A Hntt aioUege of JVgriculture At flforneU Inineraita 3tl)aca. $}. g. Ktbrarg Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014112753 DATE DUE . Nmsm ^t'gg DEMCO 38-2= )7 . _ _ Cornell University Library AG 5.R89 The standard dictionary of facts; liistory 3 1924 014 112 753 The Standard Dictionary of Facts HISTORY, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, BIOG- RAPHY, GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ART, GOV- ERNMENT, POLITICS, INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE, SCIENCE, EDUCATION, NATURAL HISTORY, STATISTICS AND MISCELLANY A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF READY REFERENCE BASED UPON EVERYDAY NEEDS ORIGINALLY PREPARED AND SUBSEQUENTLY REEDITED, EXTENSIVELY REVISED, ENLARGED AND IMPROVED BY COMPETENT SPECIALISTS EXCLUSIVELY UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF The Frontier Press Company BUFFALO, N. Y. 1919 j'j^ai-,i.Lji.'-j^'j^j.i^j*is5Li?;jiA'!a^k: Copyright, 1908, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1909, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1910, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1911, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1912, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1913, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1914, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1916, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. i Lf • ■ * Copyright, 1917, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1918, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1919, BY THE .FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. All rights reserved. PUBLISHERS' PREFACE A FTER a wide experience in selling single- volume reference works, the publishers /-% planned the production of The Standard Dictionary of Facts by an entirely new -*- -^ method, the success of which is now a notable achievement in twentieth century book making. Instead of assuming to know exactly what the public desired in a quick reference manual, or of taking for granted that any editor we might employ would possess such knowledge, we went to the only infallible source of information, — the people themselves. Through our large force of expert salesmen, men and women of education, culture and experience, who had been in personal contact with tens of thousands of reference book users throughout the country, w6 secured first hand knowledge of what the average person desired above all else to find in a handy single volume. By carefully classifying the results of this extensive inquiry — representing hundreds of thousands of visits to parents, pupils, teachers, professional and business men, artisans and farmers— a definite working plan for the contents was evolved and placed in the hands of the editorial staff with expUcit instructions to build the work strictly in accordance with this unique method. In other words. The Standard Dictionary of Facts is not the product of an editor, or of a corps of editors, in the customary sense. The sole function of its editors has been to embody as completely as possible from available material the subject matter which had been specifically indicated by a vast number of reference book users. But in the mind of the publishers this working plan embraced another fundamental constructive idea, —that of generous revision and improvement, to be made in quick response to discovered ^eeds. In consequence the text of the work from the first has been subjected to repeated improvements some of which have involved much greater labor and expense than the original edition, . A single revision has included changes on upwards of 500 pages; and the index, now the most comprehensive ever placed in a work of like magnitude, has been repeatedly made anew. 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TABLE OF CONTENTS FIRST BOOK HISTORY DICTIONARY OF HISTORY — Concise Histobies of Cotjntbibs and States: Alabama — Argentine Republic — Abizona — Abkansas — Austria-Hungary — Belgium — Brazil — Califoenia — Canada — Chile — China — Colorado — Connecticut — Cuba — Delaware — Denmark — England — Florida — France — Georgia — German il,MPiRE — Greece — Idaho — Illinois — Indiana — Iowa — Ireland — Italy — Japan — Kansas — Kentucky — Maine — Mabyland — Massachusetts — Mexico — Michigan — Minnesota — Mississippi — Missouri — Montana — Nebraska — Nevada — JNewMamp- SHiRB — New Jersey — New Mexico — New York — North Carolina — Noeth Dakota — Noeway — Ohio — Oklahoma — Obegon — Pennsylvania — Pemia — Portugal — Rhode Island — Russia — Scotland — South Cabolina — South Dakota — Spain — Sparta — Sweden — Switzerland — Tennessee — Texas — Tuekey — United States ' — Utah — Vermont — Virginia — Washington — West Virgqiia — Wisconsin — Wyoming - EVENTS OF HUMAN PROGRESS - GREAT BATTLES - GREAT WARS — IMPORTjSjT treaties - OUTLINES OF AMERICAN HISTORY - BISHOPS AND POPESOP ROME - RUINS - RULERS OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS, PAST AND PRESENT — HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS AND TABULATIONS. SECOND BOOK LANGUAGE The English Language — Use op Capital Letters — Punctuation — Right Use of Words — Figures op Speech — Synonyms — Letter Writing — Words and Phrases prom the Classic and Modern Languages — Abbebviations — Mispbonounced Wobds — Foems OP English Composition — Tbavels — Memoibs — Biogeapbty — Histoey — News — Fiction — Shobt Stoey — Pabables — Allegoeies — Desceiption — Exposition — Essays — Editoeials — Reviews — Ceiticisms — Argument — Addbesses — Lectures — Orations -^ Sermons. THIRD BOOK LITERATURE Preliminaby View op Litebature — Obibntal Literature — Literature op India — Persia — China — The Hebrews — Egypt — Phenica — Assyria — Arabia — Greece — Rome — Scandinavia — Gebmany — France — Italy — Spain — Russia — England — America — List op Books for Children's Libbaby — ■ Family Libeaeies — Books and Authors, Classified — Famous Poems, Authors and First Lines — Pen Names OP Noted Writers — Mythology — Names in Fiction, Literary Plots, and Allusions. FOURTH BOOK BIOGRAPHY Great Men and Women op the Past — • Geeat Men and Women op the Present — Authors — Statesmen — Wabbioes — Rulees — Jurists — Lawyers ■ — ■ Physicians — Scien- tists — Educators — • Sculptors — Painters — Architects — Pebachees — ■ Invent- OEs — Discoverers — Patriots — Editors — Philanthropists — Actobs — Musicians — • Financiers — Religious Leaders — Philosophers — ■ Mathematicians — Astron- omers — Artisans — Orators — ■ Engineers — ■ Merchants — Geniuses — Savants — AND Others. FIFTH BOOK GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE Selected Topics in Physical, Descriptive, and Political Geography — - Continents — Oceans — Rivers — Mountains — Lakes — Countries — States — Cities — Battle- fields — Castles — Cathbdbals — Chueches — • Monuments — Obelisks — Palaces — ■ Sheinbs — Museums — Aet Galleeies — Histobic Buildings — Historic Ruins — Fashionable Resoets — Architectural Structures — Theaters — Tabulations. TABLE OF CONTENTS 5 SIXTH BOOK GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Government of the Principal Countries op the World — Government op the States op THE Union — Government op Territorial and- Insular Possessions — Government OP Cities — Abyssinia — Afghanistan — - Alabama — Argentine Republic — Arizona — Arkansas — Austria-Hungary — Belgium — Bolivia — Brazil — British Empire — Bulgaria — California — Chile — China — Colombia — Colorado — Connecticut — CoREA — Cuba — Delaware — Denmark — District of Columbia — • Dominican Republic — Ecuador — Florida — France — Georgia — German Empire — Greece — Hayti — Idaho — Illinois — India, Empire of — Indiana — Iowa — Ireland — Italy — Japan — Kansas — • Kentucky — ■ Liberia — Louisiana — Maine — Maryland — Massachusetts — Mexico — Montana — ■ Montenegro — Morocco — Nebraska — Netherlands — Nevada — New Hampshire — New Jersey — New Mexico — ■ New York — New Zealand — North Carolina — ■ North Dakota — Norway — Ohio — Oklahoma — Oman — Oregon — Panama — Paraguay — Pennsylvania — Persia — Peru — Portugal — Prussia — Rhode Island — Roumania — Russia — • Scotland — Sbrvia — Siam — South Carolina — South Dakota — Spain — Sweden — Switzer- land — Tennessee — Texas — Turkey — United States op America — Uruguay — Utah — Venezuela — Vermont — Virginia — Washington — West Virginia — Wisconsin — Wyoming — Zanzibar — ■ Tabulations and Statistics. SEVENTH BOOK INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE Agriculture — Banks — Canals — Commerce — Commercial Products — Finance — Forestry — Imports and Exports — Insurance — Inventions — Iron and Steel — Labor Organizations — • Live Stock Industry — Manufactures — Merchant Marine — Mining — Money — Occupations — Railroads — Transportation — Trusts — World Marts — World's Staples — Tabulations and Statistics. EIGHTH^ BOOK SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION Branches op Human Knowledge — • Colleges and Universities — ■ Educational Systems and Topics -•• Fine Arts — Learned Societies — Music — Religions and Religious Denominations — Electricity — Topics in Physical Science, Medical Science, Biological Science, Electrical and Mechanical Science — Scientific, Educational AND Religious Statistics. NINTH BOOK NATURAL HISTORY ANIMAL KINGDOM: 'Birds, Insects, Mammals, Reptiles — MINERAL KINGDOM: Coals and Clays, Gases, Fossils, Liquids, Metals, Precious Stones, Rocks, Soils — VEGETABLE KINGDOM: Cereals and Bulbs, Grasses, Flowers, Forests, Fruits — CURIOSITIES AND WONDERS. TENTH BOOK MISCELLANY Curious Titles — Notable Bridges — Chemical Substances — Popular Names op Cities — Earthquakes — Fraternal Organizations — Holidays — Death Rates — Mourn- ing Customs — Names and Name Origins — Navies op the World — State Mottoes AND Popular Names — Arithmetical Principles — Weights and Measures — Distances. HOW TO USE The Standard Dictionary of Facts In these swift-moving times the best in- formed win, the uninformed fail. Exceptions have become so few that everyone nowadays desires to be better informed. This handbook of ready reference will give correct answers to more than a hundred thousand questions, — a remarkable number for a single volume. More noteworthy still, it has been found to answer ninety-five out of every hundred questions that come up in the average person's life and affairs. This sig- nificant fact has been proved by ten years of testing in the hands of nearly a million users. Most important of all, it wiU per- form an equally helpful service for every- one who will faithfully foUow a few very simple rules. First of All, this book must be kept where it can be quickly used; not stored in a closet, hidden on a high shelf, or locked be- hind glass doors to keep it clean. Place this book on the home reading table, the child's study table, the workshop bench, or the office desk, and see to it that it is always within easy reach. In the home and school further encourage its use by frequent personal example and by assisting those who have not yet formed the habit of looking up answers to daily questions. The Working Plan. The arrange- ment of the information is very simple and is as easily understood as reading time by the clock. The Table of Contents on pages 4 and 5 indicates its wide range. The keys to this great array of facts are found in th^ cross-reference Index (pages 867 to 908), by far the largest and most valuable yet placed in a single volume of similar scope. To learn how to use this index is to learn how to reach the facts in the volume. Finding Facts. Most users desire im- mediate information on single points which arise from time to time. In all such cases one should turn at once to the Index. Sup- pose one wishes to find which territory had the^ largest population when admitted to the Union. Turning to the index under T, one finds, page 904, the entry "Territories" in the third column. Note that inunediately under the word, and set over a little to the right (sub-indexed), is a group of points about "Territories." Passing down this hst to the second entry one finds "Population," followed by a dotted line leading to the figures 625, which is the nimiber of the page where the information may be found. But instead of "territory," suppose one first thought of the word "state." Turning to S in the index, one finds, page 896 second column, the entry "States." Set over to the right beneath it is a sub-indexed hst of points about "States." Passing down the column one finds the entry "Population," and is here also referred to Eage 625. But suppose at the outset one ad in mind the word "population" instead of "territory" or "state." Upon turning to the index under P one finds, page S91, the entry "Population" and, sub-indexed vmder it in proper order, the entries about both "States" and "Territories", with references hkewise to page 625 where, in a well arranged table, correct answers to hundreds of similar questions may be found. The foregoing example is merely one of scores of thousands which may be as readily found by means of the carefully constructed cross-reference Index, making fact finding a keen pleasure to those who wish to be well- informed. If, in any case, the name, subject, or title looked for is not found in the Index, do not conclude that the information sought for is not given. Try other related words, names, subjects or terms. Then, if not successful, read the explanatory Note at the beginning of the Index, page 867, and in case the sub- ject sought for seems related to any of the special dictionaries, continue search among them. Each of about twenty special dic- tionaries such as Names and Name Origins, Pen Names of Noted Writers, Famous Poems, Mythology, etc., is self indexed in its proper place in the text. A brief period of earnest practice will enable an inexperienced beginner in the use of refer- ence books to make good progress in finding information. Form the Klght Habit. This work contains vastly more information and will answer an immensely greater number of questions than many purchasers at first re- alize. Consequently, never hesitate to test the work for points concerning any question that may arise. The resultjwill be a source of increasing satisfaction ana surprise at its unexpected range and resources. One will not find answers to merely trivial and non- sensical questions, but as a furnisher of authentic information on matters of conse- quence, the more thoroughly it is used the more highly it will be prized. Further, seekers for information sometimes are not aware at the outset that they have started on the wrong track. Yet discoveries are made only by those who seek them, and while seeking one often finds greater things than those which he set out to find. Columbus was looking for the Indies when he discovered America. Likewise, tens of thousands of users have achieved an education and formed the habit of self information as the result of systematically searching this volume. Finally, remember that this book is designed and planned to be used. By being worn, soiled, and cover-scarred from constant handling it will fulfill its real purpose and repay the owner a thousand fold for his purchase and his pains. To be kept in an unhandled and spotless condition would be the worst fate that could befall it. HISTORY Abdication is the act of giving up an office. It is sometimes compulsory, and some- times the result of vexation and disappointment. The following monarchs have abdicated: Abbas II. of Egypt 1914 Abdul-Hamid II. (forced) 1909 AmadeuB I. (duke of Aosta) of Spain, 1873 Boris of Bulgaria 1918 Charles Albert of Sardinia (forced), 1849 Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia 1802 Charles I. of Austria-Hungary, 1918 Charles IV. of Spain (forced) 1808 Charles V. of Spain and Germany 1556 Charles X. of France (forced), 1830 Christina of Sweden 1654 Constantine I. of Greece (forced), 1917 Diocletian and Maximian 305, 308 Edward II. of England (forced), 1327 Ferdinand of Austria, 1848 Ferdinand of Bulgaria 1918 Francis II. of the Two Sicilies (forced) 1860 Henry VI. of England (forced), 1471 James II. of England (forced) 1689 Lid] Jeassu of Abyssinia 1916 Louis Philippe of France (forced), 1848 Ludwig of Bavaria (forced), 1848 Manuel II. of Portugal (forced) 1910 Milan of Servia 1889 Napoleon I. of France (forced) 1814 Napoleon III. of France (forced), . . ... 1870 Nicholas I. of Montenegro, f 1918 Nicholas II. of Russia (forced), 1917 Otho of Greece (forced), 1862 Pedro II. of Brazil (forced) 1889 Poniatowski of Poland (forced), 1795 Pu-Yi of China (Hsiian Tung) 1912 Richard II. of England (forced) 1399 Victor Amadeus of Sardinia 1730 Victor Emmanuel, ■ 1821 William I. of Holland 1840 William II. of Germany 1918 Abyssinia. The oldest accounts of the Abyssinians are full of fables, but seem sufficient to )3rove that they attained some degree of civih- zation even in remote antiquity. Christianity was introduced about the middle of the Fourth Century, and soon prevailed extensively. Axum was at that time the capital. Two centuries later the Abyssinians were powerful enough to invade Arabia", and conquer part of Yemen. In the Tenth Century a Jewish Princess over- threw the reigning dynasty, the surviving repre- sentative of which fied to Shoa. After three' centuries of confusion the empire was restored under Icon Amlac, and some progress was made in improvement. Early in the Fifteenth Cen- tury the Abyssinians entered into close relations with the Portuguese. Under the influence Of the Portuguese missionaries the royal family adopted the Roman Catholic faith, and the old Coptic Church was formally united to the See of Rome. The people and ecclesiastics obsti- nately resisted the innovation; the emperor gave way; and ultimately, in 1632, the foreign priests were expelled or put to death. Though Christianity is still the professed religion of Abyssinia, it exists only in its lowest form, and is Uttle more than ceremonial. The Church is national and independent, but the visible head, or Ahuna ("our father"), is ordained by the Cop- tic Patriarch of Alexandria. The doctrines of the Abyssinian coincide with those of the Coptic Church, especially in the monophysite heresy; but several peculiar rites are observed, including the rite of circiimcision and observance of the Mosaic laws respecting food, love-feasts, and adult baptism. The oldest Abyssinian churches are hewn out of rocks. The modem churches are mostly round or conical buildings, thatched with straw and surrounded by pUlars of cedar. Statues and bas-reliefs are not tolerated in churches, but paintings are numerous. In 1860, King Theodore (born 1818, crowned 1855) felt himself insulted by the British Consul, whom he imprisoned, with some missionaries. A large English force under Lord Napier then came to Abyssinia and captured the strong fortress of Magdala in April, 1868. On this occasion Theodore committed suicide. After an interval of anarchy Prince Kassai assumed power as Johannes II., in 1872. He died in 1889, and was succeeded by MeneUk II. Abyssinia then practically became an Italian protectorate. During 1895 a war broke out between Abyssinia and Italy, which was closed in 1896. In 1906, an agreement was concluded between Great Britain, France, and Italy, as to their interests IQ Abyssinia. In 1907, a decree was issued by Menelik II. announcing the formation of a cabi- net on European lines. Abyssinian TVar, The. Between the British and Theodore, King of Abyssinia. This expedition (for the release of missionaries. Cap- tain Crawford, and others) was under Sir R. Napier, who joined the army at Senaf6, January, 1868. On April 10th, Colonel Phayre defeated Theodore at Magdala, which was bombarded and taken on April 13th. The return of the British army commenced April 18th, 1868. Achaean League, The. A confeder- acy of the twelve towns of Achsea. It was dis- solved by Alexander the Great, but reorganized B. C. 280, and again dissolved B. C. 147. The second of these leagues, founded at MegalopSUs, contained all the chief cities of Peloponnesus. It contended with the Macedonians' and the Romans for the liberty of Greece; but, being beaten at Scarphea by Metellus, and at Leuco- p6tra by Mummius, it dissolved soon after the taking of Corinth. The twelve cities of Achsea, in Ionia, were founded by the Heraclldae. Actisean War, The. Roman ambas- sadors at Corinth enjoin the dismemberment of the AchEean League and are insulted (B. C. 147). Kritolaos, general of the league, at once besieged Heracleia (B. C. 146), but was defeated at Scarphea by Metellus, and slew himself. Diaeos, successor of Kritolaos, was defeated at LeucopStra by Mummius (B. C. 146). Corinth was then destroyed, and all Greece was erected into a Roman Province, September, 146. Actiac "War, The. This arose out of the rupture between Octavian and Antony, two of the Triumvirs (B. C. 33). Octavian declared war against Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, and de- 10 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS feated Antony at Actium, 2d September, B. C. 31. Both Cleopatra and Antony killed them- selves. Alexandria was taken by Octavian, August 30th (B. C. 33), and Egypt was made a Roman Province, B. C. 30. ^^tollan Confederacy, The, B. C. 323, called into existence by the Lamian War. The states used to assemble annually in the autumn at Thermum, and the assembly was called the Pansetolicon. B. C. 189, the .^tolian states were subjected to the Romans. The object of the Lamian War was (on the death of Alexander the Great) to hberate Greece from Macedonia. The Athenians were the prin- cipal insurgents, but were defeated in 322 at Cranon, by Antipater. Afghanistan. The history of Afghanis- tan belongs almost to modem times. The col- lective name of the country itself is of modem and external origin (Persian). In 1738, the coun- try was conquered by the Persians under Nadir Shah. On his death, in 1747, Ahmed Shah, one of his generals, obtained the sovereignty of Afghanistan, and became the founder of a dy- nasty which lasted about eighty years. At the end of that time Dost Mohammed, the ruler of Cabul, had acquired a preponderating influence in the country. On accoimt of his dealings with the Russians the British resolved to dethrone him and restore Shah Shuja, a former ruler. In April, 1839, a British army imder Sir John Keane entered Afghanistan, occupied Cabul, and placed Shah Shuja on the throne, a force of 8,000 being left to support the new sovereign. Sir W. MacNaghten remained as envoy at Cabul, with Sir Alexander Bumes as assistant envoy. The Afghans soon organized a wide-spread in- surrection, which came to a head on November •2, 1841, when Bumes and a number of British oflBcers, besides women and children, were mur- dered, MacNaghten being murdered not long after. The other British leaders now made a treaty with the Afghans, at whose head was Akbar, son of Dost Mohammed, agreeing to withdraw the forces from the country, while the Afghans were to furnish them with provisions and escort them on their way. On January 6, 1842, the British left Cabul and began their most disastrous retreat. The cold was intense, they had almost no food — for the treacherous Afghans did not fulfill their promises — and day after day they were assailed by bodies of the enemy. By the 13th, 20,000 persons, including camp-followers, women, and children, were de- stroyed. Some were kept as prisoners, but only one man. Dr. Brydon, reached Jelalabad, which, as weU^as Kandahar, was still held by British troops.' In a few months General PoUock, with a fresh army from India, retook Cabul and soon iSnished the war. Shah Shuja having been as- sassinated. Dost Mohammed again obtained the throne of Cabul, and acquired extensive power in Afghanistan. He joined with the Sikhs against the British, but. afterward made an offensive and defensive alliance with the latter. He died in 1863, having nominated his son Shere Ali his successor. Shere Ali entered into friendly re- lations with the British, but in 1878, having re- pulsed a British envoy and having refused to receive a British mission (a Russian mission being meantime at his court), war was declared against him, and the British troops entered Afghanistan. They met with comparatively little resistance; the emir fled to Turkestan, where he soon after died. His son Yakoob Khan having succeeded him concluded a treaty with the British (at Gandamak, May, 1879), in which a certain extension of the British fron- tier, the control by Britain of the foreign policy of Afghanistan, and the residence of a British envoy in Cabul, were the chief stipulations. The members of the mission were again treach- erously attacked and slain, and troops were sent into the country. Cabul was occupied, Kan- dahar and Ghazni were relieved, and Yakoob Khan was sent to imprisomnent in India. In 1880, Abdur-Rahman, a grandson of Dost Mo- hammed, was recognized by Britain as emir of the country. UntS his death in 1901 he was on friendly terms with the British, by whom he was subsidized. Encroachments by the Russians on territory claimed by Afghanistan threatened a rupture between Britain and Russia in 1885, and led to the dehmitation of the frontier of Afghanistan on the side next the territory now occupied by Russia. In 1897, a punitive ex- pedition was again sent against the tribes around the Khyber Pass, who disregarded their pledges. In 1905, the Emir HabibuUah, son of Abdur- Rahman, ratified a treaty with Great Britain agreeing to accept the advice of the British Government in regard to his foreign relations, and was guaranteed against unprovoked ag- gressions on his dominions. Afghanistan is divi- ded into four provinces, Cabul, Turkistan, Herat, and Kandahar, each under a hakim or governor. Alabama. The name, derived from the Indians, denotes "Here we rest." Originally a part of Georgia, the country included in Alabama and Mississippi was organized as a Territory in 1798. In 1812, that part of Florida, then belong- ing to Spain, lying between the Perdido and Pearl rivers on the Gulf Coast, was seized by the United States troops and annexed to the Territory. Alabama remained a Territory after the western portion was admitted as a State under the name of Mississippi, and was itself admitted as a State in 1819. On January 11. 1861, the Ordinance of Secession was adopted by the Secession Convention, and in February a provisional congress met at Montgomery anci organized the Government of the Confederate States. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated Presi- dent of the Confederacy at Montgomery, Febru- ary 18, 1861, and the government seat was moved from Montgomery to Richmond in July, 1861. Mobile was finally captured by the Fed- erals, April 12, 1865, and on May 4th the State was included in the surrender made by General Richard Taylor. After the Confederate sur- render, the State passed under the phases of pro- visional and military government until 1868, when it was regularly reconstituted as a State in the Union. In 1901, a Constitutional Con- vention, called to regulate negro suffrage, was in session from May 21st to. September 2d at Mont- gomery. On November' 11, 1901, the new con- stitution was ratified by popular vote. In 1911 the legislatVire passed a bill providing for the adoption of a commission form of government by HISTORY 11 the municipalities of the State. In January, 1915, the legislature enacted a statutory law en- forcing state-wide Prohibition, which took effect Julv 1, 1915. Alabama Clafms. A series of claims for indemnity made upon Great Britain by the United States, based upon alleged failure of Great Britain to observe certain obligations of international law. These claims chiefly arose from damages inflicted by vessels in the Confederate service which had been fitted out or built in English waters. The history of the Confederate crusier Alabama is typical of the more flagrant cases. This vessel was built at Birkenhead, England, and, although the attention of the British government was repeatedly called to suspicious circumstances, "No. 290," as the ship was called, sailed July 29, 1862, without register or clearance papers. After taking on equipment in the Azores from two Enghsh vessels, she assumed the name Alabama and began her famous career of destruction. Before being sunk by the Kearsarge on June 19, 1864, the Alabama is said to have destroyed 70 vessels. The de- termination of the extent to which Great Britain was responsible for this was the most important problem of diplomacy resulting from the Civil War. By the important treaty of Washington, 1871, it was stipulated that the Alabama claims should be submitted to the decision of five arbi- trators, — one named by England, one by the United States, and one each by the king of Italy, the emperor of Brazil, and the president of Switzerland. The arbitrators met at Geneva Dec. 15, 1871, and on Sept. 14, 1872, signed the final award in which it was decreed by unanimous vote that England was responsible for the depre- dations of the cruiser Alabama and, in full satis- faction of this and all other claims, was directed to pay an indemnity of $15,500,000. _ This de- cision greatly strengthened the principle of arbitration as a means of settling smIous inter- national differences. Alamo, The, a mission church at San Antonio, in what is now Bexar County, Texas, converted into a fort. In 1836 it was occupied by about 150 of the revolutionists in the Texan War of Independence. Though attacked by 4,000 Mexicans under Santa Ana, the Texans held it from February 23d to March Oth, when Santa Ana took it by storm. All but seven of the gar- rison perished, six of these being murdered after their surrender, and one man escaping to report the affair. In this garrison were the celebrated David Crockett, and Colonel James Bowie, in- ventor of the bowie-knife. The memory of this massacre became an incitement to the Texans in subsequent encounters, and "Remember the Alamo!" oecame a war-cry in their struggle for freedom. Alsace-Lorraine. Originally a part of Roman Gaul and inhabited by Celtic tribes. In the fourth and fifth centuries it was overrun by Teutonic tribes who largely supplanted the older inhabitants so that by the tenth century por- tions of the country were extensively German- ized. However, in the latter middle ages Lor- raine became more and more distinctively French. In 1552 Lorraine became a part of France, not by conquest but by a treaty, signed by all the Protestant princes of Germany, the text of which states that the German language had never been used in the towns of Toul, Verdun, and Metz. Alsace proper became the possession of the Habs- burgs and in 1648 was ceded to France by the emperor of Austria who stated in the treaty that "no other emperor, in the future, will ever have any power in any time to affinn any right on these territories." Southern Alsace, including Mulhausen, formerly belonged to Switzerland but during the French revolution decided by popular vote to become a part of the French 1-epublic. In 1870, following the defeat of France by the Prussians, Bismarck made the surrender of Alsace-Lorraine a principal condition of peace. Notwithstanding the opposition of the inhabi- tants and a unanimous protest of their deputies that "Europe cannot allow a people to be seized hke a flock of sheep," Alsace-Lorraine was made an imperial territory of Germany under the direct control of the kaiser. Despite strenuous opposi- tion, met by alternating pohcies of mihtary severity and mildness, the complete Germaniza- tion of the provinces was steadily aimed at through laws compelling the use of the German language in the public schools, in courts, and municipal bodies and through German control of the press and higher learning. AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED Naval engagements are indicated by italics; * means that it was a drawn battle; t means a general estimate. Name of Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES Date United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd KiUed Wo'nd'd July 2, 1898 Feb. 11, 1865 May 5, 1864 Oct. 27, 1864 .'Aguadores (including July 1st), . . . Aikens, . 1 . . . Albemarle, . . Albemarle, Spanish Cont. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English English Conf. English English Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Eng. U. S. U.S. r 2 142 5 2 8 4 1 2,616 12 9t 25 352 2 20 2 16 8 3 9,4i6 10 31 338 3 11 S 2 32 6 1,842 3D 160 Oct. 6, 1864 Nov. 13, 1776 May 28, 1781 Jan. 29, 1814 March 2, 1815 Oct. 2, 1863 Aug. 12, 1776 Marohl7, 1813 Sept. 16, 1862 Sept. 17, 1862 AUatoona, ... Alfred-transports, Alliance-squadron, Alligator America-Elizabeth, Anderson's Cross-Roads, . . . Andrea Doria-Bacehorse, .... Antelope-Zephyr, Antietam (continued), 704 10 30 14t 13 41 3 2 9,399 12 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Date Name of Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES United States Killed Wo'nd'd Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd April 9, 1865 Aug. 14, 1813 July 15, 1862 Jan. 10, 1863 Jan. 11, 1863 Oct. 12, 1863 Oct. 13, 1863 Oct. 9, 1779 July 14, 1813 Sept. 23, 1864 July 22, 1864 Aug. 3, 1812 Aug. 3, 1804 Aug. 7, 1804 Nov. 29, 1813 Marchie, 1865 Feb. 1, 1864 Oct. 21, 1861 Feb. 4, 1863 Aug. 5, 1862 Oct. 4, 1863 Aug. 27, 1863 Jan. 29, 1863 June 24, 1813 Nov. 6, 1861 Nov. 7, 1861 Aug. 16, 1777 Marohl8, 1865 Marcbl8, 1865 May 26, 1864 May 27, 1864 May 28, 1864 May 29, 1864 May 30, 1864 June 9,n863 Jan. 11, 1865 July 26, 1864 Oct. 24, 1864 Oct. 25, 1864 June 25, 1876 May 17, 1863 Aug. 24, 1814 Feb. 13, 1862 Oct. 10, 1863 Sept. 8, 1862 April 3, 1780 June 3, 1776 Sept. 23, 1779 Oct. 12. 1800 March 31, 1865 Sept. 11, 1777 June 10, 1864 April 29, 1862 Oct. 14, 1863 Aug. 4, 1812 Oct. 19, 1863 Feb. 22, 1847 Feb. 23, 1847 July 21, 1861 Aug. 29, 1862 Aug. 30, 1862 June 17, 1775 July ],1863 July 7, 1862 Oct. 7, 1812 Aug. 16, 1780 June 11, 1898 June 12, 1898 June 13, 1898 June 14, 1898 Nov. 16, 1863 Jan. 27, 1814 April 23, 1864 April 13, 1813 March 1, 1813 Nov. 20, 1856 Nov. 21, 1856 Nov. 22, 1856 April 26, 1863 Jan. 14, 1863 July 7, 1777 Aug. 19, 1780 Oct. 19, 1864 Aug. 8, 1862 Appomattox, Argus-Pelican Arkansas, .■ Arkansas Post (continued), . . Arkansas Post (ended), .... Arrow Rock (continued), . . . Arrow Rock (ended) Assault on Savannah, Asp, attack on the Athens, Ala., Atlanta, Hood's first sortie, . . Atlas-Planter and Pursuit, . , . Attack on Tripoli, ...,., Attack on Tripoli, Autosse Averysboro, Bachelor's Creek, Ball's Bluff Batesville Baton Rouge, Baxter's Springs, Bayou Metea Bear River, Beaver Dam, Belmont (continued), . ... Belmont (ended), Bennington Bentonville (continued), . . . Bentonville (ended) Bermuda Hundreds (continued), Bermuda Hundreds (continued), Bermuda Hundreds (continued), Bermuda Hundreds (continued), Bermuda Hundreds (ended),. . Beverly Ford Beverly, W. Va Big Creek, Big Blue (continued) Big Blue (ended) Big Horn, Black River, Bladensburg Blooming Gap, ^ Blue Springs, Boai attack on Charleston, . . , Boats-Black Snake, Boats-tender to Nautilus, . , . Bonhomme Richard-Serapis, . . Boslon-Berceau, Boydton and White Oak Road, Brandywine Brice's Cross-Roads," Miss., , . Bridgeport, Ala Bristow Station Brownstown, Buckland's Mills, Buena Vista (continued), . . . Buena Vista (ended) Bull Run Bull Run No. 2 (continued), . . Bull Run No. 2 (ended), . . Bunker Hill Cabin Creek Cache Swamp Caledonia and Detroit-boats, . . Camden Camp McCalla (continued), . . Camp McCalla (continued), . . Camp McCalla (continued), . . Camp McCalla (ended) Campbell Station Camp Defiance, Cane River Canonnier-Medusa Canonnier-W arspUe, Canton Porta (continued), . , . Canton Forts (continued), . , , Canton Forts (ended), Cape Girardeau, Carney's Bridge Castletown, Catawba Fords Cedar Creek , . Cedar Mountain (continued), . Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English . Conf. . Conf. English Tripplitan Tripolitan Indians Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Indians English Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Indians Conf. EngUsh Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English French Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Mexican Mexican Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. English Enghsh Spanish Spanish Spanish Spanish Conf. Indians Conf. EngUsh English Chinese Chinese Chinese Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Conf. U.S. Eng. U. S. U.S. U.S. Conf. U.S. Eng. Eng. U. S. U.S. U. S. * * U.S. u. s. Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. Conf. U. S. U. S. Eng. Conf. U. S. U. S. U. S. U. S. U. S. U.S. U.S. U.S. u. s. Conf. Conf. U. S. U.S. U.S. Ind. U. S. Eng. U. S. U. S. Conf. U.S. U.,S. U. S. U. S. U. S. Eng. Conf. U. S. * Eng. Conf. U. S. U. S. Conf. Conf. Conf. Eng. U. S. U.S. U.S. Eng. U.S. U.S. U.S. U. S. Conf. U. S. U. S. Eng. Eng. U.S. U.S. U. S. U.S. u. s. Eng. Eng. U.S. Conf. 203 6 18 6 129 "45 68 4 499 2 1 22 11 77 24 223 2 99 80 2 12 25 ■'96 30 igi 201 156 5 18 "ii 261 29 30 33 23 1 49 4 177 289 223 3 50 17 8 '267 481 798 145 8 8 1 94 6 112 17 98 1 1 12 6 7 211 162 588 297 17 50 25 831 162 84 173 18 6 10 12 2,142 1,162 5 2 13 60 6 50t 54 204 477 86 77 13 226 58 4 5t 203 125 21 12 8 11 49 224 sot 30t 173 231 41 59 1,108 289 20 32 '62 242 42 2 62 57 2 . 3 67 11 1,134 568 394 8 150 30 23 '456 1,011 4,023 304 15 45 4 281 11 186 132 152 3 3 28 18 27 S83 2S1 3,516 189 2 10 lot 60 267 864 253 3 48 "■rs 81 40 183 13 48 3 4 49 4 236 98 124 31 150 4 '568 362 1,696 359 42 110 5 80 60t 136 37 108 400 22 14 35 2 961 386 5 15 30t 78 '265 37 21 18 7,337 4 70 80t 632 22 242 7t 234 32 31 8 34 '682 81 l',38i 2,136 354 6 102 'i35 126 186 297 26 94 2 5 18 68 17 998 398 582 42 250 31 l',24i 1,390 6',i54 695 108 ISO 10 245 140t 214 164 4 1 540 43 36 144 21 3,239 HISTORY 13 A.MEBICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Name op Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES Date United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Aug. 9, 1862 Cedar Mountain (ended), Conf. Conf. 450 660 223 1,060 April 18. 1847 Cerrb Gordo Mexican Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. Conf. 63 426 368 1,842 loot 486 500t 1,954 May 16, 1863 Champion Hills April 30, 1863 May 1, 1863 Chancellorsville (continued) ChancellorsviUe (continued), .... Conf. Conf. May 2, 1863 Chancellorsville (continued) Conf. Conf. May 3, 1863 Chancellorsville (continued) Conf. Conf. May 4, 1863 ChancellorsviUe (ended), Conf. Conf. 1,512 9,518 1,718 10,563 Sept. 13, 1847 Chapultepeo Mexican U.S. 116 671 i.ooot 2,000 June 4, 1782 Charming Sally-Revenge, English U.S. 1 4 3 6 Feb. 25, 1815 Chasaeur-St. Lawrence English U.S. 5 8 15 23 July 6, 1864 Chattahoochee (continued) Chattahoochee (continued), . . Conf. U.S. July 8, 1864 Conf. U.S. July 10, 1864 Chattahoochee (ended) Conf. U.S. 80 450 201 402 Nov. 23,1863 Chattanooga, including Orchard Knob, Lookout Mountain, and Missionary Ridge (continued), Conf. U.S. Nov. 24, 1863 Chattanooga, etc. (continued), . . . Conf. U.S. Nov. 25, 1863 Chattanooga, etc. (ended), . . Conf. U.S. 757 4,529 850 2,150 June 1, 1813 Cheeapeake-Shannon, English Eng. 47 99 24 59 Deo. 7 1777 Chestnut Hill English Conf. * Conf. 14 36 42 64 Sept. 18, 1863 Chickamauga (continued), Sept. 19, 1863 Chickamauga (continued), Conf. Conf. Sept. 20, 1863 Feb. 27, 1847 Chickamauga (ended) Conf. Conf. 1,644 9,262 6,000 10,000 Chihuahua Mexican U. S. 3 5 33 67 July 5, 1814 Chippewa, EngUsh u. s. 60 244 199 328 Nov. 11, 1813 English Mexican Conf. * U.S. U.S. 102 131 126 237 876 585 22 l,000t 248 147 Aug. 20, 1847 3,000t May 9, 1864 Cloyd's M'tain and New Eiver Bridge, 652 Dec. 5, 1863 Coffeeville Conf. Conf. 38 62 21 32 June 5, 1864 Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. 19 10 73 14 22 30 81 April 16, 1865 Columbus, Ala 50 Deo. 9, 1862 Col. Matthews Conf. U. S. 18 22 32 68 April 4, 1864 Col. Gooding, Conf. U. S. 8 26 18 39 June 2, 1864 Cold Harbor (continued) Conf. Conf. June 3, 1864 Cold Harbor (ended) Conf. Conf. 1,905 10,570 364 1,336 Jan. 14, 1813 Comet-frigate Port'guese English English U.S. U.S. * 1 2 1 3 8 2 10 10 14 14 Aug. 3, 1814 Comoeta Creek 20 Deo. 1, 1782 Commerce-brig and schooners 24 April 21, 1775 Concord and retreat English Eng. 49 34 74 199 Sept. 6, 1781 Feb. 9, 1799 Congresa-Savage, English U.S. 11 19 25 31 Conatellation-Inaurgeni French U. S. 2 3 29 41 Feb. 2, 1800 Conatellation-Vengeance French U.S. 14 25 50 110 Aug. 19, 1812 Conatiiution-Guerriere English U.S. 7 7 15 63 Dee. 29, 1812 Conatitution-Java, English U.S. 9 25 60 101 Feb. 20, 1815 ConatUution-Cyane and Levant, . . EngUsh U.S. 4 10 35 42 Aug. 19, 1847 Contrcras Mexican U.S. 20 40 700 2,200 Oct. 19, 1814 Cook's Mills English English Conf. U.S. Eng. U.S. 11 1 54 3 20 1 60 Feb. 23, 1813 2 Oct. 3, 1862 Corinth (continued) Oct. 4, 1862 Corinth (ended), Conf. English U.S. Eng. 315 1,812 3 1,423 5,692 Feb. 29, 1812 Courier-Andromache , 1 Jan. 17, 1781 Cowpens English Conf. U.S. U.S. 12 115 60 418 120 98 199 Sept. 14,1862 Crampton Gap 342 June 22, 1813 Craney laland, English U.S. 75t l?S* June 8, 1862 Cross Keys Conf. * 125 498 29 302 Aug. 1, 1863 Culpepper Court-House Conf. * 16 98 22 104 Feb. 21, 1865 Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. 1 3 2 8 Feb. 5, 1865 Dabney's Mills (continued) Dabney's Mills (continued) Feb. 6, 1865 Conf. U.S. Feb. 7, 1865 Dabney's Mills (ended) Conf. U.S. 232 1,062 249 75i July 11, 1812 Decatur-Commeree, English English English Mexican Turkish Conf. U.S. U.S. u. s. U.S. U.S. * 4 8 6 16 9 31 8 4 18 18 46 lot 7 Aug. 5, 1813 45 June 17, 1776 Defenae-tranaporta, 30t Sept. 9, 1847 Del Rey 89 April 27, 1805 20t Dec. 6, 1864 Deveraux's Neck (continued), . . . Deo. 8, 1864 Deveraux's Neck (continued), . . . Conf. . * Deo. 9, 1864 Deveraux's Neck (ended) Conf. * 39 39.0 112 228 April 15, 1813 DiligerU-aguadron English Eng. 1 3 1 Aug. 22, 1814 Diomede-Upion, English EngUsh U.S. U.S. 4 7 1 3 Sept. 2, 1812 Dolphin-two ahips 8 Jan. 25, 1813 Dolphin-squadron English U.S. 3 8 6 9 June 28, 1863 Donaldsonville, Conf. U.S. 1 3 85 114 Feb. 3, 1863 Dover, Col. Harding Conf. u. s. 16 60 150 400 May 15, 1862 Dniry's Bluff, Conf. Conf. Conf. U.S. 422 41 2,380 79 514 82 1,086 Nov. 6, 1863 158 May 5, 1864 Dunn's Bayou Conf. Conf. 38 64 4 18 Aug. 23,1864 Duvall's Bluff, Conf. Conf. 13 42 6 33 Deo. 23, 1813 Indians Spanish U.S. U.S. 1 88 6 356 30 120 July 1, 1898 El Caney 400 Feb. 10, 1862 Elizabeth City Conf. Indians English U.S. U.S. U.S. 2 20 3 2 75 4 220t 92 10 Jan. 22, 1814 Nov. 20, 1780 Ennoree Ford 102 14 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Date Jan. 24, Sept. 5, Aug. 1, Aug. 13, March28, Sept. 8, July 28, Oct. 27, Oct. 28, July 13, Feb. 26, Feb. 28, Aug. 6, Oct. 7, April 18, April 1, April 9, May 20, Sept. 15, Sept. 27, Feb. 15, Aug. 15, Sept. 17, March 12, Dec. 24, Dec. 25, Jan. 13, Jan. 14, Jan. 15, May 27, April 2, Sept. 5, Aug. 28, Feb. 6, April 25, March 3, May 6, Oct. 6, June 28, March 11, March 12, March 13, March 14, March 16, May 10, April 12, April II, Oct. 17, Aug. 6, July 27, March25, Aug. 2, July 18, April 17, Deo. 18, Jan. 6, April 10, Nov. 30, Dec. 11, Dec. 12, Dec. 13, Jan. 18, Jan. 22, May 23, June 27, Jan. 1, Sept. 7, Aug. 26, June 4, Jan. 16, Sept. 21, Feb. 18, Oct. 4, July 1, July 2, July 3, April 7, Nbv. 8, Sept. 25, Nov. 2, April 29, Deo. 15, Nov. 17, June 17, 1814 1813 1801 1812 1814 1781 1864 1864 1864 1863 1863 1862 1864 1863 1863 1865 1865 1863 1814 1864 1862 1814 1814 1864 1864 1864 1865 1865 1865 1813 1865 1812 1861 1862 1862 1863 1813 1777 1776 1863 1863 1863 1863 1863 1862 1864 1863 1862 1777 1864 1865 1813 1863 1864 1862 1813 1863 1864 1862 1862 1862 1813 1813 1862 1862 1863 1813 1814 1780 1864 1777 1815 1777 1863 1863 1863 1776 1813 1812 1813 1863 1775 1847 1815 Name op Battle Enotachopco, . . . Enterprise-Boxer, . . . Eriterprise-Trvpoli, . . Essex-Alert Essex-Phcebe and Cherub, Eutaw Springs, . . . Ezra Chapel Fair Oaks (continued), Fair Oaks (ended), . Falling Waters, . . Falmouth Farragut at Vicksburij, Farragut in Mobile, . Farmington, . Fayetteville, . Five Forks, . . Fort Blakely, . . Fort Blunt Fort Bowyer, .... Fort Davidson, . . Fort Donelson, . . Fort Erie, Fort Erie (sortie), . . Fori De Russey, . . . Fort Fisher (continued). Fort Fisher (continued), Fort Fisher (continued), Fort Fisher (continued). Fort Fisher (ended), . Fort George, Fort Greggs and Alexander, . Fort Harrison, .... Fort Halteras, Fort Henry Fort Macon Fort McAllister Fort Meigs Forts Montgomery and (Clinton Fort Moultrie Fort Pemberton (continued), Fort Pemberton (continued), Fort Pemberton (continued). Fort Pemberton (continued), Fori Pemberton (ended), . . Fort Pillow Fort Pillow, . . Fort Pulaski Fort Ridgeley, . . Fort Schuyler, . Fort Smith, . Fort Stedman, . . Fort Stephenson Fort Wagner Fort Weasels Foster's Expedition (ended),. Fox-Lapwing Franklin, . ; Franklin, Tenn., Fredericksburg (continued), . Fredericksburg (continued), . Fredericksburg (ended), , . . Frenchtown, Frenchtown No. 2 Front Royal Gaines Mill, Galveston, Gen, Armstrong-Queen, . , Gen. Armstrong-British boats, . Gen. Pickering-Achilles, . . Gen. Sturgis, Gen. Wayne, George Little-Granicus, .... Germantown, . - Gettysburg (continued),. . . Gettysburg (continued),. . . Gettysburg (ended), .... Glasgow Globe-packets, Globe-Sir Simon Clark, . . . Governor Tompkins-Mary Ann, Grand Gulf Great Bridge, Guaymas Guerriere-Mashouda ■ Opponent Indians English Tripolitan English English EngUsh Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Indians Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Indians English Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English EngUsh English English Conf. English Mexican Algerine ViCTOE U.S. U. S. U. S. U.S. Eng. U.S. U.S. * * U. S. Conf. U. S. U. S. U. S. U.S. U. S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Conf. U. S. U.S. U. S. U. S. Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Conf. U.S. Eng. U.S. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. U.S. Conf. Conf. U.S. Eng. Conf. U.S. U.S. Conf. Conf. U. S. U. S. U. S. U.S. Conf. Conf. Conf. U.S. Eng. Conf. Conf. Conf. U. S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Eng. Eng. Eng. U.S. U.S. U.S. Eng. U.S. U. S. U. S. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. CASUALTIES United States Killed Wo'nd'd 40 2 58 130 99 12(1 25 5t 15 145 8 4 124 113 12 4 47 560 17 79 18 "26 184 39 198 2 17 64 84 11 7 348 1 1 120 10 68 » 1 624 20 90 1 17 189 1,152 12 357 32 3,000 17 2 1 8 94 2 189 2,834 10 8 2 19 3 60 10 66 349 601 783 80 8t 30 170 16 26 706 516 38 6 154 746 56 216 29 "63 749 121 304 2 27 3 1 124 166 26 19 4, 62 3 6 268 15 337 7 876 31 478 3 20 1,033 9,101 55 64 122 4,600 20t 1 7 3 32 182 6 542 13,709 14 18 1 57 11 Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd 200t 4 20 5 86 864 'iso 125 6 12 22 17 450 242 25 32 245 466 222 110 14 ,150 108 249 8 4 5 7 30t 62 68 3t 2 19 1 44 86 12 134 60 26 29 201 14 79 1,141 505 30t 150 2,000 26 10 137 8 16 2 98 4,000 1 9 4 1 8 24 12- 12 17 30 3 10 402 3,778 'soi 354 8 20 37 36 750 874 37 40 756 1,534 309 250 33 "55 249 163 353 20 25 11 18 1 60t 141 437 8t 1 61 7 108, 204 19 698 101 74 42 538 8 163 5,113 4,061 50t 165 13 4,000 117 19 107 12 49 5 1 402 14,000 3 18 4 4 16 81 18 18 HISTORY 15 AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Date Name of Battlb Opponent Victor CASUALTIES United States Killed Wo'nd'd Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd March 15, May 21, May 11, May 27, Sept. 16, Sept. 13, June 5, Oct. 1, Dec, Jan. 10, Oct. 27, Jan. 11, March 16, Feb. 22, July 9, July 4, March21, April 5, July 22, Feb. 17, Nov. 18, April 25, July 30, Feb. 17, Dec. 20, Nov. 30, July 17, Feb. 24, March 23, March 27, April 14, Jan. 4, April 8, Nov. 15, Feb. 24, Nov. 16, March 19, Sept. 4, April 7, April 7, Sept. 19, July 12, May 14, July 16, July 6, Nov. 1, July 25, April 30, Aug. 31, Sept. 1, Jiily 31, June 19, June 10, Jan. 30, Dec. 3, March23, Oct. 7, Dec. 14, Aug. 6, Nov. 17, Nov. 29, MarchSO, June 3, Dec. 14, Oct. 11, Sept. 11, Sept. 10, Sept. 28, June 24, Aug. 21, July 5, Nov. 22, July 7, May 23, April 19, Sept. 20, April 17, Sept. 12, April 12, Sept. 10, Aug. 17, Aug. 27, Feb. 14, June 17, 1781 1863 1777 1862 1776 1863 1862 1864 1862 1863 1864 1863 1779 1812 1780 1863 1864 1779 1812 1813 1813 1781 1779 1781 1862 1864 1863 1813 1815 1814 1779 1862 1782 1779 1863 1776 1776 1804 1863 1862 1862 1863 1863 1863 1781 1779 1779 1864 1864 1864 1812 1864 1864 1862 1815 1862 1780 1862 1862 1863 1863 1814 1776 1814 1776 1814 1813 1813 1898 1863 1862 1776 1864 1862 1775 1777 1776 1861 1864 1863 1862 1776 1813 1864 Guilford Court-House, . . Gum Swamp Hancock-Fox Hanover Court-House, . . Harlem Plains, Harper's Ferry, Harrisonburg Harrison Harts ville Hartsville, Hatcher's Run Haiteras-Alabama, , . . Hazard-Active, Hazard-Caledonia Hazard-Duff, . Helena, Henderson's Hill, ... Hibemia-hrig of war, . . , Highflyer-Caledonia, . . . Highfiyer-Poictiere, HiUabee towns Hobkirk'g Hill Holker-brig Holker-Hypocrite, . Holly Springs, . . . Honey Hill, S. C Honey Springs, . Hornet-Peacock, Hornet-Penguin, . , Horseshoe Bend Hunter-armed ship Huntersville, Va Hyder Ally-Gen. Monk, Impertinent-Harlem, . . . , Jndianola, . .... Induatry-brig, . . Induairy-brig Intrepid Ironclads at Charleston, . . Island No. 10 luka, Jackson, Jackson, James Island, . . Jamestown Island, Jason-Pereeus Jason-privateer Jenkins Ferry, ...... Jonesboro, Ga. (continued), Jonesboro (ended) Julia-Gloucester Kearsarge-Alabama, .... Kellar's Bridge, Kelly's Stores Kernp-merchantmen (armed), Kernstown, . _. King's Mountain, . Kingston Kirksville, . . . Knoxville Knoxville LaCoUeMill Lady Washington-barges, . LaJce Borgne, ... Lake Champlain Lake Champlain, . Lake Erie, .... . . Lake Ontario Las Guasimas, Lawrence, Lebanon, Lee-ship Legareville Lewisburg, Lexington, Lexvngton-Alert, Lexington-Edward Lexington, Mo., Lexington, Red River, . . Little Rock London, Ky Long Island Lottery-boats Lynchburg (continued), . . English Conf. EngUsh Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. English English English Indians English EngUsh English Conf. Conf. Conf. EngUsh EngUsh Indians English Conf. English English Conf. English English Tripolitan Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. EngUsh Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English EngUsh EngUsh English English English English Spanish Conf. Conf. EngUsh Conf. Conf. English EngUsh English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conl. Eng. U. S. U.S. U.S. * Conf. U.S. U. S. Conf. U. S. * Conf. U. S. U.S. u. s. u. s. u. s. * U.S. Eng. U.S. Eng. U. S. U.S. Conf. Conf. U. S. U. S. U. S. U. S. U.S. U.S. Conf. * Eng. Trip * U. S. U. S. U. S. U.S. U.S. Eng. Eng. U. S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U. S. U.S. * u. s. u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. * U.S. Eng. U.S. Eng. Eng. U. S. U. S. U.S. U. S. Conf. Conf. * Conf. U.S. Eng. Eng. U.S. * U.S. U.S. Conf. Eng. Eng. Conf. 123 3 3 53 7 80 15 8 48 7 56 2 3 2 98 1 1 1 52 . 6 3 3 66 17 1 1 26 1 4 1 2 13 3 19 144 88 37 24 37. 18 1 222 "6 1 13 24 1 103 28 90 28 24 24 8 6 30 52 27 10 16 140 4 1 36 11 7 3 2 42 22 12 62 8 314 8 5 344 8 120 32 24 102 69 1,047 6 5 7 4 162 3 3 7 3 141 16 1 4 645 60 it 106 4 3 11 1 1 6 3 18 32 598 765 228 76 81 12 3 978 l',i49 2 54 80 4 441 60 478 60 72 68 66 2 35 50 58 96 17 50 22 8 3 61 52 9 10 2 108 59 18 188 10 231 4 14 198 2 20 16 35 18 247 13 2 31 205 5 3 3 61 38 6 4 2 18 153 5 10 557 3 2 20 8 2 3 2 20 1 385 71 64 48 21 7 3 842 498 9 22 3 80 168 71 180 18 259 11 3 17 15 84 41 12 28 3 3 2 12 49 2 6t 33 164 31 3 61 2 318 16 18 732 20 50 46 115 74 763 1 20 11 64 504 18 9 9 104 20 7 21 114 378 33 28 6 4 33 3 5 8 6 30 3 3 692 504 392 152 49 9 6 1,458 1,502 3 21 28 8 342 284 268 498 64 432 47 11 77 26 110 94 20 124 14 4 8 25 76 3 8t 65 341 45 8 257 4 16 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Date Name of Battle ViCTOK CASUALTIES Opponent United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Conf. Conf. 99 503 47 157 English U.S. 18 58 50 75 Conf. Conf. 14 40 2 Conf. U.S. 2,860 3,500 3,023 4,077 Conf. U.S. 6 8 10 18 Conf. U.S. 30 59 41 79 Conf. Conf. 14 28 11 16 U.S. 7 318 29S Spanish U.S. 8 40 Spanish English U.S. :ot (?) U.S. 1 Conf. Conf. 98 142 126 394 Conf. U.S. 9 18 32 64 English U.S. 3 2 7 Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 342 836 26 152 English Indians U.S. 3 5 6 13 U.S. 11 26 39 Conf. Conf. 1 4 Conf. Conf. 80 176 71 390 Conf. U.S. 4 8 Conf. U.S. 149 224 156 236 Conf. U.S. 10 4 20t 30t Conf. Conf. 250 301 8 11 Conf. U.S. 3 8 11 32 Conf. U. S. 1 4 18 32 Conf. U.S. 154 223 148 294 Conf. U.S. 39 207 192 132 Conf. U.S. 99 398 121 432 Conf. U.S. 8 20 English Eng. 26 73 3 6 Conf. U.S. 1 2 English U.S. 72 160 294 170 Conf. Conf. 90 579 78 322 Mexican U.S. 142 364 200t 450 English U.S. 4 13 6 21 English U.S. 3 13 22 English U.S. 3 13 20 English U. S. 7 22 80 101 English Eng. 48 101 252 448 Conf. Conf. 15 22 29 31 Conf. U.S. 33 62 47 103 Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 1,533 7,245 1,384 6,892 Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 399 1,741 584 3,021 English Eng. 24 139 80 301 Conf. Conf. 151 349 88 126 English Eng. 24 113 99 230 English U.S. 7 8 120 149 Conf. * 26 124 68 298 Conf. U. s. 2 8 12 *1^ Mexican U.S. 7 20t 30t Conf. U.S. 102 432 50 152 Conf. U.S. 3 5 4 15 Conf. U.S. 1 12 22 43 English Eng. 88 34 86 142 Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 398 2,031 399 1,601 Conf. Conf. 120 563 96 306 English U.S. 11 23 20 30t English U.S. 4 13 700 1,400 Conf. U.S. 37 147 12 40 Indians U.S. 8 22 12 34 EngUsh U.S. 8 12 14 30 English U.S. 171 572 201 559 English Eng. 48 107 24 61 English U.S. 3 8 7 16 Picaroons U.S. 65 70 Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 223 . 1,460 304 1,513 Conf. U.S. 51 401 6D 300 Conf. Conf. 23 24 English U.S. 3 6 Conf. U.S. 5 7 4 7 Conf. Conf. 193 1,175 150 350 Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 653 3,719 1,632 3,868 English U.S. 6 38 70 165 June 18, 1864 Aug. 9, 1812 Sept. 30, 1863 July 1, 1862 4, 1862 24,,1863 27, 1862 1, 1898 13, 1898 12, 1898 4, 1812 April 25, 1864 May 16, 1864 20, 1779 23, 1864 24, 1864 2, 1777 17, 1812 27, 1861 8, 1862 April 20, 1863 June 26, 1862 June 6, 1862 March 8, 1862 Jan. 7, 1862 12, 1863 7, 1863 19, 1862 Nov. 28, 1863 Feb. 3, 1863 April 14, 1780 March 9, 1862 June 28, 1778 July 9, 1864 Sept. 24, 1846 Dec. 6, 1812 Feb. 14, 1776 Aug. 30, 1814 Aug. July Aug. May Aug. Aug. Nov. Aug. July July Dec. Dec. June May June June Jan. 5, 1813 16, 1776 14, 1862 13, 1862 30, 1862 31, 1862 1, 1863 2, 1863 15, 1864 16, 1864 Sept. 13. 1814 Jiily 12, 1863 23, 1814 28, 1814 3, 1863 19, 1863 15, 1847 March 14, 1862 May 24, 1862 " " 26, 1863 6, 1781 28, 1864 29, 1864 Sept. 30, 1864 May 15, 1864 Jan. 1, 1816 Jan. 8, 1815 April 23, 1862 Aug. 29, 1779 Nov. 28, 1812 July 25, 1814 June 18, 1781 Sept. 28,' 1812 Oct. 31, 1799 26, 1864 27, 1864 26, 1862 31, 1863 4, 1812 10, 1863 20, 1864 26, 1863 Oct. Nov. Sept. July Deo. Deo. Jan. Jan. Deo. Deo. Dec. Dec. Nov. July June July Sept. Sept. Sept. May May June Jan. Oct. Feb. Feb. Nov. Nov. 27, 1863 Sept. 19, 1864 May 6, 1814 Lynchburg (ended), Maguaga . . Major Montgomery, Malvern Hill Malvern No. 2, Manassas Gap, Manassas Junction, Manila^ Manila, Manzanillo, Marengo-Leonidas, Mark's Mills Marksville, Mars-Active, Martinsburg (continued), Martinsburg (ended), . . . . , MassachuBetts-Lawnsdale, . Massasinewa, Maihias Point, McDowell's, McMinnville, Mechanicsville Memphis, Merrimac in Hampton Roads, . . . Middle Creek Middletown Milliken'a Bend, Mill Spring (Logan Cross Roads),. . Mine Run (ended), Mingo Swamp, Monk's Corner . . Moniior-Merrimac Monmouth, Monocacy Monterey Montgomery, ar-med-shiv, .... Moore's Creek, . . .... Moorfields, . . . . Moravian towns Mount Washington, . Mumfordsville Murfreesboro Murfreesboro (continued), . Murfreesboro (continued) Murfreesboro (continued) Murfreesboro (ended), . . Nashville (continued), . . Nashville (ended) Near Baltimore Near Donaldsonville, ... Near New Orleans, Near New (Orleans, Near Opelousas Near Poraeroy, . . . ... Near Tabasco . . New Berme, New Bridge New Lisbon New London New Market Heights (continued), . New Market Heights (continued), . New Market Heights (ended), . . . New Market, Pa., New Orleans New Orleans, New Orleans, Newtown, Niagara batteries Niagara (Lundy's Lane) Ninety-six, ... ... Nonesuch-'privateer Norfolk-Picaroons. ... .... North Anna (continued), . ... North Anna (ended) Oak Grove, near Richmond, . . . Off Charleston, ... Ogdensburg, ... ... Old River Olustee Operations at Mine Run, Va. (contin- ued) Operations at Mine Run (continued), Opequan, Oswego HISTORY 17 AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued DATS Name op Battle Opponent ViCTOK CASUALTIES United States Killed Wo'nd'd Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd May 8, Deo. 31, Feb. 2, Aug. 18, Nov. 5, April 29, June 30, March 6, March 7, March 8, July 20, April 22, Oct. 8, April June June 20, June 30, July 31, 2, 19, 1846 1862 1864 1779 1812 1814 1815 1862 1862 1862 1864 1847 1862 1865 1864 1864 1864 1864 Aug. 31, Oct. 30, Feb. 16, Oct. 20, June 5, Jan. 5, Oct. 25, Aug. 13, April 6, . April 7, Sept. 11, April 8, April 9, April 20, Oct. 22, Oct. 23, May 1, MarohlS, June 14, May 27, June 9, Nov. 7, April 10, Dec. 7, Sept. 30, Oct. 1, June 23, Jan. 15, Oct. 9, Jan. Deo. 4, Jan. 9, May 7, May 15, Feb. 7, Deo. 31, Oct. 13, Sept. 3, March 7, April 24, Oct. 16, May 5, Nov. 7, May 12, Aug. 25, Oct. 22, Jan. 14, April 7, April 26, May 13, May 9, March29, Aug. 30, Feb. 8, Feb. 12, Nov. 6, Sept. 16, Dec. 19, April 8, Sept. 8, Jan. 21, July 6, May 29, April 6, 1864 1864 1804 1863 1864 1781 1863 1863 1862 1862 1814 1864 1864 1864 1862 1862 1863 1863 1863 1863 1862 1861 1863 1862 1864 1864 1812 1815 1814 1777 1781 1779 1779 1847 1832 1775 1812 1777 1778 1778 1776 1813 1863 1863 1864 1777 1865 1864 1864 1864 1847 1813 1862 1862 1864 1863 1812 1776 1864 1863 1863 1776 1813 1865 Palo Alto Parker's Cross-Roads, Paterson Creek, Faulus Hook Paul Jones-Hassan Peacock-Epervier Peacock-Nautilus Pea Ridge (continued) Pea Ridge (continued) Pea Ridge (ended), Peach Tree Creek, Perote, Perryville, Petersburg Petersburg (from June 15), . . . . Petersburg (continued to June 30), . Petersburg (ended) Petersburg (from July 1, exclusive of losses at the Crater and Deep Bot- tom) Petersburg (August 1 to August 31), Petersburg (September 1-October 30) Philadelphia (frigate) Philadelphia, Tenn Piedmont Pilgrim-Mary, Pine Bluff Pineville, Pittsburgh Landing (continued). . . Pittsburgh Landing (ended) Plattsburg Pleasant Hill (continued) Pleasant Hill (ended), Plymouth, . • . , Pocotaligo (continued), Pocotaligo (ended), Port Gibson Port Hudson, Port Hudson Port Hudson, Port Republic, Port Royal Prairie d'Anne Prairie Grove Preble's Farm (continued), . . . Preble's Farm (ended) President-Belvidere President-ETidymion, Prince de Neuchatel-Endymion, . . . Princeton, . .* Prosperity-privateer Protector-Admiral Duff Providence-Diligent Puebla, Qualla BaUao Quebec, Queenstown, Raleigh-Druid, Randolph-Yarmouth Ranger-Drake, Ranger-privateer, Rapids of Miami, Rappahannock Station Raymond Ream's Station Red Bank, Red Hill, . . .... Red River, .... . . Red River, . Resaca, Resaca de la Palma Revenge-Narcissus Richmond, Ky Roanoke Island Rook House, Rogersville, Rossie-Princess Amelia Rover-Africa Sabine Cross-Roads Sabine Pass Sabine Pass Sach&m-privateer Sackett'a Harbor Sailor's Creek Mexican Conf. Conf. English English EngUsh Enghsh Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Mexican Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Tripoli tans Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. EngUsh English English English Enghsh Enghsh English Mexican Malays English English English English English English Englinh Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Mexican English Conf. Conf. Conf. Coiif. English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. U.S. U.S. Conf. U.S. U.S. U. S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U. S. U.S. U.S. U.S. * U.S. U.S. U. s. U.S. U.S. U.S. Conf. U.S. U. S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Conf. Conf. Conf. U. s. u. s. * Conf. Conf. U. S. U. S. U. S. U. S. U. S. U. S. Eng. U.S. U. S. U. S. U. S. U.S. u s. U.S. Eng. Eng. U.S. Eng. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. * U.S. U. S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Eng. Conf. u. s. u. s. Conf. U. S. U.S. Conf. Conf. Conf. U. S. U.S. U.S. 4 23 2 203 301 916 298 1,298 'iii 419 87 170 26 130 4 17 3 l!735 37 "99 41 84 130 8 250 293 67 8 8 167 42 139 3t 3 1 2 972 1,411 3 2,943 2,565 7,474 '506 2,076 484 822 1 73 650 16 40 18 7,882 62 688 59 'i52 718 7 680 1,549 361 23 15 798 141 788 3 19 24 56 7 23 31 64 3 8 1 3 4 10 18 62 2 11 18 42 90 160 1 2 311 2 6 3 11 80 101 149 250 69 341 127 546 11 21 7 27 23 39 17 31 .598 2,147 39 83 3 199 689 47 198 3 5 .■> 12 8 3 199 893 17 19 1 3 1 3 21 84 166 1,014 102 48 4 5 1 8 6 1,040 880 980 341 984 801 799 101 240 loot 34 633 13 39 28 1,128 50 348 125 '14 144 188 110 104 11 18 164 214 2 11 33 49 4 140 8 83 120t 1 60 6 5 18 16 IS 80 103 289 142 14 45 28 861 160 153 25 15 3 3 23 486 2 29 268 127 152 5t 12 1 16 8 3,638 3,916 4 1,520 3,092 6,721 . l',4i7 4,023 605 761 62 2,337 22 111 92 8,6i2 98 1,654 174 'i62 832 364 173 796 48 36 817 686 22 14 37 151 9 3 19 142 200t 8 101 26 12 24 24 45 160 720 1,211 258 36 88 61 1,949 228 1 248 30 23t 24 1,024 2 6 101 2,032 18 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Date Name of Battle Feb. 3, Dec. 21, Jan. 12, April 30, Jan. S, July 1, July 2, July 3, Feb. 16, Nov. 21, July 10, July 11, July 12, June 22, Oct. 7, Deo. 22, Oct. 8, Deo. 10, April 30, Nov. 10, Oct. 3, Deo. 29, Oct. 8, Jan. 10, June 16, April 2, May 31, June 27, July 15, May 12, May 3, Aug. 18, Aug. 19, Aug. 20, Aug. 21, March 30, April 19, April 20, Sept. 14, March 26, July 3, May 8, May 9, May 11, May 18, Jan. 8, March 5, June 17, Dec. 26, Sept. 19, June 28, Aug. 11, June 6, Jan. 23, July 29, Aug. 18, July 16, April 28, Jan. 28, Jan. 20, May 9, May 10, Oct. 26, Nov. 9, Nov. 3, June 30, March 4, March 5, July 4, May 10, Nov. 7, Nov. 12, Feb. 20, Dec. 25, June 11, June 12, Aug. 7, June 2, April 9, Feb. 22, July 15, 1865 1779 184S 1814 1847 1898 1898 1898 1847 1847 1898 1898 1898 1898 1777 1778 1780 1812 1814 1813 1814 1778 1779 1865 1862 1865 1862 1863 1863 1780 1863 1864 1864 1864 1864 1863 1864 1862 1862 1865 1898 1864 1864 1864 1864 1863 1863 1863 1781 1777 1779 1814 1813 1813 1863 1864 1779 1863 1815 1864 1864 1864 1846 1813 1813 1847 1863 1863 1863 177S 1811 1813 1865 1776 1864 1864 1781 1780 1777 1864 1864 April 18, 1847 June 13, 1776 Sakelhatohie Sally-transports San Bias Sandy Creek San Gabriel San Juan (continued) San Juan (continued), .... San Juan (ended), San Josij San Jos^ Santiago (continued), Santiago (continued), . . Santiago (ended) Santiago forts bombarded, . . . Saratoga Saraioga-Chance Saratoga^MoUy Saraioga-Morijiana, Saucy Jack-Pelham, ... Saucy Jack-Sherbroke, ... Saucy Jack-troop ship, . . . Savannah, Savannah, ... Scottaboro, ... . . Secessionville Selma Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, . Shelbyville Shepardatown Siege of Charleston (ended), . Siege of Suffolk, N. C. (ended), . Six-Mile House (continued), . Six-Mile House (continued), . Six-Mile House (continued), . Six-Mile House (ended),. . Somerset, Southfield-Albemarle, . , . South Mills or Camden, . . South Mountain, Spanish Fort (to April 8), . • . . . Spanish squadron destroyed off Santiago Spottsylvania (continued), Spottsylvania (continued), Spottsylvania (ended) Spottsylvania (continued), Springfield, Spring Hill St. Charles St, James-ship (armed), .... Stillwater, . . Stone Ferry Stonington, . . Stony Creek, ... Stony Creek, , . . Stony Lake Strawberry Plains, etc., . . . Stony Point Streight's Raid (to May 3), . . . . Surprise-Star, Sturgis* Raid (January 16-28),. . , Swift Creek (continued), . . Swift Creek (ended), Tabasco, Talladega, Talluschatches, ... Tamultay Thompson's Station (continued), . . Thompson's Station (ended), . Tibb's Bend Ticonderoga Tippecanoe, . . Tom-Townsend Town Creek Trenton Trevilian Station (continued), . . Trevilian Station (ended), . . . Trumbull-Ins, . . Trumbull-WaU, . .... Trumbull-transports, Tunnel Hill Tupelo, Harrisonburg, and Old Town (!jreek . . Tuspan Tyrannidde-Dispaich Victor CASUii lLTIES Opponent United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Conf. U.S. 18 70 20 80 English * 5 12 6 11 Mexican U.S. 2 3 8 English U.S. 1 3 13 28 Mexican U.S. 2 9 70 150 Spanish U.S. Spanish U.S. Spanish Mexican U.S. 161 1,007 204 1,340 U.S. 3 8 13 30t Mexican U.S. 3 8 20 Spanish U.S. Spanish U.S. Spanish U.S. 2 13 Spanish English 1 11 (?) (7) U.S. 32 61 98 166 EngUsh U.S. 4 9 5 13 English U.S. 2 4 6 10 English U.S. 3 7 2 5 English U.S. 2 9 4 11 English U.S. 3 2 5 EngUsh U.S. 8 15 3 2 English Eng. 28 69 7 19 English Eng. 98 136 20 35 Conf. U.S. 1 8 14 32 Conf. Conf. 137 438 63 141 Conf. U.S. 163 347 198 409 Conf. * 891 3,627 1,987 2,233 Conf. U.S. 143 361 164 344 Conf. * 22 78 34 66 English Eng. 92 142 76 189 Conf. U.S. 15 94 898 1,202 Conf. u. s. Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 212 1,155 862 3,138 Conf. U.S. 11 38 24 73 Conf. Conf. 2 12 Conf. U.S. 15 98 12 67 Conf. U.S. 312 1,234 224 860 Conf. U.S. 99 695 152 401 Spanish U.S. 1 1 342 461 Conf. U.S. Conf. . U.S. Conf. U.S. 3,288 19,278 3,342 20,187 Conf. U.S. 2,031 7,956 1,762 7,248 Conf. U.S. 14 145 23 164 Conf. Conf. 8 14 1 4 Conf. U.S. 136 20 6 8 English * 1 4 3 8 English U.S. 98" 252 161 328 English Eng. 51 99 31 63 English U.S. 1 5 21 55 English Eng. Ind. 17 38 20t 30 Indians 400 Indians U.S. 12 42 32 98 Conf. U.S. 401 1,764 338 762 English U.S. 20 70 63 31 Conf. U.S. 12 69 English U.S. 1 1 Conf. U.S. 6 17 30 62 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 90 401 124 376 Mexican U.S. 4 10 Indians U.S. 15 86 299 Indians U.S. 5 41 186 Mexican U.S. 6 53 42 103 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 99 301 162 463 Conf. U.S. 6 23 280 687 English U.S. Indians U.S. 37 151 120 iso English U.S. 2 8 13 Conf. U.S. ■5t 8t 8t 18t English U.S. 2 4 17 78 Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 85 490 124 582 English ■ Eng. 5 U 3 English 19 20 39 52 English U.S. 7 8 9 14 Conf. U.S. 150t 200t 80t 180 Conf. U.S. 85 563 184 516 Mexican U.S. 3 11 25 34 English U.S. 1 2 2 5 HISTORY 19 AMERICAX BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Name of Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES Date United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd March29, 1779 Jan. 5, 1813 Jan. 30, 1864 Turannieide-Rewnge Utior-boats, Underwriter^ English Enghsh Conf. English English Conf. Mexican Conf. Conf. English English Mexican Mexican Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Indians Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Indians English Japanese Conf. English Conf. English English English U.S. U.S. Conf. Eng. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. u. s. U.S. Conf. Conf. U.S. Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Eng. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. * U.S. U.S. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Conf. Conf. Conf. * U.S. Eng. U.S. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. * U.S. 9 1 5 30 23 3 1 11 17 1,848 724 545 2 3 6 11 "76- 250 604 84 34 24 52 8 63 "so 2;369 6 456 2 223 76 99 38 203 8 225 6 21 42 66 8 8 2 20 3 7 70 3 33 5 3 56 70 3 2,378 '996 3,688 1 10 5 15 ■339 130 2,494 110 42 66 148 23 144 '42i 12,i88 40 1,400 3 721 265 598 154 '39'7 24 4 62 2 108 203 16 11 1 6 36 60 8 2 63 4 3 981 126 7 i,i26 63 25 10 4 15 25 163 5 156 3 65 89 162 194 42 132 i;956 82 351 3 331 48 352 68 "56 1 84 2 100 3 2 74 loot 6 199 22 7 32 Jan. 26, 1813 2 Oct. 25, 1812 June 21, 1863 Nov. 19, 1847 United Stales-Macedonian Upperville, Urias, 68 100 12 Feb. 28, 1863 Maroh20, 1863 Van Buren, Ark Vaughfs Hill 5 241 Oct. 15, 1779 Sept. 18, 1778 March24, 1847 April 21, 1914 April 16, 1863 May 19, 1863 May 22, 1863 May 25, 1863 Deo. 27, 1862 Deo. 28, 1862 July 4, 1863 Sept. 1, 1814 Vengeance-Deiiance Vengeance-Harriet Vera Cruz Vera Cruz, . . 11 8 2,000t 195 18 Vicksburg (continued to May 22), . Vicksburg (continued to May 25), . Vicksburg (ended), Vicksburg assault (continued), . . . Vicksburg assault (ended), . . . Vicksburg (ended) Wasp-Avon 2,i5i isi 20 32 Oct. 6, 1782 Oct. 18, 1812 June 28, 1814 Wasp-packet Wasp-Frolic, Wasp-Reindeer, ... 