describe the reign of Cyaxiues 40,41. 
 
 IG. The cliaracter of ilie Babylonians 43, 44. 
 
 17. The career of Merodach-baladan 45. 
 
 18. The empire of Nabopolassar 40. 
 
 19. Tlie conquests and reverses of the greatest Babylonian mon- 
 
 urcli. 47-52. 
 
 20. The decline and fall of Babylon 53,54. 
 
 21. Relate the wliole history of Lydia 58, 59. 
 
 22. Describe the Plicenician cities and their commerce (jl-U4. 
 
 23. To what four kingdoms were they successively subject? .... 06-68. 
 
 24. Describe the religion of the Phoenicians. 69, 70. 
 
 25. Wliat were the divisions of Syria Proper? 71,72. 
 
 20. Describe the rise of the Jewish nation. 73, 74. 
 
 27. Tlieir conquest of Palestine 76, 77. 
 
 28. Tlieir government during the P'irst Period 80. 
 
 29. The reign of Saul 81-83. 
 
 30. The conquests and character of David 84-89. 
 
 31. The acts and wisdom of Solomon 90-94. 
 
 32. What changes occurred at liis death? 95. 
 
 .33. Compare the two liingdoms 90-100, 105, 100. 
 
 34. What was the policy of Jeroboam? 97, 98. 
 
 35. Describe tlie reign of Ahab 101. 
 
 36. What kings of Israel had dealing W7th Assyria? 100,101. 
 
 37. Mention three kings of Judah who had wars with Israel. . . . 101. 
 
 38. Three in alliance with Israel 105. 
 
 39 Describe the reign of Azariah ; of Ahaz, Hezekiah, Manasseh. . . 100-108. 
 
 40. The events of Josiah's reign 109-112. 
 
 41. The relations of tliree kings with Babylon, 113. 
 
48 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 PAET II. AFEIOAIT J^ATIOl^S. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF AFEICA. 
 
 114. The continent of Africa differs in many important respects from 
 that of Asia. The hitter, extending into three zones, has its greatest 
 extent in the most favored of all, the North Temperate. Africa is almost 
 wholly within the tropics, only a small portion of its northern and south- 
 ern extremities entering the two temperate zones, where their climate is 
 most nearly torrid. Asia has the loftiest mountains on the globe, from 
 which flow great rivers spreading fertility and affording every means of 
 navigation. Africa has but two great rivers, the Nile and the Niger, and- 
 but few mountains of remarkable elevation. 
 
 115. Africa is thus the hottest, driest, and least accessible of the conti- 
 nents. One-fifth of its surface is covered by the great sea of sand which 
 stretches from the Atlantic nearly to the Red Sea. Much of the interior 
 consists of marshes and impenetrable forests, haunted only by wild beasts 
 and unfit for human habitation. With the exception of a very few fa- 
 vored portions, Africa is therefore unsuited to the growth of great states; 
 and it is only through two of these, Egypt and Carthage, that it claims an 
 important part in ancient history. 
 
 116. Northern Africa alone was known to the ancients, and its 
 features were well marked and peculiar. Close along the Mediterranean 
 lay a narrow strip of fertile land, watered by short streams which descended 
 from the Atlas range. These mountains formed a rocky and scantily in- 
 habited region to the southward, though producing in certain portions, 
 abundance of date^. Next came the Great Desert, varied only by a few 
 small and scattered oases, Avhere springs of water nourished a rich vegeta- 
 tion. South of the Sahara was a fertile inland country, near whose large 
 rivers and lakes were cities and a numerous population ; but these central 
 African states were only visited by an occasional caravan which crossed 
 the desert from the north, and had no political connection with the rest 
 of the world. 
 
 117. In the western portion of Northern Africa, the mountains rise 
 more gradually by a series of natural terraces from the sea, and the fertile 
 country here attains a width of two hundred miles. This well watered 
 fruitful, and comparatively healthful region, is one of the most favored on 
 the globe. In ancient times it was one vast corn-field from the Atlas to 
 the Mediterranean. Here the native kingdom of Maurita^nia flourished* 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF AFRICA. 49 
 
 and after it was subdued by the Romans, the same fertile fields afforded 
 bread to the rest of the civilized world. 
 
 118. Eastward from Mauritania the plain becomes narrower, the rivers 
 fewer, and the soil less fertile, so that no great state, even if it had 
 originated there, could have long maintained itself. The north-eastern 
 corner of the continent, however, is the richest and most valuable of all^ 
 the lands it contains. This is owing to the great river Avhich, rising in 
 the highlands of Abyssin^ia, and fed by the perpetual rains of Equatorial 
 Africa, rolls its vast body of waters from south to north, through a valley 
 three thousand miles in length. Every year in June it begins to rise; 
 from August to December it overflows the country, and deposits a soil 
 so rich that the farmer has only to cast his grain upon the retiring waters, 
 and abundant harvests spring up without further tillage. 
 
 111). The soil of Egypt was called by its inhabitants the "Gift of the 
 Nile." In a climate almost without rain, this country without its river 
 would, indeed, have been only a ravine in the rocky and sandy desert; as 
 barren as Sahara itself. The prosperity of the year was, from the earliest 
 times, accurately measured by the Nilometers at Mem^phis and Elephant- 
 tine. If the water rose less than eighteen feet, famine ensued ; a rise of 
 from eighteen to twenty-four feet betokened moderate harvests; twenty- 
 seven feet were considered "a good Nile;" a flood of thirty feet was ruin- 
 ous, for, in such a case, houses were undermined, cattle swept away, the 
 land rendered too spongy for the following seed-time, the labor of the 
 farmer was delayed, and often fevers were bred by the stagnant and lin- 
 gering waters. Usually, however, the Nile was the great benefactor of the 
 Egyptians, and was considered a fit emblem of the creating and preserving 
 Osi^ris. Its waters were carefully distributed by canals and regulated by 
 dykes. During the inundation, the country appeared like a great inland 
 lake girdled by mountains. LoAver Egypt, or the Delta, was compared by 
 Herodotus to the Grecian Archipelago, dotted with villages which appeared 
 like white islands above the expanse of waters. 
 
 120. Lower Egypt is a vast plain ; Upper Egypt a narrowing valley. 
 The fertile portion of the latter occupies only a part of the space betAveen 
 the Lib^yan Desert and the sea. In its widest part it is less than eleven, in 
 its narrowest only five miles in width ; and in some places the granite or 
 limestone cliff springs directly from the river. Being so well fitted to 
 support a numerous people, the whole valley of the Nile, through Nubia 
 and Abyssinia as well as Egypt, was very early colonized from the opposite 
 shores of Asia. The hair, features, and form of the skull represented in 
 the human figures on the monuments, prove the dominant race in these 
 countries to have been of the same great family with the people on the 
 neighboring peninsula of Arabia. 
 
 121. Before the conquests of the Persians, Northern Africa was divided 
 
 A, H.— 7. 
 
50 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 between live nations: the Egyptians, Ethiopians, Plioenicians, Libyans, 
 and Greeks. 
 
 122. The Ethiopians occupied the Nile Valley above Egypt, including 
 what is now known as Abyssinia. The great plateau between the head- 
 waters of the Nile and the Eed Sea is rendered fertile by frequent and 
 abundant rains; and the many streams which descend from it to the Nile 
 cause in part the yearly overflow which fertilizes Egypt. Mei-^oe was the 
 chief city of the Ethiopians. Some learned men have supposed its monu- 
 ments of architecture and sculpture to be even older than those of Egypt. 
 
 123. Arabian traditions say that the inhabitants of the northern coasts 
 of Africa were descendants of the Canaanites whom the Children of Israel 
 drove out of Palestine. As late as the fourth century after Christ, two 
 pillars of white marble near Tangier still bore the inscription in Phoenician 
 characters: ''We are they that fled from before the face of the robber 
 Joshua, the son of Nun." Whether or not this legend expressed a histor- 
 ical fact, it expressed the wide-spread belief of the people ; and it is well 
 known by other evidence that the African coasts of the Mediterranean 
 were very early dotted with Phcenician settlements, such as the two 
 Hip^pos, U^tica, Tu'nes, Hadrume^tum, Lep^tis, and greatest of all, though 
 among the latest, Carthage. 
 
 124. The Libyans occupied a greater portion of Northern Africa than 
 any other nation, extending from the borders of Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean, 
 and from the Great Desert, with the exception of the foreign settlements on 
 the coast, to the Mediterranean Sea. They had, however, comparatively 
 little power, consisting chiefly as they did of wandering tribes, destitute 
 of settled government or fixed habitati(5ns. In the western and more 
 fertile portion, certain tribes of Libyans cultivated the soil and became 
 more nearly civilized; but these were soon subjected to the growing power 
 of the Phoenician colonies. 
 
 125. The Greeks possessed a colony on that point of Northern Africa 
 which approached most nearly to their own peninsula. They founded 
 Cyre^ne about B. C. 630, and Barca about seventy years later. They had 
 also a colony at Naucra^tis in Egypt, and probably upon the greater oasis. 
 The history of these Grecian settlements will be found in Book III. 
 
 HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 Periods. 
 
 L The Old Empire, from earliest times to B. C. 1900. 
 
 II. Middle Empire, or that of the Shepherd Kings, " 1900-1525. 
 HI. The New Empire, " 1525-525. 
 
 12(j. From the island of Elephantine to the sea, a distance of 526 miles. 
 
HISTORY OF EGYPT. 51 
 
 the Nile Valley was occupied by Egypt, a inouarchy the most ancient, 
 Avith a history among the most wonderful in the world. While other 
 nations may be watched in their progress from ignorance and rudeness to 
 whatever art they have possessed, Egypt appears in the earliest morning 
 light of history " already skillful, erudite, and strong." Some of her 
 buildings are older than the Migration of Abraham, but the oldest of them 
 show a skill in the quarrying, transporting, carving, and joining of stone 
 which modern architects admire but can not surpass. 
 
 127. First Period. The early Egyptians believed that there had been 
 a time when their ancestors were savages and cannibals, dwelling in caves 
 in those ridges of sandstone which border the Nile Valley on the east ; 
 and that their greatest benefactors were Osiris and Isis, who elevated them 
 into a devout and civilized nation, eating bread, drinking Avine and beer, 
 and planting the olive. The worship of Osiris and Isis, therefore, became 
 prevalent throughout Egypt, while the several cities and provinces had 
 each its own local divinities. According to Manetho, a native historian 
 of later times, "^ gods, spirits, demigods, and manes, or the souls of men, 
 were the first rulers of Egypt. This is merely an ancient way of saying 
 that the earliest history of Egypt, as of most other countries, is shrouded 
 in ignorance and fabulous conjecture. 
 
 128. Instead of commencing its existence as a united kingdom, Egypt 
 consisted at first of a number of scattered nomes, or petty states, each 
 having for its nucleus a temple and a numerous establishment of priests. 
 Fifty-three of these nomes are mentioned by one historian, thirty-six by 
 another. As one became more^ powerful, it sometimes swallowed up its 
 neighbors, and grew into a kingdom which embraced a large portion or 
 even the whole of the country. 
 
 120. The first mortal king of Mis^'raim, the "double land," was Menes, 
 of This. His inheritance was in Upper Egypt, but by his talents and 
 exploits he made himself master of the Lower, and selected there a site 
 for his new capital. For this puri)ose he drained a marshy tract which at 
 certain seasons had been overflowed by the Nile, made a dyke to confine 
 the river within its regular channel, and on the reclaimed ground built 
 the city of Memphis. Menes may therefore be considered as the founder 
 of the empire. 
 
 130. Athothes (Thoth), his son and successor, was skilled in medicine 
 and wrote works on anatomy. Of the six following kings in regular 
 descent who form this dynasty little is known, and it is even possible that 
 they belong rather to tradition than to ascertained history. After the two 
 Thoths came Mnevis, or Uenephes, who bore the name of the Sacred Calf 
 of Heliopolis. He is said, nevertheless, to have been a high-minded, in- 
 
 ':=He lived ij) the reign of Ptolemy I, B. C. 323-283. 
 
52 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 telligent man, and the most affable prince on record. He built the pyramid 
 of Koko'me, whose site can not now be identified. During his reign there 
 
 was famine in Egypt. 
 
 131. The Third Dynasty reigned at Memphis ; its founder was Sesor- 
 cheres the Giant. The third king, Sesonchosis, was a wise and peaceful 
 monarch, who advanced the three arts of writing, medicine, and archi- 
 tecture, and was celebrated by a grateful people in hymns and ballads as 
 among their greatest benefactors. He introduced the fashion of building 
 with hewn stones, previous structures having been made either of rough, 
 irreo-ular stones or of brick. He was known to the Greeks as the 
 *' peaceful Sesostria," while the two later monarchs who bore this name 
 were great warriors and conquerors. 
 
 132. His son, Sasychis (Mares-sesorcheres), was a celebrated law-giver. 
 He is said to have organized the worship of the gods, and to have invented 
 geometry and astronomy. He also made that singular law by which a 
 debtor might give his father's mummy as security for a debt. If the 
 money was not paid, neither the debtor nor his father could ever rest 
 in the family sepulcher, and this was considered the greatest possible 
 
 disgrace. 
 
 133. The monumental and more certain history begins with the Second, 
 
 Fourth, and Fifth Dynasties of Manetho, which reigned 
 simultaneously in Lower, Middle, and Upper Egypt. Of 
 these the Fourth Dynasty, reigning at Memphis, was most powerful, 
 the others being in some degree dependent. Proofs of its greatness are 
 found in the vast structures of stone which overspread Middle Egypt 
 between the Libyan Mountains and the Nile ; for the Fourth Dynasty 
 may be remembered as that of the pyramid-builders. 
 
 134. The name of Soris, the first of the family, has been found upon 
 the northern pyramid of Abousir. Suphis I, or Shufu, Avas the Cheops 
 of Herodotus, and is regarded as the builder of the Great Pyramid. His 
 brother, Suphis II, or Nou-shufu, had part in this work. He reigned 
 jointly with Suphis I, and alone, after his death, for three years. These 
 two kings Avere oppressors of the people and despisers of the gods. They 
 crushed the former by the severe toils involved in their public works, 
 and ordered the temples of the latter to be closed and their worehip to 
 cease. 
 
 135. Mencheres the Holy, son of Suphis I, had, like his father, a reign 
 of sixty -three years, but differed from him in being a good and humane 
 sovereign. He re-opened the temples which his father had closed, restored 
 religious ceremonies of sacrifice and praise, and put an end to the op- 
 pressive labors. He was therefore much venerated by the people, and 
 was the subject of many ballads and hymns. The four remaining kings 
 of the Fourth Dynasty are known to us only by names and dates. The 
 
HISTORY OF EGYPT. 53 
 
 fiimily included eight kings in all, and the probable aggregate of their 
 
 « 
 
 reigns is 220 years. 
 
 136. The kings of the Second Dynasty ruling Middle Egypt from This 
 or Abydus, and those of the Fifth ruling Upper Egypt from the Isle of 
 Elephantine, were probably related by blood to the powerful sovereigns 
 of Lower Egypt, and the tombs of all three families are found in the 
 neighborhood of Memphis. The structure of the Pyramids shows great 
 advancement in science and the mechanical arts. Each is placed so as 
 exactly to face the cardinal points, and the Great Pyramid is precisely 
 upon the 30th parallel of latitude. The wonderful accuracy of the latter 
 in its astronomical adjustments, has led a few profound scholars* of the 
 present day to believe that it could only have been built by Divine revela- 
 tion ; not by the Egyptians, but by a people led from Asia for the purpose, 
 the object being to establish a perfectly trustworthy system of weights 
 and measures. 
 
 137. The Arabian copper-mines of the Sinaitic peninsula were w^orked 
 under the direction of the Pyramid kings. At this period the arts had 
 reached their highest perfection. Drawing,! sculpture, and writing, as 
 well as modes of living and general civilization, were much the same as 
 fifteen centuries later. 
 
 138. B. C. 2220. While a sixth royal family succeeded the pyramid- 
 builders at Memphis, the second and fifth continued to reign at This and 
 Elephantis, while two more arose at Heracleop^olis and Thebes ; so that 
 Egypt was now divided into five separate kingdoms, the Theban becoming 
 gradually the most powerful. Thus weakened by division, and perhaps 
 exhausted by the great architectural works which had withdrawn the 
 people from the practice of arms, the country easily became the prey of 
 nomad tribes from the neighboring regions of Syria and Arabia. These 
 were called Hyk'^sos, or Shepherd Kings. They entered Lower Egypt 
 from the north-east, and soon became masters of the country from Mem- 
 phis to the sea. 
 
 139. Second Period. B. C. 1900-1525. Native dynasties continued 
 for a time to reign in Middle and Upper Egypt ; and even in the 
 heart of the Delta a new kingdom sprang up at Xo^is, which maintained 
 itself during the whole time that the Shepherds were in the land. A large 
 number of the enslaved Egyptians continued to cultivate the soil, paying 
 tribute to the conquerors ; and, in time, the example of their good order 
 may have mollified the fierce invaders. The latter built themselves a 
 strongly fortified camp, Ava^ris, in the eastern portion of the Delta, near 
 the later city of Pelusium. 
 
 - See " Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid," bj*^ Prof. Piazzi Smyth, 
 t See g 187. 
 
54 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 140. At the same period with the invasion, a Twelfth Egyptian 
 Dynasty, the Osortasidae, arose at Thebes, and became one of the most 
 powerful tribes of native rulers. They obtained paramount authority 
 over the kingdoms of Elephantine and Heracleopolis, held the Sinaitic 
 Peninsula, and extended their victorious arms into Arabia and Ethi- 
 opia. Sesortasen I ruled all Upper Egypt. Under the second and third 
 sovereigns of that name the kingdom reached its highest prosperity. 
 The third Sesortasen enriched the country by many canals, and left 
 monuments of his power at Senneh, near the southern border of the 
 empire, which still excite the wonder of travelers. The largest edifice 
 and the most useful work in Egypt were executed by his successor, Am- 
 menemes III. The first was the Labyrinth in the Faioom, which Herod- 
 otus visited, and declared that it surpassed all luiman works. It contained 
 three thousand rooms ; fifteen hundred of these were under ground, and 
 contained the mummies of kings and of the sacred crocodiles. The walls 
 of the fifteen hundred upper apartments were of solid stone, entirely cov- 
 ered with sculpture. The other work of Ammenemes was the Lake 
 Moeris. This was a natural reservoir formed near a bend of the Nile; 
 but he so improved it by art as to retain and carefully distribute the gifts 
 of the river, and thus insure the fruitful n ess of the province. 
 
 14:1. A weaker race succeeded, and the calamities of Lower Egypt 
 were now extended throughout the land. The Hyksos advanced to the 
 southward, and the fugitive kings of Thebes sought refuge in Ethi- 
 opia. With the exception of the Xoites, intrenched in the marshes 
 of the Delta, all Egypt became for a time subject to the Shepherds. 
 They burned cities, destroyed temples, and made slaves of all the people 
 whom they did not put to death. Two native dynasties reigned at 
 Memphis, and one at Heracleopolis, but they were tributary to the 
 conquerors. 
 
 142. Some have supposed that the Pyramids were erected by these 
 Shepherd Kings. But the best authorities describe the race as rude, 
 ignorant, and destitute of arts, as compared with the Egyptians, either 
 before or after their invasion; and after the long deluge of barbarism 
 was swept back, we find religion, language, and art— kept, doubtless, and 
 cultivated in seclusion by the learned class — precisely as they were before 
 the interruption. The absence of records during this period would alone 
 prove the lack of learning in the ruling race. Baron Bunsen supposes 
 the Hyksos to have been identical with the Philistines of Palestine. 
 Some of them took refuge in Crete when they were driven out of Egypt, 
 and re-appeared in Palestine from the west about the same time that the 
 Israelites entered it from the east. In any case, a gap of nearly four 
 hundred years occurs in Egyptian history between the old and the new 
 empires, during which the Holy City of Thebes was in the hands of bar- 
 
TIISTOEY OF EGYPT. 55 
 
 barians, the annals ceased, and the names of the kings, either native or 
 foreign, are for the most part unknown. 
 
 143. Third Period. B. 0. 1525-525. After their long humiliation, 
 the people of Egypt rallied for a great national revolt, under the Theban 
 king Amo^sis, and drove the invaders, after a hard-fought contest, from 
 their soil. Now came the brightest period of Egyptian history. Amosis 
 was rewarded with the undivided sovereignty, and became the founder of 
 the Eighteenth Dynasty. Memphis was made the imperial capital. Many 
 temples were repaired, as we may learn from memoranda preserved in the 
 quarries of Syene and the Upper Nile. Aahmes, the wife of Amosis, bears 
 the surname Nefru-ari, "the good, glorious woman," and seems to have 
 been held in the highest honor ever ascribed to a queen. She was a 
 Theban princess of Ethiopian blood, and probably had many provinces 
 for her dowry. Amosis died B. C. 1499. 
 
 144. For eight hundred years Egypt continued a single, consolidated 
 kingdom. During this time art obtained its highest perfection ; the great 
 temple-palaces of Thebes were built; numerous obelisks, "fingers of the 
 sun," pointed heavenward; and the people, who had long groaned under 
 a cruel servitude, enjoyed, under the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twen- 
 tieth Dynasties, the protection of a mild and well-organized government. 
 
 145. It may be feared that the Egyptians wreaked upon a captive 
 nation within their own borders their resentment against their late op- 
 pressors. The Hebrews grew and multiplied in Egypt, and their lives 
 were made bitter with hard bondage. Many of the vast brick construc- 
 tions of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties may have been erected 
 by the captive Hebrews, who are expressly said to have built the two 
 treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses. 
 
 146. Royal women were treated with higher respect in Egypt than in 
 any other ancient monarchy. Thothmes I, the third king of the Eighteenth 
 Dynasty, Avas succeeded by his daughter, Mesphra or Amen-set, who reigned 
 as regent for her younger brother, Thothmes II. He died a minor, and she 
 held the same office, or, perhaps, reigned jointly with her next younger 
 brother, Thothmes III ; but not with his cordial consent, for when she, too, 
 died, after a regency of twenty-two years, he caused her name and image 
 to be effaced from all the sculptures in which they had appeared together. 
 
 147. B. C. 1461-1414. This king, Thothmes III, is distinguished not 
 more for his foreign wars than for the magnificent palaces and temples 
 which he built at Karnac, Thebes, Memphis, Heliopolis, Coptos, and other 
 places. Hardly an ancient city in Egypt or Nubia is unmarked by remains 
 of his edifices. The history of his twelve successive campaigns is recorded 
 in sculpture upon the walls of his palace at Thebes. He drove the Hyksos 
 from their last stronghold, Ava'ris, where they had been shut up since the 
 days of his father. The two obelisks near Alexandria, which some Roman 
 
56 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 wit called Cleopa^tra's Needles, bear the name of this king. His military 
 expeditions extended both to the north and south ; inscriptions on his 
 monuments declare that he took tribute from Nineveh, Hit (or Is), and 
 Babylon. 
 
 148. His grandson, Thothmes IV, caused the carving of the great Sphinx 
 
 near the Pyramids, Amunoph III, his successor, was a great 
 B. C. 1400-1304. ^ , ^-r 1 1 1 1 
 
 and powerful monarch. He adorned the country by magnifi- 
 cent buildings, and improved its agriculture by the construction of tanks 
 or reservoirs to regulate irrigation. The two Colossi near Thebes, one of 
 which is known as the vocal Memnon, date from his reign ; but the Amen- 
 ophe^um, of which they were ornaments, is now in ruins. Amunoph 
 maintained the warlike fame of his ancestors by expeditions into all the 
 countries invaded by Thothmes III. He is styled upon his monuments, 
 "Pacificator of Egypt and Tamer of the Libyan Shepherds." He built 
 the gorgeous palace of Luxor, which he connected with the temple at 
 Karnac by an avenue of a thousand sphinxes. He made a similar avenue 
 also at Thebes, lined with colossal sitting statues of the cat-headed goddess 
 Pasht (Bubastis). 
 
 149. B. C. 1364-1327. In the reign of Horns, his son, the nation was 
 
 distracted by many claimants for the crown, most of whom Avere princes 
 
 or princesses of the blood royal. Horus outlived his rivals and destroyed 
 
 their monuments. He had successful foreign wars in Africa, nnd made 
 
 T. ^ .^^^^n^. additions to the palaces at Karnac and Luxor. With the 
 B. C. 1327-1324. ^ 
 
 next king, Rathotis (or Resitot), the Eighteenth Dynasty 
 ended. 
 
 150. B. C. 1324-1322. Rameses I, founder of the Nineteenth Dynasty, 
 was descended from the first two kings of the eighteenth. His son, Seti, 
 inherited all the national hatred toward the Syrian invaders, and "avenged 
 the shame of Egypt on Asia." He reconquered Syria, which had revolted 
 some forty years earlier, and carried his victorious arms as far as the bor- 
 ders of Cilicia and the banks of the Euphrates. He built the great Hall 
 at Karnac — in which the whole Cathedral of Notre Dame, at Paris, could 
 stand without touching either walls or ceiling — and his tomb is the most 
 beautiful of all the sepulchers of the kings. 
 
 151. B. C. 1311-1245. Rameses II, the Great, reigned sixty-six years; 
 and his achievements in war and peace fill a large space in the records 
 of his time, in which fact and fiction are often intermingled by his 
 flatterers. During his father's life-time, he began his military career 
 by subduing both Libya and Arabia. His ambition being thus inflamed, 
 he had no sooner succeeded to the throne than he resolved upon the 
 conquest of the world. He provided for the security of his kingdom 
 during his absence, by re-dividing the country into thirty-six nomes 
 and appointing a governor for each. He then equipped an immense 
 

 ^^^^^ 
 
 lliiiil'iiliiiiiiiii;iiiii:iii;iiiiiiiiiiii!|iiil:iHiiiii!ili!iUin^ 
 
 !ii:ii||L::ii!L.lllvi:.'JI;:iJl.liil;:lli!;iii!ll!llilli;illlllllHIIII!;l 
 
 ..iii.,Mi.i;..:.j;ili.i.';:;Kr. ., '; i' I'jiiiMii 
 
 FIGURE OF AMUNOPH III, NEAR THEBES. 
 Called by the Greeks tlie Vocal Memnon. It was 47 feet in height, or 53 feet including the pedestal. 
 
HISTORY OF EGYPT. 57 
 
 annv which is said to have included 600,000 foot, 24,000 horse, and 
 27,000 war chariots. Having conquered Ethiopia, Rameses made a fleet 
 of four hundred vessels, the first which any Egyptian king had possessed, 
 and sailing down the Red Sea to the Arabian, continued his voyage 
 as far as India. He returned only to make fresh preparations, and lead 
 another great army eastward beyond the Ganges, and onward till he 
 reached a new ocean. Columns were every-where erected recording the 
 victories of the monarch, and lauding the courage or shaming the coward- 
 ice of those who had encountered him. 
 
 152. Returning from his Asiatic conquests, Rameses entered Europe 
 and subdued the Thracians; then, after nine years absence, during which 
 he had covered himself with the glory of innumerable easy victories, he 
 reentered Egypt. He brought with him a long train of captives, whom 
 he intended to employ upon the architectural works which he had already 
 projected. Among the most celebrated are the Rock Temples of Ipsambul, 
 in Nubia, whose sides are covered with bas-reliefs representing the victories 
 of Sesostris ; the Ramesse^um, or Memnonium, at Thebes ; and additions 
 to the palace at Karnac, He built, also, a wall near the eastern frontier 
 of Egypt, from Pelusium to Heliopolis, and, perhaps, even as far as Sye^ne, 
 to prevent future invasions from Arabia. More monuments exist of Ram- 
 eses II than of any other Pharaoh; but the strength of the New Empire 
 was exhausted by these extraordinary eiforts in war and building. The 
 king tormented both his subjects and his captives, using them merely as 
 instruments of his passion for military and architectural display. It was 
 this king who drove the Israelites to desperation by his inhuman oppres- 
 sions, especially by commanding every male child to be drowned in the 
 Nile. (Exodus i : 8-14, 22.) 
 
 153. In the great hall of Abydus, or This, Rameses is represented as 
 offering sacrifice to fifty-two kings of his own race, he himself, in a glorified 
 form, being of the number. The sculpture is explained by an inscription : 
 " A libation to the Lords of the West, by the offerings of their son, the king 
 Rameses, in his abode." The reply of the royal divinities is as follows : 
 " The speech of the Lords of the West, to their son the Creator and Avenger, 
 the Lord of the World, the Sun who conquers in truth. We ourselves ele- 
 vate our arms to receive thy offerings, and all other good and pure things 
 in thy palace. We are renewed and perpetuated in the paintings of thy 
 house," etc. 
 
 154. The son of Rameses II, Menephthah, or Amenephthes, was the 
 Pharaoh of the Exodus. The escaping Israelites passed along the bank 
 of the canal made by the Great King, and thus were supplied with water 
 for their multitude both of men and beasts. By the dates always found 
 upon Egyptian buildings, we learn that architectural labors ceased for 
 twenty years; and this contrast to the former activity affords an interesting 
 
58 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 coincidence with the Scriptural narrative. Josephus, * also, quotes from 
 Manetho a tradition, tlmt the son of the great Kameses was overthrown by 
 a revolt, under Osarsiph (Moses), of a race of lepers who had been griev- 
 ously oppressed by him ; and that he fled into Ethiopia with his son, then 
 only five years old, who, thirteen years later, recovered the kingdom as 
 Sethos II. To express their contempt for their former captives, the Egyp- 
 tian historians always refer to the Israelites as lepers. With Seti, or 
 Sethos II, the house of the great Rameses became. extinct. 
 
 155. B. C. 1219. Rameses III, the first of the Twentieth Dynasty, 
 maintained extensive wars, both by sea and land. His four sons all bore 
 his name and came successively to the throne, but there are no great events 
 to signalize their reigns. Six or seven kings of the same name followed, 
 and the family ended about B. C. 1085. 
 
 15G. Daring this period Egypt rapidly declined, as well in intellectual as 
 military power. Her foreign enterprises ceased ; no additions Avere made 
 to the magnificent buildings of former ages ; and sculpture and painting, 
 instead of deriving new life from the study of Nature, were compelled to 
 copy the old set forms or confine themselves to dull and meaningless 
 imitations. 
 
 157. The Twenty-first Dynasty was a priestly race, whose capital was 
 Ta'nis, or Zo^an, in Lower Egypt, but who were supreme throughout the 
 country. They wore sacerdotal robes, and called themselves High Priests 
 of Amun. One of them gave his daughter in marriage to Solomon. (1 
 Kings iii : 1 ; ix : IG.) The seven kings of this dynasty had usually short 
 reigns, marked by few events. B. C. 1085-990. 
 
 158. B. C. 993-972. Sheshonk, or Shishak, the founder of the Twenty- 
 second Dynasty, revived the military power of the nation. He mamed the 
 daughter of Pisham II, the last king of the Tanite race, and took upon 
 himself, also, the title of High Priest of Amun, but beyond this there are 
 no signs of priesthood in this line. Bubastis, in the Delta, Avas the seat of 
 his government. It was to him that Jerobo^am fled when plotting to make 
 himself king of Israel ; and Shishak afterward made an expedition against 
 D. c. 972. Judaea for the purpose of confirming Jeroboam on his throne. 
 
 He plundered Jerusalem and received the submission of Re- 
 hoboam. Osorkon II, the fourth king of this dynasty, and an Ethiopian 
 B. c. 9.36-933. P^^^ce, was probably the Zerah of Scripture, who invaded 
 
 Syria, and was defeated by Asa, king of Judah, in the battle 
 of Mareshah. (2 Chron. xiv : 9-14.) 
 
 ':■ Jo.sephns was a Jewish historian, born A. D. 37, the son of a priest, and de- 
 sc.M.ded by his mother's side from the same royal family with the Herods. His 
 greatest work is his -Jewish Antiquities," in twenty books. The history begins 
 at the Creation of the World, and ends A. D. GO, with the Revolt of the Jews 
 against the Romans. 
 
HISTORY OF EGYPT. 59 
 
 159. At the expiration of this line in the person of Takelot II, about B. C. 
 847, a rival family sprang up at Tanis, forming the Twenty -third Dynasty. 
 It comprised only four kings, none of whom were famous. B. C. 847-758. 
 
 160. B, C. 758-714. The Twenty-fourth Dynasty consisted of one king, 
 Boccho^ris. He fixed the government at Sa^is, another city of the Delta, 
 and was widely famed for the wisdom and justice of his administration. 
 In the latter half of this period, ►Sabaco, the Ethiopian, over- 
 
 , B. C. 730. 
 
 ran the country and reduced the Saite monarch to a mere 
 
 vassal. Bocchoris, attempting to revolt, was captured and burned to death, 
 
 after a reign of forty-four years. 
 
 161. Sabaco I, having subdued Egypt, established the Twenty-fifth 
 Dynasty. He fought with the king of Assyria for the dominion of west- 
 ern Asia, but was defeated by Sargon in the battle of Riiphia, B. C. 718. 
 Assyrian influence became predominant in the Delta, while the power of 
 the Ethiopian was undisturbed only ill Upper Egypt. The second king 
 
 of this family was also named Sabaco. The third and last, ^ ^ „^ 
 
 -' ' B. C. G90-C(35. 
 
 Tir'hakeh, was the greatest of the line. He maintained war 
 successively with three Assyrian monarchs. The first, Sennacherib, was 
 overthrown ^ B. C. 698. His son, Esarhaddon, was successful for a time 
 in breaking Lower Egypt into a number of tributary provinces. Tirhakeh 
 recovered his power and reunited his kingdom ; but after two years' war 
 with Asshur-bani-pal, the next king of Assyria, he was obliged to abdicate 
 in favor of his son. The son was expelled, and Egypt was divided for 
 thirty years into many petty kingdoms, which remained subject to Assyria 
 until the death of the conqueror. , 
 
 162. For the Egyptians this was merely a change of foreign rulere. 
 Their patriotism had long been declining, and their native army had lost 
 its fame and valor from the time when the kings of the Twenty-second 
 Dynasty intrusted the national defense to foreigners. The military caste 
 became degraded, and the crown even attempted to deprive the soldiers of 
 their lands. Egypt had become in some degree a naval power, and a com- 
 mercial class had arisen to rival the soldiers and farmers. 
 
 163. About 630 B. C, the Assyrians had to concentrate their forces at 
 home in resistance to the Scythians ; and Psammet^ichus, one of the native 
 viceroys whom they had set up in Egypt, seized the opportunity to throw 
 off their yoke. The great Assyrian Empire was now falling under the 
 Median and Babylonian revolt, and its power ceased to be felt in distant 
 provinces. Psammetichus gained victories over his brother viceroys, and 
 established the Twenty-sixth Dynasty over all Egypt, He was an en- 
 lightened monarch, and during his reign art and science received a new 
 impulse. 
 
 ■:« See § 33. 
 
60 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 164-. Having overcome the dodecarchy by meaDS of his Greek and 
 Tyrian auxiliaries, he settled these foreign troops in permanent camps, 
 the latter near Memphis, the former near the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, 
 His native soldiery were so incensed by being thus superseded by foreign 
 mercenaries, that many deserted and took up their residence in Ethiopia. 
 So many foreigners of all classes now flocked to the ports of Egypt, that 
 a new caste of dragomans, or interpreters, arose. Psammetichus caused 
 his own son to be instructed in Greek learning, a sure sign that the bar- 
 riers which had hitherto separated the intellectual life of Egypt from the 
 rest of the world were now broken down. 
 
 165. Those northern barbarians who had terrified the Assyrians had 
 now overrun Palestine and threatened an invasion of Egypt; but the 
 messengers of Psammetichus met them at Ascalon with bribes which 
 induced them to return. 
 
 166. B. C. 610-594. In the reign of Necho, son of Psammetichus, the 
 navy and commerce of Egypt were greatly increased, and Africa was for 
 the first time circumnavigated by an Egyptian fleet. This expedition 
 sailed by way of the Red Sea. Twice the seamen landed, encamped, 
 sowed grain, and waited for a harvest. Having reaped their crop, they 
 again set sail, and in the third year arrived in Egypt by way of the Med- 
 iterranean. The foreign conquests of Necho may even be compared with 
 those of the great Kameses, for he enlarged his dominions by all the 
 
 country between Egypt and the Euphrates. But he met a 
 
 B. C. 605. n • -KT \ ^ ^ 
 
 stronger foe in Nebuchadnezzar, and when he fled from the 
 field of Car^chemisli all his Asiatic conquests fell into the hands of the 
 great Babylonian. 
 
 167. B. C. 588-569. His grandson, Apries, the Pharaoh-hophra of 
 Scripture, resumed the warlike schemes of Necho. He besieged Sidon, 
 fought a naval battle with Tyre, and made an unsuccessful alliance with 
 B C 5G0-525 Zedekiah, king of Judah, against Nebuchadnezzar. He was 
 
 deposed, and his successor, Ama^sis, held his crown at first 
 as a tributary to the Babylonian. He afterward made himself independent; 
 and many monuments throughout Egypt bear witness to his liberal encour- 
 agement of the arts, while his foreign policy enriched the countiy. He was 
 ou friendly terms with Greece and her colonies, and many Greek merchants 
 settled in Egypt. 
 
 168. Alarmed by the increasing power of Persia, he sought to strengthen 
 himself by alliances with Croesus of Lydia, and Polycrates of Samos. The 
 precaution was ineffectual, but Amasis did not live to see the ruin of his 
 country. Cambyses, king of Persia, was already on his march at the head 
 of a great army, when Psammen^itus, son of Amasis, succeeded to the 
 throne of Egypt. The new king hastened to meet the invader at Pelusium, 
 but was defeated and compelled to shut himself up in Memphis, his capital, 
 
RELIGION OF EGYPT. 61 
 
 where the Persians now advanced to besiege him. The city was taken and 
 its king made captive, after a reign of only six months. A little later he 
 was put to death; and the Kingdom of Egypt, after a thousand years of 
 independent existence, became a mere province of the Persian Empire, 
 B. C. 525. 
 
 At a very early period Egypt was highly civilized, but not united, for it con- 
 sisted of many independent nonies governed by priests. Meufs built Memphis, 
 and founded the Empire of Upper und I^ower Egypt, which was ruled by twenty- 
 six dynasties before the Persian Conquest. Sesorcheres founded the Third Dy- 
 nasty; Sesouchosis patronized all the arts, and his' son improved the laws and 
 woi-ship. The Fourth Dynasty built many pyramids, wiiile the Second and Flttli 
 reigned us dependents in This and Elephantine. Egypt was afterward divided 
 into live liingdoms, and became subject to the Hyksos from Asia, wlio enslaved 
 the people, and after a time subdued the whole countrj', except Xois in tlie 
 Delta. During the early part of their invasion, the Twelfth Dynasty reigned at 
 Thebes in great power and splendor. 
 
 B. C. 1525, Amosis led a revolt which expelled the Hyksos, and founded the 
 Eighteenth Dynasty at Memphis. Several queens were highly honored. The 
 people were prosperous, but the captive Hebrews were oppressed. Thothmes III 
 built many palaces; Seti re-conquered Syria; and his son, Rameses the Great, 
 gained victories in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the reign of Menephthah, the 
 Israelites were led out of Egypt by Moses. Under the Twentieth Dynasty, the 
 art, enterprise, and power of Egj^pt declined. The Twenty-first Dynastj' was 
 composed of priests; the Twenty-second, of soldiers. The Twentj'-fourth was 
 overthrown by Sabaco the Ethiopian; the Twenty-fifth, which he founded, was, 
 in turn, reduced by the Assyrians. After thirty years' subjection, Egypt was 
 delivered and united by Psammetichus, with the aid of foreign troops. Necho, 
 his son, was successful in many naval and militarj'' enterprises, liut was defeated 
 at last by Nebuchadnezzar, in the battle of Carchemish. Apries was deposed by 
 the same king, and Amasis came to the throne as a viceroy of Babylon. His 
 son, Psammenitus, was conquered by Cambyses, and Egypt became a Persian 
 province. 
 
 RELIGION OF EGYPT. 
 
 169. The religion of the ancient Egyptians was a perplexing mixture of 
 grand conceptions and degrading superstitions. No other ancient people 
 had so firm an assurance of immortality, or felt its motives so intimately 
 affecting their daily life; yet no other carried its idolatries to so debasing 
 and ridiculous an extreme. The contradiction is partly solved if we re- 
 member two distinctions: the first applying chiefly to the ancient and 
 heathen world, between the religion of priests and people; the second 
 every-where existing, even in the One True Faith, between theory and 
 practice — between ideal teaching and the personal character of those 
 who receive it. 
 
 170, The sacred books of the Egyptians contained the system adopted 
 by the priests. Their fundamental doctrine was that God is one, unrepre- 
 sented, invisible. But as God acts upon the world, his various attributes 
 
62 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 or modes of manifestation Avere represented in various forms. As the 
 Creator, he was Phtha; as the Revealer, he was Am^un; as the Benefactor 
 and the Judge of men, he was Osiris; and so on through an endless list 
 of 23rimary, secondary, and tertiary characters, which to the uneducated 
 became so many separate divinities. Some portion of his divine life was 
 even supposed to reside in plants and animals, which were accordingly 
 cherished and worshiped by the ignorant. For what to the wise were 
 merely symbols, to the people became distinct objects of adoration ; and 
 the Egyptian priests, like all other heathen philosophers, disdained to 
 spread abroad the light which they possessed. They despised the common 
 people, whom they judged incapable of apprehending the sacred mysteries, 
 and taught them only those convenient doctrines which would render them 
 submissive to kingly and priestly authority. 
 
 171. The people, then, believed in eight gods of the first order, twelve 
 of the second, and seven of the third ; but each of these was worshiped 
 under many titles, or as connected with different places. Tsis was, there- 
 fore, surnamed Myrionyma, or " with ten thousand names." The sun and 
 the moon were admitted to their worship; the former as representing the 
 life-giving power of the deity, the latter as the regulator of time and the 
 messenger of heaven. The moon was figured as the Ibis-headed Thoth, 
 who corresponds to the Greek Hermes, the god of letters and recorder of 
 all human actions. 
 
 172. A principle of evil was worshiped, in very early times, under the 
 name of Seth, the Satan of Egyptian mythology. He was figured on a 
 monument as instructing a king in the use of a bow. Sin is elsewhere 
 represented as a great serpent, the enemy of gods and men, slain by the 
 spear of Horns, the child of Isis. It seems impossible to doubt that the 
 E'lyptians had preserved some traditions of the promises made to Eve. 
 At a later period the worship of the evil principle was abolished, and 
 the square-eared images of Seth were chiseled off" from the monuments. 
 
 173. The most interesting article of Egyptian mythology is the appear- 
 ance of Osiris on earth for the benefit of mankind, under the title of 
 Manifestor of Goodness and Truth ; his death by the malice of the evil 
 one; his burial and resurrection, and his oflice as judge of the dead. 
 In every part of Egypt, and during all periods of its history, Osiris was 
 regarded as the great arbiter of the future state. 
 
 174. In the earliest times human sacrifices were practiced, as is proved 
 by the Sacrificial Seal which was accustomed to be affixed to the victim, 
 and copies of which are frequently found in the tombs. It represents 
 a kneeling human figure, bound, and awaiting the descent of the knife 
 which glitters in the hand of a priest. But the practice was abolished by 
 Amosis (B. C. 1525-1499), who ordered an equal number of waxen effigies 
 to be offered instead of the human victims. 
 
RELIGION OF EGYPT. 63 
 
 175. The worship of animals was the most revolting feature of Egyptian 
 ceremonies. Throughout Egypt the ox, dog, eat, ibis, hawk, and the fishes 
 lepidotus and oxyrrynchus were held sacred. Beside these there were 
 innumerable local idolatries. Men^des worshiped the goat; Heracleop''- 
 olis, the ichneumon; Cynop^olis, tlie dog; Lyco[/olis, the wolf; A^thribis, 
 the shrew-mouse; Sa^is and Thebes, the sheep; Babylon near Memphis 
 the ape, etc. Still more honored were the bull Apis, at Memphis; the 
 calf Mne^vis, at Heliopolis ; and the crocodiles of On/bos and Arsin^oe. 
 These were tended in their stalls by priests, and worshiped by the peoide 
 with profound reverence. Apis, the living symbol of Osiris, passed his 
 days in an Apeum attached to the Serapeum at Memphis. When he died 
 he was embalmed, and buried in so magnificent a manner that the persons 
 in charge of the ceremony were often ruined by the expense. He was 
 supposed to be the son of the moon, and was known by a white triangle 
 or square on his black forehead, the figure of a vulture on his back, and 
 of a beetle under his tongue. He was never allow^ed to live more than 
 twenty-five years. If he seemed likely to survive this period, he was 
 drowned in the sacred fountain, and another Apis was sought. The 
 chemistry of the priests had already produced the required white spots 
 in the black hair of some young calf, and the candidate was never sought 
 in vain. At the annual rising of the Nile, a seven-days' feast was held 
 in honor of Osiris. 
 
 176. Difference of worship sometimes led to bitter enmities between 
 the several nomes. Thus, at Ombos the crocodile was worshiped, while 
 at Ten^tyra it was hunted and abhorred; the ram-headed Am^un was 
 an object of adoration at Thebes, and the sheep was a sacred animal, 
 while the goat was killed for food ; in Men^des the goat was worshiped 
 and the sheep was eaten. The LycopoKites also ate mutton in compli- 
 ment to the wolves, which they venerated. 
 
 177. If we turn from the trivial rites to the moral effects of the 
 Egyptian faith, we find more to respect. The rewards and punishments 
 of a future life were powerful incitements to right dealing in the present. 
 At death all became equal : the king or the highest pontiff equally with 
 the lowest swine-herd must be acquitted by the judges before his body 
 was permitted to pass the sacred lake and be buried with his fathers. 
 Every nome had its sacred lake, across which all funeral processions 
 passed on their way to the city of the dead. On the side nearest the 
 abodes of the living, have been found the remains of multitudes who 
 failed to pass the ordeal, and whose bodies were ignominiously returned 
 to their friends, to be disposed of in the speediest manner. 
 
 178. Beside the earthly tribunal of forty -two judges, who decided the 
 fate of the body, it was believed that the soul must pass before the divine 
 judgment-seat before it could enter the abodes of the blessed. The Book 
 
64 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 of the Dead — the only one yet discovered of the forty-two sacred books 
 of the Egyptians — contains a description of the trial of a departed soul. 
 It is represented on its long journey as occupied with prayers and con- 
 fessions. Forty-two gods occupy the judgment-seat. Osiris i^resides; and 
 before him are the scales, in one of which the statue of perfect Justice is 
 placed; in the other, the heart of the deceased. The soul of the dead 
 stands watching the balance, while Horus examines the plummet indi- 
 cating which way the beam preponderates; and Thoth, the Justifier, 
 records the sentence. If this is favorable, the soul receives a mark or 
 seal, " Justified." 
 
 179. The temples of Egypt are the grandest architectural monuments 
 in the world. That of Am^un, in a rich oasis twenty days' journey from 
 Thebes, was one of the most famous of ancient oracles Near it, in a 
 grove of palms, rose a hot spring, the Fountain of the Sun, whose 
 bubbling and smoking were supposed to be tokens of the divine presence. 
 The oasis was a resting-place for caravans which passed between Egypt 
 and the interior regions of Nigritia or Soudan ; and many rich offerings 
 were placed in the temple by merchants, thankful to have so nearly 
 escaped the perils of the desert, or anxious to gain the favor of Amun for 
 their journey just begun. 
 
 180. The Egyptians were divided into castes, or ranks, distinguished by 
 occupations. These have been variously numbered from three to seven. 
 The priests stood highest, the soldiers next; below these were husband- 
 men, who may be divided into gardeners, boatmen, artisans of various 
 kinds, and shepherds, the latter including goat-herds and swine-herds, 
 which liist were considered lowest of all. 
 
 181. The land, at least under the new empire, belonged exclusively to 
 the king, the priests, and the soldiers. In the time when Joseph the 
 Hebrew was prime minister, all other proprietors surrendered their lands 
 to the crown,* retaining possession of them only on condition of paying 
 a yearly rent of one-fifth of the produce. 
 
 182. The king was the representative of deity, and thus the head not 
 only of the government but of the religion of the state. His title, Phrah 
 (Pharaoh), signifying the Sun, pronounced him the emblem of the god 
 of light. It was his right and office to i)reside over the sacrifice and pour 
 out libations to the gods. 
 
 183. On account of his great responsibilities, the king of Egypt was 
 allowed less freedom in personal habits than the meanest of his°subjects. 
 The sacred books contained minute regulations for his food, drink, and 
 dress, and the employment of his time. No indulgence of any kind was 
 permitted to be carried to excess. No slave or hireling was allowed to 
 
 ':■ See Genesis xlvii: 18-26. 
 
RELIGION OF EGYPT. 65 
 
 hold office about his person, lest he should imbibe ideas unworthy of a 
 prince; but noblemen of the highest rank were alone privileged to attend 
 him. The ritual of every morning's worship chanted the virtues of former 
 kings, and reminded him of his own duties. After death his body was 
 placed in an open court, where all his subjects might come with accusa- 
 tions ; and if his conduct in life was proved to have been unworthy his 
 high station, he was forever excluded from the sepulcher of his fathers. 
 
 184. The priestly order possessed great power in the state, and, so far as 
 the sovereign was concerned, we can not deny that they used it well. They 
 were remarkable for their simple and temperate habits of living. So careful 
 were they that the body should " sit lightly upon the soul," that they took 
 food only of the plainest quality and limited amount, abstaining from 
 many articles, "such as fish, mutton, swine's flesh, beans, peas, garlic, 
 leeks, and onions, which were in use among the common people. They 
 bathed twice a day and twice during the night — some of the more strict, 
 in water that had been tasted by their sacred bird, the ibis, that they 
 might have undoubted evidence of its cleanliness. By this example of 
 abstinence, purity, and humility, as well as by their reputation for learning, 
 the Egyptian priests established almost unlimited control over tlie people. 
 Their knowledge of physical science enabled them, by optical illusions and 
 other tricks, to excite the terror and superstitious awe of their ignorant 
 spectators. Nor did their reputed power end with this life, for they could 
 refuse to any man the passport to the " outer world," which alone could 
 secure his eternal happiness. 
 
 185. The science of medicine was cultivated by the priests in even the 
 remotest ages. The universal practice of embalming was exercised by 
 physicians, and this enabled them to study the effects of various diseases, 
 by examination of the body after death. Asiatic monarchs sent to Egypt 
 for their physicians, and the prolific soil of the Nile Valley supplied drugs 
 for all the world. To this day, the characters used by apothecaries to 
 denote drams and grains are Egyptian ciphers as adopted by the Arabs. 
 
 186. The soldiers, when not engaged in service either in foreign wars, 
 in garrisons, or at court, were settled on their own lands. These were situ- 
 ated chiefly east of the Nile or in the Delta, since it was in these quarters 
 that the country was most exposed to hostile invasions. Each soldier was 
 allotted about six acres of land, free from all tax or tribute. From its 
 proceeds he defrayed the expense of his own arms and equipment. 
 
 187. Upon the walls of their tombs are found vivid delineations of the 
 daily life of the Egyptians. Their industries, such as glass-blowing, linen- 
 weaving, rope-making, etc., as well as their common recreations of hunting, 
 fishing, ball-playing, wrestling, and domestic scenes, as in the entertainment 
 of company, are all represented in sculpture or paintings upon the walls 
 of Thebes or Beni-hnssan. Dolls and other toys of children are found in 
 
 A. H.— 
 
66 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the tombs; and it is evident that the Egyptians had so familiarized the 
 idea of death as to have rid themselves of the gloomy and painful associ- 
 ations with which it is often surrounded. The body, after being prepared 
 for the tomb, was returned to the house of its abode, where it was kept 
 never less than thirty days, and sometimes even a year, feasts being given 
 in its honor, and it being always present in the company of guests. From 
 the moment when the forty-two judges had pronounced their favorable 
 verdict on the border of the lake, the lamentations of the funeral train 
 were changed into songs of triumph, and the deceased was congratulated 
 on his admission to the glorified company of the friends of Osiris. 
 
 CARTHAGE. 
 
 188. About 850 B. C, Dido, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, having 
 been cruelly wronged by her brother in the murder of her husband, 
 Acer^bas, resolved to escape' from his dominions and establish a new 
 empire. Accompanied by some Tyrian nobles who were dissatisfied with 
 the rule of Pygmalion, she sailed in a fleet laden with the treasures of her 
 husband, and came to anchor at length in a bay on the northern coast of 
 Africa, about six miles north of the modern Tunis. 
 
 189. The Libyan natives, who knew the value of commerce and the 
 wealth of Phoenician colonies, were inclined to be friendly ; but their first 
 transaction with the new settlers promised advantages only to one side. 
 Dido proposed to lease from them as much land as could be covered with 
 a bullock's hide. The yearly ground-rent being settled, she then ordered 
 the hide to be cut into the thinnest possible strips, and thus surrounded a 
 large portion of land, on which she built the fortress of Byr'sa. The 
 colony prospered, however, and was strengthened by the alliance of Utica 
 and other Tyrian settlements on the same coast. By similar arrangements 
 with the Libyans, the queen obtained permission to build the town of 
 Carthage, which becam'e the seat of a great commercial empire. 
 
 190. As the New City* rose to a high degree of power and wealth, 
 Hiar^bas, a neighboring king, sent to demand a marriage with Dido, threat- 
 ening war in case of refusal. The queen seemed to consent for the benefit 
 of her state; but at the end of three months' preparation, she ascended a 
 funeral pile upon which sacrifices had been offered to the shades of Acer^- 
 bas, and declaring to her people that she was going to her husband, as 
 
 *The Phoenician name of Carthage signified the New City, distinguishing it 
 either from the neighboring Utica, whose name meant the Old City, or from 
 Byrsa, the first fortress of Dido. When New Carthage (Carthagena) was built 
 upon the coast of Spain, the original settlement began to be called by the 
 Romans Carthago Vetus^ which is as if we should say "Old Newtown." 
 
CARTHAGE. 67 
 
 they had desired, pluDged a sword into her breast. Dido continued to be 
 worshiped as a divinity in Carthage as long as the city existed. 
 
 191. So far our story is mixed with fable, though containing, doubtless, 
 a large proportion of truth. What we certainly know is, that the latest 
 colony of Tyre soon became the most powerful ; that it grcAv by the alli- 
 ance and immigration of the neighboring Libyans, as well as of its sister 
 colonies; and that it gained in wealth by the destruction* 
 
 B, C. 585. 
 
 of its parent city in the Babylonian wars. While the Levant- 
 ine commerce of Tyre fell to the Greeks, that of the West was naturally 
 inherited by the Carthaginians. 
 
 192. The African tribes, to whom the colonists were at first compelled to 
 pay tribute for the slight foot-hold they possessed, became at length totally 
 subjugated. They cultivated their lands for the benefit of Carthage, and 
 might at any time be forced to contribute half their movable wealth to her 
 treasury, and all their young men to her armies. The Phoenician settle- 
 ments gradually formed themselves into a confederacy, of which Carthage 
 was the head, though she possessed no authority beyond the natural leader- 
 ship of the most powerful. Her dominions extended westward to the Pil- 
 lars of Hercules, and down the African coast to the end of the Atlas range; 
 on the east her boundaries were fixed, after a long contest with the Greek 
 city of Cyre^ne, at the bottom of the Great Syrtis, or gulf, which indents 
 the northern shore. 
 
 193. Not content with her continental domains, Carthage gained pos- 
 session of most of the islands of the western Mediterranean. The coast 
 of Sicily was already dotted with Phcenician trading stations. These came 
 under the control of Carthage ; and though out-rivaled in prosperity by the 
 free cities of the Greeks, especially Agrigen^tum and Syr^acuse, the western 
 portion of the island long remained a valuable possession. The Balearic 
 Islands were occupied by Carthaginian troops. Sardinia was conquered by 
 a long and severe conflict, and became a most important station for the 
 trade with AVestern Europe. Settlements were established in Corsica and 
 Spain, while, in the Atlantic, the islands of Madeira and the Canaries were 
 early subdued. 
 
 194. These conquests were made chiefly by means of foreign mercenaries 
 drawn both from Europe and Africa. South and west of Carthage were the 
 barbarous but usually friendly tribes of Numid''ia and Mauritania; and her 
 merchants in their journeys had frequent dealings with the warlike r^ces of 
 Spain, Gaul, and northern Italy. It is said that the Carthaginians mingled 
 these various nations in their armies in such a manner that difference of 
 language might prevent their plotting together. 
 
 195. The navy of Carthage was of great importance in protecting her 
 
 * See g 47. 
 
68 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 commerce from the swarms of pirates which infested the Mediterranean. 
 The «3^alleys were propelled by oars in the hands of slaves, but the officers 
 and sailors were usually native Carthaginians. With these land and naval 
 forces, Carthage became for several centuries undisputed mistress of the 
 central and western Mediterranean. 
 
 19G. Toward the middle of the sixth century B. C, a great commercial 
 rival appeared in the western waters. The Greeks had begun their system 
 of colonization ; had opened a trade with Tartes^sus, multiplied their settle- 
 ments in Sicily and Corsica, and built MassiKia near the mouth of the Rhone. 
 Near the close of our First Period, the two powers came into fierce collision, 
 and the Grecian fleet was destroyed by that of Carthage, aided by her 
 
 Etruscan allies. At the same time Rome, which had grown 
 B. C. 509. . o y , 
 
 powerful under her kings, became free by their expulsion ; 
 
 and the Carthaginians, hitherto on friendly terms with the Italians, made 
 
 a treaty of alliance with the new Republic which was to prove their most 
 
 unrelenting foe. 
 
 197. The government of Carthage, under the forms of a republic, was 
 really an aristocracy of wealth. Tlie two chief officers were the Suffe^tes, 
 who at first, like the Hebrew rulers from Joshua to Samuel, led the people 
 in war and judged them in peace. In later times their office became exclu- 
 sively civil, and generals were appointed for military command. The Suf- 
 fetes were elected only from certain families, and probably for life. 
 
 198. Next came the Council of several hundreds of citizens, from which 
 committees of five were chosen to administer the various departments of 
 state. At a later period, when the house of Mago had risen to a degree 
 of military power which was thought to endanger the public safety, a 
 Council of One Hundred was added to these, before which all generals 
 returning from war were obliged to present themselves and render an 
 account of their actions. So severe were the judgments of this tribunal, 
 that an unsuccessful general often preferred suicide upon the field of battle 
 to meeting their awards. With the two judges and the two high priests, 
 this council constituted the Supreme Court of the Republic. 
 
 199. The larger Council, or Senate, received foreign embassadors, delib- 
 erated upon all matters of state, and decided questions of war or peace, with 
 a certain deference to the authority of the Suffetcs. If the judges and the 
 senate could not agree, appeal was made to the people. 
 
 209, The religion of Carthage was the same as that of Tyre, with the 
 addition of the worship of two or three Grecian divinities, whom the Car- 
 thaginians thought it necessary to appease by sacrifices after destroying 
 their temples in Sicily. Every army was accompanied by a prophet or 
 diviner, without whose direction nothing could be done. Generals fre- 
 quently offered sacrifices, even during the progress of a battle. There was 
 no hereditary priesthood, as in Egypt, but the priestly offices were filled by 
 
CARTHAGE. 69 
 
 the highest persons in the state, sometimes even by the sons of the kings 
 or judges. In every new settlement a sanctuary was erected, that the relig- 
 ion of the mother country might grow together with her government and 
 commerce. Every year a fleet left Carthage, laden with rich offerings and 
 bearing a solemn embassy to the shrine of the Tyrian Hercules. The 
 human sacrifices and other hideous rites of Phoenician worship prevailed 
 at Carthage; and though these features were somewhat softened by ad- 
 vancing civilization, we shall find traces enough, in future pages of her 
 history, of that cruelty which makes so dark a blemish in the character 
 of the whole race. 
 
 201. The trade of Carthage was carried on both by land and sea. Her 
 caravans crossed the Great Desert by routes still traveled, and exchanged 
 the products of northern countries for those of Upper Egypt, Ethiopia, 
 Fezzan, and, perhaps, the far interior regions of Nigri^tia. The manufac- 
 tures of Carthage included fine cloths, hardware, pottery, and harness of 
 leather; but beside the exchange of her own products, she possessed 
 almost exclusively the carrying-trade between the nations of Africa and 
 western Europe. 
 
 202. The ships of Carthage penetrated all the then known seas; and 
 though confined to coast navigation, they explored the Atlantic from 
 Norway to the Cape of Good Hope. Han no, the son of HamiFcar, con- 
 ducted sixty ships bearing 30,000 colonists to the western shores of Africa, 
 where he planted a chain of six colonies between the Straits and the 
 island of Cer^ne. He then went southward with some of his ships as far 
 35 the Eiver Gambia, and visited the Gold Coast, with which his country- 
 men thenceforth carried on a regular trafiic. On his return he placed an 
 inscription, commemorative of this voyage, on a brazen tablet in the temple 
 of Kro^nos, at Carthage. Himilco, his brother, led another expedition the 
 same year to the western coast of Europe, but of this the history is lost. 
 
 203. These extensive voyages in the interest of trade brought the products 
 of the world into the Carthaginian markets. There might be seen muslins 
 from Malta; oil and wine from Italy; wax and honey from Corsica; iron 
 from Elba; gold; silver, and iron from Spain; tin from Cornwall and the 
 Scilly Isles; amber from the Baltic; gold, ivory, and slaves from Sene- 
 gam^'bia. 
 
 204. While commerce was so abundant a source of wealth, agriculture 
 was the favorite pursuit of nobles and people. The fertile soil of Libya 
 yielded a hundred-fold to the farmer. So fond were wealthy Carthaginians 
 of the healthful toils of the field, that one of their great men wrote a work, 
 in twenty-eight volumes, on methods of husbandry ; and this alone, of all 
 the treasures of their literature, was thought by their Roman conquerors 
 worthy of preservation. 
 
 205. We have slightly anticipated the course of events, in order to 
 
70 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 present a connected account of the government, religion, and trade of 
 Carthage. Of her wars with the Sicilian Greeks, from the disastrous 
 defeat of Hamilcar at Him^era, B. C. 480, to the peace of B. C. 304, we 
 have no space for the details. The final period of Carthaginian history,^ 
 comprising the Koman wars and the destruction of the city, will be found 
 in Book V. 
 
 Cartilage, a colony of Tyre, became sovereign of the shores and islands of the 
 western Mediterranean, a rival of Greece, and an ally of Rome. Her army and 
 navy were largely composed of European and African mercenaries. Her govern- 
 ment was republican, with two judges at its head, foreign affairs being trans- 
 acted by a council of citizens. Religious ceremonies claimed a large share of 
 attention, both in war and peace. Commerce extended by land to the interior 
 of Africa; by sea, from the Baltic to the Indian Ocean ; and products of all the 
 world tilled the Carthaginian markets. Agriculture was a favorite employment 
 with nobles and common people. 
 
 QTJJESTIOIN^S F-OPl R,E"V^IET\^. 
 
 Book I. — Part II. 
 
 1. What is remarkable in the early liistory of Egypt ? . 
 
 2. Describe the first monarch of the united empire. 
 
 3. His suc(!essors in the same dynasty. 
 
 4. How many dynasties before the Persian Conquest? . 
 
 5. Describe the kings of the Third Dynasty. 
 (3. The Pyramid-builders 
 
 7. What dynasties were subject to the fourth? . 
 
 8. Describe the divisions of Egypt antl (iieir consequences. 
 
 9. The monuments of the Twelfth Dynasty. . 
 
 10. The dominion and character of the Hyksos. 
 
 11. The rise of the New Empire 
 
 12. The family of Thothmes I 
 
 13. Name tlie remaining kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty, 
 n. Who founded the Nineteentli ])ynas(y? 
 
 15. Describe its second and third kings. .... 
 
 16. The Exodus of the Hebrews 
 
 1^- Egypt under the Twentieth Dynasty. . 
 
 18. What connections of Egyptian and Hebrew history nn 
 
 Twenty-first and Twenty-second Dynasties? 
 
 19. Who constituted the Twenty-fourth Dynasty? . 
 
 20. Tell the history of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. 
 
 21. What was the condition of Egypt after the fall of Tirhakeh 
 
 22. Wliat led to the rise of tlie Twenty-sixth Dynasty ? . 
 
 23. What was the foreign policy of Psammetichus? 
 
 24. What naval enterprise in the reign of Necho ? . 
 
 25. Describe the reigns of Apries and Amasis. . 
 
 26. The theory.and prnctice of Egyptian religion. 
 
 del 
 
 the 
 
 U 12&-128. 
 
 129. 
 
 
 130. 
 
 
 163. 
 
 
 131, 
 
 132. 
 
 ia3-135. 
 
 130. 
 
 
 138, 
 
 139. 
 
 140. 
 
 
 141, 
 
 142. 
 
 143, 
 
 
 146, 
 
 147. 
 
 148, 
 
 149. 
 
 150. 
 
 
 150-152. 
 
 154. 
 
 
 155, 
 
 15C. 
 
 157, 
 
 158. 
 
 IGO. 
 
 
 161. 
 
 
 162. 
 
 
 163. 
 
 
 164. 
 
 
 166. 
 
 
 167. 
 
 
 169, 
 
 170. 
 
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 71 
 
 27. What were the objects of worst) ip? §§171, 172, 175. 
 
 28. Describe the twofold judgment of the dead. 177,178. 
 
 29. Into what ranks were Egyptians divided ? 180. 
 
 30. Who owned the laud? 181. 
 
 31. Describe the dignities and duties of llie king 182,183. 
 
 32. Tlie life and power of the priests 18J. 
 
 33. Tlieir medical practice 185. 
 
 31. Tlie tombs, and honors paid to the dead 187. 
 
 35. Give tlie traditional account of the founding of Carthage. . . . 188, 189. 
 
 3»i. Describe the causes of its prosperity 101. 
 
 37. The extent of its dominion 192,193. 
 
 38. Its army and navy 194, 195. 
 
 39. What war and what alliance in the sixth century ? 196. 
 
 40. Describe the government of Carthage 197-199. 
 
 41. Its religion 200. 
 
 42. Its trade by land and sea 201-203. 
 
 43. What was the favorite pursuit of the Carthaginians ? . . . . 204. 
 
BOOK II. 
 
 The Persian Empire from the Eise of Cyrus to the 
 
 Fall of Darius. 
 
 B. €. 558-330. 
 
 1. About 650 B. C, a warlike people, from the highlands east of the 
 Caspian, took possession of the hilly country north of the Persian Gulf. 
 They belonged, like the Medes, to the Aryan or Indo-Germanic family, 
 and were distinguished by a more hardy, simple, and virtuous character, 
 and a purer faith, from the luxurious inhabitants of the Babylonian 
 plains. The nation, as it soon became constituted, consisted of ten tribes, 
 of whom four continued nomadic, three settled to the cultivation of the 
 soil, and three bore arms for the general defense. Of these the Pasar^- 
 gadae were preeminent, and formed the nobility of Persia, holding all 
 high offices in the army and about the court. 
 
 2. The first king, Achae^menes, was a Pasargadian, and from him all 
 subsequent Persian kings were descended. For the first hundred years of 
 its history, Persia was dependent upon the neighboring kingdom of Media. 
 But a little after the middle of the sixth century before Christ, a revolution 
 under Cyprus reversed the relations of the Medo-Persian monarchy, and 
 prepared the foundations of a great empire which was to reach beyond 
 the Nile and the Hellespont on the west, and the Indus on the east. 
 
 3. Cyrus spent many of his early years at the court of Asty^ages, his 
 maternal grandfather, in the seven-walled city of Ecbat^ana. ''^ The brave, 
 athletic youth, accustomed to hardy sports and simple fare, despised the 
 wine and dainty food, the painted faces and silken garments of the Median 
 nobles. He saw that their strength was wasted by luxury, and that in case 
 of a collision they would be no match for his warlike countrymen. At 
 the same time, a party of the younger Medes gathered around Cyrus, pre- 
 ferring his manly virtues to the effeminate pomp and cruel tyranny of their 
 king, and impatient for the time when he should be their ruler. 
 
 =:■ See Book I, gg 38, 41. 
 
 (73) 
 
74 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 4. When all was ready, the Persian prince rallied his countrymen and 
 persuaded them to become independent of the Medes. Astyages raised an 
 
 army to quell the revolt, but when the two forces met at 
 Pasar^gadae, the greater part of the Medes went over to the 
 
 Persian side. In a second battle Astyages was made prisoner, and the 
 
 sovereignty of Media remained to the conqueror. 
 
 5. The reign of Cyrus was full of warlike enterprises. By the time he 
 had subdued the Median cities, Croesus,"^ king of Lydia, had become 
 alarmed by his rapidly increasing power, and had stirred up Egypt, 
 Babylon, and the Greeks to oppose it. He crossed the Ha^lys, and en- 
 countered the army of Cyrus near Sino^pe, in Cappado^cia. Neither party 
 gained a victory ; but Croesus, finding his numbers inferior, drew back 
 toward his capital, thinking to spend the winter in renewed preparations. 
 Tt n :^io Cyrus pursued him to the gates of Sardis, and defeated him 
 
 in a decisive battle. The city was taken, and Croesus owed 
 his life to the mercy of his conqueror. His kingdom, which comprised all 
 Asia Minor west of the Halys, was added to the Persian Empire. 
 
 6. The monarchs of Asia had three methods of maintaining their do- 
 minion over the countries they had conquered: 1. A large standing army 
 was kept upon the soil, at the cost of the vanquished. 2. In case of revolt, 
 whole nations were sometimes transported over a distance of thousands of 
 miles, usually to the islands of the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean, 
 while their places were filled by emigrants whose loyalty was assured. 
 3. A more injurious, though apparently more indulgent policy, compelled 
 a warlike people to adopt luxurious and effeminate manners. Such was 
 the treatment of the Lydians, by the advice of their captive king. Croesus 
 was now the trusted counselor of Cyrus. With a view to save his people 
 from the miseries of transportation, he suggested that they should be de- 
 prived of their arms, compelled to clothe themselves in soft apparel, and 
 to train their youth in habits of gaming and drinking, thus rendering 
 them forever incapable of disturbing the dominion of their conquerors. 
 From a brave, warlike, and industrious race, the Lydians were transformed 
 into indolent pleasure-seekers, and their country remained a submissive 
 province of the empire of Cyrus. 
 
 7. Capture of Babylon. Leaving Harpagus to complete the conquest 
 of the Asiatic Greeks, Cyrus turned to the east, where he aimed at the 
 greater glory of subduing Assyria. Nabonadius, f the Babylonian king, 
 believed that the walls of his capital were proof against assault; but he 
 was defeated, and the great city became the prey of the conqueror. The 
 writings of Daniel, who was resident at the court of Nabonadius, and a 
 
 ■■' See Book I, g 59. 
 t See Book I, g§ 53, 5-1. 
 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 75 
 
 witness of the overthrow of his kingdom, inform us that Dari^us the 
 Median took Babylon, being about sixty-two years old. It is probable 
 that Darius was another name of Astyages himself, who, being deprived 
 of his own kingdom, was compensated by the government of the most 
 magnificent city of the East. His arbitrary decrees concerning Daniel 
 and his accusers accord well with the character of Astyages. 
 
 8. Return of the Jews. It will be remembered that the Jews were 
 now captives in Babylonia, where they had remained seventy years, since 
 the destruction of their Holy City by Nebuchadnez^zar. Cyrus, who, like 
 the Hebrews, was a believer in One God, found their pure religion an 
 agreeable contrast to the corrupt and degrading rites of the Babylonians. 
 He may have been moved by the prophecies of Isaiah, uttered nearly two 
 centuries before, and those of Jeremiah at the time of the Captivity. 
 (Isaiah xliv : 28, and xlv : 1-5; Jeremiah xxv : 12, and xxviii : 11.) He 
 may also have had more selfish motives for favoring the Jews, in his 
 designs upon Egypt, thinking it an advantage to have a friendly people 
 established in the fortresses of Judah. In any case, he fulfilled the 
 prophecies by giving orders for the return of the Israelites to their own 
 land, and for the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusalem. The 5,400 
 golden and silver vessels of the House of the Lord were brought forth 
 from the Babylonian treasuiy and delivered to the prince of Judah, who 
 received the Persian title Sheshbaz^zar, corresponding to the modern 
 Pasha^. Few of the original captives had survived, like Daniel, to witness 
 the return; but a company of fifty thousand, men, women, and children, 
 were soon collected from their settlements on the Euphrates and the Per- 
 sian Gulf, and moving toward their own land. (Read Ezra i, and ii : 1, 
 64, 65, 68-70.) On their arrival, the altar was immediately set up, the 
 great festivals reestablished, a grant of cedars from the forests of Lebanon 
 obtained, and preparations made for rebuilding the Temple. 
 
 9. Cyrus never accomplished in person his designs upon Egypt. He 
 extended his conquests westward to the borders of Macedonia, and east- 
 ward to the Indus. Some of the conquered countries were left under the 
 control of their native kings; some received Persian rulers. All were 
 made tributary, but the proportion of their tribute was not fixed. The 
 organization of this vast dominion was left to the successors of Cyrus. 
 
 10. His last expedition was against the Massa'^getse, a tribe which dwelt 
 east of the Sea of Aral. The barbarians who roamed over these great 
 northern plains had become formidable foes to the civilized 
 
 empires of the south, but they were so thoroughly subdued * * 
 
 by Cyrus that they troubled Persia no more for two hundred years. 
 The victor, however, lost his life in a battle with Tom^yris, their queen, 
 and the government and extension of his empire were left to the care 
 of his son Camby^ses. 
 
76 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 11. In departing for his Scythian campaign, Cyrus had left his young 
 cousin Paribus in Persia, the satrapy of his father, Hystas^pes. The 
 night after crossing the Arax^es, he dreamed that he saw Darius with 
 wings on his shoulders, the one overshadowing Asia, and the other 
 Europe. The time and the region were fruitful in dreams, and this had 
 a remarkable fulfillment. 
 
 12. Keign of Cambyses. B. C. 529-522. Without the ability of his 
 father, Cambyses inherited his warlike ambition, and soon proceeded to 
 execute the plans of African conquest long cherished by Cyrus. He was 
 a man of violent passions, which his unlimited power left without their 
 just restraint, and many of his acts are more like those of a willful and 
 i<>-norant child than of a reasonable man. 
 
 13. Egypt, now governed by Ama^sis, was the only part of the Baby- 
 lonian dominion which had not yielded to Cyrus. Amasis had begun his 
 reio-n as viceroy of Nebuchadnezzar, but during the decline of the empire 
 he had become independent. Cambyses prepared for his Egyptian cam- 
 paign by the conquest of Phoenicia and Cyprus, the two naval powers of 
 western Asia. He then marched into Egypt with a great force of Persians 
 and Greeks. Amasis had recently died, but his son Psammen^itus awaited 
 the invader near the Pelusiac mouth of the Nile. A single battle decided 
 the fate of Egypt. Psammenitus was defeated, and with his surviving fol- 
 lowers shut himself up in Memphis. The siege was short, and at its termi- 
 nation all Egypt submitted to Cambyses, who assumed the full dignity of 
 the Pharaohs as " Lord of the Upper and Lower Countries." The neigh- 
 boring Libyans and the two Greek cities, Cyre^ne and Barca, also sent in 
 their submission and offered gifts. 
 
 14. Cambyses now meditated three expeditions : one by sea against the 
 great commercial empire of Carthage ; one against the Ammonians of the 
 desert; and a third against the long-lived Ethiopians,* whpse country was 
 reputed to be rich in gold. The first was abandoned, because the Phoeni- 
 cians refused to serve against one of their own colonies. To the last-named 
 people Cambyses sent an embassy of the Tcl/thyoph^agi, who lived upon 
 the borders of the Red Sea and understood their language. These were 
 charged to carry presents to the Macrobian king, and assure him that the 
 Persian monarch desired his friendship. The Ethiopian replied in plain 
 terms: "Neither has the king of Persia sent you because he valued my 
 
 '^Tlie Macro'bii, so called by the Greeks because they were reputed to live 120 
 years or more, were a tribe of extraordinary strength and stature dwelling south- 
 ward from Egypt. Some suppose them to have been ancestoi*s of the Somauli, 
 near Cape Guardafni, while others place them on the left bank of the Nile, in 
 what Is now Nubia. Their prisoners were said to be fettered with golden chains, 
 because gold with them was more aVnindant and cheaper than iron. The bodies 
 of their dead were inclosed in columns of glass or crystal. 
 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 77 
 
 alliance, nor do you speak the truth, for you are come as spies of my king- 
 dom. Nor is he a just man ; for if he \vere just, he would not desire any 
 land but his own, nor would he reduce people to servitude who have done 
 him no harm. However, give him this bow, and say these words to him . 
 The king of the Ethiopians advises the king of the Persians, when his 
 Persians can thus easily draw a bow of this size, then to make war upon 
 the long-lived Ethiopians with a more numerous army ; but until that 
 time let him thank the gods, who have not inspired the sons of the Ethi- 
 opians with a desire of adding another land to their own." 
 
 15. When Cambyses heard the reply of the Ethiopian he was enraged, 
 and without the usual military forethought to provide magazines of food, 
 he instantly put his army in motion. Arriving at Thebes, he sent off a 
 detachment of 50,000 men to destroy the temple and oracle of Amun ^' in 
 the Oasis. This army was buried in the sands of the desert, without even 
 beholding Ammo^nium. The main army of Cambyses was almost equally 
 unfortunate. Before a fifth part of its journey was completed its provisions 
 were spent. The beasts of burden were then eaten, and life was supported 
 a little longer by herbs gathere'd from the soil. But when they reached 
 the desert, both food and water failed, and the wretched men were reduced 
 to eating certain of their comrades chosen by lot. By this time even the 
 rage of the king was exhausted, and he consented to turn back ; but he 
 arrived at Memphis with a small portion of the host which had gone forth 
 with him upon this ill-concerted enterprise. 
 
 16. He found the Memphians keeping a joyous festival in honor of the 
 god Apis, who had just reappeared, f The Persian was in ill humor from 
 his recent disasters, and chose to believe that the Egyptians w^ere rejoicing 
 in his misfortunes. He ordered the new Apis to be brought into his pres- 
 ence. When the animal appeared, he drew his dagger and pierced it in 
 the thigh; then, laughing loudly, exclaimed: "Ye blockheads, are there 
 such gods as this, consisting of blood and flesh, and sensible of steel ? 
 This, truly, is a god worthy of the Egyptians!" He commanded his 
 officers to scourge the priests and kill all the people who were found 
 feasting. The Egyptians believed that Cambyses was instantly smitten 
 with insanity as a punishment for this sacrilege. A reason may be found 
 for his contemptuous treatment of Apis in that Persian hatred of idolatry 
 which led him to shatter even the colossal images of the kings before many 
 temples, and caused him to be regarded by ancient travelers as the great 
 iconoclast of Egypt. 
 
 17. The mad career of Cambyses was near its end. Before leaving 
 Persia, he had caused the secret assassination of his younger brother, 
 
 >:= See Book I, § 179. 
 t See Book I, g 175. 
 
78 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Bar^des, or, as the Greek historians called him, Smerdis, to whom their 
 father had left the government of several provinces. He was about to 
 leave Egypt, when a report arrived that Smerdis had revolted against him. 
 The king now suspected that he had been betrayed by the too faithful 
 messenger whom he had sent to kill his brother. The leader of the 
 revolt, however, was neither of royal nor Persian blood. Goma^tes, a 
 Magian, had been left by Cambyses steward of his palace at Susa. This 
 man conspired with his order throughout the empire for a rising of the 
 Medes against the Persians, and for the suppression of the reformed relig- 
 ion which the latter had brought in. Happening to resemble the younger 
 son of Cyrus, he boldly announced to the people that Smerdis, brother of 
 Cambyses, claimed their obedience. The story appeared credible, for the 
 death of the prince had purposely been kept secret, so that nearly all the 
 world, except Praxas^pes and his master, supposed him to be still alive. 
 
 18. Cambyses was already in Syria when he received a herald who 
 demanded the obedience of the army to Smerdis, son of Cyrus. Caught 
 in his own toils, the king lamented in vain that for foolish jealousy he 
 had murdered the only man who could have exposed the fraud, and who 
 might have been the best support and defender of his throne. Overcome 
 with grief and shame, he sprang on horseback to begin his journey to 
 Persia, but in the act his sword was unsheathed and entered his side, 
 inflicting a mortal wound. He lingered three weeks, during which time 
 he showed more reason than in all his life before. He confessed and be- 
 wailed the murder of his brother, and besought the Persian nobles to 
 conquer the deceitful Magus and bestow the kingdom on one more worthy. 
 He had neither son nor brother to succeed him. He had reigned seveti 
 years and five months. 
 
 19. Reign of the Pseudo-Smerdis. B. C. 522-521. As it is the just 
 punishment of liars not to be believed even when they speak the truth, 
 Cambyses' last confession was commonly supposed to be the most artful 
 transaction of his life. The nobles, who had no knowledge of the death 
 of Smerdis, believed that it was he indeed who was reigning at Susa, and 
 that his brother had invented the story of the Magus to make his dethrone- 
 ment more certain. The pretended king lived in great seclusion, never 
 quitting his palace, and permitting the various members of his household 
 no intercourse with their relations. All orders were issued by his prime 
 minister. He closed the Zoroastrian temples, restored the Magian priest- 
 hood, and ordered the discontinuance of the rebuilding at .Jerusalem. 
 (Read Ezra iv : 17-24.) These religious changes, such as no Achsemenian 
 prince could have favored, began to awaken suspicions. Seven great 
 princes of tlie royal race, having learned by a spy within the palace that 
 the pretended monarch was only a Magian whom Cyrus had deprived 
 of his ears, formed a league to dethrone him. Their bold attack was 
 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 79 
 
 successful; the Magus was pursued into Media, and slain after a reign 
 of eight months ; and Dari^us Hystas^pes, * one of the seven conspirators, 
 Avas eventually chosen to be king. 
 
 20. Keign of Darius I. B. C. 521-486. The first years of Darius 
 were disturbed by rebellions which shook his throne to its foundation. 
 No fewer than eleven satrapies Avere successively in revolt. The most 
 important was that of Babylon, which for twenty months defied all the 
 efibrts of the great king to reduce it. At length Zop^yrus, son of one of 
 the conspirators who had raised Darius to the throne, invented an in- 
 genious though revolting scheme. He cut off his own nose and ears, 
 applied the scourge to his shoulders until they were stained with blood, 
 and having agreed with the king upon his further conduct, deserted to 
 the Babylonians. To them he represented that the king had treated him 
 with such cruel indignity that he burned for revenge. His wounds added 
 plausibility to his story ; he was received into the confidence of the rebels, 
 and on the tenth day he was intrusted with the command of a sallying 
 party which \yas to repulse an attack of the Persians. 
 
 Darius had been advised to send to the Semi^ramis Gate a body of 
 those troops whom he could best spare: a thousand of them were cut 
 to pieces. In a second sortie led by Zopyrus, two thousand Persians were 
 slain; in a third, four thousand. This slaughter of seven thousand of his 
 countrymen removed from the minds of the Babylonians all doubt ot 
 the truth of Zopyrus. The keys of the city were committed to his care, 
 and the preparation for his treachery was now complete. During a con- 
 certed assault by the Persians, he opened the gates to Darius, who pro- 
 ceeded to take signal vengeance for the long defiance of his power. The 
 reckless sacrifice of human life in this transaction shows how the habit 
 of unlimited power had impaired the disposition of Darius, which was 
 naturally merciful. 
 
 21. To guard against future disturbances, Darius now endeavored to 
 give a more thorough and eflacient organization to the great empire, which 
 Cyrus and Cambyses had built up. He divided the whole territory into 
 twenty satrapies, or provinces, and imposed upon each a tribute according 
 to its wealth. The native kings whom Cyrus had left upon their thrones 
 were all swept away, and a Persian governor, usually connected by blood 
 or marriage with the great king, was placed over each province. Order 
 within and safety from without were secured by standing armies of Medes 
 or Persians, posted at convenient stations throughout the empire. Royal 
 roads were constructed and a system of couriers arranged, by Avhich the 
 court received constant and swift intelligence of all that occurred in the 
 provinces. 
 
 •^ See 1 11. Also, Darins's own account of the ini posture ol" the Magus, p. 87. 
 
80 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 22. To prevent revolt, an elaborate system of checks was instituted, 
 which left the satrap little power of independent action. In this earlier 
 and stronger period of the consolidated empire, the satrap exercised only 
 the civil government, the military being wielded by generals and com- 
 mandants of garrisons, while, in Persia at least, the judicial power resided 
 in judges appointed directly by the king. Beside these constitutional 
 checks upon the satrap, there were in every province the "king's eyes" 
 and the " king's ears," in the persons of royal secretaries attached to his 
 court, whose duty it was to communicate secretly and constantly with the 
 sovereign, and to keep him informed of every occurrence within their re- 
 spective districts. 
 
 The slightest suspicion of revolt communicated to the king by these 
 spies, was sufficient to bring an order for the death of the satrap. This 
 order was addressed to his guards, who instantly executed it by hewing 
 him down with their sabers. Each province, moreover, was liable every 
 moment to a sudden visit from the king or his commissioner, who ex- 
 amined the satrap's accounts, heard the grievances of his subjects, and 
 either deprived an unjust ruler of his place, or noted a wise, upright, 
 and beneficent one for promotion to greater honor. The satrap, on a 
 smaller scale, aiFected the same magnificence of living as the great king 
 himself. Each had his "paradises," or pleasure-gardens, attached to 
 numerous palaces. The satrap of Babylon had a daily revenue of nearly 
 two bushels of coined silver; his stables contained nearly seventeen 
 thousand steeds, and the income from four towns barely sufficed for the 
 maintenance of his dogs. 
 
 23. The court of Susa surpassed all this display of wealth as much as 
 the sun surpasses the planets. Fifteen thousand persons fed daily at the 
 king's table. The royal journeys were of necessity confined to the wealthier 
 portion of the empire, for in the poorer provinces such a visitation would 
 have produced a famine. The king seldom appeared in public, and the 
 approach to his presence was guarded by long lines of officers, each of 
 whom had his appointed station, from the ministers of highest rank who 
 stood in the audience-chamber, to the humblest attendant who waited at 
 the gate. 
 
 24. The royal retinue included a numerous army, divided according to its 
 nationalities into corps of 10.000 each. Of these the most celebrated were 
 the Persian " Immortals," so called because their number was always 
 exactly maintained. If an *' Immortal " died, a well-trained member of a 
 reserve-corps was ready to take his place. They were chosen from all the 
 nation for their strength, stature, and fine personal appearance. Their 
 armor was resplendent with silver and gold, and on the march or in battle 
 they were always near the person of the king. The royal secretaries, or 
 scribes, formed another important part of the retinue of the court. They 
 
FIGURE OF A GOOD ANGEL— PERHAPS SRAOSHA. 
 
THE FEBSIAi\ EMPIRE. 81 
 
 wrote down every word that fell from the monarch's lips, especially his 
 commands, which, once uttered, could never be recalled. (Esther viii : 8 • 
 Daniel vi : 8, 12, 15.) 
 
 Persia, having been for a ceutary subject to the Medes, became independent 
 under Cyrus, who also conquered Lydia and Babylonia, liberated the Jews, and 
 founded a great empire reaching from Macedonia to India. He died in war 
 with the Scytliians, and the African expedition was left to Cambyses, his son. 
 This liiug conquered Egypt, but his attempts against Ethiopia and the temple 
 of Amun resulted only in disaster. His contempt for Egyptian idolatry was, 
 according to the priests, punished with madness. A revolt in the name of 
 Smerdis, whom he had murdered^ placed a Magian upon the throne, and effected 
 a reaction against the Persian reformation. Tlie Magian was dethroned by 
 Darius Hystaspes, \\\\o became the great organizer of the empire of Cyrus. 
 Twenty satrapies took the place of the conquered kingdoms. A system of royal 
 roads, couriers, and spies kept the Avhole dominion within the reach and beneath 
 the eye of the king, who was surrounded by a multitude of officials and pro- 
 tected by a numerous army, tlie Persian Immortals having precedence in rank. 
 
 Persian Religion. 
 
 25. The Persians held the reformed religion taught by Zo^roas^ter, a 
 great law-giver and prophet, who appeared in the Medo-Bactrian kingdom 
 long before^ the birth of Cyrus. In every part of the East, the belief in 
 One God, and the pure and simple worship which the human family had 
 learned in its original home, had become overlaid by false mythologies 
 and superstitious rites. The teachings of Zoroaster divided the Aryan 
 family into its two Asiatic branches, which have ever since remained dis- 
 tinct. The Hindus retained their sensuous Nature-worship, of which 
 In^dra (storm and thunder), Mith^ra (sunlight), Va^yu (wind), Agni (fire), 
 Arama^ti (earth), and Soma (the intoxicating principle in liquids), were 
 the chief objects. Zoroaster was led, either by reason or divine revelation, 
 to a purer faith. He taught the supremacy of a Living Creator, a person, 
 and not merely a power, whom he called Ahu^ro-Mazdao, or Or^mazd. 
 The name has been differently rendered, the Divine Much-Giving, the 
 Creator of Life, or the Living Creator of All. Ormazd was believed to 
 bestow not merely earthly good, but the most precious spiritual gifts — 
 truth, devotion, the "good mind," and everlasting joy. 
 
 26. It has been seen that Cyrus regarded tlie God of the Hebrews as 
 the object of his own worship (Ezra i : 1-4) ; and the Jewish prophets 
 recognize the same identity in their description of Cyrus (Isaiah xlv: 1-5). 
 Both nations had a profound hatred of idolatry. No image of any kind 
 was seen in the Persian temples. Both believed in the ministration of 
 angels. The throne of Ormazd was surrounded by six princes of light, 
 
 * He was probably contemporary with Abraham. 
 A. H.— 11. 
 
82 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 and beneath them were innumerable hosts of warriors and messengers, 
 who passed to and fro defending the right and exterminating wrong. 
 Chief of these was Serosh, or Srao^sha, '' the serene, the strong," general- 
 in-chief of the armies of Ormazd. lie never slept, but continually guarded 
 the earth with his drawn sword, especially after sunset, when demons had 
 "•reatest power. At their death, he conducted the souls of the just to the 
 presence of Ormazd, assisting them to pass the narrow bridge, from which 
 the wicked fell into the abyss below. 
 
 27. A later development of the doctrines of Zoroaster was that dualism 
 wliich divided the universe into a Kingdom of Light and a Kingdom of 
 Darkness. The latter was ruled by Ahriman^ the source of all impurity 
 and pain, assisted by his seven superior devas, or princes of evil ; and the 
 whole world was a battle-ground between the two armies of spirits, good 
 and bad. If Ormazd created a paradise, Ahriman sent into it a venomous 
 serpent. All poisonous plants, reptiles, and insects, all sickness, poverty, 
 plague, war, famine, and earthquakes, all unbelief, witchcraft, and deadly 
 sins were the work of Ahriman; and the world, which should have been 
 " very good," was thus made the scene of suffering. Every object, living 
 or inanimate, belonged to one or the other kingdom ; and it was the duty 
 of the servant of Ormazd to foster every thing holy and destroy every 
 thing evil and impure. Agriculture was especially fevored by Zoroaster, 
 as promoting beautiful and healthful growths, and conquering blight, 
 mildew, famine, and all destructive influences. It was the firm belief of 
 all devout Zoroastrians that the Kingdom of Darkness would at length 
 be overthrown, and the Kingdom of Light fill the universe. 
 
 28. Religion or the Medes. The Magianism of the Medes, at the 
 time of their conquest by Cyrus, was a third form of Aryan belief, modified 
 by contact with the barbarous Scythians. It was a peculiar form of Nature- 
 worshi[), of which the four physical elements (so regarded), fire, air, earth, 
 and water, were the objects. Fire, as the most energetic, was the chief. 
 This system was wholly dependent on priest-craft; the Magi, or priestly 
 caste, one of the seven Median tribes, were alone permitted to offer prayers 
 and sacrifices. The Zoroastrians abhorred this doctrine as the work of 
 devas, to supplant the pure principles which the race had received, in the 
 beginning, from Ormazd himself Darius in his inscriptions describes the 
 usurpation of Goma^tes the Magian as the period when " the lie" prevailed. 
 During the Magophonia, or yearly festival, which celebrated the suppression 
 of this revolt, no Magian dared stir abroad for fear of death. 
 
 But with increased power and luxury came a change in the national re- 
 ligion. The showy ceremonies of Magianism were better suited to the pomp 
 of an Eastern court than the simple and spiritual worship of the Zoroastri- 
 ans. A reconciliation was probably begun in the reign of Darius, and com- 
 pleted in that of Artaxerx^es Longim^anus. The Magians accepted the 
 
THE FEBSIAN EMPIRE. 83 
 
 essential doctrines of Zoroaster, and were permitted, in turn, to introduce a 
 part of their own symbolism and priestly rites into the national worship. 
 They kept the sacred fire in the temples, fed it with costly woods, and never 
 suffered it to be blown with human breath. At the rising of the sun they 
 chanted sacred hymns to the Lord and Giver of Light. One of them waked 
 the king each morning with the words, "Eise, sire, and think upon the 
 duties which Ormazd has commanded you to perform." The whole relig- 
 ious ceremonial of the court was committed to their care. They alone 
 possessed the sacred liturgies by which Ormazd was to be addressed ; and 
 it was believed that through them God revealed his will, either in the in- 
 terpretation of dreams or by the motion of the stars. 
 
 29. Except that of the Hebrews, the Persian faith was the purest 
 monotheism of the East. But its benefits w^ere chiefly confined to the 
 princely and noble caste, while with them its influence was neutralized 
 in a great measure by the corruptions of the court. Polygamy was the 
 fatal weakness of the Persian as of all other Eastern monarchies. Th^ 
 furious enmities of rival princesses filled the palace with discord, and 
 often stained it with the darkest crimes. The hardy Persian mountaineers 
 who had won the victories of Cyrus, whose simple but noble education 
 taught them only " to ride the horse, to draw the bow, and to speak the 
 truth," adopted the slavish manners of the races they had conquered, 
 learned to dissemble and prostrate themselves before the face of a mortal, 
 and became the splendid but often useless ornaments of an extravagant 
 court. 
 
 30. Indian Conquests. The first great expedition of Darius was 
 against the Punjab^, or Five Rivers of Western India. The imperial 
 revenues were increased one-third by the acquisition of this rich gold- 
 tract, and a lucrative commerce now sprang up between the banks of the 
 Indus and the shores of the Persian Gulf. 
 
 31. Scythian Campaign. The next enterprise of Darius was against 
 the Scythians of Central Europe, between the Don and the Danube. 
 His design was to avenge the Scythian devastations of Media and Upper 
 Asia a century before, and to terrify the barbarians into future good 
 behavior by a display of his power; perhaps also to open a way into 
 Greece by the conquest of the Thracian tribes. The whole army and 
 navy of the empire, consisting of not less than 700,000 land soldiers and 
 600 ships, assembled at the Thracian Bosphorus, which they crossed by a 
 bridge of boats constructed by Ionian engineers. The naval force was fur- 
 nished wholly by the Greeks of the -^gean. 
 
 32. Sending his fleet through the Black Sea into the Danube, with 
 orders to make a bridge of boats two days' journey from its mouth, 
 Darius marched through Thrace, receiving or compelling the submission 
 of its tribes, and adding their young men to his army. Arriving at the 
 
84 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Danube, he crossed the bridge and gave orders to the Greeks to remain 
 and guard it sixty days; if in that time he did not return, they might 
 conclude that he had gone to Media by another route. The details of the 
 great king's operations north of the Danube are unknown to history. 
 There were no great cities to take; the wandering Scythians destroyed 
 their scanty harvests, stopped their wells, removed their families north- 
 ward to places of security, and drew the invader after them into the 
 depths of their forests or uninhabited deserts. 
 
 Unable to bring liis enemy to battle, and seeing his army reduced to great 
 distress for want of food and water, Darius was compelled to retreat by the 
 way he had come. The sixty days were more than elapsed when a Scythian 
 force, which had been watching his movements, hastened to the Danube by 
 a shorter route, urging the lonians, who were still on guard, to destroy the 
 bridge and leave Darius to perish, like Cyrus, in the northern deserts. 
 The Greeks of Asia might thus have gained their freedom without a blow ; 
 but the tyrants who commanded the fleet had interests of their own quite 
 separate from those of their people. Histise^us of Mile^tus urged upon 
 
 ^ his fellow-despots that their power must fall with that of Darius, being 
 sustained by him against the popular will. His arguments j^revailed, and 
 the great king, arriving in the darkness of midnight, closely pursued by 
 
 the Scythians, was able to repass the river in safety. 
 
 33. Histiseus was rewarded by a grant of land on the river Stry^mon, 
 including the town of Myrci^nus, for the site of a colony. With its fertile 
 soil, ample forests, convenience for commerce, and neighboring mines of 
 gold and silver, this new domain immediately attracted settlers and became 
 an important maritime station. Its rapid growth, indeed, excited the 
 fears of Darius, lest its owner might become too powerful for a vassal, 
 and interpose a barrier between himself and the Greeks. He sent for 
 Histiseus, whom he treated with every mark of respect, and pretending 
 that he could not do without his valuable counsels, kept him constantly 
 within reach at the court of Susa. Histiseus, resolved to break his golden 
 chains at any cost, sent a singular epistle to his cousin, Aristag^ras, 
 whom he had left as his lieutenant at Miletus, commanding him to stir 
 up a revolt among the Asiatic Greeks. 
 
 34. The Ionian cities, extending ninety miles along the coast in an 
 almost unbroken line of magnificent quays, warehouses, and dwellings, 
 were so important to the empire, on account of the fleets which they 
 could furnish, that they had been left in greater freedom than any other 
 conquered territory. Instead of satraps, they were governed by their own 
 magistrates — either a single tyrant in each city or a council of nobles, 
 called an oligarchy — but always in the Persian interest. The European 
 Greeks were stirred by a desire to liberate their brethren in Asia, and 
 this afforded a constant pretext for a Persian war. The forces of Athens 
 
THE FEESIAN EMPIRE. 85 
 
 and Ere^tria were now added to those of Aristagoras, who had, moreover, 
 strengthened his cause by abdicating his tyranny, and aiding the other 
 cities to assume the same free and popular government which he estab- 
 lished at Miletus. The tyrants were every-where expelled, and the people 
 sprang to arms. 
 
 From Eph^esus the united forces marched up the valley of the Cay^ster, 
 and swiftly crossing the mountains, took Sardis by surprise. The city 
 was easily captured, but Ai-^taphei-^nes, the satrap, retired with a strong 
 garrison to the castle, which, from its inaccessible rock, defied assault. 
 A spark falling on the light reeds which formed the roofs of Sardis 
 set fire to the town, and the invaders were compelled to retire. They 
 were pursued and defeated with great loss by Artaphernes, in the battle 
 of Ephesus. The Athenians now withdrew, but the war went on with 
 undiminished spirit. The inhabitants of Cyprus, the Carians and Oaunians 
 of the south-western corner of the peninsula made common cause with 
 the Ionian, ^o^'lian, and Hellespontine Greeks; Byzantium was taken, 
 and the whole coast from the Thracian Bosphorus to the Gulf of Issus 
 was for the moment free from Persian dominion. The brave Carians, 
 though twice defeated with great loss, Avere victorious in a third battle, 
 where a son-in-law of Darius was slain. But the power of the great king 
 was at length triumphant. The fleet of the lonians was defeated near 
 Miletus, and the vengeance of the Persians was concentrated on this 
 devoted city, the leader of the rebellion. After a long blockade, it 
 was taken by storm in the sixth year of the revolt. 
 
 35. The honor of the great king was now engaged to the punishment 
 of those European Greeks who had intermeddled between himself and 
 his subjects. It was the first time that the Athenians had come to the 
 notice of Darius. He inquired who and what sort of men they were, and 
 being told, he seized his bow and shot an arrow into the air, crying aloud, 
 "0 Supreme God, grant that I may avenge myself on the Athenians!" 
 From that time a servant was instructed to say to him three times every 
 day as he sat at table, "Sire, remember the Athenians V 
 
 36. In the spring of 492 B. C, a great force was intrusted for this 
 purpose to Mardo^nius, son-in-law of Darius. Its immediate design failed, 
 for the fleet was shattered at Mount Athos, and the army nearly destroyed 
 by the Brygians, a Thracian tribe. Thasos, however, was captured, and 
 Macedonia was subjected to Persia. 
 
 37. B. C. 490. A second great expedition, two years later, was con- 
 ducted by Datis, accompanied by Artaphernes, son of the former satrap 
 of that name, and nephew of the king. Having passed the sea, they fell 
 first upon Eretria, which was taken by treachery, its temples burnt, and 
 its inhabitants bound in chains for transportation to Asia. The first de- 
 cisive trial of strength between Persia and the western Greeks took place 
 
86 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 at Mar^athon, in Attica. The Persians numbered 100,000 men, the Greeks 
 but little more than 10,000. The Medo-Persian troops had hitherto been 
 considered invincible; but that magnificent soldiery was now, to a certain 
 extent, replaced by unwilling conscripts from conquered tribes, who 
 marched, dug, or fought under the lash of overseers. Miltiades, who, as 
 prince of the Chersonesus, had served in the Persian armies, well knew 
 this element of weakness, and it was with just confidence in the superi- 
 ority of his free Athenians that he gave orders for the battle. 
 
 38o In the center, where the native Persians fought, they gained the 
 advantage, and pursued the Athenians up one or two of the valleys which 
 surround the base of Mount Kotro^ni ; but, at the same time, both the 
 right and left of the Asiatics were defeated by the Greeks, who, instead 
 of pursuing, united their forces on the field to the relief of their center, 
 and thus gained a complete victory. The Persians fled to their ships, now 
 fiercely followed by the Greeks, and a still more furious contest ensued at 
 the water's edge. The Athenians sought to fire the fleet, but seven galleys 
 only were destroyed; the rest, with the shattered remains of the army, made 
 good their escape. 
 
 39« The Persian commander did not lose his spirit in defeat. Encour- 
 aged by a preconcerted signal of the partisans 
 of Hip^pias, he sailed immediately around At- 
 tica, hoping to surprise Athens in the absence 
 of its defenders. But ^[iltiades, too, had seen 
 the glittering shield raised upon a mountain- 
 top, and guessed its meaning. Leaving Aris- 
 tiMes with one tribe to guard the spoils of tlie 
 battle-field, he led his army by a rapid night- 
 march across the country to Athens. When 
 Datis, the next morning, having doubled the 
 point of Su^nium, sailed up the Athenian 
 harbor, he saw upon the heights above the 
 city the same victorious troops from Avhom 
 his men had fled the evening before. He 
 made no attempt to land, but sailed away 
 with his Eretrian prisoners to the coasts of 
 Asia. 
 
 40. Rather angered than dismayed by these 
 failures, Darius prepared to lead in person a 
 still greater expedition against the Greeks. 
 But a revolt in Egypt first diverted his atten- 
 tion, and his death, in the following year, 
 
 gave the free states of Europe time to complete their preparations for 
 
 defense. B. C. 486. 
 
 Silver Daric of Darius I, 
 enlarged one-half. 
 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 87 
 
 41. Many works and trophies of Darius remain in various parts of his 
 empire. He was the first king who coined money in Persia. The golden 
 and silver darici> circulated not only throughout the empire but in Greece. 
 The most interesting memorials are the two records in his own Avords of 
 the events of his reign, engraven upon his tomb at Nakshi-rus^tam, and 
 upon the great rock-tablet of Behistiu/. The latter is of the greater length; 
 it consists of five columns, each containing from sixteen to nineteen para- 
 graphs, written in three languages, Persian, Babylonian, and Scythic, or 
 Tartar. These trilingual inscriptions, embracing the three great families 
 of human speech, Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian, almost justify the claim 
 made by Darius to universal empire. 
 
 A 
 
 Note.— A specimen of the style of the great king may be of interest to the 
 scholar. It should be stated that the Behistun cliff forms part of the Zagros 
 mountain range between Babylon and Ecbatana. This great natural table of 
 stone, which seems to have been expressly fitted for enduring records, is 1,700 
 feet in perpendicular height, and bears four sets of sculptures, one of which is 
 ascribed to Semiramis. The inscription of Darius is most important. It has 
 been deciphered within a few years, with wonderful learning, industry, and 
 patience, by Col. Sir Henry Rawlinson, of the British army. For many years 
 after its existence was known, it was considered inaccessible, as it was 300 feet 
 from the foot of the perpendicular wall, and it was necessary for the explorer 
 to be draw"n np with ropes by a windlass placed at the summit. Even when a 
 copy was thus made, with great risk and inconvenience, the work was only 
 begun, for the arrow-headed (cuneiform) characters in which the Persian lan- 
 guage was written were as yet but partly understood. These difficulties have 
 now Ijeen surnaounted, and the common student can read the words of "Darius 
 the King." The whole inscription, in Persian and English, may be found in 
 Rawlinson's Herodotus, Vol. II, Appendix. A few of the shorter paragraphs 
 are here subjoined : 
 
 I. 8. "Says Darius the King: "Within these countries the man who Avas good, 
 him have 1 right well cherished. Whoever was evil, hini have I utterly rooted 
 out. By the grace of Ormazd, these are the countries by which my laws have 
 been observed." 
 
 I. 11. "Says Darius the King: Afterward there w^as a man, a Magian, named 
 Gomates ...... He thus lied to the state: 'I am Bardes, the son of Cyrus, the 
 
 brother of Cambyses.' Then the whole state became rebellious He seized 
 
 the empire. Afterward Cambyses, unable to endure, died." 
 
 I. 13. "Says Darius the King: There was not a man, neither Persian nor 
 Median, nor any one of our family, who would dispossess that Gomates the 
 Magian of the crown. The state feared him exceedingly. He slew many people 
 who had known the old Bardes; for that reason he slew them, 'lest they should 
 recognize me that I am not Bardes, the son of Cyrus.' No one dared say any 
 thing concerning Gomates the Magian until I arrived. Then I prayed to Or- 
 mazd; Ormazd brought help to me. On the 10th day of the month Eagayadish, 
 then it was, with the help of my faithful men, that I slew that Gomates the 
 Magian and those who were his chief followers. The fort named Sictachotes, in 
 the district of Media called Nissea, there I slew him. I dispossessed him of the 
 empire; I became king. Ormazd granted me the scepter." 
 
 I. 14. "Says Darius the King: The empire which had been taken away from 
 our family, that I recovered. I established it in its place. As it wtis before, so I 
 made it. The temples which Gomates the Magian had destroyed I rebuilt. The 
 
88 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 sacred offices of the state, both the religions chants and the worship, I restored 
 
 to the people, which Gomates the Magiau had deprived them of By the 
 
 grace of Ormazd I did this." 
 
 ILEC-^:PITTJXj-A.Ti:03Sr. 
 
 Persian monotheism differed essentially from the Natnre-worshlp of the Hin- 
 dus and the element-worship of the Medes; but under Darius and his successors 
 the Magi gained exclusive control of religious rites, and luxury destroyed the 
 iuanly virtues of the people. Darius conquered western India, and invaded Eu- 
 ropean Scythia, but without result. His detention of Histiseus led to a six years' 
 revolt of all the Greeks of Asia Minor, aided by the Athenians and Eretrians. 
 He failed in his first retaliatory enterprise against the European Greeks; and, 
 in the second, tlie great decisive battle of Marathon ended in the overthrow of 
 the Persians. The death of J:)arius postponed the Grecian wars. 
 
 Keign of Xerxes I. 
 
 42. Xe/xes, the Aliasue^rus of the Book of Esther, succeeded to his 
 father's dominions, instead of Artabaza^nes, his elder brother, who had 
 „ ^ „„ been born before Darius's accession to the throne. His first 
 
 13. C. 486-46o. 
 
 care was the crushing of the Egyptian revolt. This was 
 accomplished in the second year of his reign ; a severer servitude was 
 imposed, and his brother Achae^'menes remained as his viceroy in the 
 Valley of the Nile. The Babylonians attempted an insurrection, but 
 dearly paid for their rashness with all the treasure of their temples. 
 
 43. In the third year of his reign,* the king convened his satraps and 
 generals, "the nobles and princes of the provinces," at Susa, to delib- 
 erate concerning the invasion of Greece. In their presence he detailed 
 the motives of ambition and revenge which urged him ngainst a people 
 which had dared to defy his power, and declared his intention to march 
 through Europe, from one end to the other, and make of all its lands one 
 country. He believed that, the Greeks once conquered, no people in the 
 world could stand against him, and thus the sun would no longer shine 
 upon any land beyond his own, lie concluded by commanding each 
 general to make ready his forces, assuring them that he who appeared 
 upon the appointed day with the most effective troop should receive the 
 rewards most precious to every Persian. 
 
 44. During four years all Asia, from the docks of Sidon and Tyre to the 
 banks of the Indus, rang with notes of preparation. All races and tribes 
 of the vast empire sent men and material. The maritime nations fur- 
 nished the largest fleet which the Mediterranean had yet seen. The 
 Phcenicians and Egyptians were charged with the construction of a double 
 bridge of boats over the Hellespont, from Aby^dus, on the Asiatic, to a 
 point between Sestus and Mad^'tus, on the European side of the strait. 
 
 •■' See Esther i : 1-4. 
 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 89 
 
 After this work was completed, a violent storm broke it to j^ieces and 
 threw the shattered fragments upon the shore. The king, unused to being 
 thwarted in any of his designs, caused the engineers to be beheaded, the 
 sea scourged, and a pair of fetters, as a hint of the required submission, 
 thrown into the offending waters. A new bridge, or, rather, pair of bridges, 
 was now formed with still greater care. Two lines of ships, anchored at 
 stem and stern, were united each by six great cables, which reached from 
 shore to shore. They supported a platform of wood, which was covered 
 with earth and protected by a balustrade. 
 
 45. Another body of men, working under the lash of Persian overseers, 
 were employed three years in cutting a canal from the Strymonic to the 
 Singitic Gulf, to sever Mount Athos from the mainland, and tlius enable 
 the fleet to avoid the strong and shifting currents and high seas which 
 prevailed around the peninsula. Immense stores of provisions, collected 
 from all parts of the empire, were deposited at suitable intervals along the 
 line of march. 
 
 40. The rendezvous of the troops was at CritaFla, in Cappadocia, whence 
 they were moved forward to Sardis. In the autumn of 481 B. C, Xerxes 
 arrived at the latter capital, and early in the following spring set his vast 
 army in motion toward the Hellespont. Near the person of the king were 
 the ten tliousand Immortals, whose entire armor glittered with guld. He 
 was preceded by the Chariot of the Sun, in which no mortal dared seat 
 himself, drawn by eight snow-white horses. 
 
 47. At Abydus the king surveyed, from his throne of white marble ele- 
 vated upon a hill, the countless multitudes which thronged the plain, and 
 the myriads of sails that studded the Hellespont. The momentary })ride 
 that swelled his breast, with the consciousness that he was supreme lord 
 of all that host, gave way to a more worthy emotion as he reflected that 
 the whole life of those myriads upon earth was almost as transitory as their 
 passage of the bridge, which lay before him, connecting the known with the 
 unknown continent. Early the next morning perfumes were burnt and 
 myrtle boughs strewn upon the bridges, while the army awaited in silence 
 the rising of the sun. When it appeared, Xerxes, with head uncovered — 
 excelling, not only in rank, but in strength, stature, and beauty, all his 
 host — poured a libation into the sea, praying, meanwhile, with his face 
 toward the rising orb, that no disaster might befall his arms until he had 
 penetrated to the uttermost boundaries of Europe. Having prayed, he 
 cast the golden cup and a Persian cimeter into the sea, and gave a signal 
 for the army to march. 
 
 48. So numerous was the host that, marching day and night without 
 intermission, and goaded by the whip, it occupied seven days in crossing 
 the straits by the two bridges. On the Thracian plain of Doris^cus, near 
 the sea, the army was drawn up for a final review. The land force con- 
 
90 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 sisted of forty-six nations. According to Herodotus, who gathered his 
 information by most careful inquiry of persons who were present, the foot 
 soldiers numbered 1,700,000; the war-chariots and camels, 20,000; the 
 horse, 80,000. Tlie fleet consisted of 1,207 triremes, and 3,000 smaller 
 vessels, carrying in all 517,610 men. Beside this actual fighting force, we 
 must suppose an equal number of slaves, attendants, and the crcAVS of 
 provision ships, making a total of more than five millions of human 
 beings. 
 
 49. Several rivers were dried in giving drink to this multitude, while 
 their food, even the scanty allowance of Asiatic slaves, amounted to 
 C>62,000 bushels of flour each day ; but the excellent commissariat of 
 Xerxes, which had been organizing for seven years, was not at fault. 
 On the march from Doriscus toAvard Greece, the king, still within his 
 own empire, received further accessions from Thracian, Macedonian, and 
 other European tribes, so that his fighting force at Thermop^ylae amounted 
 to 2,640,000 men. Various cities along the route had been commanded to 
 furnish each one meal for the army ; and although they had spent years 
 in preparation, some were ruined by the expense."^ 
 
 50. Meanwhile the Greeks had not been idle. The ten years sii^ce the 
 battle of Marathon had been employed in active drilling of forces, by sea 
 and land. Each state furnished its quota; and though but a handful 
 compared with the myriads of invaders, they had the strength, derived 
 from patriotism and high discipline, to oppose the mere material mass 
 and weight of the Persian host. It was mind against matter. 
 
 51. Abandoning the defense of Thessaly, which was open by too many 
 B c 480 Jivenues to the Persians, the little army of Leon^idas, king 
 
 of Sparta, had made a resolute stand at Thermopylae, a 
 narrow pass between ^Mount (Eta and the sea. The whole force amounted 
 to only 6,000 men, of whom but 300 Avere Spartans. Xerxes waited several 
 days upon the Trachinian plain, expecting that this little band would melt 
 away from mere terror at the sight of his vast numbers At length he sent 
 the Median cavalry to force a passage. They were repulsed with loss. The 
 Immortals made the same attempt with no better success. At this point, 
 EphiaKtes, a Malian, offered for a large reward to show the invaders a 
 mountain -path by Avhich they could reach the rear of the Spartan camp. 
 The Phocian guards of this path were overpowered. Leonidas learned that 
 he was betrayed, and declaring that he and his Spartans must remain at 
 their post, dismissed all the rest of his army except the Thespians and 
 Thebans. Then, before the body of Persians who were crossino- the 
 mountain, under lead of the traitor, could attack him from behind, he 
 threw himself upon the enemy in front, resolving to exact as dear a ven- 
 
 *One of these repasts cost linlf a million of dollars. 
 
THE PERSMN EMPIRE. 91 
 
 geance as possible. Many of the Persian host fell beneath the Spartan 
 swords, many were trodden to death by their own multitudes, and many 
 were forced into the sea. Leonidas soon fell, and the contest for his body 
 inspired his men with new fury. Having recovered it, they placed their 
 backs against a wall of stone and fought until every man was slain. 
 
 52. During the same days several battles were fought at sea between 
 the Greek and Pei-sian fleets. No decisive advantage was gained by either 
 side, but the result was most disheartening to the Persians, who had been 
 most confident of success. The elements, too, had neither been scourged 
 nor scolded into good behavior; a terrible hurricane raged three days and 
 nights upon the coast of Magnesia, tearing the ships from tlieir moorings 
 and dashing them against the cliffs. At least fouj hundred ships of war 
 were thus destroyed, beside a countless number 'of transports with their 
 stores and treasures. Another squadron of two hundred vessels, which had 
 been sent around Eubcea to cut off the retreat of the Greeks, perished, in 
 a sudden tempest, upon the rocks. The Grecian commanders were unable 
 to profit by these advantages, for the defeat at Thermopylae compelled 
 them to withdraw from Artemis^ium to provide for the safety of Attica 
 and the Peloponnesus. 
 
 53. By the death of the Spartan three hundred, the gates of Greece were 
 thrown open, and the hosts of Asia poured through, wasting the country 
 with fire and sword. At Pano^peus a detachment was sent to i)lunder the 
 temple of xVpollo at Delphi, while Xerxes led his main army through 
 Boeo^tia. On the march he received the submission of all the people 
 except the Platjeans and Thespians, who, rather than yield to an invader, 
 abandoned their cities to be burnt. Before his arrival at Athens, the chief 
 object of his revenge, the king heard of the total defeat of his Delphian 
 expedition. According to Greek tradition, no mortal hand turned back 
 the invaders, but Apollo himself hurled down great rocks and crags upon 
 their heads, in the dark ravines of Parnassus, and thus defended his 
 sanctuary. 
 
 54. Athens was a deserted city. All the fighting men were Avith the 
 fleetj while women, children, and infirm persons had been b C 480 
 removed to Salamis, ^Egi^na, or Trceze^ne. Tlie conqueror 
 
 stormed the citadel, plundered and burnt the temples, and sent word to 
 Susa that Athens had shared the fate of Sardis. 
 
 . 55. Xerxes now resolved upon a decisive naval battle in the Saronic 
 Gulf. The Grecian fleet had assembled off Salamis, to the number of 378 
 vessels, while the Persians numbered 1,200. A throne was erected on the 
 inainland, upon the slope of Mount iEgaleos, from which the great king 
 beheld the struggle which was to end his dreams of conquest. The Per- 
 sian fleet occupied the channel between Salamis and the coast of Attica. 
 Their vast numbers, crowded into so narrow a space, were a fatal disad- 
 
92 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 vantage to themselves, for they could only come near the Greeks by small 
 detachments; while the latter, more accustomed to those waters, drove 
 their brazen-pointed prows into the sides of the Persians, advancing and 
 retiring with wonderful dexterity and surety of aim. Feeling the eye of. 
 their king upon them, the Persians fought with desperate bravery. The 
 battle lasted all day; when night fell, Xerxes saw his forces scattered or 
 destroyed, and instead of renewing the battle, resolved to seek his own 
 safety in retreat. 
 
 56. Mardonius engaged to complete the conquest of Greece with 300,000 
 men. The fleet was ordered to the Hellespont, and the king with the re- 
 mainder of his forces set out for home. His magazines had been exhausted, 
 and during this forced retreat many died of hunger. Forty-five days after 
 his departure from Attica he arrived at the Hellespont, and finding his 
 second bridge of boats destroyed, returned to Asia by ship. He entered 
 Sardis at the end of the year 480, humbled and depressed, only eight 
 months from the time when he left it full of vain hopes of subduing the 
 western world. 
 
 57. The operations of Mardonius will be more fully detailed in the His- 
 tory of Greece;^ a mere outline is here presented. Wintering in Thessaly, 
 he sought by magnificent promises to detach the Athenians from the Greek 
 interests. Diplomacy failing, his army was at once poured into Attica, 
 filling Athens, whose inhabitants had taken refuge again at Salamis. He 
 destroyed the beautiful city by fire, completing the destruction which 
 Xerxes had begun. Then finding that the Greeks were concentrating 
 their forces at the Isthmus, he retired into Boeotia, where, in September, 
 479, the great battle of Platse^a was fought. Mardonius was slain and his 
 forces routed with terrible carnage. The last remnant of the Persian fleet 
 was similarly routed at Myc^ale, on the opposite side of the ^gean, and 
 the deliverance of Europe was complete. No Persian army henceforth 
 trod the soil of European Greece, and for twelve years no Persian sail 
 appeared in the ^gean. 
 
 58. Having spent his own best strength and that of his empire in this 
 disastrous war, Xerxes made no further effort for military glory, but gave 
 himself up to luxurious indolence. The highest rewards were offered to 
 him who could invent a new pleasure. His subjects followed the example 
 of their king ; the empire was weakened by licentiousness and distracted 
 by violence. It was only a fitting close to such a reign, when, at the end 
 of twenty years, Xerxes was murdered by Artaba^nus, the captain of his 
 guard, and Aspami^tres, his chamberlain. 
 
 50. Eeigx of Artaxerxes I. B. C. 465-425. The assassins placed 
 upon the throne the youngest son of their victim, Artaxerxes Longimanus, 
 
 >:• See pp. 142-144. 
 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 93 
 
 or the Long-Handed. The eldest son, Darius, was executed on a false 
 charge of having murdered his father. The second, Hystas^pes, claimed 
 the crown, but was defeated and slain in battle. The crimes of the real 
 assassins were proved against them, and they were punished with death. 
 Artaxerxes enjoyed an undisputed reign of forty years, during which the 
 power of the empire declined, notwithstanding his beneficent efforts to 
 promote the interests of his people. 
 
 60. Egyptian Revolt. In the early part of his reign Egypt revolted 
 under Tnarus, son of Psammet^ichus, who was aided by the 
 Athenians. Achaemenes, brother of the king, was sent Avith 
 a great army to punish the rebellion ; but he was defeated and slain by the 
 hand of Inarus in the battle of Papre^mis, and a vast number of Persians 
 perished. The remainder of the army were shut up in the White Castle at 
 Memphis, and suffered a siege of three years. A new force, led by Mega- 
 by^zus, was more successful : Memphis was relieved, Inarus 
 
 . B. C. 455. 
 
 taken, and the Athenian fleet destroyed. Amyrta3''us, the 
 
 ally of Inarus, held out six years longer in the marshes of the Delta, 
 until, by the intervention of Athens, peace was made. The Persians were 
 defeated with great loss off" Salamis, in Cyprus, and consented to very 
 humiliating terms. They engaged not to visit with fleet or army the 
 western shores of Asia Minor, but to respect the independence of the 
 Asiatic Greeks. Even the leader of the revolt was punished only by the 
 loss of his principality. 
 
 CI, Contrary to the solemn agreement of Megabyzus, Inarus, after five 
 years at the Persian court, was given up, with fifty Athenian companions, 
 to the vengeance of the queen-mother, and suffered a barbarous death for 
 having slain Achaemenes. Disgusted by this violation of his honor, Mega- 
 byzus stirred up a revolt in his province of Syria. He was the greatest 
 general in the empire, and the success of his operations against the forces 
 sent to subdue him, so alarmed his master that he was permitted to dictate 
 his own terms of peace. The intercessions of his wife, Am^'ytis, sister of the 
 king, aided much in his reconciliation ; but the example was ruinous to the 
 strict organization of the provinces which Darius had introduced. The 
 tendencies to decay now acted with greater and greater rapidity. 
 
 62. In the seventh j^ear of Artaxerxes' reign, a new migration of Jews 
 was led from Babylon by Ezra, a man of priestly lineage and high in favor 
 at the Persian court. Laden with contributions from the Jews of Baby- 
 lonia, he arrived in Jerusalem with great treasures for the completion of the 
 temple, and for the reestablishment of civil government throughout the 
 country. He found that the people had allied themselves with the neigh- 
 boring tribes by marriage, and insisted on the immediate dismissal of all 
 heathen members from Jewish households. 
 
 63. The defeat of the Persians at Cyprus, 440 B. C, operated to a certain 
 
94 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 degree in favor of the Jews ; for all the maritime ports of the empire having 
 been ceded, the natural fortress of Zion, commanding the roads between 
 Egypt and the capital, became of great importance. Hitherto the Persian 
 monarchs had forbidden Jerusalem to be fortified, but in the twentieth 
 year of Artaxerxes' reign, Nehemi^ah, the Jewish cup-bearer of the great 
 king, received a commission to rebuild its walls. He moved with great 
 celerity and secrecy, for the neighboring Samaritans, Ammonites, and 
 Arabians, no longer awed, as formerly, by a decree of the empire, vio- 
 lently opposed the work. Laboring by night, with tools in one hand and 
 weapons in the other, the Jews of every rank gave themselves so zealously 
 to the task, that in fifty-two days Jerusalem was inclosed by walls and 
 towers strong enough to defy her foes. (Nehemiah i-v : 16.) 
 
 Meanwhile Ezra, relieved from the civil command, labored at his great 
 work, the collection and editing of the Sacred Books. During the cap- 
 tivity many writings had been lost, among them the Book of Jasher, that 
 of " The Wars of the Lord," the writings of Gad and Iddo, the prophets, 
 and the works of Solomon on Natural History. The sacred books which 
 remained were arranged in three great divisions : the Law, the Prophets, 
 and the Hagiographa; the latter including Job, the Psalms, and Proverbs, 
 Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Ruth, Daniel, and the Chronicles. The Books of 
 Malachi, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther were afterward added, and the canon 
 closed. 
 
 64. On the departure of Nehemiah the old disorders returned. Ezra 
 died; the high priest allied himself with the deadliest enemy of the 
 Jewish faith, Tobi^ah the Ammonite, to whom he gave lodgings in the 
 temple. The Sabbath was broken; Tyrian traders sold their merchandise 
 in the gates of Jerusalem on the Holy Day. Nehemiah returned with the 
 power of a satrap, and with his usual skill reformed these abuses. He 
 expelled Manasseh, who had now become high priest, because he had 
 married a daughter of Sanballat the Horonite. The pagan father-in-laAv 
 hereupon built a rival temple on the summit of Mount Gerizim, of which 
 Manasseh became high priest. The bitter hatred arising from this schism 
 continued for centuries, and did not cease even with the destruction of the 
 temple at Jerusalem, A. D. 70. ''The Jews had no dealings with the Sa- 
 maritans." From the time of the division there was no more intermingling 
 of pagan elements in the religion and customs of Judsea. The Hebrews 
 became not only the most rigidly monotheistic, but, in spite of their later 
 Avanderings, the most nearly isolated of all the nations. 
 
 65. Xerxes II. Artaxerxes died B. C. 425, and was succeeded by his 
 son, Xerxes II. After a reign of only forty-five days, the young king 
 was assassinated by his half-brother, Sogdia^nus; and the funeral train 
 of his father was overtaken, on its way to the royal tombs at Persepolis, 
 bv his own. 
 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 05 
 
 66. SOGDIANUS. B. C. 425, 424. The murderer enjoyed the fruits of 
 his crime but little more than half a year. Another half-brother, O^chus, 
 revolted with the satraps of Egypt and Armenia and the general of the 
 royal cavalry. Sogdianus Avas deposed and put to death. 
 
 67. Darius II. B. C. 424-405. Ochus, ascending the throne, took the 
 name of Darius, to which the Greeks added the contemptuous surname 
 No^thus. This prince spent the nineteen years of his reign under the 
 control of his wife, Parysa^tis, who surpassed her mother, Amas^tris, in 
 wickedness and cruelty. The empire, meanwhile, was shaken by continual 
 revolts, and the means that were taken to quell them compromised instead 
 of confirming the integrity of the nation. Promises were made which were 
 never intended to be kept, for the purpose of leading on the rebellious 
 satraps to their destruction ; and the tools of these falsehoods, instead of 
 resenting, like Megabyzus, the loss of their honor, gladly accepted the 
 spoils of their victims. The precautions of Darius I were disregarded; 
 civil and military powers were combined in the same person, and two or 
 three countries were often united under the rule of one satrap. These 
 great governments, descending often from father to son, became more like 
 independent kingdoms than provinces of the empire. 
 
 68. The Medes, after more than a century of submission to Persian rule, 
 attempted to free themselves, B. C. 408, but were defeated. The Egyptians, 
 being more distant, were more successful. Always the most discontented 
 of the Persian provinces, their opposition was even more a matter of re- 
 ligion than of patriotism, and was constantly fomented by the priests. 
 Under two successive dynasties of native kings, they were now able to 
 maintain their independence nearly sixty years. B. C. 405-346. 
 
 69. While the empire was undergoing these losses, it gained a great 
 advantage in the recovery of the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The Athe- 
 nians and Spartans had been wasting their forces against each other in the 
 Peloponnesian war (B. C. 431-404), which, more than any regard to their 
 engagements, had interrupted their hostile attempts against Persia. The 
 power of Athens was now broken by disasters in Sicily ; and the Lydian 
 satrap, Tissapher^nes, seized the occasion to cultivate the alliance of Sparta, 
 and aid the Athenian colonies, Lesbos, Chios, and Erythrse, in their in- 
 tended revolt. Pharnaba^'zus, satrap of the Hellespontine jDrovinces, pur- 
 sued the same course ; and through the rivalry of the two Greek states, 
 their ancient enemy gained undisputed possession of "all Asia." 
 
 Cyrus, the younger son of the king, becoming satrap of Phrygia, Lydia, 
 and Cappadocia, used his wealth and power without reserve to aid the 
 Lacedemonians and humble the Athenians. He declared to Lysan^der, 
 the Spartan admiral, that if it were needful he would sell his very throne, 
 or coin it into money, to meet the expenses of the wai*. This liberality 
 had another cause than friendship. The Spartans were esteemed the best 
 
96 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 soldiers in the world, and Cyrus was preparing for a bold and difficult 
 movement in which he wanted their assistance. 
 
 70. This young prince had been " born in the purple," while his elder 
 brother had been born before their father's accession to the throne. With 
 this pretext, which had availed in the case of Xerxes I, his mother, Pary- 
 satis, whose favorite he was, strove in vain to persuade Darius to name him 
 his successor in the empire. Cyrus assumed royal state in his province; 
 and though naturally haughty and cruel, he managed to gain the affection 
 of his courtiers by his amiable manners, while his more brilliant qualities 
 commanded their admiration. Darius, alarmed by his son's unbounded 
 ambition, recalled him to the capital, which he reached only in time to 
 witness his father's death and his brother's accession to the throne. 
 
 71. B. C. 405-359. Artaxerxes II was called Mnemon, for his won- 
 derful memory. His first royal act was to cast his brother into prison, 
 upon a report, probably too well founded, that he was plotting against the 
 life of the king. Cyrus was condemned to die, but his mother, who had 
 instigated the plot, plead for him with such effect, that Artaxerxes not 
 only spared his life, but sent him back to his satrapy. If Cyrus was am- 
 bitious and rebellious before, he had now the additional motive of revenge 
 urging him to dethrone his brother and reign in his stead. He raised an 
 army of Greek mercenaries, for a pretended expedition against the robbers 
 of Pisid^ia, and set out from Sardis in the spring of 401. 
 
 Artaxerxes was informed of his movements by Tissaphernes, and was 
 well prepared to meet him. The Greeks learned the real object of their 
 B c 401 march too late to draw back. The army passed through 
 
 Phrygia and Cilicia, entered Syria by the mountain-passes 
 near Issus, crossed the Euphrates at Thap^sacus, and advanced to the plain 
 of Cunax^a, about fifty-seven miles from Babylon. Here he encountered 
 a royal army at least four times as numerous as his own. The Greeks 
 sustained their ancient renown by utterly routing the Asiatics who were 
 opposed to them; but Cyrus, rashly penetrating to the Persian center, 
 where his brother commanded in person, was stricken down by one of the 
 royal guard. He had already wounded the king. Artaxerxes commanded 
 his head and traitorous right hand to be cut off, and his fate ended the 
 battle. 
 
 72. The Grecian auxiliaries who had been entrapped into the war by 
 Cyrus now found themselves in a perilous position. Their Persian allies 
 were scattered ; they were in the heart of an unknown and hostile country, 
 two thousand miles from home, and surrounded by the victorious army of 
 Artaxerxes. The wily Tissaphernes, who had been rewarded with the 
 dominions of Cyrus, detained them nearly a month by false pretenses of 
 negotiation; and having led them as far as the head-waters of the Tigris, 
 gained possession of all their officers, whom he caused to be put to death. 
 
25 H. K. ^''. PKi.. 
 
 
so Avtim, 85 GrccinviiJi. 
 
 iTci^i, JiuiVtdo. 
 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 97 
 
 At this crisis, the Athenian Xen^ophon, who had accompanied the army 
 of Cyrus, though not as a soldier, called together the principal Greeks at 
 midnight, and urged the election of new officers who should lead them 
 back to their native laud. The suggestion was adopted ; five generals Avere 
 chosen, of whom Xenophon was one, and by break of day the army had 
 been mustered for its homeward march. 
 
 Here began the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, celebrated in the annals 
 of war as, perhaps, the most remarkable instance of an enterprise con- 
 ducted against prodigious obstacles, with perfect coolness, valor, and 
 success. Tissaphernes with his army hung upon their rear, hostile bar- 
 barians were in front, and to the fatigues of the march were added the 
 perils of frequent battles. Their course lay over the table-lands of Arme- 
 nia, where many perished in the freezing north winds, or were blinded by 
 the unusual glare of snow. The survivors pressed on with indomitable 
 spirit, until, ascending a mountain south of TreVizond, they beheld, far 
 away to the north-west, the dark waters of the Euxine. Their greatest 
 perils were now over; a joyous cry, ''The sea! the seal" arose from the 
 front rank and was quickly caught up by those behind. Officers and 
 soldiers embraced each other with tears of joy; and all united to erect 
 upon this happy lookout a monument of the trophies collected during 
 their wearisome journey. 
 
 73. By their part in the rebellion of Cyrus, however involuntary, the 
 Spartans had given unpardonable offense to Artaxerxes, and they resolved 
 to be the first movers in the war which must ensue. Securing the services 
 of the Ten Thousand, they attacked the Persians in Asia Minor with a 
 success which promised a speedy end to their dominion. But Persia had 
 grown wiser since the days of Xerxes, and fought the Greeks not so much 
 with her unwieldy masses of troops as with subtle intrigue. By means of 
 skillful emissaries well supplied with gold, she brought about a league 
 between the secondary states of Greece — Argos, Corinth, Athens, and 
 Thebes — which at once overbalanced the power of Sparta. Persian ships 
 had part in the battle of Cnidus, by which the confederates gained the 
 dominion of the sea. B. C. 394. Sparta was reduced to ac- _ ^ ._ 
 
 Jj. C oo7. 
 
 cepting the humiliating peace of AntaKcidas, by which the 
 
 Asiatic Greeks were left under the control of Persia, and the great king 
 
 gained an authoritative voice in all quarrels between the Grecian states. 
 
 74. Artaxerxes was haunted by the desire to restore the empire to its 
 greatest extent under Darius Hystaspes. He reoccupied Samos, which he 
 intended as a stepping-stone to the rest of the Greek islands; and sent a 
 great expedition into Egypt under the joint command of Iphic^rates, an 
 Athenian, and Pharnabazus, a Persian general. This enterprise failed, 
 partly through the jealousies of the two commanders; and the failure 
 hastened a revolt in the western satrapies, which came near to overturn 
 
 A. H.— 13. 
 
98 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the empire. Egypt now retaliated, and attempted to revive her ancient 
 glories by the conquest of Syria and Phoenicia. But these movements 
 were defeated by management and gold, and Artaxerxes left his dominion 
 with nearly the same boundaries which it had at the beginning of his 
 
 reign. 
 
 75. Eeign of Artaxerxes III. B. C. 359-338. The death of Arta- 
 xerxes II was followed by the usual crimes and atrocities which attended a 
 change upon the Persian throne. His youngest son, Ochus, seized the 
 crown after the murder of his eldest and the suicide of his second brother. 
 He assumed the name of Artaxerxes III, and by his energy and spirit did 
 much to retrieve the failing prosperity of the empire. He did not, how- 
 ever, abate the inherent sources of its weakness in the corruptions of the 
 court. Family affection had been replaced by jealousy and hatred. The 
 first act of Ochus was the extermination of his own royal race, in order 
 that no rival might remain to dispute his throne. His more ambitious 
 enterprises were delayed by a revolt of Artabazus in Asia Minor, which 
 was abetteci by Athens and Thebes. The defeated satrap fled to Philip of 
 Macedon, whose ready protection and Ochus's retaliatory measures led to 
 the most important results. These will be detailed in Book IV. 
 
 76. About B. C. 351, Ochus was ready to attempt the subjugation of 
 Egypt. He was defeated in his first campaign, and retired into Persia 
 to recruit his forces. This retreat was the signal for innumerable revolts. 
 Phoenicia placed herself under the independent government of the king 
 of Sidon ; Cyprus set up nine native sovereigns; in Asia Minor a dozen 
 separate kingdoms were asserted, if not established. But the spirit of 
 Artaxerxes III was equal to the occasion. He raised a second armament, 
 hired ten thousand Greek mercenaries, and proceeded in person to war. 
 against Phoenicia and Egypt. Sidon was taken and Phoenicia subdued. 
 Mentor the Phodian, who, in the service of the king of Egypt was aiding 
 the Sidonians, went over to the Persians with four thousand Greeks. 
 Egypt was then invaded with more success. Nectanebo was de/eated and 
 expelled, and his country again reduced to a Persian satrapy. 
 
 77. Most of the later victories of Artaxerxes were due to the valor of his 
 Greek auxiliaries, or to the treachery or incapacity of liis opponents. After 
 the reestablishment of his government, he abandoned himself to the pleas- 
 ures of his palace, while the control of affairs rested exclusively with Ba- 
 go''as, his minister, and Mentor, his general. The people were only reminded 
 from time to time of his existence by some unusually bloody mandate. What- 
 ever hope might have been inspired by his really great abilitie:-?, was dis- 
 appointed at once by his unscrupulous violence and indolent self-indulgence. 
 He died of poison by the hand of Bagoas, B. C. 338. 
 
 78. Arses. B. C. 338-336. The perfidious minister destroyed not merely 
 the king himself, but all the royal princes except Arises, the youngest, 
 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 99 
 
 whom he placed upon the throne, believing that, as a mere boy, he would 
 be subservient to his control. After two years he was alarmed by some 
 signs of independent character in his pupil, and added Arses to the 
 number of his victims. lie now conferred the sovereignty upon Darius 
 Codoman^nus, a grandson of Darius II, whom he regarded as a friend, but 
 who commenced his reign by an act of summary justice, in the execution 
 of the wretch to whom he owed his crown. B. C. 336. 
 
 70. Reign of Darius III. B. C. 336-331. As has often happened in 
 the world's history, one of the best of the Persian kings had to bear the 
 results of the tyrannies of his predecessors, Darius was not more distin- 
 guished for his pei'sonal beauty than for the uprightness and benevolence 
 of his character ; and as satrap of Armenia, before his accession to the 
 throne, he had won great applause both for his bravery as a soldier and 
 his skill as a general. But the Greeks, whose reasons for hostility against 
 the Persians had been two hundred years accumulating, had now, at last, 
 a leader more ambitious than Xerxes, and more able than Cyrus. Already, 
 before Darius had mounted the throne, Alexander the Great had succeeded 
 his father in Macedon, had been appointed general-in-chief of all the Greek 
 forces, and had commenced his movement against Asia. 
 
 80. The Persian monarch despised the presumption of an inexperienced 
 boy, and made no effort, by aiding the European enemies of Alexander, to 
 crush the new foe in his cradle. The satraps and generals shared the con- 
 fidence of their master, and though a large force was collected in Mysia, 
 no serious opposition was made to his passage of the Hellespont. In 
 B. C. 334, Alexander with his 35,000 Greeks crossed the strait which had 
 been passed by Xerxes, with his five millions, less than 150 years before. 
 The Greek army Avas scarcely more inferior to the Persian in number 
 than superior in efficiency. It was composed of veteran troops in the 
 highest possible state of equipment and discipline, and every man was 
 filled with enthusiastic devotion to his leader and confidence of success. 
 
 Memnon, a brother of Mentor the Rhodian, with the satraps Spithrida^tes 
 and Arsi^tes, commanded the Persians in Asia Minor. Their first collision 
 with Alexander was in the attempt to prevent his passage of the Grani^cus, 
 a little Mysian river which flows into the Propon^tis. They were totally 
 defeated, and Alexander, advancing southward, subdued, or rather liberated 
 all the cities of the western coast without long delay. Halicarnas^sus, under 
 the command of Memnon, made an obstinate resistance, and it was only at 
 the end of autumn that it surrendered. Memnon then resolved to carry the 
 war into Greece. He gathered a large fleet and captured many islands in 
 the iEgean ; but his death at Mytile^ne relieved Alexander of the most able 
 of his opponents. 
 
 81. The king of Macedon wintered at Gor^dium, where he cut or untied 
 the celebrated knot, which an ancient prophecy had declared could never 
 
100 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 be loosened except by the conqueror of Asia. With fresh reinforcements 
 from Greece, he commenced his second campaign, in the spring of 333, by 
 marching through Cappadocia and Cilicia to the gates of Syria. Darius 
 met him, in the narrow plain of Issus, with an army of half a million 
 men. Hemmed in between the mountains, the river, and the sea, the 
 Persian horsemen could not act, and their immense numbers were rather 
 an incumbrance than an advantage. Darius was defeated and fled across 
 the Euphrates. His mother, wife, and children fell into the hands of the 
 conqueror, wlio treated them with the utmost delicacy and respect. 
 
 82. B. C. 333-331. The conquests of Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt, which 
 Alexander now accomplished in less than two years, will be described in 
 the Macedonian history. In the spring of 331, he retraced his triumphant 
 march through Syria, crossed the Euphrates at Thapsacus, traversed Mes- 
 opotamia, and met Darius again on the great Assyrian plain east of the 
 Tigris. The Persian king had spent the twenty months which had inter- 
 vened since the battle of Issus in mustering the entire force of his empire. 
 The ground was carefully selected as most favorable to the movements of 
 cavalry, and as giving him the full advantage of his superior numbers. A 
 large space was leveled and hardened with rollers for the evolutions of the 
 scythe-armed chariots. An important part of the infantry was formed of 
 the brave and hardy mountaineers of Afghanistan, Bokhara, Khiva, and 
 Thibet ; and the cavalry, of the ancestors of the modern Kurds and Turco- 
 mans, a race always distinguished for bold and skillful horsemanship, A 
 brigade of Greek auxiliaries was alone considered able to withstand the 
 charge of Alexander's phalanx. Altogether the forces of Darius numbered 
 more than a million of men, and they surpassed all former general levies 
 of the Persians in the efficient discipline which enabled them to act together 
 as one body. 
 
 83. The Macedonian phalanx, which formed the center of Alexander's 
 army, was the most effective body of heavy-armed troops known to ancient 
 tactics. The men were placed sixteen deep, armed with the sarissa, or long 
 pike, twenty-four feet in length. When set for action, the spear-heads of 
 the first six ranks projected from the front. In receiving a charge, the 
 shield of each man, held over the head with the left arm, overlapped that 
 of his neighbor; so that the entire body resembled a monster clothed in the 
 shell of a tortoise and the bristles of a porcupine. So long as it held to- 
 gether, the phalanx was invincible. Whether it advanced its vast weight 
 upon an enemy like a solid wall of steel bristling with spear-points, or, 
 kneeling, with each pike planted in the ground, awaited the attack, few 
 dared to encounter it. 
 
 84. Battle of Arbela. On the morning of the 1st of October, B. C. 
 331, the two great forces met upon the plain of Gaugame^la. Alexander 
 fought at the head of his cavalry, on the right of his army. Darius, in 
 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 101 
 
 the Persian center, animated his men both by word and example. Both 
 sides fought with wonderful bravery, but the perfect discipline of the 
 Macedonians gained at length a complete victory. The Persian war- 
 chariots, which, with long scythes extending from their wheels, were in- 
 tended to make great havoc among the Greek horse, were rendered useless 
 by a detachment of light-armed troops trained for the purpose, who, first 
 wounding horses and drivers with their javelins, ran beside the horses and 
 cut the traces or seized the reins, while the few which reached the Mace- 
 donian front were allowed to pass between files which opened to receive 
 them, and were easily captured in the rear. Five brigades of the phalanx 
 bore down the Greek mercenaries who were opposed to them, and pene- 
 trated to the Persian center, where Darius commanded in person. The 
 king's charioteer was killed by a javelin ; he himself mounted a fleet horse 
 and galloped from the field. 
 
 Elsewhere the issue of the day was much more doubtful for Alexander ; 
 but the news of Darius's flight disheartened his officers, and sjDurred the 
 Macedonians, who were outnumbered and almost overpowered, to fresh 
 exertions. A party of Persian and Indian horsemen, who were plundering 
 the Macedonian camp, were put to flight by a reserve corps of the phalanx. 
 The fugitive king, followed at length by his whole army, directed his course 
 to the city of Arbe'la, twenty miles distant, where his military treasures were 
 deposited. The river Ly''cus lay in their way, crossed only by a narrow 
 bridge, and the number of Persians drowned in this rapid stream exceeded 
 even those w^ho had perished upon the battle-field. 
 
 85. The next day Alexander arrived at Arbela and took possession of its 
 treasures. The Persian king, unhappily for himself, had escaped a generous 
 conqueror only to fall into the hands of his treacherous satrap Bes^sus. This 
 man had led a division of the Persian army in the battle of Arbela, but 
 finding his master's fortunes ruined, had plotted with some fellow-oflicers 
 to seize his person, and either put him to death or deliver him to Alexander, 
 hoping thus to gain for themselves important commands. Loaded with 
 chains, the unhappy king was carried away by his servants in their flight 
 toward Hyrca'^nia ; but Alexander's troops pressed them closely, and finding 
 escape impossible, they mortally wounded their captive and left him by the 
 road-side to die. 
 
 The former lord of Asia was indebted to a Macedonian soldier, who 
 brought him a cup of cold water, for the last act of attendance. He assured 
 the man that his inability to reward this service added bitterness to his 
 dying moments; but commended him to Alexander, whose generosity he 
 himself had proved, and who would not fail to honor this his last request. 
 The conqueror came up while the lifeless remains of Darius still lay by the 
 road-side. Deeply moved, he threw his own royal mantle over the body of 
 his foe, and ordered that a magnificent procession should convey the last of 
 
102 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the Persian kings to the tomb of his fathers. In the battle of Arbela the 
 Persian empire fell. The reduction of the provinces occupied the few re- 
 maining years of Alexander's life ; but their submission was certain from 
 the moment when the forces of Asia were put to flight and their monarch 
 was a captive. 
 
 :ZtECJ^:PITTJXj.A.TI03sr. 
 
 Xerxes, having re-conquered Egypt and laid all his empire under contribution, 
 led into Europe the largest army which the world has seen. He gained the pass 
 of Thermopylae by treacliery, but his fleet was shattered by storms and utterly 
 defeated at Salamis. The war ended, the following year, in the overthrow of 
 Mardonius at Plataea, and the destruction of a Persian fleet and army at Mycale. 
 The forty j'ears' reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus began the decline of the empire. 
 A fresh immigration of liberated Jews re-fortified Jerusalem, and the books of the 
 Old Testament were for the first time collected and arranged. The feud with tlie 
 Samaritans was perpetuated by tlieir building a rival temple on Mount Gerizim. 
 In the reign of Dai'ius II many provinces revolted, and Egypt remained inde- 
 pendent sixty years. Upon the death of Darius, his younger son Cyrus, with the 
 aid of 10,000 Spartan mercenaries, made war upon his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, 
 but he was defeated and slain at Cunaxa. A general war followed, in which 
 Sparta was humbled by tlie combined forces of Persia and the minor states of 
 Greece, and the treaty of Antalcidas made the great king arbiter in Grecian 
 aflTairs. Artaxerxes III, having murdered all his kindred, re-conquered Syria, 
 Phoenicia, and Egypt. He was destroyed, with all his children, by Bagoas, his 
 minister, who conferred the sovereignty on Darius Codomannus. This last of the 
 Achaemenidse was defeated by Alexander the Great at Issus, and finally at Ar- 
 l)ela; and all the dominions of Persia became parts of tl>e Macedonian Empire. 
 
 qxje:stioin"s i^or rea^ietv. 
 
 Book II. 
 
 1. Who and what were the Persians? g l. 
 
 2. Wliat were their relations with the Medes? . . Book I, 39 ; Book II, 2. 
 
 3. What led to the revolution in the Medo-Persian dominion ? . , . 3, 4. 
 
 4. Describe the wars of Cyrus 5 7 9. 
 
 o. His treatment of the Lydians 6. 
 
 6. What led to the return of the Jews? g. 
 
 7. What was the character of Cambyses? .12. 
 
 8. Describe his Egyptian campaign 13. 
 
 9. His operations beyond Egyiit 14 15. 
 
 10. His behavior nt Mempliis . 16. 
 
 H. Tlie Magian revolt 17. 
 
 12. The last days of Cambyses 18. 
 
 13. The reign and dethronement of I he false Smerdis. ... 19. 
 
 l"*. The revolts against Darius Hystaspes 20. 
 
 15. His system of government 21 22. 
 
 Ifi. His court and retinue 23 24. 
 
 17. Compare the religious systems of the Persians, Hindus, and Modes. . 25-28. 
 
 18. What causes of corruption in the Persian court? 29. 
 
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 
 
 103 
 
 19. Describe the wars of Darius I 
 
 20. The causes and incidents of the Ionian revolt. 
 
 21. The Persian measures of revenge against the Athenian: 
 
 22. The memorials of Darius Hystaspes. 
 
 23. Describe the beginning of Xerxes' reign 
 
 24. His preparations against Greece. 
 
 25. The passage of the Hellespont 
 
 2(J. The magnitude of the army. .... 
 
 27. Tlie first battle with tlie (Jreeks 
 
 28. Tbe disasters by sea. 
 
 29. What occurred at Delphi? At Athens? AtSalaniis?. 
 
 30. Describe the retreat of Xerxes, and liis subsequent career. 
 81. The operations of Mardonius in Greece. . 
 
 32. Tlie accession of Artaxerxes Longimanus. 
 
 33. The revolts during his reign 
 
 34. Tiie affairs of the Jews under Artaxerxes. 
 
 35. Who were the next three Icings? 
 
 36. Wliat was the condition of the kingdom under Darius II? 
 
 37. Describe tlie enterprise of Cyrus the younger. 
 
 38. Its results lo the Greeks 
 
 39. The reign of Artaxerxes Mnenion. 
 
 40. The reign of Artaxerxes III. .... 
 
 41. Wlio succeeded him ? 
 
 42. What was the character of Darius III ? .... 
 
 43. Compare the armies of Alexander and Darius. 
 
 44. Describe the battles of Issus and Arbela 
 
 45. Tlie fate of Darius 
 
 ■Hi. How long had the Persian Empire continued? 
 
 47. How many kings, commencing with Cyrus? 
 
 48. What was its greatest extent, described by boundaries? 
 
 49. What is meant by a satrapy ? 
 
 41 
 
 U 30-32. 
 33, 34. 
 3.5-40. 
 ud Note. 
 42, 43. 
 44-40. 
 47. 
 
 48, 49. 
 51. 
 52. 
 
 53-55. 
 56, 58. 
 57. 
 59. 
 
 (JO, 61. 
 62-64. 
 65-67. 
 67, 68. 
 69-71. 
 
 72, 73. 
 74. 
 
 75-77. 
 78. 
 79. 
 80, 82, 83. 
 81, 84. 
 85. 
 
BOOK III. 
 
 Geecian States and Colonies feom their Earliest Period 
 TO THE Accession of Alexander the Great. 
 
 geographical outline of GREECE. 
 
 1. Of the three peninsulas which extend southward into the Mediterra- 
 nean, the most easterly was first settled, and became the seat of the highest 
 civilization which the ancient world could boast. Its southern portion only 
 was occupied by Greece, which extended from the 40th parallel southward 
 to the 36th. Continental Greece never equaled in size the state of Ohio. 
 Its greatest length, from Mount Olym^pus to Cape Tsen^'arum, was 250 
 miles; and its greatest breadth, from Actium to Marathon, Avas but 180. 
 Yet this little space was divided into twenty-four separate countries, each 
 of which was politically independent of all the rest. 
 
 2. The most peculiar trait of the Grecian peninsula is the great extent 
 of its coast as compared with its area. It is almost cut into three distinct 
 portions by deep indentations of the sea, northern Greece being separated 
 from the central portion by the Ambra^cian and Ma^lian, and central 
 Greece from the Peloponnesus by the Corinth^ian and Saron^ic gulfs. A 
 country thus surrounded and penetrated by water, of necessity became 
 maritime. The islands of the ^gean afforded easy stepping-stones from 
 Europe to Asia. Opposite, on the south, was one of the most fertile 
 portions of Africa; and, on the west, the Italian peninsula was only thirty 
 miles distant at the narrowest portion of the channel. 
 
 3. The northern boundary of Greece is the Cambu^nian range, which 
 crosses the peninsula from east to west. About midway between the two 
 seas, this range is intersected by that of Pin'^dus, which runs from north 
 to south, like the Ap^ennines of Italy. This lofty chain sends off a branch 
 toward the eastern coast, which, running parallel to the Cambunian at a 
 distance of sixty miles, incloses the beautiful plain of Thes^saly. West of 
 Mount Pindus is Epi^rus, a rough and mountainous country inhabited by 
 various tribes, some Greek, some barbarian.. Its ridges, running north and 
 
 (105) 
 
106 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 south, were alternated with well-watered valleys. Through the most east- 
 erly of these flows the Achelo^us, the largest river in Greece. Near its 
 source were the sacred oaks of Dodo^na, in the rustling' of whose leaves the 
 voice of the supreme divinity was believed to be heard, 
 
 4. Central Greece was occupied by eleven states: At^tica, Meg^aris, 
 Boeo^tia, Malis, ^nia^nia, eastern and western Locris, Phocis, Doris, 
 ^to^lia, and Ac^arna^nia. Between ^tolia and Doris, Mount Pindus 
 divides into two branches. One of these runs south-easterly into Attica, 
 and comprises the noted summits of Parnas^sus, HeFicon, Cithse^ron, and 
 Hymet^tus; the other turns to the southward, and reaches the sea near the 
 entrance of the Corinthian Gulf 
 
 Attica is a triangular peninsula, having two sides washed by the sea 
 and its base united to the land. Protected by its mountain barriers of 
 Cithaeron and Pai-^nes, it suffered less from war in early times than other 
 parts of the country ; and the olive, its chief production, became for all 
 ages a symbol of peace. 
 
 5. Southern Greece contained eleven countries: Cor^inth, Sicyo^nia, 
 Acha^ia, E^lis, Arca^dia, Messe^nia, Laco^nia, Ar^golis, Epidau'ria, Troe- 
 ze^nia, and Hermi^onis. 
 
 The territory of Corinth occupied the isthmus between the Corinthian 
 and Saronic gulfs; and by its two ports, Lechse^um and Cen''chreae, carried 
 on an extensive commerce both with the eastern and western seas. Thus 
 admirably situated, Corinth, the chief city, was noted for its wealth even 
 in the time of Homer. 
 
 Sicyonia was considered the oldest state in Greece, and Argolis next. 
 The ruins of Tir^yns and Myce^nse, in the latter, existed long before the 
 beginning of authentic history. 
 
 Elis was the Holy Land of the Helle^nes. Every foot of its territory 
 was sacred to Zeus, and it was sacrilege to bear arms within its limits. 
 Thus it was at peace when all Greece beside was at war; and though its 
 wealth surpassed that of all the neighboring states, its capital remained 
 unwalled. 
 
 Arcadia, the Switzerland of the Peloponnesus, was the only Grecian 
 state without a sea-coast. Its wild, precipitous rocks were clothed in 
 gloomy forests, and buried during a great part of the year in fogs and 
 snows. Its people were rustic and illiterate ; they worshiped Pan, the god 
 of shepherds and hunters, but if they returned empty-handed from the 
 chase, they expressed their disgust by pricking or scourging his image. 
 
 Messenia occupied the south-western corner of Greece, and encircled a 
 gulf to Avhich it gave its name. Laconia embraced the other two prom- 
 ontories in which the Peloponnesus terminates, together with a larger tract 
 to the northward. It consisted mainly of a long valley bounded by two 
 high ranges, whence it was sometimes called Hollow La^cedee^mon. Down 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 107 
 
 the center of the vale flowed the Euro'^tas, whose sources were in the steep 
 recesses of Mount Tay/getus. Sparta, the capital, was the only important 
 town. It lay on the Eurotas about twenty miles from the sea, inclosed by 
 an amphitheater of mountains which shut out cooling winds and concen- 
 trated the sun's rays, so as to produce intense heat in summer. 
 
 (>. Although the name of Greece is now strictly limited to the penin- 
 sula which we have described, it was often more generally applied by the 
 ancients to all the homes and colonies of the Hellenic race. The south 
 of Italy was long known as Mag^iia Grcefcia; the eastern shores of the 
 iEgean constituted Asiatic Greece, and the cities of Gyrene in Africa, 
 Syracuse in Sicily, and Massilia in southern France, were all, to the 
 Greeks, equally essential parts of Hellas. The description of the numerous 
 and important colonies belongs to a later period. A few of the islands 
 more immediately belonging to Greece will alone be mentioned here. 
 
 7. Chief of these Avas Eubce^a, the great breakwater of the eastern 
 coast, which extended a distance of 100 miles in length and 15 in width. 
 Nearly as important, though smaller, was Corcy^ra, on the western coast ; 
 and south of it lay Paxos, Leuca^dia, Ith^'aca, Cephalle^nia, and Zacyn'^thus. 
 On the south were the CEnus^sae and the important island of Cythe^ra. On 
 the east, among others were Hy^drea, ^JEgina, and Salamis. Besides these 
 littoral, or coast, islands there were, in the northern ^gean, Lemnos, 
 Imbros, Thasos, and Samothra^ce; in the central, the Cyc^lades; and, in 
 the southern, the large island of Crete. 
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 Periods. 
 
 T. Traditional and Fabulous History, from the earliest times to the 
 Dorian Migrations, about B.* C. 1100. 
 
 II. Authentic History, from the Dorian Migrations to the beginning of 
 the Persian wars, B. C. 1100-500. 
 
 III. From the beginning of the Persian wars to the victory of Philip of 
 Macedon at Chseronea, B. C. 500-336. 
 
 8. First Period. The name of Greece was unknown to the Greeks, 
 who called their country Hellas and themselves Hellefnes. But the Romans, 
 having probably made their first acquaintance with the people of that 
 peninsula through the GraVkoi, a tribe who inhabited the coast nearest 
 Italy, applied their name to the whole Hellenic race. A more ancient 
 name, Pela^gia, was derived from the earliest known inhabitants of the 
 country — a widely extended people, who may be traced by the remains of 
 their massive architecture in various parts of Italy as well as Greece. The 
 Pelasgi were among the first of the Indo-Germanic family to migrate from 
 Asia to Europe. 
 
108 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 9. By conquest or influence, the Hellenes very early acquired the control 
 of their neighbors, and spread their name, language, and customs over the 
 whole peninsula. They were then regarded as consisting of four tribes, 
 the Dorians, Achae^ans, ^o^lians, and lonians ; but the last two, if not all 
 four, were probably members of the earlier race. 
 
 10. Though of the same family with the Medes, Persians, Bactrians, 
 and the Brahmins of India, the Greeks had no tradition of a migration 
 from Asia, but believed that their ancestors had sprung from the ground. 
 They, however, acknowledged themselves indebted, for some important 
 elements of their civilization, to immigrants from foreign lands. Ce'crops, 
 a native of Sais in Egypt, was said to have founded Athens, and to have 
 established its religious rites. The citadel bore, from him, the name Ce- 
 cro'pia in later times. Better authorities make Cecrops a Pelasgian hero. 
 Da^naus, another reputed Egyptian, was believed to have founded Argos, 
 having fled to Greece with his fifty daughters. To him the tribe of the 
 Da^'nai traced their name, which Homer sometimes applied to all the 
 Greeks ; but the story is evidently a fable. 
 
 P^lops was said to have come from Phrygia, and by means of his great 
 wealth to have gained the kingdom of Mycenae. The whole peninsula 
 south of the Corinthian Gulf bore his name, being called Peloponnesus. 
 A fourth tradition which describes the settlement of the Phoenician Ca(V- 
 mus at Thebes, in Bceotia, rests upon better evidence. He is said to have 
 introduced the use of letters, the art of mining, and the culture of the vine. 
 It is certain that the Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician ; and 
 Cadmus may be regarded, in this elementary sense, as the founder of Eu- 
 ropean literature. The fortress of Thebes was called, from him, Cadme^a. 
 
 11. The earliest period of Grecian history is called the Heroic Age. In 
 later times, poets and sculptors loved to celebrate its leaders as a nobler 
 race than themselves, ranking between gods'and men; differing from the 
 former by being subject to death, but surpassing the latter both in strength 
 of body and greatness of mind. The innumerable exploits of the Heroes 
 must be read rather in Mythology than History. The three who had the 
 strongest hold in the belief, and influence upon the character of the people, 
 were Hercules, the great national hero; The^seus, the hero of Attica; and 
 Minos, king of Crete. 
 
 The " Twelve Labors of Hercules ' ' represent the struggle of Man with 
 Nature, both in the destruction of physical evil and the acquisition of 
 wealth and power. To understand his reputed history, we must bear in 
 mind that, in that early age, lions as well as other savage beasts were still 
 numerous in southern Europe ; that large tracts were covered by undrained 
 marshes and impenetrable forests ; and that a wild, aboriginal race of men, 
 more dangerous than the beasts, haunted land and sea as robbers and 
 pirates. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 109 
 
 12. Theseus was the civilizer of Attica. He established a constitutional 
 government, and instituted the two great festivals, the Panathensea* and 
 Synoikia, in honor of the patron goddess of Athens. The Isthmian Games, 
 in honor of Neptune, were also traced to him. 
 
 13. Minos, king of Crete, was regarded by the Greeks as the first great 
 law-giver, and thus a principal founder of civilization and social order. 
 After his death he was believed to be one of the judges of souls in Hades. 
 It is worth noticing that the traditional law-givers of many nations have 
 borne similar names; and Menu in India, Menes in Egypt, Manis in Lydia, 
 Minos in Crete, and Mannus in Germany may all be mytrhical names for 
 Man the Thinker, as distinguished from the savage. 
 
 14. Of the many remarkable enterprises of the Grecian lieroes, the last 
 and greatest was the Siege of Troy. Zeus, f pitying the earth — so says tlie 
 fable — for the swarming multitudes she was compelled to sustain, resolved 
 to send discord among men that they might destroy each other. The occa- 
 sion of war was found in the wrong inflicted upon Menelaus, king of Sparta, 
 
 by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy. All the Greek princes, 
 
 B. C. 1194. 
 
 resenting the injury, assembled their forces from the extrem- 
 ities of Hellas — from Mount Olympus to the islands of Ithaca, Crete, and 
 Rhodes — and crossing the ^Egean under the command of Agamem^non, 
 
 spent ten years in the siege of Troy. The story of the tenth -d r. i c, 
 
 B. C 1184. 
 
 year must be read in the Iliad of Homer, t It is impossible 
 to separate the historical from the poetical part in his spirited narration. 
 Some historians have assigned a definite period to the siege, while others 
 have doubted whether Troy, as described by Homer, ever existed. 
 
 15. Though much doubt may be felt as to the character of their heroes 
 and events, the poems of Homer give us a true picture of the government 
 and manners of the Greeks at this early age. From them we learn that 
 each of the petty states had its own king, who was the father, the judge, 
 the general, and the priest of his people. He was supposed to be of divine 
 descent and appointment. But unlike the blind believers in " divine right" 
 in modern times, the Greeks demanded that their kings should i^rove them- 
 selves superior to common men in valor, wisdom, and greatness of soul. 
 If thus shown to be sons of the gods, they received unquestioning obedi- 
 ence. 
 
 16. A council of nobles surrounded the king and aided him by their 
 advice. The people were often assembled to witness the discussions in the 
 council and the administration of justice, as well as to hear the intentions 
 of the king ; but in this early age they had no voice in the proceedings. 
 The nobles, like the king, were descended from the gods, and were distin- 
 guished by their great estates, vast wealth, and numerous slaves. 
 
 « See note, p. 128. t See g§ 23, 25. t See note, p. 110. 
 
no ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 17. The Greeks of the Heroic Age were distinguished by strong domestic 
 attachments, generous hospitality, and a high sense of moral obligation. 
 Every stranger was welcomed and supplied with the best cheer before he 
 was asked his name or errand. If he came to seek protection, the family 
 were under a still stfouger obligation to receive him, even if he were an 
 enemy; for Zeus had no mercy on him who turned away from the 2)rayer 
 of a suppliant. 
 
 18. The manners of the age were simple and homely. The sons of the 
 gods cooked their own dinners, and were j^roud of their skill in so doing. 
 Ulysses built his bed-chamber and constructed his raft, beside being an 
 excellent plowman and reaper. The high-born ladies, in like manner, 
 carded and spun the wool of their husbands' sheep, and wove it into 
 clothing for themselves and their families; while their daughters brought 
 water from the wells, or assisted the slaves to wash garments in the 
 river. 
 
 11). Though simple, these people were not uncivilized. They lived in 
 fortified towns, adorned by palaces and temples. The palaces of the nobles 
 were ornamented with vases of gold, silver, and bronze, and hung Avith 
 rich Tyrian draperies. The warriors were protected by highly wrought 
 and richly embellished armor. Agriculture was highly honored. Wheat, 
 flax, wine, and oil were the chief productions. 
 
 20. The arts of sculpture and design had already made some progress. 
 Poetry was cultivated by minstrels, who wandered from place to place 
 singing songs of their own composition, and were sure of an honorable 
 welcome in every palace. In this way, doubtless, the blind Horner"^ 
 related the brave deeds done before the walls of Troy, and praised the 
 heroes of that epoch in the houses of their descendants. 
 
 21. The religion of the Greeks had sonie of its first elements in common 
 with that of the Hindus. Zeus, the king of gods and men, who reio-ned 
 upon the snowy summit of Olympus, was doubtless the same conception 
 with Dyaus^, the Bright Ether or Serene Heaven of the Brahmin worship. 
 But as the forces of Nature were the objects of adoration, each system bor- 
 rowed its distinctive features from those of the country in which it was 
 developed, and that of the Greeks became incomparably the more delicate 
 and refined. The Asiatic origin of their faith was recognized by the Greeks 
 themselves, in the fable that Zeus had brought Euro^pa, daughter of Age^- 
 nor (the same with Canaan), in her early youth, across the Hellespont and 
 
 =:• Homer was an Asiatic Greek who lived probably about B. C. 8-50. Seven 
 cities claimed the honor of his birth, which ancient critics commonly accorded 
 to Chias, and modern, to Smyrna. Many legends describe his sorrowful and 
 changeful life, shadowed by poverty and blindness; but we can be sure of little 
 except that he was the author of some of the earliest and yet greatest poems 
 in the world's literature. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. Ill 
 
 through Thrace. An old tradition said that the people of the ante-Hellenic 
 age worshiped all the gods, but gave names to none ; a mystical expression 
 of the truth that the Greeks, like most other ancient people, had descended 
 from the worship of One God to the belief in many. 
 
 Watching with keen eyes the various and apparently conflicting opera- 
 tions of Nature, the Greeks, unaided by revelation, were led to believe in 
 many distinct and sometimes hostile gods ; for their science, as imperfect as 
 their religion, had not yet arrived at a perception of unity beneath the ap- 
 parent variety, nor taught them that all forces may be resolved into one. 
 Hence we read of conflicts and jealousies among the divine inhabitants of 
 Olympus, of which the most ignorant child should be ashamed. In more 
 enlightened ages, philosophers severely censured this ascription of unworthy 
 passions to the gods, and taught that they should only be conceived as 
 serene, beneficent, and superior to human excitements. 
 
 22. Much of the mythology of the Greeks belonged merely to poetry, 
 and had no religious character whatever. Many stories of the gods may be 
 explained by the familiar appearances of nature. E^os, the dawn, was the 
 sister of He^lios, the sun, and Sele^ne, the moon. She dwelt upon the banks 
 of Ocean, in a golden-gated palace, whence she issued each morning to an- 
 nounce to gods and men the approach of her greater brother. She was the 
 mother of the Winds and of the Morning Star. Fris was the messenger of 
 the gods. The many-colored rainbow was the road over which she traveled, 
 and which vanished, when she no longer needed it, as suddenly as it had 
 appeared. 
 
 23. The twelve who constituted the Olympian Council were Zeus, the 
 supreme ; Posi^'don, the god of the sea; Apollo, the sun-god, and patron of 
 music, poetry, and eloquence ; A''res, the god of war ; Hephses^tus, of fire 
 and the useful arts ; Her^mes, the herald of the gods, and promoter of com- 
 merce and wealth ; Hera, the great goddess of Nature ; Athe^na, the favorite 
 daughter of Zeus, and patroness of all wisdom, civilization, and art; Ar^- 
 temis, the goddess of the moon or of liunting; Aphrodi^te, of beauty and 
 love ; Hestia, of domestic life ; and Deme^ter, the bountiful mother of 
 harvests, — six gods and six goddesses. 
 
 24. Beside these, and in some cases equal in rank, were Hades, the god 
 of the under-world ; Helios and Hec^ate ; Diony^sus, the patron of the vine, 
 whose rites bore some resemblance to the drunken So^ma worship of the 
 Hindus ; the nine Muses, daughters of Zeus and Memory, who presided 
 over music, literature, and all the arts; the Oceanids and the Nereids, 
 daughters of Posidon ; and multitudes more, whom to enumerate would 
 require a volume, instead of a few pages. 
 
 25. The religion of the Greeks, properly so called, consisted in reverence 
 toward a moral Ruler of the world, ever present and actively concerned in 
 human affairs; and in obedience to him by truthfulness in thought, word. 
 
112 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 and deed. Zeus himself was believed to watch over the sacred perform- 
 ance of all oaths, Athena v/as the divine Wisdom, especially as exercised 
 in civil affairs. Nem^esis was the divine Justice, as heard either in warn- 
 ings of conscience within or the reproaches of the world without. The 
 Erin^nyes, or as they were flatteringly called, Eumen^ides, * were the 
 avengers of crime, older than all the Olympian divinities, and dreaded 
 alike by gods and men. The cries of the injured aroused them from their 
 dark abode in Tartarus ; and to the guilty man they appeared as fierce, 
 implacable furies, with flaming eyes and extended talons, who never slept, 
 but walked or waited constantly by his side from the moment of his crime 
 till its punishment; while to the innocent victim, whom they avenged, they 
 wore the form of serene and stately goddesses, with faces beautiful though 
 stern. 
 
 26. At a later period, new elements entered into the religious life of the 
 Greeks, through their intercourse with other nations, especially with Egypt, 
 Asia Minor, and Thrace. The most important of these was the idea of puri- 
 fication for sins, which was unknown to Homer and Hesiod, and was prob- 
 ably borrowed from the Lydians. The earliest sacrifices were merely 
 expressions of gratitude, or means of obtaining the favor of the gods, and 
 had nothing of the character of sin-offerings. In case of crime, it was 
 impossible to turn aside the wrath of the Eumenides, either by prayers or 
 sacrifices; the guilty person must suffer the extremest consequences of his 
 guilt. But under the new system it was believed that the divine anger 
 might be averted, and the stain of sin removed. 
 
 Persons guilty of homicide, whether intentional or accidental, were ex- 
 cluded from the society of man and the worship of the gods until certain 
 rites had been performed. In earlier times, a chief or king might officiate 
 in the ceremony of purification, but later it was intrusted to priests, or to 
 persons supposed to be specially marked for the favor of heaven by holiness 
 of life. In case of public calamity, such as plague, famine, or defeat in war, 
 whole cities or states underwent the process of purification, with a view to 
 appease the supposed wrath of the gods for some hidden or open crime. 
 
 27. Among other foreign observances were the ecstatic rites in honor of 
 various divinities. Such were the Bacchanalian dances, celebrated at 
 Thebes and Delphi, in honor of Dionysus, in which troops of women spent 
 whole nights upon the mountains in a state of the wildest frenzy, shouting, 
 leaping, clashing noisy instruments, tearing animals to pieces and devouring 
 the raw flesh, and even cutting themselves with knives without feeling the 
 wounds. Those who abandoned themselves freely to this excitement were 
 
 =:' The word Erinnyes meant curses, and lience the angry or persecuting god- 
 desses. Fearing to call tliese terrible beings by their real name, tlie Greeks sub- 
 stituted the term Enmenldes, which meant soothed or benevolent. 
 
Sennlios I. 
 
 SiiilmosQk 
 
 JEimyTa 
 
 "T. • ft 
 
 ^ 
 
 isiAP or 
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HISTORY OF GREECE. 113 
 
 supposed to secure the favor of the god and escape future visitations, while 
 those who resisted were punished with madness. 
 
 28. Among the most solemn rites were the Mysteries celebrated at 
 Eleusis in honor of Demeter and Persepl/one. These could only be 
 approached by a long and secret course of preparation, and it was a 
 crime even to speak of them in the presence of the uninitiated. They 
 commanded the deepest reverence of the Greeks, and the participants 
 were regarded as more secure than others, both in temporal and spiritual 
 perils. When exposed to shipwreck, passengers commonly asked each 
 other, ''Have you been initiated?" 
 
 The Eleusinian Mysteries, at least in their earlier form, are supposed 
 to have been a remnant of the old Pelasgic worship, and thus " grounded 
 on a view of nature less fanciful, more earnest, and better fitted to 
 awaken both philosophical thought and religious feeling" than the Hel- 
 lenic mythology. 
 
 29*^. Another custom adopted from abroad was the formation of secret 
 societies, whose members bound themselves by ascetic vows, and the obli- 
 gation to perform, at fixed seasons, certain solemnities. Such were the 
 Orphic, and afterward the Pythagorean brotherhoods. Those who entered 
 upon the " Orphic Life," as it was called, promised to abstain wholly from 
 animal food, except the mystic sacrificial feast of raw flesh, and wore white 
 linen garments like the Egyptian priests. Though worshipers of Dionysus, 
 the Orphic brotherhood abstained from all wild and unseemly demonstra- 
 tions, and aimed at the most severe simplicity and purity of life and man- 
 ners. Their reputation for wisdom and holiness was abused by certain 
 impostors, who used to visit the houses of the rich and offer to release 
 them from the consequences botli of their own sins and those of their 
 forefathers, by sacrifices and, expiatory songs prescribed in the Orpliic 
 books. 
 
 30. We have anticipated the five or six centuries which followed the 
 Heroic Age, for the sake of giving a connected though brief account of 
 the religious beliefs and customs of the Greeks, without which their his- 
 tory could not be understood. It only remains to mention those oracles 
 through which, from the earliest times to the latest, and even long after 
 the civil existence of Greece was ended, the gods were believed to make 
 known their will to man. 
 
 31. The oldest of the oracles was that of Zeus at Dodona, where tlie 
 message of the god was believed to be heard in the rustling of the sacred 
 oaks and beeches, and interpreted by his chosen priests or prophetesses. 
 At Olympia, in Elis, the will of Zeus was read in the appearance of vic- 
 tims sacrificed for the purpose. The oracles of Zeus were comparatively 
 few. The office of revealing the divine will to man devolved usually upon 
 Apollo, who had twenty-two oracles in European and Asiatic Greece. 
 
 A. H.— 15. 
 
114 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 32. Of these the most celebrated was at Delphi, in Phocis, where was a 
 temple of Apollo containing his golden statue and an ever-burning fire 
 of fir- wood. In the center of the temple was a crevice in the ground, 
 whence arose a peculiarly intoxicating vapor. When the oracle was to be 
 consulted, the Pythia, or priestess, took her seat upon the sacred tripod 
 over this opening ; and when bewildered or inspired by the vapor, which 
 was supposed to be the breath of the god, she uttered a response in hexame- 
 ter verses. It was often so obscure, ^ that it required more wit to discern 
 the meaning of the oracle than to determine the best course of conduct 
 without its aid. But so great was the reputation of the Delphic shrine, that 
 not only Greeks, but Lydians, Phrygians, and Eomans sent solemn embas- 
 sies to consult it concerning their most important undertakings. 
 
 33. What Europe has been to the rest of the world, Greece was to 
 Europe. The same peculiarities of coast and climate which made Europe 
 the best adapted to civilization of all the continents, long made Greece its 
 most highly civilized portion. But as Europe had her northern barbarians, 
 always pressing upon the great mountain barrier of the Pyrenees, Alps, 
 and Carpathians, sometimes bursting their limits and overrunning the 
 more civilized but weaker nations to the southward, so Greece suffered, 
 toward the close of the Heroic Age, from the incursions of the lUyrians 
 on her north-western frontier. The time of this movement was fixed by 
 Greek historians at sixty years after the fall of Troy, or, in our reckoning, 
 B. C. 1124. 
 
 Though the lllyrians did not enter central or southern Greece, their 
 southward movement produced a general change among the tribes of the ■ 
 peninsula. The Thessalians, who had previously been settled on the 
 western coast of Epirus, now crossed the Pindus mountains, and cleared 
 for themselves a place in the fertile basin of the Pene^us, hitherto occupied 
 by the Boeotians. The Boeotians, thus dispossessed of their ancient seats, 
 moved southward, across ^Mounts O'^thrvs and (Eta, to the vale of the 
 Cephissus, whence they drove the Cadmians and Minyse. These tribes 
 were scattered through Attica and the Peloponnesus. The Dorians, mov- 
 ing from the northward, occupied the narrow valley between CEta and 
 Parnassus, which thus became Doris; while the Dryo^pians, earlier inhab- 
 itants of this region, took refuge in Eubcea and the islands of the iEgean. 
 
 34. B. C. 1104. Twenty years later, a still more important movement 
 took place. The Dorians, cramped by the narrow mountain limits of their 
 abode, united with their western neighbors, the ^tolians, to invade the 
 Peloponnesus. It is said that they were conducted by Tem^enus, Cres- 
 phontes, and Ar^istode^mus, in pursuance of the claims of their great 
 ancestor, Hercules, who had been expelled from the southern peninsula a 
 
 ■:• For a specimen, see gg 108-1), 114. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 115 
 
 hundred years before. The Dorian migration is therefore often called the 
 Keturn of the Heraclidce. Aristodemus was killed by lightning when 
 about to cross the Corinthian Gulf. His brothers were completely vic- 
 torious over the king of the Achseans, then the most powerful monarch 
 in the Peloponnesus, and proceeded to divide the peninsula between 
 themselves and iheir allies. The jEtolians received Elis, on the western 
 coast; the rest of the peninsula, except its northern border on the 
 Corinthian Gulf, remained to the Dorians, who continued for five cen- 
 turies to be the dominant race in Greece. The Heraclid princes then 
 divided the various crowns by lot. That of Argos fell to Temenus ; that 
 of Messenia, to Cresphontes ; and that of Sparta, to Eurysthenes and 
 Procles, the twin sons of Aristodemus. 
 
 35. The conquered Achseans were forced either to emigrate to Asia and 
 Italy, or to content themselves with the northern coast of their peninsula, 
 from which they expelled its Ionian inhabitants, and gave it their own 
 name, Achaia. The lonians, after resting a few years in Attica, whose 
 people were their kinsmen, sought more space in the Cyclades, in Chios 
 and Samos, or on the neighboring coasts of Asia Minor. In the fertile 
 region between the Hermus and Mseander, and on the islands, twelve 
 Ionian cities* sprang up, and became rich and flourishing states. Though 
 independent of each other in government, they were united in the worship 
 of Posidon at one common temple, the Panio^niuni, which crowned th^ 
 headland of Mycale. 
 
 36. The ^olians had already been driven from their ancient home in 
 central Greece, and had found refuge in Lesbos and the north-western 
 coast of Asia Minor, between the Hermus and the Hellespont. They, also, 
 formed twelve independent cities, but Mytile^ne, on the isle of Lesbos, ^f5ls 
 considered the metropolis. 
 
 37. The Dorians, extending their migrations beyond the conquered, 
 peninsula, took possession of the south-western coast of Asia Minor, with 
 the islands of Cos and Rhodes. Their six cities — sometimes called the 
 Doric Hexapolis — were Cni^dus and Halicarnassus, on the mainland; 
 laFyssus, Cami^rus, and Lindus, on the isle of Rhodes ; and Cos, on the 
 island of its own name. Like the lonians, they worshiped at a common 
 sanctuary, the temple of the Triopian Apollo. 
 
 I^/EC-A.IF'ITXJXj.A.mOlNr. 
 
 Greece was first occupied by the Pelasgi, but its ancient name is derived from 
 tlie Hellenes, who early became the predominant race. Many arts Avere intro- 
 duced by foreigners, among whom Cecrops and Danuus of Egypt, Pelops of 
 Phrygia, and Cadmus of Phoenicia, are most famous in tradition. The Heroic 
 
 - My'us, Prie'ne, Eph'esus, Co'lophon, Leb'edos, Te'os, Er'ythree, Clazom'ense, 
 Phocse'a, Mile'tus, Chi'os, and Sa'mos. 
 
116 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Age was illustrated by the achievements of sons of the gods, the last and great- 
 est of their works being a ten years' siege of Troy. Greece was governed at this 
 period by many absolute monarchs: kings and nobles, as well as people, led 
 simple and industrious lives. Not only tillage, weaving, and the manufacture of 
 melals, but architecture, sculpture, music, and poetry were cultivated to a high 
 degree. Greek religion was the most refined and beautiful foim of Nature- 
 worship. Six gods and six goddesses constituted the Supreme Council of Olym- 
 pus, and a multitude of inferior divinities peopled the mountains, woods, and 
 waters. Conscience was personified in Nemesis and the Erinnyes. Rites of 
 atonement for sin, ecstatic celebrations, and ascetic brotherhoods were adopted 
 by the Gi-eeks from foreign nations. Of many oracles, the most celebrated was 
 that of Apollo, at Delphi. The Heroic Age ended with a general migration of 
 the tribes of Greece, which resulted in the settlement of the Dorians in the 
 Peloponnesus, and the planting of many Ionian and ^olian colonies on the 
 shores of Asia Minor. 
 
 Second Period. B. C. 1100-500. 
 
 38. The Heroic Age had ended with a general migration among the 
 tribes of Greece, which for a time interrupted their improvement of 
 manners. But Grecian liberty arose out of the ruins of the Heroic Age; 
 and instead of absolute monarchies, various forms of free government 
 were established in the several states. A state, indeed, was nothing more 
 than a city with a small portion of land surrounding it. Except in 
 Attica, no city at this time had control over any other town. 
 
 39. All the Greeks — though existing under a multitude of governments, 
 and divided by rivalries and jealousies — considered themselves as children 
 of one ancestor, Hellen, and gave the common name of barbanans, or 
 babblers, to all other nations. The poems of Homer, which were chanted 
 at the public festivals and repeated at every hearth-stone, described all the 
 Greeks as united against a common foe, and made the feeling of brother- 
 hood stronger than any occasional animosity. Beside the community of 
 blood, language, and national history, the Greeks were strongly bound 
 together by their equal interest in the oracles and the celebration of rebV- 
 ious rites, and their participation in the great national festivals. 
 
 40. The Games. Of these the oldest and most celebrated were the 
 Olympic Games. The date of their foundation is lost among the fables of 
 the Heroic Age, but it is certain that these athletic contests were the fa- 
 vorite diversion of heroes in those primitive times. They were revived 
 B. c. 884. ^^^ invested with new importance in the time of Iph^'itus, 
 
 king of Elis, and Lycur^gus, regent of Sparta. In the next 
 century their celebration, once in four years, began to afford the Greek 
 measurement of time. 
 
 The first Olympiad was B. C. 776-772. The scene of the festival was 
 upon the banks of the Alpheus, in Elis, near the ancient temple of the 
 Olympian Zeus. During the month of the celebration wars were sus- 
 pended throughout Greece. Deputies appeared from all the Hellenic 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE, 117 
 
 states, who rivaled each other in the costliness of tlieir offerings at the 
 temple. The games were in honor of Zeus and Hercules. They were 
 open to all Greeks, without distinction of wealth or birth ; but barbarians, 
 even of royal blood, were strictly excluded. They included running, 
 jumping, wrestling, boxing, the throwing of quoits and javelins, and races 
 of horses and chariots. The only reward of the victor was a crown of wild 
 olive; but this was esteemed by every Greek as the highest honor he could 
 attain. Its happy wearer was welcomed home with processions and songs 
 of triumph; he entered the town through a breach made in the Avails, to 
 signify that a city possessed of such sons needed no other defense ; he was 
 thenceforth exempt from all taxes, as one who had conferred the highest 
 obligation upon the state; he occupied the chief place in all public specta- 
 cles; if an Athenian, he ate at the table of the magistrates; if a Spartan, 
 he had the privilege in battle of fighting near the person of the king. 
 
 41. Three other periodical festivals, which were at first confined to the 
 states where they occurred, were at length thrown open to the whole Hel- 
 lenic race. The Pythian Games, in honor of Apollo, were celebrated on 
 the Cirrhse^an plain, in Phocis, the third year of every Olympiad. They 
 included competition in music and poetry as well as in athletic sports, and 
 were, next to the Olympic, the most celebrated festival in Greece. The 
 Ne^mean and Isthmian Games were celebrated once in two years; the 
 former in the valley of Nemca, in Argolis, in honor of Zeus, and the latter 
 on the Isthmus of Corinth, in honor of the sea-god, Posidon. 
 
 Thus every year was marked by at least one great national festival, and 
 every second year by two, reminding the throngs which attended them of 
 their common origin, and the distinction between themselves and barbari- 
 ans. Beside keeping alive that athletic training which increased the 
 strength of Grecian youth, these yearly assemblies served also the purposes 
 of the modern European fairs, of the lecture hall, and, to a certain extent, 
 of the printing-press ; for booths were erected all around the sacred grove, 
 in which the industries of all the Hellenic states and colonies found a 
 ready market; while, in the intervals of athletic display, poets chanted to 
 the eager throng their hymns and ballads; historians related the deeds of 
 foreign and native heroes ; and philosophers unfolded to all who were wise 
 enough to listen, their theories of mind and matter, and the relation of 
 gods to men. 
 
 42. Another bond of union among the Greeks was found in the Amphic''- 
 tyones, or voluntary associations of neighboring or kindred tribes, usually 
 for the protection of some common temple or sanctuary. Such a one had 
 its center at Delos, the religious metropolis of the Cyclades ; and the three 
 tribes of Dorians, lonians, and ^Eolians in western Asia Minor had each its 
 federal union on the same principle. But the most celebrated and lasting 
 was the Amphictyonic league of twelve tribes, which had its semi-annual 
 
118 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 meetings, in the spring at Delphi, and in the autumn at Anthela, near 
 
 Thermopylte. 
 
 43. After the Dorian Conquest, Argos was for several centuries the 
 leading power in Greece. In the earliest part of its history, the govern- 
 ment was a monarchy, like those of the Heroic Age, the kings claiming 
 descent from Hercules. But the spirit of freedom having been awakened 
 in the people, they gradually took away power from their kings, and estab- 
 lished a republic, though retaining the name of monarchy. About 780 
 B. C, one Fhi^don came to the throne, who, having more talent than his 
 predecessors, won back all the powers which they had lost, and made him- 
 self absolute with the now first-used name of " tyrant." He extended the 
 dominion of Argos over the whole Peloponnese, and sent forth colonies 
 which rendered the Argive name famous in Crete, Ehodes, Cos, Cnidus, and 
 Halicarnassus. His intercourse with Asia led to the first use of coined 
 money in Greece, and of a system of weights and measures which is 
 supposed to be the same with the Babylonian. After the death of Phidon, 
 Argive power rapidly declined. The subject and allied cities threw off the 
 oppressive rule which he had exercised, and a new state was now gaining 
 power in the Peloponnese which was destined to eclipse all the glories of 
 Argos. 
 
 Sparta. 
 
 44. When the Dorians invaded Peloponnesus, the former inhabitants 
 still retained their foothold in the country, and for three hundred years 
 their fortress of Amy^clse stood at only two miles distance from the Doric 
 capital of Lacedsemon, defying assault. The Lacedoemonians consisted 
 of three classes : 1. The Doric conquerors; 2. The subject Achceans of the 
 country towns;, and, 3. The enslaved Helots, who were bought and sold 
 with the soil. ^ 
 
 45. The government of Sparta was a double monarchy, its two kings 
 being descended respectively from Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons 
 of Aristodemus. They possessed little power in peace, but as generals, in 
 these early times, they were absolute in war. They were held in great 
 honor as the descendants of Hercules, and thus as connecting links be- 
 tween their people and the gods. The Spartan Senate consisted of thirty 
 members, each of whom had passed the age of sixty, and had been a 
 blameless servant of the state. The popular assembly was of little im- 
 portance, though, as a matter of form, questions of peace or war and the 
 election of certain officers were referred to it. At a later time, however, 
 this assembly by a free vote chose five Ephors, who had absolute power 
 even over the kings and senate, as well as over the people. 
 
 4G. However subservient they might be to kings or senate, the people 
 held themselves proudly above the industrious but dependent inhabitants 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 119 
 
 of the towns. There was more difference of rank between Spartan and 
 Achaean than between the meanest Spartan and his king. The Helots 
 were marked for contempt by a garment of sheep-skin and a cap of dog- 
 skin ; and every year stripes were inflicted upon them for no fault, but that 
 they might never forget that they were slaves. 
 
 47. About 850 B. C, arose Lycurgus, one of the most celebrated of 
 ancient law-givers. He was of the royal family of Sparta; and upon tlie 
 death of his brother, King Polydec^tes, he exercised supreme command in 
 the name of his infant nephew, Charila^us. His administration was the 
 most wise and just that the Spartans had known ; but his enemies raised 
 a report that he was seeking the crown for himself, and he resolved to 
 withdraw from the country until his nephew should be of age. 
 
 The Spartans missed the firm and wise government of their regent. 
 The young king came to the throne, but disorders were not checked, and 
 a party of the better sort sent a message to Lycurgus urging his return. 
 He first consulted the oracle at Delphi, and was hailed with the title, 
 " Beloved of the gods, and rather a god than a man." To his prayer tliat 
 he might be enabled to enact good laws, the priestess replied that Apollo 
 had heard his request, and promised that the constitution he was about to 
 establish should be the best in the world. Those Avho might envy the 
 power and deny the authority of Lycurgus as a man, could not refuse 
 obedience to his laws when thus enforced by the god. He effected a great 
 revolution in Sparta, with the consent and cooperation of the king him- 
 self. , 
 
 48. The laws of Lycurgus lessened the powers of the kings and increased 
 those of the people, but their chief end was to secure the continuance of the 
 state by making every Spartan a soldier. Modern nations believe that gov- 
 ernments exist for the people ; in Sparta, on the contrary, each person ex- 
 isted only for the state. His right to exist was decided upon the threshold 
 of life by a council of old men, before whom each newly-born infimt was 
 presented. If it seemed to promise a vigorous and active life, it was accepted 
 as a child of the state, and assigned a nine-thousandth pnrt of the Spartan 
 lands; but if weakly and deformed, it was cast into a ravine to perish. 
 
 At seven years of age every boy so allowed to live was taken from his 
 home and subjected to a course of public training. The discipline of his 
 body was considered of more importance than the improvement of his 
 mind. He endured heat and cold, hunger and fatigue ; and beside the 
 gymnastic exercises, he was subjected to all the hardships of military 
 service. His garment was the same summer and winter; the food given 
 him was too little to sustain life, but he was expected to make up the 
 deficiency by hunting or stealing. If caught in the latter act, he was 
 severely punished ; but it was not for the dishonesty, but for the awkward- 
 ness of allowing himself to be detected. It must be remembered, however, 
 
120 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 that where there was no property there could be no theft in any moral 
 sense. Every thing in Sparta was ultimately the property of the state, 
 and every interest was subordinate to the training of citizens to dexterity 
 
 in war. 
 
 49. Another means of training the Spartan youth to fortitude, was a 
 cruel scourging for no offense at the shrine of Artemis, which they endured 
 without a sound, although the altar was sprinkled with their blood, and 
 some even died under the lash. Those who were educated by such in- 
 human severities, were not likely to become either just or merciful toward 
 others. The wretched Helots afforded a never-failing exercise for their 
 skill in war. Under the institution called Crypti^a, they were frequently 
 attacked and murdered by the select bands of young Spartans, who ranged 
 the country by night in quest of military practice. When the Helots, 
 became more numerous than their masters, so as to be regarded with 
 apprehension, these massacres became more frequent and general 
 
 50. Spartan discipline did not end with youth. At thirty a man was 
 permitted to marry, but he still lived at the barracks and ate at the 
 common table. Public affairs were discussed at these tables with a 
 freedom which partly repaid the suppression of speech in the assembly. 
 The youth were permitted to attend in silence, and thus received their 
 political education. The remaining hours of the day were divided by the 
 men between gymnastic exercises and the instruction of youth. Not until 
 his sixtieth year was a man released from this martial life. 
 
 51. Spartan girls were subjected to nearly as rigorous a training as their 
 brothers. Their exercises consisted of running, wrestling, and boxing, and 
 their characters became as warlike as those of men. Like other citizens, 
 the Spartan women considered themselves and all that were most dear to 
 them as the absolute property of the state. 
 
 52. That the minds of the Spartans might never be diverted from mili- 
 tary pursuits, Lycurgus permitted no citizen to engage in agriculture, 
 trade, or manufactures, all occupations which could be pursued for gain 
 being left in the hands of the subject Achseans. To shut out foreign 
 luxuries, he adopted a still more stringent measure. The possession of 
 gold or silver was forbidden, and money was made of iron rendered worth- 
 less by being heated and plunged into vinegar. This bore so low a nom- 
 inal value in proportion to its weight, that the amount of one hundred 
 dollars was a load for a pair of oxen. So cumbrous a medium of exchange 
 was despised by other nations ; the ports of Sparta were un visited by 
 trading ships, and her villages by traveling minstrels or merchants; and 
 as Spartans were forbidden to journey in other lands without the leave of 
 their magistrates, while, with very rare exceptions, no foreigner was per- 
 mitted to reside in their capital, the selfish exclusiveness of the nation 
 seemed complete. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 121 
 
 Love of country was limited to Laconia, and never included Hellas. 
 Except when Sparta was threatened, they never united with the other 
 Grecian states; and, in time of peace, bore more hatred to Athens than 
 to Persia. The free, intellectual life of the Athenians was the object of 
 their especial disgust; and the philosophy and eloquence which made the 
 glory of Athens, were the scorn of the Spartans, who considered it a crime 
 to use three words where two could be made to suffice. 
 
 53. Unlike other cities of Greece, Sparta was never protected by walls. 
 The high mountains on the north and west were a safeguard against 
 assaults by land, while the rock-bound coasts to the eastward prevented 
 invasion by sea. The whole city was a camp, where each man knew his 
 hourly duty, and endured more privation in time of peace than in war. 
 The laws of Lycurgus were successful in making a race of soldiers, narrow- 
 minded, prejudiced, and avaricious; destitute of those finer and sweeter 
 traits which belonged to the higher order of Grecian character, but brave, 
 hardy, self-sacrificing, and invincible. 
 
 54. Having completed his legislative work, Lycurgus secured its per- 
 petuity by a sacrifice of himself. He declared that it was necessary to 
 consult the oracle, and exacted an oath from kings, senators, and people 
 that they would obey his laws until his return. He then went to Delphi, 
 made offerings to Apollo, and received an assurance that Sparta should be 
 the most glorious city in the world so long as she adhered to his laws. 
 Having transmitted this message to his countrymen, Lycurgus resolved 
 never to return. He is said to have starved himself to death. The time 
 and place of his death are unknown. Cirrha, El is, and the island of Crete 
 claimed his tomb, while other accounts declare that his remains were 
 brought to Sparta, and that a stroke of lightning gave the seal of divinity 
 to his last resting-place. 
 
 55. Sparta kept her oath five hundred years, and during a great portion 
 of that time maintained the first rank among Grecian states. Amyclse was 
 taken a few years after the departure of Lycurgus. From a mere garrison 
 in a hostile country, Sparta now became mistress of Laconia, and began 
 to make war with her northern neighbors, Argos and Arcadia. The chief 
 object of her enmity was Messenia, another Doric kingdom to the west- 
 ward, separated from Sparta by the ridge of Mount Taygetus. 
 
 56. First Messenian War. B.C. 743-724. The Messenians had adopted 
 a more liberal policy toward their Achaean subjects than prevailed at Sparta, 
 and the jealousy of the two nations had led to frequent mutual insults, 
 when, at length, a slight occasion plunged them into open war. A distin- 
 guished Messenian, who had been crowned at the Olympic Games, pastured 
 his cattle by agreement upon the lands of a certain Spartan. But the 
 Spartan, seizing the opportunity for a fraud, sold both the cattle and the 
 Messenian herdsmen who tended them, and crowned his iniquity by mur- 
 
122 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 deriug the son of the owner, who came to demand the price. The unhappy- 
 father went to Sparta to demand justice from the kings, but his grief was 
 disregarded and his claims unpaid. He then took revenge into his own 
 hands, and murdered every Lacedaemonian who came in his way. The 
 Spartans called upon the Messenians to surrender their countryman, but 
 they refused to give him up, and war broke out. 
 
 57. For the first four years the Messenians made effectual resistance, 
 
 and their invaders gained nothing ; but in the fifth a partial 
 B. C. 738. 
 
 reverse compelled them to shut themselves up in the strong 
 fortress of Itho^me. The Spartans took a solemn oath never to return to 
 their families until they had subdued Messenia. In the thirteenth year, 
 Theopompus, king of Sparta, marched against Ithome, and a great battle 
 T> n -.A ^v^s fought, in which the king of Messenia was slain. Aris- 
 
 Jd. C /oO. 
 
 todemus was chosen in his place, and the war went on. In 
 the eighteenth year, Arcadia and Sicyon sent forces to aid the Messenians, 
 while Corinth joined the Spartans. A third great battle was fought, in 
 which the invaders were defeated and driven in disgrace to their own 
 country. But at this time the oracles began to favor the Spartans, while 
 ^ ^ „,, dreams and visions dismayed the soul of Aristodemus. He 
 
 B. C. 724. •' 
 
 slew himself, and, with his life, success departed from the 
 Messenians. Ithome was abandoned, the Spartans razed it to the ground, 
 and the Messenians were reduced to slavery. 
 
 58. For thirty-nine years they endured a galling weight of oppression, 
 but at the end of that time a hero of the royal line arose for their deliv- 
 erance. The exploits of Aristom^enes form the chief history of the 
 B C 68'-668 second Messenian War, though almost the entire Pelopon- 
 nesus was engaged. The Corinthians, as before, fought for 
 
 Sparta, while the Argives, Arcadians, Sicyonians, and Pisatans took part 
 with the Messenians. After losing one battle, the Spartans sent to Delphi 
 for advice, and received the unwelcome direction to apply to Athens for a 
 leader. The Athenians, too, feared to disobey the oracle; but desiring to 
 render no real assistance to their rivals, they sent a lame school-master, 
 named Tyrtse^us, to be their general. They found, as usual, that the 
 Pythia was not to be outwitted. Tyrtaeus reanimated the rude vigor of 
 the Spartans by his martial songs, and it is to these that their final success 
 is mainly attributed. 
 
 59. The Spartans were slow in regaining their former ascendency. In 
 the battle of Stenycle^rus they were defeated witli great loss, and pursued 
 by Aristomenes to the very summit of the mountains. In the third year 
 B. C. C83. ^^^® Messenians suffered a signal defeat through the treachery 
 
 of an ally, and Aristomenes retired to the fortress of Ira. 
 The Spartans encamped around the foot of the hill, and for fourteen years 
 the war was actively prosecuted, the Messenian hero often issuins: from his 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 123 
 
 castle, and ravaging with fire and sword the lands held by the enemy. 
 Three times he offered to Zeus Ithomates the sacrifice called Hecatom- 
 phonia, in token that he had slain a hundred enemies with his own 
 hand. 
 
 60. But neither the valor nor the good fortune of the leader availed to 
 save his country. Ira was taken by surprise. Aristomenes ended his days 
 at Rhodes. His sons led a large number of the exiled Mes- 
 
 B. C. 668. 
 
 senians into Italy, and settled near Ehegium. A few who 
 remained were admitted to the condition of the subject Achreans; but, as 
 before, the mass of the people were reduced to serfdom, and remained in 
 that condition three hundred years. The conquest of Messenia was followed 
 by a war against Arcadia which continued nearly a hundred years. The 
 sole fruit to Sparta was the capture of the little city of Tegea. 
 
 61. From the earliest times Sparta had been the rival of Argos, w^hich 
 then ruled the whole eastern coast of the Peloponnesus. Soon after Ly- 
 curgus, the boundaries of Laconia were extended eastward to the sea, and 
 northward beyond the city of Thyi-^ea. About B. C. 547, tlie Argives went 
 to war to recover this portion of their former territory. They were defeated 
 and their power forever humbled. 
 
 62. Sparta was for a time the most powerful state in Greece. Her own 
 
 territories covered the south of the Peloponnesus, and the ^ ^ ..„ 
 
 r ' B. C. 547. 
 
 neighboring states were so far subdued that they made no 
 attempt to resist her authority. That authority had hitherto been exerted 
 within the narrow limits of the Peloponnese, but about this time an em- 
 bassy from Croesus, king of Lydia, acknowledged her leadership in Greece, 
 and invited her to join him in resisting the Persians. At this point began 
 the foreign policy of Sparta. Her influence among the Grecian states was 
 always in favor of either oligarchy or despotism — against such a govern- 
 ment by the people as existed in Athens; and the aristocratic party in 
 every city looked to Sparta as its natural champion and protector. 
 
 li^E C^:PITTJ31..A.TI03iT. 
 
 After the Dorian migrations, republics replaced most of the monarchies in 
 Greece. Though divided into many rival states, the Hellenes were one race in 
 origin, language, religion, and customs. The Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and 
 Isthmian Games promoted civilization by the free interchange of ideas. The 
 Amphictyonic Council, at Delphi and Thermopylae, united twelve Hellenic tribes 
 for mutual defense. Phidon, king of Argos, founded many colonies, and first 
 introduced weights, measures, and the coinage of money from the East. 
 
 The Spartan government consisted of a double line of Heraclid kings, a 
 senate, and, in later times, five ephors. Lycurgus, as regent, reformed the laws 
 by subjecting every person to military rule, forbidding lucrative employments, 
 and discouraging all intercourse with foreign nations. By two long wars ^he 
 Spartans enslaved their neighbors, the Messenians; and their power was always 
 opposed to free institutions in the states of Greece, among which Lacedsemou 
 held for some centuries the foremost rank. 
 
124 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Athens. 
 
 03. The history of Athens presents an infinitely greater variety of char- 
 acter and incident than that of Sparta. Unsurpassed by the Spartans in 
 patriotism or valor, the Athenians differed from them in their love for rare 
 sculpture, magnificent architecture, and the refined diversions of music, 
 poetry, and the drama. The consequence is, that while the Spartans won 
 the world's admiration only by their sacrifice of personal interests to those 
 of the state, the Athenians were at once the models and the leaders of all 
 civilized nations in the arts which give grace and loveliness to life. An 
 Athenian visiting Sparta, and seeing the appointments of the public tables, 
 said that he no longer wondered at Spartan bravery in battle, for life so 
 nourished could not be worth preserving. 
 
 G4. In the Heroic Age Athens was governed by kings. Theseus sub- 
 dued the country towns of Attica, and made the city the capital of a 
 centralized monarchy. Codrus, the last of the kings, fell in resisting the 
 Dorian invaders, who had conquered the Peloponnesus and designed to 
 subjugate Attica. The invasion was repelled, but the kingdom was not 
 T5 r^ 1A-A n-o reestablished. The eupatridse, or nobles, secured the election 
 of an archon for life, who was in a certain degree responsible 
 to them for his actions. Though of the royal race of Codrus, he had neither 
 the name nor the dignity of a king. This succession of archons continued 
 about 300 years. 
 
 . 65. An important change was then made by limiting tlie term of office 
 to ten years. At the expiration of his service, the archon could be tried 
 and punished if his conduct was proved to have been unjust. At first the 
 election was made, as before, from the descendants of Codrus; but one of 
 these being deposed for his cruelty, the oflSce was thrown open to all 
 nobles. A third change appointed, instead of a single magistrate, a board 
 B. C. 68J. ^^ "^"^' '^^^^^ ^^^^^ chosen yearly from among the eupatrids. 
 
 Nobles alone had the right to vote, and for sixty years the 
 government of Athens was a pure aristocracy. 
 
 6G. But the people of Athens, afterward to fill so important a part in 
 history, now made themselves heard in a demand for written laws, which 
 should stand between them and the arbitrary will of their rulers. The 
 B.C.621. nobles acceded to the demand, but avenged their injured 
 
 dignity by appointing Draco to prepare the code. - This first 
 Athenian law-giver made a collection of statutes so severe that they were 
 said to be indeed the work of a dragon, and to be written not with ink, 
 but with blood. The smallest theft, not less than murder and sacrilege, 
 was punished by death, and the life of every citizen was left absolutely 
 at the mercy of the ruling order. 
 
 67. Great dissatisfaction arose among the Athenians in consequence of 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 125 
 
 these laws, and Cylon, au aspiriog young noble, aided by his father-in-law, 
 the tyrant of Megara, took advantage of the disturbance to 
 seize the Acropolis, with a view to making himself tyrant 
 of Athens. The archons quelled this rash rebellion, but in so doing they 
 themselves incurred the guilt of sacrilege, for the criminals were put to 
 death at the very altar of the Eumenides. * While the people were thrown 
 into a tumult of superstitious fear, a plague broke out, which was believed 
 to be a judgment of the gods. Tlie Delphic oracle being invoked, com- 
 manded that Athens should be purified by priestly rites. Epimenldes, a 
 sage and seer, who was reputed to have great insight into the 
 healing powers of Nature, was brought from Crete, and by 
 his sacrifices and intercessions the plague was believed to be arrested. The 
 archons, however, saw a cause of their recent danger, deeper than the 
 transient outbreak, and they appointed Solon, the wisest of their number, 
 to frame a new code of laws. 
 
 (JS. The condition of Attica demanded immediate remedies. The three 
 factions, consisting of the wealthy nobles of the Athenian Plain, the mer- 
 chants of the Shore, and the poor peasantry of the Attic Mountains, were 
 opposed to each other by the most bitter enmities. Some of the latter in 
 their need had been compelled to borrow money, at exorbitant interest, 
 from the nobles, and being unable to pay, had become the slaves of their 
 creditors. 
 
 69. Solon, though a noble, had been forced by the ruin of his fortune to 
 
 engage in commerce, choosing this means of support, however, with a view 
 
 to the improvement of his mintl by observation of foreign lands. While 
 
 he was exchanging his Attic oil and honey for Egyptian millet, at Nau- 
 
 cratis, he had not failed to study the laws of the Pharaohs, or to observe 
 
 their effects upon the interests and character of the people. _ ^ 
 
 ^ ^ ^ B. C. 594. 
 
 His wisdom and integrity commanded the confidence of all 
 
 classes of his fellow-citizens, and he was made sole archon for life, with 
 
 unlimited power to alter the existing state of things. 
 
 70. His first object was to improve the condition of the poor debtors, 
 not merely by alleviating present distress, but by removing its causes. To 
 this end he enacted a bankrupt law, canceling all contracts in which the 
 land or person of a debtor had been given as security ; and to avoid such 
 evils in the future, he abolished slavery for debt. The rate of interest was 
 abated, and the value of the currency lowered, so that the debtor gained 
 about one-fourth by paying in a depreciated medium. Above all, provision 
 was made against a recurrence of the same distress, by requiring every 
 father to teach his son some mechanical art. If this was neglected, the 
 son was freed from all responsibility for supporting his father in old age. 
 
 >:= See g 25. , 
 
126 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Foreigners were not allowed to settle in the country, unless skilled in some 
 form of industry which they engaged to carry on. 
 
 71. The chief design of the new constitution was to set up a free and 
 moderate government, instead of the oppressive tyranny of the nobles. 
 Solon divided the people into four classes, according to their possessions. 
 The poorest were permitted to vote, but not to hold. office. The upper 
 three classes alone were subject to direct taxation, which fell with greatest 
 weight upon the wealthiest. The code of Draco was repealed. Instead of 
 severe punishments, Solon introduced the fear of shame and the hope of 
 honor as preventives of crime. Among the rewards for faithful citizenship 
 were crowns presented by senate or people ; public banquets in the hall of 
 state; statues in the Agora or the streets; places of honor in the theater or 
 popular assembly. As persons distinguished by these various honors were 
 constantly seen by the youth of Athens, their ambition was kindled to 
 deserve similar rewards. 
 
 72. A new legislative Council of Four Hundred was formed, consisting 
 of one hundred members from each tribe, to be chosen yearly by a free 
 vote in the popular assembly. The source of power was in the assembly 
 of all the people, which elected the archons and councilors, accepted or 
 rejected the laws proposed by the latter, and judged the former at the end 
 of their term of office. Popular courts of law were also instituted, to which 
 a criminal might appeal when condemned by another tribunal. The Council 
 of the Areopagus continued to be the highest court in the state, and was es- 
 pecially charged with the maintenance of religion and morals. Originally 
 it included all the nobles, but Solon restricted it to those who had worthily 
 discharged the duties of the archonship. 
 
 73. There were no professional lawyers in Athens, for the knowledge 
 and enforcement of the laws were held to be the duty of every citizen. In 
 case of popular sedition, every man was to be dishonored and disfranchised 
 who took no part on either side. This rule Avas designed to stimulate 
 public spirit, and to supply the want of a regular police or military force 
 by the active interference of the citizens. Already a large body of wealthy 
 and respectable men kept themselves aloof from public affairs, which fell 
 thus into the hands of unscrupulous and ambitious plotters. 
 
 74. Solon is reckoned the greatest of the Seven Wise Men-^ of Greece, 
 and some of his sayings have been the maxims of the best legislators of all 
 ages. When asked how injustice could be banished from a republic, he 
 replied, ''By making all men feel the injustice done to each." His new 
 constitution failed, hoAvever, to satisfy all classes of his fellow-citizens. 
 The nobles blamed him for having gone too far; the common people, for 
 
 *0f Ihe Seven Wise Men, six were rulers and statesmen. The seven were 
 Solon of Athens, Periander of Corinth, Cleobulus of Liudus, Bias of Prie'ne, 
 Pittacus of Mytilene, Thales of Miletus, and Chilo of Sparta. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 127 
 
 « 
 
 IiaviDg witlilield too much. He himself admitted that his laws were not 
 
 the best possible, but the best that the people would receive. 
 
 He obtained, however, from the government and people, an 
 
 oath to maintain the constitution ten years; and then, to rid himself of 
 
 perpetual questions and complaints, he departed into foreign lands. 
 
 75. On returning to Athens, Solon found that the flames of faction had 
 
 broken out with more fury than ever. The Plain had for 
 
 *^ B. C. 5G0. 
 
 its leader Lycurgus ; the Shore, Megacles ; and the Mountain, 
 
 Pisis^'tratus, a kinsman of Solon. The latter was idolized by the people 
 for his personal beauty, his military fame, his persuasive eloquence, and 
 his unbounded generosity. But beneath many real virtues he concealed 
 an insatiable ambition, which could not rest short of supremacy in the 
 state. When his plans were ready for execution, he appeared one day 
 in the market-place bleeding with self-inflicted wounds, which he assured 
 the people he had received in defense of their rights, from the hands of 
 his and their enemies, the factious nobles. The people, in their grief and 
 indignation, voted him a guard of fifty clubmen. Solon saw the danger that 
 lurked in this measure, but his earnest remonstrances were unheeded. 
 
 Pisistratus did not limit himself to the fifty men allotted him, but raised 
 a much larger force, with which he seized the Acropolis and made himself 
 master of the city. Notwithstanding his resistance to the usurpation, 
 Solon was treated with great deference by his cousin, who constantly 
 asked his counsel in the administration of affairs. But the aged law- 
 giver did not long survive the freedom of Athens. After his death his 
 ashes were scattered, as he had directed, around the island of Salamis, 
 which in his youth he had won for the Athenians. 
 
 76. The Fiest Tyranny of Pisistratus was not of long duration. 
 
 For six years he had maintained the laws of Solon, when „ „ ^^„ ^^^ 
 •^ ' B. C. 560-554. 
 
 the two factions of the Plain and the Shore combined against 
 him, and he was driven from the city. An incident which occurred during 
 his first reign had an important bearing on the later history of Greece. A 
 noble named Milti^ades, of the highest birth in Athens, was sitting one day 
 before his door, when he saw strangers passing whom he knew to be for- 
 eigners by their spears and peculiar garments. With true Athenian hos- 
 pitality, he invited them to enjoy the comforts of his house, and was 
 rewarded by a singular disclosure. 
 
 They were natives of the Thracian Chersonesus — that narrow tongue of 
 land which lies along the north shore of the Hellespont — and had been 
 to consult the oracle at Delphi concerning the war in which their country- 
 men were now engaged. The priestess had directed them to ask the first 
 man who should offer them hospitality after leaving the temple, to found 
 a colony in the Chersonesus. They had passed through Phocis and Boeotia 
 without receiving an invitation, and they now hailed their host as the 
 
\ \ 
 
 128 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 person described by the oracle, and entreated him to come to their assist- 
 ance. Miltiades and his family were regarded with especial enmity by 
 Pisistratus, and were discontented under his rule. He accepted the invi- 
 tation of his guests, collected a party of the similarly affected among his 
 fellow-citizens, and with them planted an independent principality on the 
 Hellespont. It was his nephew who commanded at Marathon. ^ 
 
 77. Second Tyranny. Within six years from the expulsion of Pisis- 
 
 tratus, his rivals quarreled between themselves, and Mega- 
 
 B. C. 548, 547. 
 
 cles, the leader of the Shore, invited him to return and 
 resume the sovereignty. But Athens could not yet remain at peace. In 
 a short time Pisistratus offended Megacles, who had brought him back, 
 and w^ho again united with Lycurgus to expel him. This time the tyrant 
 was ten years in exile, but he was constantly engaged in raising men and 
 
 money in the different states of Greece. He landed at length 
 
 H. C 5o7. 
 
 with a powerful army at Marathon, and, joined by many 
 friends, advanced toward the city. He had pitched his tent near the 
 temple of Athena before his enemies had mustered any force to oppose 
 him, and their hastily gathered troops were then signally defeated. The 
 people willingly changed masters, and Pisistratus became for the third 
 time supreme ruler of Athens. 
 
 78. Third Tyranny. He now established his government upon firmer 
 537_-27 foundations, and the people forgot its arbitrary character in 
 
 the liberality and justice which marked his administration. 
 He maintained all the laws of Solon, and in his own person set the ex- 
 ample of strict and constant obedience. He took care to fill the highest 
 offices with his own kinsmen, but the wealth which he accumulated was 
 at the service of all who needed assistance. His library, the earliest in 
 Greece, and his beautiful gardens on the Ilissus, were thrown freely open 
 to the public. He first caused the poems of Homer to be collected and 
 arranged, that they might be chanted by the rhapsodists at the greater 
 PanathenaB^a, t or twelve days' festival in honor of Athena. He ministered 
 at once to the taste and the necessities of the people, by employing many 
 poor men in the construction of magnificent public buildings wdth which 
 he adorned the city. The opinion of Solon was justified, that he was the 
 best of tyrants, and possessed no vice save that of ambition. 
 
 ':-See Book II, g§ 37, 39; Book III, g§ 99-102. 
 
 t The Punathenaic festival was celebrated every year from the time of The- 
 seus, in honor of Athena Polias, the guardian of the city. It included torch 
 races, musical and gymnastic contests, horse, foot, and chariot races, and costly 
 sacrifices. The greater Panathensea took place in the third year of every Olym- 
 piad. It was distinguished by a sacred procession, bearing to her temple in 
 tiie Erechtheum a crocus-colored garment embroidered with representations of 
 the victories of the goddess. 
 
HISTORY OF GBEECE. 129 
 
 79. After a reign of seventeen years in all, Pisistratus died at an ad- 
 vanced ac^e, and his eldest son, Plippias, succeeded to his 
 
 ' B. C. 527 
 
 power, his brother Hippar^chus being so closely associated 
 
 with him that they were frequently mentioned as the Two Tyrants. Their 
 
 united government was carried on in the same mild and liberal spirit that 
 
 had distinguished their father, and their reign was considered a sort of 
 
 Golden Age in -Athens. They reduced the tax on produce from a tenth to 
 
 a twentieth, and yet, by a prudent management of resources, continued to 
 
 add embellishments to the city. 
 
 Fourteen years had thus passed in peace and prosperity, when Plippar- 
 
 chus gave serious offense to a citizen named Harmo^dius, 
 
 X. 1 •+ ^ -fi 1 • ^- 1 A • . v. • 1 ! B.C. 527-514. 
 
 who thereupon united with his mend Aristogi ton m a plot 
 
 to murder the two tyrants. Hipparchus was slain. Hippias saved himself 
 
 by promptness and presence of mind ; but from that day his character was 
 
 changed. His most intimate friends had been accused by the conspirators 
 
 as concerned in the plot, and executed. Though the charge was false and 
 
 made only for revenge, the suspicions of Hippias never again slept. The 
 
 property and lives of the citizens were alike sacrificed to his cruel and 
 
 miserly passions. 
 
 80. The faction of the Alcmseon^'ids, who had been exiled under their 
 leader, Megacles, now gained strength for an active demonstration. They 
 bribed the Delphic priestess to reiterate in the ears of the Spartans that 
 " Athens must be delivered." The^e brave but superstitious people had a 
 friendship of long standing with the Pisistrat^idfe, but they dared not dis- 
 obey the oracle. An army was sent to invade Attica : it was defeated and 
 its leader slain. A second attempt was more successful : the Thessalian 
 cavalry which had aided the tyrant was now defeated, and Hippias shut 
 himself up in the citadel. His children fell into the hands 
 
 Jj. v>. OlU. 
 
 of the Spartans, who released them only on condition that he 
 and all his kin should withdraw from Attica within five days. A perpetual 
 decree of banishment was passed against the family, and a monument re- 
 cording their offenses was set up in the Acropolis. 
 
 81. Olisthenes, the head of the Alcmseonidse, now rose into power. 
 Though among the highest nobles, he attached himself to the popular 
 party, and his measures gave still greater power to the people than the 
 laws of Solon had done. Instead of the four tribes, he ordained ten, and 
 subdivided each into demes, or districts, each of which had its own mag- 
 istrate and popular assembly. The Senate, or Great Council, was increased 
 from 400 to 500 members, fifty from each tribe, and all the free inhabitants 
 of Attica were admitted to the privileges of citizens. 
 
 To guard against the assumption of power by one man, as in the case 
 of Pisistratus, Olisthenes introduced the singular custom of ostracism, by 
 which any citizen could be banished without accusation, trial, or defense. 
 A. H.— 17. 
 
130 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 If the Senate and Assembly decided that this extreme measure was required 
 for the safety of the state, each citizen wrote upon a tile or oyster-shell the 
 name of the person whom he wished to banish. If the name of any one 
 person was found upon six thousand ballots, he was required to withdraw 
 from the city within ten days. The term of his exile was at first ten years, 
 but it was afterward reduced to five. 
 
 82. Isag^oras, leader of the nobles, disgusted by the rise of his rival, 
 called again upon the Spartans to interfere in Athenian affairs. Cleom''- 
 enes, king of Sparta, advanced upon Athens, and demanded the expulsion 
 of Clisthenes and all his family, as accursed for the sacrilege committed, 
 nearly a hundred years before, in the murder of Cylon. Clisthenes retired, 
 and Cleomenes proceeded with his friend Isagoras to expel seven hundred 
 families, dissolve the Senate, and revolutionize the city. But the people 
 rose against this usurpation, besieged Isagoras and his Spartans in the 
 citadel, and only accepted their surrender on condition of their withdraw- 
 ing from Attica. Clisthenes was recalled and his institutions restored. 
 
 83. Cleomenes had been stirring up Greece to aid his vengeance against 
 
 Athens. He advanced with a considerable army and seized 
 
 r>. C 507. 
 
 the city of Eleusis, while the Boeotians ravaged the Avestern, 
 and the Chalcidians from Euboea the eastern borders of Attica. Undis- 
 mayed by this threefold invasion, the Athenians marched first against 
 Cleomenes ; but the irrational conduct of the Spartan had disgusted his 
 allies and defeated his designs before a battle could take place. The 
 Athenians turned upon the Bceotians and defeated them with great 
 slaughter; then pressed on without delay, crossed the channel which 
 divided them from Euboea, and gained an equally decisive victory over 
 the Chalcidians. 
 
 Hippias no>v covered his old age with infamy, by going over to the 
 king of Persia and exerting all his eloquence in directing the power of 
 the empire against his native city. The Athenians sent to Artaphernes, 
 begging him not to place confidence in one who had been banished only 
 for his crimes. "If you wish for peace, recall Hippias," was the per- 
 emptory reply. 
 
 Grecian Colonies. 
 
 84. The history of the other continental states is more or less involved 
 in that of Sparta and Athens; but before entering upon the Persian wars, 
 we will take a rapid survey of those foreign settlements which afforded an 
 outlet for the enterprise and the crowded population of the Hellenic penin- 
 sula. In very early times, colonies were led forth from Greece by leaders 
 who were afterward worshiped as heroes in the states they founded. Fire, 
 the emblem of civilization, Avas carried from the prytanemn of the mother 
 city, and placed upon the new hearth-stone of the colony. The Agora, the 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 131 
 
 Acropolis, the temples, and the peculiar worship of the older city were im- 
 itated in the new. The colonists bore part in the religious festivals of the 
 metropolis by delegates and offerings, and it was considered sacrilege to 
 bear arras against the parent state. 
 
 85. There was, however, a great difference 
 in the relations of the several colonies with 
 the states from which they sprang. The 
 ^olian, Ionian, and Doriiin settlements in 
 Asia, and the Achaean in Italy, were inde- 
 pendent states. Commerce, literature, and 
 the arts flourished at an earlier period on 
 the eastern side of the ^gean than in the 
 cities of Greece. Homer, the father of Greek 
 poetry, was an Ionian. Alcae'us and Sappho, 
 the greatest of Greek poetesses, were natives 
 of Lesbos. Ana'^creon was an Ionian of 
 Teos; and four of the Seven Wise Men of 
 Greece lived in the Asiatic colonies. 
 
 86. Miletus was for two centuries not only 
 the chief of the Asiatic colonies, but the 
 first commercial city in all Hellas. Her 
 sailors penetrated to the most distant corners 
 of the Mediterranean and its inlets, and 
 eighty colonies were founded to protect and 
 enlarge her commerce. Ephesus succeeded 
 Miletus as chief of the Ionian cities. Its 
 
 commerce was rather by land than sea; and instead of planting distant 
 colonies, it extended its territory on the land at the expense of its Lydian 
 neighbors. Phoccea, the most northerly of the Ionic cities, possessed a pow- 
 erful navy, and its ships were known on the distant coasts of Gaul and 
 Spain. The beautiful city of Massilia (now Marseilles) owed to them its 
 
 Coin of Ephesus, enlarged 
 one-half. 
 
 origin. 
 
 87. The first Greek colony in Italy was at Cum(B, near the modern 
 Naples, which sprang from it. It is said to have been founded about 
 1050 B. C., and continued five centuries the most flourishing city in Cam- 
 pania. Syyaris and Croto'na were Achaean colonies upon the Gulf of 
 Taren''tum. Several native tribes became their subjects, and their domin- 
 ions extended from sea to sea across the peninsula of Calabria. The Cro- 
 tonians Avere early celebrated for the skill of their physicians, and for the 
 number of their athletes who won prizes at the Olympic Games. The Sy- 
 barites were noted for their wealth, luxury, and effeminacy. In public 
 festivals they mustered 5,000 horsemen fully equipped, while Athens could 
 only show 1,200 even for the grand Panathensea. 
 
132 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 The fall of Sybaris, B. C. 510, was occasioned by war with the sister but 
 now rival city Crotona. The popular party had supplanted an oligarchy in 
 Sybaris, and the exiled citizens had taken refuge in Crotona. The Sybarites 
 demanded their rendition. The Crotonians trembled, for they had to choose 
 between two great perils : they must incur either the wrath of the gods by 
 betraying suppliants, or the vengeance of the Sybarites, whose army was 
 supposed to number 300,000 men. Pythagoras urged them to adopt the 
 more generous alternative, and his disciple, Milo, the most celebrated 
 athlete of his time, became their general. In a battle on the Trais the 
 Crotonians were victorious. They became masters of Sybaris, and deter- 
 mined to destroy it so thoroughly that it should never again be inhabited. 
 For this purpose they turned the course of the river Crathis, so that it 
 overflowed the city and buried its ruins in mud and sand. To this day a 
 wall can be seen in the bed of the river when the water is low, the only 
 monument of the ancient grandeur of Sybaris. 
 
 88. The people of Locri were the first of the Greeks who possessed a 
 body of written laws. The ordinances of Zaleucus, a shepherd whom they 
 made their legislator by the command of the Delphic oracle, were forty 
 years earlier than those of Draco, which they resembled in the severity of 
 their penalties. The Locrians, however, held them in so high esteem, that 
 if any man wished to propose a new law or repeal an old one, he appeared 
 in the public assembly with a rope around his neck, which was immediately 
 tightened if he failed to convince his fellow-citizens of the wisdom of his 
 suggestions. 
 
 81). Rhegium, on the Straits of Messina, was founded by the Chalcidians 
 of Euboea, but greatly increased by fugitives from the Spartans during the 
 first and second Messenian wars. The straits and the opposite town in Sic- 
 ily, formerly called Zan^cle, received a new name from these exiled people. 
 Taren^tam was a Spartan colony founded about 708 B. C. Its harbor was 
 the best and safest in the Tarentine Gulf, and after the fiill of Sybaris it 
 became the most flourishing city in Magna Grsecia. Though its soil was 
 less fertile than that of other colonies, its pastures afforded the finest wool 
 in all Italy. Tarentine horses were in great favor among the Greeks; and 
 its shores supplied such a profusion of the shell-fish used for coloring, that 
 "Tarentine purple" was second only to the Tyrian. So extensive were 
 the manufiictories of this dye, that great mounds may even yet be seen 
 near the ancient harbor, composed wholly of broken shells of the murex. 
 
 90. The prosperity of Magna GrKcia declined after the close of the 
 sixth century B. C, when the warlike Samnites and Lucanians began to 
 press southward from their homes in central Italy. The Greek colonies 
 gradually lost their inland possessions, and became limited to mere trading 
 settlements on the coast. 
 
 91. MassUia, in Gaul, has already been mentioned as a colony of the 
 
\ 
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE. 133 
 
 Ionic Phocians. It exerted a controlling influence upon the Celtic tribes 
 by which it was surrounded, and who derived from it the benefits of Greek 
 letters and civilization. A Massiliot mariner, Pytheas, navigated the At- 
 lantic and explored the western coasts of Europe, as far, at least, as Great 
 Britain. Five colonies on the Spanish coast were founded by Massilia. ' 
 
 92. The fertile island of Sicily early attracted the attention of the Greeks. 
 The Carthaginians already occupied the western side of the island, but for 
 two and a half centuries the commercial settlements of either people flour- 
 ished side by side without collision. Twelve flourishing Greek cities sprang 
 up within 150 years, among which Syracuse, on the eastern, and Agrigentum, 
 on the southern coast, were the most important. Syracuse, the earliest, 
 except Naxos, of the Sicilian colonies, was founded by Corinthians, B. C. 
 734. Its position made it the door to the whole island, and in Roman times 
 it was the capital of the province. In its greatest prosperity it contained 
 half a million of inhabitants, and its walls were twenty-two miles in extent. 
 Agrigentum, though of later origin (B. C. 582), grew so fast that it out- 
 stripped its older neighbors. The poet Pindar called it the fairest of mortal 
 cities, and its public buildings were among the most magnificent in the 
 ancient world. 
 
 93. African Colonies. Greek colonization was at first confined to the 
 northern shores of the Mediterranean, Egypt and Carthage dividing be- 
 tween them the southern. But the policy of Psammetichus, and, after him, 
 of Amasis, favored the Greeks, who were thenceforth permitted to settle at 
 Naucratis, and enjoy there a monopoly of the Mediterranean commerce of 
 Egypt. Twenty years after the first establishment at Naucratis, Cyrene was 
 founded by the people of Thera, a Spartan colony on the iEgean. Unlike 
 most Greek colonies, Cyrene was governed by kings during the first two 
 centuries of its existence. 
 
 94. The peninsula of Chalcid^ice, in Macedonia, was covered with the 
 settlements of colonists from Chalcis and Eretria, from the former of which 
 it derived its name. Potida^a, on the same coast, was planted by Corinthians. 
 Byzantium was founded by Megarians, on the strait which connects the 
 Propontis with the Euxine. Few cities could boast so splendid a position ; 
 but the power of the Megarian colony bore little proportion to what it was 
 afterward to attain as the capital of Constantine and the mistress of the 
 world. The most northerly Grecian settlement was Istria, founded by Mi- 
 lesians near the mouth of the Danube. 
 
 I2,EC^^:PITTJXjJ^TIOl<r. 
 
 Codrus, the last king of Athens, was succeeded durhig three centuries by 
 archons lor life, chosen from his family. Seven archons afterward reigned suc- 
 cessively ten years each, and the government was then intrusted to a conimis- 
 sjk)a of nine, annually elected. The people demanding written laws, Draco 
 
134 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 prepared a code of inhuman severity. A more moderate constitution was 
 framed by Solon, one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece; but the contention 
 of the three rival factious of the Plain, the Shore, and the Mauniain soon re- 
 sulted in the subjection of Athens to the tyranny of Pisistratus. Twice expelled, 
 Pisistratus twice re-established his power, and by his justice and liberal encour- 
 agement of all the arts, consoled the people for his unwarranted seizure of the 
 government. His son Hippias was expelled by the Alcmseojiidfe, with the aid 
 of the Spartans. Clisthenes completed the liberal reforms of Solon, and intro- 
 duced the singular custom of ostracism. In tliree attempts to overthrow the free 
 constitution of Athens, the Spartans and their allies were signally defeated. 
 
 Third Period. B. C. 600-338. 
 
 95. The det:iils of the Ionian Revolt (B. C. 499-494) have been found in 
 the History of Persia.* Reserving his vengeance ior the European Greeks 
 who had interfered in the quarrel, Darius sought to console the conquered 
 lonians for the loss of their political independence by greater personal 
 freedom. Just laws, equal taxes, peace and good order began to restore 
 their prosperity ; and when Mardonius, the son-in-law of Darius, suc- 
 ceeded Artaphernes in the satrapy, he signalized his reign by removing all 
 tyrants and restoring to the cities a republican form of government. All 
 this was done to secure their friendship or neutrality in his approaching 
 expedition against Greece. That expedition (B. C. 492) failed, as we have 
 seen, in its principal object. 
 
 96. The next year messengers were sent by Darius to each of the states 
 T? n JOT ^^ Greece, demanding earth and Avater, the customary sym- 
 
 bols of obedience. None of the island states and few on the 
 continent dared refuse. The people of Athens and Sparta returned an 
 answer which could not be mistaken. The latter threw the envoys into a 
 well, and the former into a pit where the vilest criminals were punished, 
 telling them to get earth and water for themselves. 
 
 97. The youth and ill success of Mardonius led Darius to recall him, 
 and place the command of his new expedition against the Greeks in the 
 hands of Datis, a Mede, and Artaphernes, his own nephew. In the spring 
 of 490 B. C, the great host was drawn up off the coast of Cilicia — a fleet 
 of 600 triremes, carrying not less than 100,000 men. They sailed westward 
 and ravaged the isle of Naxos, but spared Delos, the reputed birth-place 
 of Apollo and Artemis, because the Median Datis recognized them as iden- 
 tical with his own national divinities, the sun and moon. The fleet then 
 advanced to Eubocn, Eretria being the first object of vengeance. Carystus, 
 refusing to join the armament against her neighbors, was taken and de- 
 stroyed. Eretria withstood a siege of six days ; but the unhappy city was a 
 prey to the same dissensions which constituted the fatal weakness of Greece.! 
 
 '■ See Book 11, § 34. 
 
 t Almost every Grecian state was divided between two parties, which preferred 
 respectively democracy and oligarchy ; i. e., government by many and by few. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 135 
 
 Two traitors of the oligarchical party opened the gates to the barbarians. 
 The place was given up to plunder, the temples burnt, and the people en- 
 slaved. 
 
 98. A swift-footed messenger was now dispatched from Athens to Sparta 
 imploring aid. The distance was ninety miles, and he reached his destina- 
 tion tlie day after his departure. The Spartans did not refuse their assist- 
 ance, but they declared that religion forbade their marching before the full 
 moon, and it was now only the ninth day. The Persians were already 
 landed on the coast of Attica, and, guided by Hippias, advanced to the 
 plain of Marathon. The Athenian army, posted upon the heights, had to 
 consider whether to await their tardy allies or meet these overwhelming 
 numbers alone. At the last moment there arrived an unexpected reinforce- 
 ment, which, though small in numbers, raised the spirits of the Athenians 
 by the friendliness it expressed. It was the entire fighting population of 
 the little town of Platsea, a thousand men in all, who came to testify their 
 gratitude for a former service rendered by the Athenians. 
 