17 47 42 Oct. 27, 1863 Oct. 28, 1863 Oct.. 29, 1863 May 15, 1780 WauLatchie (continued), . . Wauhatchie (continued), . . . Wauhatchie (ended) Waxhaws, . .' '208 14 June 17, 1863 June 23, 1864 May 7, 1862 Weehawken- Atlanta Weldon Railroad, West Point 8 344 ISt June 29, 1862 Oct. 25, 1776 White Oak Swamp White Plains 86^ 144 June 27, 1864 White River 341 Sept. 3, 1863 Aug. 26, 1863 March 8, 1865 March 9, 1865 March] 0, 1865 May 5, 1864 May 6, 1864 May 7, 1864 Nov. 14, 1813 Whitestone Hill White Sulphur Springs, . . . Wilcox's Bridge (continued), . Wilcox's Bridge (continued), . . Wilcox's Bridge (ended), . . Wilderness (continued), Wilderness (continued) Wilderness (ended), 42 75 '643 10,444 May 6, 1862 Feb. 8, 1865 Williamsburg Williston Station, 1,403 6 Aug. 10, 1861 June 30, 1864 March 22, 1865 May 25, 1862 June 14, 1863 June 15, 1863 Feb. 19, 1862 Sept. 22, 1862 July 3, 1778 July 16, 1863 July 18, 1863 Wilson Creek Wilson's Raid (June 22-30) Wilson's Raid (to April 24) Winchester Winchester (continued) Winchester (ended) Winton, N. C Wood Lake 764 252 1,231 329 "si 4 138 Wyoming, or Fort Forty Wyoming-Japanese batteries, .... Wytheville 8 200 8 Aug. 1, 1812 May 19, 1864 April 27, 1813 April 18, 1814 Oct. 19, 1781 Yankee-Royal Bounty Yellow Bayou, York York-Lord Somers Yorktown (ended) 7 158 302 12 353 Arabia. The historjr of Arabia before the time of Mohammed is involved in mystery. The aborigines of Arabia were probably Cush- ites, most of whom passed over into Abyssinia. A few, however, remained, who inhabited the west coasts. Subsequently another Semitic race, descended from Abraham, settled in the land. The oldest Arabian tribes are now ex- tinct, and only a traditional memory even of their names exists; but the Semitic chiefs, Joktan, or Kahtan, and Ishmael, are generally considered to be the fathers of the present in- habitants. Christianity found an early entrance into Arabia. The Jews, in considerable num- bers, migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and made many proselytes. The great diversity of creeds m the peninsula was favorable to the introduction of the doctrine of Mohammed, which forms the grand epoch in Arabian history, and brings it into close connec- tion with the general history of civilization. Now, for the first time, the people of Arabia became united, and powerful enough to erect new empires in the three quarters of the world. The dominion of the Arabs, from the time of Mohammed to the fall of the caliphate of Bag- dad in 1258, or even to the expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1492, is an important period in the history of civilization. But the movements which had such great effect on the destinies of other nations produced but little change in the interior of Arabia; and after the brilliant career of conquest was ended the penin- sula was left in an exhausted condition. Then 20 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS followed the subjugation of Yemen by the Turks in the Sixteenth Century; their expulsion in the Seventeenth Century; the dominion of the Portuguese over Muscat, 1508-1659; the con- quests of Oman and the temporary victories gained by the Persians at the close of the Six- teenth Century; and, lastly, the appearance of the Wahhabees (1770), whose moral influence is still felt. The latter took an important part in the poMtical affairs of Arabia, but their progress was interrupted by Mehemet Ah, the Pasha of Egypt, who subjugated the coast country of Hedjaz, with some parts of the coast of Yemen, and in 1818 gained a decisive advantage through the victory of Ibrahim Pasha. The subsequent events of the year 1840, in Syria compelled Mehemet, however, to concentrate his forces and to resign all claims upon the territories lying beyond the Red Sea. PohticaEy, Hedjaz, Yemen, and El Hasa are really three Turkish provinces; the Sinaitic peninsula is in Egyptian hands; England exercises much influence in Hadramaut through her possession of Aden; the Sultan of Oman is practically independent, and in alliance with England. Argentina, Republic of. In 1515, Juan Diaz de Solis, while searclung for a passage into the Great South Sea newly seen by Balboa, entered the Rio de La Plata. In 1526, Sebastian Cabot, son of the discoverer of Newfoundland, penetrated nearly to the confliience of the Parana and the Paraguay, being arrested by the rapids, which afterwards gave name to Corrientes. In 1535, Buenos Ayres was founded, to command the only outlet of the country. In conjunction with its own colony of Montevideo, on the oppo- site bank, it has virtually monopoUzed the history of a region equal in extent to Western Europe. Gradually other cities were planted, partly by col- onists from Spain, and partly by adventurers from Peru, each city generally giving its own name to its own province. The chief staples of the country — horses and cattle — had been largely introduced before 1552. Down to 1775, the basin of the|Rio de La Plata was a depen- dency of the vioeroyalty of Peru. In that year, however, was erected the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, which, to the basin in question, added Bolivia, under the name of Upper Peru, thus embracing the headwaters of the Amazon, and also most of the plateau of Titicaca. The year 1806 ushered in a new order of things. Spain, as an ally of France, being then at war with Eng- land, both Buenos Ayres and Montevideo were occupied by the English — ■ a change which, brief as was its duration, virtually sowed the seeds of revolution. The colonists had felt the incon- venience of belonging to a state which left them, in a great measure, to defend themselves; they had successfully tried their strength against a foe more powerful than their own masters; and they had been encouraged not less by the say- ings than by the doings of their invaders to assert their independence. The triumphant militia, after deposing and expelling the legiti- mate viceroy for cowardice, elected in his stead the French officer who had led them to victory. Thus had the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres be- come peculiarly ripe for taking its share in the outbreak which Napoleon's dethronement of the Bourbons, in 1808, almost immediately occa- sioned throughout Spanish America. The con- stituents of the Argentine RepubUc did not> however, submit to the sovereignty of Joseph Bonaparte when he was shuffled on to the Spamsh throne to replace Ferdinand VII. In 1810, they organized a government in the name of Ferdinand. After a short and inglorious period, this arrange- ment ended in utter confusion. In 1816, a Gen- eral Congress declared the independence of the "United Provinces of Rio de La Plata"; but those provinces, in 1827, returned once more to a state of isolation. In 1831, Buenos Ayres, Entre Rios, Corrientes, and Santa Fe, sometimes classed as the coast or riverine states, entered into a federal compact, and invited the others to form a voluntary alliance with them. This Argentine Confederation led to Uttle but anarchy till 1835, when General Rosas was elected cap- tain general or governor of it, with all but absolute power. He secured quiet and order for a time; but his struggles to achieve the military and commercial supremacy of Buenos Ayres led to his overthrow in 1851. Buenos Ayres, refusing to submit to Urquiza, the next gov- ernor of the Argentine Republic, declared itself independent in 1854,. but was compelled by a signal defeat at Cepeda in 1859 to reenter the con- federation. Continuing restless, however, another war placed that province in the position of supremacy which it still holds. In 1881, the Argen- tine RepubUc, in conjunction with Chile, came into possession of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego . A financial crisis in 1890 did much to temporarily retard the industrial progress of the republic. In 1906-07, immigration was encouraged on an extensive scale, and railroad building received a renewed impetus. The immigration law of 1911 excluded all but able-bodied immigrants. In 1912 Argentina spent more money on educa^ tion than on her army and navy combined. Arizona. Evidence contained in numerous ruins indicates Arizona was the home of a highly civihzed race before it was visited by Europe- ans. It was entered by Fray Marcos, a Spanish friar from Mexico, in 1539, and first extensively explored by Coronado in 1540. Indian missions and military posts were from time to time tem- porarily established but the first permanent settlement dates from the founding of the pre- sidio at Tucson in 1776. Arizona originally formed a part of Mexico and was ceded to the United States alongiwith New Mexico, February 2, 1848. It was separated from New Mexico and made a territory, February 24, 1863. Indian troubles in some measure hindered the development of the country, but the popula- tion of the territory steadily increased in propor- tion as larger tracts, of desert land were reclaimed by irrigation, and the mineral resources of the region were utilized. Arizona was admitted to the Union, February 14, 1912, being the 48th state and last territory admitted. In the same year suffrage was granted to women, and in 1914 state-wide Prohibition was adopted. Arkansas. The name, derived from the Indian, signifies "smoky water," with a French prefix meaning "bow." The State was origi- nally a portion of the Louisiana Territory pur- chased from the French in 1803. When the HISTORY 21 State of Louisiana was admitted, in 1812, the remaining portion was organized as Missouri Territory, wliicli name it held till 1819, when Missouri formed a State Co&stitution, and Ar- kansas became a Territory under its present name. It became a State in 1836. The people gassed the ordinance of secession on May 6, 1861. •uring the Civil War the principal battles fought within the State boundaries were Pea Ridge, Prairie Grove, Arkansas Post, and Hel- ena. Arkansas Was temporarily reorganized as a State in the Union in 1864, but it was rele- gated to military goveriunent under the recon- struction acts of 1867. The new constitution was adopted in 1868, and the State resumed per- manent federal relations. On February 6, 1915, the legislature, by an overwhelming vote, adopted a statutory enactment enforcing state-wide Pro- hibition, which took effect January 1, 1916. Armada. A Spanish word, signifying gen- erally an armed force, but applied specially to the great naval expedition sent out against England by Philip of Spain, A. D. 1588. The object of the expedition was to strike'a decisive blow at the Protestant interest. The expedition had been long in preparation, and consisted of no fewer than 132 vessels, chiefly galleons, which carried, besides 8,000 sailors and the galley- slaveS, an army of 20,000 men. These were destined for the coast of jPlanders, where Alex- ander Farnese, Prince of Parma, was to embark with 35,000 men in addition. The news of these hostile preparations aroused all the enthusiasm of England. Her navy, which had been reduced to thirty-six ships, was rapidly increased until 191 vessels were ready for sea. These were placed under the command of Lord Howard of EflBhgham, ,ulider whom served Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, and others. The command of the army was given to the Earl of Leicester. The main body of the ships was stationed off Ply- mouth, while a squadron, under Lord Seymour, was ordered to cruise off the coast of Flanders, The Armada set out from the Tagus on the 29th of May. On the 19th of July, the fleet (which had beer! delayed by storms) was observed en- tering the Channel. On the 23d there was a wholg day's fighting off Portland, and the 25th saw a similar scene with a similar result — the capture or crippling of Spanish ships — off the Isfe Of Wight. On the 27th, the fleet anchored off Calais. Two nights later, eight small vesselSj daubed with pitch and resin, and filled with explosive substances, were drifted down with the tide towards the floating castles, and were set on flre. In the panic wmch the fire and the frequent crashes struck through the Spanish fleet, many vessels cut their cables and cleared off from the shore, whUe others were disabled or serioUslyinjured. Next morningthe scattered vessels of the Armada fell an easy prey to the English shipfe, which, being much smaller than those of the Spaniards, had been more easily maneuvered. Four thousand Spaniards were killed. Many of their vessels were either taken, slink, or driven ashore. The rest fled northward at the bidding of their admiral, who saw no way home but round the northern coast of Scotland ; and, at the end of September, fifty- three weather-beat^ and mutilated ships, aU that remained of "The Invincible Armada," were brought to anchor in Santander Bay. Assembly. The four great legislative bodies which succeeded each other during the period of the first French revolution are usually termed: (1) The National or Constituent Assenir- hly, commenced June 17, 1789, by the resolution of the deputies of the communes in the States- General, constituting themselves a national as- sembly, to which the deputies of the nolDles and clergy afterwards adhered; temed Constituent Assembly from having frameo a constitution; dissolved on the acceptance of the constitution by the king, September 30, 1791. (2) The Legis- lative Assembly. It commenced its sittings Octo- ber 1, 1791; suspended the royal authority by its decree of August 10, 1792; and was dissolved September 21, 1792. (3) The Convention. It cottimenced its sittings September 21, 1792, with a proclamation of the Republic • was dis- solved 4 Brumaire, fourth year of the Repub- lic (October 26, 1795). (4) Two-thirds of this assembly were then included in the new body of the Corps Ugislatif, 'which commenced its sittings October 27, 1795, forming the Council of the Five Hundred (des Cinq-Cents), and the Council of the Ancients (deS Anciens), 250 in number. The latter body was named the Di- rectory. This assembly subsisted until the disso- lution of the Directory by Bonaparte, 17 Bru- maire, eighth year of the Republic (November 10, 1799). The term AssembUe Nationale was revived by the legislative body under the second Republic, May, 1848; and under the third Republic, 1870. Assyria (ds-s^r're-ah'). The name of the first great empire of antiquity recorded in Holy Writ._ Assyria Proper, including Nineveh, was a region east of the Tigris aifd derived its name from Asshur, the second son of Shem. It ap- pears to have comprised the modern pashalics of Van and Diarbekr, with Pensarmenia, includ- ing at least part of Azerbijan and corresponding almost exactly to modern Kurdistan. The first empire of Assyria was founded by Belus, B. C. 1993. Ninus, son of Belus (1968-1916), and his widow, Semiramis (1916-1874), were its most famous monarchs. The last of their successors, Sardanapalus, infamous for his luxury and volup- tuousness, was dethroned by his subjects, and burned himself in his palace, with his eunuchs, concubines, and all his treasures, about 820 B.C. The empire was then divided into Media, Assyria, and Babylonia. §almanassar, or Shalmaneser, conquered Judea about 724 B. C. The second empire of Assyria finished with Nabopolassar, who united Assyria to Babylonia, B. C. 625. Assyria, with Babylonia, was conquered by Cyrus, B. C. 538, and became a province of Persia. Augur (au'giir). A public officer appointed to interpret the will of the gods, as expressed by signs or omens, for national or individual guid- ance. Their office was one of great importance in the state, as no enterprises or ceremonies were performed unless they declared the omens fa- vorable. Accordingly, the members of their col- lege were always elected from the most honorable citizens. Their divinations were called auguries or auspices, between which there is sometimes a distinction made, the latter meaning such as 22 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS were derived from the inspection of birds, the former being extended to aU omens or prodigies whatever. The Augurs bore a staff or wand as the ensign of their authority. Their office was suppressed, 390 A. D. Austria-Hungary. The histonr of Aus- tria is the history of the House of Habsburg. When Rudolph of Habsburg became Emperor of Germany, and Ottokar, Kmg of Bohemia and Duke of Austria, Styria, and Carinthia, refused to take the oath of allegiance, the emperor succeeded in dispossessing him of his fiefs (1278), and subsequently coirferred them on his son (1282). Thus the dynasty of Habsburg was founded. In the first half> of the Sixteenth Cen- tury, Duke Ferdinand of Austria was elected King of Hungary by one party, John Zapolya of Transylvania by another. After several wars, in which John was supported by the Turks, Ferdinand came out victorious and united Hun- gary to Austria. Possessed of a large territory, fertile and densely peopled, the House of Habs- burg was for several centuries the richest and most powerful family %i Europe. But humiUa- tions came with Napoleon. Driven out of Ger- many, the Emperor Francis assumed, August 11, 1804, the title of Emperor of Austria. After the fall of Napoleon, Austria was restored to its former size, and under the administration of Mettemich it also regained its prestige in Euro- pean politics. But its internal weakness became apparent, first by the revolution of 1848, when only the support of Russia prevented the whole fabric from falling to pieces, and then after the battle of Sadowa, 1866, when, for the second time, it was driven out of Germany, and lost its hold on Italy. The empire was then consti- tuted as a double state — Austria and Hungary. In 1878 the adminietration of Bosnia and Herze- govina was given to Austria. In 1882 the dual kingdom entered into the Triple Alliance with Germany and Italy. Thereafter the policy of the Habsburg rule became more and more identi- fied with the HohenzoUem ambition for world domination. In 1909 Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in defiance of Russia. With Germany's support in 1913, Austria, by securing a protectorate over Albania and by denying Servia access to the sea, prevented the Balkan allies from reahzing the fruits of their victory over the Turks. Francis Ferdinand, Austrian heir apparent, was assassinated at Serajevo, June 28, 1914. Accusing Servia of complicitjr, Austria-Hungary demanded that Servia punian the accomplices and suppress anti-Austrian influence. Reject- ing Servia's reply, Austria declared war on Servia, July 28, 1914. Russian mobilization in behalf of Servia began at once. Austria de- clared war on Russia Aug. 6. Germany sup- ported Austria. Great Britain and France, sup- porting Russia, declared war upon Austria Aug. 13. The Austrian attack on Servia in 1914 failed. The Russians, invading Galicia, took Lemberg, Sept. 22. March 22, 1915, Przemysl fell to the Russians but, June 3, was retaken. Austria regained Lemberg and in May, 1915, drove the Russian forces out of the Carpathians. Italy, May 23, 1915, declared war on Austria. In Oct., 1915, Austria completely occupied Servia. During Oct. — ^Dec, 1916, the Teutonic armies conquered most of Rumania. Emperor Francis Joseph died Nov. 21, and was succeeded by his grandnephew Charles I. Oct. 24 — ^Nov. 9, 1917, the Austro-German forces recaptured Gorizia and occupied ItaUan territory as far as the Piave river. In June, 1918, the Austrian offensive against the Italian armies failed. Following the utter defeat of the Austrian armies by the ItaUan counter-stroke beginning Oct. 24, Austria- Hungary, on Nov. 3, signed terms of truce equivalent to military surrender. On Nov. 11 Charles I. abdicated his throne, thereby ending more than 600 years of Habsburg rule. Battles (The fifteen decisive), according to Professor Creasy: (1) Mar&thon (B. C. 490), in which the Greeks, imder Miltiad^s, defeated Darius, the Persian, and turned the tide of Asiatic invasion. (2) Syracuse (B. C. 413), in which the Athenian power was broken, andithe extension of Greek domination was prevented. (3) Arbelq (B. C. 331), by which Alexander overthrew Darius, and introduced European habits into Asia. (4) Metauncs (B. C. 207), in which the Romans defeated Hannibal, and Car- thage was brought to ruin. (5) Arminius (A. D. 9), in which the Gauls overthrew the Romans under Varus, and established their in- dependence. (6) Chdltms (A. D. 451), in which Attila, "the Scourge of God," was defeated by Aetius, and Europe saved from utter devasta- tion. (7)- Tours (A. D. 732), in which Charles Martel overthrew the Saracens, and broke from Europe the Mohammedan yoke. (8) Hastings (A. D. 1066), by which William of Normandy became possessed of the English Crown. (9) Orleans (A. D. 1429), by which Jeanne d'Arc raised the siege of the city, and secured the independence of France. (10) Armada (The), (A. D. 1588), which crushed the hopes of Spain and of the papacy in England. (11) Blenheim (A. D. 1704), in which Marlborough, by the defeat of Tallard, broke the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. (12) Pultowa (A. D. 1709), in which Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and the stability of the Muscovite Empire was established. , (13) Saratoga (A. D. 1777), in which General Gates defeated Burgojme, and virtually decided the fate of the American Revolution. (14) Valmy (A. D. 1792), in which the allied armies, imder the Duke of Brunswick, were defeated by the French revolutionists, and the Revolution was suffered to go on. (15) Waterloo (A. D. 1815), in which Wellington defeated Napoleon, and rescued Europe from French domination. Belgium. The territory now known as Belgium formed only a section of that known to CsBsar as the territory of the Belgse, extending from the Seine to the Rhine, and to the ocean. This district continued under Roman sway till the decline of the empire; subsequently formed part of the Kingdom of Clovis; and then of that of Charlemagne. After the breaking up of Charle- magne's empire, Belgium formed part of the Kingdom of Lotharingia under Charlemagne's grandson, Lothaire; Artois and Flanders, how- ever, belonged to France by the treaty of Verdun. HISTORY 23 For more than a century this kingdom was contended for by the kings of France and the emperors of Germany. In 953, it was conferred by the Emperor Otto upon Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, who assumed the title of archduke, and divided it into two duchies: Upper and Lower Lorraine. In the frequent struggles which took place during the eleventh century, Luxemburg, Namur, Hainaut, and Li6ge usually sided with France, while Brabant, Holland, and Flanders commonly took the side of Germany. The con- test between the'civic and industrial organiza- tions and feudalism, which went on through the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and in which Flanders bore a leading part, was temporarily closed by the defeat of the Gheritese under Van Artevelde in 1382. In 1384, Flanders and Artois fell to the House of Burgundy, which, in less than a century, acquired the whole of the Netherlands. The death of Charles the Bold at Nancy, in his attempt to raise the duchy into a kingdom (1477), was followed by the succession and marriage of his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, jjy which the Netherlands became an Austrian possession. With the accession, however, of the Austrian House of Habsburg to the Spanish throne, the Netherlands beqame the scene of increasingly severe persecution under Charles V. and PhiUp II. of Spain. Driven to rebellion, the seven northern states under William of Orange, the Silent, succeeded in establishing their independ- ence, but the southern portion, or Belgium, continued under the Spanish yoke. From 1598 to 1621, the Spanish Netherlands were transferred as an independent kingdom to the Austrian branch of the family by the mar- riage of Isabella, daughter of Phihp II., with the Archduke Albert of Austria. He died childless, and they reverted to Spain. Twice conquered by Louis XIV., conquered by Marlborough, coveted by all the powers, deprived of territory by Holland and by France, the Southern Nether- lands in 1714, by the peace of Utrecht, again came under the dominion of Austria, with the name of the Austrian Netherlands. During the Austrian war of succession the French, under Saxe, conquered nearly the whole country, but restored it in 1748 by[the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Belgium regained much of her prosperity under Maria Theresa and Charles of Lorraine. On the succession of Joseph II. a serious insurrection occurred, the Austrian army being defeated at Turnhout, and the provinces forming themselves into an independent state as United Belgium (1790) . Scarcely subdued by Austria, they were conquered by the revolutionary armies of France. I The Austrian rule practically ended with the battle of Fleurus (1794), and the French pos- session was confirmed by the treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and Luneville (1801). In 1815 Belgium was united by the Congress of Vienna to Holland, forming the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In 1830 a revolution resulted in the separation of the two countries. In 1831 Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, became king of Belgium. Upon the withdrawal of the Dutch claims in 1839, the neutrality and independence of Belgium were guaranteed by a treaty signed by Great Britain, France, Prussia, and Russia. After a prosperous reign of thirty-four years, Leopold was succeeded by his son Leopold II. in 1865. At the outbreak of the Franco-Prus- sian war in 1870, Great Britain signed a separate treaty with France and with Prussia, agreeing, in case either- belligerent should violate the neutrahty of Belgium, to aid the other in up- holding the treaty of 1839. In 1885 the Congress of Berlin constituted the Congo Free State and invited Leopold II. to be- come its sovereign. In 1890 the Congo Free State passed under the suzerainty of Belgium, and in 1908 was annexed to Belgium. In 1909 Leopold died and was succeeded by his nephew Albert I. On Aug. 2, 1914, Germany demanded free passage of German troops through Belgium to attack France. Belgium refused, and a German invasion began in direct violation of Germany's own signed guarantees. Li^ge fell Aug. 7. Belgian forces were defeated and compelled to retreat. Louvain was burned Aug. 27. On Aug. 20 the Germans took Brussels, levying a war tax of $40,000,000. Ghent and other cities were occupied. On Oct. 8 Antwerp fell. Hun- dreds of thousands of refugees found shelter in England, Holland, France, and America, many countries contributing millions of dollars to their relief. The remaining population was subjected to barbaric indignities and atrocities. Cities and towns were fined, their treasuries looted, their inhabitants shot and imprisoned, and their homes desp8iled. The machinery of factories was removed or destroyed and Belgian citizens deported for enforced labor in Germany. But Teutonic frightfulness failed to crush the national spirit. The army continued to fight heroically in the allied lines. The patriotism of the king and the loyalty of the people was unwavering. Finally, the invaders were forced out of the country. On Nov. 22, 1918, King Albert reentered Brussels at the head of the victorious army, and Belgium was proclaimed a free and independent nation. BISHOPS AND POPES OP ROME Pontiff PONTrFIOATE Surname Nationality Fir&t Century St. Peter, Linus, Cletua or Anaoletus, Clement, . . A. D. A. D. 41 67 67 79 79-91 91-100 Second Century Evaristus, Alexander I., Sixtus I., . . . 100-109 about 109-119 119-128 Roman. 24 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS BISHOPS AND POPES OP ROME — - Continued Pontiff Pontificate Sdrnamb NATiONALrrr A. D. A. D. ■ Telesphorus, 128 139 Greek. Hyginus, 139 142 Athfwian- Pius I 142 157 Native of Aquileia. Anicetua 157 168 Syrian. Soter, 168 176 177 190 Greek. Eleutherus, \ Greek. Victor I 190 202 African. ZephyrinuB 202 217 Third Century Calixtus I 217 222 Bomap, Urban I., . 222 ' 230 I(o^lan. Pontianus, . 230 235 Roman. AntlieriuB, . 235 236 1 Jreek. Fabianus, . 236 250 'rpbE^b^y Romaic. Cornelius, . 251 253 . lom^n. Lucius I., . 263 254 Rom^p, Stephen I., . 254 257 Roman. Sixtus II., . 257 258 fe?' Dionysius, . 259 268 Felix I., . . 269 274 , Rom9,n. Eutychianus, 275 283 Uncertain. Caius, . . . 283 296 Roinap. Fourth Century Marcellinus, 296 304 Roman. 304 309 Roman. Eusebius, ... 309 Roman. Melchiades, 310 314 African. ^ Sylvester I., . . . 314 335 Roman. Marcus 336 Roman. Julius I., 337 352 Roman. Roman. Liberius, 352 366 Damascus I., . . . 366 384 Spaniard. Sirioius, . . . . 384 398 Roman. Anastasius I., . 398 401 Fifth Century Jloman. Innocent I 401 417 Native of Albano. Zosimus, . . 417 418 Qr^ek. Boniface I., 418 422 Roman. Gelestinus I., 422 432 Sixtus III., 432 440 Roman. Leo I., ". The Jreat," 440 461 Roman. Hilariua, . . 461 468 Native of Sardinia. , Simplicius, . 468 483 Native of Tibur. ' Felix II., . 483 492 Roman. Gelasius, . . 492 496 Romw. Anastasius II. 496 498 1 Roman. Sixth Century Symmachus, . . . 498 514 Native of Sardinia. Honnisdas, . . . . - 614 623 Native of Frusino. Tuscan. John I 523 626 Felix III., 626 630 Native of Beneventuiri. Boniface II., 630 632 Roman. John II., . . 632 635 Roman. Agapetus I., 635 636 Roman. Sylveriua, . 636 537 Nativ? of Campania. Vigilius, . . Pelagius I., . 637 555 Roman. 666 560 Roman. John in., . 560 573 Roman. Benedict I., 574 578 Roman. Pelagius II., 578 590 Roman. Seventh Century • Gregory I., "The Great, " . 590 604 Roman. Sabinianus, 604 606 Tuscany. Boniface III 607 Roman, Native of Abruzzi. Boniface IV., . . . 608 615 615 618 619 626 Boniface V., . . . . 625 638 638 640 Severinus Roman. John IV 640 642 642 649 Theodore, Greek. 649 653 654 657 ^ Eugenius I Roman. Vitalianus, 657 672 Native of Signia. Adeodatus 672 676 Roman. Donus I 676 678 Roman. ' Agatho, 678 681 682 683 684 685 Sicilian. Leo II Benedict II., Roman. John V 685 686 686 687 Conon Native of Thrace. HISTORY 25 BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME — Continued Pontiff Pontificate Surname Nationality Sergius, . . . John VI.,. John VII., . Sisinnius, . . . Constantinus I., Gregory II., Gregory III., Zaohary, . . , Stephen II., . Paul I., . . Stephen III., Adrian I., . Leo III Stephen IV., Pascal I., Eugenius II., Valentine, Gregory IV., Sergius II., . Leo IV., . . Benedict III., Nicholas I., Adrian II., . John VIII., Martin II., Adrian III., Stephen V., Formosus, . Boniface VI., Stephen VI., Romanus, . Theodore II., John IX., Eighth A. D. 687 701 705 708 708 715 731 741 752 757 768 772 Ninth 795 816 817 824 827 827 844 847 855 858 867 872 882 884 885 891 896 896 897 897 898 Century A. D. 701 705 707 715 731 741 752 767 767 772 795 Century 816 817 824 827 844 847 855 858 867 872 882 884 885 891 897 900 Benedict IV., . Leo v., . Sergius III., Anastasius III. Landon, . JohnX., . . Leo VI., . . Stephen VII., John XI., . . Leo VII., . Stephen VIII., Martin III., . Agapetus II., John XII., . . Benedict V., John XIII.,. Benedict VI., Benedict VII., John XIV., Tenth Century 900 903 903 904 911 911 913 913 ' 914 914 929 929 929 931 931 936 936 939 939 942 942 946 946 955 955 964 John XV., • Gregory V., Sylvester II., John XVII., John XVIII., . Sergius IV., . Benedict VIII., John XIX., Benedict IX., Gregory VI., Clement II., . Damascus II.,. Leo IX Victor II., . . Stephen IX., . Nicholas II., . Alexander ll., . Gregory VII., ' Victor III., . Urban II., . . Pascal, Gelasius, 965 965 973 974 983 985 Eleventh 996 999 1003 1003 1009 1012 1024 1033 1045 1046 1048 1048 1054 1057 1058 1061 1073 1086 1088 ■972 974 983 984 996 Century 999 1003 1009 1012 1024 1033 1045 1046 1047 1054 1057 1058 1061 1073 1085 1087 1099 Twelfth Century 1099 1118 1118 1119 Ottaviano Conti. He was the first who changed his name on his elevation. (Conti), (BonifaceVII.,Franoo,anti- pope.) Bruno. Gerbert, Philagathus. Secco Faaio, Sylvester, .... Giovanni Braziano, . . Suger Pappo. Bruno, .... Gebhard, . . . Frederick, . Hildebrand, . . Otho or Endes, . Native of Palermo. Native of Greece. Greek. Syrian. Roman. Sjrrian. Greek. Roman. Sicilian. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman." Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Bishop of Parto. Roman. Native of Tiber. Roman. Native of Ardea. • Roman. Native of Sabina. Roman. Native of Rome. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Native of Auvergne. Roman. Roman. Native of Tusculum. Roman. Native of Saxony. Bishop of Toul. Bishop of Eichstadt. Abbot of Monte Cassino. Native of Burgundy. Native of Milan. Native of Tuscany. Native of Beneventum. Native Of France. Native of Tuscany. Native of Gaeta. 26 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS BISHOPS AND POPES OP ROME — Continued Pontiff Pontificate SnBNAME Nationaiitt A. D. A. D. Calixtus II., . 1119 1124 Native of Burgundy. Honorius II., . 1124 1130 Cardinal Lamberti, Bishop of Ostia. Innocent II., . 1130 1143 Roman. Celestine II., . . . 1143 1144 Tuscan. Lucius II., . . 1144 1145 Native of Bologna. Eugenius III., . . 1145 1153 Native of Pisa. Anastasius IV., . 1153 1154 1154 1159 Roman. Adrian IV., . . . Nicholas Breakspear, . . . Englishman. Alexander III., 1159 1181 CardinalOrlandoBandinello, Native of Siena. LuciuB III., . 1181 1185 Cardinal Ubaldo, Native of Lucca. Urban III., . 1185 1187 Uberto Crivelli, ... Archbishop of Milan. Gregory VIII., 1187 Native of Beneventum. Clement III-. 1187 1191 Paul, '.'.'.'... ' '. ' Bishop of Prseneste. Celestine III., 1191 1198 Cardinal Hyacinthus, . Roman. Thirteenth Century Innocent III 1198 1216 Cardinal Lotharius, . Native of Signia. Honorius III., . 1216 1227 Cardinal Savelli, Roman. Gregory IX., . 1227 1241 Cardinal Hugo, Native of Anagni. Celestine IV., 1241 Native of Milan. Innocent IV., 1243 1254 Sinibaldo Fieschi, .... Native of Genoa. Alexander IV., . 1254 1261 Cardinal Rinaldo Conti, . . Native of Anagni. Urban IV., . . 1261 1264 James, Patriarch of Jerusa- lem, Frenchman. Clement IV., . 1265 1268 Guy, Native of St. GUles, in Languedoc. Gregory X., . . 1271 1276 Tebaldo Visconti, Native of Placenzj. Innocent V., . . 1276 Cardinal Peter, Native of Tarentaise. Adrian V., . . 1276 Ottobono Fieschi, Native of Genoa. John XXI., . . 1276 1277 Native of Lisbon. Nicholas III., 1277 1281 Cardinal Oraini, . . . Native of Rome. Martin IV., . .1281 1285 Cardinal Simon de Brie, Frenchma.n. Honorius IV., 1285 1288 Cardinal James Sevelli, Roman. Nicholas IV ., . 1288 1292 Cardinal Jerome, . Native of Ascoli. Celestine V., . . 1294 Pietro da Morrone Native of Abruzzi. Boniface VIII., . . 1294 1303 Cardinal Benedetto Gaetani, Native of Anagni. Fourteenth Century Benedict XI., . . . 1303 1304 Cardinal Nicholas, .... Native of Treviso. Clement V 1305 1314 Bertrand, removed Papal See to Avignon, Native of Bordeaux. John XXII., . . 1316 1334 James, . . .■ Native of Cahors in France. Benedict XII., . . 1334 1342 James Fournier, Frenchman. Clement VI 1342 1362 Peter Roger, . . Native of Limoges in ^ France. Innocent VI 1352 1362 Stephen Aubert, . Native of Limoges. Urban V 1362 1370 William Grimoard, Frenchman. Gregory XI 1370 1378 Peter Roger, .... Frenchman. Urban VI., . . 1378 1389 Bartolomew Prignano, . Neapolitan. Boniface IX., . 1389 1404 Peter Tomacelli, Of Naples. Fifteenth Century Innocent VII., 1404 1406 Cosmo Migliorati, Native of Sulmona. Gregory XII., . ... 1406 1415 Angelo Corrari, Native of Venice. Martin V., . . . 1415 1431 Otho Colonna, . . Roman. Sugenius IV., 1431 1447 Gabriel Condulmero, Venetian. Nicholas V., . . 1447 1455 Cardinal Thomas, Native of Sargana. CaUxtus III 1455 1468 Alfonso Borgia Spaniard. Pius II 1458 1464 jEneas Sylvius Piccolomini, Native of Siena. Paul II., 1464 1471 Peter Barbo, . . Native of Venice. Sixtus IV 1471 1484 Francis della Rovere, . Genoese. Innocent VIII., . . 1484 1492 Gian Battista Cibo, . . Genoese. Alexander VI., 1492 1503 Rodrigo Lenzoli Borgia, . . Spaniard. Sixteenth Century Pius III., . . 1503 Francis Todesohini Piccolo- mini Genoese. Julius II. . . . . 1503 1513 Julian della Rovere, V LL&XUfc? ^^tj « ft p ■ ■ LeoX 1513 1521 Giovanni de' Medici, Son of Lorenzo, the Mag- nificent. Adrian VI 1521 1523 Native of Utrecht. Clement VII 1523 1534 Guilio de* Medici, Nephew of Lorenzo. Paul III 1534 1549 1549 1555 Alesaandro Farnese, Giovan MariaGiocci, . Roman. Julius III., ... .... Roman. Marcellus, • 1555 Cardinal Cervini, . Native of Montepulcia'no. Paul IV ... 1555 1569 Gianpietro Carafta, ..-.. Neapolitan. Pius IV., 1559 1665 Giovanni Angelo Medichino, Native of Milan. Pius v., . . . 1565 1672 Michelo Chislieri, . . Native of Alessandria. Gregory XIII., " 1572 1685 Hugo Buoncampagni, . . Native of Bologna. Sixtus V ... 1585 1590 Felice Peretti of Montaito, Native of March Anconn. Urban VII 1590 Gian Battista Castagna, . Genoese. Gregory XIV Innocent IX^ 15P0 1591 Nicola Sfrondati Native of Milan. 1591 Gian Antonio Faochinetti, Native of Bologna. Clement VIII. 1591 1605 Ippolito Aldobrandino, . Native of Fano. HISTORY 27 BISHOPS AND POPES OP ROME — Continued Pontiff Pontificate Surname Nationality Leo XI., . . . . PaulV Gregory XV., . Urban VIII., . , Innocent X., . . Alexander VII., Clement IX., . . Clement X., .' . Innocent XI., Alexander VIII., Innocent XII., . Clement XI., . Innocent Xlil. Benedict XIII., Clement XII., Benedict XIV., Clement XIII., Clement XIV., Pius VI., . . Pius VII., . Leo XII.. . . Pius VIII., . Gregory XVI., Pius IX., . . Leo XIII., . . Pius X Benedict XV., Seventeenth Century A. D. A. D. 1605 1605 1621 1621 1623 1623 1644 1644 1655 1655 1667 1667 1669 1669 1676 1676 1689 1689 1691 1691 1700 Eighteenth Century 1700 1721 1721 1724 1724 1730 1730 1740 1740 1768 1768 1769 1769 1775 1775 1799 Nineteenth Century 1800 1823 1823 1829 1829 1830 1830 1846 1846 1878 1878 1903 Twentieth Century 1903 1914 1914 Alessandro de Medici, . Camillo Borghese, . . Alessandro Ludovici, . Maifeo Barberini, . . Gian Battista Pamfili, Fabio Chigi, Guilio Rospigliosi, . Emilio Attieri, . . . Benedetto Odescalchi, Pietrp Ottobani, . . . Antonio Pignatelli, . . Gian Francesco Albani, Michael Angelo Conti, . Vincenzo Maria Orsini, Lorenzo Corsini Prospero Lambertini, . Carlo Rezzonico, Gian Vencenzo Ganganelli. Angelo Braschi Gregario Barnaba Chiara- monti Annibale della Genga, . Cardinal Castigliani, . . Mauro Cappellari, .... Giovanni Maria Mastai-Fer- retti Gioacchino Pecci, . . . Guiseppe Sarto, . . Giacomo della Cliiesa Native of Florence. Native of Rome. Native of Bologna. Florentine. , Roman. Native of Siena. Native of Pisloia. Native of Rome. Native of Como. Native of Venice. Native of Naples. Native of Urbino. Native of Rome. Native of Rome. Native of Florence. Native of Bologna. Native of Venice. Born near Rimini. Native of Cesena. Native of Cesena. Native of Romagna. Native of Cingoli. Native of Belluno. Native of Sinigaglia. Native of Carpinetto. Venice. Native of- Genoa. _ Blue Laws. The code of 1660, a compila- tion of the earliest laws and customs of Connec- ticut. It is alinost verbally copied from the Mosaic Law. After the restoration of Charles II. "Presbyterian true blue" became a term of derision applied to anything which smattered of Puritanism, and "blue laws" simply meant puritanical laws, or laws with a blue tinge. These laws inflicted the penalty of death for worshiping any god but the God of the Bible; for speaking disrespectfully of the Bible, Christ, or the Holy Ghost; for witchcraft, adultery, theft, false-swearing, and disobedience to par- ents. Said to have laeen drawn up by the Rev. Samuel Peters, but generally supposed to be apocryphal. Boer War, The. The reinforcing of the British troops in South Africa, along the borders of the Transvaal Rejpublic, together with differ- ences on the franchise question, coupled with grim recollections of former armed clashes be- tween Great Britain and the sturdy, patriotic Boers, all tended to hasten the conflict of 1899- 1900, one of the most sanguinary in the world's history. As an effort to avert war, a conference was held May 31, 1899, between Sir Alfred Milner, Governor of Cape Colony, and the Presi- dents of the Dutch Republics at Bloemfontein, in wJiich terms for the adjustment of the claims of the Outlanders were discussed, but no agree- ment was reached. Between June 1 and Octo- ber 10, negotiations proceeded between the gov- ernments of Great Britain and the Transvaal, while the legislature of the latter adopted fran- chise laws which were not acceptable to Great Britain. In the meantime, both countries made energetic preparations for war, and the Orange Free State announced that in case of hostilities it would support the Transvaal. On October 10th, the Transvaal sent to the British Government an ultimatum demanding: That all points of mutual difference be regulated by friendly recourse to arbitration ; that all British troops on the border of the Transvaal Republic should be instantly withdrawn; that Great Britain should withdraw all reinforcements of troops landed in' South Africa since June 1, 1899, with assurance that during further nego- tiations the Republic would not attack any British possessions, and that upon compliance with the ultimatum the Republic would be pre- pared to withdraw from the borders the armed burghers of the Transvaal ; that the British troops then on the high seas should not be landed in any part of Africa; that an answer to the ulti- matum be received by the Republic not later than 5 o'clock P. M. on October 11th; that an unsatisfactory answer would be regarded by the Republic as a formal declaration of war by Great Britain. On October 12, 1899, the reply of the British having been unsatisfactory, the Transvaal Boers invaded Natal, advancing toward Newcastle, which was defended by the British generals White and Symons. The British evacuated Newcastle and fell back on Ladysmith, where, on October 13th, there was a strong British force. On October 20th, the Boers began the siege of Kimberley, and on the same day in Natal was fought the battle of Dundee, in which the British repulsed the Boers, suffering a loss of 215 in killed and wounded. On October 21st, General French captured the Boers' position at Elandslaagte after a hard battle, with a British 28 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS loss of 257 killed and wounded. General White repulsed a Free State force at Rietfontein, near Ladysmith, October 24th. Five days later the Boers began the siege of Ladysmith. On Octo- ber 30th, in a sortie near Ladysmith, the British were entrapped and defeated, and the Boers captured 870 prisoners. Communication with Ladysmith was cut off by the Boers on Novem- ber 2d, and the next day the British evacuated Colenso, in Natal. The Boers shelled Mafeking November 6th, but were repulsed in an attack on the British position. The first British trans- port carrying reinforcements reached Cape Town on November 9th, and proceeded to Durban. The Boers wrecked a British armored train near Eastcourt, Natal, on November 16th, capturing fifty-six prisoners, including Winston Churchill. On November 23d, near Gras Pan, Lord Me- thuen attacked the Boers and drove them from their position, and on November 26th the British won a sanguinary victory at Modder River. A series of Boer successes then followed. On De- cember 10th, the British, under General Gatacre, were led into a Boer ambuscade near Stormberg Junction and lost 1,000 men, including 672 cap- tured, while on the ' same and following day Lord Methuen failed to take the Boer position at Spytfontein after desperate fighting and heavy losses, General Wauchope being killed. On December 15th, General Buller was severely defeated while attempting to force the Tugela River, near Colenso, he losing 1,000 men and eleven guns. The British losses to this date were 7,630 men killed, wounded, and missing, and the attention of the civilized world was riveted upon the war. After Buller's signal defeat. Field Marshal Lord Roberts was ordered, December 18th, to South Africa, to take com- mand of military operations, with Lord Kitch- ener as chief of staff, and with a reinforcement of 100,000 men. General French captured Colesburg on New Year's Day, 1900. On January 6th, Roberts and Kitchener arrived in South Africa, and on the same date the Boers were repulsed with heavy loss in an attack on Ladysmith. On January 23-25th, occurred some of the most desperate and famous fighting of the war, when a British storming party under General Warren captured Spion Kop, but, after heavy losses, withdrew. General Buller made a third attempt to relieve Ladysmith, but failed, February 9th, and Lord Roberts began an invasion of the Orange Free State on February 12th. General French relieved Kimberley on February 15th. On February 22-27th there was severe fighting between Roberts and Cronje, terminating with the capitulation of the latter, with 4,600 men and six guns. Lord Dundonald entered Lady- smith on February 28th, and General Gatacre occupied Stormberg on March 5th. On March 7th, Lord Roberts turned the Boer position near Modder River and advanced triimiphantly on Bloemfontein, capital of the Orange Free State, which surrendered to the British on March 13th. The Boer Commander-in-Chief, General Joubert, died on March 27th, and Colonel de Villebois Ma'reuil, French ofi&cer with the Boers, was killed in a skirmish on April 5th. General Cronje and the other Boer prisoners were sent to St. Helena, where they arrived April 14th, and the demoralization of the Boers seemingly began. On April 20th, Mr. Pettigrew, in the United States Senate, introduced a resolution of sympathy with the Boers, but it was voted down, 29 to 20. On May 3d, Lord Roberta began his advance on Pretoria. The Boers now turned to the United States and Europe for intervention, but the United States was the only government in the world of all those approached by the South African Republic which tendered its good offices to either of the combatants in the interest of the cessation of hostilities. So the war continued. On May 10th, the British crossed the Zand RivSr and occupied Kroonstad, and on May 15th, General Buller occupied Dundee. The Boer envoys to the United States reached New York on May 16th, the day that Mafeking was relieved, after a siege of 217 days. President McKinley received the envoys unofficially, but they were officially informed by Secretary of State Hay that the United States could not intervene in the war. The end of the struggle was not yet, however, in sight. On May 28th, Lord Roberts pro- claimed the annexation of the Orange Free State to the British Empire. The British entered Johannesburg on May 30th, and on the same day President Kruger retired from Pretoria, which city surrendered on June 5th to the Brit- ish army. General Prinsloo and 3,348 Boers surrendered at Naauwpoort, and Harrismith surrendered to General Macdonald on August 4th. Several conspirators against the life of Lord Roberts were tried at Pretoria August 17th, and their leader was executed. Machadodorp, Kruger's new capital, was occupied by General Buller August 28th. On September 1st, the Transvaal was proclaimed a part of the British Empire by Lord Roberts. Guerilla warfare, which had begun July 1st, was now general in the Transvaal, and the Boer Generals DeWet and Botha continued to harass the British by sporadic raids. Ex-President Kruger, aband- oning the Transvaal, began his journey to Eu- rope September 12th. He arrived at Marseilles on November 22d, and had an ovation from the French people, the demonstrations of wel- come' continuing through his journey to Paris, while the National French Assembly adopted resolutions of sympathy. On November 30th, the supreme military command in South Africa was turned over to Lord Kitchener by Lord Roberts, who departed for home, sailing for England from Cape Town on December 12th. In the meantime, the German Government inti- mated to Mr. Kruger on December 1st, that a visit by him to Berlin would be inopportune. Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, on the contrary, welcomed Mr. Kruger at a dinner on December 15th. The British met with a severe reverse at Nooltgedacht December 13th, Colonel Legge being killed. On December 14th, Sir Alfred Milner was appointed Administrator of the Orange River and Transvaal colonies, and the year closed with both sides grimly deter- mined to continue the terrible warfare to a definite conclusion. The first battle of 1901 was at Lindley, HISTORY 29 Orange River Colony, where forty British officers and men were killed or wounded. On Janliary 7th, the British position along Delagoa Bay Railway was unsuccessfully attacked by the Boers, who were also driven back on January 17th near Standerton, when they attacked a British column vtnder General Colville. On January 18th, New Zealand troops and Bushmen, undet Colonel Gray, routed 800 Boers near VeutersbUrg. On January 30th, the Bloem- fontein-Ladybrand Mne was crossed by DeWet near Israel's Poort, and the Boers captured the British post at Modderfontein in the Transvaal on February dd, at about which time the British War Office decided to reinforce Kitchener with 30,000 additional mounted troops. General Smith-Dorrien was attacked by Louis Botha with 2,000 men at Orange Camp February 6th, but repulsed him. On the same date the Boers cut the Delagoa Bay Railroad, near Lorenzo Marques; ten days later DeWet crossed the railroad at Bariman's Siding and was engaged by Crabbe and aA armored train, and on Feb- ruary 19th the Boers blew up a supply train at cup River. Four eevece Boer reverses then followed ill quick succession. The Boers, 5,000 strong, were defeated by General French at Piet Retief, February 22d; De Wet's force was scat- tered by Colonel Plummer at Disselfontein, Orange River, February 23d; General lYench captured 300 Boers, ammunition, cattle, and supplies at Middlebutg, February 26th; Lord Kitchener drove DeWet north of the Orange River, with a loss of 280 men captured, Mafch 1st. Lord Kitchener then granted General Botha a seven days' armistice to make commu- nication with other Boer leaders, after which truce hostilities were resumed. The Boers cap- tured a British supply train near Viaklaagte March 22d, but were defeated three days later near Vryheid by General French. On March 27th, Fourie's commando and Bruce Hamilton's command held a running fight for twenty mUes. Commandants Prinsloo and Englebrecht surren- dered to the British March 30th, and the British reoccupied Pietersburg on AprU 9th, on which date the Boers captured seventy-five men of the Fifth Infantry and Imperial Yeomanry. Gen- eral Botha, on April 10th, renewed negotiations for peace. Sir Alfred Milner, returning home from South Africa, was received by the king and created a peer May 21st. The Boers, again for a time, t'ejoiced ovel" successes. They attacked and partially destroyed the convoy of General Plimimelr's column May 25th, captured a Brit- ish post of forty-one men near Maraisburg, May 27th, and attacked General Dixon's brigside of the Seventh Yeomanry near Vlakfontein, May 29th, causing a heavy British loss. On June 3d, an attack by 700 Boers undei; Scheeper upon WiUomore, Cape Colony, was repulsed after a nine hours' fight. The British and Boers lost heavily in an etigaganent between Elliot, and DeWet near Reitz, June 6th, and on the same day Colonel Wilson, with 240 men, routed 400 Boers under Bever, near Warm Baths. The Boers captured 200 members of the Victoria Mounted Rifles at Steenkoolsprint, June 12th, and the Midland Mounted Rifles were overpowered by Commandant Maian at Waterkloof, June 20th. President Schalk-Burger, of the South African Republic, and President Steyn, of Orange Free State, issued a proclamation for "no peace with- out independence," June 20th, and on August 7th, Lord Kitchener issued a proclamation of banishment against all Boers in South Africa not surrendering by September 15th. In the meantime. General Benson repulsed the Boers in a mountain pass near DuUstroem, and, though the inevitable end of the warfare was becoming daily more apparent, fighting was continued. Fifty of General French's scouts were captured in Cape Colony August 16th; three officers and sixty-five British, north of Ladybrand, were captured August 21st; the Boers attacked a convoy near Kooipopje and lulled nine men of the Seventy-fourth Yeomanry, wounding twenty- three, on August 24th; Colonel Vandeleur and nine men were killed and seventeen wounded by the blowing up of a train in the Transvaal, August 31st; Von Tonder and Delarey engaged General Methuen in the Great Maries valley, September 8th. Then, on September 16th, the British troops captured Letter's entire command south of Pietersburg, and on the following day the Boers partiaUy evened matters by ambush- ing and capturing three companies of British mounted infantry under Major Gough, near Scheeper's Nek, and also by capturing a company of mounted British infantry and two guns at Vlakfontein, September 20th. Two Boer com- mandos were captured September 21st, near Adenburg, and Colonel the Hon. A. Murray and Captain Murray, his adjutant, were killed in a fight with Krintzsinger, who crossed the Orange River. On September 29th, Commandant De- larey attacked Colonel Kekewich's camp at Moedwill, with loss on both sides. Martial law was declared throughout Cape Colony on October 9th. The following day General Sir Redvers Buller admitted, in a speech, that he advised the surrender of Ladysmith, and was severely criticised for his utterances. Commander Scheeper was captured October 12th, and Captain Bellew and four others were killed in a fight, October 16th, at Twenty-four Streams. On November 1st, in a heavy Boer attack on Colonel Benson's column near Brakenlaagte, the British lost twenty-five ofiicers and 214 men in killed and wounded. During the next sixty days numerous small skirmishes were reported, and during the first three months of 1902 the war was more or less of a desultory character. Negotiations for peace between the Boer leaders and the British Government began on March 23d, the latest notable Boer accomplishment having been the capture of General Methuen and 200 men, forty-one British being killed, on March 11th. On May 31, 1902, Lord Kitchener announced that a peace treaty had been signed between Great Britain and the Boers, Commandant-Gen- eral Louis Botha, assisted by General Delarey and Chief Commandant DeWet, acting for the Boers. Bohemia. The Boii, from whom Bohemia derives its name, settled in the country in the Second Century B. C, but were expelled by the Marcomanni about the beginning of the Christian era. The victors themselves soon gave place to 30 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS others, and as early as the Fifth Century A. D. we find Bohemia peopled by the Czechs, a Slavic race. In the latter part of the Ninth Century, Swatopluk, the King of Moravia, subjugated Bohemia and introduced Christianity. After his death, the Dukes of Prague, who, in 1061, had the title of king conferred on them by the Emperor Henry IV., ruled the country as a state in the German Empire, until 1306, when the last of the dynasty was assassinated. From 1310 to 1437, Bohenlia was ruled by kings of the House of Luxembourg. In the time of Wenzel IV. (Wenceslas), a reformation of religion took place under John Huss and Jerome of Prague. After the death of Wenzel IV., the imprudent measures adopted by the Emperor Sigismund excited in Bohemia a war of sixteen years' dura- tion, which ended in making Bohemia an elective kingdom. In 1458, the shrewd and able Protest- ant noble, George von Podiebrad, ascended the throne. His successor, Ladislaus (1471-1516), was elected (1490) to the throne of Hungary, and removed the royal residence to Ofen, where also his son and successor, Louis (1516-26), resided. After his death in battle against the Turks at Mohacz (1526), Bohemia and Hungary passed into the hands of Ferdinand I. of Austria, who had married Louis' sister. From that time the history of Bohemia merges into the history of Austria. Boii. A Celtic people, who emigrated from Transalpine Gaul into Italy, where they occupied the old seat of the Umbrians, between the Po and the Apennines. In B. C. 283, the Boii were defeated by the Romans at the Vadimonian Lake, and thereafter prolonged through numer- ous campaigns, especially in support of Hannibal, but sometimes single-handed, their resistance to the Roman arms, till their complete defeat by Scipio Nasica, B. C. 191. They were subse- quently compelled to recross the Alps, and dwelt for more than a century in a part of modern Bohemia (which derives its name from them), but were ultimately exterminated by the Dacians. Bonaparte's Egyptian Campaign (1799). Alexandria fell into his hands; he won the great battle of the Pyramids; completed the subjugation of Egypt; passed into Syria, made himself master of Gaza and Jaffa ; won the battle of Mount Tabor; returned to Egypt, attacked the Turks at Aboukir, and utterly destroyed their whole army, June 25, 1799. Bonaparte's Forty Days Cam- paign. He left Paris May 6, 1800; marched over the Alps, and reached Aosta May 23d; he entered Milan June 2d ; won the battle of Monte- bello over the Austrians, June 9th, and the great battle of Marengo, June 14th; returned to Paris, July 2d. The forty days count from his arrival at Aosta, May 23d, to his return to Paris, July 2d. Bonaparte's Italian Campaign (1796-97). He was 27 years of age. April 11th, he defeated Beaulieu, the Austrian general, at Montenotte, in Sardinia; April 14th, he won the battle of Jlillesimo; April 15th, he won the bat- tle of Dego; April 22d, he won a victory over the Piedmontese at MondSvi; May 10th, he de- feated the Austrian general, Beaulieu, at the Bridge of Lodi, and entered Milan; June 19th, he occupied Bologna, Ferrara, and Ancona; August 3d, he defeated the Austrian general, Wilrmser, at Lonato; August 5th, he defeated the same general at Castiglione ; September 8th, he defeated him again at Bassano; November 17th, he won the great battle of Areola over Alvinzi, the Austrian general; January 14, 1797, he won the battle of Rivoli over Alvinzi and Wiirmser; January 15th, he won a battle at the faubourg of St. George, near Mantua; January 16th, he won a battle near the palace called The Favorite; March 16th, he defeated the Aus- trians, led by the Archduke Karl, at Taglia- mento; October 17th, the treaty of Campo Formio, and in December he returned to France- He had won fifteen battles; added Savoy and Nice to France, the Netherlands, and Italy; had obtained vast money compensations, and returned to France laden with treasures of art. Boxer Rebellion, The. The causes of the Boxer outbreak in China were cumulative. For three years prior to the enforced occupation of China by the powers, in 1900, a number of acts of foreign countries had a disquieting effect upon the empire. Since 1898, Russia had taken Port Arthur and the adjacent harbor of Talien- wan. Germany had leased Kiaochau and gained great concessions in the province of Shang Timg. France had suggested privileges in portions of Chinese territory adjacent to the French posses- sions of Tonquin. Great Britain, to cap the climax, had obtained from China a lease of Wei-Hai-Wei, on the south shore of the Gulf of Pechili, opposite Port Arthur, and thus com- manded the entrance to the gulf and the water approach to Peking. Many Chinese were re- sentful of these encroachments by foreigners, but the Dowager Empress did not oppose them, and hence she was bitterly arraigned by her people. The leader of this opposition was Prince Tuan, the sixth son of the Emperor Kwang-Su's grand- father. Prince Tuan had long been an athlete and had a following of many athletic young men in the kingdom, who, because of their ability in sports, were known as boxers, a name which Tuan's recruits adopted. Tuan pro- claimed his nine-year-old son heir presumptive to the throne. The emperor, then but a figure- head, dominated by the Dowager Empress, had little popular support. The Boxers revolted, massacred missionaries at many interior points of the empire, and finally made a concerted attack upon the foreign legations in Peking, in which movement the imperial; troops eventually participated. The Chinese Tsung-li-Yamen, the equivalent to a responsible government ministry in Europe, was in sentiment hostile to foreigners, and hence either wouli not, or could not, protect the legations or escort them safely from the country. The civilized world received distress- ing reports of massacres and outrages, and was for several weeks in suspense as to the fate of the foreign ministers in China, their families, legation attaches, and converted Chinese under foreign protection. The offended powers de- cided upon concerted action and hurried vessels and troops to the ports nearest to the danger points. Upon Chinese resistance to the landing HISTORY 31 of marines at Taku, the forts were shelled by all the allies except Aiaericans, and on June 17th, while the Chinese shelled the allies' fleet, the allied troops landed and captured the Taku forts, after a sanguinary conflict. On June 18th the Ninth United States Regiment was ordered from Manila to China, other troops following. On June _20th, German fury and general inter- national indignation was aroused when Baron von Ketteler, the German Minister, while pro- ceeding on a diplomatic mission to the Tsung- li-Yamen in Peking, was beset by Chinese sol- diers and butchered. On the same day an allied expedition under Vice-Admiral Seymour, of the British Navy, began a march upon Peking for the relief of the British legationers. Such count- less hordes of Chinese opposed him that he was obliged to turn back, sunering casualties of 374. The allied warships shelled Tien-tsin on June 21st, and the combined forces, two days later, occupied the foreign quarters of that city. The Chinese, on June 23d, requested an armistice through Minister Wu at Washington. The United States promptly replied that free com- munication must first be allowed with the lega- tions, and on July 4th, Secretary of State Hay outlined to the powers the American policy. On July 13-14th, occurred one of the noted conflicts of history, when the allied forces stormed the Chinese port of Tien-tsin, which they captured with a loss of 800 killed and wounded. Colonel E. H. Lisoum, commanding the United States contingent, was among the slain. On July 19th, the Emperor of China appealed to President McKinley for peace. The advance of the allies upon Peking began August 4th, under command of Field Marshal von Wal- dersee, of the German army, who was unani- mously selected to command the allied forces. The first news from the beleaguered foreigners reached the United States in the form of a cipher message from Minister Conger. It read: "Still besieged. Situation more precarious. Chinese Government insisting on our leaving Peking, which would be certain death. Rifle flring upon us daily by imperial troops. Have abun- dant courage, but little ammunition or provisions. Two progressive Yamen ministers beheaded. All connected with the legation of the United States well at present moment." The receipt of this message caused intense excitement throughout the United States, for, though it broke the long suspense, it added to public fury and anxiety. On August 8th, Li Hung Chang was appointed Envoy Plenipotentiary to pro- pose to the several powers for the immeaiate cessation of hostile demonstrations. On August 14th, Peking was captured by the allied forces of the Americans, British, Germans, French, Austrians, Italians, and Japanese. The American troops were the first to enter the city, and Cap- tain Reilly was the first victim. The emperor and empress had fled. The legationers were prompt- ly relieved and told thrilling stories of their danger and distress during the long siege. The Chinese, on August 16th, asked for an armistice, which was refused. Li Hung Chang's appeal was rejected by the United States, and China was informed that the demands of this Govern- ment must be complied with. At the same time General Chaffee was given full power to act. The American refugees from Peking reached Tien-tsin safely on August 25th. On November 19th, the negotiations between the allies and the Chinese authorities for terms of peace and compensation, which were begun when the allies took full possession of Pekmg, had progressed so far that the German Imperial Chancellor in the Reichstag announced that the allies had unanimously agreed upon the follow- ing as their demands upon China: First, China shall erect a monument to Baron von Ketteler on the site where he was murdered and send an Imperial Prince to Germany to convey an apology. She shall inflict the death penalty upon eleven princes and officials already named, and suspend provincial exami- nations for five years where the outrages occurred. Second. In future all officials failing to prevent anti- foreign outrages within their jurisdiction shall be dis- missed and punished. Third. Indemnity shall be paid to states, corpora- tions and individuals. The Tsung-li-Yamen shall be abolished and its functions vested in a Foreign Minister. Rational intercourse shall be permitted with the em- peror, as in civilized countries. Fourth. The forts at Taku and other forts on the coast of Chili shall be razed, and the importation of arms and war material prohibited. Fifth. Permanent legation guards shall be main- tained, and also guards of communication between Peking and the sea. Sixth. Imperial proclamations shall be posted for two years throughout the empire suppressing Boxers. Seventh. Indemnity is to include compensation for Chinese who suffered by being employed by foreigners, but not compensation for native Christians. Eighth. China shall erect expiatory monuments in every foreign or international burial ground where the graves have been profaned. Ninth. The Chinese Government shall undertake to enter upon negotiations for such changes in existing treaties regarding trade and navigation as the foreign governments deem advisable, and with reference to other matters having in view the facilitation of commer- cial relations. In December, 1900, the Chinese authorities had accepted all the foregoing conditions im- posed by the allies, and the preliminary note of the demands of the powers was signed by Li Hung Chang and Prince Ching. Peking was evacuated by the American cavalry and artillery May 5th, and General Chaffee embarked for the Philippines May 18th. The powers, on May 9th, demanded of China a formal indemnity of 460,- 000,000 taels (about $300,000,000), which was agreed to by China, and the powers, on July 26th, formally accepted China's offer to pay the sum named on time at 4J per cent, interest. Prince Chun, at Berlin, September 4th, formally apolo- gized to Emperor William for the insult to Ger- man honor in the murder of Baron von Ketteler. On September 17th, the American and Japanese troops in Peking handed over the Forbidden City to the Chinese. Brazil. It was only in 1531 that the Portu- guese, busy as they were in India, here planted their first settlement. In 1578, Brazil fell with Portugal, under the power of Spain, and became a prey to the Dutch; and, though Portugal regained its own independence in 1640, it was not until 1654 that Brazil was entirely recovered from the Hollanders. In 1807, the royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil; in 1815, the colony was declared "a kingdom"; and the Portu- guese court having returned to Europe in 1821, a national congress assembled at Rio de Janeiro, and on May 13, 1822, Dom Pedro, eldest son of King Joao VI. of Portugal, was chosen "Per' S2 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS petual Defender" of Brazil. He proclaimed the independence of the country on September 7, 1822, and was chosen "Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender" on October 12th, fol- lowing. In 1831, he abdicated in favor of his only son, Dom Pedro II., who reigned until November 15, 1889, when he was dethroned, exiled, and Brazil declared a republic under the title of the United States of Brazil. A new con- stitution was adopted in 1891, and Fonseca elected first president. Admirals MeUo and Da Gama rebelled, 1893, but their revolt was soon suppressed. In 1906-07, Brazil took the lead in an effort to-reach a better understanding among the countries of North and South America. A great demonstration was given by the city of Rio de Janeiro, in 1908, to the United States Pacific squadron. After continued sinkings of Brazilian ships by German submarines, Brazil seized all German vessels in her harbors, June 28, 1917, and formally declared war against Germany, Oct. 26, 1917. Brunswick, The Souse of. The Duchy of Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by Charlemagne, and governed afterward by counts and dukes. Albert-Azzo, Marquis of Italy and Lord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife, Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph, Duke of Carinthia m Bavaria), a son, Guelph. This son was invited into Germany by Imitza, his mother-in-law, and invested with aU the posses- sions of his wife's stepfather, Guelph of Bavaria. His descendant, Henry the Lion, married Matil- da, daughter of Henry II. of England, and is always looked upon as the founder of the Bruns- wick family. His dominions were very extensive; but, having refused to assist the Emperor Fred- erick Barbarossa in a war against Pope Alex- ander III., through the emperor's resentment he was proscribed at the Diet at Wurzburg, in 1180. The Duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family of Bavaria; the Duchy of Saxony to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the House of Anhalt; and his other territories to different persons. He then retired to England; but, at the interces- sion of Henry II., Brunswick and Liineburg were restored to him. The House of Brunswick, in 1409, divided into several branches. Brunswick was included by Napoleon in the Kingdom of WestphaHa in 1806, but was restored to the duke in 1815. Buccaneers. A celebrated association of piratical adventurers, who, from the commence- ment of the second quarter of the Sixteenth Century to the end of the Seventeenth, main- tained themselves in the Caribbean seas, at first by systematic reprisals on the Spaniards, latterly by a less justifiable and indiscriminate piracy. The name is derived from the Caribbee boucan, a term for preserved meat, smoke-dried in a pecu- Uar manner. The Buccaneers were also some- times called "Brethren of the Coast." The as- sumption by the Spaniards of an exclusive right, based upon the broad claim of initial discovery, to the whole of the New World was stoutly re- sisted by the enterprising mariners of England and France. The cruelties inflicted by the Spaniards upon all foreign interlopers, of which the history of that time is full, naturally led to an association for mutual defense among the adventurers of aU other nations, but particularly among the English and French. The funda- mental principles of the policy were close mutual alliance and war with all who were Spanish. The center of their predatory hfe was Tortuga. Their last great exploit was the capture of Carthagena, 1697. Bull Bun, or Bull's Run. A stream in Virginia, dividing Fairfax and Prince Wilham counties, in the northeastern part of the State, and flowing into the Occoquan River, fourteen miles from the Potomac. On its banks were fought two of the most memorable battles dur- ing the Civil War. After a series of heavy skir- mishes, July 16-19, 1861, the Union army, under General McDowell, was on the 21st utterly routed by the Confederates, under the command of Generals Beauregard and J. E. Johnston. The Union loss was about 3,000 men, while that of the Confederates was estimated at nearly 2,000 men. The former lost, in addition, twenty- seven guns, besides an immense quantity of small arms, ammunition, stores, provisions, and accoutrements. On August 30, 1862, another great battle was fought here between the Union forces, commanded by General Pope, and the Confederates, under Generals Lee, Longstreet, and "Stonewall" Jackson, when the former were again defeated with heavy loss. The three battles of Groveton, Bull's Run, and Chantilly, fought in three successive days, cost the Union cause about 14,500 men in killed, wounded, missing, and prisoners, thirty guns, and 30,000 small arms. The first battle of Bull Run is sometimes known as the Battle of Manassas. Bunker Hill, Battle of. A famous engagement between American and British troops, June 17, 1775. The former were com- manded by Colonel Prescott and General Put- nam, and the latter by General Howe. The British loss in killed and wounded was 1,054; that of the Americans, 450. Although the latter were driven from their position after their pow- der was exhausted, and the victory remained with the British, the moral effect of this first battle on the Americans, and the heavy loss to the enemy, made it equivalent to a victory for the Continentals. On the ground where the- hottest of the battle was fought a granite obelisk, 221 feet in height, has been erected at a cost of 1100,000, raised by popular subscriptions. The comer stone was laid by General Lafayette, when on his visit to this country in 1825; it was completed July, 1842, and, on the occasion of its dedication, Daniel Webster dehvered his famous oration, generally regarded as his best effort. Burmah. The Burmese Empire was found- ed in the middle of the Eighteenth Century by Alompra, the first sovereign of the dynasty, which fell in the person of King Theebaw in 1886. In 1824, the British commenced hostil- ities against Burmah, and captured Rangoon on May 11th. Successive victories led to the cession of Arracan in 1826. In 1852, further complica- tions resulted in the cession of Pegu to the Brit- ish Indian Empire. In 1885, King Theebaw, relying upon French assistance, interfered with a British trading company. The British Gov- HISTORY 33 ernment took up the case, and demanded of the Burmese monarch security for his future good behavior. Theebaw rejected these demands, whereupon the queen declared war on November 10th. On November 28th, General Prendergast entered Mandalay, the Burmese capital. The king surrendered on the following day, and was immediately deported to British territory. The government was thenceforth administered by a British resident, and on December 31, 1885, Burmah was formally annexed to British India, thus closing the history of Burmah as an inde- pendent kingdom. Cade's BebelUon. In June, 1450, Jack Cade, an Irishman who called himself Mortimer, with 15,000 or 20,000 armed men of Kent, marched on London and encamped at Black- heath whence he kept up a correspondence with the citizens, many of whom were favorable to his enterprise. The court sent to inquire why the good men of Kent had left their homes. Cade, in a paper entitled "The Complaint of the Com- mons of Kent," replied that the people were robbed of their goods for the king's use, that the men of Kent were especially ill-treated and overtaxed, and that the free election of knights of their shire had been hindered. The court sent its answer in the form of an army, before which Cade retreated to Sevenoaks, where he awaited the attack of a detachment which he defeated. The royal army now objected to fight against their countrymen; the court made some concessions, and Cade entered London on the 3d of July. For two days he maintained the strictest order; but he forced the mayor and judges to pass judgment upon Lord Say, one of the king's hated favorites, whose head Cade's men immediately cut off in Cheapside. A promise of pardon now sowed dissension among his followers, who dispersed, and a price was set upon Cade's head. He attempted to reach the Sussex coast, but was followed by an esquire, named Alexander Iden, who fought and killed him July 11th. His head was stuck upon London Bridge as a terror to traitors, 1450. Calendar. A systematic division of time into years, months, weeks, and days, or a register of these or similar divisions. The present cal- endar was adopted in the Sixteenth Century, the Julian, or old Roman calendar, having become grossly erroneous. Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, frequently called Aloysius Lilius, a physician of Verona, projected a plan for amending the calendar, which, after his death, was presented by his brother to Pope Gregory XIII. To carry it into execution, the pope assembled a number of prelates and learned men. In 1577, the proposed change was adopted by all the Catholic princes; and in 1582, Gregory issued a brief abolishing the Julian calendar in all Catholic countries, and introducing in its stead the one now in use, under the name of the Gregorian or reformed calendar, or the "new style," as the other was now called the "old style." The amendment ordered was this: Ten days were to be dropped after the 4th of Octo- ber, 1582, and the 15th was reckoned immediately after the 4th. Every 100th year, which, by the old style was to have been a leap year, was now to he a common year, the fourth excepted; that ' is, 1600 was to remain a leap year, but 1700, 1800, 1900, to be of the common length, and 2000 a leap year again. In this calendar the length of the solar year was taken to be 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and 12 seconds, the difference between which and subsequent ob- servations is immaterial. In Spain, Portugal, and the greater part of Italy, the amendment was introduced according to the pope's instruc- tions. In France, the ten days were dropped in December, the 10th being called the 20th. In Catholic Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands, the change was introduced in the following year; in Poland, in 1586; in Hungary, in 1587. Protestant Germany, Holland, and Denmark accepted it in 1700, and Switzerland in 1701. In the German Empire a difference still remained for a considerable time as to the period for observing Easter. In England the Gregorian calendar was adopted in 1752, in accordance with an act of Parliament passed the previous year, the day after the 2d of Sep- tember becoming the 14th. Sweden followed in 1753. The change adopted in the English cal- endar in 1752 embraced another point. There had been previous to this time, various periods fixed for the commencement of the year in various countries of Europe. In France, from the time of Charles IX., the year was reckoned to begin from the 1st of January; this was also the popular reckoning in England, but the legal and ecclesiastical year began on March 25th. The 1st of January was now adopted as the beginning of the legal year, and it was customary for some time to give two dates for the period intervening between January 1st and March 25th, that of the old and that of the new year, as January 175J^. Russia alone retains the old style, which now differs twelve days from the new. California. The name, signifying "hot furnace," is derived from the Spanish. Though discovered by Sir Francis Drake in 1578, it was first settled by the Spaniards in 1768, at San Diego. Lower California, however, was settled by the Jesuit missionaries in 1683. Spanish power was overthrown by the Mexican Revolu- tion of 1822. By the treaty of peace which followed the Mexican War, Cahfornia was ceded to the United States for $15,000,000 in 1848. At this time the white population was 15,000. In January, 1848, gold was discovered at Sut- ter's mill by J. W. Marshall, a verification of Humboldt's prophecy more than a dozen years before. The immigration from all parts of the world soon increased the population to a quarter of a million. The State was admitted to the Union on September 9, 1850. The history of the Chinese in California has been more remarkable than that of any other foreign element. By 1860, the number of Chi- nese had reached 34,933; by 1870, 49,310; and by 1880, 76,218. A plebiscitum was taken, and the people of California voted with remarkable unanimity in favor of the restriction of Chinese immigration. In 1882, Congress passed the restriction law which, by successive renewals, has been kept in force till the present time. The Chinese population of California, by 1890, had declined to 71,066; and by 1900, to 45,753. 34 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS In 1900, the Japanese numbered 10,151; in 1910, 41,356. They,have largely superseded the Chinese as agricultural laborers and domestic servants. In 1906, the state suffered from one of the most destructive earthquakes of modern times. In 1911 California adopted equal suffrage; also an amendment putting into force the initiative, referendum, and recall. In 1913, the CaUfomia legislature passed an anti-alien land bill. The Panama-Pacific international exposition celebrating the opening of the Panama canal was held at San Francisco, Feb. 20 -Dec. 4, 1915. Forty-five foreign nations, forty-three states and three territories were represented. More than 18,000,000 people attended. Caliph, Kalif , or Khallf (Kal'lf). The chief sacerdotal dignity among the Saracens or Mohammedans, vested with absolute authority in all matters relating both to religion and politi- cal affairs. The government of the original caliphs continued from the death of Mohammed till the 655th year of the Hegira, that is, from A. D. 632 to 1277. The Fatimite caliphs of Africa and the Ommiad sovereigns of Spain, each professed to be the only legitimate succes- sors of Mohammed, in opposition to the Abbas- side caliphs of Bagdad, which latter caliphate reached its zenith of power and splendor under Haroun-al-Raschid, in the Ninth Century. The title is now one assumed by the Turkish Sultans, as successors to the Prophet, and also by the Persian Soplus, as successors of Ali. Campus Martius (Lat., The field of Mars). In ancient times, a field by the side of the Tiber, where the Roman youth practiced themselves in warlike exercises. It was consecrated to Mars, god of war, and a temple of that deity stood on it. During the earlier days of the Roman Republic, it was also used for holding the comitia, or assemblies of the people ; later it was adorned with many fine statues. It constitutes the main part of the modern city of Rome. Canada. In 1534, Jacques Cartier, a French navigator, entering the St. Lawrence on the festival of the saint of that title, took nomi- nal possession of North America in the name of his king, Francis I. In 1608, Quebec was founded by De Champlain; and here, fifteen years later, he built Fort St. Louis, from which stronghold France ruled for 150 years a vast region extending eastward to Acadia (now Nova Scotia), westward to Lake Superior, and ultimately down the Mississippi as far as Florida and Louisiana. The Recollet and Jesuit mis- sionaries traversed the country in all directions, and underwent incredible hardships in their zeal for the conversion of the Indians. These fearless priests were the pioneers of civilization in the far West, and to one of the most intrepid — La Salle — is due the discovery of the Mississippi valley. In 1670, Charles II. granted to Prince Rupert and his company, known ever since as the Hudson Bay Company, the perpetual ex- clusive right of trading in the territory watered by all the streams flowing into Hudson Bay. Garrisoned forts were now raised at suitable points, and the bitter enmity between the French and the English traders frequently led to bloody struggles, in which sometimes the Indians also took a part. The most warlike native tribe was that of the Iroquois, who were persistent ene- mies of the French, while the peaceful Hurons were steady allies. Meanwhile, the wars on the American continent followed the course of the wars in Europe, until the long struggle between France and England for the supremacy in Amer- ica came to a close on the "Plains of Abraham," in 1759, when General Wolfe defeated Montcalm. This victory opened the gates of Quebec. The capitulation of Montreal next year brought to a close the era of French dominion in Canada. The people of the conquered country were se- cured, by the terms of the treaty agreed to, in the free exercise of their religion.; and peace was concluded between Britain and France, 1763, when Canada was formally ceded to England, and Louisiana to Spain. In the same year a small portion of the recently acquired territory was, by royal proclamation, organized under English laws. In 1774, the new province was extended by parliamentary enactment, under French laws, down the Oluo to its confluence with the Mississippi, and up the latter stream to its source. Finally, Canada receded to its present limits in 1783, pving up to the American Republic, at the close of the Revolutionary War, the sites of six States: Minnesota, Wis- consin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In 1791, Canada was divided under separate legis- latures into two sections — the eastern retaining French institutions, the western receiving those of England; these sections, after discontent had ripened into armed insurrection, were again reunited for legislative purposes in 1841. In 1867, March 28, the British North America act for confederation of the colonies passed the imperial parliament. It united Upper Canada, or Ontario, Lower Canada, or Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, into one territory, to be named the Dominion of Canada. New- foundland declared against joining the confed- eration, but with that exception all the British territory north of the United States was grad- ually included within the Dominion — the Hud- son Bay Company territory by purchase in 1868, British Columbia in 1871, Prince Edward Island in 1873. In 1870, an insurrection of the Red River settlers, who were under apprehensions as to how their titles to their lands might be affected by the cession of the Hudson Bay Company's rights, took place under the leadership of Louis Riel, and had to be suppressed by a military expedition under Colonel (later Viscount) Wolse- ley. To reassure the settlers, a part of the newly- purchased territory was erected into an inde- pendent province under the name of Manitoba, the unorganized territory beyond receiving the name of the Northwestern Territory. ,In 1871, the Washington Treaty arranged that the fish- eries of both Canada and the United States should be open to each country for the next twelve years, Canada receiving a compensation, afterwards fixed at five and a half million dollars, for the superior value of its fisheries. In 1884, considerable disaffection was caused amongst the half-breeds and Indians in the Saskatchewan and Assiniboia districts, on account of the diffi- culty of obtaining valid titles to their lands. The discontent at length took shape in an insur- rection, which Louis Riel was invited to head. HISTORY 35 The rebels seized the government stores at Duck Lake. Some Indian tribes cooperating with them massacred the settlers at Frog's Lake. General Middleton with several thousand volun- teers suppressed the rebellion. Riel was tried and executed at Regina on July 28, 1885. After 1883, when the Washington Treaty expired, dis- Eutes between American and Canadian fishermen ecame frequent, and several American fishing vessels were seized on the British North Ameri- can coasts. For the adjustment of the differ- ences over fisheries a joint British and American commission was instituted in 1887. A treaty was signed in February, 1888, but was rejected by the United States Senate. In 1887, an arbitration board was appointed to settle a dispute with the United States concerning the Bering Sea seal fisheries, and ten years later made an award in favor of the Canadians' claims. Another commission, sitting in London (1903), decided the Alaskan boundary controversy in favor of the United States. In September, 1907, a serious riot, directed against the Japanese and Chinese, broke out in Vancouver, largely or- ganized by the American labor agitators, but supported by the local rowdies of the city. The Dominion authorities at once suppressed the outbreak. In 1910, the Newfoimdland fisheries controversy was arbitrated at The Hague. On September 21, 1911, reciprocity of trade with the United States was defeated by Canada, resulting in the downfall of the hberal ministry and the election of Robert Laird Borden as premier at the head of the first conservative min- istry in Canada since 1896. At the general parHa- mentary election, 1917, the conservative party was continued in power by a substantial majority. •Upon the outbreak of war in Europe, 1914, the Canadian government called a special session of parliament, which passed the necessary war bills and appropriations. Troops, horses, food- stuffs and money were sent to Great Britain. Prince Alexander of Teck was appointed gover- nor-general in May, 1914, to succeed the Duke of Connaught in October. The Duke of Con- naught was retained in office, as Prince Alexan- der went with his regiment to France at the beginning of the war. In June, 1916, the Duke of Devonshire was appointed governor-general. From August, 1914, to November, 1917, Cana- dian army enlistments for overseas service reached a total of 441,862. By various enact- ments, chiefly during the European War, all the provinces of Canada adopted Prohibition. Que- bec, the last of the provinces to so legislate, passed a prohibitory law effective May 1, 1918. Carthage (called Carthago by the Romans, and by the Greeks, Karchedon). One of the most celebrated cities of the ancient world, situated on the north coast of Africa, on a penin- sula in what is now the state of Tunis. It was founded by the Phcenicians of Tyre, about 100 years before the building of Rome, or, according to tradition, 863 B. C. The builder of the city was said to be Dido. It became the seat of a powerful kingdom; maintained three wars against Rome, which are usually called the three Punic Wars, and in the third of these wars was totally destroyed by Scipio .