 99. All the other generals, who were to have commanded in turn, gave 
 up their days to Miltiades, whose genius and experience alike won their 
 confidence; but he, fearful of arousing envy, waited until his own turn 
 came, and then gave orders for battle. The sacrifices and prayers were 
 offered, the trumpets sounded, and, chanting a battle-hymn, the eleven 
 thousand Greeks rushed down from the heights where they had been 
 encamped. Instead of the usual slow march of the phalanx, they trav- 
 ersed the mile or more of level ground which separated them from the 
 Persians at a full run, bearing their level spears in a straight, unwavering 
 line.* 
 
 The front rank of Asiatics fell instantly before this unusual assault; 
 but the resistance was not less determined. Rushing upon the spears 
 of the Greeks, in the attempt to make an opening in the phalanx where 
 their short swords and daggers might serve them, the Persians freely 
 sacrificed their lives. It was the belief of many on the field that the 
 gigantic shade of Theseus, the great Attic hero, might be seen in the 
 ranks. Night approached before the desperate conflict was decided. 
 But the Greeks, though wearied with the long action, never wavered, 
 and at length the shattered remains of the Asiatic host turned and 
 fled.t 
 
 100. The Persians had brought with them a mass of white marble, 
 with which they meant to erect upon the field of Marathon a monument 
 of their victory. It was carved by Phid'^ias into a gigantic statue of 
 
 "^'"The first Greeks," says Herodotus, "who ever ran to meet a foe; the first, 
 too, who beheld without dismay tlie garb and armor of tlie Medes, for hitherto 
 in Greece tlie very name of Mede had excited terror." 
 
 t Read the movements of Datis after the battle, p. 86. 
 
136 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Nemesis, the impersonation of divine vengeance. From the brazen spoils 
 
 of the Persians was cast that colossal statue 
 of Athena Promachos, whose glittering spear 
 and helmet, from the summit of the Athenian 
 citadel, could be seen far off at sea beyond 
 the point of Sunium. The armed goddess, 
 *' First in the Fight," seemed to be keeping 
 a perpetual guard over her beloved city. 
 
 101. For a time after the victory at Mar- 
 athon, Miltiades was the best bel6ved of the 
 Athenians. Even Avhile prince in the Cher- 
 sonesus, he had won their gratitude by an- 
 nexing Lemnos and Imbros to their domin- 
 ions. To this claim on their regard he now 
 added that of having delivered them from 
 their greatest peril, and there was no limit 
 to their confidence. When, therefore, he 
 promised them a still more lucrative though 
 less glorious enterprise than the recent one 
 against the Persians, they were not slow to 
 consent, though the conditions were a fleet 
 of seventy ships and a large supply of men 
 and money for his use, of wdiich he W'as to 
 render no account until his return. They were granted, and Miltiades set 
 sail for the isle of Paros, which had furnished a trireme to 
 the Persians during the recent invasion. The chief city 
 was besieged and on the point of being taken, when suddenly, for no 
 sufficient cause, Miltiades burnt his fortifications, drew off his fleet, and 
 returned to Athens, having no treasures and only disgrace and loss to 
 report as the result of his expedition. 
 
 102. The glory of Miltiades was now departed. He Was accused by 
 Xanthip^pus, a leader of the aristocracy, of having accepted a bribe from 
 the Persians to withdraw from Paros. Severely wounded, iMiltiades was 
 brought into the court upon a couch; and although his brother Tisag^oras 
 undertook his defense, the only plea he cared to make was in the two 
 words, "Lemnos" and "Marathon." The oifense, if proved, was capital; 
 but the people refused to sentence their deliverer to death. They com- 
 muted his punishment to a fine of fifty talents; but before it was paid he 
 expired from his wound. 
 
 • 103. The greatest citizen of Athens, after the death of Miltiades, was 
 Aristides, called " the Just." He was of noble birth and belonged to the 
 Alcmseonid party, but he was ardently devoted to the interests of the 
 people. Stern toward crime, whether in friends or foes, he was yet mild 
 
 Coin of Athens, enlartjed 
 three-fourths. 
 
 B. C. 489. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 137 
 
 toward all persons; and so proverbial were his truth and impartiality, 
 that when he held the office of archon the courts of law were deserted 
 all suitors preferring to submit their causes to his arbitration. 
 
 104. His chief rival Avas Themis^tocles, a young man of great talents, 
 and, perhaps, still greater ambition. At length his opposition rose to the 
 pitch of proposing the ostracism, and Aristides was banished. It is said 
 that, during the voting, the great archon was requested by a man who 
 could not write, to inscribe the name of Aristides on an oyster-shell for 
 him. "Has he ever injured you?" Aristides asked. "No," said the man, 
 "nor do I even know him by sight; but it vexes me to hear him always 
 called the Just." Aristides wrote his name on the shell, which was cast 
 into the heap. As he left his native city he said, with his usual generosity, 
 " May the Athenian people never know a day which shall force them to 
 remember Aristides ! " 
 
 105. Themistocles was now without a rival in Athens. His acute mind 
 perceived what his countrymen too willingly ignored, that the Persian in- 
 vasions were only checked, not ended. Proud of the victory of Marathon, 
 the Athenians believed that tlie Persians would never again dare to attack 
 them. But iEgina was yet powerful, and a fierce enmity had long existed 
 between the two states. Their merchants regarded each other as rivals in 
 trade, while the free people of Athens hated the oligarchy of iEgina. 
 Themistocles resolved to turn this enmity to account, in arming Athens 
 against the greater though more distant danger. He persuaded the citizens 
 to construct a fleet which should surpass that of uJEgina, and to apply to 
 that purpose the revenues from the silver mines of Laurium, near the 
 extremity of the Attic peninsula. 
 
 Two hundred triremes were built and equipped, and a decree was passed 
 which required twenty to be added every year. Hitherto Attica had been 
 more an agricultural than a maritime state ; but Themistocles clearly saw 
 that, with so small and sterile a territory, her only lasting power must be 
 upon the sea. So strenuous were his exertions, that in the ten years that 
 intervened between the first and the second Persian wars, the Athenians 
 had trained a large number of seamen, organized their naval power, and 
 were ready to be as victorious at Salamis as they had been at Marathon. 
 
 106. In 481 B. C, a Hellenic Congress was held at Corinth. The 
 command of the Greek forces, both by land and sea, was assigned to 
 Sparta. An appeal for cooperation was sent to the distant colonies in 
 Sicily, as well as to Corcyra and Crete. Emissaries were also sent into 
 Asia to watch the movements of the Persian army. They were seized at 
 Sardis, and would have been put to death, had not Xerxes believed that 
 their reports would do more to terrify and weaken than to assist their coun- 
 trymen. He caused them to be led through his innumerable hosts, and to 
 mark their splendid equipments, then to be dismissed in safety. 
 
138 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 107. The most difficult duty of the Congress was to silence the quarrels 
 of the several states. Athens, by the entreaties of Themistocles, consented 
 to peace and friendship with ^gina, and all the delegates formally bound 
 their states to act together as one body. Still many elements of disunion 
 remained. Boeotia, with the honorable exceptions of Thespise and Platsea, 
 sent earth and water to the Persian king. Argos was at once weakened 
 and enraged against Sparta by the massacre of 6,000 of her citizens, who 
 had been burned, by order of Cleomenes, in a temple where they had taken 
 refuge. Unwilling to refuse her aid in the common danger, she consented 
 to join the league only upon terms which Sparta refused to accept, 
 
 108. Even the gods seemed to waver, and the timid answers of the 
 Pythia prevented some states from engaging in the war. The Athenian 
 messengers at Delphi received an oracle that would have appalled less 
 steadfast minds. "Unhappy men!" cried the Pythia, "leave your houses 
 and the ramparts of the city, and fly to the uttermost parts of the earth. 
 Fire and keen Ares, compelling the Syrian chariot, shall destroy ; towers 
 shall be overthrown, and temples destroyed by fire. Lo, now, even now, 
 they stand dropping s\v'eat, and their house-tops black with blood, and 
 shaking with prophetic awe. Depart, and prepare for ill ! " 
 
 109. The Athenians put on the mourning garb of suppliants, and en- 
 treated Apollo for a more favorable answer, declaring that they would not 
 depart without it, but remain at his altar until they died. The second 
 response was still more obscure, but possibly more hopeful. "Athena is 
 unable to appease the Olympian Zeus. Again, therefore, I speak, and my 
 words are as adamant. All else within the bounds of Cecropia and the 
 bosom of the divine Citliteron shall fall and fail you. The wooden wall 
 alone Zeus grants to Pallas, a refuge to your children and yourselves. 
 Wait not for horse and foot; tarry not the march of the mighty army; 
 retreat even though they close upon you. O divine Salamis ! thou shalt 
 lose the sons of women, whether Demeter scatter or hoard her harvest!" 
 Themistocles, who had, perhaps, dictated the response, now furnished an 
 apt solution. The " walls of wood," he said, meant the fleet, in which the 
 citizens and their children should take refuge. The last sentence threat- 
 ened woe not to the Athenians, but to their foes, else why was Salamis 
 called "divine"? 
 
 110. Arriving with his vast army at the head of the Malian Gulf, 
 B. C. 480 Xerxes sent a spy to ascertain the force sent against him. 
 
 The messenger saw only the Spartan three hundred. They 
 were engaged either in gymnastic exercises or in dressing their long hair 
 as if for a festival. Demaratus, an exiled king of Sparta, was with the 
 Persian army, and he was questioned by the great king as to the meaning 
 of this behavior in the face of overwhelming danger. Demaratus replied, 
 " It is manifestly their intention, sire, to dispute the pass, for it is the 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 139 
 
 custom of the Spartans to adorn themselves on the eve of battle. You 
 are about to attack the flower of Grecian valor." Xerxes could not yet 
 believe that such a handful of men meant serious resistance. He waited 
 four days to give them tune to retreat, but sent a messenger in the interval 
 to Leonidas, demanding his arms. "Come and take them!" replied the 
 Spartan. 
 
 111. Battle of Thermopylae. On the fifth day the patience of the 
 great king was exhausted. He sent a detachment of Medes and Cissians 
 into the pass, with orders to bring its defenders alive into his presence. 
 The assailants were repulsed with loss. The Immortal Band were then 
 sent forward, but with no better success. The next day the contest was 
 renewed, with great loss to the Persians and no signs of yielding on the 
 part of the Greeks. But treachery now accomplished what force had failed 
 to do.* A council of war was held among the defenders of the pass, and it 
 was resolved to retreat, since defeat was certain. Leonidas did not oppose, 
 but rather favored the decision on the part of the other generals ; he only 
 remarked that it was not permitted to Spartans to fly from any foe. He 
 knew, too, that the Delphic oracle had declared that either Sparta must fall 
 or a king of the blood of Hercules be sacrificed. He believed that he should 
 save at least his hereditary kingdom, if not the whole of Greece, by the 
 voluntary devotion of his life. 
 
 The Thespians insisted upon sharing the fate of the Spartan three 
 hnndi*ed. The four hundred Thebans, whose loyalty had been suspected 
 from the first, were held as hostages. The remainder of the Greeks hastily 
 withdrew before the arrival of the Persians. Thus left alone, the Spartans 
 and Thespians went forth to meet the immense army, which was now in 
 motion to attack them. The Orientals, when their courage failed, were 
 driven into battle by the lash, and thousands were doomed to perish before 
 the desperate valor of the Greeks. At length Hydar^nes, with his Immortal 
 Band, appeared from behind, and the Spartans drew back to the narrowest 
 part of the pass, where they fought to the last breath, and were crushed at 
 last by the numbers, rather than slain by the swords of the Persians. 
 
 112. The memory of Leonidas was honored by games celebrated around 
 his tomb in Sparta, in which none but his countrymen were allowed to 
 have part. A lion of stone was placed, by order of the Amphictyonic 
 Council, on the spot where he fell; and other monuments at the same 
 place preserved the memory of his brave companions. That of the Three 
 Hundred bore these words: "Go, stranger, and tell the Spartans that we 
 obeyed the laws, and lie here ! " 
 
 113. Learning the fate of Leonidas and his men, the fleet retired south- 
 ward for the protection of the coast. The Spartans acted with their 
 
 * See p. 90, g 51. 
 
140 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 accustomed selfishness, by leaving Athens and the rest of Greece to their 
 fate, while they employed their land forces in fortifying the isthmus, to 
 bar the entrance of their own peninsula. It was with difficulty that The- 
 mistocles even persuaded his maritime allies to remain at anchor off 
 Salamis, long enough to allow some measures to be taken for the safety 
 of the Athenian people. 
 
 114. Abandonment of Athens. Nor was it easy to persuade the 
 Athenians themselves to leave their beloved city to the revengeful hands 
 of barbarians. But as no other means remained for averting total de- 
 struction, Themistocles had recourse, as usual, to a stratagem. The serpent 
 sacred to Athena suddenly disappeared from the Acropolis, the cakes of 
 honey were left untasted, and the priests announced that the goddess her- 
 self had abandoned the city, and was ready to conduct her chosen warriors 
 to the sea. The people now consented to depart. Women, children, and 
 old men were hastily removed to places of greater security, while all who 
 could fight betook themselves to the fleet. Only a few Athenians, either 
 too poor to meet the expense of removal, or still convinced that the 
 *' wooden walls " of the oracle meant the citadel, remained and perished, 
 after a brave but useless resistance, by the swords of the Persians. Beau- 
 tiful Athens was reduced to a heap of ashes, in revenge for the destruction 
 of Sardis, twenty years before. 
 
 115. The commanders of the fleet now resolved to withdraw from 
 Salamis, and station themselves near the isthmus to cooperate with the 
 Peloponnesian land forces. The Athenians strongly opposed this retreat, 
 wliich would leave the refuges of their wives and children at the mercy 
 of the barbarians. It was midnight, and the council had broken up, 
 when Themistocles again sought the ship of Eurybi^ades, and convincing 
 him at length of the greater wisdom of his own plan, persuaded him to 
 reassemble the council. The leaders were recalled from their ships and 
 a violent discussion ensued. The Corinthian, Adimantus, opposed The- 
 mistocles not only with argument, but with insult. Alluding to the recent 
 destruction of Athens, he maintained that one who had no longer a city to 
 represent should have no voice in the deliberation. 
 
 Themistocles kept his temper and replied with dignity and firmness. 
 He showed that the naval advantages of the Greeks in the present war 
 had always been in the narrow seas, where the immense numbers of the 
 Persians gave them no superiority, while their better discipline and ac- 
 quaintance with the currents and soundings were all in favor of the 
 Greeks. He argued that by transferring the war to the Peloponnesus 
 they would only attract thither the armies and ships of the Persians; 
 while, by defeating them before they could arrive at the isthmus, they 
 would preserve southern Greece from invasion. He ended by declaring 
 that, if Salamis were abandoned, the Athenians would abandon Greece, 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 141 
 
 and taking their wives and children on board their fleet, sail to the coasts 
 of Italy, where the oracle had commanded them to found a new city. 
 
 IIG. Lest even this argument should not be sufficient, Themistocles 
 had recourse to another of his wiles. He retired a moment from the 
 council and dispatched a trusty messenger to the Persian fleet, assuring 
 its commander that the Greeks, struck with consternation, were preparing 
 to flee, and urging him to seize the opportunity, while they were divided 
 among themselves, to gain a decisive victory. The Persian admiral knew 
 too well the frequent dissensions of the Greeks to doubt the truth of the 
 message. He immediately moved his squadrons to cut them off from the 
 possibility of reti^eat. 
 
 In the meantime Themistocles was again called from the council by 
 the arrival of a messenger. It was his ancient rival, the brave and upright 
 Aristides, still in exile through the influence of Themistocles, but watchful 
 as ever for the interests of his country. He had crossed from .^gina in 
 an open boat to inform the Greeks that they were surrounded by the Per- 
 sians. "At any time," said the just Athenian, "it would become us to 
 forget our private dissensions, and at this time especially, in contending 
 only who should most serve his country." Themistocles led him at once 
 to the council. His intelligence was soon confirmed by a Tenian deserter, 
 and the leaders were now forced to unite in preparation for immediate 
 
 battle. 
 
 « 
 
 117. Battle of Salamis. When the sun arose upon the straits of 
 Salamis, the Attic shores were seen lined with the glittering 
 ranks of the Persian army, drawn up by order of Xerxes to 
 intercept fugitives from the Grecian fleet. The king himself, on a throne 
 of precious metals, sat to watch the coming contest. His ships were fully 
 three times the number of the Greeks, and no serious disaster had yet 
 stayed his progress. The Greeks advanced, singing that battle-song which 
 the great poet ^schylus, who himself fought on this memorable day, has 
 preserved for us : " On, sons of the Greeks! Strike for the freedom of your 
 country! strike for the freedom of your children and your wives — for the 
 shrines of your fathers' gods, and for the sepulchers of your sires ! All, all 
 are now staked upon your strife!" 
 
 Themistocles held them back until a wind began to blow, which usually 
 arose in the morning, causing a heavy swell in the channel. This 
 seriously incommoded the cumbrous vessels of the Persians, while the 
 light and compact Greek craft easily drove their brazen beaks into the 
 sides of the enemy. The Athenians, on the right, soon broke the Phoeni- 
 cian line which was opposed to them ; and the Spartans, on the left, 
 gained victories over the Ionian allies of the Persians. The sea was 
 strewn with dead bodies, entangled in the masts and cordage of the ships. 
 Aristides, who had been waiting with his command on the coast of Sal a- 
 
142 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 mis, now crossed to the little island of Psyt^tali^a, and put the Persian 
 garrison to the sword. Xerxes, from his throne on Mount ^galeos, help- 
 lessly watched the confusion and slaughter of his men. The contest lasted 
 until evening, when the straits of Salamis were abandoned by the bar- 
 barians. 
 
 118. When morning cume, the Greeks were ready to renew the battle. 
 The Persians had still a large fleet and a numerous army ; and, in the 
 night, the Phoenician transports had been joined so as to make a bridge 
 between Salamis and the mainland. But this was only a feint to cover 
 the real movement. The fleet was already under orders to sail to the 
 Hellespont, and the army retired in a few days to Bceotia. Leaving 
 300,000 men with Mardonius to renew the war in the following year, 
 Xerxes hastened into Asia. His army was reduced on the way by 
 famine and pestilence, and it was but a fragment of the great host 
 which had crossed the Hellespont in the spring of 480, that returned in 
 the autumn. 
 
 119. As spring opened, Mardonius prepared to renew the war; but first 
 
 he sought to accomplish by diplomacy what he had hitherto 
 failed to do by force. Deeply impressed with the valor of 
 the Athenians, he was sure that if he could withdraw them from the con- 
 federacy, the rest of Greece would be an easy prey. To this end he sent 
 Alexander I., king of Macedon, his ally, but a former friend of the Athe- 
 nians, to flatter them with promises of favor and solicit their alliance. 
 The Athenians refused him an audience until they had time to summon 
 delegates from Sparta. When the Spartans had arrived, Alexander deliv- 
 ered his message. The great king offered to the Athenians forgiveness of 
 the injuries they had done him, the restoration of their country and its 
 extension over neighboring territories, the free enjoyment of their own 
 laws, and the means of rebuilding all their temples. He urged the Athe- 
 nians to embrace so favorable an offer, for to them alone of all the Greeks 
 Avas forgiveness extended. 
 
 120. The Athenians replied: ''We are not ignorant of the power of the 
 Mede, but for the sake of freedom we will resist that power as we can. 
 Bear back to Mardonius this our answer: So long as yonder sun continues 
 his course, so long we forswear all friendship with Xerxes; so long, con- 
 fiding in the aid of our gods and heroes, Avhose shrines and altars he has 
 burnt, we will struggle against him for revenge. As for you, Spartans, 
 knowing our spirit, you should be ashamed to fear our alliance with the 
 barbarian. Send your forces into the field without delay. The enemy will 
 be upon us when he knows our answer. Let us meet him in Bceotia 
 before he proceed to Attica." 
 
 121. The Athenians had rightly judged the immediateness of the danger. 
 Scarcely was their answer received when the Persian general was in motion, 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE, 143 
 
 and advanced by rapid marches to the borders of Attica. He was re- 
 enforced at every halt by northern Greeks, moved either by terror of liis 
 power or by long-standing jealousies against the members of the League. 
 The Attic territory was utterly desolate and Athens a second time deserted. 
 Taking possession of that city, Mardonius dispatched a Greek messenger 
 to Salamis, repeating his former propositions, which were as instantly 
 rejected as before. 
 
 The Athenians were a second time homeless, and, for the moment, 
 standing alone against the enemies of Greece. The Spartans were en- 
 gaged in some long-continued solemnities — perhaps the funeral of their 
 regent, Cleom^brotus — and allowed the Athenian messengers to wait ten 
 days for an answer. Not until the indignant envoys had threatened to 
 make terms with Mardonius and leave Sparta to her fiite, did the ephors 
 bestir themselves, but then it was with true Spartan energy and dispatch. 
 Five thousand Spartans and 35,000 slaves were sent, under the command 
 of Pausanias, the new regent, to whom the ephors added a guard of 5,000 
 heavy-armed Laconians. 
 
 122. Hearing of the advance of the Spartans, the Persian thought best 
 to retreat. He again set fire to Athens, leveled to the ground whatever 
 remained of its walls and temples, and retired into Boeotia. Here he 
 arranged his camp on a branch of the Asopus, not far from the city of 
 Platsea. The Spartans followed, having been joined at the isthmus by the 
 Peloponnesian allies, and, at Eleusis, by the Athenians. The Greek forces 
 occupied the lower slopes of Mount Cithseron, with the river before them, 
 separating them from the Persians. 
 
 123. Battle of ERYTHRiE. The battle was opened by the Persian 
 cavalry, commanded by Masis^tius, the most illustrious general in the 
 army, except Mardonius. His magnificent person, clad in complete scale- 
 armor of gold and burnished brass, was conspicuous upon the battle-field ; 
 and his horsemen, then the most famous in the world for their skill and 
 bravery, severely harassed the Megarians, who were posted on the open 
 plain. Olym^piodo^rus with a select body of Athenians went to their 
 assistance, and Masistius spurred his Nissean steed across the field to meet 
 him. In the sharp combat which followed, the Persian was unhorsed, 
 and as he lay along the ground was assailed by a swarm of enemies. 
 The heavy armor, which prevented his rising, protected him from their 
 weapons, until, at length, an opening in his visor allowed a lance to reach 
 his brain. His death decided the fate of the battle. 
 
 124. After this victory the Greek army moved nearer to Platasa, where 
 was a more abundant supply of water and a more convenient ground. It 
 was the strongest force which the Persians had yet encountered in Greece, 
 numbering, with allies and attendants, 110,000 men. For ten days they 
 lay facing each other with no important action. The Persians, however, 
 
144 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 intercepted convoys of provisions, and succeeded in choking up the 
 spring which supplied the Greeks with water, while, by their arrows and 
 javelins, they prevented their approach to the river. Pausanias then 
 resolved to fall back to a level and well- watered meadow still nearer to 
 Platgea. 
 
 125. Battle of Plat^a. The Spartans were attacked while on the 
 march, and sent immediately to the Athenians fur aid. The 
 latter marched to their assistance, but were intercepted by the 
 Ionian allies of the Persians, and cut off from the intended rescue. Pausa- 
 nias, thus compelled to engage with a small j^ortion of his army, ordered a 
 solemn sacrifice, and his men stood awaiting the result, unflinching, though 
 exposed to a storm of Persian arrows. The omens were unfavorable, and the 
 sacrifices were again and again renewed. At length Pausanias, lifting his 
 eyes streaming with tears toward the temple of Hera, besought the god- 
 dess that if fate forbade the Greeks to conquer, they might, at least, die 
 like men. At this moment the sacrifices assumed a more favorable aspect, 
 and the order for battle was given. 
 
 The Spartan phalanx in one dense mass moved slowly but steadily 
 against the Persians. The latter acted with wonderfid resolution, seizing 
 the pikes of the Spartans or snatching away their shields, while they 
 wrestled with them hand to hand. Mardonius himself, at the head of his 
 chosen guards, fought in the foremost ranks, and animated the courage of 
 his men both by word and example. But he received a mortal wound, 
 and his followers, dismayed by his fall, fled in confusion to their camp. 
 Here they again made a stand against the Lacedaemonians, who were un- 
 skilled in attacking fortified places, until the Athenians, who had mean- 
 while conquered their Ionian opponents, came up and completed the 
 victory. They scaled the ramparts and effected a breach, through which 
 the remainder of the Greeks poured into the camp. The Persians now 
 yielded to the general rout. They fled in all directions, but were so 
 fiercely pursued, that, except the 40,000 of Artaba^zus, who had already 
 secured their retreat, scarcely 3,000 escaped. The victory was complete, 
 and immense treasures of gold and silver, besides horses, camels', and rich 
 raiment, remained in the hands of the Greeks. 
 
 12G. Mounds were raised over the brave and illustrious dead. Only to 
 Aristodemus, the Spartan, who had incurred disgrace by returning alive 
 from Thermopylffi, no honors were decreed. The soil of Platcea became a 
 second "Holy Land." Thither every year embassies from the states of 
 Greece came to ofler sacrifices to Zeus, the deliverer, and every fifth year 
 games were celebrated in honor of liberty. The Platseans themselves, 
 exempt henceforth from military service, became the guardians of the 
 sacred ground, and to attack them was decreed to be sacrilege. 
 
 127. On the day of the victory of Plataea, a no less important advantage 
 
HISTOEY OF GREECE. 145 
 
 was gained by the Greeks at Mycale, in Ionia. Here a large land force, 
 under Tigra^nes, had been stationed by Xerxes for the protection of the 
 coast, and hither the Persian fleet retired before the advance of the Greeks. 
 The Persians drew their ships to land, and protected them by intrench- 
 ments and strong earth-works. The Greeks, finding the sea deserted, 
 approached near enough to make the voice of a herald heard, who ex- 
 horted the lonians in the army of Tigranes to remember that they, too, 
 had a share in the liberties of Greece. The Persians, not understanding 
 the language of the herald, began to distrnst their allies. They deprived 
 the Samians of their arms, and placed the Milesians at a distance from the 
 front to guard the path to the heights of Mycale. The Greeks, having 
 landed, drove the Persians from the shore to their intrenchments, and the 
 Athenians first became engaged in storming the barricades. The native 
 Persians fought fiercely, even after their general was slain, and fell at last 
 within their camp. All the islands which had given assistance to the 
 Medes were now received into the Hellenic League, with solemn pledges 
 never again to desert it. 
 
 Athens incuiTed the vengeance of the Persian king by aiding a revolt of the 
 Asiatic Greeks. The first invasion of Greece, by Marclonius, failed; a second and 
 larger force, under Datls and Artaphernes, ravaged Naxos and part of Euboea, 
 but was defeated by Miltiades and 11,000 Greeks, at Marathon. An unsuccessful 
 attempt upon Paros destroyed the fame of Miltiades, and he died under a charge 
 of having received bribes froni the Persians. Aristides succeeded him In popular 
 favor, but was at length exiled through the influence of Themistoeles. The latter 
 urged tlie naval preparations of his countrymen, and Athens then first became 
 a great marltimie power. A congress at Corinth, B. C. 481, united the Greek forces 
 under Spartan command. The Delphic oracle promising safety to the Athenians 
 only within walls of wood, they abandoned their city and took refuge on the 
 fleet. A few hundreds of Spartans and Thespians withstood the Persian host at 
 Thermopylte, until betrayed by a Malian guide. The invaders were totally de- 
 feated in a naval combat at Salamis, and Xei'xes retired to Persia. Mardonius, 
 failing to end the war by diplomacy, was finally overthrown in the battles ol 
 Erythrce and Plattea; and the land and naval forces of the Persians were at the 
 same time destroyed at Mycale, in Asia Minor. 
 
 Growth of Athens. 
 
 128. Though their immediate danger was past, the Greeks did not suffer 
 their enemies to rest. A fleet of fifty vessels was prepared, with the inten- 
 tion to rescue every Greek city in Europe or Asia which still felt the power 
 of the Persian. Though Athens, as before, furnished more ships than all 
 the other states, Pausanias commanded. He first wrested Cyprus from tho 
 Persians, and then proceeded to Byzantium, which he also liberated and 
 occupied as a residence for seven years. 
 A. H.— 19. 
 
146 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 B. C. 478. 
 
 120. Siege of Sestus. The Athenians resolved to win back the colony 
 founded by Miltiades in the Chersonesus. The whole re- 
 maining force of the Persians made a last stand at Sestus, 
 and endured a siege so obstinate that they even consumed the leather of 
 their harness and bedding for want of food. They yielded at last, and the 
 natives gladly welcomed back the Greeks. Laden with treasures and se- 
 cure of a well-earned peace, the Athenians returned home in triumph. 
 Among their relics, the broken fragments and cables of the Hellespoutine 
 bridge of Xerxes were long to be seen in the temples of Athens. 
 
 130. Notwithstanding her losses, Athens came forth from the Persian 
 wars stronger, and with a higher rank among the Grecian states, than she 
 had entered them. Her efforts and sacrifices had called forth a power 
 which she was scarcely conscious of possessing, and with the consent of 
 Sparta, whose constitution illy fitted her for distant enterprises, Athens 
 was now recognized as the leader of the Greeks in foreign affairs. In the 
 meantime important changes had occurred in her internal policy. The 
 power of the great families was broken, and the common people, who had 
 borne the brunt of hardship and peril in the war, were recognized as an 
 important element in the state. Aristides, though the leader of the aris- 
 tocratic party, proposed and carried an amendment by which all the people, 
 Avithout distinction of rank or property, obtained a share in the govern- 
 ment, the only requisites being intelligence and moral character. The 
 archonship, which had hitherto been confined to the eupatrids, was now 
 thrown open to all classes. 
 
 Themistocles w%as the popular leader. His first care was the rebuilding 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 147 
 
 of the walls of Athens, and he provided means by levying contributions 
 upon those islands which had given aid to the Persians. The jealous op- 
 position of the Spartans was overcome by gold and management. To 
 accommodate the greatly increased navy, he improved the port of Piraeus 
 and protected it by strong walls. He hoped, by building up the naval 
 power of Athens, to place her at the head of a great maritime empire, 
 comprising the islands and Asiatic coasts of the iEgean, thus eclipsing the 
 Spartan supremacy on the Grecian mainland. 
 
 131. Pausanias, now commanding at Byzantium, had lost all his Spartan 
 virtue in the pride of conquest and the luxury of wealth. After the vic- 
 tory at Platsea, he had engraven on the golden tripod dedicated to Apollo 
 by all the Greeks, an inscription in which he claimed for himself the ex- 
 clusive glory. His government, justly offended, caused this inscription to 
 be replaced by another, naming only the confederate cities, and omitting 
 all mention of Pausanias. Both the pride and the talents of the Spartan 
 commander were too great for the private station into which he must soon 
 descend ; for though so long generalissimo of the Greeks, he was not a 
 king in Sparta, but only regent for the son of Leonidas. The conversation 
 of his Persian captives, some of whom were relatives of the great king, 
 opened brilliant views to the ambition and avarice of Pausanias. His own 
 relative, Demara^tus, had exchanged the austere life of a Spartan for all 
 the luxury of an Oriental palace, with the government of three JEoWan 
 cities. The greater talents of Pausanias would entitle him to yet higher 
 dignities and honors. 
 
 In view of these glittering bribes, the victor of Platxea was willing to 
 become the betrayer of his country. He released his noble prisoners with 
 messages to Xerxes, in which he offered to subject Sparta and the rest of 
 Greece to the Persian dominion, on condition of receiving the king's 
 daughter in marriage, wi^h wealth and power suitable to his rank. 
 Xerxes welcomed these overtures with delight, and immediately sent 
 commissioners to continue the negotiation. Exalted by his new hopes, 
 the pride of Pausanias became unbearable. He assumed the dress of a 
 Persian satrap, and journeyed into Thrace in true Oriental pomp, with a 
 guard of Persians and Egyptians. He insulted the Greek officers and 
 subjected the common soldiers to the lash. Even Aristides was rudely 
 repulsed when he sought to know the reason of this extraordinary 
 conduct. 
 
 Keports reached the Spartan government, and Pausanias was recalled. 
 He was tried and convicted for various personal and minor offenses, 
 but the proof of his treason was thought insufficient to convict him. 
 He returned to Byzantium without the permission of his government, 
 but was expelled by the allies for his shameful conduct. Again re- 
 called to Sparta, he was tried and imprisoned, only to escape and renew 
 
148 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 his intrigues both with the Persians and with the Helots at home, to 
 whom he promised freedom and the rights of citizenship if they would 
 aid him to overthrow the government and make himself tyrant. 
 
 He was caught, at length, in his own snares. A man named Argilius, 
 whom he had intrusted with a letter to Artabazus, remembered that none 
 of those whom he had seen dispatched on similar errands, had returned. 
 He broke the seal and found, together with much treasonable matter, 
 directions for his own death as soon as he should arrive at 
 ^'^'^^^' the satrap's court. The letter was laid before the ephors, 
 
 and the treason being now fully proved, preparations were made to arrest 
 Pausanias. He was warned and took refuge in the temple of Athena 
 Chalcioe'cus. Here he suffered the penalty of his crimes. The roof was 
 removed, and his own mother brought the first stone to block up the 
 entrance to the temple. When he Avas known to be nearly exhausted by 
 hunger and exposure, he was brought out to die in the open air, lest his 
 death should pollute the shrine of the goddess. 
 
 132. On the first recall of Pausanias, B. C. 477, the allies had unani- 
 mously placed Aristides at their head. This was the turning-point of a 
 peaceful revolution which made Athens, instead of Sparta, the leading 
 state in Greece. Cautious still of awakening jealousy, Aristides named, 
 not Athens, but the sacred isle of Delos, as the seat of the Hellenic 
 League. Here the Congress met, and here was the common treasury, 
 filled by the contributions of all the Grecian states, for the defense of the 
 iEgean coasts and the furtherance of active operations against the Per- 
 sians. In the assessment of these taxes, Aristides acted with so much wisdom 
 and justice, that, though all the treasures of Greece were in his power, no 
 word of accusation or complaint was uttered by any of the allies. 
 
 133. Having thus laid the foundation of Athenian supremacy by his 
 
 moderation, Aristides retired from command, and was suc- 
 B. C. 476. ' , , 
 
 ceeded by Cimon, the son of Miltiades. This young noble 
 was distinguished by his frank and generous manners, as well as by his 
 bravery in war, which had already been proved against the Persians. 
 The recovery of his father's estates in the Chersonesus gave him immense 
 wealth, which he used in the most liberal manner. He kept open table 
 for men of all ranks, and was followed in the streets by a train of 
 servants laden with cloaks, which they gave to any needy person whom 
 they met. At the same time he administered to the wants of the more 
 sensitive by charities delicately and secretly offered. Though doubtless 
 injurious to the spirit of the Athenian people, this liberality was gladly 
 accepted, and resulted in unbounded popularity to Cimon. His brave 
 and sincere character commended him to the Spartans, and of all the 
 Athenians he was probably the most acceptable leader to the allies. 
 
 134. His first expedition was against the Thracian town Ei^'on, now 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 149 
 
 held by a Persian garrison. The town was reduced by famine, when its 
 governor, fearing the displeasure of Xerxes more than death, placed 
 himself, his family, and his treasures upon a funeral pile, and perished 
 by fire. The place surrendered, and its defenders were sold as slaves. 
 Cimon then proceeded to Scyrus, whose people had incurred the ven- 
 geance of the League by their piratical practices. The pirates were 
 expelled, and the place occupied by an Attic colony. As the fear of 
 Asiatic invasion subsided, the bond between the allies and their chief 
 relaxed. Carystus refused to pay tribute, and Naxos, the most important 
 of the Cyclades, openly revolted. Cimon was on the alert. Carystus 
 was subdued, and a powerful fleet was led against Naxos. The siege 
 was long and obstinate, but it resulted in favor of Athens. The island 
 was reduced from an ally to a subject. 
 
 135. Battle of the Eurymedon. The victorious fleet of Cimon 
 now advanced along the southern shores of Asia Minor, 
 
 and all the Greek cities, either encouraged by his presence 
 or overawed by his power, seized the opportunity to throw off* the yoke 
 of the Persians. His force was increased by their accession when he 
 came to the river Eurymedon, in Pamphylia, and found a Persian fleet 
 moored near its entrance, and a powerful army drawn up upon the banks. 
 Already more numerous than the Greeks, they were expecting reinforce- 
 ments from Cyprus; but Cimon, preferring to attack them without delay, 
 sailed up the river and engaged their fleet. The Persians fought but 
 feebly, and as they were driven to the narrow and shallow portion of the 
 river, they forsook their ships and joined the army on the land. Cimon 
 increased his own fleet by two hundred of the deserted triremes, beside 
 destroying many. 
 
 Thus victorious on the water, the men demanded to be led on shore, 
 where the Persian army stood in close array. Fatigued with the sea fight, 
 it w^as hazardous to land in the face of a superior enemy still fresh and 
 unworn, but the zeal of the Greeks surmounted all objections. The second 
 battle was more closely contested than the first; many noble Athenians 
 fell, but victory came at last; the field and the spoils remained to the 
 Greeks. To make his victory complete, Cimon proceeded to Cyprus, 
 where the Phoenician reinforcements were still detained. These were 
 wholly captured or destroyed, and the immense treasure which fell into 
 the hands of the victors increased the splendor of Athens. The tide of 
 war had now rolled back so powerfully upon Persia, that the coasts of 
 Asiatic Greece were free from all danger. No Persian troops came 
 within a day's journey on horseback of the Grecian seas, whose waters 
 were swept clear of Persian sails. 
 
 136. Aristides was now dead, and Themistocles in exile, having been 
 ostracised in 471 B. C. Cimon was therefore both the greatest and 
 
150 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 richest of the Athenians; and while his wealth was freely used for tho 
 adornment of Athens and the pleasure of her citizens, it continually added 
 to his power. He planted the inarki?t-place with Oriental plane-trees; laid 
 out in walks and adorned with groves and fountains the Acade^mia, after- 
 ward made celebrated by the teachings of Plato ; he erected beautiful col- 
 onnades of marble, where the Athenians long loved to assemble for social 
 intercourse; and he caused the dramatic entertainments to be celebrated 
 with greater elegance and brilliancy. With this increase of wealth, the 
 tastes of the citizens became luxurious, and Athens rose from her poverty 
 and secondary rank to be not only the most j^owerful, but the most mag- 
 nificent of Grecian cities. 
 
 137. Though of the opposite political party to Themistocles, Cimon 
 carried forward that statesman's great design of exalting by all means the 
 naval power of Athens. To this end he yielded to the request of the 
 allies, who desired to commute their quotas of ships or men for the 
 general defense into a money payment. Other admirals' had been less 
 accommodating, but Cimon masked a profound policy under his apparent 
 good-nature. The forces of the other states became enfeebled by want of 
 discipline, while the Athenians Avere not only enriched by their tribute, 
 but strengthened in the hardy drill of the soldier and sailor, which Cimon 
 never suffered them to relax. 
 
 138. The fall of Themistocles was indirectly brought about by that of 
 Pausanias. The great Athenian, living in exile, but watchful as ever in 
 all that concerned the interests of Greece, had entered so far into the 
 intrigues of Pausanias as to become possessed of all his plans. The 
 Spartan ephors, finding his letters among the papers of Pausanias, and 
 glad of such a pretext against their old enemy, sent them to Athens, 
 accusing liim of a share in the conspiracy. The party led by Cimon and 
 friendly to Sparta was now predominant in Athens, and the people lis- 
 tened too readily to these suspicions. A combined force of Spartan and 
 Atlienian troops was sent forth, with orders to seize Themistocles wherever 
 he could be found. 
 
 The exile, after many adventures, took refuge at the court of Persia, 
 B. c. 466. *^^^* power which, more than any man living, he had con- 
 
 tributed to destroy, but which was ever personally generous 
 toward its foes. The three cities, Myus, Lamp^sacus, and Magnesia, were 
 assigned him for his support. In the latter city he passed his remaining 
 days in affluence and honor. Two accounts have been given of his death. 
 The more probable one is, that wlien Egypt revolted and was aided by 
 Athens (B. C. 449), the Persian king called upon Themistocles to make 
 good his promises and begin operations against Greece. But the Athenian 
 had only wished to escape from his ungrateful countrymen, not to injure 
 them, and he could not help to destroy that supremacy of Athens which 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. ' 151 
 
 he had spent the best years of his life in building up. Falsehood to the 
 great king seemed to him a less heinous crime than treason against his 
 country. He made a solemn sacrifice to the gods, took leave of his friends, 
 and ended his days by poison. 
 
 139. The Thasians, meanwhile, had a contest with Athens for some 
 gold mines in Thrace. Cimon conducted a fleet to Thasos, 
 gained a naval victory, and began a three years' siege of the 
 principal town. The Thasians sent to Sparta for help, and that state was 
 preparing to render it with great alacrity, when her attention was suddenly 
 absorbed at home by unforeseen calamities. An earthquake of unprece- 
 dented violence first destroyed the city. Great rocks from 
 Mount Taygetus rolled into the streets, and multitudes of 
 persons were engulfed or buried beneath the ruins of their houses. The 
 shocks were long-continued, and terror of the supposed wrath of Heaven 
 was added to the anguish of poverty and bereavement. The dreaded ven- 
 geace soon appeared in human form ; for the persecuted Helots, hearing 
 the signal of their deliverance in the stroke of doom to Sparta, flocked 
 together from the fields and villages, and mingled their revenge with 
 the commotions of Nature. 
 
 It was a terrible moment for Sparta ; but her king, Archidamus, was 
 true to the stern valor of his race. The shocks of the earthquake had 
 " hardly ceased, when lie ordered the trumpets to sound to arms. Even at 
 that fearful moment Spartan discipline j^revailed. Every man who sur- 
 vived hastened to the king, and when the disorderly, servile crowd ap- 
 proached, they found a disciplined force ready to resist them. Sparta was 
 saved for the moment; the insurgents fled and scattered themselves over 
 the country, calling to their standard all who were oppressed. The Mes- 
 senians rose in a mass, seized Ithome, where their never- forgotten hero, 
 Aristomenes, had so long withstood the Lacedcemonian arms, fortified it 
 anew, and formally declared war against Sparta. The ten years' conflict 
 which followed is known as the Third Messenian War (B. C. 464-455). 
 
 In her extremity, Sparta sent to Athens for aid, and the appeal produced 
 a violent controversy between the two parties into which that city was 
 divided. Cimon favored the Spartans; he had always held up their brave 
 and hardy character as a model to his countrymen, and had even sacrificed 
 much of his popularity by naming his son Lacedsemonius. When others 
 urged that it was well the pride of Sparta should be humbled, and her 
 power for mischief curtailed, Cimon exhorted his countrymen, not to suffer 
 Greece to be maimed by the loss of one of her two great powers, thus de- 
 priving Athens of her companion. His generous counsel prevailed, and 
 Cimon led a strong force against the insurgents, who were now driven 
 from the open country and compelled to shut themselves up in the castle 
 of Ithome. 
 
152 ANCIENT HIISTORY. 
 
 140. The influence of Cimon had greatly declined at Athens. The 
 democratic 23arty had recovered from its loss in Themistocles, for a new 
 leader was arising whose popularity and services to the state were destined 
 to eclipse even the great men who had preceded him. This was Pei-^icles, 
 the son of that Xanthippus who had impeached Miltiades. His mother 
 was niece of Clisthenes, who is called the second founder of the Athenian 
 constitution. Born of an illustrious family, and educated in all the oppor- 
 tunities of Athenian camj^s and schools, Pericles was said to have nothing 
 to contend against except his advantages. His beautiful face, winning 
 manners, and musical voice reminded the oldest citizens of Pisistratus; 
 and the vigilance with which the Athenians guarded their liberties, 
 turned the admiration of some into jealousy. Pericles, however, made no 
 haste to enter on his public career, but prepared himself by long and dili- 
 gent study for the influence he hoped to attain. He sought the wisest 
 teachers, and became skilled in the science of government, while he culti- 
 vated his gifts in oratory by training in all the arts of expression. 
 
 Anaxag^oras, the first Greek philosopher who believed in one supreme 
 Intelligence, creating and governing the universe, was the especial friend 
 and instructor of Pericles, and to his sublime doctrines men attributed the 
 elevation and purity of the young statesman's eloquence. Instead of rely- 
 ing solely upon the wisdom of his counsels, like Themistocles, or upon his 
 natural gifts, like Pisistratus, Pericles chose every word with care, and was 
 the first who committed his orations to writing, that he might subject every 
 sentence to the highest polish of which it was capable. The Athenian 
 people, the most sensitive, perhaps, to beauty of style of any that ever 
 existed, enjoyed with keen delight the clear reasoning and bjrilliant lan- 
 guage which characterized the discourses of Pericles. Nor was his perfec- 
 tion of detail gained by any sacrifice of energy. liis public speaking was 
 compared to thunder and lightning, and he was said to carry the weapons 
 of Zeus upon his tongue. Above all, the sweetness of his temper, and the 
 command which philosophy had enabled him to gain over his passions, 
 gave him advantage over less disciplined orators. The fiercest debate or 
 the most insulting interruptions never disturbed for a moment the cheerful 
 and dignified composure of his manner. 
 
 141. Thasos surrendered B. C. 463; its walls were leveled, its shipping 
 transferred to the Athenians, and all its claims upon the Thracian gold 
 mines were given up. The people were compelled to pay all their arrears 
 of tribute to the Delian treasury, beside engaging to meet their dues 
 punctually in future. 
 
 142. A second time the Spartans asked the aid of Athens in their servile 
 B. c. 461. ^^'^^' ^"^ Cimon again led an army to their relief. But the 
 
 superiority of the Athenians in siege operations aroused the 
 envy of the Lacedasmonians, even when employed in their defense; and the 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 153 
 
 long siege of Ithome afforded time for the rivalries of the two nations to 
 break out into open feuds. The Spartans declared that they had no further 
 need of the Athenians, and dismissed their troops. Other allies were re- 
 tained, including ^Egina, the ancient rival of Athens. The latter, consider- 
 ing herself insulted, made an alliance with the Argives and the Aleuads of 
 Thessaly against Sparta. The Hellenic treasury was removed from Delos 
 to Athens, for safe keeping, it was said, against the needy and rapacious 
 hands of the Spartans. 
 
 The popular resentment naturally extended itself to Cimon. The favor 
 with which he was regarded in Sparta was now his greatest crime. The 
 Athenians had indeed some reason to fear, for the Spartan nobles always 
 maintained a party in their city who were supposed to be secretly plotting 
 against its free government. However honestly Cimon supported aristocratic 
 principles, the people, with equal honesty and greater wisdom, opposed him. 
 He was subjected to the ostracism and banished for ten years. 
 
 Ii.ECJ^I=ITTJXj.A.TI03Sr. 
 
 The power of Athens was increased by the Peisian war; and her home gov- 
 ernment, which had been confined to the nobles, was thrown open to the people. 
 Themistocles rebuilt the walls and improved the harbor. Pausanias, becoming a 
 traitor, died of starvation in the temple of Athena, at Sparta. Athens became 
 the chief of the Hellenic Leagne, wliose seat and treasury were at Delos, Cimon, 
 son of Miltiades, in command of tlie allied forces, captured Eion, cleared Scyros 
 of pirates, subdued rebellions in Carystns and Naxos, and conquei-ed the Persians, 
 both on sea and land, in the battle of the Eurymedon. He beautified Athens by 
 a liberal use of his enormous wealth, and improved the military and naval dis- 
 cipline of his fellow-citizens, at the expense of their allies. Themistocles, exiled 
 through suspicion, took refuge in the Persian dominion, where he died. Sparta 
 sufTered a double calamity, in an earthquake and a servile rebellion, known as 
 the Third Messenian War. Her insulting treatment of her Athenian aids de- 
 stroyed the popularity of Cimon; and Pericles, the most accomplished of the 
 Athenians, rose into power. 
 
 Supremacy of Athens. 
 
 143. Athens, under the lead of Pericles, now entered upon the most 
 brilliant period of her history. A dispute between. Megara and Corintli 
 involved Athens on the former and Sparta on the latter side, and thus led 
 to the First Peloponnesian War (B. C. 460-457). At the same time, a 
 more distant enterprise tempted the Athenians. Egypt had now cast off 
 the last semblance of obedience to Persia, and hailed a deliverer and sov- 
 ereign in the person of Inarus. In looking about him for allies, Inarus 
 naturally sought the aid of those who, at Marathon, had first broken the 
 power of the Persians. The Athenians engaged gladly in the war, and 
 sent a fleet of two hundred triremes to the Nile. The events of the cam- 
 paign have been recorded in the History of Persia. * 
 
 -■■■ See p. 93. 
 
154 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 144. The war in Greece went on with great vigor. The Athenians were 
 defeated at Halae, but soon after won a naval battle at Cec^ryphali^a,* 
 Avhich more than retrieved their reputation, ^gina now joined in the 
 war, and the Athenians landed upon the island and besieged the city. A 
 Peloponnesiiin army came to the aid of ^gina, while the Corinthians 
 seized the opportunity to invade Megaris. With all her forces employed 
 either in Egypt or iEgina, they hoped that Athens would be overcome by 
 this new attack. But Myron^ides mustered an army of boys and old men 
 ^ ^ . exempt from service, and marched at once to the assistance 
 
 B. C. 4o7. ^ 
 
 of Megara. In the battle which ensued, neither party ac- 
 knowledged itself defeated, but the Corinthians withdrew to their capital, 
 while the Athenians held the field and erected a trophy. Unable to bear 
 the reproaches of their government, the Corinthian army returned after 
 twelve days and raised a monument upon the field, claiming that the 
 victory had been theirs. But the Athenians now attacked them anew, 
 and inflicted a decisive and disgraceful defeat. 
 
 145. In the midst of these enterprises abroad, great public works were 
 going on in Athens. Cimon had already planned a line of fortifications 
 to unite the city with its ports, and the spoils of the Persians, taken at the 
 Eurymedon and at Cyprus, had been assigned for the ex2:)ense. Under the 
 direction of Pericles, the building began in earnest. One wall was ex- 
 tended to Phalerum, and another to Pirasus ; but as it was found diflScult 
 to defend so large an inclosed space, a second wall to Piraeus was added, at 
 a distance of 550 feet from the first. Between these Long Walls a contin- 
 uous line of dwellings bordered the carriage-road, nearly five miles in 
 length, which extended from Athens to its principal harbor. 
 
 14G. The Spartans were still too much absorbed in the siege of Ithome 
 to interfere with the great and sudden advancement of Athenian power; 
 but a disaster which befell their little ancestral land of Doris, in war witli 
 the Phocians, withdrew their attention even from their own troubles. An 
 army of 1,500 heavy-armed Spartans and 10,000 auxiliaries, sent to the 
 relief of the Dorians, drove the Phocians from the town they had taken, 
 and secured their future good behavior by a treaty. The retreat of the 
 Spartans was now cut off by the Athenian fleet in the Gulf of Corinth 
 and the garrison in the Megarid. Their commander, NicomeMes, had, 
 however, reasons beyond the necessity of the case for renij^ining a while 
 in Boeotia. He was plotting with the aristocratic party in Athens for the 
 return of Cimon, and he also desired to increase the power of Thebes, as a 
 near and dangerous rival to tlie former city. 
 
 The conspiracy becoming known, the Athenians were roused to revenge, 
 They raised an army of 14,000 men and marched against Nicomedes, at 
 
 * A small island in the Saronlc Gulf, between jEgina and the coast of Argolis. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. l55 
 
 Tan^agra. Both sides fought with equal bravery and skill, and the 
 victory was undecided until the Thessaliun cavalry deserted _ , 
 
 -^ *' B. C. 457. 
 
 to the- Spartans. The Athenians and tlieir allies still held 
 out for some hours, but when the contest ended with the daylight, 
 the victory remained with their adversaries. Nicomedes reaped no other 
 fruit from his victory than a safe return home, but Thebes gained from it 
 an increase of power over the cities of Boeotia. 
 
 147. Battle of (Eno^phyta. The Athenians were only spurred to 
 fresh exertions. The brave Myronides entered Ba^otia two 
 
 months after the battle of Tanagra, and gained at CEno- 
 phyta one of the most decisive victories ever achieved by Greeks. The 
 walls of Tanagra were leveled with the ground. Phocis, Locris, and all 
 Bceotia, except Thebes, were brought into alliance with Athens. These 
 alliances were rendered effective by the establishment of free govern- 
 ments in all the towns, which, for self-preservation, must always range 
 themselves on the side of Athens; so that Myronides could boast that 
 he had not only subdued enemies, but filled central Greece with garrisons 
 of friends. 
 
 148. Soon after the completion of the Long Walls, in 456, the island 
 of JEgina submitted at last to Athens. Her shipping was surrendered, 
 her walls destroyed, and the life-long rival became a tributary and subject. 
 A fleet of fifty Athenian vessels, commanded by ToFniides, cruised around 
 the Peloponnesus ; burned Gyth^ium, a port of Sparta ; captured Chalcis, 
 in ^tolia, which belonged to Corinth, and defeated the 
 
 B. C. 45o. 
 
 Sicyonians on their own coast. Returning through the 
 
 Corinthian Gulf, they captured Naupac'tus, in western Locris, and all 
 
 the cities of Cephallenia. 
 
 In the same year, the tenth of its sieg«, Ithome surrendered to the 
 Spartans. So long and brave a defense won the respect even of bitter 
 enemies. The Helots were reduced again to slavery, but the Messenians 
 were permitted to depart in safety to Naupactus, which Tolmides presented 
 them from the fruits of his victories. 
 
 149. In Egypt, the resistance of the Athenians to the Persians ended 
 the same year, but not until after long and desperate adventures. When 
 the citadel of Memphis was relieved by a Persian force, the Greeks with- 
 drew to Prosopi'^tis, an island in the Nile around which their ships lay 
 anchored. The Persians following, drained the channel, and thus left the 
 ships on dry land. The Egyptian allies yielded, on this loss of their most 
 effective force ; but the Athenians, after burning the stranded vessels, re- 
 tired into the town of Byblus, resolved to hold out to the last. The siege 
 continued eighteen months. At last the Persians marched across the dry 
 bed of the channel and took the place by assault. Most of the Athenians 
 fell ; a few crossed the Libyan desert to Cyrene, and thus returned home. 
 
156 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A fleet of fifty vessels, which had been sent to their relief, came too late, 
 and was defeated by the Persians and Phcenicians. 
 
 150. Other enterprises of the Athenians at this time were scarcely more 
 successful, and Cimon, who had now been recalled from exile, used all his 
 influence in favor of peace. A five years' truce was made with Sparta in 
 451 B. C. The Isle of Cyprus was the next object of Athenian ambition. 
 Divided into nine petty states, it seemed to offer an easy conquest; and as 
 tlie Persian king still claimed the sovereignty, the enterprise was but a 
 renewal of ancient hostilities. Cimon sailed from Athens with a fleet of 
 two hundred vessels; and in spite of the Persian force of three hundred 
 ships which guarded the coast of Cyprus, he landed and gained possession 
 
 of many of its towns. While besieging Citium the great com- 
 mander died. By his orders his death was concealed from 
 his men, until they had gained another signal victory, both by land and 
 sea, in his name. The naval battle occurred off* the Cyprian Salamis — a 
 name of good omen to the Athenians. 
 
 151. A slight incident about this time brought on renewed hostilities with 
 Sparta. The city of Delphi, though on Phocian soil, claimed independence 
 in the management of the temple and its treasures. The inhabitants were 
 of Dorian descent, and were, therefore, closely united with the Spartans. 
 Where the interests of Greece were divided, the great influence of the oracle 
 was always on the side of the Doric as opposed to the Ionic race. The Athe- 
 nians did not therefore object when their allies, the Phocians, 
 
 B. c. 448. . •; ' ' 
 
 seized the Delphian territory and assumed the care of the 
 temple. The Spartans instantly undertook what they called a holy war, 
 by which they expelled the Phocians and reinstated the Delphians in their 
 former privileges. Delphi now declared itself a sovereign state; and to 
 reward the Spartans for their intervention, conferred upon them the first 
 privilege in consulting the oracle. This decree was inscribed upon a brazen 
 wolf erected in the city. The Athenians could not willingly resign their 
 share in a power which, through the superstition of the people, was often 
 able to bestow victory in war and prosperity in peace. No sooner had the 
 Spartans left the sacred city, than Pericles marched in and restored the 
 temple to the Phocians. The brazen wolf was now made to tell another 
 tale, and award precedence to the Athenians. 
 
 152. At this signal of war, the exiles from various Boeotian cities, who 
 had been driven out by the establishment of democratic governments, 
 joined for a concerted movement. They seized Chserone^a, Orchom^enus, 
 and other towns, and restored the oligarchic governments which the Athe- 
 nians had overthrown. These changes caused great excitement in Athens. 
 The people clamored for immediate war; Pericles strongly opposed it: 
 the season was unfavorable, and he considered that the honor of Athens 
 was not immediately at stake. But the counsel of Tolmides prevailed, and 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE, 157 
 
 with a tliousand youog Athenian volunteers, assisted by an army of allies, 
 he marched into Boeotia. Chaeronea was soon subdued and garrisoned with 
 Athenians. 
 
 Flushed with its speedy victory, the army was returning home, when, in 
 the vicinity of Coronsea, it fell into an ambush and suffered 
 
 B C AAl 
 
 a most signal and memorable defeat. Tolmides himself, with 
 the flower and pride of the Athenian soldiery, was left dead upon the field. 
 A large number of prisoners were taken, and to recover these the govern- 
 ment had to enter into a treaty with the new oligarchies, and withdraw its 
 forces from Boeotia. Locris and Phocis lost their free institutions and be- 
 came allies of Sparta. The island of Eubcea threw off" the 
 Athenian yoke, and other subject islands showed signs of dis- 
 affection. At the same time, the five years' truce with Sparta expired, and 
 that state prepared with new zeal to avenge its humiliation at Delphi. 
 
 153. Pericles, whose remembered warnings against the Boeotian war only 
 heightened the respect and confidence of the people, now acted with energy 
 and promptness. He landed in Eubcea with a sufficient force to reduce that 
 island, but had scarcely crossed the channel when he learned that the Me- 
 garians were in revolt. Aided by allies from Sicyon, Epidaurus, and Cor- 
 inth, they had put all the Athenian garrisons to the sword, except a few in 
 the fortress of Nisaea, and all the Peloponnesian states had combined to send 
 an army into Attica. To meet this greater danger, Pericles returned home. 
 The Peloponnesian army soon appeared, under the young Spartan king, 
 Plisto^anax ; but instead of the decisive operations that were expected, it 
 only plundered the western borders of Attica, and retired without striking a 
 blow. Plistoanax and his guardian were accused, on their return, of 
 having accepted bribes from the Athenians ; and as both fled the country, 
 rather than meet the prosecution, we may presume that the charge was just. 
 Returning to Eubcea, Pericles reduced the island to complete subjection, 
 and established a colony at Histisea. 
 
 154. All parties now desired peace. A thirty years' truce was concluded 
 between Athens and Sparta, in which the former submitted ^ ^ 
 
 _ ^ 13. C. 44u. 
 
 to the loss of her empire on land. The foothold in Troezene, 
 the right to levy troops in Achaia, the possession of the Megarid, the pro- 
 tectorate of free governments in central Greece, all were given up. But the 
 losses of the war had fallen most heavily on the party which began it, while 
 Pericles stood higher than ever in the esteem of his fellow-citizens. Thu- 
 cyd^ides," a kinsman of Cimon, and his successor as leader of the aristocracy, 
 was summoned to the ostracism, and when he rose to make his defense he 
 had not a word to say. He was banished, and retired to Sparta, B. C. 444. 
 
 <■ This exiled politician must not be confounded with Thucydides the great 
 historian, who was living at the same time. 
 
158 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 155. Pericles now united all parties, and for the rest of his life held 
 supreme control of affairs. The nobles respected him as one of their own 
 order; the merchants and alien settlers were enriched by his protection 
 of trade; the shippers and sailors, by his attention to maritime affairs; 
 artisans and artists, by the public works he was incessantly carrying on; 
 while the ears of all classes were charmed by his eloquence, and their eyes 
 by the magnificent buildings with which he adorned the city. At this time 
 was erected the Parthenon, or temple of Athena the Virgin, adorned by 
 Phidias with the most beautiful sculptures, especially with the colossal 
 statue of the goddess in ivory and gold, forty-seven feet in height. The 
 Erechtheum, or ancient sanctuary of Athena Polias, was rebuilt; the Pro- 
 pylce^a, of Pentelic marble, erected ; and the Acropolis now began to be 
 called the " city of the gods." 
 
 156. Only three islands in the neighboring seas now maintained their 
 
 independence, and of these the most important was Samos. 
 
 The Milesians, who had some cause of complaint against the 
 Samians, appealed to the arbitration of Athens, and were joined by a party 
 in Samos itself which was opposed to the oligarchy. The Athenians readily 
 assumed the judgment of the case, and as Samos refused their arbitration, 
 resolved to conquer the island. Pericles with a fleet proceeded to Samos, 
 revolutionized the government, and brought away hostages from the most 
 powerful families. But no sooner was he departed than some of the de- 
 posed party returned by night, overpowered the Athenian garrison, and 
 restored the oligarchy. They gained possession of their hostages, who 
 had been deposited on the Isle of Lemnos, and being joined by Byzantium, 
 declared open war against Athens. 
 
 157. When the news of this event reached Athens, a fleet of sixty vessels 
 was immediately sent forth, Pericles being one of the ten commanders. 
 Several battles were fought by sea, and the Samians were at length driven 
 within the walls of their capital, where they endured a nine months' siege. 
 When at last they were forced to yield, they were compelled to destroy 
 their fortifications, surrender their fleet, give hostages for their future 
 conduct, and pay the expenses of the war. The Byzantines submitted at 
 the same time. Athens was completely triumphant; but the terror she 
 had inspired was mixed with jealousy. During the revolt, the rival states 
 had seriously discussed the question of aiding the rebels ; and it was 
 decided in the negative mainly by the influence of Corinth, which, though 
 no friend to Athens, feared that the precedent might be remembered in 
 case of a revolt of her own colonies. 
 
 158. Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, had itself founded, on the Illyrian 
 ■n n An- coast, the city of Epidamnus. This city, attacked by the 
 
 Illyrians, led by some of her own exiled nobles, sent to 
 Corcyra for aid, but was refused, as the exiles belonged to the party in 
 
HISTOEY OF GREECE. 159 
 
 power in the mother city. The Epiclamniaiis now resorted to Corinth, 
 which undertook their defense with great energy. Corey ra, alarmed in 
 turn, applied to Athens for assistance. Opinions were divided in the 
 assembly, but that of Pericles prevailed, who urged that war could not 
 in any case be long delayed, and that it was more prudent to make it in 
 alliance with Corcyra, whose fleet was, next to that of Athens, the most 
 powerful in Greece, than to be driven at last to fight at a disadvantage. 
 
 Considering, however, that Corinth, as an ally of Sparta, was included 
 in the thirty years' truce, it was resolved to make only a defensive alliance 
 with Corcyra; i. e., to render assistance in case its territories should be in- 
 vaded, but not to take part in any aggressive action. A naval battle soon 
 occurred off the coast of Epirus, in which the Corinthians Avere the victors, 
 and prepared to effect a landing in Corcyra. Ten Athenian vessels were 
 present, under the command of Lacedsemonius, son of Cimon, and they 
 were now, by the letter of their agreement, free to engage. But suddenly, 
 after the signal of battle had been given, the Corinthians drew back and 
 stood away for the coast of Epirus. Twenty Athenian ships had appeared 
 in the distance, which they imagined to be the vanguard of a large fleet. 
 Though this was a mistake, it had the eftect of preventing further hostili- 
 ties, and the Corinthians returned home with their prisoners. 
 
 159. Incensed at the interference of Athens, the Corinthians sought 
 revenge by uniting with Prince Perdic^cas of Macedonia, to -r p qo 
 
 stir up revolts among the Athenian tributaries in the Chal- 
 cidic peninsulas. A battle ensued at Olynthus, in which the Athenians 
 were victorious over the Corinthian general, and blockaded him in Poti- 
 dsea, where he had taken refuge. 
 
 A congress of the Peloponnesian states was held at Sparta, and com- 
 plaints from many quarters were uttered against Athens. The ^Eginetans 
 deplored the loss of their independence ; the Megarians, the crippling of 
 their trade ; the Corinthians, that they were overshadowed by the towering 
 ambition of their powerful neighbor. At the same time, the Corinthians 
 contrasted the restless activity of Athens with the selfish inertness of 
 Sparta, and threatened that if the latter still delayed to do her duty by 
 the League, they would seek a more eflicient ally. 
 
 The envoys having departed, Sparta decided to undertake the war. 
 Before proceeding to actual hostilities, it was thought best to send mes- 
 sengers to Athens, demanding, among other things, that she should "expel 
 the accursed" from her presence — referring to Pericles, Avhose race they 
 chose to consider as still tainted with sacrilege. But Pericles replied that 
 the Spartans themselves had heavy accounts to settle on the score of sacri- 
 lege, not only for starving Pausanias in the sanctuary of Athena, but for 
 dragging away and murdering the Helots who had taken refuge, during 
 the late revolt, in the temple of Posidon. The other demands were rejected, 
 
160 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 though with more hesitatiou. They concerned the independence of Megara 
 and ^gina, and, generally, the abdication by Athens of her position as head 
 of the League. The Athenians declared that they would refrain from com- 
 mencing hostilities, and would make just satisfaction for any infringement 
 on their part of the thirty years' truce ; but that they were ready to meet 
 force with force. 
 IGO. War tn Bceotia. While both parties hesitated to begin the war, 
 the Thebans precipitated matters by a treacherous attack 
 upon the city of Plataea. This city, instead of joining the 
 Boeotian League, had been in friendly alliance with Athens, and was 
 hence regarded with great jealousy by the Thebans. A small oligarchical 
 party in Platsea flivored the Thebans, and it wfis Naucli^des, the head of 
 this party, who, at dead of night, admitted three hundred of them into the 
 town. The Plataeans were roused from sleep to find their enemies en- 
 camjDcd in their market-place ; but though scattered and betrayed, they 
 did not yield. They secretly 'communicated with each other by breaking 
 through the walls of their houses; and having thus formed a plan for 
 defense, fell upon the enemy a little before daybreak. 
 
 The Thebans were exhausted by marching all night in the rain ; they 
 were entangled in the narrow, crooked streets of the town; and even 
 women and children fought against them by hurling tiles from the roofs. 
 The reinforcement which they expected was delayed, and before it arrived 
 the three hundred were either slain or captured. The Thebans without 
 the walls now seized whatever persons and property they could lay their 
 hands on, as security for the release of the prisoners. The Plateaus sent 
 a herald to declare that the captives would be immediately put to death, 
 unless the ravages should cease; but that, if the Thebans would retire, 
 they should be given up. The marauders withdrew, but the Platseans, 
 instead of keeping their word, gathered their movable property into the 
 town, and then ])ut all their prisoners to death. Fleet-footed messengers 
 had already been sent to Athens with the news. They returned with 
 orders to the Platseans to do nothing of importance Avithout the advice of 
 the Athenians. It was too late, however, to save the lives of the prisoners 
 or the honor of their captors. 
 
 In the First Peloponnesiau War (B. C. 460-457), Athens was allied with Megara; 
 Sparta and ^gina, with Corinth. At the same time, the Athenians aided a revolt 
 of Egypt against Persia, and built long walls to connect their city with its ports. 
 Sparta', interfering in a war between Pliocis and Doris, defeated the Athenians 
 at Tauagra; but the latter gained a more decisive victory at CEnophyta, which 
 brought Phocis, Locris, and all Boeotia, except Thebes, into their alliance, ^gina 
 was conquered and made tributary to Athens. Ithome surrendered to Sparta; 
 the Helots were re-enslaved and the Messenians exiled. In a new war, occa- 
 
HISTOBY OF GBEECE. 161 
 
 sioned by the iuterfevence of Sparta at Delphi, the Atheuiaus, under Tolmides, 
 gained some advantages, but were disastrously defeated at Coroneea, with great 
 loss of influence in central Greece. Assailed at once by rebellions in Euboea and 
 Megaris, and by a Spartan invasion, Pericles defeated the latter Ijy bribes and 
 the former by arms. The peace which followed was concluded on terms unfa- 
 vorable to Athens. Being called to aid a popular revolution in Samos, tlie 
 Athenians captured its chief city and re-established their own influence. Epi- 
 damnus, in war with her motlier city, was aided by Corinth ; while Athens, 
 taking the part of Corcyra, defeated the Corinthians at Olynthus, and besieged 
 them two years in Potidsea. A more general war was hastened by the mutual 
 treachery of the Thebans and Platseans. 
 
 The Peloponnesian War. 
 
 161. All Greece now prepared for war — a war of twenty-seven years, 
 which was to be marked by more calamities and horrors 
 
 B. C. 431-404. ^ 
 
 than Hellas had ever yet endured. On the side of Sparta 
 fought all Peloponnesus, except Argos and Achaia, together with Megara, 
 Boeotia, Phocis, Opuntian Locris, Ambracia, Leucadia, and Anactoria. 
 Athens had for allies, on the mainland, Thessaly and Acarnania, with 
 the cities of Naupactus and Platsea. There were also her tributaries on 
 the coast of Thrace and Asia Minor, and on the Cyclades, beside her 
 island allies, Chios, Lesbos, Corcyra, Zacynthus, and, later, Cephallenia. 
 
 1G2. Archidamus, king of Spartn, having collected his allies at the 
 isthmus, marched into the Attic territory about the middle 
 of June. The inhabitants quitted their fields, and with all 
 the property they could remove, took refuge within Athens and the Pirseus. 
 Every corner and recess of the city walls became a dwelling. In the mar- 
 ket-place, the public squares, and the precincts of the temples, temporary 
 habitations arose, and the poorer sort found shelter in tents, huts, and even 
 casks, placed against the Long Walls. Among this crowded population, 
 violent debates arose concerning the conduct of the war. Great indigna- 
 tion was felt against Pericles for the inaction of the army, while Archida- 
 mus was ravaging the fields almost under their eyes. 
 
 But the leader had resolved to carry the war out of Attica. For this 
 purpose a combined fleet of Athenians and Corcyrseans sailed around the 
 Peloponnesus, disembarking troops at various points to ravage the country. 
 Two Corinthian settlements in Acarnania were captured, and the island 
 of Cephallenia transferred its allegiance from Sparta to Athens. The ^gi- 
 netans were expelled, and their island occupied by Athenian settlers. 
 Archidamus, after five or six weeks, marched out of Attica and disbanded 
 his army. The Athenians then put their forces in motion to punish the 
 Megarians, whom they considered as revolted subjects. They laid waste 
 the whole territory to the gates of the capital, and the devastations were 
 renewed every year while the war continued. 
 A. H.— 21. 
 
162 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 163. The next spring, with a new Spartan invasion, brought a still 
 
 greater calamity to the Athenians. The plague, originating 
 in Ethiopia, had traveled along the Asiatic coasts of the 
 Mediterranean until it reached their city, where the crowded condition of 
 the people made it spread with frightful rapidity. A terror seized the 
 populace, some of whom believed that their enemies had poisoned the 
 wells, while a greater number ascribed the pestilence to the wrath of 
 Apollo, who was the especial protector of the Dorian race. 
 
 164. In their passion of despair the Athenians turned against Pericles, 
 whose cautious policy they considered as the cause of their misfortunes. 
 Though still refusing battle, which, with the reduced numbers and ex- 
 hausted spirit of the army, would have been almost certain defeat, he 
 actively pushed his operations against the Peloponnesus. To relieve the 
 crowded city of its mischievous elements, he fitted out a fleet and led it 
 in person to ravage the enemy's coasts. On his return he found the oppo- 
 sition stronger than ever, and an embassy had even been sent to Sparta to 
 sue for peace. The suit had been contemptuously rejected, and the rage 
 of the Athenians was only increased. Pericles persuaded them to perse- 
 vere- in the war, but his eloquence was unavailing to silence the fury of his 
 personal enemies. By the influence of Cleon, his chief opponent, he was 
 even accused of embezzling the public funds, and was fined to a large 
 amount. 
 
 165. But the life and adversities of the great statesman were alike near 
 
 ^ ^^ their end. The plasrue had robbed him of his nearest rela- 
 
 B. C. 429. . . 
 
 tives. A lingering fever, following an attack of the pesti- 
 lence, terminated his life. As he lay, seemingly unconscious, the friends 
 surrounding his death-bed were rehearsing his great deeds, when the dying 
 man interrupted them, saying, "All that you are praising was either the 
 result of good fortune, or, in any case, common to me with many other 
 leaders. What I chiefly pride myself upon is, that no Athenian has ever 
 mourned on my account." 
 
 1G6. The second Lacedagmonian foray was more destructive than the 
 „ „ ,.,^ first, for the ravas-es extended over all Attica, even to the 
 
 B. C. 430. •- ' 
 
 silver mines of Laurium. The fleet of the Peloponnesians 
 destroyed the fisheries and commerce of Athens, and devastated the island 
 of Zacynthus. During the following winter Potidaea surrendered, after a 
 blockade of two years, and was occupied by a thousand Athenian colo- 
 nists. 
 
 The third campaign of the Spartans was directed against Platsea. On 
 B C 429 *^^^ approach of Archidamus, the Platseans sent a solemn re- 
 
 monstrance, reminding him of the oath which Pausanias had 
 sworn on the evening of their great battle, making Platsea forever sacred 
 from invasion. The king replied that the Platieans, too, were bound by 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 163 
 
 oath to labor for the independence of every Grecian state. He reminded 
 them of their heinous crime in the slaughter of the Theban prisoners, but 
 promised that, if they would abandon the cause of Athens and remain 
 neutral during the war, their privileges should be respected. The Platge- 
 ans refused to forsake their ancient ally, and the siege of their city 
 began. 
 
 167. The garrison which thus defied the whole Peloponnesian army, 
 consisted of only 480 men, but they made up in energv 
 
 •^ ' -^ ^ ^-^ B. C. 429-427. 
 
 what they lacked in numbers. Archidamus began by shut- 
 ting up every outlet of the town with a palisade of wood, then erected 
 against this a mound of earth and stone, forming an inclined plane, up 
 which his troops could march. The Platseans undermined the mound, 
 which fell in, and thus defeated seventy days' work of the whole besieging 
 army. They also built a new wall within the old one, so that, if this were 
 taken, the Spartans would still be no nearer the possession of the city. 
 
 Seeing that the will of the Plat^eans could only be subdued by famine, 
 the allies now turned the siege into a blockade. They surrounded the 
 city with a double wall, and roofed the intervening space, so as to afford 
 shelter to the soldiers on duty. The Platseans thus endured a complete 
 separation from the outer world for two years. Provisions began to fail; 
 and, in the second year, nearly half the garrison made their escape, by 
 climbing over the barracks and fortifications of their besiegers in the rain 
 and darkness of a December night. The Platseans, though thus reduced in 
 numbers, came at length to absolute starvation. A herald now appeared 
 from the Spartan commander, requiring their submission, but promising that 
 only the guilty should be punished. They yielded. When brought before 
 the five Spartan judges, every man was found guilty and led to execution. 
 The town and territory of Plataea were made over to the Thebans, who 
 destroyed all private dwellings, and with the materials erected a huge 
 barrack, to afford shelter to visitors, and dwellings to the serfs who culti- 
 vated the land. The city of Platcea was blotted out from the map of 
 Greece. 
 
 168. The Athenians, with their ally SitaFces, a Thracian chief, were 
 warring in the north with little success. Sitalces, with an irregular but 
 powerful host of 150,000 Thracians, invaded Macedonia with the intention 
 of dethroning Perdiccas. The Macedonians, unable to meet him in the 
 open field, withdrew into their fortresses, and Sitalces, who had no means 
 for conducting sieges, retired after thirty days. Phor^mio, an Athenian 
 captain, gained two victories, meanwhile, in the Corinthian _, ^ .... 
 Gulf, over a vastly superior number of Spartans. In the first 
 engagement he had but twenty ships, to the Spartan forty-seven ; in the 
 second, without reinforcements, he met a fresh Spartan fleet of seventy- 
 seven sail. 
 
164 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 The fourth year of the war was marked by the revolt of Mytilene, 
 
 ■D /-. ^no capital of Lesbos. Envoys were sent to Sparta to implore 
 
 £. C. 428. 
 
 assistance, which was willingly granted, and the Mytilenians 
 were received into the Peloponnesian League. 
 
 169. In the spring of 427, the Spartan fleet advanced to Mytilene, but 
 it arrived only to find the town in the possession of the Athenians. 
 Nearly reduced by famine, the governor, by the advice of a Spartan envoy, 
 had armed all the men of the lower classes for a last desperate sortie. 
 The result was contrary to his expectations. The mass of the Mytilenian 
 people preferred the Athenian supremacy to that of their own oligarchic 
 government. Emboldened by their arms, they declared that they would 
 treat directly with the Athenians, unless all their demands were granted. 
 The governor had no choice but to open negotiations himself. The city 
 was surrendered, and the fate of its inhabitants was left to be decided by 
 the popular asseinbly in Athens, whither the ring-leaders of the revolt 
 were sent. 
 
 170. A thousand Athenians assembled in the Agora to decide the fate 
 of their prisoners. Salge^thus, the Spartan envoy, was instantly put to 
 death. With regard to the rest, a spirited debate ensued. Cleon the 
 tanner, the former opponent of Pericles, took a prominent part; and in 
 spite of more humane and mbderate counsels, actually succeeded in carry- 
 ing his brutal proposition, to put to the sword all the men of Mytilene, 
 and sell the women and children into slavery. Iniquitous as such an 
 order would be in any case, it was the more so in this, because the greater 
 number of the Mytilenians were friendly to Athens, while the revolt had 
 been the act of the oligarchy, who were enemies of the people. So 
 strong had been the opposition, that Cleon feared a reversal of the sen- 
 tence, and therefore had a galley instantly dispatched to Lesbos, with 
 orders for its immediate execution. 
 
 His apprehensions were well founded. A single night's reflection filled 
 the better sort of Athenians with horror at the inhuman decision into 
 which they had been hurried. They demanded a new assembly to re- 
 consider the question; and though this was contrary to law, the strategi 
 consented and convened the citizens. In the second day's debate the 
 atrocious decree was rescinded. Every nerve was now strained to enable 
 the mercy-beariug barque to overtake the messengers of death, who were 
 a whole day's journey in advance. The strongest oarsmen were selected, 
 and urged to their greatest exertion by the promise of large rewards if 
 they should arrive in time. Tlieir food was given them while they plied 
 the oar, and sleep was allowed them only in short intervals, and by 
 turns. The weather proved favorable, and they arrived just as Paches, 
 who had received the first dispatch, was preparing for its execution. 
 The Mytilenians were saved, but the walls of their city were leveled, 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 165 
 
 and its fleet surrendered to the Athenians. The island of Lesbos, with 
 the exception of Methym^na, which had refused all share in the revolt, 
 was divided into 3,000 parts, of which 300 were devoted to the gods, 
 and the rest assigned by lot to Athenian settlers. The prisoners at 
 Athens were tried for their share in the conspiracy, and put to death. 
 
 171. The Corcyrean prisoners who had been carried to Corinth in 
 
 432, were now sent home, in the hope that their account 
 
 B C 427 
 
 of the generous treatment they had received would induce 
 their countrymen to withdraw from the Athenian alliance. They joined 
 with the oligarchical faction to effect a revolution in Corcyra, killed the 
 chiefs of the popular party, gained possession of the harbor, the arsenal, 
 and the market-place, and thus, by overawing the people, obtained a vote 
 in the assembly to maintain in future a strict neutrality. The people, 
 however, fortified themselves in the higher parts of the town, and called 
 to their aid the serfs from the interior of the island, to whom they 
 promised freedom. 
 
 The oligarchists set fire to the town, but while it was burning a small 
 Athenian squadron arrived from Naupactus, and its commander attempted, 
 with great wisdom, to make peace between the contending parties. He 
 had to all appearance effected this design, when a Peloponnesian fleet, 
 more than four times as numerous as his own, appeared, under the com- 
 mand of Alci^das. The Athenians withdrew without loss, and Alcidas 
 had Corcyra for the moment in his power; but with his usual want of 
 promptness, he spent a day in ravaging the island, and, at night, beacon 
 fires on Leucas announced the approach of an Athenian fleet outnum- 
 bering his own. Alcidas drew off before daybreak, leaving the oligarchists 
 in the city to their fate. The next seven days were a reign of terror in 
 Corcyra. The popular party, protected by the presence of the Athenians, 
 abandoned itself to revenge. Civil hatred was stronger than natural 
 affection. A father slew his o\vn son ; brothers had no pity for brothers. 
 The aristocratic party was nearly exterminated; but five hundred escaped, 
 and fortified themselves on Mount Isto'^ne, near the capital. 
 
 172. The sixth year of the war opened with floods and earthquakes, 
 which seemed an echo in nature of the moral convulsions 
 
 jB. C. 426. 
 
 of Greece. The plague was raging again at Athens. To 
 appease the wrath of Apollo, a solemn purification of the isle of Delos, 
 his birth-place, was performed in the autumn. All bodies that had been 
 buried there were- removed to a neighboring island, and the Delian fes- 
 tival was revived with increased magnificence. The usual Spartan inva- 
 sion of Attica had been prevented this year, either by awe of the supposed 
 wrath of the gods, or by fear of the plague ; but in the seventh year of 
 the war (B. C. 425), their king, Agis, again crossed the borders and rav- 
 aged the country. He was recalled, after fifteen days, by the news that 
 
166 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the Athenians had established a military station on the coast of Mes- 
 senia. 
 
 173. A fleet bound for Sicily, under Eurymedon and Sophocles, had 
 been delayed for a time by a storm, near the harbor of Pylos. . The com- 
 manders selected this place for a settlement of Messenians from Nauimctus, 
 who would thus be able to communicate with their Helot kinsmen, and 
 harass the Spartans. Demosthenes was left with five ships and two hun- 
 dred soldiers, who were increased, by a reinforcement of Messenians, to a 
 thousand men. The wrath of the Spartans was only equaled by their 
 alarm at this infringement of their territory. Their fleet was instantly 
 ordered from Corcyra, while Agis, with his army, marched from Attica. 
 The long and narrow island of Sphacte''ria, which covered the entrance to 
 the Bay of Pylos, was occupied by ThrasymeKidas, the Spartan, while his 
 ships were sheltered in the basin which it inclosed. Demosthenes, while 
 awaiting reinforcements, had to meet a vastly su23erior number with his 
 handful of men. The attack from the sea was led by Bras^idas, one of the 
 greatest captains whom Sparta ever produced. lie fought on the prow of 
 the foremost vessel, urging his men forward by looks and words; but he 
 was severely Avounded, and the battle ended with no advantage to the 
 Spartans. It was renewed the second day with no better success, and the 
 Athenians erected a trophy, which they ornamented with the shield of 
 Brasidas. 
 
 The arrival of the Athenian fleet was followed by a severe and still 
 ^25 more decisive battle. The victorious Athenians proceeded 
 
 to blockade Sphacteria, which contained the choicest Pel- 
 oponnesian troops. So serious was the crisis, that the ephors saw no 
 escape except to sue for peace. An armistice was agreed upon, and the 
 better spirits on both sides began to hope for a termination of the war. 
 But the foolish vanity of Clcon and his party demanded the most extrav- 
 agant terms, and the voice of reason was drowned. Hostilities re-com- 
 menced, with equal vexation to both parties. Demosthenes, fearing that 
 the storms of winter would interrupt his blockade, resolved to make an 
 attack upon the island, and sent to Athens explaining his position and 
 demanding reinforcements. The report was disheartening to the Assembly, 
 which now began to accuse Cleon for having persuaded it to let slip the 
 occasion for an honorable peace. Cleon retorted by accusing the officers 
 of cowardice and incapacity, and declared that, if he were general, he 
 would take Sphacteria at once ! At this boast of the tanner, the whole 
 assembly broke out into laughter, and cries, ''Why don't you go, then?" 
 were heard on all sides. The lively spirits of the Athenians recovered with 
 a bound from their unusual depression, and the mere joke soon grew into 
 a purpose. Cleon tried to draw back, but the Assembly insisted. At last 
 he engaged, with a certain number of auxiliaries added to the troops al- 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 167 
 
 ready at Pylos, to take the island in twenty days, and either kill all the 
 Spartans upon it, or bring them in chains to Athens. 
 
 174r. Singular as were the circumstances of Cleon's commission, his 
 success was equally remarkable. Demosthenes had made all ready for the 
 attack ; and to his prudence, aided by the accidental burning of the woods 
 on Sphacteria, rather than to the generalship of Cleon, the victoiy was due. 
 The Athenians, landing before daybreak, overpowered the guard at the 
 southern end of the island, and then drew up in order of battle, sending 
 out parties of skirmishers to provoke the enemy to a combat. The Spartan 
 general, blinded by the light ashes raised by the march of his men, ad- 
 vanced, with some difficulty, over the half-burnt stumps of the trees. He 
 was greatly outnumbered by his assailants, who harassed him from a dis- 
 tance with arrows, and forced him at length to retire to the extremity of 
 the island. Here the Spartans fought again with their accustomed bravery; 
 but a party of Messenians, who had clambered over some crags usually 
 deemed inaccessible, appeared upon the heights above, and decided the 
 fate of the battle. All the surviving Spartans surrendered, and Cleon and 
 Demosthenes, setting out immediately after the battle, arrived at Athens 
 with their prisoners within the twenty days. This victory was one of the 
 most important that the Athenians had gained. The harbor of Pylos was 
 strongly fortified and garrisoned with Messenian troops, for a base of oper- 
 ations against Laconia. 
 
 175. At the beginning of the eighth year the Athenians were every- 
 where triumphant, and the Spartans, humbled and distressed, 
 
 B. C. 424. 
 
 had repeatedly asked for peace. Nicias, in the early part of 
 the year, conquered the island of Cythera, and placed garrisons in its two 
 chief towns, which were a continual defiance of theLacedfemonians. He 
 then ravaged the coasts of Laconia, and captured, among other places, the 
 town of Thyr^ea, where the ^ginetans, after their expulsion from their 
 own island, had been permitted to settle. Those of the original exiles who 
 survived were carried to Athens and put to death. The brutalizing influ- 
 ences of war were more apparent every year, and these cold-blooded mas- 
 sacres had become almost of common occurrence. 
 
 The Spartans, about the same time, alarmed by the nearness of the 
 Messenian garrisons of Pylos and Cythera, gave notice that those Helots 
 who had distinguished themselves by their faithful services during the 
 war, should be set at liberty. A large number of the bravest and ablest 
 appeared to claim the promise. Two thousand of these were selected as 
 worthy of emancipation, crowned with garlands, and dignified with high 
 religious honors. But in a few days they had all disappeared, by means 
 known only to the Spartan ephors— men unmoved, either by honor or 
 pity, from their narrow regard to the supposed interest of the state. 
 
 176. The success of the Athenians did not entirely desert them in their 
 
168 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Megarian expedition, but their attempt upon Boeotia resulted only in dis- 
 aster. The chief movement was executed by Hippoc^rates, who led an 
 army of more than 32,000 soldiers across the Boeotian frontier to Delium, 
 a place strongly situated near Tanagra, among the cliffs of the eastern 
 coast. Here he fortified the temple of Apollo, and placing a garrison in 
 the works, set out for home. The Boeotians had collected a large army at 
 Tanagra, which now moved to intercept the Athenians upon 
 the heights of Delium. The battle commenced late in the 
 day. The Athenian right was at first successful, but their left was borne 
 down by the Theban phalanx. In their ranks were Socrates, the philoso- 
 pher, and his pupils, Alcibi^ades and Xenophon, all destined to the highest 
 fame in Grecian history. At length the Boeotian cavalry appeared, and 
 decided the fortunes of the day. The Athenians fled in all directions, and 
 only the fall of night prevented their complete destruction. Delium was 
 taken by siege after seventeen days. 
 
 177. Soon after these disasters, the Athenians lost all their dominion in 
 Thrace. Brasidas had led a small but well chosen army to the aid of Per- 
 diccas and the Chalcidian towns. The bravery and integrity, of this great 
 general led many of the allies of Athens to forsake her party, and when he 
 suddenly appeared before Amphipolis, that city surrendered with scarcely 
 an attempt at resistance. Thucydides,''' the historian, was general in that 
 region. The Athenian party in Amphipolis sent to him for aid, but he 
 arrived too late. For this failure, whether proceeding from necessity or 
 carelessness, the general was sentenced to banishment, and spent his next 
 twenty years in exile, during which he contributed more by his literary 
 work to the glory of Greece, than he would probably have done in military 
 command. Brasidas proceeded to the easternmost of the three Chalcidian 
 peninsulas, and received the submission of nearly all the towns. 
 
 The Athenians were now so disheartened by their losses, that they, in 
 turn, began to propose peace ; and the Spartans, anxious for the return of 
 their noble youths who were prisoners in Athens, were equally desirous of 
 a treaty. To this end a year's truce was agreed upon, in 423, to afford 
 time for permanent negotiations. Unhappily, two days after the beginning 
 of the truce, Scio^ne revolted from the Athenians, who demanded its resti- 
 tution. The Spartans refused, and the whole year was suffered to pass 
 away without any further efforts toward peace. At its expiration, Cleon 
 advanced into Thrace with a fleet and army. He took the towns of To- 
 ro^ne and Galepsus, and was proceeding against Amphipolis, when a battle 
 ensued which ended at once his life and his assumption of power. Brasidas, 
 too, was mortally wounded, but he lived long enough to know that he was 
 victorious. 
 
 =•' See note. p. 157, 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE.^ 169 
 
 178. Peace or Nicias. The two great obstacles to peace were now 
 removed, and, in the spring of 421, a treaty lor fifty years, commonly 
 called the '' Peace of Nicias,'' was concluded between Athens and Sparta. 
 Some allies of the latter complained that Sparta had sacrificed their inter- 
 ests to her own, and formed a new league, with Argos for their head. 
 Athens made a new alliance for a hundred years with Argos, Elis, and 
 Mantine'a, C. C. 420. 
 
 S. E C -^ 1= I T TJ Xj-A^T I O 3Sr . 
 
 Ill the greater Peloponuesian wur (B. C. 431-404), nearly all central and southern 
 Greece were allied with Sparta ; most of the maritime states, with Athens. 
 Within the latter city were crowded most of the people of Attica, in terror of 
 the Spartan invasions. Great numbers died of the plague; its most illustrious 
 victim was Pericles. A two years' blockade of Platfea, by the Spartans, ended 
 with the annihilation of the city. The revolt of Lesbos was subdued by Athens, 
 and the Mytileuians were condemned to death, but the revengeful sentence was 
 reversed. A revolution in Corcyra resulted in a seven days' massacre of the 
 aristocratic party. A solemn purification of Delos was performed, to mitigate 
 the plague at Athens. The Athenians established a colonj^ at Pylos, to harass 
 Laconia, and were victors in several naval battles. Cleon, the tanner, with 
 Demosthenes, the general, conquered the Spartans at Sphacteria. Nicias cap- 
 tured Cythera, and garrisoned its towns. The brutal character of the war was 
 shown in the massacre of exiled ^ginetans at Athens, and of two thousand 
 Helots at Sparta. The disastrous battle of Delium ended the invasion of Boeotia 
 by the Athenians, who lost, at the same time, all their possessions in Thrace. 
 The Peace of Nicias was concluded B. C. 421, and Athens made a new league 
 Avith some former allies of Sparta. 
 
 The Sicilian Expedition. 
 
 179. From two previous celebrations of the Olympic Games the Athe- 
 nians had been excluded, but, in the summer of this year, ^ ^ ^^o. 
 the Elean heralds appeared again to invite their attendance. 
 
 Those who looked to see Athens poverty-stricken, from her many losses, 
 were surprised at the magnificence of her delegates, who made the most 
 costly display in all the processions. Alcibiades entered on the lists seven 
 four-horse chariots, and received two olive crowns in the races. This young 
 man was among the ablest citizens that Athens ever possessed. His genius, 
 bravery, and quickness in emergencies might have made him her greatest 
 benefactor; but, through his unregulated ambition and utter lack of con- 
 science, he became the cause of her greatest calamities. 
 
 180. War soon broke out between the Spartans and the Argives, in 
 which tlie Spartan king, Agis, won the important battle of Mantinea, 
 B. C. 418. The oligarchical party, gaining power at Argos, cast off* the 
 alliance with Athens, and made a treaty with Sparta. But the nobles 
 abused their power in brutal outrages upon the people, who effected 
 another revolution and obtained possession of the city. By their request, 
 Alcibiades came to their aid with a fleet and army. Though the Spartans 
 
170 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 and Athenians were nominally at peace, the garrison of Pylos was still 
 committing depredations in Laconia, and Spartan privateers were seriously 
 injuring Athenian commerce. 
 
 181. About this time, an embassy from Sicily besought the aid of the 
 Athenians for the city of Egesta. It was involved in a contest with its 
 neighbor, Selinus, which had obtained help from Syracuse. The " war of 
 races" had, indeed, broken out twelve years before in Sicily, and the Athe- 
 nians had more than once sent aid to the Ionian cities, Leonti^ni and 
 Camari''na, against their Dorian neighbors, who had joined the Pelopon- 
 nesian League. Alcibiades threw his whole influence into the cause of 
 Egesta, hoping at once to improve his wasted fortunes with Sicilian spoils, 
 and gratify his ambition with the glory of conquest. He even hoped, 
 beside making Athens supreme over all the Hellenic colonies, to conquer 
 the empire of Carthage, in the western Mediterranean. 
 
 Nicias and all the moderate party opposed the enterprise. They only 
 prevailed in bavins: an embassy sent to Egesta, to ascertain if its people 
 were really able to fulfill their promise of furnishing funds for the war. 
 The envoys were completely outwitted. In the temple of Aphrodite they 
 saw a magnificent display of vessels which appeared to be solid gold, but 
 were really silver-gilt. They were feasted at the houses of citizens, and 
 were surprised by the profusion of gold and silver plate which adorned 
 their sideboards, not suspecting that the same articles were passing from 
 house to house, and doing repeated service in their entertainment. Sixty 
 talents of silver were paid as a first installment, and the commissioners 
 went home with glowing accounts of Egestan wealth. 
 
 182. All doubt disappeared from most minds in Athens, and Nicias, 
 Alcibiades, and Lamachus were appointed to lead an expedition to Sicily. 
 The zeal of the Athenians knew no bounds. Young and old, rich and 
 poor, alike demanded a share in the great expedition. The generals had 
 B. c. 415. difiiculty in selecting from the throng of volunteers. The 
 
 fleet was on the point of sailing, when a mysterious event 
 threw the excited multitude into consternation. The Hermce, which stood 
 before every door in Athens, before every temple or gymnasium, and 
 in every public square, were found one morning reduced to shapeless 
 masses of stone. Not one escaped. The people, in an agony of supersti- 
 tious horror, demanded the detection and punishment of the criminal. 
 Suspicion fell upon Alcibiades, because he was known to have burlesqued 
 the Eleusinian mysteries in a drunken frolic, and was supposed to be 
 capable of any sacrilege. He indignantly denied his guilt, and demanded 
 an immediate examination. But his enemies contrived to have it post- 
 poned until his return, thus sending him out under the burden of an un- 
 proved charge, which might be revived for his condemnation in case of 
 disaster. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 171 
 
 183. On the day appointed for the sailing of the armament, nearly the 
 whole population of Athens accompanied the soldiers on their march at 
 day-break to Piraeus. When all were on board, the trumpet commanded 
 silence, and the voice of the herald, in unison \Yith that of the people, 
 was heard in prayer. The paean was then sung, while the oflScer at the 
 prow of each vessel poured a libation from a golden goblet into the sea. 
 At a given signal, the entire fleet slipped its cables and started at the 
 utmost speed, each crew striving to be first at ^gina. 
 
 184. The whole armament of Athenians and allies mustered at Corey la 
 in July, 415. It numbered 136 vessels of war and 500 transports, carrying 
 6,300 soldiers, beside artisans and a large provision of food and arms. 
 When the fleet approached the coast of Italy, three fast-sailing triremes 
 w^ere sent to notify the Egestaeans of its arrival, and to learn their present 
 condition. These rejoined the fleet at Rhegium, with the unwelcome 
 report that the wealth of Egesta was wholly fictitious, and that thirty 
 talents more were the extent of the aid to be expected. The three admirals 
 were now divided in opinion. Nicias was for sailing at once to Selinus, 
 making the best terms possible, and then returning home. Alcibiades 
 proposed to seek new allies among the Greek cities, and with their aid to 
 attack both Selinus and Syracuse. Lamachus urged an immediate attack 
 upon the latter city, the greatest and wealthiest on the island. This 
 counsel was at once the boldest and the safest, for the Syracusans were 
 unprepared for defense, and their surrender would have decided the fate 
 of the island ; but, unhappily, Lamachus was neither rich nor influential. 
 His plan was disregarded, and that of Alcibiades adopted. 
 
 185. The fleet, sailing southward, reconnoitered the defenses of Syracuse, 
 and took possession of Catana, which became its headquarters. At this 
 point, Alcibiades received from Athens a decree of the Assembly, requiring 
 his return for trial. A judicial inquiry had acquitted him of the mutila- 
 tion of the Hermse, but he was still charged with profaning the Eleusinian 
 Mysteries, by representing them at his own house for the entertainment of 
 his friends. This was an unpardonable crime, and those noble families 
 which had derived from their heroic or divine ancestors an especial 
 right to ofliciate in the ceremonies, felt themselves grossly insulted. Tlie 
 public trirfeme which brought the summons to Alcibiades, was under 
 special orders not to arrest him, but to suffer him to return in his own 
 vessel. The wily general availed himself of this courtesy to effect his 
 escape. Landing at Thurii, he eluded his pursuers, and the messengers 
 returned to Athens without him. Here in his absence he was condemned 
 to death, his property confiscated, and the Eumolpidae solemnly pronounced 
 him '• accui-sed." 
 
 186. The Athenians had spent three months in Sicily with so little 
 effect, that the Syracusans began to regard them with contempt. Nicias, 
 
172 ANCIENT H1>ST0RY. 
 
 thus shamed into attempting something, spread a report that the Catanaeans 
 were inclined to expel the Athenians from their city, and thus drew a large 
 army from Syracuse to their aid. During its absence from home, the 
 whole Athenian fleet sailed into the Great Harbor of Syracuse, and landed 
 a force which intrenched itself near the mouth of the Anapus. A battle 
 followed on the return of the Syracusans, and Nicias was successful. In- 
 stead of following up this advantage, he retired into winter-quarters at 
 Catana, and afterward at Naxos, while he sent to Athens for a supply of 
 money, and to his Sicilian allies for a re-enforcement of men. 
 
 The Syracusans spent the winter in active preparation. They built a 
 new wall across the peninsula, between the Bay of Thapsus and the Great 
 Port, covering their city on the west and north-west. They sent, at the 
 same time, to Corinth and Sparta for help, and found in the latter city an 
 unexpected ally. Alcibiades had crossed from Italy to Greece, and had 
 received a special invitation to Sparta. Here he indulged his spite against 
 his countrymen by revealing all their plans, and urging the Spartans to 
 send an army into Sicily to disconcert their movements. 
 
 187. With the opening of spring, Nicias commenced the siege by for- 
 
 tifying the heights of Epipolae, which commanded the city. 
 
 B. (J. 41-J. 
 
 He built, also, a fort at Sy^ke, and dislodged the^ Syracusans 
 from the counter-walls which they were constructing. The Athenian fleet 
 was stationed in the Great Harbor, and the Syracusans, despairing of 
 effectual resistance, sent messengers to arrange terms of surrender. But 
 the brave Lamachus had been slain, and Nicias, now sole commander, 
 was too inactive to seize the victory just within his grasp. 
 
 188. At this point, Gylip^pus, the Spartan, arrived with only four ships 
 on the Italian coast, and supposing that Syracuse and all Sicily were 
 irrecoverably lost, sought only to preserve the cities on the peninsula. 
 To his delight, he learned that the Athenians had not even completed 
 their northern line of works around Syracuse. He hastened through the 
 Straits of Messina, which he found unguarded, and, landing at Hin/era, 
 began to raise an army from the Dorian cities of Sicily. With these he 
 marched to Syracuse directly over the heights of Epipol^e, which Nicias 
 had neglected to hold. Entering the city, he sent orders to the Athenian 
 general to leave the island within five days. Nicias disregarded the mes- 
 sage, but the acts which followed proved that the Spartan was master 
 of the situation. He captured the Athenian fort at Labalum, built 
 another upon the heights of Epipolse, and connected it with the city by 
 a strong wall. 
 
 The Sicilian towns which had hesitated now joined the winning side. 
 Re-enforcements arrived from Corinth, Leucas, and Ambracia; and Nicias, 
 enable to continue the siege with his present force, withdrew to the 
 headland of Plemmyr^ium, south of the Great Port. His ships were out 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 173 
 
 of repair, his men disheartened and inclined to desert, and his own 
 health declining. He wrote to Athens, begging that the army might be 
 instantly re-enforced and he himself recalled. Athens was in a state of 
 siege, for the Spartan king, Agis, was encamped at Decele^ fourteen 
 miles north of the city, in a positi(m to command the whole Athenian 
 plain. The public funds were nearly exhausted, hunger began to be felt, 
 and the diminished number of citizens were worn out with the labor of 
 defending the walls day and night. It was resolved, however, to re-enforcc 
 Nicias, and, at the same time, harass Sparta on her own territory. For 
 this purpose, Char^icles w^as sent to plant a military station 
 
 1 1 r> X ■ • •! 1 B. C. 413. 
 
 on the south coast oi Laconia, smiilar to that of Pylos in 
 
 Messenia; while Demosthenes and Eurymedon conducted a fleet and army 
 
 to Sicily. The first enterprise was successful ; the second was too late. 
 
 189. The Syracusans had been defeated in one naval battle, but in a 
 second, lasting two days, they were completely victorious, and the Athenian 
 ships were locked up in the extremity of the harbor. Demosthenes' arrival 
 with his fresh forces had some effect in checking the enemy and raising the 
 spirits of his countrymen. Perceiving at once that Epipolse was the vital 
 point, he directed all his efforts to its re-capture, but without success. 
 Seeing, now, that the siege was hopeless, he urged Nicias to return home 
 and drive the Spartans out of Attica. But, remembering the lively hopes 
 and the magnificent ceremonies with wliich the armament had set forth, 
 Nicias could not consent to return to Athens covered with the disgrace of 
 failure. Neither would he withdraw to Thapsus or Catana, where Demos- 
 thenes urged the advantages of an open sea and constant supplies of pro- 
 visions. But, large re-enforcements arriving for Syracuse, this retreat be- 
 came necessary, and the plans were so well laid that it might easily have 
 been effected without the knowledge of the enemy. 
 
 Unhappily, an eclipse of the moon occurred on the very eve of the 
 intended movement. The imperfect astronomy of those days 
 had not foretold the event, and the soothsayers could only 
 conclude that Artemis, the especial guardian of Syracuse, was showing her 
 anger against its assailants. They declared that the army must remain 
 three times nine days in its present position. During thig delay, the dis- 
 concerted ptan became known to the Syracusans, who resolved to strike a 
 blow while the enemy was within their reach. A battle by land and sea 
 was the result. In the former, the Athenians beat off their assailants ; 
 but, in the latter, their fleet was utterly defeated and Eurymedon slain. 
 
 190. The Syracusans now resolved upon the total destruction of their 
 enemy. They blocked up the Great Harbor by a line of vessels moored 
 across its entrance. The only hope for the Athenians, perhaps for Athens 
 itself, was to break this line, and to this end Nicias again prepared for 
 battle. The amphitheater of hills which surround the harbor was crowded 
 
174 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 with spectators of either party, watching with anxious eyes the conflict 
 upon which their fates depended. The water was covered with the yachts 
 of wealthy Syracusans, ready to offer their services whenever they might 
 be demanded. The first attack of the Athenians was upon the barrier of 
 ships at the entrance of the harbor. It failed, and the Syracusan fleet of 
 76 triremes then engaged the 110 of the Athenians. The crash of the iron 
 prows, the shouts of the combatants, and the answering groans or cheers 
 of their friends upon the shore, filled the air with a perpetual clamor. 
 For a long time the issue was doubtful, but, at last, tlie fleet of Nicias 
 began to retreat toward the shore. A cry of despair arose from the Athe- 
 nian army, answered by shouts of triumph from the pursuing vessels and 
 the citizens on the walls. 
 
 The Athenian fleet was now reduced to sixty vessels, and the Syracusan 
 to fifty. Nicias and Demosthenes besought their men to renew the effort 
 to force their way out of the harbor, but their spirits were so far broken 
 that they refused any further combat by sea. The army still numbered 
 40,000 men, and it was resolved to retreat by land to some friendly city, 
 where they could defend themselves until transports should arrive. If this 
 design had been instantly put in execution, it might have been successful; 
 for the Syracusans had given themselves up to drunken revelries, occa- 
 sioned equally by the rejoicings over their victory and by the festival of 
 Plercules, and had no thoughts to spare for their fugitive foe. But Her- 
 moc^rates, the most prudent of their number, resolved to prevent what he 
 foresaw would be the Athenian movement. He sent messengers to the 
 wall, who pretended to come from spies of Nicias within the city, and 
 warned the generals not to move that night, as all the roads were strongly 
 guarded. Nicias fell into the snare, and sacrificed his last hope of escape. 
 
 191. On the second day after the battle, the army began its march 
 toward the interior, leaving the deserted fleet in the harbor, the dead un- 
 buried, and the wounded to the vengeance of the foe. On the third day 
 of the march, the road lay over a steep cliff, which was guarded by a Syr- 
 acusan force. Two days' assaults upon this position were unsuccessful, and 
 the generals took counsel during the night to turn toward the sea. Nicias, 
 with the van, succeeded in reaching the coast; but Demosthenes lost his 
 way, was overtaken by the enemy, and surrounded in a narrow pass, where 
 he surrendered the shattered remnants of his army, numbering six thousand 
 men. Nicias was now pursued, and overtaken at the river Asina^rus. Mul- 
 titudes perished in the attempt to cross. Pressed closely by the army of 
 Gylippus, the rear rushed forward upon the spears of their comrades, or 
 were hurled down the steep banks and carried away by the current. All 
 order was lost, and Nicias surrendered at discretion. The generals were 
 condemned to death. The common soldiers, imprisoned in the stone- 
 quarries, without food or shelter, suffered greater miseries than all that 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 175 
 
 had preceded. A few who survived were sold as slaves, and their talents 
 and accomplishments won, in some instances, the friendship of their 
 masters. 
 
 Alcibiiides sustained the credit of Athens in tlie Olympic Games, carried aid 
 to tlie Argives against tlie Spartans, and zealously promoted tlie Sicilian expe- 
 dition of his countrymen. On the eve of departure he was accused of sacrilege, 
 and after his arrival in Sicily he was sentenced to death, and pronounced ac- 
 cui-sed. The siege of Syracuse, notwithstanding the great eflbrts of the Athe- 
 nians, resulted in failure and disaster, while Athens itself was besieged by the 
 king of Sparta. Reinforcements, led forth by Demosthenes, only completed the 
 exhaustion of the city. The Syracusans gained a naval battle in their harbor, 
 and captured the two Athenian armies in their retreat. 
 
 Decline of Athens. 
 
 192. In the midst of private grief and national dismay, the Athenians 
 learned that their allies were deserting them. Alcibiades was stirring up 
 revolts in Chios, which, with Lesbos and Euboea, implored the aid of Sparta 
 to free them from their dependence. The two satraps of Asia Minor sent 
 envoys to the same power, inviting her cooperation in over- 
 
 throwing the Athenian empire in Asia, and pledging Persian 
 gold for the entire expense. To the lasting shame of Sparta, she concluded 
 a treaty at Miletus, engaging to unite with Persia in a war against Athens, 
 and to restore to the Persian dominion all the cities and territories which 
 it had formerly embraced. This clause was explained, in a subsequent 
 treaty, to include not only all the islands of the JEgean, but Thessaly and 
 Boeotia, thus yielding to the Persians the field of Platrea, and fixing their 
 frontier on the very border of Attica. Miletus itself was immediately 
 surrendered to Tissaphernes. 
 
 193. In this general defection Samos remained faithful, and afforded a 
 most important station for the Athenian fleet during the remaining years 
 of the war. The Samians, warned by the example of Chios, overthrew 
 their oligarchical government, and the democracy thus established was 
 acknowledged by Athens as an equal and independent ally. Great prep- 
 arations were now made in Athens. The reserve fund of a thousand 
 talents, which had lain untouched since the time of Pericles, was applied 
 to fitting out a fleet against Chios. Once more the Athenians were suc- 
 cessful, both by sea and land. Lesbos and Clazomense were reconquered, 
 the Chians defeated, and, in a battle near Miletus, the Spartans themselves 
 were overcome. That city remained in the hands of the Persians and 
 Lacedaemonians, but the relations between these widely contrasted allies 
 were no longer cordial. The Spartans were ashamed of their dealings 
 with the great enemy of Greece, and Tissaphernes was under the influence 
 of Alcibiades. This deeply plotting Athenian persuaded the satrap that 
 
176 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 it was not tlie interest of Persia to allow any party in Greece to become 
 powerful, but, rather, to let them wear each other out by mutual hostilities, 
 and then appropriate the domains of both. This advice tended most against 
 the Spartans, who were now so strongly reinforced that they might soon 
 have put an end to the war. Tissaphernes, accordingly, held the Spartan 
 fleet inactive, waiting for the Phoenicians, who were never to appear ; and 
 when this pretext would no longer avail, he applied his golden arguments 
 to its commanders with the same effect. 
 
 194. Alcibiades now sought to bring the satrap into alliance with 
 Athens ; and failing in this, he tried at least to convince his countrymen 
 at Samos that he had power to effect such an alliance, for his sole desire 
 was to be recalled to his native city. Hating and fearing the Athenian 
 democracy, he made one condition, however, to his intercession with the 
 Persian, which was, that a revolution should be effected, and an oligarchical 
 government established. The generals at Samos acceded to this plan, and 
 Pisander was sent to Athens to organize the political clubs in favor of the 
 
 revolution. 
 
 When he presented the scheme of Alcibiades in the Assembly, a great 
 tumult arose. The people clamored against the surrender of their rights; 
 the EumolpidiK protested against the return of a wretch who had profaned 
 the Mysteries. Pisander could only plead the exhaustion and the misery 
 of the Republic ; but this argument, though distasteful, was unanswerable. 
 The people reluctantly consented to the change in the constitution, and 
 Pisander, with ten colleagues, was sent to treat with Alcibiades. The 
 exile well knew that he had promised more than he could perform. To 
 save his credit, he received the eleven ambassadors in the presence of Tis- 
 saphernes, and made such extravagant demands in his name, that they 
 themselves angrily broke up the conference and withdrew. 
 
 195. Though convinced that they had been cheated by Alcibiades, they 
 
 had now gone too far to recede from the proposed revolu- 
 tion. Pisander, with five of his colleagues, returned to 
 Athens, while the rest went about among the allies to establish oli- 
 garchies. At Athens the old offices were abolished, and a Council of Four 
 Hundred, chiefly self-elected, held power for four months. By the aid of 
 the army at Samos, a counter-revolution was effected, and the leaders of 
 the oligarchy were accused of treason for their dealings with the Spartans. 
 Most of them fled ; but two, Ar^clieptoKemus and Antiphon, were tried and 
 executed. 
 
 196. The remainder of the Peloponnesian war was wholly maritime, 
 and its scene of operations was on the coast of Asia Minor. The Spartans, 
 by long practice and close collision with their great rivals, had become 
 nearly equal to the Athenians in naval skill.* Their attention to this arm 
 of the service was shown by the yearly appointment of the navarchus, an 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. Ill 
 
 officer whose power, while it lasted, was even greater than that of the 
 kings, for he was above the control of the ephors. 
 
 197. Min^darus, the Spartan commander at Miletus, becoming disgusted 
 with the fickle policy of Tissaphernes, set sail for the liellespont, hoping 
 to find the other satrap more constant to the Spartan alliance. He was 
 followed by an Athenian fleet, under Thrasyl^lus, which, though less nu- 
 merous than his own, inflicted upon him a severe defeat 
 
 BO 411 
 
 in the strait between Sestus and Abydus. Mindarus now 
 sent for the allied fleet at Euboea, but in passing Mount Athos it was 
 overtaken by a violent storm, and wholly destroyed. The Athenians fol- 
 lowed up their advantage by the capture of Cyz^icus, which had revolted 
 from them; and, a few weeks later, gained another great battle near 
 Abydus, by the timely aid of Alcibiades. 
 
 198. In the spring of 410, Mindarus was besieging Cyzicus, and the 
 Athenians determined to relieve it. They passed up the Hellespont in the 
 night, and assembled at Proconnesus. Alcibiades moved toward Cyzicus 
 with his division of the fleet, and succeeded in enticing Mindarus to a 
 distance from the harbor, while the other two divisions stole between him 
 and the city, and thus cut off his retreat. A battle ensued, in which 
 Mindarus was slain, the Spartans and their Persian allies routed, and the 
 entire Peloponnesian fleet captured, except the Syracusan ships, which 
 Hermocrates caused to be burnt. 
 
 199. This victory restored to the Athenians the control of the Propontis 
 and the trade of the Euxine. Ships laden with corn now entered Piraeus, 
 bearing relief to the hungry poor, and discouragement to King Agis, who 
 still held the heights of Decelea, in the vain hope of starving the city into 
 surrender. 
 
 Pharnabazus, meanwhile, was aiding the Spartans by every means in his 
 power. He fed and clothed, armed and paid their seamen, allowed them 
 to cut timber in the forests of Mount Ida, and build their ships at his docks 
 of Antandros. Through his assistance, Chalcedon, on the Bosphorus, was 
 enabled to hold out two years against Alcibiades. It surrendered at last, 
 in 408. Selym^bria and Byzantium were taken about the same time. 
 
 200. These repeated successes restored the credit of Alcibiades, and, in 
 the spring of 407, he was welcomed back to his native city. All the people 
 met him at PirjBUS, with as much joy and enthusiasm as they had escorted 
 him thither, eight years before, when sailing for the fatal expedition to 
 Sicily. He protested his innocence before the Senate and Assembly. His 
 sentence was reversed by acclamation, his property restored, the curse re- 
 voked, and he was made general, with unlimited powers. Before his de- 
 parture, with the large fleet and army which were now at his disposal, he 
 resolved to atone to Demeter for whatever slight had been thrown upon her 
 by his alleged sacrilege. The sacred procession from Athens to Eleusis had 
 
 A. H.— 23. 
 
178 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 been intermitted these seven years, owing to the nearness of the Spartan 
 troops. Alcibiades now delayed his departure, in order to escort and 
 protect the participants. 
 
 201. The arrival of two new officers upon the Asiatic field of war 
 
 turned the scale against Athens. The one was Cyrus, a 
 
 B C 407. ^ / 
 
 son of the Persian king ; the other was Lysander, the new 
 Spartan iiavarchus, who took command of the Peloponnesian fleet at 
 Ephesus. These two made common cause, and together took measures 
 for severe and unrelenting war against the Athenians. The gold which 
 the Persian prince lavished without stint, the Spartan applied to in- 
 creasing the wages of his seamen. By this well-timed liberality, he drew 
 over great numbers of men from the opposing fleet, and rendered even 
 those who did not desert, discontented and mutinous. 
 
 202. Alcibiades arrived with his fleet to find the situation less favorable 
 than he had hoped. The Spartan troops were better paid and equipped 
 than his own, and to raise funds, he resorted to levying forced contribu- 
 tions on friendly states. During his absence on one of these forays, the 
 fleet became engaged in battle with the Spartans, and was defeated with 
 considerable loss. The Athenians began to perceive that eight years' 
 exile and two or three years' good behavior, had not altered the character 
 of the man, but that he was as dissolute, fickle, and unscrupulous as eveFf 
 They dismissed him from his command, and appointed ten generals, with 
 Conon at their head. 
 
 203. At the same time that Conon arrived to take command of the 
 
 Athenians, CaKlicrat^idas succeeded Lysander as navarchm. 
 B.C. 406. ' ^ 
 
 He found an empty treasury and a cold reception, alike 
 from his own countrymen and the Persians, whom Lysander had pur- 
 posely prejudiced against him. Cyrus refused to see or aid him. Calli- 
 cratidas now took bolder counsel. He sailed to Miletus, and urged its 
 citizens to throw ofl" the Persian alliance. Many rich men came forward 
 with generous contributions of money, with which he equipped fifty new 
 triremes, and sailed to Lesbos with a fleet twice as numerous as that of 
 the Athenians. 
 
 204. He had a battle with Conon in the harbor of Mytilene, in which 
 the Athenians lost nearly half their ships, and only saved the rest by 
 drawing them ashore under the walls of the town. Callicratidas then 
 blockaded the city by sea and land ; and Cyrus, perceiving his success, 
 assisted him with suj^plies of money. Great efforts were made at Athens, 
 as soon as the condition of Conon was known. A large fleet was sent 
 out in a few days, and being reinforced by the allies at Samos, arrived 
 at the south-eastern extremity of Lesbos, numbering 150 vessels. Calli- 
 cratidas left fifty ships to continue the blockade, and sailed to meet his 
 enemv. 
 
HISTOHY of GREECE, 179 
 
 Battle of ARGiNUSiE. A long and obstinate combat followed ; but 
 Callicratidas was at length thrown overboard and drowned, and victory 
 declared for the Athenians. The Spartans had lost seventy-seven vessels, 
 and their fleet at Mytilene hastily withdrew, leaving the harbor open for 
 the escape of Conon. 
 
 205. At the beginning of the next year, Lysander was again placed in 
 
 command of the Spartan fleet. His numbers being; still 
 
 f ° B. C. 405. 
 
 inferior, he avoided an engagement, but he crossed the 
 ^geau to the coast of Attica, for a personal consultation with Agis, and 
 thence proceeded to the Hellespont, where he commenced the siege 
 of Lampsacus. The Athenian fleet followed, but arrived too late to save 
 the town. Conon stationed himself, however, at ^gos-Potami (Goat's 
 Eiver), on the northern side of the channel, with the intention of bringing 
 the Spartan to an engagement. The Athenians were upon a barren plain ; 
 while the Spartans, better situated and abundantly supplied with pro- 
 visions, were in no haste to begin the battle. Alcibiades, who was living 
 near in his own castle, saw the danger of his countrymen, and advised 
 their generals to remove to Sestus, but his counsels were resented as im- 
 pertinence ; and attributing the Spartan delay to cowardice, the Athenians 
 became every day more neglectful of discipline. 
 
 206. Battle of ^gos-Potami. At length Lysander, seizing a moment 
 when the Athenian seamen were scattered over the country, 
 
 crossed the strait with his entire force. Only a dozen vessels, 
 in Conon's personal command, were in conditio^ for battle ; and the whole 
 fleet, with the exception of the flag-ship, the sacred Par^alus, and eight or 
 ten others, fell into the Spartan possession without a blow. Three or four 
 thousand prisoners, including officers and men, were massacred, in retalia- 
 tion for recent cruelties of the Athenians in the treatment of their captives. 
 The defeat at ^gos-Potami was the death-blow of the Athenian empire. 
 Chalcedon, Byzantium, and Mytilene soon surrendered ; and all the Athe- 
 nian towns, except that of Samos, fell without resistance into the hands 
 of the Spartans. Popular governments were every-where overthrown, 
 and a new form of oligarchy was established, consisting of ten citizens, 
 with a Spartan officer, called a harmost, at their head. 
 
 207. The news of the great calamity arrived in the night at Piraeus. 
 A cry of sorrow and despair spread instantly from the port to the city, 
 as each man passed the terrible tidings to his neighbor. "That night 
 no man slept;"* and in the morning the Assembly was called, to consider 
 how the existence of the city might be prolonged. The situation was 
 desperate. Even though no hostile force should approach Athens, Lysan- 
 der, by holding the Euxine, could effectually reduce it to starvation. 
 
 * The words of Xenophon, who was present in Athens. 
 
180 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 The number of citizens was so diminished, that even criminals could 
 not be spared from public service. All prisoners were released, except a 
 few murderers and desperate villains; private offenses were forgotten in 
 the common danger, and all Athenians united in a solemn oath of mutual 
 
 forgiveness. 
 
 208. Two months after the defeat, Lysander appeared at ^gina with 
 
 an overwhelming naval force ; and, at the same time, the 
 B. C. "105, Nov. . 1 • -1 r A J • 
 
 Peloponnesian army encamped in the groves oi Academia, 
 
 near the gates of Athens. Yet, though some of the people were already 
 dying of hunger, their spirit was not broken; and when the Spartan 
 ephors proposed peace on condition of the destruction of the Long Walls, 
 a senator was imprisoned for merely discussing the acceptance of these 
 terms. When, at last, the Athenians sent offers of capitulation, three 
 months were wasted in vain debate before the terms could be settled. 
 The Thebans and Corinthians insisted that no conditions should be 
 granted, but that the very name of Athens should be blotted out, her 
 site become a desert, and her people be sold into slavery. The Spartans, 
 with more generosity, refused to " put out one of the eyes of Greece," or 
 to enslave a people which had rendered such services to the whole Hellenic 
 race in the great crisis of the Persian wars. 
 
 It was finally agreed that the Long Walls and the fortifications of Piraeus 
 should be destroyed, the ships of war surrendered, all exiles restored to 
 their rights of citizenship, and all the foreign possessions of Athens relin- 
 quished. These hard conditions were executed with needless insolence. 
 Lysander himself presided at the demolition of the walls; and the work, 
 which was rendered very difficult by the solidity of their construction, was 
 turned into a sort of festal celebration. A chorus of flute-players and 
 dancers, wreathed with flowers, animated the workmen at their toil; and 
 as the massive walls of Pericles fell, stone by stone, shouts of triumph 
 arose from the army of destroyers that this day witnessed the dawn of the 
 liberties of Greece. 
 
 209. The Athenian supremacy had lasted seventy-three years from the 
 
 confederation at Delos. The power which had been intrusted 
 to the imperial city for the common defense, had, in some 
 cases, been made to bear heavily on the subject allies, and her later history 
 is stained by many acts of cruelty. But the true empire of Athens has 
 never been overthrown ; for, through poetry, art, and philosophy, she still 
 rules the minds of men with a power which has never been surpassed. 
 
 Ii.ECA.:PITTJXj.A.TI02<r. 
 
 The rivals, subjects, and enemies of Alliens united to hasten her fall; and to 
 this end Sparta promised to the Persians Thessaly, Boeotia, the islands of the 
 ^gean, and the coast of Asia Minor. Alcibiades partly neutralized the Spartan 
 inflnence with tlie satraps, and secured an oligarchical revolution in Athens as 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 181 
 
 the price of his efforts in her favor. Through his aid the Atlienians gained sev- 
 eral great naval victories in the northern ^geau, which restored to them the 
 corn-trade of the Euxine, and relieved the famine in their besieged city. The 
 gold of Cyrus the Younger, and the skill of Lysander, again turned the tide 
 against the Athenians, who were twice defeated; and, though afterward tri- 
 umphant near the Arginusre, received a final and disastrous overthrow at ^Egos- 
 Potanii, which ended their supremacy in (ireece. The subject towns fell into the 
 power of the Spartans; and, the following spring, Athens itself was surrendered 
 to Lysander, and its Long Walls destroyed. 
 
 Spartan Supremacy. 
 
 210. Sparta, in alliance "with Persia, now became the leading state in 
 Greece ; and all the cities yielded to her influence, by abolishing their 
 free governments and setting up oligarchies in their stead. Athens her- 
 self received a thoroughly Spartan constitution. A provisional committee 
 of live, called ephors, invited Lysander from Samos to preside over the re- 
 organization of Athens. Under his direction, thirty officers were appointed 
 for the government of the city, who have always been known in history as 
 the '' Thirty Tj-rants." 
 
 211. Critias was their chief. Having'been banished formerly by a vote 
 of the people, he now wreaked his vengeance with unsparing 
 
 cruelty on the best and noblest citizens. Blood flowed daily 
 and fines, imprisonments, and confiscations were the events of every hour. 
 By the advice of Theran/enes, who was the head of the more moderate 
 party, three thousand citizens were chosen from the adherents of the 
 Thirty, whose sanction was required for important proceedings. But all, 
 except this enfranchised number, were placed beyond the protection of the 
 law, and might be put to death, at the word of the tyrants, without even a 
 show of trial. A list was made of those who were destined to death, and 
 any of the ruling party might add to it such names as either avarice or 
 hatred suggested to him. The wealthiest citizens were, of course, the first 
 victims, for the estate of the murdered man went to his accuser. Thera- 
 menes, in his turn, was offered a wealthy alien to destroy and plunder, but 
 he indignantly rejected the proposal. This implied protest against the 
 reign of terror cost him his life. He was denounced as a public enemy, 
 his name stricken from the roll of the Thirty, and from that of the Three 
 Thousand, and he was ordered to instant execution. He sprang to the 
 altar in the senate-house ; but fear of divine vengeance had disappeared, 
 together with humanity and justice, from the rulers of Athens. He was 
 dragged away to prison, and condemned to drink the hemlock. 
 
 212. The tide was already turning, both in the ill-fated city and through- 
 out Greece. Athens, in her humiliation, no longer excited the fear or jeal- 
 ousy of her former allies; while Sparta, instead of making good her assumed 
 title of "Liberator of the Greeks," was setting up a new empire more op- 
 pressive than that of her rival. Even in Sparta itself, the pride and 
 
182 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 harshness of Lysander excited disgust, and the Thirty Tyrants at Athens 
 were universally regarded as the tools of his scheming ambition. 
 
 The Athenian exiles, who had been biding their time, now issued from 
 Thebes, under the lead of Thrasybu^lus, and seized the fortress of Phy^e, 
 in the mountain barrier of Attica, on the road to the capital. The tyrants, 
 witii the Spartan garrison of the Acropolis and the Three Thousand, 
 marched out to attack them, but were repulsed with spirit, and a timely 
 snow-storm broke up their attempt to besiege the fortress, and drove them 
 back to the city. Foreseeing their expulsion, the Thirty now provided for 
 themselves a place of refuge by another horrid outrage. They caused all 
 the inhabitants of Salamis and Eleusis, who were capable of bearing arms, 
 to be brought as prisoners to Athens, and the towns to be occupied by 
 garrisons in their own interest. Then filling the Odeon with Spartan 
 soldiers and their three thousand adherents, they extorted from this 
 assembly a vote for the immediate massacre of the prisoners. 
 
 213. Thrasybulus, supported by the indignation of the people, now 
 
 marched with a thousand men to Pirseus, seized the port 
 B. C. 403. ' ^ 
 
 Avithout opposition, and fortified himself upon its castle-hill, 
 Munych^ia. The whole Lacedaemonian party in Athens marched against 
 him, and was defeated with considerable loss, in which must be reckoned 
 the death of Critias. The more moderate party now gained ascendancy; 
 the Thirty were deposed after a reign of eight months, and ten less atro- 
 cious rulers were elected in their place. The more violent members of the 
 Thirty retired to Eleusis, and both parties sent envoys to Sparta asking aid. 
 Lysander again entered Athens with an army, while his brother blockaded 
 Piraeus with a fleet. 
 
 At this point, however, Lysander was superseded, and the Spartan king, 
 Pausanias, after being first repulsed, but afterward victorious over Thra- 
 sybulus, entered upon negotiations for peace. Amnesty was decreed for 
 all past offenses, except those of the Thirty, the Eleven, * and the Ten. 
 The exiles were restored, and Thrasybulus with his comrades now marched 
 in solemn procession from Piroeus, to present their thank-offerings to Athena 
 on the Acropolis. In a subsequent assembly of the people, all the acts of 
 the Thirty Tyrants were annulled, the archons, judges, and Senate of Five 
 Hundred were restored, and a revised code of the laws of Draco and Solon 
 was ordered. Thrasybulus and his party were rewarded with wreaths of 
 olive for their rescue of the city. 
 
 214. Death of Socrates. Though humbled and reduced from their 
 B C 399 former greatness, the Athenians now rejoiced in the restora- 
 tion of their ancient laws. Their city, their temples, and all 
 
 their old customs and beliefs became doubly dear and sacred, from the 
 
 * The executioners who had put in effect the bloody sentences of the tyrants. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE, 188 
 
 perils through which they had passed. The worst effect of this conservative 
 reaction was the condemnation and death of Socrates. This great philoso- 
 pher belonged to no political party, and had opposed the extreme measures 
 of both ; but he had fought on many battle-fields, and had always used his 
 power as a citizen in favor of justice and mercy. Critias had been his 
 pupil, but when in power had hated and persecuted his former instructor. 
 His impeachment now came from the opposite party. He was accused of 
 despising the gods of Athens, of introducing a new worship, and of cor- 
 rupting the Athenian youth. The dissoluteness of Alcibiades may have 
 given some color to this charge, though it is certain that his youthful im- 
 pieties and subsequent misconduct were in spite of his master's instructions, 
 not on account of them. 
 
 Being called upon for his defense, Socrates replied that, so far from vio- 
 lating the state religion, he had constantly admonished his disciples not to 
 depart from the established customs. He refused to be released on terms 
 which required him to desist from teaching. To develop wisdom and virtue 
 in the young had been the passion of his life. He claimed no wisdom of 
 his own, but sought to draw out the thoughts of others to just conclusions. 
 And if he could persuade any that the care of becoming every day wiser 
 and better must take precedence of all other cares, he was sure that he 
 had conferred the greatest possible benefit. The high tone of his defense 
 only irritated his judges, and he was condemned to death by poison. 
 
 The Paralus had now gone on its sacred yearly mission to the isle of 
 Delos, and no execution could take place until its return. The tliirty days 
 thus spent by Socrates in prison were filled with inspiring converse with 
 his friends. He spoke cheerfully of the past and the future, and expressed 
 his immovable conviction of the immortality of the soul. His last request 
 was that a cock should be sacrificed in his name to iEscula^pius, "^ an 
 offering which persons were accustomed to make on their recovery from 
 illness — by this common symbol testifying to all the people that he con- 
 sidered death ^s a joyful release from a state of imperfection and disease. 
 AVhen the appointed moment arrived, he drank the hemlock and calmly 
 
 expired. 
 
 ' 215. Invasion of Elis. The Eleans were among the first to feel the 
 unchecked power of Sparta. As guardians of the sacred grove at Olympia, 
 they had excluded the Spartans from the games at the time when the 
 Athenians appeared, with such magnificence, under the direction of Alci- 
 biades, and they had borne arms against them, in alliance with the Argives 
 and Mantineans (B. C. 420-416). They had crowned their insults by 
 ejecting King Agis from their temple, when he had come with sacrifices 
 to consult the oracle. Agis now demanded satisfaction, which the Eleans 
 
 * The god of healing, a son of Apollo. 
 
184 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 refused to give, and he crossed their borders with a considerable force. 
 
 An earthquake alarmed his superstition, and he retired 
 
 B. C. 402. . -1 .1. -n ,1 J 1 
 
 without any active hostility. But the next year renewed 
 
 his courage. With a large number of allies, among whom even the 
 
 Athenians appeared, he overran and plundered the sacred 
 
 land, and performed by force the sacrifice which he had 
 
 been prevented from offering peaceably. Thus victorious in his first 
 
 expedition, the Spartan turned his vengeance upon the Messenians, who 
 
 had been settled in his territory or upon the neighboring islands, and 
 
 expelled or enslaved them all. 
 
 216. A year later King Agis died, and his brother Agesila^us received 
 
 his crown. A2;esilaus was brave, honest, and energetic, and 
 13. C. a9S. * . . & ' 
 
 the circumstances of his reign called for a constant exercise 
 
 of these Spartan virtues. The aid rendered by the Lacedaemonians, in the 
 revolt of Cyrus, had not escaped the notice of the Persian king; and Tis- 
 saphernes, who now possessed the satrapy of the rebellious prince, was in- 
 structed to drive them from all their cities on the Asiatic coasts. The 
 first efforts of the Spartans, under inferior commanders, had but indifferent 
 success, and Agesilaus himself prepared to assume the command in Asia. 
 
 217. The headquarters of the Grecian forces were at Ephesus, where the 
 army arrived B. C. 396. The winter was spent in busy preparations, 
 which gave this wealthy city the appearance of one immense arsenal. In 
 the spring of 395 he advanced upon Sardis, and put the Persian cavalry 
 to flight. The plunder of their camp enriched the Spartans, who now 
 ravaged the country almost under the eyes of Tissaphernes. But about 
 this time the satrap fell into the power of Parysatis, the queen mother, 
 who caused him to be beheaded for his former opposition to Cyrus, His 
 successor, Tithraus^tes, proposed terms of peace, the Greek cities to rem'ain 
 independent, with the exception of a yearly tribute, the same that they 
 had paid to Darius Hystaspes. 
 
 218. Meanwhile war had broken out in Greece between Thebes and 
 Sparta, and the former had called in Athens, her ancient enemy and rival, 
 with a promise to aid in restoring her lost supremacy. Lysander, who 
 g ^ gg^ commanded the Spartan forces in Boeotia, was defeated and ' 
 
 slain at Haliar^tus. Pausanias, arriving too late for his 
 assistance, dared not return to Sparta with the army, but took refuge in 
 the temple of Athena at Tegea; and being sentenced to death by his 
 countrymen, passed the remainder of his days in the sanctuary. His son, 
 Agesip^'olis, succeeded to his throne. 
 
 219. The Coiiinthian War. Athens, Corinth, Argos, and Thebes 
 B C 39i-387 ^^^^ formed a close alliance against Sparta, which was soon 
 
 strengthened by the addition of Euboea, Acarnania, western 
 Locris, Ambracia, Leucadia, and Chalcidice in Thrace. The allies assem- 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 185 
 
 bled a large army at Corinth in the spring of 394, and it was proposed to 
 march directly upon Sparta, and "burn the wasps in their nests before 
 they could come forth to sting." The Lacediemonians, however, had 
 advanced to Sicyon by the time the allies reached Nemea, and the latter 
 were obliged to fall back for the protection of Corinth. The Spartans 
 attacked them near the city and gained a victory, July, 394. 
 
 220. Agesilaus had been unwillingly recalled from his war against 
 
 Persia, and now appeared in the north with a powerful army, in which 
 
 were numbered Xenophon^' and many of the Ten Thousand. On hearing 
 
 of the victory of Corinth, the king exclaimed, " Alas for Greece ! she has 
 
 killed enough of her sons to have conquered all the barbarians." Agesilaus 
 
 advanced to Coronsea, where another battle was soon fought. 
 
 * B. C. 394. 
 
 The Thebans were at first successful, and, having routed the 
 
 Orchomenians, pressed through to their camp in the rear. But while they 
 
 were plundering this, Agesilaus had been victorious Mong the rest of the 
 
 line, and had driven the allies to take refuge upon the slope of Mount 
 
 Helicon. The Thebans, thus surrounded, had to sustain the whole weight 
 
 of the Spartan attack, and no severer combat had ever been known in 
 
 Grecian annals. They succeeded at last in rejoining their comrades, but 
 
 the victory remained with Agesilaus. 
 
 221. Battle of Cnidus. Their two successful battles of Corinth and 
 Coronoea were far from compensating the Spartans for the disastrous defeat 
 which befell them the same season at Cnidus. Conon, who had spent the 
 seven years since his disgrace at ^gos-Potami, with Evagoras of Cyprus, 
 now reappeared, in alliance with the ancient foe of Greece, against the 
 bitter enemy and rival of Athens. Artaxerxes, perceiving the hatred which 
 began to be felt against the growing power of Sparta, had sent envoys to 
 the principal cities of Greece, to unite them in a league for resistance, 
 while he dispatched a large sum of money to Conon, to equip a fleet 
 among the Greeks and Phoenicians of the sea-board. In command of this 
 fleet, Conon was blockaded at Caunus by 'the Spartan, Pharax; but a re- 
 inforcement arriving for the Persians, the blockading squadron withdrew 
 to Ehodes. The people of that island had unwillingly endured so long 
 the rule of the Spartans. They rose against Pharax, compelled him to 
 depart, and placed themselves under the protection of Conon. This ad- 
 miral immediately sailed to Rhodes and took possession of the island ; 
 
 - Tljough ail Allienian, Xenoplion was an exile, and preferred the institutions 
 of Sparta to those of his native city. Among the principal works of this historian 
 are the Anabasis^ an account of the rebellion of Cyrus the Younger, and the retreat 
 of the Ten Thousand ; the Hellenica, a history of the Greeks from the close of the 
 period described by Thucydides to the battle of Mantinea, B. C. 362; the Cyropcedia, 
 an historical romance in praise of Cyrus the Great; and the Memorabilia, a defense 
 of the memory of Socrates from the charge of irreligion. 
 
186 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 then repaired to Babylon, where he obtained a still more liberal grant of 
 money from Artaxerxes, for the active prosecution of the war. 
 
 With the aid of Pharnabazus, who was joined with him in command, 
 he equipped a powerful fleet and offered battle to Pisan^der, the Spartan 
 admiral, off Cnidus, in Caria. The Persian force, consisting of Greeks and 
 Phoenicians, was superior from the first, and especially when Pisander was 
 deserted, in the course of the battle, by his Asiatic allies. He fought, 
 however, with the bravery of a Spartan, until his death put an end to the 
 contest. More than half the Spartan fleet was either captured or destroyed. 
 As a result of this defeat, the Spartan empire fell even more rapidly than 
 it had risen eight years before. Conon and Pharnabazus sailed from port 
 to port, and were received as deliverers by all the Asiatic Greeks. The 
 Spartan harmosts every-wdiere fled before their arrival. Abydus and the 
 Thracian Chersonesus alone withstood the power of Athens and Persia, 
 
 222. The following spring, the fleet of Conon and Pharnabazus crossed 
 
 the JE"-ean, laid waste the eastern borders of Laconia, and 
 
 "B C 393 o J 
 
 established an Athenian garrison on the island of Cythera. 
 
 The Persian, by gold and promises, assured the allies, whom he met at 
 
 Corinth, of his unfailing support against Sparta; and he employed the 
 
 seamen of the fleet in rebuilding the Long Walls of Atliens and the 
 
 fortifications of the Piraeus. The recent services of Conon more than 
 
 erased the memory of his former disasters, and he was hailed by his 
 
 countrymen as a second founder of Athens and restorer of her greatness. 
 
 223. The war was henceforth carried on in the Corinthian territory, 
 and the main object of the allies was to guard the three passes in the 
 mountains which extend across tlie southern part of the istlimus. The 
 most w^esterly of these was defended by the long walls which ran from 
 Corinth to Lechce'um ; the other two, by strong garrisons of the allied 
 troops. The Spartans were at Sicyon, whence they could easily ravage the 
 fertile plain, and plunder the country-seats of the wealthy Corinthians. 
 The aristocratic party in Corinth began to complain, and to sigh for their 
 ancient alliance wnth Sparta. The ruling faction, on the other hand, 
 invited a company of Argives into the city, and massacred a large number 
 of their opponents. The aristocrats avenged themselves by admitting 
 Praxi^tas, the Spartan leader, within their long walls, and a battle was 
 fought within this confined space, in which the Corinthians were defeated. 
 The Spartans destroyed a large portion of the Avails, and, marching across 
 the isthmus, captured two places on the Saronic Gulf. 
 
 The Athenians, alarmed by the door being thus thrown open for the 
 invasion of their own territory, marched with a force of carpenters and 
 t> n ono masons to the isthmus, and aided the Corinthians to re- 
 
 B. C 392. o 1 ' 
 
 build the walls. They were building, however, for their 
 enemies; for the next summer, Agesilaus, with the Spartan fleet, gained 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 187 
 
 possession not only of the walls, but the port of Lecha;um. Several other 
 towns on the Corinthian Gulf, with much booty and many captives, also 
 fell into his possession. The Lacedaemonians now surrounded Corinth on 
 all sides, and the Thebans, despairing of success for the allies, sent envoys 
 demanding peace. 
 
 224:. While they were still in the presence of Agesihius, he received 
 news of an unprecedented and mortifying disaster. Iphicrates, the Athe- 
 nian, had been for two years drilling a troop of mercenaries in a new 
 system of tactics, which was intended to combine the advantages of both 
 heavy and light-armed troops. He had proved their efficiency in several 
 trials, and was now ready to test them upon the Spartan battalion, which 
 was considered almost invincible. The Spartans were returning to the 
 camp at Lechseum — having escorted their Amycleean comrades some 
 distance on their way homeward to celebrate a religious festival — when 
 they were attacked, in flank and rear, with arrows and javelins. Bur- 
 dened Avith their heavy armor, they were unable to cope with their agile 
 antagonists, ^hile their long pikes were of little use against the short 
 swords of the peltmts. They broke at length in confusion, and many were 
 driven into the sea, followed by their assailants, who wrestled with and 
 slew them in the water. 
 
 225. The war in Asia went on with varying success. Thimbron, the 
 Spartan, was defeated and slain by the Persian, Struthas, 
 
 with the total loss of his army of 8,000 men. About the 
 same time an Athenian squadron, which was going to assist Evagoras 
 against Persia, was captured by a Spartan fleet. Thrasybulus was then 
 sent with a larger naval force, with which he re-established Athenian 
 power in the Propontis, and re-imposed the toll anciently collected by 
 Athens on all vessels passing out of the Euxiue. In the midst of this ex- 
 pedition Thrasybulus was slain. The Spartans, by renewed exertions, 
 again became for a time masters of the straits; but Iphicrates, with his 
 peltasts, surprised their leader among the passes of Mount Ida, and gained 
 a decisive victory, which restored the Athenian supremacy in that region. 
 
 226. Peace of Antalcidas. The Spartans now made an effort toward 
 peace by sending Antalcidas to the Persian court. The king 
 
 accepted their propositions, and furnished means to enforce 
 them. A large fleet, commanded by Antalcidas and Tiribazus, visited the 
 Hellespont, and by cutting off" the supplies of corn from the Euxine, threat- 
 ened Athens with famine. All the states were now ready to listen to terms, 
 and in a congress of deputies Tiri'^bazus presented the following proposi- 
 tions: "King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities in Asia, and the 
 islands of Clazomense and Cyprus should belong to him. He thinks it 
 just to leave all the other Grecian cities, both small and great, independent, 
 except Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which are to belong to Athens, as of 
 
188 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 old." The Thebans at first objected, but being threatened with war by the 
 Spartans, at lengtli took the oath. The terms which thus prostrated Greece 
 at the feet of Persia, were engraven on tablets of stone and set up in every 
 temple. 
 
 The secoud period of Spartan supremacy was signalized by the abolition of 
 free governments throughout Greece. Alliens, under the Thirty Tyrants, suffered 
 for eight mouths a reign of terror. Thrasybulus, with the Atiienian exiles, 
 effected the expulsion of the tyrants, the restoration of free government, and a 
 conservative reaction which occasioned, among other results, the execution of Soc- 
 rates. The Spartans plundered the sacred land of Elis, and expelled or enslaved 
 all the Messenians who remained upon their soil. Agesilaus, succeeding his 
 brother as king of Sparta, became involved in war with Persia. In the contest 
 with Thebes, Lysander was killed, and the king Pausanias disgraced. During 
 the Corinthian War which followed, Si^arta was victorious at Corinth and 
 Coronsta, but suffered a disastrous overthrow from the Persian fleet under 
 (^onon, in the battle of Cnidns, which resulted in the sudden downfall of her 
 supremacy. Tiie Long Walls of Athens and the fortifications of the Pirteus were 
 rebuilt, under the superintendence of Conon. The Peace of Antalcldas gave lo 
 the Persian king a controlling voice in Grecian affairs, with the sovereignty of 
 Asiatic Greece, and of the islands of Cyprus and Clazomenae. 
 
 Supremacy of Thebes. 
 
 227. The Spartan hatred of Tliebes was not allayed by the return of 
 B C 386 peace. To annoy the latter city, Platsea* was rebuilt, and 
 
 as many as possible of its former citizens brought back. An 
 expedition against Olynthus gave occasion for a more decided act of hos- 
 tility. Phce'bidas, on his march through Boeotia, happened to approach 
 Thebes on a festal day, when the citadel was occupied only by women. 
 Aided by some citizens who were in secret alliance with Sparta, he seized 
 the Cadmea, had the chief of the patriotic party put to death on a false 
 charge, and effected a revolution in the government which made Thebes 
 only a subservient ally of Sparta. The Lacedaemonians pretended to join 
 in the general indignation of Greece at this outrage; but though they dis- 
 missed Phoebidas, they kept the Cadmea. 
 
 22S.,Olyntiitan Wah. The war in Macedonia was now prosecuted 
 E. c. '^2. ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Thebes. Olynthus, in the Chalcidian penin- 
 
 sula, had become the head of a powerful confederacy of 
 Grecian cities; but Acan^thus and Apollo'nia refused to join it, and 
 applied to Sparta for help. Amyn^tas, king of Macedonia, took their part, 
 and joined his troops with those of Eudamidas. Olynthus, by means of 
 its excellent cavalry, held out bravely for four years; but at last it fell, 
 and the league was dissolved. The Macedonian ports returned into sub- 
 jection to Amyntas, while the Greek cities joined the Spartan alliance. 
 
 '' See p. 163. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 189 
 
 Sparta was now leagued on all sides with the enemies of Greece : with the 
 Persians, with Dionysius of Syracuse, and with Macedon. By the destruc- 
 tion of the Olynthian League, slie had removed the chief obstacle to the 
 Macedonian power, which was soon to overthrow the freedom of the 
 Greeks. 
 
 229. Thebes remained three years in the control of the Lacedemonian 
 party. But the citizens were discontented, and a company of exiles at 
 Athens were awaiting an opportunity of vengeance. Among them was 
 Pelop^idas, a noble and wealthy youth, who had already distinguished 
 himself by his patriotism. He was the ardent friend of Epam^inon^das, 
 a Theban of greater age and still more exalted virtue than himself A 
 plan was now formed among the exiles for the deliverance p p q o 
 of Thebes. Pelopidas was its leader ; but Epaminondas at 
 
 first held back, because the execution of the plot required deceit, and the 
 possible shedding of innocent blood. He was a strict Pythagorean ; and 
 so pure were his principles, that he was never known to trifle with the 
 truth even in jest, or to sacrifice it for any interest. 
 
 230. PhyHidas, secretary of the Theban government, \vas in the plot, 
 and took a leading part in its execution. He invited to supper the two 
 polemarchs, Ar^chias and Philip^pus, with the principal Spartan leaders; 
 and when they were sufficiently stupefied with eating and drinking, he ^ 
 proposed to introduce some Theban ladies. Before these entered, a mes- 
 senger brought a letter to Archias, and begged his attention, as it con- 
 tained a matter of serious importance. But the polemarch only thrust the 
 letter under the cushions of his couch, saying, " Serious matters to- 
 morrow I " 
 
 Pelopidas and his friends, who had arrived in the city disguised as 
 hunters, now entered the banquet-room in the long white veils and festive 
 garb of women. They were loudly welcomed by the half-drunken guests, 
 and dispersed themselves with apparent carelessness among the company ; 
 but as one of the Spartan lords attempted to lift the veil of the person 
 who was addressing him, he received a mortal wound. It was the signal 
 for a general attack. Swords were drawn from beneath the silken gar- 
 ments, and no Spartan left the room alive. The prisons were now opened, 
 and five hundred Thebans, who had been immured there for their love 
 of freedom, were added to the armed force of the revolutionists. As day 
 dawned, all citizens who valued liberty were summoned to the market- 
 place. A joyful assembly was held, the first since the Spartan usurpa- 
 tion. The Lacedemonians in the citadel were besieged, and their ex- 
 pected reinforcements being cut off, they speedily surrendered. 
 
 231. It was now the depth of winter, but when the news arrived at 
 Sparta, instant preparations were made for war. Cleombrotus led an 
 army into Bceotia, and Athens was called to account for having sheltered 
 
190 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the exiles. Unable to enter upon war with Sparta, the Athenians con- 
 sented to sacrifice their two generals who had rendered the most efficient 
 aid to the Thebans. One was executed, and the other, having fled, was 
 sentenced to banishment. The Thebans feared that they should be left 
 to fight single-handed against Sparta. In order to compel Athens to 
 take part in the war, they bribed Spho^drias, the Spartan general, to in- 
 vade her territory. He entered Attica in the night and committed 
 various ravages, but retired the next day. The Spartan government dis- 
 claimed all knowledge of the affair, and brought Sphodrias to trial for 
 it; but, through the influence of Agesilaus, he was acquitted. Athens 
 immediately made an active alliance with Thebes, and a declaration of 
 war against her ancient rival. 
 
 232. A new confederacy was now formed on the plan of that of Delos 
 -D rt o-o including, in its most prosperous period, seventy cities. 
 
 Athens was the head, but the independence of the members' 
 was carefully guarded. A congress at Athens regulated the share of 
 each in the general expenses. The fortifications of Piraeus were com- 
 pleted, new ships of war were built, and all the allies hastened forward 
 their contingents of troops. In Thebes, the Sacred Band was formed — 
 a heavy-armed battalion, consisting of three hundred chosen citizens of 
 the noblest families, bound to each other by ties of the closest friend- 
 ship. Though Pelopidas was bceotarch, Epaminondas had the most 
 prominent share in the drill and discipline of the troops. 
 
 During two summers the army of Agesilaus invaded the countr}', and 
 B. C. 378-376. ^^^^^^'^^^ i^s depredations to the very gates of Thebes. The 
 
 third year the Thebans held the passes of Mount Cithjeron, 
 and kept out the invaders. The Spartans were no longer successful at 
 sea. They were thoroughly defeated off Naxos by the Athenians, who 
 thus regained their maritime empire in the East; while, in the western 
 seas, Corcyra, Cephallenia, and the neighboring tribes on the mainland 
 B. U. 375. joined the Athenian alliance. The Thebans were no less 
 
 victorious on land. During the two years that they were 
 free from Spartan invasion, most of the Bojotian cities submitted to 
 their control. In 374 B. C, all Spartans were expelled, free governments 
 were restored to every city, except Orchomenus and Chteronea, and the 
 Boeotian League was revived. The Phocians, who had, twenty years 
 before, invited the Spartans into central Greece, were now the objects of 
 vengeance, and not the less because the treasures of Delphi would be the 
 prize of the victor. But Cleombrotus came to the aid of the Phocians, 
 and the aggression was checked. 
 
 233. The Athenians had now various reasons for enmity against Thebes, 
 and messengers were sent to Sparta with proposals of peace. They were 
 eagerly accepted; but the inopportune restoration of the Zacvnthian exiles 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 191 
 
 by Timo^theus, son of Conon, at this crisis, broke ofF the negotiations, and 
 
 war was renewed. It was carried on in the western sea, with 
 
 great expense and no gain to either party ; the main object 
 
 of the Spartans being the conquest of Corcyra, and, of the Athenians, the 
 
 protection of its independence. At length all parties were weary of war, 
 
 and a general congress was appointed at Sparta in the spring of 371. 
 
 234. Peace of Cal'lias.* It was agreed that the Spartan garrisons 
 should be withdrawn from every city, and independence secured to all. 
 Athens and her allies signed the treaty separately, but Sparta took the 
 oaths for the whole Lacedaemonian Confederacy. When the Thebans were 
 called upon, Epamiuondas refused to sign except ibr the whole Bceotian 
 League, claiming that Thebes was as rightfully the sovereign city of 
 Boeotia, as Sparta of Luconia. He defended his view in a speech of great 
 eloquence; but Agesilaus was violently incensed. Peace was concluded 
 between the other states, but Thebes and Sparta continued at war. 
 
 235. The courage of the Thebans seemed to the rest of the Greeks like 
 madness, and it was believed that a very few weeks would see them crushed 
 by the overwhelming power of Sparta. But Thebes now possessed the 
 greatest general whom Greece ever produced. Knowing his own power, 
 and the value of those new tactics which were destined to supersede the 
 Spartan system, he revived the drooping confidence of his countrymen, 
 reasoned down their evil omens or invented good ones, and by his own 
 greatness of soul sustained the spirit of a whole nation. 
 
 236. Battle of Leuc^tra. Cleombrotus, the Spartan, was already in 
 Phocis with a considerable army. He began with energy by 
 
 seizing Creusis, on the Crisssean Gulf, with twelve Theban 
 vessels which lay in the harbor, thus providing at once a base of sup- 
 plies and a line of retreat. He then marched along the Gulf of Corinth 
 into Boeotia, and encamped upon the plains of Leuctra, Tliree of the 
 seven boeotarchs were so much alarmed as to propose retreating upon 
 Thebes, and sending their wives and children for safety to Athens; but 
 their plan was overruled. Epaminondas and Pelopidas were alert and 
 cheerful. Though outnumbered by the Spartans, they so arranged their 
 forces as to be always superior at the actual point of contact, instead of 
 engaging all at once, which had been the uniform method in Grecian war- 
 fare. The Theban left was a dense column, fifty deep, led by the Sacred 
 Band. This was hurled upon the Lacedaemonian right, which contained 
 their choicest troops, led by Cleombrotus himself; while the Theban center 
 and right, facing the Spartan allies, were kept out of action. The onset of 
 
 *So cnlled from one of the Athenian envoj's, who, being liereditary jproxrnw.s 
 of Sparta (a term nearly corresponding to our modern consul), had a leading part 
 in the negotiation. His personal character was worthless, and his influence 
 slight. 
 
192 ANCIEST HISTORY. 
 
 the Thebans was irresistible. Never had more furious fighting been seen 
 on any Grecian battle-field. The Spartans maintained their ancient virtue- 
 but Cl-eombrotus was mortally wounded, his whole division were driven to 
 their camp, and the victory of the Thebans was complete. The allies of 
 the Spartans, many of whom were present more througb fear than choice 
 scarcely regretted the result of the battle. 
 
 At Sparta the fatal news was not permitted to interrupt the festival then 
 in progress. All signs of mourning were forbidden, except on the part; of 
 those whose relatives had survived the defeat. The disaster was, never- 
 theless, the greatest that had ever befallen Sparta. Her influence was de- 
 stroyed, even over the Peloponnesian cities. Her dependencies north of 
 the Corinthian Gulf were divided between the Thebans and Jason, tyrant 
 of Pher^e, in Thessaly, a man of singular talent and unbounded ambition 
 who aimed at the sovereignty of all Greece. Tlie Thebans had courted his 
 alliance, but they began to be alarmed by the extent of his projects, and 
 all Greece was relieved when he was assassinated in 370. The Spartan 
 sovereignty, Avhich had lasted thirty-four years since the battle of ^gos- 
 Potami, now gave way to the Theban Supremacy (B. C. 371-362). . 
 
 237. The Mantineans seized the occasion to revenge their former 
 wrongs, and besought the aid of Epaminondas. He entered Arcadia with 
 an army near the end of the year 370, and was joined by Argives and 
 Eleans, who increased his number to 70,000 men. By the entreaties of 
 his allies, he marched into Laconia, and advanced upon Sparta itself. 
 During all the centuries that the fame of Spartan valor had held Greece 
 and Asia in awe, the Spartan women had never seen an enemy in arms, 
 and the unwalled city was now filled with terror. But the energy of old 
 King Agesilaus was equal to its defense. He repulsed the cavalry of 
 Epaminondas, who retired down the valley of the Eurotas, burning and 
 plundering as he went, and then returned to Arcadia. 
 
 238. Tlie main objects of his expedition were yet to be fulfilled. A 
 union of Arcadian towns had already been formed, which Epaminondas 
 wislied to organize and strengthen. Lest jealousy should be excited by 
 the choice of any existing place as capital of the league, a new city, 
 called Megalop^olis, was built, and peopled by colonists from forty towns. 
 Here a congress of deputies, called the ''Ten Thousand," was to be reg- 
 ularly convened; and a standing army of deputies from the various cities 
 was also raised. 
 
 230. A still more cherished plan was the restoration of the Messenians. 
 For three hundred years this noble race had been fugitive and exiled,- 
 while its lands were in the i)ossession of the Lacedaemonians. The exiles 
 were now recalled, by the letters of Epaminondas, from the shores of Italy, 
 Sicily, Africa, and Asia, and eagerly sprang to arms for the recovery of 
 their ancient seats. The citadel of Tthome was fortified anew, and the 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 193 
 
 town of Messe^ue, which arose upon the western slope of the mountain, 
 was protected by strong walls. The Messenian territories extended south- 
 ward to the gulf whicli bore their name, and northward to Elis and 
 Arcadia. 
 
 240. Common jealousy of Thebes now led to a' closer alliance between 
 Athens and Sparta. Their forces were united in guarding the mountain- 
 passes of the isthmus, in order to prevent another invasion of tjie Pelopon- 
 nesus. Epaminondas, however, broke their line by defeat- 
 
 c. .. . . ' B.C. 369. 
 
 mg a bpartan division, and Sicyon deserted the Spartan for 
 
 the Theban alliance. The Thebans were, in their turn, defeated in an 
 
 attack upon Corinth, and their enemies were strengthened by a squadron 
 
 which arrived at Lechseum, from Dionysius of Syracuse, bearing two 
 
 thousand auxiliaries from Gaul and Spain. 
 
 241. The Tearless Battle. The Arcadians, meanwhile, rejoicing in 
 their newly acquired power, became ambitious to share the 
 sovereignty with Thebes, as Athens did with Sparta. Under 
 
 their leader, Lycome^des, who had first proposed the league, they gained 
 several advantages in the west, and completed the overthrow of the Spartan 
 power in the Messenian part of the peninsula. In a later enterprise, they 
 were routed, however, with great slaughter by the Spartans, who lost not 
 a man in the engagement, and gave it, thereforcj the name of the "Tearless 
 Battle." The Thebans did not mourn this defeat of their allies, which 
 had the effect of curbing their pride, and showing their need of" protec- 
 tion from the sovereign state. 
 
 The same year the Thebans, under Pelopidas, organized a league among 
 the cities of Thessaly, and formed an alliance with Macedonia. Among 
 the hostages sent from the Macedonian court was the young prince, 
 Philip, son of Amyntas, now fifteen years of age, who was destined to 
 act an important part in the later history of Greece. 
 
 242. In the years 367 and 366, the Thebans obtained from the Persian 
 king that sanction of their power which the peace of Antalcidas had 
 rendered necessary, or, at least, customary in Greece. Artaxerxes recog- 
 nized the Hellenic supremacy of Thebes, and the independence of Mes- 
 sene and Amphip^olis; decicled a dispute between the Arcadians and 
 Eleans in favor of the latter, and commanded Athens to reduce her 
 navy to a peace footing. This royal rescript naturally provoked a violent 
 opposition among the states of Greece ; and when Pelopidas visited Thes- 
 saly to obtain compliance with its terms, he was seized and imprisoned 
 by Alexander of Pherse. The Thebans instantly sent a force to recover 
 or avenge their ambassador. But, unhappily, Epaminondas was now de- 
 graded from command ; the army was defeated, and barely escaped total 
 destruction. The great general was servii^g as a private in the ranks; 
 lie was called by his comrades to be their leader, and conducted them 
 
 A. H.— 25. 
 
194 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 safely home. He then received the command of a second expedition, 
 which secured the release of Pelopidas. 
 Two years later, Pelopidas himself conducted an army against Alexan- 
 der, and gained a great victory over him at Cyn'^ocepl/alje. 
 Rage at the sight of his old enemy overcame his prudence, 
 and he fell furiously fighting in the midst of Alexander's guards. The 
 Thebans felt more grief at his death than joy in the victory, but they did 
 not fail to follow it up with a fresh army, which stripped Alexander of all 
 his possessions except the city of Phera3, and established Theban supremacy 
 throughout northern Greece. 
 
 243. The war in the Peloponnesus was now varied by an act of sacrilege. 
 The Arcadians seized the Sacred Grove at Olympia during the year of the 
 festival, expelled the El cans from their supervision of the games, and in- 
 stalled the Pisatans in their place. A large army of the Arcadians and 
 their allies was present to enforce this irregular proceeding. The Eleans 
 came up in the midst of the games, supported by their allies, the Achseans, 
 and a battle was fought on the sacred ground. The very temple of Olympic 
 Zeus became a fortress, and the gold and ivory statue by Phidias looked 
 down upon a scene of unprecedented strife. The treasury of the shrine 
 was despoiled by the invaders. Arcadia itself was divided by this impious 
 act. The Mantineans refused all share in the spoils, and were on that 
 account proclaimed traitors to the league. Peace was at length made 
 with Elis, but two parties remained in Arcadia: the Mantineans, in alli- 
 ance with Sparta; and the Tegeans, with the other towns which favored 
 Thebes. Hostilities Avere frequent, and envoys were sent to Epaminondas 
 demanding his intervention. 
 
 244. In the summer of 362 B. C, the great general invaded Pelopon- 
 nesus for the fourth and last time. At Tegea he was joined by his allies, 
 while Agesilaus moved with a Spartan force toward Mantinea. Placed 
 thus between the king and his capital, Epaminondas seized the occasion 
 to make a sudden attack upon Sparta. Agesilaus heard of it in time to 
 return, and though a battle was fought in the very streets of the capital, 
 the invader was compelled to retire. With his usual swiftness, Epami- 
 nondas moved back to surprise Mantinea while the Spartan army was 
 withdrawn. The citizens with their slaves were dispersed in the fields, for 
 it was the time of harvest; but a troop of Athenian cavalry had just ar- 
 rived, and, though tired and hungry, they succeeded in repulsing the 
 Thebans. ^ 
 
 245. Battle of Mantinea. It was now evident that a great battle 
 must take place, and the elevated plain between Tegea and Mantinea, in- 
 closed on every side by mountains, was the destined field. The Thebans, 
 on arriving, laid down their arms, as if preparing to encamp; and the 
 Spartans, inferring that they did not mean to fight, dispersed themselves 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 195 
 
 in some confusion. Some were tending their horses, some unbuckling their 
 breastplates, when they were surprised by the charge of the deep and heavy 
 column of Boeotian troops, which Epaminondas had swiftly put in order for 
 attack. The Spartans fought bravely, but under the disadvantage which 
 disorder always occasions, they were unable to recover themselves at once. 
 Epaminondas seized the moment to lead a band of chosen troops directly 
 upon the enemy's center. The Mantineans and Spartans turned and fled; 
 but at this moment the Theban general fell, pierced with a mortal wound. 
 His followers stood paralyzed with dismay, unable to pursue and reap the 
 advantage he had prepared for them. The Spartans acknowledged them- 
 selves defeated, by requesting permission to bury their dead, but both 
 armies erected trophies of victory. 
 
 246. Epaminondas, with the spear-head in his breast, was carried off the 
 field. He first assured himself that the battle was won, then tried to make 
 a disposition of his command; but the two generals whom he would have 
 chosen were already slain. " Then make peace," was his last public com- 
 mand. The spear-head was now removed, and with the rush of blood 
 which followed it, his life passed away. No Greek ever more truly mer- 
 ited, by character and talent, the title " Great." Many of the worthiest 
 who succeeded him took him for their model ; and even the Christian ages 
 have seen none who better fulfilled the description of a brave knight, 
 ''without fear and without reproach." The greatness of Thebes began and 
 ended with his public career. After the fatal result of the battle of Man- 
 tinea, she fell to her former position. 
 
 247. Peace was made, leaving all parties in the same position as before 
 the war. Agesilaus, untamed by his eighty years, sought a field of glory 
 ,beyond the sea. Tachos, king of Egypt, had asked the aid of Sparta in his 
 revolt against Persia. Agesilaus went to his assistance, at the head of a 
 thousand heavy-armed troops. The appearance of the little, lame old man, 
 utterly destitute of the retinue or splendor of a king, excited the ridicule 
 of the Egyptians ; but when he transferred his aid from Tachos to Nec- 
 .tan^abis, who had risen against him, the importance of the little Spartan 
 was felt, for Nectanabis obtained the throne. Agesilaus did not live to 
 bear back to Sparta his honors and rewards. He died on the road to 
 Gyrene, and his body, embalmed in wax, was conveyed with ^ ^ ^^^ 
 great pomp to his native city. An ancient oracle had fore- 
 told that Sparta would lose her power under a lame 'sovereign. It was now 
 fulfilled, but through no fault of the king. Agesilaus had all the virtues 
 of his countrymen, without their common faults of avarice and deceit; and 
 •he added a warmth and tenderness in friendship which Spartans rarely 
 possessed. He has been called "Sparta's most perfect citizen and most 
 consummate general, in many ways, perhaps, her greatest man." 
 
 ; 248. The Social WaPw. Athens still maintained her wars in the north ; 
 
196 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 by sea against Alexander of Phera?, and by land against Macedonia and 
 the Thracian princes. The second period of Athenian greatness reached 
 its height in the year 358, when Euboea, the Chersonesus, and Amphipolis 
 were again subdued. In that year a serious revolt, called the Social War, 
 was begun by Rhodes, Cos, Chios, and Byzantium. Sestus and other towns 
 on the Hellespont joined in the quarrel, and Mauso^lus, king of Caria, sent 
 aid to the i;isurgents. The war was inglorious and exhaustive to Athens. 
 To obtain means of paying their sailors, the commanders aided Artabazus 
 in his revolt against Persia, and thereby incurred the vengeance of the 
 great king. Athens had to consent to the independence of the four rebel 
 states, in order to avoid still greater losses and calamities. During the 
 four years that her attention had been thus absorbed, Philip of Macedon 
 had been able to grasp all her dependencies on the Thermaic Gulf, and 
 thus to extend his power as far as the Peneus. 
 
 249. The Sacred War. During the progress of the Social War, 
 
 another fatal quarrel be^ran in central Greece, through the 
 
 B C 357. T. D 7 o 
 
 enmity of Thebes and Phocis. Driven to fight for their 
 existence, the Phocians seized the sacred treasures at Delphi, which en- 
 abled them to raise and maintain a large army of mercenaries, and even 
 to bribe some of the neighboring states either to aid them or remain 
 neutral. Their first general, Philome^lus, was defeated and slain at Titho''- 
 rea. His brother, Onomai^chus, who succeeded to his command, used the 
 Delphian treasures with still less scruple, beside confiscating the property 
 of all who opposed him. By these means he conquered Locris and Doris, 
 invaded Bocotia, and captured Orchomenus. 
 
 250. Lyc^ophron, tyrant of Pheree, now sought his aid against Philip of 
 Macedon, whose increasing power pressed heavily upon Thessaly. PhayKlus, 
 who first led a force to the aid of Lycophron, was defeated; but Onomar- 
 chus himself marched into Thessaly, worsted the king in two pitched battles, 
 and drove him from the country. He then returned into Bosotia, where he 
 captured Coronsea, but was recalled into Thessaly by another invasion of 
 K c 352. Philip. This time his fortune changed; he w^as defeated, and, 
 
 with many other fugitives, plunged into the sea, hoping to 
 reach the Athenian ships which were lying ofi* shore to watch the battle. 
 He perished, and his body, falling into the hands of Philip, was crucified 
 as a punishment of his sacrilege. 
 
 251. This battle secured the ascendency of Philip in Thessaly. He 
 established a more popular government in Pherae, took and garrisoned 
 Magnesia, and then advanced upon Thermopylae. The Athenians antici- 
 pated the danger, and guarded the pass with a strong force. But the 
 liberty of Greece was destined to be sacrificed to her internal dissensions. 
 The Sacred War had continued eleven years, when the Thebans called in 
 the aid of Philip to complete the destruction of Phocis. The Athenians 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 197 
 
 now remained neutral, and Philip passed Thermopylae without opposition. 
 Ill a short campaign he crushed Phocis, and was admitted as a member of 
 the Amphictyonic Council, in the place of the conquered state. 
 
 252. Athens was now the only power in Greece capable of opposing the 
 Macedonian king, and Athens was no longer possessed of a Miltiades, a 
 Conon, or a Themistocles. A great orator, however, had arisen , and when 
 Olynthus sent envoys to implore aid ap;ainst the invader, who 
 
 was now attacking the Chalcidian cities, the eloquence of De- 
 mosthenes aroused some faint' show of their former spirit. The attempted 
 rescue was defeated, however, by treachery within the walls; and, in 347, 
 Olynthus fell. The/ threefold peninsula was now in the power of Philip, 
 and he was able to push his interests throughout Greece rather by intrigue 
 than force. Even in Athens a powerful party, sustained by his bribes, 
 labored to undermine the efforts of the true patriots, of whom Demosthenes 
 was chief, -^s^chines was the mouth-piece of the Macedonian party, an 
 orator second only to Demosthenes himself, and won to Philip's side, prob- 
 ably, more by flatteries than gifts. He constantly urged peace with the 
 king, while Demosthenes, as soon as he perceived the extent of Philip's 
 designs, opposed them with all the unsparing vehemence of his nature. 
 His Philippics are the most forcible examples in any language of bold 
 and eloquent opposition to an unjust usurpation of power. 
 
 253. In 340, war was declared on account of the aggressions of Philip 
 
 on the Bosphorus: and the Second Sacred War, which broke _ _ 
 
 ^ ' ' . . B. C. 339. 
 
 out in the following year, gave him a reason for again passing 
 Thermopylae. He was now appointed general-in-chief of the Amphictyonic 
 forces, and thus gained a position in the very heart of Greece, which he did 
 not fail to use for his own advantage.* 
 
 254. The Thebans, in alarm, applied to Athens for aid, which was not 
 
 refused. The armies met in battle at Chseronea, and the . - t^ ^ ooo 
 
 ' ^ Aug. /, B. C.338. 
 
 victory of Philip gave the death-blow to Grecian inde- 
 pendence. All the states except Sparta acknowledged his sovereignty, 
 and he was made generalissimo of the Hellenic forces in the war now 
 projected against Persia. To overawe the hostility of Sparta, he marched 
 through the Peloponnesus to the southern extremity, and returned by the 
 western coast, meeting no serious opposition. 
 
 Philip's death by assassination interrupted the movement against the 
 Persians, and for a moment revived the hopes of the patriots; but the 
 Macedonian party prevailed under the youthful Alexander, who surpassed 
 his father both as general and as king. 
 
 Sparta destroyed the Olynthiaii confederacy, and seized upon Thebes, which 
 was rescued after three years by Pelopidas and his fellow exiles. Athens re- 
 gained her dominion both in the eastern and western seas, while Thebes became 
 
198 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the head of the new Boeotian League. The treatj-^ of Callias secured peace among 
 all the states, except Thebes and Sparta. The victory of Epaminoudas over the 
 Spartans at Leuctra established the Theban supremacy, which was recognized 
 and supported by the Persians during the remaining years of his life. He four 
 times invaded Peloponnesus; organized an Arcadian coufederacj', witli the new 
 city, Megalopolis, at its head; restored the exiled iMessenians to the lands of their 
 ancestors; twice attacked Sparta itself; and, finally, triumphed and fell at Man- 
 tinea. Agesilaus died on his return from Egypt, where his aid had secured the 
 throne to Nectanabis. Atliens declined from her second period of greatness in 
 consequence of the Social War, B. C. 357-355. Tlie Phocians, with the Delphic 
 treasures which they confiscated, gained ascendency in central Greece, but lost 
 it in war with Philip of Macedon. This king ended the Sacred War (B. C. 357-316) 
 by the destruction of Phocis, assumed her place in the Amphictjonic Council, 
 conquered the Chalcidian peninsulas, led the allied forces in the Second Sacred 
 War, and by his victory at Chferonea established his supremacy over Greece. 
 His son Alexander inherited his civil and military command. 
 
 QTJESTIOIS-S FOR niG^IEl^V. 
 
 Book III. 
 
 1. By what names lias Greece been known ? g 8. 
 
 2. What tribes were included among the Hellenes? 9. 
 
 3. What foreigners aided to civilize Greece? 10. 
 
 4. Describe three of the Greek heroes 11-13. 
 
 5. What can be said of the siege of Troy? 14. 
 
 G. What was the state of the country and people in the Heroic Age? II, 17-20. 
 
 7. Describe the kings 15 16. 
 
 8. What connections between Greek and Asiatic religions? . • . . 21. 
 0. Name the twelve Olympian deities 23. 
 
 10. What bearing had Greek belief upon human conduct? .... 25. 
 
 11. What foreign ceremonies were borrowed by the Greeks? . . . 1!0', 27, 29. 
 
 12. What is known of the Mysteries? 28. 
 
 13. Describe the oracles 30-32. 
 
 14. What migrations in Greece, B. C. 1124-1100? 33,34. 
 
 15. Describe the Asiatic settlements. 35-37 85,86. 
 
 lU What political changes at the close of the Heroic Age? .... 38. 
 
 17. What were the bonds of union among the Greeks? . . . . • 39,42. 
 
 18. Describe the games and the rewards of victors 40 41. 
 
 19. Recount the historj' of Argos 43, 
 
 20. What were the condition and government of Sparta, B. C. !)00? . . 44-4G. 
 
 21. Describe the discipline of Lycurgus 47-53. 
 
 22. The wars of Sparta during the Second Period 55-61. 
 
 23. What was the character of Spartan influence in Greece? .... 62. 
 
 24. What difference of character between Athenians and Spartans? . . 63. 
 
 25. What changes in Athenian government within 400 years? ... 64, 65. 
 
 26. Describe the laws of Draco and their results. 06,67. 
 
 27. What political parties in Attica? p^^ 
 
 28. What were the character and history of Solon? 69 70,74. 
 
 29. What was the spirit of his laws? 71-73. 
 
 30. Describe the rise of Pisistratus. . 7= 
 
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW, 
 
 199 
 
 I 76. 
 
 77. 
 
 78. 
 
 7i), 80. 
 
 81. 
 
 82. 
 
 83. 
 
 84. 
 
 87-89. 
 
 91-91. 
 
 95-97. 
 
 98, 99. 
 101, 102. 
 
 31. What occurred daring his first tyranny ? .... 
 
 32. What occasioned his second expulsion ? .... 
 
 33. Describe his third reign. 
 
 34. The reign and expulsion of Hippins. 
 
 35. What changes were introduced by Clisthenc's? 
 
 36. Who opposed liim? 
 
 37. What dangers threatened Atiiens at this time? 
 
 38. What ceremonies attended the founding of Greek colonies 
 
 39. Describe the colonies in Italy 
 
 40. In Gaul, Sicily, Africa, Tlirace. . 
 
 41. Describe the movements of Darius against Greece. 
 
 42. The battle of ^larathon. 
 
 43. The fall of Miltiades 
 
 44. The character and history of Aristides. . . 103, 104, IIG, 117, 130, 132. 
 
 45. The character and career of Themistocles. 104-109, 113-117, 130, 13G, 138. 
 
 46. The battle of Thermopylte. Ill, 112.. 
 
 47. The battle of Salamis 117. 
 
 ■48. The retreat of Xerxes 118. 
 
 49. The embassy of Alexander. 119,120. 
 
 50. The condition of Athens 121. 
 
 51. Describe the campaign in Bceotia 122-126. 
 
 52. The subsequent operations of the Greeks 128, 129. 
 
 53. What changes in the rank and politics of Athens? 130. 
 
 54. Tell the story of Pausanias 131. 
 
 55. Describe the rise of the Delian Confederacy. 132. 
 
 56. The career of Cimon 133-137, 139-142, 150. 
 
 57. The causes and events of the Third Jdessenian War. . . 139, 142, 148. 
 
 58. The history of Pericles. . . . 140, 143, 145, L52-157,, 159, 161-1G5. 
 
 59. Tell the story of the First Peloponnesian War 143-147. 
 
 60. What occurred at Delphi, B. C. 448? 151. 
 
 61. Describe the battle of Coroneea, and its coiisequences to Alliens. . . 152-154. 
 
 62. The Samian revolt 156, 157. 
 
 63. The war between Corinth and Corcyra 158. 
 
 fti. The Theban attack upon Plattea 160. 
 
 65. How was Greece divided in the Peloponnesian War? .... 161. 
 
 66. What was the condition of Athens during the first two years ? . 162-164, 166. 
 . 67. Describe the siege of Platsea. 107. 
 
 C8. The revolt of Mytilene 168-170. 
 
 69. The revolution in Corcyra 171. 
 
 70. The condition of Greece in the sixth year of the war. . . 172. 
 
 71. Describe the campaign at Pylos and Sphacteria 173, 174. 
 
 72. What raa.ssacres occurred in the eighth year? 175. 
 
 73. Describe the invasion of Bceotia. 176. 
 
 74. The campaign of Brasidas 177. 
 
 75. How long did the Peace of Nicias continue? 178,180,188. 
 
 76. Describe the career of Alcibiades 179-180,192-194,198-200,202. 
 
 77. The Sicilian expedition 179-191. 
 
 78. What occasioned a revolution in Athens? 194,195. 
 
 79. Describe the maritime movements of 411, 410 B. C 197-199. 
 
 80. What part was taken by Persia in the Peloponnesian War? 192-194, 198, 201, 204. 
 
 81. What occurred at ^gos-Potami? 205,206. 
 
 82. What were the re.sults to Athens? • . . . 207-209. 
 
 83. Describe the reign of the Thirty Tyrants 210,211. 
 
 84. The reaction under Thrasybulu-s 212,213. 
 
 85. The trial and death of Socrates. 214. 
 
200 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 &^. Describe the war of Sparta against Elis 
 
 87. Agesilaus, and his Asiatic campaign. 
 
 88. The death of Lysauder, and retirement of Pausanias. 
 
 89. The three great battles of 294 B. C. . 
 
 90. Wlio restored the walls of Athens? 
 
 91. Describe the last two years of the Corinthian War. 
 02. What were the terms of the Peace of Antalcidas ? . . . 
 
 93. What occurred at Thebes, from 382 to 379 B. C. ? ... 
 
 94. Describe the war in Boeotia and the western seas. 
 
 95. Tlie treaty of Callias. 
 
 96. The character and tactics of Epaminondas. . 229 
 
 97. The consequences to Sparta of the battle of Leuctra. 
 
 98. The restoration of the Messeuiaus 
 
 59. The ambition of the Arcadians 
 
 100. The intervention of the Persians. .... 
 
 101. . The plunder of Olympia. 
 
 102. Tiie last campaign of Agesilaus 
 
 103. The second period of Athenian greatness, and Social Wai 
 
 104. The Sacred War 
 
 105. The advance of Philip of Macedou 
 
 106. Demosthenes and his Philippics 
 
 107. The results of the battle of Chseronea. ... 
 
 108. Who succeeded Philip as head of tlie Grecian armies? . 
 
 109. How long was Athens the leading stale of Greece? 
 ilO. What two periods of Spartan supremacy ? 
 
 111. Length of th&Theban supremacy ? 
 
 112. What was an Olympiad ? 
 
 I 215. . 
 216, 217. 
 218. 
 
 219-221. 
 222. 
 223. 
 226. 
 227, 229, 230. 
 232. 
 
 233, 231. 
 235-240, 244-246. 
 236. 
 239. 
 241. 
 242. 
 243. 
 247. 
 248. 
 249. 
 
 250, 251. 
 252. 
 25-1. 
 254. 
 
 40. 
 
BOOK IV. 
 
 History of the Macedonian Empire and the Kingdoms 
 formed from it, until their conquest by the eomans. 
 
 FiEST Period. F)'om the Rise of the Monarchy to the Death of Alexander 
 
 the Great, about B. G. 700-323. 
 
 1. The Kingdom of Macedon, lying north of Thessaly and east of 
 lllyr^iciim, was of little importance before the reign of Philip II., whose 
 aggressions ended the independent history ' of Greece. (See Book III, 
 ^l 248-254.) In 507 B. C, Amyntas I. submitted to Darius Hystaspes; 
 and fifteen years later, in the first expedition of Mardonius, the country 
 became a mere province of the Persian empire, the native kings governing 
 as tributaries. After Xerxes' retreat, B. C. 480, Macedonia became free 
 again, and began to push eastward along the northern coast of the ^Egean. 
 Here it met two rivals : the new Thracian kingdom of Sitalces upon its 
 eastern frontier, and the Athenian power in the Greek cities of the Chal- 
 cidian peninsulas. 
 
 2. When Athens was prostrated by her Sicilian disasters, the short but 
 brilliant reign of Ar^chela^us I. (B. C. 413-399) laid the foundation of 
 Macedonian greatness. He improved his country by roads, strengthened 
 it by forts, and introduced a better discipline into" the army. His deatii 
 was followed by forty years of great tumult, a continued scene of plots 
 and assassinations, to recount which would only confuse without profiting 
 the student. When Perdiccas III. died in battle, he left an infant son, 
 Amyntas, under the regency of his brother Philip. At least five other 
 princes claimed the crown; the victorious Illyrians occupied the western 
 provinces, and Thrace and Pseo^nia were ready to absorb the eastern. 
 
 3. Philip overcame all these perils with admirable spirit and ability. 
 He made himself king instead of his nephew, defeated the Illyrians, and 
 took advantage of the Social War to seize Amphipolis, Pydna, and Potidsea. 
 He pushed the Macedonian boundary eastward as far as the Nestus, and 
 built the town of Philip^pi for the protection of the gold mines. These 
 
 (201) 
 
202 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 had fallen into neglect during the wars of Athens, but under his improved 
 management they soon yielded a yearly revenue of a thousand talents 
 ($1,250,000). 
 
 4. Philip, in his youth, had spent three years in Thebes, where he had 
 studied the tactics of Epaminondas, as well as the language, character, and 
 politics of the Greeks. On coming to power, he devoted unwearied atten- 
 tion to the drilling of his army, until it far surpassed that of any Hellenic 
 state. No less skilled in diplomacy than in military science, he knew how 
 to take advantage of the rivalries in Greece, and the corruptibility of all 
 parties, to play off one against the other, and so render himself supreme. 
 His rapid movements made him seem to be in many places at the same 
 moment, and no circumstance which either threatened or favored his 
 interests escaped his eye. 
 
 5. The Olynthian War ended with the capture of thirty-two cities in 
 Chalcidice ; the Sacred War made Philip master of Phocis and head of the 
 Amphictyonic League. In eastern Thrace, the Athenians found aid in the 
 Persians, who were already alarmed by the rapid rise of the Macedonian 
 power, and Perin^thus and Byzantium were thus saved for a time. Philip 
 was victorious (B. C. 339) against a Scythian prince of what is now Bui- 
 ga^ria; and though he was defeated and wounded on his return, in a battle 
 with the Triballi, his plots went on with uninterrupted success. The 
 Second Sacred War gave him supremacy in central Greece, and the 
 victory at Chseronea prostrated all remaining opposition. The Congress 
 at Corinth (B. C. 337) acknowledged his headship, and appointed him to 
 lead the Greek forces against Persia. The advanced guard of the Macedo- 
 nian army was already in Asia, Avhen Philip was assassinated, during the 
 festivities attending the marriage of his daughter, B. C. 336. 
 
 6. In the midst of Philip's early victories, he had heard of the birth of 
 his son Alexander at Pella. He wrote immediately to his friend Ar'- 
 istot^e, * expressing his joy that the young prince was born during the 
 life of the philosopher to whom he could most gladly commit his education. 
 On the same day that Alexander was born, the temple of Artemis at Eph- 
 esus was burnt to the ground. The priests and soothsayers, regarding the 
 fire as an evil omen, ran about the city beating their breasts and crying 
 
 • 
 
 ■:= Aristotle was a native of Stagi'ra, a Chalcidian sea-port. His father had been 
 physician to Amyutas II., the father of Philip; and the prince and the philoso- 
 pher in their boyhood formed a friendship, which outlasted the life of the former 
 and WHS inherited by his son. The enlarged political views of Alexander, his fond- 
 ness for discovery and physical science, his lively interest in literature, especially 
 the poems of Homer, and his love of the noble and great in character, were 
 largely due to his teacher's influence. When he became the conqueror of Asia, 
 he caused rare collections of plants and animals, from all his provinces, to be 
 sent to Aristotle, who found in them the materials for valuable works on 
 Natural History. 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 203 
 
 aloud, "This day has brought forth the scourge and destroyer of Asia." 
 B. C. 356. 
 
 7. At the age of sixteen, Alexander was left regent of the kingdom 
 during his father's campaign against Byzantium. At Chaaronea, two years 
 later, he led a corps of Macedonian youth against the Sacred Band of 
 Thebes, and the victory was mainly due to his courage and impetuosity. 
 Upon the death of his Axther, Alexander, at twenty years of age, ascended 
 a throne beset with many dangers. He expelled or killed his nearest 
 rivals, marched into Greece and convened 
 
 at Corinth a new congress, which conferred 
 upon him the same dignities and powers 
 previously granted to his father; then in- 
 stantly returning to Macedon, he signally 
 defeated his enemies on the west and north, 
 some of whom he pursued even beyond the 
 Danube. During these campaigns a false 
 report of his death reached Greece, and 
 Thebes seized the occasion to revolt. But 
 Alexander appeared suddenly before her 
 gates, stormed and took the city, which, by 
 way of warning to others, he completely de- 
 stroyed — saving only the house of Pindar, 
 the poet — and either enslaved or massacred 
 the inhabitants. 
 
 8. Greece was now awed into submission, 
 and Alexander prepared to execute his 
 father's and his own schemes of Asiatic 
 conquest. In the spring of 334 B. C, he 
 crossed the Hellespont with 35,000 men. 
 The Persians awaiting him at the Granicus 
 were defeated, and Alexander, with his usual 
 
 celerity, overran Asia Minor, which submitted with little opposition. 
 Memnon, a Rhodian Greek in the service of Darius, and his greatest 
 general, desired to carry the war into Macedonia, by means of the over- 
 whelming fleet of the Persians. His movements detained Alexander some 
 months near the ^gean coast; but his death, in the spring of 333 B. C, 
 left the invader free to march toward the heart of the empire. Darius led 
 a vast army to the plain of the Orontes, where he might have had the ad- 
 vantage over his assailant; but Alexander lingered in the Cilician mountain 
 passes, until the Persian king was impatient and came to meet him. The 
 battle of Issus (B. C. 333, Nov.) resulted in the defeat of the Persians with 
 great slaughter. 
 
 9. Instead of following Darius, Alexander proceeded to conquer the sea- 
 
 Coia of Alexander, enlarged 
 one-half. 
 
204 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 coast of the Mediterranean as far as Egypt, thus providing for the security 
 of Macedon and Greece. Most of the Phoenician cities submitted as he 
 approached, but Tyre withstood him seven months. When it was taken 
 (B. C. 332, July), 8,000 of its people were massacred and 30,000 sold into 
 slavery. Ga'za was captured after a siege of two months. According to 
 Josephus, the conqueror then marched upon Jerusalem. The high priest, 
 Jad^dua, came forth to meet him, wearing the breastplate of precious stones 
 and the miter inscribed with the Holy Name. Alexander prostrated him- 
 self with profound reverence before tlie priest, and explained to his follow- 
 ers that in a vision, before leaving Europe, he had seen such a figure, 
 which had invited him to the conquest of Asia. The high priest pointed 
 out to him the prophecies of Daniel concerning his career ; and Alexander, 
 in adding the Jews to his empire, exempted them from tribute every sev- 
 enth year, when, according to their law, they could neither sow nor reap. 
 
 10. In Egypt the Macedonian king was gladly welcomed, for the people 
 hated the Persians for having insulted their gods and profaned their tem- 
 ples. At the western mouth of the Nile he founded a new capital, which 
 he designed as the commercial exchange of the eastern and western worlds. 
 Alexandria, with its great advantages of position, soon became a rich and 
 magnificent city. A less judicious proceeding of the conqueror was a toil- 
 some march across the desert to the temple of Amun. He was rewarded, 
 however, in being saluted by the priests as the son of the god, a distinction 
 which Alexander greatly valued. 
 
 11. Turning to the north and east, Alexander now sought the grand 
 contest which was to transfer to him the dominions of Cyrus. He had 
 purposely given Darius time to collect the entire force of his empire, so 
 that one battle might decide its fate. The battle of Arbela (B. C. 331, Oct.) 
 has been described in Book II. As its result the three capitals, Susa, Per- 
 sep'olis, and Babylon, surrendered almost without resistance; and Alexander 
 might, without further effort, have assumed the pomp and ease of an Ori- 
 ental monarch. But his restless spirit carried him on to the conquest of 
 the eastern provinces and India. He first marched into Media, where 
 Darius had rallied the remnants of his forces to oppose him, but on his 
 approach the dethroned king fled through the Caspian Gates to Bactria. 
 Before Alexander could overtake him, he was murdered by his rebellious 
 satrap, Bessus, who assumed the title of king of Persia. 
 
 12. The Greek mercenaries of Darius, who had formed his most effective 
 force, were now added to the army of the conqueror. From province to 
 province Alexander marched, receiving submission and organizing govern- 
 ments. Bessus fled into Sogdiana, but was taken, and suffered a cruel death 
 for his treason and usurpation. A new city of Alexandria was founded on 
 the Jaxartes; and having chastised the Scythians to the northward, the con- 
 queror returned to Bactria, where he spent the winter of 329 B. G. " 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 205 
 
 13. The genius of Alexander began to be disgraced by the pride and 
 unscrupulous cruelty of an Eastern king. He adopted the Persian dress 
 and ceremonial, and required his courtiers to prostrate themselves before 
 him, as to a divinity rather than a mortal. He had already put to death 
 his friend Philo^tas, on an unproved charge of plotting against his life ; and 
 the aged Parme^nio, father of Philotas, was subjected without trial to a 
 similar fate. At Bactria, in a drunken revel, Alexander murdered his 
 friend Clitus with his own hand. 
 
 14. During his two years' war against Sogdiana, Alexander captured a 
 mountain fortress, where Oxyar^tes, a Bactrian prince, had deposited his 
 family. Roxa''na, one of the princesses, became the wife of the conqueror. 
 In the spring of 327 B. C, the Macedonian army crossed the Indus and 
 invaded the Punjab. No resistance was encountered until it reached the 
 Hydas^pes, where Porus, an Indian king, was drawn up with his elephants 
 and a formidable body of men. An obstinate battle resulted in the defeat 
 and capture of Porus ; but his brave spirit so commanded the respect of 
 his conqueror, that he was permitted to retain his kingdom. 
 
 Alexander founded two cities near the Hydaspes, one named Bucepl/ala, 
 in honor of his favorite horse, which died there, and the other, Nicse^ in 
 commemoration of his victories. He gave orders for the building of a fleet 
 from the Indian forests, while he advanced with his army still farther to 
 the eastward. All the tribes as far as the Hypha^sis (Sutlej) were con- 
 quered, one by one. On arriving at thati river, the Macedonians refused to 
 go farther. They declared that they had more than fulfilled the terms of 
 their enlistment, and that they were worn out by the hardships of eight 
 unprecedented campaigns. 
 
 15. Alexander was compelled to turn back. His fleet was now ready, 
 and he descended the Hydaspes to the Indus, in the autumn and winter 
 of 327 B. C. His army marched in two columns along the banks, the 
 entire valley submitting with little resistance. Two more cities were 
 founded, and left with Greek garrisons and governors. Arriving at the 
 Indian Ocean, Near^chus was sent with the fleet to the Persian Gulf, 
 while Alexander returned by land. His march through Gedro^sia was the 
 most severe of all his operations, the army suffering for the want of food 
 and water. At Pura he obtained supplies, and proceeded through Kerman 
 to Pasargadse, and thence to Persepolis. Arriving at Susa in the spring 
 of 325 B. C, he allowed his army some months of needed rest, while he 
 began to organize the vast empire which he had so rapidly built up. 
 
 16. Desiring to unite his eastern and western dominions by every bond 
 of sympathy and common interest, he assigned to eighty of his oflScers 
 Asiatic wives with rich dowries. He had himself set the example by 
 taking for his second wife Barsi^ne, daughter of Darius III.; and when 
 ten thousand of the soldiery married Asiatic women, he gave presents to 
 
206 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 them all. Twenty thousand Persians were received into the army, and 
 drilled in Macedonian tactics; while Persian satraps were placed over 
 several provinces, and the court was equally composed of Asiatics and 
 Europeans. Some of Alexander's veterans, seeing the conquered nations 
 placed on a level with themselves, broke into open mutiny. He silenced 
 their complaints with great address, and then sent 10,000 of them home. 
 
 17. Unlike most conquerors, Alexander improved the countries which 
 lie had won by arms. Eivers were cleared from obstructions, commerce 
 revived, and western enterprise took the place of Asiatic indolence and 
 poverty. The Greek language and literature were planted every-where; 
 every new exploration added to the treasures of science and the enlight- 
 enment of the human race. On his march from Ecbatana to Babylon, 
 Alexander was met by embassadors from almost every part of the known 
 world, who came to offer either submission or friendship. 
 
 18. He designed to conquer first Arabia, then Italy, Carthage, and the 
 West, extending his empire from the Indus to the Pillars of Hercules. 
 Babylon was to be his capital ; and Alexander descended the river, to 
 inspect in person the improvement of the canals which distributed water 
 over the plain. But his magnificent schemes were cut short from their 
 accomplishment by his early death. On his return from visiting the 
 canals, he found the Arabian expedition nearly ready to sail, and hS 
 celebrated the occasion by a banquet to Nearchus and the chief officers. 
 In the midst of the subsequent preparations, the king was attacked by a 
 fever, occasioned by his exertions among the marshes, and aggravated) 
 perhaps, by the wine he had taken at the festival. After an illness of 
 eleven days he died, at the age of thirty-two, having reigned twelve years 
 and eight months. 
 
 Macedonia rose to greatness under Arclielaus (B. C. 413-399); was greatly In- 
 creased by Philip II. (B. C. 359-336), who became master of Greece. Alexander, 
 trained iu his yoatli to war and diplomacy, began his i-eign at twenty; led a 
 Greek army into Asia; defeated the Persians at the Granicns and at Issus; con- 
 quered Phosnicia, Syria, and Egypt; founded Alexandria on the Nile; gained a 
 decisive victory over Darius at Arbela, B. C. 'S^il ; subdued the eastern and northern 
 provinces of the empire; founded cities in western India; explored its rivers and 
 coasts in the Interest of science; planned the amalgamation of Europe and Asia, 
 and the extension of his empire westward to the Atlantic; died B. C. 323. ; 
 
 Second Period. Fro7ii the Death of Alexander to the Battle of Jpsus, 
 
 B. C. 323-301. 
 
 19. Alexander named no successor, but shortly before his death he gave 
 his ring to Perdiccas. This general, as prime minister, kept the empire 
 united for two years in the royal family. An infant prince, Alexander 
 IV., born after his fiither's death, was associated on the throne with 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 207 
 
 Philip Arrhidse^us, half-brother of the great Alexander. Four regejits or 
 guardians of the empire were appointed — two in Europe and two in Asia. 
 One of these was murdered by Perdiccas, wlio thus acquired for himself 
 the sole administration of Asia, Antipater and Crat^erus ruling west of the 
 Bosphorus. 
 
 The provinces not already bestowed by the conqueror were divided 
 among ten of his generals, who were expected to govern in the name and 
 for the benefit of the two kings. Finding it impossible, however, either 
 by management or force, to keep these lieutenants in subjection to the 
 mere name of royalty, Perdiccas formed a plan to seize the sovereignty for 
 himself. Eu^menes was on his side, while his colleagues in the regency, 
 and the two great provincial governors, Ptolemy and Antig^onus, were his 
 most powerful opponents. In a campaign against Ptolemy, in Egypt, 
 Perdiccas was slain by his own mutinous soldiers, Craterus fell in a 
 battle with Eumenes, in Cappadocia, and the sole regency devolved upon 
 Antip''ater. This general defeated the schemes of Euryd''ice — niece of 
 Alexander the Great, and wife of the imbecile king, Philip Arrhidseus — 
 who even harangued the army at Tripar^adi^sus, in Syria, demanding to be 
 admitted to a share in the government. A fresh division and assignment 
 of the provinces was now made. Antigonus was charged with the prose- 
 cution of the w^ar against Eumenes, in which he made himself master of 
 the greater part of Asia Minor. 
 
 20. Antipater died in Macedon, B. 0. 319, leaving the regency, not to 
 his son CassanMer, but to his friend Polysper^chon. Cassander, in disgust, 
 fled to Antigonus; and in the war which followed, these two, with Ptolemy, 
 sought the disruption of the empire, while Eumenes and Polysperchon 
 fought for its unity. Eumenes collected a force in Cilicia, with which he 
 meant to conquer Syria and Phoenicia, and thus gain command of the sea. 
 Antigonus first defeated a royal fleet near Byzantium, and then marched 
 across the country to the borders of Syria, and pursued Eumenes inland 
 beyond the Tigris. A number of the eastern satraps here joined Eumenes, 
 but after two indecisive battles he was seized by his own troops and given 
 up to Antigonus, who put him to death, B. C. 316. 
 
 21. In Macedonia, the mock king, Philip Arrhidseus, and his wife Avere 
 executed, by order of Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great. 
 But this imperious princess was captured, in her turn, at Pydna; and, in 
 violation of the terms of her surrender, was murdered by her enemies. 
 Cassander became master of Macedonia and Greece. He married Thes^- 
 saloni^ca, half-sister of the Conqueror, and founded in her honor the city 
 which bears her name, B. C. 316. 
 
 22. The ambition of Antigonus now began to alarm his colleagues, for 
 he was evidently not to be satisfied with less than the entire dominion of 
 Alexander. He gave away the eastern satrapies according to his pleasure. 
 
208 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 From Babylonia he drove Seleu^cus, wlio took refuge with Ptolemy in 
 Egypt, and formed a league with Cassander, Lysim^achus, and Asander. 
 A war of four years followed (B. C. 315-311), which resulted in the re- 
 establishment of Seleucus in Babylon and the East, while Antigonus 
 gained power in Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor. The peace of B. C. 311 
 provided for the independence of the Greek cities, but allowed each 
 general to keep what he had gained, and left Cassander regent of Mace- 
 donia until Alexander IV. should be of age. It was probably understood 
 between the contracting parties that this last event was never to occur. 
 The young king and his mother were murdered, by order of Cassander. 
 
 23. At the end of a year, Ptolemy broke the peace, on the pretense that 
 Antigonus had not liberated the Greek cities of Asia Minor. He was 
 opposed in Cilicia by Deme^trius, son of Antigonus, who gained in this 
 war the title of Fo^liorce^ks, the Besieger. Ptolemy, entering Greece, 
 seized Sicyon and Corinth, and aimed to marry Cleopatra, the last sur- 
 vivor of the royal house of Macedon ; but the princess was assassinated, 
 by order of Cassander, B. C. 308. Demetrius now arriving with a fleet 
 to the relief of Athens, Ptolemy withdrew to Cyprus, and gained pos- 
 session of the island. A great battle followed off Salamis, one of the 
 most severe in the world's history. Ptolemy was defeated, with the loss 
 of all but eight of his ships, leaving 17,000 prisoners in the hands of the 
 enemy. 
 
 24. The five principal generals now assumed the kingly title. Deme- 
 trius spent a year in the siege of Rhodes, which, by its brave and mem- 
 orable defense, secured the privileges of a neutral in the remaining years 
 of the war. Returning to Greece, he assembled a congress at Corinth, 
 which conferred upon him the titles formerly bestowed on Philip and 
 Alexander, and then marched northward against the regent, or, rather, 
 king of Macedon. Alarmed at his endangered position, Cassander stirred 
 up his allies to invade Asia Minor. 
 
 25. The decisive battle took place, B. C. 301, at Ipsus, in Phrygia. 
 Demetrius had arrived from Europe to the assistance of his father; but 
 Seleucus, with the forces of the East, including 480 Indian elephants, 
 increased the army of Lysimachus. Antigonus, in his eighty-first year, 
 was slain ; Demetrius, completely defeated, took refuge in Greece, but 
 was not permitted to enter Athens. The two conquerors, Seleucus and 
 Lysimachus, divided the dominions of Alexander, with due regard to their 
 own interests Seleucus received the Euphrates Valley, Upper Syria, 
 •Cappadocia, and part of Phrygia. Lysimachus added the rest of Asia 
 Minor to his Thracian dominion, which extended along the western 
 shores of the Euxine as far as the mouths of the Danube; Ptolemy 
 retained Egypt, and Cassander continued to reign in Macedonia until 
 his death. 
 
Jrwoll A Oiwi'llil ^. 
 
 '-.i 
 
55 
 
 75 Jiiist 
 
 80 Jj-om. 
 
 85 Gi'L'cuwidu 
 
 55 
 
 CO 
 
 ns 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 loio. 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, 209 
 
 26. The results of the twenty years' war were disastrous to Greece and 
 Macedonia, not only by the exhausting expenditure of blood and treasure, 
 but by the introduction of Oriental habits of luxury and unmanly servility, 
 in place of the free and simi:)le manners of former times. Though the 
 minds of the Greeks were enkirged by a knowledge of the liistory and 
 philosophy of the Eastern nations, and by observation of the natural 
 world and its productions in new climates and circumstances, yet most of 
 the influences which had kept alive the free spirit of the people had ceased 
 to work. Patriotism was dead; learning took the place of genius; and 
 imitation, the place of art. 
 
 27. At the same time, Asia had gained many splendid cities, her com- 
 merce had vastly increased, and the Greek military discipline and forms 
 of civil government gave new strength to her armies and states. From 
 the Indus to the Adriatic, and from the Crimea to the southern bounds of 
 Egypt, the Greek language prevailed, at least among the educated and 
 ruling classes. In Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, the influence of Hellenic 
 thought continued a thousand years in full force, until Mahomet and his 
 successors set up their new Semitic empire. The wide diffusion of the 
 Greek language in western Asia was among the most important prepara- 
 tions for the spread of Christianity. If Alexander had lived to complete 
 his great scheme of interfusing the eastern and western races, Asia would 
 have gained and Europe lost in still greater measure. 
 
 Perdiccas became vizier, Pliilip Arrliidseus and Alexander IV being nominally 
 kings. Wars of tlie generals for tlie division of the empire, B.C. 321-316; 315-311; 
 310-301. Murder of the two kings, 316, 311. Battle of Salamis in Cyprus, 306. The 
 decisive combat at Ipsus gave Syria and the East to Seleucns; Egypt, to Ptolemy ; 
 Tlirace, to Lysimachus; Macedonia, to Cassander. 
 
 Third Period. Histoi^y of the Several Kingdoms into ivhich Alexander's 
 
 Empire was divided. 
 
 I. The Syrian Kingdom of the Seleu^cid^e. B. C. 312-65. 
 
 28. After the restoration of Seleucus to the government of Babylonia 
 (see § 22), he extended his power over all the provinces between the Eu- 
 phrates and the Indus. He even made war against an Indian kingdom 
 upon the western headwaters of the Ganges, gaining thereby a great ex- 
 tension of commerce, and the addition of five hundred elephants to his 
 army. The battle of Ipsus added to his dominions the country as far west 
 as the Mediterranean and the center of Phrygia, making his kingdom by 
 far the greatest that had been formed from the fragments of Alexander's 
 empire. 
 
 This vast dominion was organized by Seleucus with great skill and 
 A. H.— 27. 
 
210 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 energy. In each of the seventy-two provinces new cities sprang up, as 
 monuments of his power and centers of Greelc civilization. Sixteen of 
 these were named Antioch, in honor of his father; five Laodice'a, for his 
 mother, Laod^ice; seven for himself, SeKeuci^a; and several for his two 
 wives, Apame^a and Stratoni^ce. To watch more effectually the move- 
 ments of his rivals, Ptolemy and Lysimachus, he removed the seat of gov- 
 ernment from the Euphrates to his new capital, Antioch, on the Orontes, 
 which continued nearly a thousand years to be one of the richest and 
 most populous cities in the Avorld. 
 
 20. In 293 B. C, Seleucus divided his empire with his son Anti^ochus, 
 
 giving the younger prince all the provinces 
 east of the Euphrates. Demetrius Poliorce- 
 tes, after gaining and then losing ]\racedonia, 
 sought to make for himself a new kingdom 
 in Asia, out of the possessions of Lysimaclius 
 and Seleucus. He was defeated by the latter, 
 and remained n prisoner the rest of his life. 
 
 30. Lysimachus, king of Thrace, under 
 the influence of his Egyptian wife and her 
 brother, Ptolemy Cerau'nus, had alienated 
 the hearts of his subjects by the murder of 
 his son. The widow of the murdered prince 
 fled for protection to the court of Seleucus, 
 who undertook her cause and invaded the 
 territories of Lysimachus. The two aged 
 kings were now the only survivors of the 
 companions and generals of Alexander. In 
 the battle" of CorupeMion, B. C. 281, Lysim- 
 achus was slain, and all his Asiatic domin- 
 ions were transferred to Seleucus. The em- 
 pire of Alexander seemed about to be united 
 in the hands of one man. Before crossing 
 the Hellespont to seize the European prov- 
 inces, the Syrian king committed the government of his present-dominion 
 to his son, Antiochus. Then passing the strait, he advanced to Lys^ima- 
 chi^a, the capital of his late enemy; but here he was killed by the hand 
 of Ptolemy Ceraunus, B. C. 280. Thruce and Macedonia became the prize 
 of tlie murderer. 
 
 31. Antiochus I. (Soter) inherited the Asiatic dominions of his father, 
 and made war in Asia Minor against the native kings of Bithynia. One 
 of these, Nicomedes, called to his assistance the Gauls, who were rav- 
 aging eastern Europe, and rewarded their services with a large territory 
 in northern Phrygia, which was thence called Gala^'tia. North-western 
 
 Coin of Antioch, twice the 
 size of tlie original. 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, 211 
 
 Lydia was also wrested from Antiochus, and formed the kingdom of Per^- 
 gamus. From his only important victory over the Gauls, B. C. 275, the 
 Syrian king derived his title Soter (the Deliverer) ; but his operations were 
 usually unsuccessful, and his kingdom was much reduced both in wealth 
 and power during his reign. He was defeated and slain near Ephesus, in 
 a battle with the Gauls, B. C. 201. 
 
 32. Antiochus II. bore the blasphemous title of Theos (the God), but 
 he showed himself less than a man by the weakness and licentiousness of 
 his reicrn. He abandoned all affairs to worthless favorites, who were 
 neither feared nor respected in the distant provinces, and two independent 
 kingdoms sprang up unchecked in Parthia and Bactria, B. C. 255. The 
 influence of his wife, Laodice, involved him in a war with Egypt. It was 
 ended by the divorce of Laodice, and the marriage of Antiochus with 
 Ber^eni^ce, daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C. 260^252). On the 
 death of Philadelphus, Antiochus sent away Berenice and took back 
 Laodice ; but she, doubting his constancy, murdered him to secure the 
 kingdom for her son, Seleucus. Berenice and her infant son were also put 
 to death. 
 
 33. Seleucus II. (Callini^cus) was first engaged in war with the king of 
 Egypt, Ptolemy Euer^getes, who came to avenge the deaths of his sister 
 and nephew. With the exception of part of Lydia and Phrygia, all Asia 
 west of the Tigris, and even Susiana, Media, and Persia, submitted to the 
 invader^ but the severity of his exactions excited discontent, and a revolt 
 iu Egypt called him home, whereupon Callinicus regained his territories. 
 Antiochus Hi^erax (the Hawk), a younger brother of the king, revolted at 
 fourteen, years of age, with the assistance of his uncle and a troop of Gauls. 
 At the same time, Arsa^ces II., the Parthian king, gained great advantages 
 in Upper Asia, and signally defeated Callinicus (B. C. 237), who led an 
 expedition in person against him. The war between the brothers ended, 
 B. C. 229, in the defeat of the rebellious prince. Seleucus died by a fall 
 from his horse, B. C. 226. 
 
 Seleucus III. (Ceraunus) reigned only three years. In the midst of an 
 expedition against Attalus, king of Pergamus, he was killed in a mutiny 
 by some of his own officers. 
 
 34. Antiochus III., the Great, had an eventful reign of thirty-six 
 years. Molo, his general, first revolted, and m'ade himself master, one by 
 one, of the countries east of the Euphrates, destroying all the armies sent 
 asrainst him. Antiochus at length defeated him, B. C. 220, and then made 
 war upon Egypt for the recovery of Syria and Palestine, AvhLch had hith- 
 erto been held by Ptolemy. He was successful at first, but his defeat at 
 Raph^ia robbed him of all his conquests, except Seleucia in Syria. Achte^us, 
 his cousin, and hitherto a faithful servant of Antiochus and his father, had 
 meanwhile been driven into revolt by the false accusations of Hermi^as, 
 
212 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the prime minister. He subjected to his control all the countries west of 
 the Taurus. As soon as peace had been made with Egypt, the king of 
 Syria marched against liim, deprived him of all his possessions in one 
 campaign, besieged him two years in Sardis, and finally captured and put 
 him to death. 
 
 35. The Parthian king, Arsaces III., had taken up arms against Media. 
 Antiochus led an army across the desert to Hecatom^pylos, the Parthian 
 capital, which he captured; but the battle which followed was indecisive, 
 and Arsaces remained independent, with the possession of Parthia and 
 Hyrcania. The war against the Bactrian monarch had a similar result, 
 Enihyde^mus retaining Bactria and Sogdiana. Antiochus penetrated India, 
 and renewed the old alliance of Seleucus Nicator with the king of the upper 
 Ganges. Wintering in Kerma^nia, the Syrian king made a naval expedi- 
 tion, the next year, against the piratical Arabs of the western shores of the 
 Persian Gulf On his return from his seven years' absence in the East, 
 Antiochus received the title of "Great," by which he is known in history. 
 
 36. The same year, B. C. 205, Ptolemy Epiph^anes, a child of five years, 
 succeeded his father in Egypt. Tempted by the unprotected state of the 
 kingdom, Antiochus made a treaty with Philip of Macedon to divide the 
 dominions of Ptolemy between them. Philip's designs were interrupted 
 by a war with Rome, the now powerful republic of the West. Antiochus 
 carried on the contest with great energy, but with varying success, in 
 Cosle-Syria and Palestine. By the decisive battle of Pa^neas, B. C. 198, he 
 gained complete possession of those provinces ; but desiring to prosecute his 
 wars in another direction, he married his daughter Cleopatra to the young 
 king of Egypt, and promised the conquered country as her dower. 
 
 37. He then overran Asia Minor, and crossing the Hellespont, seized the 
 Thracian Chersonesus. The Romans, who had conquered Philip and were 
 guardians of Ptolemy, now sent an embassy to Antiochus, requiring him 
 to surrender all his conquests of territory belonging to either prince, 
 B. C. 196. Antiochus indignantly rejected their interference, and pre- 
 pared for war, with the aid of their great enemy, Hannibal, who had taken 
 refuge at his court. In 192 B. C, he crossed into Greece and captured 
 Chalcis; but he was signally defeated soon after by the Romans, at Ther- 
 moj^ylse, and compelled to withdraw from Europe. They followed him 
 across the sea, and by two naval victories gained the western coast of Asia 
 Minor. The two Scip^ios crossed the Hellespont and defeated Antiochus 
 a fourth time, near Magnesia, in Lydia. Pie obtained peace only by sur- 
 rendering all Asia Minor except Cilicia, with his navy and all his ele- 
 phants, and by paying an enormous war indemnity. Twenty hostages 
 were given for the payment, among whom was Antiochus Epiphanes, the 
 king's son. The king of Pergamus received the ceded provinces, and 
 became a most formidable rival to Syria. To meet his engagements with 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, 213 
 
 the Romans, Antiochus plundered the temples of Asia, and in a commotion 
 excited by this means in Elyma^is, he lost his life. 
 
 38, Seleucus IV. (Philop^ator) had a reign of eleven years, unmarked 
 by important events. The kingdom was exhausted, and the Romans were 
 ready to seize any exposed province at the least hostile movement of the 
 Syrians. Heliodo^rus, the treasurer, at length murdered his master and 
 assumed the crown ; but his usurpation was cut short by the arrival of An- 
 tiochus Epiphanes, brother of the late king, who with the aid of Eumenes, 
 king of Pergamus, established himself upon the throne. 
 
 39» Antiochus IV. had been thirteen years a hostage at Rome, and 
 surprised his people by the Roman customs which he introduced. He 
 made a four years' war against Egypt, and had nearly conquered the 
 country when the Romans interfered, and commanded him to give up 
 all his conquests. He was forced to obey, but he vented his rage upon 
 the Jews, whose temple he plundered and desecrated. They sprang to 
 arms, under the leadership of Mat-'tathi^as, the priest, and his brave son, 
 Judas Maccabse^us, and defeated the army sent to subdue them. Anti- 
 ochus, who was now in the East, set forth in person to avenge this insult 
 to his authority. On his way, he attempted to plunder the temple at 
 Elymais, and was seized with a furious insanity, in which he died. 
 Both Jews and Greeks believed his madness to be a judgment for his. 
 sacrilege. 
 
 40. Antiochus V. (Eu^pator), a boy of twelve years, came to the throne 
 under the control of Lys^ias, the regent. But his father, when dying, had 
 appointed him another guardian in the person of Philip, who returned to 
 Antioch bearing the royal signet, while the young king and his minister 
 were absent in Judaea. Lysias, on hearing this, hastened to make peace 
 with Judas Maccabseus, and turned back to fight with Philip, whom he 
 defeated and put to death. The Parthians, meanwhile, were overrunning 
 the kingdom on the east; and the Romans, on the west, were harshly 
 enforcing the terms of the treaty made by Antiochus the Great. Deme- 
 trius, the son of Seleucus Philopator, now escaped from Rome, and 
 gained possession of the kingdom, after ordering the execution of both 
 Eupator and his guardian. 
 
 41. Demetrius I. spent some years in vain attempts to put down the 
 Jewish rebellion. His armies were defeated by Judas Maccabseus, and 
 the Romans entered into alliance with Judsea, which they now declared 
 an independent kingdom. The Syrian king was no more successful in 
 Cappadocia; and in Babylon, the satrap whom he had deposed set up 
 an impostor, Alexander Balas, who claimed to be a son of Antiochus 
 Epiphanes. Aided by the forces of Rome, Pergamus, Cappadocia, Egypt, 
 and Judaea, this man conquered Demetrius and kept the kingdom five 
 years. 
 
214 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 42. Alexander Biilas proved unworthy of a crown, by leaving public 
 affairs in the weak and incompetent hands of his favorite, Ammo^nius, 
 while he abandoned himself to indolence and luxury. Demetrius Nica^tor, 
 eldest son of the former king, encouraged by the contempt of the Syrians 
 for the licentiousness of Alexander, landed in Cilicia and made war for the 
 recovery of his kingdom. Ptolemy of Egypt, who had entered Syria with 
 an army for the aid of his son-in-law, Alexander, became disgusted by his 
 ingratitude and came over to the side of Demetrius. A battle near An- 
 tioch was decided in favor of the allies. Alexander fled into Arabia, 
 where he was assassinated by some of his own officers. 
 
 43. Demetrius II. (Nicator) ruled with such wanton cruelty as to alienate 
 his subjects. One of them, Diod^otus Tryphon, set up a rival king in the 
 person of Antiochus VI., a child two years of age, the son of Alexander 
 Balas. After three or four years he removed this infant monarch and 
 made himself king, with the aid of Judas Maccabseus. Demetrius, after 
 fighting ineffectually seven years against his rivals in the west, left the 
 regency of Syria to his wife, Cleopatra, while he turned against the Par- 
 thians, who had nearly conquered his eastern provinces. He was defeated 
 and made prisoner by Arsaces VI., and remained ten years a captive, 
 though he was treated with all the honors of royalty, and received a 
 Parthian princess for his second wife. 
 
 44. Cleopatra, unable to wage war alone against Tryphon, called in 
 Antiochus Side^tes, her husband's brother, who conquered the usurper and 
 seated himself on the vacant throne. He made war against the Jews, 
 and captured Jerusalem by a siege of nearly a year. He afterward 
 turned against the Parthians and gained some advantages, but he Avas 
 finally defeated and lost his life after a reign of nine years. Demetrius 
 Nicator had been released by the Parthian king, and now re-established 
 himself in Syria. But Ptolemy Phys^con, of Egypt, raised up a new 
 pretender, Zabi^nas, who defeated Demetrius at Damascus. Attempting 
 to enter Tyre, the Syrian king was captured and put to death. 
 
 45. Seleucus V., his eldest son, assumed the crown without the permis- 
 sion of his mother, who thereupon caused him to be executed, and asso- 
 ciated with herself her second son, Antiochus VIII. (Grypus). Zabinas, 
 the pretender, reigned at the same time in part of Syria, until he was 
 defeated by Antiochus, and put to death by poison, B. C. 122. The same 
 year Cleopatra was detected in a plot against the life of her son, and 
 was herself executed. 
 
 46. Exhausted by long wars, and greatly reduced both in power and 
 extent, Syria now enjoyed eight years of peace. Juda?.a and the prov- 
 inces east of the Euphrates were wholly independent. The few Syrians 
 who possessed wealth were enfeebled by luxury, while the mass of the 
 people were crushed by want. In 114 B. C, Antiochus Cyzice^nus, a 
 
THE MA CED ONIAIf EMPIRE. 215 
 
 talf-brother of the king, revolted ngainst him, and involved the country 
 in another bloody war of three years. The territory was then divided 
 between them ; but war broke out afresh in 105 B. C, and continued 
 nine years, resulting in no gain to either party, but great loss and misery 
 to the nation. Tyre, Sidon, Seleucia, and the whole province of Cilicia 
 became independent. The Arabs on one side, and the Egyptians on the 
 other, ravaged' the country at pleasure. At length the reign of Antiochus 
 VIII. was ended with his life, by Hera^cleon, an officer of his court, 
 B. C. 96. 
 
 47. The murderer did not receive the reward of his crime, for Seleucus 
 VI. (Epiphanes), the eldest son of Grypus, gained possession of the king- 
 dom. In two years he conquered Cyzicenus, who committed suicide to 
 avoid capture ; but the claims of the rival house were still maintained 
 by Antiochus X. (Eu^sebes), his eldest son. Seleucus was now driven 
 into Cilicia. Here he came to a miserable end, for he was burnt alive 
 by the people of a town from which he had demanded a subsidy. Philip, 
 the brother of Seleucus, and second son of Antiochus Grypus, became king, 
 and with the aid of his younger brothers continued the war against Eu- 
 sebes. This prince was defeated and driven to take refuge in Parthia. 
 But no peace came to the country, for Philip and his brothers, Anti- 
 ochus XL, Demetrius, and Antiochus XII., made war with each other, 
 until the unhappy Syrians called upon Tigra^nes, king of Armenia, to end 
 their miseries* 
 
 48. Tigranes governed, wisely and Avell, fourteen years (B. C. 83-69); 
 but having at length incurred the vengeance of the Ptomans, by rendering 
 aid to his father-in-law, Mithridates of Pontus, he was forced to give up all 
 except his hereditary kingdom. Four years longer (B. C. 69-65), Syria 
 continued its separate existence, under Antiochus XIII. (Asiaticus), the 
 son of Eusebes. At the end of that time the kingdom was subdued by 
 Pompey the Great, and became a Eoman province. 
 
 Seleucus I. (B. C. 312-2S1) extended, his empire beyond the Indus, built many 
 cities, gained all Asia Minor by the defeat of Lysimachus. Antiochus I. (B. C. 
 280-261) lost the territories of Pergamus and Galatia; Antiochus II. (261-2J6), those 
 of Parthia and Bactria. Under Seleucus II. (246-226), the greater part of the em- 
 pire was conquered by Ptolemy, but soon recovered. Seleucus III. reigned three 
 years (B. C. 226-223). Antiochus III. (B. C. 22S-187) quelled the revolts of Molo and 
 Achseus; had wars with the kings of Parthia and Bactria; penetrated India as 
 far as the Gauges; punished the pirates of the Persian Gulf; wrested from Egj'pt 
 the provinces of Syria and Palestine; overran Asia Minor, and invaded Greece! 
 He was defeated by the Romans, twice by sea and twice by land. Seleucus IV. 
 (B. C. 187-176) was murdered by his treasurer, Heliodorus. Antiochus IV. (B. C. 
 176-164) was prevented by the Romans from conquering Egypt; excited by his 
 persecutions a revolt in Judeea, which became independent under the Maccabees. 
 The short reign of Antiochus V. (B. C. 164-162) was filled with wars of the regents. 
 
216 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 His uncle, Demetrius I. (B. C. 162-151), had unsuccessful wars witii the Jews and 
 Cappadocians; was conquered by Alexander Balas, who reigned B.C. 151-146. 
 Demetrius II. had a disputed reign (B. C. 146-140); a ten years' imprisonment in 
 Parthia (B. C. 110-130), while his wife and his brother, Autiochus YIL, ruled 
 Syria; and a second contest with a pretender, B. C. 129-126. Antiochus VIII. 
 (B. C. 126-90) reigned five years jointly with his mother, seven years alone, and 
 eighteen years side by side with his biother, Antiochus IX. (Cyzicenus), who 
 ruled Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, B, C. 111-96. Seleucus V. (B. -C. 96, 95) conquered 
 Cyzicenus, but carried on the same war with his son, Eusebes, until his own 
 violent death. His younger brothers fought first Eusebes, and then each other, 
 until Tigranes, king of Armenia, conquered the country and ruled it fourteen 
 years (B. C. 8;B-69). Antiochus XIII. the last of the Seleucidse, reigned B. C. 69-65. 
 
 II. Egypt under the Ptolemies. B. C. 323-30. 
 
 49. The Macedonian Kingdom in Egypt presented a marked and bril- 
 liant contrast to the native empires and the Egyptian satrapy. By remov- 
 ing the capital to Alexandria, the conqueror had provided for free inter- 
 course with foreign countries, and the old exclusiveness of the Egyptians 
 was forever broken down. While Palestine was attached to this kingdom, 
 especial favor was shown to the Jews; and in the Greek conquerors, the 
 native Egyptians, and the Jewish merchants, the three families of Shem, 
 Ham, and Japhet were reunited as they had never been since the disper- 
 sion at Babel. The Egyptians, who had abhorred the Persian dominion, 
 hailed the Macedonians as deliverers; the common people engaged with 
 zeal in the new industries that promised wealth as the reward of enterprise, 
 and the learned class found their delight in the intellectual society, as well 
 as the rare treasures of literature and art, tliat filled the court of the Ptol- 
 emies. 
 
 50. Ptolemy I. (Soter*) received the Egyptian province immediately 
 upon the death of Alexander, and proceeded to organize it with great 
 energy and wisdom. Desiring to make Egypt a maritime power, he sought 
 at once to conquer Palestine, Phcenicia, and Cyprus, whose forests were as 
 needful to him for ship-building as their sea-faring people for sailors. 
 The two countries on the mainland were occupied by Ptolemy in 320 B. C, 
 and remained six years in his possession. They were lost in the war with 
 Antigonus, and only fully regained after the battle of Ipsus, B, C. 301i 
 Cyprus was the scene of many conflicts, of which the great naval battle 
 off Salamis, B. C. 306, was the most severe and decisive. It was then lost 
 to Egypt, but in B. C. 294 or 293 it was regained, and continued her most 
 valuable foreign possession as long as the kingdom existed. Cyrene and 
 all the Libyan tribes between it and Egypt were also annexed by Ptolemy. 
 
 51. Few changes were made in the internal government of Egypt. 
 The country, as before, was divided into nomes, each having its own ruler, 
 
 '••'He is frequently called Ptolemy Lagi, from the name of his father, Lagus. 
 
1 1 1 
 
 THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 217 
 
 who was usually a native Egyptian. The old laws and worship prevailed. 
 Tlie Ptolemies rebuilt the temples, paid especial honors to the Apis, and 
 made the most of all points of resemblance between the Greek and Egyp- 
 tian religions. A magnificent temple to Sera^pis was erected at Alexandria, 
 The priests retained their privileges and honors, being exempt from all 
 taxation. The army was chiefly, and its officers Avholly, Greek or Macedo- 
 nian, and all civil dignities of any importance were also filled by the con- 
 quering people. The Greek inhabitants of the cities alone possessed entire 
 freedom in the management of their affairs. 
 
 52, Ptolemy followed the liberal policy of Alexander toward men of 
 genius and learning. He collected a vast and precious library, which he 
 placed in a building connected with the palace; and he founded the 
 " Museum," which drew students and professors from all parts of the 
 world. No spot ever witnessed more literary and intellectual activity 
 than Alexandria, the University of the East. There Euclid first unfolded 
 tho " Elements of Geometry " ; Eratos^thenes discoursed of Geography ; 
 Hipparchus, of Astronomy; Aristoph^anes and Aristar^chus, of Criticism ; 
 Mau^etho, of History ; while ApeFles and Antiph^ilus added their paint- 
 ings, and Phile^tas, Callim^ichusj and ApoUonius their poems, for the 
 delight of a court whose monarch was himself an author, and in which 
 talent constituted rank. Alexandria during this reign was adorned with 
 many costly and magnificent works. The royal palace ; the Museum ; the 
 great light-house on the island of Pharos, which has given its name to 
 many similar constructions in modern times ; the mole or causeway which 
 connected this island with the mainland ; the Hip^podrome, and the 
 Mausole^um, containing the tomb of Alexander, were among the chief. 
 Ptolemy Soter was distinguished by his truth and magnanimity from most 
 of the princes and generals of his age. His unlimited power never led 
 him to cruelty or self-indulgence. He died at the age of eighty-four, 
 B. C. 283. 
 
 53. Ptolemy II. (Philadelphus), through the influence of his mother, 
 had been raised to the throne two years before his father's death, instead 
 of his elder brother, Ceraunus. He had been carefully educated by several 
 of the learned men whom the patronage of his father had drawn to the 
 court; and he continued, on a still more liberal scale, that encouragement 
 of science and literature which had already made Alexandria a successful 
 rival of Athens. He so greatly increased the Alexandrian Library that 
 he is often mentioned as its founder. Agents were appointed to search 
 Europe and Asia for every literary work of value, and to secure it at any 
 cost. An embassy was sent to the high priest at Jerusalem to bring a copy 
 of the Holy Scriptures, together with a company of learned men who could 
 translate them into Greek. The translators were entertained by the king 
 with the greatest honor. The first five books were completed in the reign 
 
218 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 
 
 of Philadelplius, the rest were translated by order of the later Ptolemies; 
 and the entire version — still an invaluable treasure to Biblical scholars — 
 is known as the Sep'tuagint, either from the seventy translators, or because 
 it was authorized by the San^hedrim of Alexandria, wliich consisted of the 
 same number. 
 
 54. Ptolemy II. was engaged in various wars ; first for the furtherance 
 of the Achaean League, and the protection of the Greeks against Macedo- 
 nian aggressions ; afterward against his half-brother, Magas, king of Gy- 
 rene, and the kings of Syria, with whom Magas was allied. He gained 
 possession of the whole coast of Asia Minor, with many of the Cyclades. 
 ■P>y the wisdom of his internal policy, Egypt was meanwhile raised to her 
 highest pitch of wealth and prosperity. He re-opened the canal made by 
 Eameses the Great (see Book I, II 153, 154), and built the port of Arsinoe, 
 on the site of the modern Suez. To avoid the dangers of Red Sea naviga- 
 tion, he founded two cities, named Berenice, farther to the southward, and 
 connected one of them by a highway with Coptos on the Nile. Egypt thus 
 ■reaped the full commercial advantage of her position midway between the 
 East and the West. For centuries the rich productions of India, Arabia, 
 and Ethiopia were conveyed along these various highways to Alexandria, 
 whence they were distributed to Syria, Greece, and Rome. The revenues 
 of Egypt were equal to those which Darius had derived from the vast 
 empire of Persia. 
 
 55. The personal character of Philadelplms was less admirable than that 
 of his father. He killed two of his brothers, banished a most faithful 
 counselor, and by marrying his ow^n sister, Arsinoe, introduced a custom 
 which caused untold misery and mischief in the kingdom. He died B. C. 
 247, having reigned thirty-eight years, or thirty-six from the death of his 
 father. 
 
 56. Ptolemy III. (Eucrgetes) was the most enterprising monarch of his 
 race, and pushed the boundaries of his kingdom to their greatest extent. 
 He gained the Cyr^ena^ica by marriage w^th the daughter of IMagas, and 
 annexed portions of Ethiopia and Arabia. In his war against Syria to 
 avenge his sister Berenice (see H 32, 33), he even passed the Euphrates 
 and conquered all the country to the borders of Bactria ; but he lost all 
 this by his sudden recall to Egypt. His conquests on the sea-board, 
 which could be defended by his fleet, remained permanently in his pos- 
 session. All the shores of the Mediterranean, from Gyrene to the Helles- 
 pont, with many important islands, and even a portion of Europe, 
 including Lysimachia in Thrace, belonged to his dominion. 
 
 He continued the patronage of art and letters, and enriched the Alex- 
 andrian libraries with many rare manuscripts. The Egyptians were 
 still more gratified by the recovery of some ancient images of their gods, 
 which had been carried away to Assyria by Sargon or Esarhaddon, and 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 219 
 
 were brought back by Ptolemy from liis eastern campaign. Euergetes 
 died B. C. 222, after a prosperous reign of twenty-five years; and with 
 him ended the glory of the Macedonian monarchy in Egypt. *' Histori- 
 ans reckon nine Ptolemies after Euergetes. Except Philome^tor, who 
 was mild and humane ; Lath^yrus, who was amiable but weak ; and 
 Ptolemy XIL, who was merely young and incompetent, they were all, 
 almost equally, detestable." 
 
 57. Ptolemy IV. was suspected of having murdered his father, .and 
 therefore took the surname Philopator to allay suspicion. He began his 
 reign, however, by murdering his mother, his brother, and his uncle, and 
 marrying his sister Arsinoe. A few years later she, too, was put to death, 
 at the instigation of a worthless favorite of the king. The control of 
 affairs was left to Sosib^ius, a minister who was equally wicked and in- 
 competent. Through his neglect, the army became weakened by lack 
 of discipline, and the Syrians seized the opportunity to recover their lost 
 possessions. They were defeated, however, at Kaph^ia, and gained only 
 their port of Seleucia. A revolt of the native Egyptians occupied many 
 years of this reign. 
 
 58. Ptolemy V. (Epiphanes) was only five years old at his father's 
 death. The kings of Syria and Macedon plotted to divide his dominions 
 between them, and the only resource of the incompetent ministers was to 
 call the Romans to their aid. All the foreign dependencies, except 
 Cyprus and the Cyrenaica, were lost; but by the good management of 
 M. Lep^idus, Eg}^pt was saved to the little Ptolemy. Aristom^enes, an 
 Acarnanian, succeeded Lepidus as regent, and his energy and justice re- 
 stored for a time the prosperity of the kingdom. At the age of fourteen, 
 Epiphanes was declared of age, and the government was thenceforth in 
 his name. Few events of his reign are known. He married Cleopatra 
 of Syria, and soon after poisoned his late guardian, Aristomenes. His 
 plans for a war with Syria were prevented by his own assassination, 
 B. C. 181. 
 
 59. Ptolemy VI, (Philometor) became king at the age of seven, under 
 the vigorous regency of his mother, Cleopatra. She died B. C. 173, and 
 the power passed into the hands of two weak and corrupt ministers, who 
 involved the kingdom in war, and almost in ruin, by their rash invasion 
 of Syria. Antiochus IV. defeated them at Pelusium, and advancing to 
 Memphis, gained possession of the young king, whom he used as a tool 
 for the reduction of the whole country. The Alexandrians crowned 
 Ptolemy Physcon, a younger brother of the king, and successfully with- 
 stood the besieging army of Antiochus. The Romans now interposing, 
 he was obliged to retreat. 
 
 The two brothers agreed to reign together, and prepared for war with 
 Antiochus. He captured Cyprus, invaded Egypt a second time, and 
 
220 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 would doubtless have added the entire dominion of the Ptolemies to his 
 own, if the Romans, who claimed the protectorate of Egypt, had not 
 again interfered and commanded him to withdraw. The Syrian king 
 reluctantly obeyed, and the brothers reigned four years in peace. They 
 then quarreled, and Philometor went to plead his cause before the Eoman 
 Senate. The Romans re-instated him in the possession of Egypt, giving 
 to his brother Physcon Libya and the Cyrenaica. Dissatisfied with his 
 portion, Physcon went to Rome and obtained a further grant of Cyprus; 
 but Philometor refused to give it up, and the brothers were preparing for 
 war, when a revolt in Cyrene engaged the attention of its king. After 
 nine years he renewed his claim, and obtained from Rome a small squad- 
 ron to aid in the capture of the island. He was defeated and made 
 prisoner by his brother; but his life was spared, and he was restored to 
 his kingdom of Cyrene. Philometor fell, B. C. 146^, in a battle near 
 Antioch, with Alexander Balas, whom he had himself encouraged to 
 assume the crown of Syria. (See § 42 ) 
 
 GO. Ptolemy VIT. (Eupator) had reigned but a few days Avhen he was 
 murdered by his uncle, Ptolemy Pliyscon, who, aided by the Romans, 
 united in himself the two kingdoms, Egypt and Cyrene. This monster 
 created such terror by his inhuman cruelties, and such disgust by his 
 excesses, that his capital became half depopulated, and the citizens who 
 remained were almost constantly in revolt. At last he was forced to take 
 refuge in Cyprus, the crown remaining to his sister, Cleopatra. To wound 
 the queen most deeply, he murdered her son, and sent her the head and 
 hands of the victim. The Alexandrians were so enraged by this atrocity, 
 that they fought bravely for Cleopatra ; but when she applied for aid to 
 the king of Syria, they became alarmed and recalled Physcon, after an 
 exile of three years. Warned by his punishment, Physcon now desisted 
 from his cruelties, and devoted himself to literary pursuits, even gaining 
 some reputation as an author. 
 