^miUanus, 146 B. C. The greatness of the city at this time may be judged from the fact that it took seventeen days to bum. It is said to have been twenty-three miles in circumference, and to have contained within its walls a population of 700,000. Caesar afterwards planted a colony on the site, which he called Colonia Carthago. It became again the first city in Africa, and occupied an important part in ecclesiastical as well as in civil history. Charter Oak, a tree which formerly stood in Hartford, Conn., in the hoUow trunk of which the colonial charter is said to have been hidden. The story is that when Governor Andros went to Hartford in 1687, to demand the surrender of the charter, the debate in the Assembly was prolonged until dark, when the hghts were extinguished, and Captain Wadsworth escaped with the document and hid it in the oak. The venerable tree was preserved with great care until 1856, when it was blown down. Chile. Chile originally belonged to the Incas of Peru, from whom it was wrested by the Spaniards under Pizarro and Almagro, in 1535. From this period Chile continued a colony of Spain until 1810, when a revolution commenced, which terminated in 1818 in the independence of Chile. Several internal commotions have since occurred; but the country has been free from these compared with other South American States. A war begun with Spain, in 1865, led to the blockade of the coast by the Spanish fleet, and the bombardment of Valparaiso in 1866. In 1879, a war broke out with Bolivia and Peru in reference to the rights of Chile in the mineral district of Atacama. This war was virtually finished in 1881, and the victorious Chileans gained a large accession of territory from both Bohvia and Peru. In 1891, an insurrection caused by dissatisfaction with President Bahna- ceda's administration resulted in his overthrow. In 1907, a number of labor disturbances in the mining regions called for armed intervention. China. The early history of the Chinese is shrouded in fable, but it is certain that civiU- zation had advanced much among them when it was only beginning to dawn on the nations of Europe. The Chow dynasty, which was founded by Woo-wang and lasted from about 1100 B. C. to 258 B. C, is perhaps the earhest that can be regarded as historic. Under Ling- wang, one of the sovereigns of this dynasty, Confucius is said to have been born, some time in the sixth century B. C. Duriiig the latter half of the Chow djmasty there appear to have been a nimnber of rival kings in China. Chow- siang, who was the founder of the Tsin djoiasty, from which China takes its name, gained the superiority over his rivals, and died in 251 B. C. His great-grandson, a national hero of the Chi- nese, was the first to assume the title of "Hoang" (emperor), and called himself Che-Hoang-ti. In his reign, the great wall, which was designed as a protection against marauding Tartars, was begun about 214 B. C. Buddhism was intro- duced in 65 A. D. Subsequently, the empire broke up into three or more states, and a long period of confusion and weak government en- sued. In 960, a strong ruler managed to cott- sohdate the empire, but the attacks of the Tar- tars were now causing much trouble. In the thirteenth century the Mongols, under Jenghis 36 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS Khan and his son, Ogdai, conquered China, and in 1259 the celebrated Kublai KhaA, a nephew of the latter, ascended the throne and founded the Mongol dynasty. His ninth descendant was driven from the throne, and a native dynasty, called Ming, again succeeded in 1368, in the person of Hungwu. A long period of peace ensued, but was broken about 1618, when the Manchus gained the ascendency, and, after a war of twenty-seven years, founded the Tartar dynasty in the person of Tungchi, estabhshing their capital in the northern city of Peking, which was nearer then- native country than the old capital Nanking. The earliest authentic accounts of China are those of Marco Polo, who visited the country in the Thirteenth Centmy. The first British inter- course was attempted under Queen Ehzabeth, in 1596, and a trade was subsequently established by the Bast India Company, but no direct inter- course between the governments took place tiU the embassy of Lord Macartney, in 1792. A second embassy in 1816, by Lord Amherst, was treated with insolence. In 1840, the British, on being refused redress for injuries partly real and partly alleged, proceeded to hostihties, and, after scattering every force which was opposed to them, were preparing to lay siege to Nanking when the Chinese sued for peace. A treaty was then concluded (1842) by which the five ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai were opened to British merchants, the island of Hong-Kong ceded to the British in perpetuity, and the payment of $21,000,000 agreed to be made by the Chinese. In 1850, an insurrection broke out in the provinces adjoining Canton, with the object of expelling the Manchu dynasty from the throne, as well as of restoring the ancient national religion of Shan-ti, and of making Tien-te the founder of a new dynasty, which he called that of Tai-ping, or Universal Peace. After a long period of civil war, the Tai-ping rebellion was at length suppressed in 1865, chiefly by the exertions of General Gordon and other British and American officers at the head of the Chinese army. In October, 1856, the crew of a vessel belonging to Hong-Kong were seized by the Chinese. The men were afterwards brought back, but all reparation or apology was refused. In consequence of this, a war with China commenced, in which the French took part with the British. Peking had to be taken (m 1860) before the Chinese Govern- ment finally gave way, and granted a treaty securing important privileges to the allies. The child emperor, Tsaitien, succeeded in 1875, but only assumed the reins of government in 1887, on reaching the age of sixteen. War was de- clared between China and Japan on July 31, 1894. Jsjpan, by a series of briUiant victories, both on land and sea, brought the war to an end in April, 1895. Corea was declared inde- pendent, Formosa ceded to Japan, and China was forced to pay a very large war indemnity. The following succinct statement of recent prog- ress in China was lately made by a missionary who has labored in that country since 1863: "Who arnong us, ten years ago, would have dared to imagine that to-day China would have (1) a national fleet; (2) the telegraph radiating to the most distant provinces; (3) government colleges for engineering, navigation, mihtary tac- tics, electricity, and medicine; (4) the Kai-ping mines supplying steamers and the north ports with excellent and cheap coal?" During 1898, both Russia and Germany had taken possession of certain provinces of China. In 1900, the Boxers rose against the foreigners (See Boxer RebelUon). A punitive war by the powers followed; indemnity and future guarantees and punishment of the principals were demanded and paid. In 1903, insurrection and rebelhon occurred in several provinces. Rebels in North China pro- claimed Pu Chun, Prince Tuan's son, as emperor, but the movement was quickly suppressed. As a result of the rebelMon in the Province of Kwang-si, the country was desolated and a serious famine threatened. It was reported that 1,000,000 persons were starving, and that men were selling their wives and children in order to get food. In 1907-08, edicts were issued looking to the extension of seK-govemment in the cities and a larger degree of civil liberty. A grand council was instituted by the emperor, and in 1910 in response to popular demands he announced the estabhshment of representative government in 1913. In 1911 a revolution began in China between those who advocated the retention of the mon- archy and those who favored the establishment of a repubhc. In 1912, with the formal abdica- tion of the Manchu dynasty, which ruled China for three centuries, an end came to an empire nearly 5,000 years old. China was proclaimed a republic and Yuan-Shi-Kai was elected president. In 1914, a new constitution concentrated power in the president. In November, Japan seized the province of Kiaochow, leased by China to Germany. Japan made demands upon China, in January, 1915, regarding concessions to foreigners and the transfer to Japan of German and Austrian concessions. A Japanese ulti- matum followed in May which China was com- pelled to accept. The Chinese repubUc ended in 1915, China by popular vote restoring the monarchy with Yuan-Shi-Kai as emperor. He formally accepted the throne Dec. 11, 1915, but upon his death June 6, 1916, China again became a repubUc. Cisalpine Republic. A former political division of Italy, embracing portions of Mantua, Milan, the ValtelKna, Venetia west and south of the Adige, Modena, and the northern Pontifical States. Inaugurated by Napoleon I. in 1797, it was named the Italian Republic in 1802, and three years later constituted the principal part of the Italian Kingdom. Colorado. Colorado was first organized as a territory in 1861, from parts of Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, and Utah. A portion of it was derived from the Louisiana purchase of 1803, and a part from the Mexican cession of 1848. This region was first settled by Coronado in 1540. It was thoroughly explored by expe- ditions sent out by the government, under Major Zebulon M. Pike, in 1806; under Colonel S. H. Long, in 1819; and under Colonel J. C. Fremont, in 1842-44. The first American set- tlements were made by mining parties in 1858- 59, since which time Colorado has become even HISTORY 37 more prolific than California in its yield of the precious metals. The State was admitted Au- gust 1, 1876. The famous Leadville mines were opened in 1879, and the same year saw the Ute uprising. In 1891 the Cripple Creek gold dis- coveries were made. In 1893 the legislature passed a bill, making equal suffrage for men and women a law. The Gunnison tunnel, the largest single irrigation project ever undertaken by the United States government, was opened by Presi- dentTaft, Sept., 1909. In 1909 the state adopted the initiative and referendum and in 1914 a Prohibition amendment which took effect in 1916. Committee of Public Safety. A com- mittee of nine created by the French Conven- tion, April 6, 1793, to concentrate the power of the executive, "the conscience of Marat, who could see salvation in one thing only, in the fall of 260,000 aristocrats' heads." Confederation of the Rhine. Dur- ing the war of 1805, so disastrous for Austria, several German princes, too weak to remain neutral, were forced to ally themselves with France. The first to do so were the Electors of Bavaria and Wiirttemberg, who, in recompense of their services, were elevated to the dignity of kings by the Peace of Pressburg, December 26, 1805. Some months after (May 28, 1806), the archchancellor of the empire announced at the Diet that he had chosen as his coadjutor and successor Cardinal Fesch, the uncle of Napoleon, a thing entirely contrary to the constitution of the Germanic Empire. Finally, at Paris, on the 12th of July, 1806, sixteen German princes formally signed an act of confederation, dissolv- ing their connection with the Germanic Empire, and allying themselves with France. These six- teen princes were: the kings of Bavaria and Wurttemberg, the archchancellor, the Elector of Baden, the new Duke of Cleves and Berg (Joac- him Murat), the Landgraf of Hesse-Darmstadt, the princes of Nassau-Usingen, Nassau- Weilburg HohenzoUern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmar- ingen, Salm-Salm, Salm-Kyrburg, the Duke of Arenberg, the princes of Iscnburg-Birstein and Lichtenstein, and the Count of Leyen. Connecticut. One of the thirteen original States. Its name was derived from the Indian, and signifies "Long River." The territory, originally claimed by the Dutch of New Nether- lands by right of prior exploration, was finally acquired by the English under a patent granted to Lord Say and Sele, and Brooke and asso- ciates, in 1631. Permanent settlements were made, 1633-36, by colonists from Massachusetts, at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. In 1638, New Haven was settled by a distinguished com- pany of emigrants from England. _ The first constitution was adopted in 1639, being the first time in history when a government was organ- ized and defined by a written constitution. Its leading features were afterward copied in the constitutions of the other States and of the United States, and it was the basis of the charter of 1662. The attempt to revoke and supersede this charter by James II. through his representa- tive. Sir Edmund Andros, in 1687, led to what might be called the first colonial act of rebellion against royal authority. During the Civil War, 54,882 men were furnished by the State. Consul. The title of the two chief magis- trates of Rome, whose power was in a certain degree absolute, but who were chosen for only one year; they were instituted B. C. 609. The authority of the two consuls was equal; yet the Valerian law gave the right of priority to the elder, and the Julian law to him who had the greater number of children; and this one was generally called Consul major or prior. In the first ages of the republic, they were elected from patrician families; but in the year of Rome, 388, the people obtained the privilege of electing one of the consuls from their own body, and sometimes both were plebeians. After the estab- lishment of the empire in 91, the office of consul became merely honorary; the last holder of the dignity at Rome was Decimus Theodorus Pauli- nus, A. D. 536; at Constantinople, Flavius Basilius Junius, 541. Consulate. A body of three persons, to whom, after the dissolution of the French Direct- ory in 1799, the provisional government was intrusted. Napoleon, Cambac^r^s, and Lebrun, were elected as first, second, and third consuls, respectively, with different degrees of authority, 1800; but the influence of the first becoming gradually augmented, the transition to imperial dignity became easy to him. On August 4, 1802, he was made consul for life, and on May 18, 1804, the title of emperor was substituted for that of consul. Continental System. A plan devised by Napoleon to exclude Britain from all inter- course with the continent of Europe. It began with the decree of Berlin of November 21, 1806, by which the British Islands were declared to be in a state of blockade; all commerce, inter- course, and correspondence were prohibited; every Briton found in France, or a country occu- pied by French troops, was declared a prisoner of war; all property belonging to Britons, fair prize; and all trade in goods from Britain or British colonies entirely prohibited. Britain re- plied by orders in council prohibiting trade with French ports, and declaring all harbors of France and her allies subjected to the same restrictions as if they were closely blockaded. Further de- crees on the part of France, of a still more stringent kind, declared all vessels of whatever flag, which had been searched by a British vessel or paid duty to Britain, denationalized, and directed the burning of all British goods, etc. These decrees caused great annoyance, and gave rise to much smuggling, till annulled at the fall of Napoleon, 1814. Convention, National. A revolution- ary convention in France, which, on September 20, 1792, succeeded the Legislative Assembly, proclaimed the republic, and condemned the king to death. It succeeded in crushing the royalists of La Vendue and the south, in defeating all Europe leagued against France, and in founding institu- tions of benefit to France to this day. It was dissolved on October 26, 1795, to make way for the Directory. Corea or Korea. The seeds of Chris- tianity were sown in Corea in 1592, by the invading army, composed chiefly of Christian converts of the Japanese usurper, Tiacosama. Hamel, a Dutch sailor, was wrecked here and 38 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS detained for thirteen years; from his narrative it was that, till very recently, most of our scanty knowledge of Corea was obtained. In 1784, Jesuit missionaries found their way into Corea and had great success among the people. From 1835 till 1860, several intrepid and devoted French missionaries contrived to find shelter, and, in spite of incessant persecutions, the Christian community continued rather to in- crease, rising in 1852 to 11,000 souls. The massacre of nine missionaries, in 1866, led to an invasion of Corea by a small French force, but without success. Nor did two successive Ameri- can expeditions, provoked by attack on an American vessel, succeed in breaking down the barriers that separated the Coreans from the rest of the world. The pseudonym of "Hermit Nation" has attached to Corea, not because of vast deserts and deadly jungles which interposed as physical barriers to constitute the Nile sources a region of myths and mysteries — for Corea, situated in the open sea, had none of these to bar ingress — but because of a persistent policy of isolation which, consecrated by time, became in fact, a sort of Corean religion. To be let alone by the So Yang Saram ("men from the Western Ocean "), this was the policy of govern- ment until our own day. About 1881, however, Corea made a treaty with Japan, and, later on, through Admiral Shufeldt, tJ. S. N., with the United States — followed by others with Eng- land, Russia, France, Germanjy, and Italy. After Japan's victory over China, m 1895, Corea was made independent. In 1907, Corea practically passed under a Japanese protectorate and, in 1910, was annexed to that empire. Covenanters. In Scottish history, the name given to the party which struggled for religious liberty from 1637 on to the revolution; but more especially applied to the insurgents who took up arms in defense of the Presbyterian form of church government. The Presbyterian ministers who refused to acknowledge the bish- ops were ejected from their parishes and gath- ered around them crowds of their people on the hillsides to attend their ministrations. The first outbreaks took place in the hill country on the borders of Ayr and Lanark shires. The murder of Archbishop Sharp, on Magus Moor, and a skirmish near there alarmed the govern- ment, who sent troops to put down the insur- gents, who had increased in number rapidly. The two armies met atBothwell Bridge, when the Covenanters were totally defeated, June 22, 1679. In consequence of the rebellious protest, called the "Sandquhar Declaration," put forth in 1680, by Cameron, Carg^U, and others, as representing the more irreconcilable of the Covenanters, and a subsequent proclamation in 1684, the govern- ment proceeded to more severe measures. An oath was now required of all who would free themselves of suspicion of complicity with the Covenanters; and the dragoons, who were sent out to hunt down the rebels, were empowered to kill anyone who refused to take the oath. After the accession of William, some of the ex- treme Covenanters refused to acknowledge him, owing to his acceptance of Episcopacy in Eng- land, and formed the earliest dissenting sect in Scotland. Crimean War. In 1854, the Crimea be- came the theater of a sanguinary war, under- taken by England, France, Turkey, and Sardinia in support of the integrity of the sultan's power and to check the growing ascendency of Russia on the Black Sea. The allies landed near Eupatoria, and defeated the Russians at the River Alma, September 20, 1854; at Balaklava, October 25th; at Inkerman, November 5th; at the River Tchernaya, August 16, 1855. The siege of Sebastopol continued from October 9, 1854, to September 8, 1855,' when the important fortresses known as the Malakoff and the Redan were stormed by the French and English, and the Russians evacuated the city. An armistice was concluded February 26, 1856, and peace was proclaimed in April of the same year. The British loss, during the war, was nearly 24,000, of which number, however, 16,500 died of dis- ease and privation. The French lost about 63,500. The Russian loss was estimated at 500,000. Crusades (Lat. crux, a cross). The name given to the religious wars which were carried on during the middle ages between the Christian nations of Western Europe and the Mohamme- dans of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. Originally, the object of the Crusades was to obtain free access for pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre, but they afterwards developed into a contest for the possession of Jerusalem itself. The Crusades lasted for nearly two centuries. They are usually divided into eight, as follows: First (1096-1100), led by Godfrey of Bouillon, and preached up by Peter the Hermit; second (1147-1149), led by Louis VII. and the Emperor Konrad, at the instigation of St. Bernard ; third (1189-1193), led against Saladin, the Sultan of Syria and Egypt, by Richard the Lion-hearted of England and Philip Augustus of France; fourth (1202-1204), led by Baldwin of Flanders and the Doge of Venice; fifth (1217), led by John Brienne, titular sovereign of Jerusalem; sixth (1228-1229), led by Frederick II. of Ger- many; seventh and eighth (1248-1254 and 1268- 1270), to satisfy the religious scruples of Louis IX. of France. Although the Crusades did not accomplish their main object, and the "Holy City" remained finally in the hands of the "Infidels," they yet called forth an amount of enterprise that has exerted a powerful influence upon modern civilization. On the other hand, they cost many millions of lives, and the deeds that were done during the Crusades in the sacred name of Christ would be altogether repugnant to all modern ideas of religion or even of human- ity. The name Crusades was derived from the symbol of the cross, which the warriors engaged in them wore over their armor. Cuba, spoken of as the "Queen of the An- tilles," was discovered by Coltimbus in 1492, the discoverer calling it "the most beautiful land that eyes ever beheld." It was first settled by Spaniards at Baracoa in 1611. Havana, first settled in 1519, was reduced to ashes by the French in 1538, and again in 1564. For about one and a half centuries, Cuba was in constant danger from French, Dutch, Endish, and West Indian filibusters. In 1762, the Eng- lish, under Lord Albemarle, took Havana HISTORY 39 which, however, was by the treaty of Paris next year restored to Spain. From 1789 to 1845, the island was a vast slave-trading center. Negro insurrections occurred in 1845 and 1848. In the latter year the United States offered $100,000,000 to Spam for the island. Rebel- lions against Spanish rule broke out in 1849 and in 1868. They were put down after long campaigns; another insurrection, begun in 1895, gained formidable proportions by 1898. The United States battleship "Maine," while on a friendly visit, was blown up in Havana harbor, February 15, 1898, and on April 19th, the Con- gress of the United States adopted resolutions declaring Cuba independent. War with Spain began at once. Cervera's Spanish fleet was destroyed at Santiago de Cuba, July 3d, and Santiago and its large army were surrendered on July 17th. The leading military events of the war, so far as Cuba was concerned, were the fights at El Caney and San Juan, the battle at Santiago, and the destruction of Cervera's fleet. A Constitutional Convention assembled in November, 1900, and adopted a constitution providing for a republican form of govern- ment, with a president, vice-president, senate, and house of representatives. Thereupon, the United States Congress authorized the transfer of the government to the poeple of Cuba on condition that: (1) No treaty should be made with any other foreign power impairing the independence of Cuba, or allowing miUtary or naval occupation of the island; (2) the United States should have the right to intervene for the discharge of her obligations under the Treaty of Paris; (3) the United States should have certain naval stations (at Bahia Honda and Guantanamo). These conditions were included in the Law of Constitution, and confirmed in the permanent treaty between Cuba and the United States, which was signed in May, 1903. The formal transfer of the government to the Cuban authorities took place on May 20, 1902. Tomaa Estrada Pahna was elected first presi- dent, and Luis Esteves, vice-president. An insurrection in 1906 led to American interven- tion and the appointment of Charles E. Magoon as provisional governor. Cuban Government again became independent in 1909, with Jos6 Gomez as President. In 1913 Gomez was suc- ceeded by Mario Menocal. Czar, Tsar, Tzar (zahr), JRuss. tsar]. The Sclavonic form of Ccesar, the title assumed by the emperors of Russia, borne first by Ivan II. in 1579, as Czar of Muscovy. The eldest son of the czar was called Czarovicz, or, as we usually write it, Czarovitsch, or Cesarowitch; but this appellation was discontinued after the murder of Alexis, the son of Peter the Great, until revived by Paul I. in 1799, in favor of his second son, Constantine. The consort of the czar is termed czarina. Decemviri (de-sim've-re). A body of men who were elected by the patricians, B. C. 451, for the purpose of drawing up a body of laws, founded on the most approved institutions of Greece. They compiled a code, which they in- scribed on ten tables, and stated that their labors were not yet complete. Next year, therefore, another body of ten, which probably included some of the patricians, was appointed with the same powers; and these added two more tables, altogether making the famous Twelve Tables, which were from that time the foundation of all Roman law. The second body of decemvirs attempted to prolong their period of office, committed some acts of violence, and altogether gave such dissatisfaction that they were dissolved. The traditionary history of the decemviri is, however, very doubtful. There were other decemvirs, who were appointed for judicial and other purposes. Defenestration of Prague, The (May 23, 1618). That is, the ejection out of windows by the Bohemians. The Bohemians had two Protestant churches, one in the diocese of Prague, and the other in the territory of the abbot of Braunau. The Archbishop of Prague and the abbot pulled down these reformed churches, and when the Protestants remonstrated they were told it was the king's pleasure. So Count Thurn of Bohemia headed a deputation, which went to the royal castle of Prague to lay their grievance before the king. Being admitted into the council haU, they were so insolently received that they threw two of the councillors and the king's private' secretary out of the windows into the moat. This was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. Delaware. Though the State was first discovered by the Dutch in 1609, Lord Delaware, Governor of Virginia, who visited it the follow- ing year, and afterward gave name to it, claimed it on behalf of England. In 1637, colonies were planted near WUmington by the Swedish East India Company, which brought on a conflict with the Dutch and led to the expulsion of the Swedes in 1655. When New Netherlands was conquered by the English, this territory went with it. WiUiam Peim, having received the Pennsylvania grant, secured, also, from the Duke of York rights over Delaware by patent, and until the Revolution the territory was governed under the same proprietary. In 1776, the people declared themselves an independent State, and as such fought in the Continental ranks. Dela- ware was the first State to ratify the Federal Constitution, and its own constitution, adopted in 1792, stiU. forms the fiindamental law. Deluge. The Deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536, and began December 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. {Genesis vi, vii, viii). The ark rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657, and Noah left the ark December 18th, following. The year corresponds with that of 2348 B. C. The following are the epochs of the Deluge, according to Dr. Hales: B.C. B.C. Septuagint, . . 3246 CUnton, .... 2482 Jackson, . 3170 Playfair, .... 2352 Hales, . . . 3155 Usher and E.Bible,2348 Josephus, . . . . 3146 Marsham, . . . 2344 Persian, . . . . 3103 Petavius, . . 2329 Hindoo, . . . 3102 Strauchius, . . 2293 Samaritan, . 2998 Hebrew, . . . 2288 Howard, . 2698 Vulgar Jewish, . 2104 In the reign of Ogyges, King of Attica, 1764 B. C, a deluge so inundated Attica that it lay waste for nearly 200 years. Builon thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, 40 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS and arose from the Atlantic and Bosporus burst- ing into the Valley of the Mediterranean. The deluge of Deucahon in Thessaly is placed 1503 B. C. according to Eusebius. It was often confounded by the ancients with the general flood but considered to be merely a local inun- dation occasioned by the overflowing of the River Pineus whose course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucahon, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pjrrrha and some of their subjects, are stated to have saved themselves by chmbing up Mount Parnassus. Denmark. The Kymri were the earhest known inhabitants of Scandinavia and made themselves formidable to the Romans 100 years B. C. To them succeeded the Goths who, under their mythical leader, Odin, established their rule over the Scandinavian lands. Odin's son, Skjold, is reputed to have been the first ruler of Denmark; but the httle that is known of Danish history in these remote ages seems to indicate that the country was spUt up into many small territories, whose inhabitants hved by piracy. The people were divided into "Bonder" and "Trselle," freemen and bondmen. The former busied themselves with war and "Vikingetog," or piracy, and the government of the land; while to the latter were left the peaceful pursuits of hunting, fishing, and tilling the soil. The mission of Ansgarius the Apostle of the North to South Jutland, in 826, when he baptized Harald Klak, one of the Smaa Kongar, or the little kings of Denmark, was the means of first opening the Danish territories to the knowledge of the more civihzed nations. The country was soon torn by civil dissensions be- tween the adherents of the ancient and modern faith. Gorm the Old, the first authentic King of Denmark, the bitter enemy of Christianity, died in 935, after having subjugated the several territories to his sway; and, although his death gave fresh vigor to the diffusion of the new faith, paganism kept its ground for 200 years longer, and numbered among its adherents many of those half-mythical heroes, whose deeds are celebrated in the Eddas and the Ksempeviser of the Middle Ages. The success that attended the piratical incursions of the Northmen drew them from their own homes; and, while Gorm's descendants, Svend and Knud, were reigning in England, Denmark was left a prey to anarchy. On the extinction of Knud's dynasty, in 1042, his sister's son, Svend Estridsen, ascended the throne. Internal dissensions and external wars weakened the country, and the introduction of a feudal system raised up a powerful nobility and ground down the once free people to a condition of oppressed serfage. Valdemar I., by the help of his great minister. Axel Hvide, known in history as Bishop Absalon, subjugated the Wends of Riigen and Pomerania, and forced them, in 1168, to renounce the faith of their god, Svantevit, and accept Christianity. During the time of Knud VI., and in the early part of the reign of Valdemar II. — sons of Valdemar I. — the conquest of Denmark extended so far into German and Wendic lands that the Baltic was httle more than an inland Danish sea. The jealousy of the German princes and the treachery of his vassals combined to rob Valdemar II. of these brilUant family conquests. His death, in 1241, was followed by a century of anarchy and inglorious decadence of the authority of the crown, during which the kingdom was brought to the brink of annihilation under the vicious rule of his sons and grandsons. Under his great-grandson, Valdemar IV., the last of the Estridsen Une, Denmark made a quick but transient recovery of the conquests of the older Valdemars, and the national laws were collected into a well-digested, comprehensive code. From his death, in 1375, till 1412, his daughter, the great Margaret, first as regent for her only and early lost son, Olaf, and later as sole monarch, ruled, not only Denmark, but, in course of time, also Sweden and Norway, with such consummate tact, and with so hght yet firm a hand, that, for once in the course of their history, the three rival Scandinavian kingdoms were content to act in harmony. Margaret's successor, Erik, the son of her niece, for whose sake she had blended the three sovereignties into one, undid her glorious work with fatal rapidity, and after an inglorious war of twenty-five years with his vassals, the Counts-dukes of Schleswig-Holstein, he lost the allegiance and the crowns of his triple kingdom, and ended his disastrous existence in misery and obscurity. After the short reign of his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria, the Danes, on the death of the latter in 1448, again exer- cised their long-dormant right of election to the throne, and chose for their king Christian of Oldenbiirg, a descendant of the old royal family through his maternal ancestress, Rikissa, the great-granddaughter of Valdemar II. Christian I., the father of the Oldenburg fine, which con- tinued unbroken until the death of the King of Demnark, Frederick VII., in 1863, laid the foundation of the Schleswig-Holstein troubles which, after maturing for centuries, have ended in our own day in dismembering the Danish monarchy. The insane .tyranny of the other- wise able and enhghtened Christian II. cost him his throne. Christian III., in whose reign the Reformation was estabhshed, united the Schles- wig - Holstein duchies in perpetuity to the Crown in 1533. Frederick II., who increased the embarrassments connected with the crown appanages, by making additional partitions in favor of his brother (the founder of the Holstein- Sonderburg family), was succeeded by Christian IV., 1588, who was the ablest of Danish rulers. His Hberal pohcy was, however, cramped by the nobles, by whose supineness Denmark lost aU the possessions she had hitherto retained in Sweden. The national abasement which fol- lowed led, in 1660, under Christian's son, Fred- erick III., to the rising of the people against the nobles, and their surrender into the hands of the king of the supreme power. For the next 100 years the peasantry were kept in serfage and the middle classes depressed. The abohtion of serfage was begun by Christian VII. in 1767; it was extended to the duchies in 1804. The reign of Christian's son, Frederick VI., brought the country to the verge of ruin. On the acces- sion of Frederick VII. half his subjects were in open rebelUon against him. Prince Christian of Schleswig - Holstein - Gliicksborg ascended the HISTORY 41 throne as Christian IX. in 1863 and was succeeded by his son, Frederick VIII. in 1906. On the death of Frederick VIII. in 1912, Christian X. became king. In December, 1916, the sale of the Danish West Indies to the United States for the sum of $25,000,000 was approved by a referen- dum vote. Deposed Kings of England. (1) Be- fore the Conquest: Sigebert of Wessex, A. D. 755; Alcred of Northumbria, 774; Ethelred I., 779; Eardwulf and Ethel wulf, 857; Edwy, 957; Ethelred II., 1013; Hardicanute, son of Canute, 1037. (2) Since the Conquest: Edward II., 1327; Richard II., 1399; Henry VI., 1461; James II., 1688. Euphemistically called his "abdication," Charles I. was not only deposed but tried for treason against his parliament and beheaded; Charles II. was not exactly deposed, but he was kept from the crown during the Commonwealth. The most absolute and tyrannical of British sovereigns have been the Welsh and Scotch dynasties, but Wales and Scotland are eminently democratic. The Stuarts claimed the " right divine" of kings, but James I. and Charles II. did no honor to the claim. Deposed Kings of France. Louis XVI., like Charles I., was not only deposed but executed, 1793; Napoleon I. (emperor) was twice deposed, 1814, 1815; Charles X. (1830), hke James II., is said to have "abdicated"; Louis- Philippe (1848), also said to have "abdicated"; Napoleon III., 1870, by act of the Corps Legis- latif following his surrender at Sedan. Dictator (dik-ta'tiXr). A magistrate- ap- pointed in times of exigency and peril, and in- vested with extraordinary powers. They acted as generals-in-chief of the army, and could declare war or make peace at their pleasure. They were originally selected from the patrician order, the first having been Titus Laertius, B. C. 501. In B. C. 356, however, the office of dic- tator was thrown open to the plebeians, and Marcius Rutilus, one of that class, received the appointment. For 400 years this office was regarded with veneration, until Sulla and Csesar, by becoming perpetual dictators, con- verted it into an engine of tyranny, and rendered the very name odious. Hence, it became ex- tinguished by decree of Mark Antony, B. C. 44. Directory, The. "Le Directoire," the executive of the Constitution of Year III. (October 27, 1795 — November 9, 1799). The legislature consisted of two houses, the Council of Elders and the Council of 500. The number of the directors was five, named by the two councils, and they were elected for five years, without power of reelection. They appointed the ministers and les g6n6raux-en-chef. Abol- ished by Napoleon in November, 1799. The military glory of France was never greater than in the Directory. It had for its com- manders, Bonaparte, K16ber, Desaix, Mass^na, and Moreau. District of Columbia. The region of the Potomac River was originally a favorite camping and fishing ground of several Indian tribes who lived in its vicinity, and was called by them the "River of Swans." As early as 1660 a portion of the tract was purchased by an Englishman named Pope, who named the whole tract Rome, a stream running through it, the Tiber, and the principal eminence, on. which the capitol now stands, Capitoline Hill, and signed all his letters and documents "The Pope of Rome." Some thirty years prior to this, the Potomac had been explored as far as Little Falls, beyond the limits of the District of Columbia, by an Indian trader named William Fleet, with whom Leonard Calvert treated, 1634. The Colonial Congress, for a number of years follow- ing its organization, had no permanent seat. The session of 1783 was begun in Philadelphia, but, being disturbed by a riotous demand of the soldiers for their overdue pay. Congress ad- journed first to Princeton, thence to Annapolis, and, subsequently, to New York. The question of a permanent seat of government, to be en- tirely under federal authority, which had been broached several times, was then considered to be urgent; and when the proposed Federal Con- stitution was being drafted (1787) a clause was inserted in Art. I, Sec. 8, establishing the power of Congress to exercise exclusive legislation over such a district as might subsequently be ceded to the government by particular States for a seat of the Government of the United States. As soon as the intention of Congress to select a site was known, the State of Maryland ceded sixty square miles on one side of the river, and the State of Virginia forty square miles on the other, to constitute the federal district. The site of the national capital was selected in 1790, and the first stone to mark the boundaries of the District of Columbia was set at Jones's Point, below Alexandria, April 15, 1791. The com- missioners appointed to lay out the district agreed that it should be called "The Territory of Columbia," and the federal city "The City of Washington." The city was laid out in accordance with the plans of Major L'Enfant, a French officer and engineer who had been wounded at Savannah, and who was one of Washington's favorite officers. Public buildings were erected, and official possession was taken, 1800, when Congress removed from Philadelphia and began holding its sessions there. Subse- quently, the whole territory was styled the District of Columbia, in memory of Christopher Columbus. In 1846, the area of 100 square miles was' reduced to sixty-four square miles by retrocession to Virginia of the section previously included within the bounds of that State. Pre- vious to 1871, legislative power was exercised directly by Congress. An act adopted that year established a territorial form of government, and gave the citizens representation in Congress for the first time. The charters of Georgetown, incorporated December 25, 1789, and Washing- ton, incorporated May 3, 1802, were repealed by the act, though both were allowed to bear the name of "city," and the corporations of the cities as well as that of Washington County, were merged into the new government. Alex- ander R. Shepherd became president of the Citizens' Reform Association, 1870, vice-presi- dent of the Board of Public Works under the new government, 1871, and governor of the district, 1873. In 1874, the territorial govern- ment was abolished, and since then aU the public affairs of the district have been managed by a 42 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS board of three commissioners acting directly under the legislation of Congress. Divine Bight of Kings, The. A Seventeenth Century dogma, implying the be- lief that kings hold their oflSce by divine appoint- ment, and are the earthly representatives of Deity. So they are in a theocracy like Judsea and the popedom. The dogma was sanctioned in the book of the Canons of Convocation, 1604; but in the Bill of Rights, 1689, the right of the people to depose the monarch, to change the order of succession, and to confer the throne on whom they think proper is distinctly set forth. Dominican Republic, or Santo Domingo. A state formed by the Spanish or eastern section of Hayti. Spain, in 1697, sur- rendered to France, by the Treaty of Ryswick, the western part of the island, retaining the remainder down to 1795. In the year last men- tioned, however, the Spanish portion became nominally French. In 1814, the West having vindicated its independence^ France formally relinquished, in favor of Spam, all claim to the East. In 1822, the colony, in imitation of the continental possessions, threw off the yoke of the mother-country, to link itself, more or less closely, with its African neighbors. But in the year 1844 it assumed a separate standing as the Dominican RepubUc, the anarchy of which it exchanged in 1861 for the despotism of its former masters. In 1863, it again revolted, and Spain gave up the possession; the repubUc has since maintained a troubled existence. In 1907, a treaty between the Dominican RepubUc and the United States was ratified, under which the latter will collect the customs revenues, assist the Dominican Government to maintain peace, and act as intermediary between the republic and its foreign creditors. Dorr Rebellion. In 1840, Connecticut and Rhode Island were the only States that were still governed by their colonial charters. The charter of the latter State, imposing, as it did, a property qualification so high as to dis- franchise two-thirds of the citizens, was ex- tremely unpopular. A proposition of Thomas W. Dorr, of Providence, to extend the franchise was voted down. Dorr then took to agitation, and finally a convention prepared a constitution and submitted it to a popular vote. Its sup- porters claimed a majority for it, which its op- ponents, known as the law and order party, denied. Nevertheless, in 1842, the constitution was proclaimed to be in force. An election was held imder it, only the suffrage party partici- pating. Dorr was elected governor. The suf- frage legislature assembled at Providence with Thomas W. Dorr as governor; the charter legislature at Newport, with Samuel W. King as governor. After transacting some business the suffrage legislature adjourned. The charter legislature authorized the governor to take energetic steps, and an appeal for aid was made to wie National Government. The suffragists attempted armed resistance, but were dispersed. Dorr fled, but soon returned and gave himself up. He was convicted of high treason in 1844, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, but was par- doned in 1847, and in 1852 was restored to his civil rights. The charter party soon after the rebelUon proposed a new constitution, largely extending the suffrage, which was carried and went into effect in May, 1843. Druids. The priests of the Celts of Gaul and Britain. According to JuUus Csesar, they possessed the greatest authority among the Cel- tic nations. They had some knowledge of geometry, natural philosophy, etc., superin- tended the affairs of religion and morality, and performed the office of judges. They had a common superior, who was elected by a majority of votes from their own number, and who en- joyed his dignity for Iffe. They took unusual care to fence themselves round with mysteries, and it is probable that they cherished doctrines unknown to the common people; but that they had a great secret philosophy which was handed down by oral tradition is very unlikely. Of their reUgious doctrines Uttle is known. Human sacrifice was one of their characteristic rites, the victims being usually prisoners of war. Eastern Empire. Commenced imder Valens, A. D. 364, and ended in the defeat and death of Constantino XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him and possess himself of Constan- tinople; he laid siege to that city both by sea and land, and took it by assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces; the children of the imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the con- queror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and commenced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. Ecuador. After the conquest of the Inca dominions, the Kingdom of Quito was made a presidency of the viceroyalty of Peru, and re- mained under Spanish rule from 1533 to 1822. In 1809, it revolted, and after many fruitless struggles achieved its independence by the battle of Pichincha, May 22, 1822. The territory was incorporated into the Republic of Colombia, on the disruption of which, in 1830, it became an independent republic imder the name of Ecuador. But a series of civil wars ensued, lasting almost without intermission for more than twenty years. From 1852 to 1858, desultory hostilities existed with Peru. War was declared against New Granada, November 20, 1863, and the Ecua- dorian army was routed. In August, 1868, a very destructive earthquake occurred. In 1869, Garcia Moreno, the head of the clerical party, overthrew the government. He was assassi- nated in 1875, and Dr. Antonio Borrero, the candidate of the non-official party, was elected president. A constitution was adopted and a president elected, and until 1884 the republic enjoyed a reasonably peaceable government. _ In 1884, another constitution was formed, which, with modifications, in 1887 and 1897, has since been in force. Edict of Nantes {n&nts, Fr. nSnt). This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant sub- jects, in 1598. It was revoked by Louis XIV.,Ooto- ber 24, 1685. This bad and vmjust policy lost to HISTORY 43 France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000 industrious artisans.' Some thousands, who brought with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet remain: others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they excelled; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. Egypt. The Egyptians are the earliest people known to us as a nation. When Abra- ham entered the Delta from Canaan, they had been long enjoying the advantages of a settled government. They had built cities, invented hieroglyphic signs, and improved them into syllabic writing, and almost into an alphabet. They had invented records, and wrote their kings' names and actions on the massive temples which they raised. The arrangement of Egyp- tian chronology is still a mucn-disputed point amongst scholars. A list of the kin^s of Egypt, arranged in thirty dynasties, was given by the Priest Manetho (about 250 B. C), and this division is still used. His list, however, is in a very corrupt condition and his method is not strictly chronological. Hence, in the various systems of chronology adopted by Egyptolo- gists the dates assigned to Mena (or Menes) vary from 5702 to 2440 B. C. According to tradition, Mena formed the old Empire of Egypt and founded its capital Memphis. The Fourth Dynasty is distinguished as the "Pyramid Dy- nasty." Three of its kings, Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura (according to Herodotus, Cheops, Chephren, and Mykerinos), built the largest pyramids. The date assigned to these kings in the chronology of Lepsius is 2800-2700. About 2400 the government of the empire seems to have been transferred from Memphis to Thebes, and with the beginning of Dynasty Twelve, the Theban line was firmly established. The chief princes of this dynasty are Amenemhat I. (2380), who seems to have extended the power of Egypt over a part of Nubia; Usurtasan I., who made further conquests in this direction; and Amenemhat III. (2179), who constructed Lake Meri (Mceris), a large reservoir for regu- latibg the water supply of the Nile. About 2100, Egypt was conquered by the Hyksos, or shepherd kings, who invaded Egypt from the east and established their capital at Tanis (Zoan). The Theban princes seem, however, to have preserved a state of semi-independence, and at last a revolt commenced which ended by the shepherd kings being completely driven out of Egypt by King Aahmes (Amasis) of Thebes (about 1600), the first of the Eighteenth Dynasty. With Aahmes and the expulsion of the shepherd kings began the reigns of those great Tneban kings who built the magnificent temples and palaces at Thebes. The kings of the other parts of Egypt sank to the rank of sovereign priests. Thutmes (or Thothmosis II.) added Memphis to his dominions by his marriage with Queen Nitocris. Under Thutmes III. and his successors there were successful expeditions against the Syrians and the Ethiopians. Amen- hotep III. set up his two gigantic statues in the plain of Thebes, one of which the Greeks called the musical statue of Memnon. The Rames- sides form the Nineteenth Dynasty. They com- mence with Ramses I., who seems to have been of Lower Egyptian extraction. His grandson, the great Ramses II., or Sesostris, was. successful against the neighboring Arabs, and covered Egypt with magnificent buildings. Ramses II. was probably the Pharaoh who oppressed the Hebrews, and the exodus may have occurred under his successor, Meneptah, or Merenptah. Under the later Ramessides the Egyptian Em- pire began to decay. A new dynasty, Twenty- first, came to the throne with Kin^ Hirhor. The seat of their power was Tanis m the Delta. During this period a great number of foreigners, Libyans as well as Asiatics, established them- selves in Egypt. About 961, Sheshenk I., the Shishak of the Bible, of a Shemite family from Bubastis, established a new dynasty (Twenty- second). He attempted to restore Egyptian rule in the East, and conquered and plundered Jerusalem. After his death, Egypt was torn by civil wars, and eventually the Ethiopians under Shabak (Sabako) conquered it (Twenty-fifth Dynasty). For a time it was subject alternately to Ethiopian and Assyrian princes, but in the Seventh Century the kings of Sais once more restored its independence and prosperity to Egypt. Psamethik I. (Psammetichus) warred successfully in Syria and Palestine. King Nekho (610-594) defeated Josiah, King of Judah, but his further progress was checked by Nebuchad- nezzar. His sailors circumnavigated Africa. Uahbra (the Greek Apries, the Hophrah of the Bible) and Aahmes II. (Greek Amasis) followed. About 523, Cambyses, King of Persia, overran Egypt and made it a Persian province. During the reign of Cambyses the Egyptians suffered much oppression. After the Persian defeat at Marathon, the Egyptians rose and recovered their independence for a short time, but were again subdued, and, in spite of two other revolts, Egypt remained a Persian province till Persia itself was conquered by Alexander the Great, B. C. 332. Egypt now became a Greek state, many Greeks having been already settled in the country, and the Egyptians were treated as an inferior race. Alexandria was founded as the new Greek capital. On Alexander's death, his general, Ptolemy, took possession of the throne and became the first of a Greek Dynasty that for three hundred years made Egypt one of the chief kingdoms of the world. The Ptolemies were magnificent patrons of letters and arts. Theocritus, Callimachus, Euclid the geometri- cian, the astronomers Eratosthenes and Aratus, etc., flourished under their rule. But while the Alexandrian Greeks managed to keep down the native Egyptians, they were themselves sinking under the Romans. Ptolemy Auletes went to Rome to ask help against his subjects, and the famous Cleopatra maintained her power only through her personal influence with Julius Csesar and Mark Antony. On the defeat of Mark Antony by Augustus, B. C. 30, Egypt became a province of Rome. It was still a Greek state, and Alexandria was the chief seat of Greek learning and science. On the spread of Chris- tianity the old Egyptian doctrines lost their sway. Now arose in Alexandria the Christian catechetical school, which produced Clemens and 44 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Origen. The sects of Gnostics united astrology and magic with religion. The school of Alex- andrian Platonics produced Plotinus and Proclus. Monasteries were built all over Egypt; Christian monks took the place of the pagan hermits, and the Bible was translated into Coptic. On the division of the great Roman Empire (A. D. 364), in the time of Theodosius, into the Western and Eastern Empires, Egypt became a province of the latter, and sank deeper and deeper in barbarism and weakness. It was con- quered in 640 A. D. by the Saracens imder CaUph Omar. As a province of the caliphs it Was under the government of the celebrated Abbasides — Har\m-al-Rashid and Al-Mamun — and that of the heroic Sultan Saladin. The last dynasty was, however, overthrown by the Mamelukes (1250); and the Mamelukes in their turn were conquered by the Turks (1516-17). The Mame- lukes made repeated attempts to cast off the Turkish yoke, and had virtually done so by the end of the 18th century, when the French con- quered Egypt and held it till 1801, when they were driven out by the British. On the expulsion of the French a Turkish force under Mehemet Ali Bey took possession of the country. Mehemet Ah was made pasha, and administered the country vigorously, greatly extending the Egyptian territories. At length he broke with the Porte, and after gaining a decisive victory over the Ottoman troops in Syria, in 1839, he was acknowledged by the sultan as viceroy of Egypt, with the right of succession. Mehemet Ali died in 1849, having survived his son Ibrahim, who died in 1848. He was succeeded by his grandson. Abbas, who, dying in 1854, was succeeded by his uncle. Said, son of Mehemet. Under his rule railways were opened, and the cutting of the Suez canal commenced. After Said's death, Ismail Pasha, a grandson of Mehemet Ali, obtained the govern- ment in 1863. His administration was vigorous but extravagant, and brought the finances of the country into disorder. In 1866, he obtained a firman from the sultan, granting him the title of khedive. In 1879 he was forced to abdicate under pressure of the British and French govern- ments, and was replaced by his son, Tewfik. In 1882 the "national party" under Arabi Pasha revolted and forced the khedive to flee. On July 11th, a British fleet bombarded Alexandria and restored the khedive, and at Tel-el-Kebir Arabi's forces were totally crushed on September 13. A rebellion in the Sudan, under the leadership of Mohammed Ahmed, the so-caUed mahdi, now gave the government trouble. In 1883 the mahdi's forces annihilated an Egyptian force under Hicks Pasha in Kordofan. British troops were despatched to Suakin and inflicted two severe defeats on the mahdi's followers. The British cabinet resolved to abandon the Sudan; General Gordon was sent to effect the safe withdrawal of the garrisons (1884). However, the mahdi's forces were strong enough to shut the general up in Khartoum for nearly a year. He perished (January, 1885) before the relief expedition could reach him. Since then Anglo- Egyptian troops have reoccupied it. Prince Abbas succeeded as khedive in 1892 — the British still retaining control. The predominant position of Great Britain in Egypt was formally recog- nized by France under the Anglo-French agree- ment of 1904. As a consequence of Great Britain's participa- tion in the war of the nations, Egypt was declared a British protectorate, Dec. 17, 1914. The fol- lowing day Abbas II was deposed. He was suc- ceeded by Hussein Kemal, with the title of sultan. Bl Caney (eJ-cd'-na), a fortified town of Cuba, on the main road, four miles northeast of Santiago. During the Spanish-American war it was the scene of a decided American vic- tory. At 6 A. M. on July 1, 1898, Captain Cap- ron's battery of four guns opened fire on El Caney from an elevation about a mile and a half distant. The guns were not heavy enough to destroy the enemy's works, and at eight o'clock General Lawton's infantry of Chaffee's brigade, consisting of the 7th, 12th, and 17th United States Infantry, assaulted and captured the hill with many prisoners. In 1901 the United States Government purchased the battlefield and ap- proaches for a pubhc reservation. Electors, The, or Kurfiirsts, of Germany, German princes who enjoyed the privilege of disposing of the imperial crown, ranked next the emperor, and were originally six in number, but grew to eight, and finally nine; three were ecclesiastical — the Arch- bishops of Mayence, Cologne, and Treves, and three secular — the Electors of Saxony, the Palatinate, and Bohemia, to which were added at successive periods the Electors of Branden- burg, of Bavaria, and Hanover. Emancipation Proclamation, a proclamation providing for the emancipation of the slaves in certain parts of the Confederate States, issued as a war measure by President Lincoln, January 1, 1863. The number of slaves emancipated by this proclamation was, taking the census of 1860 as a basis, as follows: Alabama, . 435,080 Arkansas, .... . 111,115 Florida, ... . 61,745 Georgia, . . . 462,198 Louisiana, . . . 247,715 Mississippi, 436,631 North Carohna, . . 331,059 South Carohna ... . . 402,046 Texas, . . 182,566 Virginia 450,000 Total, 3,120,515 The number of slaves not affected by its pro- visions was about 832,000. The full text of the proclamation is as follows: Whereas, _ on the twenty-second day of September, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, con- taining, among other things, the following, to-wit: That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part of State, the people whereof shall be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforth and forever free, and the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval officers thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such per- sons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom. That the Executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof shall HISTORY 45 be in rebellion against the United States, and the fact that any State, or the people thereof, shall, on that day, be,_ in good faith, represented in the Congress of the United States, by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testimony be deemed conclusive evidence that such State and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the United States. Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and Government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for su{]pressing said rebellion, do on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaim for the full period of one iiundred days from the day of the first above-mentioned order, and designate, as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof respei^tively are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to-wit: Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Barnard, Plaque- mines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascen- sion, Assumption, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the City of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty- eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are, for the present, left precisely as if, this procla- mation were not issued. And by virtue of the power and for the purpose afore- said, I do order and declare that all persons *held as slaves within said designated States andT parts of States are, and henceforth shall be, free; and that the Execu- tive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self- defense, and I recommend to them that, in all cases, when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. And I further declare and make known, that such per- sons, of suitable condition, will be received into the armed service of the United States, to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, 1 invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. [L. S.l Done at the City of Washington, this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty-seventh. By the President Abraham Lincoln. William H. Seward, Secretary of State. England. The history of England proper begins when it ceased to be a Roman possession. On the withdrawal of the Roman forces, about the beginning of the Fifth Century A. D., the South Britons, or inhabitants of what is now called England, were no longer able to withstand the attacks of their ferocious northern neighbors, the Scots and Picts. They applied for assistance to Aetius, but the Rogian general was too much occupied in the struggle with Attila to attend to their petition. In their distress they appear to have sought the aid of the Saxons; and accord- ing to the Anglo-Saxon narratives three ships, containing 1,600 men, were dispatched to their help under the command of the brothers Heng- est and Horsa. Vortigern, a duke or prince of the Britons, assigned them the isle of Thanet for habitation, and, marching against the north- ern foe, they obtained a complete victory. The date assigned to these events by the later Anglo- Saxon chronicles is 449 A. D., the narratives asserting further that the Saxons, finding the land desirable, turned their arms against the Britons, and, reinforced by new bands, conquered first Kent and ultimately the larger part of the island. Whatever the credibility of the story of Vortigern, it is certain that in the middle of the Fifth Century the occasional Teutonic incur- sions gave place to persistent invasion with a view to settlement. These Teutonic invaders were Low German tribes from the country about the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, the three most prominent being the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. Of these, the Jutes were the first to form a settlement, taking possession of part of Kent, the Isle of Wight, etc. ; but the larger con- quests of the Saxons in the south and the Angles in the north gave to these tribes the leading place in the kingdom. The struggle continued 150 years, and at the end of that period the whole southern part of Britain, with the exception of Strathclyde, Wales, and West Wales (Cornwall), was in the hands of the Teutonic tribes. This conquered territory was divided among a number of small states or petty chieftaincies, seven of the most conspicuous of which are often spoken oi a,s the Heptarchy. These were: (1) The King- dom of Kent; founded by Hengest in 455; ended in 823. (2) Kingdom of South Saxons, containing Sussex and Surrey ; founded by Ella in 477; ended in 689. (3) Kingdom of East Angles, containing Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely (Isle of); founded by Uffa in 571 or 575; ended in 792. (4) Kingdom of West Saxons, containing Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, Hants, Berks, and part of Cornwall; founded by Cedric 519; swallowed up the rest in 827. (5) Kingdom of Northumbria, containing York, Durham, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Northum- berland, and the east coast of Scotland to the Firth of Forth; founded by Ida 547; absorbed by Wessex in 827. (6) Kingdom of East Saxons, containing Essex, Middlesex, Hertford (part); founded by Erchew in 527 ; ended in 823. (7) Kingdom of Mercia, containing Gloucester, Hereford, Worcester, Warwick, Leicester, Rut- land, Northampton, Lincoln, Huntingdon, Bed- ford, Buckingham, Oxford, Stafford, Derby, Salop, Nottingham, Chester, Hertford (part); founded by Cridda about 584; absorbed by Wes- sex in 827. Each state was, in its turn, annexed to more powerful neighbors; and at length, in 827, Egbert, by his valor and superior capacity, united in his own person the sovereignty of what had formerly been seven kingdoms, and the whole came to be called England, that is Angle-land. While this work of conquest and of intertribal strife had been in progress towards the establish- ment of a united kingdom, certain important changes had occurred. The conquest had been the slow expulsion of a Christian race by a purely heathen race, and the country had returned to something of its old isolation with regard to the rest of Europe. But before the close of the Sixth Century Christianity had secured a footing in the southeast of the island. Ethelbert, king of Kent and suzerain over the kingdoms soutn of the Humber, married a Christian wife, Bertha, daughter of Charibert of Soissons, and tWs event indirectly led to the coming of St. Augustine. The conversion of Kent, Essex, and East Anglia was followed by that of Northumberland and 46 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS then by that of Mercia, of Wessex, of Sussex, and lastly of Wight, the contest between the two religions being at its height in the Seventh Century. The legal and political changes imme- diately consequent upon the adoption of Christi- anity were not great, but there resulted a more intimate relation with Europe and the older civihzations, the introduction of new learning and culture, the formation of a written Uter- ature, and the fusion of the tribes a,nd petty kingdoms into a closer and more lasting unity than that which could have been otherwise secured. The kingdom, however, was still kept in a state of disturbance by the attacks of the Danes, who had made repeated inciirsions during the whole of the Saxon period, and about half a century after the unification of the kingdom became for the moment masters of nearly the whole of England. But the genius of Alfred the Great, who had ascended the throne in 871, speedily reversed matters by the defeat of the Danes at Ethandune (878). Guthrum, their king, embraced Christianity, became the Vassal of the Saxon king, and retired to a strip of land on the east coast including Northum- bria and called the Danelagh. The two im- mediate successors of Alfred, Edward (901- 925) and Athelstan (925-940), the son and grand- son of Alfred, both vigorous and able rulers, had each in turn to direct his arms against these set- tlers of the Danelagh. The reigns of the next five kings, Edmund, Edred, Edwy, Edgar, and Edward the Martyr, are chiefly remarkable on account of the conspicuous place occupied in them by Dunstan, who was counsellor to Ed- mund, minister of Edred, treasurer under Edwy, and supreme during the reigns of Edgar and his successor. It was possibly due to his poUcy that from the time of Athelstan till after the death of Edward the Martyr (978 or 979) the country had comparative rest from the Danes. During the Tenth Century many changes had taken place in the Teutonic constitution. Feu- daUsm was already taking root; the king's authority had increased; the folkland was being taken over as the king's personal property; the nobles by birth, or ealdormen, were becoming of less importance in administration than the nobil- ity of thegns, the officers of the king's court. Etheb-ed (978-1016), who succeeded Edward, was a minor, the government was feeblj' con- ducted, and no united action being taken against the Danes, their incursions became more frequent and destructive. Animosities between the Eng- lish and the Danes who had settled among them became daily more violent, and a general mas- sacre of the latter took place in 1002. The fol- lowing year Sweyn invaded the kingdom with a powerful army and assumed the crown of Eng- land. Ethelred was compelled to take refuge in Normandy; and though he afterwards re- turned, he found in Canute an adversary no less formidable than Sweyn. Ethelred left his king- dom in 1016 to his son Edmund, who displayed great valor, but was compelled to divide his kingdom with Canute; and when he was assas- sinated in 1017, the Danes succeeded to the sovereignty of the whole. Canute (Knut), who espoused the widow of Ethelred, that he might reconcile his new sub- jects, obtained the name of Great, not only on account of his personal qualities, but from the extent of his dominions, being master of Den- mark and Norway as well as England. In 1035 he died, and in England was followed by two other Danish kings, Harold and Hardicanute, whose joint reigns lasted till 1042, after which the Enghsh line was again restored in the person of Edward the Confessor. Edward was a weak prince, and in the latter years of his reign had far less real power than his brother-in-law Har- old, son of the great earl Godwin. On Edward's death in 1066 Harold accordingly obtained the crown. He found, however, a formidable oppo- nent in the secoid-cousin of Edward, William of Normandy, who instigated the Danes to invade the northern counties, while he, with 60,000 men, landed in the south. Harold vanquished the Danes, and hastening southward met the Nor- mans near Hastings, at Senlac, afterwards called Battle. Harold and his two brothers fell (Octo- ber 14,1066), and William (1066-87) immediately claimed the government as lawful King of England, being subsequently known as WiUiam I., the Conqueror. For some time he conducted the government with great moderation; but being -obliged to reward those who had assisted him, he bestowed the chief offices of the govern- ment upon Normans, and divided among them a great part of the country. The revolts of the native English which followed were quickly crushed, continental feudalism in a modified form was estabUshed, and the Enghsh Church reorganized under Lanfranc as Archbishop of Canterbury. At his death, in 1087, William II., commonly known by the name of Rufus, the conqueror's second son, obtained the crown, Robert, the eldest son, receiving the duchy of Normandy. In 1100, when WilUam II. was accidentally killed in the New Forest, Robert was again cheated of his throne by his younger brother Henry (Henry I.), who in 1106 even wrested from him the duchy of Normandy. Henry's power being secured, he entered into a dispute with Anselm the primate, and with the pope, concerning the right of granting investure to the clergy. He supported his quarrel with firmness, and brought it to a not unfavorable issue. His reign was also marked by the suppression of the greater Norman nobles in England, whose power (Mke that of many continental feudatories) threatened to overshadow that of the king, and by the sub- stitution of a class of lesser nobles. In 1135 he died in Normandy, leaving behind him only a daughter, Matilda. By the will of Henry I. his daughter Maud or Matilda, wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and frequently styled the Empress Matilda, because she had first been married to Henry V., Emperor of Germany, was declared his successor. But Stephen, son of the Covmt of Blois, and of Adela, daughter of WiUiam the Conqueror, raised an army in Normandy, landed in England, and declared himself king. After years of civil war and bloodshed an amicable arrangement was brought about, by which it was agreed that Stephen should continue to reign during the remainder of his life, but that HISTORY 47 he should be succeeded by Henry, son of Matilda and the Count of Anjou. Stephen died in 1154, and Henry Plantagenet ascended the throne with the title of Henry II., being the first of the Plantagenet or Angevin kings. A larger domin- ion was united under his sway than had been held by any previous sovereign of England, for at the time when he became King of England he was already in the possession of Anjou, Nor- mandy, and Aquitaine. Henry II. found far less difficulty in restrain- ing the license of his barons than in abridging the exorbitant privileges of the clergy, who claimed exemption not only from the taxes of the state, but also from its penal enactments, and who were supported in their demands by the primate Becket. The king's wishes were formu- lated in the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), which were first accepted and then repudiated by the primate. The assassination of Becket, however, placed the king at a disadvantage in the struggle, and after his conquest of Ireland (1171) he submitted to the Church, and did pen- ance at Becket's tomb. Henry was the first who placed the common people of England in a situ- ation which led to their having a share in the government. The system of frank-pledge was revived, trial by jury was instituted by the Assize of Clarendon, and the Eyre courts were made permanent by the Assize of Nottingham. To curb the power of the nobles he granted charters to towns, freeing them from all subjection to any but himself, thus laying the foundation of a new order in society. Richard I., called Coeur de Lion, who in 1189 succeeded to his father, Henry II., spent most of his reign away from England. Having gone to Palestine to join in the third crusade he proved himself an intrepid soldier. Returning homewards in disguise through Germany, he was made pris- oner by Leopold, duke of Austria, but was ran- somed by his subjects. In the meantime John, his brother, had aspired to the crown, and hoped, by the assistance of the French, to exclude Rich- ard from his right. Richard's presence for a time restored matters to some appearance of order; but having undertaken an expedition against France, he received a mortal wound at the siege of Chalons, in 1199. John was at once recognized as King of Eng- land, and secured possession of Normandy; but Anjou, Maine, and Touraine acknowledged the claim of Arthur, son of Goeffrey, second son of Henry II. On the death of Arthur, while in John's power, these four French provinces were at once lost to England. John's opposition to the pope in electing a successor to the See of Can- terbury in 1205 led to the kingdom being placed under an interdict; and the nation being in a disturbed condition, he was at last compelled to receive Stephen Langton as archbishop, and to accept his kingdom as a fief of the papacy (1213). His exactions and misgovernment had equally embroiled him with the nobles. In 1213 they refused to follow him to France, and on his return, defeated, they at once took measures to secure their own privileges and abridge the prerogatives of the crown. King and barons met at Runny- mede, and on June 16, 1215, the Great Charter (Magna Charta) was signed. It was speedily de- clared null and void by the pope, and war broke out between John and the barons, who were aided by the French king. In 1216, however, John died, and his turbulent reign was succeeded by the almost equally turbulent reign of Henry III. During the first years of the reign of Henry III. the abilities of the Earl of Pembroke, who was regent until 1219, retained the kingdom in tranquillity; but when, in 1227, Henry assumed the reins of government he showed himself incapable of managing them. The Charter was three times reissued in a modified form, and new privileges were added to it, but the king took no pains to observe its provisions. The struggle, long maintained in the great council (hencefor- ward called Parliament) over money grants and other grievances reached an acute stage in 1263, when civil war broke out. Simon de Montfort who had laid the foundations of the house of Commons by summoning representatives of the shire communities to the Mad Parliament of 1258, had by this time engrossed the sole power. He defeated the king and his son Edward at Lewes in 1264, and in his famous parliament of 1265 still further widened the privileges of the people by summoning to it burgesses as well as knights of the shire. The escape of Prince Edward, however, was followed by the battle of Evesham (1265), at which Earl Simon was de- feated and slain, and the rest of the reign was undisturbed. On the death of Henry III., in 1272, Edward I. succeeded without opposition. From 1276 to 1284 he was largely occupied in the conquest and annexation of Wales, which had become practi- cally independent during the barons' wars. In 1292 Balliol, whom Edward had decided to be rightful heir to the Scottish throne, did homage for the fief to the English king; but when, in 1294, war broke out with France, Scotland also declared war. The Scots were defeated at Dun- bar (1296), and the country placed under an Eng- lish regent; but the revolt under Wallace (1297) was followed by that of Bruce (1306), and the Scots remained unsubdued. The reign of Edward was distinguished by many legal and leg- islative reforms, such as the separation of the old king's court into the Court of Exchequer, Court of King's Bench, and Court of Common Pleas, the passage of the Statute of Mortmain, etc. In 1295 the first perfect parliament was summoned, the clergy and barons by special writ, the commons by writ to the sheriffs direct- ing the election of two knights from each shire, two citizens from each city, two burghers from each borough.^ Two years later the imposition of taxation without consent of parliament was forbidden by a special act (De Tallagio non Con- cedendo). The great aim of Edward, however, to include England, Scotland, and Wales in one kingdom proved a failure, and he died in 1307 marching against Robert Bruce. The reign of his son, Edward II., was unfor- tunate to himself and to his kingdom. He made a feeble attempt to cany out his father's last and earnest request to prosecute the war with Scot- land, but the English were almost constantly unfortunate; and at length, at Bannockburn (1314), they received a defeat from Robert Bruce which ensured the independence of Scot- 48 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS land. The king soon proved incapable of regu- lating the lawless conduct of his barons; and his wife, a woman of bold, intriguing disposition, joined in the confederacy against him, which resulted in his imprisonment and death in 1327. The reign of Edward III. was as brilliant as that of his father had been the reverse. The main projects of the third Edward were directed against France, the crown of which he claimed in 1328 in virtue of his mother, the daughter of King Philip. The victory won by "Edward III. at Crecy (1346), the capture of Calais (1347), and the victory of Poitiers (1356), ulti- mately led to the Peace of Br^tigny in 1360, by which Edward III. received all the west of France on condition of renouncing his claim to the French throne. Before the close of his reign, however, these advantages were all lost again, save a few principal towns on the coast. Edward III. was succeeded in 1377 by his grandson Richard II., son of Edward the Black Prince. The people of England now began to show, though in a turbulent manner, that they had acquired just notions of government. In 1380 an unjust and oppressive poll-tax brought their grievances to a head, and 100,000 men under Wat Tyler, marched toward London (1381). Wat Tyler was killed while conferring with the king, and the prudence and courage of Richard appeased the insurgents. Despite his conduct on this occasion Richard was deficient in the vigor necessary to curb the lawlessness of the nobles. In 1398 he banished his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke; and on the death of the lat- ter's father, the Duke of Lancaster, unjustly ap- propriated his cousin's patrimony. To avenge the injustice Bolingbroke landed in England during the king's absence in Ireland, and at the head of 60,000 malcontents compelled Richard to surrender. He was confined in the Tower, and despite the superior claims of Edmund Morti- mer, Earl of March, Henry was appointed king (1399), the first of the House of Lancaster. Richard was, in all probability, murdered early in 1400. The manner in which the Duke of Lancaster, now Henry IV., acquired the crown rendered his reign extremely turbulent, but the vigor of his administration quelled every insurrection. The most important — that of the Percies of Northumberland, Owen Glendower, and Douglas of Scotland — was crushed by the battle of Shrews- bury (1403). During the reign of Henry IV. the clergy of England first began the practice of burning heretics under the act de hceretico com- burendo, passed in the second year of his reign. The act was chiefly directed against the Lollards, as the followers of Wickliffe now came to be called. Henry died in 1413, leaving his crown to his son, Henry V., who revived the claim of Edward III. to the throne of France in 1415, and invaded that country at the head of 30,000 men. The disjointed councils of the French rendered their country an easy prey ; the victory of Agincourt was gained in 1415 ; and after a sec- ond campaign a peace was concluded at Troyes in 1420, by which Henry received the hand of Katherine, daughter of Charles VI., was ap- pointed regent of France during the reign of his father-in-law, and declared heir to his throne on his death. The two kings, however, died within a few weeks of each other in 1422, and the infant son of Henry thus became King of England (as Henry VI.) and France at the age of nine months. England during the reign of Henry VI. was subjected, in the first place, to all the confusion incident to a long minority, and afterwards to all the misery of a civil war. Henry allowed himself to be managed by anyone who had the courage to assume the conduct of his affairs, and the influence of his wife, Margaret of Anjou, a woman of uncommon capacity, was of no advan- tage either to himself or the realm. In France (1422-1453) the English forces lost ground, and were finally expelled by the celebrated Joan of Arc, Calais alone being retained. The rebellion of Jack Cade in 1450 was suppressed, only to be succeeded by more serious trouble. In that year Richard, duke of York, the father of Edward, afterwards Edward IV., began to advance his pretentions to the throne which had been so long usurped by the house of Lancaster. His claim was founded on his descent from the third son of Edward III., Lionel, duke of Clarence, who was his great-great-grandfather on the mother's side, while Henry was the great-grandson on the fa- ther's side of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward III. Richard of York was also grandson on the father's side of Edmund, fifth son of Edward III. The wars which result- ed, called the Wars of the Roses, from the fact that a red rose was the badge of the house of Lancaster and a white one that of the house of York, lasted for thirty years, from the first battle of St. Albans, May 22, 1455, to the battle of Bosworth, August 22, 1485. Henry VI. was twice driven from the throne (in 1461 and 1471) by Edward of York, whose father had previously been killed in battle in 1460. Edward of York reigned as Edward IV. from 1461 till his death in 1483, with a brief interval in 1471; and was succeeded by two other sovereigns of the house of York, first his son Edward V., who reigned for eleven weeks in 1483 ; and then by his brother Richard III., who reigned from 1483 till 1485, when he was defeated and slain on Bosworth field by Henry Tudor, of the house of Lancaster, who then became Henry VII. Henry VII. was at this time the representative of the house of Lancaster, and in order at once to strengthen his own title, and to put an end to the rivalry between the houses of York and Lan- caster, he married, in 1486, Elizabeth, the sister of Edward V. and heiress of the house of York. His reign was disturbed by insurrections attend- ing the impostures of Lambert Simnel (1487), who pretended to be a son of the Duke of Clar- ence, brother of Edward IV., and of Perkin Warbeck (1488), who afl&rmed that he was the Duke of York, younger brother of Edward V. ; but neither of these attained any magnitude. The king's worst fault was the avarice wnich led him to employ in schemes of extortion such instruments as Empson and Dudley. His admin- istration throughout did much to increase the royal power and to establish order and prosper- ity. He died in 1509. The authority of the English crown, which had been so much extended by Henry VII., HISTORY 49 was by his son Henry VIII. exerted in a tyran- nical and capricious manner. The most impor- tant event of the reign was undoubtedly the Reformation; though it had its origin rather in Heniy's caprice and in the casual situation of his private affairs than in his conviction of the necessity of a reformation in religion, or in the solidity of reasoning employed by the reformers. Henry had been espoused to Catharine of Spain, who was first married to his elder brother Arthur, a prince who died young. Henry became disgusted with his queen, and enamored of one of her maids of honor, Anne Boleyn. He had recourse, therefore, to the pope to dissolve a marriage which had at first been rendered legal only by a dispensation from the pontiff; but failing in his desires he broke away entirely from the Holy See, and in 1534 got himself recog- nized by act of parliament as the head of the English Church. He died in 1547. He was married six times, and left three children, each of whom reigned in turn. These were: Mary, by his first wife, Catharine of Aragon; Eliza- beth, by his second wife, Anne Boleyn; and Edward, by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Ed- ward, who reigned first, with the title of Edward VI., was nine years of age at the time of his succession, and died in 1653, when he was only sixteen. His short reign, or rather the reign of the Earl of Hertford, afterwards Duke of Somerset, who was appointed regent, was dis- tinguished chiefly by the success which attejided the measures of the reformers, who acquired great eart of the power formerly engrossed by the atholics. The intrigues of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, during the reign of Edward, caused Lady Jane Grey to be declared his suc- cessor; but her reign, if it could be called such, lasted only a few days. Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., was placed upon the throne, and Lady Jane Grey and her husband were both executed. Mary, a zealous Catholic, seems to have wished for the crown chiefly to aid in reestablishing the Roman Catholic faith. Polit- ical motives had induced Philip of Spain to accept of her as a spouse; but she could never prevail on her subjects to allow him any share of power. She died in 1558. Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister Mary, was attached to the Protestant faith, and found little difficulty in establishing it in England. Having concluded peace with France (1559), Elizabeth set herself to promote the confu- sion which prevailed in Scotland, to which her 'cousin Mary had returned from France as queen in 1561. In this she was so far success- ful that Mary placed herself in her power (1568), and after many years imprisonment was sent to the scaffold (1587). As the most powerful Protestant nation, and as a rival to Spain in the New World, it was natural that England should become involved in difficulties with that country. The dispersion of the Armada by the English fleet under Howard, Drake, and Hawkins was the most brilliant .event of a struggle which abounded in minor feats of valor. In Eliza- beth's reign London became the center of the world's trade, the extension of British com- mercial enterprise being coincident with the ruin of Antwerp in 1585. The parliament was increased by the creation of sixty-two new bor- oughs, and its members were exempted from arrest. In literature not less than in politics and in commerce the same full life displayed it- self, and England began definitely to assume the characteristics which distinguish her from the other European nations of to-day. To Elizabeth succeeded (in 1603) James VI. of Scotland and I. of England, son of Mary Queen of Scots and Damley. His accession to the crown of England in addition to that of Scotland did much to unite the two nations, though a certain smoldering animosity still lingered. His dissimulation, however, ended in his satisfying neither of the contending ecclesiastical parties — the Puritans or the Catholics; and his absurd insistance on his divine right made his reign a continuous struggle between the prerogative of the crown and the freedom of the people. His extravagance kept him in constant disputes with the parliament, who would not grant him the sums he demanded, and compelled him to resort to monopolies, loans, benevolences, and other illegal methods. The nation at large, however, continued to prosper through the whole of this inglorious reign. His son, Charles I., who suc- ceeded him in 1625, inherited the same exalted ideas of royal prerogative, and his marriage with a Catholic, his arbitrary rule, and illegal methods of raising money, provoked bitter hostility. Under the guidance of Laud and Strafford things went from bad to worse. Civil war broke out in 1642 between the king's party and that of the parliament, and, the latter proving victorious, in 1649 the king was beheaded. A commonwealth or republican government was now established, in which the most promi- nent figure was Oliver Cromwell. Mutinies in the army among Fifth-monarchists and Level- lers were subdued by Cromwell and Fairfax, and Cromwell in a series of masterly movements subjugated Ireland and gained the important battles of Dunbar and Worcester. At sea Blake had destroyed the Royalist fleet under Rupert, and was engaged in an honorable struggle with the Dutch under Van Tromp. But within the governing body matters had come to a deadlock. A dissolution was necessary, yet parliament shrank from dissolving itself, and in the mean- time the reform of thelaw, asettlementwithregard to the Church, and other important matters remained untouched. In April, 1653, Cromwell cut the knot by forcibly ejecting the members and putting the keys of the house in his pocket. From this time he was practically head of the government, which was vested in a council of thirteen. A parliament — the Little or Bare- bones Parliament — was summoned and in December of the same year Cromwell was in- stalled Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. With more than, the power of a king, he succeeded in dom- inating the confusion at home and made the country feared throughout the whole of Europe. Cromwell died in 1658, and the brief and feeble protectorate of his son Richard followed. There was now a widespread feeling that the country would be better under the old form of government, and Charles II., son of Charles I., was called to the throne by the Restoration of 50 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 1660. He took complete advantage of the popu- lar reaction from the narrowness and intolerance of Puritanism, and even latterly endeavored to carry it to the extreme of establishing the Cath- olic religion. The promises of religious freedom made by him before the Restoration in the Dec- laration of Breda were broken by the Test and Corporation Acts, and by the Act of Uniformity, which drove two thousand clergymen from the Church and created the great dissenting move- ment of modern times. The Conventicle and Five-mile Acts followed, and the " Drunken Parli- ament" restored Episcopacy in Scotland. At one time even civil war seemed again imminent. The abolition of the censorship of the press (1679) and the reaffirmation of the habeas corpus principle are the most praiseworthy inci- dents of the reign. As Charles II. left no legitimate issue, his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded him as James II. (1685-88). An invasion by an ille- gitimate son of Charles, the Duke of Monmouth, who claimed the throne, was suppressed, and the king's arbitrary rule was supported by the wholesale butcheries of such instruments as Kirke and Jeffreys. The king's zealous coun- tenance of Roman Catholicism and his attempts to force the Church and the universities to sub- mission provoked a storm of opposition. Seven prelates were brought to trial for seditious libel, but were acquitted amidst general rejoicings. The whole nation was prepared to welcome any deliverance, and in 1688 WiUiam of Orange, hus- band of James's daughter Mary, landed in Tor- bay. James fled to France, and a convention summoned by William settled the crown upon him, he thus becoming William III. Annexed to this settlement was a Declaration of Rights circumscribing the royal prerogative by depriv- ing him of the right to exercise dispensing power, or to exact money, or maintain an army with- out the assent of parliament. This placed henceforward the right of the British sovereign to the throne upon a purely statutory basis. A toleration act, passed in 1689, released dissent from many penalties. An armed opposition to William lasted for a short time in Scotland, but ceased with the fall of Viscount Dundee, the leader of James's adherents; and though the struggle was prolonged in Ireland, it was brought to a close before the end of 1691. The following year saw the origination of the national debt, the exchequer having been drained by the heavy military expenditure. A bill for triennial parli- aments was passed in 1694, the year in which Queen Mary died. For a moment after her death William's popularity was in danger, but his suc- cesses at Namur and elsewhere, and the obvious exhaustion of France, once more confirmed his power. The treaty of Ryswick followed in 1697, and the death of James II. in exile in 1701. removed a not unimportant source of danger. Early in the following year William also died, and by the act of settlement Anne succeeded him. The closing act of William's reign had been the formation of the grand alliance between England, Holland, and the German Empire, and the new queen's rule opened with the brilliant successes of Marlborough at Blenheim (1704) and Ramil- lies (1706). Throughout the earlier part of her reign the Marlboroughs practically ruled the kingdom, the duke's wife, Sarah Jennings, being the queen's most intimate friend and adviser. In 1707 the history of England becomes the his- tory of Britain, the Act of Union passed in that year binding the parliaments and realms of Eng- land and Scotland into a single and more power- ful whole. The measure which declared the parliaments of England and Scotland united, and the two countries one kingdom, known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was passed, after violent opposition, in the reign of Queen Anne, 1st of May, 1707. This union, however, much it was opposed by the prejudices and interest of particular men or classes at the time, has con- tributed very much to the prosperity of both countries. The Grand Alliance, which it had been the aim of William's later years to form between Holland, Austria, and England against the threatening ^owth of French power, now held the field against the armies of France, and the victories of Marlborough at Blenheim and Ramillies, and the taking of Gibraltar and Bar- celona, ended in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, by which the British right of sovereignty over Hudson's Bay, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Minorca, and Gibraltar was acknowledged, and the foundation of Britain's imperial and colonial power securely laid. The remainder of Anne's reign was distracted by the never-ending alter- cations of domestic parties. She died on the 1st of August, 1714; and with her ended the line of the Stuarts, who had held the scepter of England 112, and that of Scotland 343 years. At her death, George I., elector of Hanover, maternally descended from Elizabeth, daughter of James I., according to the Act of Settlement, ascended the throne of Britain. The Whigs under this prince regained that superiority in the national councils of which they had long been deprived, and this, along with the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act and some other extreme precautionary measures, increased the irritation of the Tory and Stuart party. In 1715 the Earl of Mar in Scotland and the Earl of Derwent- water in England raised the standard of rebellion and proclaimed the Chevalier St. George (the Old Pretender) king. But the insurrection, feebly supported by the people, was soon sup- ine ~ ■ - ■ in 1716 the Septennial Act was passed, making parliament of seven instead of three years duration. In 1720 occurred the extrar ordinary growth and collapse of the South Sea Company. From this date till 1742 the govern- ment was virtually in the hands of Sir Robert Walpole, the first, we might say, of modem premiers, governing the cabinet and chiefly responsible for its doings. Walpole had great sagacity, prudence, and business ability, and could manage dexterously the king, the parlia- ment, and the people alike. It is true that in the case of the parliament he achieved this by undue influence in elections and a scandalous use of bribery. But the poT^er he thus acquired was generally wisely used. The failure of the war with Spain into which he had reluctantly entered drove him from office, and in 1742 his long ministry came to an end. In 1743, George 11., frightened at the dangers to Hanover, HISTORY 51 dragged Britain into the wars between France, Prussia, and Austria, regarding the succession of the Emperor Charles. George himself fought at the head of his troops at Dettingen (1743), where he obtained a complete victory over the French, which was balanced, however, later on by the defeat at Fontenoy (1745). A fresh attempt was now made to restore the Stuart family to the throne of Britain. Charles Edward, son of the Old Pretender, having been furnished by France with a small supply of money and arms, landed on the coast of Loch- aber, in the Western Highlands, in 1745, and was joined by a considerable number of the people. Marching southwards with 1,500 High- landers, his forces increasing as he advanced, he entered Edinburgh without opposition; and hav- ing defeated Sir John Cope near Prestonpans he marched into England. He now took Carlisle, and advanced through Lancaster, Preston, and Manchester, to Derby, within 100 miles of Lon- don; but finding himself disappointed of expect- ed succors from France, and the English Tories, contrary to his expectations, keeping aloof, he commenced his retreat into Scotland, closely pursued by the king's troops, whom he again defeated at Falkirk. With this victory his good fortune terminated. The Duke of Cumberland having arrived from the continent put himself at the head of the forces which were destined to check the rebels; and the armies having met at CuUdden, near Inverness, Charles was completely defeated. After lurking for six months amidst the wilds of Invernesshire, he at length, with much difficulty, escaped to France. The war of the Austrian succession, which still continued and which was the cause of the hostili- ties between the French and British in India as well as elsewhere, was terminated by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. During most of this period Pelham and his brother, the Duke of New- castle, had been the ruling ministers, and in their hands the art of government had reached a low level both as regards morality and ability. In 1752, the New Style of reckoning time was intro- duced, and the Old Style being eleven days behind, the 3d of September, 1752, was called the 14th. At the same time the 1st of January was fixed as the opening day of the year, instead of the 25th of March. Soon after, the French, uneasy at the growing colonial power of Britain, made a determined effort against the British Colonies and possessions in North America and the East Indies, and at first the British met with several disasters in America. In 1756 the Seven Years' War broke out, Austria and France being allied on the one side, and Prussia and England on the other, and ill success attended the British arms in Europe also. Fortunately, a great war minister, William Pitt, now took the helm of the state. In 1758 the British made themselves masters of several French settlements in North America, while the attack made by Wolfe on Quebec in 1759 was completely successful, and gave Britain the whole of Canada. The same year the British and their allies defeated the French at Minden in Prussia. In the East Indies the French were even less successful than in America. Olive's victory at Plassey (1757) and Coote's at Wandewash (1760) secured the British empire in the east, a^d together with the naval feats of Hawke and Boscawen made England the greatest of mari- time and colonial powers. On the accession of George III. in 1760 hostili- ties were still carried on, generally to the advan- tage of the French as far as the theater of war in Germany was concerned, but still more to their loss in the other o[uarters of the world where they were engaged with the British in a struggle for supremacy, and this notwithstanding that Spain had now joined her forces to those of Prance. At length the success of the British arms induced France and Spain to accede to terms, and the war ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The French relinquished nearly all their possessions in North America; Minorca was restored to Brit- ain; in the East Indies they got back their fac- tories and settlements, on condition that they should maintain neither forts nor troops in Ben- gal ; Cuba and Manila were resigned to the Span- iards. In Europe everything was restored to the status quo. The expenses of this war, which had been undertaken partly for the defense of the Ameri- can Colonies, had added upwards of £72,000,000 to the national debt. It seemed to the British people to be just that the Americans should be taxed to assist in the payment of the interest. The Americans did not deny the justice, but replied that if they were to be taxed they had a right to be represented in parliament, in order that, like other British subjects, they might be taxed only in consequence of their own consent. Grenville, then the prime-minister, stood to his phrpose, however, and introduced a bill for imposing certain stamp duties on the American Colonies. The Americans protested and resisted, and partly by the influence of the great Pitt, who had steadily opposed the measure, the bill was withdrawn. On the illness of Pitt, now Lord Chatham, in 1767, Townshend became premier, and again revived the project of taxing the Americans by imposing duties on tea; and in 1770, Lord North, as his successor, set himself to carry it out. The result was that in 1775 the Colonies were declared in a state of rebellion and a war began, in which both France and Spain joined the revolted Colonies, and of which the result was the recognition of the independence of the United States. On the American side of this struggle the great name is that of George Washington. On the British side the war was unskillfuUy conducted, and though they gained some successes these were more than counter- balanced by such blows as the capitulation of Burgoyne with nearly 6,000 men at Saratoga (1777), and of Cornwallis at Yorktown with 7,000 (1781). Against their European foes the British could show such successes as that of Admiral Rodney off Cape St. Vincent (1780); the brilliant defense of Gibraltar by General Eliott (1779-82); and Admiral Rodney's victory over the French fleet in the West Indies (1782). The war closed with the Peace of Versailles in 1783. Britain finally acquired several West Indian Islands; Spain got Florida and Minorca, France Pondioherry and Chandernagore in India. The struggle had added over £100,000,000 to the British national debt. 52 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS From 1783 to 1801 the government of Britain was directed by William Pitt, the younger son of Lord Chatham, who when only twenty-four years of age was placed as first lord of the treas- ury and chancellor of the exchequer. The affairs of Ireland and India, and the impeachment of Warren Hastings, were among the first subjects which occupied the attention of Pitt's ministry. In 1782, the Irish had been able to extort from Britain, then engaged in her struggle with the American Colonies, the right to establish an inde- pendent parhament, so that from this year there were two independent governments in the British Isles till 1800, when Pitt, who had in the interval experienced some of the difficulties arising out of two coordinate legislatures, contrived once more to unite them. In 1789, the French Revolution was begun. For a time there was considerable sympathy in England with this movement; but as the revo- lutionaries proceeded to extreme measures there was a reaction in English feeling, of which Ed- mund Burke became the. great exponent, and the execution of Louis XVI. gave rise to diplo- matic measures, which finally terminated in the National Convention declaring war against Brit- ain, on the 1st of February, 1793. At first Brit- ain cooperated with Prussia, Austria, etc., against France, and successes were gained both by sea and land; but latterly on the Continent the armies of the French Republic were every- where triumphant, and in 1797 Britain stood alone' in the conflict, and indeed soon found a European coaUtion formed against her. The war was now largely maritime, and the naval successes of Jervis off St. Vincent and Duncan off Camperdown were followed (when Bonaparte led an expedition to Egjrpt, having India as its ultimate object) by the victories of Nelson in Aboukir Bay, and Abercromby at Alexandria. In 1798, a rebelUon in Ireland had to be crushed. Peace was made in 1802 by the Treaty of Amiens, only to be broken by another declaration of war in 1803, as the ambitious projects of Napoleon became evident. In spite of the efforts of Pitt (who died in 1806) in the way of forming and supporting with fuhds a new coahtion against France, the miUtary genius of Napoleon swept away all opposition on land, though the naval victory of Trafalgar (1805) established England's supremacy on the seas. Napoleon, who had assumed the title of Emperor of the French in 1805, and yas now virtually the ruler of Europe, put forth his Berlin decrees (1806), prohibiting all commerce with Great Britain wherever his power reached, set his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain, and occupied Portugal. But the spirit of resistance had now taken deep root in the British people, and in 1808 troops were sent into Spain under Sir John Moore, and a year later WeUiiigton, then General Wellesley, landed in Portugal. Then began that famous series of successful operations (the Peninsular War) which drove back the French into their own country, and powerfully contributed to undermine the immense fabric of Napoleon's conquests. The other chief European powers having united, Paris was occupied in 1814, Napoleon was de- posed and exiled to Elba, and Louis XVIII. placed on the throne of France. Escaping in 1815, Napoleon appeared once more in the field with a large army. Wellington and Bliicher hastened to oppose him, and at Waterloo Na- poleon's long career of conquest ended in a crush- ing defeat. The restoration of Louis followed, and Napoleon was sent to the island of St. Helena. Of her conquests Britain retained Tobago, St. Lucia, Mauritius, the Cape of Good Hope, Dem- erara, Esseqmbo, Berbice, Heligoland, and Malta. Ceylon and Trinidad had been gained in 1802, and Britain emerged from this long struggle with a very great increase of territorial posses- sions and political importance. After the termination of the wars with Napo- leon many things concurred to make a troublous era in the home administration. The new bur- den of debt which the wars had left on the nation, the bad harvests of 1816 and 1817, a succession of governments which had no idea but that of absolute resistance to all reforms, etc.; all these contributed to increase discontent. The result was a strong Radical agitation, accompanied often by serious riots throughout the coimtry, more especially in the large towns, and loud demands for reform in parliament and the system of representation. The death of George III. and accession of George IV. in 1820 made Uttle change , in this respect. From 1822 a succes- sion of able statesmen, Canning, Peel, and Lord Grey, gave the government a more liberal turn, and did much to satisfy the popular demands. The CathoUcs were admitted to parliament; the severity of the old restrictions on commerce was relaxed; and in the face of a determined opposition Earl Grey carried the Reform Bill of 1832 (two years after the accession of William IV.), which gave large manufacturing towns a voting power in some proportion to their importance, and practically trans- ferred the center of pohtical power from the aristocratic to the middle classes. The next great pubhc measure was the aboUtion of ■ negro slavery in every British possession in 1834. William IV. died June 20, 1837, and was suc- ceeded by Victoria. The year following is nota- ble as that in which the Chartists began their movement for reform, which continued more or less active, with popular assemblies, presentations of monster petitions, and occasional tumults, till 1848, when it was without much trouble suppressed. The same years saw the struggle of the Anti-Corn-law League, of which Cobden and Bright were the chiefs, and which were finally successful. Sir Robert Peel, the leader of the Tory party, himseK proposing the repeal of the corn duties (1846). The principle of free- trade had further victories in the repeal of the navigation laws, and in the large abolition of duties made during Lord Aberdeen's ministry (1853). In 1852-53, dissension arose between Russia and Turkey regarding the rights of the Latin and Greek Churches to preferable access to the "holy places" in Palestine. The Emperor of Russia, resenting concessions made to French devotees, sent Prince MenscWkoff to Constanti- nople to demand redress, and not being satisfied, war was declared, June 26, 1853. On the plea that it was impossible to leave Russia a free hand HISTORY 53 in dealing with Turkey, France and Great Brit- ain formed an alliance against Russia, March 28, 1854. Invasion of the Crimea followed; peace was signed in 1856 at Paris. Immediately after the Crimean war came the mutiny of the sepoj^s in India. In 1858, sover- eignty over the British possessions was trans- ferred by parliament from the Bast India com- pany to the crown. Wars with China (1858 and 1860) opened up five new Chinese ports to trade. The Fenian movement (1861-7) occasioned some excitement. In 1867 parliament passed a measure estab- hshing the principle of household suffrage. The same year the Dominion of Canada was con- stituted. In 1867, the Abyssinian expedition set out, and reheved the EngHsh captives in 1868, In the same year Lord Derby was suc- ceeded by Disraeli as leader of the Conservative party. The year put the Liberals in power. In 1869, Gladstone's administration passed a biU for the disestabUshment of the Irish church. In 1870, an Irish land law biU, for the regulation of relations between landlord and tenant, became law; and a national system of education for England was established. In 1871, the purchase of commissions in the army was aboUshed. Next followed the ballot act and the Scotch education act. Early in 1874, Gladstone dissolved parUa- ment, and a large Conservative majority being returned, Disraeli again became premier. The Ashantee war, begun the previous year, ended early in 1874. In 1876, the title of Empress of India was added to the titles of the queen. During the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 Britain remained neutral, but took an important part in the settlement by the BerUn congress, and acquired from Turkey the right to occupy and administer Cyprus. Then followed war in Afghanistan, war with the Kaffirs of Zululand, and a brief war with the Boers of the Transvaal. In 1880, Gladstone again became premier. This parUament passed a land-act for Ireland (1881), an act for putting down crime in Ireland (1882), a reform act equaUzing the borough and county franchise (1884), and a redistribution of seats act (1885) — all important. The inter- vention of Britain in Egyptian affairs led to the bombardment of Alexandria by the British fleet (July, 1882) and the sending of an army into Egypt to quell rebeUion; the rising in the Sudan caused British troops to be despatched to Suakim and another force to be sent by way of the Nile to reheve General Gordon at Khartoum. For a brief period Lord SaUsbury was premier in 1885, but in February, 1886, he made way for Gladstone. In April, Gladstone proposed a bill which would estabUsh a separate Irish legisla- tive body. A determined opposition was or- ganized and the bill was thrown out on its second reading. A general election followed, in which those opposed to the biU had a great majority. The Conservative party assumed office, with the marquis of Salisbury as head. A criminal law amendment act for Ireland (1887) and a local government act for England (1888) were passed. In 1887 the jubilee of the queen was celebrated. The Liberals won in the elections in 1892, Gladstone becoming premier. In 1893, Lord Salisbury was returned to power. October 11, 1 1899, war was declared by the Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, aiming to destroy British paramountcy in South Africa; those states were annexed by the British, in 1900. In 1900, a new parhament was elected, with a slightly increased Conservative majority. Victoria died January 22, 1901, and was suc- ceeded by Edward VII. In 1902, a new ministry was formed, with A. J. Balfour as premier. The Balfour ministry was succeeded in 1905 by that of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, which, in turn, was suc- ceeded by the Asquith ministry in 1908. The complete autonomy of Australia was recognized in 1907. In 1908, the old age pensions act was passed. The rejection by the lords of important measures led, however, to demands for the cur- tailment of the powers of the upper house. Parliament was prorogued in January, 1910, and in the new election the Liberals were returned with one vote over the Unionists. The death of Edward, May 6th, interrupted the political war- ring of the parties only temporarily, and George V. dissolved parliament in November and sum- moned a new parliament (elected in December) . The Welsh disestablishment bill, the first biU to become a law without the consent of the house of lords, passed the house of commons the third time in May, 1914. The Irish home rule bill similarly passed; both became law with operation suspended for at least one year. In August, 1914, Germany entered into war with Russia. England, France and Russia were aUied by an agreement known as the triple entente. Germany, declaring war upon France, piu-posed crossing Belgium to reach France. Sir Edward Grey, British foreign minister, asked if France and Germany would respect Belgian neutraUty. France rephed affirmatively; Germany did not. Upon the invasion of Belgium by the Germans, Aug. 4, 1914, Great Britain declared war upon Germany. British troops were landed on the French coast, Aug. 8. Great Britain declared war upon Austria, Aug. 12; upon Turkey, Nov. 5, at the same time annexing Cyprus. Egypt was declared a British protectorate, Dec. 17. In 1915 Germany declared the waters around the British Isles a war zone after Feb. 18. With the sinking of the Lusitania by a German sub- marine. May 7, 1,152 lives were lost. A coalition ■ ministry was organized. May 25. An Anglo- French ■wa.T loan was secured in the United States in October. Great Britain declared war on Bulgaria, Oct. 15. In December the army was increased to 4,000,000. The compulsory service bill became a law, Feb. 10, 1916. The German fleet was defeated off Jutland, May 31. On Dec. 7 Lloyd George became prime minister and formed a war cabinet. Feb. 1, 1917, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare. British victory at Cambrai, Nov. 20. Allenby captures Jerusalem, Dec. 10. ^ Woman suffrage adopted, Jan. 10, 1918. Mar. 21, great German attack in France. Naval raid on Zeebrugge, Apr. 22. Allenby routs Turks Sept. 18-22. British break Hindenburg line, Sept. 27. German fleet surrenders to Admiral Beatty, Nov. 21. Lloyd George wins December elections. Jan. 18, 1919, Lloyd George heads British delegation to peace conference. 54 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS EVENTS OF HUMAN PROGRESS I« Period of Unrecorded Events — Preblstorle Times. II. From the Dawn of History to the Birth of Christ — B. C. III. From the Birth of Christ to the Present Time — A. D. Our preaent knowledge of human progress is of two kinds: First, that which earher generations have handed down in the form of written records, and, Second, that which is assumed by inference from various rehca and tokens of ancient peoples, sometimes found buried in the earth or otherwise preserved. The first of these kinds of knowledge constitutes history ; the second has to do with unrecorded stages in the life of the human race and is called prehistoric. Dates and events at the dawn of history are involved in much doubt. At best the earliest assigned dates are merely approximations and must in every case be so interpreted. All dates earlier than 1000 B. C. are to be regarded as comparative rather than as exact. PERIOD OF UNBECORDED ACHIEVEMENT — PREHISTORIC TIMES The Prehistoric Period, the length of which it is impossible to estimate with even approximate correct- ness, is divided into two parts, the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age. Ber fore the Paleolithic age, however, there was a period in the life of man during which his progress was so slight that he did not attain even the primitive stage of development which crude flint weapons indicate. In the remote epochs designated by the terms Old Stone Age and New Stone Age, the progenitors of the now dominant peoples struggled upwards toward civiliza- tion by successive conquests of nature and of natural forces. The chief factors in their advance were the acquisi- tion of weapons and tools, the use of fire, the cultiva- tion of plants, and the domestication of animals. Many of their achievements were relatively more im- portant than the harnessing of steam and other great inventions of modern times. Yet when, where, and by whom these progress-shaping things were done seems forever hidden in the voiceless past. The men of those times had not yet invented the alphabet or learned how to preserve the records of their deeds in any form of written language. The mute surviving relics of these periods tell nothing of the story of those who toiled to fashion them, they mention neither persons nor events, they define no periods of time. I. The Paleolithic Age. This period, called the Old Stone Age, is characterized by remains of rough flint and other stone weapons, implements, and uten- sils found all over the world. These primeval tools and weapons of flint were followed by others made from bone, horn, and ivory, and included daggers, flsh hooks, heads of harpoons, needles, and awls, which were ornamented in some cases with crude designs and drawings. II. The Neolithic Age. Most students of the' remains of prehistoric peoples hold to the view that the Neolithic or New Stone Age ensued upon the Old Stone Age only after a long interval of time. Instead of leaving their chipped flint weapons rough, the men of this period polished their surfaces and ground them to keen cutting edges. They produced fire by strik- ing fiint or by rubbing wood. They developed the art of making pottery and of weaving fabrics. They erected various memorials to the dead, including what are known as barrows, cairns, cromlechs, and dolmens. Some primitive peoples, such as the lake dwellers of Switzerland, built rude dwelUngs. In this period the dog, cat, camel, horse, ox, sheep, pig and goat were widely domesticated. Prehistoric peoples of India tamed the elephant and the humped ox as did the ancient Peruvians the llama, alpaca, and guinea-pig. A large proportion of the cultivated plants still of supreme importance to mankind were in extensive cultivation long before the dawn of history, including wheat, rice, maize, barley, millet, sorghum cane, cal> bage, turnip, pea, bean, apple, peach, banana, date, olive, fig, hemp, and fiax. What is defined as Prehistoric Time has terminated at widely different periods- in different countries. The peoples of the Nile valley and of the Tigris-Euphrates region emerged from the total darkness of the unre- corded past about 5000 B. C. Yet the inhabitants of America remained in the prehistoric period until the discovery of the New World by Columbus in 1492 A. D. B.C. FROM EARLIEST RECORDS TO TIME OF MOSES Arts of Civilization 5000 (about) 4700 4150 3700 3300 3000 At this date flourishing city- states appear in Mesopotamia, evidencing great antiquity for Babylonian civilization which recent research indicates may be carried back to approximate- ly 8000 or 9000 B. C. Late in- vestigatioils tend to place the beginning of Egyptian history at about 6000 B. C. Hieroglyphic writing in Egypt. Copper tools introduced into Egypt. Stone architecture be- gun. Wheat, barley, and millet grown in Egypt. Ox, goat, cat, greyhound, goose, pictured on early monuments. Figs de- Sicted on pyramid at Gizeh. [ummies wrapped in linen cloth. Canal cut at Asyut. Irrigation established. Pigeon domesticated in Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria 5000 (about). Babylonia peopled by the Sumerians. Well advanced in civilization. Temple of Nippur built. 4500. Kingdom of Shirlpurla in full power. 4400. E-anna-tum erected the famous stele of the vultures. 4000. Nippur the religious center of Babylonia. 3800. Sargon I. greatly extended the empire; built temple to Bel at Nippur. 3300. Temples erected at Agade and Sippar. 3000. Gudea builds palaces at Tel-lo. 2800. Urgur and Dungi, Kings of Ur, enlarge temples. Egypt 5000 (about). Predynastic age. Small local Kingdoms in the Nile valley. The King- doms of the North and of the South. 4777. Menes founds first dynasty; builds Memphis. Tombs at Abydos filled with objects inscribed to Menes. 4650. Uenefes builds pyramid near Kokhome. 4400. Apis, the sacred bull, wor- shiped at Memphis. 3900. Khufu (Cheops) builds the Great Pyramid at Gizeh. 3600. Pyramids built at Sak- karah. 3000. Capital removed from Memphis to Herakleapolis. 2800. Vigorous reign of Amenemhat. HISTORY 55 B.C. FROM EARLIEST RECORDS TO TIME OF MOSES —B.C. | Arts of ClTlllzatlon Asia Africa and Europe 2750. Nubia conquered. 2700 Wheat, rice, tea, soy bean, millet, and sor- ghum cane grown in China. Temple at Abydos built. 2600 Silk culture begun in 2600. Part of Lake Moeris China. 2500. Isin becomes a leading city. 2300. Hammurabi makes Babylon preeminent; constructs canals; enacts famous code of laws. 2200. Nimrod or Belus ruler in Babylon. Nin- reclaimed. 2100 Geometry used in Egypt. eveh built by Asshur. 2098. Hyksos or Shep- 2070. Ninus rules in Nineveh; founds Assyrian herd Kings conquer Egypt, and rule 400 years. 2000 Horses introduced into empire. 2000. Semiramis rules Babylon; invades Egypt. Mastiffs, Libya, Ethiopia, and India. hounds, lap dogs, and turnspits carved o^ Egyptian monuments. The Hebrews Olive, grape, date palm, lentil, bean, lupine, and water- 1996. Abraham born. melon grown in Nile 1937. The Arabs valley. seize Nineveh. 1920 Gold and silver first men- tioned as money. 1896. Isaac born. 1891 Letters first used in 1856. Inachus plants a colony in Argos. Egypt by Syphoas. 1836. Jacob and Esau born. 1824. Abraham dies. 1S22 Memnon invents the 1766. The Shane dynasty in China Egyptian alphabet. 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. begins. 1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 1710. Colony of Arca- 1699. Death of Jacob. dians emigrate into 1635. Death of Joseph. Italy. 1618. Sesostris reigns in 1582 The chronology of the Arundelian marbles 1556. Rameses-Miamun begins. 1577. Israelites perse- reigns in Egypt. 1580 The cymbal used at the cuted in Egypt. 1546. Troy founded 1556. Athens founded by feasts of Cybele. 1574. Aaron born. by Scamander. Cecrops. 1571. Moses born. The Chinese Dark Ages. 1520. Corinth founded. 1516. Sparta founded. 1507. Areopagus estab- 1506 The flute invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. 1500. Northern In- lished in Athens. 1494 Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry. 1491. The Exodus of the Israehtes from Egypt. dia invaded and conquered by the Aryans between this date and 1000. FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS— B. C. Arts of CiTillzatlon The Hebrews Asia and Africa Europe 1491. Moses gives the law at 1490 Crockery made by Egyptians and Greeks. Mt. Sinai. ' 1486 Ericthoneus introduces first chariot. 1485. Egyjptus reigns and gives name 1457. Kingdom of Mycene founded. 1453. Death of Aaron. to the country. 1453. First Olympic 1451. Death of Moses. games at Elis. Joshua conquers Canaan. 1449. Ericthoneus reigns in Troy. 1400. Minos reigns in Crete. 1370 Bucklers used in single 1374. Troas, King of 1397. Corinth be- combat. Troy. comes a king- Music and poetry cul- dom under Sisy- tivated in Greece. 1343. Eglon, King of Moab, en- phus. 1356. Eleusinian slaves Israel. 1322. Rameses II. (Sesostris) con- quers Ethiopia. 1314. Ilus, son of mysteries insti- tuted by Eumol- pus. 1305. Israel' subdued by King Troas, founds 1266. (Edipus, King 1263 Temple of Apollo at of Canaan. Ilium. of Thebes. Delphi built. 1285. Deborah and Barak de- 1263. Argonautic Jason leads first naval feat the Canaanites. 1252. Second Assyr- Expedition of expedition on record. 1249. Gideon conquers the Midianites. ian dynasty. Jason. 56 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS B. C. FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYEUS— B. C. 1240 Arts of Civilization The Hebrews Asia and Africa Europe The axe, wedge, wim- 1240. Troy taken by ble, arid lever, also the Argonauts. 1239. Latinus reigns masts and sails for in Italy. ships, invented by 1235. Theseus Dsedalus of Athens. 1233. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. reigns in Athens for 30 years. 1225. First Theban 1224 Game of backgammon invented by Palame- War. 1220. Priam, King of des of Greece. Troy. 1194. The Trojan 1216. Second The- ban War. 1213. Helen of Troy carried off by 1161. Israel enslaved by the War begins. Theseus, mar- Philistines. 1140. Tiglath-Pile- ries Menelaus. Samson born. ser real founder 1136. Samson slays 1,000 of the Assyrian Philistines. Empire. 1124. Troy taken. 1123. Chow dynasty 1152. Alba Longa built by As- canius. 1124. .ffiolian migra- tion. 1116. Samuel, last Judge of begins in China. Thebes, capi- 1115 Mariner's compass known in China. Israel. tal of Boeotia, founded. 1104. Return of the 1100 Dictionary of Chinese HeraoHdae. completed by Pa- 1095. Saul becomes King of End of King- out-she. Israel. 1085. David born. 1055. Death of Saul; accession of David. 1048. David King of all Israel. 1042. The Ark removed to Jerusalem. 1036. Revolt of Absalom. 1033. Solomon born. 1016. Death of David. 1044. Ionian emi- grants settle in Asia Minor, dom of Mycene. 1070. Heremon, of Gallicia, con- quers Ireland. 1060. Athens gov- erned by Archons. 1015 Minos gives Crete his code of laws. 1015. Solomon anointed King. 1012. Solomon begins the Temple. 1004. Dedication of Temple. 1000 Solomon extends his commerce to India, via Red Sea, and to the shores of the At- lantic, via Straits of Gibraltar; builds Pal- myra, Baalbec, and 1000. Solomon and Hiram, King of Tyre, form an al- liance; also Solo- mon and Pha- raoh. 986. Utica built. other cities. Samos built. 976. Capys reignsi in Alba Longa. 975. Death of Solomon. Revolt of the Ten Tribes. Two kingd oms formed. . Israel Judali 975. Jero- 916 The Rhodians begin navigation laws. 971. Shishak, King of Egypt, takes Jerusalem. boam estab- lishes idola- try. 918. Ahaband Jezebel. 901. The Syri- ans besiege Samaria. 896. Elijah translated 971. Shishak (Se- sostus of Egypt) plunders Jerusa- lem. Homer born (?). 935. Bacchus, King of Corinth. 895. Tiberinus, 886 Homer's poems 888. Philis- to heaven. King of Alba, . drowned in the brought into Greece. tines plun- der Jerusa- river Albula, which is thence 884 Lycurgus reforms the lem. 884. Usurpa- tion and 884. Jehu, called the Tiber. constitution of King. Sparta. Gola and silver coined death of At- 869 haliah. 864. Romulus, King of Alba Longa. by Phidon, ruler of Argos. 840. Jehoash defeats 825. Dynasty of the Tanites in King Ben- Egypt. 820. Arbaoes, hadad of Syria. King of Assyria. HISTORY 57 B. C. 786 772 FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CTRUS — B. C. Arts of Civilization Judah Israel Asia and Africa Europe 721 710 685 680 660 640 621 610 594 Corinthians employ tri- remes or vessels with three banks of oars. Sculpture first men- tioned among the Egyptian arts. 578 First eclipse of the moon observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon. Religion of Buddha in- troduced in India. Roman Calendar re- formed; year divided into 12 months in- stead of 10 as before. Iambic verse intro- duced. Chess invented. Attempt to discover the primitive language of mankind. Spherical form of the earth and true cause of lunar ecUjPses taught by Thales, who also discovered the electricity of amber. Draconian code form- ulated. Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. Many lives lost in the attempt. He also sent out a Phenician fleet which circumnavigated Africa. Solon's code supersedes that of Draco in Athens. Money coined at Rome by Servius Tullius. 741. Pekah, King of Is- rael, be- sieges Jeru- salem, 120,- 000 of his men slain. 726. Heze- kiah abol- ishes idola- try. 717. Heze- kiah, King. Hebrews 712. Sennach- erib invades Judah. 711. His army (185,000) destroyed by pestilence. 696. Manas- seh, King. 677. Manas- seh, carried to Babylon, is afterward restored. 770. Pul in- vades Israel, and is bribed to depart. 721. Samaria taken by the Assyrians; Tribes car- ried into captivity. 797. Ardyssus, first King of Lydia. 767. SardanapaluS, King of Nineveh. Media subjected to Assyria. 747. Era of Na- bonazzar, Assy- rian Empire de- stroyed. 737. Sebacon in- vades Egypt. 736. Tiglath-pil- eser conquers Syria and part of Israel. 721. Shalmanezer, King of Nineveh, takes Samaria and carries the Ten Tribes into captivity. 717. Sennacherib, King of Nineveh. 710. Media become* a kingdom. 680. Babylon and Nineveh are united under Esarhaddon. 606. Conquest of Jerusalem by Nebu- chadnezzar. 591. Ezekiel prophesies in Chaldea. 588. Captivity of Judah completed. Jerusalem destroyed and the Temple burnt. 579. Jews car- ried to Babylon. Babylonia 648. SaracuB, King of Babylon and Nineveh. 612. Nineveh a second time destroyed. 606. Nebuchadnez- zar defeats N echo of Egypt, in- vades Judea and takes Jerusalem. 604. Nebuchad- nezzar, King of Babylon. 599. Birth of Cyrus. 589. Invades Phenicia. Egypt 660. Psammet icus, King of Egypt. Memphis becomes the capital. 610. Pharaoh- Necho, King of Egypt. 600. Psammis, King of Egypt. 594. Pharaoh- Hophra, King of Egypt. 581. Egypt in- vaded by Nebuchad- 814. The Kingdom of Macedon founded by Caramus. 769. Syracuse founded by Archias of Corinth. 753. Building of Rome. 750. Sabine War. 747. Union of Ro- mans and Sa- bines. 743. First Messen- ian War. 716. Romulus re- puted murdered. 685. Second Mes- senian War. 678. Argsus, first King of Macedon. 672. Tullius Hos- tilius, King of Rome. 664. First sea- fight on record — between the Corinthians and Corcyreans. 658. Byzantium founded. 640. Latins con- quered by the Romans. Philip I., King of Macedon. 616. Tarquinius Friscus, King of Rome. 602. lUyria con- quered by Macedon. 594. Solon, Archon of Athens. 578. Servius Tullius, King of Rome. 68 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS B. C. FROM TIME OP MOSES TO TIME OF CTBUS — B. C. Arts of CiTllizatlon Persia Babylonia Egypt Europe 572. Takes Tyre. 569. Amasis, 568 School of sculpture King of opened at Athene. Egypt, makes alliance with 567. Conquest of the Etrurians Greece. by Rome. 536. Pythagorus 565. First census 562 First comedy acted at 562. Croesus, visits Egypt. of Rome; Athens. King of Lydia, 84,700 citizens. Dials invented by 560. Cyrus, King I subjects Asia Anaximander o£ of Persia. ^ Minor. 539. The Phocians Miletus. 548. Cyrus con- emigrate to 540 Corinthian order of quers Lydia. Gaul and build architecture invent- 538. Takes Baby - 538. Babylon Massilia (now ed by Calimachus. Ion. taken by Marseilles). 535 Thespis performs first tragedy at Athens. Cyrus, the 535. Made tribu- Persian. tary by Cyrus. 536. Persian Empire founded by Cyrus, composed of Assyria, Media, and Persia. Captivity of the Jews ended. 535. Temple rebuilt at Jerusalem. 529. Deatn of Cyrus; Cambyses, 528. Thrace comes King of Persia. into view. FROM THE DEATH OF CYRUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER— B. C. | Arts of Civilization Persia Greece Macedonia Rome, Etc. 530. Cadiz built 527 First public li- 527. Pisistratus by the Car- brary founded 525. Cambyses con- dies, after seiz- thaginians. at Athens. quers Egypt and makes it a Persian prov- ince. • Psammeticus, last King of Egypt. ing Athens. 522 Confucius, the 522. Darius I., Chinese philos- King of Persia. 510. Followers of opher. Pisistratus ex- 509 Abolition of regal pelled; Democ- 509. The Tar- government at 508. Darius con- racy established quins ex- Rome, and es- quers India. at Athens. pelled from Rome. tablishment of a Republic at Brutus and Rome. Collatinus first Consuls. 507. The Capitol 500 Phenician letters 500. The lonians finished. carried to Ire- revolt and burn 497. Alexander land from Sardis. I., King. 494. Tribunes of Spain. the people The Temple of chosen. Minerva built. 491. Coriolanus 490. Darius sends 490. Battle of Mara- banished. an army of 500,- thon. 000 into Greece. 487. Egypt revolts 483 Etrurians excel in — is subdued by 483. Aristides ban- music, drama. Xerxes. ished. and architec- 486. Xerxes, King ture. of Persia. 481. Expedition of Xerxes into 480. Battle of Ther- 480. Carthagini- Greece; destroys mopylae. Battle of Sala- ans defeated. Athens. Hamilcar mis and defeat of killed in battle. Persians. 479. Returns de- 479. Battle of feated. Platea; Persian fleet destroyed at Mycale. 476. Themistooles rebuilds Athens. 465. Xerxes assas- 465. Third Messini- sinated. Artax- an War. erxes I., King. 461. Pericles im- 460 Voyage of the Carthaginians presses himself 460. CincinnatuB, 456. Esther. upon Greek af- Consul. to Britain for fairs. tin. 449. Persians de- feated at Sala- mis. HISTORY B. C, FROM the; DEATH OF CTBDS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXAKDER — B. Etc. Roman le- gions distrib- uted over 15. Cantabria, Austria, and other territory conquered by Drusus, is added to the I the prov- Empire. inces in fixed camps 13. Augustus assumes the title of Pontifex Maximus. . I wtiich soon grew into 11. Germany subdued by Germanicus. I cities — among 10. Egyptian religion displaces national religion. | them were Bonn and Mayence. • 8 Calendar cor- 5. Varus appointed Governor of Syria, and Cyrenius Governor'of Judea. rected by Augustus. • 4 Birth of Je- 4. Cymbelene, King of Britain sus, at Advent of Christ, four year before the so-called Christian Era. B. C. Bethlehem, Death of Herod. in Judea. 2. Caesar confirms the will of Herod. | A. D. FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME — A. D. 1-476 Arts of Civilization Development of Cliristlanlty Tlie Roman Empire 1. Caius CEesar makes peace with the Parthians. Tiberius returns to Rome. 6. Varus, encamped on the Weser, governs lower Germany like a Roman province. 8. Jesus reasons with g Celsus advances the the doctors. 14. Augustus dies at Nola; is succefeded by Tipe- science of medicine. 25. Pontius Pilate, Gov- ernor of Judea. rius as Emperor. 19. The Jews are banished from Rome. 26 The Druids in Ger- 26. John the Baptist 26. Thrace becomes a Roman province. many. begins his ministry. 27. Jesus baptized by John. 29. Twelve Apostles sent abroad. 30. Crucifixion of the 30. Agrippina banished. Savior, Friday, April 3rd. 34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 37 Appion of Alexan- dria writes on 37. Tiberius succeeded by Caligula, noted for his 40. Disciples first called profligacy. • grammar. Christians at Antioch. 41. Herod's persecu- tions. 48. Census, 6,900,000. 50 Columella, bom in 50. Paul preaches at Spain, writes on Athens. husbandry. 59. Paul appeals to Ccesar. 54. Nero, Emperor; a profligate and tyrant. . 60. Paul imprisoned in Rome. 61. Revolt of the Britons under Queen Boadicea. 64 Nero's golden palace 64. First persecution of 64. Nero sets fire to Rome; accuses Christians. built — of great Christians by Nero. extent. Paul visits Jerusa- lem. 66. Jews at war with Rohians; Paul be- headed. 70. Destruction of Jeru- salem by Titus. 77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in one 78 The Capitol at Rome rebuilt. day. 79. Pompeii and Herculaneum destroyed by Vesu- Circumnavigation vius. of Scotland. 80 Paintings executed 80. Agrioola governs Britain, reduces Wales and enters Caledonia. for the baths of 95. Second persecution TituB ; the group of of the Christians by the Laocoon. Domitian. HISTORY 65 A. D. FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME — A. D. Arts of Civilization Development of Cliristianity The Roman Empire 120 132 180 215 235 274 284 290 323 330 366 The Ulpian library. Jurisprudence flourishes. Forum built. Pillar of Trajan, and Baths. Bridge built over the Danube. . Great" buildings of Palmyra. The Roman mosaics. Ptolemy, celebrated Egyptian astrono- mer and geogra- pher. Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. Caracalla grants right of Roman citizen- ship to all the provinces. Alexandrian School of Philosophy founded. Rome surrounded with a wall. Diocletian's Oriental form of govern- ment. Diocletian's Baths. The Gregorian Code. Church of St. Sophia erected at Constan- tinople. Constantinople a seat of art and litera- ture. Forts built on the Rhine. 107. Third persecution by Trajan. 118. Fourth persecution by Hadrian. 134. Heresy of Marcion. 150. Canon of Scriptures fixed about this time. 202. Fifth persecution under Severus. 235. Sixth persecution under Maximinus. 250. Seventh persecution of the Christians. 262. Paul, bishop of Sa- mosatia, denies the divinity of Jesus Christ. 272. Persecution of Christians under Au- relian. 283. The Jewish Talmud composed. ReUgious ceremo- nies multiplied. Pagan rites imitat- ed by the Christians. 296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. 303. Persecution under Diocletian. 306. Persecution of Christians stopped by Constantius. 325. Council of Nice. 337. Eleventh persecu- tion. 373. Bible translated into Gothic language. Death of Athana- 98. Trajan, Emperor ; Roman Empire at its greatest extent. 100. The Huns migrate westward. 117. Hadrian, Emperor; makes a journey through the provinces; visits Britain and builds there a wall from the Tyne to Solway Firth; builds a wall from the Rhine to the Danube. 138- Antoninus, Emperor; 145-152, defeats the Moors, Germans, and Dacians; stops the perse- cution of the Christians. 161. Marcus Aurelius, Emperor; 169, war with Marcomanni. 189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by lightning. The Saracens defeat the Romans. 193. Septimius Severus, Emperor. A vigorous ruler. 194, besieges Byzantium; 202, persecutes the Christians; builds the wall of Severus in Britain; 211, dies at York, in Britain. 223. Artaxerxes begins the new kingdom of Persia. 232. Persian War. 241. The Franks first mentioned in history. 251. Confederacy of the Franks established between the Rhine and Elbe. The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. 256-69. Goths conduct expeditions into Asia Minor and Greece. 261. Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus, and Csesarea. 264. AUiance with Odenatus, King of Palmyra, who is succeeded by his wife Zenobia, who reigns with the titles of "Augusta" and "Queen of the East." ' 268. Claudius II. defeats an army of 320,000 Goths. 270. Aurelian, a great warrior, becomes Emperor; 271, defeats the Goths and Alemanni; 273, re- duces Palmyra, and takes Queen Zenobia prisoner; 274, Franks, Spain, and Britain re- duced to obedience; 275, Aurelian killed near Byzantium. 277. Probus, Emperor; 280, defeats the Persians. 284. Diocletian, Emperor. China, 296. Sends ambassadors to 291. The Franks master Batavia and Flanders. 304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the empire to Constantius and Galerius. 306. Constantine the Great, first Christian Emperor, defeats the Franks. 331. Constantine orders all the heathen temples to be destroyed. 337. Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons to, the empire. 364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of Valen- tinian and Valens, uiyier whom the empire is divided. Western Empire 364. Valentinian, Emperor. 368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are defeated by Theodosius. 375. Gains victory over the Germans ; succeeds to the Eastern Empire on the death of Valens. Eastern Empire 364. Valens, Em- peror. 376. Hungary (an- cient Pannonia) invaded by the Huns, from whom it is named. 66 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME — A. D. Arts of Civilization Development of Christianity Western Empire Eastern Empire 379. Prerogatives of the 379. The Lombards first 379. Theodosius the Roman See much en- leave Scandinavia, and Great becomes a larged. defeat the Vandals. zealous supporter of Christianity. 381. Second general Council of Constanti- nople. 384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate for 388. Theodosius de- Paganism against St. feats Maximus, Ambrose. the Tyrant of the 392. St.Chrysostom, Pa- 392. Theodosius becomes Western Empire. triarch of Constanti- nople. and West. Complete downfall of Paganism. 394. Final division of em- 392 Impulae given to the development of pire between the sons of Theodosius. mathematics at 401. Europe overrun by the Alexandria. Visigoths. 406. Vandals allowed to set- tle in Spain and Gaul. 410. The Goths under Alario 408. Theodosius II., a chUd, Emperor. sack and bum Rome. 412. Rise of the Vandal power in Spain. 413. Burgundian Kingdom 416. The Pelagian heresy begun in Alsace. 414. Regency of the condemned. 420. The Franks form* a kingdom, under Phara- Emperor's sister, Pulcheria. 420. Persian War. mond, on the lower Rhine. 424. Valentinian III., 425 Theodosius estab- lislies public schools and attempts the restoration of Emperor. 426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 428. Romans defeated by learning. 431. Third general Coun- the Franks and Goths. 431. Armenia divided cil at Ephesus. Franks, under Clodion, by the Persians 432. St. Patrick preaches extend their conquests. and Romans. the gospel in Ireland. 433. Attila forms an im- 433. A great part of 435 Theodosian Code 435. Neatorianism pre- mense Empire from China Constantinople published. vails in the East. ' 443. The Manichsan books burned in Rome. 447. Eutyches asserts the existence of only one to the Atlantic. 439. The Vandals, under Genserio, form Kingdom of Africa, take Carthage and plunder Italy. 441. Roman territories in- vaded by the Huns, Per- sians, and Saxons. 445. Famous embassy from Britain soliciting aid against the Picts. destroyed by fire. 437. Pannonia, Dal- matia, and Nori- cum gained from the Western Em- pire. nature in Jesus Christ. 448. Merovoeus I., first King of the Merovingians. 4*50. Marcian, Em- 451. Fourth general 451. Arrival of Saxons in peror, refuses to Council at Chalcedon. Britain under Hengist and Horsa. 452. City of Venice founded. 458. Franks, under Childerio I., conquer as far as the pay tribute to the Huns. 457. War with the Goths. 461. Peace with the 465-476. Oligarchy of Loire and take Paris. Goths. 468 The principle of law the bishops of Rome, 468. The Visigoths under established that the Constantinople, Alex- Eric establish their king- 474. Zeno, Emperor; accused shall be andria, Antiooh, and .Jerusalem. dom in Spain. a turbulent reign tried by his peers, marked by de- or equals. The Church now bauchery and • begins to assume a political aspect. conspiracies. 475. Theodoric be- 476 Odoacer's sack of 476. Odoaoer, King of the comes chief of the Rome changed the Herulii, takes Rome, and Ostrogoths and course of events in the Western Empire ends invades the em- Europe. The form 1228 years after the pire. of the old Roman . founding of the city. government re- Commencement of the mained, but Italy, ravaged by a suc- Kingdom of Italy under Odoacer. cession of wars. plagues, famines, and every form of public tyranny. was almost a desert. HISTORY 67 A. D. FBOM THTl FALL OF ROME TO THE DIVISION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 476-841 Arts of Civilization The Eastern Empire Great Britain and Ireland Italy and the Church France 480. An earthquake destroys greater 481. Clovis I., part of Constanti- 484. Christians founder of the nople. persecuted by the Vandals. French mon- archy. 485. Battle of Sois- sona gained by 486 Hise of the feudal system in Francb under Clovis. 487. The Sax- ons defeated by Prince Arthur. 490. Sussex be- Clovis. 491. The Green and 491. Clovis sub- Blue factions. comes a dues Thuringia. 493 Theodoric introduces Greek architecture into Italy. 502. Invasions by the kingdom. 493. Italy con- quered by Theodoric. Odoacer put to death. 494. The Roman Pontiff asserts his supremacy. 496. Christianity introduced Persians. into France. 510. Clovis makes 511 The Salic law in 511. Great insurrec- Paris his capi- France. tion in Constanti- nople. tal. 514 Use of the burning glass in warfare. 514. Constantinople besieged by Vitali- 516 The Christian Era proposed and intro- duced by Diony- sius, a monk. anus, whose fleet is consumed by the burning glass of Proclus. 518. Justinian I. be- gins a brilliant 519. Prince Ar- reign over the thur defeat- • Eastern or Byzan- ed by Cer- tine Empire. dic, who be- 527. Celebrated Justi- gins the nian code of laws. third Saxon 529 The schools of Athens 529. Belisarius, the Kingdom of 529. Order of the suppressed. famous general, defeats the Per- Wessex. Benedictine 530. Kingdom Monks insti- sians. of Essex. tuted at Monte 532. Burgundy 534. Defeats the Van- Cassino, near conquered by dals in Africa. Naples. Childebert. 535. Subdues Sicily. 536. Takes Naples. 536. Ostrogoths 537. Takes Rome. 537. Italy con- quered by Belisarius, for Justinian. 539. War, famine, surrender their posses- sions in Gaul to the French King. 540. North Africa, and pestilence. Milan rav- Corsica, and Sar- 542. Prince Ar- dinia annexed to thur mur- aged by the the Eastern Em- dered in Goths. pire. Cornwall. 548. The Turkish 551 Manufacture of silk introduced from China into Europe monarchy founded in Asia. 554. Italy governed p* P'^v ^^1 1 P C^ t by-monks. by Greek Exarchs. 558. A plague extends over Europe and Asia and lasts 557. Church of St. Germain de Pres built at Paris. 558. Clotaire I., King. 559 The Saxon laws pro- 559. Saxon mulgated. The • about 50 years. Heptarchy king's authority begins. limited by the Wittenagemot. Three orders: the noble, the free, and the servile. 568 The feudal system established in Italy 568. Italyoon- 569. The Turks first quered by the by the Lombards. recognized as a na- Lombards. Written laws com- tion. They send piled by the Visi- an embassy to Jus- goths in Spain. tin II. and form an alliance. 68 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FAT.T, OF BOME TO THE DIVISION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 476- B41 Arts of Civilisation The Eastern Empire Great Britain and Ireland Italy and the Church France 575. East Ang- 675. First monas- Ua formed tery built in 580 Latin language ceases into a Bavaria. 583. Clotaire II., to be spoken in kingdom. King. Italy, and super- whence the sedes the Gothic in origin of the 590. Mass intro- Spain. name Eng- land. 691. Ethelbert, duced. 597 England relapses into King of 598. St. Augus- semi-barbarism, 600. Eastern Empire Kent, gains tine, first arch- after Saxon con- spread over Hun- the ascend- bishop of Can- quest. gary, Poland, and Prussia, under Ti- ancy. terbury, intro- The aristocracy ac- duces Chris- quire great power berius II. tianity into in France. 602. Invasion of the 604. St. Paul's Britain. Rites and supersti- Persians. Church tions increase all founded by over Europe. Ethelbert of Kent. 610. Heraclius takes 607. Suprem- 607. The Pan- Constantinople, acy of the theon of Rome , kills Phoeas, the Pope ac- dedicated to Emperor, and knowledged. Christianity. makes himself King. ' 612. Mahomet pub- hshes the Koran. Syria ravaged by the Arabs. 614. Jerusalem taken 617 Ethelbert publishes by the Persians. 617. St. Peter's the first code of laws 622. The Hegira, or (now West- 625-40. Churches in England. Mahomet's fiight minster Ab- of Jerusalem, from Mecca to Me- bey) found- ed by Sa- Antioch, and 628. Daeobert I. builds the dina. Alexandria 632 Islamism and ^he power of theT!a- liphs established in 632. Death of Ma- bert. King lost to the Church of St. homet. of Kent. Christian Denis, the sep- 633. Omar, Caliph, 633. Bretwold world by the ulture of the the East. In the takes Jerusalem, V. embraces sweep of French kings. Caliphs were united the highest spiritual which is held by Christianity. Mohammedan- 638. Kingdom di- vided oy Clovis the Saracens 463 ism. and regal authority. years. 673. Siege of Con- II. and Sigebert, the latter King 674 Stone buildings and glass come into use in England. The Anglo-Saxons stantmople by the Saracens, whose fleet is destroyed of Austrasia. by the Greek fire advance in civiliza^ of Callinicus. tion and power by the introduction of 680.. Kingdom of Bul- garia founded. 680. The Sixth general Coun- Christianity. 690. The name cil called at 690. Pepin d'Her- In France, the Teu- England Constanti- istal, King. tonic language first used. nople. supersedes the Latin. National assemblies established but confined to the aris- tocracy. In Persia the Magian reUgion gives place to the Mohammedan. 6»5. Childebert, III., King of TSTmiat.T'in 698 Christianity greatly extended among the German nations 698. Carthage de- 698. Picts adopt ilil V UO UX±ai. stroyed by the Saracens, and the 700. Anglo- Saxon Oc- Christianity. 700. Aquitaine, Burgundy, and Provence be- in the North of north coast of Af- tarchy. 704. The first Europe; but al- most exterminated in Africa by the rica subjugated. 709. All Africa sub- dued by the Sara- 705. Alfred the Wise in Northum- province given to the Pope, JiJhn VI. come separate dukedoms. 714. Charles Mar- progress of Moham- medanism. The art of making paper introduced by the Arabs. cens. bria. tel, Duke of 716 716. Leo IIL, Em- peror. The Saracens 727. Ina, King 726. The Emperor I^eo forbiQs Austrasia. 725. Charles Mar- tel subdues Ba- varia. invest Constanti- nople, by land of Wessex, begins col- image worship. and sea. City lection of saved by Greek Peter's ; fire. pence to support a college at Rome. History 69 A.D. FROM THE FALL OP ROME TO THE DIVISION OP THE WESTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 476-841 Arts of Civilization The Eastern Empire Great Britain and Ireland Italy and the Church France 732. Defeats the Saracens at Tours. 735. Death of 740 Saracens encourage the vener- learning. Ignor- 746. Saracens de- able Bede. ance, profligacy, and misery charac- feated by Con- stantino V. 752. The Pope de- 752. End of Mero- thrones Chil- vingian line of terized the age pre- deric. King of French kings. ceding Charle- France, by a papal decree. Pope Ste- Pepin, the magne. Short, first of the Carlovin- phen III. at gian line. war with the Lombards. 755. Beginning of 762. Caliph Almanzor the Pope's builds Bagdad and temporal 764. Extirpates makes it his capi- tal. 766. Asia Minor rav- power. the Huns. aged by the Turks. 785. Empire invaded 785 Golden period of learning in Arabia by Haroun al Ras- 787. First re- 787. Seventh gen- eral Council of under the CaUph Haroun al Raschid. chid, Caliph of corded in- Bagdad. vasion of the Nice. 788 Pleadings in courts of justice first prac- Danes — the Sea Kings ticed. and Vikings. 791-96. Estab- 793 Foundation of schools in monasteries and cathedrals by Char- lemagne. lishes the mar- gravate of Aus- tria. 800 Agricultiu*e and hor- 800. The Pope 800. Charlemagne founds the New ticulture encour- separates from aged by Charle- the Eastern Western Em- magne; both flour- Empire and pire and is ish in Spain under becomes Su- crowned at the CaUphs. preme Bishop of the West- ern. Rome King of Italy, Germany, and France. 802 Arabian horses intro- Charlemagne 802. Receives an duced into Spain. 803. The Saracens reforms embassy from ravage Asia Minor. the Church. Many bishop- rics founded. Haroun al Ras- chid. 806. Charlemagne 813 Transient revival of 813. Egbert, divides the em- learning under King of Wes- pire among his Charlemagne. sex, defeats sons, only one The reign of Caliph the Britons. of whom sur- Mamun the golden vived him — epoch of Arabian Louis I. literature. 822. Constantinople besieged by the 817. College of Cardinals founded. 817. Louis I. di- vides the em- pire. 824. Christianity Saracens. The 827. The Seven carried to 828 St. Mark's Church at Bulgarians raise kingdoms of Denmark and Venice built. the siege. 829. TheophiluB, Emperor. Heptarchy united by , Egbert under the name of England or the land of . the Angles. Invasion of the Danes. 838. Ethelwolf, King. Kenneth, Sweden. • 840 Feudal system in its power. King of the Soots, de- feats and ex- tirpates the Plots, and becomes sole monarch of Scotland. 841. Another di- vision of the empire. Charles I., King of France; Louis I., King of Germany; Lothaire, King of Italy. 70 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FATJi | A. D. OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. I>. 841-1153 | 841 Arts of ClTlUzatlon Italy and the Church Eastern Empire The British Isles Hereditary nobility and the clergy dominant in mat- 844. Ignatius, Patriarch 844. Decline of the Cali- ters of state. of Constantinople. Persecution of the Christians in Spain. 846. The Saracens de- story the Venetian fleet and besiege Rome. phate begins. Fre- quent wars between the Greeks and the Saracens. 849. Alfred the Great born. 850 Roman and Common Law introduced. 850. Christianity propa- gated in Denmark and Sweden. 858. Nicholas I. first Pope to be crowned. 860. Schism of the Greeks begins. 864. Bible translated into Slavonian. ) 867. Eighth Council at 867. Basil inaugurates 867. The Danes con- Constantinople. the Macedonian dy- nasty. quer Northumber- land. 872 Clocks exported from Venice. 886. Leo VI., Emperor. 872. Alfred the Great defeats the Danes. 890 Oxford University 890. Southern Italy sub- founded by Alfred ject to the Greek 891. Renewed invaaon the Great. Empire. of the Danes. Trial by Jury; fairs and markets in England. 900 England divided in- to counties, hun- 901. Edward the Elder dreds, and tithings. 904. Russian expedition the first to take the County courts es- under Oleg against title of "Rex An- tablished. 912. The Normans in France embrace Christianity. Constantinople. glorum." 915 University of Cam- bridge founded. 921. The Bohemians 917. Constantinople be- sieged by the Bul- garians. 919. Roman us, general of the fleet, usurps 916. Agriculture at a low ebb. adopt Christianity. the empire and places his son Con- « 929. Eudes, monk of Cluni. stantine VIII., on the throne. 937. Romanus gains a 934. Athelstan, King. 939 Cordova, in Spain, becomes famous as a center of science, learning, industry, and commerce. naval victory over the Russians. 940 Mints established in England. 941 The figures of arith- metic brought into 945. The Empress Helen Europe by the (< usurps the throne. Saracens. 952. Malcolm I., King Linens and woolens 955. Baptism of Olga, of Scotland. manufactured in and conversion of 955. Dunstan, Abbot of Flanders. Russia to Christian- ity. Glastonbury, rises* to great power. HISTORY 71 A. D. FBOM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTEKN EMPIKE TO THE FAUCt OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 841-1453 841 France Germany Spain Russia L.esser Countries Charles I. (the 841. Louis I., Bald), King. \ King. 842. Ramiro I. elected King of Oviedo. 846. The Saracens destroy the Ve- netian fleet and 856. Louis II. es- tablishes his 857. Garcia besiege Rome. 858 Invasion of Louia court at Pavia, Ximines the German, who and rules Italy. founds the is defeated. Kingdom of 860. Gorm united Navarre. Jutland and the Danish Isles and becomes King of Denmark. 861. Iceland dis- 862. Ruric the Norman, Grand Duke of Novgorod. covered. 868 Lorraine annexed to France 873. Sancho Ini- go, Count of 875. Harold, first 879.Loui3 ni. Navarre. King of Norway. 885 Paris besieged by the Normans. and Carloman reign jointly. 887. Arnold, Em- peror. 889. Arpad lays the 890. Arnold takes , foundation of Rome. • Hungary. 898 Charles III., King. 899. Invasion of the Hunga- rians. 910. Kingdom of Leon founded by Garcia. 907. Gleg in- vades the Greek Em- pire. 901. Republics of Venice and Ge- noa founded. 912 The Normans, un- 912. Conrad I., 912. Arabs build der. RoUa, estab- Emperor. the splendid lish themselves city and pal- ace of Zenra. in Normandy. 914. Beginning of the heroic age in Spain. 923 Civil Wars. 930. Harold VI., first Christian King of Den- maltk. 933. Eric, King of Norway. His 936 Louis IV., King. 936. Othothe Greatf Emper- or. 940. Ramiro, King of Leon, defeats the 945. Swatoslav, cruelty leads to revolt of people. 950. Bohemia an- Moors at King of Rus- 951 Lothaire 1. confers the dukedoms of Burgundy and Aquitaine on Hugh the Great. nexed. Simancus. 955. Sancho I., King of Leon. sia. 72 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL | OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 841-1453 Arts of Civilization Italy and tbe Churcb Eastern Empire The British I.'iles 959. St. Dunstan, arch- 959. Emperor Romanus bishop of Canter- II. bury, attempts to reform the Church. 982 Dublin a trade cen- ter. 989. Greek Christianity propagated in Rus- sia by Waldimir. 985. Danish invasion under Sweyn. • • 993. First canonization • of saints. 996. War with Bul- 997 Venice and Genoa garia. rise to great im- 999. Hungary becomes portance in com- a fief of the Church. merce. 1000 Firdusi, the Persian Homer, flourished. (9407-1020.) 1002 Paper made of cotton rags. Churches first built in the Gothic style of architecture. The French language begins to be writ- ten. 1002. Massacre of the Danes in England. 1003. Scotland ruled by Malcolm II. 1013. Danes, under Sweyn, become mas- ters of England. 1016. Edmund'll. fights Faint impulse given 1018. Bulgaria again re- six battles with Ca- to art in Italy. duced to a Grecian province. nute, King of the Danes, with whom he divides the king- 1024 Musical scale of six notes invented by Guido Aretius. 1024. John XIX., Pope. 1048. Leo IX., the first Pope to keep an army. 1042. First invasion of the Seljuk Turks. 1043. The Russians in- vade Thrace with 100,000 men and are repulsed by the Greeks. dom. 1027. Brian Boru, sole Monarch of Ireland. 1031. Canute subdues Scotland. 1034. Duncan, King of Scotland. 1039. Macbeth murders Duncan, and usurps the throne. 1042. The- Saxon line re- stored under Edward the Confessor. 1051. William, Duke of Normandy, visits 1054. Excommunication 1054. Theodora, last of England. of the Patriarch of the Macedonian dy- 1055 First age of scholas- tic philosophy. • Constantinople and the Greeks. 1059. Quarrel between the Popes and the German Emperors. nasty. 1062 Surnames first used among the Eng- lish nobility. 1066. Pope Alexander II. 1066. Harold II., King, killed at the battle deposes Harold, and gives England to 1067. Emperor Romanus III. defeated and of Hastings. 1068 Shoeing horses intro- WilUam the Con- William the Con- duced into Eng- queror. taken prisoner by queror, King. End land. The papacy at the height of its power. the Turks. of the Anglo-Saxon line. HISTORY 73 A. D. FKOM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIKE TO THE FAT.T. OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A- D. 841-1453 960 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries Hugh Capet, Duke • of France. 964. Italy united to the Empire of Germany. 973. St. Stephen, first hereditary Tuscany be- 976. Hixem, Ca- King of Hungary. comes a Duke- liph of Cor- Gives it written dom. dova. laws. 979. Otho at war with Lothaire. 981. Vladimir the Great, the first Christian 985. Sweyn I., of Denmark, in- 986 Louis v., last of the Carlovingians. ruler. vades England. 987 Hugh Capet, King, and founder of the Capetian line of French kings. 996 Robert II. succeeds his father on the throne. 998. Division of the Moham- medan King- dom of Cor- 1 • 1002. Henry II., Emperor. dova. 1000. Sanoho the Great, King of Navarre, 1010 Notre Dame, Paris, rebuilt. takes the title of Emperor. 1015. Russia di- vided among the 12 sons 1016. Canute II., King of Den- « 1024. Conrad II., first of the Franoonian line. of Vladimir. mark. 1019. Norway con- quered by Ca- nute. Danish as- cendancy. 1031 Henry I., King. 1032 Burgundy annexed. 1039. Henry III. defeats the Bo- hemians and Hungarians. 1035. Ramjro I., King of Ar- agon. 1036. Russia re- united by Jaroslav. * 1046 Dispute between William the Con- queror and Wil- liam of Arques for the Duchy of 1053. Henry causes his son, Henry, Normandy. • to be pro- 1054. Russia di- • claimed King vided a sec- 1055. The Turks re- of the Romans. ond time. duce Bagdad and This title was Civil wars overturn the Em- apphed for sev- and great pire of the Ca- liphs. eral centuries distress. to the Emper- 1059. Ingo I., first or's eldest son. Christian King of Sweden. 1060. Robert Guis- card, Duke of Apulia. 1065. Jerusalem 1065. Alfonso, King of Cas- taken by the tile and Leon. Saracens. 1066 William, Duke of Normandy, claims the crown 1067. Polish con- quests in Russia. of England and 1068. Flight of 1068. Olaf III., wars on Harold Alfonso to King of Norway. to obtain it. Toledo. 74 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FBOM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMFIKE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 811-1453 Arts of Civilization Italy and tbe Churcb Eastern Empire The British I^ies 1070. Lanfranc, Arch- 1070. Feudal system bishop of Canter- bury. introduced. 1073 Booksellers first 1073. Quarrel of Pope GregoryVII. fHilde- heard of. 1074. Syria and Palestine brand) with the subdued by Melek Emperor Henry IV. 1075. The Pope sends Shah. legates to the various courts of Europe. 1076. Submission of 1076. Rebellion in Henry IV. to the ft Normandy. Pope. 1081. Alexius I. (Comne- 1084 Rigid police system established in Eng- 1084. Triumph of Henry nus). Emperor. Rob- • IV. over Gregory. ert Guiscard invades 1087. William invades land. The order of the the empire and de- feats Alexius. France and is killed 1090 Fortresses at New Carthusians insti- at Nantes. Castle and Carlisle tuted by Bruno, After the capture 1093. Malcolm III., of built. of Jerusalem by the Turks, the Christian pilgrims are insulted and oppressed.-which Scotland, invades England, and is slain near Alnwick Castle. 1095. Peter the Hermit gives rise to the Cru- • preaches against the sades — the great Turks. struggle between 1096. The First Crusade. Christianity and Mo- hammedanism. Order, learning, and commerce re- vive in the last quar- ter of this century, and the empire is feared or respected by the nations of Europe and Asia. 1099. Invasion by the 1100 Wilham of Poitou, 1100. Study of theology Crusaders. 1100. Henry I., King of first troubadour of receives new im- 1104. Battle of Acre. England, unites the note. pulse. 1109. Tripolis taken by Crusaders, • Normans and Sax- ons. 1107. Henry quarrels with Anselm. 1118 Knights Templar 1118. John I. reforms the instituted. 1123. First Lateran, or manners of his peo- 1120 Scholastic philosophy ninth General Coun- ple. 1124. David I. promotes reaches a high cil. Tyre taken by civilization in Scot- point under Abel- 1127. Pope Honorius 11.' Crusaders. land. ard. makes war against Aristotle's logic Roger, King of Sici- comes into repute. ly. 1139. Second Lateran, or 1140 Gratian collects the tenth General Coun- canon law. cil. 1147. The Second Cru- 1143. Manuel Comnenus, Emperor. 1150 Magnetic needle sade. known in Italy. 1154. Pope Adrian IV., an Englishman. 1154. Henry II., King of England. 1158 Bank of Venice es- tablished. 1160. Waldenses and 1156. Manuel forms the design of conquering Italy and the West, 1158-64. Ascendancy of Thomas ^ Beoket, Colleges of theology, philosophy, and . law at Paris. Albigenses begin to but fails. Archbishop of Can- appear. terbury. Woolen manufac- tories established in England. HISTORY 75 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE - A. D. 841-1453 1070 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries Rise of the trouba- 1070. Bergen, Nor- dours in 1072. Henry IV. way, built. Provence. summoned be- fore the Pope for selling the investiture of bishops^ treats the mandate with contempt. 1073. Summoned again. 1076. Henry sends an ambassador to depose the Pope, and is excommunicat- ed. Undergoes penance and submission. 1076. Time of the Cid. 1079 Birth of Abelard. 1080. Henry de- grades the 1084. Bohemia made Pope and 1085. Toledo a kingdom by triumphs. taken from the Moors by the Cid. 1086. Battle of Henry IV. of Germany. 1087 War with England. Robert, Duke of Zalacca. / 1090. Sicily taken Normandy, op- 1093. The Popes, from the Sara- poses William Rufus. continue their cens by Roger struggle 1094. Pedro I., the Norman. against the King of Na- empire. varre and Ar- agon. 1096 Many French no- blemen take part in the First Cru- sade. 1104. Alphonso I., King of Navarre and 1105. War between Norway and the 1108 Abbe Sugar, minis- ter to Louis VI. of France. 1109.- Henry V. en- ters Italy, takes the Pope prisoner, and Aragon. Wends. compels him to crown him. 1114. Henry V. marries Matil- Ills. Alphonso 1119. War between da, of England. captures Sar- Pisa and Genoa. 1120 Rivalry between England and France begins. 1125. Lothairell. opposed by Frederick, and Conrad, Duke of Suabia. 1141. Dissensions agossa. 1139. Portugal becomes a 1128. Riga on the Baltic founded. 1147 Louis VII. joins the of the Guelphs Kingdom un- 1147. Moscow 4 4 M t^ T^ • f^r Tr^ Second Crusade. andGhibellines. der Henry of founded. 1150. Enc X., Kmg 1152. Frederick I., Besancon. of Sweden. Emperor of Germany and Italy. 1157. Castile and 1158. The Emperor Leon divided. 1158. Venice a great 1159 War with the EngUsh. Frederick re- ceives the title of King of Bo- hemia. maritime power. 76 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTEBN EMPIKE TO THE FALL | A. D. OF THE EASTEBN EMPIRE — A. D. 811-115S Arts of Civilization Italy and tbe Cburch Eastern Empire The British Isles 1167. Rome taken by 1168 Colleges of law, phi- losophy, and the- ology at Paris. Frederick Barba- rossa. 1178. Renewed activity of the Waldenses, forerunners of Prot- estantism. 1179. Third Lateran,,or eleventh General Council. 1172. Henry conquers Ireland. 1189. Richard I. engages in the Third Crusade. 1190 The Jews become 1190. Third Crusade. 1190. Iconium taken by the principal bank- Frederick Barba- 1193. John attempts to ers of the world. 1198. Power of the Pope rossa, but after- seize the crown in supreme over tem- wards restored. the absence of Rich- poral matters. ard. 1200 University of Bo- 1200. John, King of Eng- logna has 10,000 1202. The Fourth Cru- land. students. sade. Constantinople 1204. The Crusaders 1206 Ifaiversity of Paris founded. taken. plunder Constanti- nople. 1209 Period of the trouba- dours in France; the minstrels in lilngland; minne- 1215. Fourth Lateran 1215. Magna Charta singers in Ger- Council, against the signed at Runny- a many, Albigenses. 1217. Fifth Crusade. mede. 1216. Henry III., King. 1222 University of Padua founded. 1243. Struggle of Pope Innocent IV. with 1228. John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, Emperor. 1246. Henry marries 1247 First war fleet in Spain. the Emperor Fred- eric. 1260. Emperor Michael Eleanor of Provence. 1258. Famous parlia- ment at Oxford. 1261 Parliament estab- PalsBologus recovers lished in England. 1265. Dominion pf Italy passes to the Pbpe. Constantinople. 1268. The Mongols in- , vade Asia Minor and 1265. First regular par- liament. Civil War. 1273 First patent of nobil- ity granted in 1274. Fourteenth general take Antioch. France. Council at Lyons. 1276. War between Eng- Literature and science 1281. Othman estab- land and Wales. flourish in Spain lishes an independ- 1283. England and Wales under Alphonso ent rule in the north united. the Learned. of Asia Minor. Robert Bruce and 1286 Institution of the three great courts of law in England. John Balliol contend for the crown of Scotland. Cimabue, the first of 1296. Struggle of the 1296. Scotland submits modern painters at Church with France. to England. Florence. 1297. Scotland rebels. Wan between Eng- landVnd Scotland 1299. Othman invades Nicomedia, and es- follows. tablishes the Otto- J man Empire. HISTORY 71 • A. D. FBOM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIBE TO THE FATJj OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE— A. D. 841-1453 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries 1167. Rome taken 1167. League of the 1170 Rise of the Wal- denses. by Frederick. 1174. Frederick's fourth expedi- tion into Italy. 1176., Defeated at the Battle of Legnano, Italian cities. 1171. Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, ex- tends his domin- ions. Conquers Syria, Assyria, and Arabia. 1183 The peace of Con- 1183. Italy inde- stance reestab- pendent by 1186. Incursion 1186. Directs all his lishea the inde- treaty of Con- 1188. Alphonso of Huns and efforts against pendence of the Italian republics. stance. IX., King of Poles into the Crusaders. Leon. Russia. 1190 Philip Augustus 1190. Henry VI., one of the lead- Emperor and 1193. Battle of As- ers of the Third King of Italy. • calon. Saladin Crusade. defeated. Death of Sala- din. 1204 Normandy reunit- ed to France. 1212. Frederick 1212. The Christ- 1206. Genghis Khan subdues the North of China II., Emperor. ians gain the Battle of Navas de To- losa. 1213. JuTJe II. 1216. Tartary over- 1217. Ferdinand, run by Genghis King of Cas- Khan. tile. 1224. MongoUan 1222. Hungarian lib- 1223 Louis VIII. con- invasion. erty assured by ducts crusade known as Charter of An- against the AI- the "Golden drew II. bigenses. Horde." 1226 Louis IX., King. 1230. Castile and Leon united 1236. Second 1236. Mongolian in- by Ferdinand Mongolian vasion of Europe III., who invasion. under Batu takes large Moscow Khan. territory burned. from the 1238. Russian 1241. The Hanse- Moors. independ- atic League. ence over- thrown by 1248 Louis IX. leads the the Tartars. Seventh Crusade. 1250. Conrad IV., Khan of Emperor. 1253. The'Alhara- 'bra founded. 1266. Henry of Kiptchak, Grand Duke. 1259. KublaiKhan builds Pekin and makes it his capital. 1267 Burgundy falls to the crown. Castile a Ro- man senator. 1270 Louis IX. seta out on the last Cru- 1273. Rudolph \ sade. Emperor, 1274. Crown of 1276 France at war with founds House Navarre Castile. * of Habsburg. passes to ■France. 1290. Khan of 1290. Wenceslaa, 1291. James II., Kiptchak King of Bohemia, King of Ar- wields strong takes Cracow. agon. rule in Rus- 1297 Invasion of sia. Flanders. 1298. Adolphus, Emperor, de- posed, and Al- bert I. en- 1299. Foundation of the Ottoman Empire. throned. 78 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FBOM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FAT.L OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE— A. D. 841-1453 1300 Arts of CiTiUzation Italy and the Church Eastern Empire The British Isles Rapid advances in 1300. Silverplate used in England. civilization — re- vival of ancient learning — im- provements in tlie arts and sciences — and general ex- pansion of liberty. 1302 Mariner's compass invented at Naples. 1303 University Avignon. 1303. Papal power de- clines. 1303. Genoese control trade of Black Sea. 1305 University Orleans. 1309. Seat of the Popes -transferred to Avig- 1306. Robert Bruce pro- claimed King of Scot- 1307 University Perugia. non. land. War with Eng- 1308 University Coimbra. land continued. 1311 Governmental re- forms extorted from Edward II. in England. ' 1311. General Council at Vienna. 1320. Civil War in the Eastern Empire be- tween the Emperor and his son. 1326 Clocks constructed 1326. Orkhan, Sultan of on mathematical the Turks, makes 1327. Peace. Independ- principles. 1339. Struggle in Rome Prusa his capital. ence of Scotland. 1338. Struggle for the French crown be- 1340 Gunpowder used at between the Colonna gins; lasts 120 years. battle of Cressy. and the Ursini. 1346. Battle of Cressy. 1347 Manufactures and commerce improve in Fjnffland. 1347. Democracy in Rome under Rienzi, last of the Tribunes. 1354. Rienzi killed; pa- pal dominion re- 1355. John PaUeologus, stored. Emperor. 1356. Edward, the Black Prince, wins the bat- tle of Poitiers. 1361 Parliament in Eng- 1373. Treaty with Mu- laild receives added rad, the Ottoman 1376. Death of the Black powers. 1378. Schism of the West; Pope Urban VI. acknowledged in England; Clement VII. in France, Spain, and Scotland. Emperor. Prince. 1384. The Scots, assisted by France, invade 1386 Jan Van Eyck in- vented oil painting. 1389. Bajazet, Sultan of the Turks. 1402. Bajazet defeated and made prisoner by Tamerlane, at the battle of Angora. England. 1399. Henry IV., King. House of Lancas- ter begins. 1403. Solyman I., Sultan of the Turks. 1406. James I.,King of Scotland. 1409 University of Leipsio 1409. The Council of founded. Pisa. 1414. Council of Con- , stance. 1416. HusB and Jerome burnt for heresy. * 1414. Henry V. claims the French crown. 1415. Gains the battle of Agincourt. 1422. Death of Henry V. 1425 Arts promoted in 1425. Emperor John VII. Accession of Henrj^ Italy. visits Italy to ob- tain help against the Turks. • VI. War with France. HISTORY 79 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE - -A. D. 841-1453 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries 1300. Dissensions 1300. Moscow • in the Moor- ish state. made the capital. 1302 First convocation of the States- general in France. 1304 War with Flanders. 1304. Rise of the Swiss towns. 1306. Rudolf of Austria, Em- peror. 1308. Henry of Luxemburg, 1307. Swiss Republic founded. 1312. Alphonso Emperor. Gfeneral in- XL, King of Castile and * surrection in Switzerland. Leon. 1315 Edict for the en- franchisement of 1314. Louis of Ba- varia and slaves. Frederick of 1318. Finland in- 1316 PhiUp V. succeeds Austria con- vaded by 1319. The Oligarchy by virtue of the tend for the Russians. of Venice estab- Salic law, now crown. lished. first established. 1322. Frederick of 1326. Tamerlane Austria de- 1327. Arrival of born at Kesh, 1332 Revolt of the Flem- ings. feated. 200,000 Moors to as- Tartary. 1338 War with England. sist Granada. 1346 Normandy overrun 1340. Moors de- by Edward of feated at 1353. Establishment England. 1355. Promulgation ■ of the Golden Tarifa. of the Ottomans 1356 King John defeat- ed and taken in Europe. Bull. t 1359. Hungarian con- prisoner at^Poi- quests on the tiers. Charles, the Danube. Dauphin, Regent. 1360 John regains his liberty. Cedes 1365. War be- much territory 1378. Wenceslas tween Na- 1369. Tamerlane to England. (King of Bohe- varre and makes Samar- mia), Emperor. France. cand the capital of his new Em- 1380 Charles VI., King. 1380. Tartar Defeat of the War. Dimi- pire. Flemings at Ros- tri Ivano- becq. vitch checks them at the Don. 1382. Moscow burned. 1385. War between Austria and 1386 Fruitless attempt to invade Eng- 1394. The Emperor Switzerland. liEhd. imprisoned 1395. Tamerlane at Prague. invades Rus- 1399. Invasion of 1400. Robert, sia. India by Tamer- Count of Pala- Russia lane. tine, Emperor. 1407. John II., King of Cas- under the Mongol Tar- tars until 1462. 1410 Civil War between Orleans and Bur- gundy. 1411. Sigismund (King of Hun- tUe. 1415 Defeat by the Eng- hsh at Agincourt. gary), Emper- or. 1416. Alphonso v.. King of 1419. The Hussite War in Bohemia. 1422 Henry VI. pro- claimed at Paris Kingof France and England. Aragon and Sicily. 1427 Orleans besieged by the English. * • 80 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FKOM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 811-US3 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Eastern Empire The British Isles 1429. Schism of the West ended. 1434 Invention of printing at Mayenoe. 1444. Vladislas, King of Poland, defeated and killed by the Turks. 1444. Truce with France. Marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou. 1447 Library of the Vati- can founded. _ 1448. Concordat of As- 1448. Constantino XII., 1450 Flourishing period of chaffenberg, by last of the Greek 1450. Insurrection of trade in Western which the liberties Emperors. Jack Cade. Richard, Europe — particu- of the German 1453. Siege and capture Duke of York, larly in Flanders, Church are com- of Constantinople by the Turks, ending claims the throne. or modern Belgium. promised. the Eastern Empire. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON — 11S3-1$1S Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Great Britain Germany Spain and Portugal 1454. Struggle 1454. Henry IV. between Cos- 1455. Wars of the 1462. The Emperor of Castile, mo de Medici Roses begin. besieged in King of and the aris- court at Vi- Spain. tocracy. fenna. 1458. The FreuQh 1460 Wood engraving in- vented. rule in Genoa. 1463. War of Ven- 1460. James III., King of Scotland. 1461. Edward IV., King. House of 1464 Post-offices in France and Eng- ice with the Turks. York. land. 1469. Lorenzo de 1469. Invasion of 1469. Marriage 1470 Beerhard invents Medici suc- 1470. Henry VI. re- the Turks. of Ferdi- the pedal to the ceeds Pietro stored by War- nand of Ar- organ. at Florence. wick. agon with 1471. Increase of 1471. Return of Ed- Isabella of 1473 Printed musical the power of the Medici. ward IV. Deaths Castile. notes. Large of Warwick and library founded Rise of learn- Henry VI. at Ofen. ing. 1475. Edward IV. 1477 Watches made at Sixtus IV., invades France. 1477. Marriage of Nuremburg. Pope. Maximilian and 1479. Union of 1480. War between Maria of Bur- Castile and England and gundy. Aragon. Scotland. 1492. Alexander 1492. Henry VII. in- 1492. Conquest 1493 Printing press at VI., Pope. vades France. 1493. Maximilian of Granada. Copenhagen. I., Emperor. Discovery of Era of discovery in America by the New World Columbus. begins. 1500. Partition of 1498. Vasoode Gama 1502 St. Peter's and Naples be- reaches , other great tween France India via churches built. and Spain. 1503. Naples an- nexed to the Cape of Good Hope. 1606. Columbus Spanish 1509, Henry VIII., dies at Val- crown. King. ladoUd. Julius II., Pope. 1511. Council of 1512. War with 1512. Maximilian Pisa. France. divides the em- 1613. Pope Leo 1513. Battle of Flod- pire into 10 cir- X. patron of den; James IV. cles. literature killed. and the arts. 1515. Wolsey, chan- 1516. Charles, 1517 Luther and the Pro- cellor and cardi- 1517. Beginning of King of all ■ testant Reforma- nal. the Reforma- Spain and tion. tion, the Nether- Hans Sachs founds lands, the German • drama. HISTORY 81 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE - -A. D, 841-1453 1429 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries Saved by Joan of Arc. diaries VII. crown- 1430. War be- ed at Rheims. tween Cas- 1431 Joan of Arc burned. 1438. House of tile and Granada. 1437-38. Rise of Por- Austria estab- 1441. Kiptchak tugal. lished. Albert Mongols di- II. (King of vide Russia. Bohemia and Hungary), Emperor. / 1446. War with Hungary. 1452. Civil War in Navarre, 1450. Kingdom of Delhi enlarged. 1453 End of the French 1453. Austria made in which Cas- 1453. Poland's inde- and English wars. an hereditary tile and Ar- pendence con- Duchy by Em- agon join. firmed by Diet peror Freder- of Petrekin. ick III. FROM THE FAT,Ti O] P THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO. THE FALL OI ■■ NAPOLEON — 1453-1815 France Russia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries 1454. Poland at war with the Teutonic Or- der. 1468. Greece sub- 1458. Hungary vig- jected to the Turks. orous under Matthias Cor- 1461 Louis XI., King. 1462. Ivan the Great takes 1464. War with vinus. the title of Hungary. 1466. Prussia a fief Czar. 1470. Sten Sture, of Poland. 1468. Uzun Has- san, master of Persia. 1472. Ivan mar- Regent of ries Sophia, Sweden. niece of the 1475 War between France and Burgundy. Greek Em- peror. 1477 Artois and Burgundy 1479. Great in- united to France. vasion of the Tartars. 1480. Otranto taken. 1481. Power of 1481. John, King 1481. Bajazetll., 1491 Bretagne united to the Tartars of Denmark, Sultan. the crown. % annihilated. partially ac- knowledged 1485. Matthias of Hungary takes in Sweden. 1493. War with Egypt, Hun- gary, and Ven- Vienna. 1492. America dis- covered by Co- lumbus. 1499 Conquest of Milan. m.- 1505. War with Persia. 1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- pucci. 1502. Soufi sole Sovereign of Persia. 1510 Council of Tours. 1510. Renewed Tartar inva- 1512. Selim I. de- 1506. Poland un- der Sigismund sions. thrones and puts to death his father. the Great. 1511. Cuba con- quered. 1513. Christian 1514. Persians de- 1512. Florida dis- II., King of feated; Kurdis- covered. Norway and tan added to 1513. Discoveries 1515 Francis I. invades Italy. Denmark. the empire. 1516. Cairo taken. of Balboa. 1517. First patent granted by • Spain for the importation of • negroes into America. 82 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL, OF NAPOLEON — 14S3- 1815 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Great Britain GermanF ^aln and Portugal 1519. Charies V., 1519. Conquest King of Spain of Mexico by 1521. Diet of Cortez. Worms. 1522 Circumnavigation 1529. Turks invade of the globe by 1525. Spanish as- Germany. Magellan. cendancy by Xavier plants the victory Christianity, in of Pavia. 1532. The King mar- India. ries AnneBoleyn. 1530 Jorgens invents the 1535. Henry excom- spinning wheel 1540. Order of municated by the 1540. Lisbon, the for flax. Jesuits Pope. market of founded by 1543. Invasion of 1543. Alliance with the world. Loyola. France. 1547. Formal estab- England against France. 1545 Vasalius makes im- 1545. Council of lishment of Prot^ portant contribu- Trent. estantism. tions to study of Edward VI., anatomy. Kinff. 1548 Orange trees intro- 1552. Treaty of duced into Eu- 1550. Julius III., Passau secures rope. Pope. 1553. Mary, Queen of England. 1554. T The country was entered and partly subdued by Alexander the Great. About 126 B. C. it was also invaded by the Tartars, or Scythians of the Greeks, and Sakas of the Hindus. From the Tenth to the Twelfth Century of the Christian era the Mohammedans overran and conquered considerable portions of Hindustan, and subsequently the Mogul Empire was formed. In 1498, India was first visited by Vasoo da Gama, and later the Portuguese and Dutch established settlements on the peninsula; but • the former never acquired more than a paltry territory on the west coast, and the latter a few commercial factories. The French influence in India, at one time considerable, also yielded to the superior enterprise of the British, and finally the French relinquished the field. In 1625, the first English settlement was made by a company of merchants in a small spot of the Coromandel coast, of five square miles, transferred in 1653 to Madras, A short time previous a settlement had also been obtained at Hooghly, which after- ward became the Calcutta station. In 1687, Bombay was erected into a presidency. In 1773, by act of the British Legislature, the three provinces were placed under the administration of a governor-general, and Calcutta was made the seat of a supreme court of judicature, the presidencies of Madras and Bombay being made subordinate to that of Bengal. Hitherto the affairs of India had been managed by the East India Company, but in 1784 a board of control was appointed by the government, the president of which became secretary of state for India. From the year 1750, when the warlike acquisi- tion of territory commenced under Lord Olive, a succession of conquests, almost forced upon the British contrary to their inclinations, placed nearly all India under their sway. In 1858, the direct sovereignty of India, and the powers of government hitherto vested in the East India Company, were vested in the British Crown. In 1906, the twenty-second Indian National Congress was held at Calcutta for the purpose of discussing the political wants ' of all races, religions, and provmces of India. Indiana. Originally settled by the French at Vinoennes in 1702, but little is known of its early history. In 1763, it became a British pos- session, and in 1783, by treaty with Great Britain, it became part of the United States. In 1787, it was made part of the Northwest Territory, this term being applied to all the public domain north of the Ohio River, This region was much devastated from 1788 to 1791 by the Indians, but their defeat in the latter year gave the settlers peace for a time. Indiana was organized territorially July 4, 1800. In 1811, an Indian war, instigated by Tecumseb, broke out, but the power of the savages was broken at Tippecanoe. Hostilities did not en- tirely cease till 1815. The State was admitted December 11, 1816. In 1827, the Erie Canal opened an outlet for the produce of the West, and the national road was commenced. These stimulated immigration, and the new State grew rapidly. A new constitution was adopted in 1851, calculated especially to promote great public works. Statutory Prohibition was en- acted to take eflect April 2, 1918. Indians, American. According to the estimate of James Mooney, United States govern- ment expert, the total Indian population north of Mexico at the date of the discovery of America in 1492 was 1,115,000. In 1910 the Indian popu- lation of the United States, Alaska, and Canada was, in round numbers, 400,000. For a long period there was such a constant and rapid de- crease in the number of Indians in the United States that many anthropologists predicted their early extinction. The low point in Indian popu- lation, however, was reached in 1900 when the census showed a total of only 237,000 within the boundaries of the United States. In 1910 this Indian population had risen to 265,000. In 1910 there were living representatives in the United States of 280 tribes, and in Alaska of 21 tribes. In addition, there were remain- ders of 45 Eskimo tribes. It is estimated that there were survivors of about 160 tribes in Canada, making a total representation of approximately 600 tribes. About 100 tribes are supposed to have become extinct since Columbus discovered America. The following table shows the present distribution of Indians in the United States: State No. Reser - Abea Poj". VATIONS Sq. Mi. (1010) Alaska, . 25,331 Arizona, . 12 30',5S4 29,201 California, 44 679 16,371 Colorado, 1 786 1,482 Idaho, 2 799 3,488 Kansas, 3 2 1,853 Michigan, 2 5 7,619 Minnesota, . 4 1,088 9,053 Mississippi, 1,253 Montana, . '5 8',685 10,745 Nebraska, 2 22 3,502 Nevada, . . 3 993 5,240 New Mexico, 22 2,655 20,673 New Yprk, . 8 137 6,046 North Carolina, 1 99 7,851 North Dakota, . 3 4,414 6,4S6 Oklahoma, . 10 8,S31 74,825 Oregon, . . 4 1,996 5,090 South Dakota, 6 9,728 19,137 Utah, . . . 1 280 9,183 Washington, 12 3,669 10,997 Wisconsin, . 5 528 10,142 Wyoming, . . 1 149 1,486 All Other States, 10,220 Total . . 150 75,746 291,aU HISTORY 121 Iowa. The name of the State, originally applied to the river so called, is derived from the Indian. It was a part of the Louisiana Pur- chase, acquired in 1803. It was first visited by a Frenchman, who gave his name, Dubuque, to the place where he settled in 1788. In 1834 the territory now included in Iowa was placed under the jurisdiction of Michigan, and in 1836 imder that of Wisconsin. In 1838 Iowa became a separate territory, including also the greater part of Minnesota and the whole of Dakota. The delimitation of the State occurred when it was admitted as such in 1846. Immigration was rapid and continued in spite of a bloody massacre of pioneer settlers at Spirit Lake in March, 1857. In the same year the original constitution of 1846 was revised and the state capital was re- moved from Iowa City to Des Moines. In 1915 Iowa reenacted statutory Prohibition to take effect January 1, 1916. Ireland. According to ancient native legends, Ireland was in remote times peopled by tribes styled Firbolgs and Danauns, eventu- ally subdued by Milesians or Gaels, who acquired supremacy in the island. The primitive inhabi- tants of Ireland are now believed to have been of the same Indo-European race with the original population of Britain. Although Ireland, styled lemis, is mentioned in a Greek poem five cen- turies B. C, and by the names of Hibernia and Juverna bjr various foreign pagan writers, little is known with certainty of her inhabitants before the Fourth Century after Christ, when, under the appellation of Scoti, or inhabitants of Scotia, they became formidable by their descents upon the Roman Province of Britain. These expedi- tions were continued and extended to the coasts of Gaul till the time of Laogaire McNeill, mon- arch of Ireland, 430 A. D., in whose reign St. Patrick attempted the conversion of the natives. From the earliest period each province of Ireland appears to have had its own king, subject to the Ard-Righ, or monarch, to whom the central dis- trict called Meath was allotted and who usually resided at Tara. Each clan was governed by a chief selected from its most important family, and who was required to be of mature age, capable of taking the field efficiently when occasion required. The laws were peculiar in their nature, dispensed by professional jurists styled Brehons, who, as well as the poets and men of learning, received high consideration, and were endowed with lands and important privileges. Cromlechs, or stone tombs and structures, composed of large uncemented stones, ascribed to the pagan Irish, still exist in various parts of Ireland; lacustrine habitations, or stockaded islands, styled Crannogs or Crannoges, in inland lakes, also appear to have been in use there from early ages. It is remarkable that a greater number and variety of antique golden articles of remote ages have been found in Ireland than in any other part of northern Europe; and the majority of the gold antiquities illustrative of British history now preserved in the British Museum are Irish. In the Sixth Century exten- sive monasteries were founded in Ireland, in which reUgion and learning were zealously cul- tivated. From these establishments numerous missionaries issued during the succeeding cen- tury, carrying the doctrines of Christianity under great difficulties into the still pagan countries of Europe, whose inhabitants they surprised and impressed by their self-devotion and asceticism. Among the eminent native Irish of these times were Columba, or Colum Cille, founder of the celebrated monastery of lona; Comgall, who established the convent of Bangor, in the County of Down; Ciaran of Clonmacnoise; and Adam- nan, Abbot of lona and biographer of Columba. Of the Irish missionaries to the continent the more distinguished were Columbanus, founder of Bobio; Gallus of St. Gall, in Switzeriand; Dichuill, patronized by Clotaire; and Ferghal, or Virgilius, the evangelizer of Carinthia. The progress of Irish civilization was checked by the incursions of the Scandinavians, com- mencing towards the close of the Eighth Century, and continued for upward of 300 years. From the close of the Eighth to the Twelfth Century Ireland, although, har- assed by the Scandinavians, produced many writers of merit, among whom were Mngua, the hagiographer; Cormac McCullenan, King of Munster and Bishop of Cashel, the reputed author of Cormac's Glossary; Cuan O'Lochain: Gilla Moduda; Flan of Monasterboice; and Tighernach, the annalist. Of the Irish architec- ture of the period examples survive at Cashel. The well-known round towers of Ireland are believed to have been erected about this era as belfries, and to have served as places of security for ecclesiastics during disturbances. But this is mere surmise, the date of their erection having never been established nor their use- satisfac- torily explained. The skill of the Irish musi- cians in the Twelfth Century is attested by the enthusiastic encomiums bestowed by Giraldus Cambrensis upon their performances. The first step toward an Anglo-Norman descent upon Ireland was made by Henry II. in 1165. The chief Anglo-Norman adventurers, Fitz Gislebert, Le Gros, De Cogan, and De Curci, encountered formidable opposition before they succeeded in establishing themselves on the lands which they thus invaded. The government was committed to a viceroy, and the Norman legal system was in- troduced into such parts of the island as were reduced to obedience to England. The youthful Prince John was sent by King Henry into Ireland in 1184, but the injudicious conduct of his coun- cil having excited disturbances he was soon recalled to England. The country was wholly subdued in 1210; in 1316, it was invaded by Edward Bruce, who was crowned king 1316, and slain 1318. In 1361, the heiress of Ulster, Elizabeth de Burgh, married the English Duke of Clarence. In 1394, Richard II. landed at Waterford with a large army, and gained the adherence of the people by his munificence. In 1494 was passed Poyning's Law, making the Irish Parliament subject to the English Council. In 1542, Henry VIII. assumed the title of king, instead of lord of Ireland. In 1534 Thomas Fitzgerald, son of the viceroy of Henry VIII., revolted, but not meeting with adequate support from his Anglo-Irish connections he was, after a short time, suppressed and executed. Heniy received the title of "King of Ireland" in 1541, by an act passed by the ^glo-Irish Parliament 122 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY ,0F FACTS in Dublin; and about the same period some of the native princes were induced to acknowledge him as their sovereign, and to accept peerages. The doctrines of the Reformation met little favor either with the descendants of the old English settlers or with the native Irish. The attempts of the English Government in Ireland to intro- duce the Reformed faith and English institutions stirred up great dissensions in Ireland. The country was divided into shires in 1569 ; printing in Irish characters introduced by Walsh, Chan- cellor of St. Patrick's, Dublin, 1571; in 1601-02 occurred the famous insurrection of Tyrone, who invited the Spaniards to assist him, but they were all defeated by the Lord Deputy Mountjoy in the latter year. In consequence of repeated rebellions 511,465 acres of land in the Province of Ulster became forfeited to the English Crown, and James I. divided his land among such of his English and Scottish subjects as chose to settle there. In 1641 occurred More and Maguire's Rebellion, which was an endeavor to expel the Protestant settlers in Ulster. Be- tween the years 1649-56, CromweU and his son- in-law, General Ireton, reduced the whole island to subjection. At the Revolution the native Irish generally took the part of James II., the English and Scotch "colonists" of William and Mary; and the war was kept up for four years (1688-92). In 1778, ParUament relaxed the pressure of penal statutes against the Roman Cathohes but their effect caused the rebellion of 1798-1800. On January 1, 1801, the legislative union of Great Britain with Ireland was consum- mated, and the history of the country merges in that of Great Britain. In 1879, Ireland suffered severely from famine, and since 1880 from agrarian and "home rule" disturbances. The Birrell home rule bill was defeated in 1907. In 1912 Premier Asquith introduced a home rule bill which, after bitter controversy, passed the house of commons for the third time in May, 1914. With action suspended for at least one year, it became law in September, 1914, without the consent of the house of lords. Ireland was ex- cluded from the effect of the compulsory military service bUl of 1916. Ironsides, Cromwell's troopers, a thousand strong, and raised by him in the Eastern counties of England, so-called at first from the invinci- bility displayed by them at Marston Moor; were selected by Cromwell "as men," he says "that had the fear of God before them, and made conscience of what they did. . . . They were never beaten," he adds, "and wherever they were engaged against the enemy, they beat continually." Israelites (Hebrew Yisreeli), the descend- ants of Jacob, "the chosen people." The twelve tribes descended from Jacob's children were called " Israel " in Egypt, and throughout the Pen- tateuch, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. The name was afterward given to the larger portion, or ten northern tribes, after the death of Saul, a distinction that obtained even in David's time. But more definitely was the name applied to the schismatical portion of the nation, including all the tribes save Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin, which set up a separate monarchy in Samaria after the death of Solomon. After the exile the two branches became blended, and are again called by the old name by Ezra and Nehemiah. But by degrees the name "Jews" (q. v.) supplanted this appellation, especially among foreigners. The history of the Israelites, especially during the early periods, is inseparably bound up with that of their rulers, patriarchs, etc., as Abraham, Jacob, Moses, Joshua, the Judges, David, Solo- mon, etc., to all of which the reader is referred. The following is a short summary of the leading points in the history of the Israelites: Abraham called, B. C. 1921; Isaac born, 1896; Esau and Jacob born, 1837; death of Abraham, 1822; Joseph sold into Egypt, 1729; Moses born, 1571; institution of the Passover and the Exodus, 1491; promulgation of the Law from Sinai, 1491; the tabernacle set up, 1490; Joshua leads the Israelites into Canaan, 1451; the first bondage, 1413; the second, 1343; the third, 1304; the fourth, 1252; the fifth, 1206; the sixth, 1157; Samson slays the Philistines, 1136; Samuel governs as Judge, about 1120; Samson pulls down the temple of Dagon, 1117; Saul made king, 1095; David kills Goliath, about 1063; death of Saul and accession of David, 1055; David captures Jerusalem and makes it his capital, 1048; Solomon lays the foundations of the temple, 1012; it is dedicated, 1004; death of Solomon and division of the kingdom, 975. In the reign of Solomon the prophet Ahijah was intrusted with the announcement to Jero- boam that, in punishment for the many acts of disobedience to the divine law, and particularly of the idolatry so extensively practiced by Solo- mon, the greater part of the kingdom would be transferred to him. This breach was never healed. A spirit of disaffection had long been rife, even in the reigns of David and Solomon, fostered by various causes, not the least among which was the burdensome taxes imposed by the latter monarch for the support of his luxurious court and for the erection of his numerous build- ings. But however much these causes may have operated to create a breach between the North and South districts of Palestine, certain it is that God Himself expressly forbade all at- tempts on the part of Rehoboam or his succes- sors to subdue the revolted provinces, and, with slight exceptions, the subsequent history of the two nations still more widely separated them. The precise amount of territory contained in the Kingdom of Israel cannot be accurately ascer- tained; it was approximately as nine to four compared with the sister Kingdom of Judah; the ten tribes included in Israel, it is supposed, were Ephraim and Manasseh (East and West), Issar char, Zebulon, Asher, Naphtali, Gad, Reuben, and part of Dan; the population was probably, at the separation, about 4,000,000. It was not long before the new kingdom showed signs_ of weakness. It developed no new power, which is not surprising when we consider that it was but a section of David's Kingdom shorn of many sources of strength. "The history of the King- dom of Israel is, therefore, the history of its decay and dissolution." The first symptom of decline was shown in the emigration of many families who adhered to the old religion of the Israelites back to Judah; and to check HISTORY 123 this Jeroboam set up rival sanctuaries with visible idols, 975 B. C, but which only in- creased the evil he wished to check. As soon as the golden calves were set up the priests and Levites flocked back to Judah, where they were warmly received. Jeroboam's whole policy aimed singly at his own aggrandizement. To supply the want of a priesthood, divine in its origin, a line of prophets was raised up remark- able for their purity and austerity. Jeroboam reigned twenty-two years; his son Nadab was violently cut off after a brief reign of two years, with all his house, and so ended the line of Jero- boam. The fate of this d3masty was but a type of those that followed. Domestic famine, the sword of the foreigner, and internal dissensions helped the tottering kingdom on its downward way, and only one brief era of prosperity oc- omred, under the sway of Jeroboam II., who reigned forty-two years. The Syrian invasion, under Phul, 771 B. C, compelled Menahem, the King of Israel, to pay heavy tribute, and in the reign of Pekah we find them leading many of the Israelites into captivity. In 721 Samaria was taken by Shalmaneser, the ten tribes were carried into captivity, and an end was put to the Kingdom of Israel. See Jews for the subse- quent history of the chosen people. Italy. The ancient history of Italy is more conveniently treated under Rome. We, there- fore, glance at more modern times, after the Western Empire had fallen before a mixed horde of barbarous mercenaries, chiefly com- posed of the HeruU. Under the Hohenstaufen dynasty, Italy enjoyed an interregnum from foreign rule of about sixty years, which, however, was wasteji in suicidal conflicts between the two factions of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. •The most terrible incident of this period was the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. Not- withstanding the inveterate internecine feuds of Italy, it was a period of great splendor and prosperity. The free cities or republics of Italy rivaled kingdoms in the extent and im- portance of their commerce and manufactures, the advancement of art and science, the mag- nificence of their public edifices and monuments, and the prodigious individual and national wealth to which they attained. Unhappily, a spirit of rivalry and intolerance grew up dvuing this period of mediaeval splendor, and in the arbitrary attempts of these states to secure supremacy over each other they gradually worked their own destruction. After the battle of Waterloo the final reconstitution of Italy was decreed by the Congress of Vienna. The accession of Pius IX., in 1846, seemed the inau- guration of a new era for Italy. A general amnesty was followed by wise, hberal measures, which were also adopted by Tuscany and Pied- mont, in emulation of Rome. By a simultane- ous outbreak in Sicily and Milan in January, the great revolution of 1848 was inaugurated in Italy. The revolution of France in February imparted a strong impulse to that of Italy, and speedily Naples, Piedmont, and Rome conceded constitutional rights to the popular demands. The Milanese unanimously revolted against Austrian rule on the 17th of March, and after five days of heroic fighting the Austnans were expelled from the city, and Radetsky, with 70,000 troops, compelled to retreat. On the 29th, Charles Albert entered Lombardy, the avowed champion of Italian independence. In the Congress of Paris, at the close of the Russian War (1856), Cavour strongly urged the expedi- ency of a withdrawal of French and Austrian troops, from Rome and the legations. The vic- tories of Magenta and Solferino were quickly followed by the abrupt and inconclusive Peace of Villafranca, July 11, 1859. On the 18th of March, 1860, Parma, Modena, and the Emihan provinces were incorporated with Sardinia, and the grand-duchy of Tuscany on the 22d. On the 17th of March, the law by which Victor Emman- uel assumed the title of King of Italy was pro- mulgated amid universal rejoicing. On the 6th of the ensuing May, Garibaldi, with about 1,000 volunteers, set sail from Genoa for Sicily, where a revolutionary outbreak had taken place. His swift and comparatively bloodless conquests of the two Sicilies is one of the most extraordinary incidents in modem history. At the close of the German-Italian war, Venetia, 1866, became part of the Kingdom of Italy by treaty with Austria. Turin, the chief town of Piedmont, was the capital from 1859 till 1865; the court was transferred to Florence during the latter year. In 1867 the French army was withdrawn from Rome. In 1870 the whole of the papal states were absorbed by the kingdom of Italy and Rome was its recognized capital. In 1878 Victor Emmanuel died, and was succeeded by his son Humbert I. In 1882 Italy entered the triple alliance with Germany and AustriarHungary. Humbert was assassinated July 29, 1900; suc- ceeded by Victor Emmanuel III. In 1911 Italy entered into war with Turkey over affairs in Tripoli; by the treaty of Lausanne, Oct., 1912, Italy acquired full sovereignty over Tripoli. Bound by the Triple Alliance to assist Germany and Austria-Hungary in case of attack, Italy refused to aid them in 1914, arguing that they were engaged in an aggressive war. As war progressed, popular opinion urged the conquest of Italia Irredenta — the "unredeemed" Aus- trian districts of Trentino and Trieste, largely Italian in population but never Italian posses- sions. Italy denounced the Triple Alliance, May 4, 1915, declared war upon Austria-Hungary, May 24, and attacked Austria along the Italian border and near Trieste. Italy declared war upon Turkey, Aug. 21, and upon Bulgaria, Oct. 19. In February, 1916, Italy attacked the Aus- trians in the Balkans, and later in the same year captured the Austrian fortress of Gorizia. Following severe defeat at Caporetto, October 24, 1917, the Itahans retreated to the Piave. In June, 1918, the reorganized Itahan and alhed forces crushed a powerful Austrian offen- sive and, by a great counter-thrust, begun October 24, completely routed the Austrian armies, compelling Austria to accept a truce of virtual surrender, November 4. Jacobins, the members of a political club which exercised a very great influence during the French Revolution. It was originally called the Club Breton, and was formed at Ver- sailles, when the States General assembled there 124 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS in 1789. It then consisted exclusively of the members of the States General, all more or less liberal or revolutionary, but of very different shades of opinion. On the removal of the court and national assembly to Paris this club began to acquire importance. It now met in a hall of the former Jacobin Convent in Paris, whence it received the name of the Jacobin Club, which was first given to it by its enemies, the name which it adopted being that of the Society of Friends of the Constitution. It now also ad- mitted members who were not members of the National Assembly, and held regular and public sittings. It exercised a great influence over the agitation, of which the chief seat and focus was in the capital, and this influence was extended over the whole country by affiliated societies. Its power increased, until it became greater than that of the National Assembly. It reached the zenith of its power when the National Con- vention met in September, 1792. The agitation for the death of the king, the storm which de- stroyed the Girondists, the excitement of the lowest classes against the bourgeoisie or middle classes, and the reign of terror over all France were the work of the Jacobins. But the over- throw of Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor, 1794, gave also the death blow to the Jacobin Club; and on November 9, 1794, the Jacobin Club closed. The term Jacobin is often em- ployed to designate persons of extreme revolu- tionary sentiments. Janizaries (Turkish, Yeni-tcheri, new soldiers), an Ottoman infantry force, somewhat analogous to the Roman praetorians, part of them forming the guard of the sultan. They were originally organized about 1330, and sub- sequently obtained special privileges, which in time became dangerously great. The regular janizaries once amounted to 60.000, but their numbers were afterwards reduced to 25,000. The irregular troops amounted to 300,000 or 400,000. Their power became so dangerous and their insurrections so frequent that several unsuc- cessful attempts were made to reform or disband them. At various times sultans had been de- posed, insulted, and murdered by the insurgent janizaries. At last, in June, 1826, they rebelled on account of a proposal to form a new militia, when the sultan, Mahmoud II., having displayed the flag of the prophet, and being supported by their aga or conmiander-in-chief, defeated the rebels and burned their barracks, when 8,000 of them perished in the flames. The corps was abolished, and a curse laid upon the name. As many as 15,000 were executed, and fully 20,000 were banished. Japan. Although Japan has passed through the successive eras of tribal government, pure monarchy, feudalism, anarchy, and modern empire, its ruling dynasty boasts of forty-six centuries of unbroTcen succession, and claims descent from Jimmu Tenno, first mikado, a fabulous warrior, whose descent from the sun goddess is a matter of faith with the Japanese, who base upon it their claim of the mikado's divinity. Tbe empire claims to have had a previous existence of 2,479 years; but its history dates from Jimmu 667 B. C., and from his death until 571 A. D. thirty-one mikados ruled; the famous Yamato Dak6 and Sujin the Civilizer belong to this period. Jingu Kogo, Empress of Japan, '270 A. D., conquered Corea in person. In 552 A. D. Buddhism was introduced into Japan, and thenceforth became a potent influ- ence in the formation of character. About this time a succession of infant mikados contributed to loss of power in the mikadoate, and to the formation of noble families, who, one by one, gained ascendency, and ruled the mikados; the feudal system began its existence, and feuds between the rival families were constant. The Fujiwarra family were opposed by the Suga- wara, and succeeded by the Tairas and Mina- motos. In 1184, Yoritomo became first shogun, (a term meaning general), the dual system of government, which ended only in 1867, began, and the shogunate monopolized the real power of the nation, of which the mikado was nominal and spiritual head. From 1199 to 1333 both the mikadoate and the shogunate were under the power of the Hojo family, who set up and removed rulers at their own pleasure; but they promoted the arts, and defeated an invasion of the Mongol Tartars. The Ashi-Kaga family next came into power, and occasioned a fifty-six years' war between the northern and southern djmasties, and strengthened feudalism at the time when all Europe was throwing oil its chains. In 1536, Hideyoshi conquered the Coreans, and brought marine architecture to a higher state of perfection; he became taiko, and this period is called the age of taiko. In 1542, Europeans landed on TanigasUma; fire- arms were introduced, Portuguese merchants were attracted, and in 1549, Francis Xavier landed, and with an interpreter preached Chris- tianity in various parts of the empire; he paved the way for the success of others, and priests and Jesuits flocked to Japan, when a total of 600,000 converts was recorded. Wabunaga protected the Christians, as the latter persecuted the Buddhists, whom he hated ; but by intrigues and quarrels among themselves the priests alienated the support of the shogun, who perse- cuted the native Christians. The Jesuits stirred them up to resistance, and after a brief battle between Heddyori, leader of the Christians, and Iy6sayii; during which 100,000 men perished, the priests were exiled from Japan, 1615. In 1624 all foreigners except the Dutch and Chinese were banished from Japan, the Japanese were forbidden to leave the country, and all larger vessels were destroyed. In 1637 the great mas- sacre of Christians began, the twenty or less Dutch traders were confined to the island of Deshima, and 100 years' intercourse with Chris- tian nations resulted only in the adoption of gunpowder, fire-arms, and tobacco. For two centuries and a half after ly^sayu, Japan had peace; feudalism and anarchy were perfected, and the Tokugawa was the most promment of a number of families who divided Japan; the power of the shogun increased, the last four rulers of the shogunate being known to Euro- peans under the title of "Tycoon." In 1853, Commodore Perry, with a fleet of American vessels, arrived at Yeddo, and the Perry treaty with the United States was concluded by him with the supreme ruler of Japan. This usurpa- HISTORY 125 tioa of authority increased the rivalry; after a brief revolution the government was changed to its ancient form and the mikado became the only ruler of Japan. This occurred in 1868. The United States opened Japan to the world after the failure of the Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch, and Russians. In July, 1894, war was declared with China. By the Treaty of Shimonoseki the terms of peace included recognition of Corean independence, the cession to Japan of Formosa and some smaller islands, with the peninsula of Liao-Tung, including Port Arthur, a large war indemnity, and a very great relaxation of restrictions on foreign industry and commerce in China. In 1904, war with Russia occurred over Manchuria and continued until the fall of Port Arthur in 1905 (See Russo-Japanese War). Corea was annexed in 1910. Emperor Mutsuhito, whose reign of forty-five years saw Japan develop into one of the greatest nations of the world, died at Tokyo, July 30, 1912. He was succeeded by his son Yoshihito. In August, 1914, Great Britain, at war with Germany and Austria-Hungary, asked Japan for assistance according to the alliance of 1905. Japan presented to Germany an ultimatum de- manding the withdrawal of German warships from Japanese and Chinese waters and the dehvery to Japan of the leased province of Kiaochow, China. Germany refused. Japan declared war upon Germany, Aug. 23, captured Tsingtao, the fortified port of Kiaochow, Sept. 27, and Nov. 10 took possession of the province. Several groups of German islands in the Pacific were also taken. The coronation of Yoshihito took place at Kioto in Nov., 1915, with elaborate ceremonies. Jews (Heb. Yehuda). The history of the Jews begins with the return of the remnant of the kingdom of Judah from the Ba,bylonish cap- tivity in consequence of the Edict of Cyrus. Below wiU be found a brief resumS of the chief historical events in the history of the Jews according to the biblical narrative. According ,to Eusebius, the Scripture history ends in 442 B. C, and thenceforward the Roman historians and Josephus furnish the best accounts. The Babylonish CapHvity. ^Dajiiel prophesies at Babylon, B. C. 603; Obadiah prophesies, 587; Daniel interprets the handwriting on the wall, 538; he prophesies the speedy return from bondage and the coming of a Messiah, 538. The Return from Captivity. — Cyrus, ruler of all Asia, authorizes the return of the Jews and the re- • building of the Temple at Jerusalem, 536; Haggai and Zechariah flourish, 520; the second Temple finished, 515; Ezra arrives m Jerusalem to correct abuses, 458; beginning of the seventy weeks of years predicted by Daniel, bemg 490 years prior to the crucifixion of Chnst, 457; the walls of Jerusalem rebuilt, 445; Malachi flourishes, 415. The Jews under the Macedonian Empire.— Alexander the Great marches against Jerusalem to besiege it, but ultimately goes to the Temple and offers sacrifices to the God of the Jews, 332; Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter 320; the Scriptures translated (the Septuagint version) by seventy-two Jewish scribes, at the uistanoe of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 277; Antiochus cap- tures Jerusalem, sacks the Temple, and massa- cres 40,000 of the people, 170; commencement of the government of the Maccabees, 166; a treaty, the first in Jewish history, made with the Romans, 161; Judas Hyrcanus assumes the title of "King of the Jews," 107; Jerusalem captured by Pompey, 63. The Jews under the Roman Empire. — ^Antipater made ruler of Judea by JuUus Caesar, 49; Herod, son of Antipater, marries Miriamne, daughter of the king, 42; Herod decreed king by the Roman Senate, 40; Jerusalem captured by Herod and Sosius, the Roman general, 37; Herod rebuilds the Temple on a scale of greater magnificence than ever before, 18; Jesus Christ, the long-looked-for Messiah, born four years before 1 A. D., 4 B. C; Pontius Pilate procurator of Judea, A. D. 22; John Baptist commences his ministry, 25; is beheaded, 27; Christ's ministry and miracles, 27-29; his death and resurrection, 29; the Jews are persecuted for refusing to worship Caligula, 38; receive the right of Roman citizenship, 41; Claudius banishes them from Rome, 50; Titus captures Jerusalem, the city and Temple are sacked and burned, and 1,000,000 Jews perish, 70; Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, names it EHa Capi- toHna, and erects a temple to Jupiter, 130; the rebelUon of Bar-cooheba, 135-36; final deso- lation of Judea, more then 500,000 Jews are slain by the Romans, they are banished from Judea by an edict of the Roman Emperor, and are forbidden to return upon pain of death, 136. DISTRIBUTION OF JEWS AMONG THE NATIONS America, Argentina, Re3fc of South America, Mexico, Central America,. . . Cuba, United States, Africa, Abyssinia, Algiers, Tunis (French) Morocco Egypt, Tripoli, Crete Asia, China, Japan, Persia, Turkey Turkestan, Afghanistan British Empire, Australasia, British Isles, Canada India South Africa Other Possessions, Europe, Austria-Hungary, Belgium Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Holland, (and possessions), Italy, Luxemburg Norway, Sweden, Rumania Russia Servia Spain, Portugal, Switzerland Total, 45,000 3,909 9,91S 4,000 !,044,762 6,500 127,500 109,712 70,010 2,143 29,500 463,686 18,135 17,106 244,697 95,500 18.226 50.000 7,700 [,088,228 15,000 37,653 3,476 100,000 607,862 8,350 108,567 35,617 1,200 4,654 215,900 i,243,712 5,729 5,000 19,007 2,107,586 313,722 613,464 433,229 9,499,855 12,867,856 The Jews have suffered much even in modern times and especially in Russia at the hands of the oppressor. In America only have they enjoyed at all times perfect freedom and all the 126 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS rights of citizenship. Full emancipation was granted to the Jews in England in 1858. Kansas, derived from an Indian name meaning "smoky water," was visited by the Spaniards in 1541; afterward by the French in 1719. It came to the United States through the Louisiana Piu:chase, and was a portion of the territory which, by the Missouri Compro- mise of 1820, was always to remaia untouched by slavery. When the territory of Kansas was organized, in 1854, it was declared by Congress that the Missouri Compromise was abolished. This led to the Kansas troubles, which lasted tiU 1859, with various vicissitudes, when a free constitution was adopted, forever prohibiting slavery. This imbrogho played an important part in inflaming the passions of North and South, and ripening the conditions which made the Civil War inevitable. Kansas was admitted to the Union in 1861. During the Civil War the State was the scene of irregular warfare, known as "jay-hawking," carried on by Confederate raiders from Missouri and Ar- kansas and the Unionists who opposed them. The only battle of prominence took place at Lawrence on August 21, 1863. In 1880, the con- stitution was amended, prohibiting liquor traffic. In 1912, the state granted suffrage to women. Kentucky. The name Kan-tuck-kee sig- nifies "darkened bloody ground," and the coun- try now included in the State was originally the common himting ground for the Indian tribes hving north and south of it. The first white visit was that of John Finley and others, from North Carohna, in 1767. Daniel Boone began to explore Kentucky in 1769. Colonel James Knox planted a Virginian colony in 1770, fol- lowed by others in 1773-74, and James Harrod founded Harrodsburg in 1774. In 1775, the Cherokees ceded the country to Boone, who acted as agent for Colonel Richard Henderson and his company. Kentucky was a part of Virginia tiU 1790, when it became a separate Territory. It was admitted as a State into the Union in 1792, being the second admitted. A second constitution was adopted in 1800, and the present one in 1850. Kentucky during the Civil War endeavored to hold a position of neutraMty. The chief battles fought in the State were MUl Spring, January 19, 1862, and PerryviUe, Octo- ber 8, 1862. In 1864, martial law was declared, and civil authority was not restored imtU Octo- ber, 1865. In 1900, William Goebel, contesting candidate for governor, was assassinated. A series of notable trials followed. Khyber Pass. A British army of 16,000 men was annihilated at Khyber Pass in the month of January, 1842, during the retreat from Kabul. The only persons who escaped were Dr. Brydon (a regimental surgeon) and a private soldier. In 1838, Lord Auckland, Governor-General of India, declared war against the Afghanistans because their ruler, Dost Mohammed, had unlawfully attacked a British ally, and because Dost Mohammed had usurped the throne of Shah Sujah, who was under British protection. On July 21st, Shah Sujah was restored to the throne of Kabul, and the British thought the matter was ended. This was a grand mistake, for at the beginning of winter Akbah Khan, the son of Dost Mohammed, attacked the British army in Kabul, and slew several of the officers. A capitulation was made, and when the British army were in the Khyber Pass on their way home they were cut to pieces. With women, children, and campfoUowers, 20,000 were slain. Lake Erie, JBattJe of. An important naval engagement in the war of 1812, between the United States and Great Britain, fought in Put-in-bay, Lake Erie, September 10, 1813. The American forces were intrusted to Lieut. Oliver Hazard Perry who equipped a squadron of nine sail at Erie on Presque Isle bay, and, although blockaded by the British fleet under Capt. Bar- clay succeeded in getting his squadron out of port, August 12, 1813. On the 28th Perry was made master commandant. On September 10th he lay in Put-in-bay when he discovered the British squadron and went out to meet it. It consisted of six vessels. The Americans had some advantage in able seamen. Only the Lawrence and the Niagara of the America squadron were regular vessels of war, the others having been built for trading. Their guns were of heavier caUber than those of the Enghsh, but of shorter range. This enabled the British to open battle with advantage. Out of 101 officers and men on Perry's flagship Lawrence only 18 were not disabled. In that desperate con- dition, Perry left the Lawrence and shifted his flag to the Niagara. The action now became general and, after a stubborn contest,Perry forced Barclay's flagship Detroit and three other vessels to surrender. The remaining two attempted to escape, but were soon overtaken and captured. When Perry saw that victory was secure, he wrote with pencil on the back of an old letter, resting it on his navy cap, the despatch to Gen. Harrison: "We have met the enemy and they are ouis — two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." The contest had lasted about three hoiKS with a loss on either side of about 130 in killed and wounded, Capt. Barclay himself among the latter. This victory completely established American supremacy on the lake. Congress bestowed gold medals on Perry and Master com- . mandant Elliott, and minor rewards upon the other officers and men. Lancaster, the name of a royal English house which flourished in two lines in the Thir- teenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Centuries. The first commences with Edmund, son of Henry III. and Eleanora of Provence, and brother of Edward I. Thomas, his son and successor in the earldom, cousin-german to Edward II., hea'ded the confederacy of barons against Piers Gaveston, and finally shared the responsibility of his death with Hereford and Arundel. Henry (previously Earl of Leicester), brother and heir of Thomas, joined the conspiracy of Isabella and Mortimer against Edward II., and received the king into his custody at Kenilworth. Henry, his son (previously Earl of Derby), after vainly endeavoring to make peace with John, King of France, under the medi- ation of the pope at Avignon, was sent with an army into Normandy, and took part in the vic- tory of Poitiers and the subsequent French wars. The next Duke of Lancaster commences a new hneage, that of the princes opposed to the house of York. The first in the fine was John of Gaunt, HISTORY 127 or Ghent, fourth son of Edward III. His name is one of the most celebrated in English history and in the chivalry of the Middle Ages. Henry of Hereford, the successor of John of Gaunt in the dukedom, was son to him by his first wife. He claimed the crown by descent, by the moth- er's side, from Edmund the first earl, who was popularly supposed to be the elder brother of Edward I., and to have been deprived of the suc- cession by his father for personal reasons. He became king by deposing Richard II., 1399, and was a prince of great ability and valor. He reigned as Henry IV. till his death in 1413, and was succeeded by his son, Henry V. The son of the latter also inherited the crown as Henry VI., and in his reign the feuds of York and Lancaster broke out, which ended in the union of the two houses in the person of Henry VII. Latin Union, Tlie, a combination formed in 1865 by France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzer- land. These countries entered into an agree- ment by which the amount of silver to be coined yearly was fixed for each member of the union. The coinage of all the countries was of like charac- ter, and to be received without discount through- out the union on public and private account. Greece joined theunionin 1868, Spain in 1871, and subsequently Servia and Rumania also became members. Some of the South American States also used the Latin Union coinage. Spain alone of the countries of the union coins a gold piece not used by the others. The unit of coinage in the Latin Union is the franc; it has different names elsewhere, as, in Italy the lira; in Servia, the dinar; in Spain, the peseta; but the value is always the same. It is the most widely circu- lated coinage system in Europe, being used by about 148,000,000 people. Lexington, a town of Massachusetts, ten miles northwest of Boston, noted as the scene of the first fight between the British and Americans in the war of the Revolution, April 19, 1775. On the evening of April 18th, General Gage, the British commander in Boston, sent 800 soldiers, under Major Pitcaim, to destroy the American supplies at Concord. Paul Revere, of Boston, escaping their sentinels, galloped out to Lexing- ton and Concord with the news, so when the British reached Lexington at daybreak, they found about seventy Americans waiting for them on the village common. Captain John Parker, their commander, ordered them not to shoot until the English did. Major Pitcaim rode forward and called out: " Disperse ye reb- els ! " but though the Americans were outnum- bered ten to one, they stood firm. Then Pitcaim ordered his men to fire, and four Americans were killed and nine wounded. Some shots were fired in return, and three English soldiers were wounded ; but after that the Americans retreated some being killed as they ran. The British marched on to Concord, but meanwhile the whole country was aroused, and as they came back, hundreds of Americans attacked them from behind the houses and stone walls by the road- side. They were only saved from destruction by the arrival of reinforcements under Lord Percy. Though not a very great battle, this was one of the most important ones that ever was fought. As soon as the Americans found that the war had really begun, hundreds of men hurried to the army, and not long after the Brit- ish were driven out of Boston. Lepanto (anciently Naupactus, now called by the Greeks Epakto), a small town of Greece, and the seat of a bishop; on the north side of the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. Near Lepanto took place the celebrated naval battle between the Turks on the one side and the papal galleys and those of the Venetians and the Spaniards on the other, on October 7, 1571, in which the Christians, commanded by Don John of Austria, achieved a decisive victory. Of the Turks 30,000 fell or were taken prisoners, while 130 Turkish vessels were captured, and 12,000 Christian slaves liberated; the Christians lost 8,000 men and fifteen galleys. In this battle Cervantes lost an arm. The town became Greek in 1829. Lollards, The (ISl'lardz). A sect of early Reformers in Germany and England. The name was given in the first place to a class of persons in Germany and the Low Countries, who, in the Fourteenth Century, undertook spiritual offices in behalf of the sick and the dead, and were greatly beloved by the people. Later, the term was conferred opprobriously upon heretics and schismatics in general, more particularly those who followed the teachings of John Wick- liffe. Lombards. A German people of the Suevic family, not very numerous, but of dis- tinguished valor, who played an iinportant part in the early history of Europe. The name is derived from Longohardi, Langobardi, a Latin- ized form in use since the Twelfth Century, and was formerly supposed to have been given with reference to the long beards of this people, but is now derived rather from a word parta, or barte, which signifies a battle-ax. About the Fourth Century they seem to have begun to leave their original seats (on the Lower Elbe, where the Romans seem first to have come in contact with them about the beginning of the Christian era) and to have fought their way south and east till they came in close contact with the eastern Roman Empire on the Danube; adopted an Arian form of Christianity, and, after having been for some time tributary to the Heruli, raised themselves upon the ruins of their power, and of that of the Gepidse, shortly after the middle of the Sixth Century, to the position of masters of Pannonia, and became one of the most wealthy and powerful nations in that part of the world. Under their king, Alboin, they invaded and conquered the norwi and center of Italy (568-569). The conversion of the Arian Lombards to the orthodox faith was brought about by the policy of Gregory the Great and the zeal of Theoaolinda,wife of Autha- ria, and subsequently of his successor, Agilulf (590-615). Longobardi (IBn-go-bilr'de). A German tribe, of supposed Scandinavian extraction, which made their first appearance in history during the reign of Augustus, and in that of Justinian I., settled in Noricum and Pannonia. Led by their chief, Alboni, they successfully invaded Italy in 668, and there founded the Kingdom of Lombardy. 128 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS LOST CITIE8 * The iMes designated by asterisks were afterward rebuilt under the same name. Cities Founded By Whom Date Debtboted How By Whom Date Abydos. in Asia Minor, on the Helles- pont; burned by Darius ; conquered by Philip II. ; by the Romans 188 B. C. , . Aegina>* on the island of the same name, Greece; subjected by Pheidon 748 B.C., captured by the Athenians 455 B. C; by Publius Sulpicius 210 B. C Agri^entum, in Sicily, subjected by Pha- laris 670 B. C; destroyed by Cartha- ginians 406 B.C.; captured by Homans 262 B. C. ; again destroyed by Cartha- ginians 255 B. C Alexandria,* in Egypt, scene of a fright- ful massacre by Ptolemy Physcon 141 B.C. ; captured by Julius Caesar 48 B.C. ; 50,000 persons killed by earthquake 365 A, D.; captured by Chosroes II. 616 A. D. ; by Amrou 640 A. D. ; destroyed by the Turks 868 A. D Antiochs* in Syria; conquered by Pom- pey64B. C. ; destroyed by Chosroes I. 541 A. D.; capturedby Chosroes II. 611 A. D.; Saracens 638 A. D.; Turks 1084 A. D.: Crusaders 1098 A. D.; de- stroyed by Bibars, Sultan of Egypt, 1268 A. D Argos,* in Greece, under Phidon about 750 B. C. leading state of the Pelopon- nesus; lost Cynuria in wars with Sparta 550 B. C. : fell into decay after defeat near Tiryns 524 B. C Arsinoe» in Egypt, not far from Lake Moeris; received its name from Ptole- my Philadelphus in honor of his sister Arsinoe, originally called Crocodipolis by the Greeks; the ruins are near Medi- net-el-Fayoom Athens*'*' in Greece; captured by Xerxes 480 B.C.; burnt by Mardonius 479 B.C. ; rebuilt by Themistocles 478 B.C. ; 439 B. C. at the height of its prosperity; taken by Lysander 404 B.C.; walls re- built by Conon 393 B. C; submits to Alexander the Great 335 B. C; con- quered by Cassander; surrendered to Antigonus Gonatas 200 B. C.; partly destroyed by PhiUp of Macedon 200 B. C. ; subdued by the Romans 146 B.C. ; walls and fortifications destroyed by Sulla 86 B. C, Baalbec,* or Heliopolis, in Asia Minor; sacked by the Moslems 748 A. D.; by Timour Beg 1400 A. D., Babylon, in Asia; captured by Tiglath- Pileser 1. 1 130 B.C. ; by Cyrus 538 B.C. ; walls destroyed by Darius 518 B. C. ; taken by Alexander III. 331 B. C; by Seleucus Nicator 312 B. C, who de- stroyed Babylon to build Seleucia. Ex- flored by Rich, Kerr Porter, Layard, 'razer, Chesney, Botta, Loftus, and Rawlinson, Byzantium, in ancient Thracia (modern Turkey); captured successively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spartans; by the Romans 73 A. D.; destroyed by Severus 196 A.D. It was ref ounded 324 A. D. and called Constantinople, . Carthage* city in Africa; captured by Scipio after the battle of Zama 201 B.C. burned by the Romans 146 B. C. rebuilt as a Roman colony 123 B. C. captured by Genseric 439 A. D.; by Belisarius 533 A. D.; sacked by the Arabs 647 A. D.; destroyed by Hassan 698 A. D Corinth, in Greece; captured by the Dorians 1074 B. C; by the Macedo- nians 338 B. C; by Aratus 243 B. C: Antigonus Doson 223 B.C.; destroyed by L. Mummius 146 B. C. ; rebuilt by Julius Caesar 46 B. C. ; sacked by Alaric 396 A. D., Milesians. Dorians. Colony from Gela. Alexander the Great. Seleucus Nicator. Inachus. Pharaoh in the 12th Dynasty of Manetho. 715 B. C. 582 B. C. 332 B. C. 300 B. C. 1856 B. C. 2300 B. C. War. War. War. War. War. War and Decay. Decay. Turks. Turks. Carthaginians. Turks. Chosroes I. and Bibars. 1330 A. D. 1636 A. D. 406 and 205 B. C. 868 A. D. 541 and 1268 A. D. 524 B. C. Cecrops. 1568 B.C. Nimrod. Megarius under Byzas. Dido Phenicians. 2247 B. C. 667 B. C 878 B. C. 1520 B. C. War. War. War. War. War, War. Sulla. Timour Beg. Seleucus Nicator. Severus. Romans and Hassan. L. Mummius and Alaric. 86 B. C. 1400 A. D. 312 B. C. 196 A. D. 146 B. C. and 698 A. D. 146 B. C. and 396 A. D. HISTORY 129 LOST CITIES — Continued Cities Cteslphon, in Assyria; captured by Tra- jan 116 A. D.; by Severua 198 A. D.; destroyed by Omar 637 A. D Delphi, in Greece; temple burned 548 B. C, and rebuilt by the AlcmEeonidse; plundered by the Phocians 357 B. C.; by Sulla 82 B. C; by Nero 67 A. D.; temple suppressed by Theodosius I., , Ephesus, in Asia Minor; burned by the Amazons 1141 B. C; rebuilt by the lonians 1045 B. C; captured by Croesus 559 B. C; by Cyrus 554 B. C; destroyed by an inundation 322 B. C. ; rebuilt 300 B. C; nearly destroyed by an earthquake 17 A. D., Herculaneum, in Italy; its foundation ascribed to Hercules; partly ruined by an earthquake 63 A. D.; comjjletely buried by an eruption of Vesuvius 79 A.D.; a second settlement buried by Vesuvius 472 A. D. Fragments of statues were discovered 1709 A. D.; theater discovered 1738 A. D.,. . . , Jerusalem,* in Palestine; captured by David 1049 B. C; sacked by the Phi- listines and Arabs 887 B. C; by Nebu- chadnezzar 586 B. C; by Antiochus Epiphanes 170 B. C; captured by Pompey 63 B. C; by Herod 37 B. C; destroyed by Titus 70 A. D., ... Mempbls, in Egypt; partly- destroyed by the Persians 525 B.C.; captured by Antiochus Epiphanes 171 B. C.; re- stored by Septimus Severus 202 A. D.; decayed under the Arabs in the Seventh Century, and Cairo built from its ruins, Mycenae, in Greece; destroyed by the Argives 468 B. C; explored by Dr. Schliemann, who discovered tombs with immense treasures in 1877 A. X>., Nineveh, in Assyria; received its name from Ninus 2182 B. C; destroyed by Cyaxares and Nabopolaasar from 625 to 606 B.C. Layard began explor- ing the ruins 1840 A. D., Numantia, in Spain, destroyed by Scipio the Younger 134 B. C Palmyra, Syria; submitted to Hadrian 130 A. D.; destroyed by AureUan 274 A. D.; restored by Justinian I. 527 A. D.; again destroyed by the Saracens 744 A. D.; ruins discovered 1691 A. D.; explored by Wood and Dawkins 1751 A. D Persepolls, in Persia; supposed to have been founded by Jemshed; burned by Alexander III. 331 B. C Petra, in Arabia, captured by the Naba- thseans in the Fourth Century B. C. ; by Cornelius Palma 106 A. D.; fell into decay and is not mentioned after the Sixth Century A. D.; ruins discovered by Burokhardt 1812 A. D. Pompeii, in Italy; date of its founda- tion unknown; said to have been con- quered by the Samnites 440 B.C.; cap- tured by the Romans 360 B. C; al- most destroyed by an earthquake 63 A.D. ; completely buried by an eruption of Vesuvius 79 A. D.; accidentally dis- covered 1748 A. D. ; excavations com- menced 1755 A. D Saguntum, in Spain; said to have been founded by a colony of Greeks ; burne^ by its citizens before surrendering to Hannibal 218 B. C Samaria, in Palestine: captured bj Shalmaneser IV. 721 B. C; by Alex- ander III. 336-332 B.C.; destroyed by John Hyroanua 109 B. C, Sardls, in Asia Minor; captured by the Cimmerians about 635 B. C; by the Persians 554 B. C; burned by the Greeks 499 B. C; it was rebuilt; cap- tured by Alexander III. 334 B. C; by Founded By Whom Amphiotyons. Date DebtboyeO How 1263 B. C. Hercules. Menes or Misraim. Perseus. Ashur. Solomon. Jemshed. Greeks. Omri. About 1913 B. C. 3890 B. C. or 2188 B. C. 1431, 1313 or 1282 B. C. About 2245 B. C. About 1001 B. C. About 925 B. C. War. War and Decay. Inundation and Earthquake. Vesuvius. War. War and Decay. War. War. War. War. Decay. By Whom Omar. Date Titus Fire. War. Argives. Cyaxares and Nabopola Scipio. Aurelian and Saracens. Alexander. Earthquake and Vesuvius. Citizens. John Hyrcanus. 637 A. D. 395 A. D. 322 B. C. and 17 A. D. 79 and 472 A. D. 70 A. D. 600 to 700 A. D. 468 B. C. 625 to 606 B. C. 134 B. C. 274 to 744 A. D. 331 B. C. After 600 A. D. 79 A. D. 218 B. C. 109 B. C. 130 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS LOST CITIES — Continued Founded Desteoted OlTIES By Whom Date How By Whom Date Seleucua I. 283 B. C; by Antiochus 214 B. C; by the Romans 190 B. C; destroyed by an earthquake 14-37 A.D. under Tiberius, who rebuilt it; cap- tured by the Turks in the Eleventh Greeks 499 B. C. Century: destroyed by Tamerlane 1402 A. b War and and and Earthquake. Tamerlane. 1402 A. D. Sodom and Gomorrah* cities of Pales- tine; destroyed, according to the bibli- cal account, by fire from heaven 1897 B. C Fire. 1897 B. C. Susa» in Persia: mentioned on monu- ments 660 B. C. ; captured by Alexan- der III. 331 B. C; by Antigonus 315 B. C; by the Arabs 652 A. D.: after that it decayed: ruins were discovered by Williams and Loftus 1853 A. D After Decay. 652 A. D. Sybarls, in Greece; destroyed by the Crotoniats 510 B. C. by turning the course of the River Crathis Archaeaus.. 720 B. C. War. Crotoniats. 510 B. C. Thebes, or Luxor, in Egypt; flourished from 1600-800 B. C; captured by the Persians 525 B. C. ; destroyed by Ptolemy. Ptolemy Lathyrus 86 B. C Menes. 2717 B. C. War. Lathyrus. 86 B. C. Troy, or lUum, in Asia Minor; destroyed by the Greeks about 1184 B. C; Dr. Schliemann discovered ruins, 1872 A. D. ; which he considers ancient Troy, War. Greeks. 1184 B. C. Tyre, in Asia Minor; destroyed by Neb- tured by Alexander III. 332 B. C; by Antigonus 315 B. C. ; by Antiochus III. 218 B.C.: by the Crusaders 1128 A.D.; by Chalid 1291 A. D.; destroyed by the Turks 1516 A. D Nebuchad- 572 B. C. About nezzar and and 2750 B. C. War. Turks. 1516 A. D. Veil, in Italy; destroyed by the Romans afte&ten years' siege 396 B. C, War. Romans. 