 Gl. Ptolemy VIII. (Lath^yrus) succeeded his father in Egypt, while his 
 brother Alexander reigned in Cyprus, and A^pion, another son of Phys- 
 con, received the Cyrenaica. Cleopatra, the queen mother, had the real 
 l)ower. After ten years, Lathyrus offended his mother by pursuing a 
 policy of his own, and was compelled to change places with Alexander, 
 who reigned eighteen years in Egypt, with the title of Ptolemy IX. 
 Cleopatra was then put to death, Alexander expelled, and Ptolemy Lath- 
 yrus recalled. He reigned eight years as sole monarch, defeated Alex- 
 ander, who attempted to regain Cyprus, and punished a revolt in Thebes 
 by a siege of three years, ending with the destruction of the city, B. C. 
 89-86. 
 
 G2. Berenice, the only legitimate child of Lathyrus, reigned six months 
 alone, and was then married and associated upon the throne with her 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 221 
 
 cousin, Ptolemy X., a son of Alexander, whose claims were supported 
 by the Eomans. Within three weeks he put his wife to death, and the 
 Alexandrians, revolting, slew him in the gymnasium, B. C. 80, Fifteen 
 years of great confusion followed, during which the succession wns 
 disputed by at least five claimants, and Cyprus became a separate 
 kingdom. 
 
 63. Ptolemy XI. (Aule^tes, or the Flute-Player) then obtained the 
 crown, and dated his reign from the death of his half-sister, Berenice. 
 In 59 B. C, he was acknowledged by the Romans; but by that time his 
 oppressive and profligate government had so disgusted the people, that 
 they drove him from the kingdom. He took refuge four years in Rome, 
 while his two daughters nominally governed Egypt, first jointly, and then 
 the younger alone, after her sister's death. In 55 B. C. Auletes returned, 
 supported by a Roman army, put to death his daughter, who had opposed 
 his restoration, and reigned under Roman protection three and a half 
 yeare. He died, B. C. 51, leaving four children: the famous Cleopatra, 
 aged seventeen ; Ptolemy XII. ; another Ptolemy, and a daughter Arsinoe, 
 still younger. 
 
 64. The princess Cleopatra received the crown under Roman patronage, 
 in conjunction with the elder Ptolemy. The 
 brother and sister quarreled, and Cleopatra 
 was driven into Syria. Here she met Julius 
 Caesar, and by her talents and accomplish- 
 ments gained great ascendency over his mind. 
 By his aid Ptolemy was conquered and slain, 
 and Cleopatra established in the kingdom. 
 She removed her younger brother by poison, 
 and had thenceforth no rival. With con- 
 summate ability, mixed Avith the unscrupu- 
 lous cruelty of her race, she reigned seventeen 
 years in great prosperity. Csesar was her pro- 
 tector while he lived, and Antony then be- 
 came her slave, sacrificing all his interests, 
 and his honor as a Roman and a general, 
 to her slightest caprices. In the civil wars 
 of Rome, Antony was at length defeated at 
 Actium ; Cleopatra committed suicide, and 
 her kingdom became a Roman province, 
 B. C. 30. 
 
 65. The kingdom of the Ptolemies had 
 continued 293 years, from the death of Alex- 
 ander to that of Cleopatra. During 101 years, under the first three 
 kings, it was the most flourishing, well organized, and prosperous of 
 
 Coin of Antony and Cleopatra, 
 twice the size. 
 
222 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the Macedonian monarchies; the nearly two centuries which remained 
 were among the most degraded periods in the history of the human 
 race. 
 
 Prosperity of Egypt under the Ptolemies. Concourse of races at. Alexandria. 
 Ptolemy I. (B. C. 323-28:3) conquered Palestine, Phcenicia, Cyprus, and the Africaii 
 coast as far as Cyrene. Old laws and worship retained. Alexandrian Library 
 and Museum, professors and public works. Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C. 283-2J7) 
 ordered a Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures; constructed cities, roads, and 
 canals for purposes of commerce. Acquisitions of Ptolemy III. (B. C. 247-222). 
 liapid conquests in Asia, speedily lost. Collection of manuscripts and recovery 
 of images. Decline of the Ptolemaic kingdom. Crimes of Ptolemy IV. (B. C. 
 222-205). Victory at Raphia, B. C. 217. Roman interference during the minority 
 of Ptolemy V. (B. C. 203-lSl). Ptolemy VI. (B. C. ISI-UG) taken by Antiochus IV.) 
 of Syria. His brother Physcon crowned. Rome protected Egyptian dependencies 
 against Syria, and divided them between the brothers. Ptolemy VII. was mui^ 
 dered by his uncle, Ptolemy Physcon, who reigned B. C. 1-16-117. He was exiled 
 for his crimes, but recalled in three years. Ptolemy VIII. and his brother Alex- 
 ander reigned alternately in Egypt and Cyprus while llieir mother lived (B. C, 
 117-89). After her death, the former was sole monarch until B. C. 81. Berenice 
 reigned six months (B. C. 81, 80), and was then murdered by her husband, Ptol- 
 emy X. 'He was slain hy the Alexandrians. Ptolemy XI. (B. C. 80-51) made good 
 liis claim after fifteen years' anarchy ; was acknowledged by the Romans, but 
 expelled (B. C. 59-55) by his subjects; returned to reign under Roman protection. 
 Cleopatra poisoned her two brotliers, and by favor of Ceesar and Antony kept 
 her kingdom twenty-one years, B. C. 51-30. 
 
 III. Macedonia and Greece. 
 
 66. Upon, the death of Alexander, the greater part of Greece revolted 
 against Macedon, Athens, as of old, being tlie leader. Antipater, the 
 Macedonian regent, was defeated near Thermopylae, and besieged in 
 Lamia, in Thessaly. The confederates were afterward worsted at Cranon,' 
 and the good management of Antipater dissolved the league by treating 
 with its members separately, and offering the most lenient terms to all 
 except the leaders. Athens suffered the punishment she had often in^ 
 flicted. Twelve thousand of her citizens were forcibly removed to Tlirace, 
 Illyria, Italy, and Africa, only nine thousand of the wealthier sort being 
 left, who willingly submitted to the ^lacedonian supremacy. Demos- 
 thenes, with the principal members of his party, were executed, and the 
 last remains of Athenian independence destroyed. 
 
 67. The wars of the generals and the intrigues of the Macedonian 
 princesses belong to Period II. (See ^ 19-2').) Three years after the 
 battle of Ipsus, Cassander died, B. C. 298, leaving the crown to his son, 
 Pliilip IV. The young king reigned less than a year, and his mother, 
 Thessalonica, then divided Macedonia between her two remaining sons, 
 Antipater and Alexander. The former, being dissatisfied with his portion* 
 murdered his mother and called in his father-in-law, Lysimachus, to aid 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 223 
 
 him in gaining the whole. His brother, at the same time, asked aid 
 of Demetrius, who reigned in Greece, and of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. 
 With their help he drove Antipater out of Macedonia ; but he gained 
 nothing by the victory, for Demetrius had undertaken the war solely 
 with the view of placing himself upon the throne, which he accom- 
 plished by the murder of Alexander. Antipater II. was put to death 
 the same year by Lysimachus, B. C. 294. 
 
 68. The kingdom now included Thessaly, Attica, and the greater part 
 of the Peloponnesus, Pyrrhus having received several countries on the 
 western coast of Greece. Demetrius, however, sacrificed all his domin- 
 ions to his unbounded ambition and conceit. He failed in an attack on 
 Pyrrhus, and being invaded both from the east and west, was compelled 
 to abandon Macedonia, B. C. 287. In a later expedition into Asia, he 
 became the prisoner of Seleucus, and died in the third year of his cap- 
 tivity. (See ^ 29.) 
 
 69. Pyrrhus remained king of tl^e greater part of Macedonia nearly a 
 year, but w'as then driven back to his hereditary kingdom by Lysima- 
 chus, who thus extended his own dominions from the Halys to Mount 
 Pindus, B. C. 286. The capital of this consolidated kingdom was Lys- 
 imachia, in the Chersonese, and Macedonia for five years was merely a 
 province. The nobles, becoming discontented, called in Seleucus, who 
 defeated and killed Lysimachus, B. C. 281. 
 
 70. For a few weeks the aged Seleucus governed nearly all the domin- 
 ions of Alexander, except Egypt. He was then assassinated by Ptolemy 
 Ceraunus, * who became king in his stead. The Egyptian prince was 
 soon overwhelmed by a new peril in the invasion of the Gauls. This 
 restless people had been pouring for nearly a century into northern Italy, 
 where they had driven out the Etruscans from the plain of the Po, and 
 given their own name to Gallia Cisalpina. Now turning eastward, they 
 occupied the plain of the Danube, and pressed southward as far as Illyr- 
 icum, whence they proceeded in three divisions, one falling upon the 
 Thracians, another upon the Pseonians, and a third upon the Macedo- 
 nians. The last army encountered Ptolemy Ceraunus, who Avas defeated 
 and slain in battle. For two years they ravaged Macedonia, while 
 Melea^ger, a brother of Ceraunus, and Antipater, a nephew of Cassander, 
 successively occupied the throne, B. C. 279-277. 
 
 71. Brennus, a Gallic leader, with more than 200,000 men, marched 
 through Thessaly, laying all waste with fire and sword. A furious battle 
 took place at Thermopylae, and the Gauls, at last, only gained the rear 
 of the Greek army by the same mountain path which had admitted the 
 troops of Xerxes two hundred years before, Brennus pushed on to 
 
 =: Brotlier of Philadelphus. (See § 55.) 
 
224 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 plunder Delphi, but an army of 4,000, well posted upon the heights of 
 Parnassus, withstood him with success; and a violent wintry storm, which 
 confused and benumbed the assailants, convinced devout Greeks that 
 Apollo was once more defending his sanctuary. The Gallic leader was 
 severely wounded, and unwilling to survive his disgrace, put an end to 
 his own life. His army broke up into a multitude of marauding bands, 
 without order or discipline, and the greater part perished from cold, 
 hunger, or battle. Their countrymen, however, established a kingdom in 
 Thrace; and another band, invited into Asia Minor by Nicomedes, became 
 possessed of a large tract of country, which received their name as 
 Gala^tia. 
 
 72. During the disorders in Macedonia, Sosthenes, an officer of noble 
 birth, had been placed at the head of affairs, instead of Antipater, who 
 •was deposed for his incapacity. After the Gauls had retired, Antipater 
 regained the throne. But Antigonus Gonatas, who had maintained him- 
 self as an independent prince in central and southern Greece, ever since 
 the captivity of his father, Demetrius, now appeared with an army com- 
 posed mainly of Gallic mercenaries, defeated Antipater, and gained pos- 
 session of Macedonia. Antiochus Soter made war against him, but was 
 opposed with so much energy that he acknowledged Antigonus as king, 
 and gave him his sister Phila in marriage. But Antigonus was never 
 acceptable to either Greeks or Macedonians, and when Pyrrhus, the most 
 popular })rince of his age, returned from Italy, the whole Macedonian 
 army was ready to desert to his side. Antigonus was defeated, and for 
 a year or more was a fugitive, B. C. 273-271. 
 
 73. Pyrrhus was the greatest warrior and one of the best princes of his 
 time — a time from which truth and fidelity seemed almost to have dis- 
 appeared. He might have become the most powerful monarch in the 
 world, if his perseverance had been equal to his talents and ambition. 
 But instead of organizing the territory he possessed, he was ever thirsting 
 for new conquests. In a war upon southern Greece he was repulsed from 
 Sparta, and in attempting to seize Argos by night, he was killed by a 
 tile thrown by a woman from a house-top. 
 
 74. Antigonus Gonatas now returned and reigned thirty-two years. 
 He extended his power over most of the Peloponnesus, and waged war 
 five years against the Athenians, who were aided by Sparta and Egypt. 
 In the meantime, Antigonus was recalled by the incursion of Alexander, 
 son of Pyrrhus, who was carrying all before him, and had been ac- 
 knowledged king of Macedon. Demetrius, son of Antigonus, chased him 
 out of Macedonia, and even out of Epirus; and though he was soon re- 
 stored to his paternal dominion, he remained thenceforth at peace with 
 his neighbors. Athens fell in 263 B. C. Nineteen years later, Antigonus ' 
 gained possession of Corinth; but this was the last of his successes. 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, 225 
 
 75. The Achaean League, which had been suppressed by the immediate 
 successors of Alexander, had soon revived, and extended itself beyond 
 the limits of Achaia, receiving cities from all the Peloponnesus. In 243 
 B. C, Ara^tus, its head, by a sudden and well-concerted movement cap- 
 tured Corinth, which immediately joined the League. Several important 
 cities followed the example; and Antigonus, who had grown old and 
 cautious, was unable to oppose them, except by stirring up ^tolia to 
 attack the Achseans. He died B. C. 239, having lived eighty and reigned 
 thirty-seven years. 
 
 76. Demetrius II. allied himself with Epirus, and broke friendship with 
 the ^tolians, who were enemies of that kingdom. The consequence was, 
 that the iEtolians made a junction with the Achasan League to oppose 
 him. He was able to defeat them in Thessaly and Bceotia, but south 
 of the isthmus the ascendency of Macedon was at an end. The Romans 
 now for the first time interfered in Grecian affairs, by requiring the 
 ^tolian confederacy to abstain from aggressions upon Acarnania. Cor- 
 cyra, Apollonia, and Epidamnus fell into their hands, B. C. 228, a year 
 after the death of Demetrius II. 
 
 77. Philip Y. was but eight years old when he inherited his father's 
 dominions, under the guardianship of his kinsman, Antigonus Doson. 
 During this regency great changes took place in Sparta, which led to a 
 brief return of her old energy. The laws of Lycurgus had continued in 
 force more than five centuries, but the time of their fitness and useful- 
 ness had passed away. The rigid separation which they made between 
 the different classes, now limited the number of true Spartans to 700, 
 while the property tests were so severe, that only 100 enjoyed the full 
 rights of citizens. The wealth of the community was concentrated in the 
 hands of a few, who violated the old law by living in great luxury. In 
 this condition, Sparta was unable even to defend herself against Illyrian 
 pirates or ^tolian marauders, still less to exert any influence, as of old, 
 in the general affairs of Greece. 
 
 The reforms proposed B. C. 230, by Agis IV., and carried, four years 
 later, by Cleomenes, added 3,800 pericefci to the number of citizens, and 
 re-divided the lands of the state between these and 15,000 selected Laco- 
 nians. Debts were abolished, and the old simple and frugal Customs of 
 Lycurgus restored. Sparta was now able to defeat the forces of the 
 Achaean League, and to draw from it, into her own alliance, most of the 
 Peloponnesian towns out of Achaia. But Aratus, the head of the League, 
 violated all its principles by calling in Antigonus, the Macedonian regent, 
 and putting him in possession of Acro-Corinthus. In the battle of Sel- 
 la^sia, B. C. 221, Cleomenes was defeated, and forced to take refuge at the 
 court of Ptolemy Philopator. The League which had been created to 
 defend the liberties of Greece, had betrayed them; and there was no 
 A. H.— 29. 
 
226 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 longer any hope either of restoring the glories of Sparta, or of checking 
 the overwhelming power of Macedon and Rome. 
 
 78. Antigonus died B. C. 220, and Philip, now seventeen years of age, 
 assumed the government. The great advantages gained during the regency 
 were soon lost by his rashness. He liastily allied himself with Plannibal 
 against Rome, and then with Antiochus of Syria against Egypt. (See 
 ^l 37, 59.) His first war, however, was against iEtolia, which had sprung 
 to arms immediately upon his accession, hoping at once to overbalance its 
 rival, Achaia, and to increase its own territories at the expense of Macedon. 
 As early as the time of Alexander the Great, the yEtolian tribes had 
 formed themselves into a federal republic, Avhicli occupied a similar posi- 
 tion in central Greece to that of the Achaean League in the Peloponnesus. 
 By the subjection or annexation of several states, it was now extended 
 from the Ionian to the -^Egean Sea. Philip overran ^tolia with great 
 energy, captured its seat of government, and by his brilliant successes 
 showed a military talent Avortby of the early days of Macedonian conquest. 
 But the news of a great victory gained by Hannibal at Lake Thrasyme^ne, 
 recalled his attention to the object of his chief ambition, a war with 
 Rome. 
 
 71). The first movement in the new war was the siege of Apollonia, a 
 Roman colony in Illyricum. Philip hoped to drive the Romans from the 
 western coast of Greece, and thus prepare the way for an invasion of Italy. 
 His camp was surprised at night by Vale^rius, and he was forced to burn 
 his ships and retreat in all haste. The iEtolians and all their allies — 
 Sparta, Elis, and the kings of Illyricum and Pergamus — took sides with 
 Rome, and carried the war into Macedonia, forcing Philip to ask the aid 
 of Carthage. The Romans captured Zacynthus, Ne^sos and (Eniadoe, An- 
 tic^yra in Locris, and the island of ^gina, and presented all to the ^to- 
 lians. 
 
 At this crisis, Philopoe^men, the greatest Greek of his time, became 
 commander of the Achasan cavalry, and, two years later, the head of the 
 League. He improved the drill and tactics of the army, and infused new 
 spirit into the whole nation. His invasion of Elis, in concert with Philip, 
 was unsuccessful, and the king was defeated by Sulpic^ius Galba; but, in 
 207 B. C., the great victory of Mantinea placed the Macedonians and 
 Achaeans on a more equal footing with the Romans. Peace was made on 
 terms honorable to all parties. 
 
 80. Philip, spoiled by ambition, had become unscrupulous and reckless. 
 Instead of securing what he already possessed, he continually grasped after 
 new conquests; and disregarding the storm that was sure to burst upon 
 him sooner or later from the Avest, he now turned to the east and south. 
 He made a treaty with Antiochus the Great for a partition of the Egyptian 
 dependencies, by which he was to receive Thrace and the western part of 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 227 
 
 Asia Minor. This led at once to war with At^t.-ilus of Pergamus, an ally 
 of Kome, as well as with Rhodes, which took the part of Egypt. His fleet 
 was signally defeated off Chios, B. C. 201 ; and though he afterward gained 
 a victory at Lade, his losses were not retrieved. He captured, however, 
 the important islands of Samos, Thasos, and Chios, with the province of 
 Caria, and several places in Ionia. 
 
 81. The great disaster of the war was the rupture of the treaty with 
 Rome. That power interfered in behalf of her allies, Egypt, Rhodes, and 
 Pergamus ; and when Philip rejected all reasonable demands, she declared the 
 peace at an end. In the second war with Rome, Greece was at first divided 
 into three parties, some states remaining neutral, some siding with Rome, 
 and some with Macedon. But when the consul, Fla^mini^nus, proclaimed 
 liberty to all the Greeks, and declared himself their champion against the 
 long detested power of Macedon, nearly every state went over to the 
 Roman side. On the land, Macedonia was attacked by Sulpicius Galba, 
 aided by the Illyrians and Dardanians; while by sea, a Roman fleet, in- 
 creased by Rhodian and Pergamene vessels, threatened the coast. Several 
 important towns in Eubosa were taken, but the great decisive battle was 
 fought (B. C. 197) at Cynocephalse, where Philip was defeated and his 
 power utterly prostrated. He was compelled to abandon all the Greek 
 cities which he held, either in Europe or Asia, to surrender his entire 
 navy, and to pay a war indemnity of one thousand talents ($1,250,000). 
 
 82. In settling the affairs of Greece, the Romans subdivided the states 
 into still smaller sections than of old, and guaranteed perfect independence 
 to each. The two leagues of Achaia and ^tolia were, however, left to 
 balance each other. The states were generally satisfied with the arrange- 
 ment, but the ^tolians stirred up a new war in the very year of Flamini- 
 nus's departure, and called in Antiochus from Asia to their aid. He was 
 defeated at Thermopylae by the Romans, B. C. 191, and the great battle 
 of Magnesia, in the following year, ended all hope of resistance to the 
 power of Rome. The Achaean League, sustained by the wise and able 
 management of PhilopoGmep, gained in power by the weakening of its 
 rival, and now included the whole Peloponnesus, with Megaris and some 
 other territories beyond the peninsula. 
 
 83. Philip had aided the Romans in the recent war, and had been per- 
 mitted to extend his dominions over part of Thrace, and southward into 
 Thessaly. But when peace was secured, he was required to give up all 
 except his hereditary kingdom. Demetrius, the second son of Philip, had 
 long been a hostage at Rome, and acted now as his father's embassador. 
 The Roman Senate conceded many points, for the sake of the warm friend- 
 ship which it professed for this young prince; but its favor only aroused 
 the suspicions of his father and the jealousy of his elder brother, Per^seus. 
 The latter forged letters to convince his father of the treason of Demetrius, 
 
228 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 and the innocent youth was put to death by order of the king. But the 
 grief and remorse of Philip exceeded all bounds, when he learned the de- 
 ception that had been practiced. He believed that he Avas haunted by the 
 spirit of Demetrius, and it was agony of mind, rather than bodily illness, 
 that soon occasioned his death. 
 
 An ancient historian remarked that there were few monarchs of 
 whom more good or more evil cOuld justly be said, than of Philip V. 
 If the promise of his youth had been fulfilled, and the opportunities 
 of his reign improved, he would have done great things for Macedonia 
 and Greece. But his talents became obscured by drunkenness and prof- 
 ligacy, his natural generosity was spoiled by the habit of supreme 
 command, and he became in later years a gloomy, unscrupulous, and 
 suspicious tyrant. 
 
 84. Philip had designed to punish the crime of Perseus by leaving the 
 throne to a distant relative, Antigonus ; but the sudden death of the father, 
 while Antigonus was absent from court, enabled the son to make himself 
 king without opposition. He pursued with much diligence the policy of 
 Philip, in preparing Macedonia for a second struggle with Rome. The 
 revenues were increased by a careful working of the mines ; the popula- 
 tion, wasted by so many wars, was recruited by colonies of Thracians and 
 others; and close alliances were made with the kings of Asia, and with the 
 hardy barbarians of the north, Gauls, Illyrians, and Germans, whose aid 
 might be invaluable when the decisive moment should arrive. But Perseus 
 failed to unite the states of Greece, in which a large party already preferred 
 his supremacy to that of Eome ; and instead of using his treasures to sat- 
 isfy and confirm his allies, he hoarded them penuriously, only to enrich 
 his enemies at the end of the war. 
 
 85. In the spring of 171 B. C, the Romans landed in Epirus, and spent 
 some months in winning the Greek states to their side by money and in- 
 fluence. In the autumn they met Perseus in Thessaly, with nearly equal 
 forces, and were defeated. The Macedonian made no use, however, of his 
 victory, and nothing of importance Avas done for two years. In 168 B. C, 
 L. ^raiKius Paul us assumed the command, and forced Perseus to a battle 
 near Pydna. Here the fate of Macedon was finally decided. Perseus Avas 
 defeated and fled to Samothrace, Avhere he Avas soon captured Avith all his 
 treasures. He Avas taken to Rome, and compelled to Avalk in chains in the 
 splendid triumph of ^milius. After several years, the last of the Macedo- 
 nian kings died in imprisonment at Alba. 
 
 Macedonia Avas not immediately made a Roman province, but Avas divided 
 into four distinct states, Avhich Avere forbidden all intercourse Avith each 
 other. The people Avere consoled by a great reduction in the taxes, the 
 Romans demanding only half the amount which they had been accustomed 
 to pay their native kings. 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 229 
 
 .86. In Greece, all confederacies, except the Achaean League, were dis- 
 solved. Achaia had been the constant friend of Rome during the war; 
 but to insure its submission, one thousand of the principal citizens were 
 accused of having secretly aided Perseus, and were carried to Italy for 
 trial. They were imprisoned seventeen years without a hearing; and then, 
 when all but three hundred had died, these were sent back, in the cer- 
 tainty that their resentment against Rome would lead them to some rash 
 act of hostility. 
 
 All happened as the Romans had foreseen. The three of the exiles who 
 were most embittered by this unprovoked outrage came into power, and 
 their enmity gave to their foes what they most desired, a pretext for an 
 armed invasion of the territories of the League. In 146 B. C, war was 
 declared. One of the Achaean leaders was disastrously defeated and slain 
 near Thermopylae; another, with the remnant of the army, made a last 
 stand at Corinth, but he was defeated and the city was taken, plun- 
 dered, and destroyed. Within a few years Greece was placed under 
 proconsular government, like other provinces of Rome. It remained 
 nearly sixteen centuries a part of that great empire, which, though 
 driven from Italy, maintained its existence in the East, until it was 
 overthrown by the Turks, A. D. 1453. 
 
 ItE C-A.:PITTJIj-A.TI03<r . 
 
 Lamiau War ended in the subjection of Greece to Macedonia. Cassnnder 
 reigned B. C. 316-297. Death of all his sons within three years, left the crown ta 
 Demetrius, son of Antigonus, (B. C. 294-287,) who lost it by rash enterprises, and 
 died a prisoner in Asia. Pyrrhus, the Epirote, reigned a year. Macedonia was 
 then annexed to Thrace (B. C. 286-281). On the death of Lysiniachus, it fell to 
 Seleucus, who was murdered in turn by Ptolemy Cerauuus. In the reign of 
 Ptolemy (B. C. 281-279), Meleager, Antipater 11., and Sosthenes (B. C. 279-277), the 
 Gauls ravaged Macedonia and Greece, gained Thermopylte, but were defeated at 
 Delphi. Antigonus, son of Demetrius (B. C. 277-273), was expelled by Pyrrhus, 
 whose second reign lasted B. C. 273-271, but who was killed at Argos, and Antig- 
 onus restored (B. C. 271-239). He captured Athens and Corinth; the latter was 
 retaken by the Achaean League. Demetrius II. (B. C. 239-229) allied himself with 
 Epirus against the Achaean and ^tolian Leagues. First interference of Rome 
 in Grecian affaire, B. C. 238. Regency of Antigonus Doson, B. C. 229-220. Reform 
 and renewed energy in Sparta. Macedonians, in alliance with the Achcean 
 League, defeated the .Spartans at Seliasia, B. C. 221. Independent reign of Philip 
 v., B. C. 220-179. His wars against ^Etolia, Rome, Egypt. Romans, in a second 
 war, proclaimed liberty to the Greeks; overthrew Philip at Cynocephalse, B. C. 
 197; subdivided and reorganized the Grecian states. The iEtolians provoked 
 another war, their ally, Antiochus, was defeated at Thermopylae and Magnesia. 
 Death of Prince Demetrius and his father. Efforts of Perseus, the last king of 
 Macedon (B. C. 179-168). His war with Rome; defeat at Pydna; capture and 
 death. Division of Macedonia. Reduction of tribute. Treachery of the Romans 
 toward the Achaean League. Last war with Rome. Battle of Leucopetra, near 
 Corinth, B. C. 146. 
 
230 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 IV. Thrace. 
 
 87. The Thracian kingdom of Lysimachus has no history that need 
 detain us. Unlike Egypt or Syria under Macedonian rule, it contributed 
 nothing to literature, science, or general civilization. The several tribes 
 \Yere powerful by reason of their numbers, their hardy contempt of danger 
 and exposure, and their untamable love of freedom ; but their strength 
 was too often wasted in fighting against each other, and thus they Avere 
 reduced either to subjects or humble allies of the more civilized nations to 
 the southward. At the same time, their position on the Danube rendered 
 them the most exposed of all the ancient kingdoms, to the incursions of 
 the northern barbarians; and the history of Thrace under the Eomans is 
 only a record of wars and devastations. 
 
 V. Kingdom of Pergamus. 
 
 88. Beside the four great monarchies already described, a number of ♦ 
 smaller kingdoms arose from the ruins of Alexander's empire. A few of 
 these will be briefly mentioned. Pergamus, on the Ca^icus in Mysia, pos- 
 sessed a strong fortress, which was used by Lysimachus as a place of safe 
 keeping for his treasures, under the charge of Philetse^rus, of Tium, an 
 officer in whom he reposed the greatest confidence. This person, provoked 
 
 by ill-treatment from the Thracian queen, made himself independent, and 
 by means of the ample treasures of Lysimachus, maintained his princi- 
 pality undisturbed for twenty years, B. C. 283-263. (See U 30, 3L) 
 
 His nephew, Eumenes, who succeeded him, increased his territories by 
 a victory over Antiochus I., near Sardis. After reigning twenty-two years 
 (B. C, 263-241), he was succeeded by his cousin, Attains I., who gained a 
 great victory over the Gauls, and, first of his family, took the title of king. 
 Ten years later, he defeated Antiochus Hierax (see ^ 33), and included in 
 his own dominions all the countries west of the Halys and north of the 
 Taurus. In Avars with the kings of Syria, he lost these conquests, and was 
 limited for seven years to his own principality of Pergamus; but by the 
 aid of Gallic mercenaries and his own good management, he Avon back 
 most of the territories. He earned the fiivor of Rome by joining that 
 Republic against Philip V. of Macedon. The country Avas raA'aged by 
 Philip in the interval of his Roman Avars (see g 80); but the great victory 
 off Chios compensated Attains for his losses, and the treasures he amassed 
 made his name proverbial for Avealth. His exertions in behalf of his allies, 
 during the second Avar of Rome and Macedon, ended his life at an advanced 
 age, B. C. 197. 
 
 89. Eumenes II., his eldest son and successor, aided the Roman opera- 
 tions against the kings of Syria and Macedonia, Avith so much energy and 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 231 
 
 talent, that he was rewarded with an increase of territory on both sides of 
 the Hellespont, and his kingdom was for a time one of the greatest in Asia. 
 He continued his father's liberal policy in the encouragement of art and 
 literature, founded the great Library of Pergamus, which was second only 
 to that of Alexandria, and beautified his capital with many magnificent 
 buildings. At his death his crown was assumed by his brother, Attains II. 
 (Philadelphus), as the son of Eumenes was still a child. More than half 
 the twenty-one years of Philadelphus's reign were occupied by wars, 
 especially against Pru^sias II., king of Bithynia. By aiding the revolt of 
 Nicomedes, who gained that kingdom instead of his father. Attains secured 
 some years of peace, which he employed in building cities and increasing 
 his library. Chief of the cities were Eumeni^a, in Phrygia; Philadelphia, 
 in Lydia ; and Attali^a, in Pamphylia. 
 
 00. Philadelphus died B. C. 138, leaving the kingdom to his nephew, 
 Attains III. (Philometor), the son of Eumenes II. This king crowded 
 into the short period of five years more crimes and atrocities than can be 
 found in all the other reigns of his dynasty put together. He murdered 
 all the old friends of his father and uncle, with their families; all who 
 still held any office of trust in the kingdom ; and, finally, his own nearest 
 relatives, including his mother, for whom he had professed the warmest 
 affection by the surname he adopted. At last he retired from this atrocious 
 career of misgovernment, to the more innocent pursuits of painting, sculp- 
 ture, and gardening. He died of a fever, leaving his kingdom a legacy to 
 the Roman people. Aristoni^cus, a half-brother of Attalus IIL, success- 
 fully resisted the Roman claims for three years, even defeating and cap- 
 turing Licin^ius Crassus, who was sent to take possession; but lie was in 
 turn made prisoner, and Pergamus was added to the territories of Rome, 
 B. C. 130. 
 
 VI. Bithynia. 
 
 01, This tributary. province of Persia regained its independence upon 
 the overthrow of that empire, and resisted all the efforts of Alexander's 
 generals to reduce it. Among its kings were Nicomedes I., who founded 
 Nicomedia on the Propontis; Zeilas, who gained his crown by the aid of 
 the Gauls; and Prusias, his son, who extended his kingdom by constant 
 wars, and would have raised it to great importance but for the offense he 
 gave the Romans, by making war against Pergamus and by sheltering 
 Hannibal. He was forced to surrender to Eumenes some important terri- 
 tories. 
 
 Prusias II. suffered still greater disasters, owing to his own contemptible 
 wickedness. He sent his son Nicomedes to Rome, with secret orders for 
 liis assassination. But the plot failed; and Nicomedes II., whose popularity 
 had excited his father's jealousy, now returned with the support of the 
 
232 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Romans and the Pergamene king, and gained possession of the throne. 
 He reigned fifty-eight years with the title Epiphanes (Illustrious). His 
 son, Nicomedes III., in alliance with the Romans, made war seven years 
 with Mithridates, king of Pontus, their most able and resolute opponent. 
 He was twice expelled from his dominions; but after the close of the first 
 Mithridatic War, he reigned peacefully ten years, and, having no children, 
 left his kingdom to the Romans, B. C. 74. 
 
 VII. Pontus. 
 
 92. Cappadocia under the Persians had been a satrapy, governed by the 
 descendants of that Ota^nes who conspired with Darius I. against the false 
 Smerdis. (See Book II.) In 363 B. C, a son of the satrap Mithridates 
 revolted, and made himself king of that portion of Cappadocia which lay 
 next the sea, and was thence called Pontus by the Greeks. This kingdom 
 was for a short time subject to the Macedonian power; but Mithridates I., 
 in 318 B. C, became again independent. The annals of the next two 
 reigns are of no great importance. Mithridates III. (B. C. 245-190) 
 enlarged and strengthened his dominion by alliances witli the Asiatic 
 monarchs, as well as by wars. His son Phar^naces conquered Sinope 
 from the Greeks, and made it his capital. The next king, Mithridates IV. 
 (B. C. 160-120), aided Rome against Carthage and Pergamus, and was 
 rewarded by the addition of the Greater Phrygia to his dominions. 
 
 93. Mithridates V., the Great, came to the throne at the age of eleven 
 years, his father having been murdered by some ofiicers of the court. 
 The young prince, distrusting his guardians, began in his earliest years to 
 accustom himself to antidotes against poison, and to spend much of his 
 time in hunting, which enabled him to take refuge in the most rough and 
 inaccessible portions of his kingdom. He had, however, received a Greek 
 education at Sinope ; and when, at the age of twenty, he assumed the gov- 
 ernment, he possessed not only a soul and body inured to every sort of 
 peril and hardship, but a mind furnished with all the knowledge needful 
 to a king. He spoke twenty-five languages, and could transact business 
 with every tribe of his dominions, in its own peculiar dialect. 
 
 The Romans had already seized his province of Phrygia, and he clearly 
 saw the conflict which must soon take place with the all-absorbing Re- 
 public. He determined, therefore, to extend his kingdom to the eastward 
 and northward, thus increasing' its power and wealth, so as to make it 
 more nearly a match for its great western antagonist. In seven years he 
 added to his dominions half the shores of the Black Sea, including the 
 Cimme^rian peninsula — now the Crimea — and extending westward to the 
 Dniester. He made alliances with the wild and powerful tribes upf)n the 
 Danube, and with the kings of Armenia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia. From 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 233 
 
 the last two countries he afterward drove out their hereditary kings, placing 
 his own son on the throne of Cappadocia, and Socrates, a younger brother 
 of Nicomedes III., on that of Bithynia. 
 
 94. The Roman Senate now interfered, and with their favor Nicomedes 
 jnvaded Pontus. Mithridates marched into Cappadocia and drove out its 
 newly reinstated king ; then into Bithynia, where he routed the army of 
 Nicomedes and defeated the Romans. He speedily made himself master 
 of all Asia Minor, except a few towns in the extreme south and west ; and 
 from his headquarters at Pergamus, gave orders for a general massacre of 
 all Romans and Italians in Asia. Eighty thousand persons fell in conse- 
 quence of this atrocious act, but from that moment the tide turned against 
 Mithridates. Two large armies which he sent into Greece, were defeated 
 by Sulla at Chseronea. A great battle in Bithynia was lost by the Pontic 
 generals. Pontus itself was invaded, and its king became a fugitive. 
 
 Peace was at lengtli made, on terms most humiliating to Mithridates, 
 He surrendered all his conquests, and a fleet of seventy vessels ; agreed to 
 pay 2,000 talents; and recognized the kings of Cappadocia and Bithynia, 
 whom he had formerly expelled. The reverses of Mithridates naturally 
 led the subject nations on the Euxine to throw off his yoke. He was pre- 
 paring to march against them, Avhen a second Roman war was kindled by 
 a sudden and unprovoked aggression of Murena, the general of the Repub- 
 lic in the East. The Romans were defeated on the Halys, and peace was 
 restored, B. C. 82, 
 
 05. In the seven years' breathing-space which fullowed, Mithridates 
 subdued all his revolted subjects, and recruited his forces with the utmost 
 energy. His army, drawn largely from the barbarous nations on the 
 Danube and Euxine, was drilled and equipped according to the Roman 
 system, and his navy was increased to four hundred vessels. Both the 
 Pontic king and the Romans would willingly have remained some years 
 longer at peace, but, in 74 B. C, the legacy of Bithynia to the latter power, 
 by Nicomedes III., brought them into unavoidable collision. Mithridates 
 first seized the country, and gained a double victory over Cotta, by sea and 
 land. But he failed in the sieges of Chalcedon and Cyzicus, and in the 
 second year he was repeatedly worsted by LucuFlus. His fleet was first 
 defeated off* Tenedos, and then wrecked by a storm. In the third year 
 Mithridates was driven out of his own dominions, and those of his son-in- 
 law, Tigranes. For three years the war was carried on in Armenia, where 
 the two kings were twice defeated by Lucullus. 
 
 In 68 B. C, Mithridates returned to his kingdom, and defeated the 
 Romans twice within a few months. But in QQ B. C, Pompey assumed 
 the command, and Mithridates, after the loss of nearly his whole army, 
 abandoned Pontus, and retired into the barbarous regions north of the 
 Euxine, where the Romans did not care to pursue him. With a spirit 
 
234 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 untamed either by years or misfortunes, he plotted the bold design of 
 gathering to his standard the wild tribes along the Danube, and marching 
 upon Italy from the north. But his officers did not share his enthusiasm. 
 A conspiracy against him was headed by his own son ; and the old king, 
 deserted by all whom he would have trusted, attempted to end his life by 
 poison. His constitution had been for many years so guarded by antidotes, 
 that the drugs had no effect, and he was finally dispatched by one of his 
 Gallic soldiers. Pontus became a Roman province, only a small portion 
 of its territory continuing, a century or more, under princes of the ancient 
 dynasty. 
 
 VIII. Cappadocia. 
 
 9G. The southern part of Cappadocia remained loyal to the Persian 
 kings until their downfall at Arbela. It was conquered by Perdiccas after 
 the death of Alexander, but within six years became independent, and 
 
 continued under native kings until it was 
 absorbed into the Roman dominions, A. D. 
 17. The history of these monarchs is of 
 little importance, except so far as it is in- 
 cluded in that of the neighboring nations. 
 The fifth king, Ariara^thes IV., made, in 
 his later years, a close and friendly alliance 
 with the Romans, which continued unbroken 
 under his successors. 
 
 Ariarathes V. (B. C. 131-96) presents the 
 sole example of a "blameless prince" in 
 the three centuries following Alexander. No 
 act of deceit or cruelty is recorded against 
 him. Cappadocia, under his reign, became 
 a celebrated abode of philosophy, under the 
 patronage and example of the king. With 
 Ariarathes VIII., the royal Persian line be- 
 came extinct, and the Cappadocians chose a 
 new sovereign in Ariobarza^nes I. (B. C. 
 93-64). This king was three times driven 
 out of his dominions by the sovereigns of 
 Armenia and Pontus, and three times rein- 
 stated by the Romans. The last king, Archelaus (B. C. 36-A. D. 17), was 
 summoned by Tibe^rius to Rome, where he died, and his kingdom became 
 a Roman province. 
 
 IX. Armenia. 
 
 97. Armenia was included in the kingdom of the Seleucidffi, from the 
 battle of Ipsus to that of Magnesia, B. C. 190. Two generals of Antiochus 
 
 Coin of Ariarathes V., 
 twice the size of original. 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 235 
 
 III. then revolted against him, and set up the kingdoms of Armenia Major 
 on the east, and Armenia Minor on the west of the Euphrates. The greatest 
 king of Armenia Major was Tigranes I. (B. C. 96-55), who not only gained 
 important victories from the Parthian monarch, but conquered all Syria, 
 and held it fourteen years. He incurred the vengeance of Rome in various 
 ways, but chiefly by sustaining his father-in-law, Mithridates, in his wars 
 against the Republic. He suffered seyeral calamitous defeats, with the loss 
 of his capital, Tigran^ocei*^ta. 
 
 In 67 B. C, the disaffection of the Roman troops gave the two kings the 
 opportunity to recover much of what they had lost. The appearance of the 
 great Pompey upon the scene again turned the tide. The young Tigranes 
 rebelled against his father, with the aid of Parthia and Rome. The king 
 surrendered all his conquests, retaining only his hereditary kingdom of the 
 Greater Armenia. His son, Artavas^des I. (B. C. 55-34), aided the expe- 
 dition of Crassus against the Parthians; but having afterward offended 
 Antony, he was taken prisoner and put to death by order of Cleopatra. 
 Artaxias, his son, ordered a massacre of all the Romans in Armenia. In 
 19 B. C, he was himself murdered by his own relations. The remaining 
 kings were sovereigns only in name, being set up or displaced alternately 
 by the Romans and Parthians, until Armenia was absorbed by the former, 
 A. D. 114. Armenia Minor was usually a dependency of some neighboring 
 kingdom, from the time of Mithridates to that of Vespa^sian (A. D. 69-79), 
 when it, too, became a Roman province. 
 
 X. Bactria. 
 
 98. Bactria was a part of the Syrian empire from 305 to 255 B. C. 
 Diodotus, the satrap, then made himself independent, and established a 
 new Greek kingdom, the most easterly of all the scattered fragments of 
 Alexander's conquests. Euthydemus, the third king, was a native of 
 Magnesia, and a usurper (B. C. 222-200). His son Demetrius made many 
 victorious campaigns, extending over Afghanistan and into India (B. C. 
 200-180). He lost a part of his native dominions to a rebel, Eucrat^ides, 
 who reigned north of the Pa^ropam^isus range during the life of Deme- 
 trius, and after his death, over the whole country. He, too, carried on 
 Indian wars with great energy and success. Under his son, Heli^ocles 
 (B. C. 160-150), the Bactrian kingdom rapidly declined, being invaded 
 by the Parthian kings on the west, and the Tartar tribes from the 
 north. 
 
 XI. Parthian Empire of the ARSACiDiE. 
 
 99. The Parthians established their independence about B. C. 250, 
 under the lead of the Scythian Arsaces. The people were of the same 
 race with the modern Turks — treacherous in war, indolent and unaspiring 
 
236 
 
 a:ncient history. 
 
 in peace, rude in arts and barbarous in manners. Tlieir warlike hardi- 
 hood however, gave the Romans a more troublesome resistance than they 
 encountered in any other portion of Alexander's former empire ; and the 
 dominion of the Arsacidse lasted nearly 500 years, until it was overthrown 
 by the new Persian kingdom, A. D. 226. The greatness of the Parthian 
 empire dates from Mithridates, who is also called Arsaces VI., E. C. 
 174-136. The neighboring kingdom of Bactria, with its Greek mouarchs 
 and its hie'lier civilization, had hitherto maintained the ascendency; but 
 while these kings were absorbed in their Indian conquests, Mithridates 
 
 seized upon several of their provinces, and 
 eventually absorbed their whole dominion. 
 
 The Parthian empire, at its greatest extent, 
 comprised all the countries between the Eu- 
 phrates and the Indus; from the Araxes and 
 the Caspian on the north, to the Persian 
 Gulf and Indian Ocean on the south. Its 
 numerous parts were not consolidated into 
 one government, as were the satrapies of 
 Persia or the provinces of Rome; but each 
 nation, with its own laws and usages, re- 
 tained its native king, who was tributary to 
 the lord-paramount in the Arsacid family. 
 Hence the Parthian coins, like the Assyrian 
 monuments, commonly bear the title "King 
 of Kings." The wars of Mithridates made 
 the Euphrates the boundary-line between the 
 Parthian and Roman empires. The wealth 
 and power of the Oriental monarchy pro- 
 voked at once the avarice and the jealousy 
 of the western Republic, and a collision 
 could not long be delayed. The details of 
 the Parthian wars of Rome will be found in Book V. 
 
 Coin of Arsaces III., 
 twice tlie size of origiual. 
 
 Bravery and barbarism of tlie Thracians. Rise of Pergamns, B. C. 283, Reigns 
 of Pliilotserus, Eumenes, Attalus I. Success and enliglitened policy of Eumenes II. 
 Wars of Atlalus Philadelplms. His new cities. Crimes of Attains III. Bequest 
 of liis Ivingdoni to Rome. Short reign of Aristonicus. Bithynia I'nled by Niconie- 
 des I., Zeilas, Prnsias I. and II., Nicomedes II. and III., B. C. 278-74. Rise of the 
 kingdom of Pontns, B. C. 363. Independent of Macedon, B. C. 318; enlarged by 
 Mitln-idates III. and Pharnaces, B. C. 245-160. Education of Mithridates V., his 
 conquests and alliances; first collision with the Romans, B. C. 88; massacre of 
 80,000 Italians; disasters and humiliating peace. Second Roman War, B. C 83, 82. 
 Seven years' drill of Pontic forces in Roman tactics. Third Roman War, B. C. 
 74-05; Mithridates driven into Armenia, B. C. 71 ; recovered his kingdom, B. C. 68; 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 237 
 
 defeated by Pompey, B. C. 66; took refuge in the northeru wilds, iind ended his 
 life by violence, B. C. 63. Poutus became a Roman province. Cappadocia in al- 
 liance with Rome, B. C. 188. Just and peaceful reign of Arituathes V. End of the 
 dynasty in Ariarathes VIII. Exiles and returns of Ariobarzanes I. The country 
 absorbed into the Roman dominion, A. D. 17. Armenia a part of the Syrian 
 empire, B. G. 301-190. "Greater" and "Lesser" kingdoms then formed on the 
 east and west of the Euphrates, Conquest of Syria by Tigranes I., B. C. S;',. His 
 wars witli Rome, B. C. 09-66. Losses. Fate of Artavasdes. Massacre of the Romans 
 by Artaxias. Alternate dependence upon Rome and Parlhla, B. C. 19-A. D. 114. 
 Bactria dependent upon Syria, B. C. 305-255. Diodotus reigned, B. C. 255-237. The 
 third king a Lydian, B. C 222-200. Indian campaigns of Demetrius and Eucrat- 
 idas, B. C. 200-100. Decline and fall of tlie kingdom under attacks of surrounding 
 barbarians, B. C. 160-80. Parthian empire powerful, but uncivilized. Absorption 
 of Bactrian provinces, B. C 174-136. A group of kingdoms, rather than a nation, 
 side by side with Rome. 
 
 XII. JUDiEA. 
 
 100. Judaea, with the rest of Syria, had been assigned to Laom^edon 
 upon the partition of Alexander's conquests; but it was soon annexed by 
 Ptolemy Soter, and continued 117 years a part of the Egyptian empire. 
 Its history in this Book will be considered in three periods: 
 
 I. From the Fall of the Persian Empire to the Rise of an Inde- 
 pendent Jewish Kingdom, B. C. 323-168. 
 
 II. The Time of the Maccabees, B. C. 168-37. 
 III. The Time of the Herods, B. C. 37-A. D. 44. 
 
 First Period. Under the first three Ptolemies, the Jews were peaceful 
 and prosperous. The high priest was at the head of the state, and in 
 local matters ruled with little interference from Egypt. Ptolemy Philo- 
 pator, however, a wicked and foolish prince, attempted to profane the 
 temple, and the Jews, in alarm, sought protection from Antiochus the 
 Great. That monarch, with their aid, gained possession of all the coast 
 between Upper Syria and the Desert of Sinai; and though often disputed, 
 and once recovered by the Egyptians, this district remained a part of the 
 Syrian kingdom. 
 
 101. For thirty years the privileges of the Jews were respected by 
 their new sovereigns ; but toward the close of his reign, Seleucus IV. 
 resolved to appropriate the sacred treasures of the temple to his own 
 pressing needs, and sent Heliodorus, his treasurer, for this purpose to 
 Jerusalem. According to the Jewish tradition, * three angels appeared 
 for the defense of the holy place. One of them was seated on a terribUe 
 horse, which trampled Heliodorus under its feet, while the others scourged 
 him until he fell lifeless to the ground. He was only restored by the 
 prayers of the high priest, and the treasury remained unmolested. 
 
 Read, in the Apocrypha, 2 Maccabees iii: 4-40. 
 
238 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Antiochus Epiplianes, the brother and successor of Seleucus, was guilty 
 of still more impious outrages. He put up the high priesthood at 
 auction, and twice awarded it to the highest bidder, on condition of his 
 introducing Greek rites and customs into Jerusalem. One of these mer- 
 cenary pontiffs stole the sacred vessels of the temple and sold them at 
 Tyre. An insurrection arose at Jerusalem, but it was punished by An- 
 tiochus in person, who seized the city, set up an altar to Zeus Olympius 
 with daily sacrifices of swine's flesh in the sacred inclosure of the temple 
 and put to death a great number of the people. Two years later, B. C. 
 168, he ordered a general massacre of the Jews, and by a frightful per- 
 secution sought to exterminate the last remnant of the ancient religion. 
 The Asmonae''an family now arose, and by their brave fidelity made 
 themselves at last sovereigns of Judsea. 
 
 102, Second Period. Mattathias, a priest, living between Jerusalem 
 and Joppa, killed with his own hand the king's officer who was sent to 
 enforce the heathen sacrifices, together with the first renegade Jew who 
 consented to offer. He then took refuge in the mountains with his five 
 sons, and was reinforced daily by fugitives from various parts of Judsea. 
 As their numbers increased, this band issued frequently from their fast- 
 nesses, cut off detachments of the Syrian army, destroyed heathen altars, 
 and in many places restored the Jewish worship in the synagogues. The 
 aged Mattathias died in the first year of the war, and was succeeded in 
 command of the forces by his third son, Judas, who obtained the name 
 of Maccabceus from his many victories. 
 
 During the disputes for the Syrian regency, which followed the death 
 of Antiochus Epiphanes (see ^^ 40, 41), Judas Maccabseus gained pos- 
 session of all Jerusalem, except the citadel on Mount Zion, and held it 
 three years. He purified the temple, restored the incense, lights, and 
 sacrifices, and drove out Syrians near Hellenizing Jews from every part 
 of Judsea. The Syrian general, Nicanor, was twice defeated with great 
 loss. In the second battle, near Beth-horon, Nicanor fell, and his whole 
 army was cut to pieces. The Romans made alliance with the Maccabees; 
 but before their aid could arrive, Judas had fallen in battle, B. C. 160. 
 Jerusalem was lost, and for fourteen years Jonathan Maccabseus could 
 only carry on a guerrilla warfare from his fastness in the Desert of 
 Teko^ah. The disputes for the Syrian throne, between Demetrius and 
 Alexander Balas, which were continued under their sons (see U 42-46), 
 gave a respite to the Jews, and even made their alliance an object of 
 desire to both parties. Jonathan was thenceforth recognized as prince 
 and high priest, with full possession of the Holy City. 
 
 103. His brother Simon succeeded him in both dignities, and under 
 his prosperous administration Judsea recovered, in great measure, from 
 the long-continued ravages of war. The life of Simon was ended by 
 
THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, 239 
 
 treachery. His son-in-law, Ptolemy, the governor of Jericho, desiring to 
 seize the government for himself, murdered the high priest and two of 
 his sons at a banquet. But the other son, John Hyrcanus, escaped and 
 succeeded his father. At the beginning of his reign, Jerusalem endured 
 a long and painful siege by Autiochus Sidetes, B. C. 135-133. Its walls, 
 which had been restored, were leveled with the ground ; and a tribute 
 was again demanded, which lasted, however, no longer than the life of 
 Sidetes. Hyrcanus captured Samaria, and destroyed the temple on Mount 
 Gerizim (see Book II, ^ 64). He conquered kFume^a, rendering Judsea 
 fully equal in power to Syria, which was now reduced from a great 
 empire to a petty and exhausted kingdom. 
 
 104, Aristobu^lus, son of Hyrcanus, was the first of the family who 
 assumed the title of king. He reigned but a year, and was succeeded by 
 his brother, Alexander Jannte'us (B. C. 105-78). This prince was a Sad- 
 ducee, and the opposite sect of the Pharisees stirred up a mob to attack 
 him, while oflBciating as high priest in the Feast of Tabernacles. The riot 
 was put down with a slaughter of 6,000 insurgents. Alexander gained vic- 
 tories over the Moabites and the Arabs of Gilead ; but in a subsequent 
 war with the latter he suffered a great defeat, and the malcontents at 
 home seized the occasion for a new outbreak. The civil war now raged 
 six years. For a time Alexander was driven to the mountains, but at 
 length he regained the ascendency, and revenged himself upon the rebels 
 with frightful cruelty. He left the crown to his widow, Alexandra, who 
 joined the Pharisees, and was maintained in power by their influence. 
 
 105. After her death, her two sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, quarreled 
 seven years for the sovereignty. Pompey the Great, who was then at 
 Damascus, interfered and captured Jerusalem, carried off Aristobulus to 
 Eome, and established the elder brother in the government. He reigned 
 six years in peace, B. C. 63-57. In the latter year Aristobulus escaped, 
 and being joined by many of his partisans, renewed the war. He was 
 besieged and taken in Machce^rus by the Roman proconsul, who also 
 deposed Hyrcanus, and set up a sort of oligarchy in Jerusalem. Pompey, 
 in takino; the citv, had left its sacred treasures untouched, but during 
 this period, Crassus, on his way to Parthia, seized and plundered the 
 temple. After ten years (B. C. 57-47), Hyrcanus was restored to the 
 high priesthood, while his friend Antipater, the Idumasan, was appointed 
 procurator, or civil governor, of Judaea. 
 
 In ^B. C. 40, Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, with the aid of a Parthian 
 force, captured Jerusalem and reigned three years, the last of the Asmo- 
 nsean princes. Antipater had been poisoned; his son Herod repaired to 
 Rome, and received from the Senate the title of King of Judcea. Return- 
 ing speedily, he conquered Galilee and advanced to the siege of Jerusalem. 
 This was protracted several years, for the Jews were firmly attached to 
 
240 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Antigonus, and resented equally the interference of Rome and the reign 
 of an Edomite. After hard fighting the walls were taken, and the king 
 was executed like a common criminal. 
 
 106. Third Period, B. C. 37-A. D. 44. Herod was justly surnamed 
 " the Great," for his talents and the grandeur of his enterprises, though 
 his character was stained by the Avorst faults of a tyrant, cruelty and 
 reckless caprice. At the age of fifteen he had been made governor of 
 Galilee by Julius Ctesur, and had ruled with great energy and success, 
 suppressing the banditti who infested the country, and putting their 
 leaders to death. He began his reign in Judaea by a massacre of all 
 who had been opposed to him, especially those whose wealth would best 
 enable him to reward his Roman benefactors. The Temple, which, being 
 used as a fortress, had been nearly destroyed in the repeated sieges, was 
 rebuilt, by his orders, with a magnificence which rivaled the glories of 
 Solomon. His liberality was equally shown during a fiimine which visited 
 Judaea and the surrounding countries. He bought immense quantities 
 of corn in Egypt, and fed the entire people at his own expense, beside 
 supplying several provinces with seed for the next harvest. 
 
 Herod afi'ected Roman tastes : he built a circus and amphitheater in a 
 suburb of Jerusalem, where games and combats of wild beasts were cele- 
 brated in honor of the emperor Augustus. To show his impartiality, he 
 restored the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim, while he adornecl his 
 new and magnificent city of Ceesare'a with imposing shrines of the Roman 
 gods. This universal tolerance was most unpleasing to the Jews, and their 
 disposition to revolt was only kept down by the vigilance of innumerable 
 spies, and the construction of a chain of fortresses around Jerusalem. 
 
 107. The last two members of the Asmonaean family were Marian/ne 
 and Aristobulus, grandchildren of Hyrcanus II. Herod married the 
 former, and bestowed upon the latter the office of high priest; but the 
 great popularity of the young prince alarmed his jealousy, and he caused 
 him to be secretly assassinated. Though devotedly attached to Mariamne, 
 Herod twice ordered her _^put to death in ca§e of his own decease, during 
 perilous expeditions for which he was leaving the capital. These atrocious 
 orders coming to the knowledge of the queen, naturally increased the 
 aversion for Herod which had been inspired by the murder of her grand- 
 father and her brother. 
 
 Her high spirit scorned concealment ; she was brought to trial, and her 
 bitter enemies persuaded Herod to consent to her execution. But the 
 violence of his grief and remorse kept him a long time on the verge 
 of insanity, and a raging fever nearly ended his life. His temper, 
 which had been generous though hasty, now became so ferocious that 
 his best friends were often ordered to death on the slightest suspicion. 
 Three of his sons were executed on charges of conspiracy. From his 
 

 
 
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THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, 241 
 
 deatli-bed he ordered a massacre of the infimts in Bethlehem, because 
 wise men from the East had informed him that in that little village 
 the Messiah was born. About the same time, he had set up a golden 
 eagle over the gate of the Temple. A sedition immediately arose, and 
 its leaders were punished with atrocious cruelty, by the command of the 
 dying king. Herod died in the same year with the birth of our Lord, 
 which the common chronology places, by an error, B. C. 4. 
 
 lOS. His dominions, except Abilene in Syria, were divided among his 
 three sons, Archelaus, Antipas, and Philip, the eldest receiving Judaea and 
 Samaria. He reigned so oppressively that he was removed by the Romans, 
 A. D. 8; and until A. D. 36, the province was managed by procurators, 
 or governors, subject to the praefects of Syria. Under the fifth of these, 
 Pontius Pilate, Christ was crucified by Roman authority, through the accu- 
 sations of the chief officers of the Jews. Herod Antipas was meanwhile 
 ruling in Galilee (B. C. 4-A. D. 39; see Luke xxiii : 6-12), and Philip in 
 Trachoni^tis (B. C. 4-A. D. 37; see Mark vi : 17, 18). When these prov- 
 inces became vacant, they were bestowed by the Emperor Calig^ula upon 
 his favorite, Herod Agrip^pa I., grandson of Herod the Great and Mari- 
 amne. A. D. 41, Samaria and Judsea were also added to his dominions, 
 which for three years covered the entire territory of Herod the Great. 
 
 109. Agrippa began to persecute the Christians in the year 44, and the 
 Romans again placed Judsea under the government of procurators. Ges- 
 sius Florus, the sixth of the new series, was a cruel and crafty tyrant, who 
 plundered his province without pity or shame. He shared the spoils of 
 highway robbers, whom he permitted and even encouraged. Twice he 
 stirred up riots in Jerusalem, sacrificing the lives of thousands of people, 
 only that he might avail himself of the confusion to pillage the Temple. 
 
 His atrocities at length drove the Jews to open revolt. A Roman army 
 of 100,000 men, commanded by Titus, the son of the emperor Vespasian, 
 besieged the Holy City five months. The three walls, the fortress of Mount 
 Zion, and the Temple had each to be taken by separate assault ; and never 
 was a siege more memorable for the obstinacy of the resistance. The Temple 
 was surrendered Sept. 8, 70. All the people who had not perished by the 
 hardships of the siege, were made slaves and divided among the victors as 
 prizes. Large colonies were transported into the heart of Germany or to 
 Italy, where the golden vessels of the Temple adorned the triumphal pro- 
 cession of Titus at Rome. No ancient city of any fame was ever so com- 
 pletely ruined as Jerusalem. Mount Zion was plowed as a field and sown 
 with salt, and the buildings of the Temple were leveled to the ground. 
 
 Judsea subject to Egypt, B. C. 320-203; to Syria, B. C. 203-168. Persecution by 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, and revolt of Mattathias, B. C. 168. Victories of Judas 
 Maccabseus, B. C. 166-160. Jonathan prince and high piiest, B. C. 160-143. Pros- 
 A. H.— 31. 
 
242 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 perous reign of Simon, B. C. 143-135. Siege aud capture of Jerusalem by Anti- 
 ochus Sidetes, B. C. 13.5-133. Conquests of Jolin Hyreauns, B. C. 135-lOG. Aristobu- 
 lus I. takes the royal title. Civil wars of Pharisees and Sadducees, under 
 Alexander Jannseus, B. C. 10.5-7S. Reign of Alexandra, B. C. 78-69. Hyrcanus II., 
 B. C. G9, GS. Aristobulus II., B. C. 68-63. Jerusalem taken by Pompey, who awards 
 the sovereignty to Hyrcanus. After six years, Hyrcanus deposed and an oligarchy 
 set up, B. C. 57-47. Jerusalem plundered by Crassus, B. C 54. Antipater, the Idu- 
 m£Ban, governor, B. C. 47-40, while Hyrcanus is again high priest. Antigouus 
 prince and priest, B. C. 40-37. Herod, son of Antipaler, invested at Rome with 
 the royalty of Judaea, conquers Galilee, and by a long siege takes Jerusalem, 
 B. C. 37. His greatness and tyranny. His public works. Execution of Queen 
 Mariamne, B. C. 29. "Murder of the Innocents," and death of Herod, B. C. 4. 
 Division of his kingdom into tetrarchies. Archelaus succeeded in his govern- 
 ment by Roman governors, A. D. 8-36. The Crucifixion, A. D. 29 or 30. Four 
 provinces united under Herod Agrippa, A. D. 41. Procurators restored, A. D. 44. 
 Gessius Florus, A. D. 65, 66. Siege and capture of Jerusalem by Titus, A. D. 70. 
 
 QXJESTIOIS-S FOR REA^IE'V^^. 
 
 Book IV. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 24. 
 2.5. 
 26. 
 
 •'7 
 
 Describe the rise of JMacedonia 
 
 The successive steps of the ascendency of Philip. 
 
 The youth, education, and character of Alexander. 
 
 His conquests and Asiatic policy. 
 
 His projects and death, 
 
 The war of the regents 
 
 What was done by Antipater? 
 
 By Antigonus and his son? 
 
 Wliat became of the near relatives of Alexander? 
 
 What were tbe results of the battle of Ipsus? . 
 
 EfTects upon Europe and Asia of Alexander's conquests? 
 
 Describe the extent and organization of the kingdom of Seleucus. 
 
 Name the Seleucidse, and relate one incident of each. . 
 
 Describe in detail the reign of Antiochus the Great. 
 
 The last but one of the kings of Syria. 
 
 The incursions of the Gauls 
 
 The condition of Egypt under the Ptolemies. 
 
 Alexandria and its schools 
 
 The conquests of the first three Ptolemies. 
 
 The character of their successors. 
 What was the result to Athens of the Lamian War? . 
 What became of the sons of Cassander ? . . 
 How many kings of Thrace and Macedonia B. C. 281 ? 
 Describe the two reigns of Antigonus Gonatas. 
 
 The character of Pyrrhus 
 
 Tell the history of the Achrean League 
 
 What occurred in Sparta duiing the Macedonian regency of Antigonus 
 Doson ? . .77 
 
 . U 1, 2. 
 2-5. 
 6, 7. 
 8-12, 14-17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 19, 20, 66, 67. 
 20, 22-2.5, 29, 68. 
 21-23. 
 25. 
 
 26, 27. 
 28-30. 
 28-48. 
 34-37, 100. 
 48, 97. 
 31, 70, 71. 
 49, 51, .54. 
 52, 53. 
 .50, 54, .56. 
 .56, .57, 60, 02-65. 
 66. 
 67. 
 
 69, 70. 
 72, 74. 
 
 72, 73. 
 
 75-79, 82, 86. 
 
QUESTIONS FOE ME VIEW, 
 
 243 
 
 28. Describe the character and reign of Philip V U 78-81, 83. 
 
 29. The successive interventions of the Romans in affairs of 
 
 Macedonia and Greece 76, 79, 81-83, 85, 86. 
 
 30. The lastof the Antigonidse 84. 
 
 31. How many kings of otlier families or nations reigned in Macedonia 
 
 during the Tliird Period? 
 
 32. Describe tlie Tliracians 
 
 33. The origin and liistory of Pergamus. 
 
 34. Of Bithyniu 
 
 35. Tlie early history of Pontus. 
 
 36. Tell the story of Mithridates V 
 
 37. Describe Cappadocia. 
 
 38. Tell in brief the history of Armenia, B. C. 301-A. D. 114. 
 
 39. Describe the most easterly of the Greek kingdoms in Asia. 
 
 40. The character and history of the Parthians. 
 
 41. How was Judaea governed, B, C. 323-lGS? . 
 
 42. Describe its condition under the Syrian kings. 
 
 43. The rise and reign of the Maccabees. 
 
 44. The character of Herod, and the great events of his reign. 
 
 45. How were his dominions distributed B. C. 4-A. D. 44? 
 
 46. Describe the last twenty-six years of Jewish history. 
 
 47. How many battles have been described at Bethhorou? 
 
 48. How many at Thermopylae? 
 
 49. How many at IMantinea? 
 
 50. How many at Salamis in Cyprus? 
 
 51. How many at Chseronea? 
 
 87. 
 
 88-90. 
 
 91. 
 
 92. 
 
 93-95. 
 
 96. 
 
 97. 
 
 98. 
 
 99. 
 IGO, 101. 
 101. 
 
 102-105. 
 106, 107. 
 108. 
 109. 
 
BOOK V. 
 
 History of Eome, from the Earliest Times to the Fall 
 OF THE Western Empire, A. D. 476. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY. 
 
 1. Italy, bounded by the Alps, and the Adriatic, Ionian, and Tyrrhe^- 
 nian seas, is the smallest of the three peninsulas of southern Europe. It 
 is inferior to Greece in the number of its harbors and littoral- islands, but 
 excels it in the richness and extent of its plains and fertile mountain- 
 sides, being thus better fitted for agriculture and the rearing of cattle than 
 for maritime interests. Still, from its long and narrow shape, Italy has 
 an extended coast-line ; the slopes of the Apennines abounded, in ancient 
 times, with forests of oak suitable for ship-timber; and the joeople, especially 
 of Etru^ria, were early attracted to the sea. 
 
 2. The Alps, which separate Italy from the rest of Europe, have had an 
 important effect upon her history. At present they are traversed securely 
 only by five or six roads, which are among the wonders of modern en- 
 gineering. In early times they formed a usually effectual barrier against 
 the barbarous nations on the north and west. The Apennines leave the 
 Alpine range near the present boundary between Italy and France, and 
 extend in a south-easterly and southerly direction to the end of the penin- 
 sula, throwing off lateral ridges on both sides to the sea, and forming that 
 great variety of surface and climate which is the peculiar charm of the 
 country. A multitude of rivers contribute vastly to the fertility of the soil, 
 though, from their short and rapid course, they are of little value for navi- 
 gation. Varro preferred the climate of Italy to that of Greece, as pro- 
 ducing in perfection every thing good for the use of man. No barley 
 .could be compared with the Campa^nian, no wheat with the Apu^lian, no 
 rye with the Faler^nian, no oil with the VenaTran. 
 
 3. NonTHERN Italy lies between the Swiss Alps and the Upper 
 Apennines, and is almost covered by the great plain of the Po, which is 
 one of the most fertile regions of Europe. It comprised, in the most 
 
 (245) 
 
246 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ancient times, the three countries of Ligu^ria, Upper Etruria, and Vene'tia. 
 The second of these divisions, together with some portions of the Ligurian 
 and Venetian territories, was conquered, in the sixth century before Christ, 
 by a Celtic population from the north and west, and was thenceforth known 
 as Cisalpine Gaul. The region north of the Apennines does not belong to 
 Eoman or even Italian history until about the time of the Christian Era, 
 when it became incorporated in the territories of Rome. 
 
 4. The peninsula proper is divided into the two regions of central and 
 southern Italy, by a line drawn from the mouth of the Tifer^nus, on the 
 Adriatic, to that of the SiKarus, on the western coast. Central Italy 
 comprised six countries, of which three, Etniria, La^tium, and Campania, 
 were on the Tyrrhenian Sea, and three others, Um^bria, Pice^num, and the 
 Sabine country, on the Adriatic. Etruria was, in the earliest times, the 
 most important division of Italy proper. It was separated from Liguria 
 by the river Macra ; from Cisalpine Gaul, by the Apennines; and from 
 Umbria, the Sabine territory, and Latium, by the Tiber. 
 
 Laiium, lying south of Etruria, was chiefly a low plain ; but its surface 
 was varied by spurs of the Apennines on the north, and by the VoFscian 
 and Alban ranges of volcanic origin in the center and south. It included 
 the Roman Campagna, now a solitary and almost treeless expanse, con- 
 sidered uninhabitable from the noxious exhalations of the soil, but during 
 and before the flourishing period of Rome, the site of many populous cities. 
 Several foreign tribes occupied portions of the Latin territory, among 
 whom the Volsci, on the mountains which bear their name, and the 
 ^Equi, north of Prsenes^te, were best worthy of mention. In the view of 
 history, a cluster of low hills — seven east and three west of the Tiber — 
 which constitute in later ages the site of Rome, is not only the most im- 
 portant part of Latium, but that which gives its significance to all the 
 rest. 
 
 5. Campania was a fertile and delightful region, extending from the 
 Liris to the Silarus, and from the Apennines to the sea. Greek and 
 Roman writers never wearied of celebrating, the excellence of its harbors, 
 the beauty of its landscape, the exuberant richness of its soil, and the en- 
 chanting softness of its air. The coast is varied by the isolated cone of 
 Vesu^vius and a range of volcanic hills, including the now extinct crater 
 of Solfata^ra. Umbria was a mountainous country east of Etruria. Before 
 the coming of the Gauls, it extended northward to the Ru^bicon and east- 
 ward to the Adriatic; but its coast was wholly conquered by that people, 
 who drove the Umbrians beyond the mountains. 
 
 Picenum consisted of a flat, fertile plain along the Adriatic, and a hilly 
 region, consisting of twisted spurs of the Apennines, in the interior. Poets 
 praised the apples of Picenum, and its olives were among the choicest in 
 Italy. The Sabine territory, at its greatest extension, was 200 miles in 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY. 247 
 
 length, and readied nearly from sea to sea. It was inhabited by many 
 tribes, probably of common origin. Beside the Sabines proper, were the 
 Sam^nites, the Frenta^ni, and the Marsi, Mar^ruci^ni, Pelig^ni, and Ves- 
 ti^ni, who formed the League of the Four Cantons. The Sabine country, 
 though rough, was fertile, and its wine and oil chiefly supplied tlie common 
 people of Rome. 
 
 G. Southern Italy included four countries : Luca^nia and Brut^tium 
 on the west, Apulia and Cala^bria on the east. Lucania is a picturesque 
 and fertile country, watered by many rivers. Bnittium is of similar char- 
 acter, and was especially valued in old times for its pine forests, which, 
 from their timber and pitch, yielded an important revenue to the Roman 
 government. Both countries attracted multitudes of Greek colonists, whose 
 cities early rose to a high degree of wealth and civilization. (See Book 
 III, II 87, 90.) Apulia^ unlike any other division of central or southern 
 Italy, consists chiefly of a rich, unbroken plain, from twenty to forty miles 
 in width, gently sloping from the mountains to the sea. In ancient times 
 it maintained great numbers of horses and sheep, the latter of which were 
 famed for the fineness of their wool. When the plain became parched by 
 summer heats, the flocks were driven to the neighboring mountains of 
 Samnium; while, in winter, the Samnite flocks forsook their bleak and 
 snowy heights to find pasturage in the rich meadows of Apulia. The 
 northern portion of Apulia is mountainous, being traversed by two strong 
 spurs of the Apennines, one of which projects into the sea and forms the 
 rocky headland of Mount Garga^nus. 
 
 Calabria,"^ called by the Greeks lapyg^ia or Messa^pia, occupied the 
 long peninsula which is commonly called the heel of Italy. Its soft lime- 
 stone soil quickly absorbs moisture, rendering the country arid, and the 
 heats of summer intense. The products of the soil were, however, in 
 ancient times, abundant and of great value. Its oil, wine, and honey were 
 widely celebrated, the wool afforded by its flocks was of the finest quality, 
 and the horses which recruited the Tarentine cavalry were among the most 
 excellent in the world. 
 
 7. Italy possessed three islands of great importance: Sicily, noted for 
 its excellent harbors and inexhaustible soil ; Sardin^ia, for its silver mines 
 and harvests of grain ; and Cor^sica, for its dense forests of pine and fir. 
 The position as well as the valuable productions of these islands, early 
 tempted the enterprise of both Greeks and Carthaginians ; and rivalry in 
 their possession first drew these nations into hostility with each other, and 
 with the ultimately victorious power of Rome. 
 
 ':• It should be noticed that the name Calabria is now applied to the other 
 peninsula of southern Italy, that which included the ancient Brnttium. The 
 name was changed about the eleventh century of the Christian Era. 
 
248 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 8. Our history in this Book falls naturally into three divisions : 
 
 I. The Roman Kingdom, B. C. 753-510. 
 
 11. The Roman Republic, " 510-30. 
 
 III. The Roman Empire, " 30-A. D. 476. 
 
 The records of the First Period, so far as they relate to persons, are 
 largely mixed with fable, and it is impossible to separate the fanciful 
 from the real. The student is recommended to read the stories of the 
 kings, in their earliest and most attractive form, in Dr. Arnold's History 
 of Rome. Under their beautiful mythical guise, these legends present, 
 doubtless, a considerable amount of truth. Our limits only admit a state- 
 ment of the popular ancient belief concerning the rise of Rome, among the 
 other and older nations which inhabited Italy. 
 
 9. Central and southern Italy were occupied, from the earliest known 
 times, by three races, the Etrus^cans, Italians, and lapygiuns. The 
 latter were nearly related to the Greeks, as has been proved by their 
 language and the identity of their objects of worship. They therefore 
 mingled readily with the Hellenic settlers (see § 6), and Greek civilization 
 quickly took root and flourished throughout southern Italy. The Italians 
 proper — so called because, when united, they became the ruling race in 
 Italy — arrived later in the peninsula than the lapygians. They came 
 from the north, and crowded into closer quarters the half-Hellenic inhab- 
 itants of the south. They consisted of four principal races: the Umbrians, 
 Sabines, Oscans, and Latins. Of these the first three were closely con- 
 nected, while the Latins were distinct. The latter formed a confederacy 
 of thirty cities, or cantons, and met every year on the Alban Mount to 
 offer a united sacrifice to Jupiter Latia^ris, the protecting deity of the 
 Latin race. During this festival wars were suspended, as in Elis during 
 the Olympic Games. 
 
 10. The Etruscans, or Tuscans, were wholly different in language, 
 appearance, and character from the other nations of Italy. Their origin 
 is wrapped in mystery. Some sup^jose them to have been Turanian, and 
 thus allied to the Lapps, Finns, and Estho^'nians of northern Europe, 
 and the Basques of Spain ; others, and the greater number, believe the 
 mass of the people to have been Pelasgi — that race which overspread 
 Greece and Italy at a remoter period than history can reach — but to 
 have been absorbed and enslaved by a more powerful people from the 
 north, who called themselves Ra/ena, while they Avere named by others 
 Etruscans. History first finds these invaders in Rhse^tia, the country about 
 the head-waters of the Ad^ige, the Danube, and the Rhine; then traces 
 them to the plain of the Po, where, at a very early period, they formed 
 
HISTORY OF HOME, 249 
 
 a league of twelve cities ; and thence south of the Apennines into Tus''- 
 cany, which, reduced in limits, still bears their name. 
 
 Here they formed a similar but quite distinct confederacy of the same 
 number of cities. For a time their dominion extended across the penin- 
 sula, and their fleets commanded both the " Upper " and the " Lower 
 Sea," the latter of which derived from them its ancient name, Tyrrhe- 
 nian. They conquered Campania, and built there a third cluster of twelve 
 cities, of which Cap^ua was the chief; but they lost this portion of their 
 territory in wars with the Samnites. Many relics of Etruscan art exist, 
 in the massive walls of their cities, their castings in bronze, figures in 
 terra-cotta, and golden chains, bracelets, and other ornaments, which 
 prove them to have been a luxurious and wealthy people. Their religion 
 was of a gloomy and superstitious character. They sought to know the 
 will of their gods by auguries drawn from thunder and lightning, from 
 the flight of birds, or from the entrails of slain beasts ; and to avert their 
 wrath by sacrifices prescribed and regulated by an elaborate ritual. To 
 learn these rites formed a large part of the education of a young Tuscan 
 noble. 
 
 11. The Romans, who were destined to be for nearly twelve centuries 
 the dominant race of Italy and the world, belonged to the Latin branch 
 of the Italian family. A Greek tradition celebrated by Virgil, and be- 
 lieved by most Romans in the days of the empire, traced their origin 
 to a company of Trojan emigrants, led to the shores of Italy by ^Ene^as, 
 son of Priam, after the fall of Troy. (See Book III, § 14.) But the 
 Latin coast was at that time densely populated, and the new comers, if 
 any such there were, must soon have been absorbed and lost among the 
 older inhabitants. 
 
 12. The common legends assigned the building of Rome to Rom^ulus, 
 grandson of Nu^mitor, an Alban prince. Numitor had been deprived 
 of his crown by his brother Amu^lius, who also killed the son of the 
 deposed king, and compelled his daughter Silvia to become a vestal. 
 Beloved of Mars, she became, however, the mother of Romulus and 
 Remus, whereupon her uncle caused her to be thrown, with her twin 
 sons, into the Anio, a tributary of the Tiber. The rivers had overflowed! 
 their banks ; when they subsided, the cradle containing the infiint princes 
 was overturned at the foot of the Palatine Mount. Nourished by a wolf, 
 and fed by a woodpecker sacred to Mars, they grew to be hardy young 
 shepherds, and distinguished themselves in combats with wild beasts and 
 robbers. 
 
 At the age of twenty they became aware of their royal birth, and 
 having conquered Amulius, restored their grandfather to his throne. 
 But they still loved the home of their youth, and resolved to build a 
 new city on the banks of the Tiber. The brothers, differing in their 
 
250 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 choice of a site, consulted the auspices. After watching all night, 
 Eemus, at dawn, saw six vultures ; bijt Eomulus, at sunrise, saw twelve. 
 The majority of the shepherds voted the decision to Eomulus, and it was 
 ever after believed that the twelve vultures denoted twelve centuries, 
 during which the dominion of the city should endure. 
 
 13. His shepherd comrades being too few to satisfy his ambition, 
 Eomulus offered asylum on the Cap^itoline to homicides and runaway 
 slaves, thus enrolling among his subjects the refuse of the neighboring 
 tribes. To obtain wives for these adventurers, he invited the Latins and 
 Sabines to witness games in honor of Neptune ; and when not only men, 
 but women and children were assembled, the runners and wrestlers 
 rushed into the crowd and carried away whom they would. War fol- 
 lowed, in which the Latins were thrice defeated. The Sabine king, 
 Titus Tatius, marched with a powerful army upon Eome, obtained pos- 
 session of the Capitoline fortress through the treachery of the maiden 
 Tarpe^ia, the daughter of its commander, and nearly defeated the forces 
 of Eomulus in a long and obstinate battle. 
 
 The Sabine women, however, now reconciled to their fate, came between 
 their fathers and husbands, beseeching them with tears to be reconciled, 
 since, whoever should be conquered, the grief and loss must be their own. 
 A lasting peace was made, and the two kings agreed to reign jointly 
 over the united nations, Eomulus holding his court on the Palatine, and 
 Titus Tatius on the Capitoline and Quirinal hills. After the death of 
 Tatius, Eomulus ruled alone. At the end of a prosperous reign of thirty- 
 seven years, he was reviewing his troops one day in the Field of Mars, 
 when the sun became suddenly darkened, a tempest agitated earth and 
 air, and Eomulus disap})eared. The people mourned him as dead, but 
 they were comforted by his appearing in a glorified form to one of their 
 number, assuring him that the Eomans should become lords of the world, 
 and that he himself, under the name of Quiri''nus, would be their 
 guardian. 
 
 14. After a year's interregnum, Numa, a Sabine of wise and peaceful 
 character, was chosen king. He was revered in after ages as the relig- 
 ious founder of Eome, no less than Eomulus as the author of its civil 
 and military institutions. The wisdom and piety of his laws were 
 attributed to the nymph Ege^ria, who met him by a fountain in a grove, 
 and dictated to him the principles of good government. The few records 
 of this king and his predecessor belong rather to mythology than 
 to history. 
 
 15. TuUus HostiKius, the third king of Eome, is the first of whose 
 deeds we have any trustworthy account. He conquered Alba Longa,'and 
 transferred its citizens to the Cse^lian Hill in Eome. This new city then 
 became the protectress of the Latin League, with the right of presiding 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 251 
 
 at the annual festival, though it was never, like Alba, a member of the 
 League, but a distinct power in alliance with it. The federal army was 
 commanded alternately by a Roman and a Latin general ; and the lands 
 acquired in the wars of the League were equally divided between the 
 two contracting parties, thus giving to Rome, it is evident, a far greater 
 share than to any other city. 
 
 16. The citizens of consolidated Rome now constituted three tribes: 
 the Ram'nes, or original Romans, on the Palatine; the Tifies, or Sabines, 
 on the Capitoline and Quirinal ; and the Lu^cercs, on the Ccelian.- Each 
 tribe consisted of ten cii'^rlce, or wards, and each curia of ten houses, or 
 clans (gentes). The patrician, or noble, houses, which alone enjoyed the 
 rights of citizenship, thus numbered three hundred. The heads of all the 
 houses constituted the Senate, while the ComiVia Curia^ta, or public 
 assembly, included all citizens of full age. 
 
 Rome, at this period, contained only two classes beside the Patricians. 
 These were the clients and slaves. The former were the poorer people 
 who belonged to no gens, and therefore, though free, had no civil rights. 
 They were permitted to choose a patron in the person of some noble, 
 who was bound to protect their interests, if need were, in courts of law. 
 The client, on the other hand, followed his patron to war as a vassal ; 
 contributed to his ransom, or that of his children_, if taken prisoners; 
 and paid part of the costs of any lawsuit in which the patron might be 
 engaged, or of his expenses in discharging honorable offices in the state. 
 The relation on either side descended from father to son. It was es- 
 teemed a glory to a noble family to have a numerous clientage, and to 
 increase that which it had inherited from its ancestors. The clients bore 
 the clan-name * of their patron. Slaves were not numerous in the days 
 of the kings. During the Republic, multitudes of captives were brought 
 into the market by foreign wars; and at the close of that period, at 
 least half the inhabitants of Roman territory were bondsmen. 
 
 17a Ancus Mar^tius conquered many Latin towns, and transported 
 their citizens to Rome, where he assigned them the Aventine Hill as a 
 residence. Of these new settlers some became clients of the nobility, 
 but the wealthier class scorned this dependent condition, and relied upon 
 the jDrotection of the king. Hence arose a new order in the state, the 
 Plebs, or commonalty, which was destined to become, in later times, 
 equally important with the nobility. It included, beside the conquered 
 
 =:■ A Patrician had at least three names: his own personal appellation, as Ca'ius, 
 Marcns, or Lu'cius; the name of his clan, and the name of his family. Many 
 Romaus had a fourth name, derived from some personal pecnliaritj'^ or memora- 
 ble deed. Thus Pub'lius Corne'lius Scip'io Africa'nus belonged to the Cornelian 
 gens, the Scipio familj'', and received a surname from his brilliant achievements 
 in Africa. His clients bore the name Cornelius. 
 
252 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 people, foreign settlers who came for trade, for refuge, or for employment 
 in the army; clients whose protecting families had become extinct; and 
 sons of patricians who had married wives of inferior rank. Ancus ex- 
 tended the Roman territory to the sea; built the port-town of Os^tia, 
 and established salt-works in its vicinity; fortified the Janiculan Hill, 
 opposite Rome, for a defense against the Etruscans ; and constructed the 
 Mamertine, the first Roman prison. 
 
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 18. Lucius Tarquin^ius Priscus was of Greek origin, though he took 
 his name from the Etruscan town Tarquinii, where he was born. The 
 characteristics of his race were shown in the mai^nificent works with 
 which he embellished Rome. lie drained the lower parts of the city by 
 a great system of sewers, and restrained the overflow of the Tiber by a 
 wall of massive masonry, at the place where the Cloa^ca Maxima en- 
 tered the river. In the valley thus redeemed from inundation he built 
 the Forum, with its surrounding rows of porticos and shops; and con- 
 structed the Circus ]Maximus for the celebration of the Great Games, 
 which had been founded by Romulus, and resembled in most of their 
 features the atliletic contests of the Greeks. 
 
HISTORY OF HOME. 253 
 
 As a native of Etruria, Tarquin vowed the erection, upon llie Capito- 
 line, of a temple to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, the three deities who 
 were worshiped together in every Etruscan city , and for this purpose he 
 cleared away from that mountain all the holy places of the Sabine gods. 
 The temple was built by his son. The wars of Tarquin against the 
 Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans were usually victorious, and added largely 
 to the population of Kome. From the noblest of the conquered peoples 
 he formed three new half-tribes of fifty " houtses " each, which he joined 
 to the three old tribes of Eamnes, Titles, and Luceres, while he increased 
 the number of Vestal Virgins from four to six, that each race might be 
 equally represented. Tarquin was murdered by hired agents of the sons 
 of Ancus Martins, who hoped thus to secure for themselves the throne 
 of their father. But the Roman monarchy was strictly elective, not 
 hereditary ; their crime failed of its purpose, and Servius TuFlius, an 
 Etruscan general, and son-in-law of the murdered king, obtained the 
 crown. 
 
 19. He made radical changes in the constitution, by giving to every 
 free Roman the right of suffrage, though all offices in the government 
 were still held by the nobles. The Greek cities of southern Italy were, 
 at the same time, changing from aristocratic to popular forms of gov- 
 ernment, and there are many signs of Greek influence in Latium and 
 Rome. The new popular assembly, Comitia Centuria^ta, was so called 
 from the "centuries" in which the entire citizen-soldiery was enrolled. 
 Wealth now acquired in Rome something of the power which had liith- 
 erto been reserved for rank. Every man who held property was bound 
 to serve in the armies, and his military position was accurately graded 
 by the amount of his possessions. Highest of all were the Eq^uites, or 
 horsemen. These were divided into eighteen centuries, of which the first 
 six — two for each original tribe — were wholly patrician, while the re- 
 maining twelve were wealthy and powerful plebeians. 
 
 The mass of the people enrolled for service on foot was divided into 
 five classes. Those who were able to equip themselves in complete 
 brazen armor fought in the front rank of the phalanx. Of this class 
 there were eighty centuries: forty of younger men, from fifteen to forty- 
 five years of age, who were the choicest of Roman infantry in the field ; 
 and forty of their elders, from forty-five to sixty, who were usually re- 
 tained for the defense of the city. The second class were placed behind 
 the first; they wore no coat of mail, and their shields w^ere of wood 
 instead of brass. The third class wore no greaves, and the fourth carried 
 no shields. These three classes consisted of only twenty centuries each. 
 The fifth and lowest military class did not serve in the phalanx, but 
 formed the light-armed infantry, and provided themselves only with darts 
 and slings. Below all the classes were a few centuries of the poorest 
 
254 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 people, who were not required to equip themselves for war. They were 
 sometimes armed, at the public expense, on occasions of great loss or 
 danger to the state; or they followed the army as supernumeraries, and 
 were ready to take the weapons and places of those who fell. 
 
 20, Beside the patrician tribes of Raranes, Titles, and Luceres, Servius 
 made four tribes in the city and twenty-six in the country, consisting 
 of land-owners without respect to rank. The meeting-place for the whole 
 thirty was the Forum at Eome, while the centuries met without the city 
 on the Field of Mars. The people assembled in the Forum had all the 
 powers of self-government. They elected magistrates and levied taxes for 
 the support of the state, duties which hitherto had belonged to the 
 Comitia Curiata. Of the public lands on the Etruscan side of the Tiber, 
 gained in his early wars, Servius assigned a certain portion to the plebe- 
 ians, in full ownership. The patricians had leased these lands from the 
 state for the pasturage of their flocks, and they were much exasperated 
 by the new allotment. 
 
 21, Servius extended the bounds of the city far beyond the Roma 
 Quadra^ta of the Palatine. The Esquiline, Caelian, and Aventine hills 
 had already been occupied by surburban settlements, while the Capito- 
 liue, Quirinal, and Vim'inal were held by the Sabine tribes. These 
 Seven Hills, ^ with a large space between and around them,* were in- 
 closed by Servius in a new wall, which lasted more than eight hundred 
 years, until the time of the emperor Aurelian. Servius reigned forty- 
 four years, B. C. 578-534. Desirous above all things for the continuance 
 of his reformed institutions, he had determined to abdicate the throne, 
 after causing the people, by a free and universal vote, to elect two mag- 
 istrates who should rule but one year. Before the end of their term 
 they were to provide, in like manner, for the peaceful choice of their 
 successors ; and thus Rome would have passed, by a bloodless revolution, 
 to a popular government. Tlie nobles, however, revolted against this 
 infringement of their exclusive rights. Led by Tarquin, son of the first 
 monarch of that name, and husband of the wicked TuUia, daughter of 
 Servius, they murdered the beneficent king and placed their leader on 
 the throne. 
 
 22, Tarquin, called "the Proud," set aside all the popular laws of 
 Servius, and restored the privileges of the " houses" ; but as soon as he felt 
 secure in his power, he oppressed nobles and people alike. He compelled 
 the poorer classes to toil upon the public works which his fiither had 
 
 * The name of the City of the Seven Mountains had been given to Rome when 
 witliiQ much narrower limits. The SepiimoiUium included only the Palatine, 
 Esquiline, and Ceelian, which were divided into smaller peaks or eminences, 
 seven in all. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 255 
 
 begun, and upon others which he himself originated. Such were the 
 permanent stone seats of the Circus Maximus, a new system of sewers, 
 and the great Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. By wars or 
 intrigues, Tarquin made himself supreme throughout Latium. But his 
 insolence disgusted the patricians; he took away the property or lives 
 of citizens without consulting the Senate, while he imposed upon them 
 civil and military burdens beyond what the law permitted. The vile 
 misconduct of his son Sextus led at last to a revolt, in which kingly 
 government was overthrown. The Tarquins and all their clan were 
 banished. The very name of king was thenceforth held in especial 
 abhorrence at Rome. Only in one case was it tolerated. A "king for 
 offering sacrifices" was appointed, that the gods might not miss their 
 usual mediator with men; but this sacerdotal king was forbidden to hold 
 any civil office. 
 
 Early history of Rome is largely fabulous. Three races in Italy, of whom the 
 Etruscans, before the rise of Rome, were most powerful. Their cities, art, and 
 religion. Rome was founded by Latins, but embraced a mixed population of 
 Sabines, Etruscans, and others, which gave rise to tlie three tribes. Three 
 hundred noble "houses" constituted the Senate and Comitia Curiota. Clientage. 
 Formation, of a commonalty under Ancus Martins. Buildings of Tarquinius 
 Priscus. Free constitution of Servius Tullius. Division of the people into centu- 
 ries, both as soldiers and citizens. Thirty tribes assemble in the Forum. In- 
 closure of the Seven Hills by the TuUian Wall. Tyranny of Tarquin the Proud. 
 Royalty abolished at Rome. Supposed Chronology of the Kings: Romulus, B. C. 
 753-716; Numa, 716-673; Tullius Hostilius, 673-641 ; Ancus Martins, 641-616; L. Tar- 
 quinius Priscus, 616-578; Servius Tullius, 578-534; Tarquinius Superbus, 534-510. 
 
 Religion of Rome. 
 
 23. Before passing to the history of the Republic, we glance at the 
 religion of Rome. For the first 170 years from the foundation of the 
 city, the Romans had no images of their gods. Idolatry has probably 
 been, in every nation, a later corruption of an earlier and more spiritual 
 worship. Roman religion was far less beautiful and varied in its con- 
 ceptions than that of the Greeks. ■^' It afforded but little inspiration to 
 poetry or art, but it kept alive the homely household virtues, and regu- 
 
 - At a later period, when the Romans had become familiar with the literature 
 of the Greeks, an attempt was made to unite the mythologies of the two nations. 
 Some deities, like Apollo, were directly borrowed from the Greeks; in other 
 cases, some resemblance of office or character caused the Greek and the Roman 
 divinities to be considered the same. Thus Jupiter was identified with Zeus; 
 Minerva, the thinking goddess — the Etruscan itfener/a— with Athena, etc. By 
 order of the Delphic oracle or of the Sibylline Books, living serpents, sacred to 
 -^sculapjus, were brought from Epidaurus to Rome, to avert a pestilence, B. C. 293. 
 
256 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 lated the transactions of the farm, the forum, and the shop, by princi- 
 ples drawn from a higher range of being. 
 
 The chief gods of the Romans were Jupiter and Mars. The former 
 was supreme; but the latter was, throughout the early history of this 
 warlike people, the central object of worship. March, the first month 
 of their year, was consecrated to him, and, in almost all European lan- 
 guages, still bears his name. The great war festival occupied a large 
 portion of the month. During its first few days the twelve Salii, or 
 leapers, priests of Mars, who were chosen from the noblest families, 
 passed through the streets singing^ dancing, and beating their rods upon 
 their brazen shields. Quirinus, under whose name Romulus was wor- 
 shiped, was only a duplicate Mars, arising from the union of the two 
 mythologies of the Romans and Sabines. He had, also, his twelve 
 leapers, and was honored, in February, with similar ceremonies. 
 
 24. The celebrations of the several periods of the farmer's year were 
 next in order to the war festival. The month of April was marked by 
 days of sacrifice to the nourishing earth; to Ceres, the goddess of growth; 
 to the patroness of flocks ; and to Jupiter, the protector of vines ; while 
 a deprecatory offering was made to Rust, the enemy of crops. In May 
 the Arval Brothers, a company of twelve priests, held their three days' 
 festival in honor of Dea Dia, invoking her blessing in maintaining the 
 fertility of the earth, and granting prosperity to the whole territory of 
 Rome. August had its harvest festivals; October, its wine celebration 
 in honor of Jupiter ; December, its two thanksgivings for the treasures 
 of the granary, its Saturnalia or seed-sowing on the 17th, and its cele- 
 bration of the shortest day, which brought back the new sun. Sailors 
 had their festivals in honor, respectively, of the gods of the river, the 
 harbor, and the sea. The ceremonial year was closed with the singular 
 Lu^perca^lia, or wolf festival, in which a certain order of priests, girdled 
 with goat-skins, leaped about like wolves, or ran through the city scourg- 
 ing the spectators with knotted thongs; and by the Ter^mina^lia, or 
 boundary-stone festival in honor of Ter^minus, the god of landmarks. 
 
 Janus, the double-faced god of beginnings, was a peculiarly Roman 
 divinity. To him all gates and doors were sacred, as well as the morn- 
 ing, the opening of all solemnities, and the month (January) in which 
 the labors of the husbandman began anew in southern Italy. Sacrifices 
 were offered to him on twelve altars, and prayers at the beginning of 
 every day. New-year's day was especially sacred to him, and was 
 supposed to impart its character to the whole year. People were 
 careful, therefore, to have their thoughts, words, and acts on that day 
 pure, beneficent, and just. They greeted each other with gifts and good 
 wishes, and performed some part of whatever work they had planned 
 for the year; while they were much dispirited if any trifling accident 
 
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HISTORY OF ROME. 257 
 
 occurred. A covered passage between the Palatine and Quirinal hills,. 
 i. c, between the original Koman and Sabine cities, was known by the 
 name of Janus. Armies going out or returning passed through it, and 
 hence it was always open in time of war and closed in peace. The 
 same ceremony was continued after the passage had ceased to be used, 
 the triumphal gate having been constructed in the walls of Servius. 
 
 25. Vulcan, the god of fire and the forge, was honored by two festi- 
 vals, the consecration of trumpets in May, and the VoKcana^lia in 
 August. Though of inferior rank to the divinities already mentioned, 
 yet dearest of all to the Eomans, were the gods of the hearth, the 
 household, and store-room, and of the forest and field. Every house 
 was a temple, and every meal a sacrifice to Vesta, the goddess of the 
 hearth. Her temple was the hearth-stone of the city. There six chosen 
 maidens, daughters of the most illustrious families, guarded the sacred 
 fire, which was the symbol of the goddess, by night and day. Every 
 house had over its main entrance a little chapel of the La^res, where 
 the father of the family performed his devotions immediately on return- 
 ing from any journey. The Lares were supposed to be the spirits of 
 good men, especially the deceased ancestors of the family. Public Lares 
 were the protecting spirits of the city ; they were worshiped in a temple 
 and numerous chapels, the latter being placed at the crossings of streets. 
 There were also rural Lares, and Lares Via^les, who were worshiped by 
 travelers. 
 
 26. Like all people in any degree afiected by Greek culture, the 
 Romans consulted the Delphic oracle. After the capture of Ve^ii (see 
 I 57), they presented that shrine with a tenth of the spoils. Rome 
 itself possessed only one oracle, that of Faunus (the favoring god), on 
 the Aventine Hill. Several oracles of Fortune, Faunus, and Mars existed 
 in Latium, but in none of them were audible responses given, by the 
 mouth of inspired persons, as at Delphi. At Albu^nea, near Tibur, 
 Faunus was consulted by the sacrifice of a sheep. The skin of the 
 animal was spread upon the ground; the person seeking direction slept 
 upon it, and believed that he learned the will of the god by visions and 
 dreams. The Eomans frequently resorted to the Greek oracles in southern 
 Italy; and the most acceptable gift which the inhabitants of Magna 
 Grsecia could offer to their friends in Rome, was a palm-leaf inscribed 
 with some utterance of the Cumsean sibyl, a priestess of Apollo at 
 Cumse, near Naples. 
 
 27. The Sibylline Books were believed to have been purchased by one 
 of the Tarquins from a mysterious woman, who appeared at Rome offer- 
 ing nine volumes at an exorbitant price. The king refusing to purchase, 
 the sibyl went away and destroyed three of the books; then brought 
 back the remaining six, for which she asked the same amount of money. 
 
 A. H.— 33. 
 
258 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 The king again sent her away ; she destroyed three more books, and de- 
 manded the whole price for the remaining three. The curiosity of Turquin 
 was aroused, and he bought the books, which were found to contain impor- 
 tant revelations concerning the fate of Eome. They were kept in jj stone 
 chest under the temple of Jupiter Cap^itoli^nus. One of the four sacred 
 colleges was charged with the care of them, and they were only consulted, 
 by order of the Senate, on occasions of great public calamity. 
 
 28. The Romans probably learned from the Etruscans their various 
 methods of divination — the interpretation of signs in the heavens, of 
 thunder and lightning, of the flight or voice of birds, of the appearance 
 of sacrifices, and of dreams. The legends ascribed to Tarquinius Priscus 
 the introduction of Etruscan divinities and modes of worship into Rome. 
 At a later time, the Senate provided by special decree for the cultivation 
 of "Etruscan discipline" by young men of the highest birth, lest a 
 science so important to the commonwealth should be corrupted by falling 
 into the hands of low and mercenary persons. 
 
 The Augurs constituted the second of the sacred colleges ; their number 
 was gradually increased from three to sixteen ; they were distinguished 
 by a-sacred dress and a curved staff, and were held in the highest honor. 
 No public act of any kind could be performed without "taking the au- 
 guries" — no election held, no law passed, no war declared; for, by 
 theory, the gods were the rulers of the state, and the magistrates merely 
 their deputies. If, in the midst of the comitia, an augur, however 
 falsely, declared that it thundered, the Assembly broke up at once. It 
 mu;st be admitted that the augurs often used their great power unfairly, 
 in the political strife between patricians and plebeians. The latter, as 
 originally foreigners (see § 17), were held to have no share in the gods 
 of Rome, who thus became the exclusive patrons of the privileged class. 
 When, by a change in the constitution, plebeians were at length elected 
 to high offices, the augurs in several cases declared the election null, on 
 the pretext that the auspices had been irregular; and as no one could 
 appeal from their decision, their veto was absolute. 
 
 21). The College of Pontiffs was the most illustrious of the religious 
 institutions attributed to the good king Numa. The pontiffs superin- 
 tended all public worship according to their sacred books, and were re- 
 quired to give instruction to all who asked it, concernins: the ceremonies 
 with which the gods might be approached. Whenever sacred officers 
 were to be appointed, or wills read, they convoked the Assembly. Cer- 
 tain cases of sacrilegious crime could only be judged by them; and in 
 very early times, like the Hebrew scribes, they were the sole possessors 
 of both civil and religious law. The highest magistrate, equally Avith 
 private persons, submitted to their decrees, provided three members of 
 the college agreed in the decision. They alone knew what days and 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 259 
 
 hours miglit be used for the tninsaction of public business. The calen- 
 dar was in their keeping, and — since these august and reverend digni- 
 taries were only men — it is well known that they sometimes used their 
 power to lengthen the year's office of a favorite consul, or to shorten 
 that of one whom they disapproved. The title of Pon^tifex Maximus, 
 or Supreme Pontiff, was adopted by the Roman emperors, and passed 
 from them to the popes or bishops of modern Eome. 
 
 30. The fourth of the sacred colleges consisted of the Fetia^les, or 
 heralds, who were the guardians of the public faith in all dealings with 
 foreign nations. If war was to be declared, it was the duty of a herald 
 to enter the enemy's country, and four times — once on either side of 
 the Roman boundary, then to the first citizen whom he chanced to meet, 
 and, finally, to the magistrates at the seat of government — to set forth 
 the causes of complaint, and with great solemnity to call on Jupiter to 
 give victory to those whose cause was just. 
 
 The priests of particular gods were called Flamens, or kindlers, because 
 one of their principal duties was the offering of sacrifices by fire. Chief 
 of them all was the Fiamen Dialis, or priest of Jupiter; and next to 
 him were the priests of Mars and Quirinus. Though the purity and 
 dignity of the priestly life were guarded by many curious laws, the 
 priest was not forbidden to hold civil offices. He was not allowed, how- 
 ever, to mount a horse, to look upon an army outside the walls, or, in 
 early times, to leave the city for even a single night. 
 
 31. After the good king Servius Tullius had completed his census, he 
 performed a solemn purification of the city and people. During the 
 Republic, the same ceremony was repeated after every general registra- 
 tion, which took place once in five years. Sacrifices of a pig, a sheep, 
 and an ox were offered ; water was sprinkled from olive-branches, and 
 certain substances were burned, whose smoke was supposed to have a 
 cleansing effect. In like manner, farmers purified their fields, and shep- 
 herds their flocks. An army or a fleet always underwent lustration 
 before setting out on any enterprise. In the case of the latter, altars 
 were erected on the shore near which the ships were moored. The sac- 
 rifices were carried three times around the fleet, in a small boat, by the 
 generals and priests, while prayers were offered aloud for the success of 
 the expedition. 
 
 Roman religion less imaginative and more practical than the Greek. Jupiter, 
 ]Mars, and Qniiinus its chief divinities. Yearly festivals had reference chiefly to 
 war and husbandry. Worship of Janus. Household gods. Tiie Romans shared 
 their belief in oracles with the Greeks; their arts of divination, with the Etrus- 
 cans. Four Sacred Colleges: Pontiffs, Augurs, Heralds, and Keepers of the Sibyl- 
 line Books. Priests might hold civil offices. Ceremonial cleansing of the city after 
 every census; of armies and fleets before every expedition. 
 
260 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 II. The Koman Republic. 
 
 32. The 480 years' history of the Roman Republic will be best under- 
 stood if divided into four periods : 
 
 I. The Growth of the Constitution, B. C. 510-343. 
 II. Wars for the possession of Italy, B. C. 343-264. 
 
 III. Foreign AVars, by which Rome became the ruling power in the 
 world, B. C. 264-133. 
 
 IV. Internal Commotions and Civil Wars, B. C. 133-31. 
 
 The leaders of the revolution which expelled the Tarquins, restored the 
 laws of Servius and carried forward his plans, by causing the election 
 of two chief magistrates, of whom one was probably a plebeian. The 
 consuls, during their year of office, had all the power and dignity of kings., 
 They were preceded in public by their guard of twelve lictors, bearing 
 the fasces, or bundles of rods. Out of the city, when the consul was 
 engaged in military command, an ax was bound up with the rods, in 
 token of his absolute power over life and death. 
 
 33. For 150 years the Republic was involved in a struggle for exist- 
 ence, during which its power was much less than that of regal Rome. 
 The Latins threw off their supremacy, and Lars Por^sena, the Etruscan 
 king of Clu^sium, actually conquered the city, and received from the 
 Senate an ivory throne, a golden crown, a scepter, and triumphal robe, 
 in token of homage. In their further attempts upon Latium, the Etrus- 
 cans were defeated, and Rome became independent, but with the loss of 
 all her territories west of the Tiber. The Latins were defeated at the 
 Lake Regillus, by the aid — so Roman minstrels related — of the twin 
 deities. Castor and Pollux, who appeared at the head of the legions, in 
 the form of two beautiful youths of more than mortal stature, mounted 
 on white horses, and who were the first to break through into the 
 enemy's camp. A temple was consequently built to them in the Forum, 
 and they were regarded as the especial patrons of the Roman knights. 
 
 34. External dangers over, the patricians again made their power felt 
 in the oppression of the common people. The first period of the Repub- 
 lic was absorbed in conflicts between the two great orders in the state- 
 less attractive, certainly, than the romantic stories of the kingly age, or 
 the stirring incidents of the later period of conquest. But the steps by 
 which a great people has gained and established its freedom can never 
 be without importance, especially to the only republic which has rivaled 
 Rome in grandeur, in variety of interests, or in the multitude of races 
 and languages included eventually within its limits. 
 
 35. The wealth of Rome hitherto had been chiefly derived from the 
 products of the soil. The lands west of the Tiber were now lost, and all 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 261 
 
 the rural district was open to invasion. Crops were ruined, farm build- 
 ings destroyed, cattle driven away. At the same time, through the losses 
 and necessities of the government, taxes were greatly increased; and these 
 were levied, not upon the reduced vahie of the property, but upon the 
 scale of former assessments. To meet their dues, the poor were obliged 
 to borrow money, at enormous rates of interest, from the rich. The 
 nobles seized the opportunity to enforce to their full extent the cruel laws 
 concerning debt, and the sufferings of the insolvent grew too grievous to 
 be borne. Many sold themselves as slaves to discharge their obligations. 
 Those who refused thus to sign away their own and their children's liberty 
 were often imprisoned, loaded with chains, and starved or tortured by the 
 cruelty of their creditors. The patrician castles, which commanded the 
 hills of Rome, contained gloomy dungeons, which were the scenes of un- 
 told atrocities toward such as had the misfortune to incur the wrath of 
 their owners. 
 
 36. Fifteen years after the expulsion of the kings, the plebeians, wearied 
 out with a government which existed only for the rich, and imposed all 
 its burdens on the poor, withdrew in a body to a hill beyond the Anio, 
 and declared their intention of founding a new city, where they might 
 govern themselves by more just and equal laws, B. C. 494. The patricians 
 now perceived that they had gone too far. However much they hated the 
 people, they had no idea of losing their services. They yielded, therefore, 
 and received back the seceded plebeians on their own conditions. These 
 were: (1.) Cancellation of claims against insolvent debtors; (2.) Liberation 
 of all such who had been imprisoned or enslaved; (3.) Annual election of 
 two Tribunes, whose duty it should be to defend the interests of the com- 
 mons. The number of these oflQcers was soon raised to five, and eventually 
 to ten. Two plebeian JE^diles were at the same time appointed, and charged 
 with the superintendence of streets, buildings, markets, and public lands; of 
 the public games and festivals, and of the general order of the city. They 
 were judges in cases of small importance, like those of modern police 
 courts; and they were eventually intrusted with the keeping of the decrees 
 of the Senate, which had sometimes been tampered with by the patrician 
 magistrates. 
 
 37. The scene of this first decisive battle of the people for their rights, 
 was consecrated to Jupiter, and known in later years as the Sacred Mount 
 {Mons Sacer). The Roman commons had thenceforth an important part 
 in public affairs. To prevent suffering in future, Spurius Cassius, consul 
 in the year following the secession, proposed a division among the plebeians 
 of a certain part of the public lands, while the tithe of produce levied by 
 the state upon the lands leased by the patricians, should be strictly col- 
 lected and applied to the payment of the common people when they served 
 as soldiers. Hitherto the troops had received no pay, while their burden 
 
262 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 of war expenses was great. The other consul opposed the law, and charged 
 Cassius with seeking popularity that he might make himself a king. The 
 law — the first of a long series of "Agrarian" enactments — was passed; 
 but when the year of his consulship had expired, Cassius was brought to 
 trial by his enemies, and condemned as a traitor. He was scourged and 
 beheaded, and his house was razed to the ground, B. C. 485. 
 
 38. Having destroyed the leader, the patricians went on to rob the 
 people of all the advantage of the law. They insisted on electing both 
 consuls themselves, only requiring their confirmation by the popular as- 
 semblies; and with or without this confirmation, their candidates held 
 supreme power, and refused to divide the public lands. The only resource 
 of the commons was to withhold themselves from military service, and the 
 tribunes now made their power felt by protecting them in refusing to enlist. 
 The consuls defeated this measure by holding their recruiting stations out- 
 side of the city, while the jurisdiction of the tribunes was wholly within 
 the walls. Though a man might keep himself safe within the protection 
 of the tribunes, yet his lands were laid waste, his buildings burnt, and his 
 cattle confiscated by order of the government. One last expedient re- 
 mained. Though compelled to enlist, the soldiers could not be made to 
 gain a battle; and considering the consul who led them, and the class to 
 which he belonged, worse enemies than those whom they met in the field, 
 they allowed themselves to be defeated by the Veientians. 
 
 39. The noble house of the Fa^bii, as champions of the nobility, had 
 been for six successive years in possession of the consulship. They now 
 saw the danger to Eorae of longer opposition to the will of the people; 
 and when Kseso Fabius, in the year 479 B. C, came into power, he in- 
 sisted upon the execution of the Cassian law. The patricians refused 
 with scorn, and the Fabii resolved to quit Rome. With their hundreds 
 of clients, their families, and a few burghers who were attached to them 
 by friendship and sympathy, they established a colony in Etruria, on the 
 little river Cren/era, a few miles from the city. They promised to be no 
 less loyal and valiant defenders of Roman interests, and to maintain with 
 their own resources this advanced post, in the war then in progress against 
 Veii. Two years from their migration, the settlement was surprised by the 
 Veientians, and every man was put to death, B. C. 477. 
 
 40. The consuls still refused to comply with the Agrarian law, and at 
 the expiration of their term were impeached by Genu^cius, one of the 
 tribunes of the people. On the morning of the day appointed for the trial, 
 Genucius was found murdered in his bed, B. C. 473. This treacherous act 
 paralyzed the people for the moment, and the consuls proceeded with the 
 enlistment of soldiers. Vo^lero Publi^lius, a strong and active commoner, 
 refused to be enrolled; and in the tumult which ensued, the consuls with 
 all their retinue were driven from the Forum. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 263 
 
 The next year Volero was chosen tribune, and brought forward a law 
 that the tribunes should thenceforth be elected by the commons alone in 
 their tribes, instead of by the entire people in the centuries. This was 
 designed to avoid the overwhelming vote of the clients of the great houses, 
 who were obliged to obey the decrees of their patrons, and who often con- 
 trolled the action of the general assembly. For a whole year the patricians 
 contrived, by various delays, to prevent the passage of the bill. Ap^pius 
 Clau^dius, one of the consuls, stationed himself with an armed force in the 
 Forum to oppose it; and it was not until the plebeians, resorting in their 
 turn to force, had seized the Capitol, and held it for some time under mil- 
 itary guard, that the Publilian law was passed. This "second Great 
 Charter of Roman liberties" gave the tribes not only the power of electing 
 tribunes and sediles, but of first discussing all questions which concerned 
 the entire nation. It was a long step toward the gaining of equal rights 
 by the commons, B. C. 471. 
 
 4:1. In the meanwhile, the Romans were carrying on wars with the 
 -^qui and Yolsci, two Oscan nations which had taken advantage of the 
 changes in the Latin League, to extend their power to the cities on the 
 Alban Mount and over the southern plain of Latium, Their forays ex- 
 tended to the veiy gates of Rome, driving the country people to take 
 refuge, with their cattle, within the walls, where a plague then raging- 
 added the horrors of pestilence to those of war. It is probable that the 
 civil conflicts in Rome had caused the exile of many citizens; and these, 
 in most instances, joined the hostile nations. Rome was the champion 
 of oligarchy among the cities of Italy, as Sparta was among those of Greece. 
 The spirit of party was often stronger than patriotism ; the sympathy be- 
 tween Roman and foreign aristocrats was greater than between patrician 
 and plebeian at home ; and thus an exiled noble was willing to become 
 the destroyer of his country. 
 
 42. The story of CorioLVuus may be partly fictitious, but it truly illus- 
 trates the condition of the Republic at that period. Caius Marcius, a de- 
 scendant of the fourth king of Rome, was the pride of the patricians for 
 his warlike virtues, and had won his surname Coriolanus by capturing the 
 Volscian town of Cori^li by his individual gallantry. But he was bitterly 
 opposed to the common people, and when he was about to be tried before 
 the comitia for having opposed a distribution of corn, he fled and took 
 refuge among the Volscians, whom he had formerly conquered. The king 
 warmly welcomed him, and seized the first opportunity to stir up a new 
 war with the Romans, that he might turn against them the arms of their 
 best leader. When the Volscian army approached Rome, the Senate sent 
 deputies to demand peace, but Caius refused all terms except such as were 
 impossible for the Republic to grant. The priests and augurs next went 
 to plead with him, but without effect. 
 
264 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 At last the noble ladies of Rome, headed by Volum^nia, the mother of 
 Caius, and his wife, VergiHa, with her young children, went out in a sad 
 and solemn procession to plead for their sacred city. Coriolanus honored, 
 above all, the mother to whose wise and faithful care he owed his greatness. 
 He sprang to meet her with fitting reverence, but before she would receive 
 his greeting, Volumnia exclaimed ; " Let me know whether I stand, in thy 
 camp, thy prisoner or thy mother; whether I am speaking to an enemy or 
 to my son ! " Her reproaches silenced Caius ; the entreaties of his wife 
 and children, and the tears of the noble ladies, moved him from his pur- 
 pose. He exclaimed, ''Mother, thine is the victory; thou hast saved Rome, 
 but thou hast lost thy son ! " He led away the Volscian army. Some say 
 he fell a victim to their revenge ; but others, that he lived on among them 
 to extreme old age, and lamented, in the desolateness of his years of in- 
 firmity, the factious pride that had exiled him from wife, children, and 
 native land. 
 
 43. In the meantime, Rome suffered another visitation of pestilence, in 
 Avhich thousands of people died daily in the streets. The ^quians and 
 Volscians ravaged the country up to the walls of Rome ; and in addition to 
 their other miseries, the crowded multitude were threatened with starvation. 
 Their civil grievances were not to be redressed by anything less than a 
 thorough and radical reform. In the year 462 B. C, the tribune Terenti^- 
 lius Harsa proposed the appointment of a board of ten commissioners, 
 half patrician and half plebeian, to revise the constitution, define the 
 duties of consuls and tribunes, and frame a code of laws from the mass of 
 decisions and precedents. This movement Avas the occasion for ten years 
 of violent contention, during which Rome was several times near falling 
 into the hands of the Volscians, and was once actually occupied by a band 
 of exiles and slaves under a Sabine leader, Herdo^nius, who seized the 
 Capitol and demanded the restoration of all banished citizens to their 
 rights in Rome. 
 
 44. Chief of the exiles was Kseso Quinc^tius, son of the great Cincin- 
 na^'tus, who had been expelled for raising riots in the Forum, to prevent 
 any action of the people upon the Terentilian law. The invading party 
 was defeated, and every man slain. The father of Kseso was then consul. 
 In revenge for the fate of his son, he declared that the law should never 
 pass while he was in office ; and that he would immediately lead the entire 
 citizen -soldiery out to war, thus preventing a meeting of the tribes. Nay 
 more, the augurs were to accompany him, and so consecrate the ground of 
 the encampment, that a lawful assembly could be held under the absolute 
 power of the consuls, and repeal all the laws which had ever been enacted 
 at Rome under the authority of the tribunes. At the close of his term, 
 Cincinnatus declared that he would appoint a dictator, whose authority 
 would supersede that of all other officers, patrician or plebeian. All these 
 
HISTORY OF ROME, 265 
 
 things could be done under the strict forms of the Eoman constitution ; 
 but the Senate and the wiser patricians saw that the patience of the com- 
 mons might be taxed too far, and persuaded Cincinnatus to forego so 
 extreme an exercise of his power. 
 
 45. War with the iEquians went on, and treaties were only made to be 
 broken. In the year 458 B. C, the entire Roman army was entrapped in 
 a pass of the Alban Hills, surrounded by the enemy, and in imminent 
 danger of destruction. In this crisis, Cincinnatus, who had retired from 
 the consulship to resume his favorite toil of farming, was called to be 
 dictator, with absolute power. The messengers of the Senate found him at 
 his plow, in his little garden-plot across the Tiber. He left the plow in the 
 furrow, hastened to Rome, levied a new army in a single day, went out and 
 defeated the iEquians, and returned the next evening in triumph. 
 
 K/EC-^:PITTJXj.A.TI02sr 
 
 Consuls are appointed with kingly power, but lor a limited time. Rome 
 subject to Porseua. The Latins are defeated at the Lake Regillus. Roman 
 nobles oppress their debtors, and the poor secede. Tribunes of the people and 
 sediles are appointed. The first Agrarian Law is proposed by Cassius, B. C. 486. 
 To avenge the tyranny of their consuls, the common soldiers refuse to fight. 
 The Fabii take sides with the people, and are destroyed in their colony on the 
 Ci'emera. The Publilian Laws give the election of officers to the people in their 
 tribes, B. C. 471. War and pestilence. Ten years' debate upon the Terentilian 
 Laws, which propose a revision of the constitution, B. C. 462-452. The Capitol 
 seized by exiles and Sabines. Ciuciunatus, as a noble, opposes the commons, 
 but, as a general, saves Rome. 
 
 The Laws of the Twelve Tables. 
 
 46. The passage of the Terentilian law was delayed six years, but at 
 length the nobles yielded the main point, and the decemviri were chosen. 
 Though wholly patrician, they were men who enjoyed the confidence of 
 both orders for their proved integrity. Both consuls and tribunes were 
 superseded for the time, and full powers, constituent, legislative, and 
 executive, were intrusted to the Ten. The laws of the Twelve Tables, 
 which were the result of their labors, became the "source of all public 
 and private right" at Rome for many centuries. During the debate upon 
 the bill, commissioners had already been sent to Greece, to study the laws 
 and constitution of the Hellenic states. They returned with an Ionian 
 sophist, Hermodo^rus of Ephesus, who aided in explaining to the law- 
 makers whatever was obscure in the notes of the commissioners ; and so 
 valuable were his services, that he was honored with a statue in the 
 Roman comitium. 
 
 47. Only a few points in this celebrated work of legislation can here be 
 noticed. The laws of Rome gave to a father absolute right of property in 
 
266 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 his family. He might sell his son, his daughter, or even his wife. The 
 latter act, indeed, was denounced as impious by the religious law, but no 
 penalty was attached to it; the curse of the chief pontiff merely marked 
 the guilty person for the wrathful judgments of Heaven. If a father de- 
 sired to make his son free, the process was more difficult than the emanci- 
 pation of a slave. The latter, if sold to another master, could be liberated 
 at once, but a son thus sold and liberated returned to the possession of his 
 father. This subjection could only end with the death of the parent, though 
 the son himself might then be an old man. The Twelve Tables enacted 
 that, if a father had three times sold his son, he lost all further control 
 over him ; but a son thus emancipated was considered as severed from all 
 relationship with his father, and could no longer inherit his property. 
 Women were all their lives considered as minors and wards. If their 
 father died, they passed under the control of their brothers; or, if they 
 married, they became the absolute property of their husbands. A widow 
 might become the ward of her own son. Marriages between patricians and 
 plebeians were declared unlawful, and children born in such had no claim 
 upon their fathers' possessions. 
 
 48. The ten Law-givers visited with their heaviest penalties the defama- 
 tion of character; and so stringent was their definition of libel, that neither 
 poets nor historians dared even name the living except in terms of praise. 
 It is much more difficult, therefore, to gain a true idea of public men in 
 the history of Rome than of Greece, whose historians spoke with grand 
 impartiality of men and measures, and the license of whose comic poets, 
 though often used with insolent injustice, yet shows us all the weak points 
 of character, and reveals the man as his contemporaries really saw him. 
 The Roman historians, even when writing of the past, could often draw 
 their materials only from funeral orations, or from the flattering verses of 
 dependent poets, laid up among the records of great families. 
 
 49. The decemvirs, during their appointed year of office, completed ten 
 tables of laws ; and these, according to Roman ideas, were so just and so 
 acceptable, that the assemblies willingly consented to renew the same form 
 of government for another term, especially as the work of legislation was 
 not quite complete. In the new decemvirate, Appius Claudius was re- 
 elected, and his unscrupulous character now made itself felt in the tyran- 
 nical nature of the government. The people found that they had ten 
 consuls instead of two, and the power of the Ten was unchecked by any 
 popular tribune. 
 
 50. The domestic rights of the plebeians were rudely invaded. A fair 
 maiden, Virginia, caught the eye of Appius as she went daily to school in 
 the Forum, attended by her nurse. He declared that she was the slave of 
 one of his clients, having been born of a slave-woman in his house, and 
 sold to the wife of Virginius, who had no children of her own. The friends 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 267 
 
 of Virginia and of the people resented this insolent falsehood with sucli 
 indignation, that the consurs officers were compelled to release the maiden 
 under bonds to appear the next day before his judgment-seat, where her 
 lineage might be proved. 
 
 Virginius, her father, was with the army before Tus''culum. He was 
 hastily summoned, and, riding all night, reached the city early in the 
 morning. In the garb of a suppliant, he appeared in the Forum with his 
 daughter and a great company of matrons and friends. But his plea was 
 not heard. Appius judged the maiden to be, at least, considered a slave 
 until her freedom could be proved, in direct violation of the law which he 
 had himself enacted the year before, that every one should be regarded as 
 free until proved a slave. Virginius perceived that no justice could be 
 expected before such a tribunal. He only demanded one last word with 
 his daughter; and having drawn her aside with her nurse into one of the 
 stalls of the Forum, he seized a butcher's knife and plunged it into her 
 heart, crying aloud, "Thus only, my child, can I keep thee free!" Then 
 turning to the decemvir, he exclaimed, " On thy head be the curse of this 
 innocent blood ! " No one obeyed the consul's order to seize him. With 
 the bloody knife in his hand, he rushed through the crowd, mounted his 
 horse at the gate of the city, and rode to the camp. 
 
 51. The army of plebeians arose at his call and marched upon Home. 
 They entered and passed through the streets to the Aventine, calling upon 
 the people, as they went, to elect ten tribunes and defend their rights. 
 The other army, near Fide^nEe, was aroused in the same manner by IciF- 
 ius, the betrothed lover of Virginia. The common soldiers put aside those 
 of the decemvirs who were with them, chose, likewise, ten tribunes, and 
 marched to the city. The twenty tribunes appointed two of their number 
 to act for the rest, and then leaving the Aventine guarded by a garrison, 
 they passed out of the walls followed by the army, and as many of the 
 people as could remove, and established themselves again on the Sacred 
 Mount beyond the Anio. 
 
 52. The Senate, which had wavered, was now compelled to act. The 
 seceders had declared that they would treat with no one but Valerius and 
 Hora^tius, men whom they could trust. These were sent to hear their 
 demands. The people required that the power of the tribunes should be 
 restored, a right of appeal from the decision of the magistrates to the pop- 
 ular assembly established, and the decemvirs given up to be burnt, as nine 
 friends of the commons had been, within the memory of men still living. 
 This latter demand, caused only by the exasperation of the moment, was 
 withdrawn upon maturer council ; the others were granted, the decemvirs 
 resigned, and the people returned to Rome, B. C. 449. A popular assembly 
 was held, in which ten tribunes were elected, Virginius and Icilius being 
 of the number. Two supreme magistrates were chosen by a free vote of 
 
 I 
 
268 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the people, in the place of the decern virate, and they were now first called 
 consuls. Their powers were the same with those of the praetors, or generals, 
 who had ruled from the expulsion of the kings to the appointment of the 
 first decemvirate, except that an appeal might be made from their sentence 
 to that of the comitia. 
 
 The first consuls under this new act were Valerius and Horatius. They 
 went forth and gained so signal a victory over the Sabines, that Eome 
 suffered no more incursions from that people for 150 years. Ancient 
 custom and even law among the Romans honored victorious generals with 
 a triumphal entry into the city on their return ; but the Senate, whose duty 
 it was to decree the triumph, regarding the consuls as false to the interests 
 of their order, forbade any such honor to be paid them. Hereupon the 
 people exerted their supreme authority, and commanded the consuls to 
 "triumph" in spite of the Senate. (See §§ 109-111.) Appius Claudius 
 and one of his colleagues were impeached and die^ in prison ; the rest fled 
 from Rome, and their property was confiscated. 
 
 53. A strong reaction now set in, in favor of the patricians; and so de- 
 termined was their opposition to the new laws, that the people seceded 
 again, but this time only to the Janiculum, west of the Tiber and opposite 
 Rome. At last a law was passed legalizing marriage between the two 
 orders. Instead of throwing open the consulship freely to the plebeians, 
 it was agreed (B. 0. 444) to divide its duties and dignities among five 
 officers, of whom two, the censors, should be chosen only from the nobles, 
 though by a free vote of the tribes, while the three military tribunes might 
 be either patricians or plebeians. The censors were to hold office five years, 
 the tribunes only one. 
 
 For some alleged defect in the auspices (see ^ 28), the first three tribunes 
 were set aside, and for six years consuls were regularly appointed as before. 
 In 438 B. C, tribunes were elected, and for three following years consuls 
 again, showing the extreme difficulty with which the people gained their 
 rights, even when conceded by law. In 433 B. C, an important law of 
 ^milius, the dictator, limited the duration of the censor's office to eighteen 
 months, though he was still appointed only once in five years, thus leaving 
 the place vacant a much greater time than it was filled. 
 
 54. The censors were invested with truly kingly splendor and extraor- 
 dinary powers. They registered the citizens and their property, adminis- 
 tered the revenues of the state, kept the rolls of the Senate, from which 
 they erased all unworthy names, and added such as they considered fit. 
 In this judgment of character they were guided solely by their own sense 
 of duty. If a man was tyrannical to his wife and children, or cruel to his 
 slaves, if he neglected his land, or wasted his fortune, or followed any dis- 
 honorable calling, he Avas degraded from his rank, whatever that might be. 
 If a senator or a knight, he was deprived of his gold ring and purple- 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 269 
 
 striped tunic; if a private citizen, he was expelled from the tribes and lost 
 his vote. The censors were thus the guardians of morals, and their power 
 extended to many matters which could hardly be reached by the general 
 action of the law. The taking of every census was followed by a lustration, 
 or ceremonial purifying of the people (see ^ 31). Hence, the five years 
 which intervened between two elections of censors were called a lustrum, 
 or greater year. 
 
 55. The Eomans must have watched with interest, during the years 415 
 and 414 B. C, the movements of the great Athenian expedition against 
 Syracuse. Had the brilliant schemes of Alcibiades been carried into effect, 
 the Greeks would doubtless have become the leading power in western 
 Europe ; " Greece, and not Rome, might have conquered Carthage ; Greek, 
 instead of Latin, might have been at this day the principal element of the 
 languages of Spain, of France, and of Italy ; and the laws of Athens, rather 
 than of Rome, might be the foundation of the law of the civilized world." 
 
 Decemviri chosen to make new laws for Rome, Absolute power of the jjafe?*- 
 familias. Laws against libel make Roman history mere eulogiiim. Tyranny of 
 the second decemvirute. Appius Claudius unjustly claims Virginia for a slave. 
 The people secede, overthrow the decemvirate, and restore consuls and tribunes. 
 The new consuls defeat the Sabines, and triumph in spite of the Senate. By 
 another change of constitution, censors and military tribunes are chosen, instead 
 of consuls. The censors have absolute power to correct public morals. The 
 Athenians fail in their Sicilian expedition, B. C. 415, 414, and leave room for the 
 supi'emacy of Rome. 
 
 Capture of Rome by the Gauls. 
 
 56. The Gauls were now beginning their terrible incursions from the 
 north into the valley of the Po, thus absorbing the attention of the Etrus- 
 cans; and the time favored a fresh attack of the Romans upon Veii, the 
 nearest state across the Tiber. The war began B. C. 405, and lasted ten 
 years. The necessity of keeping an armed force continually in the field, 
 gave rise to the standing army, which ultimately made so essential a part 
 of Roman power; and, at the same time, obliged the patricians to study 
 the interests of the people. It was now agreed that the soldiers should be 
 regularly paid, and money secured for this purpose by a careful collection 
 of the rents for public lands. The number of military tribunes was doubled. 
 Their chief, the prsefect of the city, was a patrician, and chosen by that 
 order, but the remaining five were elected from either or both classes, by 
 a free vote of the popular assembly. 
 
 57. After ten years' warfare with varying success, Veii was taken (B. C. 
 396) by the dictator Camillus. It is said that on the very day of its sur- 
 render, Melpum. the Etruscan stronghold in the north, fell before the 
 
270 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Gauls. The loss of these two frontier fortresses began the rapid decline 
 of Etrurian power. The joy of the Romans was commemorated by the 
 whimsical custom, long continued, of concluding every festal game with a 
 mock auction called the *' Sale of Veientes." Cape^na, Fale^rii, Nep^ete, 
 and Siinium were likewise conquered, and with their lands became pos- 
 sessions of Rome. Within half a century, the Etruscans lost to the Gauls 
 all their possessions in Campania and north of the Apennines, and to the 
 Romans, all between the Cimin^ian forests and the Tiber. The nation had 
 already lost its force through unbounded excess in luxury. The nobles 
 were enormously rich, while the people were poor and enslaved. 
 
 58. The war of the Romans against Volsin^ii was equally successful; 
 but, by a sudden and terrible reverse, Rome was now doomed to suffer the 
 fate which she too often inflicted. The Gauls, after conquering northern 
 Etruria, overflowed the barrier of the Apennines and spread over central 
 Italy. They met the entire Roman force near the little river AKlia, and 
 defeated it with great slaughter; then pushing on with irresistible power, 
 they captured and burned the city. So overwhelming was the disaster, 
 that the 16th of July, the date of the battle of the Allia, was pronounced 
 a "black day " of ill-omen, on which no business could be safely transacted 
 and no sacrifices acceptably ofiered. 
 
 69. The vestal virgins withdrew with the sacred fire to Caere, in Etruria; 
 the mass of the people, with the fugitives from the conquered army, had 
 taken refuge in Veii and other Etruscan towns; but the noblest of the 
 patricians resolved to hold the Capitol. Those who were too old to fight, 
 hoped to serve their country equally well by an heroic death. They re- 
 peated, after the pontifex maximus, a solemn imprecation,* devoting 
 themselves and the army of the Gauls to death for the deliverance of 
 Rome. Then, arrayed in their most magnificent apparel, holding their 
 ivory scepters, and seated each upon his ivory throne at the door of his 
 own house, they sat motionless while the tumult of plunder and pillage 
 was going on around. The barbarians were struck with admiration of 
 these venerable figures, and one of them began reverently to stroke the 
 long white beard of Papir^ius. Enraged by this profaning touch, the old 
 senator struck him with his ivory scepter. It was the signal for slaughter. 
 The Gauls, recovering from their momentary awe, massacred the noble old 
 men without delay. 
 
 60. The siege of the Capitol continued six or eight months. At one 
 time it was nearly taken, by the enemy scaling the steep clifl" by night. 
 The garrison were asleep, but some geese sacred to Juno gave a timely 
 alarm, and the citadel was saved. Marcus Manlius, who was the first to 
 awaken, succeeded in throwing several of the first assailants down the cliff, 
 
 =:• For the probable form of this imprecation, see note, p. 276. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 271 
 
 and thus maintained the fortress until his comrades could come to his aid. 
 At length, though the garrison were nearly exhausted by hunger, the 
 Gauls were equally ready to make terms, for they had heard that the 
 Venetians were invading their northern possessions. A thousand pounds 
 of gold were paid for the ransom of the city, and the barbarians retired. 
 They were followed by Camillus, the conqueror of Veil and Falerii, who 
 was now again dictator, and who, by cutting off straggling parties of the 
 enemy, regained some portion of the rich booty which they were carrying 
 away ; but it is probably not true that he gained any important success 
 over them, as was formerly lielieved. 
 
 61. A period of great distress followed the retreat of the Gauls. The 
 farms, upon which the livelihood of so many people depended, had been 
 laid Avaste; their fruit-trees, buildings, implements, stock and stores, even 
 to the seed-corn needed for next year's sowing, had been burnt. Rome 
 was a mass of rubbish, in which even the direction of the former streets 
 could no longer be discerned. The government furnished roofing materials, 
 and allowed wood and stone to be taken from the public forests and quar- 
 ries, on condition that every person so aided would give security to com- 
 plete his building within the year. But these pledges were often forfeited; 
 and to meet the expense of rebuilding, as well as to pay the extraordinary 
 taxes for restoring the fortress and the temples, money had to be bor- 
 rowed, and the poor were again at the mercy of the rich. Innocent 
 debtors were dragged from their homes, to toil as slaves in the shops or 
 fields of their creditors. 
 
 Many chose to remain in the Etruscan towns where they had taken 
 refuge, and even to make of Veil a new Rome for the plebeians, where 
 they might live free from the overbearing rule of the patricians, and be 
 themselves a privileged class. Though this wholesale secession was pre- 
 vented, yet the numbers in Rome Avere so greatly diminished, that a 
 mass of the conquered Etruscans were brought in to fill the vacant 
 places. These were provided with Roman lands, were organized into 
 four new tribes, and admitted to full civil rights. The "new people" 
 formed more than a sixth part of the whole population of the recon- 
 structed city. 
 
 62. No one could see without pity the distress of the people ; but 
 Marcus Manlius, the same whose alertness and presence of mind had 
 saved the Capitol, had also reasons of his own for trying to relieve them. 
 He was jealous of Camillus, and thought that his own services had not 
 been duly rewarded. He sold at auction the best portion of his lands, 
 and applied the proceeds to paying the debts of needy persons, thus 
 delivering them from imprisonment and torture. He was rewarded by 
 the unbounded gratitude of the poor; his house was continually thronged 
 with partisans, to whom he spoke of the selfish cruelty of the nobles. 
 
272 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 in throwing the whole burden of the public calamity on others, and 
 even accused them of embezzling the immense sums raised to replace 
 the treasures of the temples, which had been borrowed to purchase the 
 retreat of the Gauls. 
 
 63. For this charge Manlius was thrown into prison, and the people 
 began to regard him as a martyr to their cause. On his release, he re- 
 newed his attacks upon the government He fortified his house on the 
 Capitoline, and with his party held the whole height in defiance of the 
 authorities. His treason was so evident, that even the tribunes of the 
 people took part with the patricians against him, and he was brought 
 to trial before the popular assembly. 
 
 He appeared, followed by several comrades whose lives he had saved 
 in battle, and by four hundred debtors whom he had rescued from the 
 dungeon. He exhibited the spoils of thirty enemies slain with his own 
 hand, and forty crowns or other honorary rewards received from his 
 generals. He appealed to the gods, whose temples he had saved from 
 pollution, and he bade the people look at the Capitol before they pro- 
 nounced judgment. It was impossible to convict such a criminal in such 
 a presence, for the very spot on the Capitol where Manlius had stood 
 alone against the Gauls, was visible from the Forum. He was afterward 
 condemned for treason and thrown from the Tarpeian Rock, the precip- 
 itous side of the Capitoline Hill, looking toward the Tiber. 
 
 64. The power of the patricians was only confirmed by this rash and 
 selfish attempt to overthrow it. For seven years the distress of the people 
 went on increasing; the commons lost heart, and their eldest men refused 
 any longer to accept public office. Two younger men now came forward, 
 who were destined, by their firm and wise procedure, to relieve in great 
 measure the miseries of their class. 
 
 C. Licinius Stolo was of one of the oldest and wealthiest plebeian 
 families, connected by many marriages with the nobles. Becoming tribune 
 (B. C. 376), together with his friend, L. Sextius, he proposed a new set 
 of laws, designed to remove both the poverty and the political wrongs 
 under which the commons were suffering. (1.) To relieve immediate 
 distress, it was proposed that the enormous interest already paid upon 
 debts should be reckoned as so much defrayed of the principal, and 
 should, therefore, be deducted from the sum still due. (2.) To prevent 
 future poverty, the public lands, hitherto absorbed in great measure by 
 the patricians, were to be thrown open equally to the plebeians, and no 
 man was to be allowed to hold more than 500 jugera, * or to pasture more 
 than 100 oxen and 500 sheep on the undivided portion. Further, to secure 
 employment to the poor, a certain amount of free labor was required upon 
 
 '^' A jugerum was very nearly five-eighths of an acre. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 273 
 
 every farm. (3.) Two consuls were to be elected, of whom one every, 
 year should be a plebeian. 
 
 65. The strongest objection to a plebeian consulship was on religious 
 grounds; for high patricians held it an impiety to pLice in the supreme 
 magistracy one who had no right to take the auspices, and whom they 
 regarded as no true Roman. To attack this prejudice in the boldest 
 manner, Licinius proposed to increase the number of keepers of the 
 Sibylline Books from two to ten, and to appoint five of these from the 
 plebeians. These laws were not passed without many years' violent oppo- 
 sition. At length they were ratified by the Senate and the Comitia Curiata 
 (B. C. 367) ; and to celebrate this happy agreement between the two orders, 
 a Temple of Concord was built upon the Capitoline Hill. At the same 
 time, a new office, the prsetor-ship, was instituted and confined to the patri- 
 cians, comprising most of the civil and judicial duties which luid hitherto 
 belonged to the consuls, while the latter kept their absolute military power. 
 The first plebeian consul under this arrangement was L. Sextius. 
 
 66. The restless and turbulent Gauls re-appeared in Latium, during the 
 same year *vith the passing of the Licinian laws. They were defeated by 
 the aged general Camillus, who had been six times military tribune and 
 five times dictator. On their second invasion they encamped within five 
 miles of the city, and struck terror, we may well believe, into the hearts 
 of those who remembered the desolations of thirty years before ; but, at 
 length, they broke up their camp without fighting, and passed into Cam- 
 pania. On their return through Latium they were signally defeated. In 
 350 B. C, they spent the winter upon the Alban Mount, and joined the 
 Greek pirates on the coast in ravaging the country, until they were dis- 
 lodged by L. Furius Camillus, a son of the general. 
 
 They made a treaty B. C. 346, after which they never again appeared in 
 Latium. They continued to be the ruling race between the Alps and the 
 northern Apennines, and along the Adriatic as far south as the Abruz^zi. 
 Many towns, like Milan, were held, however, by the Etruscans in a sort 
 of independence, while the Gauls lived in unwalled villages. From their 
 Tuscan subjects, the Gauls learned letters and the arts of civilized life, 
 which spread from them, in a greater or less degree, to all the Alpine 
 populations. 
 
 IRE C-^nTTTL-i^Tionsr. 
 
 Veil taken B. C. 396, after a ten years' siege. Defeat of the Romans on the 
 Allia, and caijture of their city by the Gauls, B. C. 390. Massacre of the senators. 
 Manilas saves the Capitol, during a seven months' siege. Rome in ruins. Distress 
 of the poor. Treason of Manlius. The Licinian laws, passed after nine years' 
 contest, relieve debtors and divide the public lauds among the common people. 
 The Gauls overrun central Italy, B. C. 361-346, but at length retire north of the 
 Apennines. 
 
 A. H.— 35. 
 
274 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Second Period, B. C. 343-264. 
 
 67. From the political struggles which developed the Roman constitu- 
 tion, we turn to the series of foreign wars between Rome and her most 
 powerful rival for the supremacy of southern Italy. The Sumnites were a 
 Sabine race, settled as conquerors in the Oscan country. Their possessions 
 were mostly inland, comprising the snow-covered mountain range which 
 separates the Apulian from the Campanian plains, but they extended to 
 the coast between Naples and Psestum, where they included the once 
 famous cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 
 
 The Samnites ranked with the Latins, as the most warlike races of Italy; 
 but the conquests of the former, at the period to which we have now come, 
 had been by far the more brilliant and extensive. In the decline both of 
 Greek and Etruscan power in southern Italy (see Book III, g 90), they 
 had gained control of the whole lower portion of the peninsula, except a 
 few Greek colonies like Tarentum and Neapolis. But Latium, under the 
 leadership of Rome, had advanced surely though slowly, securing each 
 advantage by the formation of Roman colonies, bound by the strongest 
 ties of obedience to the mother city, while the Samnite nation hud no 
 settled policy and no regularly constituted head. Each new settlement, 
 therefore, divided and diminished their strength. 
 
 68. The conquerors of Cumre and Capua adopted the luxurious habits 
 of the Greeks and Etruscans, whom they had supplanted, but with whom 
 they continued to live on friendly terms. The Greek-loving inhabitants 
 of the coast dreaded their rude countrvmen of the hills, almost as much 
 as did the refined Hellenes themselves, and thus a great division took 
 place in the Samnite stock. The civilized and Hellenized Samnites he- 
 sought the aid of the Romans against the predatory hordes of their own 
 race, who were constantly swooping down from the Samnian hills to 
 ravage their fields. The Romans consented, on condition of their own 
 supremacy being acknowledged throughout Campania, and their former 
 treaty with Samnium was broken. 
 
 60. The First Samnite War began with the march of two Roman armies 
 into Campania, while the Latin allies invaded the Pelignian country on 
 the north. The Roman armies were victorious, and both consuls obtained 
 a triumph. A large force was left, at the request of the Campanians, to 
 guard their cities during the winter. The common soldiers were still bur- 
 dened with poverty, and the prolonged absence from their farms occasioned 
 serious suftering to their families. 
 
 In the second year of the war, mutinous plots were discovered, and a 
 large body of the troops were sent home. On their way they released all 
 the bondmen for debt whom they found working in the fields of their 
 creditors, fortified a regular camp on the slope of the Alban Hills, and 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 21b 
 
 were joined by a large body of oppressed common people from the city. 
 But when they met the army hastily raised by the patricians, and sent 
 forth under Valerius the dictator — whose family had always been faithful 
 friends to the people, and who was himself greatly beloved by all classes 
 for his generous character, no le^s than his military glory — these men, 
 whose revolt had been occasioned by real distress, and not by defect of 
 loyalty, could not bring themselves to fight their fellow-citizens and the 
 defenders of their common country. The two armies stood facing each 
 other, until remorse on one side and pity on the other had overcome all 
 mutual resentment ; then, both pressing forward, they grasped hands or 
 rushed into each others' arms with tears and demands for pardon. The 
 just requirements of the soldiers were granted by the Senate, together 
 with amnesty for their irregular proceedings, and this singular rebellion 
 ended in a lasting peace. 
 
 70o The Latins, meanwhile, had been left to carry on the Samnite war 
 by themselves, and their repeated successes encouraged them to assert 
 their independence of Kome. The Komans now (B. C. 341) made jDcace 
 with the Samnites, and, two years later, turned their arms against the 
 Latins, who were strengthened by alliance with their late opponents, the 
 Campanians and Volscians. The two consuls with their forces moved 
 into Campania, and encamped in the plain of Capua, opposite the army 
 of the three allies. Strict orders were issued against skirmishing or per- 
 sonal encounters, and disobedience was to be punished with death. 
 Ignorant or heedless of the command, Titus Manlius, the consul's son, 
 accepted a challenge from a Latin warrior, killed his opponent, and 
 brought the spoils in triumph to lay at his father's feet. The consul 
 turned away his face, and summoning his guards, ordered them to behead 
 the young man before his tent, in the presence of all the soldiers. Roman 
 discipline knew no ties of affection. Manlius, the father, was forever re- 
 garded with horror, but Manlius, the consul and general, was strictly 
 obeyed as long as he commanded the armies of E-ome. 
 
 71. The decisive battle in the Latin war took place at the foot of Vesu- 
 vius. The augurs, having taken the auspices as usual, declared that fate 
 demanded the sacrifice of a general on one side and an army on the other. 
 It was therefore made known to the Roman oflScers that, whichever portion 
 of the army should begin to yield, the consul commanding in that quarter 
 would devote himself to the gods of death and the grave, in order that the 
 army which must perish might be that of the Latins. 
 
 Manlius led the Roman right; Publius Decius, the people's consul, the 
 left. The battle was severe, and bravely fought on both sides; but, at 
 length, the Latin right wing prevailed, and the Roman left began to give 
 way. Decius instantly called the chief pontiff — for, as a plebeian, he him- 
 self was ignorant of the ceremonies by which the gods must be addressed — 
 
27G ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 and bade liim dictate tlie form of words in wliich he was to devote himself 
 to death. By the direction of the pontiff, he wrapped his toga around his 
 face, set his feet upon a javelin, and repeated the imprecation.^ Then 
 sendino- his guard of lictors to the other consul to announce his fate, he 
 mounted his horse, plunged into the host of the enemy, and was quickly 
 slain. The Latins saw and understood the act, but they still fought 
 fiercely, like men who struggled against fate. So equally matched were 
 the main forces, that Manlius gained the day at last only by bringing on 
 the poorer supernumeraries, whom he had armed to constitute a double 
 
 reserve. 
 
 72. A second battle was much more easily won, and the Latins had no 
 strength to rally for a third. The Latin League was wholly broken up, 
 Roman law every-where took the place of local constitutions, and some 
 cities even became Roman colonies. The Latins were one in race and 
 language with Rome, and their transient hostility was exchanged for a 
 close and permanent alliance. The battle under Mount Vesuvius was one 
 of the most important in the history of Rome, for by securing the sove- 
 reignty of Latium, it opened the way to the conquest of the world. 
 
 73, For the next twelve years the Romans were unable to undertake 
 any great foreign war. Italy was invaded by Alexander of Epirus, uncle 
 of the great Macedonian conqueror, B. C. 332. His quarrel was with the 
 Samnites, but if his success had been equal to his ambition, no engage- 
 ments with the Romans would have prevented his overrunning the whole 
 peninsula. He was defeated and slain, however, in 326 B. C, and the 
 Romans immediately prepared for a renewed contest with the Samnites, 
 which was to last twenty-two years, B. C. 326-304. The two chief states 
 of Italy fought for sovereignty, and their allies included almost all the 
 other nations in the peninsula. 
 
 The events of the first five years were too indecisive to be worth record- 
 ing. The advantage was generally with the 'Romans, but the Samnite 
 power was still unbroken, and was able, in 321 B. C, to inflict one of the 
 most severe and disgraceful defeats that Roman arms had ever sustained. 
 
 -The form, winch has been strictly preserved, may be of interest, as illus- 
 trating Roman ideas: "Thou Janus, thou Jupiter, thou Mars our father, thou 
 Quirinus, thou Bellona; ye I.ares, ye the nine gods, ye the gods of our fathers' 
 land, ye Avhose iiower disposes both of us and of our enemies, and ye also, gods 
 
 of the dead, I pray you, I humbly beseech you that ye would prosper the 
 
 people of Rome and the Quirites with all might and victory, and that ye would 
 
 visit the enemies of the people of Rome with terror, dismay, and de^^th. 
 
 And according to these words which I have now spoken, so do I now, on the 
 
 behalf of the commonwealth of the Roman people on behalf of the army, 
 
 both tlie legions and the foreign aids devote the legions and the foreign aids 
 
 of our enemies, along with myself, to the gods of the dead and to the grave." 
 It was deemed an impiety to ask for victory without making a sacrifice, for 
 Nemesis avenged unmingled prosjierity no less than crime. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 211 
 
 The combined forces oi* Rome, led by the two consuls, were entrapped in 
 a mountain-pass between Naples and Ben^even^tum, known as the "Cau- 
 dine Forks." Half the soldiers fell in the fight which ensued ; the rest 
 surrendered, but were generously spared by Pontius, the Samnite general, 
 ou condition of an honorable peace being signed by the two consuls and by 
 two tribunes of the people, who were present with the troops. The soldiers 
 were then made to " pass under the yoke," ^- in token of surrender, and 
 were permitted to march away, without their arms, toward Rome. But 
 the Senate, having got back its forces, refused to be bound by the 
 agreement of the consuls. The signers of the treaty, stripped a,nd bound, 
 were given up to the vengeance of the Samnites, but Pontius refused to 
 receive them. He did not choose to punish the innocent for the guilty, 
 nor to justify the Roman government in taking all the advantage of the 
 agreement, and refusing all the sacrifices. 
 
 74:« The war went on six years without any very important event, 
 until, in 315 B. C, the Samnites gained another great success at Lau^- 
 tul«. Almost all the allies of Rome now deserted what seemed the 
 losing cause. Campania revolted; the Ausonians and Volscians joined 
 the Samnite alliance. But, in the following year, a still more severe 
 and decisive battle gave victory to the Romans. The Samnites .were 
 crushed beyond all power of recovery. The war was continued, how- 
 ever, ten years longer, chiefly by the efforts of the Etruscans, Oscans, 
 and Umbrians, to preserve the balance of power in Italy. But these 
 eff()rts were never united, and the Romans were able to defeat them, 
 one by one, until, in 304 B. C, the Samnites became subject to Rome, 
 and all the other parties concluded a peace. Rome was now, without 
 question, the first nation in Italy; and, considering the disputes which 
 weakened the fragments of Alexander's empire, might almost be consid- 
 ered the greatest in the world. In intellectual culture, the Romans were 
 still inferior to the conquered Samnites. Pontius, the Samnite general, 
 was well versed in Greek philosophy, and in the elevation of his char- 
 acter far surpassed the proudest Romans of his time. 
 
 75. Near the close of the Second Samnite War, the ^qui, who had 
 been for eighty years in a state of neutrality, took up arms against 
 Rome; and immediately after the treaty of B. G. 304, the consuls marched 
 40,000 men into their territory. A sharp and severe struggle of fifty 
 days resulted in the capture and destruction of forty-one towns. A large 
 portion of the people were sold into slavery, and the rest became subjects 
 of Rome. A few years later, however, they received the rights of citi- 
 zens, were enrolled in the tribes, and served in the wars against the 
 Samnites. 
 
 * I. e., to march between two spears planted in the ground and surmounted by 
 a third. Hence, our term "subjugation "== su& ^'usritm ire. 
 
278 ' ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 76. The latter people busily employed the six years' interval between 
 their second and third great struggle with Rome, in forming and strength- 
 ening the '' Italian League." Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, on the 
 north, were allied with Lucanians, Apulians, most of the Greek cities, 
 and the Samnites, on the south. Eome had the advantage in compact- 
 ness, numbers, and wealth; her own or her allies' territory extended 
 across Italy from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic, and divided the 
 states of her enemies. 
 
 The war broke out in 298 B. C, but no important movement was 
 made until, in 295 B. C, the combined armies of the four northern 
 nations advanced toward Rome. The j^lan of the consuls was at once 
 bold and sagacious. One army awaited the invaders, while another 
 marched directly into Etruria. This movement exposed the weakness of 
 the league, for the Etruscans and Umbrians, deserting their allies, drew 
 off to defend their own territories. The Samnites and Gauls crossed the 
 Apennines to Senti''num, where they were overtaken by the first Roman 
 army. In the battle which followed, the Gallic war-chariots had nearly 
 driven from the field the legions of Decius, the consul, when, remember- 
 ing the example of his father at Vesuvius, he, likewise, devoted himself 
 to the powers of death for the deliverance of Rome. The legions were 
 at length triumphant; 25,000 of the enemy lay dead upon the field. 
 
 77o The Gauls now withdrew from the league, but the Samnites con- 
 tinued the war with unabated resolution. Twenty-eight years after his 
 great victory at the Caudine Forks, Pontius again defeated a Roman 
 army under Fabius Gur^ges. The Romans were so exasperated by this 
 defeat where they were confident of victory, that they would have de- 
 prived the consul of his command, had not his old father, Fabius Max- 
 imus, ofiered to serve as his lieutenant. 
 
 A great victory was now gained, in which Pontius was captured, and 
 made to walk, loaded with chains, in the triumph of the consul. When 
 the procession reached the ascent to the Capitol, he was led aside and 
 beheaded in the Mamertine prison — he who, thirty years before, had 
 fepared the lives and liberty of two Roman armies, and even generously 
 released the officers when given over to his vengeance ! This base treat- 
 ment of a brave foe has been called the greatest stain in the Roman 
 annals. The war was ended with the complete submission of Samnium, 
 and the Romans established a colony of 20,000 people at Venu^sia, to 
 hold the conquered territory in awe, B. C. 290. 
 
 78^ In the same year, the consul, Curius Denta^tus, began and ended 
 another war against the Sabines, who had come to the aid of their 
 Samnite kinsmen. They were subdued, and their extensive country, rich 
 in oil, wine, and forests of oak, fell into tlie possession of the Romans. 
 The commons at Rome suffered greatly, nevertheless, from the burdens 
 
 »/ 
 
HISTORY OF BOMB. 279 
 
 of the war. Their farms had been neglected during their absence with 
 the^army, and those who had the misfortune to have been taken prison- 
 ers, had to be ransomed at a cost ruinous to small fortunes. 
 
 Curius, the conqueror of the Sabines, proposed a new Agrarian law for 
 the division of their lands among the poor of Rome. A political contest 
 of several years ensued, during which the mass of the people seceded 
 again to the Janiculum. A rumor of foreign invasion induced the Senate 
 to yield and appoint Hortensius, a plebeian of ancient family, to be dic- 
 tator. By his wise and conciliatory counsels, peace was restored. He 
 convened all the people in a grove of oaks without the walls, and by 
 the solemn oaths of the whole assembly passed the Hortensian laws, 
 which ended the civil strife of Eome for 150 years. Every citizen re- 
 ceived an allotment of land, and certain invidious marks of distinction 
 between patricians and plebeians were effaced, B. C. 286. 
 
 E.ECJLT'ITTJLJ^TIOlNr. 
 
 The Hellenized Samnites ask tlie aid of Home against their highland country- 
 men. The First Samnite War, B. C. 343-341, opens with success to the Romans. 
 Sedition of troops in Campania. The Latins revolt against Rome and join the 
 Campanians and Volscians. The Romans make peace and alliance with thtt 
 Samnites for the Latin War, B. C. 340-338. In the battle of Vesuvius, Decius, the 
 consul, devotes himself to death, and the Romans are victorious. The Latin 
 League suppi*essed, and the supremacy of Rome established. An invasion of 
 Italy by Alexander of Epirus, is followed by the Second Samnite War, B. C. 
 326-304. The Romans defeated at the Caudine Forks, B. C. 321, but at last com- 
 pletel3' victorious. They conquer the JEqui, B. C. 304. Tbird Samnite War, and 
 Italian League against Rome, B. C. 298-290. Great victory at Sentinum over 
 Gauls, Samnites, Etruscans, and Umbrians. Capture of Pontius, B. C. 292, and 
 end of the Samnite wars. Sabine territories conquered and divided among tbe 
 people, by Hortensian laws. 
 
 War with Pyrrhus. 
 
 79. Within three years (B. C. 283), the Komans were menaced by a 
 new danger, in a powerful coalition formed by the Tarentines, and in- 
 cluding nearly all the nations of Italy. The storm gathered swiftly and 
 burst from alt quarters at once. In the south, the Samnites, Lucanians, 
 and Bruttians were in arms; in the north, the Etruscans and Umbrians, 
 with hordes of Gallic mercenaries, were pouring into the field. Arre^tium 
 alone stood firmly by the Roman alliance, and was besieged by an army 
 of Etruscans and Gauls. The consul, MeteKlus, marching to its relief, 
 was defeated with the total loss of his army. Embassadors, sent to re- 
 monstrate with the Seno^nian Gauls for the infringement of their treaty 
 with Rome, were murdered, and their bodies hewed to pieces and cast 
 out without burial. This, outrage, which the laws of the rudest savages 
 pronounced sacrilege, provoked a speedy vengeance. DolabeKla, the 
 
280 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 coDSul, marched into the Gallic territory with his army, killed every 
 man who was found, carried off the women and children as slaves, and 
 reduced every village to a heap of' ashes and rubbish. 
 
 80. The Boian Gauls took up arms to avenge their brethren, and, 
 joining the Etruscans, met the Roman forces in the valley of the Tiber, 
 near the little lake Vad'imon. They were defeated so thoroughly that 
 very few escaped from the field. The consul Fabric'ius, the following 
 year, defeated the Samnites, Lucanians, and Bruttians in several great 
 battles, broke up the coalition in the south, and collected an amount of 
 spoils which enabled him to pay all the war expenses of the year, and, 
 beside allowing a liberal share to every soldier, to leave half a million 
 of dollars in the treasury. Tarcntum, the prime mover of the war, had 
 never drawn a sword, but had left all its burdens and losses to her 
 allies. To punish this passive but mischievous policy, a Roman fleet 
 was now sent to cruise around the eastern and southern coasts of Italy. 
 It was defeated and sunk by the Tarentines in their own harbor. They 
 then seized Thurii, expelled the Roman garrison, and, in the name of 
 all the Italian Greeks, sent to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for aid. 
 
 81. This accomplished and ambitious prince was glad of a new field 
 of enterprise. He hastened into Italy with a well-appointed army of 
 25,500 men, drilled and equipped in the Macedonian fashion, and sup- 
 plied with twenty elephants. The gay and self-indulgent Tarentines, 
 quite willing that another should fight their battles for them, forgot their 
 promises of service and subsidies ; but Pyrrhus showed them that he was 
 master by stopping the sports of the circus and theaters, and the ban- 
 quets of the clubs, and keeping the citizens under arms from morning 
 to night. Even with inferior forces he was able to defeat the Roman 
 legions at Heracle^a, on the Siris. Seven times the Epirotes and Greeks 
 were driven from the field, and seven times regained it ; but when the 
 last Italian reserve was engaged, Pyrrhus brought on his elephants, till 
 then unknown in Italy, and they put to flight the Roman horse. The 
 rout was complete ; the Romans did not stny to defend their camp, but 
 fled to Venu'^sia, leaving Pyrrhus master of the field. 
 
 82. He was now joined by many allies, some of whom had even been 
 subjects or friends of Rome ; but the advantage of his victory was not 
 sufiicient to balance his loss in ofiicei'S and men — losses the more serious 
 as Greece was now overrun by the Gauls, and there w^as little hope of 
 recruits. In these circumstances, Pyrrhus sent to Rome his embassador, 
 Cin^eas, an orator of such brilliant talent, that he was said to have won 
 more cities by his tongue than Pyrrhus by his sword. A large party was 
 inclined to listen to his proposals of " peace, friendship, and alliance." 
 But Appius Claudius — thirty years ago censor, now a blind old man — 
 heard in his house that Rome was making peace, with a victorious enemy 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 281 
 
 still upon Italian soil. He caused himself to be carried in a litter 
 through the Forum to the Senate-house. When he arrived, all his sons 
 and sons-in-law went out to meet him and lead him to his ancient place. 
 All the Senate listened in breathless silence as the old man rose to speak, 
 protesting against the dishonor of his country. When he ceased, it was 
 voted that no peace should be made while any foreign foe was in Italy, 
 and that the orator who had so nearly persuaded them should leave the 
 city that very day. 
 
 83. The war went on between the consummate genius of Pyrrlius and 
 the unconquerable will of the Roman people. They were fighting for 
 existence, while Pyrrhus fought for glory ; and though in every pitched 
 battle he was victorious, fresh armies were always ready to oppose him. 
 Still hoping to make peace with Rome, he refused to ransom or exchange 
 the multitude of prisoners whom he had taken, but he allowed them all 
 to return to Rome for the winter holidays — the Saturna^lia — on their 
 simple promise to return if the Senate refused a treaty. The Senate 
 refused, and every man returned. In his second campaign, Pyrrhus 
 gained another brilliant victory, at As^culum, over the Romans and their 
 allies. But his restless ambition now turned to a new field, and he de- 
 parted into Sicily, where the Greek cities had implored his aid against 
 the Carthaginians. Once master of that fertile island, he believed that 
 he could attempt the conquest of Italy with better resources, and he left 
 troops to hold Tarentum.and Locri for his base of future operations in 
 the peninsula. 
 
 84. In Sicily his genius and valor for a time drove all before him. 
 The strong town of Eryx was taken, Pyrrhus himself being the first to 
 m9unt the scaling-ladders. The Carthaginians implored peace, offering 
 ships and money as the conditions of an alliance. Pyrrhus haughtily 
 refused; but a reverse which he afterward suffered at Lilybte^um, en- 
 couraized his enemies and alienated his allies. After two years he re- 
 turned into Italy, pursued by a Carthaginian fleet, which defeated him 
 with a loss of seventy ships. On landing, he was met by a body of 
 Mamertines,''^ who had crossed the straits from Sicily, and whom he 
 defeated only by a sharp and costly battle. He arrived at Tarentum 
 with an army equal in numbers, but far inferior in character, to that 
 with which he had come from Epirus four years earlier. His faithful 
 Epirotes were slain, and in their places were ill-trained Italian merce- 
 naries, who would serve only as long as pay and plunder abounded. 
 
 -The Mamertines, "Children of Mars," were a troop of Italian freebooters, 
 formerly in the pay of Syracuse, but who had seized Messa'na and other for- 
 tresses in the north-east of Sicily, massacred the people, and made themselves 
 independent. 
 
282 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 85. Being in great want of money to satisfy these unruly followers, 
 Pyrrhus yielded to the advice of his Epicure^an courtiers, and appropriated 
 the treasures of the temple of Proser^pina, at Locri. The money was 
 embarked by sea for Tarentum, but a storm drove the sacrilegious vessel 
 back upon the coasts of Locri ; and Pyrrhus was so affected by remorse, 
 that he restored the gold and put to death the counselors. He believed 
 that he was ever after haunted by the wrath of Proserpina, which dragged 
 him down to ruin. The following year he Avas totally defeated near 
 Beneventum, by Curius Dentatus, the consul. Toward the end of the 
 year he passed over into Greece, still leaving a garrison at Tarentum, 
 in token of his unconquered resolution to return. 
 
 During the first invasion by Pyrrhus, the Eighth Legion, stationed at 
 Rhegium, and composed chiefly of Ciimpanian mercenaries, had, like the 
 Mamertines in Sicily, thrown ofl* their allegiance, slaughtered the Greek 
 inhabitants, and held the town as an independent military post. They 
 were now reduced, and most of the garrison put to the sword; the rest, 
 consisting of the original soldiers of the legion, were tried at Rome, 
 scourged, and beheaded. 
 
 86. Roman supremacy was now speedily established both in northern 
 and southern Italy. Picenum' was conquered, and half her inhabitants 
 were forcibly removed to the shores of the Gulf of Salerno. Umbria 
 submitted B. C. 266, the chief cities of Etruria followed, and the entire 
 peninsula south of the Macra and Rubicon became subject to Rome. 
 Hitherto the Romans, like the Spartans, had prided themselves upon 
 the homeliness of their manners. When the Samnites sent envoys to 
 M. Curius to bespeak his kind oflices with the Senate, and offer him a 
 present of gold, they found the ex-consul seated by his fire and roasting 
 turnips in the ashes, with a wooden platter before him. To their prof- 
 fered gift he replied, "I count it my glory not to possess gold myself, 
 but to have power over those who do." 
 
 The eleven years following the departure of Pyrrhus were a period of 
 the greatest prosperity ever enjoyed by the common people of Rome, 
 and the wealth arising from the conquest of Italy materially changed 
 their manner of living. Every freeman received a fresh grant of seven 
 jurjcra of land or a portion of money. The property of the displaced 
 governments went, of course, to the Roman state, and thus valuable pos- 
 sessions of mines, quarries, forests, fisheries, and public lands were added 
 to its domains. The administration of the public revenues demanded a 
 greatly increased number of ofljcials, and the rich, as well as the poor, 
 profited by the results of war. 
 
 87. The new territories were secured by that system of colonies which, 
 in later times, served to establish the Roman power from the Atlantic 
 to the Euphrates. The colonies were of two kinds. Most favored were 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 283 
 
 those composed of "Roman citizens/' who retained all their rights as 
 such, voting in the assembly, and being eligible to any office which they 
 could have filled if remaining at Rome. Those who joined a "Latin 
 colony," on the other hand, lost their civil rights in Rome, but they had 
 privileges which attached them both by interest and affection to the 
 mother city. Ostia, and the maritime colonies generally, were of the 
 former and higher class. The great system of Roman roads, which ulti- 
 mately intersected all western Europe, and may be seen to-day in their 
 massive remains, owed its origin to Appius Claudius "the Blind," who 
 when censor, in 312 B. C, constructed the Appian Way to connect Rome 
 with her new dependency, Campania. He also built the first of the Roman 
 aqueducts, to supply the poorer portion of the city with water. 
 
 88. The free-born plebeians of Rome now possessed half the high offices 
 in the state, and even in the sacred colleges of pontiffs and augurs. They 
 were admitted to the Senate when they had served as consuls, or had 
 been appointed to be either praetors or sediles. Appius Claudius, in his 
 censorship, went still further, and placed upon the rolls of the Senate 
 the names of some who had been born slaves, or who possessed no lands. 
 He enrolled these two very numerous classes in the tribes as voters; and 
 instead of assigning them to those of the city, where they almost exclu- 
 sively belonged, he distributed them over all the districts, so that they 
 might control all elections. To rescue Rome from the inevitable rule 
 of the mob, his successors in the censorship confined these new votes to 
 the city, thus giving them the control only of four tribes out of thirty- 
 one, and so the danger was averted, 
 
 :REC-A-:pxTTJXjJiL.Tionsr. 
 
 Coalitions in the north and south against the Romans. Siege of Arretium, 
 and defeat of Metelhis. War with tlie Senonian and Boian Gauls. Victories of 
 Fabricius in the south. Pj'rrhus comes to the aid of the Taren tines; defeats tlie 
 Romans at Heraclea, Ascuhun, etc.; sends Cineas to Rome, whose persuasions 
 are tliwarted by Appius Claudius the Blind ; passes into Sicily, and after two 
 years returns to Epirus. All Italj^ subject to Rome. Increased wealth and luxury 
 of the people. Many new colonies upon the conquered lands. Roads and aque- 
 ducts are constructed. Freedmen and non-possessors of land admitted to tlie 
 suffrage by Appius Claudius. 
 
 Third Period, B. C. 264-133. 
 
 89. The great commercial Republic of Carthage, though allied with 
 Rome during the wars with Pyrrhus, had regarded with jealousy the 
 steadily increasing power of the Italian state. The Roman people, on 
 the other hand, had been so enriched by their recent wars, that they 
 were eager for fresh plunder and a new allotment of conquered lands. 
 
284 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A slight and doubtful pretext was, therefore, sufficient to plunge the two 
 nations into war. The Carthaginians had seized the citadel of Messana, 
 under pretense of aiding the Mamertines against Hi^ero of Syracuse. 
 The Eomaiis had recently punished the buccaneers of Rhegium for pre- 
 cisely the same crime which the ''Sons of Mars" had committed at 
 Messana, but when the latter sought their aid against both Syracusans 
 and Carthaginians, the temptation was too great ; they accepted the dis- 
 reputable alliance, and invaded Sicily with 20,000 men. 
 
 90. Having gained possession of Messana, they kept it for their own. 
 The combined forces of Syracuse and Carthage, besieging the place, were 
 defeated by Claudius, the consul ; and Hiero, being distrustful of his 
 African allies, returned home. The next year he made peace with the 
 Romans, and continued until his death, nearly half a century later, their 
 faithful friend and ally. Most of the Greek cities in Sicily followed his 
 example. Hannibal, ^ son of Gisco, the Carthaginian general, could no 
 longer meet the Romans in the field, but shut himself up in Agrigentum 
 and Avas besieged. Hanno, attempting to relieve him, was decisively de- 
 feated ; the city was taken, and its people were sold as slaves. 
 
 Hannibal, who escaped to Panor^mus (Palermo) with most of his 
 troops, now carried the war upon the sea, and ravaged the defenseless 
 coasts of Italy with a fleet of sixty vessels. The next year his lieutenant, 
 Bo<ydes, with a naval detachment, met the consul, Scipio, at Lip^ara, 
 and captured his whole squadron. Hannibal then set out with fifty ships 
 to ravage the coasts of Italy again. But the Romans, wisely learning 
 from their enemies, were now prepared to meet them on their own ele- 
 ment. A Carthaginian quin^quereme (a vessel with five rows of oars) 
 had been cast ashore on the coast of Bruttium. It was used as a model, 
 and the Romans, who previously had had nothing greater than triremes, 
 possessed, within two months, one hundred first-class Avar vessels. While 
 the ships were building, the crews were trained on shore to their peculiar 
 and complicated motions. In the very first encounter, Hannibal was 
 defeated; in the second, oflf Mylse, he lost fifty vessels, among them his 
 magnificent flag-ship, which had formerly belonged to Pyrrhus. 
 
 91. In 259 B. C, Sardinia and Corsica were attacked, and the town 
 of Ale^ria taken by the Romans. The following year, another great naval 
 victory was gained off" Ec'nomus, in Sicily ; and the consuls, Manlius and 
 Regulus, invaded Africa. They captured and fortified the town of Cly^pea, 
 Avhich they made their headquarters, and then proceeded to lay Avaste the 
 lands of Carthage Avith fire and sAVord. The beautiful villas of the nobles 
 
 '^•N. B. Not the great Hannibal, who was son of Hamilcar, and hero of the 
 Second Punic War. "Punic" is only another form of the adjective Phoenician, 
 
 but is applied especially to I lie people of Caitlmge. 
 
HISTORY OF BO ME. 285 
 
 and merchants afforded inestimable spoils; and 20,000 persons, many of 
 whom were of exalted rank, and accustomed to all the refinements of 
 wealth, were dragged away as slaves. 
 
 In the winter, Munlius returned to Rome with half the army and all 
 the plunder, while Rcgulus remained to prosecute the war. He defeated 
 the Carthaginian generals, captured their camp, and overran the country 
 at pleasure. More than three hundred walled villages or towns were 
 taken. In vain the judges and nobles of Carthage cast their children 
 into the brazen arms of Moloch, whence they rolled into the fiery fur- 
 nace burning always before him. The hideous idol was not appeased, 
 and the Roman general was equally implacable. To all embassies he 
 refused peace, except on such intolerable terms that even disastrous war 
 seemed better. 
 
 02o At the darkest moment, relief arrived in the person of a Spartan 
 general, Xanthippus, who came with a body of Greek mercenaries. His 
 military fame and the evident wisdom of his counsels inspired such con- 
 fidence, that he was put in the place of the incompetent Punic com- 
 manders. With his 4,000 Greeks, added to the Carthaginian infantry 
 and 100 elephants, he defeated and captured Regulus, and wholly de- 
 stroyed the Roman army. A still more terrible disaster befell the fleet 
 which had been sent to bring away the shattered remnants of the forces 
 from Africa. A violent storm came on, and the southern coast of Sicily 
 was strewn with the remains of 260 vessels and 100,000 men, B. C. 255. 
 
 The Romans, though nearly driven to despair of the republic, never 
 relaxed their exertions, but equipped a new fleet, with which, the follow- 
 ing year, they captured the important town of Panormus. This fleet 
 was wrecked, B. C. 253, and the next two years were full of discourage- 
 ments; but, in 250 B. C, a brilliant victory, won at Panormus by the 
 proconsul Metellus, tended to restore the balance of the opposing forces. 
 A hundred elephants, taken alive, were exhibited in the triumph of 
 Metellus. 
 
 93. For the next eight years, the advantage was usually with the 
 Carthaginians. Hamilcar Barca, the father of the great Hannibal, rav- 
 aged the coasts of Italy, and the Romans had no leader of equal genius 
 to oppose to him. At last they rallied all their forces to put an end to 
 the war. The wealthier citizens at their own expense fitted out a fleet 
 of 200 ships, and the consul Luta^tius gained a decisive victory among 
 the islands west of Sicily. This reverse, following twenty-three years of 
 exhausting war, so disheartened the Carthaginians, that they agreed to 
 abandon Sicily and all the neighboring islands, to pay 2,000 talents, 
 and release all the Roman prisoners without ransom. 
 
 94. The First Punic War had lasted nearly twenty-four years, B. C. 
 264-241 inclusive. Rome emerged from it a great naval power, able to 
 
286 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 meet on equal terms the well-trained mariners who had liitherto ruled 
 the western Mediterranean. Foreseeing That the struggle must be re- 
 newed, both parties spent the twenty-three years which followed in 
 strenuous preparations. Rome seized upon Sardinia and Corsica; and 
 Carthage, absorbed and weakened by a revolt of her mercenary troops, 
 was compelled to submit, and even to pay a heavy fine for having pre- 
 sumed to remonstrate. 
 
 These islands, with Sicily, were j^laced under proconsular government, 
 the system by which Rome afterward managed all her vast foreign pos- 
 sessions. The two consuls, on completing their year of office, divided 
 the "provinces" between them by lot or agreement, and each held in 
 liis own, both military and civil control, while the finances were man- 
 aged by quaestors responsible only to the Senate. When the provinces 
 became numerous, the greater number were governed by pro-prsetors. 
 One- tenth of the whole produce of these conquered countries was claimed 
 by Rome, beside a duty of* five per cent on all imports and exports. 
 
 95. By the request of the western Greeks, Rome exerted her new naval 
 power in clearing the Adriatic of the Illyrian pirates, who were ravaging 
 its coasts and destroying its commerce. Their queen, Teuta, seized the 
 Roman embassadors who were first sent into her countrv, killed two and 
 imprisoned the third. In the war which immediately followed, she lost 
 the greater part of her dominions, and was compelled to keep her corsairs 
 within stricter limits for the future, beside paying a yearly tribute to her 
 conquerors. In gratitude for this important service, the Romans were 
 admitted to equal rights with the Hellenic race in the Isthmian Games 
 and the Eleusinian Mysteries, B. C. 228. 
 
 9G. While thus asserting her power in the Greek peninsula, Rome 
 desired to extend her Italian dominion to its natural limit in the Alpine 
 range. , The Gauls were not slow in taking the alarm. Obtaining fresh 
 forces from their kinsmen beyond the mountains, they advanced into 
 central Italy, and, overrunning Etruria, threatened Rome again as in the 
 days of Brennus. Three armies were quickly in the field to oppose them; 
 and though one was routed, another, under the consul ^EmiKius, aided 
 by Regulus, -^ who had unexpectedly arrived from Sardinia, gained a 
 decisive victory which nearly destroyed the Gallic host. Within three 
 years all Cisalpine Gaul submitted to Rome, B. C. 222. Mediola^num 
 and Comum (Milan and Como), as well as Placen^tia, Parma, Mode^na, 
 Man^tua, Vero'na, and Brix^ia, Avere occupied by Roman colonies, con- 
 nected with the capital by the great military road called the Flaminian 
 Way, and its continuations. 
 
 *Son of the Regulus who invaded Africa (g 91), and who fell a victim to Car- 
 Ihngiuian vengeance. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 287 
 
 97. Carthage, meanwhile, had yielded only from 'necessity, and for a 
 time, to the superior power of Eome. A large majority of her citizens 
 were for renewing the war at the earliest possible moment; and to recruit 
 her power and wealth, Hamilcar had devoted all his energies to the con- 
 quest of the Spanish peninsula, B. C. 236-228. After his death, his 
 son-in-law, Has^drubal, organized and developed the resources of the 
 country by building towns, encouraging trade and tillage, training the 
 native tribes into efficient soldiers, and working the newly discovered 
 silver mines, which, beside paying all the expenses of the province, were 
 rapidly filling up the home treasury. Konie, with her command of the 
 sea, secured from fear of invasion, saw without uneasiness the prosperity 
 of her rival. But an item which no one could have foreseen, the genius 
 of Hannibal, was now to be added to the resources of Carthage. 
 
 98. At nine years of age he had accompanied his father into Spain, 
 and before the altar of his country's gods had taken a solemn oath of 
 eternal and unrelenting enmity to Eome. The oath of the child had not 
 been forgotten by the youth. At the age of eighteen he fought by his 
 father's side in the battle where Hamilcar was slain ; and during: the 
 following eight years of Hasdrubal's administration, that general intrusted 
 his young brother-in-law with the command of most of his military en- 
 terprises. Upon the death of Hasdrubal, the army by acclamation placed 
 Hannibal at its head, and the government at home neither could nor 
 would annul the appointment. • 
 
 Having confirmed his power in Spain by two years' war against the 
 native tribes, Hannibal deliberately sought the quarrel with Eome to 
 which he had devoted his life. The Greek city of Saguntum had placed 
 itself under the protection of Eome. It was attacked by Hannibal, and 
 taken after an obstinate defense of eight months. The Eomans sent to 
 Carthage to demand the surrender of the young general for this breach 
 of the treaty. The reply was a declaration of war. 
 
 99. Leaving his brother Hasdrubal in charge of Spain, Hannibal pre- 
 pared for a bolder movement than the Eomans had foreseen. He knew 
 that the great mountain-barrier of the Alps had already often been traversed 
 by the Gauls, and he relied upon finding able guides among this people, 
 who were mostly friendly to Carthage. He resolved, therefore, on the 
 hitherto unprecedented feat of leading an army from Spain into Italy by 
 land. Having offered, during the winter, solemn sacrifices and prayers for 
 success, at the distant shrine of the Tyrian Hercules at Gades, he set forth 
 from Carthagena, in the spring of 218 B. C, with an army of 90,000 foot, 
 12,000 hoi-se, and a considerable number of elephants. The Spanish tribes 
 between the Ebro and the Pyrenees were yet to be overcome. They re- 
 sisted bravely, but were subdued, and a force of 11,000 men was left to 
 hold them in subjection. 
 
288 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 100. Having passed the Pyrenees, Hannibal advanced through friendly 
 tribes of Gauls to the Ehone, which he crossed near the modern town of ' 
 Orange, gaining an advance of three days upon the army of Scipio, the 
 consul, who had intended to stop him. The passage of the Alps, with such 
 a force was one of the greatest military achievements of ancient times. 
 The higher mountains were already obstructed by the snows of early 
 autumn; hostile tribes contested his passage in narrow and dangerous 
 defiles ; and in two fierce battles, the army of Hannibal narrowly escaped 
 total destruction. When, after fifteen days of toilsome and dangerous 
 marching, he emerged into the plain of the Po, it was with scarcely more 
 than one-fourth of the great army which had accompanied him from 
 
 Carthagena. 
 
 101. The Insubrian Gauls welcomed Hannibal as their deliverer from 
 the hated power of Rome. After a short period of rest in their hospitable - 
 country, he sought Scipio, and totally routed his forces in a battle on the 
 Tici^nus. By a still greater victory on the Tre^bia, over the forces of the 
 two consuls (Dec, 218 B. C), Hannibal became master of northern Italy. 
 All the Gauls who had wavered now hastened to join his standard; but 
 the gain from this quarter was balanced by the irreparable loss of his 
 elephants, and the severe suffering of his African and Spanish troops from 
 the unwonted coldness of the winter. 
 
 In the spring of 217 B. C, he crossed the Apennines, and traversed the 
 marshes of the Arno, a passage of tremendous difficulty, in which many 
 of his beasts of burden perished. Again seeking battle, Hannibal passed 
 the army of Flaminius at Arretium, and laid waste the country toward 
 Peru^sia, thus provoking the consul to follow. When he had drawn the 
 Roman army into a most perilous position, between precipitous cliffs and 
 the Lake Thrasymene, he let loose his Gauls and Numidians to the attack. 
 The defeat of the Romans was overwhelming: thousands were forced into 
 the lake; thousands fell by the sword, among whom was Flaminius him- 
 self; and 15,000 prisoners remained in the hands of the enemy. 
 
 102. A panic seized Rome; the conqueror was instantly expected at her 
 gates, and Fabius was elected dictator with unlimited powers. But Han- 
 nibal had sought to detach the Italian allies from Rome, by releasing 
 without ransom all their prisoners whom he had taken. Wishing to give 
 time for the disunion to take effect, he turned aside into Apulia, where he 
 rested and recruited his troops worn by so many hardships. 
 
 It was already proved in three battles that the Carthaginian was irre- 
 sistible in the field. The policy of Fabius, therefore, Avas to avoid a 
 general engagement, while he annoyed and weakened his enemy by cutting 
 off his foraging parties, and otherwise harassing his march. In vain Han- 
 nibal crossed the Apennines into the rich Campanian fields, plundering 
 and destroying the crops ; he could neither capture a town nor entice 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 289 
 
 Fabius into a battle. The latter fortified the Samniau mountain-passes, 
 thinking to catch bis enemy in a trap ; but Hannibal eluded the snare and 
 retired safe into Apulia, laden with abundant provision for the comfort of 
 bis winter-quarters. 
 
 103. Great discontent was felt at Kome with the cautious policy of the 
 dictator, and, in the spring of 216 B. C, an army of nearly 90,000 men was 
 led into Apulia by the two consuls iEmilius Pauhis and Terentius Varro. 
 They were met by Hannibal on the plain of the Aufidus, near- the little 
 town of Cannae. The Carthaginians were inferior in numbers but superior 
 in discipline, especially in the Numidian horsemen, who had always been 
 victorious in an open field. Never had the Komans suffered so overwhelm- 
 ing a defeat. Their army was annihilated. From 40,000 to 50,000 men 
 lay dead upon the plain, among whom were iEmilius the consul, eighty 
 senators, and the flower of Roman knighthood. Varro, the other consul, 
 with a small but resolute band, made his way in good order from the 
 battle-field; the rest of the survivors were either dispersed or taken 
 prisoners. 
 
 104. Southern Italy was now lost to Rome. Except the Roman colo- 
 nies and the Greek cities held by Roman garrisons, all submitted to Han- 
 nibal. Capua opened her gates and became the winter-quarters of the 
 African army. Philip of Macedon and Hieron^ymus of Syracuse made 
 alliance with Carthage, and wars with these two powers divided the atten- 
 tion of the Romans. Still, beside keeping two armies in the foreign fields, 
 they occupied every province of Italy with a separate force; and though 
 too wise to meet Hannibal again in a general engagement, hemmed him in 
 closely and cut off his supplies. The great general was now but faintly 
 supported at home, and the ungenerous policy of -Carthage probably de- 
 prived her of the conquest of Italy. 
 
 105o Three years, therefore, passed with no decisive events. In 212 B. C, 
 Syracuse was taken by Marcellus after two years' siege. The attacks of the 
 Romans had been long foiled by the skill of Archimedes, the philosophei-, 
 who is said to have burnt their ships at the distance of a bow-shot from 
 the walls, bv means of a combination of mirrors which concentrated the 
 sun's rays. He constructed powerful ^engines, which, when attached to the 
 walls, grappled the Roman ships and lifted them out of the water; and, 
 in short, the brain of Archimedes was a better defense to Syracuse than 
 the arms of all her soldiers. In the taking of the city, the philosopher 
 was slain by some ignorant troopers ; but Marcellus deeply regretted the 
 event. He ordered him to be buried with high honors, and distinguished 
 his family by many marks of friendship. 
 
 106. Hannibal had been long anxiously awaiting the arrival of his 
 brother from Spain ; but the generalship of the two Scipios, Cneius and 
 Publius, who conducted the war in that country, and more especially the 
 A. H.— 37. 
 
290 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 brilliant genius of the son of the latter, afterward known as Africanus, had 
 detained Hasdrubal and involved him in many disasters, even the loss of 
 his capital, Carthagena. At last, in 208 B. C, Hasdrabal left Spain to the 
 care of two other generals, and striking out a new path, as his brother's 
 route of eleven years before was now guarded by the Eomans, he crossed 
 the Pyrenees at their western extremity and plunged into the heart of 
 Gaul. Many of the restless people flocked to his standard, and he "de- 
 scended from the Alps like a rolling snow-ball, far greater than he came 
 over the Pyrenees." 
 
 He found some of Hannibal's roads uninjured ; the mountaineers made 
 no effort to dispute his passage, and he arrived in Italy before he was ex- 
 pected, so that no Koman army was ready to receive him. He might, 
 perhaps, have settled once for all the supremacy of Carthage by marching 
 directly on Rome, for the resources of the Republic, both in men and 
 money, had been drained to the utmost, and another Thrasymene or 
 Cannse would have ended her existence. 
 
 107. Hasdrubal lost time in the siege of Placentia, and his letter, de- 
 scribing to Hannibal his plan of operations, fell into the hands of Nero, 
 the consul, Avho, by a rapid and secret march, joined his colleague at Sena 
 with 7,000 men, leaving the main part of his army still facing Hannibal in 
 the south. Hasdrubal was uninformed of the reinforcement of his enemy, 
 but his quick ear caught one more trumpet-note than usual, at sunrise, in 
 the Roman camp; and as he rode forth to reconnoiter, he discovered that 
 the horses appeared over-driven, and the armor of the men stained. He 
 therefore delayed until night-fiill, and then moved to cross the river Me- 
 tau^rus in search of a stronger position. But his guides betrayed him, and 
 when morning dawned his worn and weary troops were still on the nearer 
 side of the river, where they were soon overtaken by the foe. He made 
 the best arrangement of his men which the crisis would admit, placing 
 the ten elephants in front "like a line of moving fortresses," his veteran 
 Spanish infantry on the right, the Ligurians in the center, and the Gauls 
 on the left. 
 
 The battle was fiercely contested, for both armies felt that the decision 
 of the day would be final, and that there was no hope for the vanquished. 
 At last Nero, by a circuitous movement, fell upon the Spanish infantry, 
 which had already borne the brunt of the fighting. Hasdrubal saw that 
 the day was lost, and scorning to survive his men or to adorn a Roman 
 triumph, he spurred his horse into the midst of a cohort, and died, sword 
 in hand, B. C. 207. 
 
 108. The consul Nero returned to his camp before Hannibal had even 
 discovered his absence. Hasdrubal's arrival in Italy, the battle and its 
 result were first made known to the great general by seeing the ghastly 
 head of his brother, which Nero had brutally ordered to be thrown within 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 291 
 
 his lines. Hannibal read the tale of disaster in the terrible message, and 
 groaned aloud that he recognized the fate of Carthage. Though he re- 
 mained four years strongly posted in the mountain fastnesses of Bruttium, 
 the issue of the war was already decided. In 204 B. C, the younger Scipio 
 crossed into Africa, and the Carthaginians were compelled to recall Han- 
 nibal. 
 
 The final battle was fought at Zama, B. C. 202. The great Carthaginian 
 displayed again his perfect generalship, but he had no longer his invincible 
 cavalry, and his elephants were rendered useless by the skillful tactics of 
 Scipio. He was defeated with the loss of 20,000 men slain, and an equal 
 number of prisoners. The peace, concluded in the following year, took 
 from Carthage all her possessions beyond the limits of Africa, and all the 
 lands conquered from Numidia, whose king, Mas^sinis^sa, had rendered 
 important aid to Scipio in the recent war. She surrendered, also, her fleet 
 and elephants, promised a yearly tribute of 200 talents, and engaged to 
 make no war without permission from Rome. 
 
 IS,E C-A.JPITTJIj-A-TZOIsr. 
 
 The First Punic War (B. C. 264-241) begins wiLli the invasion of Sicily by tlie 
 Romans, who are joined by many Greek cities, capture Messana and Agrigentum, 
 equip a fleet upon a Cartliaginian model, and gain many naval victories. They 
 invade Africa, and ravage the lands of Carthage almost -without opposition; but 
 Xanthippus arrives with auxiliaries, defeats and captures Regulus. Five j^ears of 
 disaster to the Romans are followed by the great victory of Metellus at Palermo; 
 and after eight years of again unsuccessful warfare, the victory of Lutatius among 
 the JEgates ends the contest. During the peace wliich follows, Sardinia and Cor- 
 sica are seized by the Romans, and placed under proconsular government; tlie 
 Illyrian pirates are subdued, B. C. 220, 228; Cisalpine Gaul conquered, B. C. 22o-222. 
 The Second Punic War is begun, B. C. 218, by Hannibal. He crosses the Pj-renees 
 and Alps, defeats the Romans on the Ticinus and the Trebia, and still more dis- 
 astrously near the Lake Thrasymene and at Cannte. Syracuse, though defended 
 by the science of Archimedes, is captured by Marcellus. The tliree Scipios make 
 successful war in Spain. Hasdrubal comes at last to the relief of his brother, 
 but is defeated and slain on the Metaurus, B. C. 207. Hannibal is recalled to Africa, 
 and finally defeated at Zama by Scipio Africanus, B. C. 202. 
 
 Extension of Eoman Power. 
 
 109. A triumph was awarded to Scipio, who was received at Rome with 
 unbounded enthusiasm. The Triuwpli, which was the highest reward a 
 Roman general could attain, may here be described once for all. The , 
 victorious chief waited without the walls until the Senate had decided 
 upon his claim to the honor. Several conditions were to be observed : 
 the victory must have been over foreign and not domestic foes ; it must 
 have been, not the recovery of something lost, but an actual extension of 
 Roman territory; the war must be completed and the army withdrawn 
 from the field, for the soldiers were entitled to a share in the triumph of 
 
292 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 their general. The honor was limited to persons of consular or, at least, 
 prastorian rank; an officer of lower grade might receive an ovation^ in 
 which he entered the city on foot, but the chariot Avas a mark of kingly- 
 state which could only be permitted to the highest. 
 
 110, If a triumph was decreed, a special vote of the people continued 
 to the general his military command for the day within the walls, for 
 without a suspension of the law, he must have laid it down on entering 
 the gates. On the appointed day, he was met at the Triumphal Gate by 
 the Senate and all the magistrates, in splendid apparel. Taking the lead 
 of the procession, they were followed by a band of trumpeters, and a train 
 of wagons laden with the spoils of the conquered countries, which were 
 indicated by tablets inscribed in large letters with their names. Models in 
 wood or ivory of the captured cities ; pictures of mountains, rivers, or other 
 natural features of the regions subdued; loads of gold, silver, precious 
 stones, vases, statues, and whatever was most rich, curious, or admirable 
 in the spoils of temples and palaces, made an important part of the display. 
 Then came a band of flute players, j^receding the white oxen destined for 
 sacrifice, their horns gilded and adorned with wreaths of flowers and fillets 
 of wool. Elephants and other strange animals from the conquered coun- 
 tries, were followed by a train of captive princes or leaders with their 
 families, and a crowd of captives of inferior rank, loaded with fetters. 
 
 Then came the twelve lictors of the imperator in single file, their fasces 
 wreathed in laurel; and, lastly, the triumphant general himself, in his cir- 
 cular chariot drawn by four horses. His robes glistened with golden em- 
 broidery ; he bore a scepter, and upon his head was a wreath of Delphic 
 laurel. A slave standing behind him held a crown of Etruscan gold; lie 
 was instructed to whisper from time to time in his master's ear, '* Remem- 
 ber that thou art but a man." Behind the general rode his sons and lieu- 
 tenants, and then came the entire army, their spears adorned with laurels — 
 who either sang hymns of praise, or amused themselves and the by-standers 
 with coarse jokes and doggerel verses at their general's expense. This rude 
 license of siDcech was thought to neutralize the eflect of overmuch flattery, 
 which the Romans, like the modern Italians, were taught especially to 
 dread. All the people, in gala dress, thronged the streets, and every 
 temple and shrine were adorned with flowers. 
 
 111. As a terrible contrast to the joy of the day, just as the procession 
 had nearly finished its course to the Capitol, some of the captured chiefs 
 were led aside and put to death. When their execution was announced, 
 the sacrifices were offered in the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter; the 
 laurel crown of the general was placed in the lap of the image; a magnifi- 
 cent banquet was served, and the " triumphator " was escorted home, late 
 in the evening, by a crowd of citizens bearing torches and pipes. The state 
 presented him a site for a house, and at the entrance to this triumphal 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 293 
 
 mansion, a laurel-wreathed statue of its founder perpetuated the memory 
 of his glory to his latest descendants. 
 
 112. Carthage being stripped of her power and possessions, Rome be- 
 came supreme in the western Mediterranean and the greater part of Spain. 
 The confiscated lands of the Italian nations which had taken sides with 
 Hannibal, afforded settlements for large bodies of veteran soldiers. The 
 Cisalpine Gauls were still in revolt, under the lead of a Carthaginian 
 general; but they were reduced by a ten years' war (B. C. 201-191), and 
 afterward became Latinized with that wonderful facility which distin- 
 guishes their race. 
 
 113. The Alexandrine kingdoms in the East were all prematurely old 
 and falling into decay. The campaigns of Flamininus against Philip of 
 Macedon, B. C. 198, 197, have been already described. (See Book IV, 
 ^§ 81-83.) A new war for the protectorate of Greece was occasioned by the 
 movements of Antiochus the Great. This ambitious and restless monarch 
 not only welcomed to his court the now exiled Hannibal, but allied him- 
 self with the ^tolians and led an army to their aid. He had miscalculated 
 the power of Rome, which met him promptly with much more than twice 
 his numbers, defeated him once by land and twice by sea, and finally, in 
 the great battle of Magnesia, in Lydia, shattered his forces, while beginning 
 her own long career of Asiatic conquest. The lands conquered from Anti- 
 ochus were divided between the friendly powers of Pergamus and Rhodes, 
 and the example of their good fortune led many other nations to seek the 
 Roman alliance. 
 
 114. For more than twenty years, Rome was occupied with continual 
 wars in the west, against the brave and freedom-loving tribes of Spain and 
 the Ligurian Alps, as well as with the natives of Corsica and Sardinia. 
 The latter island was conquered, B. C. 176, by Sempronius Gracchus, who 
 brought away so great a multitude of captives, that "Sardinians for sale" 
 became a proverbial phrase in Rome for anything cheap and worthless. 
 
 Meanwhile, Philip V. had died in Macedon, and Perseus had succeeded 
 to the throne. The final struggle of this prince with Rome, and its result 
 in the battle of.Pydna (B. C. 168), have been described in Book IV. 
 Rome became for six centuries what Macedon had been only during one 
 man's short career, the undisputed ruler of the civilized world. None 
 except barbarians any longer hoped to resist her ascendency; and but for 
 a few revolts, like those of the Achasans, the Carthaginians, and the Jews, 
 her progress in absorbing the old states of Asia, Africa, and Europe was 
 both peaceful and rapid. 
 
 115. After eighteen years of comparative tranquillity, it was resolved 
 that the time had come for the complete extinction of Carthage. Cato, 
 the censor, now eighty-four years of age, and the sternest of Roman legis- 
 lators, declared that Rome could never be safe while her former rival was 
 
294 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 so near, so hostile, and so strong; and whenever he was called upon for 
 his vote in the Senate, whatever might be the subject of debate, his un- 
 varying reply was, "I vote that Carthage no longer be." The doomed 
 city had more than fulfilled every condition of the treaty which closed the 
 First Punic War, and still made many sacrifices for the sake of peace. 
 But the last command of Rome was not intended to be obeyed. The Car- 
 thaginians were ordered to destroy their city, and remove to a situation 
 farther from the sea. They refused, and a war began, in which, for four 
 years, the brave spirit of the people sustained them without the faintest 
 hope of victory. 
 
 IIG. Their fleet, their weapons, and their mines ^n Spain, Sardinia, and 
 Elba had all been surrendered to the enemy. In two months 120 ships 
 were built in the blockaded port, and a passage cut through the land to 
 enable them to reach the sea. Public buildings were torn down to furnish 
 timber and metal. Every living being toiled night and day at the defenses. 
 An arsenal was established which daily produced 2,000 shields or weapons, 
 and even the women contributed their long hair to make strings for the 
 engines which hurled stones or arrows from the walls. 
 
 At length the Eomans, under the consul Scipio ^milia^nus, forced their 
 way into the city. The people defended it house by house, and street by 
 street, and days of carnage were still required to quench the pride of Car- 
 thage in ashes and blood. The city was fired in all directions, and when, 
 after seventeen days, the flames were at last extinguished, nothing remained 
 but shapeless heaps of rubbish. The territories of the Punic state became 
 the "Province of Africa," whose capital was fixed at Utica. Roman traders 
 flocked to the latter city, and took into their own hands the flourishing 
 commerce of the coast. 
 
 117. In the same year, B. C. 146, L. Mun/mius, the consul, plundered 
 and destroyed Corinth. Its walls and houses were leveled with the ground, 
 and a curse was pronounced on whomsoever should build on its desolate site. 
 Its commerce passed to Argos and Delos, while the care of the Isthmian 
 Games was intrusted to Sicyon. The policy of Rome toward the Greeks 
 was far more liberal than toward any other conquered people. Her firm 
 and settled government was, indeed, preferable to the dissension and mis- 
 rule which disfigured the later ages of Greece ; and the Greeks themselves 
 declared, in the words of Themistocles, that " ruin had averted ruin." 
 
 118. The natives of western Spain, intrenched among their mountains, 
 still maintained a brave resistance to the power of Rome. The Lusitanians, 
 who had never yet been conquered, were basely deceived by Serto^rius 
 Galba, who enticed 7,000 of them from their strongholds by promising 
 grants of fertile lands ; and when, trusting the word of a Roman general, 
 they had descended into the plain, he caused them to be treacherously 
 surrounded, disarmed, and either massacred or enslaved. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 295 
 
 Among the few who escaped was a youth named Viria^thus, who lived 
 to become the leader and avenger of his people. The career of this guer- 
 rilla chief is full of stirring events. Issuing suddenly from a cleft in the 
 mountains, he seven times defeated a Roman army with tremendous 
 slaughter. In the last of these victories, the forces of Servilia^nus were 
 entrapped in a narrow pass and completely surrounded. Absolute sur- 
 render was their only choice. Viriathus, however, preferring peace to 
 vengeance, used his advantage with great moderation. He allowed his 
 enemy to depart unhurt, on his solemn engagement to leave the Lusita- 
 nians henceforth unmolested in their own territories, and to recognize 
 him, their chief, as a friend and ally of the Roman people. 
 
 119. The terms were ratified by the Senate, but only to be violated. 
 On the renewal of the war, Viriathus sent three of his most trusted friends 
 to remonstrate, and offer renewed terms of peace. The consul bribed these 
 messengers, by promises of large rewards, to murder their chief. The crime 
 was committed, and within a year Lusita^nia (Portugal) was added to 
 the Roman dominions. Numantia, in the north, still held out against the 
 besieging army of Qu. Pompe^ius. A severe winter caused great sickness 
 and suffering in the legions, and Pompey offered peace on terms favorable 
 to the Spaniards, but, according to Roman ideas, disgraceful to the be- 
 siegers. These were accepted, and the last payment but one had been 
 made by the Numantines, when Pompey's successor in the consulship 
 arrived at the camp. Being thus relieved from command, he denied that 
 he had ever made the treaty, and persisted in his falsehood before the 
 Senate. 
 
 The war went on six years, with no credit and frequent disgrace to the 
 Romans, until Scipio ^milianus, the greatest general of his own time, 
 starved the city at last into surrender. Many of the Numantines, rather 
 than fall into the hands of an enemy whose falsehood they had too often 
 proved, set fire to their houses and perished among the burning ruins. 
 The whole peninsula, except its nortliern coast, was now subject to Rome. 
 It was divided into three provinces — Hither and Farther Spain, and Lu- 
 sitania — and became eventually the most prosperous and best governed 
 part of the Roman foreign possessions. The Lusitanian mountains were 
 still haunted by brigands, and isolated country houses in that region had 
 to be built like fortresses; yet the country was rich in corn and cattle, 
 and OQCupied by a thriving and industrious people. 
 
 la-ECJ^nTTJijJLTiOiT. 
 
 Rome, supreme in the western Mediterranean^ makes war upon Philip V., of 
 Macedon, and Antiochus the Great, of Syria. The battle of Magnesia, B. C. 190, 
 lays the foundation of her power in Asia, and the battle of Pydna makes her 
 the head of the civilized world. In the meanwhile, Sardinia is conquered, and 
 wars carried on in Spain and Liguria. The third and last Punic War ends, 
 
296 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 B. C. UG, with the destruction of Caitliage. The same year, Corinth is destroyed 
 by Mummius. Viriathus holds out nine years in western Spain; he is assas- 
 sinated B. C. 140; Numantia is captured B. C. 133; and Spain divided into three 
 Roman provinces. 
 
 Fourth Period, B. C. 133-30. 
 
 120. The possessions of Rome now extended from the Atlantic to the 
 ^gean, and from the Atlas Mountains to the Pyrenees and Alps. But 
 changes in the relations of rich and poor, governing and governed classes, 
 in her own capital, now withdrew her attention for a while from foreign 
 conquests, and led to important civil controversies. The old strife between 
 patricians and plebeians was long ago at an end. Many plebeian houses 
 had become noble through their members having held high offices in the 
 state; and they had their clientage, their share in the public lands, their 
 seat in the Senate, and their right of displaying waxen images of their 
 ancestors in their houses or in funeral processions, equally with the oldest 
 burghers of all. Freedmen were constantly admitted to the franchise. 
 
 12 lo The real cause of trouble was in the sufferings of the poor, who, 
 since the formation of the last colony, in 177 B. C, had had no new allot- 
 ment of lands. Rome was a " commonwealth of millionaires and beggars." 
 The Licinian laws (see ^ 64) were practically set aside. Many rich pro- 
 prietors held four times the amount of public land to which they were 
 entitled ; and instead of employing the required proportion of free labor, 
 preferred to cultivate by means of gangs of slaves. The foreign wars, 
 which formerly so frightfully reduced * the numbers of the common 
 people, had now ceased ; the labor market became over-stocked, and a 
 mass of paupers, hungry, helpless, and hopeless, began to threaten serious 
 danger to the state. The multitude of slaves, chiefly taken in war, more 
 or less trained for fighting, and conscious of their strength, were a not less 
 dangerous class. The best and wisest of the Romans saw the danger, and 
 sought means to avert it. But among those who most deeply deplored the 
 miseries of the people, a large party believed that nothing could be done. 
 
 122. In 133 B. C, the tribune Tiberius Gracchus, a son of the con- 
 queror of Sardinia, and grandson of Scipio Africanus, brought forward a 
 bill for reviving the provisions of the I.icinian laws. The great amount 
 of state lands which would thus become vacant, he proposed to divide 
 among the poor ; and to compensate the former occupants for their losses, 
 by making them absolute owners of the 500 jugera of land which they 
 could legally retain. This movement, apparently so just, was violently 
 opposed. The leased lands had been, in some instances, three hundred 
 
 -' During the seventeen years of the Second Punic War, the free citizens of 
 Rome were diminished by one-fourth, and in Italy at large 300,000 people per- 
 ished. 
 
HISTORY OF HOME. 297 
 
 years in the same family. Buildings had been erected at great expense, 
 and the property had been hekl or transferred as if in real ownership. 
 The strong influence of the wealthy class was therefore made to bear 
 against the bill; and when it was brought before the popular assembly, 
 Octa^'ius, a colleague of Gracchus in the tribuneship, interposed his veto 
 and prevented the vote from being taken. But Gracchus moved the 
 people to depose Octavius, and so carried the bill. Three commissioners, 
 Tiberius Gracchus himself, his brother Caius, and his father-in-law, AjDpius 
 Claudius, were appointed to examine into the extent of the abuse, and 
 enforce the Agrarian laws?. 
 
 123. Their task was difficult, and Tiberius had to content the people by 
 continually bringing forward more and more popular measures. The 
 kingdom of Pergamus, with its treasury, had just become the inheritance 
 of the Romans. Gracchus proposed that the money should be distributed 
 among the new land-holders, to provide implements and stock for their 
 farms. Other proposals were for shortening the term of military service, 
 for extending the privilege of jury to the common people, and for admit- 
 ting the .Italian allies to the rights of Roman citizens. The aristocratic 
 party had declared from the beginning that this bold innovator should not 
 escape their vengeance. His candidacy for a second tribuneship brought 
 the opposition to a crisis. Tiberius was slain upon the steps of the Capitol, 
 and his bodv thrown into the Tiber. 
 
 124. Though the reformer was dead, his reform went on. The party in 
 power earnestly desired to relieve the public danger and distress, and, by 
 order of the Senate, the commission continued the distribution of lands. 
 A law proposed by Scipio uiEmilianus, B. C. 129, withdrew the work from 
 the hands of the commissioners, and placed it permanently in those of the 
 consuls. The lands which were really public property were by this time 
 distributed, and questions had arisen concerning territories which had 
 been granted to Italian allies. "The greatest general and the greatest 
 statesman of his age," Scipio saw as clearly and lamented as deeply as the 
 Gracchi the needs of his country, and, with unselfishness equal to theirs, 
 he sought to check the reform, when convinced that it had gone as far as 
 justice would permit. But he, too, became a martyr to liis efforts. Soon 
 after the passage of his bill, and on the morning of the day appointed for 
 his oration upon popular rights, he was found murdered in his bed. 
 
 125. Caius Gracchus returned from his qusestorship in Sardinia, B. C. 
 124, and became tribune of the people. His plans for relieving the poorer 
 classes were more revolutionary than those of his brother, but many of 
 them were most beneficent and widely reaching in their results. Colonies 
 were formed, both in Italy and beyond the sea, to afford an outlet to the 
 crowded and distressed population of Rome. Six thousand colonists were 
 sent to the deserted site of Carthage; another company to Aquae Sextite 
 
298 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 (Aix), in southern Gaul; and a third, with the full "Roman right," to 
 Narbo Martius (Narbonne"). The latter colony, though not founded 
 until after the death of Caius, was equally a fruit of his policy. It was 
 fostered by the commercial class, for the sake of its lucrative trade with 
 
 Gaul and Britain. 
 
 A less beneficent though doubtless needed law, provided for the distri- 
 bution of grain from the public stores, at less than half price, to all resi- 
 dents in the city who chose to apply for it. An extensive range of 
 buildings, the Sempronian granaries, were erected to supply this demand. 
 The result was the crowding within the walls of Rome of the whole mass 
 of poor and inefficient people from the surrounding country, thus giving to 
 the popular leaders a majority in the assembly, and the absolute control 
 of the elections ; creating, at the same time, that lazy, hungry, and disor- 
 derly mob which for five hundred years constituted the chief danger of the 
 imperial city. 
 
 12G. The lowest age for military service was fixed at seventeen years, 
 and the cost of the soldier's equipment, which formerly had been deducted 
 from his wages, was now defrayed by the government. Having thus won 
 the poorer people, Caius drew to his side the plebeian aristocracy, by 
 placing in their hands the collection of revenues in the provinces, thus 
 creating the class of great merchants and bankers, hitherto scarcely known 
 in Rome. The new " province of Asia " had been formed from the king- 
 dom of Pergamus, and its name, like that of "Africa" given to the Car- 
 thaginian territory, doubtless implied that its limits were not considered as 
 fixed. In accordance with the despotic principle that conquered or inher- 
 ited lands were the private property of the state, the province was now 
 loaded with taxes, and the privilege of collection was publicly sold at 
 Rome to the highest bidder. The "publicans" amassed great fortunes, 
 but the unhappy provincials were reduced to extreme distress. 
 
 127. Gracchus would have gone a step farther, and extended the full 
 rights of Roman citizenship to all free Italians. But this liberal policy 
 was equally hateful to the Senate and the commons. The former gained 
 over his colleague, Liv^ius Drusus, who outbade Gracchus by proposing 
 still more popular measures, which, however, were never meant to be ful- 
 filled. Instead of two Italian colonies, composed only of citizens of good 
 character, which had been planned by Gracchus, Drusus proposed twelve, 
 to contain 3,000 settlers each. Caius had left the domain lands subject, 
 as of old, to a yearly rent. Drusus abolished this, and left the lessees in 
 absolute possession of their farms. 
 
 At the end of the second year, Caius lost his tribuneship, and the new 
 consuls were opposed to him. His policy w^as now violently attacked, and 
 especially the formation of the transmarine colonies. It was reported that 
 African hyenas had dug up the newly placed boundary stones of Juno^nia, 
 
HISTORY OF HOME. 299 
 
 the successor of Carthage ; and the priests dechired that the gods in this 
 way signified their displeasure at the attempt to rebuild an accursed city. 
 The iiuguries were taken anew; a popular tumult arose, in Avhich an 
 attendant of the priests was killed. The next day the Forum was occu- 
 pied by an armed force, and all the aristocratic party appeared with 
 swords and shields, Caius and his former colleague, FuKvius Flaccus 
 retu-ed with their followers to the Aventine, the old stronghold of the 
 commons. The nobility, with their Cretan mercenaries, stormed the 
 mount; 250 persons of humble rank were slain, and the two leaders 
 were pursued and put to death. Three thousand of their adherents 
 were strangled in prison, by order of the Senate. Cornelia, - the mother 
 of the Gracchi, was not permitted to wear mourning for the last and 
 noblest of her sons; but the people honored their memory with statues, 
 and on the sacred ground where they had fallen, sacrifices were offered as 
 in temples of the gods. 
 
 128. Next to Egypt, the most important client-state of Rome was 
 Kumidia, which occupied nearly the same space with the modern province 
 of Algeria. Massinissa, the Numidian king, had been rewarded for his 
 faithful service in the Second Punic War, by a grant of the greater part 
 of the Carthaginian territories. Micip^sa, his son, was now a feeble old 
 man, who cared more for Greek philosophy than for affairs of state, and 
 had dropped the control of his kingdom into the hands of his nephew, 
 Jugur^tha, whom he raised by adoption to a level with his own sons. In 
 his will he divided the civil, military, and judicial offices of the kijigdom 
 between the three princes. 
 
 After the old king's death, his sons, Adher^bal and Hiemp^sal, disputed 
 the will, while Jugurtha boldly claimed the supreme and sole authority. 
 Hiempsal was murdered by hired ruffians. Adherbal appealed in person to 
 the Roman Senate, which had undertaken to guarantee his father's bequests. 
 But Jugurtha had learned in the camps that every senator had his price ; 
 and his emissaries worked so skillfully, that the whole blame of ^he dispute 
 and the murder was throw^n upon the supj^liant prince. A new division 
 of the kingdom was ordered to be made, by Roman commissioners sent 
 over for the purpose. Jugurtha received the fertile and populous region 
 
 '■■• This illustrions lad3'- was a daughter of Scipio Africanus, the greatest general 
 save one, and, perhaps, the greatest character, wliom Rome ever produced. 
 Cornelia, after the early death of her husband, devoted herself to the education 
 of her children, and was rewarded for her care by their perfect respect and love. 
 After the death of Caius, she retired to Misenuin, where her house became the 
 resort of all the genius and learning of the age. Cornelia not only spoke her 
 own language with the utmost elegance, but was well acquainted with Greek 
 literature, and her letters to her sons are considered the purest specimens of 
 Latin prose. She died in a good old age, and the people erected a statue to her 
 memory, with the simple inscription, "Cornelia, the Blother of the Gracchi." 
 
300 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 which was afterward known as Mauritania ; Adherbal, with Cirta, the 
 capital, had only a tract of sandy desert toward the east. 
 
 129. Jugurtha, however, was not satisfied; and fiiiling by many insults 
 to provoke his cousin to war, he at last besieged him in his capital, and 
 in spite of lame remonstrances from Rome, captured and put him to death 
 with cruel tortures, and ordered an indiscriminate massacre of all the in- 
 habitants of the town. Of these, many were Italians. Even the base 
 venality of the Roman government could no longer withstand the righteous 
 indignation of the people. War was declared and an army promptly sent 
 forward, which received the submission of many Numidian towns. But 
 again the wily usurper was able to buy peace with African gold. He pre- 
 tended to submit at discretion, but was re-instated in his kingdom upon 
 paying a moderate fine and surrendering his war elephants, which he was 
 soon permitted to redeem. Public indignation again broke out at Rome. 
 Jugurtha was summoned to the city, to answer concerning the means by 
 which he had obtained the peace. His cousin, Massi^va, took this oppor- 
 tunity to prefer his own claim to the kingdom of Massinissa; but he was 
 assassinated by a confidant of Jugurtha, who immediately, with the aid 
 of his master, escaped from Rome. 
 
 130. This new insult enraged the people beyond endurance. The Senate 
 canceled the peace and dismissed Jugurtha from the city. His sarcastic 
 remark in leaving expressed a melancholy truth : '' If I had gold enough, 
 I would buy the city itself." The war was renewed, but the army, equally 
 demoralized with its chiefs, was wholly unfit for service. In attempting 
 to besiege the treasure-town of Suthul, the incompetent commander suf- 
 fered himself to be drawn off into the desert, where his whole army was 
 routed and made to pass under the yoke. By the terms of surrender, 
 Numidia was evacuated and the canceled peace renewed. The generals 
 whose misconduct had led to this disgrace were tried at Rome and exiled, 
 and with them Opin/ius, the head of the Numidian commission, and the 
 real executioner of Gains Gracchus. 
 
 In token of the earnestness with which the war was now to be carried 
 on, Qu. Metellus, a stern and upright patrician of the old school, was 
 elected consul for the African campaign. Among his lieutenants was 
 Gains Marius, the son of a Latin farmer, who had risen from the ranks 
 by his sterling ability. He won the hearts of the soldiers by voluntarily 
 sharing all their toils and privations; and through their reports to friends 
 at liome, his praise was in every mouth. 
 
 131. The wild tribes of the desert flocked to the standard of Jugurtha, 
 whom they hailed as their deliverer from Roman domination; and" with 
 his swarms of fleet horsemen, he was able either to dictate the battle-field, 
 or to vanish out of sight at any moment, when the combat seemed to 
 be going against him. The Romans gained one or two victories, but no 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 301 
 
 real advantage. An impression, doubtless false and unjust, sprang up at 
 Eome, that the inaction of Metellus, like the reverses of his predecessors, 
 was owing to a secret understanding with Jugurtha — or, at least, that he 
 was prolonging the war to gratify his own love of power. 
 
 Availing himself of this prejudice, Marius returned to Home, and was 
 elected consul for the year 107 B. 0. Instead of having his province 
 allotted by the Senate, he was appointed by the people to the command 
 in Africa. His election was really a revolution which gave power in the 
 state to military talent, rather than to great wealth or noble birth. His 
 quaestor in this expedition was L. Cornelius Sulla, a young nobleman dis- 
 tinguished chiefly hitherto by his unbounded licentiousness, but who, by 
 energetic application to his duties, soon won the entire confidence and ap- 
 probation of his commander. These two men stood, a few years later, in 
 very different relations to each other, as alternate masters of the Roman 
 world. 
 
 132. In spite of some daring adventures and the capture of several 
 towns, the administration of Marius was not much more successfid than 
 that of Metellus. He continued in command as proconsul for the year 
 106 B. C. ; and during the second winter, the real victory was gained by 
 Sulla, who passed through the enemy's camp at great personal risk, and 
 with consummate skill conducted a negotiation with King Bocchus, of 
 Mauritania, for the surrender of Jugurtha. This notorious criminal was 
 brought in chains to Rome, where, with his two sons, he adorned the 
 triumph of Marius, Jan. 1, B. C. 104. A few days later, he perished with 
 hunger in the lower dungeon of the Mamertine prison. A new peril now 
 threatened Rome, and demanded unusual measures. In spite of a law to 
 the contrary, Marius was reelected to the consulship, and continued to 
 hold that office five successive years, B. C. 104-100. 
 
 133. The Cimbri, a mingled horde of Celtic and Germanic tribes, had 
 been dislodged in some unknown manner from their seats beyond the 
 Danube, and were pressing upon the Roman frontier. Before the close 
 of the Jugurthine War, they had four times defeated consular armies in 
 Gaul and the Alpine regions. In the last of these defeats, at Orange, on 
 the Rhone (B. C. 105), an army of 80,000 men had been destroyed, and 
 a-11 Italy was filled with terror. A new army was now on foot, and Marius, 
 with his legate, Sulla, and many other able officers, hastened into Gaul. 
 The Cimbri had turned aside into Spain, where, however, they met a 
 brave resistance, and were soon driven back across the Pyrenees. In 
 western Gaul nothing was able to resist their rapid course of conquest, 
 until they arrived at the Belgian territory beyond the Seine. They 
 were joined by a kindred tribe of Teuto^nes from the shores of the 
 Baltic, and by three cantons of Helve^tii from the mountains of Switzer- 
 land. They now arranged a combined invasion of Italy, the Teutones to 
 
o 
 
 02 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 enter that country from Roman Gaul by the western passes of the Alps, 
 while the Cimbri were to traverse the eastern passes from Switzerland. 
 
 134. It was the object of the consuls to prevent their junction, and 
 for this purpose Marius awaited the Teutones on the Rhone, near its con- 
 fluence with the Is^ara, while Catulus marched into northern Italy to 
 meet the Cimbri. One of the greatest victories ever won by Roman 
 arms was gained by the former, near Aix, B. C. 102. Three successive 
 days the barbarians had assaulted the Roman camp, when, despairing 
 of success, they resolved to leave it behind and continue their march 
 into Italy. 
 
 Distrusting his new recruits, Marius would not suffer his men to be 
 drawn from their intrenchments until the entire host had departed; and 
 so great were the numbers, and so cumbrous the baggage of the bar- 
 barians, that they were six days in passing the Roman works. When 
 they were gone, Marius broke up his camp and started in pursuit, still 
 maintaining perfect order, and intrenching himself carefully every night. 
 In the neighborhood of Aix he overtook the Teutones, and the pitched 
 battle which was then fought ended in the complete destruction of the 
 nation. The warriors who survived the combat put an end to their own 
 lives; and their wives, preferring death to ylavery, followed their ex- 
 ample. 
 
 135. Meanwhile, the other division, less ably resisted, had advanced 
 through the Brenner Pass and routed the army of Catulus near Trent. 
 But the comfort and plenty of the Lombard plain were, for the moment, 
 a better protection to Rome than the wisdom of her generals. The 
 Cimbri went into winter-quarters, and Marius had time to recruit his 
 army and hasten to join his colleague in the spring of 101 B. C. When 
 the Cimbri ascended the valley of the Po, hoping to effect the proposed 
 junction with their Teutonic comrades, they met, instead, the combined 
 armies of Marius and Lutatius. The battle was fought at VerceFlse, 
 westward of Milan, July 30, 101 B. C. The barbarians were wholly de- 
 feated, and either slaughtered or enslaved; 14,000 were left dead upon 
 the battle-field, and 60,000 were transferred to the slave-markets of 
 Rome. 
 
 136. Marius was received at Rome with a brilliant triumph, in which 
 he was hailed as a third Romulus and a second Camillus, and his name 
 in libations was coupled with those of the gods. The common people 
 rejoiced scarcely more for the victory over the barbarians than for that 
 over the government. The triumph of their chosen general, the farmer's 
 boy of Arpi^num, seemed to them a triumph of the untitled and un- 
 privileged masses over the rich and favored few. Marius was elected* to 
 his sixth consulate, and if he had been as great a statesman as general, 
 the Republic might even then have been exchanged for a monarchy. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 303 
 
 But he had no matured policy, and no skill in adapting means to ends. 
 He allied himself with two unprincipled demagogues, Saturni^nus and 
 Glau^cia, to secure his election, and then abandoned them to the ven- 
 geance of the Senate, when their crimes had become too bold for 
 endurance. 
 
 The government candidate for the consulship Avas assailed and beaten 
 to death ; and the party which procured the murder, proclaiming Satur- 
 ninus its chief, broke open the prison doors and gave freedom and arms 
 to both prisoners and slaves. This armed rabble fought the guards of 
 Marius in the very market-place of the city ; but it was driven at length 
 to the Capitol, cut oflf from water, and forced to surrender. Vv^ithout 
 waiting the forms of trial, some young nobles climbed to the roof of the 
 building where the rioters were imprisoned, tore off the tiles, and stoned 
 them to death. In this disgraceful manner perished four high officers 
 of the Roman people : a praetor, a quaestor, and two tribunes. 
 
 137. The beautiful island of Sicily was a second time the scene of a 
 servile war, B. C. 102-99. Its fertility and importance as a grain market 
 to Rome had attracted speculators, who farmed their vast estates by 
 means of multitudes of slaves. In the First Servile War (B. C. 134-132), 
 200,000 rebels were in arms ; the second taxed the best exertions of 
 three successive consuls, and though it was ended, B. C. 99, in victory 
 to Rome, the terror it had excited did not soon die away. The slaves 
 not only outnumbered the ruling class, but surpassed it in strength, and 
 even, in some rare instances, in military talent. They were treated with 
 such inhuman cruelty, that they never lacked a motive for revolt, and 
 thus the rural districts were always liable to outbreaks when the gov- 
 erning force was removed. 
 
 The Roman slave-code, it may be hoped, has never been equaled in 
 barbarity by that of any civilized state. The slave was "nothing" in 
 law; his master might torture or kill him with no other punishment 
 than the loss of his property ; and when, after such a victory as that of 
 Vercellae, captives could be bought, as we are told, for less than a dollar 
 a head, that motive could have had no weight against the passion of 
 revenge. Happily, society is sometimes better than its laws. Household 
 servants commonly enjoyed the confidence and affection of their masters ; 
 physicians and teachers were usually Greek slaves, and their learning 
 and talents caused them to be respected in spite of the misfortune of 
 their condition. 
 
 Though plebeians enjoy political equality, the poor suffer for want of land 
 and employment. Tiberius Gracchus passes the Agrarian laws, but becomes a 
 martyr to his zeal for reform. Scipio ^millanus, trying to moderate the Agra- 
 rian movement, is also murdered. Caius Gracclms founds colonies In Italy and 
 
304 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 abroad; provides for the poor by a public distribution of grain; gives to the rich 
 plebeians the collection of provincial revenues, and thus creates a class of great 
 bankers and publicans. He is opposed with ariiied violence and slain, B. C. 121. 
 The crimes of Jugurtlia occasion the Numidian war, B. C. 111-106. Metellus is 
 succeeded in command by IMarius, who becomes consul, B. C. 107. Jugurtha is 
 captured by the address of Sulla. Marius defeats the Teutones in a great battle 
 near Aix, B. O. 102; and the Cimbri, the next year, at Vercellse. A sedition at 
 Rome is followed by the death of several magistrates. Sicily is twice devastated 
 by servile insiurections, B. C. 134-132, and B. C. 102-99. 
 
 The Social War. 
 
 138. Meanwhile, Eome was shaken by the efforts and death of another 
 reformer, M. Livius Drusus, son of the opponent of Gracchus. As a 
 noble, he was filled with shame for the corruptions of his order, and 
 sought to revive the safest and best of the laws of the Gracchi, by 
 giving the franchise to all Italians, and by taking the judicial power 
 from the knights, who had greatly abused it. He was murdered at his 
 own door by an unknown assassin, B. C. 91, and both of his laws re- 
 pealed. The allies in the south and center of Italy, disappointed in all 
 their hopes by the death of their champion, now flew to arms. Eight 
 nations, the Marsi, Marrucini, Peligni, Vestini, Picenti^ni, Samnites, 
 Apu^li, and Lucani, formed a federal republic under the name of Italia, 
 chose two consuls, and fixed their capital at Corfin^ium, in the Apen- 
 nines. 
 
 The first movements in the "Social War" were disastrous to Rome. 
 L. Csesar, the consul, Perpei"'na, his legate, and Postu^mius, a praetor, 
 were defeated. A consular army under Csepio was destroyed; Campania 
 was overrun, and the northern Italians were almost ready to join the 
 league. But a late concession saved Rome. The coveted rights of citi- 
 zenship were conferred on all wdio had taken no part in the war, and 
 on all who would now withdraw from it. The confederate ranks were 
 thus divided ; and, at length, even the Samnites and Lucanians, who 
 were the last to submit, were won by a promise .of all that they had 
 asked. 
 
 139o The slow and cautious conduct of Marius in this war had been 
 eclipsed by the brilliant activity of Sulla, who was now consul; and the 
 Senate, choosing to consider the old general unequal to the hardships 
 of a campaign, conferred the command ngainst Mithridates upon the 
 young patrician officer. The jealousy which had long ago supplanted 
 the ancient confidence between Marius and Sulla, now broke out into 
 violent opposition. To defeat his rival, Marius persuaded Rufus, the 
 tribune, to propose a law for distributing the newly enfranchised Italians 
 among all the tribes. The old citizens would thus be greatly outnum- 
 bered, and the appointment of Sulla reversed, for all the new voters 
 
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HISTORY OF HOME. 305 
 
 regarded Marias as their friend and benefactor. Tlie consuls interfered, 
 but Marius and bis ally occupied the Forum Avith an armed force, com- 
 pelled the consuls to withdraw their interdict, passed the law by intim- 
 idation, and easily obtained a vote of the tribes appointing Marius to 
 the command of the Pontic War. 
 
 140. This brutal interference with the forms of law was naturally met 
 by an opposing force. The military tribunes sent l^y Marius to take 
 command, in his name, of the army at Nola, were stoned to death by 
 the soldiers of Sulla, who instantly marched upon Rome at the head of 
 six legions. The city was unprepared for resistance; Sulla became its 
 master, and Marius, with his son and partisans, fled. He wandered, a 
 fugitive and outlaw, along the coast of southern Italy; now half starved 
 in a wood, now buried all night to his chin in a swamp ; again indebted 
 for a few hours' sleep to the charity of a ship-master or to a peasant, who 
 refused the reward offered by Sulla for the head of the outlaw, and en- 
 abled him to elude his pursuers. 
 
 At Mintui-^nse he was sheltered by a woman to whom he had formerly 
 rendered some kindness ; but the officers of the town resolved to comply 
 with the orders of the government at Rome, and with difficulty prevailed 
 upon a Gallic or Cimbrian soldier to undertake the work of despatching 
 him. But no sooner had the barbarian entered the room where the old 
 general, unarmed and defenseless, lay upon a bed, than his courage failed, 
 his drawn sword fell from his hand, and he rushed from the house, ex- 
 claiming, "I can not kill Caius Marius!" 
 
 141. The people of Minturnse now took more generous counsel, and 
 resolved not to destroy the deliverer of Italy. They provided him with a 
 ship, and conducted him wath good wishes to the sea, where he embarked 
 for Africa. Here, too, he w^as warned by the governor to leave the country, 
 or be treated as an enemy of Rome. But a revolution had by this time 
 taken place in Rome itself, which favored the return of Marius. Cinna, 
 one of the new consuls, was of the Marian party, and wished to enforce 
 the laws of Rufus. The aristocrats armed, under the command of the 
 other consul, Octavius, and a battle was fought in the Forum, in which 
 Cinna was defeated and expelled from the city. Like Sulla, he appealed 
 to the army; and as the army was now composed of Italians, who could 
 not but fixvor that party which promised them supreme power in the 
 Roman elections, the tide was turned ngainst the aristocrats. 
 
 Marius returned, seized upon Ostia and other ports on the Latin coast, 
 captured the corn ships, and thus starved Rome into surrender. This 
 time the captured city was given up to a reign of terror. As Marius 
 walked through the streets, his guards stabbed all persons whom he did 
 not salute. Fresh lists were made out every day of those whom he 
 either feared or hated, as victims for the dagger. Marius and Cinna 
 A. H.— 39. 
 
306 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 declared themselves consuls for B. C. ^Q, in contempt of the usual form 
 of election. But the unrelenting master of Kome did not long enjoy his 
 seventh consulship, which he had all his life superstitiously expected, and 
 now so unscrupulously obtained. He died on the eighteenth day of his 
 magistracy, and in the seventy-first year of his age. 
 
 142. Sulla had brought the Mithridatic War to a victorious con- 
 clusion, liaving conducted five difiicult and costly campaigns at his own 
 expense, and recovered for Eome the revolted territories of Greece, Mace- 
 donia, and Asia Minor. But he never forgot that the Republic which he 
 was serving had declared him a public enemy, confiscated his wealth 
 and murdered his best friends for their adherence to him. If his ven- 
 geance was delayed, it was only the more bitter and effectual. He now 
 returned with a powerful army devotedly attached to his person, and 
 laden with treasure collected from the conquered cities of Asia. 
 
 To disarm the enmity of the Italians, who formed the most valuable 
 part of his opponents' forces, he proclaimed that he would not interfere 
 with the rights of any citizen, old or new. He suffered no injury to be 
 done to either the towns or fields of the Italians, and he made separate 
 treaties with many of their cities, by which he guaranteed their full 
 enjoyment of Roman privileges so long as they should favor his interests. 
 The Samnites alone held out against Sulla, and in concert with the 
 Marian party renewed their old hostilities. Cinna was murdered by his 
 own troops, on his way to meet Sulla in Dalma'tia. 
 
 143. Landing at Brundis'ium, Sulla marched without opposition through 
 Calabria, Apulia, and Campania; defeated one consul near Capua, and won 
 over the entire army of the other by means of emissaries well supplied 
 with gold. He was reinforced by three legions, under Cneius Pompey, 
 and by the adherence of many distinguished citizens, among whom were 
 :Metellus Pius, Crassus, and Lucullus. He was still outnumbered by the 
 Marians, who, m 82 B. C, brought into the field an army of 200,000 men, 
 under the two consuls Papir^ius Carbo and the younger Marius. The 
 latter was defeated, however, with great loss at Sacripor^tus, and took 
 refuge in Prreneste, where he had deposited his military chest, enriched 
 by the treasures of the Capitoline temples. This town was blockaded, 
 while Sulla marched upon Rome. Marius had secretly ordered his par- 
 tisans in the city to put to death the most illustrious of the Cornelian 
 /action; and thus perished the pontifex maximus, and many others whose 
 sacred office or exalted character would, in more virtuous times have 
 made them secure from violence. ' 
 
 144. The army of Samnites and Lucanians, by the request of Marius 
 moved toward Rome, Telesi^nus, their leader, declaring that he would 
 raze the city to the ground. A furious battle was fought near the Col- 
 line Gate, in which Sulla was victorious; and, with a cold-blooded 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 307. 
 
 ferocity too common in those fearful times, ordered 6,000 prisoners to be 
 cut to pieces in the Campus Martius. SulKa was now master of Rome 
 and of Italy, and his vengeance had begun. A "proscription list" of 
 his enemies was exhibited in the Forum, and a reward of two talents 
 was offered to all who would kill these outlawed persons, or even show 
 the place of their concealment. As usual, private hatred and even the 
 meanest avarice found indulgence under the name of political enmity. 
 Any friend of Sulla was permitted to add names to the list; and as the 
 property of the proscribed usually went to his accuser, the possession of 
 a house, a field, or even a piece of silver plate was often enough to 
 mark a man as a public enemy. 
 
 Sulla was appointed dictator, with unlimited power to "restore order 
 to the Eepublic." The constitutional changes which he made, were de- 
 signed to re-instate the Senate and nobles in the preeminence which they 
 had enjoyed in the earliest years after the expulsion of the kings. He 
 limited the sway of the tribunes of the people, and lowered the dignity of 
 their office by prohibiting those who had held it from becoming consuls. 
 Though himself a man of dissolute morals, Sulla clearly saw that the 
 worst miseries of the Koman people proceeded from their own corruption, 
 and he tried to check luxury and crime by the most stringent enactments. 
 But the attempt was hopeless; the character of the nation was so far de- 
 graded that no rank or class was fit to rule, and its subjection to the will 
 of a tyrant had become a necessity. 
 
 145. Sulla increased the number of the Senate by 300 new members 
 chosen from the knights, all, of course, adherents of his own. Tie gained, 
 also, a sort of body-guard, by giving the rights of citizenship to 10,000 
 slaves of those whom he had proscribed. These freedmen all received 
 his own clan-name, Cornelius, and became his clients. He rewarded his 
 veterans with the confiscated lands of the Marian party, thus replacing 
 honest and industrious farmers with too often lawless and thriftless mil- 
 itary communities. When Sulla had held the dictatorship three years, 
 he surprised the world by suddenly resigning it, and retiring to his 
 country-seat at Pute^oli. Here he devoted his days to the amusements 
 of literature, mingled, unhappily, with less ennobling pleasures. He died 
 B. C. 78, the year following his abdication. Two days before his death 
 he completed the history of his own life and times, in twenty-two 
 volumes, in which he recorded the prediction of a Chaldsean sooth- 
 sayer, that he should die, after a happy life, at the very height of his 
 prosperity. 
 