396 A. D. Louisiana. In 1541, De Soto discovered the Mississippi and in 1682 La Salle voyaged down this river to its mouth, naming the country Louisiana and taking possession of it in the name of the King of France. In 1716, Bienville estab- lished Fort Rosalie in the Natchez country and in 1718 founded New Orleans. In 1717, the Mississippi Company was formed by John Law for colonization purposes, and in 1732 resigned its claim to the territory, and Louisiana became a royal province. In 1733, the first settlement was made at Baton Rouge. In 1750, the culti- vation of cotton was begun in the territory. In 1755, Louisiana received a large increase in population from the Acadians, who were driven from their homes in Canada. By a secret treaty in 1762, France ceded Louisiana to Spain, and in 1768 the French drove the first Spanish Gov- ernor, Don Antonio de Ulloa, from the colony. In 1800, Louisiana was ceded to Napoleon by Spain, and in 1803, on April 30th, was purchased from France by the United States for 60,000,000 francs. In 1806 and 1807, Aaron Burr's scheme to set up an independent nation in the Mississippi Valley caused much disturbance in New Orleans, and in 1810 residents of eastern Louisiana formed the Republic of West Florida in an attempt to overthrow the Spanish Government there. The district was taken under the con- trol of the United States and made part of Louisiana during the same year after some trouble. In 1812, Louisiana was admitted to the Union as a State, with boundaries as they are now. That same year the first steam vessels on the Mississippi arrived from Pittsburg. The battle of New Orleans between the British and Ameri- cans was fought January 8, 1815, and it was the last battle of the War of 1812. During the period from 1815 to 1860 there was contmual industrial activity and Louisiana soon became one of the leading agricultural States. In 1850, Baton Rouge became the seat of State govern- ment. On January 26, 1861, Louisiana passed the Ordinance of Secession. The first gun cast for the Confederate navy was made at Gretna, near New Orleans. Port Hudson; the last Con- federate stronghold on the Mississippi, was cap- tured by General Banks July 8, 1863, and on May 26, 1865, the war in Louisiana was ended by the surrender of General Kirby Smith. From 1865 to 1874 a period of carpetbag government caused many disturbances, and on September 14, 1874, it was overthrown and a representative government established. In 1884, the Industrial Cotton Exhibition was opened at New Orleans, celebrating the centennial of the first exporta- tion of cotton from the United States. In 1890, Chief of Police David C. Hennessy, of New Or- leans, was killed by an Italian criminal. In 1891, an organized band of citizens killed eleven Italian prisoners in the parish prison at New Orleans. Lundy's Lane, a locality in the province of Ontario, near the Falls of Niagara. Here, July 25, 1814, an obstinate and decisive en- gagement was fought between an American force, numbering 3,000 men, under General Brown, and a body of about 2,000 British troops commanded by General Drummond. The loss HISTORY 131 of the Americans was 743 men; that of the Brit- ish 878 men. Liiitzen, a small town in the Prussian prov- ince of Saxony, famous for two great battles fought in its vicinity. The first, a brilliant victory of the Swedes in the Thirty Years' War, took place November 16, 1632. The battle on May 2, 1813, was fought somewhat farther to the south, at the village of Grosgoschen. It was the first great conflict of the united Russian and Prussian army with the army of Napoleon in that decisive campaign, and the French were left in possession of the field. Maine. Various but unsuccessful attempts at colonization ' in Mame were made between the years 1602 and 1620 by both the French and English. In 1620, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, as head of the Plymouth Company, received a patent of all the region between 40° and 48° north latitude. In consequence of disputes afterward with the Massachusetts Colony, the company was dissolved, and in 1639 Gorges received a formal charter of the region between the Piscataqua and Kennebec, under the title of Maine. Internecine quarrels between the different settlements, on points of jurisdiction, caused the Massachusetts Colony in 1651 to set up a claim to the province under her charter, and parliament sanctioned it. In 1677, all claims of other grantees were puioLased. From this tmie the history of the province was prac- tically merged in that of Massachusetts. The final separation occurred in 1820, when Maine was admitted to the Union, being the tenth under the constitution. In 1842, the boundary dispute between Maine and Great Britain was settled. The "Maine Liquor Law" was passed in 1851. It was repealed in 1856 and passed again in 1858, being made a part of the Consti- tution in 1884. The death penalty was abol- ished in 1876, restored in 1883, and again abol- ished in 1887. The growth of the wood-pulp and paper-mill industry began about 1880, and in ,1890 there was a rapid development of the lumber, granite, ice, and fishery trades. In 1879-80 occurred a notable contest for the governorship between the Republicans and Fusionists. Mamelukes (mdm'a-lookz). Originally, male slaves imported from Circassia into Egypt by the rulers of that country. They were in- structed in military exercises, but soon exhibited a spirit of insubordination, assassinating the Sultan, Turan Shah, and, in 1258, appointing Ibegh, one of their own number. Sultan of Egypt. They were at length conquered by Selim I., and Cairo, their capital, was taken by storm, after they governed Egypt 263 years. During the French invasion of Egypt by Napo- leon I., the Mamelukes formed a fine body of cavalry, and for a time seriously annoyed the invaders, though many afterwards joined them. In 1811; Mehemet Ali annihilated their power by treacherously inveigling and destroying 470 of their chief leaders. Manila Bay, Battle of. A remarkable engagement between the American Asiatic squadron, under command of Commodore George Dewey, and a Spanish naval force, under com- mand of Admiral Montojo, supported by land batteries, fought on May 1, 1898. When it became evident, in March, 1898, that war be- tween the United States and Spain was inevit- able. Commodore Dewey began to mobilize his vessels in the harbor of Hong Kong preparatory to striking a blow at the Philippine Islands on the breaking out of hostilities. By April 1st, he had gathered there his flagship, the "Olym- pia," a steel protected cruiser; the "Boston," a partially protected steel cruiser; the "Raleigh," protected steel cruiser; the "Concord," steel gunboat; and the "Petrel," steel gunboat. Toward the close of the month, the "Baltimore," a steel protected cruiser, the " Hugh McCulloch," revenue cutter, and two newly-purchased ships loaded with coal and other supplies, joined the fleet. Lying in Manila Bay, one of the largest and most important in the world, was a Spanish squadron, comprising, the "Reina Christina," steel cruiser; "Castilla," wood cruiser; "Ve- lasco," iron cruiser; "Don Antonio de Ulloa," iron cruiser; "Don Juan de Austria," iron cruiser; "Isia de Cuba," steel protected cruiser; "Isla de Luzon," steel protected cruiser; "Gen- eral Lezo," gunboat; "El Cano," gunboat; "Isla de Mindanao," auxiliary cruiser; "Mar- ques del Duero"; and two torpedo boats. It was supposed that the harbor had been planted with mines and torpedoes and supplied with numerous searchlights, and that the forts on the shore had been strengthened in anticipation of an attack. The United States squadron entered the bay on the night of April 30th, and at 5 o'clock on Sunday morning. May 1st, opened fire on the Spanish squadron and the forts. Two engage- ments were fought, and during the brief interval the United States squadron drew off to the east side of the bay to enable officers and men to get their breakfast. The entire battle lasted less than two hours. 'The Spanish flagship, "Reina Christina," was completely burned; the "Castilla" suffered the same fate; the "Don Juan de Austria " was blown up by a shell from one of the United States vessels; one or more ships were burned; and the entire Spanish fleet was destroyed. After his second attack, in which he destroyed the water battery at Cavite, Commodore Dewey anchored off the city of Manila and sent word to the governor-general that if a shot was fired from the city at the fleet, he would lay Manila in ashes. The Spanish loss was about 2,000 officers and men. The United States squadron did not lose a ship or a man. Two vessels were damaged in their upper works, and eight men were variously injured. Maryland. One of the tlurteen original States, it was named after the mother of Charles II. The State was settled by Lord Baltimore in 1632, under a grant from Charles I. Puritan and Virginian colonies disputed the authority of the proprietary governors, and it was not till 1714, after many broils and considerable blood- shed, extending over three-quarters of a century, that the rights of the Calvert family were finally settled. In 1649, the Assembly passed an act allowing Christians of all sects the public exer- cise of their faith. Baltimore was founded in 1730. The Virginia boundary was adjusted in 1668, that of Delaware and Pennsylvania, 132 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS known in our history as "Mason and Dixon's lane," in 1763. A republican constitution was adopted in 1776. Tne "Maryland Line" was famous in the Revolutionary War for its gal- lantry. The Federal Constitution was adopted in 1788. In the War of 1812, Maryland suffered much from Admiral Cockburn's fleet; French- town, Havre de Grace, and Frederick were burned, and Fort McHenry unsuccessfully bom- barded. The only important battle fought within the State during the late Civil War was that of Antietam, in September, 1862. Mason and Dixon's Line. This Une was originally the parallel of latitude 39 degrees, 43 minutes, 26.3 seconds which separates Penn- sylvania from Maryland. It received its name from Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English mathematicians and astronomers, who traced the greater part of it between the years 1763 and 1767, though the last thirty-six miles were finished by others. It was practically the dividing Hne between the free and the slave States in the East. During the discussion in Congress on the Missouri Compromise, John Randolph, of Roanoke, Virginia, made free use of the phrase, and thereafter it Isecame popular as signifying the dividing line between the free and slave territories throughout the country. The boundary, as thus extended by popular usage, followed the Ohio River to the Mississippi, and west of that was the parallel of 36 degrees, 30 minutes, the southern boundary of Missouri, though Missouri itself was a slave State. Massachusetts was one of the thirteen original States. Though first visited by the English under Bartholomew Gosnold in 1602, the first permanent settlement was made by the Puritan colony, which landed from the "May- flower" at Plymouth in 1620. The expedition commanded by John Endicott, which arrived in 1628, acting under the auspices of the Massa- chusetts Bay Company, which had received a royal charter, gradually planted settlements at Charlestown, Boston, Watertown, Dorchester, Roxbury, Salem, Mystic, Saugus (Lynn), and other places. The restoration of the Stuarts threatened the rights of the colonists, but their charter was finally confirmed in 1662. King PhiHp's War occurred in 1675-76, and put the colonists in great peril. In 1684, the Massachu- setts charter was declared forfeited to the Crown under Charles II., but it was restored after the accession of WiUiam and Mary. In 1692, the colonies of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth were consolidated. The province took active part in the various French and Indian wars, and contributed largely to the expedition which cap- tured Louisburg in 1745. The Boston Massacre m 1770, the destruction of the tea in 1773, and the Port Bill in 1774 were important incidents pre- ceding the Revolution. At Lexington and Con- cord, in 1775, Massachusetts made the final appeal to arms. At this time the population of the province was 362,000. The State Constitu- tion, still, essentially the organic law, was formed in 1780, and the Federal Constitution was rati- fied in 1788. The total ejcpenditures of the State on account of the late Civil War amounted to $30,162,200. Mecklenburg Declaration. This dec- laration was adopted, it is said, in May, 1775, at a midnight meeting of representatives of the miUtia of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. It declares that the people of that county are free and independent of the British Crown, and not only is its general tenor that of the Declarar tion of Independence, but many phrases are word for word as they appear in that document. The minutes of the midnight meeting are said to have been destroyed by fire in 1800. Whether the Declaration of Independence followed the words of the Mecklenburg Declaration or whether the latter, having prohabljr been replaced from memory, was tinctured with the former, is a disputed question. Mexico. The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two distinct and widely different peri- ods — that of the Toltecs and that of the Aztecs. The Eighth Century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related to have come from the North. Their capital was estabhshed at Tula, north of the Mexican Valley. Their laws and usages stamp them as a people of mild and peaceful instincts, industrious, active, and enter- prising. It is related that a severe famine and pestilence all but destroyed the Toltec people in the Eleventh Century, and near the end of the next century, a fresh migration brought, among other kindred nations, the Aztecs into the land. Within two centuries and a half this last people had become predominant. But their rule was in a great degree, a reversion to savagery. The Aztecs founded, about 1325, the city of Tenochtitlan, or Mexico; a hundred years later they had extended their sway beyond their plateau valley, and on the arrival of the Span- iards, their empire was found to stretch from ocean to ocean. Their government was an elective empire, the deceased prince being usually succeeded by a brother or nephew, who must be a tried warrior; but sometimes the successor was chosen from among the powerful i nobles. The monarch wielded despotic power, save in the case of his great feudal vassals; these exercised a very similar authority over the peasant class, below whom, again, were the slaves. The Mexicans apparently believed in one supreme invisible creator of all things, the ruler of the universe; but the popular faith was polytheistic. At the head of the Aztec pantheon was the frightful Huitzilopochtli, the Mexican Mars. The victims were borne to the summit of the great pyramidal temples, where the priests, in sight of assembled crowds, bound them to the sacrificial stone, and, slashing open the breast, tore from it the bleeding heart and held it up before the image of the god. Cortez landed at Vera Cruz in 1519. Before his energy, and the superior civilization of his followers, the power of the native empire crum- bled away. In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories — at one time all the country from Panama to Vancouver's Island — under the name of New Spain, and governed by viceroys appointed by the mother country. The intolerant spirit of the Catholic clergy led to the suppression of almost every trace of the ancient Aztec nationality and civilization, while the commercial system crippled the resources of the colony; for all foreign trade with any ooun- HISTORY 133 tiy other than Spain waa prohibited on pain of death. Mexieo ranked first among all the Spanish colonies in regard to population, mate- rial riches, and natural products. In 1810 the discontent broke into open rebellion, and a guerilla warfare was kept up until, in 1821, the capital was surrendered by O'Donoju, the last of the viceroys. In the following year. General Iturbide, who, in 1821, had issued the plan de Iguala, providing for the independence of Mexico under a prince of the reigning houses, had him- self proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa Ana raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a pension. Returning the following year he was taken and shot, and the federal repubhc of Mexico was finally established. For more than half a century after this the history of Mexico is a record of disorder and civil war. In 1836 Texas secured its independ- ence, recognized by Mexico in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States; but its western boundary was not settled, and war ensued between Mexico and the United States. From the fall of Santa Ana in 1855, down to 1867, great confusion prevailed. In April, 1862, Emperor Napoleon formally de- clared war against Mexico; but the French finally had to withdraw in 1867, largely because of the attitude of the United States. Maximilian, who had become Emperor of Mexico under French support, was executed in the same year, and Juarez returned to power. On his death in 1872, the chief justice, Lerdo de Tejada, assumed the presidency, in which he was succeeded in 1877 by General Porfirio Diaz, one of the ablest of Mexican soldiers and administrators. In 1910, a rebellion was started under Madero, but Diaz immediately took steps to suppress it. In 1911 Diaz was forced to resign; Francisco I. Madero was made president. In 1912 Fehx Diaz led an insurrection against Madero, who was assassinated February 24, 1913. Huerta became acting president. A revolt against the Huerta government by the Constitutionalists, followers of Madero, resulted in the appointment of Carranza as their commander-in-chief. Insur- rections prevailed. The United States decMned to recognize Huerta. On April 9, 1914, a party of American blue- jackets landed at Tampico for gasoline. They were arrested by Mexican troops, but released with an apology. Rear-admiral Mayo demanded a salute to the American flag which was refused. The United States navy was ordered to Tampico to enforce the demand. 1,000 marines were landed at Vera Cruz. On April 21 the customs house was seized by order of President Wilson. 3,000 additional troops took the city on AprU 22. On May 20, delegates of the so-called A-B-C powers — ^Argentina, Brazil, Chile — met at Niag- ara Falls, Canada, to arrange peaceful settlement of trouble between United States and Mexico. The conference ended .My 1 without positive results. Huerta resigned in July, 1915, and left the coimtry; Carbajal became provisional president. The ConstitutionaUsts under Carranza occupied Mexico City in August; Villa, leading general of the ConstitutionaUsts, arose against Carranza, now provisional president, but was defeated. In October, 1915, Carranza was formally recog- nized as chief executive by the United States and other governments, and, in 1917, was elected president of Mexico by a great majority. Michigan. The name is derived from Indian words, meaning "a weir of fish." Though visited as early as 1610 by French missionaries and fur-traders, the first European settlement was made at Sault Ste. Marie by Father Mar- quette in 1668. Fort MichiUmackinac, now Mackinaw, was established three years later. In 1701 Antoine Cadillac founded Detroit. With other French possessions it came into the owner- ship of England in 1763. Michigan came into the possession of the United States in 1796, when it was included in the government of the North- west Territory. The Territory of Michigan was formed in 1805. In 1837 Michigan was admitted as a state. In 1916 Prohibition was adopted by constitutional amendment. In 1918 full suffrage was granted to women. Minnesota. The name is derived from an Indian word, signifying "cloudy water." Hennepin and La Salle visited the region as early as 1680. Extended explorations were made by John Carver in 1766 and by Lieut. Pike in 1805, after which explorers and settlers followed in considerable numbers. Fort SneUing, at the mouth of the Minnesota River, was built and occupied in 1821. In 1837 lumbering industries began to attract immigration. The Territory estabhshed in 1849 embraced about twice the limits of the present State, the western Umit extending to the Missouri and White Earth rivers. In 1851, the Sioux ceded all their lands west of the Mississippi to the Big Sioux River. The State was admitted to the Union May 11, 1858. The portion of the State lying west of the Mississippi originally belonged to the Louis- iana Purchase, and the eastern portion was a part of what was known as the "Northwest Territory." It was the scene of the Sioux War and massacre in 1862-63. Mississippi. This region was first trav- ersed by De Soto in 1542, and in 1682 La SaUe descended the Mississippi (the name derived from Indian words meaning "great water"), took formal possession, and called the adjacent cotmtry Louisiana. Iberville built a fort on the Bay of Biloxi in 1699, and in 1716 Fort Rosahe was erected on the site of Natchez. After the cession of the east portion of Louisiana (includ- ing what is now Mississippi) to Great Britain, in 1763, and until the Revolutionary War, immi- gration proceeded very slowly. The Territory of Mississippi was organized in 1798. In 1804 the boimdaries were enlarged, and Mississippi was made to comprise the whole of the present States of Alabama and Mississippi north of the 31st parallel. The region south of that line between the Pearl and Perdido rivers was added in 1812, though claimed by Spain. Alabama was organized as a Territory in 1817, and Mississippi was admitted as a State. The ordi- nance of secession was passed January 9, 1861. The principal events within the State during the war of 1861-65 were the battles of luka and Corinth and the siege of Vicksburg, which sur- 134 THE STANDARD DICTIONAHY OF FACTS rendered on July 4, 1863. The State was form- ally readmitted to the Union in 1870. On Jan- uary 29, 1903, the Yazoo Canal was opened, restoring to Vicksburg the water front it lost during 1876, when the Federal Government attempted to dredge a canal, tapping the Yazoo River. A Prohibition statute was enacted in 1908 which took effect in 1904. Missouri. The name of the State signifies "big muddy." The settlement and progress of Missouri were at first slower than in the lower portions of French Louisiana. Its oldest town, Ste. Genevieve, was founded in 1755. In 1763, France ceded to Spain the portion west of the Mississippi, and to England the section east of the river. Numbers of French Canadians had settled along the whole line of the river, and an active trade had been carried on between upper and lower Louisiana. With liberal grants of lands to colonists, immigrants flocked hither from Spain. In 1775, St. Louis, originally a depot of the fur-trade, contained 800 inhabitants, while Ste. Genevieve had only 460. Spain sided with the colonists during the Revolution, and her arms were successful in lower Louisiana and Florida. In 1780, however, St. Louis was. at- tacked by a force of EngUsh and Indians from MichiUmackinac, and was relieved only by the arrival of General Clarke from Kaskaskia with American assistance. With the retrocession of Louisiana to France in 1800, and its subsequent sale to the United States by Napoleon three years later, its political ownership became fixed. Missouri was included in the Territory of Louis- iana^ which had been set ^ in 1805, with St. Loms as the seat of territorial government. In 1812, with the admission of the present State of Louisiana into the Union, the name of the Territory was changed to Missouri. With rapid ' immigration the population had swelled in 1817 to 60,000. In 1820, by the celebrated compro- mise, Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slaveholding State, on condition that slavery should never exist north of latitude 36° 30', in lands farther west, out of which new States should be formed. During the late Civil War repeated efforts were made to force secession on Missouri, but unsuccessfully. Though no great battles were fought within the State limits, it was the field of active mihtary operations and, in many sections, of bloody guerilla-fighting. The battle of Wilson's Creek, on August 10, 1861, where General Lyon, the Federal com- mander, was killed, and the capture of Lexing- ton by the Confederate general, Sterling Price, on September 20, 1861, were the most important events of the first year of the conflict. Several times General Price held more than half the State in his hands, and it was not tiU 1864 that the Confederates were finally expelled. In June, 1865, a new constitution was ratified by the people. The fifteenth amendment to the Fed- eral Constitution was adopted by the legislature in 1869. Missouri was the eleventh State admitted under the Federal Constitution. Montana. In 1743, ChevaUer de la Veren- drye, with a party of French Canadians, entered Montana and discovered the Rocky Mountains, but made no attempt at settlement. The coun- try came into the possession of the United States by the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1804 and 1806, Lewis and Clark made exploring expe- ditions up the Missouri and across the mountains to the Pacific, crossing Montana twice. Alex- ander Henry, in 1808, led a party of fur-traders into the Yellowstone country, and in 1806-1810, John Colter, of Lewis and Clark's expedition, engaged in hunting and trapping in the territory. Fort Union, the first permanent fort in Montana, was built in 1829 by Keimeth Mackenzie, and in 1832 the first steamer ascended the Missouri into Montana. Fort Benton was built in 1846 by Alexander Culbertson. In 1853-54, Mon- tana was explored by a scientific and military, expedition sent out by Governor Isaac J. Stevens, of Washington. Territory. The Gold Creek mines were discovered in 1862, and in the same year the development of the mines of Beaver- head Valley and Bighole River began. In 1864, Montana was organized as a Territory and Helena and Butte City were founded. From 1864 to 1879 there was war with the Sioux, Blackfeet, and Cheyennes. In 1874, Helena was made territorial capital. The battle of Little Big Horn, when General Custer and his men were massacred, occurred in 1876. In 1881, the first railroad reached Helena, and in 1883 the second was completed. In 1889, Montana was admitted as a State. The Montana State Uni- versity was opened at Missoula in 1895. Mon- tana granted suffrage to women in 1914 and adopted constitutional Prohibition in 1916. Nebraslca. The name first applied to the river is of Indian origin, and signifies "Shallow Water." When originally organized as a Ter- ritory in 1854, it extended from latitude 40° north to the northern national boundary and west to the crest of the Rocky Mountains. The Territory of Colorado was set off from this on February 28, 1861, and that of Dakota a few months later. At the same time Nebraska re- ceived from Utah and Washington Territories a tract of 15,378 square miles, lying on the south- west slope of the Rocky Mountains, which, how- everj was taken from her with an additional portion in 1863 to form the Territory of Idaho. Nebraska was thus cut down to its present limits. Measures to form a State government were made in 1860 and in 1864, but the first was defeated by the popular vote, and the second (being an enabling act of Congress) was not acted on. The Civil War and Indian hostilities checked the growth of the Territory during 1861- 65. In 1866, a constitution was framed and ratified by popular vote, and in 1867 Nebraska was admitted as a State. Constitutional Prohi- bition was adopted in 1916. Nevada. The region within the limits of Nevada forms part of the Mexican cession of 1848. It was organized by act of Congress as a Territory in 1861, from a portion of Utah, and embraced the region bounded north by the pres- ent boundary of the State, east by the 116th meridian, south by the 37th parallel, and west by CaUfomia. A portion of California which had been included the latter-named State re- fused to transfer, and by an additional act of Congress, in 1861, a further portion of Utah was added, extending the east 'boundary the distance of one degree. Nevada became a HISTORY 135 State October 31, 1864. In 1866, a third portion of Utah was added, extending the east boundary to the 114th meridian, and at the same time the portion of the State South of the 37th paraUel was added from Arizona. The earliest settlements were made by the Mormons in 1848. Gold was discovered in 1849; but the rapid advance in population dates from the discovery of silver in 1859. Among the earUest discover- ies was that of the world-renowned Comstock lode. In 1906-07 rich discoveries of gold were made at Goldfield and other points. The State was the twenty-fifth admitted imder the Consti- tution. Suffrage was granted to women in 1914. "Sew Hampshire. One of the thirteen original States. The first settlements were made within the limits of New Hampshire at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. The district was annexed to Massachusetts in 1641, became a royal province in 1679, and was again annexed to Massachusetts in 1689. It became a separate province in 1741 and remained so till the Revo- lution. Indian atrocities were frequent till the English conquered Canada. It was supposed till 1764 that the present State of Vermont was included in the province. The territory, how- ever, was claimed by New York; the contro- versy lasted" till the independence of Vermont was acknowledged in 1790. In 1776, New Hamp- shire declared its independence and estabUshed a temporary government of its own.- It took an active part in the Revolutionary War, and the battle of Bennington was fought within its limits. The Constitution of the tlnited States was ratified in 1788. During the Civil War New Hampshire furnished 34,606 men to the Union cause. Ne-w Jersey. The State of New Jersey, one of the thirteen original States, was originally a part of New York, and was first settled about 1617 by the Dutch. A patent granted by Charles II. of England, to his brother, the Duke of York, in 1664, gave the latter a claim on all the country between the Delaware and Con- necticut rivers. An expedition under Colonel NicoUs conquered the whole territory. The portion of the province now named New Jersey received its name from Sir George Carteret, to whom the Duke of York had sold his claim, in memory of the Island of Jersey of which the former had been governor. • A constitution was formed for it in 1665 as a separate colony. In 1776, a State constitution was formed, and dur- ing the Revolution the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Millstone, Red Bank, a,nd Monmouth were fought within the State limits. The Fed- eral Constitution was ratified December 18, 1787, the State capital estabUshed at Trenton in 1790, and the present constitution August 13, 1844. The State furnished 79,511 fully equipped troops to the Union army and navy during the Civil War. New Mexico. The earhest explorers of New Mexico were Spaniards who long held possession of the region. Though one of the most recently settled portions of the Union, it was among the earhest to be occupied by the white man, and Santa F6, originally an Indian pueblo, claims the title of the oldest town in the country. When the Spaniards first visited this region, they found a people living in communities with substantial dwelhngs, and marking the decay of a civilization which had flourished in previous centuries. In 1822 the people of New Mexico, together with other inhabitants of Mexico, of which it then formed a part, threw off the Spanish yoke. In 1846 United States troops under Gen. Stephen Kearney occupied New Mexico, which was surrendered by Mexico in the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. It then included the greater part of the present Arizona and part of Nevada and of Colorado. The territorial government was organized in 1850 and inaugurated in 1851. In 1853 a large strip was added by the Gadsden Purchase. Arizona was set off in 1863, and in 1867 a section was annexed to Colorado. New Mexico became a state on January 6, 1912, the 47th State to be admitted to the Union. New Yorlt. The Bay of New York and the river emptying into it were explored by Hendrik Hudson, a navigator in the employ- ment of the Dutch East India Company, m September, 1609. In 1614, the Dutch made settlements on Manhattan Island, and the name New Netherland was extended to all the uncon- quered regions lying between Virginia and Can- ada. Seven years later the Dutch West India Company was incorporated and took possession. In 1623, settlements were made at Albany and on Long Island, and in 1626, Peter Minuit, the Director-General, bought Manhattan Island of the Indians, n In 1629, the company passed the act under which the manorial monopolies in land were estabHshed. In spite of Indian wars the colony grew so fast that it came in collision with the English on the Connecticut and the Swedes on the Delaware River. The claims made by the English to New Netherland on the score of Cabot's prior discovery were finally enforced in the charter granted by Charles II. to the Duke of York, and the armed expedition of Colonel Nicolls in 1664. The Dutch under Governor Stuyvesant surrendered, and New Netherland became New York, though the Dutch reconquered and held the province for a short period, before Enghsh rule became permanent. The tyranny exercised over the province by Francis Nicholson, the lieutenant of Andros, who had been appointed to be governor, caused the revolt in 1689 headed by Jacob Leisler, which was at first successful, though Leisler was two years later executed for treason. In 1687 began the series of French and Indian wars in wmch the New York colonists bore so important a part. The first of these closed in 1697, with the Peace of Ryswick. The second, or Queen Anne's War, lasted from 1702 to 1713. The most important act in this long conflict between the French and English for the sovereignty of North America, and the end of the historic drama, began in 1754. The contest lasted with varying fortunes until the French were finally driven from their line of fortresses on the lake and the war was ended by General Wolfe's expe- dition, which resulted in the capture of Quebec and the final overthrow of French power in Canada in 1759. The province of New York entered zealously into the Revolutionary cause, 136 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS though it contained a large loyalist faction. Many of the most important military operations were conducted within its limits. The two lead- ing battles fought were that of Long Island on August 27, 1776, whereby the British secured New York City and held it tiU the end of the war; and the battle of Saratoga, on October 17, 1777, which occasioned the surrender of General Burgoyne's army. On November 25, 1783, New York was evacuated by the British. In 1790, the conflicting claims of New York and New Hampshire were settled by the erection of the disputed territory into the State of Vermont. In 1797, Albany was made the capital of the State, and slavery was abolished in 1817. Dur- ing the War of 1812 the most notable incidents within New York State were the battle of Lundy's Lane, on the Niagara frontier, fought by General Winfield Scott, and Commodore McDonough's naval defeat of the British on Lake Champlain, both in 1813. The Erie Canal, originally pro- jected in 1800, was, through DeWitt Clinton's influence, completed in 1825. During the Civil War, the State furnished 455,568 Union troops. In 1917 by a majority vote of 102,358 a consti- tutional amendment was adopted granting fuU suffrage to women. Normandy. An ancient northwest prov- ince of France, extending along the English channel, from a point south of the mouth of the Somme to the bay of Cancale, now divided into the departments of Seine-Inf^rieure, Eure, Cal- vados, Ome, and La Manche. The Romans in- cluded the territory in Gallia Lugdunensis Secunda. It received the name of Normandy from the Northmen, who occupied it in the beginning of the Tenth Century. In 912, Charles the Simple gave his sanction to their conquests, and RoUo, their chief, received the title of Duke of Normandy. The sixth successor of RoUo, WiUiam, became in 1066 the conqueror and first Norman king of England. On his death (1087) England and Normandy were separated, the latter reverting to Robert Coiu'teheuse, while WiUiam Ruf us seized upon the former. Henry I. ruled over both, but his daughter Matilda was only Duchess of Normandy. Her son, Henry II., accompHshed another reunion. • From King John Normandy was wrested by Philip Augustus of France; but it was twice held by the EngUsh, first under Edward III., and a second time, from 1417 to 1450, under Henry V. and Henry VI. Charles VII. of France made it an integral portion of his kingdom. North Carolina. In 1663 eight noble- men received from Charles II. the patent of the province of Garohna, but a few years prior to this settlements had been made by Dissenters from Virginia and from New England. Albemarle, the name given to the portion now North Carolina, was rapidly augmented by settlers from Virginia, New England, and Bermuda. In 1729, Carolina became a royal government, all but one of the proprietors having sold out to the Crown, and North and South Carolina were formally declared distinct provinces. In 1765, North Carolina received large accessions in parties of Irish Presbyterians, Scotch High- landers, and Moravians. In 1769, the Provincial Afisembly declared against the right of taxation without representation, and in 1774 represen- tatives were sent to the first Continent^ Con- gress, which adopted the declaration of colonial rights. In the revolution North Carolina was a leader and its territory was a scene of some important campaigns. In 1776, it united with the other colonies in the Declaration of Inde- pendence, and a State constitution was formed the same year. Aside from partisan warfare, the only battle fought in the State was that of Guilford Court House in 1781, between Generals Greene and Cornwallis. The State seceded ^rom the Union May 21, 1861, and the military operations which followed were notable. The most important were the capture of Fort Hatteras in 1861, of Roanoke Island and Fort Macon in 1862, and of Fort Fisher in 1865. The State ratified the 14th Amendment in 1868, and the 15th Amendment in 1869. Statutory Prohi- bition was adopted by a referendum vote in 1908. North Dakota. The Territory of North Dakota, of which North and South Dakota were formed, originally constituted part of the Territory of Minnesota, which was organized in 1849 from part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. la 1854 the Territory of Nebraska was formed, comprising then the present State of Nebraska and all of Dakota. On M^rch 2, 1861, the Territory of Dakota was organized, com- prising then the States of Montana and Wyo- ming. The first permanent settlements by whites were made in 1859 in Clay, Union, and Yankton counties. On November 2, 1889, the Territory was divided and the States of North and South Dakota formed and admitted to the Union at the same time. The history of the settlement and growth of the country is identical with that of the territories of which it originally formed a part. Constitutional Prohibition adopted in 1889. North German Confederation, The, was formed after the famous "Seven Weeks' War " and the " Peace of Prague," wheit Austria was entirely excluded from Germany. The confederation included Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau and Frankfort (all incorporated with Prussia), and the states north of the Main united to Prussia in a bund. Strictly speaking, there- fore, the confederation was Prussia and the states north of the Main. In 1870, during the Franco- German War, the "North German Confedera- tion," being joined by Bavaria, Wilrttemberg, Baden, and Hesse - Darmstadt, became the "German Confederation," and two months afterwards (January 18, 1871), the King of Prussia had the title of "German Emperor" given him. Northmen. A name applied to the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia, or Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, but more generally restricted to those searovers, called Danes by the Saxons, who sailed on piratical expeditions to all parts of the European seas, made their first appear- ance on the coast of England in 787, and from the year 832 repeated their invasion almost every year, till they became masters of all the country under their King Canute, and reigned in England during the next fifty years, down to 1042, when the Saxon Dynasty was restored in the person of Edward the Confessor. In 885, they laid siege to Paris, but were at length HISTORY 137 bought off by Charles the Fat. Rollo, one of the most renowned of the Norman chieftains, after ravaging Friesland and the countries watered by the Scheldt, accepted the hand of a daughter of Charles the Simple, and received with her, under the tie of vassalage, possession of all the land in the valley of the Seine, from the Epte and Eure to the sea, which then went by the name of Normandy. They rapidly adopted the more civiUzed form of hfe that pre- vailed in the Frankish Kingdom — its religion, language, and manners — but inspired every- thing they borrowed with their own vitality. Their conquest of England, in 1066, gave that country an energetic race of kings and nobles on the whole well-fitted to rule a brave, sturdy, but somewhat torpid people Uke the Anglo- Saxons. Nonvay. The early history of Norway is comprised in that of the other Scandinavian countries, and is, hke theirs, for the most part fabulous. It is only towards the close of the Tenth Century, when Christianity was intro- duced under the rule of Olaf I., that the mythical obscurity in which the annals of the kingdom had been previously plunged begins to give place to the Hght of historical truth. The introduction of Christianity, which was the result of the intercourse which the Norwe- gians had with the more civilized parts of Europe, through their maritime expeditions, destroyed much of the old nationality of the people with the heathenism which they had hitherto cher- ished, although the sanguinary feuds which had raged among the rival chiefs of the land can scarcely be said to have lost their ferocity under the sway of a milder religion. Olaf II., or the Saint (1015-1030), who zealously prosecuted the conversion of his countrymen, raised himseK to supreme power in the land by the subjection of the small kings or chieftains, who in the times of heathenism had subdivided the kingdom among them. The war between Olaf and King Knud the Great of Denmark, which terminated in 1030 with the battle of Sticklestad, in which the former was slain, brought Norway under the sway of the Danish conqueror; but at his death in 1036, Olaf's son, Magnus I., recovered possession of the throne, and henceforth, tiU 1319, Norway continued to be governed by native kings. The death in that year of Haakon v., without male heirs, threw the election of a new king into the hands of the National Assem- bly, who, after many discussions, made choice of Magnus VIII. , of Sweden, the son of Haakon's daughter. He was in turn succeeded by his son Haakon and his grandson Olaf V., who having been elected King of Denmark in 1376 became ruler of the sister Scandinavian kingdoms on the death of his father in 1380. This young king, who exercised only a nominal sway under the guidance of his mother. Queen Margaret, the only child of Valdemar III. of Denmark, died without heirs in 1387. Margaret's love of power and capacity for government brought about her election to the triple throne of the Scandinavian lands, and from this period tiU 1814, Norway continued united with Denn^rk; but while it shared in the general fortunes of the latter state, it retained its own constitutional mode of gov- ernment, and exercised its ri^t of electing to the throne, until, hke the sister kingdom, It agreed of its own free will to relinquish this privilege in favor of hereditary succession to the throne. The Napoleonic crisis may be said to have severed this union, which had existed for more than 400 years; for Denmark, after having given unequivocal proofs of adhesion to the cause of Bonaparte, was compelled,* after the disastrous War of 1813, to purchase peace at the cost of this long united partner of her state. Crippled in her resources, and almost a bankrupt, she saw herseK constrained to sign the treaty of Kiel in 1814, by which it was stip- ulated by the aUied powers that she should resign Norway to Sweden, receiving in return, by way of indemnity, some portion of Swedish Pomerania and the island of Riigen, which were subsequently exchanged with Prussia for Lauen- burg on the payment by that state of two milSon rix dollars. The Norwegians, having refused to admit the validity of the treaty of Kiel, nominated Prince Christian, the heir-pre- sumptive to the throne of Denmark, regent and subsequently King, of Norway. This nomina- tion was made by the National Diet, or Storthing, which met at Ejdsvold, where they drew up a constitution based on the French Constitution of 1791. These measures found, however, neither supporters nor sympathizers among the other nations; and with the sanction of the great alUed powers, Charles John Bernadotte, Crown-Prince of Sweden, led an army into Norway, and, after taking Fredrikstad and Frederikshald, threatened Christiania. Den- mark being unable' to support the cause of Prince Christian, and Norway being utterly destitute of the means necessary for prosecuting a war, resistance was of no avail, and the Nor- wegians, in this untoward conjuncture of affairs, were glad to accept the proposals made to them by the Swedish King for & union with Sweden, on the understanding that they should retain the newly promulgated constitution, and enjoy fuU liberty and independence within their own boundaries. These conditions were agreed to, and strictly maintained, a few unimportant alterations in the constitution, necessitated by the altered conditions of the new union, being the only changes introduced in the machinery of government. Charles XIII. was delcared joint King of Sweden and Norway in 1818. After the union, Norway firmly resisted every attempt on the part of the Swedish monarchs to infringe upon the constitutional prerogatives of the nation; and during the reign of the first of the Bernadotte Dynasty, the relations be- tween him and his Norwegian subjects were marked by jealousy and distrust on both sides; but after his death the people generally became more contented and Norway continued to make rapid progress towards a state of political security and material prosperity far greater than it ever enjoyed under the Danish dominion. The dissolution of the union with Sweden which had endured since 1814, took place June 7, 1905, following a dispute between the two countries as to their diplomatic representation abroad. Prince Charles of Denmark became King, as Haakon VII. 138 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS NOTABLE WARS OF HISTORY Dates HiSTOEic Name Leading Battles Chief Leaders B C 1193-1184 743-669 504-469 595-586 448-447 357-346 431^04 334-331 343-290 264-146 200-146 112-106 90-88 88-63 73-71 58-51 50-31 A. D. 70 86-100 409-553 / 710-1492 1095-1291 1337-1453 1385-1389 1419-1436 1455-1485 1562-1598 1567-1609 1618-1648 Trojan War. Greeks capture Troy. Messenlan War. Sparta conquers Mesaenia. Per so- Grecian War. Greece suc- cessfully resists Persian invasion. Sacred Wars of Greece. Largely intestine, and without results. Peloponnesian War. Athens con- quered by Lacedsemonia. Greco-Perstan War. Greece con- quers Persia. Samnite War. Saninites. Punic Wars. Carthage. Romans conquer Romans destroy Greece sub- Romans con- Greco-Boman War. dued by Rome. Jugurthine War. quer Numidia. Roman Social War. Right of Ro- man citizenship granted the Socii. Mithrldatlc War. Mithridates, King of Parthia, defeated. Gladiatorial War. feated. Gallic War. Csesar. Gladiators de- Gauls conquered by Roman Km- Boman Civil -War, pire established. Jewlsh-Boman War. Jerusalem taken; temple destroyed. Daclan War. Country beyond Danube conquered. Barbarian Wars. Teutonic hordes capture Rome and ravage Italy. Saracen Conquests. The Saracens occupy Northern Africa and Spain; defeated in France. The Crusades. Christians capture Jerusalem and ports of Spain, but are finally repulsed. Hundred Tears' War. England lost all her possessions in France except Calais. Austro-Swiss War. Independence of Switzerland. Religious toleration Hussite .War. secured. Wars of the Boses. House of York supplants that of Lancaster on English throne.- French Civil War. Edict of Nantes, Protestant toleration. Spanlsh-Xetherlands War. In- dependence of the Netherlands achieved. Thirty Years' War. Religious free- dom secured. Siege of Troy. Marathon ; Thermopylffi ; Salamis; Platea; Mycale. Battles chiefly naval. Granicus; Issus; Arbela. Caudine Forks; Sentinum. Ticinus; Trebia; Thrasy- menus; Cannee; Metau- rus; Zama. Cynoscephalss; Pydna. Muthul; Cirta. Chseronea; Cabira. Petelia. Pharsalia; Thapsus; Mun- da; Fhilippi; Actium. Siege of Jerusalem. Sack of Rome. Xeres ; Tours ; Tarif a ; Gra- nada. Siege of Jerusalem; Acre. Cr6cy; Calais; Poitiers; Agincourt. Sempach; Nafels. Prague. St. Albans; Bloreheath; "Wakefield; Towton; Bar- net; Tewksbury. Dreux ; St.-Denis ; Jarnac ; Moncontour; Ivry. ZQtphen; Nieuport; vari- ous sieges and naval con- flicts. Dessau; Leipsic; Lech; Liit- zen; Normingen. Hector;- Agamemnon. Miltiades; Leonidas; Themis- tocles; Fausanius. Pericles; Alcibiades; Lysander, Alexander the Great;. Darius. Fabius Maximus ; Caius Pontius. Fabius; Scipio; Hannibal. Flaminius; jEmilius Paulua; Mummius; Perseus. Jugurtha; Metellus; Marius. Samnites; Marsians. LucuUus; Pompey; Sulla, Spartacus; Crassus. Cffisar. Cssar; Pompey; Brutus; Cas- sius; Antony; Augustus. Titus. Trajan. Alaric; Genseric; Attila. Husa; Tarik; Charles Martel; Cid Rodrigo. Godfrey of Bouillon; Conrad III.; Louis VII.; Fred- erick II.; Philip Augustus; Richard the Lion-Hearted; Louis IX.; Edward I.; Sala- din. Edward III. of England; Ed- ward the Black Prince; Henry V. of England; Joan of Arc. Arnold von Winkelried; Leo- pold 11. John Ziska; Sigismund. Richard, Duke of York; Ed- ward, Duke of York; Earl of "Warwick; Queen Margaret; Henry VI. Duke of Anjou; Henry IIL; Henry IV.; Cond6. William of Orange; Maurice of Nassau; Duke of Alva; Alex- ander Farnese; Duke of Par- ma. Gustavus Adolphus; Wallen- stein; Tilly; Turenne. HISTORY 139 NOTABLE WARS OF HISTORY— Continued Dates Historic Name Leading Battles Chief Leaders 1642-1652 1701-1714 1700-1709 1740-1748 1756-1763 1775-1783 1792-1799 1800-1815 1812-1815 1821-1828 1846-1847 1854-1856 1859 1861-1865 1866 1870 1877 1894-1895 1898 1899-1902 1904-1905 1911-1912 1912-1913 1914-1918 English Civil War. Englisli Com- monwealtii eatablished. Spanish Succession. French and Spanish crowns disunited. Prot- estant succession in England. Swedish-Russian War. Defeat of Charles XII. Austrian Succession. M^ny pre- vious treaties affirmed; Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria. Seven Years' War. Prussia gains a high rank. American Revolutionary War. United States achieve their inde- pendence. French Revolution. Bourbons de- feated. Napoleonic Wars. France ad- vances to the first place in Europe. War of 1813. United States en- tirely independent of Great Brit- ain. War for Greeli Independence. Greece independent of Turkey. Mexican War. Boundary between United States and Mexico fixed. Crimean War. Independence of Turkey guaranteed. Peace of Paris. Italian War. Papal States and two Sicilies annexed to Italy. American Civil War. Abolition of slavery. Seven Weeks* War. Prussia de- feats Austria and unifies Germany. Franco-Prussian War. Paris taken and Alsace and Lorraine added to German Empire. Russo-Turlcish War. Rumania, Servia, Montenegro, independent of Turkey. Treaty of Berlin. Chinese- Japanese War. Indem- nity to Japan; independence of Korea. Spanish-American War. End of Spanish rule in America; Cuba, Porto Rico, and Philippines pass to United States. . Boer War. Annexation of Trans- vaal and Orange river colony to British empire. Russo-Japanese War. Mutual concessions, confirmed by treaty of Portsmouth. Japan a world power. Turco-Itallan War. Tripoli ceded to Italy. Balkan War. Turkey loses much territory in Europe. War of the Nations, or The World War. Overthrow of Pan-Germanic scheme of world conquest. De- feat of militarism and autocracy. Downfall of the Hohenzollern and Habsburg dynasties. End of Turkish domination over non- Moslems. Triumph of democ- racy. Restoration of independ- ence to small nations. Estabfish- ment of new world order to se- cure international justice. Edgehill; Maraton Moor; Naseby; Worcester. Blenheim; RamiUies; Tu- rin; Oudenarde; Malpla- quet. Narva; Pultowa. Dettingen; Fontenoy; Pia- cenza; Lawfeld. Prague ; Kollin ; Rosbach ; Lissa; Torgau. Bunker Hill ; Saratoga ; Monmouth; Yorktown. Valmy; Jemappes; Wattig- nies; Lodi; Arcole. Marengo; Trafalgar; Aus- terlitz; Jena; Eylau; Friedland; Wagram; Bo- rodino; Leipsic; Waterloo. Battles chiefly naval; Burn- ing of Washington; New Orleans. Missolonghi; Navarino. Buena Vista; Cerro Gordo; Capture of Mexico City. Alma; Balaklava; Inker- man; Malakoff. Magenta; Solferino. Bull Run; Shiloh; Seven Days; Antietam; Mur- f reesboro ; Chancellors- ville; Vicksburg; Gettys- burg; Chickamauga; Chattanooga ; Atlanta ; Wilderness. Langensalza; Koniggratz or Sadowa. \W6rth; Gravelotte; Sedan; Metz; Capture of Paris. Shipka Pass; Kara Plevna. Occupation of Korea by Japanese; Port Arthur; Wei Hai Wei; Nieuchang. Manila Bay; Santiago; San Juan; El Caney. Kimberly ; Ladysmith ; Mafeking; Pretoria. Yalu; Telissu; Liaoyang; Sha-ho; Siege of Port Ar- thur; Mukden; Destruc- tion of Russian fleet. Benghazi; Derna; Tobruk; Hodeida. Scutari ; Saloniki ; Mon- aatir; Adrianople. Li^ge, Marne, Aisne, Tan- nenberg, Ypres, Falk- lands. Second Ypres, Dunajec, Loos, Gallipoli, Artois, Verdun, Jutland, Isonzo, Champagne, Somme, Vimy Ridge, Caporetto, Cambrai, Erzerum, Chateau- Thierry, Second Marne, St. Quentin, St. Mihiel, Argonne, Samaria, Piave, Cerna-Vardar. Prince Rupert; Fairfax; Charles I.; Cromwell. Duke of Marlborough; Prince Eugdne; Marshals Tallard and Villars. Charles XII. of Sweden; Peter the Great. Marshal Saxe; George II. of England; Duke of Cumber- land. Marshal Daun; Frederick the Great. Washington; Greene; ^ Bur- goyne; Cornwallis; Clinton; Howe; Lafayette; Gates. Kellerman; Dumouriez; Jour- dan; Moreau; Bonaparte. Napoleon; Wellington; Nelson; Blucher; Alexander I.; Francis I. ; Frederick Wil- liam III.; Ney. Com. Perry; Admiral Cock- burn; Ross; Jackson. Admiral Canaris; Byron; Ibra- him Pasha. Taylor; Scott; Santa Ana. Lord Raglan; ^ St. Arnaud; Prince Menschikoff ; Gen. Can- robert. Napoleon III.; Victor Emman- uel; Franz Josef I. McClellan; Grant; Sherman; Sheridan; Jackson; Thomas; Lee; Johnston; Meade. Marshal Benedek; William I.; Beyer. William I.; Von Moltke; Fred- erick; Frederick Charles; Napoleon III.; MacMahon; Bazaine. Grand Duke Nicholas; Gourko; Skobcleff; Todleben; Osman Pasha; Mukhtar Pasha. Oyama; Prince Arisugawa; Prince Komatsu. Admirals Dewey, Schley, Samp- son, Montojo, Cervera; Gen- erals Shafter, Toral. Joubert; De Wet; Botha; De la Rey; French; White; Bul- len; Kitchener; Roberts. Admiral Makaroff; Kuropatkin; Linievitch; Stoessel; Oyama; Kuroki; Admiral Togo; Ad- miral Kamimura; Admiral Rojestvensky; Nogi; Oku, Aubry; Enver Bey; Farabelli; Fethi Bey. Putnik; Zekki Pasha; Savoff; Kleomenes; Abdullah Pa- ■ sha; Yankovich. Foch, Joffre, P6tain, Castelnau, Gallieni, D'Esperey, Mangin Gouraud, Haig, French, Allenby, Byng, Home, Maude, B e a 1 1 y , Jellicoe, Pershing, Sims, Cadorna, Diaz, Brusilov, Grand Duke Nicholas, Hindenburg, Fal- kenhayn, Kluck, Mackensen, Ludendorff , Auffenburg, Dankl. 140 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Ohio. The French made the first explora- tions in what is now Ohio, La Salle's discoveries dating from about 1680. The EngUsh, whose patents covered a portion of the region which the French traders aimed to monopolize, came in hostile contact with the latter. It was in this connection that Washington's name first became notable through the Braddock Expedi- tion. In 1763 Canada and the whole region West to the Mississippi previously claimed by France were surrendered to Great Britain. After the Revolutionary War, the United States assumed control over the region afterward known as the Northwest Territory, acknowledg- ing the claim made by Virginia to 3,709,848 acres near the rapids of the Ohio, and a similar claim by Connecticut to 3,666,621 acres near Lake Erie, which became known as the "Western Reserve." These claims were admitted in the sense of ownership, but in no way as question of State jurisdiction. The first permanent settle- ment was made at Marietta, in 1788. The early years of the Northwest Territory were harassed by Indian warfare, which did not cease till the crushing defeat inflicted on them by General Anthony Wayne in 1794. In 1799, the Northwest Territory was organized, and shortly afterward Ohio (the name being derived from the Indian signifying "beautiful river") was formed into a separate territorial government. In 1803, the Territory was admitted as a State, the fourth under the Federal Constitution. The seat of government was in ChiUicothe till 1810, in ZanesviUe till 1812, and in ChiUicothe again till 1816, after which the State capital was fixed at Colvunbus. In 1818, the first steamboat, the "Walk on the Water,"was launched on Lake Erie. In 1836, the first western railroad was opened, from Toledo, Ohio, to Adrian, Michigan, with horse power at first and, in 1837, with steam power. The State began to be noted for wheat growing about 1840, and in 1863 her coal and iron mines began to be developed. Manufactur- ing became an important industry about 1865, and for a decade grew rapidly. The Standard Oil Company was formed in 1870, and during the next two decades the State's oil fields were rapidly developed. During the Civil War Ohio furnished one-eighth of the federal troops. Oklahoma. The history of Oklahoma before it was constructed into a separate Terri- tory is identical with that of the region of which Texas and New Mexico formed a part. When Indian Territory was created as a home for all the Indian tribes most of what is now Oklahoma was within its bounds. Some time in the early seventies the name first appeared in pohtical history, the occasion being a bill intro- duced into Congress to create a Territory out of part of Indian Territory, to be known as Oklahoma. The measure failed of passage and for more than a decade nothing was heard of the country. It was not forgotten, however, as in March, 1889, an amendment was tacked on to the Indian Appropriation BiU providing for the opening to homestead settlers of the little area of land embracing less than 3,000,000 acres and lying in the center of what is now the great State. The land was opened in April, 1889, and the first rush of Oklahoma "boomers" took place. In June, 1890, the territorial govern- ment first came into existence, and by the act which brought this about a strip of land known as "No Man's Land," consisting of 3,681,000 acres, was added as Beaver County. Other sec- tions were added from time to time until, the Territory contained 24,933,120 acres. In 1906, Congress provided an enabling act whereby Oklahoma and Indian Territory might be created into a State and admitted into the Union. On November 16, 1907, the conditions of this act having been compUed with, the President of the United States signed the Constitution of Okla- homa, and issued a proclamation announcing its admission. The first State legislature con- vened December 2, 1907. \ Oregon. The original region named Ore- gon was the whole province claimed by the United States on the Pacific Coast, extending from latitude 42° to 54° 40' north. Until 1846 joint possession was held by Great Britain and the United States, and then the latter, by the northwest boundary treaty, abandoned all claim to the country north of the 49th parallel, and the name Oregon was restricted to the region south of that hne, which was given up by Great Britain. The first accurate knowledge of the territory was brought back by Captain Robert Gray, an American navigator, who entered the mouth of the Columbia River in 1792, and gave the name of his ship to it. The sale of Louisiana to the United States, in 1803, endowed this country with a title of ownership, and the expe- dition of Lewis and Clark, in 1804-1806, strengthened the claim. Though a trading-post was established in 1811, by the Pacific Fur Company, under the Astor rSgime, at the mouth of the Columbia River, the region was largely inhabited by Indians and the employes of the Hudson Bay Fur Company until the active emigration of Americans, between 1833 and 1850, introduced a new element. The territorial organization took place in 1848. In 1853, Washington Territory was instituted out of the region north of the Columbia River on the west and of the 46th parallel on the east. In 1858, Oregon was admitted as a State. A Lewis and Clark Centennial Celebration was held at Port- land in 1905. Suffrage was granted to women in 1912. Constitutional Prohibition adopted, 1914. Pennsylvania. Delaware River and Bay were first explored under the auspices of the Dutch East India Company, from 1604 to 1624, and miUtary jurisdiction was established. Till 1664 they contibued in possession of both sides of the bay without much colonization, though a Swedish colony settled at Chester, on the west bank of the river, in 1638, where their industry and peaoefulness prefigured the characteristics of the Quakers, who were to come later. Under a charter given by Charles II., in 1681, the region west of the Delaware was granted to Wilham Penn, the Quaker, who colomzed it and founded Philadelphia in 1682. Under this grant was included Delaware, and the whole region was ruled under the same proprietary until 1699, when a separate legislature, though not a separ rate governor, was allowed to this section of the province. This union lasted till 1776. The letter of the Penn charter included territory HISTORY 141 alreatly covered in the vague grants made to the New England colonies Virginia and Maryland. All the boundary-lines, however, were easily settled, except that separating Pennsylvania and Maryland, which was not defined until the completion of the Mason and Dixon Survey, in 1767. The original Swedish immigrants readily coalesced with the Quaker colonists, and the remarkable thrift of the people, com- bined with their peaceful Indian policy, soon made Pennsylvania a flourishing region. Large additional bodies of immigrants, Scotch-Irish between 1715 and 1726, and Germans from 1730 onward, rapidly swelled population and wealth. The government instituted by William Penn remained in force until 1776, when the province joined the other colonies in the fight for inde- Eendence, and a provisional constitution was made y a convention presided over by Benjamin Franklin. Philadelphia was occupied by the British forces from September, 1777, to June, 1778. All the earlier sessions of the Continental Congress were held in this city. The battle of Germantown was fought within the present chartered limits of the city in 1777. From 1790 to 1800 it was the seat of the Government of the United States. In 1790, a new State constitu- tion was formed. In 1794 occurred the disturb- ance known as the "Whiskey Rebellion" in the western part of the State, growing out of oppo- sition to the excise laws. In 1799, the seat of the State government was removed to Lancaster, and thence in 1812 to Harrisburg, which still remains the capital. In 1862, during the late CivE War, the State was threatened with inva- sion by the Confederates, but the tide of attack then stopped with invading Maryland. In 1863 General Lee carried out his interrupted purpose, and overran the south portion of the State to within a short distance of Harrisburg. On his retreat General Meade joined battle with him at Gettysburg, near the Maryland line. The battle beginning July 1st, lasted three days, resulting in the Confederate defeat. This Fed- eral victory was probably the important turning- point of the war. As the seventh in the geo- graphical order of the original States, Pennsyl- vania has become historically the "Keystone" State. Disastrous riots occurred about Pitts- burg and elsewhere in 1877 and 1892. In 1908, the famous "State House Cases" were brought to trial, as the result of an alleged $5,000,000 steal by the contractors of the new State capitol, at Harrisburg, and their accomplices. Persia. The original country of the Per- sians occupied a small portion of modern Persia on the north of the Persian Gulf. After being under the Assyrians, and next under the Medes, Cyrus (B. C. 559-529), by conquering and unit- ing Media, Babylonia, Lydia, and all Asia Minor, became the founder of the Persian Empire. The empire was further extended by his son and successor, Cambyses (B. C. 529-522), who con- quered Tyre, Cyprus, and Egypt; and by Darius I., who subdued Thrace and Macedonia, and a small part of India. His son Xerxes (486-465 B. C.) reduced Egypt, which had revolted imder hia father, and also continued the war against the European Greeks, but was defeated at lliermopylse and at Salamia (480 B. C), and obliged to defend himself against their attacks in a disastrous war. Artax- erxes I. (465-425 B. C.) had a long and com- paratively peaceful reign. Artaxerxes was fol- lowed by Darius II. or Darius Nothus, Artax- erxes II. (Mnemon), Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), and Darius III. (Codomannus, 338-330 B. C), the last of this dynasty, known as the Achae- menian Dynasty. He was defeated by Alex- ander the Great in three battles, lost his life, and the empire passed into the hands of his conqueror. On the dissolution of the Mace- donian Empire, after the death of Alexander (323), Persia ultimately fell to his general, Seleucus and his successors, the Seleucidae (312). They reigned over it till 236 B. C, when the last Seleucus was defeated and taken prisoner by Arsaces I., the founder of the dynasty of the Arsacidae and of the Parthian Empire, of which Persia formed a portion, and which lasted till 226 A. D. The supremacy was then recovered by Persia in the person of Ardishir Babigdn (Artaxerxes), who obtained the sovereignty of all Central Asia, and left it to his descendants, the Sassanidse, so called from Sassan, the grand- father of Ardishir. This dynasty continued to reign for about 417 years, under twenty-six sovereigns. The reign of Sapor II., called the Great (310-381), and that of Chosroes I. (Khos- ru, 531-579), were perhaps the most notable of the whole dynasty. The latter extended the Persian Empire from the Mediterranean to the Indus, from the Jaxartes to Arabia and the con- fines of Egypt. He waged successful wars with the Indians, Turks, Romans, and Arabs. Chos- roes II. (591-628) made extensive conquests, but lost them again in the middle of the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. His son, Ardishir (Artaxerxes) III., but seven years old, succeeded him, but was murdered a few days after his accession. He was the last descendant of the Sanssaidae in the male line. Numerous revolutions now followed, until Yezdigerd III., a nephew of Chosroes II., ascended the throne in 632, at the age of sixteen. He was attacked and defeated by Caliph Omar in 639-636, and Persia became for more than 150 years a prov- ince of the Mohammedan Empire. The Arab conquest had a profound influence on Persian life as well as on the language and religion. The old Persian religion was given up in favor of Mohammedanism, only the Guebres, or Parsees, adhering to the faith of their fathers. About the beginning of the Ninth Century the Persian territories began to be broken up into numerous petty states. The Seljuks, a Turkish Dynasty, who first became powerful about 1037, extended its dominions over several Persian provinces, and Malek-Shah, the most powerful of them, conquered also Georgia, Syria, and Asia Minor. Through Genghis Khan the Tartars and Mongols became dominant in Persia about 1220, and they preserved this ascendency till the beginning of the Fifteenth Century. Then ap- peared (1387) Tioaurlenk (Tamerlane) at the head of a new horde of Mongols, who conquered Persia and filled the world from Hindustan to the extremities of Aaa Minor with ccror. But the death of this famous conqueroz in 1405 was followed not long after by the downfall of the 142 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS Mongol dominion in Persia, where the Turko- mans thenceforward remained masters for 100 years. The Turkomans were succeeded by the Sufi Dynasty (1501-1736). The first sovereign of this dynasty, Ismail Sufi, pretended to be de- scended from Ah, the son-in-law of Mohammed. The great Shah Abbas (1587-1628) introduced absolute power, and made Ispahan his capital. Under Shah Soliman (1666-94) the empire declined, and entirely sunk under his son Hus- sein. A period of revolts and anarchy followed until Kuh Khan ascended the throne in 1736 as Nadir Shah, and restored Persia to her former importance. In 1747 Nadir was murdered and his death threw the empire again into confusion. Kerim Khan, who had served under Nadir, suc- ceeded in making himself master of the whole of Western Iran or modern Persia. He died in 1779. Aga Mohammed, a Turkoman belonging to the noblest family of the Tribe of the Kajars, seated himseK on the throne, which he left to his nephew, Baba Khan. The latter began to reign in 1796 under the name of Futteh Ah Shah. In 1813 he was compelled to cede to Russia all his possessions to the north of Armenia, and in 1828 his share of Armenia. Futteh Ah died in 1834, leaving the crown to his grandson, Mehemet Shah. He died in 1848, and was succeeded by his son, Nasr-ed- Din. In May, 1852, he annexed the Sultanate of Herat, but was compelled to relinquish it by the British. Persia has since acquired portions of territory formerly belonging to the Omftn, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan. Muzaffer-ed-Din succeeded in 1896. He was succeeded in January, 1907, by Mohammed Ali, who, after an attempt to overcome the constitution granted by his father, abdicated in favor of Ahmed Mirza. Early in the war of nations, 1914, Persia pro- claimed neutrality. Philippine War. When the Philippines were taken over by the United States an insurgent army was operating against Spain. After first assisting the United States troops, Aguinaldo, the insurgent leader^ desiring absolute freedom of control, turned his forces against them. On Feb. 4, 1899, his army of FiKpinos made a night attack near Manila. Although the insurgents were driven back with great loss, the Americans lost 49 soldiers and 148 were wounded. About 13.000 men under General Otis participated in this initial battle of the new conflict in the Phihjjpines. From this time forward the Americans continuously gained ground; On April 26 the insurgents, using artillery for the first time, were defeated by Col. Funston. On May 23 Gen. Lawton arrived with his command at Malo- los, having marched 120 miles in 20 days, partici- pating in 22 fights, and capturing 28 towns. In August an arrangement was made with the sultan of the Sulu islands providing for the continuance, by the United States, of the pension formerly paid by Spain, the United States flag to be para- mount, and the sultan to repress piracy. In December, 1900, Gen. Lawton was killed while assisting a wounded soldier. Aguinaldo was successful in eluding all efforts until March, 1901, when he was captured by means of a stratagem by Gen. Funston of the Kansas Volunteers. In recognition Funston was brevetted brigadier- general in the regular army. On July 4, 1902, the President proclaimed the PhiUppine insur- rection at an end. Poland. Formerly an important kingdom of Europe whose territory down to 1914 was divided between Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Prussia. The capital of Poland was at Cracow from about 1320 to the reign of Sigismund III. (1587-1632), when it was removed to Warsaw. At the period of its greatest extent, previous to 1660, it had an area of about 375,000 square miles, extending northward to the Baltic sea and the gulf of Riga, westward to Brandenburg, south- ward to Hungary and almost to the Crimea, and eastward throughout most of the basin of the Dnieper. At the outbreak of the great European war in 1914 about six-sevenths of this area was com- prised in Russia, including Russian Poland, Lithuania, Volhynia, and a major part of Little Russia, Livonia, and Courland. The portion of Poland which belonged to Austria comprised the crownland of GaUcia. The portion belonging to Prussia comprised Posen, West Prussia, and Erm- land, in what is now known as East Prussia. Poland was a state of much influence and promise until rent with serious factional troubles in the eighteenth century. These so weakened it that it fell a prey to the more powerful neigh- boring states of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. In 1772, 1793, and 1795 occurred the three successive partitions of Poland whereby all the territory of the kingdom was divided between the three adjoining states. Napoleon, in return for mili- tary support, promised to reconstruct an inde- pendent Poland but accompUshed Uttle. Follow- ing Napoleon's downfall, the congress of Vienna, 1815, made some readjustments but left the whole of Poland distributed between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. In 1915 the Germans defeated the armies of the czar, captured Warsaw, and occupied much Pohsh territory in Russia. Under the separate peace signed with the Bolsheviki in 1918 Germany was granted sovereignty over a large portion of Russian Poland. Portugal. The name Portugal is a cor- rupted form of that of the hill fort. Partus Cale, which stood on the south bank of the Douro, and is now one of the suburbs of Oporto ("the - harbor"). The Carthaginians under Hamilcar subdued the region, and were followed by the Romans. In the Fifth Century A. D., Lusi- tania, likethe rest of the peninsula, was overrun by the Visigoths, and in the Eighth Century was conquered by the Arabs. The warlike Fernando, King of Leon and Castile, in the course of marauding expeditions conquered and occupied the important city and stronghold of Coimbra, in 1064. His son, Alonso IV., seized his brother's territory of Galicia, which included part of the north of Portugal. Alfonso I. defeated a large Saracen army in the plain of Ourique, Alemtejo, in 1139, took the great stronghold of Santarem, and with the aid of a fleet of English, German, and Flemish crusaders carried Lisbon itself by siege in 1147. Before his death, in 1185, he had kindled the fire of patriotic loyalty in the nation, which his sword bad extended to the Mediterranean Sea. The Burgundian Dynasty founded by him con- HISTORY 143 tinued to rule Portugal untU 1580. Alfonso III. was called the Restorer for his reconquest of Algarve. His son Dinis laid the foundation of the commercial greatness of Portugal. Henrique the Navigator sent forth expedi- tions which explored the west coast of Africa, and discovered the Azores, Madeiras, Canaries, Cape Verde, and other islands. Maritime dis- covery and colonization continued during the reigns of Alfonso V., Joao II., and Manuel. In 1487-88 Bartholomeo Diaz doubled the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497-99 Vasco da Gama made his famous voyage to India, and in 1500 Cabral discovered Brazil. The great navigator Magal- haens was a Portuguese. When Joao III. ascended the throne in 1521, Portugal was one of the first kingdoms of Europe. In 1580 Philip II. of Spain annexed Portugal to his own dominions. Portugal was now burdened with much of the expense and misery of the Spanish wars in Germany and the Nether- lands. Moreover, it lost to the Dutch a great part of its foreign possessions. After a shameful union of sixty years Portugal regained its lib- erty by a revolt which placed Joao de Braganca on the throne in 1640. In 1668 Spain ceded all claims to Portugal and the Dutch restored Brazil, but nothing could bring back the old prosperity. Ordered by Napoleon to seize British merchan- dise in Portugal, Joao VI. sought protection of England and transferred the seat of government to Rio de Janeiro in 1807. The French then occupied Portugal. Wellington's victories over the French, 1808-10, delivered Portugal from Napoleon's tjrranny. A revolution took place in Lisbon in 1820 and a constitution was pro- claimed. In 1821 Joao returned from Brazil and accepted the constitution. In 1825 he acknowl- edged the independence of Brazil under his brother Dom Pedro as emperor. Numerous outbreaks culminated in the assas- sination of King Carlos on Feb. 1, 1908. Manuel II. succeeded to the throne, but a revolution in 1910 turned the monarchy into a republic. As an ally of Great Britain, Portugal, in February, 1916, seized German and Austrian ships within her waters. On March 9 Germany declared war on Portugal. Portuguese troops assisted the Allies in Africa and on the Franco- Belgian front. In 1919 a monarchial revolt sought to restore Manuel II. to the throne. Prohibition. Connecticut enacted local Ijrohibition in 1839. Maine was the first to estab- lish state- wide prohibition. This was done by legislative enactment in 1851, and later was incorporated in the state constitution. The thirty-two states which had adopted state-wide prohibition previous to January 1, 1919, to- gether with the District of Columbia, contained population of 51,300,000, according to the latest U. S. census estimates. In the other sixteen states there were districts under local prohibition embracing 65 per cent of their area and a population exceeding 14,000,000. Prac- tically nine-tenths of the area and two-thirds of the population of the United States had thus come under prohibition by state and local enactments. Tie list of the thirty-two states which adopted prohibition follows: Name of _STATa Alabama, . Arizona, Arkansas, . Colorado, Florida, . . Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, . . Michigan, . Mississippi, Montana, . Nebraska, Nevada, . . . New Hampshire New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, CONBTITUTIONAI, Date OR Statutoby ErFBCTIVH Statutory, . . . .1915 Constitutional, . 1915 Statutory, . 1916 Constitutional, 1916 Constitutional, . . . . 1919 Statutory, . 1908 Constitutional, 1916 Statutory, . 1918 Statutory, . . 1916 Constitutional, ISSl Constitutional, . 1884 Constitutional, . 1918 Statutory, . 1909 Constitutional, . . . 1918 Constitutional, . 1917 Statutory, 1918 Statutory, . 1918 Constitutional, 1918 Statutory, . 1909 Constitutional, . . . 1889 Constitutional, . . . 1919 Constitutional, . 1907 Constitutional, 1916 Statutory, 1916 Constitutional, 1917 Statutory, 1909 Statutory, . 1918 Statutory, . . 1917 Statutory, . , 1916 Statutory, . 1916 Constitutional, 1914 Constitutional, . . . . 1920 Oklahoma, Oregon, . . South Carolina, . South Dakota, . . Tennessee, Texas, . . Utah, . . Virginia, . . Washington, West Virginia, Wyoming At this stage it was but a step from state to national prohibition. An amendment to the Federal constitution providing for nation-wide prohibition was adopted by the senate of the United States, Aug. 1, 1917, by a vote of 65 to 20, and by the house of representatives, Dec. 17, 1917, by a vote of 282 to 128. At the general elections of Nov. 5, 191?, legislatures were chosen overwhelmingly in favor of ratification. On Jan. 16, 1919, thirty-six states, the necessary three-fourths, had ratified it by legislative action, and, on Jan. 29, the prohibition amend- ment was proclaimed to take effect Jan. 16, 1920. The first thirty-six states completed ratification as follows: In 1918: Mississippi, Jan. 8; Virginia, Jan. 11; Ken- tucky, Jan. 14; North Dakota, Jan. 25; South Carolina, Jan. 28; Maryland, Feb. 13; Montana, Feb. 19; Texas, Mar. 4;, Delaware, Mar. 18; South Dakota, Mar. 20; Massachusetts, Apr. 2; Arizona, May 24; Georgia, June 26; Louisiana, Aug. 8; Florida, Nov. 27. In 1919: Michigan, Jan. 2; Ohio and Oklahoma, Jan. 7; Maine and Idaho, Jan. 8: West Virginia, Jan. 9; Washing- ton, Tennessee, and California, Jan. 13; Illinois, Indiana, Arkansas, North Carolina, Alabama, and Kansas, Jan. 14; Oregon, Iowa, Utah, Colorado, and New Hampshire, Jan. 15; Nebraska, Jan. 16. Frevfous to March 1, 1919, nine additional states rati- fied the amendment, namely: Missouri and Wyoming, Jan. 16; Wisconsin and Minnesota, Jan. 17; New Mexico. Jan. 20; Nevada, Jan. 21; Vermont and New York, Jan. 29; Pennsylvania, Feb. 25. The three states, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, which had not ratified up to March, 1919, contained a population of about 4,700,000. The forty-five states ratifying contained a population of approxi- mately 95,600,000, and embraced 99 per cent of the area of the United States. The legisla- tures of Idaho, Kansas, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming voted unanimously for ratification and the average vote in the forty-five state legislatures ratifying was about 6 to 1 in favor of the amendment. In 1917 Porto Rico adopted prohibition by a referendum vote. The- District of Columbia, 1917j and Alaska, 1918, were placed under prohibition by act of Congress. 144 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS PRESIDENTS OF THE unit: BORN PARENTS Name Patern When Where Father Mother Anoebti 1. George Washington, 1732 Bridge's Creek, Va., Augustine, . Mary Ball English, English, Welsh, . 2. John Adams, . . 