 146. A remnant of the Marian faction still held out in the west 
 of Spain. Sertorius had been sent to command that province, chiefly 
 because, as the most honest and keen-sighted of the Marians, he was 
 troublesome to his brother officers. During the proscription by Sulla, 
 
808 AJSCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 he was joined by many exiles, who aided him in drilling the native 
 troops. Though driven for a time into Africa by the proconsul An^nius, 
 he returned, upon the invitation of the Lusitanians, with a Libyan and 
 Moorish army, which defeated the fleet of Sulla in the Straits of Gib- 
 raltar, and his land forces near the Guadalquivir. All Roman Spain 
 became subject to Sertorius. With the aid of Cilician pirates, he cap- 
 tured the islands of Ivi^ca and Formente^ra. He formed a governmejit, 
 in which the senate was composed only of Romans ; but he distinguished 
 the native Spaniards by many marks of favor, and won their confidence 
 not only by his brilliant genius, but by his perfect justice in the admin- 
 istration of their affairs. 
 
 147. Metellus, Sulla's colleague in the consulship, who commanded 
 his armies in Spain, was completely baffled by the unwearied activity 
 and superior knowledge of the country displayed by Sertorius. At length 
 Cneius Pompey, who had already, in his thirtieth year, gained the title 
 of Great, and the honor of a triumph for his victories over the allies of 
 the Marians in Africa, was sent into Spain with the title of proconsul, 
 to share the command with Metellus. Plis military skill far surpassed 
 that of his predecessors, but for five years the Avar was still dragged out 
 with more loss and vexation than success. 
 
 At last, Sertorius was murdered by one of his own officers, a man of 
 high birth, who envied the ascendency of genius and integrity, and 
 hoped by removing his general to open the way to his own advancement. 
 He was totally defeated and captured by Pompey in the first battle which 
 he fought as commander-in-chief; and though he tried to save his life 
 by giving up the papers of Sertorius, and thus betraying the secrets of 
 his party in Rome, he was ordered to instant execution, B. C. 72. 
 
 148. The Spanish war was now ended, but a nearer and greater danger 
 threatened Rome. The pride and luxury fed by foreign conquest had 
 brought no increase of refinement to the common people; and their 
 favorite amusement for festal days was to see the bravest captives, taken 
 in war and trained for the purpose, slaughter each other in the amphi- 
 theater. The ffidiles, who provided the public shows, vied with each 
 other in the numbers and training of the gladiators, whom they either 
 bought or hired from their owners for exhibition. Among the unhappy 
 men who were under training in the school at Capua, was a Thracian 
 peasant named Spai-^tacus. His soul revolted against the beastly fate to 
 which he was doomed, and he communicated his spirit to seventy of his 
 comrades. Forcibly breaking bounds, they passed out at the gates of 
 Capua, seized upon the road some wagon-loads of gladiators' weapons, and 
 took refuge in an extinct crater of Vesuvius. They defeated 3,000 soldiers 
 who besieged them, and armed themselves more effectively with the spoils 
 of the slain. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 309 
 
 Spavtacus proclaimed freedom to all slaves who would join him. The 
 half-savage herdsmen of the Brnttian and Lucanian mountains sprang to 
 arms at his call, and the number of insurgents quickly rose to 40,000. 
 They defeated two legions under the praetor Varinius, stormed and plun- 
 dered Thurii and Metapon^tum, Nola and Nuce^ria, and many other 
 towns of southern Italy. In the second year their forces were increased 
 to 100,000 men, and they defeated successively two consuls, two prators, 
 and the governor of Cisalpine Gaul. All Italy, from the Alps to the 
 Straits of Messana, quaked at the name of Spartacus, as it had done, more 
 than a hundred years before, at that of Hannibal; but it only proved the 
 decay of Roman character, that a mere bandit chief could accomplish what 
 had once taxed the genius of the greatest general whom the world had yet 
 produced. 
 
 149. S[)artacus, however, saw clearly that in the end the organized 
 power and resources of Rome must be superior to his own, and he only 
 proposed to his followers to fight their way to and beyond the Alps, and 
 then disperse to their homes ; but the insurgents, spoiled with success, re- 
 fused to leave Italy, and turned again to the south. Their winter-quarters, 
 near Thurii, were like an immense fair crowded with the plunder of the 
 whole peninsula, which merchants from far and near assembled to buy. 
 Spartacus refused gold or silver, and took in exchange only iron or brass, 
 which he converted into weapons of Avar by means of foundries established 
 in his camp. In the panic which pervaded Rome, no one was ^villing to 
 offer himself for the office of prsetor. At length, Licinius Crassus accepted 
 the appointment, and led eight legions into the field. 
 
 150, Spartacus was twice defeated, and driven to the southern point of 
 Bruttium. Thence he tried to escape into Sicily, where the servile war 
 was still smoldering and ready to be rekindled, and where, by holding 
 the grain fields, he could soon have raised a bread-riot among the hungry 
 mob of Rome, But the Cilician pirates, who had engaged to transport 
 him, proved treacherous; and his attempt to convey his army across the 
 straits on rafts and wicker boats was ineffectual. He then, in despair, 
 broke the lines of Crassus, and once more threw Rome into great con- 
 sternation. 
 
 But the same jealousies which had scattered the forces of Greeks and 
 Romans, doomed the barbarians, also, to destruction. Thirty thousand 
 Gauls separated themselves from Spartacus and his Thracians, and were 
 totally destroyed near Crotona. The final encounter took place on the 
 liead-waters of the Silarus. Spartacus fell desperately fighting, and his 
 army was destroyed. Only 5,000 of his men made their way to the north 
 of Italy, where they were met by Pompey on his return from Spain, and 
 all put to the sword. The 6,000 prisoners taken by Crassus were crucified 
 along the Appian Way. 
 
810 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 151. The two triumphant generals, Pompey and Crassus, demanded the 
 consulship as their reward. To attain this, it was needful to set aside 
 some of the SuUaean laws, for Pompey had neither reached the required 
 age nor passed through the preliminary offices. But the deliverers of Eome 
 could not ask in vain. On Dec. 31, B. C. 71, Pompey triumphed a second 
 time for his victories in Spain; the next day, Jan. 1, B. C. 70, he entered 
 on the duties of his consulship with Licinius Crassus. Though formerly 
 a chief instrument of the oligarchy under Sulla, Pompey now attached 
 himself to the democratic party, more especially to the wealthy middle 
 class. He restored to the tribunes of the people the power which Sullq 
 had taken away, and caused judges to be chosen no longer exclusively 
 from the Senate, but in equal proportions from the Senate, the knights, 
 and the tribunes of the treasury — a class of moneyed men who collected 
 and paid the revenues due to the soldiers. 
 
 , Reform in the government of the provinces was a rallying cry of the 
 new party, and the year of Pompey's consulate was marked by the pros- 
 ecution of Verres, ex-praetor of Syracuse, for his shameless robbery of 
 the province of Sicily. The impeachment was conducted by Marcus 
 TuUius Cicero, the great lawyer and orator, whose wonderful learning 
 and eloquence had already made him illustrious. Cicero was allowed 
 one hundred and ten days to collect evidence of Verres's guilt. In lesif 
 than half the time he returned from Sicily, followed by a long train of 
 witnesses, whose fortunes had been ruined by the fraud and inhumanity 
 of the praetor. Verres himself had been heard to boast that he had 
 amassed wealth enough to support a life-time of luxury, even if he should 
 spend two-thirds of his ill-gotten gains in hushing inquiry or in buying 
 a pardon ; and the unhappy provincials plainly declared that, if he Avere 
 acquitted, they would petition the Senate to repeal all the laws against 
 official injustice, that in future their governors might, at least, only 
 plunder to enrich themselves, and not to bribe their judges. But Verres 
 was condemned, and not even awaiting his sentence, escaped with his 
 treasures to Massilia. 
 
 152. At the end of his consulship, Pompey did not accept a province, 
 but remained quietly in Rome, taking no part in public affiiirs. An in- 
 creasing danger soon demanded the exercise of his talents. Since the 
 destruction of the naval power of Carthage, Syria, and Egypt, the pirates 
 of the Cilician coast had cruised unchecked throughout the Mediterra- 
 nean, and had even been encouraged by Mithridates and Sertorius in 
 their enmity against Rome. They captured the corn-ships, plundered 
 the wealthiest cities, and even attacked Roman dignity in its most im- 
 posing form, by carrying off great magistrates, with their trains of attend- 
 ants, from the Appian Way. 
 
 The crisis demanded extraordinary measures, and, in B. C. 67, Pompey 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 311 
 
 was intrusted with absolute and irresponsible control of the Mediterra- 
 nean, with a district extending fifty miles inhmd from its coasts, and 
 with unlimited command of ships, money, and men. The price of pro- 
 visions fell instantly upon his appointment, showing the confidence which 
 his great ability had inspired. In forty days he had swept the western 
 sea, and restored the broken communication between Italy, Africa, and 
 Spain. Then sailing from Brundisium, he cleared the sea to the east- 
 ward, hunting the corsairs from all their inlets by means of tlie several 
 squadrons under his fifteen lieutenants, and winning many to voluntary 
 submission by his merciful treatment of the prisoners who fell into his 
 hands. 
 
 The final battle took place near the Cilician coast, above which, on 
 the heights of Mount Taurus, the pirates had placed their families and 
 their plunder. They were defeated ; 10,000 men were slain, their arsenals, 
 magazines, and 1,300 vessels destroyed, while 400 ships and 20,000 pris- 
 oners were taken. Pompey showed no less wisdom in disposing of his 
 captives than energy in defeating them. They were settled in isolated 
 towns, and provided with honest employment; and as a result of the 
 short and decisive conflict of three months, the Mediterranean remained 
 safe and open to peaceful traffic for many years. 
 
 153. The Mithridatic War, though conducted with great ability by 
 Lucullus, had become disastrous to the Romans ,^ and a new law, pro- 
 posed by ManiKius, now extended Pompey's jurisdiction over all the 
 forces in Asia, with power to make war, peace, or alliance with the 
 several kings at his own discretion. Within a year, B. C. 66, he received 
 the submission of the king of Armenia, and drove Mithridates beyond 
 the Cau^casus. He deposed the last of the Seleucidae, and placed Syria, 
 as well as Pontus and Bithynia, under provincial management. 
 
 As centers of Roman or Greek civilization, he founded thirty-nine new 
 cities, beside rebuilding or reviving many old ones. Among the former 
 was Nicop^olis — "the city of victory" — which he caused to be built- as 
 a home for his veteran soldiers, on the site of the decisive overthrow of 
 Mithridates. He subdued Phoenicia and Palestine, B. C. 63, captured 
 the temple-fortress of Jerusalem by a siege of three months, and estab- 
 lished Hyrcanus as "high priest and ruler of the people." The next 
 year he returned to Italy in a long triumphal procession. 
 
 Death of Drnsns is followed by the Social War, in the victorious ending of 
 which Sulla gains great gloiy. Maiius interferes by violence with liis appoint- 
 ment to command in the war against Pontus. Sulla overpowers the city by his 
 legions, and Marius becomes an exile. After Sulla's departure he returns, cap- 
 tures Rome, and massacres his opponents, but dies soon after the beginning of 
 his seventh consulship, Sulla, returning triumphant from the East, defeats the 
 new consuls and their allies, and by his proscriptions makes havoc with life 
 
312 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 and property at Rome. As dictator, he restores the aristocratic government of 
 tlie early Republic' He dies in retirement, 1:5. C. 7S. Sertorins, ten years sovereign 
 in Spain, is opposed by Pompey, and niunlered, B. C. 72. War of the gladiators, 
 under Spartacus, fills all Italy with terror, B. C. 73-71. It is ended by Crassus, 
 who, witli Pompey the Great, becomes consul for B. C. 70. Cicero impeaches 
 Verres for extortion in Sicily. Pompey, intrusted with extraordinary powers by 
 the Gabinian law, destroys the Cilician pirates; then completes the Pontic War, 
 and establishes Roman dominion in Avestern Asia. 
 
 Conquests of Julius Caesar. 
 
 154. Rome, meanwhile, had narrowly escaped ruin from the iniquitous 
 schemes of one of her own nobles. L. Ser'gius Catili^nn, a man of 
 ancient family, but worthless character and ruined fortunes, seized the 
 time when all the troops were absent from Italy, to plot with other 
 nobles, as wicked and turbulent as himself, for the overthrow of the 
 government. The new consuls were to be murdered on the day of tlieir 
 inauguration. Catiline and Autro''nius were to take the supreme com- 
 mand in Italy, and Piso was to lead an army into Spain. The first plot 
 failed through the imprudence of its leader; but a second, of still bolder 
 and more comprehensive character, was formed. Eleven senators were 
 drawn into the conspiracy; magazines of arms were formed, and troops 
 levied in various parts of the peninsula. The Avide-spread discontent of 
 the people with the existing government aided the success of the move- 
 ment; and, in the end, slaves, gladiators, and even criminals from the 
 common prisons, were to be liberated and armed. 
 
 The secret was kept by a vast number of persons for eighteen months, 
 but the main features of the plot were at length made known to Cicero, 
 then consul, and by his vigilance and prudence it was completely foiled. 
 He confronted Catiline in the Senate — where the arch conspirator had 
 the boldness to take his usual place — with an oration, in which he laid 
 open with unsparing vehemence the minutest circumstances of the plot. 
 The convicted ringleader fled from Rome in the night, and placed him- 
 self at the head of his two legions, lioping yet to strike an effective blow 
 before the levies ordered by the Senate could be fit for service. His 
 chief accomplices were seized and strangled in prison, by order of the 
 Senate, while he himself was followed and defeated in Etruria by the 
 proconsul Antonius. The battle was decisive. Catiline fell fighting far 
 in advance of his troops, and 3,000 of his followers perislied with him. 
 No free Roman was taken alive. B. C. 62. 
 
 155. Though this daring conspiracy was thus happily crushed, the 
 weakness and disorder of society alarmed the best and wisest citizens. 
 It was feared that some man of commanding talent might yet succeed 
 where Catiline had failed, and overthrow the liberties of Rome. Pompey, 
 now returning with his victorious legions from the East, was the imme- 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 313 
 
 diate object of dread to the Senate and aristocratic party. But he quieted 
 apprehension by disbanding his army as soon as he touched the soil of 
 Italy, and proceeded slowly to Eome accompanied by only a few friends. 
 They could not refuse his claim to a triumph, and from the number and 
 extent of his victories, this pageant was the most imposing that Kome 
 had ever seen. Although there was no army to lengthen the procession, 
 it occupied two days in passing through the city. The inscriptions 
 enumerated 22 kings and 12,000,000 of people as conquered; 800 ships, 
 nearly 900 towns, and 1,000 fortresses taken ; and the Eoman revenues 
 nearly doubled. 
 
 By an unusual act of clemency, Pompey spared the lives of all his 
 captives, and dismissed to their homes all except Aristobulus, of Judaea, 
 and the young Tigranes, of Armenia, who were detained lest they should 
 stir up revolts in their respective countries. But though the aristocrats 
 of the Senate had taken j^art in the public honors paid to Pompey, they 
 could not forget that his appointment in the East had been in defiance 
 of their opposition. His demands of allotments of land to his veterans, 
 and for himself a second consulship and the ratification of his official 
 acts, were refused ; and Pompey, to redeem his pledges to his soldiers, 
 now made an alliance with an abler man, and one far more dangerous 
 to the old order of things — if the Senate could but have foreseen it — 
 than himself. B. C. 60. 
 
 156. Caius Julius Caesar had been proscribed in his eighteenth year, 
 because he had refused to put away his young wife, Cornelia, the daughter 
 of Cinna, at the command of Sulla. He was for a time a fugitive in 
 danger of death, but his friends at length, with great difficulty, procured 
 his pardon from the dictator, on the plea of his youth and insignificance. 
 Sulla was more discerning; he remarked, "That boy will some day be 
 the ruin of the aristocracy, for there are many Marii in him." 
 
 Upon the death of his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius, CoBsar defied 
 the law which had pronounced her husband an enemy of the state, by 
 causing his waxen image to be carried in the funeral procession. It was 
 welcomed by the people with loud acclamations. In his tedileship, three 
 years later — which, in the magnificence of the games celebrated, and the 
 buildings erected at his own expense, surpassed all that had preceded 
 it— Caesar ventured upon a bolder step. He replaced in the Capitol, 
 during one night, the statues of Marius, and the representations of his 
 victories in Africa and Gaul, which had been removed by Sulla. AVhen 
 morning dawned, the common people and the veterans of Marius wept 
 and shouted for joy at the re-appearance of the well-known features, 
 and greeted Caesar with rapturous applause. Though formally accused 
 in the Senate of violating; a law, he could not be condemned against 
 the voice of the people. 
 
314 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 157. Dignities and honors followed in rapid succession. He became 
 pontifex raaximus in 63 B. C. ; prc-etor, in 62; and at the end of his 
 prjetorship he obtained the government of Farther Spain. In this first 
 military command he acquired not only wealth for himself and his 
 soldiers, but great reputation by subduing the Lusitanian mountaineers. 
 On his return, he desired both a triumph and the consulship; but he 
 could not obtain the one if he entered the city before it was decreed, 
 nor the other without being personally present at the approaching elec- 
 tion ; so he abandoned the showy for the solid advantage, and was duly 
 chosen consul, with Bib'ulus, a tool of the Senate, for his colleague. 
 
 158. He now managed to detach Pompey from the senatorial party, 
 and form with him and Crassus a triumvirate, which, though only a secret 
 agreement, not a public magistracy, ruled the Roman world for several 
 years. The power of Crassus was due to his enormous wealth ; that of 
 Pompey, to his great military services; and that of Caesar, to his un- 
 equaled genius and unbounded popularity. Their combined influence 
 was soon felt in the official acts of Caesar. He brought forward an 
 Agrarian law for dividing the rich public lands of Campania among the 
 poorest citizens. It was passed against the violent opposition of Bibulus 
 and all the aristocratic party; a commission of twenty, with Pompey 
 and Crassus at its head, was appointed to divide the lands, and the 
 veterans thus obtained most of their claims. 
 
 The defeated consul, who had declared that he would rather die than 
 yield, now shut himself up in his house, and never re-appeared in public 
 until his year of office had expired. Caesar obtained a ratification of all 
 Pompey's acts in Asia, and, at the same time, attached the equites to his 
 party, by giving them more favorable terms in farming the provincial 
 revenues. At the close of his consulship he obtained the government 
 of Illyricum and Gaul, on both sides of the Alps, for a term of five years, 
 with a general commission to "protect the friends and allies of the 
 Roman people." 
 
 159. The religious and national bond between the many Celtic tribes 
 which inhabited the ancient territories of Britain, Belgium, France, Swit- 
 zerland, and a part of Spain, was strong enough to unite them, now and 
 then, in resistance to their common enemies, the Germans on the north 
 and the Romans on the south, but not strong enough to prevent rivalries 
 among themselves, which often gave the foreign power room to interfere 
 in their affiiirs. The Roman province, founded B. C. 121, now extended 
 northward along the Rhone as far as Geneva; and a great emigration of 
 Germans had occupied territories west of the Rhine, from the neighborhood 
 of the modern Strasbourg to the German Ocean. 
 
 160. During his first summer in Gaul, C^sar, by the extraordinary swift- 
 ness and decision of his movements, subdued two nations and established 
 
HISTORY OF ROME, 315 
 
 Roman supremucy in the center of the country. The Helvetii, who lived 
 between Lake Geneva and the Jura, finding themselves in too narrow 
 quarters, had resolved to emig^-ate and conquer new habitations to the 
 westward. They burned their twelve towns and four hundred vilhiges, 
 and assembled at Geneva to the number of 368,000 persons, men, Avomen, 
 and children, intending to pass through the Roman province into western 
 Gaul. Csesar prevented this move by a wall nineteen miles in length, 
 which he extended along the left bank of the Rhone; and bringing up 
 three legions from Italy, he followed the Helvetians along their second 
 route, and defeated them near Bibrac^te. The remnant of the nation — 
 less than one-third of the number on their muster-rolls when the migration 
 began — were ordered back to their native hills. 
 
 The Seq^uani, a Celtic tribe north of the Helvetii, had called in Ario- 
 vis^tus, the most powerful of the German chiefs, against their rivals the 
 iEdui, who were styled allies and kinsmen of the Romans. Having sub- 
 dued the ^dui, Ariovistus turned upon his late allies, and demanded two- 
 thirds of their lands in payment for his services. All the Gauls begged 
 aid of Caesar, who met the German prince near the Rhine, in what is now 
 Alsace. So great was the fame of Ariovistus and his gigantic barbarians, 
 who for fourteen years had not slept under a roof, that the Roman soldiers 
 were afraid to fight; and though shamed out of their cowardice by the 
 stirring appeal of their general, every man made his will before going into 
 battle. The result of th^ combat was the complete destruction of the Ger- 
 man host, only Ariovistus and a few followers escaping across the Rhine. 
 
 161. The second year, Csesar conquered the Belgians north of the Seine, 
 and the Senate decreed a public thanksgiving of fifteen days for the subju- 
 gation of Gaul. His lieutenant, Decimus Brutus, fought the first naval 
 battle on the Atlantic, with the high-built sailing vessels of the Celts. 
 The maritime tribes revolting the following winter, were subdued ; and 
 but for a few brief rebellions, the territories of France and Belgium re- 
 mained under Roman dominion. Csesar repaired each winter to his 
 province of Cisalpine Gaul, to watch affairs in Italy. In 56 B. C, he 
 had to reconcile Pompey with Crassus, and re-arrange, in his camp at 
 Luca, the affairs of the triumvirate. 
 
 It was agreed that Pompey and Crassus should be consuls the next year, 
 and that, after their term had expired, the former should govern Spain, 
 and the latter Asia, while the proconsular government of Csesar in Gaul 
 should be prolonged to a second term of five years. In choosing the 
 most arduous and least lucrative province for himself, Csesar wished to 
 begin the execution of his great scheme for civilizing the West, and organ- 
 izing the whole Roman dominion into one compact state. The revolution 
 begun by the Gracchi was not yet completed, and it was easy to see that 
 the strife of parties must come again to the sword, as it had in the time 
 
316 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 of Marius and Sulla. In such a case, Ctesar desired to be near Italy, and 
 to have an army trained to jDerfect discipline and devotion to himself. 
 
 1G2. In the fourth year, B. C. 55, he threw a bridge across the Rhine 
 and invaded Germany. Late in the autumn, he made a reconnoitering 
 expedition to Britain, and received hostages from the tribes. This time 
 the Senate decreed twenty days' thanksgiving, though Cato stoutly insisted 
 that Csesar ought, rather, to be given up to the vengeance of the barbarians, 
 to avert the angfer of the gods for his having seized the German embassa- 
 dors. The next year, B. C. 54, Caesar again invaded Britain with five 
 legions. Notwithstanding the brave resistance of a native chief, Cas^sive- 
 lau^nus, he penetrated north of the Thames, took hostages, and imposed 
 tribute; but he left no military posts to hold the island in subjection. 
 
 A formidable revolt of the Gauls, the following winter, destroyed one 
 of the six divisions of the Roman army, and imperiled another, commanded 
 by Quintus Cicero, brother of the orator. Ca3sar came to its relief, defeated 
 60,000 of the enemy, and restored quietness to the north. The Germans 
 having aided in this revolt, he again crossed the Rhine near Coblentz, in 
 the summer of 53 B. C. He fought no battles, for the people took refuge 
 among their wooded hills; but the invasion served, as before, to make an 
 imposing display of Roman power. 
 
 163. The following year, Gaul was every-where in a blaze of revolt, and 
 the campaign was the most difficult and brilliant of all Caesar's operations. 
 Ver^cinget^orix, king of the Arver^ni, and the a^blest of the Gallic chief- 
 tains, stirred up all the tribes, and nearly wrested the country from Roman 
 control. While Caesar was besieging him in Ale''sia, a Gallic army of more 
 than a quarter of a million of men encamped around the Romans and be- 
 sieged them in turn. But the genius of the proconsul surmounted even 
 this crisis. He kept down all attempts at sortie, while he defeated the 
 outer army ; then forced the town to surrender, and captured Vercingetorix 
 himself. Six years later, the Gallic chief adorned the triumph of Caesar, 
 and was then executed in the Mamertine prison at the foot of the Capitol. 
 The Gauls now saw that resistance was hopeless. The firm and skillful 
 management of Caesar in pacifying the country and organizing the Roman 
 rule, completed the work that his brilliant victories had prepared; and by 
 the year 50 B. C, Gaul was at peace. 
 
 164. Meanwhile, Crassus, fearing that his colleagues would reap all the 
 warlike glory of the league, undertook, after plundering the temples of the 
 East, to make war against Parthia- — a war unprovoked by the enemy, un- 
 authorized by the Senate, and unwarranted by his own abilities. Contraiy 
 to advice, he plunged into the hot and sandy desert east of the Euphrates, 
 lost the greater part of his army in a battle near Carrhae (the liaran of 
 Abraham), and was himself slain, soon after, by the treachery of the Par- 
 thian general, B. C. 53. 
 
HISTOEY OF ROME. 317 
 
 Pompey, now sole consul, no longer pretended any friendship for Ccesar. 
 The conqueror of Mithridates and the Cilician pirates did not fancy that 
 he could be eclipsed by any man ; and the relationship between them was 
 lately dissolved by the death of Julia, the daughter of Cajsar, who had been 
 the wife of Pompey. The enemies of the former obtained a decree of the 
 Senate requiring him to surrender his proconsular i)Ower, and return to 
 Rome before becoming candidate for a second consulship. Cato had de- 
 clared that he would prosecute Caesar for capital offenses as soon as he 
 should resign his command. 
 
 It could hardly have been expected that the governor of Gaul would quit 
 his devoted legions, and all the treasures of the conquered province, to place 
 himself unarmed at the mercy of his enemies. Such virtue had been known 
 in the days of Curtius, but self-surrender for the public good had ceased 
 to be fashionable at Eome. Moreover, Csesar may well have doubted 
 whether the sacrifice of his life Avould promote the public interests. The 
 Romans required a master; and his own plans for building up a great 
 empire from the scattered fragments of provinces, by extending equal 
 rights to all the conquered peoples, were doubtless the most enlarged and 
 beneficent that had yet been formed. He believed that the great interests 
 of Rome were consistent with his own. 
 
 165. His enemies lost no opportunity to deprive him of resources. 
 Under pretext of a war with Parthia, the two former colleagues of Crassus 
 were required to furnish each one legion to be sent to Asia. Pompey had 
 formerly lent a legion to Csesar, and now demanded its return. Csesar dis- 
 missed the two legions, giving to each man his share of the treasure which 
 was to be distributed at his approaching triumph. He wrote at the same 
 time to the Senate, offering to 'resign his command if Pompey would do 
 the same, but not otherwise. The two legions were kept in Italy. After 
 a violent debate, it was enacted that Csesar should, without conditions, 
 disband his army on a certain day, under penalty of being declared an 
 enemy of the state. The tribunes, Antonius and Cassius, A'ctoed the 
 motion, but their veto was set aside; and believing their lives in danger, 
 they fled to Csesar's camp at Eaven^na. 
 
 ItECJ^IPITTJL^TIOlsr. 
 
 Catiline's deep-laid conspiracj'- is defeated by Cicero, and its leader slain in 
 battle. Pompey disbands his army and triumphs for his conquests in Asia. He 
 forms with Ctesar, now consul, and Crassus, the first triumvirate. The next 
 year, C. C. 58, Csesar, as proconsul, assumes the command in Gaul ; subdues the 
 Helvetii and the Germans, under Ariovistus, in one campaign; afterward con- 
 quers the Belgoe; twice bridges the Rhine and ravages Germany; twice invades 
 Britain; suppresses revolts in Gaul, and organizes the whole countrj'^ into a 
 peaceful and permanent part of the Roman dominion. Crassus, in Asin, is over- 
 whelmingly defeated, with the loss of his army and his lile, B. C. 53. Pompey 
 breaks with Csesar, and becomes the champion of the Senate. 
 
318 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 C^sAR Master of Rome. 
 
 166. It was time for decisive action. Caesar crossed the Rubicon, a little 
 river which separated his province from Roman Italy, and advanced with 
 one legion, the troops in Gaul having received orders to follow without 
 delay. To enter the country without resigning his command was itself a 
 declaration of war. Panic seized Rome, and the Senate fled, leaving the 
 public treasures behind. Fifteen thousand recruits, destined for Pompey's 
 army, seized their officers and handed them over, with themselves and the 
 town Corfin^ium, where they were quartered, to Caesar. Other bodies of 
 recruits followed their example. Pompey, having lost more than half his 
 ten legions, retired to Brundisium; and though besieged by Caesar, suc- 
 ceeded in escaping with 25,000 men to Greece. 
 
 The Roman world was now really divided between the two generals. 
 Pompey controlled Spain, Africa, and the East, and hoped, by command- 
 ing the sea and the corn islands, to starve Italy into surrender. Caesar had 
 only Italy, lllyricum, and Gaul. If Pompey had acted with energy, he 
 might speedily have cj^eated an army in the East and regained Rome, but 
 by delay he allowed Caesar to attack his provinces in detail, and wrest the 
 entire empire from his grasp. The emigrated nobles assembled themselves 
 at Thessalonica and re-organized a senate, in which they made a vain show 
 of keeping up the constitutional forms, while, by their petty jealousies, they 
 hampered every movement of their general-in-chief. 
 
 107. Cu^rio, the ablest of Caesar's lieutenants, captured Sicily, and thus 
 averted famine from Rome. In Africa he was less fortunate. Drawn into 
 an unexpected combat with the whole army of King Juba, he was defeated, 
 and chose to be slain rather than meet his general in disgrace. Instead 
 of the anarchy and general proscription which his enemies had predicted, 
 Caesar soon restored order in Italy, and universal confidence, by the mod- 
 eration and forbearance of his conduct. Friends and foes were equally 
 protected. The moneyed class, which had most to gain from a settled 
 government, came over to the side of Caesar, and the " rich lords resumed 
 their daily task of writing their rent-rolls." 
 
 His first foreign enterprise was against Spain, where Pompey had seven 
 legions. It was conquered by a severe and toilsome campaign of forty 
 days. Returning through Gaul, Caesar received the surrender of Massilia, 
 and learned of his appointment to the dictatorship at Rome. He held this 
 high office only eleven days, but long enough to preside at the election of 
 consuls, in which he himself, of course, received the greatest number of 
 votes; to pass laws relieving debtors, and restoring to the enjoyment of their 
 estates the descendants of those whom Sulla had proscribed ; and to begin 
 his scheme of consolidating the provinces, by granting the full rights of 
 Roman citizenship to the Gauls. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME, 319 
 
 168, As consul, he then led his army to Brundisium and crossed into 
 Greece. Pompey had assembled from the eastern countries a great army 
 and fleet, the latter of which commanded the sea, and seemed to forbid 
 the passage of Ctesar. But Bibulus, the admiral, confiding in his superior 
 numbers and the wintry season, was off his guard until seven legions were 
 landed in Epirus. The attempt to capture Pompey 's camp and treasures, 
 at Dyrra'chium, failed; but the vain confidence inspired by tlieir partial 
 success, in the proud and frivolous young nobles of the refugee party, 
 eventually proved their ruin. 
 
 Csesar was, indeed, in a perilous position; his fleet was destroyed, and 
 he was cut off" in a hostile country where food must soon fail. Neverthe- 
 less, with his usual good fortune or consummate skill, he contrived to 
 draw his victorious enemy after him to the interior of the country, where 
 Pompey's fleet gave him no advantage, and then to choose his own battle- 
 field at Pharsa^lia, in Thessaly. The army of Pompey, in horse and foot, 
 numbered 54,000 men; that of Caesar, scarcely more than 22,000. The 
 former was abundantly supplied both with provisions and military mate- 
 rials, while the latter was near the point of starvation, and compelled to 
 stake its existence on one desperate venture. So certain did the result 
 appear, that the patricians in Pompey's camp were already disputing 
 among themselves the succession to Caesar's pontificate. 
 
 169. On the 9th of August, B. C. 48, the Pompeians crossed the river 
 which separated the two camps, and with their cavalry commenced the 
 attack. Caesar's horsemen were driven in, but a picked troop of his legion- 
 aries, tried on a hundred Gallic fields, unexpectedly charged the assailants. 
 Their orders were to aim their javelins at the enemies' faces. Confused by 
 this novel attack, the cavalry turned and fled ; and Pompey, who had been 
 urged by the reproaches of his self-appointed counselors to give battle, 
 contrary to his better judgment, and who had never shared their confi- 
 dence, did not wait to see the general attack, but galloped away to his 
 camp. 
 
 His army was completely routed ; 15,000 lay dead upon the field, and 
 20,000 surrendered on the morning after the battle. Many of the aristoc- 
 racy hastened to make their peace with the conqueror; the "irreconcila- 
 bles" either betook themselves to the mountains or the sea, to carry on 
 for years a predatory warfare; or to Africa, where King Juba, of Numidia, 
 perceiving that Caesar's consolidating policy would deprive him of his 
 kingdom, still stood firmly on the Pompeian side. The other client-states 
 withdrew their quotas of ships and men as soon as they saw that Pompey's 
 cause was lost. 
 
 170, Pompey fled to Egypt. The young queen, Cleopatra, was now in 
 Syria, having been driven from her kingdom by her brother's guardian, 
 Pothi^nus, who was with an army holding the eastern frontier against her. 
 
320 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 The ijerfidious statesmen who surrounded the king, sent out a boat 
 inviting the illustrious fugitive to land ; but just as he had reached the 
 shore, he was stabbed by a former centurion of his own, who was now in 
 the service of Ptolemy. Pompey perceived his fate; without a word, he 
 covered his face with his toga, and submitted to the swords of his execu- 
 tioners. His head was cut off, and his body cast out upon the sand, where 
 it was buried by one of his own attendants. 
 
 Cffisar soon arrived in pursuit; but when the ghastly head was presented 
 to him, he turned away weeping, and ordered the murderers to be put to 
 death. Pie remained five months at Alexandria, regulating the affairs of 
 the kingdom, which he secured to Cleopatra jointly with her brother. 
 He thus became involved in war with the people, and in a naval battle 
 was once- compelled to save his life by swimming from ship to ship, 
 holding his sword in his teeth, and the manuscript of his Commentaries 
 upon the Gallic Ware ni one hand over his liead. He was victorious at 
 last, and Ptolemy was drowned in the Nile. 
 
 171. CiEsar then turned rapidly toward Asia Minor, where Pharnaces 
 of Pontus was trying to regain his father's lost dominions. The Roman 
 army had been defeated at Nicopolis with great loss, but Csesar won a de- 
 cisive victory at Zie^la, and finished the campaign in five days. It was on 
 this occasion that he sent to the Senate his memorable dispatch, "Veni, 
 vidi, vici." " The presence of the chief made a similar transformation of 
 the war in Africa. The Pompeian party had re-established its senate at 
 trtica, and during Ciesar's long delay in Egypt had raised an army fully 
 equal to that which had been conquered at Pharsalia. 
 
 In attempting to carry the war into Africa, Csesar met an unex- 
 pected obstacle in a mutiny of his veterans in southern Italy. Wearied 
 out with the unusual hardships of their last campaigns, and imagining 
 that their general could do nothing without them, they refused to embark 
 for Sicily, and commenced their march toward Rome. Having provided 
 for the security of the city, Caesar suddenly appeared among the legions, 
 and demanded to know what they wanted. Cries of "discharge!" were 
 heard on every hand. He took them instantly at their word ; and then 
 addressing them as "citizens," not as "soldiers," promised them, at his 
 approaching triumph, their full share in the treasure and lands which he 
 had destined for his faithful followers, though in the triumph itself they 
 could, of course, have no part. 
 
 His presence and his voice revived their old affection ; they stood mute 
 and ashamed at the sudden severing of the bond which had been their 
 only glory in the past. At length they began to beg, even with tears, that 
 they might be restored to favor, and honored again with the name of 
 
 * I came, I saw, I conquered. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 321 
 
 "Csesar's soldiers." After some deliiy their prayer was granted; the ring- 
 leaders were only punished by a reduction of one-third in their triumphal 
 presents, and the revolt was at an end. 
 
 172. The campaign in Africa was not less difficult than the one in 
 Greece. The Pompeians were well supplied with cavalry and elephants, 
 and were able to fight on fields of their own choosing. They gained a 
 battle near Rus^pina, but in the more decisive conflict at Thapsus, they 
 were completely overthrown. The soldiers of Ci3esar disregarded his orders 
 to spare their fellow-citizens; they were determined to obtain rest from 
 war at any cost of Roman blood, and 50,000 Pompeians were left dead 
 upon the battle-field. Csesar was now master of all Africa. Cato, com- 
 manding at Utica, provided for the safety of his friends either by flight or 
 surrender; then shutting himself in his room, read all night the treatise 
 of Plato on the Immortality of the Soul, and toward morning killed him- 
 self with his own sword. 
 
 173. Ciesar returned to Rome in possession of absolute power. Instead 
 of the proscriptions, which, in similar circumstances, had marked the return 
 of Marius and Sulla, he proclaimed amnesty to all, and sought to avail 
 himself of the wisdom of all parties in re- 
 organizing civil affliirs. As he had never 
 triumphed, he now celebrated four days for 
 his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and 
 Numidia; but the rejoicings were only for 
 the conquest of foreign foes, for it was re- 
 garded as unseemly to triumph over Roman 
 citizens. Twenty thousand tables were spread 
 in the streets and public squares, gifts of grain 
 and money were distributed among soldiers 
 and people, and the games were celebrated 
 with a splendor never before approached. 
 
 Csesar nov/ applied himself with diligence 
 to regulate the disorders of the state ; and the 
 benefit of one, at least, of his provisions is felt 
 even to the present day. The reckoning of 
 time, through the carelessness or corruption 
 of the pontiffs (see § 29), had fallen into hope- 
 less confusion : harvest festivals took place in 
 spring, and those of the late vintage at mid- 
 summer. Caesar, as chief pontiff, reformed the 
 calendar, by adding ninety days to the current 
 
 year, and then, Avith the aid of an Alexandrian astronomer, adapted the 
 reckoning to the sun's course. He made the Roman year consist of 365 
 days, and added a day every fourth year. The Julian Calendar, with only 
 A. H.— 41. 
 
 Coin of Csesar, enlarged 
 twice the size. 
 
322 , ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 one emendation, * is that which we now follow. In acknowledgment of his 
 service in this matter, the Senate ordered the month of Cesar's birth to be 
 called henceforth from his clan-name, July. His successor, Augustus, on 
 occasion of some trifling improvement in the calendar, gave his own sur- 
 name to the following month. 
 
 174. The Pompeians made one more rally in Spain, but they were de- 
 feated and overthrown by Csesar, in the severe and decisive battle of 
 Miinda, March 17, B. C. 45. Cneius Pompey, the younger, was slain; 
 liis brother Sextus soon submitted, and received the family estates. He 
 was proscribed during the disorders which followed the death of Caesar, 
 and for eight years kept up a piratical warfare upon the sea. Having 
 settled the affairs of Spain, Csesar celebrated a fifth triumph, and was 
 loaded by the servile Senate with unlimited powers and dignities. He 
 became dictator and censor for life, the latter office now receiving its new 
 title, priefecture of morals. He was permitted to make peace or war with- 
 out consulting either Senate or people. In his highest and most distinctive 
 power, that of perpetual imperator, he was to name his successor. His 
 person was declared sacred, and all the senators bound themselves by oath 
 to watch over his safety. His statues were ordered to be placed in all the 
 temples, and his name in civil oaths was associated with those of the gods. 
 
 175. Csesar availed himself of his unprecedented pow^r to plan many 
 great works of general utility. He projected a miich;needed digest of 
 Roman laws, and the founding of a Latin and Greek library on the model 
 of that of Alexandria, which had been almost destroyed by fire during the 
 recent siege. He proposed to turn the course of the Tiber, so as at once 
 to drain the Pontine marshes, to add to the city an extensive tract of land 
 available for building, and to connect with Rome the large and convenient 
 port of Terraci^na, instead of the inferior one of Ostia. 
 
 Above all, he desired to substitute a great Mediterranean empire for the 
 mere city government which, for more than a hundred years, had ruled 
 Italy and the world. To atone for the narrow policy of municipal Rome, 
 he rebuilt the two great commercial cities, Carthage and Corinth, which 
 Roman jealousy had demolished ; and he effaced, as far as possible, the 
 distinctions between Italy and the provinces. In the many colonies which 
 he founded in Europe, Asia, and Africa, he provided homes for 80,000 
 emigrants, mostly from the crowded tenement houses of Rome itself. His 
 plans embraced the varied interests of every class and nation within the 
 empire, and aimed to reach, by the union of all, a higher civilization than 
 either had attained alone. In the wildest regions of Germany, Dalmatia, 
 or Spain, the Roman soldier was followed by the Greek school-master and 
 the Jewish trader. 
 
 * That of Pope Gregory XIII., A. D. 1582. 
 
HISTOBY OF ROME, 323 
 
 176. Though occupying the highest rank as a general, Caesar was more 
 a statesman than a warrior, and desired to base his government, not upon 
 military power, but upon the confidence of the people. He was already 
 in his fortieth year when he first assumed the command of an army. Still, 
 his great works as a ruler had all to be executed in the brief intervals of 
 military affairs. The five and a half years which followed his accession to 
 supreme power were occupied by seven important campaigns ; and he was 
 about undertaking an expedition against Parthia, to avenge the overthrow 
 of Crassus, when a violent death ended his career. It is said that he de- 
 sired, before his departure, to receive the title of king. 
 
 A conspiracy had already been formed among his personal enemies. It 
 was now strengthened by the accession of several honest republicans, who 
 dreamed that the death of the dictator would restore freedom to the state. 
 At the festival of the Lupercalia, Feb. 15, B. C. 44, the crown was offered 
 to Caesar, by Antony, his colleague in the consulship ; but, perceiving the 
 consternation of the people, he declined it. On the 15th of the following 
 month, in spite of many warnings, Caesar repaired to the Senate-house. 
 He had just taken his seat, when One of the conspirators stooped and 
 touched his robe. At this signal, Casca stabbed him in the shoulder; th^ 
 others thronged around with their drawn SAVords or daggers. 
 
 Instead of the flattering crowd, nothing but murderous faces and the 
 gleam of steel met his eye on every side. Still he stood at bay, wounding 
 one assailant with his stylus, throwing back another, and disarming a third, 
 until he received a wound from the hand of Brutus, whom, though an ad- 
 herent of Pompey, he had honored with his confidence and loaded with 
 benefits. Then drawing his mantle about him, with the reproachful ex- 
 clamation, "And thou, Brutus!" he fell at the base of Pompey's statue 
 and expired. 
 
 177. Brutus, raising aloft his bloody dagger, cried aloud to Cicero, 
 " Rejoice, father of our country, for Eome is free I " Never was rejoicing 
 more unfounded. If Brutus and his accomplices could have restored to 
 the Roman people the simple and self-denying virtues of the olden time, 
 Rome would indeed have been free. But Caesar understood the times 
 better than his assassins. In cutting off the only man who was capable 
 of ruling with clear insight, firmness, and beneficence, they had plunged 
 the state again into the horrors of civil war, and made it the easy prey of 
 a less able and less liberal despot. , Senate and people were at first par- 
 alyzed by the suddenness of the change, and by fear of a return to the 
 old scenes of proscription. Antony, now sole consul, had time to possess 
 himself of Caesar's papers and treasures ; and by his funeral oration over 
 the body of the dictator — especially by reading his will, in which all the 
 Roman people were remembered with great liberality — he roused the 
 indignant passions of the crowd against the murderers. 
 
324 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Antony was for a time the most popular man in Rome, but a rival soon 
 appeared in the person of Octavia^nus, the grand-nephew and adopted son 
 of Julius C^sar. This young man, who had been educated with great care 
 under the eye of his adoptive father, arrived from the camp at Apollonia 
 and claimed his inheritance, out of which he carefully distributed the 
 legacies to soldiers and people. Cicero was led to look upon him as the 
 h^pe of the state, and in his third great series of orations, called the 
 Philip'pics, he destroyed the popularity of Antony and his influence with 
 the Senate! Two of Antony's legions deserted to Octavian, and Antony 
 himself, in two battles, was routed and driven across the Alps. 
 
 178. The two consuls for the year 43 B. C. were slain in the battle 
 before Mu'tina. Octavian, returning to Rome, compelled the popular 
 assembly to elect him to that office, though he was only nineteen years 
 of age. He was appointed to carry on the war against Antony, who had 
 now been joined by Lepidus — formerly master of the horse to Julius 
 Csesar — and was now descending from the Alps with a formidable army 
 of seventeen legions. But the Senate, almost equally afraid of Antony 
 and Octavian, revoked the outlawry of the former; and the latter, dis- 
 gusted with its vacillations, resolved upon a league with the two com- 
 manders, whose forces alone could give him victory over the assassins. 
 
 On a small island in the Reno, near Bono^nia (Bologna), the three met, 
 and the Second Triumvirate, of Antony, Csesar Octavianus, and Lepidus, 
 was then formed, B. C. 43, proposing to share between them for five years 
 the government of the Roman world. A proscription followed, in which 
 Cicero, though the friend of Ctesar, was sacrificed to the hatred of Antony. 
 The illustrious orator was murdered near his own villa at Foi-^mise, and his 
 head and right hand were nailed to the rostrum at Rome, from which he 
 had so often discoursed of the sacred rights of citizens. Two thousand 
 knights and three hundred senators perished in this proscription. Those 
 who could escape took refuge with Sextus Pompey in Sicily, or with 
 Brutus and Cassius in Greece. 
 
 179. Antony and Octavian crossed the Adriatic, and defeated the last 
 of the conspirators in two battles at Philippi, in the autumn of 42 B. C. 
 Both Brutus and Cassius ended their lives by suicide. Caesar returned to 
 Italy, where a new civil war was stirred up by Fulvia, the wife of Antony, 
 and Lucius, his brother; Lucius Antonius threw himself into Perusia, where 
 he wns besieged and taken by Octavian. The common citizens were spared, 
 but 300 or 400 nobles were slain at the altar of Julius Csesar, on the anni- 
 versary of his death, March lo, B. C. 40. Fulvia died in Greece, and a new 
 agreement between the triumvirs, called the Peace of Brundisium, was sealed 
 by the marriage of Antony with Octavia, the sister of the younger Csesar. 
 
 In the new division of the civilized world, Antony received the East; 
 Octavian, Italy and Spain; and Lepidus, Africa. Sextus Pompey, whose 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 325 
 
 fleets, commanding the sea, threatened the capital with famine, was ad- 
 mitted, next year, to a sort of partnership with the triumvirate, in which 
 he received the islands of the western Mediterranean, on condition of his 
 supplying Rome with grain. The conditions of this treaty were never ful- 
 filled, and a two years' war between Pompey and Octavian was the result. 
 It was ended B. C. 36, by a great sea-fight off Nau^lochus. Agrippa, the 
 intimate friend of Caesar, routed the forces of Pompey, who fled in despair 
 to Asia, and the following year was captured and put to death. His land 
 forces, deserted by their leader, prevailed upon Lepidus to become their 
 general, and declare war against Octavian. But the young Ccesar acted 
 with an intrepidity worthy of his name. He went unarmed and almost 
 alone into the camp of Lepidus, and by his eloquence persuaded them to 
 desert their unworthy commander and be faithful to himself. 
 
 180. Lepidus being degraded, the two remaining members of the trium- 
 virate continued three yeai-s at the head of affairs. But an alliance so 
 purely selfish could not be permanent. Antony neglected his noble wife 
 for the enchantments of the Egyptian queen, on whom he bestowed Phoe- 
 nicia, Coele-Syria, and other dominions of Rome, He wasted the forces 
 committed to him in expeditions wdiich resulted only in loss and disgrace; 
 and he laid aside the simple dignity of a Roman citizen for the arrogant 
 ceremony of an Eastern monarch. 
 
 In 32 B. C, war was declared against Cleopatra, and in September of the 
 following year the forces of the two triumvirs met off Actium, in Acarna- 
 nia. Antony had collected a vast fleet and army; but his oflicers, disgusted 
 by his weak self-indulgence, were ready to be drawn over to the side of 
 Octavian. Disheartened by many desertions, Antony took no active part 
 in the battle, but while those of his forces who still faithfully adhered to 
 him were fighting bravely in his defense, he drew off with a portion of his 
 fleet, and followed Cleopatra to Egypt. His land army, after waiting a 
 week for its fugitive commander, surrendered to Octavian. 
 
 From this moment Caesar was master of the Roman world. The final 
 blow was given the next year in Egypt, where Antony was defeated before 
 Alexandria, and deserted by his fleet and army. Cleopatra negotiated to 
 betray him, but when she found that Octavian wanted to capture her, that 
 she might adorn his triumph, she ended her life by the poison of an asp. 
 Antony, in despair, had already killed himself, and Egypt became a Roman 
 province. Octavian, returning to Rome the following year, celebrated a 
 three-fold triumph, and the gates of Janus were closed the third time, in 
 token of universal peace, B. C. 29. 
 
 I^<EC-A.T=IXTJL-^TI02sr. 
 
 Caesar ci-osses the Rubicon, and in three months becomes master of Italy. He 
 subdues the Pompeians in Spain, becomes dictator, and afterward consul ; pursues 
 Pompey ipto Greece; is defeated at Dyrrhachium, but victorious at Pliarsalia, 
 
'326 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 B. C. 48. Pompey is slain in Egypt. Csesar re-establishes Cleopatra under the 
 Roman protectorate; re-conquers Pontus; quells a mutiny in his Gallic legions, 
 and overthrows the Pompeians at Thapsus, in Africa. He celebrates four tri- 
 umphs at Rome; reforms the calendar; finally crushes the Pompeians in Spain; 
 is invested with sovereign powers, and organizes a cosmopolitan empire. On the 
 eve of departure for Asia, he is murdered in the Senate-house by sixty conspir- 
 ators. Antony aims to succeed him, but Octavian receives his inheritance. An- 
 tony, Octavian, and Lepidus form the Second Triumvirate, B. C. 43. In the pro- 
 scription which follows, Cicero is killed. Brutus and Cassius are defeated at 
 Philippi, B. C. 42. A dispute in the triumvirate is ended by the Peace of Brun- 
 dlsium, and the marriage of Antony and Octavia. Lepidus is degraded from the 
 triumvirate, B. C. 35; the two remaining colleagues quarrel, and the battle of 
 Actium makes Octavian supreme ruler of the empire, B. C. 31. 
 
 III. The Eoman Empire. 
 
 181. First Period, B. C. 31-A. D. 192. Tlie empire founded by Csesar 
 Octavianus was an absolute monarchy under the form of a republic. 
 Many of the high offices, which had been borne by different persons, were 
 now concentrated in one ; but he declined the name dictator, which had 
 been abused by Marius and Sulla, and was careful to be elected only for 
 limited periods, and in the regular manner. The title Imperator, which he 
 bore for life, had always belonged to generals of consular rank during the 
 time of their command. The name Augustus, by which he is henceforth 
 to be known, was a title of honor bestowed by the Senate, and made hered- 
 itary in his family. As chief, or " Prince of the Senate," he had the right 
 to introduce subjects for discussion ; and as pontifex maximus, or high 
 priest of the state, he had a controlling influence in all sacred affairs. 
 
 He lived in the style of a wealthy senator in his house on the Palatine, 
 walked abroad without retinue, and carefully avoided kingly pomp. The 
 popular assemblies still appointed consuls, prsetors, qutestors, sediles, and 
 tribunes, but the successful candidate was always recommended by the 
 emperor, if he did not himself accept the appointment. These old-fash- 
 ioned dignities were now little more than empty names, the real power 
 having passed, under Augustus himself, to new officers, especially to the 
 prsefect of the city and the commander of the Praetorian Guard.* The 
 people, meanwhile, w^ere satisfied with liberal distributions of corn, wine, 
 and oil, and amused by a constant succession of games. 
 
 182. In seven centuries the Eoman dominion liad grown from the few 
 acres on the Palatine Hill, to embrace the Mediterranean Avith all its 
 coasts, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, and from the African Desert 
 to the Ehine, the Danube, and the Euxine. The twenty-seven provinces, 
 
 ■■' This guard consisted of 10,000 Italian soldiers, quartered near Rome for the 
 security of the emperor's person. And so great was its influence, that, in the 
 later days of the empire, it often assumed to dispose of the crown without refer- 
 ence to Senate or people. 
 
mSTORY OF ROME. 
 
 327 
 
 reorganized by Augustus, were divided between himself and the Senate 
 according to their condition. Those wliich were securely at peace were 
 called Senatorial Provinces, and governed by proconsuls appointed by the 
 legislative body ; those which demanded the presence of an army were 
 Imperial Provinces, and were managed either by the emperor in person or 
 by his legates. 
 
 The standing army, which maintained order in the entire empire, con- 
 sisted, in the time of Augustus, of twenty-five legions, each legion number- 
 ing, in horse, foot, and artillery, a little less than 7,000 men. This force 
 of 17.5,000 was distributed along the Ehine, the Danube, and the Euphra- 
 tes, or in Britain, Spain, and Africa, according to the danger from the 
 outer barbarians. While internal peace was maintained by the wise man- 
 agement of Augustus, the natural boundaries of the empire above men- 
 tioned were only gained and kept by active war. Northern and north- 
 western Spain, the Alpine provinces of Ehaetia and Vindelic^ia, and the 
 Danubian countries Noi*^icum, Panno^nia, and Moe^sia, required almost 
 unremitted warfare of more than twenty years, B. C. 12 -A. D. 9. 
 
 183. The Germans, east of the Khine and 
 north of the Danube, though often defeated, 
 were never subdued. Drusus, a step-son of 
 Augustus, was the first Roman general who 
 descended the Rhine to the German Ocean. 
 He built two bridges and more than fifty 
 fortresses along the river, and imposed a 
 tribute upon the Frisians north of its mouth. 
 Drusus died in his third campaign, B. C. 9, 
 and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, 
 who after many years, A. D. 4, seemed to 
 have subdued the tribes between the Rhine 
 and the Elbe. 
 
 But his successor, Qu. Varus, attempted 
 to establish the same arrogant and arbitrary 
 rule which he had exercised over the slavish 
 Syrians — a people crushed by nearly two 
 thousand years of despotism, Assyrian, Egyp- 
 tian, Persian, and Macedonian. The free- 
 spirited Germans rose in revolt, under their 
 princely leader, Armin^ius (Herman). Ar- 
 minius had been educated at Rome, and had 
 thoroughly learned the tactics of the legions; but Roman refinement never 
 weakened his German fidelity to fatherland. Private wrong was now added 
 to national oppression, and he deeply laid and firmly executed his plan for 
 the destruction of the Roman army and the deliverance of Germany. 
 
 Coin of Drusus, twice tlie 
 size of the original. 
 
328 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 184. Varus was enticed into the broken and difficult country of the 
 Teutoberg^er Wald, at a season when heavy rains had increased the 
 marshiness of the ground. Barricades of fallen trees blocked his way, 
 and, in a narrow valley, a hail-storm of javelins burst upon his legions 
 from the hosts of Arminius. On the next day the battle was renewed, 
 and the Eomans were literally destroyed, for all the captives were sacri- 
 ficed upon the altars of the old German divinities. The garrisons through- 
 out the country were put to the sword, and within a few weeks not a 
 Roman foot remained on German soil. 
 
 The news of the disaster struck .Rome with terror. The superstitiou:^ 
 believed that supernatural portents had accompanied the event. The 
 temple of Mars was struck by a thunderbolt, comets blazed in the sky, 
 and spears of fire darted from the northward into the praetorian camp. 
 A statue of Victory, which had stood on the Italian frontier looking 
 toward Germany, turned of its own accord and faced toward Rome. 
 Augustus, in his grief, heightened by the weakness of old age, used for 
 months to beat his head against the wall, exclaiming, " Quintilius Varus, 
 give me back my legions!" 
 
 By the revolt of Arminius, Germany was once and forever freed. Roman 
 armies were led thither by Germanicus and the younger Drusus, but they 
 gained no permanent advantages ; and by the will of Augustus and the 
 policy of his successors, the Rhine continued to be regarded as the frontier 
 until, five centuries later, the tide of conquest turned in the other direction, 
 and the Teutonic races divided the Roman Empire into the kingdoms of 
 modern Europe. 
 
 185. The reign of Augustus was a refreshing contrast to the century of 
 revolution which had preceded it, for the security and prosperity that were 
 felt throughout the empire. Commerce revived, agriculture was greatly 
 improved, and the imperial city was adorned with temples, porticos, and 
 other new and magnificent buildings. Augustus could truly boast that he 
 "found Rome of brick and left it of marble." A more lasting glory sur- 
 rounds his name from the literary brilliancy of his court. Livy, the histo- 
 rian, and Virgil, Horace, Ovid, TibuFlus, with other poets, enjoyed his 
 patronage and celebrated his achievements; and in allusion to this, the 
 brightest period of every nation's literature is commonly called its "Au- 
 gustan Age." Augustus had no son, and his choice of an heir fell upon 
 Tiberius, the son of his wife, Li via, by a former marriage. By the same 
 arrangement, Germanicus, the son of Drusus, was adopted by Tiberius, 
 and married to Agrippi^na, granddaughter of Augustus. 
 
 186. In the 77th year of his age, Augustus closed his long and wonder- 
 fully prosperous reign of forty -five years, A. D. 14. The Senate and people 
 submitted to his appointed successor. The army would more willingly 
 have proclaimed its idolized general Germanicus, but the younger prince 
 
3 
 O 
 
 O 
 
HISTORY .OF ROME. 329 
 
 absolutely refused to sanction the act. Tiberius, so far from prizing his 
 fidelity, never forgave his popularity; and the court soon understood 
 that the surest way to gain the favor of the emperor was to ill-treat his 
 adopted son. 
 
 The policy of Tiberius was that of many another cowardly and suspi- 
 cious tyrant. Conscious of his own unworthiness, either by birth or 
 'genius, of the high place he filled, he saw a rival in every possessor of 
 great talent or even exalted virtue. He was afraid to call to his assist- 
 ance the great patricians or the princes of the Julian house, and he 
 regarded his own relations with unmingled jealousy. As he found it 
 impossible, however, to administer alone all the Avorld-embracing affairs 
 of such an empire, he raised to the post of proetorian prosfect a Volsinian 
 knight, Seja'nus, whom he fancied too mean to be dangerous, but who 
 became, in fact, the master of the whole dominion. 
 
 187. Germanicus, meanwhile, conducted three campaigns, A. D. 14-17; 
 and, after several disasters, gained some important victories over Armin- 
 ius, between the Rhine and the Elbe. lie was recalled A. D. 17, to 
 receive the honor of a triumph, and was met, twenty miles from Rome, 
 by an enthusiastic multitude which had poured forth to welcome him. 
 He was, indeed, dangerously dear both to his legions and to the common 
 people ; and though he believed that in one year more he could complete 
 the conquest of Germany, he was now transferred to another army and 
 to the eastern wars. In his new command he settled the affairs of Ar- 
 menia, and organized Cappadocia as a province; but he died A. D. 19, 
 near Antioch in Syria, believing himself poisoned by Piso, a subordinate, 
 who had been sent by the emperor with express orders to thwart and 
 injure his chief. 
 
 188. Drusus, the son of Tiberius, was poisoned by order of Sejanus, 
 who had the boldness to request permission of the emperor to marry the 
 widow of his victim. This was refused ; but Tiliferius, still blinded to 
 
 ' the marvelous ambition of the wretch who ruled him, consented to retire 
 to Caprese, and leave Rome in the hands of Sejanus. His time was now 
 given up to swinish excesses, while his worthless lieutenant maintained for 
 five years a riot of misrule. His wicked schemes did not spare the best 
 or noblest of the imperial family; but, at length, he perceived his master's 
 suspicion directed toward him, and prepared to anticipate the blow by 
 assassinating Tiberius himself. His plot was discovered, and he was 
 suddenly seized and executed, A. D. 31. 
 
 The fall of this unworthy favorite took from Tiberius the only man 
 whom he had ever trusted, and henceforth all were equally the objects 
 of his fierce and cruel jealousy. Agrippina, the noble wife, as well as 
 Nero, Drusus, and LiviKla, the unworthy sons and daughter of German- 
 icus, were put to death by his orders. Unlike Augustus, who scrupu- 
 
330 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 lously kept within the forms of law, he usurped the right to condemn 
 without trial all who were obnoxious to him ; and he extended the defi- 
 nition of treason to words and even thoughts. From his island retreat 
 in the beautiful Bay of Naples, he issued destruction to men, women, and 
 even innocent children who had the misfortune to be of sufficiently noble 
 birth to attract his attention. It was a relief to the world when he died 
 from illness, A. D. 37, at the age of seventy-eight. 
 
 189. Tiberius had appointed no successor, but Senate, soldiers, and 
 people united in the choice of Caius Caesar, the only surviving son of 
 Germanicus and Agrippina. In his childhood he had been the pet of 
 the legions in Germany, and from the little military boots (ealigce) 
 which he wore to please them, he acquired the nickname Caligula. This 
 childish appellation is the name by which he is commonly known in 
 history. Caligula was now twenty-six years of age, and was considered 
 to be of a mild and generous disposition. The first months of his reign 
 justified the impression. He released the prisoners and recalled the exiles 
 of Tiberius, and he restored power to the regular magistrates and the 
 popular assemblies. But his weak head was turned by the possession of 
 absolute power, and of the enormous wealth hoarded by Tiberius. In 
 unbounded self-indulgence, he extinguished the last spark of reason, and 
 exerted his tremendous i)Ower only for mischief, and in the most wild 
 and reckless manner. Choosing to be considered as a god, he built a 
 temple to himself, under the name of Jupiter Latiaris ; and so servile 
 was Rome now become, that her noblest citizens purchased the honor 
 of officiating as priests to this worthless divinity. 
 
 The worst abuse of absolute power was shown in contempt for human 
 life. When the supply of criminals for the public games was exhausted, 
 the emperor ordered spectators, taken at random from the crowd, to be 
 thrown to the beasts; and lest they should curse him in their last 
 agonies, their tongues were first cut out. But this mad career of des- 
 potism worked its own destruction ; for, in the fourth year of his reign, 
 and the thirtieth of his age, Caius Ceesar was murdered by two of his 
 guards. 
 
 190. The Roman world being thus suddenly without a master, the 
 praetorians took upon themselves to decide its fate. Finding Claudius, 
 the uncle of Caligula, a weak and timid old man, hiding himself in the 
 palace, they saluted him as emperor, and hurried him away to their 
 camp, where he received the oaths of allegiance. Considered from child- 
 hood as lacking in intellect, Claudius had been treated by his relatives 
 with a contempt, and by his servants with a harshness and cruelty, which 
 only increased the natural irresoluteness of his character. Yet, though 
 feeble, he was a good and honest man, and the evil wrought in his 
 reign was the work of others. His infamous wife, Messali^na, grati- 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 331 
 
 fied lier jealousy and revenge at the expense of the noblest in the 
 state, especially the imperial princesses, without even a show of legal 
 formality. At last she Avas executed for her crimes, and the emperor 
 procured a law from the Senate which enabled him to marry his niece, 
 Agrippina. 
 
 This princess appears to advantage only when compared with her 
 predecessor. She recalled Seneca, the philosopher, from exile, and made 
 him the tutor of her son, Nero. She protected many who were unjustly 
 accused, and she advanced to power the faithful Burrhus, who proved a 
 better servant, both to herself and her son, than either deserved. At 
 the same time, Agrippina persuaded her husband to set aside his own 
 son, Britan''nicus, in favor of her son by a former marriage. This youth 
 bore his father's name, L. Domitius Ahenobai-^bus, but by the emperor's 
 adoption he became Nero Claudius Caisar Drusus Germanicus. By the 
 first of these names he is known in history as one of the most wicked 
 of tyrants. Having gained all that she hoped from the weak compliance 
 of Claudius, Agrippina poisoned him, and presented her son to the prae- 
 torian guards as their imperator. Some, it is said, cried out, " Where is 
 Britanuicus?" but there was no serious resistance, and the new emperor 
 was accepted by the Senate, the people, and the provinces. 
 
 191. For the first five years, under the wise and honest administration 
 of Seneca and Burrhus, the Romans believed that the golden age had 
 returned. Taxes were remitted ; lands were allotted to the needy and 
 deserving. The delators, that infamous class of people who made their 
 living by accusing others of crime, were suppressed or banished. The 
 Roman arms prospered in Armenia, under the able command of Cor^bulo, 
 who captured the two capitals, Artax^ata and Tigranocerta, and com- 
 pletely subdued the kingdom. In Germany all was quiet, and the legions 
 on the lower Rhine had leisure to complete the embankments which 
 protected the land from inundation. 
 
 None of this prosperity was due, however, to the character of Nero, 
 who was a sensual and cruel tyrant even from his youth. In the second 
 year of his reign he poisoned his foster-brother, Britannicus. A few 
 years later, he murdered his mother, his wife, and the too faithful 
 Burrhus, cast off the influence of Seneca, and thenceforth gave free 
 course to his tyrannical caprices. He encouraged the informants again, 
 and filled his treasury with the confiscated property of their victims. 
 
 192. He persecuted both Jews and Christians, charging upon the latter 
 the great fire at Rome, Avhich he was more than suspected of having 
 himself caused to be kindled. By this terrible conflagration, ten of the 
 fourteen wards, or "regions," of the city were made uninhabitable. 
 Nero watched the burning from a tower on the Esquiline, while, in the 
 dress of an actor, he chanted the "Sack of Troy." Whether or not he 
 
332 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 had ordered the destruction of Eome in consequence of his disgust with 
 its narrow and winding streets, he wisely availed himself of the oppor- 
 tunity to rebuild it in more regular and spacious proportions. The 
 liouses were constructed of stone, and rendered fire-proof; each was sur- 
 rounded with balconies, and separated from other houses by lanes of con- 
 siderable width, while a plentiful supply of water was introduced into 
 every tenement. 
 
 The palace of Nero having been destroyed, he built his Golden House 
 on a scale of magnitude and splendor which Rome had never seen. 
 The porticos which surrounded it Avere three miles in length; within 
 their bounds were parks, gardens, and a lake which filled the valley 
 afterward occupied by the Flavian Amphitheater. The chambers of this 
 imperial mansion were gilded and inlaid with gems. The least of its 
 ornaments, though probably the greatest of its objects, was a colossal 
 statue of Nero himself, 120 feet in height. 
 
 193. Nero desired to be praised as a musician and a charioteer, and 
 so far forgot his imperial dignity as to appear as an actor in the thea- 
 ters, lie gained prizes at the Olympic Games, A. D. 67, which had 
 been delayed two years that he might be present. He took part, also, 
 in the vocal performances at the Isthmian Games, on which occasion he 
 ordered the death of a singer whose voice drowned his own. On his 
 return, he entered Eome through a breach in the walls, after the ancient 
 Hellenic custom ; but the 1,800 garlands with which he had been laden 
 by the servile Greeks, showed the decline of the old heroic spirit, rather 
 than the glory of the victor. 
 
 194. The impositions of Nero caused revolts in the provinces, and, 
 among others, Vespasian, the future emperor, was sent to pacify Judsea. 
 But Nero was jealous of his most able and faithful officers. Cor^bulo, 
 the conqueror of Armenia, Eufus and Scribo^nius, the commanders in 
 Germany, were recalled, and avoided public execution only by putting 
 themselves to death. All the generals on the frontier perceived that 
 they could escape a similar fate only by timely revolt, and insurrections 
 broke out at once in Germany, Gaul, Africa, and Spain. The conspira- 
 tors agreed, at length, in the choice of Galba, the governor of Hither 
 Spain, as their leader and emperor. 
 
 Nero perceived that resistance was hopeless. Deserted by the praeto- 
 rians and all his courtiers, he fled from his Golden House and hid 
 himself in the cottage of Phaon, his former slave, a few miles from the 
 city. After spending a night and part of a day in an agony of terror, 
 he summoned courage to end his own life, just as he heard the tramp 
 of the horsemen Avho were coming to take him. He was but thirty 
 years of age, and had reigned nearly fourteen years. With him expired 
 the line of Augustus. The imperial power never again remained so long 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 333 
 
 in any one family as it had among the members, by adoption or other- 
 wise, of the Julian house. 
 
 Augustus (B. C. oO-A. D. 14) combines in himself all tlie dignities of the Re- 
 public, but carefully avoids the appearance of royalty. He leaves the peaceful 
 provinces to the Senate, but assumes the command of those which are at -war. 
 The Germans, under Arminius, revolt and destroy the legions of Varus. The 
 "Augustan Age" is distinguished for prosperity and enlightenment. Tiberius 
 (A. D. 14-37) succeeds Augustus, but Sejanus rules the empire. Germanicus and 
 many others are persecuted and put to death. Cains Ctesar (Caligula, A. D. 37-41) 
 begins well, but, soon spoiled by power, exhibits "the awful spectacle of a mad- 
 man, master of the civilized world." He is succeeded by his uncle Claudius 
 (A. D. 41-54), a wealc but honest man. Agrippina, having poisoned him, makes 
 lier son Nero emperor (A. D. 54-GS). Upon the death of his instructors, he proves 
 a reckless and cruel tyrant. He rebuilds Rome with unprecedented magnifl- 
 cence after the great fire. Having caused the death of his best generals, he kills 
 himself only iu time to escape the vengeance of his people. 
 
 Decline of the Empire. 
 
 195. Galba, the most distinguished general of his time, had gained 
 the favor of the emperor Claudius by refusing to assume the crown upon 
 the death of Caligula. He had proved his ability and worth by his wise 
 and just administration of the province of Africa, and had been honored 
 at Rome with the highest dignities to which his patrician birth and 
 eminent services entitled him. He was now more than seventy years 
 of nge, but learning that Nero had sent orders for his death, he resolved 
 to rid the world of a tyrant by accepting the crown. He was a Eoman 
 of the ancient style, and the luxurious praetorians were equally disgusted 
 with his strict discipline and his sparing distribution of money. By 
 adopting Piso as his successor, he disappointed Otlio, who easily raised 
 a revolt against him, and the aged emperor and his adopted son v/ere 
 slain in the Forum, Jan. 15, A. D. 69. 
 
 196« Otho, the early favorite of Nero, had for ten years been governor 
 of Lusitania. He was acknowledged, on the death of Galba, by the 
 Senate and most of the provinces, but the legions in Germany had 
 already (Jan. 3, 69) proclaimed their own general, ViteKlius. The armies 
 of the two generals met near the confluence of the Adda and the Po. 
 Otho was defeated, and died by his own hand. Vitellius, having gained 
 a crown by the skill and energy of his officers, lost it by his own un- 
 worthiness. Without the courage or ability of his predecessors, he sur- 
 passed them in contemptible self-indulgence. Vespasian, commander in 
 Judsea, in revolting against this monster, was hailed by the acclamations 
 of all good people, and supported by all the legions of the East. He 
 took possession of Egypt, the grain-market of Rome, and sent his lieu- 
 
834 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 tenants into Italy. This time the generals of Vitellius were defeated on 
 the Po, the capital was taken by assault, and the disgraced emperor put 
 to death. 
 
 197. During the reign of Vespasian, order and prosperity succeeded 
 to the storms which had convulsed the empire. The old discipline was 
 revived, the revenues were re-organized, the capital was beautified, and 
 the people employed by the construction of such great works as the 
 Coliseum and the Temple of Peace. The space inclosed by Nero for his 
 own enjoyment, was thrown open by Vespasian to the use of the people; 
 and the materials of the Golden House served to enrich many public 
 buildin2;3. The revolt of the Batavians and other tribes on the lower 
 Rhine was suppressed, A. D. 70 ; the Jewish AVar of Independence w^s 
 finally subdued, the Holy City taken, and the people dispersed. Agric^'ola 
 completed the subjugation of Britain as far as the Tyne and the Solway, 
 which he connected by earthworks and a chain of forts. 
 
 198. Titus, the son of' Vespasian, having proved his military talent 
 during the reign of his father, by the capture of Jerusalem, had been 
 rewarded by a triumph, and by the title of Csesar, which implied his 
 association in the government. At the death of Vespasian, he became 
 sole emperor without opposition. Whatever may have been his personal 
 faults, Titus distinguished himself as a ruler by sincere and constant 
 efforts to promote the happiness of his people. Recollecting, one evening, 
 that he had performed no act of kindness, he exclaimed that he had lost 
 a day. 
 
 The circumstances of his reign made peculiar demands upon the em- 
 peror's benevolence. The beautiful Campanian towns, Hercula^neum and 
 Pompe^ii, were destroyed by a sudden eruption of Vesuvius. A fire raged 
 again three days and nights at Rome, followed by a general and fatal 
 pestilence. Titus assumed the pecuniary loss as his own, and even sold 
 the ornaments of his palace to defray the expense of rebuilding the 
 ruined houses. He established public baths on the site of Nero's gardens 
 on the Esquiline, and completed the Coliseum, or Flavian Amphitheater, 
 which he dedicated by a festival of a hundred days, including combats 
 of 5,000 wild beasts. After a reign of but little more than two years, 
 Titus died of a fever, having named his brother as his successor, A. D. 81. 
 
 199. Domitian was regarded by the people with more favor than he 
 deserved, on account of the virtues of his father and brother. His nature 
 was morose and jealous; and when his ill-success in military matters 
 began to be contrasted with the victories of his predecessors, he became 
 cruel and tyrannical, reviving the false accusations, forfeitures, and 
 death-penalties of the reign of Nero. He was partially successful in his 
 wars in Germany, but he was defeated on the Danube with great disas- 
 ter, and even consented to pay an annual tribute to the Dacians, to keep 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 335 
 
 them from invading Moesia. When the cruelties of Domitian began to 
 excite the fears of his servants, he was murdered, Sept. 18, A. D. 96. 
 
 200. The Senate now asserted a power which it liad failed to exercise 
 since the days of Augustus, by naming Nerva as sovereign. He was a 
 childless old man, but he chose for his successor M. UKpius Traja^nus, 
 a general whose vigor and ability, already shown in war, promised well 
 for the interests of the state. It was henceforth considered the duty of 
 the emperor to select from all his subjects the man most fit to rule, 
 without reference to his own family, and the heir thus adopted bore the 
 name of Caesar. The mild, beneficent, and economical government of 
 Nerva afforded a pleasing contrast to the severe and sanguinary rule of 
 Domitian. Upon his death, which occurred A. D. 98, his adopted heir 
 was immediately recognized as emperor. 
 
 201. Trajan was born in Spain, and his youth had been passed in 
 military service. The Eomans regarded him as the best of all their 
 emperors. In personal character he was brave and generous, diligent 
 and modest; in his policy as a ruler he was both wise and liberal. He 
 
 ' scrupulously regarded the rights and dignities of the Senate, and treated 
 its members as his equals. He was most diligent in hearing causes that 
 were presented for his judgment, and in corresponding Avitli the governors 
 of provinces, who consulted him on all important affairs in their admin- 
 istration. 
 
 He managed the finances so well, that, without oppressive taxes or 
 unjust confiscations, he always had means for the construction of roads, 
 bridges, and aqueducts; for loans to persons whose estates had been in- 
 jured by earthquakes or tempests; and for public buildings in Eome and 
 all the provinces. The Ulpian Library and the great "Forum of Trajan," 
 for the better transaction of public business, among many other useful 
 and elegant works, bore witness to his liberality. The reign of Trajan 
 was a literary epoch only second to that of Augustus. The great histo- 
 rian Tacitus, the younger Pliny, Plutarch, Sueto^nius, and Epicte^tus, the 
 slave-philosopher, were all living at this time. 
 
 202. Augustus had enjoined his heirs to regard the Rhine, the Danube, 
 and the Euphrates as the limits of their dominion. Trajan, however, 
 desiring to throw oft' the disgraceful tribute which Domitian had promised 
 to the Dacians, made war twice against their king, Deceb''alus. He was 
 completely victorious; the king was slain, and his country became a 
 Roman province guarded by colonies and forts. On his return, A. D. 105, 
 Trajan celebrated a triumph, and exhibited games during 123 days. It 
 is said that 11,000 wild beasts were slaughtered in these spectacles, and 
 that 10,000 gladiators, mostly Dacian prisoners, killed each other "to 
 make a Roman holiday." 
 
 In the later years of this reign, the Roman and the Parthian empires 
 
336 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 came into conflict for the control of Armenia. Trajan quickly reduced 
 the latter country to a Eoman province, and, in subsequent campaigns, 
 he wrested from the Parthians the ancient countries of Mesopotamia and 
 Assyria. Trnjan died in Cilicia, A. D. 117. His ashes were conveyed 
 to Rome in a golden urn, and placed under the column which bears his 
 
 name. 
 
 203. Ha^drian began his reign by surrendering the Asiatic conquests 
 of Trajan. During the twenty years of almost unbroken peace which 
 marked his administration, Hadrian visited the remotest corners of his 
 empire, studied the wants and interests of his people, and tried inipar- 
 tiallv to secure the best good of all. York in England, Athens, Antioch, 
 and Alexandria shared with Eome the honors of an imperial capital; 
 and each had its part of those great architectural works which, in some 
 cases, still exist to commemorate the glory of Hadrian. A revolt of the 
 Jews A. D. 131-135, was ended with the banishment from Palestine of 
 the last remnants of their race. A Roman colony, ^^lia Capitolina, 
 was founded upon the site of Jerusalem, to which the Christians, expelled 
 by Titus, were freely admitted with the first of their Gentile bishops. 
 Of all the benefits Avhich Hadrian conferred upon the empire, the greatest, 
 perhaps, was his choice of a successor. 
 
 204. T. Aurelius Antoni^nus came to the throne A. D. 138. His un- 
 eventful reign presents the rare example in Roman annals of twcnt}^- 
 three years' undisturbed tranquillity, and is a striking example of the 
 truth of the saying, "Happy is the people that has no history." The 
 hapi^incss of his great family, for so he regarded his subjects, was the 
 ruling purpose of his life. In Britain, the Roman boundary was pushed 
 to its farthest northern limit during this reign, and guarded by the 
 "Wall of Antoninus," extending from the Frith of Forth to the Clyde. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius, the nephew of Hadrian, who, together with L. Verus, 
 had been adopted by Antoninus, assumed the latter's name"^ with his crown. 
 He resembled his adoptive father in his love of religion, justice, and peace; 
 but his reign was far less happy, owing to calamities which were beyond 
 his power to avert. The barbarians north of the Danube began to l>e 
 crowded by a new and great immigration from the steppes of Asia. The 
 Scythic hordes, broken up from their ancient seats, we know not by what 
 impulse or necessity, had thrown themselves upon the Germans, and these 
 were driven across the Roman frontier, even into Italy, which they rav- 
 aged as far as Aquilci^a, on the Adriatic. The two emperors proceeded 
 against them. Verus died in the Venetian country A. D. 169, but Au- 
 relius remained at his post on the Danube, summer and winter, for three 
 
 "^'Of the two AntonineSjthe first is commonly called Antoninus Pius; the second, 
 Marcus Antoninus. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME,' 337 
 
 years. He gained a great victory over the Quadi, A. D. 174. A sudden 
 storm, occurring during the battle, decided the result. The pagans attrib- 
 uted it to an intervention of Jupiter Pluvius; but tlie Christians, to the 
 prayers of Christian soldiers in the "Thundering Legion." 
 
 During the first years of the reign of Aurelius, the Parthians made a 
 formidable attack upon the eastern provinces, destroyed an entire leo-ion 
 and ravaged all Syria. The general Avidius Cassius, being sent against 
 them as the lieutenant of Verus, more than made good the Eoman losses, 
 for he extended the boundary of the empire again to the Tigris. But 
 after the death of Yerus, Cassius was led to proclaim himself emperor, 
 and gained possession of most of the Asiatic provinces. Before Aurelius 
 could arrive in the East, the rebel chief was slain by his own officers, 
 after a reign of three months. Aurelius caused his papers to be burnt 
 without reading them, and suffered no man to be punished for his part 
 in the rebellion. 
 
 The elevation and self-control which distinguished the emperor were 
 owing, in great measure, to the Stoic philosophy which he studied from 
 his twelfth year. The only blot on his character is the persecution of 
 the Christians, which was doubtless instigated by the harsh and arrogant 
 Stoics who surrounded him. Justin Martyr at Eome, the venerable Poly- 
 carp at Smyrna, and multitudes of less illustrious disciples at Vienna and 
 Lyons, suffered death for their fidelity to their religion, A, D. 167-177. 
 Marcus Aurelius died in Pannonia, A. D. 180. 
 
 205. Deceived by the youthful promise of his only son, Aurelius had 
 associated Com^modus with him in the government at the age of fifteen. 
 If the young prince could have enjoyed many years of training under 
 the wise and virtuous care of his father, he might indeed have become 
 all that was hoped of him. But the untimely death of the good Aurelius 
 left his son at seventeen a weak, self-indulgent youth, easily controled 
 by worthless associates. For three years the government continued in 
 the course which Aurelius had marked out for it. But, A. D. 183, a 
 plot for the murder of Commodus was detected, and many senators were 
 believed to be involved. His revengeful nature, stimulated by fear, now 
 made him a monster of tyranny. His only use of imperial power was 
 to issue warrants for the death of all whom he suspected. Vain of his 
 strength and skill, he assumed the name of the Roman Hercules, and 
 exhibited himself in the amphitheater as a marksman and gladiator. 
 At last, some of the intended victims of his proscriptions avoided their 
 own destruction by strangling him in his bed-chamber, after he had 
 reigned twelve years and nine months, A. D. 192. 
 
 206. The decline of the empire, which had been delayed" by the Five 
 Good Emperors— Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines — pro- 
 ceeded with frightful rapidity under Commodus. The armies in the 
 
 A. H.— 43. 
 
338 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 provinces, tired of discipline, broke up into petty bands which robbed 
 and murdered on their own account. One historian tells us that Peren^- 
 nis, the praetorian prjsfect, was deposed and slain, with his wife and 
 children, upon the demand of 1,500 insurgent soldiers who had marched 
 unresisted from Britain to Rome. Society was as thoroughly demoralized 
 as the army. Except among the despised and persecuted Christians, 
 purity of life was scarcely to be found. Poverty was creeping upon the 
 nations through the decline of industry, but luxury and self-indulgence 
 were more wildly excessive than ever. 
 
 I2;ECJ^I'ITTJXj-A.TIOlNr. 
 
 Galba (A. D. GS, 69) offends his guards by his strict economy, and is murdered 
 after seven months. Otho, three montlis emperor, is defeated by Vitellius, who 
 reigns from April to December, A. D. 09. Vespasian (A. D. 69-79) restores peace, 
 order, and prosperity. In his reign Jerusalem is destroyed. The short but benefi- 
 cent reign of Titus (A. D. 79-81) is disturbed by great calamities — earthquake, Are, 
 and pestilence. Domitian (A. D. 81-96) is a gloomy tyrant, disgraced abroad and 
 detested at home. Nerva (A. D. 96-98) restores confidence, and chooses for his 
 successor Trajan (A. D. 98-117), \\\\o is called the best and ablest of all the em- 
 perors. He gains victories north of the Danube and east of the Euphrates, thus 
 extending the empire to the utmost limits which it ever attains. Hadrian 
 (A. D. 117-138) visits every portion of his dominions, and diffuses every-where the 
 blessings of peace and good government. Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138-161) enjoys 
 a reign of unexampled tranquillity. jMarcus Aurelius (A. D. 161-180), though a 
 peaceful philosopher by choice, is involved by necessity in many wars. He gen- 
 erously forgives the rebellion led by Cassius, but permits a persecution of the 
 Christians, at the instance of the Stoics. Commodus (A. D. 180-193), exasperated 
 bj'- a plot against his life, becomes a revengeful tyrant, and under his reckless 
 misrule all order, industry, and safety vanish from the empire. 
 
 Second Period, A. D. 193-284. 
 
 207. By their unchecked disorders, the soldiers had learned their power, 
 and now assumed to set up and put down emperors at their will. The 
 murderers of Commodus proceeded to the house of Per^tinax, prsefect of 
 the city, and offered him the crown. He was a good old man, one of 
 the few surviving friends of Marcus Antoninus, and one to whose care 
 the young prince Commodus had been committed. He reluctantly ac- 
 cepted the dangerous honor, and the result justified his fears. The 
 economy and order which he attempted to introduce, disgusted equally 
 the amusement-loving citizens and the turbulent and grasping soldiers. 
 Pcrtinax was murdered in his own palace by the praetorians, March 28, 
 A. D. 193, after a reign of less than three months. The guards now put 
 up the imperial crown at public auction, and sold it to Did^ius Julia^nus, 
 a wealthy senator, for $15,000,000. The Senate acknowledged him, and 
 he reigned more than two months at Pome. But the armies in Britain, 
 Pannonia, and Syria, not so much offended by the scandalous insolence 
 
HISTORY OF ROME, 339 
 
 as encouraged by the example of their comrades at the capital, set up 
 their own leaders, Albi^nus, Seve^rus, and Niger, as emperors. 
 
 208. Severus arrived first at Rome, gained over the praetorians by 
 promises of donatives, and was acknowledged by the Senate. Julianus 
 was deserted and slain in his palace. The first imperial act of Severus 
 was to disarm the praetorians, and to banish them to a distance of 100 
 miles from the capital. He defeated his two rivals, the one at Cyzicus 
 and Issus, and the other near Lyons (Lugdu^num), in Gaul; and by their 
 death became undisputed master of the empire. Instead of the old 
 praetorians, he garrisoned Eome with 40,000 troops chosen from the 
 legions, and their chief, the praetorian prsefect, became, next the sove- 
 reign, the most powerful person in the world; for, beside his military 
 command, he had control of the public treasury, and great influence in 
 the making and enforcing of the laws. Severus was an able and suc- 
 cessful general. He extended the empire eastward by the capture of the 
 Parthian capital, and the conquest of Adiabe^ne ; and northward, by his 
 wars against the Caledonians. He died at York, the Roman capital of 
 Britain, A. D. 211, having reigned eighteen years. 
 
 209. The two sons of Severus, CaracaFla and Geta, had been associated 
 by their father in his imperial dignity, and reigned together a year after 
 his death. Then their mutual hatred broke out afresh, and after a vain 
 attempt to divide the empire between them, Caracalla murdered Geta in 
 the arms of their mother. In the five years of his sole reign, he proved 
 one of the worst tyrants that Rome had known. Under the pretext of 
 exterminating the "friends of Geta," he massacred 20,000 persons, some 
 of whom were the most virtuous and illustrious in the empire. Goaded 
 by his restless conscience, Caracalla then quitted Rome, and wandered 
 through all the eastern and northern provinces, followed every-where by 
 a track of poverty, desolation, and death. At last he plunged into a war 
 with Parthia, in which he had some success ; but before his second cam- 
 paign he was murdered by Macri^nus, his praetorian praefect, whom the 
 guards proclaimed emperor. 
 
 210. Macrinus bestowed the title of Caesar upon his son, and then 
 hastened to follow up Caracalla's victories over the Parthians. He en- 
 countered the Eastern monarch near Nis^ibis, and suffered a shameful 
 defeat, which forced him to retire into Syria. The soldiers were now 
 tired of their chosen jmperator, whose severity of discipline was an un- 
 welcome change from the reckless liberality of Caracalla. Julia Mtesa, 
 sister-in-law of Severus, persuaded one division of the army to accept as 
 their prince her grandson, Bassia^nus, whom she declared to be a son 
 of Caracalla. He is more commonly called Elagab^alus, from the Syrian 
 sun-god to whose priesthood he had been dedicated as a child. The 
 wealth which Maesa had hoarded durinsr her residence at her sister's 
 
340 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 court materially aided to convince the soldiers. A body of troops, sent 
 to quell the insurrection, were also, in great measure, gained over to her 
 wishes. A battle was fought near Antioch, in which Macrinus was de- 
 feated, and eventually slain, after a reign of fourteen months. 
 
 211. Elagabalus, or his ministers, hastened to send a letter to the Senate, 
 in which he loaded himself with all the high-sounding titles of Caesar, 
 Imperator, son of Antoninus, grandson of Severus, Pius, Felix, Augustus, 
 etc. The Eomans passively admitted his claims, and the Arval Brothers 
 offered their annual vows for his health and safety under all these names. 
 The Syrian boy, who, at the age of fourteen, found himself thus clothed 
 with imperial honors, was the most contemptible of all the tyrants that 
 ever aflSicted the Eoman world. His days and nights were given up to 
 gluttonous feasting and loathsome excesses. 
 
 The decorous /and solemn rites of Eoman religion were replaced by 
 degrading sorceries, which were believed to be accompanied in secret by 
 Human sacrifices. The Syrian sun-god was placed above Jupiter Capitoli- 
 nus himself, and all that was sacred or honorable in the eyes of the people 
 became the object of insult and profanation. The emperor had been per- 
 suaded to confer the title of Csesar on his cousin, Alexander Severus ; but 
 perceiving that this good prince soon surpassed him in the respect of the 
 army, he sought to procure his death. A second attempt was fatal to 
 Elagabalus. The praetorians murdered him and cast him into the Tiber. 
 
 212. Alexander Severus, now in his seventeenth year, was acknowledged 
 with joy by the soldiers and the Senate. His blameless life and lofty and 
 beneficent aims present a bright, refreshing contrast to the long annals of 
 Eoman degradation. Purity and economy returned to public affairs; wise 
 and virtuous men received the highest, offices ; the Senate was treated with 
 a deference which belonged to its ancient dignity, rather than to its -recent 
 base compliance with the whims of the army. If the power of Alexander 
 had been as great as his designs were pure, the world might have been 
 benefited. 
 
 A great revolution, about this time, changed the condition of Asia. The 
 new Persian monarchy, under Artaxerxes, the grandson of Sassan, had 
 overthrown the Parthian empire, and now aimed at the recovery of all 
 the dominions of Darius Plystaspes. Artaxerxes actually sent an embassy 
 to Alexander Severus, demanding the restitution to Persia of her ancient 
 provinces between the ^gean and the Euphrates. The reply was a 
 declaration of war. Alexander in person met the forces of Artaxerxes in 
 the plain east of the Euphrates, and defeated them in a great battle, 
 A. D. 232. 
 
 Hearing that the Germans were plundering Gaul, he hastened to make 
 peace and returned to Eome. The next year he set out for Germany; but 
 before he could begin his military operations there, he was murdered by a 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 341 
 
 small band of mutinous soldiers. The virtues of Alexander were largely 
 owing to the watchful care of his mother, in guarding his childhood from 
 the wickedness with which he was surrounded. The prince repaid her 
 vigilance by the most dutiful and tender regard ; and it is said that her 
 over-cautious and economical policy, which led him to withhold gifts of 
 money demanded by the army, occasioned his death. 
 
 213. The ringleader of the mutiny was Max^imin, a Thracian peasant— 
 a brutal and illiterate ruffian, yet with enough natural ability to cause him 
 to be chosen emperor by his comrades. Three years this savage ruled the 
 world, his only policy being hatred toward the noble and covetousness 
 toward the rich ; until the people of Africa, roused to fury by the extor- 
 tions of his agents, revolted and crowned their proconsul, Gor^ian, and 
 his son. The two Gordians were slain within a month; but the Senate 
 supplied their place by two of its own number, and with unwonted spirit 
 prepared for the defense of Italy. Maximin marched from his winter- 
 quarters on the Danube, but he had advanced no farther than Aquileia 
 when he was murdered in his tent by his own soldiers. 
 
 214. Though the legions had destroyed the emperor of their choice, 
 they had no intention of yielding to that of the Senate. They murdered 
 Pupie^nus and Balbi^nus within six weeks of their triumph over Maximin, 
 and bestowed the imperial robes upon a younger Gordian, the grandson 
 of the former proconsul of Africa. This boy of twelve years was intended, 
 of course, to be a mere tool of his ministers. Timesith'^eus, the prsetorian 
 prsefect, was an able officer, and, so long as he lived, vigorously upheld the 
 imperial power against Persian assaults and African insurrections. He 
 was succeeded in command by Philip the Arabian, who artfully procured 
 the death of the young emperor, and assumed the purple himself. He 
 wrote to the Senate that Gordian had died of disease, and requested that 
 divine honors should be paid to his memory. 
 
 215. Among the few events recorded of the five years (A. D. 244-249) 
 of Philip's reign, is the celebration of the "Secular Games" at Eome, 
 upon the completion of a thousand years from the building of the city, 
 April 21, A. D. 248. Rival emperors were set up by the Syrians, and by 
 the army in Moesia and Pannonia. Decius, a senator, was sent by Philip to 
 appease the latter. Their mock-emperor was already dead, but the soldiers, 
 believing their guilt too great to be forgiven by Philip, thronged around 
 Decius with tumultuous cries of " Death or the purple ! " The loyal officer, 
 with a hundred swords at his throat, was compelled to be crowned, and to 
 consent to lead his rebellious army into Italy. He wrote to assure his 
 master that he was only acting a part, and would resign his mock-sove- 
 reignty as soon as he could escape his troublesome subjects. But Philip 
 did not believe these professions of loyalty. He marched to meet the in- 
 surgents at Verona, was defeated and slain, Sept., A. D. 249. 
 
342 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 216. The two years' reign of Decius (A. D. 249-251) was marked by two 
 widely different attempts to restore the ancient religion and morality of 
 Rome — the revival of the censorship and the persecution of the Christians. 
 It was deeply felt that the calamities of the empire were due to the cor- 
 ruption of its people. But the first measure produced no effect, while the 
 second only aroused the evil passions of men, and occasioned untold misery. 
 The bishops of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Rome became martyrs, and Alex- 
 andria was the scene of a frightful massacre. Another calamity, for wliich 
 Decius was not responsible, was the first great incursion of the Goths, who 
 ravaged the provinces of Mo3sia and Thrace south of the Danube. Decius 
 was defeated by them in A. D. 250 ; and the next year, in attempting to 
 cut off their retreat, he lost his life in a great battle. 
 
 217. Gallus, an able general, was crowned by the Senate, Hostilia^nus, 
 the son of Decius, being associated with him in the imperial dignity. 
 Calamities thickened; pestilence raged in Rome, and fresh swarms of 
 barbarians, only encouraged by the successes of the Goths, and the sums 
 of money which had been paid them as the price of peace, ravaged the 
 Danubi.'in provinces. Hostilianus died of the plague, and the distress of 
 the people led them to unjust accusations of the emperor, ^milianus 
 having defeated an army of the invaders, was proclaimed as sovereign by 
 his troojDS, and, marching into Italy, defeated Gallus and his son at Inte- 
 ran/na, iEmiliari was acknowledged by the Senate, but his reign was short. 
 Valerian, a noble and virtuous officer, had been sent by Gallus to bring 
 the Gallic and German legions to his aid. He arrived too late to save his 
 master, but he defeated ^milian near the scene of his former victory, and 
 himself received the allegiance of Senate and people. 
 
 It was no enviable distinction, for the causes that were tending to the 
 destruction of the empire were more numerous and fiercely active than 
 ever. The Franks from the lower Rhine, the Aleman^ni from southern 
 Germany, ravaged Italy, Gaul, and Spain, and even crossed the straits into 
 Africa. The Goths had made themselves fleets from the forests of the 
 Euxine, witli which they devastated the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece, 
 capturing and burning innumerable cities, among which Avere Cyzicus, 
 Chalcedon, Ephesus, and even Corinth and Athens. The new Persian 
 kingdom of the Sassanidae had increased in power. Its second monarch, 
 Sapor, conquered Armenia, and overran the Roman provinces in the East. 
 Pie defeated and captured Valerian in a battle near the Euphrates, and 
 gratified his pride by a spectacle which no monarch before had ever been 
 able to exhibit — a Roman emperor, loaded with chains but clothed in 
 purple, a perpetual captive at his court. 
 
 The government being thus overwhelmed with calamities, various pre- 
 tenders claimed the sovereignty of the several fragments of the empire. 
 These adventurers were known in general as the "Thirty Tyrants." Their 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 343 
 
 reigns were usually too short or too insignificant to be worthy of mention. 
 Palmyra continued to be the royal seat of Odena^tus, and after his death, 
 of his widow, Zenob^ia, for ten years, A. D. 264-273, inclusive. Pos^thumus 
 established a kingdom in Gaul, which lasted seventeen years. Valerian, 
 before his disasters in the East, had associated with him, in the cares of 
 empire, his son Gallie^nus; but that prince could attempt little more than 
 the defense of Italy. Aure^olus, commanding on the upper Danube, as- 
 sumed the imperial title and crossed the Alps. Pie was defeated by Gal- 
 lienus, and besieged in Milan. Through his arts, Gallienus was slain by 
 his own soldiers; but they conferred the purple on a more honest man 
 and better general, whom the murdered prince had named in his dying 
 moments. Milan was taken and Aureolus put to death. 
 
 218. Though the Roman Empire seemed to be doomed to destruction, 
 equally by disunion within and the attacks of barbarians from without, 
 its final disruption was delayed by a succession of able emperors. 
 Claudius, who succeeded Gallienus, A. D. 268, vanquished the Alemanui 
 in Italy, and the Goths in Mossia. Aurelian (A. D. 270-275) again routed 
 the Goths in Pannonia; and then recalling the advice of Augustus, he 
 ceded to the barbarians the provinces north of the Danube, removing the 
 Roman inhabitants to Mcesia. He made a war against Zenobia, which 
 ended in the capture of the " Queen of the East," and the overthrow 
 of her kingdom. A still more diflficult enterprise awaited Aurelian in the 
 west, where Tet^ricus, the last successor of Posthumus, had united Gaul, 
 Spain, and Britain into one powerful monarchy. But he was conquered, 
 and the empire was again established on the borders of the Atlantic, 
 A. D. 274. 
 
 Aurelian was about to turn his victorious arms against the Persians, 
 when he was assassinated by several of his ofiicers, owing to a plot formed 
 by his secretary, Mnes^theus. The army, indignant at the crime, applied 
 to the Senate for a new emperor, instead of permitting any general to 
 .seize the crown. The Senate, after six months' hesitation, during which 
 the soldiers respectfully waited, named M. Claudius Tac^itus, a senator of 
 vast wealth and blameless character. He would gladly have declined the 
 laborious and perilous position, on account of his age and infirmities ; but 
 the Senate insisted, and Tacitus was crowned. All the acts of his short 
 reign were directed to the improvement of morals, and the establishment 
 of law and order throughout the empire. He was called away to Asia 
 Minor, where a troop of Goths, engaged by Aurelian to serve in his 
 Eastern expedition, were committing disorders for want of pay. They 
 were expelled; but Tacitus, enfeebled by old age, sank under the exertion, 
 and he died two hundred days from his accession to the throne, A. D. 276. 
 
 219. Florian, brother of Tacitus, assumed the purple at Rome, while 
 the army in the East proclaimed Probus, their general. The soldiers of 
 
344 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Florian, however, refused to fight their comrades, and, after three months, 
 put their leader to death. Probus, thus undisputed master of the E-oman 
 world, was an able general and a wise and beneficent sovereign. He not 
 only drove the Germans out of Gaul, subdued the Sarmatians, and terrified 
 the Goths into peaceable behavior, but he provided for the security of his 
 extended frontier by settling the border provinces with numerous colonies 
 of barbarians, who, becoming civilized, made a barrier against further in- 
 cursions of their countrymen, lie wished, also, to improve waste lands 
 by the draining of marshes and the planting of vines, and to employ in 
 these works the dangerous leisure of his soldiers. But the legionaries did 
 not share the thrifty policy of their emperor. They mutinied at Sir^mium, 
 and by another murder ended the beneficent reign of Probus, A. D. 282. 
 
 220. Cams, the praetorian prsefect, was hailed as emperor by the army, 
 and conferred the title of Caesar on his two sons, Cari^nus and Nume^rian. 
 Leaving the former to govern the West, Carus, with Numerian, turned 
 toward the East; first gained a great victory over the Sarmatians in Illyr- 
 icum, and then proceeded to overrun Mesopotamia, and capture the two 
 great cities of Seleucia and Ctes^iphon. He had advanced beyond the 
 
 Tigris, and seemed about to overthrow the 
 Persian kingdom, when he suddenly died, 
 whether by lightning, by disease, or by the 
 dagger, historians are not agreed. 
 
 His son Numerian yielded to the super- 
 stitious fears of his soldiers, and withdrew 
 within the Eoman boundaries. On the re- 
 treat he was murdered by his father-in-law, 
 who was also praetorian prtefect, and who 
 hoped to conceal the crime until he could 
 reap the fruits of it. But the army discov- 
 ered the death of their beloved emperor, and 
 set up Diocle^tian, the captain of the body- 
 guards, to avenge and succeed him. 
 
 Carinus, meanwhile, reigning in the West, 
 
 was dazzling the Eoman world by expensive 
 
 games, and insulting it by his profligacy. 
 
 Hearing of the murder and usurpation, he 
 
 marched with a large and well-disciplined 
 
 army to meet Diocletian, and joined battle 
 
 near Margus, in upper Moesia. The Western 
 
 troops were victorious, but Carinus, while 
 
 leading the pursuit, was slain by one of his own officers. His followers 
 
 came to an agreement with those of Diocletian, who was universally 
 
 hailed as emperor. 
 
 Coin of Diocletian, enlarged 
 twice the size. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 345 
 
 221. His accession began a new period in the empire, when the power 
 of the sovereigns became more absolute, ceasing to be checked either by 
 the lawful authority of the Senate or the insolence of the soldiers. 
 During the ninety-two years which had elapsed since the death of Corn- 
 modus, the legions had claimed the privilege, not only of raising to the 
 imperial power whomsoever they might choose, but of removing the object 
 of their choice whenever he ceased to content them. No general who de- 
 sired to be emperor dared stint his donatives, or enforce the needful 
 severity of discipline. But for the almost constant danger from bar- 
 barians without, the army, which was the real tyrant of the Roman world, 
 might have already put an end to all order, peace, and civil government. 
 
 Pertinax (A. D. 193) is ciowned and imutlered by the prsetorians, who then 
 sell the throne to Julian us. Severus (A. D. 193-211) buys the adhesion of the 
 guards, and having gained the imperial power, disarms and expels them. He 
 enlarges his dominions by conquests both in the east and west. Caracalla mur- 
 ders his brother, and misgoverns the empire six years, A. D. 211-217. Macrinus 
 (A. D. 217, 218) gains and loses his crown by violence. Elngabalus (A. D. 218-222) 
 introduces Syrian manners and worship into Rome. He is succeeded by his 
 cousin, Alexander Severus (A. D. 222-2;ij), who gains a great victory over the 
 new Persian empire of tlie Sassanidtc, but is afterward slain in Germany during 
 a mutiny of his troops. Maximin (A. D. 235-238), a Thracian, is set up, and in 
 three years put down, by his comrades in the army. Tlie two Gordians reign 
 less than a month, Pupienus and Balbinus about six \veeks, when a younger 
 Gordiau (A. D. 238-244) is invested with the purple at the age of twelve. He loses 
 his hfe through the arts of Philip the Arab, who becomes emperor, and cele- 
 brates, A. D. 248, the thousandth year of the existence of Rome. Decius, being 
 sent to quell a revolt in Pannonia, is crowned by the soldiers, A. D. 249, and 
 Philip is slain. Two great calamities mark the reign of Decius: a persecution 
 of Christians and an incursion of Goths. Gallus (A. D. 251-253) is deposed by 
 iEmilianus, who is soon superseded by Valerian (A. D. 25-1-260). The whole 
 empire is overrun by Gothic and German invaders. Valerian, in his wars in 
 the East, is captured, and spends the last seven years of his life at Sapor's court. 
 "Thirty Tyrants" spring up in various parts of the empire. Gallienus reigns in 
 Italy, first with his father. Valerian, and afterward alone, A. D. 254-268. He is 
 slain through the management of a pretender, Aureolus, but is succeeded by 
 Claudius (A. D. 268-270), who defeats the barbarians. Aurelian (A. D. 270-275) 
 makes the Danube again the northern boundary of the empire; subdues Zenobia 
 in the east and Tetricus in the west; is murdered on his woy to Persia. Tacitus 
 (A. D. 275, 270), being appointed by the Senate, reigns two hundred days. Florian, 
 his brother, is deposed by his own troops. Probus (A. D. 276-282) restores security 
 by a wise and energetic reign. Cams gains great victories in the East; but after 
 his sudden death, his son Numerian abandons his conquests. Numerian Is slain 
 in the East, Carinus in the West, and Diocletian becomes emperor. 
 
 Third Period, A. D. 284-395. 
 
 222. Under the firm and wise policy of Diocletian, the Roman world 
 entered upon a century of greater vigor and security. The empire being 
 too large to be administered by a single head, Diocletian conferred equal 
 
346 ANCIEJ^T HISTORY. 
 
 power upon his friend and comrade Maxim^ian, with the title of Augustus. 
 A few years later, two Cffisars, Gale'rius and Constan'tius, were added to 
 the imperial college, each being associated, as adopted son and successor, 
 with one of the emperors. To the Caesars were assigned the more exposed 
 provinces, which needed an active and vigilant administration, Avhile the 
 Augusti kept to themselves the old and settled portions of the empire. 
 Constantius had Gaul, Spain, Britain, and the whole frontier of the Khine; 
 Galeriiis had Noricum, Pannonia, and Mcesia, with the defenses of the 
 Danube; while Maximian governed Italy and Africa, and Diocletian re- 
 tained for himself Thrace, Macedonia, Egypt, and the East. Though 
 allotted thus to its several rulers, the empire was not divided. The four 
 princes governed in consultation, and were equally honored in all parts 
 of the realm. 
 
 223. In A. D. 286, a naval chief, Carau'sius, being intrusted with a 
 powerful fleet for the defense of the British and Gallic coasts against the 
 Franks, gained over the troops in Britain, seized the island, and set up an 
 independent government. He built new ships, and soon became master of 
 the Western seas. Diocletian and Maximian, after vain attempts to break 
 his power, were compelled to acknowledge him as their colleague in the 
 empire, A. D. 287. Constantius, upon becoming Csesar, made war, A. D. 
 292, upon this new Augustus ; captured Boulogne after a long and severe 
 siege, and was preparing to invade Britain, when Carausius was killed by 
 his chief officer, AUec^tus. 
 
 Constantius landed, three years later, in Britain, and by a battle near 
 London recovered the island. He afterward drove the Alemanni out of 
 Gaul, and settled his captives in colonies upon the lands depopulated by 
 their ravages. At the same time, Maximian quelled a formidable revolt 
 of the Moors in Africa; and Diocletian, by a siege of eight months, cap- 
 tured Alexandria, where a rival emperor had usurped the throne, and 
 punished the rebellious city by a massacre in which many thousands 
 perished. The Caesar Galerius made war against the Persians for the 
 recovery of Armenia, which they had taken from Tirida^tes, the vassal of 
 Eome. He was defeated near Carrhce, on the very scene of the overthrow 
 of Crassus, more than three centuries before; but he retrieved this misfor- 
 tune by a great victory over King Narses, followed by an advantageous 
 peace. 
 
 224. The system of Diocletian was thus effective and prosperous, as far 
 as it concerned the foreign enemies of the state ; but the expenses of four 
 imperial courts, with the immense number of soldiers and officials, imposed 
 heavy burdens upon the people. The wretched tax-payers were often tor- 
 tured to enforce payments which they were unable to make. The civil wars 
 of the preceding centuries had deprived extensive districts of inhabitants ; 
 and the productions of the earth and of human industry had ceased. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 347 
 
 225. The greatest blot upon the memory of Diocletian is the persecu- 
 tion of Christians in the last year of his reign. Every province and every 
 great city of the empire had now heard the doctrines of Christ, and the 
 church in Rome numbered 50,000 members. In an age of turbulence and 
 corruption, Christians were every- where distinguished as the most orderly, 
 industrious, loyal, and honest members of the community. Their refusal 
 to worship the image of the emperor, which was an essential part of the 
 Roman religion, had brought upon them several local persecutions, but 
 none so widely extended and severe as that of Diocletian. The edict re- 
 quiring uniformity of worship was issued A. D. 303. Instantly the cruel 
 passions of the pagans were let loose from restraint. Innocent blood flowed 
 in every province. Whoever had either malice or covetousness to indulge, 
 had only to accuse his enemy of being a Christian, and to be rewarded 
 with half the confiscated goods. In the extreme west, Constantius pro- 
 tected those of the " new religion," but elsewhere there was no appeal 
 from the atrocious cruelties sanctioned by courts of law. 
 
 226. Of the many acts by which Diocletian abased the authority of the 
 Senate, the most effective was the removal of the center of government 
 from the ancient city on the Tiber. liis own official residence was at 
 Nicomedia; that of Maximian, at Milan; while Constantius held a provin- 
 cial court at York, and Galerius at Sirmium, on the Savus. The Senate 
 thus became the mere council of a provincial town. Imperial edicts took 
 the place of the laws which had formerly received its sanction. The inso- 
 lent praetorians were, at the same time, replaced by the "Jovian" and 
 "Herculean Guards"; and their praefect, who had been a rival of the 
 emperor, became merely an officer of the palace. Diocletian, however, 
 celebrated the twentieth year of his reign, and his numerous victories, by 
 a triumphal entry into Rome ; and this was the last " triumph " which the 
 ancient capital ever beheld. 
 
 227. The next year, A. D. 305, Diocletian, worn out with the cares of 
 empire, formally abdicated his power, and compelled Maximian to do the 
 same. The two Csesars now became Augusti, and two new candidates, 
 Maximin and Severus, were appointed by Galerius to the former title. 
 The legions in Britain were dissatisfied, however, by seeing the choice of a 
 successor taken away from their own imperator; and upon the death of 
 Constantius, A. D. 306, they immediately proclaimed Con^stantine, his son. 
 He was acknowledged as Csesar by Galerius, who conferred the rank of 
 Augustus on Severus. 
 
 But, the next year, Maxen^tius, son of Maximian, was declared emperor 
 by the Senate and people of Rome, and his father resumed the pur^ile, 
 which he had unwillingly laid aside at the command of Diocletian. 
 Severus, attempting to crush this insurrection, was taken captive at 
 Ravenna, and privately put to death. Galerius now conferred the impe- 
 
348 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 rial dignity on Licinius, and for two years the Eoman world was peaceably 
 governed by six masters : Constantine, Maxirnian, and Maxentius in the 
 West; Galerius, Maximin, and Licinius in the East. 
 
 228. The peace was jfirst broken by the dissensions of Maxirnian and his 
 son. The elder emperor fled from Rome, and was well received by Con- 
 stantine, who had married liis daughter. Before long, however, Maximian 
 entered again into plots with Maxentius for the ruin of Constantine; 
 which becoming known to their intended victim, he returned promptly 
 from his campaign on the Rhine, besieged his father-in-law in Massilia, 
 and put him to death, A. D. 310. Galerius died the next year at Nico- 
 media, and the empire was again divided into four parts, of which Constan- 
 tine ruled the extreme west; Maxentius, Italy and Africa; Licinius, 
 Illyricum and Thrace ; Maximin, Egypt and Asia. 
 
 The cruel and rapacious character of Maxentius wearied out his subjects, 
 who sent deputies from Rome, beseeching Constantine to come and be their 
 sovereign. This great general had Won the love of his followers, not less 
 by his firm and successful dealings with the barbarians, than by his liberal 
 protection of the Christians, whose virtues he esteemed, and whose rights 
 of conscience he respected. On his march toward Italy, it is said that he 
 beheld a vision. A flaming cross appeared in the heavens, bearing in Greek 
 the inscription, ''By this, conquer I" Thenceforth, the cross replaced the 
 pagan symbols which had been carried at the head of the legions ; and the 
 omen, if such it was, was amply fulfilled. 
 
 229. Constantine passed the Alps, A. D. 312, defeated the troops of 
 Maxentius near Turin, captured Verona after an obstinate siege and battle, 
 and encountered his rival in a final combat before the gates of Rome. In 
 the battle of the MiKvian Bridge, Maxentius was defeated and drowned. 
 The following year, Maximin was defeated by Licinius, in a great battle 
 at Heraclea, on the Propontis, and put an end to his life at Tarsus, in 
 Cilicia. Constantine and Licinius, in a series of battles, divided the world 
 between them. The river Strymon and the iEgean became the boundaries 
 between the Eastern and Western empires. Two sons of Constantine and 
 one of Licinius received the title of Csesar. Crispus, on the Rhine, gained 
 a victory over the Franks and Alemanni ; and Constantine, on the Danube, 
 executed a terrible vengeance upon the Goths, who had invaded the Roman 
 territory. 
 
 230. After seven years' peace, war broke out between the emperors, in 
 A. D. 322. Licinius was defeated near Hadriano^ple, besieged in Byzan- 
 tium, and finally overthrown upon the Heights of Scuta^ri, overlooking 
 the latter city. His death made Constantine the sole ruler of the civilized 
 world. His great dominion received a new constitution suitable to its 
 magnitude. The seat of government was fixed upon the confines of 
 Europe and Asia, in the new and magnificent city bearing the emperor's 
 
HISTORY OF HOME. 349 
 
 name, which he built upon the ruins of the Greek Byzantium. The whole 
 empire was divided into four prccfectures, wliich nearly corresponded to the 
 dominions of the four emperors, A. D. 311. (§ 228.) Each pro^fecture 
 was divided into dioceses, and each diocese into proconsular governments, 
 or presidencies. 
 
 This subdivision of the empire gave rise to three ranks of officials, 
 somewhat resembling the nobility of modern Europe. Tlie republican 
 form of government, so ostentatiously cherished by Augustus, had now 
 disappeared, and in its place was the elaborate ceremony of an Oriental 
 court. Even the 10,000 spies, known as the " King's Eyes," were main- 
 tained as of old by Xerxes and Darius. A standing army of 645,000 men 
 was kept upon the frontier; but as Roman citizens Avere now averse to 
 military service, the legions were largely composed of barbarian mercena- 
 ries. The Franks, especially, had great importance, both in the court and 
 camp of Constantine. 
 
 231. The great event of this reign was the admission of Christianity as, 
 in a certain sense, the religion of the state. The Edict of Milan, A. D. 313, 
 guaranteed to the hitherto persecuted people perfect security and respect ; 
 that of A. D. 324 exhorted all subjects of the empire to follow the example 
 of their sovereign, and become Christians. Heathenism was not yet pro- 
 scribed. Constantine was pontifex maximus, and must, on certain occa- 
 sions, have offered sacrifices to the fabulous gods of Rome. It was only in 
 his last days that he received Christian baptism ; but he presided in the 
 fii-st General Council of the Church at Nice, in Bithynia, A. D. 325, to 
 which he had convened bishops from all parts of the empire, to decide 
 certain disputed matters of faith. Though he treated the assembled fathers 
 with every mark of reverence, he refused to persecute Arius and his fol- 
 lowers, the Alexandrian heretics, whom the Council condemned. 
 
 232. Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine, who had been named Caesar 
 at the age of seventeen, was the idol of the people, but an object of jeal- 
 ousy to his father, who suspected him of treasonable designs. Whether the 
 charges against him were true, we have no means of knowing. He was 
 seized during the festivities in Rome, in honor of the twentieth year of his 
 father's reign, tried secretly, and put to death. The last years of Constan- 
 tine were disturbed by fresh movements of the barbarians north of the 
 Danube. The Sarmatians, being attacked by the Goths, implored the aid 
 of the Romans. Constantine was defeated in one battle with the invaders, 
 but in the next he was victorious, and 100,000 Goths, driven into the 
 mountains, perished with cold and hunger. In the division of spoils, the 
 Sarmatians were dissatisfied, and revenged themselves by making inroads 
 upon the Roman dominions. In succeeding wars they were defeated and 
 scattered; 300,000 were received as vassals of the empire, and settled in 
 military colonies in Pannonia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Italy. 
 