1735 Braintree, Mass., John, . . . Susanna Boylston, 3. Thomas Jefferson, 1743 Shadwell, Va Peter Jane Randolph, 4. James Madison, 1751 Port Conway, Va., . James, . . Nelly Conway, . EngUsh, 5. James Monroe, . . . 17S8 Westmoreland Co., Va., Spence, . . Eliza Jones, . Scotch, . 6. John Quincy Adams, 1767 Quincy, Mass John Abigail Smith, . . . English, 7. Andrew Jackson, 1767 Mecklenburg Co., N. C, Andrew, . . Elizabeth Hutchinson, Scotch-Iri 8. Martin Van Buren, . 1782 Kinderhook, N. Y., . . Abraham, Maria Hoes, . . . Dutch, 9. William H. Harrison, 1773 Berkeley, Va Benjamin, Elizabeth Bassett, . English, English, 10. John Tyler, . . 1790 Charles City Co., Va., John, Mary Armisted, . 11. James K. Polk, . 1795 Mecklenburg Co., N. C, Samuel, . Jane Knox, . Scotch-Iri 12. Zachary Taylor, 1784 Orange Co., Va., . . . Richard, Sarah Strother, English, 13. Millard Fillmore, 1800 Summer Hill, N. Y., Nathaniel, Phebe MUlard, English, Enghsh, 14. Franklin Pierce, 1804 Hillsborough, N. H;, Benjamin, . . Anna Kindreck, 15. James Buchanan, 1791 Stony Batter, Pa., James, . . Elizabeth Speer, Scotch-Iri 16. Abraham Lincoln, 1809 Nohn Creek, Ky., Thomas, • . Nancy Hanks, , English, 17. Andrew Johnson, . 1808 Raleigh, N. C Jacob, , . Mary M'Donough, EngUsh, 18. Ulysses S. Grant, . . 1822 Point Pleasant, Ohio, . Jesse Root, Harriet Simpson, Scotch, . 19. Rutherford B. Hayes, 1822 Delaware, Ohio, . . Rutherford, Sophia Birchard, ^ Scotch, . 20. James A. Garfield, 1831 Orange, Ohio, . . Abram, Ehza BaUou, . English, 21. Chester A. Arthur, 1830 Fairfield, Vt., . WilUam, . . Malvina Stone, . Scotch-Iri 22. Grover Cleveland, 1837 Caldwell, N. J., Richard Falley, Anna Neal, . . Elizabeth Irwin, English, 23. Benjamin Harrison, . 1833 North Bend, Ohio, John Scott, . English, 24. Grover Cleveland, . 1837 Caldwell, N.J Richard Falley, . Anna Neal English, 25. William McKinley, 1843 Niles, Ohio WiUiam, . . Nancy C. Allison, . Scotch-Iri 26. Theodore Roosevelt, 1858 New York City, N. Y., Theodore, Martha Bullock, Dutch, . 27. William H. Taft, . . 1857 Cincinnati, Ohio, . Alphonso, . Louise M. Torrey, . EngUsh, 28. Woodrow Wilson, . 1856 Staunton, Va., Joseph R., . Jessie Woodrow, . . Scotch-Iri PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITl Name Mar- ried Wife's Name CHILDREN BoTB Girls Inaug- urated Residence When Elected A Wi Ina TTRA 1. George Washington, 2. John Adams, . 3. Thomas Jefferson, 4. James Madison, 5. James Monroe, 6. John Quincy Adams, 7. Andrew Jackson, 8. Martin Van Buren, . 9. WilUam H. Harrison, 10. John Tyler, . . . ■{ 11. James K. Polk, . . . 12. Zachary Taylor, . 13. Millard Fillmore, | 14. FrankUn Pierce, 15. James Buchanan, . 16. Abraham Lincoln,. 17. Andrew Johnson, 18. Ulysses S. Grant, . . 19. Rutherford B. Hayes, 20. James A. Garfield, . 21. Chester A. Arthur, 22. Grover Cleveland, 23. Benjamin Harrison, -j 24. Grover Cleveland, 25. William McKinley, . 26. Theo. Roosevelt, |. -j 27. William H. Taft, . . 28. Woodrow Wilson, ■! 1759 1764 1772 1794 1786 1797 1791 1807 1795 1813 1844 1824 1810 1826 1858 1834 1842 1827 1848 1852 1858 1859 1886 1853 1896 i87i 1880 1886 1886 1885 1915 Mrs. Martha Custis, Abigail Smith, . . , Mrs. Martha Skelton, Mrs. Dorothy Todd, Eliza Kortwright, Louisa C. Johnson, , . Mrs. Rachel Robards, . Hannah Hoes (Goes), . Anna Symmes, . . Letitia Christian, JuUa Gardiner, . Sarah Childress, . Margaret Smith, Abigail Power, .... Mrs. Caroline Mcintosh, Jean Means Appleton, . Unmarried, Mary Todd, Eliza McCardle, . Julia Dent, . . . Lucy Ware Webb, Lucretia Rudolph, Ellen Lewis Herndon, Frances Folsom Caroline Lavinia Scott, . . Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmick, (See above), Ida Saxton, Alice Lee, ... Edith Carow, . . Helen Herron, . . . Helen Louise Azson, . . Mrs. Edith Boiling Gait, . 1789 1797 1801 1809 1817 1825 1829 1837 1841 1841 1845 1849 1850 1853 1857 1861 1865 1869 1877 1881 1881 1885 1889 1893 1897 1901 1909 1913 Mt. Vernon, Va., Quincy, Mass., Monticello, Va., Montpelier, Va., OakhTll, Va... . Quincy, Mass.^ Hermitage, Tenn, Kinderhook, N. Y., North Bend, O., . WilUamsburg, Va., Nashville, Tenn,. Baton Rouge, La., Buffalo, N. Y., . Concord, N. H., . Wheatland, Pa., . Springfield, III., . Greenville, Tenn., Washington, D. C, Fremont, Ohio, . Mentor, Ohio, . . New York City, . Buffalo, N. Y., . Indianapolis, Ind., New York City, . Canton, Ohio, . . Oyster Bay, N. Y., Cincinnati, Ohio, Princeton, N. J*, . HISTORY 145 STATES— TABLE 1 Father's Business Planter, Farmer, Planter, Planter, Planter, Lawyer, Farmer, Farmer, Statesman, Jurist, Farmer, Planter, Farmer, Farmer, Merchant, Farmer, Sexton, Farmer, . , Merchant, . . Farmer, Clergyman, Clergyman, . Farmer, . . Clergyman, Iron Manfr., Merchant, Lawyer, . . Clergyman, . Educational Apvantaqb , 1762, Common School, ... Harvard College, 1755, , . . College of William and Mary, Princeton College, 1771, Entered College, William and Mary, Harvard College, 1787, . Self Taught Academy, Entered Hampden-Sidney College, College, William and Mary, 1806, tfniversity of North Carolina, . . Com.mon School, ... Public School, Bowdoin College, 1824 Dickinaon College, 1809, . . Self Taught, Self Taught, West Point Military Academy, 1843, Kenyon College, Ohio, 1842, Williams College, 1856, Union College, 1848, . Common School, Miami University, Ohio, 1851 Common School, Entered Allegheny College, . Harvard, .... Yale, 1878 Princeton, 1879, Eablt Vocation Surveyor, Teacher, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Medicine, Lawyer, Lawyer, Soldier, Tailor, Lawyer, Lawyer, Farmer, TaUor, Tanner, Lawyer, Teacher, Teacher, Teacher, Lawyer, Teacher, Lawyer, Publicist, Lawyer, Lawyer, Poli- tics Fed., Fed., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Dem., Dem., Whig, Dem., Dem., Whig, Whig, Dem, Dem., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Dem,, Rep., Dem., Rep., Rep., Rep., Dem., Peofession Planter, . Lawyer, . Lawyer, , Lawyer, . Politician, Lawyer, . Lawyer, . Lawyer, . Army, , . Lawyer, . Lawyer, . Army, . . Lawyer, . Lawyer, . Lawyer, . Lawyer, . Politician, Army, . . Lawyer, . Lawyer, . Lawyer, . Lawyer, . Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, . Publicist, Lawyer, Teacher, . Religious Connections Episcopalian, Unitarian, ... Liberal, . . Episcopalian, . Episcopalian, Unitarian, . Presbyterian, Reformed Dutch, Episcopalian, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Episcopalian, . Episcopalian, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, . Liberal, Liberal Methodist, Methodist, Disciples, . Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Presbyterian, Presbyterian, Methodist, . . Reformed Dutch, Unitarian, . . Presbyterian, . Name Washington. Adams. Jefferson. Madison. Monroe. Adams, J.Q. Jackson. Van Buren. Harrison, Tyler. Polk. Taylor. Fillmore, Pierce. Buchanan. Lincoln, Johnson. Grant. Hayes. Garfield. Arthur. Cleveland. Harrison. Cleveland. McKinley. Roosevelt. Taft. Wilson. STATES— TABLE II Served as President Died Aqb at Death Cause of Death Place of Death Place of Burial 7 yr., 10 mos., 4 d. 4 yr., 8 yr., 8yr., 8 yr., 4 yr., . , 8 yr., . 4 yr., . . . 1 mo., 3^^., 11 mo., . 4 yr., .... 1 yr., 4 mo., 5 d., 2 yr., 7 mo., 6 d., 4 yr., 4 yr., . 4 yr., 1 mo., 11 d., 3 yr., 10 mo., 19 d., 8 yr., 4 yr 6K mo., . . 3 yr., Syi mo., 8yr 4 yr 4 yr., 6 mo., 10 d., 7 yr., 6 mo., 20 d., 4 yr., 1799 1826 1826 1836 1831 1848 1845 1862 1841 1862 1849 1850 1874 1869 1868 1865 1875 1885 1893 1881 1886 1908 1901 1901 1919 67 90 83 85 73 80 78 79 68 71 53 65 74 64 77 56 63 70 49 56 71 67 58 60 Acute laryngitis. Natural decline. Chronic diarrhoea. Natural decline, Natural decline, Paralysis, . Dropsy, . . . Asthma, . . . Pleurisy fever. Mt. Vernon, Va., Quincy, "' Monticello, Va., Montpelier, Va., New York City, Hall of Congress, Wash- ington, D. C, . . . , Hermitage, near Nash- ville, Tenn., Kinderhook, N. Y., White House, ton, D. C, Washing- Bilious attacks, with bron- chitis Chronic diarrhoea, . . . Cholera morbus and ty- phoid fever, Paralysis, ....... Dropsy and inflammation of stomach, , Rheumatic gout, . . Assassinated by Booth, Paralysis, .... Cancer of the tongue, . Neuralgia of the heart. Assassinated by Guiteau, Bright's disease, culminat- ing in paralysis and apo- plexy, Heart failure, Pneumonia Ballard House, Rich- mond, Va., .... Nashville, Tenn., . . . White House, Washing- ton, D. C Buffalo, N, Y Concord, N. H., , Lancaster, Pa., . . . Washington, D. C, . . Greenville, Tenn,, . . . Mt. McGregor, N. Y., Fremont, Ohio Elberon, Long Branch, N. J., New York City, , . . Assassinated by Czolgosz, Embolism, Princeton, N. J.,. Indianapolis, Ind., Buffalo, N. Y., Oyster Bay, N. Y. Mt. Vernon, Va. Unitarian Church, Quincy, Mass. Monticello, Albemarle Co., Va. Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va. Originally, N. Y. Removed, 1858, to Hollywood Ceme- tery, Richmond, Va. Unitarian Church, Quincy, Mass. Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn. Village Cemetery, Bander- hook, N. Y. North Bend, Ohio. Hollywood, Richmond, Va, Nashville, Tenn. Near Louisville, Kentucky (Springfield), Forest Lawn, Buffalo, N. Y. Minot Cemetery, Concord, N. H, Woodward Hill Cemetery, Lancaster, Pa. Oak Ridge Cemetery, Spring- field, 111, Greenville, Tenn, Riverside, New York City, Fremont, Ohio. . , Lake View Cemetery, Cleve- land, Ohio. . . Rural Cemetery, Albany, N.Y. Princeton, N, J. Crown Hill Cemetery, Indian- apolis, Ind. Cemetery, Canton, Ohio. Young's Memorial Cemetery, Oyster Bay, N. Y. 146 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS Rhode Island. Supposed to be identical with the ancient Vinland of the Icelandic Sagas, historians credit the first discovery of Rhode Island to the Norsemen about 1000 A. D. The navigator Verrazzano visited Narragansett Bay and its shores in 1524. The State was settled at Providence in 1636, by Roger Williams and his companions, who had been banished from Massachusetts by reMgious intolerance. In 1638, the Island of Aquidneck, afterward called Rhode Island, was settled at Newport and Portsmouth. A third settlement was formed at Warwick in 1643. The same year Roger WiUiams went to England and obtaiaed a patent for the united government of the settlements. In 1663, this patent gave way to a charter by Charles II., incorporating the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which remained in force for 180 years. The colony suffered severely in King PMlip's War, 1675-76, which resulted in the destruction of the Wampanoag and Narra- gansett tribes of Indians. In 1687, Sir Edmond Andros, who had been made Governor of New York, New England, etc., abrogated the charter, but it became again the ruling constitution after his recall. In the wars between France and England, -Rhode Island furnished valuable aid by land and sea for the expeditions against Louisburg, Crown Point, Oswego, and Canada. In 1756, she had fifty privateers at sea. During the War of the Revolution the State supplied many ships and sailors for naval operations. Rhode Island was invaded by the British, and vain attempts were made for several years to drive them thence by Coxmt d'Estaing's fleet and General SuEivan's army. The State was the last to accept the Federal Constitution, May 29, 1790. Dorr's insurrection occurred in 1842, an imbrogho growing out of the bigoted suffrage laws, an inheritance from colonial times. It was only in 1861 that the boimdary line be- tween Rhode Island and Massachusetts was finally settled. In 1901, Massachusetts re- voked the edict of banishment against Roger Williams, which had stood for nearly three cen- turies. RULERS OF THE WORLD ROMAN EMPEBOBS Name Augustus, TiberiuB, Caligula, . Claudius, Nero, . Galba, Otho, . Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, ^ . Domitian, Nerva, Traian, . . . Hadrian Titus Antoninus Pius, . Marcus Aurelius An- toninus, Commodus, . . . . Pertinax, . . Didius Julianus, , . Septimius Severus, Caracalla, . Macrinus, . Heliogabalus (Elagabalus) , Alexander Severus, Maximin, Pupienus and . . Balbinua, , . . Gordian, . Phillip, . DeciuB, . . . Gallus, ^miUanus, Valerian, Gallienus, . . . Flavins Claudius, . Aurelian, . . . Tacitus, Florian, .... Frobus CaruB, . ■ ■ Lineage THE C^SARS A title conferred by the Senate, . . Stepson of Augustus, . Youngest son of Germanicus, nephew of Tibe- rius Grandson of Tiberius, . . Son of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Was proclaimed Emperor, . . Was proclaimed Emperor, . . . Was proclaimed Emperor, Was proclaimed Emperor, Son of Vespasian, .... Second son of Vespasian, . THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS Was proclaimed Emperor, Adopted son of Nerva, . . Nephew of Trajan, . . . Adopted son of Hadrian, . . Nephew of Antoninus Pius, THE PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM Son of Marcus Aurelius, Was proclaimed Emperor, Was proclaimed Emperor, Was proclaimed Emperor, Son of Septimius Severus, . . Was proclaimed Emperor, First cousin of Caracalla, Cousin of Heliogabalus, by whom he was adopted. Was elevated by soldiers, . ... Appointed by the Senate, Grandson of Gordianus I., Murdered Gordian and usurped the throne, . Proclaimed Emperor by the army Was elected Emperor by Senate and soldiers, . Son of Valerian, Was designated by Claudius, Proclaimed Emperor, Choice of the army, .... Elevated to throne by soldiers. Period of Rule Birth Death B.C. A. D. B.C. A. D. 30 14 63 14 A. D. 14 37 42 37 37 41 12 41 41 54 10 A. D. 54 S4 68 37 B.C. 68 68 69 3 A. D. 69 69 32 69 69 69 15 69 70 79 9 79 79 81 41 81 81 96 51 96 96 98 32 98 98 117 63 117 117 138 76 138 138 161 86 161 161 180 121 180 180 193 161 192,Dec.31 193 126 193 193 193 193 212? 146 211 212 217 188 217 217 218 164 218 218 222 205? 222 222 235 205 235 235 238 238 238 238 (238 {238 238 244 224 244 244 249 249 249 251 251 251 254 , 254 254 208? 254? 254 260 269 260 268 268 268 270 214 270 270 275 212 275 275 276 200 276 276 277 7 27? 282 282 282 283 222 283 HISTORY 147 BOMAN EMPEBOBS — Continued Name Lineage Period of Rule Birth Death Carinus and Elder son of Carus ? A. D. 283 284 305 306 336 361 363 364 375 383? 383? 388 394 395 423 455 455 457 461 467 472 473 473 475 A. D. 284 305 306 336 361 363 364 375 383 388 394 395 423 455 457 461 467 472 473 475 476 A. D. (245 5 250 272 317 331 332 321 359 ? 371 346 384 419 395? A. D. 285 Son of Carus, ) Diooletian and t Maximlan, . . . Constantlus and ) Galerius, . . . > Constantine the Great, Conatantius II., . . . Julian the Apostate, . Jovian Valentinian I., . . Gratian Maximinius, . . . Valentinian II Eugenius, Theodosius the Great, Honorius, Valentinian III., . Maximus, . . . Was proclaimed Emperor by the army, ( Was made Caesar by Diocletian, ) Was created Caesar 313 310 306 Eldest son of Augustus Constantlus CUarus, . Tliird sou of Constantine the Great, . . Son of Julius Constantine, Elevated to the throne by the army, . , . . ROMAN EMPERORS OF THE WEST? Proclaimed Emperor by the army Son of Valentinian I., Made Emperor by the legions in Britain, Son of Valentinian I., Assumed the purple Son of Flavius Theodosia, . . Second son of Theodosius, . Son of Constantlus, . . . By force of arms, . . ... 311 337 361 363 364 375 383 398 392 395 423 455 455 457 • ? 465-7? ? ? ? 480 476 Marjorian or Majarian, SeveruB Anthenius, Olybrius Glycerus, Nepos, Romulus Augustulus . Was elected by Ricimer, Raised to imperial dignity by Ricimer, . Son-in-law of Emperor Marcian, Made Emperor by Ricimer,,- Proclaimed Emperor Proclaimed Emperor by order of Leo, .... Son of Orestes, Augustus is deposed and banished by Odoacer, . who thus puts an end to the Western Empire of Rome. KDJCS, EMPEBOBS, AND PEESIDENTS OF FBANCE Name Lineage Period of Rule Birth Death THE MEROVINGIANS A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. Pharamond, 420 428 428 448 Clodian, ... Son of Pharamond (obscure) Meroveus, Founder of the Merovingian Dynasty, . . 448 457 4117 467 Childeric, ... Son of Meroveus, King of the Franks, 458 481 481 Clovis I., Son of Childeric, 481 511 465 511 ChildebertI Son of Clovis, 511 558 495 558 Thierry I ) Son of Clovis, ... 1 634 Clodomir and ... >• Son of Clovis . V Fourth son of Clovis ) Clothairel ) 558 561 497 561 Kingdom Divided into Four Parts: Charibert, ... "] Reigns at Paris • • 1 King of Orleans and Burgundy ! King of Neustria at Soissons, [ King of Austrasia at Metz, ... . J Grothan 562 584 Chilperio I., . Sigebert, . . . Childebert II., Clothaire II., . Son of Sigebert I. of Austrasia, . . ( 584 628 1570 1584 596 Son of Chilperic I . ( Son of Clothaire II ... 628 Dagobert I 628 638 602 638 Clovis II. and Dagobert II., . . " The Young " son of Dagobert I 638 665 1633 1662 656 679 Clothaire III., . . 666 673 652? 6707 Thierry II., . Son of Clovis II., . . 673 691 652? 691 Clovis III., . . King of Neustria, . 691 695 681 695 Childebert III., King of Neustria, . 695 711 Dagobert III., King of Neustria 711 715 699 715 715 720 720 747 ? 712 720 Thierry IV., . . Son of Dagobert III., . . . 747 ChUderioIII., . Son of Childeric II. (obscure) 747 761 ? 765 Pepin the Little for Short) THE CARLOVINGIANS Son of C!harles Martel, . . ... 751 768 714 768 Charlemagne, or Charles the Great Son of Pepin the Short, . . 768 814 742 814 Louis le Debonnaire, . Son of Charles the Great CARLUVINGIAN KINGS 814 840 •778 840 Charles the Bald, . Younger son of Louis le Debonnaire, . . . 843 877 823 877 Louis II Son of Charles the Bald, . 877 879 846 879 Louis III., and 1 Carloman, .... f Sons of Louis II., . . ... 1 879 884 863 882 Reigns two years, ... . I ? ? Charles the Fat, . . Son of Louis the German, . 884 888 839 7 88S 8S8 898 898 922 7 879 898 Charles the Simple, . . Son of Louis the Stammerer 929 Raoul (Rudolf of Bur- gundy) 922 936 936 964 ? 921 7 Louis IV., . . . Son of Charles the Simple, ... . . 954 Lothaire, Son of Louis IV., 954 986 941 986 Louis V Son of Lothaire 986 987 966 987 148 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS KINGS, EMPEROBS, AND PBBSIDENTS OF FRANCE— Continued Namb LlNEAQB Period of Rule Birth Death HOUSE OF CAPET Hugh Capet, . Hobert 11., . Henry I PhiUpl., . . Louia the Fat, . . Louis VII., . . Philip Augustus, . Louis VIII Louis IX., or St. Louis, Philip the Bold, . . Philip the Fair, Louis X., . . . Philip the Hardy, Charles the Fair, . Philip of Valois, John the Good, Charles the Wise, rfJharles VI Charles the Victorious, Louis XI Charles VIII., Louis XII., Francis I., Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., Henry IV., Louis XIII., Louis XIV., Louis XV., Louis XVI., National Convention, Directory nominated, Bonaparte, Cambaceres, Lebrun, . , Bonaparte, Bonaparte, Napoleon I., . Napoleon II., Louis XVIII., Charles X., . Louis Philippe, Provisional Government formed, . . . . Louis Napoleon, Napoleon III., Committee of Public De- fense L. A. Thiers, . . . Marshal MacMahon, Jules Grevy, Marie F. S. Carnot, Jean Cassimir Perier, Felix Francois Faure, . M. £mile Loubet, Armand Clement Fal- ildies, . . . .^ . . . Raymond PoincarS, Son of Hugh the Great Son of Hugh Capet, . . Son of Robert II., . . Son of Henry I., . . Son of Phillip I., . . . . Son of Louis VI., . . Son of Louis VII., . . Son of Phillip Augustus, . . . . Son of Louia VIII., . . . Son of Louis IX., . Son of Phillip III., . Son of Phillip IV Second son of Phillip IV., . . Youngest son of Phillip the Fair, . . HOUSE OF VALOIS Son of Charles of Valoia Son of Phillip VI., . Son of John II., . Son of Charles V., Son of Charles VI., Son of Charles VII., .... Son of Louis XI A descendant of the younger son of Charles V., Son of Charles, Count of Angoulemd, , . . Son of Francis I Eldest son of Henry II., . . Second son of Henry II Third son of Henry II., HOUSE OF BOURBON Son of Antoine de Bourbon, King of Navarre, Son of Henry IV Son of Louia XIII. and Anne of Austria, . . . Great-grandaon of Louis XIV Grandson of Louis XV., FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1792., TO X -THE FIRST REPUBLIC* " ; , First sat September 21, 1792, ....".... November 1, 1795, THE CONSULATE December 24, 1799, Consul for ten yeara. May 6, 1802, Consul for life, August 2, 1S02, . . THE EMPIRE Decreed Emperor, May IS, 1S04, , . . . Never reigned THE RESTORATION Brother of Louis XVI., reentered Paris'May 3, 1814, ; . . . Younger brother of Louis XVIII., deposed July 30, 1830 HOUSE OF ORLEANS Son of Philippe Egalite, abdicated February 24, 1848 THE SECOND REPUBLIC Elected President, . . . . . , THE SECOND EMPIRE Nephew of Napoleon I., elected Emperor. De- posed 1870 THE THIRD REPUBLIC Elected Elected Elected Elected Elected Elected Elected President, President, President, President, President, President, President, Elected President, Elected President, A. D. 987 996 1031 1060 1108 1137 1180 1223 1226 1270 1285 1314 1316 1321 1328 1350 1364 1380 1422 1461 1483 1498 1515 1547 1559 1560 1574 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 1792 1795 1799 1804 1814 1824 1830 Feb.22, 1848 1848 1852 1870 1871 1873 1879 1887 1894 1895 1899 1906 1913 A. D. 996 1031 1060 1108 1137 1180 1223 1226 1270 1285 1314 1316 1321 1328 1350 1364 1380 1422 1461 1483 1498 1515 1547 1559 1560 1574 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 1793 1795 1799 1804 1814 1824 1830 1848 Dec. 19, 1848 1852 1870 1871 1873 1879 1887 1894 1895 1899 1906 1913 A. D. ? 971 1011? 1052 1078 1120 1165 1187 1215 1245 1268 1239 1294 1294 1293 1319? 1337 1368 1403 1423 1470 1462 1494 1519 1543 1550 1551 1553 1601 163S 1710 1754 (1769 1753 1 1739 1811 1755 1757 1773 1808 180S 1797 1808 1807 1837 1847 1841 1838 1841 1860 A. D. 996 1031 1060 1108 1137 1180 1223 1226 1270 1285 1314 1316 1322 1328 1350 1364 1380 1422 1461 1483 1498 1515 1647 1559 1560 1574 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 1793 1821 1824 1824 1832 1824 1836 1850 1873 1873 1877 1893 1891 1894 ? 1899 HISTORY 149 SOVEREIGNS OF BUSSIA Name LiNEAQB Period of Rule Birth Death HOUSE Off EURIC Ivan the Great, . . Vasily IV., . . . Ivan the Terrible, . Feodor I., . . . . Boris Godonof, . . Demetrius, . . . Zuiski (Vasily V.), An Interregnum, . Grand Duke of Moscow, . Son of Ivan the Great, Son of Vasily IV Son of Ivan the Terrible, . Was elected* to the throne, Usurped the throne. Michael Romanoff, Alexis Feodor II » Ivan "^^t, and Peter Peter the Great, . Catharine I., . . . Peter II Anna, Ivan VI., . . . . Elizabeth Peter III Catharine II., . . Paul, Alexander I., Nicholas, .... Alexander II., . . Alexander III., . . Nicholas II HOUSE OF ROMANOFF Unanimously elected Czar, Son of Michael Feodorovitch Eldest son of Emperor Alexis Half-brother of Peter the Great, in whose favor I he resigned J Son of Alexis Was married to Peter the Great in 1707, . . . Grandson of Peter the Great, Daughter of Ivan V., Son of Antoin Ulrich Leopoldovina and Anna, Daughter of Peter the Great Son of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein, . Wife of Peter III., ; Son of Peter III Son of Paul . . Third son of Paul I Sgn of Nicholas I Son of Alexander II., . . Son of Alexander III A. D. 1482 1505 1533 15S4 1598 1604 1606 1610 1613 1645 1676 1682 1689 1725 1727 1730 1740 1741 1762 1762 1796 1801 1825 1855 1881 1894 A. D. 1505 1533 1584 1598 1604 1606 1610 1613 1645 1676 1682 1689 1725 1727 1730 1740 1741 1762 i796 1801 1825 1855 1881 1894 1917 A.D. 1438 ? 1529 1557 1552 1598 1629 1656 11666 i672 16797 1715 1693 1740 1709 1728 1729 1754 1777 1796 1818 1845 1868 A. D. 1505 7 1584 1598 1605 1606 1645 1676 1682 1696 i725 1727 1730 1740 1764 1762 1762 1796 1801 1825 1855 1881 1894 EMFEBOBS OF GERMANY Name Lineage Period of Rule Birth Death Louis, "The German" and Lothaire Louis II., . . . Ctiarles the Fat, Amolph, . . . . Louis the Child, CARLOVINGIAN EMPERORS Son of the Emperor Louis I. He is regarded ; the founder of the German Empire, , , , Son of the Emperor Lothaire I Son of Louis, the German, Illegitimate son of Karlmann, Son of the Emperor Arnolph A. D. A. D. Conrad I., HOUSE OF FRANCONIA Duke of Franconia Henry the Fowler, Otho the Great, . Otho II Otho III., . . Henry the Saint, 4 Conrad II., . Henry III., . Henry IV., . Henry V., . HOUSE OF SAXONY Son of the King of Saxony Son of Henry I Son of Otho I Son of Otho II Son of Henry the Quarrelsome of Bavaria, HOUSE OF FRANCONIA Was crowned Emperor Son of Conrad II., Son of Henry III Son of Henry IV., Lothaire II., Conrad III Frederick Barbarossa, Henry VI Otho IV. and PhiUip Swabia, . . Frederick II An Interregnum, . . HOUSE OF SAXONY Was elected ICing and crowned by the Pope, THE HOHENSTAUFFENS Elected in an irregular manner Nephew of Conrad III., Son of Frederick Barbarossa Second son of Henry the Lion, Youngest son of Frederick Barbarossa, . . . Sonof Henry VI Rudolph of Habsburg, . Adolph, Albert, . Henry VII., HOUSE OF HABSBUHG Son of Albert IV HOUSE OF NASSAU Elected HOUSE OF AUSTRIA Eldest son of Rudolph I., HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG Son of the Count of Luxemburg, . . 843 855 875 887 898 911 919 936 973 983 1002 1024 1039 1056 1106 1125 1138 1152 1190 1197 1218 1250 1273 1291 1298 1308 855 875 887 911 919 936 973 983 1002 1024 1039 1056 1106 1125 1138 1152 1190 1197 1208 1250 1273 1291 1298 1308 1313 A. D. 804 795 822 839 850 893 876 912 955 980 972 7 1017 1050 1081 1093 7 1165 ;il74 !1177 1194 A. D. 876 855 875 888 899 911 Dec, 918 936 973 983 1002 1024 1039 1056 1106 1125 Dec., 1137 1152 1189 1197 1218 1208 1250 1218 1252 1250 1262 1291 1298 1308 1313 150 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF PACTS EMPEBOBS OF GEBMANT — Continued Name Lineage Period of Rule Birth Death Louis V. or IV., Charles IV., . Wenceslaus, Rupert, . . 3igianiund, Albert, . . Frederick III., Maximilian, Charles V., . Ferdinand I., Maximilian II., Rudolph II., Matthias, . Ferdinand II., Ferdinand III., Leopold I., Joseph I., Charles VI., . Charles VII., Francis I., . Joseph II., ' Leopold II., Francis II., William the Victorious, William II.,* HOUSE OF BAVARIA Son of the Duke of Bavaria, . . HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG Son of John of Luxemburg, Son of the Emperor Charles IV., HOUSE OF PALATINATE Was chosen King, HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG Son of Charles IV HOUSE OF HABSBURG Third son of Frederick I., Was elected Emperor, Son of Frederick III., . . Son of Phillip of Burgundy, Younger brother of Charles V., Son of Ferdinand I Son of the Emperor Maximilian II., . Younger son of Maximilian II., \ Son of Charles, Duke of Styria, Son of Ferdinand II Second son of Ferdinand III., Son of Leopold I., . Son of Leopold I., . HOUSE OF BAVARIA Son of Maximilian Emmanuel, HOUSE OF LORRAINE Son of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, Son of Francis I., . . Third son of Francis I., Son of Leopold II., THE CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE THE GERMANIC CONFEDERATION THE NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN Second son of Frederick William III Son of Frederick III. and Grandson of William I., A. D. 1313 1347 ■1378 1400 1438 1440 1493 1519 1556 1564 1576 1612 1619 1637 1657 1706 1711 1741 1745 1765 1790 1792 1806 1815 1866 1871 1888 A. D. 1347 1378 1400 1410 1438 1440 1493 1519 1656 1864 1576 1612 1619 1837 1667 1705 1711 1741 1745 1766 1790 1792 1806 1815 1S66 1871 1888 1918 A. D. 1286 1316 1361 1352 1361 1414 1415 1469 1500 1603 1527 1652 1557 1578 1608 1640 1678 1686 1697 1708 1741 1747 1768 A. D. 1347 1378 1419 1410 1438 1486 1493 1619 156S 1564 1576 1612 1619 1637 1657 1705 1711 1740 1746 1765 1790 1792 1835 1797 1859 1888 KINGS AlVD QUEENS OP ENGLAND Name Lineage Period of Reign Birth Death ANGLO-SAXON KINGS A.D. A.D. A.D. A.D. Egbert, . . . First King of all England, 827 837 776? 837 Ethelwulf, . Son of Egbert, . 838 857 858 » 860?' J Ethelbald, 1 Ethelbert, Son of Ethelwulf 857 860 Second son of Ethelwulf, . 860 866 866? Ethelred I Third son of Ethelwulf, 866 871 871 Alfred the Great, Fourth son of Ethelwulf, •Son of Alfred, 871 901 849 901 Edward the Elder, 901 924 870? 924 Athelstan, Eldest son of Edward, 925 940 895? 941 Edmund I., . . Brother of Athelstan, 940 946 923 946 or 8 Edred, ■. . Brother of Edmund I., 946 956 966? Edwy, . . Son of Edmund I., . . 966 959 939? 959 Edgar Second son of Edmund I., 959 975 943? 975 Edward the Martyr, . Son of Edgar 976 978 961? 978 Ethelred II., . . Half-brother of Edward, 978 1016 1018 Edmund Ironside, Eldest son of Ethelred, ... DANISH KINGS 1016 1017 989 1017 Canute, By conquest and election, ... 1017 1035 995 1035 Harold I. (Harefoot), Son of Canute, 1036 1040 1040 Hardicanute, . Another son of Canute, . . . SAXON KINGS 1040 1042 1019 1042 Edward the Confessor, Son of Ethelred II 1042 1066 1004 1066 Harold II., Brother-in-law of Edward, ... ... NORMAN KINGS 1066 .... 1022 1066 William I., . . . . Obtained the Crown by conquest, . . Third son of William 1., . . 1066 1087 1027 1087 William II., 1087 1100 1056 1100 Henry I Youngest son of William I., . . . 1100 1136 1068 1135 Stephen, Third son of Stephen, Count of Blois, . . THE PLANTAGENETS 1135 1164 1105 1154 Henry II., . Son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, . . 1154 1189 1133 1189 ♦Frederick III., son of William I„ was emperor from March 9 to June 15, 1888. HISTORY 151 KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENOLAND- - Continued Name LlNBAGE Period of Reign Birth Death Richard I. the Lion- A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. hearted Eldest surviving son of Henry II., . . 1189 1199 1167 1199 John Youngest son of Henry II 1199 1216 1166 1216 Henry III., Eldest son of John 1216 1272 1207 1272 Edward I., . Eldest son of Henry III 1272 1307 1239 1307 Edward II., Eldest surviving son of Edward I 1307 1327 1284 1327 Edward III., ... Eldest son of Edward II 1327 1377 1312 1377 Richard II., Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III. HOUSE OF LANCASTER 1377 1396 1366 1400 Henry IV., Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., 1399 1413 1366? 1413 Henry v., . Eldest son of Henry IV., 1413 1422 1388 1422 Henry VI Only son of Henry V HOUSE OF YORK 1422 1461 1421 1471 Edward IV., . His grandfather was Richard, son of Edmund, fifth son of Edward III., . . 1461 1483 1441 1483 Edward V Eldest son of Edward IV 1483 1470 1483 Richard III Younger brother of Edward IV., HOUSE OF TUDOR 1483 1485 1452 1485 Henry VII., . Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor, by Katharine, widow of Henry V.; his mother, Margaret Beaufort, was great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt 1486 1509 1457 1509 Henry VIII., . . Only surviving son of Henry VII., ... 1509 1647 1491 1547 Edward VI., . . Son of Henry VIII. by Jane Seymour, .... 1547 1553 1637 1553 Mary I., Daughter of Henry VIII. by Katharine of Aragou, 1553 1558 1516 1558 Elizabeth, Daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn, i . HOUSE OF STUART 1,558 1603 1533 1603 Son of Mary, Queen of Soots, granddaughter of James IV., and Margaret, . 1603 1625 1666 1625 Charles I Only surviving son of James I., . Commonwealth declared May 19, ... 1625 1649 1600 1649 Commonwealth, . •( Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector, J 1649 1658 1599 1658 Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector, .... 1626 1712 HOUSE OF STUART RESTORED Charles II., Eldest son of Charles I., . . . ... 1660 1686 1630 1685 Second son of Charles I 16J5 1688 1633 1701 William III. ( Son of William, Prince of Orange, by Mary, daughter of Charles I., . . 1660 1702 Mary II., 1 Eldest daughter of James II., .... 1689 1702 1662 1694 Anne, . Second daughter of James II., ... HOUSE OF HANOVER 1702 1714 1665 1714 Son of Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I., 1714 1727 1660 1727 Only son of George I., . 1727 1760 1683 1760 George III., Grandson of George II., . 1760 1820 1738 1820 George IV., . Eldest son of George III., ... 1820 1830 1762 1830 William IV., Third son of George III., 1830 1837 1765 1837 Victoria, . . Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George III., HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG* 1837 1901 1819 1901 Edward VII., Son of Victoria, . . . . 1901 1910 1841 1910 George V., . . Son of Edward VII., 1910 1866 GOTEBNOBS-GENEBAL OF CANADA Governor-Genebal LZNEAOE Term of Office Birth Death The Right Hon. Vis- count Monck, . . . The Right Hon. Lord Lisgar, G. C. M; G., . The Right Hon. the Earl of Dufferin, K. P., K. C. B., G. C. M. G.,. . The Right Hon. the Mar- quis of Lome, K. T., G.C.M.G., P. C, . . The Most Hon. the Mar- . quis of Lansdowne, G. C. M. G The Right Hon. Lord Stanley of Preston, . The Right Hon. the Earl of Aberdeen, K. T., . The Right Hon. the Earl of Miato, G. C. M. G., The Right Hon.the Earl Grey, G. C. M. G., . His Royal Highness.the Duke of Connaught, His Grace, the Duke of Devonshire Charles Monck, British statesman, made a peer of the United Kingd9m in 1866, Baron Lisgar, a British politician (Sir John Young) Was created Marquis of Dufferin in 1888 (Fred- erick Temple Hamilton Blackwood), . Eldest son of the eighth Duke of Argyll (John George Henry Douglas Sutherland Camp- bell) Fifth Marquis of Lansdowne (Henry Charles Keith«Petty-Fitzmaurice) Sixteenth Earl of Derby (Frederick Arthur Stanley) Seventh Earl and first _ Marquis of Aberdeen (John Campbell Hamilton Gordon) Fourth Earl of Minto (Gilbert John Elliot- Murray Kynynmound), Fourth Earl Grey (Albert Henry George), . . Duke of Connaught (Prince Arthur William Patrick Albert) Ninth Duke of Devonshire, (Victor Christian William Cavendish), 1867 1869 1872 1878 1883 1888 1893 1898 1904 1911 1916 1869 1872 1878 1883 1888 1893 1898 1904 1911 1916 1819 1807 1826 1845 1846 1841 1847 1845 1851 1850 1868 1894 1876 1902 1914 1908 1914 1917 *Caianged to House of Windsor by George V., July, 1917. 152 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS PBEMIEBS OF CANADA Name Seevice Term Years Born Died Rt. Hon. Sir John A< Maodonald, , Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, . . Rt. Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald, Hon. Sir J. J. C. Abbott, .... Rt. Hon. Sir J. S. D. Thompson, Hon. Sir Mackenzie Bowell, . . Hon. Sir Charles Tapper, Bart, Rt. Hon. Wilfrid Laurier, Hon. Robert Laird Borden^ 1867-1873 1873-1878 1878-1891 1891-1892 1892-1894 1894-1896 ■ 1896- Jan. 15 to July 8, 1896-1911 1911-.... 6 5 3 1 2 2 15 1815 1822 ;e above) 1821 1844 1823 1821 1841 1854 1891 1892 (see above) 1893 1894 1917 1915 1919 Russia. The origin of the Russian Empire is involved in much obscurity, but it is usually regarded as having been founded by Rurik, a Scandinavian (Varangian), about 862, his domin- ions and those of his immediate successors com- prising Novgorod, Kieff, and the surrounding country. Vladimir the Great (980-1015), the Charlemagne of Russia, introduced Christianity and founded several cities and schools. But from this period down to the time when the country was overrun by the Tartars, Russia was almost constantly the scene of civil war. For more than two centuries Russia was subject to the Tartars. But Russia's real foundation may be said to date from the accession of Peter the Great in 1689, who first secured to the country the attention of the more civiUzed nations of Europe. His first military achievement was his conquest of Azov from the Turks in 1696, which, however, he lost again in 1711. He also completed the conquest of Siberia; and, what was of more importance, obtained from Sweden by the Peace of Nystad, in 1721, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, or part of Kareha, the Territory of Viborg, Oesel, and all the other islands in the Baltic from Courland to Viborg. Catharine I., widow of Peter I., succeeded on the death of the latter, but died after a reign of only two years. ' The throne was then occupied successively by Peter II., 1727-30; by Anna, 1730-40; by Ivan VI., 1740-41; by EUzabeth, 1741-62; by Petw III., about six months in 1762; by Catharine II., wife of Peter III., 1762-96; by Paul, 1796-1801; by Alexander I., 1801-25; by Nicholas, 1825- 65; by Alexander II., 1855-81. During all these reigns the growth of the empire was con- tinuous. The Krghiz Cossacks were subdued in 1731, the Ossetes in 1742; the Finnish Prov- ince of Kymenegard was gained by the Treaty of Abo in 1743. The three partitions of Poland took place under Catharine II. in 1772, 1793, and 1795. Russia acquired nearly two-thirds of this once powerful state. By the Peace of Kut- chuk-Kainarji in 1774, the Turks gave up Azov, part of the Crimea (the other part was taken possession of in 1783), and Kabardah; and by the Peace of J^assy in 1792, Oczakov. Georgia also came under the protection of Russia in 1783, and Courland was incorporated in 1795. A por- tion of Persian Territory had already been ac- quired; and in 1801 the formal annexation of Georgia was effected. The Peace of Fredriks- hamn, 1809^ robbed Sweden of the whole of Finland, which now passed to Russia; the Peace of Bucharest, 1812. took Bessarabia from the Turks; that of Tiftis, 1813, deprived the Per- sians of parts of the Caucasus; and then the Vienna Congress of 1815 gave the remainder of Poland to Russia. After fresh wars, the Persians lost the provinces of Erivan and Nakhichevan in 1828; and the Turks lost Anapa, Poti, Akhal- zik, etc., by the Peace of Adrianople in 1829. The desire to possess further dominions of the sultan led to a war against Turkey in 1853, in which England, France, and Sardinia also took part in 1854, and which ended in the Peace of Paris, 1856. The Russians were compelled to restore to Moldavia the left bank of the Danube in Bessarabia. This district, however, was again restored to Russia by the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which followed the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. In 1858, Russia acquired by agree- ment with China the sparsely populated but widely extended district of the Amur; the sub- jection of Caucasia was accomphshed in 1859 and 1864, and considerable conquests have fol- lowed since 1866 both in Turkestan and the rest of Central Asia. A ukase of 1868 annihilated the last remains of the independence of Poland by incorporating it completely in the czardom. On the other hand, Russian America was sold to the United States in 1867. The following table win show at a glance the extent of these continuous accessions of territory: The extent of Russian Territory under — Ivan the Great, . . 1462, about 382,716 sq. m. Vassih Ivanovitch, . 1505, " 610,288 " Ivan the Terrible, . 1584, " 1,530,864 " Alexis Michaelovitch, 1650, " 5,039,094 " Peter I., 1689, " 5,953,360 " Anna, .... • 1730, " 6,888,888 " Catharuxe II., . . . 1775, " 7,122,770 " Alexander II., . . . 1868, " 7,866,940 " Alexander II„ . . . 1881, " 8,325,393 " Alexander III.,. . . 1892, " 8,644,100 " Nicholas II., . . . 1909, " 8,647,657 " The population from 14,000,000 in 1722 has grown to 160,095,200 in 1909. iThe extension of the Russian Empire in the East is stiU going on. In 1881, the Tekke Turcomans were sub- jected; in 1884, Merv was taken, and Penjdeh was occupied and annexed in 1885, which led to considerable friction between Russia and Britain. Of late years a great disturbing element to the Government of Russia has sprung up in Nihilism. Alexander II. was killed by their agency, and many attempts have been made to murder the succeeding emperors. In 1891, flour and grain were sent by the United States to relieve distress caused by failure of the harvest. Oppressive measures against the Jews have excited unfav- orable comment. Alexander III. died Novem- ber 1, 1894, and was succeeded by his son, Nicho las II. In 1900, following the Boxer RebeUion, China gave to Russia exclusive mining and rail- way privileges in Manchuria, and the command HISTORY 153 of all the Chinese troops there to the Russian authorities. This occupation was to end in three years, and the delay in the withdrawal of Russian troops led to open hostilities between Russia and Japan in 1904. (See Russo-Japanese War.) During 1905-06, Russia was much per- turbed by internal and insurrectionary distur- bance^. In October of 1905 the Czar issued a manifesto, assuring civil hberty, freedom of the press, extension of the suffrage, and limited representative government. When Austria-Hungary made war upon Servia, 1914, Russia mobilized a portion of her troops "for reason of defense against the prepara- tions of Austria." A general mobilization was ordered July 31. Germany, supporting Austria, at once declared war upon Russia (See War of Nations). With Grand ,Duke Nicholas com- mander-in-chief of army and navy, the Russians attacked Austrian Galicia, looking forward to an attack on Berhn. They were driven out of Prussia, but met with some successes in Galicia. Early in August, Russia promised Poland auton- omy for loyalty. In September, it was esti- mated, 1,000,000 Austrians faced 1,500,000 Russians along a battle front of 175 miles. March 22, 1915, Przemysl, great Austrian for- tress in Galicia, was taken by the Russians after siege begun early in the war; it was recaptured by Austro-German forces June 3. Slowly the Russians fell back before the Germans; the storm- ing of Warsaw began July 23 ; the city was entered by German troops Aug. 5 after withdrawal of the Russians; within a month thereafter the German troops took 12 Russian fortresses. Early in 1916 Russian forces were engaged along battle lines from Riga to the Rumanian border and in Persia and Asiatic Turkey. Feb. 16 they took the Turkish fortress at Erzerum, Armenia. In March, besides advancing west- ward in Turkey, Russian forces bombarded the Black sea coast towns and advanced rapidly into Persia. Early in 1917 the ever-growing revolutionary party in the duma acquired sufficient power to force the abdication of Nicholas II (March 15). A provisional government was then estabhshed, of which Kerensky became the head. After a period of great internal dissension, resulting in the disorganization of the army, the Bolsheviki, representing the Soviets or soldiers' and work- men's councils, in November seized control of the government. Under the leadership of Trotzky and Lenine an armistice with Germany was ar- rangedj culminating in a separate peace signed at Brest-Litovsk early in 1918 whereby the Bol- shevik government agreed to cede to Germany much valuable Russian territory and to pay a huge indemnity. Russo-Japanese War. A war between Russia and Japan, waged in Manchuria (1904-05). The chief cause of the war was the occupation of Manchuria by Russia after the Boxer uprising of 1899-1900, endangering Japanese preponder- ance in Korea. An earlier cause of irritation was the action of Russia, Germany, and France in preventing the jetention by Japan of Port Arthur and the Liao-tung peninsula after the Chinese-Japanese war of 1894-95, and the subsequent leasing of this territory from China by Russia. The principal events of the war were rupture of diplomatic relations with Russia by Japan, Feb. 6, 1904; attacks of the Japanese fleet upon the Russian squadron at Port Arthur, Feb. 8 and 9; naval fight off Chemulpo, Feb. 9; war declared by Japan, Feb. 10; agreement be- tween Japan and Korea signed at Seul, Feb. 23; Vladivostok bombarded by Admiral Kamimura, March 6; Port Arthur bombarded, March 21-22; Wiju occupied by the Japanese, April 6-7; de- struction of the Russian battleship "Petropav- lovk," April 13; defeat of the Russians by the Japanese first army. May 1 ; the entrance to Port Arthur blocked for battleships and cruisers. May 3; Japanese battleship "Hatsuse" sunk by a mine. May 15; Japanese victory at Kinohau (capture of Nan-shan HiU), May 27-28; occupa- tion of Dalny by the Japanese, May 29-30; Russians defeated at Telissu and Wafangkau, June 14-15; unsuccessful sortie of Russian fleet from Port Arthur, June 23; investment of Port Arthur, July 31, 1904— Jan. 1, 190S; sortie of the Port Arthur fleet, resulting in a sea battle, in which most of the R.ussian vessels were driven back to Port Arthur and the rest dispersed, Aug. 10; Vladivostok squadron defeated, Aug. 14; battle of Liao-yang, resulting in the success of the Japanese, the Russians retiring upon Mukden, Aug. 27 — Sept. 4; battle of the Shaho, in which the Russian attack was repulsed, Oct. 9-14; the Baltic fleet sailed for the Far East, Oct., 1904, and attacked the Hull fishing fleet on the Dogger- bank, on the night of Oct. 21-22; Port Arthur surrendered, Jan. 1, 1905; Russians crossed the Hun river and attacked the Japanese at Haikautai, but were repulsed, Jan. 25-29; battle of Mukden resulted in the capture of the city, Feb. 19 — March 10; the Baltic fleet reached Kamranh bay, April 12; battle of the Sea of Japan and the annihilation of the Baltic fleet by Admiral Togo, May 27-28; President Roose- velt urged the Russian and Japanese governments to negotiate for peace, June 8; plenipotentiaries met at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Aug. 9; treaty of peace signed, Sept. 5, 1905. St. Bartholomew, Massacre of, a massacre of the Huguenots which took place in Paris, France, beginning on the night of August 23-24 (St. Bartholomew's Day), 1572. A large number of prominent Huguenots had been invited to the royal palace to participate in the wedding festivities of Henry of Navarre. While these guests were in the palace they were slaugh- tered without mercy, and at a signal the massacre quickly spread over the city. The anti-Hugue- not leaders were Charles IX., the Queen-mother Catharine de' Medici, and the Diie of Guise. The massacre spread over France and it is variously estimated that 2,000 to 100,000 Kves were lost. Salic, or Salique La-w, The (slll'->lk). An ancient fundamental law of the Ripuarian Franks, which excluded females from inheriting the French throne. It is supposed to have been established by Pharamond or Clovis, and to have derived its name from the River Saale, in Saxony, whence those Franks originally came. This body of law was revised and reconstituted by Charlemagne; according to it "no portion of Salic land can fall to females," but what was 154 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS meant by Salic land has been long debated among French antiquaries. It was the cause of long wars between England and France, when, in opposition to it, Edward III. claimed the throne of France by a title prior to that of Philip of Valois. It has been recognized in all countries of which the crown has developed on a member of the blood royal of France; it formed the foundation of the pretensions of Don Carlos to the Spanish Crown. It was observed with reference to the great fiefs which had been granted to princes of the blood, by way of appanage; and hence, on the death of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, without a male heir, that duchy reverted to Louis XI. Scotland was first visited by the Roman troops under Agricola, who penetrated to the foot of the Grampian Mountains. It was after- ward exposed to the ravages of the Norwegians and Danes, with whom many bloody battles were fought. Various contests were also maintained with the kings of England. Robert Bruce, how- ever, secured the independence of the country and his title to the throne by the decisive battle of Bannockbum in 1314. He was succeeded by his nephew, Robert Stewart, and he by his eldest son, Robert. The latter was a weak prince, and the government was seized by the Duke of Albany, who stoned to death the eldest son of the king. James, his second son, to escape a similar fate, fled to France; in the year 1424 he returned to Scotland, and, having excited the jealousy of the nobility, he was assassinated in a monastery near Perth. James II., his son, an infant prince, succeeded him in 1437. He was killed by the bursting of a cannon at the siege of the castle of Roxburgh. James III. ascended the throne at the age of seven years. His reign was weak and inglorious, and he was murdered in the house of a miller, whither he had fled for protection. James IV., a generous and brave prince, began his reign in 1488. He was slain at the battle of Flodden. James V., an infant of less than two years of age, succeeded to the crown. He died in 1542, and was succeeded by his daughter, the celebrated Queen Mary. She was succeeded by her son James, who, in 1603, ascended the throne of England, vacant by the death of Queen EUzabeth, when the two king- doms were united into one great monarchy which was legislatively united in 1707. Servla. The Serbs, an agricultural people of Gahcia, entered the country about 637. From the eighth to the twelfth century they were under Greek or Bulgarian suzerainty. Servia reached its height under Stephen Dushan (1331- 1355), when the empire included Bosnia, Al- bania, Thessaly, part of Bulgaria and nearly all of the Hellenic peninsula. The battle of Kossovo, June 15, 1389, gave Servia to Turkey. It was fully subjugated in 1459; during 345 years of Turkish rule Servia was reduced to a race of peasants. They gained autonomy in 1817. Complete independence was established by the treaty of Berlin, 1878. Prince Peter was pro- claimed king in 1903 after the assassination of King Alex. I. and Queen Natalie. Austria's aimexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1908, was resented. The Balkan states made war on Turkey, 1912. By the peace of London, 1913, Servia's territory was extended. The murder of the Austrian heir-apparent in Bosnia, June 28, 1914, the suspicion of Servian complicity and Austrian-Hungary's ultimatum to Servia led to the declaration of war (See Wai of Nations, also Austriar Hungary). Seven Years' War, The (1756-63), was the third, last, and most terrible of the con- tests between Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria Theresa (with the other powers of Europe on one side or the other) for the pos- session of Silesia. In 1763 Maria Theresa, sorely against her will, was finally compelled to conclude the peace of Hubertusburg, which acknowledged Frederick as Lord of Silesia. This long and desperate conflict made no change in the territoii^ distribution of Europe, but it increased tenfold the .moral power of Prussia, and gave its army a prestige which it retained till the battle of Jena. It cost Europe 1,000,000 Hves, and prostrated the strength of almost all the powers who had engaged in it. Shays's Rebellion. At the close of the Revolution, the United States were burdened with a very heavy foreign and domestic debt. They were impoverished by the long war, and it was diSicult to raise the means to meet the arrears of pay due the soldiers of the Revolution. On the recommendation of Congress, each State endeavored to provide means for raising its quota by a direct tax. This effort produced much excitement in some of the States, and, finally, in 1787, a portion of the people of Massa- chusetts openly rebelled. Daniel Shays, who had been a captain in the Continental Army, marched at the head of a thousand men, took possession of Worcester, and prevented a ses- sion of the Supreme Court. He repeated his performance at Springfield, and the insurrection soon became so formidable that the governor was compelled to call out several thousand militia under General Lincoln, to suppress it. Though some of the insurgents were sentenced to death, none was executed. Sicilies, Tlie Two, a former kingdom of Italy, consisting of Naples (or South Italy) and Sicily. In 1047, while Greeks and Saracens were struggUng for the possession of Lower Italy and Sicily, the twelve sons of Tancred de Haute- ville, a count in Lower Normandy, came in with their followers. Robert Guiscard, one of these brothers, subdued Apulia and Calabria, taldng the title of duke, and his youngest brother. Count Roger, conquered Sicily. Roger's son and successor, Roger II., completed the conquest of all Lower Italy by subduing Capua, Amalfi, and Naples, at that time celebrated commercial repubhcs, and in 1130 took the title of king, calling his kingdom the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1759, when Charles IV. ascended the Spanish throne under the name of Charles III., he conferred the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies on his third son Ferdinand, and decreed at the same time that it should never again be united to the Spanish Monarchy. The reign of Ferdinand extended through the stormy period of the French Revolution and the subsecjuent European commotions, i^ varied experience followed, during which the country was succes- sively subject to Germany, France, and Spain. HISTOEY 155 In 1860, an insurrection broke out in Sicily, and an expedition of volunteers from Piedmont and other Italian provinces under Garibaldi sailed from Genoa to the assistance of the insurgents. The result was that the Neapolitan troops were driven from the island. Garibaldi, following up his success, crossed over to the mainland, wliere he met little or no opposition; Francis II. fled from Naples; the strong places in his hands were reduced; and by a popular vote the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to exist as such and became an integral part of the Kingdom of Italy. Sicilian. Vespers, the name given to a massacre of the French in Sicily, March 30, 1282. On the evening of Easter Monday the conspira- tors were already assembled at Palermo; but the massacre was precipitated by an outrage offered by a Frenchman to a Sicilian bride, who was passing along the streets with her train. Instantly the Frenchman was killed, and, the populace being aroused by the conspirators, all the French who could be foimd in the city were slaughtered. Eight thousand were slain in Palermo alone, and the massacre afterwards spread over the island, the French being even dragged out of the churches to which they had fled for protection. The six hundredth anni- versary of the Sicilian Vespers was celebrated with much enthusiasm at Palermo in 1882. Slavery. The establishment of one man's right to control the liberty, property, and even life of another. Slavery probably arose at an early period of the world's history out of the accident of capture in war. Savages, in place of massacring their captives, found it more profitable to keep them in servitude. All the ancient Oriental nations of whom we have any records, including the Jews, had their slaves. In Greece in general, and especially at Athens, slaves were mildly treated, and enjoyed a large share of legal protection, while by the Romans they were used with considerable rigor. The English word slave is simply the name of the Sclavonian race. The wars of the Prankish kmgs and emperors filled Saracenic Spain with Sclavonic captives to such an extent that in its language, as well as in those of other European coimtries, a natural name meaning, in its own tongue, glorious, became the title of servitude. The African slave trade was commenced by the Portuguese in 1442; it was, however, of only trifling extent till the Sixteenth Century. But the importation of negroes into the West Indies and America having once begun, it gradually increased, until the vastness and importance of the traffic rivaled its cruelty and guilt. The slave trade was abolished in England m 1807 but it was only in 1834 that slavery itself was abolished throughout the British dominions. Long before that time, several of the North American States had decreed the extinction of slavery. Vermont abolished it in 1777, before she had joined the Union. Pennsylvania in 1780, Rhode Island and Connecticut shortly after. New York in 1797, and New Jersey in 1804, provided for the gradual emancipation of their slaves. In Massachusetts the_ Supreme Court declared that slavery was abolished by the act of adopting the State Constitution of 1780. In 1820, the United States passed a law declaring the slave ti;ade to be piracy, but no conviction was obtained under the statute until November, 1861, when Nathaniel Gordon, master of a vessel called the "Erie," was convicted and hanged at New York. Finally, the abohtion of slavery, cause and fruit of the gigantic war of secession, was definitively consecrated in 1865 by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. The French emancipated their negroes in 1848, and the Dutch in 1863. Slavery was also partially abolished in Brazil in 1871, and gradual emancipation has been adopted in Cuba. South Carolina. The first attempt to colonize the territory now included in South Carolina was made by Jean Ribault, a French- man, in 1662. The first permanent settlement was made by English colonists, who planted themselves on the banks of the Ashley m 1670, but removed to the site of Charleston in 1680. The province was created by Charles II. in 1683. Both the Carolinas were included under a com- mon name and proprietary government till 1729, when the king, formed the province into two royal colonies. Large numbers of French Hugue- nots had arrived in 1685, and subsequently Swiss, Irish, and German colonists. South Carolina suffered severely from Indian depreda- tions, and joined with Georgia, under Oglethorpe, in a contest with Spanish Florida. She took an active part in the Revolution, and the battles of Fort Moultrie, Charleston, Camden, King's Mountain, Cowpens, Eutaw Springs, etc., were fought on her soil. The United States Constitu- tion was ratified in 1788. In 1832, the State passed the Nullification Act, which threatened civil war, then happily averted, but afterward precipitated in 1861 by the firing on Fort Sum- ter. The State was readmitted to federal rela- tions in 1868. From 1865 until 1871 there were reconstruction troubles, ending with the election of Wade Hampton as Governor of the State and his recognition by President Hayes. In 1886 Charleston suffered from a severe earthquake which caused much property loss. The present State constitution was adopted in 1897. In 1915 constitutional Prohibition was adopted by an overwhelming majority. South Dakota. South Dakota became a State November 2, 1889, when the Territory of Dakota was divided into two States. The history of that part of the country will be found under Minnesota, Nebraska, and North Dakota. A pro- hibitory amendment was adopted at the first state election, but, ov/ing to an adverse U. S. Supreme. Court decision, did not go into effect. Consti- tutional Prohibition was again adopted in 1916. Spain, the Spania, Hispania, and Iberia of the Greeks, and known to the Romans by the same names, is supposed to have been originally inhabited" by a distinct race called Iberians, upon whom a host of Celts are supposed to have descended from the Pyrenees. These two races coalesced and formed the mixed nation of the Celtiberians. About the middle of the Third Century B. C. the Carthaginian influence began to be felt in Iberia, and a considerable tract of territory was brought under subjection to Carthage by Hamilcar, who founded the city of 156 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS Barcelona. The Romans had driven the Car- thaginians from the peninsula in 206 B. C, and the country was erected into a Roman Province. From the time of the complete supremacy of the Romans till the death of Constantine the con- dition of Spain was eminently prosperous. Everywhere throughout the country towns of purely Roman character sprang up, and numer- ous aqueducts, bridges, amphitheaters, etc., were built. Spain was for three centuries the richest Province of the Roman Empire. In 409 A. D., ordes of barbarians, Alans, Vandals, and Suevi, crossed the Pyrenees and swept over and des- olated the peninsula. About 412 the Visigoths invaded the country, and their king, Athaulf, established the Gothic monarchy in Catalonia. In 711 the Moors obtained mastery of nearly the whole of Spain. The Moors held Spain for the first few years as a dependency of the province of North Africa; but after the down- fall of Musa the country was governed (717) by emirs appointed by the Caliph of Damascus. During the period of Moorish domination the small independent kingdom of Asturias, or Leon, had been growing in power and extent. In 758 a second independent Christian Kingdom was founded in Sobrarve, which was in 801 swallowed up by the caliphate of Cordova. Thirty-six years afterward was founded the third Christian Kingdom, that of Navarre, and in 933 another independent monarchy was founded in Castile, which, from its central position and consequent greater facilities for expansion, soon became the most powerful of the Spanish states. The Kingdom of Aragon was the last Christian kingdom formed in Spain. The rest of the history of the Spanish kingdoms before their union is undeserving of a detailed account. Ferdinand II., the last sovereign of Aragon, by marriage with Isabella, Queen of Castile, in 1469, by the conquest of Granada in 1492, and that of Navarre in 1512, united the whole of Spain (and French Navarre) under one rule. Charles I. (Charles V. of Germany) succeeded Ferdinand, and in his reign Mexico and Peru were added to the possessions of Spain. Philip II., by his enormous war expenditure and maladminis- tration, laid a sure foundation for the decline of the country; and the reigns of Philip III. and IV. witnessed a fearful acceleration in the decline. That of Charles II. was still more unfortunate, and the death of the latter was the occasion of the War of the Spanish Succession. Philip V. was the first of the Bourbon Dynasty who occupied the throne of Spain. Under , Charles III. (1759-88) the second great revival of the country commenced, and trade and com- merce began to show signs of returning activity. During the inglorious reign of Charles IV. (1788-1808) a war broke out with Britain, which was productive of nothing but disaster to the Spaniards and by the pressure of the French another arose in 1804, and was attended with similar ill success. Charles's eldest son ascended the throne as Ferdinand VII. Forced by Napo- leon to resign all claims to the Spanish Crown, Ferdinand became a prisoner of the French, and Joseph, the brother of the French Emperor, was declared King of Spain and the Indies. But before this time an armed resistance had been organized throughout the whole country. The various provinces elected juntas, or councils, consisting of the most influential inhabitants of the respective neighborhoods, and it was their business to administer local rule. The Supreme Council of Seville declared war against Napoleon and France in 1808. England, on solicitation, made peace with Spain, recognized Ferdinand VII. as king, and sent an army to aid the Spanish insurrection. After many bloody campaigns the French were driven from the country. The reign of Ferdinand's daughter, Isabella II., was disturbed by the Carlist rebel- lion, 1834-39. Frequent changes of ministry, occasional revolts, the banishment of Queen Christina, the war with the Moors, the annexa- tion of Santo Domingo in 1861, and the quarrels between Spain and her former colonies, Peru and Chile, were the most marked events in the more recent history of Spain. In 1868, Isabella was driven from the throne by a general revolt; and the Cortes, in 1871, elected Prince Amadeo of Italy to be king. Finding the task of ruling constitutionally hopeless, Amadeo abdicated in 1873, upon which the form of government was changed into a republic. During the remainder of 1873, and the whole of 1874, Spain was the scene of general anarchy and much bloodshed. In December, 1874, Alfonso, son of ex-Queen Isabella, was declared King of Spain at Santan- der, under the title of Alfonso XII. He died in 1886, and his widow. Queen Maria Christina, was chosen regent during the minority of the infant Prince Alfonso XIII. The Prince reached his majority. May 17, 1902, and became king. On May 31, 1904, he married Princess Ena of Battenberg. Industrial and revolutionary dis- turbances in 1911 culminated in the assassination of Premier Canalejas in November, 1912. His administration is regarded as the most stable Spain has had in many years. Spanish-American War. In 1898, a crisis in Cuban affairs brought on war with the United States, known as the Spanish-American War, which from its opening to its close lasted 114 days. In that time the United States land and sea forces destroyed two Spanish fleets, received the surrender of more than 35,000 Spanish soldiers, took by conquest the fortified cities of Santiago de Cuba, in Cuba, Ponce, in Porto Rico, and Manila, on the island of Luzon, in the Philippines, and secured con- trol, pending negotiations of peace, of the entire Spanish possessions in the West Indies, the Philippines, and Guam of the Ladrone Islands. The Americans suffered no loss of ships or territory and but 279 killed and 1,465 wounded in battle, while 4;he cost to Spain, aside from prisoners, ships, and lost territory, was 2,199 killed, and 2,948 wounded. The cost to the United States in money was $141,000,000. The principal events preceding and during the war and the dates on which they occurred are as follows: February 16th — The United States battleship "Maine" was blown up in the harbor of Havana. According to the report of the Court of Inquiry appointed by the United States the explosion was due to an external HISTORY 157 AprU 20th — ^President McKinley, authorized by Congress to intervene in Cuba, using the United States military and naval forces, sent an ultimatum to Spain. The Spanish minister at once left Washington, and the next day the United States minister left Madrid. April 22d — A proclamation was issued by the President blockading the principal ports of Cuba. April 23d — President McKinley issued a call for 125,000 volunteers to serve for two years. April 27th — The batteries of Matanzas, Cuba, were shelled by Admiral Sampson's flagship, the "New York," with the monitor Puri- tan'' and the cruiser "Cincinnati." April 29th — The Spanish fleet, commanded by Admiral Cervera, consisting of the "Cristo- bal Colon," the "Almirante Oquendo," the "Maria Teresa" and the "Viscaya," and the torpedo boats "Furor," "Terror," and "Pluton," left the Cape Verde Islands for Cuba. May 1st — Commodore Dewey, commanding the United States Asiatic squadron, destroyed the entire Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, Philippines, without losing a man. r 11th— The "Wilmington," "Winslow," and "Hudson" engaged the Spanish batteries at Cardenas. Ensign Bagley and four of the "Winslow's" crew were killed. Major- General Wesley Merritt was ordered to the Philippines as military governor. May 12th — -A United States fleet, commanded by RearTAdmiral Sampson, bombarded the fortifications of San Juan, Porto Rico. May 19th — ^Admiral Cervera's fleet reached San- tiago de Cuba, and a few days later was "bottled up" there by the "flying squad- ron " of Commodore Schley. May 25th— President McKinley called for 75,000 more volunteers. Twenty-five hundred United States troops sailed from San Fran- cisco for Manila, several thousand more following at a later date. May 31st — ^The "Massachusetts," "Iowa," and "New Orleans" bombarded the fortifica- tions at the mouth of Santiago Harbor. They were bombarded again several times after Admiral Sampson took command of the fleet. June 3d— -Assistant Naval Constructor Hobson with seven men ran the collier "Merrimac" to the mouth of Santiago Harbor and sank her in the channel under the fire from the Spanish forts.. Hobson and his men were taken prisoners. June 10th— Six hundred marines were landed at Caimanera, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, where sharp skirmishing continued for several days, several Americans being killed. June 12th — The 6th Army Corps, commanded by General Shafter, sailed from Tampa on twenty-nine transports for Santiago, arriv- ing off there on June 20th. June 13th — President McKinley signed the War Revenue Bill, providing for the raising of revenues by a stamp tax and providing for a popular bond loan which was immediately subscribed. June 17th — ^A Spanish fleet under Admiral Camara left Cadiz for the Philippines, but returned after passing through the Suez Canal. June 22d — General Shafter's troops began dis- embarking at Daiquiri and Siboney, near Santiago. June 14th — Roosevelt's Rough Riders were at- tacked while advancing toward Santiago; sixteen Americans were killed and forty more wounded before the Spaniards were repulsed. July Ist-^General Lawton took El Caney, near Santiago, and General Kent, commanding the 1st division of the 5th Army Corps, which included the 2d, 6th, 9th, 10th, 13th, 16th, and 24th infantry, and the 71st New York volunteers, took San Juan Hill after heavy fighting. Official reports gave the American losses 231 killed and 1,364 wounded and missing. July 3d — Admiral Cervera's squadron made a dash out of Santiago Harbor, and every vessel was sunk or disabled by the American fleet. General Shafter demanded the sur- render of Santiago. The seizure of Guama, in the Ladrone Islands, by the "Charles- ton " was reported at this time. July 7th — President McKinley signed resolutions passed by the Senate annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States, and the "Phil- adelphia " was ordered to Honolulu to raise the American flag. July 17th; — General Toral, in conunand of the Spanish troops at Santiago, General Linares being wounded, surrendered his forces and the east portion of the province of Santiago de Cuba to General Shafter. July 21st — General Leonard R. Wood, formerly colonel of the 1st Volunteer cavalry, was appointed military governor of Santiago. July 25th — United States troops, under General Nelson A. Miles, landed at Guanica, Porto Rico, the town having surrendered to the " Gloucester." July 26th — Through the French ambassador, the government of Spain asked President Mc- Kinley on what terms he would consent to peace. July 28th — Ponce, the second largest city in Por- to Rico, surrendered to General Miles, and he was received by the residents with joyful acclamations. Capture of several other towns, with little or no fighting, followed. July 30th — President McKinley's statement of the terms on which he would agree to end the war was given to the French ambassador. The President demanded the independence of Cuba, cession of Porto Rico and one of the Ladrones to the United States, and the retention of Manila by the United States pending the final disposition of the Philip- pines by a joint commission. July 31st — ^United States troops engaged the Spaniards at Malate, near Manila, in the Philippines, and repulsed them, with some loss on both sides. August 9th — The French ambassador presented to President McKinley Spain's reply, accepting his terms of peace. 