350 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 233. Hoping to secure peace to the empire after his death, Constantine 
 assigned ^its different parts to his three sons and two nephews, whom he 
 had' carefully educated for their great responsibilities. But his care was 
 unavailing. Immediately upon his decease, A. D. 337, Constantius, his 
 second son, being nearest, seized the capital, and ordered a massacre of 
 all whose birth or power could give them any hopes of obtaining the sov- 
 ereignty. Of his own relatives, only two cousins, Gallus and Julian, es- 
 caped. The three sons of Constantine then divided the empire between 
 them. Constantine II., the eldest, received the capital, 'together with 
 Gaul, Spain, and Britain; Constantius had Thrace and the East; Constans, 
 Italy, Africa, and western Illyricum. 
 
 The reign of Constantius was occupied by a disastrous war with Persia. 
 The pagan Armenians revolted upon the death of their king, Tiridates — 
 a " friend of the Eomans," who had established Christian worship in his 
 dominions — and opened their gates to the Persians. The son of Tiridates 
 sought the aid of Constantius, who succeeded in restoring the prince Chos^- 
 roes to his dominions. The fortress of Nisibis, Avhich was esteemed the 
 bulwark of the East, withstood three memorable sieges by the Persians; 
 but the Roman armies were defeated in nine pitched battles, and the raids 
 of the Persian cavalry extended even to the Mediterranean, where they 
 captured and plundered Antioch. 
 
 234. In the meanwhile, discord had broken out between the emperors 
 in the West, and Constantine II., invading the dominions of his brother 
 Constans, was defeated and slain near Aquileia. Constans seized his prov- 
 inces, and reigned ten years (A. D, 340-350) over two-thirds of his father's 
 empire. Magnentius, an officer in Gaul, then assumed the purple, and 
 Constans was slain. Constantius, recalled from his Persian wars, defeated 
 Magnentius in a toilsome campaign on the Danube; received the submis- 
 sion of Rome and the Italian cities; and finally, by. a great battle among 
 the Cottian Alps, ended the rebellion with the life of the usurper, A. D. 
 353. Sixteen years after the death of the great Constantine, the empire 
 was thus reunited under one sovereign. Gallus, the cousin of Constantius, 
 had been taken from prison to receive the title of Caesar and the govern- 
 ment of the East. But he proved wliolly unfit to rule; he treated with 
 insult the embassador of his cousin, and even caused him to be murdered 
 by the mob of Antioch. Gallus was thereupon recalled, and put to death 
 at Pola, in Is^tria. 
 
 Diocletian (A. D. 281-305) associates Maximian as "Augustus," and Galerius 
 and Constantius as "Ctesars," with himself in tlie management of the empire. 
 Constantius overthrows the sovereigntj' of Cavausius in Britain and nortliern 
 Gaul. Galerius gains victories in Asia; Diocletian, in Egypt; and Maximian, in 
 Africa. The new system is efficient abroad, but oppressive at home. Christians 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 351 
 
 are severely persecuted. Seat of government removed from Rome. Diocletkm 
 and Maxiraian resign, A. D. 305. Galerius (A. D. 305-311) and Constantius (A. D. 
 305,300) become emperors; Severus and Maximin, Copsars. Constantiue the Great 
 (A. D. 306-337), succeeding his father, Constantius, eventually conquers Maximian 
 who has resumed the purple, and INIaxentius (A. D. 312), who has been proclaimed 
 at Rome, and reigns over the Western empire. Licinius (A. D. 307-323), after the 
 death of Galerius, conquers Maximin, and reigns east of the ^ligeau. Constantiue 
 conquers Licinius, A. D. 323, and becomes sole emperor. Fixes his court at Con- 
 stantinople; reorganizes the government; makes Christianity the religion of the 
 state; has wars with the Goths; and establishes military colonies of Sarmatians 
 within the bounds of the empire. After his death, liis three sons destroy their 
 kinsmen, and divide the dominion between them. While Constantius 11. is at 
 war with Persia, his brother, Constantiue II., is slain by Constans, who is him- 
 self deposed, after ten years, by Maguentius. Constantius, returning from the 
 East, A. D. 350, defeats Magnentius, and reigns over his father's entire dominion, 
 A. D. 353-361. 
 
 Extinction of Paganism. 
 
 235. Julian, the younger brother of Gallus, was permitted to pursue hia 
 favorite studies at Athens, until, A. D. 355, he was called to the court of 
 Milan, dignified with the title of Caesar, and intrusted with the government 
 of Gaul. His conduct displayed great energy and talent. He severely de- 
 feated the Alemanni, in the battle of Strasbourg ; drove the Franks from 
 their castles on the ]Meuse; and in three invasions of Germany, liberated 
 20,000 Roman captives. He rebuilt the cities of Gaul which the barbarians 
 had destroyed; adorned Paris, his winter residence, with a palace, theater, 
 and baths; imported grain from Britain for the sustenance of the people; 
 and protected agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. 
 
 Constantius became jealous of his cousin's fame, and sought to disarm 
 and disgrace him, by ordering the greater part of the Gallic army to the 
 East. Julian was preparing to send away his devoted followers, but the 
 soldiers mutinied, proclaimed him emperor, and forced him to assume the 
 purple robe. An embassy to Constantius was contemptuously dismissed ; 
 and Julian, after again chastising the Franks, and improving the defenses 
 of the German frontier, set forth to decide the question by actual war. 
 Penetrating the Black Forest as far as the Danube, he descended that river 
 with a captured fleet, surprised Sirmium, 'and was received with acclama- 
 tions by the people. He sent letters justifying his conduct to the principal 
 cities of the empire, especially to the senates of Athens and Rome; and he 
 was invested by the latter with the imperial titles which it alone could 
 legally bestow. The sudden death of Constantius, at Tarsus, Nov., A. D. 
 361, ended the uncertainty. All Constantinople poured forth to welcome 
 Julian, at a distance of sixty miles from the capital, and soldiers and 
 people throughout the empire accepted him as their head, 
 
 23G. His first acts were to retrench the Oriental luxury of the palace, 
 to punish the officers of Constantius who had oppressed the people, and to 
 
.352 AJSCIENT HISTOR Y. 
 
 dismiss the 10,000 spies. A philosopher by choice, and an emperor only 
 by compulsion, Julian prided himself upon the frugal simplicity of his 
 habits, and professed himself merely the "servant of the Republic.'' He 
 is known in history by the unhappy name of " Julian the Apostate." In- 
 censed against the Christian cousins who had murdered his entire family, 
 he extended his hatred to the faith which they so unworthily professed. 
 He publicly renounced Christianity, and placed himself and his empire 
 under the protection of the "Immortal Gods." 
 
 To spite the Christians, he patronized the Jews, and attempted to rebuild 
 their Temple at Jerusalem ; but he was thwarted by balls of fire breaking 
 out near the foundation, which made it impossible for the Avorkmen to 
 approach. ^ He excluded all Christians from the schools of grammar and 
 rhetoric, hoping thus to degrade them in intellectual rank, and weaken 
 them in controversy. He, however, disappointed the pagan zealots by 
 proclaiming toleration to all parties. In the spring of A. D. 363, Julian 
 . departed with a great army for the East, where the ravages of the Persian 
 king had for four years met with little resistance. He gained an important 
 victory over the Persians at Ctesiphon, but in a subsequent skirmish he 
 was mortally wounded, and died, June, A. D. 363, after a reign of only 
 sixteen months. 
 
 237. Jovian, the captain of the life-guards, was saluted as Augustus by 
 the generals of Julian. He obtained peace with the Persian king by ceding 
 the five provinces east of the Tigris, and then conducted a difficult retreat 
 to the capital. The principal act of his reign Avas the re-establishment of 
 Christian worship and of universal tolerance. He died, Feb., A. D. 364, 
 after a reign of eight months. The civil and military officers of the empire 
 met at Nicsea, and chose for their sovereign Valentin^ian, a Christian and 
 a brave soldier, who had distinguished himself by service both on the 
 Tigris and the Rhine. His brother Valens was made his colleague, with 
 the command of the East, extending from the lower Danube to the 
 boundaries of Persia. 
 
 238. Valentinian fixed his capital at Milan, which alternated with 
 Rheims and Treves as his headquarters. He signally defeated the Ale- 
 manni, and guarded the Rhine by a new series of forts. The coasts of 
 western Europe now began to be overrun by piratical Saxons, while the 
 Picts and Scots swept over all the cultivated fields of southern Britain, 
 from the Wall of Antoninus to the coast of Kent. Theodo^sius, father of 
 the future emperor of that name, led a veteran army to the relief of the 
 Britons, and afterward gained among the Orkneys a great naval victory 
 over the Saxons. 
 
 <' So says Ammia'nus Marcelli'ijus, an lionest and usually trustworthy historiau, 
 contemporary widi Julian, and probably a pagan. 
 
HISTOHY of ROME. 353 
 
 Having defeated the Alemanni on the upper Danube, Theodosius was 
 next sent into Africa to quell a revolt of the Moors and provincials, pro- 
 voked by the extortions of Count Roma^nus. Firmus, the chief of the 
 Moors, was as wily as Jugurtha, but Theodosius showed all the skill of 
 Metellus or of Scipio. PTe imprisoned Eomanus and restored order to the 
 province; but he was rewarded only by unjust suspicions and a military 
 execution, A. D. 376. Yalentinian was already dead (Nov., A. D. 375), 
 and the ministers who surrounded his son disguised the truth to suit their 
 own purposes. 
 
 239. Valens, meanwhile reigning in the East, was far inferior to his 
 brother in firmness and beneficence of character. At the beginning of his 
 reign, Proco^pius, a kinsman of Julian, gained possession of Constantino- 
 ple, and kept it several months as nominal emperor. He was captured at 
 last, and suffered a cruel death in the camp of Valens. The great event 
 of this period was the irruption of a new and terrible race of savages from 
 northern Asia. The Huns were more hideous, cruel, and implacable than 
 even the fiercest of the barbarians hitherto known to the Eomans. The 
 Great Wall, which still divides China from Mongolia, had been erected as 
 a barrier against their inroads; but their attention was now turned to the 
 Avestward, where the Goths, north of the Black Sea, were the first to feel 
 their power. 
 
 The great Gothic kingdom of Her'^manric extended from the Danube 
 and Euxine to the Baltic, and embraced many kindred tribes, of which 
 the eastern or Ostro-Goths, and the western or Visi-Goths were most 
 important. The former were conquered by the Huns ; the latter besought 
 permission from Valens to settle on the waste lands south of the Danube, 
 and become subjects of the empire. Their request was granted, and a 
 million of men, women, and children crossed the river. But the Eoman 
 commissioners who were charged with receiving and feeding this starving 
 multitude, seized the opportunity to make their own fortunes, at the ex- 
 pense of their honor and of the safety of the empire. 
 
 The Goths had been required to give up their arms, but they purchased 
 of these oflficers permission to retain them. The food which Avas served to 
 them was of the vilest quality and most extravagant price. Discontent 
 broke out among the turbulent and armed host. The Gothic Avarriors 
 marched upon Marcianop^olis, defeated the army Avhich Avas sent to defend 
 it, and laid Avaste all Thrace Avith fire and sword. Instead of pacifying the 
 Goths by a just punishment of the offenders, and by pledges of justice for 
 the future, Valens sent for aid to his nephew Gratian, and advanced with 
 his army to fight with the barbarians. In a battle near Hadrianople he 
 was slain, and two-thirds of his army perished, A. D. 378. 
 
 240. Gratian, the son of Valentinian, had been three years emperor of 
 the West, and noAV became sole sovereign of the dominions of Augustus. 
 
 A. H.— 53. 
 
354 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 He chose, however, for a colleague, the general Theodosius, to whom he 
 committed the empire of Valeiis, with the addition of the province of 
 lUyricum. The youth of Gratian was adorned by a fair promise of all the 
 virtues ; but as soon as his excellent instructors left him, he proved him- 
 self weak and wholly unfit for command. Bad men gained and abused 
 
 his confidence. 
 
 Maximus, in Britain, revolted, and passed over into Gaul with an army. 
 Instead of fighting, Gratian fled from Paris; his armies deserted to the 
 enemy, and the fugitive emperor was overtaken and slain at Lyons, 
 A. D. 383. He had already, on his accession, shared the imperial dignity 
 with his brother, Valentinian II., then only five years of age. Maximus, 
 being in actual possession of the countries Avest of the Alps, was ac- 
 knowledged by Theodosius, on condition of the young Valentinian being 
 left in secure possession of Italy and Africa. The sovereign of Gaul, 
 Spain, and Britain soon became strong enough to break his word. He 
 invaded Italy, and the young emperor, with Justi^na his mother, fled to 
 the court of Theodosius for protection. The emperor of the East marched 
 to attack Maximus, whom he defeated and caused to be executed as a 
 traitor, and established Valentinian II. in the sovereignty of the whole 
 Western empire. 
 
 241. The young sovereign of the West proved as weak as his brother. 
 He fell under the control of an officer of his own, a Frank named Ar- 
 bogas^tes; and when he attempted to shake off the yoke, the too power- 
 ful servant murdered his master and set up an emperor of his oAvn 
 choosing. Euge^nius reigned two years (A. D. 392-394), as the tool of 
 Arbogastes; but Theodosius at length defeated his army near Aquileia, 
 and put him to death. 
 
 For four months the Roman world was united, for the last time, 
 under one sovereign. Theodosius the Great w^ell deserved the title by 
 which he is known in history. His vigorous and prudent management 
 changed the Goths from dangerous enemies into powerful friends. Great 
 colonies of Visi-Goths were formed in Thrace, and of Ostro-Goths in 
 Asia Minor; and 40,000 of their warriors were employed in the armies 
 of the emperor. If later monarchs had acted with the wisdom and 
 firmness of Theodosius, these recruits might have added great strength 
 to the then declining empire. They were, in fact, a chief occasion of its 
 fall. 
 
 242. This reign is marked by the extinction of the old pagan worship. 
 The temples were destroyed, and all sacrifices or divinations forbidden. 
 The Egyptians believed that Serapis would avenge any profanation of 
 his temple at Alexandria; but when a soldier, climbing to the head of 
 the colossal idol, smote its cheek with his battle-ax, the popular faith 
 was shaken, and it was admitted that a god who could not defend 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 355 
 
 himself was no longer to be worshiped. Arians and other Christian 
 heretics were persecuted with scarcely less rigor than the pagans; for 
 they were forbidden to preach, ordain ministers, or hold meetings for 
 public Avorship. The penalties inflicted by Tlieodosius were nothino- 
 more than fines and civil disabilities; but his contemporary, Maximus 
 is said to have been the "first Christian prince who shed the blood of 
 his Christian subjects for their religious opinions." 
 
 The power and dignity of the Church at this time is shown by the 
 conduct of Ambro^sius, Archbishop of Milan. Theodosius had ordered a 
 general massacre of the people of Thessalonica, as a punishment for a 
 wanton tumult which had arisen in their circus, during which a Gothic 
 general and several of his officers had been killed. Several thousands 
 of persons, the innocent with the guilty, were slaughtered by barbarian 
 troops sent thither for the purpose. When tlie emperor, who was then 
 at Milan, went as usual to church, Ambrosius met him at the door, and 
 refused to admit him to any of the oflices of religion until he should 
 publicly confess his guilt. The interdict continued eight months; but, 
 at length, the master of the civilized world, in the garb of the humblest 
 suppliant, implored pardon in the presence of all the congregation, 
 and was restored, at Christmas, A. D, 390, to the communion of the 
 Church. 
 
 Before his death, Theodosius divided his great dominions between his 
 two sons, giving the East to Arcadius, and the West to Hono^rius. 
 The latter, who was only eleven years of age, was placed under the 
 guardianship of the Vandal general StiFicho, who had married a niece 
 of the great emperor. Theodosius died at Milan, Jan. 17, A. D. 395, 
 
 Julian administers Gaul aDd invades Germany with great energy and success. 
 He incurs the jealousy of his cousin, and is declared emperor by his troops. 
 Constantius dies, and Julian (A. D. 361-3G3), now universally acknowledged, 
 restores paganism. Pie is killed in an Eastern campaign, and is succeeded by 
 Jovian, who withdraws west of the Tigris. On the death of Jovian, A. D. 364, 
 Valentinian (A. D. 364-375) is chosen by tlie court and army, and assigns the 
 Eastern empire to his brother Valens. The general Theodosius gains important 
 victories over Saxons, Picts, Scots, and Moors. Procopius usurps for a time J-he 
 Eastern capital, and the empire is threatened bj" both Huns and Goths. In war 
 with the latter, Valens is slain. Gratian (A. D. 375-383), son of Valentinian, confers 
 the Eastern empire upon the younger Theodosius (A. D. 379-395). He is himself 
 dethroned by Maximus, who becomes sovereign of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, and 
 even expels the brother of Gratian (A. D. 387) from Italy. Theodosius destroys 
 Maximus, and restores Valentinian II. as emperor of the West; but this young 
 monarch is soon murdered by Arbogastes. Eugenius reigns two years, A. D. 392-394. 
 Theodosius defeats him, and rules the united empire four months. He conciliates 
 the Goths; abolishes pagan rites; persecutes heretics; does penance at Milan; 
 divides the empire between Arcadius and Honorius. 
 
356 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Fourth Period, A. D. 395-476. 
 
 243. The empire east of the Adriatic continued more than a thousand 
 years from the accession of Arcadius, and its records belong to Mediseval 
 History. From the death of the great Theodosius, the division of the 
 two empires was complete. Eufi^nus, the minister of Arcadius, bore a 
 mortal enmity to Stilicho, the guardian of Honorius; and for the sake 
 of revenge, he let loose the Goths upon the Western empire. AKaric, 
 the Visi-Goth, was made master-general of the Eastern armies in Illyri- 
 CLim. At the same time, he was elected to be king of his own countiy- 
 men, and it is uncertain in which character he Invaded Italy, A. D. 
 400-403. Honorius was driven from Milan, but Stilicho defeated the 
 invader at Pollen^tia, and afterward at Verona, and persuaded him, by 
 promises of lands for his followers, to withdraw from Italy. 
 
 During the rejoicings at Eome on account of his retreat, an incident 
 occurred which marks the progress of Christianity in the declining em- 
 pire. Telem'^achus, a monk, entered the arena of the Coliseum and 
 attempted to separate the gladiators, protesting, in the name of Christ, 
 against their inhuman combat. He was stoned to death by the crowd; 
 but their remorse bestowed upon him the honors of .a martyr; and the 
 emperor, who was present, made a law abolishing forever the shedding 
 of human blood for public sport. 
 
 244. Honorius transferred his capital from Milan to the impregnable 
 fortress among the marshes of Ravenna, which continued three centuries 
 to be the seat of government for Italy. A fresh invasion from Germany, 
 led by the pagan Radagai^sus, devastated western Italy. Gaul was, at 
 the same time, overrun by a mingled horde of Vandals, Suevi, Alani, 
 and Burgundians ; and from that moment the Roman Empire may be 
 said to have fallen in the countries beyond the Alps. The army in 
 Britain revolted ; and after electing and murdering two emperors, set up 
 Constantine, who led them into Gaul, defeated the German invaders, 
 passed into Spain, and e.-tablished a kind of sovereignty over the three 
 western countries of Europe. 
 
 Meanwhile, Stilicho was disgraced and slain, through the intrigues of 
 his enemy, Olympius. While the barbarian auxiliaries in his army were 
 lamenting his death, they were enraged by a massacre of their wives and 
 children, who had been kept as hostages in the various cities of Italy. 
 This insane act of cruelty sealed the fate of Rome. The barbarians, 
 freed from either the duty or necessity of obeying Honorius, flocked to 
 the camp of Alaric, in Illyricum, and urged him to invade Italy. The 
 Visi-Goth had injuries of his own to avenge. He passed the Alps and 
 the Po, and, after a rapid march, pitched his camp upon the Tiber. 
 Rome was reduced to starvation. Thousands died of famine, and thou- 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 857 
 
 sands mbre from the pestilence Avhich it occasioned. At length, Alaric 
 accepted the terms offered by the Senate, and retired, upon the payment 
 of an enormous ransom, A. D. 408. 
 
 245. His brother-in-law, Adolphus, now joined him with a troop of 
 Huns and Goths. Alaric offered peace to the court of Eavennn, on 
 condition of receiving lands for his followers, between the Danube and 
 the Adriatic. His demands being refused, he again marched upon Eome, 
 and set up an emperor of his own choosing, in At^talus, pr^efect of the 
 city. Eavenna was only saved from his attack by a reinforcement from 
 Theodosius II., now emperor of the East. Africa was likewise delivered 
 by the vigilance of Count Herac^lian. But Alaric was soon tired of his 
 puppet-king. He deposed him, and again sought peace with Honorius. 
 The treaty failed through the ill-will of Sarus, a Goth in the imperial 
 service, who was a bitter enemy and rival of Alaric. 
 
 The king of the Visi-Goths now turned a third time, and with relent- 
 less rage, upon Rome. The Eternal City was taken, Aug. 10, A. D. 410, 
 and for six days was given up to the horrible scenes of murder and 
 pillage. Though greatly reduced in power, Rome had never lost her 
 dignity, or the wealth of her old patrician houses. These were now 
 ransacked; gold, jewels, and silken garments, Grecian sculptures and 
 paintings, and the choicest spoils of conquered countries, brought home 
 in triumph by ancestors of the present families, went to enrich the 
 Gothic and Scythic hordes, who were so ignorant of the value of their 
 plunder, that exquisite vases were often divided by a stroke of a battle- 
 ax, and their fragments distributed among the common soldiers. Only 
 the churches and their property were respected, for Alaric declared that 
 he waged war with the Romans, and not with the apostles. 
 
 246, At length the king of the Goths withdrew, laden with spoils, 
 along the Appian Way, meditating the conquest of Sicily and Africa. 
 Storms, however, destroyed his hastily constructed fleet, and a sudden 
 death terminated his career of conquest. He was buried in the channel 
 of the little river Busenti^nus, and his sepulcher was adorned by his 
 followers with the treasures of Rome. Adolphus, his successor, made 
 peace with Honorius, and received the hand of the imperial princess 
 Placid^ia, who had been taken prisoner during the siege. Her bridal 
 gifts consisted of the spoils of her country. Adolphus retired into Gaul, 
 and then into Spain, where he founded the kingdom of the Visi-Goths, 
 as a dependency upon the Western empire. 
 
 Constantine was driven out of Spain, and captured at Aries, by Con- 
 stantius, who was rewarded for his distinguished services by a marriage 
 with Placidia, after the death of her Gothic husband, and by the impe- 
 rial titles which he bore as the colleague of her brother. He reigned 
 but seven months, and after his death Placidia quarreled with Honorius, 
 
358 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 and took refuge with her nephew at Constantinople. In a few months 
 the emperor of the West ended a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight years, 
 A. D. 423. John, his secretary, usurped the throne; but Theodosius II. 
 sent a fleet and army to enforce the claims of his cousin, the son of 
 Placidia, and the troops in Kavenna were easily persuaded to surrender 
 their upstart emperor. John was beheaded at Aquileia, A. D. 425. 
 
 247. Valentinian III. was a child of six years. The Western empire 
 was therefore placed under the regency of his mother, Placidia, who 
 continued to rule it for a quarter of a century, while the military com- 
 mand Avas held by Ae^tius and Boniface. Unhappily, these two generals 
 were enemies. The malicious falsehoods of Aetius led Boniface into re- 
 bellion, and lost Africa to the empire. Gen^seric, king of the Vandals in 
 Spain, willingly accepted the invitation of Boniface, and crossed the 
 straits with 50,000 men. The Moors immediately joined his army; the 
 Donatists* hailed him as their deliverer from persecution. 
 
 Too late, Boniface discovered his mistake, and returned to his alle- 
 giance. All Roman Africa, except Carthage, Cirta, and Hippo Regius, 
 had passed over to the Vandals. Forces were sent from Constantinople 
 to aid those of Italy ; but the combined armies Avere defeated, and Bon- 
 ifjice was compelled to abandon Africa, taking with him all the Roman 
 inhabitants who were able to leave. The countries on the Danube had 
 been ceded to the Eastern empire, in return for the aid of Theodosius II., 
 in placing Valentinian III. upon his throne. Britain, unprotected by the 
 Roman armies, had thrown off her allegiance, and had for forty years no 
 government except that of the clergy, the nobles, and the magistrates 
 of the towns. The Goths were settled permanently in south-western 
 Gaul; the Burgundians in the east, and the Franks in the north of the 
 same country; and except a small tract in southern Gaul, the Western 
 empire now included only Italy and the region of the western Alps. 
 
 248. Aetius defended the Gallic province against the Visi-Goths on 
 one side, and the Franks on the other, until the latter called in a new 
 and more terrible ally than all previous invaders, in At^tila, king of the 
 Huns. Tliis savage chief was known to the terror-stricken world of his 
 time, as the Scourge of God. He had subdued to his authority all the 
 barbarians between the Baltic and the Euxine, the Rhine and the Vol^a. 
 and his army of 700,000 men was officered by a host of subject kings. 
 He had been for nine years ravaging the Eastern empire to the very 
 walls of Constantinople, and had only retired upon the promise of an 
 enormous annual tribute, and the immediate payment of 6,000 pounds 
 of gold. He now invaded Gaul, in behalf of a Frankish king who had 
 been driven beyond the Rhine, and had sought his aid. 
 
 ':'A very numerous sect in Africa, opposed by Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, 
 and by an edict of Honorius. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 359 
 
 Theod^oric, the son of Alaric, now king of the Visi-Goths, had allied 
 himself with the Romans, and their united armies came up with Attila, 
 just as he had effected the capture of Orleans by battering down its 
 walls. The Hun instantly drew off his hordes from the plunder of the 
 city, and retreated across the Seine to the plains about Chalons'', where 
 his Scythian cavalry could operate to better advantage. Then followed 
 one of the most memoral>le battles in the history of the Avorld. The 
 aged king Theodoric was slain, but the victory was gained by the valor 
 of his subjects. AttiUx was driven to his circle of wagons, and only the 
 darkness of night prevented the total destruction of his hosts. 
 
 This was the last victory ever achieved in the name of the Western 
 empire. It settled the great question, whether modern Europe should be 
 Teuton or Tartar. The Goths were already Christian ; their rude energy 
 was well adapted to the laws and institutions of civilized life. The 
 Huns were savage, heathen, destructive; mighty to ravage and desolate, 
 but never, in their greatest power and wealth, known to build and or- 
 ganize a state. Most of what is admirable in European history would 
 have been reversed by a different result of the battle of Chalons. 
 
 249. Attila retreated beyond the Khine. Two years later, he descended 
 into north-eastern Italy, reduced Aquileia, Alti^num, Concordia, and Padua 
 to heaps of ashes, and plundered Pavia and Milan. The fugitives from 
 the old territory of the Veneti took refuge upon the hundred low islets 
 at the head of the Adriatic, and laid, in poverty and industry, the founda- 
 tions of the Republic of Venice. While he was diverted from his threat- 
 ened march upon Rome, by the intercessions of Pope Leo, Attila suddenly 
 died, and his kingdom fell to pieces even more rapidly than it had been 
 built up. Two of his sons perished in battle. Irnac, the youngest, 
 retired into Scythia. Valentinian showed his relief from apprehension 
 by murdering Aetius with his own hand. Having in many ways dis- 
 gusted and offended his subjects, he was himself assassinated in March, 
 A. D. 455. 
 
 Maximus, his murderer, assumed the purple, but he continued in 
 power less than three months. Eudox^ia, the wadow of Valentinian, 
 called in the aid of Genseric, the Vandal king of Africa, Avho, com- 
 manding the Mediterranean Avith his fleets, was only too eager for the 
 spoils of Italy. The Romans, as soon as he had landed in Ostia, put to 
 death their unworthy emperor; but this execution failed to appease the 
 barbarian. Fourteen days the Eternal City was again given up to a 
 pillage more unscrupulous than that of Alaric. The Vandal fleet, waiting 
 at Ostia, was laden with all the wealth which the Goths had spared, and 
 receiving on board the empress Eudoxia and her daughter, made a safe 
 return to Carthage. 
 
 250. The Romans were too much paralyzed to appoint a new sovereign. 
 
860 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 When the news reached Guul, AvKtas, the general of the armies there, 
 was proclaimed, through the influence of Theodoric II., and was ac- 
 knowledged for more than a year throughout the Western empire. But, 
 A. D. 456, Count Ric^imer, a Goth commanding the foreign auxiliaries 
 in Italy, rebelled, and captured Avitus in a battle near Placentia. He 
 set up Marjo^riai], whose talents and virtues revived Komc appearance 
 of justice and energy in the government. A fleet was now prepared for 
 the invasion of Africa, in the hope not only of retaliating upon Genseric 
 for his plunder of Rome, but of stopping the ravages of the Vandal 
 pirates upon the coasts of Italy. It was betrayed to the emissaries of 
 Genseric, in the Spanish port of Garth agena. 
 
 Ricimer, by this time, was jealous of his protege^ and, forcing him to 
 resign, set up a new puppet in the person of Lib^ius Severus, in whose 
 name he hoped to exercise the real power. But the nominal rule of 
 Severus was confined to Italy, while, beyond the Alps, two Roman gen- 
 erals — Marcellinus in Dalmatia, and iEgid^ius in Gaul — possessed the 
 real sovereignty, though without the imperial titles. The coasts of Italy, 
 Spain, and Greece were continually harassed by the Vandals^ and Ric- 
 imer, tw^o years after the death of Severus (A. D. 467), appealed to the 
 court of Constantinople for aid against the common enemy, promising to 
 accept any sovereign whom the emperor would appoint. 
 
 251. Anthe'^mius, a Byzantine nobleman, was designated as emperor 
 of the West, and received the allegiance of the Senate, the people, and 
 the barbarian troops. The fidelity of Count Ricimer was thought to be 
 secured by his marriage with the daughter of the new emperor. A for- 
 midable attack upon the Vandals was made by the combined forces of 
 the East and the West; but it failed through the weakness or treachery 
 of Bas^ilis^cus, the Greek commander, who lost his immense fleet through 
 the secret management of Genseric. The Vandals recovered Sardinia and 
 became possessed of Sicily, whence they could ravage Italy more con- 
 stantly than ever. 
 
 The Goths, meanwhile, became dissatisfied with the foreign rule. 
 Ricimer retired to Milan, where, in concert with his people, he openly 
 revolted, marched with a Burgundian army to Rome, and forced the 
 Senate to accept a new emperor in the person of Olyb^rius, A. D. 472. 
 Anthemius was slain in the attack upon the city. Ricimer died forty 
 days after his victory, bequeathing his power to his nephew, Gund^bald, ^ 
 a Burgundian. Olybrius died a month or two later, and Gundobald raised 
 a soldier named Glyce'rius to the vacant throne. The emperor of the 
 East interfered again, and appointed Julius Nepos — a nephew of Mar- 
 cellinus of Dalmatia — who was accepted by the Romans and Gauls, 
 Glycerius being consoled for the loss of his imperial titles by the safer 
 and more peaceful dignity of Bishop of Salo'na. 
 
HIST OB Y OF ROME. 361 
 
 252. Scarcely was Julius invested with the insignia of his rank, when 
 he was driven from the country by a new sedition led by Ores'tes, 
 master-general of the armies, who placed upon the throne his own son, 
 Eomulus Augustus. This last of the Western emperors, who bore, by a 
 curious coincidence, the names of the two founders of Rome and the 
 empire, was more commonly called Augus^tulus, in burlesque of the im- 
 perial grandeur which mocked his youth and insignificance. 
 
 The mercenaries demanded one-third of the lands of Italy as the 
 reward of their services; and being refused, they sprang to arms again, 
 slew Orestes, deposed Augustulus, and made their own chief, Odo^ncer 
 king of Italy. The Eonmn Senate, in a letter to Zeno, emperor of the 
 East, surrendered the claim of their country to imperial rank, consented 
 to acknowledge Constantinople as the seat of government for the world, 
 but requested that Odoacer, with the title of "Patrician," should be in- 
 trusted with the diocese of Italy. 
 
 With the fall of the Western empire. Ancient History ends. But the 
 establishment of kingdoms by the northern nations marks the rise of a 
 new era, which, through centuries of turbulence, will open into the 
 varied and brilliant scenes of Modern History. 
 
 :E2,EC^ft.:PITXJLJLTI03sr. 
 
 Alaric, invading Italy, is defeated by Stiliclio. Gladiatorial combats are for- 
 ever abolished at Rome. Plonorius fixes his capital at Ravenna. Italy and Gaul 
 are oveiTun by a pagan host. Constantine becomes emperor in the extreme "West, 
 A. D. 407— til. Death of Stilicho and massacre of Gothic women and children lead 
 Alaric to a second invasion of Italy, A. D. 408-410. Rome is three times besieged, 
 and finally given up to plunder for six days. Alaric dies, A. D. 410, and is suc- 
 ceeded by Adolphus, who marries the sister of Honorius, and founds a Gothic 
 kingdom in Spain and southern Gaul. Constantius, second husband of Placidia, 
 reigns as colleague of Honorius, A. D. 4L11; and his son, Valentinian III., succeeds 
 to the whole Western empire, A. D. 425-45.3. During the regency of Placidia, the 
 general Boniface, deceived by Aetius, betrays Africa to the Vandals. Gaul is in- 
 vaded by Attila, king of the Huns, who is defeated by Goths and Romans iiear 
 Chalons, A. D. 451. He ravages northern Italy; and fugitives from cities which 
 he destroys, found Venice on the Adriatic, A. D. 452. Valentinian III. is assnssi- 
 nated; and his widow, to avenge his death, calls in the Vandals, who plunder 
 Rome fourteen days. Avitus (A. D. 455, 456) is proclaimed emperor in Gaul. 
 Count Ricimer rebels, and sets up first .Afarjorian (A. I). 457-4(31), then Severus 
 (A. D. 461-465), and finally applies for an emperor to the Eastern court, which 
 appoints Anthemius (A. D. 467^72). Ricimer revolts again, and crowns Olybrius, 
 who dies in a few months. Glycerins (A. D. 473, 474) soon exchanges the crown 
 for a miter, and Julius Nepos is installed as sovereign. Orestes sets up his own 
 son, Romulus Augustus (A. D. 475, 476), the last Roman emperor of the West. 
 Odoacer becomes king of Italy, and the Western empire is overthrown. 
 
362 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 4. 
 o. 
 0. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 
 15. 
 16. 
 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 21. 
 25. 
 
 26. 
 27. 
 28. 
 29. 
 30. 
 31. 
 32. 
 33. 
 34. 
 ;i5. 
 36. 
 37. 
 3.S. 
 39. 
 40. 
 41. 
 42. 
 43. 
 44. 
 45. 
 
 Book V. 
 
 What three successive forms of government in ancient Rome? . 
 
 What races inhabited Ilaly? 
 
 Describe, severally, their origin, cliaracter, and institutions. 
 
 Relate the traditions concerning tlie origin of Rome. 
 
 Describe tlie acts and cliaracters of the first three kings. 
 
 Wliat tribes and classes made up tlie Roman population under Tullus 
 
 Hostilius? 
 
 What changes were made by Ancus Martins and Tarquinius Priscus 
 Describe the constitution under Servius Tullius. .... 
 
 The reign of Tarquin the Proud 
 
 The chief divinities and religious festivals of tlie Romans. 
 
 The oracles and modes of divination 
 
 The four sacred collecrcs. 
 
 of 
 
 the 
 
 Tlie ceremony of lustration 
 
 The government and condition of Rome after tlie expulsion 
 of the kings. 
 
 The causes and effects of the first secession. 
 
 Tlie Cassian, Publilian, Terentilian, and Horlensian hxws 
 
 37, 40, 
 Tell the story of Coriolanus. 
 
 Of Cincinnatus and his son 
 
 Describe the Laws of the Twelve Tallies. .... 
 
 What occasioned the second .secession ? 
 
 What changes in government resulted from it? . 
 Describe the Veieiitine War and its consequences. 
 
 The invasion of Italy by the Gauls. 
 
 The sack and siege of Rome 
 
 The condition of the Romans after the departure 
 Gauls 
 
 The treason of JNIarcus Manlius 
 
 The Licinian laws 
 
 The final expulsion of the Gauls 
 
 The character of the Samnites. .... 
 
 Tlie First Samnite War 
 
 Relate the incidents of the Latin War 
 
 Describe the Second Samnite War, and the reduction of tlie 
 
 The Tliird Samnite War, and tlie conquest of the S; 
 What nations were allied against Rome, B. C. 283? . 
 Describe the campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy and Sicily. . 
 What changes among the Romans followed their conquest o 
 Describe the origin and events of the First Punic War. . 
 What part was taken by Rome in the affairs of Greece? 
 Describe the conquest of the Gauls in northern Italy. 
 
 The preparations by Carthage for the Second Pnni 
 
 The invasion of Italy by Hannibal. 
 
 The fate of Hasdrubal 
 
 A Roman triumph. 
 
 The wars of Rome in the East and West. . 
 
 The last Punic War 
 
 -iEqui. 
 ilnnes. 
 
 f Italy 
 
 War. 
 
 113 
 
 9-11. 
 12, 13. 
 
 i;i-iu. 
 
 16. 
 
 17, 18. 
 
 19-21. 
 
 22. 
 
 2;J-25. 
 
 20-28. 
 
 28-30. 
 
 31. 
 
 32-34. 
 35, 36. 
 
 43, 40, 78. 
 42. 
 
 44, 45. 
 46-48. 
 49-51. 
 51-51. 
 
 56, 57. 
 
 57, .58. 
 59, 60. 
 
 01. 
 
 62, 63. 
 
 64, 65. 
 
 66. 
 
 67, 68. 
 
 69. 
 
 70-72. 
 
 73-75. 
 
 76—78. 
 
 79, 80. 
 
 81-85. 
 
 86, 87. 
 
 89-94. 
 
 95. 
 96, 112. 
 
 97-99. 
 100-108. 
 106, 107. 
 109-111. 
 , 114, 117. 
 115, II''. 
 
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 363 
 
 46. Describe the conquest of Spain. . . . ,0 t,o ,,„ 
 
 • Er Ho 110 
 
 47. The condition of Rome after the foreign wars. . . i.,o' 121* 
 4S. The policy and death of Tiberius Gracchus. . . . .* i"2' ]2S 
 ^^- Of Seipio.Emilianus. Of Caius Gracchus. . ' ' 104' joy' 
 
 51). The JugurLhine Wars " ^'^^^l^ 
 
 ol. Tell the histcM-y of Marius ^^_^^^^ j5^_^^-; 
 
 oL\ Describe the Roman slave-code, and its eflfects in Sicily. . .137 
 
 f>3- The dictatorship of Sulla. . . ... • 
 
 54. The rebellion of Sertorius . j.^ . ' 
 
 55. The War of the Gladiators. . iiq'i-a' 
 
 „._,,,,,. U8-I0O. 
 
 50. Relate the history of Pompey 151-153,155,106-170. 
 
 57. Describe the conspiracy of Catiline 
 
 58. Relate the history and designs of Caesar ' ' i^q_i'j-j 
 
 59. Of the second triumvirate. . . ' i-- ic,^' 
 
 I//-I0O. 
 
 60. Describe the three decisive battles of Pharsalin, Pbilippi, and Ac- 
 
 ^^"'" 169, 179, 180. 
 
 61. The city and empire of Rome under Augustus. . . 181, 182, 185. 
 
 62. The Roman operations in Germany ' n^ 184* 
 
 63. The reign of Tiberius " jgyliss * 
 
 ^* Caligula 18f,_ 
 
 65. Claudius. ign 
 
 ^- ^^ero J91_jy^^ 
 
 67. How many emperors during A. D. 69? I95 i(j(j 
 
 Gii. Describe the reigns of Vespasian and his two sons 197-199. 
 
 69. Tlie five good emperors 200-206. 
 
 70. The reign of the praetorians 207. 
 
 71. The history of Severus and his sous 208 209. 
 
 72. 
 
 The contrasted characters of the two grandsons of Julia 
 
 ^laesa 210-212. 
 
 7:1 How many emperoi-s in A. D. 238? 213 214. 
 
 74. Describe the reigns of Philip and Decius 215, 216. 
 
 75. The condition of Rome under Gallus 217. 
 
 76. What foreign invaders under Valerian ? 217. 
 
 77. Describe the reign of the Thirty Tyrants 217. 
 
 78. What able rulers delayed the fall of the empire? 218, 219. 
 
 79. Describe the reigns of Carus and his sons 220. 
 
 W. The new arrangement of the empire under Diocletian and 
 
 his colleagues 221-227. 
 
 SI. The revolt of Carausius 223. 
 
 S'2. The changes in the empire, from Diocletian's abdication to 
 
 the sole reign of Constautine 227-230. 
 
 S3. The reorganization of the Roman world by Constautine. . 230. 
 
 84. What change of religion marked this reign? 231. 
 
 85. What foreign nations obtained settlements within Roman bounda- 
 
 ries? ( 232. 
 
 86. Tell the history of the sons of Constautine. 234. 
 
 87. Describe the character and career of Julian 23;5, 236. 
 
 88. Who succeeded Jovian ? 237. 
 
 89. Describe the reign of Valentinian. Of Valens 238, 239. 
 
 90. Tlie reign of Gratian and his brother 240, 241. 
 
 91. The character and reign of Tlieodosius the Great. . . . 241, 242. 
 
 92. What was the comparative duration of the Eastern and Western 
 
 empires? 243. 
 
 93. What barbarians invaded Italy during the reign of Honorius? . . 243-246, 
 
364 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 94. Tell the history of Placidia . . . U 246, 247. 
 
 95. The extent of the Western emiDire under Valentinian III. 247. 
 
 96. Describe the career of Alaric, and the battle of Chalons. . . 248, 249. 
 
 97. The successive captures of Rome by Goths and Vandals. . 245, 249. 
 
 98. How many sovereigns appointed by Count Ricimer? .... 250, 251. 
 
 99. How many by the court at Constantinople. ...... 251. 
 
 100. Who was the last Roman emperor of the West? 252. 
 
 101. How many centuries had Rome existed from its foundation? 
 
 LIST OF BOOKS RECOMMENDED. 
 
 Tiie folloivlng worJcs are vecoinntended to the student ivho desires a more 
 
 complete account of the nations of antiquity. 
 
 Rawlinson's History of the Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern 
 
 World. 
 Wilkinson's Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. 
 Heeren's Researches into the Politics, Commerce; etc., of the Ancient World. 
 Niebuhr's Lectures on Ancient History. 
 Layard's Nineveh. 
 Milman's History of the Jews. 
 Stanlej'^'s History of the Jewish Church. 
 Josephus's Jewish Antiquities. 
 Herodotus. (Rawlinson's translation, with illustrative essays, is incomparably 
 
 the best.) 
 Xenophon's Cyropaidia, Anabasis, and Memorabilia, 
 Grote's History of Greece. 
 Curtius's History of Greece. 
 
 Dr. Wm. Smith's History of Greece, in a single volume. 
 Bulwer's Athens: its Rise and Fall. 
 
 St. John's The Plellenes: the Mannei'S and Customs of Ancient Greece. 
 Creasy 's Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World. 
 Niebuhr's History of Rome. 
 
 » 
 
 Arnold's History of Rome. 
 
 Mommsen's History of Rome. 
 
 Forsyth's Life of Clco'o. 
 
 Selections from Cicero's Orations. 
 
 Csesar's Commentaries. 
 
 Life of Ccesar, by Napoleon HI. ^ 
 
 Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire. 
 
 Giljbon\s History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 
 
LIST OF BOOKS RECOMMENDED. 365 
 
 Among Stories, l*oems, and lyramns illustrative of Ancient History, the follow ^ 
 ing arc reconnnended — the first three especialli/ to the youngest readers. 
 
 Kiugsley's "Heroes." 
 
 Hawtliorue's "Wonder-book" and "Tanglewood Tales." 
 
 Mrs. Child's " Philothea." 
 
 Becker's " Charicles " and " Gallus." 
 
 Macaulay's " Lays of Ancient Rome." 
 
 Ware's "Zenobia," "Aurelian," and " Probus." 
 
 Mrs. Charles's "Victory of the Vanquished." 
 
 Kingsley's " Hypatia." 
 
 Shakespeare's " Coriolanus," "Julius Csesar," and "Antony and Cleopatra." 
 
 Among collections of Engrnvings, the following should especially he sought. 
 
 "Description of Egypt," made by the Commission of savans who accompanied 
 the French army in 1797. Commonly called "Napoleon's Egypt." 9 vols. 
 Text, and 14 folio vols. Plates. 
 
 Fergusson's "Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored." 
 
 Fergusson's "Illustrated Handbook of Architecture." 
 
 Botta's " Monuments of Nineveh." 
 
 Layard's "Monuments of Nineveh." 
 
 Penrose's "Athenian Architecture." 
 
 Stuart's " Antiquities of Athens." 
 
 Canina's " Edifices of Ancient Rome." 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Auhmos, Kefru-ari, 5,j. 
 Aii'ron, 10. 
 Abetl'nego, 22. 
 Abi'jam, 42, 
 Abousir', ')2. 
 A'brahani, .31. 
 Ab'salom, .38. 
 Aby'dns in Egypt, aO, 57. 
 
 in i\Iysia, 8S, SO, 177. 
 Acade'mia, Ijit, 1^0. 
 Acan'thus, li-s. 
 Ac'arna'nia, 100, IGl. 
 Ac'cad, 17. 
 Acer'bas, G(). 
 Acha:i'menes, ~?j. 
 
 brother of Xorxi's, SS. 
 
 son of Xorxcs, 93. 
 Achfc'ns, 211. 
 Acha'ia, Acha'iuiis, lOfi, li:>, l.-Jl, 
 
 IGl, 227, 221». 
 Achelo'us, 106. 
 Acrop'ulis, 131, 110, IW. 
 Ac'tinm, 10"), 32:.. 
 Adhcr'bal, 209, .'lOO. 
 Adiabc^ne, 339. 
 Adiman'tus, 1 10. 
 Adol'phus, 357. 
 .\doni'j!ih, 38. 
 /Ege'an, 10, Id,-), 107, 109, 147, 14S, 
 
 17.-., 179, 3 IS. 
 iEgid'ins, .3fiO. 
 
 TEgi'na, 91, 107, 137, 1.3S, l.j;'.. 
 iE'gos-Pot'ami, 179. 
 >^'li;i Capitol i'na, .3.3fi. 
 iEniilia'ims, oniporor, 312. 
 iEinil'iiis, 2i)>;. 
 
 L. Taulus, 2S9. 
 
 L. Panlns, son of the 
 preceding, 228. 
 i^Ene'as, 219. 
 iEaia'nia, 100. 
 ^o'lia, iEo'lians, 10«, ll'j, 131. 
 
 iEqui, 2fa-2G.>, 277. 
 
 iEs'chlncs, 197. 
 
 iEs'chylus, Ml. 
 
 Ae'tius,.3:.s, 3:.9. 
 
 yEto'Iia, iEto'liane, lOG, 226, 227, 
 
 293. 
 Africa, -lS-70, 332, a33, 311, 342, 
 
 34G, 348, 353, 357, 358. 
 Agamem'non, 109. 
 Age'nor, 111). 
 
 Agesila'us, 184-1.^7, 190-195. 
 A'gis, 165, IGG, ir.9, 173. 
 Ag'ni,8l. 
 Agric'ola, 334. 
 Agrigcn'tnm, C7, 133, 284. 
 A grip'pa, 211,32.5. 
 Ag'rippi'na, wife of Gcrmani- 
 
 cus, 328, 330. 
 Ag'rippi'na, Avife of Claudius, 
 
 O.J 1 . 
 
 A'biib, 32, 40, 42. 
 
 Abasuc'rus, S8. 
 
 A'haz, 4.3' 
 
 Ahuzi'ali, 12. 
 
 Ahrinian', 82. 
 
 Aliu'ro jMaz'dao, (Ormazd), 81, 
 82. 
 
 Aix, 29^^,302. 
 
 Alani, 35G. 
 
 Al'aric, 35G, 357. 
 
 Alba Longa, 250. 
 I Albi'nus, .3.38. 
 I Alcai'ns, 131. 
 
 ; Alcibi'ades, 168-172, 175-178, 2G9. 
 ; Alci'das, IG'i. 
 
 Alcnian)n'ids, 129, 130. 
 
 Alfiiian'rii, .312, .340, .348, 351-353. 
 ' Alc'ria, 284. 
 
 I Alexander Balas, 213, 214, 220. 
 
 I 
 
 of Epirus. 27i>. 
 
 Janno'us, 2.39. 
 
 J. of iMaccdon, 142. 
 
 the Great, 10, 99-102,202- 
 
 20G, 217. 
 
 Alexan'der of Phe'r.np, 193, 194. 
 
 Seve'rus, 311), 341. 
 Alexan'dra,2.39. 
 Al'exandri'a in Egypt, .55, 204, 
 
 210, 217, .3.30, 342, 346. 
 Al'exandri'a on the Jaxartcs, 
 
 204. 
 Allec'tus, 31G. 
 Al'lia, 270. 
 
 Alps, 24.5, 288, 302, 318. 
 Alti'nuni,.359. 
 Alyat'tes, 23. 
 Ani'alekitcs, 37. 
 Ama'sis, 25, GO, 133. 
 Amazi'ah, 42. 
 Ambra'cia, IGI, 
 Anibro'sins, .3.'j5. 
 Amcneph'thes, 57. 
 Amenoplie'uin, .56. 
 Ammenenies III., 51. 
 Am'monites, .35-37. 
 .\m'on,43. 
 Anio'.sis, 55, 02. 
 Ampliip'olis, 108, 196, 201. 
 .\niu'Iius, 219. 
 Am'un, 58, GO, G3, 64, 77, 201. 
 Ani'nnoph III., 50. 
 Amy'cln;, 118, 121. 
 .\myn'tas, 188, 193. 
 
 I., 201. 
 Ainyrta?'n.s, 93. 
 Amy'tis, 93. 
 Anac'reon, 131. 
 Anacto'ria, 161. 
 Ana'pus, 172. 
 Anato'li;i, 11,29. 
 Anaxag'oras, 152. 
 A'nio, 219. 
 An'nius, .308, 
 Antal'cidas, 97, 187, 193. 
 ■ Anthe'mius, 360. 
 ' Antig'onns, 207, 208. 
 
 Doson, 225, 220. 
 
 Gonatas, 224, 225. 
 
 366 
 
Ant 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Beh 
 
 Autig'onus, King of th'j Jews, 
 
 239. 
 Au'tioch, 210, Ooli, 340, G:>(i. 
 Auti'ochus I., Soter, 210, 221, 
 230. 
 
 II., Theos, 211. 
 
 III., tUo Great, 211-213, 
 237, 203. 
 
 lY., Epipli'unes, 213, 2;N. 
 
 v., Eu'pator, 213. 
 
 YI., 211. 
 
 All., Side'tes, 211. 
 
 VIlI.,Giypus, 2H, 213. 
 
 IX., Cyzice'nus, 211. 
 
 X., Eusebes, 2i:.. 
 
 XI., 21J. 
 
 XII., 2I.>. 
 
 XIII., Asiaticus--, 2i:i. 
 
 nicrax,211,230. 
 Antip'atev, Regent of Macedo- 
 nia, 2.17, 222. 
 Antipatcr, King of Macedonia, 
 
 --•Jt — •• 
 
 Antipatev, the IdumaMin, 239. 
 
 Autiph'iliis, 217. 
 
 Antoui'nus, jM. Aurelius, .33ii, 
 007 
 
 T. Aurelius, 336, 337. 
 Anto'nius, 312. 
 
 3Iarcus, 221,317,323, 32>. 
 
 Lucius, 324. 
 Apame'a, 210. 
 Apel'les, 217. 
 Ap'ennines, 245-247, 2SS. 
 Aphrodi'tc, 111,170. 
 A'pis, G3, 77. 
 Apol'lo, 91, 111, 114, 13-1. 
 Apollo'nia, 1>n 22G. 
 Apollo'nius, 217. 
 Ap'ries, 4J, lUi. 
 
 Apn'lia, Apnliaus, 217, 27.S, 304. 
 A'quie SextiPj (Aix) 2'.t7. 
 Aquile'ia, 3j0, 3.>4, 3.jS, 3.")'.i. 
 Ara'bia, Arabians, 1j, 19, 2i), 42, 
 
 51, oG. 
 Ai-'adus, 30. 
 Arama'ti, 81. 
 Ai-'arat, 14, 29. 
 Arbe'Ia, Kio, loi, 204. 
 A rbogas't ('.'?, 3.>l. 
 Arca'dia, Arcadians, 106, 121- 
 
 123, 192-194. 
 Arca'dius, 353. 
 
 Ar'cbela'us I. of Maccdon, 201. 
 of Cnppadocia, 2.34. 
 son of Herod, 241. 
 Ai-'chias, 1S9. 
 Arcbida'nms, 1.31, 161-163. 
 Archime'des, 2,S9. 
 
 A-sia Minor, l-l, 20, 29, 71, 203, 
 20s, 212, 21s, 2.3.i, 306, 342, 343. 
 As'kalon, 4^, 60. 
 Aspanii'tres, 92. 
 Assaiiina'dius, 2(l. 
 Ab'slinr-ba'ni-pal, 20, 21, 59. 
 As'sluu-da'niu-il II., I9. 
 As'slmr-emid-ilin, 21. 
 As'shur-likh-klius, 19. 
 Ai.«hiir-nazir-pal I., 19, 40. 
 • Assyr'ia, 1.3, 21, 2;]-2-., 41, 59, ."::!l. 
 Astar'te, Asbtavotli, 32, 44. 
 Asty'ages, 24, 73-73. 
 
 I .Vres, 111, 13S. 
 
 Argilius, 148. 
 
 Ar'golis, 106. 
 
 Argos, 97, 10.S, lis, 121, 123, 133, 
 I 161, 169, 192. 
 
 i Ariara'thes lY., Y., YI., 23^1. 
 ' Ariobar/.a'nes I., 231. 
 
 Aviovis'tus, 315. 
 
 Aristag'oras, S4. 
 
 Aristar'clius, 217. 
 
 .\risti'des, s6, 136. 
 
 Aristobu'his, son of Hyrcanus, 
 I •■>"''<i 'ii'* 
 
 .Vristobu'lus, brother-in-law of I Athali'ah, 42 
 
 Ilcrod, 210. Athe'na, 111, 112, 128, 136. 
 
 .Vristode'nius, the Ileraclid, 111, 
 
 113. 
 Aristode'mns, of Messenia, 122. 
 I of Sparta, 144. 
 
 ,\ristogi'ton, 129. 
 Aristom'encs, 122, 131, 
 Ari?;toni'cus, 231. 
 Aristopli'anes, 217. 
 Ar'istot'le, 202. 
 A I ills!, Arians, 349, .3.54. 
 Arnie'nia, Armenians, 14, 19, 
 
 20, 232, 234, 235, .3.32, 336, .342, 
 
 346. .350. 
 
 Armin'ins, Herman, 327, 32S. 
 xVrsa'ces II., 211. 
 
 III., 212. 
 
 VI., 236. 
 Arsac'ida), 236. 
 Ar'ses, 9^^, 99. 
 Arsin'oe, Crocododilopolis, 63. 
 
 port on the Hed Sea, 21 s. 
 
 sister of Ptolemy II., 
 21s. 
 
 sister of Ptolemy IV., 
 219. 
 Arre'tium, 279, 2.$.^. 
 Arsi'tes, 99. 
 Artaba'ntis, 92. 
 Ar'tabaza'nes, SS. 
 Artaba'zus, 9S, 196. 
 Artapher'nes, satrap, S5. 
 
 nephew of Darius, 83, 1.34. 
 
 Athens, Athenians, S4-S6, 91-98, 
 108, 122, 129-197, 222, 33ll, 342. 
 Athos, 83, 89. 
 Ath'ribis, 63. 
 Atlan'tic, 31, 69, 315. 
 At'las, 48. 
 Attali'a, 231. 
 At'talus, .337. 
 
 I., 227,2.30. 
 
 II., Philadelphus, 231. 
 
 III., Pliilumetor, 231. 
 At'tica, h6, 91, 92, 106, 121-133. 
 At'tila, 338, 339. 
 Aty'ada?, 29. 
 
 Augus'tulus, Ilomuhis Augus- 
 tus, 361. 
 Augus'tus, 326-323,332. 
 Augustus, title, 326, 340, 346, 347. 
 Aurelian, 343. 
 Aure'olus, 343. 
 Auso'nians, 277. 
 Autro'nius, 312, 
 Avi'tus, 360. 
 Azari'ah, 42. 
 
 B 
 
 Ba'al, 32, 40, 42. 
 Ba'asha, 40, 42. 
 Ba'bel, 17. 
 
 Cab'ylon, Babylo'nia, Babylo- 
 nians, 10, 15-29, 31, 32, 35, 4.3, 
 Ar'taxcrx'es I., Longira'anus, | 45, 56, 74, 77, SS, 93, 204, 206, 
 82,92-94. I 2JJ9, 213. 
 
 II., Mncmon, 96-98, 187, Bac'tra i;Balkh), 13. 
 
 193. ' Bac'tria, 13, 204, 211, 2.33. 
 
 III., Ochu.s, 9s. ' Bago'as, 9S. 
 
 founder of the Sassani- Baltic, 69. 
 
 (ix, .340. 
 Artax'ias, 2.33. 
 Ar'temis, 111, 1.34, 173,202. 
 A'sa, 40, 42, 58. 
 As'culum, 2.81. 
 Asia, 13-17, 48, 298. 
 
 367 
 
 Bar'ca, 30, 76. 
 Bar'des, 78, 87. 
 Barsi'nc, 205. 
 Bas'ilis'cus, .360. 
 Bata'vians, 331. 
 Beliistun', 87. 
 
Bel 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Con 
 
 Belshaz'zar, 2S. 
 Buneveii'tum, 277, 2S2. 
 Benha'dad, 19, 40-42. 
 Benjamin, 39, 42. 
 Ber'eni'ce, 211, 220. 
 Bero'sns, 9, IS. 
 Bery'tus (Beirut) 30, 32. 
 Bch'sus, 101, 204. 
 Bcth'cl, 40. 
 
 Beth-lio'ron, 3.3, 40-.50, 228. 
 Beth'shan, Scytliopolis, 44. 
 Bi'as, 120. 
 Bib'ulus, 314, 319. 
 Bithy'nia, 14, 210, 231, 2:;2, .^11. 
 Boccho'ris, f)!). 
 
 Boeo'tia, Boeo'tians, 91, 92, lim, 
 111, 1.3S, ]:>:>, 160, 101, 16S, 
 
 190. 
 Bon'iface, 35S, 
 Boo'des, 2S4. 
 Bor'sippa, 23. 
 Bos'phorus, 197. 
 Boulogne', 316. 
 Bras'idas, 166, 168. 
 Bren'uus, 223. 
 Britain, 9, 133, 316, 334, .T3G, 313, 
 
 316, 3J0, 302, 3.')J, 3.J6, 3.-^3. 
 Britan'nicus, 331. 
 Bi-undis'ium, 306, 321. 
 Brut'tium, Bruttians, 247, 270, 
 
 2S1). 
 Brutu.s, Dccinuis, 31."). 
 
 Slarcus, .32 I, 324. 
 Brygian.s, (?.3. 
 Biibas'tis, city, ")8. 
 
 Pai;ht, r)6. 
 Bucepli'ala, 20.>. 
 Burgun'dian3, 3.06, .35S 
 Bur'rhus, 331. 
 Bu.scnti'nus, 357. 
 Byl/Ius, 30, l.w. 
 Byr'.sa, (V,. 
 By/.an'tiuni, 8.'), 133, 115, 158,196, 
 
 202, .348, 349. 
 
 Cabi'ri, 32. 
 
 Cadnie'a, 108, 188, 
 
 Ciid'nius, lOS. 
 
 Cre'Iian Hill, 2.-.0, 2.')1. 
 
 CTc'pio, 3)1. 
 
 C.Tsar, title, .",3-1, .33'), 339, 340, 
 
 344, 346, .3.-)0, 3.-.1 . 
 Cfcsar, Cains Julius, 313-323. 
 
 L., .304. 
 Crosaro'ii, 240. 
 Cala'bria, 1.31, 247. 
 Ca'Iah, 19. 
 
 Caledonians, 339. [ 
 
 Calig'ula, 241,330. ! 
 
 Cal'lias, 191. I 
 
 L'allim'achus, 217. I 
 
 Cal'neh, 17. j 
 Caniby'ses, GO, 76-78. 
 
 Camil'lus, 269, 271,273. j 
 
 L. Fnvius, 273. j 
 
 Campagna, 216. I 
 Campa'nia, Campanians, 246, l 
 
 249. I 
 
 Ca'naan, 34, 3.'>. | 
 
 I 
 
 Canaries, 07. 
 
 Ouu'na\ 2S9, 290. 
 
 Cape' n a, 270. 
 
 Cap'itoline, 2;j0, 2.')1, 2.")3, 272, 273, 
 
 292. 
 Cappado'cia, 14, 29, 74, 89, O.'i, \ 
 
 ZVl-2?,',. j 
 
 Cap'ua, 249, 300, 308. | 
 
 Car'acal'la, 339. 
 Carau'sius, 346. 
 Car'chemish, 25, 31, 44, 60. 
 Caria, Carians, 14, 85, 196, 227. 
 Cari'uus, 344. 
 Carmel, 15, 40. 
 Cartilage, Carthaginians, 31, 
 
 4.^, .00, 06-70, 70, 133, 281, 28J- 
 
 291, 293, 294, 299, 32.?, 3.08. 
 Carthage'na, (>0, 287, 3.'>9. 
 Car'rhfe, 316, 346. 
 Ca'rus, 341. 
 Cas'ca, .323. 
 Cassan'der, 2{»7. 
 Cassius, Avidius, 337. 
 Cains, 317, 324. 
 Sp., 261,262. 
 Cas'sivelau'nus, 316. 
 Castor, 260. 
 
 Catali'na, L. Scrgius, 310, 312. 
 Cat'ana, 171, 172. 
 Ca'to, censor, 293. 
 
 Marcus, 316, 317, 321. 
 Cat'ulus, 302. 
 Can'casns, 23. 
 Cau'dinc Tories, 277. 
 Cau'nians, 85. 
 Cecro'pia, 108. 
 Ce'crops, lOS. 
 Cec'ryphali'a, 151. 
 Cephalle'nia, 107, 155, 161, 190, 
 Cepliis'sus, 1 14. 
 Cerau'nus, 210, 217. 
 Cc'res, 2.36. 
 Ceylon, 31. 
 ChaMonc'ii, 1.50, 190. 
 Cliiii.c'don, 233,313. 
 Chalcid'irc, 1.33. 
 Chal'cis, 155. 
 
 Cbaldce'a, 15, 17, 18. 
 
 Chalons', 359. 
 
 Char'icles, 173. 
 
 Cbarila'us, 119. 
 
 Cheops, 52. 
 
 Cher'sono'suB, Thracian, SO, 127, 
 
 190, 212. 
 Chi'Io, 126. 
 Chi'na, 16, 17. 
 Cbin-nong, 17. 
 
 Clii'os, 14, 95, 115, 101, 196,227. 
 Choras'niia, 13. 
 Clios'roes, 3.30. 
 ClH-istians, 331, 330-338, .312, 347, 
 
 332. 
 Cic'oro, Marcus TuUius, 310, 
 
 312, 323, .321. 
 Cili'cia, 14, 29. 
 Cim'bri, 301, 302. 
 Ci'mon, H.S-1.36. 
 Cin'cinna'tus, 264, 2&3. 
 Cin'eas, 280. 
 Cin'na, .305, 3 lO. 
 Cin'nelada'nus, 25. 
 Cir'cus Max'imus, 232. 
 Cirrlia', 121. 
 Cir'ta, 3.38. 
 Citha^'ron, 106, 143. 
 Claudius, Appius, 263, 260-26S. 
 
 Censor, 2S0, 283. 
 
 Consul, Z84. 
 
 1., Emperor, 330, 331. 
 
 II., Emperor, 343. 
 
 father-in-law of Grac- 
 chus, 297. 
 Cleob'ulus, 120. 
 Clcom'brotus. 143, 189-192. 
 Cleoni'enes, 130, 13S. 
 
 of Macedon, 225. 
 Clcon, 1(.2, 101, 166, 107. 
 Cleopa'tra, last Queen of l\Iacc- 
 don, 208. 
 
 last Queen of Egjpt, 221, 
 319, 320, 323. 
 
 sister of Ptolemy Eupa- 
 tor, 220. 
 
 of Syria, 211. 
 Clisthoncs, 129, 130, 1.52. 
 Clitus, 205. 
 Clu'siuni, 260. 
 Cly'pra, 2.^4. 
 Cu'drus, 124. 
 Col'chis, 3.30. 
 
 Colise'uni, Flavian amphithea- 
 ter, .334, .3.30. 
 Com'modus, .3.38. 
 Concor'dia, :>39. 
 Con'stantinc I., .347-349. 
 
 II., a30, 3.31. 
 
 368 
 
Con 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 End 
 
 Coustantine III., 356, 357. 
 Constans, 350. 
 
 Con'stantino'ple, 3-lS, 353, 3G1. 
 Constaii'tius, Chlorus, 346, 347. 
 II., 350, 351. 
 in., 3;>7. 
 Cop'tos, 55. 
 Coi-'bulo, 332. 
 Corcy'ra, 107, 158, 161, 105, 171, 
 
 190, 191. 
 Oorfin'ium, 304, 31S. 
 Coi-'intli, 97, lOG, 122, 126, 137, 
 153, 159, 202, 20S, 294, 322, 
 342. 
 CovioliVuus, Caius Marcius, 263, 
 
 264. 
 Cori'oli, 263. 
 Corne'lia, 299. 
 Corne'lius, 251, 307. 
 Coronse'a, 157, 196. 
 Cor'sica, 67-69, 247, 284, 286, 293. 
 Corupe'dion, 210. 
 Cos, 115, 196. 
 Cotta, 233. 
 Crassus, Licinius, 231. 
 
 M. Licinius, triumvir, 
 306, 309, 310, 314-316. 
 Crat'erus, 207. 
 Cra'this, 132. 
 Crem'era, 262. 
 Cresphon'tes, 114, 115, 
 Crete, 54, 107, 109,121,125. 
 Creu'sis, 191. 
 Crime'a, 232. 
 Crispus, 348, 349. 
 CritalHa, 89. 
 Critias, ISl. 
 
 Croesus, 29, 30, 00, 74, 123. 
 Croto'na, 131, 132. 
 Ctes'iphon,344,352. 
 Cn'maf, 131,257. 
 Cunax'a, 96. 
 Cu'rio, 318. 
 
 Cu'rius Denta'tus, 278, 279, 282. 
 Cyax'area, 21-25, 
 Cyb'ele, 29. 
 
 Cyc'lades, 107, 115, 161, 218. 
 Cy'lon, 125. 
 
 Cyn'oceph'alae, 194, 227. 
 Cynop'olis, 63. 
 Cyprus, 14, 20, 85, 93, 98, 149, 156, 
 
 20S, 216, 219, 221. 
 Cy'rena'ica, 218, 220. 
 Cyre'ne, 50, 67, 76, 107, 133, 216, 
 
 218. 
 Cyrus, river, 14. 
 
 the Great, 28, 30, 32, 73- 
 
 7.5,81. 
 the Tounger, 95, 96. 
 
 Cythe'ra, 107, 167. 
 Cyz'icua, 177, 233, 339, 342. 
 
 Da'cians, 334, 335. 
 Damas'cus, 19, 33, 41, 43. 
 Dan, 40. 
 Dan'ai, IDS. 
 Da'naus, 108. 
 Dan'iel, 23, 25, 26, 75. 
 Dan'ube, 84, 133, 334, 336, 353, 
 
 358. 
 Dari'us, Astyageg, 75. 
 
 I., the Great, 74, 77-78, 
 
 134. 
 II., Nothus, 95, 96. 
 III., Codoman'nus, 99. 
 Da'tis, 86, 134. 
 Da'vid, 33, 37. 
 De'a Di'a, 256. 
 Deb'orah, 35. 
 Deceb'alus, 335. 
 Decius, Emperor, 341, 342. 
 
 Publlus, 275, 278. 
 Dei'oces, 23. 
 De'lium, 168. 
 De'los, 117, 134, 148, 165. 
 Del'phi, 91, 114, 119, 156, 196- 
 
 257. 
 Del'ta, 49, 53, 54, 58, 59, 93. 
 Demara'tus, 138, 147. 
 Deme'ter, 111, 113, 138. 
 Deme'trius, Poliorce'tes, 210, 
 223. 
 I., of Syria, 213. 
 II., Nicator, 214. 
 II., of Macedon, 224, 225. 
 second son of Philip V., 
 
 227. 
 of Bactria, 235. 
 Dcmos'thcnes, general, 166, 167, 
 173. 
 orator, 197, 222. 
 Den'mark, 9. 
 Di'do, 33, 66. 
 Diocle'tian, 344-347. 
 Diod'otns, 235. 
 Diony'sius, 189, 193. 
 Diony'sus, 111, 113. 
 Dodo'na, 106, 113. 
 Dolabel'la, 279. 
 Domi'tian, 334, 335. 
 Donatists, 358. 
 Do'ris, Do'rians, 106, 114, 115, 
 
 154. 
 Doris'cus, 89. 
 Dra'co, 124, 126 
 
 Bru'sus, Livius, 298. 
 
 M. Livius, 30-1. 
 
 step-son of Augustus, 
 327, 328. 
 
 son of Tiberius, 329. 
 Dryo'pians, 114. 
 Dyau3, 110. 
 
 Ecbat'ana, 23, 24, 74. 
 
 Ec'nomus, 284. 
 
 E'doraites, 37, 42. 
 
 EgG'ria, 250. 
 
 Egesta, 170, 171. 
 
 Egypt, Egyptians, 20, 29, 48, 50- 
 
 6li, 75, 93, 95, 98, 153, 155, 204, 
 
 208, 211, 213, 216-222, 333, 346, 
 
 348, 354. 
 Ei'on, 148. 
 
 Elagab'alus, Bassia'nus, 340. 
 E'lath,42. 
 Elba, 69. 
 
 Elephau'tiue, 49, 50, 53, 54. 
 Eleu'sis, Eleusinian, 113, 130, 
 
 170, 171, 286. 
 Eli'jah, 40. 
 E'lis, Eleaus, 106, 121, 169, 192- 
 
 194. 
 El'tekeh, 20. 
 E'os, 111. 
 
 Epam'inon'das, 189-195. 
 Eph'esus, &-), 115, 131,342. 
 Ephial'tes, 90. 
 E'phraim, 34. 
 Epicte'tus, 335. 
 Epidam'nus, 15S. 
 Epidau'ria, 106. 
 Epimen'ides, 125. 
 Epi'rus, 105. 
 Erastos'thenes, 217. 
 E'rech, Orchoe, 17. 
 Erectbe'um, 158. 
 Ere'tria, €5, 134. 
 Erin'nyes, 112. 
 Eryth'ra% 95, 143. 
 E'ryx, 281. 
 
 Esarhad'doii, 20, 25, 59. 
 Esdrao'loii, 44. 
 Es'quiline Hill, 334. 
 Ethba'al, 32, 40. 
 Ethio'pia, 20, 50, 54, 57. 
 Etru'ria, 245, 246, 262, 270, 278. 
 
 282, 286. 
 Etrus'cans, 248, 271, 273, 277-280. 
 Euboe'a, 107, 134, 157, 196. 
 Eu'clid,217. 
 Eucrat'ides, 235. 
 Eudox'ia, 359. 
 
 A. H.— 54. 
 
 369 
 
Eug 
 
 Euge'nius, 354. 
 Eu'menes, 207. 
 
 ofPergamus, 230. 
 
 II., ofPergamus, 230. 
 Eumen'ides, 112, 125. 
 Eumol'pidfe, 171, 176. 
 Euphra'tes, 10, 13, 15, 25, 23, 340. 
 Euro'pa, 110. 
 Euro'tas, 107. 
 Eurybi'ades, 140. 
 Euryd'ice, 207. 
 Eurym'edon, river, 149. 
 
 general, 173. 
 Eurys'thenes, 115, 118. 
 Euthyde'mus, 212, 235. 
 Evil-mer'odach, 27. 
 E'zion-ge'ber, 33. 
 Ez'ra, 93, 94. 
 
 F 
 
 Fa'bii, 262. 
 
 Fa'bius Gur'ges, 278. 
 
 Ktcso, 262. 
 
 Max'imus, 278. 
 
 JIax'imus Cunctator, 
 
 2SS. 
 Fabri'cius, 2S0. 
 Faioom', 54. 
 Fale'rii, 270. 
 Fau'nus, 257. 
 Fetia'Ies, 2-59. 
 Fir'mus, 353. 
 Flamin'ius, consul, 238. 
 Flamini'niis, 227. 
 Flo'riati, 343, 344. 
 Florus, Ges8'ius,24l. 
 For'monte'ra, 308. 
 Fo'rum, 2.->2, 254, 203, 305, 329, 
 
 of Trajan, 3.35. 
 Franks, .342, 316, 348, 351, 358. 
 Frenta'ni, 217. 
 Ful'via, 324. 
 Fiil'vius Flac'cus, 209. 
 
 G 
 
 Gad, tribe, .34. 
 
 propliet, 94. 
 Gades, Cadiz, Kadesh, 31, 287. 
 Gala'tia, 210, 224. 
 Gal'ba, Emperor, 332, 333. 
 
 Sertorius, 294. 
 
 Sulpic'ius, 226, 227. 
 Galep'eus, 168. 
 Galc'rlus, 347,348. 
 Gal'ilee, 2"9, 241, 
 Gallie'nus, 343. 
 Gal'lus, Emperor, 342. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gal'lus Ceesar, 350,351. 
 
 Gan'ges, 57. 
 
 Garga'nus, 247. 
 
 Gatb, 37. 
 
 Gaugame'la, 100. 
 
 Gauls, 07. 210, 211, 22;), 246, 269- 
 
 273,278-280, 286-288, 293, 301, 
 
 302, 314-318, 339-344, 346, 350, 
 
 354, 356, 357. 
 Gau'zani'tis, 20. 
 Ga'za, 204. 
 Geba, 42. 
 Gedro^sia, 205. 
 Gen'seric, 358-360, 
 Geuu'cius, 262. 
 Ger'izlm, 94, 239. 
 Gernian'icus, 328-330. 
 Germany, Germans, 301, 314-316, 
 
 327-3.32, 334, 336, 340-342, 351. 
 Ge'ta, 338. 
 Gib'eon, 34. 
 Gid'eon, 35. 
 Gilbo'a, 37. 
 Gil'ead, 38. 
 Gis'co, 284. 
 Glau'cia, 303. 
 Glyce'rjus, 360, 
 Golcon'da,16. 
 Goma'tes, 78, 87. 
 Gordian, 341. 
 Gor'dias, 29. 
 Gor'dium, 29, 99. 
 Goths, 312, 314, 348, 349, 353, 356- 
 
 360. 
 Gracchus, Caius, 297-299. 
 Sempronius, 293. 
 'Tiberius, 296, 2li7. 
 Grani'cus, 99, 203. 
 Gratiau, 353, :.:>i. 
 Greece, Greeks, 10, 50, 74, 76, 8:3- 
 
 102, 10.5-197, 202-205, 208, 209, 
 
 212, 217, 218, 222-227, 247, 274, 
 
 280, 28.5, 286, 306, 342. 
 Gund'obald, 360. 
 Gy'gcs, 20. 
 Gylip'pus, 172. 
 Gytb'ium, 155. 
 
 Ha'des, 111. 
 Ha'drian, .3.37. 
 Hadriano'ple, 348, 3.>3. 
 riadrume'tum, 50, 
 Ha'loe, 151. 
 
 Haricarnas'sus, 16, 19, 99, 115. 
 Ha'lys, 14, 23, 74, 233. 
 Ham, 10, 17, 216. 
 Ha'math, 33, 41. 
 
 Hip 
 
 Hamircar, 69, 70, 
 Bar'ca, 11. 
 Hau'nibal, the Great, 212, 226, 
 265, 287-291. 
 son of Gisco, 254 
 Han'no, 69, 284. 
 Harmo'dius, 129. 
 Has'drubal, brother-in-law of 
 Hannibal, 287. 
 brother of Hannibal, 
 287, 290. 
 Haz'ael, 19, 40. 
 Ha'zor, 35, ■ 
 
 He'bron,37. 
 Hec'ate, 111. 
 Hecatom'pylos, 212. 
 Hel'icon, 106. 
 Heliodo'rus, 213, 237. 
 Ileliop'olis, 55, 57. 
 He'lios, 111. 
 
 Ilel'las, 107. ! 
 
 Hel'len, 116. 
 
 Hel'lcspont', 88, 89, 92, 99, 128. ) 
 Helve'tii, 315. 
 Hcphfes'tns, HI. 
 Ile'ra, 111. 
 
 Hcracle'a, 2S0, 348. ; 
 Heracleop'olis, 53, 54, 63. 
 Herac'Iian, 357. 
 Her'acli'dfc, 29, 115. 
 Hercula'neum, 274, 334. 
 Her'cules, 30, 32, 69, 108, 287. 
 Herdo'nius, 264. 
 Her'manric, 35:j. 
 Her'mes, 62, HI. 
 Hermi'onis, 106. 
 Ilermodo'rus, 265. 
 Hermon, 15. 
 Her'od Agrlp'pa, 211. 
 An'tipas, 241. 
 the Great, 239-241. 
 Herod'otus, 16, 23, 30. 
 Iles'tia, HI. 
 Ilczeki'ah, 25, 43. 
 Hiar'bas, 06. 
 Hi'cnip'sal, 299. 
 Hi'ero, 2.S4. 
 
 Hieron'ymus, 289. * 
 
 Himala'yas, 13, 16. 
 Ilim'era, 70, 172. 
 Himil'co, 69. 
 Hin'dus, 81. 
 
 Hippar'chus, tho astronomer, 
 217. 
 son of Pisistratus, 129. 
 Hip'pias, 86, 129, 135. 
 Hip'po Re'gius, 358. 
 Ilippoc'rates, 163, 
 Ilip'podrome, 217. 
 
 370 
 
Hip 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Luc 
 
 nip'pos, 50. 
 
 Hi'mm, King of Tyre, 3S. 
 
 architect of the Temple, 
 39. 
 Histise'a, 157. 
 Ilistise'us, S4. 
 Hit (Is) 56. 
 Hit'tites, 33. 
 Ho'mer, 109, 110, 12S. 
 Hono'rius, 355-357. 
 Hor'ace, 32S. 
 Hora'tius, 207, 2GS. 
 Horten'sius, 279. 
 Ilo'riis, 56, G2. 
 Hosh'ea, 41. 
 Hostilia'nus, 342. 
 Hydai-'nes, 139. 
 Hydas'pes, 205. 
 Hy'drea, 107. 
 Hyk'sos, 53-5j. 
 Hymet'tus, 106. 
 Hypha'sis, Sntlej, 205. 
 Hyrca'nns, John, 239. 
 
 239,311. . 
 Hystas'pes, 7G, 79. 
 
 sou of Darius, 93. 
 
 lapyg'ia, lapygians, 247, 2iS. 
 
 Ichthyoph'agi, 76. 
 
 Icil'ius, 267. 
 
 Iddo, 94. 
 
 Idume'a, 239. 
 
 Iliad, 109. 
 
 Illyr'icum, lUyrians, 114, 201, 
 
 314, 344, 34S, 350, 354, 356. 
 Im'bros, 107, 136. 
 I'narus, 93, 153. 
 India,-9, 10, 16, 57, 83, 205, 212, 
 In'dra, 81. 
 
 In'dus, 13, 14, 16, 83, 205. 
 Interaoi'na, 342. 
 lo'nia, louians, 84, 6o, 110, 134, 
 
 144, 145. 
 Iphic'rates, 97. 
 Ipsambul, 57. 
 Ip'sus, 208, 209. 
 I'ra, 122, 123. 
 I'ran, 10. 
 I'ris, 111. 
 Irnac, 359. 
 Isag'oras, 130. 
 Isaiah, 75. 
 lehbo'sheth, 57. 
 I'sis, 51, 62. 
 
 Is'rael, Is'raelites, 19, 34-45. 
 Is'sua, 100, 203, 338. 
 
 Isto'no, 165." 
 Is'tria, 133. 
 
 Italy, Italians, 10, 67, 245-248, 
 301-306, 3-J2, 346-350, 354, 356, 
 358. 
 Ith'aca, 107. 
 Ith'amar, 20. 
 Itho'me, 122, 151, 153-155. 
 Iva Lush, (Hu-likh-khus), 19. 
 Ivi'ca, 308. 
 
 Ja'bin, 35. 
 
 Ja'cob, 31. 
 
 Jad'dna, 2U4. 
 
 Janic'ulum, 252, 268, 279. 
 
 Janus, 256, 325. 
 
 Japheth, 10, 216. 
 
 Ja'sher, 94. 
 
 Ja'sou, 192. 
 
 Jaxar'tes, 13, 204. . 
 
 Jeb'usites, 37. 
 
 Jeho'ahaz, 40. 
 
 Jehoi'achin, 44. 
 
 Jehoi'ada, 42. 
 
 Jehoi'akim, 25, 44. 
 
 Jeho'ram, King of Israel, 40. 
 
 Kingof Judah, 42. 
 Jehosli'aphat, 42. 
 Je'hu, 40. 
 Jercmi'ah, 44. 
 Jerobo'am I., 39, 40, 42, 56. 
 
 II., 41. 
 Jeru'ealem, 25, 26, 37, 58, 75, 93, 
 
 94, 237-241, 334, 336, 352. 
 Jez'ebel, 40. 
 Jo'ash, 40, 42. 
 John, usurper, 358. 
 Jon'athan, 37. 
 Joi''dan, 15, 34. 
 Jo'seph, 34, 64. 
 Jose'phus, 58. 
 Josh'ua, 34, 35. 
 Josi'ali, 43, 44. 
 •To'vian, 3.>2. 
 Ju'ba, 318,319. 
 Judse'a, 34-45, 58, 214, 237-241, 
 
 332, 334, 336. 
 Ju'dah, 19, 20, 37, 39, 42, 73. 
 Ju'das Maccabse'us, 213, 238. 
 Jugur'tha, 299, 300,301. 
 Julia, daughter of Cresar, 317. 
 
 Mtesa, 339. 
 Julian, 350-352. 
 Julia'nus, Didius, 338. 
 Julius C£esar, 221, 313-323. 
 Julius Ne'pos, 360,361. 
 Juno, 253. 
 
 Juuo'nia, 298. 
 Ju'piter. 253, 255, 250, 337. 
 Justin Martyr, 337. 
 Justi'na, 354. 
 
 K 
 
 Kar'nac, 55-57. 
 Ker'man, 15. 
 Khorsabad', 20. 
 Kirjath-je'arim,37. 
 Kish, 36. 
 Koko'me, 52. 
 Kotro'ni, 86. 
 Kro'nos, 09. 
 
 Lab'aluni, 172. 
 La'borosoar'chod, 27. 
 Lub'yrinth, 54. 
 La'cedaj'mon, 106, 118-123. 
 La'cedajmo'nius, 159. 
 Laco'nia, 106, 118-123. 
 Lam'achus, 170-172. 
 Laod'ice'a, 210. 
 Laom'edon, 237. 
 La'res, 257. 
 Lars Poi-'sena, 260. 
 La'tiuni, Latins, 246, 248, 250, 
 
 260, 273, 276. 
 Lau'rium, 137, 162. 
 Luu'tulse, 277. 
 Leb'anon, 15, 75. 
 Leb'edos, 115. 
 Lechre'uni, 106, 193. 
 Lem'nos, 107, 136. ."^ 
 
 Leo, 359. 
 
 Leon'idas, 90, 139. 
 Leonti'ni, 170. 
 Lep'idus, embassador, 219. 
 
 triumvir, 324, 325. 
 Lep'tis, 50. 
 
 Les'bos, 14, 95, 115, 161, 164, 165. 
 Leuca'dia, 107, 161. 
 Leuc'tra, 191. 
 Levant', 14. 
 Le'vites, 34. 
 Libya, Libyans, 49, 50, 56, 66,67, 
 
 69, 74. 
 Licin'ius, C. Sto'lo, 272, 273. 
 
 emperor, 348. 
 Ligu'ria, 245. 
 Lilybas'um, 281. 
 Lip'ara, 284. 
 Locri, 115, 132, 281, 282. 
 Locris, 106, 155, 157, 161, 196. 
 Luca'ni, 304. 
 
 371 
 
Luc 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mys 
 
 Luca'nia, Luca'uians, 247, 216, 
 
 279, 280. 
 Lu'ceres, 2J1, 253. 
 Lucul'lus, 233, 311. 
 Lugdu'num, 339. 
 LuBitania, Lusitanians, 294, 
 
 303, 333. 
 Luta'tius, consul, B, C. 242, 2&5. 
 consul with Marius, 302. 
 Lux'or, 56. 
 Ly'cia, 14, 29. 
 Lycome'des, 193. 
 Lyc'opbvon, 196. 
 Lycop'olis, 63. 
 Lycurgus, of Sparta, 119-121, 
 
 223. 
 
 of Athens, 127, 128. 
 Ly'cus, 101. 
 Lydia, Lydians, 14, 20, 23, 24, 28, 
 
 2^1,60-74,95, 112, 211, 231. 
 Ly'ons, 337, 354. 
 Lysan'der, 95, 178-182, 1S4. 
 Lys'ias, 213. 
 Lysim'achus, 208, 210, 223, 230. 
 
 M 
 
 Maccabje'us, Judas, 213, 238. 
 Jonathan, 238. 
 Simon, 238. 
 Macedou, Macedonians, 85, 99, 
 
 159, 163, 183, 193, 201-211, 306, 
 
 346. 
 Machae'rus, 239. 
 Macra, 246, 282. 
 Macri'nus, 339, 340. 
 Macro'bii, 76. 
 Madei'ra, 67. 
 Ma'gas, 218. 
 Ma'gi, 24, 78,79, 82, 87. 
 Mag'na Grae'cia, 107, 132. 
 Magnen'tius, 350. 
 Magne'sia, 196, 227, 293. 
 Ma'go, 68. 
 Ma'Iis, 106, 
 
 Mam'ertine Prison, 252, 278. 
 Mam'ertincs, 281, 284. 
 3Ianas'seh, 34, 94. 
 Man'etho, 51, 52, 5S, 217. 
 Manil'ius, 311. 
 Ma'nis, 109. 
 
 Man'lius, Consuls, 275, 284, 2a5. 
 Marcus, 270-272. 
 Titus, 275. 
 Man'nus, 109. 
 Mantine'a, Mantine'ans, 169, 
 
 192, 194, 226. 
 Maracan'da, 13. 
 
 Ma'rathon, m, 128, 135-137. 
 Marcelli'nus, 360. 
 Marcel'lus, 289. 
 Marcianop'olis, 353. 
 Mardo'nius, i'^>, 92, 134, 142-144. 
 Mare'shah, 58. 
 Mai-'gus, 344. 
 Mariamue, 240. 
 Ma'rius, consul, 300-306, 313. 
 
 the Younger, 306. 
 Marjo'rian, 360. 
 Mar'ruci'ni, 246, 304. 
 Mars, 249, 256. 
 Mai-'si, 246, 304. 
 Martins, Ancus, 251-253. 
 Masis'tius, 143. 
 Massagetfe, 75. 
 Massilia (Marseilles), 107, 131, 
 
 132, 318, 348. 
 Blas'sinis'sa, 291, 299, 300. 
 Massi'va, 3o0. 
 Mattathi'as, 213, 238. 
 Maurita'nia, 4S, 67, 300. 
 Mausole'um, 217. 
 Mauso'lus, 196. 
 Maxen'tius, 347, 318. 
 Maxim'ian, 346-318. 
 Max'iniin, 311. 
 
 emperor in the East, 
 347, 348. 
 Maximus, Z:a. 
 
 contemporary of Theo- 
 
 dosius the Great, 3.55. 
 murderer of Valentin- 
 iau III., 359. 
 Media, 14, 20-24, -11, 73, 74, 204, 
 
 211. 
 Megaby'zus, 93. 
 Megacles, 127-129. 
 Megalop'olis, 192. 
 Meg'ara, 153, 154, 161. 
 Meg'arid, 157. 
 Meg'aris, 106, 154, 157. 
 Megid'do, 44. 
 Mel'cartli, 32. 
 Mel'pum, 269. 
 Mem'non, 56. 
 
 general, 99, 203. 
 Memno'nium, 57. 
 Mem'phis, 49, 51-55, 60, 76, 77, 93, 
 
 155. 
 Men'ahem, 41. 
 Men'cheres, 52. 
 Men'des, 63. 
 Menela'us, 109. 
 Me'nes, 51, 109. 
 Men'tor, 98. 
 Me'nu, 109. 
 Merm'uada?, 29. 
 
 Mei-'odach-bal'adan, 20, 25. 
 
 Mei-'oe, 50. 
 
 Me'rom, 3.5. 
 
 Mesopota'mia, 15, 336, 344. 
 
 Jles'phra, Amen-set, 55. 
 
 Mes'sali'na, 330. 
 
 Messa'na, 281, 284. 
 
 Messa'pia, Calabria, 247. 
 
 Messe'ne, 193. 
 
 Messe'nia, Messenians, 100, 115, 
 121-123, 151, 155, 166, 107, 192. 
 
 Metau'rus, 290. 
 
 Metellus, proconsul, 285. 
 Numidicus, 300, 301. 
 Pius, 306, 308. 
 
 Methym'na, 165. 
 
 Meuse, 351. 
 
 Mich'mash, 37. 
 
 Micip'sa, 299. 
 
 Mi'das, 29, 
 
 Milan, 273, 343, 347, 349, 351, 352, 
 
 355, 359, 360. 
 Mile'sians, 158. 
 Miletus, 84, 85, 115, 131. 
 Milo, 132. 
 
 Milti'ades, 86, 127, 135, 136, 148. 
 Milvian Bridge, 348. 
 Miner'va, 253, 255. 
 Jli'nos, 109. 
 Mintui-'naj, 305. 
 Mis'raim, 51. 
 Mississip'pi, 9. 
 Mith'ra, 81. 
 Mith'rida'tes I., 232. 
 III., 233. 
 IV., 232. 
 
 v., the Great, 233, 304, 
 310. 
 Miz'peh, 42. 
 Mnes'theus, 343. 
 Mne'vis (Uenephes), 51, 63. 
 Mo'ab, Moabites, 34, 37, 40. 
 Moe'ris, .04. 
 Moe'sia, 341-343, 346. 
 Mo'Io, 211. 
 Moors, 346, 353, 3.5S. 
 Mori'ah, 38. 
 Mo'see, 34, a5, 43. 
 Mum'mius, L., 294. 
 Mun'da, 322. 
 Mure'na, 233. 
 Mu'tina, .324. 
 Myc'ale, 92, 115, 145. 
 Myce'na;, 106, 
 My'lne, 284. 
 Myrci'nus, 84. 
 Myrou'ides, 154. 
 Mysia, 14, 99, 230. 
 Mysore', 16. 
 
 372 
 
Myt 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Phi 
 
 aiytile'ae, 115, 164. 
 
 N 
 
 Nabona'dius, 26-2S, 72. 
 Nabonas'sar, 19, 2-1. 
 Nabopolas'sar, 22, 2-1, 25. 
 "Na'dab, 40. 
 Nak'shi-Rus'tam, 87. 
 Naples, 131. 
 Nar'bo Mar'tius, Narbonne', 
 
 298. 
 Nar'ses, 34 1>. 
 Naucli'des, 100. 
 Naucra'tis, 50, 12.), 133. 
 Mau'lochus, 32:3. 
 Naupac'tus, 15."), 161, 
 Nax'og, 133, 134, 149, 190. 
 Neap'olis, 274. 
 Near'chvis, 205. 
 Nebuchadnez'zar, 22, 25-27, 31, 
 
 44, 45, 60. 
 Neb'uzai-a'dan, 26. 
 Ne'cho, 31, 44, 60. 
 Nectan'abis, 195. 
 Nectanebo, 98. 
 Nehemi'ab, 94. 
 Nem'esis, 136. 
 Nept/te, 270. 
 Nereglis'sar, 27. 
 Nereids, 111. 
 Ne'reus, 32. 
 Ne'ro, consul, 290. 
 
 emperor, 332-334. 
 Ner'va. 33.5. 
 Nicje'a, 205, 349. 
 Nica'nov, 23.3. 
 Nic'ias, 167, 169-175. 
 Nicome'des, Greek captain, 154, 
 
 155. 
 Nicome'des I., 210. 
 
 II., 2.31. 
 
 III., 232. 
 Nicome'dia, 231, .347. 
 Nicop'oli.g, 311, .320. 
 Ni'ger, 4S, 339. 
 Nile, 48, 51,155, 320. 
 Nim'rod, 17. 
 
 Nin'eveh, 10, 17, 19-21, 25, 56. 
 Ni'nus, 19. 
 Nis'ibis, 339, a50. 
 Nor'icum, 346. 
 Nn'bia, 49, 57, 74. 
 Nu'ma Pompirius, 250, 2.58. 
 Numan'tia, 295. 
 Nume'rian, 344. 
 Numidia, Numidians, 67, 291, 
 
 288, 299, 300. 
 Numitor, 249. 
 
 
 
 Ocean'ids, 111. 
 
 O'chus, 95, 98. 
 
 Octavia'nus, Augustus, 324- 
 
 326, 328. 
 Octavius, consul, 305. 
 
 tribune, 297. 
 Odena'tus, 343. 
 Odo'acer, 361. 
 CEuo'phyta, 155. 
 CEnus'sa;, 107. 
 Olyb'rius, 360. 
 Olym'pia, 113, 194. 
 Olym'pias, 207. 
 Olym'piodo'rus, 143. 
 Olyni'pius, 3.56. 
 Olym'pus, 110. 
 Olyn'thus, 159, 188, 197. 
 Om'bos, 63. 
 Om'ri, 40. 
 Onomar'chus, 196. 
 Opim'ius, 300. 
 Orchom'enus, 156, 190, 196. 
 Ores'tes, 361. 
 Orkneys, 352. 
 Orleans, 359. 
 Ormazd, 81-83, 87. 
 Oron'tes, 15. 
 Osarsiph, Moses, 58. 
 Os'cans, 248, 277. 
 Osi'ris, 49, 51,62. 
 Osor'kon II., 58. 
 Osortas'ida\ 54. 
 Os'tia, 252, 283, 305, 359. 
 Ostro-Goths, 353, 354. 
 Otho. 3.33. 
 Ovid, 328. 
 OxyaWtes, 205. 
 
 Pacto'lus, 14. 
 Pa'dua, 359. 
 Pal'atine Hill, 2;51, 326. 
 Palestine, 15, 20, 25, 34-45, 211, 
 
 216,311, 336. 
 Palmy'ra, 15, .343. 
 Pamphyl'ia, 14. 
 Pa'neas, 212, 
 Panio'nium, 115. 
 Panno'nia, 338, 341, 346. 
 Pano'pcus, 91. 
 
 Panor'mus, Palermo, 284, 285. 
 Paphlago'nia, 14. 
 Papir'ius, 270. 
 Papre'mis, 93. 
 Paris, son of Priam, 109. 
 Paris, city, 351, 3.54. 
 
 Parme'nio, 205. 
 Parnas'sus, 91, 106. 
 Pa'ros, 136. 
 Par'theuou, 158. 
 Par'thia, Parthians, 211, 212, 
 235-241, 316, 317, 335, 337, 339, 
 340. 
 Parysa'tis, 95, 96. 
 Pasar'gada;, 71. 
 Pati/na, 33. 
 Pausa'nias, 143, 144. 
 Pa'via, 3.59. 
 
 Pelas'gia, Pelasgi, 107, 248. 
 Pclig'ui, 246, 304. 
 Polop'idas, 189-194. 
 Pclo'ponne'Hus, 91, 108, 114, 118, 
 
 161. 
 Pe'lops, los. 
 Pclu'siuni, 53, 60, 219. 
 Pene'us, 114. 
 Perdic'cas, general, 206, 207, 234. 
 
 II., 1.59. 
 
 III., 201. 
 Peren'nisi, 338. 
 Periau'der, 126. 
 Per'icles, 151-162. 
 Perin'thus, 202. 
 
 Per'ganui.s, 211, 227, 230, 231, 297. 
 Perper'na, 304. 
 Persepli'une, 113, 
 Persep'olis, 204. 
 Per'seus, 227, 228. 
 Per'sia, 14, 60, 71-102, 211, 340, 
 
 350, 352. 
 Persian Gulf, 17, 72. 
 Per'tinax, 338. 
 Pe'tra, 42. 
 Pha'on, 2P,2. 
 Plia'raoli, Phrali, 20, 64. 
 
 -liophra, Apries, 60. 
 
 -necho, 25. 
 Pharnaba'zus, 95, 97, 186. 
 Phar'naces, 2.32, 320. 
 Pha'ros, 217. 
 Pharsa'lia, 319. 
 Phayl'his, 196. 
 Pbid'ias, 135, 158. 
 Phi'don, 118. 
 Philadel'phia, 231. 
 Philetrc'rus, 230. 
 Philip II. of Macedon, 98, 193, 
 196, 197, 201, 202, 
 
 Arrhidse'us, 207. 
 
 IV., 222. 
 
 v., 212, 225-228. 
 
 Herod, 241. 
 
 of Syria, 213. 
 
 emperor, .341. 
 Phil! p'pi, 201,. 324. 
 
 373 
 
Phi 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sap 
 
 Philip'pus, of Thebes, 1S9. 
 Philis'tines, 19, 3^-37, 5-1. 
 Philome'lus, I'Jti. 
 Philopoe'men, 22^,227. 
 Philo'tas, 203. 
 Phocac'a, 131. 
 
 Pho'cis, 106, Ijj, 157, 161, 196, 202. 
 Phce'bidas, ISS. 
 
 Phoeui'cia, Plioeni'cians, 15, IG, 
 20, 25, 30-32, 50, 76, OS, 204, 
 216, 311. 
 Phor'mio, 163. 
 Phry'gia, 14, 29, 95, 210, 232. 
 Phtha, 62. 
 Phy'lidas, ISO. 
 Pi'centi'ni, 301. 
 Pice'num, 216, 282. 
 Picts, 352. 
 
 Pilate, Pontius, 241. 
 Pin'dar, 203. 
 Pin'dus, 105, 106. 
 Pirse'us, 147, 154, 180. 
 Pi'sham, 5S. 
 Pisid'ia, 96. 
 Pisis'tratus, 127, 12S. 
 Pi'so, 312. 
 
 adopted son of Galba, 
 333. 
 Pi'thom, 55. 
 Pit'tacus, 12*). 
 Placen'tia, 290, 360. 
 Placid'ia, 357, 35;>. 
 Platae'a, 01, 92, 135, 138, 160-163, 
 
 1S8. 
 Pla'to, 150, 321 . 
 PlGmmyr'iuni, 172. 
 Plin'y, Sl'j. 
 Plisto'anax, 157. 
 Plu'taich, 3.35, 
 Po, 245, 269. 
 Pollcn'tia, 256. 
 Pollux, 260. 
 Polycarpi 336. 
 Polyc'rates, 60. 
 Polydec'tes, 119. 
 Polysper'chon, 207. 
 Pompeii, 274, 331. 
 Ponipei'us, Qn., 295. 
 Pompey, Cneius, the Great, 215, 
 233, 239, 306-320. 
 Cneius, the Younger, 
 
 322. 
 Sextus, 322, 324, 325. 
 Pontius, 277, 27.S. 
 Pontus, 232-231,311,320. 
 
 marine god, 32. 
 Porus, 205. 
 Posi'don, 32, 111, 115. 
 Pos'thumus, ai3. 
 
 Postn'mius, 304, 
 Pothi'nus, 319. 
 Potidce'a, 133, 159, 162, 201. 
 Pra?nes'te, 306. 
 Prexas'pes, 78. . . - 
 Priam, 109, 249. 
 Pro'bus, 343, 344. 
 Pro'cles, 115, lis. 
 Proconne'sus, 14. 
 Proco'pius, 353, 
 Propylfc'a, 158. 
 Proscr'pina, 282. 
 Prosopi'tis, 155. 
 Pru'sias T. and II., 231. 
 Psamnien'itus, 60, 76. 
 Psammet'ichus, 59, 60, 133. 
 Psyt'tali'a, 142. 
 Ptolemy, Ceraunus, 210. 
 
 I., Sotcr, 2(17, 208, 216, 
 
 217, 237. 
 
 II., Pliiladelphus, 211, 
 
 217,218. , 
 III., Euer'getes, 211, 
 
 218, 219, 
 
 IV., Philop'ator, 219, 
 237, 
 
 v., Epiph'aucs, 212, 219. 
 
 VI., Phil'ome'tor, 21% 
 220. 
 
 VII., Eu'pator, 220. 
 
 VIII., Lath'yrus, 219, 
 220. 
 
 IX., Alexander, 220. 
 
 X., 221. 
 
 XI., Aule'tes, 221. 
 
 XII,, 219, 221. 
 
 Phys'con, 219, 220. 
 Pub'lius De'cius, 275. 
 Pul, IS, II. 
 Punjab', rf, 205. 
 Pyd'na, 201. 
 Pygma'lion, 31. 
 Py'los, 166, 167, 170. 
 Pyi-'aniids, 53. 
 Pyr'rhus, 223, 224, 280-282. 
 Pythag'oras, 1.32, 
 Pyth'eas, 1.33. 
 
 Q 
 
 Qua'di, 337. 
 Quinc'tius,Kie90, 264. 
 Quirinal Hill, 2.0, 251, 254, 257. 
 Quiri'nus, 250, 256. 
 
 R 
 
 Raam'ses, .55. 
 Ra'niah, 40, 42. 
 
 Ram'eses I., 56. 
 
 II., 56, 57. 
 
 III., .58. 
 Ramesse'um, 57. 
 Ram'nes, 251, 253. 
 Ilaph'ia,59, 211, 219. 
 Ras'ena, (Etruscaus), 248. 
 Ratho'tis, Resitot, 56. 
 Raven'na, 356, 357. 
 Regil'lus, 260. 
 Reg'ulus, 284, 2S5. 
 
 his son, 286. 
 Rehobo'am, 39, 42, 5S. 
 Re'mus, 249, 250. 
 Reu'ben, 34, 
 Rhadagai'sus, 3.35. 
 Rhae'tia, 24S. 
 Rhe'gium, 123, 132. 
 Rheims, 352. 
 
 Rhine, 315, 316, 328, 329, 335, 352. 
 Rhodes, 1 15, 196, 208, 227. ' 
 Rhone, 301, 314, 315. 
 Ric'imer, a59. 
 Roma'uus, 353. 
 Rome, 68, 212, 220, 245-361. 
 Rom'ulus, 249, 250, 256. 
 Roxa'na, 205. 
 Ru'bicon, 282, 318. 
 Rufi'uus, .3.56, 
 Ru'fus, tribune, 304. 
 general, 332. 
 
 S 
 
 Saba'co I and II., 59, 
 
 Saba'zins, 29, 
 
 Sa'bines, 246-248, 2.50, 251, 268, 
 
 278, 279, 
 Sac'ripor'tus, 306. 
 Sagun'tum, 287. 
 Saha'ra, 48. 
 Sa'is, 59, 63. 
 Salaj'thus, 164. 
 Sal'amis, 91-93, 107, 127, 138, 111, 
 
 142. 
 
 in Cyprus, 156, 208. 
 Sama'ria, 19, 20, 41, 94. 
 Bammura'mit, (Scmir'amis), 19, 
 
 87. 
 Sam'nium, Sam'nites, 247, 274- 
 
 280, 282, 304, 306. 
 Sa'mos, 14, 60, 97, 115, 158, 227. 
 Samothra'ce, 107. 
 Sam 'son, 35. 
 Sani'uel, 36. 
 Sanballat, 94. 
 Sa'os-duchinus, 25. 
 Sa'por, 312. 
 Sap'pho, 131. 
 
 374 
 
'V-; 
 
 Sar 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 TH 
 
 Sai^'acens, 21. 
 
 Sardi'nia, 67, 2«,.2S4, 28C, 293, 
 
 360. . , 
 
 Sai-'dis, H, 72, So, 89.. 
 Sargon,'20, 22, 25. 
 Saima'tians, 344, 319. 
 Sa'rus', 357. 
 Sassan'icla% 310, 312. 
 Sasy 'cbis, jM ares-sesorcheres, 
 
 52. 
 Saturni'nus, 3<)3. 
 Saul, 35, 37. 
 Sax'ons, 352. 
 Scio'ne, IGS. 
 Scipio, .^Dmilianus, 294, 2'.i.'>, 2'.i7. 
 
 Africauii^, ,212, 290, 291, 
 299. 
 
 Asiaticus, 212. 
 
 (consul B. C,2(50), 2^A. 
 
 (consul B. C. 21S), 268, 
 2S9. 
 Scots, 352. 
 Sciibo'nius, 332. 
 Scuta'ri, 346. 
 Scy'ros, 149. 
 Scyth'ia, Scytbians, 13, 21, 23, 
 
 44, 83, 84, 336, 359. 
 Scytbop'olis, 44. 
 Seja'nus, 329. 
 
 Sele'ne, 111. . ' 
 
 Seleuci'a, 210, 215, 344. . 
 Seleu'cida?, 209-215. 
 Seleu'cus I., 20S-2JO. . 
 
 II., Callin'icus, 211. 
 
 III., Ccrauttus, 211. 
 
 IV., Philop'ator, 213, 
 237. 
 
 v., 214. 
 
 VI., Epipb'anes, 215. 
 Seli'nus, 170, 171. 
 Sella'sia, 225. 
 Semir'amis, Sammura'mit, 19, 
 
 87. 
 Se'na, 290. 
 Sen'eca, 331. 
 
 Sennacb'erib, 20, 21, 43, 49. 
 Sen'neb, 54. 
 Senti'iiuui, 278. 
 Serape'uni, 63. 
 Seia'pis, 217, 3.'>4. 
 Seri'ca, 10, 
 Se'rosb, Sraosha, 82. 
 Serto'riiis, 307, 308. 
 Ser'vilia'nus, 295. 
 Ser'vius Tul'lius, 253, 254, 259. 
 Sesoncbosis, .W. 
 Sesor-cberes, 52. 
 Sesortasen I., II., and III., 54. 
 Sesos'triK, 52, 50. 
 
 Ses'tus, 146, 196. 
 Setb, 62. 
 Se:tbos II., 58. 
 Se'ti, 56. 
 
 Seve'rus, 338, 347. 
 Sex' tins, L.,2V2, 273, 
 Sex'tus, TarQuinlus, 255. 
 Sbalniane'ser, I., IS. 
 
 II., 19, 22, 31,41. 
 IV., 20. 
 Sbe'cbeni, 10. 
 Sbeni, 10, 216. 
 Sbi'luh, 35. 
 
 Sbi'sbak (Shesbonk), 40, 42, 58. 
 Sic'ily, 67, 6S, 132, 133, 170-175. 
 Sictacbo'tes, 87. 
 Sic'yon, 122, 193, 2()S. 
 Si'don, 30,60, 98, 21.'). 
 Sino'pe, 74, 232. 
 Sir'niiuni, 344, 351. 
 Smer'dis, tbe False, 78. 
 Soc'rates, 168, 1S3. 
 Sogdia'na, 13, 204, 205. 
 Sogdia'nus, 94, 95. 
 Sol'onion, 33, 38, 39, 58. 
 So'Ion, 29, 30,125-127. • ■ 
 
 So'n>a, 81; ill. . .■ . 
 
 Sonum'li, 76. . ; 
 
 So'ris, 52. , . ■ ■ 
 
 Sosib'ius, 219. . '. , 
 Bos'tbenc^, 2i;4. ... 
 
 Spain, 31, 36, 67* 287*293,307,308, 
 
 314, 31 S, 332, 342, 343, 346, .3.50, 
 
 354, 356, 357. 
 Spar'tn, 29, 90, 9.% 97, 107, 100, 
 
 115, 118-123, 134-197, 225. 
 Spar'tacus, 308, 309. 
 Spbactc'ria, 166. 
 Spbo'drias, 190. 
 Spitbri'da'tes,99. 
 Stenycle'rus, 122. . 
 Stiriclio, 355, 356. 
 Stolo, C. Licin'ius, 272. 
 Stras'bourg, 314, 351. 
 Stratoni'ce, 210. 
 Stry'nion, 84, 348. 
 Sueto'nius, 335. 
 Sue'vi, .356. 
 Sul'la, L. Cornelius, 301, 304- 
 
 308. 
 Su'niuni, 270. 
 Su'pbis I., Sbufu, 52. 
 
 II,, Nou-sliufu,,52. 
 Su'sa, 15, 80, 204, 205. 
 Susia'iia, 15, 20, 25. 
 Su'tbul, 31)0. 
 Swit'zeiland, 9, 
 Syb'aris, 131, 132. 
 Syc'nc, 55, 57. 
 
 Sy'ke, 172. 
 
 Syr'ucuse, 67, 107, 133, 170-175, 
 
 2S4-291, 303, 310,31s. 
 Syr'ia, 15, 20, 25, 31, 33, 58, 93, 
 
 209-215. 218, 311, 330, 338, 339. 
 
 Ta'cbos, 195 
 
 Tac'itus, onipcnor, 343. . 
 
 bistorian, 335. •> 
 
 Tad'mor, 31. 
 Takelot II., W. 
 Tan'agra, 155. 
 Ta'nis, .W, 5',). 
 Taren'tuni, Tareutines, 132, 
 
 274, 28(1, 282. 
 Tarpe'ia, 250. 
 
 Tarquin'ius, L. Priscus, 252, 
 2.53. 
 
 Supeibug, 2.'j4. , ,..,.....; 
 Tar'tarus, 112. r^ 
 
 Tavtcs'sus, 66. . - • ,, • 
 
 Tau'rus, 311. 
 
 Tayge'.tus; 151. , ... • ; 
 
 Tego'a, Tegciui!?, 123, 194. i 
 Teleui'acbus, 356. 
 Tel'esi'nu?, 3P6. 
 Tem'enus, 114, 115. , 
 Teu'edos, 14, 233. 
 Ten'tyra, 63. 
 Terentil'ius Harsa, 264. 
 Terun'tius Vano, 269. 
 Tct'iicus,.343. 
 Teu'ta, 2.S6. 
 Teuto'nes, .302, 
 Tibe'rius, 327-330. 
 Tibul'ius, 328. 
 Tici'nus, 266. 
 Tig'latb Pile'ser I., 18, 22. 
 
 II., 19, 41, 43. 
 Tiglatbi-niii, 16, 22. 
 Tigra'ncs, Persian general, 1 15. 
 
 of Syria, 215, 233, 313. 
 Tigranocer'ta, 2.15. 
 Ti'gris, 10, 14, 15, 16. 
 Tini'esitb'eus,341, 
 Tinio'tbeus, 191. 
 Tii'Jiakfb, 20, 59. 
 Tirida'tes, 346, 
 Tir'yns, 106. 
 Tir'zab, 40. 
 Tisag'oras, 13(). 
 Tissapber'nes, 95-97. 
 Titbo'rea, 196. 
 Tit'ies, 251. 
 Ti'tus, 241,2.34. 
 Tba'Ios, 126. 
 Tlinp'sacus. 41, 
 
 375 
 
Tha 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Zor 
 
 Thap'sus, 321. 
 
 Tha'sos, &j, 107, 151, 152, 227. 
 
 Thebes, Thebans,97, 98, 139, 160, 
 
 180, 1S8-197. 
 Theiuis'tocles, 137-151. 
 Theod'oricl., 359, 
 
 II., 360. 
 Thfodo'sius, 352-3.54. 
 
 I., the Great, a54, 355. 
 II., 357, 3.56. 
 Theram'tnes, 181. 
 Thermop'yla>, 90, 139, 196, 212, 
 
 227. 
 The'seus, 109, 121, 135. 
 Thes'pia', Thespians, 91, 13S, 
 
 139. 
 Thes'saloni'ca, 207, 318. 
 Tljes'saly, 90, 92. 105, 161, 196, 
 
 227. 
 This, 5I,:.3. 
 Tljoth, king, 51. 
 deity, fi-l. 
 Thoth'mes I., II., III., 53. 
 
 'lV.,.-ir,. 
 Thrace, Thracians, 57, 83, 151, 
 161, 163, 16,S, 210, .341. .346, :i4S, 
 a50, 3.53, 3;")4. 
 Thrasynie'ne, 226, 22.s, 2^-^, 290. 
 Thucyd'ides, 157. 
 
 liistorian, 16S. 
 Thurii, 280, 309. 
 Thyr'ca, 167. 
 Tiber, 246. 249, 252, 260, 265, 272, 
 
 322. 
 Tmo'lus, 14. 
 *Tobi'ah, 94. 
 Tol'niides, 155, 1.57. 
 Tom'yris, 7-'!. 
 Toro'ne, 16.S. 
 Trais, 1.32. 
 Traja'nns, 335-337. 
 Tre'bia, 2SS. 
 Treves, 3.52. 
 Trip'olis, 30. 
 Trceze'ue, 9J, 157. 
 Troeze'llia, 106. 
 Troy, 109, 114. 
 
 Tsam'si, 20. 
 
 Tul'lia, 66. 
 
 Tul'lius, Servius, 2.53, 254, 260. 
 
 TuUus HostH'ins. 250. 
 
 Tii'nis, .50, 66. 
 
 Tu'rin, 348. 
 
 Tijs'culuni, 267. 
 
 Tyre, 19, 20, 26, 30-33, 60, 66, 67, 
 
 204, 215. 
 Tyrtie'us, 122. 
 
 Ulys'ses, 110. 
 
 Um'bria, Unibrians, 246, 2\&, 
 
 277-279, 282. 
 U'tica, .50, 66, 294, 321. 
 
 Valens, 352, 353. 
 Valentinian I., 3.52, 3.53. 
 
 II., 354. 
 
 III., 358, 359. 
 Yad'imon, 280. 
 Vale'riaii, 342, 343. 
 Vale'rius, the Dictator, 226, 275. 
 
 consul, 267, 268. 
 Vandals, 3.56-360. 
 Varinius, 309. 
 Varro, Terentius, 289. 
 Varus, Qu., 327-.32S. 
 Veien'tians, Veii, 262, 264, 269, 
 
 270, 271. 
 Venetia, (Venice), 246, 359. 
 Venu'sia, 278. 
 Vercel'lEB, 302, 303. 
 Ver'cingeto'rix, 316. 
 Vergi'lia, 264. 
 Verona, 341,348, 356. 
 Ver'res, 310. 
 Verus, L., 336, 337. 
 Vespasian, 332-334. 
 Vesta, 257, 
 Vesti'ni, 247, 304. 
 Vesu'vius, 246, 275, 276, SOS, 3.34. 
 Vim'inal Hill, 254. 
 
 Virgil, 249, 328. 
 
 Virgin'ia, 266, 267. 
 
 Virgin'ius, 267. 
 
 Vi'ria'thus, 295. 
 
 Visi-Goths, 353-3.59. 
 
 Vitelliua, 333. 
 
 Vo'lero Publi'lius, 262, 263. 
 
 Volsci, Volscians, 263, 264, 27.'«, 
 
 277, 246. 
 Volsin'ii, 270. 
 yolum'nia, 264. 
 Vul'can, 257. 
 
 X 
 
 Xan'thippus, 136, 1.52. 
 
 Spartan general, 285. 
 Xen'ophon, 97, 16^. 
 Xerxes, 88-92, 137. 
 
 II., 94. 
 Xo'is,53, 54. 
 Xoi'tes, :a. 
 
 Y 
 
 York, 33G, 339, 347. 
 
 Z 
 
 Zabi'nes, 214. 
 
 Zacyn'thus, 107, 161, 162, 226. 
 
 Za'gros, 15, 87, 
 
 Zaleu'cus, 132, 
 
 Za'ma, 291. 
 
 Zan'cle, 132. 
 
 Zedeki'ah, 25, 26, 4.5, 60, 
 
 Zeilas, 231. 
 
 Ze'no, .361. 
 
 Zeno'bia, 343. 
 
 Ze'rah, 58. 
 
 Zeus, 1(19-113, 123, 194,255. 
 
 Zidonians, 35. 
 
 Zie'la, 320. 
 
 Zion, 94. 
 
 Zo'an, .5,'^. 
 
 Zopy'rus, 77. 
 
 Zo'roas'tcr, Sl-83. 
 
 FINIS 
 
 876 
 

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