158 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS August 12th — Protocols agreeing as to the pre- liminaries for a treaty of peace were si^ed by Secretary Hay and the French anabas- sador. United States military and naval commanders were ordered to cease hostili- ties. The blockades of Cuba, Porto Rico, and Manila were lifted and hostilities ended. August 13th — Manila surrendered after a com- bined assault by the army under General Merritt and Dewey's fleet. Sparta or Lacedaemon. A celebrated city of ancient Greece; capital of Laconia and of the Spartan state, and the chief city in the Peloponnesus; on the west bank of the Eurotas River, and embraced a circuit of six miles. Sparta was a scattered city consisting of five separate quarters. Unlike Athens, it was plainly built, and had few notable public build- mgs; consequently, there are no imposing ruins to be seen here as in Athens, and the modem Sparta is only a village of some 4,000 inhabitants. The Spartan state was founded, according to tradition, by Lacedaemon, son of Zeus. The most celebrated of its legendary kings was Menelaus. Shortly after their settlement in the Peloponnesus it is probable that the Spartans extended their sway over all the territory of Laconia, a portion of the inhabitants of which they reduced to the condition of slaves. They also waged war with the Messenians, the Arca- dians, and the Argives, against whom they were so successful that before the close of the Sixth Century B. C. they were recognized as the leading people in all Greece. Early in the following century began the Per- sian wars, in which a rivalry grew up between Athens and Sparta. This rivalry led to the Peloponnesian War, in which Athens was humil- iated and the old ascendency of Sparta regained. Soon after this the Spartans became involved in a war with Persia, and Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and some of the Peloponnesian States took this opportunity to declare war against them. This war, known as the BcEotian or Corinthian War, lasted eight years and increased the reputation and power of Athens. To break the alliance of Athens with Persia, Sparta, in 387 B. C, con- cluded with the latter power the peace known by the name of Antalcidas; and the designs of Sparta became apparent when she occupied, without provocation, the city of Thebes, and introduced an aristocratical constitution there. Pelopidas delivered Thebes, and the celebrated Theban War (378-363) followed, in which Sparta was much enfeebled. During the fol- lowing century Sparta steadily declined, though one or two isolated attempts were made to restore its former greatness. Stadtholder (Dutch, Stadhovder), the name formerly given to the chief magistrate of the United Provinces of Holland. The last Stadtholder was William V., who had to fly to England in 1795, at the invasion of the French Republican army. After the Congress of Vienna (1816), Holland, with Belgium, was erected into a kingdom, and William V., was the first king, under the name of William I. Star-chamber, an ancient English tribu- nal, said to have existed from a very early period, but revived during the reign of Henry VII. One derivation of the name is from the star-covered roof or oeihng of the room in which the tribunal assembled; but this derivation is at least doubt- ful. The tribunal consisted of privy councillors, and of certain judges, who acted without the intervention of a jury. As this was a violation of Magna Charta, and as the tribunal had been guilty of the most grave excesses, especially in the time of Charles I., the Star Chamber was abolished by the Long Parliament in 1641, at the same time as the High Commission Court. Sumter, Fort (named after Genteral Thomas Sumter, 1734-1832), an American fort associated with both the beginning and the end of the Civil War; built of brick, in the form of a truncated pentagon thirty-eight feet high, on a shoal partly artificial, in Charleston Harbor, three and one-half miles from the city. On the withdrawal of South Carolina from the Union in December, 1860; Major Anderson, in command of the defenses of the harbor, aban- doned the other forts, and occupied Fort Sumter, mounting sixty-two guns, with a garrison of some eighty men. The attack on the fort was opened by General Beauregard April 12, 1861, and it surrendered on the 14th; this event marked the beginning of the war. The Confed- erates strengthened it, and added ten guns and four mortars. In April, 1863, an attack by a fleet of monitors failed. In July batteries were Erected on Morris Island, about 4,000 yards off, from which in a week 5,000 projectiles, weighing from 100 to 300 pounds, were hurled against the fort ; at the end of that time it was silenced and in part demolished. Yet the garrison held on amid the ruins and in September beat off a naval attack; and in spite of a forty days' bombard- ment in October-December, 1863, and for still longer in July and August, 1864, it was not till after the evacuation of Charleston itself, owing to the operations of General Sherman, that the garrison retired, and the United States flag was again raised April 18, 1865; an event soon fol- lowed by the evacuation of Richmond and the Confederate surrender. Sweden. When we first hear of Sweden the country was inhabited by numerous tribes, kindred in origin, but politically separate. Two principal groups are recognizable, Goths in the South and Swedes in the North. Ingiald Hrada, the last ruler of the old royal family of the Ynglingar, who drew their origin from Njord, sought to establish a single government in Swe- den and perished in the attempt. To the Ynglingar followed, in the Upland, the dynasty of the Skioldungar. Erik Edmundsson acquired the sovereignty of the whole of Sweden about the end of the Ninth Century. The dawn of Swedish history now begins. Efforts to introduce Christianity were made as early as 829 A. D., but it was not till 1000 A. D., that Olaf Skotko- nung, the Lap King, was baptized. Erik undertook a crusade against the pagan Finns, and having compelled them to submit to bap- tism, and established Swedish settlements among them, he laid the foundation of the union of Finland with Sweden. Erik's murder in 1160 by the Danish prince, Magnus Henriksen, who had made an unprovoked attack upon the Swe- HISTORY 150 dish king, was the beginning of a long series of troubles. In 1389, the throne was offered by the Swedish nobles to Margaret, Queen of Den- mark and Norway, who threw an army into Sweden, defeated the Swedish king, Albert of Mecklenburg, and by the union of Calmar, in 1397, brouglit Sweden under the same scepter with Denmark and Norway. In 1523, Sweden emancipated itself from the union with Denmark, which had become hateful to the Swedes, and rewarded its deliverer, the young Gustaf Vasa, by electing him king, and declaring its indepen- dence of Denmark. Gustaf Vasa, on his death, in 1560, left to his successor a hereditary and well-organized kingdom, a full exchequer, a standing army, and a well-appointed navy. Sigismund, grandson of Vasa, who had been elected king of Poland through the influence of his Polish mother, was compelled to resign the throne in 1599 to his uncle Karl. The deposition of Sigismund gave rise to the Swedo-Polish War of Succession, from 1604-60; and on the death of Karl, in 1611, his son, the great Gustavus Adol- phus, found himself involved in hostilities with Russia, Poland, and Denmark. The young king soon concluded treaties of peace with his northern neighbors, and placed the internal affairs of his kingdom in order, and, although he ranks as one of the greatest military commanders of his age, the extraordinary number of benefits which he conferred on every department of the administrative system of Sweden entitles him to still greater reno\>Ti as the benefactor of his native country. The reign of Christina was disastrous. Karl X. was occupied in generally unsuccessful wars against Poland and Denmark; while the long rule of his son, Karl XI. — from 1660-97 — was characterized by success abroad and the augmentation of the regal power. In 1718, the male line of the Vasas expired with the death of Charles XII. His sister and her husband, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, were called to the throne by election. The weak Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, who was called to the throne on the death of Frederick in 1751, did little to retrieve the evil fortunes of the state; but his son, Gustavus III. (1771-92), skillfully recovered the lost power of the Crown. Gustavus IV. was forcibly de- posed in 1809, and obliged to renounce the Crown in favor of his uncle, Charles XIII. The dominant party in Sweden elected General Bernadotte to the rank of crown-prince, the latter assumed the reins of government, and by his steady support of the allies against the French Emperor secured to Sweden, at the Con- gress of Vienna, the possession of Norway, when that country was separated from Denmark. Under the administration of Bernadotte, who in 1818 succeeded to the throne as Charles XIV. John, the united kingdoms of Sweden and Norway made great advances in material prosperity, and in political and intellectual progress; and, although the nation at large entertained very little personal regard for their aUen sovereign, his son and successor, Oscar (1844-59), and his grandsons. King Charles XV., and King Oscar II., who came to the throne in 1872, so identified themselves with their .subjects that the Berna- dotte Dynasty secured the loyal affections of every section of the united nations of Sweden and Norway down to 1903. In that year serious difficulty arose between Norway and Sweden, owing to the desire of the former for autonomous government. In 1905 the two nations separated, and Oscar II. con- tinued monarch of Sweden until his death, December 8, 1907, when he was succeeded by his oldest son, Gustaf V. Switzerland was in Roman times inhab- ited by two races — the Helvetii, supposed to have been Celts, on the northwest, and the Rhsetians on the southeast. After the conquest of Gaul both races adopted the language and habits of Rome. When the invasions took place the Burgundians settled in Western Switzerland, while the Alemanni, another Germanic tribe, took possession of the country east of the River Aar. A third Teutonic people, the Goths, en- tered the country from Italy and took possession of the country of the Rha;tians. The Helvetii retained their old pagan creed until the Seventh Century, when they were converted by Irish monks. During the Eleventh and Twelfth Cen- turies the greater part of Switzerland was ruled on behalf of the emperors by the lords of Zahr- ingen, who, however, became extinct in 1218. In 1273, Rudolf of Habsburg, a Swiss nobleman, became emperor. Schwyz, Uri, and Unter- walten, with Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Berne, eight cantons in all, in 1352, entered into a perpetual league which was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation. In 1415 the people of the cantons invaded Aargau and Thurgau, parts of the Austrian territory, and annexed them; three years later they crossed the Alps and annexed Ticino, and constituted all three sub- ject states. In 1481 the towns of Freiburg and Soleure were admitted into the confederacy. Basel and Schaffhausen (1501) and Appenzell (1513) were next received into the confedera- tion, and its true independence began. War broke out in 1531 between the Catholics and Protestants, and the former were successful. During the Thirty Years' War Berne and Zurich contrived to maintain the neutrality of Switzer- land, and in the Treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, it was acknowledged by the great powers as a separate and independent state. In 1798, Swit- zerland was seized by the French. At the peace of 1815 its independence was again acknowledged. In 1847, the Jesuits were expelled and the monas- teries were suppressed. An attempt was made by diplomatic notes to intimidate the Swiss Government, but the revolution of 1848 broke out and prevented further interference. In the same year the radical party carried the consti- tution of 1848. After a rebellion against the King of Prussia, as Prince of Neufchatel, the canton was declared a republic, with a constitu- tion similar to that of the other Swiss states. Tarpeian Rock (t&r-pe' yan), a precip- itous rock forming part of the Capitoline Hill at Rome over which persons convicted of treason to the state were hurled. It was so named, according to tradition, from Tarpeia, a vestal virgin of Rome, and daughter of the governor of the citadel on the Capitoline, who, covetous of the golden bracelets worn by the Sabine soldiery, opened the gate to them on the promise of receiv- 160 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS ing what they wore on their left arms. Once inside the gate they threw their shields upon her, instead of the bracelets. She was buried at the base of the Tarpeian Rock. Tartary, properly Tatary, the name under which, in the Middle Ages, was comprised the whole central belt of Central Asia and Eastern Europe, from the Sea of Japan to the Dnieper, including Manchuria, Mongolia, Chinese Turk- estan, Independent Turkestan, the Kalmuck and Kirghiz steppes, and the old khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Crimea, and even the Cossack countries; and hence arose a distinction of Tartary into European and Asiatic. But lat- terly the name Tartary had a much more limited signification, including only Chinese Turkestan and Western Turkestan. It took its name from the Tatars or Tartars. Temple, Solomon's, the building reared by Solomon as a habitation for Jehovah. David had planned the Temple, but was divinely for- bidden to erect it, as he had shed so much blood in his wars. He made great preparations for his son and successor, who, he learned from the prophet Nathan, was destined to achieve the work. It was built on Mount Moriah, chiefly by Tyrian workmen, and had massive foundations. The stone for its erection was dressed before its arrival, so that the edifice arose noiselessly; the floor was of cedar, boarded over with planks of fir; the wainscoting was of cedar, covered with gold, as was the whole interior. It was modeled inside on the tabernacle, which was Jehovah's dwelling while journeyings were con- tinually taking place. There was a Holy and a Most Holy Place. The temple was surrounded by an inner court for the priest. There was also a Great or Outward Court, called specially the Court of the Lord's House. This temple was destroyed by the Babylonians during the siege of Jerusalem under Nebuchadnezzar. On the return from Babylon, a temple, far inferior to Solomon's was commenced imder Zerubbabel, B. C. 634, and, after a long intermission, was resumed B. C. 520, and completed B. C. 516, under Darius Hystaspes. The second temple was gradually removed by Herod, as he pro- ceeded with the building or rebuilding of a temple designed to rival the first rather than the second. The work was commenced B. C. 21 or 20; the temple itself was finished in about a year and a half, the courts in eight years, but the subse- quent operations were carried on so dilatorily that the Jews reckoned forty-six years as the whole time consumed. In the courts of this temple Jesus preached and healed the sick. It caught fire during the siege of Jerusalem under Titus, and was burned to the ground. Tennessee. The name is derived from "Tanase," the Indian appellation of the Little Tennessee River. The first permanent white settlement was made on the Tennessee River, about thirty miles from the site of Knox- ville, and Fort Loudon built. Indian wars lasted till 1761, when the savages were reduced to terms. From 1777 to 1784 the territory formed a portion of North Carolina. During the four years subsequent, the settlers maintained an organization as the State of Frankhn, but were reunited to North Carolina in 1788. In 1789 the Territory, with that of Kentucky, was organ- ized by the United States Government, which had received its cession from North Carolina. In 1794, a distinct territorial organization was made, and in 1796 Tennessee was admitted as a State, the third under the Federal Constitution. The State seceded in June, 1861. The principal military events wi,thin her limits during the Civil War were the capture of Forts Henry and Donel- son, in February, 1862; the battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, in April, 1862; the battle of Murfreesboro, in January, 1863; the battle of Chickamauga, in September, 1863; the battles about Chattanooga, and the battles of Franklin and Nashville, in November, 1864. State was readmitted in 1866. The Centenary of the State was celebrated by an Exposition at Nash- ville in 1897. In 1907 the National Rivers and Harbors Convention met at Memphis. Statutory Prohibition was enacted in 1909. Teutones, a tribe of Germany, which, with the Cimbri, invaded. Gaul in B. C. 113. In B. C. 102, they were defeated with great slaughter near Aquse Sextiae (Aix in the department of Bouches du Rh6ne) by the Roman general Mari- us. A tribe of the same name is mentioned by Pliny and others as inhabiting a district north of the Elbe, which appears to have been the original settlement of the Teutones before their invasion of Gaul. Teutonic Knights, a military religious order of knights, established toward the close of the Twelfth Century, in imitation of the Templars and Hospitallers. It was composed chiefly of Teutons or Germans who marched to the Holy Land in the Crusades, and was established in that country for charitable purposes. In the Thirteenth Century they acquired Poland and Prussia, and they long held sway over a great extent of territory in this part of Europe. The order began to decline in the Fifteenth Century, and was finally abolished by Napoleon in 1809. Texas. The first attempt at colonization known to history was made by La Salle, who sailed into Matagorda Bay, and erected Fort St. Louis on the Lavaca in 1685. Four years later the French were ousted by the Spaniards. The two nationalities contested the dominion of the country with bitterness, though the right of pos- session was for the most part with the Spaniards. In 1716, the name of New Philippines was given to the country, and the Marquis de Aguayo was made governor-general, under whose rule Span- ish settlements were rapidly multiplied. In 1762-63, France settled the feud by her cession of the Louisiana territory to Spain. The reces- sion of Louisiana to France in 1803, and the sale by the latter power to the United States, still left the boundary of the old Spanish possessions west of Louisiana open to controversy, as there had previously been no well-defined line. In 1806, the territory between the Sabine and Arroya Honda was established as a neutral ground by the Spanish and American generals commandmg on the frontier. In the absence of any national settlement, a series of revolutionary intrigues began with the projected movement of Aaron Burr in 1806. Filibustering expeditions into Texas from the United States led to several severe battles, and it was not till 1819 that the HISTORY 161 Sabine River was finally established as the Texan boundary. The revolutionary spirit, which made Texas a region of turmoil, did not cease when Mexico became independent under the leadership of Iturbide. Invasions from the United States continued, and, though several Eeaceable and thrifty American colonies had een planted, the dictator Bustamante, in 1830, forbade the people of the United States from further immigration. The long bitterness be- tween the two races culminated in 1835, and the Americans in the province, after fighting several engagements, organized a provisional govern- ment, with Sam Houston as Commander-in- Chief of the Texan forces. A series of sanguinary battles ensued between the Mexican troops under General Santa Ana and the Texan revo- lutionists, and the atrocities of the Mexicans awakened deep sympathy for the Texans. The issue of the contest was practically settled with the battle of San Jacinto, April 21, 1836, when Santa Ana was taken prisoner. General Houston was elected president of the Texan Republic the same year, and in March, 1837, the United States formally recognized the new govern- ment. Intermittent hostihties continued be- tween Mexico and Texas, which, in 1839-40, had been recognized by the leading European governments; but the threats of the former nation to subjugate the Texans were rendered negative by her own wealcness and the growing power of the young State. The annexation of Texas to the United States, which led to the Mexican War, occurred by her admittance as a State in 1845, the fifteenth under the Constitu- tion. After the election of Abraham Lincoln the State seceded, February 23, 1861, by force of a popular vote, ratifying the ordinance of the con- vention called for that purpose. General Twiggs, on February 18th, surrendered to the State au- thorities all the United States posts, troops, and munitions of war in the department. No very im- portant military operations occurred within the State limits during the war. The last fight of the war took place in Texas, ending in a Federal defeat, on May 13, 1865, and General Kirby Smith surrendered the last Confederate army here on May 26th. Texas was readmitted to her full rights in the Union, March 30, 1870. A period of lawlessness existed in the State for a number of years, but was finally suppressed by the Texas Rangers in 1879. A storm and tidal wave destroyed Galveston in 1900. In the next year vast oil fields were discovered near Beau- mont. Colored United States soldiers engaged in a riot at Brownsville in 1905, and were dismissed from the service by the President. Thebes (,thebz). The principal city of Bceotia, seated on the River Ismenus. Its fame was great in legendary Greece; it was built by Cadmus; Amphion reared its walls; the Sphinx, CEdipus, and the fatal combat of Eteocles and Polynices, figured in its story. It played a subordinate part in the history of Greece, until the time of Epaminondas, when by his genius it was raised to the first rank among the states of Hellas. But it fell with his death, and never recovered from the destructive siege by Alex- ander the Great, in 336 B. C. — A city of Egypt, on the Nile, called No in the Old Testament, and in the Ihad celebrated for its 100 gates, and its vast military forces. Amun, or Ammon, was especially worshiped there. Among its ruins are the magnificent temples of Luxor and Kar- nak, on the east bank of the Nile. Thermopylae, a celebrated pass of Ancient Greece, leading from Thessaly into Locris, between Northern and Southern Greece, It lay between Mount (Eta (celebrated mytho- logically as the mountain on which Hercules burnt himself to death) and a morass which fringed the MaUc or Mahac Gulf; both the eastern and the western entrance to the pass approach- ing so close to the morass as to leave room for only a single carriage. In this pass, Leonidas, King of Sparta, was appointed to oppose the invading armies of Xerxes (480 B. C). These were driven back with immense slaughter, in their repeated attempts to force the pass, till at last Ephialtes, a Malain, guided a body of Persians over the mountain, and thus enabled them to faU on the rear of the Greeks, who were aU slain (Leonidas included), with the exception of one man. The pass derived its name from the hot springs, sacred to Hercules, by which it was distinguished. Thirty Tyrants of Rome. The collec- tive title given to a set of military usurpers who sprung up in different parts of the empire during the fifteen years (253-268 A. D.) occupied by the reigns of Valerian and GaUienus, and, amid the wretched confusion of the time, endeavored to establish themselves as independent princes. The name is borrowed from the Thirty Tyrants of Athens, but, in reality, historians can reckon only nineteen: Cyriades, Macrianus, BaHsta, Odenathus, and Zenobia, in the East; Postumus, LoUianus, Viotorinus and his mother Victoria, Marius, and Tetricus, in the West; Ingenuus, RegilUanus, and Aureolus, in lUyricum and the countries about the Danube; Saturninus, in Pontus; TrebeUianus, in Isamia; Piso, in Thes- saly; Valens, in Achaea; jEmihanus, in Egypt; and Celsus, in Africa. Thirty Years' War (1618 to 1648), a war in Germany, at first a struggle between Roman CathoUcs and Protestants. Subse- quently it became a struggle for poUtical ascend- ancy in Europe. On the one side were Austria, nearly all the Roman Catholic princes of Ger- many, and Spain; on the other side were, at different times, the Protestant powers and France. The occasion of this war was found in the fact that Germany had been distracted ever since the Reformation by the mutual jeal- ousy of Cathohcs, Lutherans, and Calvinists. Certain concessions had been made to the Prot- estants of Bohemia by Rudolph II. (1609), but these were withdrawn by his successor Matthias in 1614, and four years afterward the Bohemian Protestants were in rebellion. Count Thurn at the head of the insurgents repeatedly routed the imperial troops, compelling them to retire from Bohemia, and (1619) invaded the archduchy of Austria. Matthias having died in 1619, he was succeeded by Ferdinand II., who was a rigid CathoUo, but the Protestants elected as their king, Frederick, Elector Palatine, who was a Protestant. Efforts at mediation having' failed, the Catholic forces of Germany marched' 162 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS against Frederick, who, with an army of Bohemi- ans, Moravians, and Hungarians, kept the field till November 8, 1620, when he was totally routed at Weissenberg, near Prague, by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. The Protestant cause was now crushed in Bohemia, and the people of that province were much embittered. The dominions of Frederick, the Palatinate of the Rhine included, were now conquered, the latter being occupied by Count Tilly, assisted by the Spaniards under Spinola. At the Diet of Ratis- bon (March, 1623) Frederick was deprived of his territories, Duke Maximilian receiving the Palatinate. Ferdinand, whose succession to the throne of Bohemia was thus secured, sought for- eign assistance, and a new period of war began. Christian IV. of Denmark, induced partly by religious zeal and partly by the hope of an ac- quisition of territory, came to the aid of his German co-religionists (1624), and being joined by Mansf eld and Christian of Brunswick, advanced into lower Saxony. There they were met by Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland, who in 1626 defeated Mansf eld at Dessau, while Tilly was also successful in driving Christian back to Denmark. In the peace of Llibeck which followed (May, 1629), Christian of Denmark received back all his occupied territory, and undertook not to meddle again in German affairs. After this sec- ond success, Ferdinand again roused his people by an edict which required restitution to the Roman Catholic Church of all church lands and property acquired by them since 1552. To the assistance of the Protestants of Germany came Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, who landed (1630) with a small army on the coast of Pomerania. Joined by numerous volunteers, and aided by French money, he advanced, and routed Tilly at Breitenfeld (or the battle of Leipsic, September, 1631), victoriously trav- ersed the Main and the Rhine valleys, defeated TiUy again near the confluence of the Lech and the Danube (April, 1632), and entered Munich. Meanwhile the emperor sought the aid of Wal- lenstein, by whose ability and energy Gustavus was obliged to retire to Saxony, where he gained the great victory of Ltitzen (November, 1632), but was himself mortally wounded in the battle. The war was now carried on by the Swedes under the chancellor Oxenstiema, till the rout of the Swedish forces at Nordlingen (September, 1634) again gave to the emperor the preponderating power in Germany. The Elector of Saxony, who had been an ally of Gustavus, now made peace at Prague (May, 1635), and within a few months the treaty was accepted by many of the German princes. The Swedes, however, thought it to their interest to continue the war, while France resolved to take a more active part in the conflict. Thus the last stage of the war was a contest of France and Sweden against Austria, in which the Swedish generals gained various successes over the imperial forces, while the French armies fought with varied fortunes in West Germany and on the Rhine. Meanwhile the emperor had died (1637), and had been suc- ceeded by his son, Ferdinand III. The struggle stiU continued till, in 1646, the united armies of 'the French under the great generals Turenne and Conde, and the Swedes advanced through Suabia and Bavaria. The combined forces of Sweden, Bavaria, and France were then about to advance on Austria, when the news reached the armies that the peace of Westphalia (1648) was concluded, and that the long struggle was ended. Ticonderoga, a village in Essex County, N. Y., on Lake Champlain. Ticonderoga fig- ured prominently during the colonial and revo- lutionary periods. In 1755 the French erected a fort here and named it Carillon. Two years later Montcalm started from this place with 9,000 men and captured Fort William Henry on Lake George. In 1758 General Abercrombie endeavored to take the French fort, and was repulsed after losing 2,000 men; but in 1759 it fell into the hands of General Amherst together with Crown Point. Both were then enlarged and strengthened at a heavy expense. In 1775 the works were taken by Ethan Allen while weakly garrisoned. Two years later the fort surrendered to General Burgoyne, and after being dismantled was abandoned. Tiers Etat (te-arz a-tah'). [Fr., the third estate.] This term was universally applied in France to the mass of the people under the old regime. Before the cities rose to wealth and influence, the nobility and clergy possessed the property of almost the whole country, and the people were subject to the most degrading hu- miliations. But as trade and commerce began to render men independent, and they were able to shake off their feudal bonds, the Tiers Etat gradually rose into importance; and at length the third estate, during the Revolution, may be said to have become the nation itself. Tilsit, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of East Prussia, on the river Niemen, about sixty miles northeast of Konigsberg. It is celebrated for the Peace concluded in the town, in 1807, between the Emperor Napoleon, the Emperor of Russia, and the King of Prussia. The three monarchs met on a raft moored in the river. The population of the town at last census was 34,539. . Toleration, Act of, an Act of Parlia- ment passed in the reign of William and Mary (1689), and confirmed by Anne, relieving all persons who dissented from the Church of Eng- land (except Roman Catholics and persons who denied the doctrines of the Trinity) from many of the disabilities under which they had been placed by the acts of former reigns. By the Act of Toleration, such persons were to be no longer prevented from assembling for religious worship according to their own forms, but they were to be required to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and to subscribe a declaration against transubstantiation ; and Dissenting min- isters were to be also required to subscribe to cer- tain of the Thirty-nine Articles. The benefits, of the Act were subsequently (in 1813) extended to persons who denied the doctrine of the Trinity. Most of the remaining disabilities of Nonconform- ists have been removed by later legislation; and the disabilities of the Roman Catholics (which were continued by the Act of Toleration) were repealed in 1829 by the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act. Toltees, a Mexican race who are supposed to have been supreme in Central America from HISTORY 163 the Seventh to the Eleventh Centuries. They were completely obliterated by the Aztecs and Tezcucans, who held the country when the Spaniards first landed. The latter races were of a martial spirit, but they were indebted for .their arts, their civilization, and their religion to their milder predecessors. The Toltecs present striking analogies to the Etruscans, and in a less degree to the Egyptians and Assyrians. They were great builders, and their religion was a mystic system of great complexity, intimately connected with the study of astronomy, and interpreted by a priesthood, who formed an exclusive caste. Tory, a political party name of Irish origin, first used in England ^bout 1679, appUed origin- ally to Irish Revolutionary Catholic outlaws, and then generally to those who refused to concur in the scheme to exclude James II. from the throne. The nickname, like its contemporaneous oppo- site, Whig, in coming into popular use became much less strict in its application, till at last it came simply to signify an adherent of that politi- cal party in the state who disapproved of change in the ancient constitution, and who supported the claims and authority of the king, church, and aristocracy, while their opponents, the Whigs were in favor of more or less radical changes, and supported the claims of the democracy. In modem times the term has to some extent been supplanted by Conservative. Tournameiit, or Tourney, a common sport of the middle ages, in which parties of mounted knights encountered each other with lances and swords in order to display their skill in arms. Tournaments reached their full per- fection in France in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries where they first received the form under which they are loiown to us. They were introduced into England soon after the Conquest by the Normans. Jousts were single combats between two knights, and at a tournament there would often be a number of jousts as well as combats between parties of knights. The place of combat was the lists, a large open place surrounded by ropes or a railing. Galleries were erected for the spectators, among whom were seated the ladies, the supreme judges of the tournaments. A knight taking part in a tournament generally carried some device emblematic of a lady's favor. Tournaments gradually went out with the decline of chivalry, and are rare, except in America, where they are a form of sport. Tower of London. The most ancient, and historically the most interesting pile in the English metropolis; a mass of buildings on the north side of the Thames, immediately to the east of the ancient city walls, its ramparts and gates surrounded by a dry ditch in pentagonal shape; in outer circuit measuring 1,050 yards. Within this the whole of the bufldings are en- circled by a double line of walls and Dulwarks, in some places forty feet high and twelve feet thick; the space between the walls being known as the outer ward, and the interior as the inner ward. The inner ward was formerly the royal quarter. The outer ward was the folk's quarter. The inner ward is defended by twelve massive and conspicuous towers, stationed at unequal distances, and possessing distinctive names and formations. In the center, rearing its head proudly above them all, stands the main quad- rangular building and great Norman keep, known as the White Tower. To the north are the barracks, and to the northwest the Church of St. Peter and Vincula. The entrance to the buildings is on the west side by the Lion's Gate. For centuries the tower was a palace, a prison, a fortress, and a court of law. Here the Plan- tagenet kings held their gay tournaments, mag- nificent revels, and pompous religious cere- monials. Here also tragedy succeeded tragedy, and the innocent blood of many of England's bravest and most beautiful poured forth in a cruel stream. Wise ' statesmen, fair queens, child princes, noble warriors, and priests were slain, their only crimes, in many cases, being their rank, their patriotism, and their faith. "No sadder spot on earth," says Macaulay, of England. . . . "Death is there associ- ated . . . with whatever is darkest in hu- man nature and in human destiny, with the savage triumph of implacable enemies, with the inconstancy, the ingratitude, the cowardice of friends, with all the miseries of fallen great- ness and of blighted fame." The tower is now chiefly used as an arsenal, and has a small military garrison of the yeomen ei the guard. The governorship is still a post of distinction. Treaty, A, in public law, is an agreement of friendship, alliance, commerce, or navigation, entered into between two or more independent states. Treaties have been divided by pub- licists into personal and real, the difference being that the former relate exclusively to the per- sons of the contracting parties — e. g., treaties guaranteeing the throne to a particular sovereign and his family, and the latter are treaties for national objects, independent of the rulers of the state. While personal treaties expire with the death of the sovereign, or the extinction of his family, real treaties bind the contracting parties independently of any change in the sov- ereignty of the states. The constitution of each particular state must be looked to to determine in whom the power of negotiating and contract- ing treaties with foreign powers resides. In monarchies, whether absolute or constitutional, it is usually vested in the sovereign. In repub- lics the chief magistrate, senate, or executive council is intrusted. The Constitution of the United States of America (Article II, Section 2) vests it in the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. No special form of words is necessary for the validity of a treaty; but modern usage requires that an agreement which has originally been verbal should, as soon as possible, be committed to writing. Treaties of alliance may be offensive or defensive; in the former the ally engages to cooperate in hos- tilities against a specified power, or against any power with which the other may be at war; in the latter, the engagements of the ally extend only to a war of aggression commenced against the other contracting party. Treaties, Coalitions, Conventions, and Leagues. The principal treaties of history are the following: Adrlanople, 1829, Adrianople restored by the Rus- sians to Turkey. 164 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Alx-Iia-ChapeUey 1718, celebrated treaty between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, Spain, and Genoa. A number of previous treaties renewed and con- firmed. Alx-La-Chapelle, 1818, between the Allies and France. The latter paid 265,000,000 francs to the Allies. Amiens, 1803, treaty^of peace between Great Britain and Holland, France, and Spain. Augsburg, League of, 1686, between Holland and other European powers to enforce respect for the treaties of Mtinster and Nimeguen. Baden, 1714, terminating the War of the Spanish succession, between France and the Emperor. Basel, 1795, treaties between France and Prussia and between France and Spain. Berlin, decree, 1S06, issued by Napoleon I., against the commerce of England. Breda, 1667, treaty between England, Holland, France, and Denmark. Breslau, 1742, between Maria Theresa of Austria and Frederick II. of Prussia. Bretlgnr, 1360, treaty of peace that interrupted the Hundred Years' War between England and France. Calmar, Union of, 1397, United Denmark, Sweden, and Norway under Queen Margaret of Denmark. Cambray, 1508, league against Venice, comprising the Pope, the Emperor, and the Kings of France and Spain. Cambray, Peace of, 1539, between Francis I. and Charles V. Campo Formio, Peace of, 1797, between France and Austria. Carlowltz, Peace of, 1699, between Turkey and Austria, Poland and Venice. Humiliating concessions made by Austria. " Carlsbad, Congress of, 1819, held by the German powers to protest against the progress of free institutions and popular rights. Catholic League, 1576, formed to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France. Coalitions Against France, 1793, 1799, 1805, 1806, 1809, 1813, led by England and entered into by the great powers of the Continent to break down French influence in Europe. Concordat, 1801, between Napoleon I. and Pius VII., whereby the former was made in effect head of the Gallican Church. Constance, 1183, between Frederick Barbarossa and the Lombard cities. Copenhagen, 1660, between Denmark and Sweden. Fontaine bleau. 1807, treaty between Napoleon and the royal family of Spain. Frankfort, 1871, conclusion of the preliminary treaty of Versailles. Gastein, Convention of, 1865, between Prussia and Austria. Ghent, 1814, treaty of peace between United States and England, closing War of 1812. Hague Convention, 1907, concerning the rights and duties of neutral powers in war. Hamburg, 1241, league with Liibeck, giving rise to the Hanseatic League. Hay-Pauncefote, 1901, superseded the Clayton- Bulwer treaty, Great Britain withdrawing her objections to a canal constructed by the United States and under the sole guarantee of neutralization by the latter power. The treaty also omitted a clause previously insisted upon, forbidding the fortification of the canal. Holy Alliance, 1815, a league between the Emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound themselves to Christian principles in political matters. Hubertusburg, 1763, peace between Austria, Prus- sia, and Saxony. Jay's Treaty, 1794, between the United States and Great Britain. Kiel, 1814, between Denmark, Sweden, and England. Norway and Sweden united. Kutchuk-Kalnardjl, 1774, between Turkey and Russia. London, 1840, quadruple treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia on the one hand, and Turkey, touching the states of Egypt. London, Peace of, 1913, between Balkan states and Turkey, closing Balkan war. Lun^vlUe, 1801, between France and Austria and the German Empire. Madrid, 1536, between Charles V. and Francis I. Mtinster, 1648, between France and the Emperor of Sweden. By this peace, the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Nanking, 184S, ended the opium war between Great Britain and China. Nantes, Edict of, 1598, by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to the Huguenots. Nystad, 17!31, closed the war between Sweden and Russia. Paris, Treaties of: 1763, terminating the Seven Years' War, in Austria; the French and Indian War. 1783, terminating the American Revolutionary War. 1814-15, between France and the Coalition. 1856, terminating the Crimean War. 1898, terminating the Spanish-American War. Partitions of Poland by following countries: 1773, secret treaty between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 1793, between Russia and Prussia. 1795, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Passau, 15539 securing the liberties of German Lutherans. Perry's Treaty, 1854, commercial treaty between . United States and Japan. Portsmouth, 1905, treaty between Japan and Rus- sia, closing the Russo-Japanese War. Prague, 1866, peace between Prussia and Austria. Pressburg, 1805, peace between France and Austria; ancient states of Venice ceded to Italy, and Independence of Switzerland stipulated. Pretoria, 1903, terminated the Boer War between Great Britain and the Transvaal. Pyrenees, 1659, between France and Spain; mutual concessions of territory made. Quadruple Alliance, 1718, celebrated treaty be- tween Great Britain, France, Austria, and Holland, for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reign- ing families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of the Spanish Monarchy. Bastatt,1714, between France and Austria. Rastatt, Congress of, 1797, between France and the Empire, established a general peace with the Ger- manic powers. Ratlsbon, 1806, secession of the Germanic princes from the Empire, to the cause of Napoleon, forming the — Rhine, Confederation of, 1806. Ryswick, 1697, peace between France and the allied powers, closing the war of the "Patch Note." St. Clalr-Sur-Epte, 911, terminated the war be- tween the Norse under Rolla and Charles the Simple of France. Saint Germain, 1570, peace between the Catholics and Huguenots. San Stefano, 1878, this treaty, Supplemented by the Congress of Berlin, closed the Russian-Turkish War. Schonbrunn, 1809, treaty between France andAustria. Shlmonosekl, 1895, closed the war between Japan and China. The Hague, 1659, between England, France, and Holland, with a view to preserve the equilibrium of Northern Europe. Thorn, 1466, settled the terms of the Polish conquest of Western Prussia. Tientsin, 1858, between China and each of the nations of Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States. TUsIt, 1807, treaty concluded between France and Russia, whereby Napoleon restored to the Prussian Monarch one-half of his territories, and Russia recog- nized the Confederates of the Rhine, and the elevation of Napoleon's brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Tolentlno, 1797j between the Pope and the French Republic. Triple Alliance, 1668, the celebrated alliance be- tween the States-General and England against France for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands. Sweden afterward joined the league. Triple Alliance, 1883, between Austria, 'Germany, and Italy. Triple Entente, 1906, an unwritten agreement be- tween England, France and Russia — an outgrowth of the "Entente Cordiale." Troyes, 1430, between England, France, and Bur- gundy, whereby Henry V. of England succeeded to the throne of France. Ulm, 1630, by which Frederick V. lost Bohemia. HISTORY 165 Utrecht, 1713, terminated the wars of Queen^ Anne of England, and secured the Protestant succession^ in England, and enlarged British colonization in America. Utrecbt, Union of, 1579, foundations of the Dutch Republic laid. Valencay, 1S13, between Napoleon and Ferdinand VII. of Spain, whereby the latter restored full fjossesaion of his kingdom upon agreeing to maintain its integrity. Terdun, Contract of, 813, concluded the war be- tween Lothaire, Ludwig the German, and Charles the Bald, and settled their respective imperial dominioiLS after the death of their father, Louis the Pious. Terona, Congress of, 1822, held by the great powers to adjust Spanish and Grecian disturbances. Versailles, 1783, between Great Britain and the United States at close of American Revolution; the treaty was signed in Paris. 1783, between Great Britain, France, and Spain. 1871, between France and Ger- many; William I. proclaimed Emperor of Germany. Vienna, 1725, treaty between the Emperor of Ger- many and the King of Spain, settling the sovereignty over certain parts of the Spanish dominions. 1731, treaty of alliance between Germany, Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was granted, and the Spanish succession settled. 1738, treaty of peace between Germany and France; Lorraine ceded to France, and France guaranteed the Pragmatic sanction. 1809, treaty of peace between Napoleon and Francis I, of Austria. Austria ceded to France the^ lUyrian Prov- inces. 1815, treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, confirming the treaty of Chaumont. 1815, treaty between _ the Low Countries, and ■ Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, agreeing to the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the house of Orange. 1815, Federative constitution of Germany signed. Warsaw, 1683, alliance between Austria and Poland against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna. 1768, treaty between Russia and Poland. Washington, 1842, Ashburton treaty defined the northeastern boundary between the United States and Canada. Washington, 1871, between Great Britain and the United States to adjust the Alabama claims. Westphalia, 1618, treaty of ^eace between France, Germany, and Sweden, terminating the Thirty Years War. Worms, Concordat of, 1122, between the Emperor and the Pope, closed the long strife called the War of Investitures. Worms, Diet of, 1521, imperial conclave before whom Luther was summoned and presented. Zurich, 1859, closed the dispute between Austria and France and Sardinia. Triumvirate, a coalition of three men in office or authority; specifically applied to two great coalitions of the three most powerful individuals in the Roman Empire for the time being. The first of these was effected in the year 60 B. C, between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who pledged themselves to support each other with all their influence. This coaK- tion was broken by the fall of Crassus at Carrhae in Mesopotamia, soon after which the civil war broke out, which ended in the death of Pompey, and establishment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator. After his murder, 44 B. C, the civil war again broke out; and after the battle of Mutina, 43 B. C, Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus coalesced, thus forming the second triumvirate. They divided the provinces of the empire, Octavius taking the West, Lepidus, Italy, and Antony, the East. Troy, or Ilium (Greek, Troia or Ilion), an ancient city in the 'ftoad, a territory in the northwest of Asia Minor, south of the western extremity of the Hellespont, rendered famous by Homer's epic of the Ihad. The region is for the most part mountainous, being intersected by Mount Ida and its branches. There have been various opinions regarding the site of the Homeric city, the most probable of which places ancient Troy at the head of the plain bounded by the modern river Mendereh, supposed to be the Scamander of Homer, and the Dombrek, probably the Homeric Simois. The Ilium of history was founded about 700 B. C. by .^oHc Greeks, and was regarded as occupying the site of the ancient city, but this is doubtful; it never became a place of much importance. The ancient and legendary city, according to the Homeric story, reached its highest splen- dor when Priam was king; but the abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta, by Paris, one of Priam's sons, brought about its destruction. To revenge this outrage, all the Greek chiefs, afterwards famous in history, banded themselves against the Trojans and their allies, and went against Troy with a great fleet. The first nine years of the war were spent by the Greeks in driving the Trojans and their alUes within the walls of the capital. The tenth year brought about a quarrel between Achilles, the bravest of the Greeks, and Agamemnon, the Greek commander-in-chief, which proved for a time disastrous to their party. This forms the subject of the IMad. In the end, the city was taken by means of a large hollow wooden horse, in which a number of the bravest of the Greek heroes concealed themselves, while the rest retired to their ships. Thinking that the Greeks had given up the siege, the Trojans in- cautiously drew the horse within the city, and gave themselves up to revelry. The Greeks within the horse issued from their concealment, and, being joined by their companions without the walls, Troy was taken and utterly destroyed. This is said to have occurred about 1184 B. C. Not only has the site of the ancient city been disputed, but the legends connected with it are held by some scholars to have no historical foundation; nor has this view been altered by the excavations of Schliemann, and his dis- covery of the remains of a prehistoric city or cities at HissarUk, the site of the historic Ihum. Tudor, the name of one of the royal families of England allied to the race of Plantagenets. The line embraced five sovereigns, and com- menced in 1485 with Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmbnd, the grandson of Sir Owen Tudor, a Welsh knight of distinction, and Catherine, widow of Henry V. Henry, after the battle of Bosworth Field, was proclaimed king with the title of Henry VII. From him the crown descended to his son Henry VIII., whose son Edward VI. succeeded, and after him his two sisters, Mary and EUzabeth; the Tudor dynasty expired with the death of Elizabeth in 1603, when the house of Stuart succeeded. Tulleries {twe'-Ur-lz), the residence of the French monarchs, on the right bank of the Seine, in Paris. Catharine de' Medici, wife of Henry II., began the building (1564); Henry IV. extended it, and founded the old gallery (1600); and Louis XIV. enlarged it (1664), and completed that gaUery. The side toward the Louvre consisted of five paviUons, and four ranges of buildings; the other side had only three pavilions. During the revolution of 1830 the palace was sacked. It was restored by Louis Philippe to its former splendor, but in 1848 it was again pillaged. The Tuileries then 166 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS became a hospital for wounded soldiers, a picture gallery, and the home of Louis Napoleon in 1851. On May 23, 1871, it was almost totally destroyed by fire (the work of the communists), and the remaining portions were removed in the year 1883. Turkish, or Ottoman, Empire com- prises territory in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Turkey in Europe consists of a strip of land east of a line from Enos on the iEgean sea to Midia on the Black sea, and Albania; in Asia, Asia Minor, Syria, including Palestine, Mesopotamia, part of ^abia, Candia, and others of the islands of the archipelago; in Africa, Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, over which there is a nominal suzerainty. Formerly the empire was much more extensive, even in recent times com- prising Greece, Rumania, Servia, Bessarabia, Tunis, etc. We shall here give a brief sketch of the history of the Ottoman Empire, referring to the article Turkey for information regarding the geography, constitution, etc., of Turkey proper. The Ottoman Turks came originally from the region of the Altai Mountains, in Central Asia. Early in the Eighth Century they came in contact with the Saracens, from whom they took their religion. In the Thirteenth Century they appeared as allies of the Seljukian Turks against the Mongols, and for their aid received a grant of lands from the Seljuk sultan of Iconium in Asia Minor. Their leader, Othman or Osman, of the race of Oghuzian Turkomans, became the most powerful emir of Western Asia, and after the death of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, in the year 1300, he proclaimed him- self sultan. He died in 1326. Thus was founded upon the ruins of the Saracen, Seljiik, and Mongo power the Empire of the Osman or Ottoman Turks in Asia. After Osman, the courage, poUcy, and enterprise of eight great princes, whom the dignity of caliph placed in possession of the standard of the Prophet, and who were animated by religious fanaticism and a passion for military glory, raised it to the rank of the first mihtary power in both Europe and Asia (1300-1566). The first of them was Orkhan, son of Osman. He subdued all Asia Minor to the Hellespont, took the title of Padishah, and became son-in- law to the Greek Emperor Cantacuzenus. Ork- han's son, Sohman, first invaded Europe in 1355. He fortified Galhpoh and Sestos, and thereby held possession of the straits which separate the two continents. In 1360 Orkhan's second son and successor, Amurath I., took Adrianople, which became the seat of the Em- pire in Europe, conquered Macedonia, Albania, and Servia, and defeated a great Slav confedera- tion under the Bosnian King Stephen at Kos- sova in 1389. After him Bajazet, surnamed Ilderim {Lightning), invaded Thessaly, and also advanced towards Constantinople. In 1396 he defeated the Western Christians under Sigis- mund, King of Hungary, at Nicopohs, in Bul- garia; but at Angora, in 1402, he was himself conquered and taken prisoner by Timour, who divided the provinces between the sons of Ba^ jazet. Finally, in 1413, the fourth son of Ba- jazet, Mohammed I., seated himself upon the undivided throne of Osman. In 1415 his vic- torious troops reached Salzburg and invaded Bavaria. He conquered the Venetians at Thessalonica in 1420. His celebrated grand- vizier Ibrahim created a Turkish/ navy. Mo- hammed was succeeded by his son, Amurath II., who defeated Ladislaus, King of Hungary and Poland, at Varna, in 1444. Mohammed II., the son of Amurath, completed the work of conquest (1451-81). He attacked Constanti- Liople, which was taken May 29, 1453, and the Byzantine Empire came finally to an end. Since that time the city has been the seat of the SubKme Porte or Turkish Government. Mo- hammed added Servia, Bosnia, Albania, and Greece to the Ottoman Empire, and threatened Italy, which, however, was freed from danger by his death at Otranto in 1480. His grandson, Sehm I., who had dethroned and murdered his father in 1517, conquered Egypt and Syria. Under SoKman II., the Magnificent, who reigned between 1519 and 1566, the Ottoman Empire reached the highest pitch of power and splen- dor. In 1522 he took Rhodes from the Knights of St. John, and by the victory of Mohaez, in 1526, subdued half of Hungary. He exacted a tribute from Moldavia, made Bagdad, Mesopo- tamia, and Georgia subject to him, and threat- ened to overrun Germany, but was checked before the walls of Vienna (1529). Soliman had as an opponent Charles V. of Germany, as an ally Francis II. of France. From lus time the race of Osman degenerated and the power of the Porte declined. In the latter part of the Sixteenth Century, and most of the Seventeenth Century, the chief wars were with Venice and with Austria. The battle of Lepanto (1571), in which the Ottoman fleet was overthrown by the combined fleets of Venice and Spain, was the first great Ottoman reverse at sea, and the battle of St. Gothard (1664), near Vienna, in which Montecucuh de- feated the Vizier Kiuprili, the first great Otto- man reverse on land. In 1683 Vienna was be- sieged by the Turks, but was relieved by John Sobieski and Charles of Lorraine; in 1687 the Turks were again defeated at Mohaez, and in 1697 (by Prince Eugene), at Szenta. Then fol- lowed the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699, by which Mustapha II. agreed to renounce his claims upon Transylvania and a large part of Hungary, , to give up the Morea to the Venetians, to restore PodoHa and the Ukraine to Poland, and to leave Azov to the Russians. Eugene's subse- quent victories at Peterwarden and Belgrade obliged the Porte to give up, by the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, Temeswar, Belgrade, with a part of Servia and Wallachia; but the Turks on the other hand took the Morea from Venice, and by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739 regained Belgrade, Servia, and Little Wallachia, while for a time they also regained Azov. Russia, which had been making steady ad- vances under Peter the Great and subsequently, now became the great opponent of Turkey. In the middle of the Eighteenth Century the Otto- man Empire still embraced a large part of Southern Russia. The victories of Catharine II.'s general Romanzoff in the war between 1768 and 1774 determined the political superiority of Russia, and at the Peace of Kutchuk-Kain- HISTORY 167 arji, in 1774, Abdul-Hamid was obKged to re- nounce his sovereignty over the Crimea, to yield to Russia the country between the Bog and the Dnieper, with Kinbum and Azov, and to open his seas to the Russian merchant ships. By the Peace of Jassy, 1792, which closed the war of 1787-91, Russia retained Taurida and the coun- try between the Bog and the Dniester, together with Otchakov, and gained some accessions in the Caucasus. In the long series of wars which followed the French revolution the Ottoman Empire first found herself opposed to France, in consequence of Bonaparte!s campaign in Egypt, and finally to Russia, who demanded a more distinct recognition of her protectorate over the Christians, and to whom, by the Peace of Bucharest, May 28, 1812, she ceded that part of Moldavia and Bessarabia which lies beyond the Pruth. In 1817, Mahmud II. was obliged to give up the principal mouth of the Danube to Russia. Further disputes ended in the Porte making further concessions, which tended towards loosening the connection of Servia, Moldavia, and WaUachia with Tmkey. In 1821 broke out the war of Greek independence. The remonstrances of Britain, France, and Russia, against the cruelties with which the war against the Greeks was carried on, proving of no avail, those powers attacked and destroyed the fleet of Mahmud at Navarino (1827). In 1826, the massacre of the Janizaries took place at Con- stantinople, after a revolt. In 1828-29, the Russians crossed the Balkans and took Adrian- ople, the war being terminated by the Peace of Adrianople (1829). In that year Turkey had to recognize the independence of Greece. In 1831-33, Mehemet Ali, nominally Pasha of Egypt, but real ruler both of that and Syria, levied war against the sultan of Turkey, and threatened Constantinople, when the Russians, who had been called on for their aid by the sultan, forced the invaders to desist. In 1840 Mehemet Ali again rose against his sovereign, but through the active intervention of Great Britain, Austria, and Russia, was compelled to evacuate Syria, though he was, in recompense, recognized as hereditary viceroy of Egypt. Turkey became involved In war with Russia and was joined by England and France in 1854: This, the Crimean war, speedily terminated with the defeat of Russia, and the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. The principal articles were the abohtion of the Russian protectorate over the Danubian principahties (Moldavia and Wallachia united in 1861 as the principaUty of Rumania), the rectification of the frontier between Russia and Turkey, and the cession of part of Bessarabia to the latter power. In 1875 the people of Herzegovina broke into rebeUion. A year later the Servians and Mon- tenegrins took up arms. Meantime the great powers of Europe were pressing reforms on Turkey, and in 1876 a conference met at Con- stantinople, to make a fresh settlement of her relations with her Christian provinces. AH the recommendations of the conference were rejected by Turkey; and in April, Russia, who had been coming forward as the champion of the oppressed provinces, commenced hostile operations in both parts of the Turkish Empire. She was immedi- ately joined by Rumania, who on the 22d of May (1877) declared her independence. After the fall of Kars, November 18, and the fall of Plevna, December 10, the Tiu-kish resistance collapsed, and on the 3d of March, 1878, Turkey was compelled to agree to the Treaty of San Stefano, in which she accepted the terms of Russia. These were modified by the Treaty of Berhn, July 13, by which Rumania, Servia, and Montenegro were declared independent; Ruman- ian Bessarabia was ceded to Russia; Austria was empowered to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Bulgaria was erected into a principality. The main events since the Treaty of BerUn are the French invasion of Tunis in 1881; the treaty with Greece, executed under pressure of the great powers in 1881, by which Turkey ceded to Greece almost the whole of Thessaly and a strip of Epirus; the occupation of Egypt by Great Britain in 1882; and the revolution at Philippopolis in 1885, when the government of Eastern Roumeha was overthrown, and the union of that province with Bulgaria proclaimed. In 1903, revolts broke out in Bulgaria and Albania, attended with massacres and atrocities. In 1909, Abdul-Hamid II. was dethroned by the Yoimg Turks, and Mehmed V. made sultan. Serious internal disturbances occurred in 1911. In 1912, because of disputed boundary lines and authority, Greece, Bulgaria, Servia, and Monte- negro engaged in war with Turkey, known as the Balkan war. Peace was concluded in 1913 by a treaty signed at London by which Turkey lost all her territory in Europe west of an irregular line from Enos on the jEgean sea to Midia on the Black sea. On the outbreak of the war of nations, 1914, Turkey mobiUzed her army but remained neu- tral. Sept. 10 it was announced that Turkey would abrogate all capitulations restricting her sovereignty or conferring privileges' upon other powers. Turkey closed the Dardanelles to navi- gation Sept. 28, and entered the war in aid of Germany, Nov. 10, warring with the Russians east of the Black sea, and sending forces to menace the Suez canal. Attempts to cross the Suez, Feb., 1915, failed. The Dardanelles fortress bombarded the allied fleet, Jan. 5. Feb. 20 the fleet of 50 warships attacked the forts at the entrance to the Darda- nelles, and by March 1 had penetrated 14 miles. Unable to take the Dardanelles by sea alone, the aUies in April landed large reinforcements of troops. During the year 800,000 Armenians were massacred — practically the whole nation was wiped out by the Turkish government. In January, 1916, the allies withdrew from the Dardanelles. In February Russian forces took the fortress at Erzerum, Armenia. Tuscany (ItaUan, Toscana), formerly a grand-duchy, now a department of Italy; area, 9,289 square miles; population, 2,340,100. The chain of the Northern Apennines forms a considerable portion of its northern boundary, the sea being its boundary on the west. The principal river is the Amo. Cereals cover a large area, and vineyards, ohve-yards, and orchards are numerous. The manufacture of silk is considerable. The marble of Tuscany, I especially that of Siena, is well known. Tuscany 168 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS corresponds to the ancient Etruria, which was, however, of wider extent. After the fall of the Western Empire (476) it passed successively into the hanas of the Ostrogoths, Byzantine Greeks, and Lombards. Charlemagne made it a Frankish province, and it was governed by marquises or dukes until the Twelfth and Thir- teenth Centuries, when it became broken up into a number of small republics, four of which were Florence, Pisa, Siena, and Lucca. From the first, Florence occupied the leading place, and it gradually extended its territory. In 1569 Pope Pius I. granted to Cosmo I. the title of Grand-duke of Tuscany, and this position was retained, with interruptions, by the celebrated Medici family, until 1737, when it passed to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine. In 1859, when under his descendant, the Grand-duke Leopold, it was -annexed to Sardinia by a popular vote, and in 1861 became, with Sardinia, part of the kingdom of Italy. United States of America. When first visited by Europeans, the country now comprised within the United States was exclu- sivefy inhabited by the race commonly called American Indians. According to the Scandi- navian sagas, Leif, a Norwegian, sailed about 1001 fromlceland for Greenland, but was driven southward by storms till he reached a country called Vinland, which is supposed to have been Rhode Island or some other part of the coast of New England. In 1497, about five years after the discovery of America by Columbus, John Cabot sailed westward from Bristol, England, and on June 24th discovered land (Labrador), along which he coasted to the southward nearly 1,000 miles. In 1498, his son, Sebastian Cabot, sailed from the same port in search of a north- west passage to China; but finding the ice im- penetrable, he turned to the south and coasted as far as Chesapeake Bay. In 1512, the Spaniard Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. In 1539, took place the expedition of the Spaniard De Soto, who, in the course of two years, penetrated overland from Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida to a point 200 miles beyond the Missis- sippi. In 1565, the Spaniards founded St. Augus- tine, the first permanent settlement in the United States. In 1585, an expedition sent by Sir Walter Raleigh made a settlement on Roa- noke Island, N. C., which failed. In 1607, the English founded Jamestown on James River, Virginia, their first permanent settlement. The master spirit of this enterprise was Captain John Smith. Plymouth, Mass., was founded in 1620 by the "Pilgrim fathers of New England," a body of Puritans led by John Carver and others, who sailed from England in the "May- flower." Salem was settled by John Endicott in 1628. Tn 1630, John Winthrop settled Bos- ton. In 1692, Plymouth Colony was united to Massachusetts. Portsmouth and Dover in New Hampshire were settled in 1623. The first per- manent English settlements in Maine were made about the same time. These settlements ulti- mately fell under the jurisdiction of Massachu- setts. Connecticut was colonized in 1635-36 by emigrants from Massachusetts, who settled at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. Rhode Island was first settled at Providence in 1636 by Roger Williams. In 1623, permanent settle- ments were made by the Dutch at Fort Orange (now Albany) and at New Amsterdam on the present site of New York. The Swedes settled on the Delaware in 1638, and were expelled in 1655 by a Dutch army. The English seized New Amsterdam in 1664, and with it the whole of New Netherland, which they named New York from the Duke of York, to whom it had been granted by Charles II. New Jersey at this time acquired its distinctive name. In 1681 the territory west of the Delaware was granted to William Penn, who colonized it chiefly with Friends or Quakers, and founded Philadelphia in 1682. Maryland was settled in 1632 by Roman Catholics sent out by Lord Baltimore. The first permanent settlement in North Carolina appears to have been made about 1663, on Albemarle Sound, by emigrants from Virginia. The first permanent settlement in South Carolina was made in 1670 by colonists from England on the Ashley River, near the site of Charleston, which began to be settled about the same time. Georgia was settled by General James Oglethorpe, who, in 1733, founded Savannah. The principal Indian wars were those of 1622 and 1644-46 in Virginia; thePequot War (1636-37) and King Philip's War (1676-76) in New England; that with the Corees and Tuscaroras in 1711, and that with the Yemas- sees in 1715, in the Carolinas. Toward the close of the Seventeenth Century the Indians on the northern and western frontiers began to receive aid from the French in Canada, who, whenever their mother country was at war with England, carried on hostilities with the English colonies, and frequently, accompanied by their savage allies, made destructive and bloody in- roads into New England and New York. The first conflict with the French, known as King William's War lasted seven years, terminating in 1697. Queen Anne's War (1702-13) was marked by the conquest from the French in 1710 of Acadia (Nova Scotia). The principal event of King George's War was the capture (1745) of Louisburg, the chief stronghold of the French in America, which was restored to the French at the close bf the war (1748). Disputes having arisen with the French on the Ohio, an expedition imder Washington, was sent toward that river, which, on May 28, 1754, cut to pieces a French detachment under Jumonville, who was slain. This affair began the long contest known as the French and Indian War. Among its prominent events were Braddock's defeat (1765) near Fort Duquesne, when Washington distinguished himself by covering the retreat; the capture by the French of Oswego (1756) and Fort William Henry, at the head of Lake George (1757); and the taking of Louisburg after a siege of seven weeks by Generals Amherst and Wolfe, and the repulse of an attack on Ti- conderoga made by a powerful army under General Abercrombie and Lord Howe (1758). The crowning exploit of the war was the taking of Quebec (1759) by an army led by General Wolfe. In 1763, by the Treaty of Paris, Canada and its dejjendencies were formally ceded to Great Britain. The transfer from the French to the English of the posts between the Great HISTORY 169 Lakes and the Ohio led (1763) to a war with the Indian tribes, of which the master spirit was Pontiac. The sentiment of political free- dom was strongly developed among the colo- nists, and republican ideas and feelings trans- mitted from the period of the commonwealth in England were widely diffused, though at the same time a warm attachment existed for the mother country and a devoted loyalty to the Crown. The first opposition was aroused by an act of parliament m 1761, authorizing sher- iffs and officers of the customs to use "writs of assistance" or general search warrants. These writs were resisted in Massachusetts, where the rights of the people were defended by James Otis. In 1765 the Staimp Act was passed, which declared that every document used in trade or legal proceedings, to be valid, must have affixed to it a tax stamp of the minimum value of one shilling, and increasing indefinitely according to the value of the writing. To enforce the act parliament authoY'ized the_ ministry to send troops, for whom the colonies were required to provide quarters and various necessaries. These acts created great excitement and indignation in America. Everywhere the people determined not to use the stamps, and associations calling themselves " sons of liberty, " were organized in opposition to the act and for the general defense of the rights of the colonies. In Octo- ber a congress of delegates from nine colonies assembled in New York on the invitation of Massachusetts, and drew up a declaration of rights, a memorial to parliament, and a petition to the king, in which they claimed the right of being taxed only by their own representatives. The merchants of the principal cities agreed to purchase no more goods in England till the act was repealed, and the people pledged themselves to use no articles of English manufacture. The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, but the next year parliament passed an act imposing duties on paper, glass, tea, and some other articles imported into the colonies. The colonies in return revived with renewed vigor their non- importation associations. Massachusetts, and especially Boston, was foremost in the opposi- tion. A military force under General Gage was sent to occupy the town in 1768. A collision took place March 5, 1770, between the soldiers and a crowd of citizens, in which three of the latter were killed and eight wounded. The "Boston Massacre," as this was called, caused great excitement throughout the country. In April, 1770, the government removed all the duties except that of threepence a pound on tea. Combmations were now formed against the importation and use of tea, and measures taken to prevent its being either landed or sold. At Boston, December 16, 1773, a band of men disguised as Indians went on board three tea ships which had recently arrived from England, and emptied the tea into the water. Parliament thereupon, in 1774, passed the "Boston Port Bill," which closed that port to all commerce, and transferred the board of customs to Marble- head and the seat of colonial government to Salem. Other repressive bills were also passed. On September Sth the "Old Continental Con- gress" met in Philadelphia, in which all the colonies were represented except Georgia. _ A declaration of riglita was agreed upon, in which was set forth the claim of the colonists as British subjects to participate in making their own laws and imposing their own taxes, and to the rights of trial by a jury of the vicinage, of holding public meetings, and of petitioning for redress of grievances. The maintenance of a standing army in the colonies without their consent was protested against, as were eleven acts passed since the accession of George III. in violation of colonial rights and privileges. The first con- flict occurred, and the first blood of the Revolu- tion was shed, on April 19, 1775. (See under Lexington.) On the night of the day fol- lowing the action the king's governor and army found themselves closely beleaguered in Boston. The people everywhere rose in arms, and before the close of summer the power of all the royal governors from Massachusetts to Georgia was at an end. Volunteer expeditions from Vermont and Connecticut, led by Ethan Allen and Bene- dict Arnold, seized the important fortresses of Ticonderoga (May 10th) and Crown Point (May 12th). The second Continental Congress assem- bled on May 10th at Philadelphia, in the State house, now known as Independ,ence Hall. It sent another petition to the king, denying any intention of separation from England, and ask- ing only for redress of grievances; but measures were taken to raise an army, to equip a navy, and to procure arms and ammunition. The forces before Boston were adopted as the Conti- nental army, and Washington was nominated and unanimously chosen (June 15th) as com- mander-in-chief. Before he could reach the seat of war the battle of Bunker Hill had been fought, June 17th. He regularly beleaguered Boston till March 17, 1776, when the British evacuated it and sailed for Halifax. Meantime, an inva- sion of Canada under General Montgomery re- sulted in the capture of Montreal and a repulse from Quebec, which was attacked December 31, 1776, by parties led by Montgomery and Arnold. On June 28, 1776, a British fleet attacked Charleston, S. C, and was repulsed with great loss by a small force in Fort Sullivan (afterward Fort Moultrie), commanded by Colonel Moultrie. On July 4th the Declaration of Independence written by Jefferson, was adopted, and in this document the colonies were first designated the "United States of America." Soon after the evacuation of Boston by the British, Washing- ton transferred his army to New York. On June 29th the late garrison of Boston arrived from Halifax, and soon after other British troops from Europe and from the South. The cam- paign began on Long Island, where, on August 27th, the Americans were defeated with heavy loss, and forced to abandon that island, and soon after the city of New York. Having fought another unsuccessful battle at White Plains (October 28th), Washington early in December was compelled to retreat beyond the Delaware at the head of but 3,000 men. About the same time the British seized and held the island of Rhode Island. On the night of December 25th Washington crossed the Delaware in open boats with 2,400 men, and falling upon the British forces at Trenton, captured about 1,000 Hessians. 170 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS On January 3, 1777, he defeated the enemy again at Princeton, taking 230 prisoners. A movement threatening Philadelphia called Wash- ington south. In the battle on the Brandywine, September 11th, he was outnumbered and com- pelled to retreat with a loss of nearly 1,000 men. On the 26th, the British took possession of Philadelphia without opposition. On Octo- ber 4th, Washington attacked the British at Germantown, seven miles from Philadelphia, but was repulsed with heavy loss; and soon afterward both armies went into winter quarters, the Americans at Valley Forge, on the Schuyl- kill, twenty miles from PhSadelphia. Mean- time, a British army, 7,500 strong, besides In- dians, commanded by General Burgoyne, ad- vanced from Canada by Lake Champlain, and took Ticonderoga, Fort Independence, and Whitehall. Strong detachments, which were sent to Bennington, Vt., to destroy a collection of stores, were met there (August 16th) and defeated with the loss of about 200 killed and 600 prisoners by the Vermont and New Hamp- shire militia led by General Stark. Burgoyne was encountered by General Gates, to whom, after the battles of Stillwater (September 19th) and Saratoga .(October 7th), he capitulated at Saratoga (October 17th) with his whole army. The consequences of this victory were apparent in the signing, in February, 1778, of treaties of alliance and of amity and commerce with France. The British evacuated Philadelphia in the night of June 17th with more than 17,000 men. Washington pursued, and on the 28th the two armies engaged in battle on the plains of Mon- mouth, near Freehold, N. J. The Americans remained masters of the field, while the British retreated to New York. An attempt made in August, with the assistance of the French fleet under Count d'Estaing, to drive the British from Rhode Island, proved a failure. On December 29th the British, having defeated the American forces at Savannah, took possession of the city. In September, 1779, Savannah was besieged by a French and American force, and on October 9th an assault was made upon it, which was repulsed with a loss to the allies of nearly 800 men, among them Casimir Pulaski. About tWs time the British evacuated Rhode Island, to concentrate their forces at New York. One of the most brilliant achievements of the war was the storming (July 16, 1779) of Stony Point on the Hudson by General Wajme. On the ocean, which swarmed with American privateers, Paul Jones chiefly distinguished himself. Charleston, S. C, after a feeble defense of several weeks, was surrendered to the British on May 12, 1780, by General Lincoln. The rest of South Carolina nominally submitted to the royal authority; but a guerilla warfare was kept up by Sumter, Marion, and other partisan leaders. Congress sent General Gates to recover South Carolina. On his first encounter with Cornwallis at Cam- den, August 16th, he was routed with great loss, and with the remnant of his force fled to North Carolina. Early in September Cornwallis marched into North Carolina, where, on October 7th, at King's Mountain, a detachment from his army was totally defeated by 900 militia, who killed and captured upward of 1,100 of the enemy. Cornwallis withdrew to South Carolina. On July 10th, a French fleet arrived at Newport, bringing the Count de Rochambeau and 6,000 soldiers. In September a treasonable plot schemed by Arnold was discovered. The prin- cipal military operations of 1781 were in the south, where Greene had superseded Gates. At the Cowpens, S. C, on January 17th, General Morgan won a brilliant victory over the British under Colonel Tarleton. On March 15th, the British gained a victory at Guilford Court House, N. C, but drew from it no advantage; and on September 8th occurred the drawn battle of Eutaw Springs, which nearly terminated the war in South Carolina. Cornwallis, having ad- vanced into Virginia in April, was opposed by Lafayette, Wayne, and Steuben, and fortified himself at Yorktown. Meanwhile, the American army under Washington and the French army of Rochambeau had formed a junction on the Hudson. The allied army arrived before York- town September 28, 1781, arfd began a regular siege, wmch lasted till October 19th, when Corn- wallis surrendered with his whole force of 7,247 men, besides 840 sailors; 106 guns were taken. This victory substantially terminated the con- test. A preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, November 30, 1782, by Franklin, Adams, Jay, and Laurens. On September 3, 1783, a definitive treaty jWas signed at Versailles, by which the United States were formally acknowl- edged by Great Britain to be free, sovereign, and independent. - New York, the last position held by the British on our coast, was evacuated No- vember 25, 1783. On June 12, 1776, while the resolution of independence was imder considera- tion in Congress, a committee of one from each colony was created to draft a form of confedera- tion, and the articles reported by it were adopted November 15, 1777. Having been ratified by all the States, they went into effect on March 1, 1781. Dissatisfaction with the confederation, owing to the weakness of the central government imder it, soon became widespread, and in 1786 a convention of delegates from several States at Annapolis, Md., recommended the calling of a convention of delegates from all the States to propose changes in the articles of confederation. This plan was approved by Congress on February 21, 1787, and the convention organized at Phila- delphia on May 25th, by the choice of Washing- ton as president. It remained in session until September 17th, when it adjourned after adopt- ing the Constitution. All the States were repre- sented except Rhode Island. Having been rati- fied by the requisite number of States, the Con- stitution went into effect on March 4, 1789. At the first election Washington was chosen presi- dent and John Adams vice-president, and Wash- ington was inaugurated in New York on April 30th. In the summer of 1790 an Indian war broke out with the tribes of the northwest, who, after inflicting defeats on Generals Harmar and St. Clair, were finally quelled by General Wayne, and peace was restored in August, 1795. At the second presidential election in 1792, Washington again received the unanimous votes of the elec- toral colleges, and Adams was reelected vice- president. The whiskey insurrection against an unpopular excise law in 1794 threw Western HISTORY 171 Pennsylvania into confusion, but was energet- ically suppressed by the president. Two parties had sprung up, the Federalists, supporters of the Constitution as it was, and the Republicans or Democrats, who desired to limit the federal pdwer. The Republicans were active in their sympathy for the French Republic. At the third presidential election (1796) the Federalists, among whom Alexander Hamilton was promi- nent, supported John Adams and the Republi- cans Thomas Jefferson. Adams, who received seventy-one electoral votes, was chosen president while Jefferson, who received sixty-eight, the next highest number, became, by the Constitu- tion as it then was, the vice-pl-esident. At the beginning of the administration the relations with France were threatening, and envoys were sent to adjust the difficulties; but the French Government refused to receive them. This ex- cited great indignation in the United States, and Congress made preparations for war. The meas- sures adopted were not without effect. A fresh embassy was sent, and a treaty was concluded in 1800. During the troubles with France two acts were passed by Congress, known as the alien and sedition laws : the first, which was lim- ited to two years, empowering the president to order aliens who were conspiring against the peace of the United States to quit the country; the other, which was to remain in force till March 4, 1801, providing among other things for the punishment by fine and imprisoimient of seditious libels, upon the government. These laws became exceedingly unpopular, and were bitterly denounced as harsh and unconstitutional. They contributed largely to the dissatisfaction with Mr. Adam's administration, which led in the next presidential election to the success of the Republican candidates, Jefferson and Burr, each of whom received seventy-three votes. The tie threw the election into the House of Representatives, where, on the thirty-sixth bal- lot, Jefferson was chosen president and Burr vice-president. This contest led to the adop- tion of the twelfth amendment of the Constitu- tion, requiring the electors to designate which person is voted for as president and which as vice-president. Jefferson's administration for the most part was marked by vigor and enlight- ened views, and in 1804 he was reelected, with George Clinton as vice-president. The vast ter- ritory then called Louisiana was purchased from France in 1803. A war with Tripoli, ended in 1805, humbled the Barbary pirates. In 1806 Aaron Burr secretly organized a military expe- dition, chiefly in the western States, which led to his arrest and trial at Richmond in 1807, on a charge of attempting to dismember the Union and to establish an independent dominion west of the AUeghanies ; but no overt act being proved against him, he was acquitted. The relations with Great Britain began m 1805 to be disturbed by the unfriendly acts of that power directed against American commerce, and by the exercise of the asserted right to search American vessels for suspected deserters from her navy. In 1806, an act was passed prohibiting the importation of certain articles of British production. In 1807, Congress laid an embargo, which prohibited the departure from American ports of vessels bound for foreign countries. This measure was vehem- ently denounced by the Federal party, and was repealed in 1809. In the presidential election of 1808 the Republican candidates, James Madison for president and George Clinton for vice-presi- dent, were elected. Congress continued the non- importation system. A long negotiation was carried on with the English Government without result, and on June 18, 1812, war was declared against Great Britain. In the summer of 1811, hostilities, excited as was alleged by British emis- saries, were begun by the Indian tribes north of the Ohio imder the lead of Tecumseh. William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory, defeated them on the banks of the Tippecanoe River, November 7, 1811. The campaign of 1812 closed with httle or no credit to the Ameri- can arms on land, the principal event being the surrender of Detroit (August 16th) by the Ameri- can General Hull to General Brock. But the navy achieved a series of brilliant victories, which were followed by others during the suc- ceeding years of the war. The campaign of 1813 was marked by alternate successes and reverses. The principal events were the defeat of General Winchester at the River Raisin by the British and Indians, the capture of York- (now Toronto) and of Fort George in Canada by the Americans, the repulse of a British attack on Sackett's Har- bor, and the defeat of the British and Indians near Thames River, Canada, by General Harri- son, Tecumseh being slain. On Lake Erie, Sep- tember 10th, a British fleet of six vessels was captured after a severe contest by Lieutenant O. H. Perry. On July 5, 1814, the British were defeated at Chippewa by General Brown, and on the 25th at Bridgewater or Lundy's Lane by Generals Brown and Winfield Scott. On Sep- tember 11th the United States fleet, under Com- modore Macdonough, totally defeated the Eng- lish fleet on Lake Champlain; and on the same day the British army, which had invaded New York and laid siege to Plattsburgh, retreated to Canada. In August, a British fleet arrived in the Chesapeake with an army of 5,000 men com- manded by General Ross, who marched on Washington, and, after putting to flight the militia at Bladensburg, took possession of the federal city on the 24th, and burned the capitol, the president's house, and other public build- ings. On the next day the British retired to their ships, and on September 12th-13th attacked Baltimore, where they were repulsed by the citizens, and General Ross was killed. After protracted negotiations a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814, which pro- vided for the mutual restoration of all territory taken during the war. Nothing was said of the impressment of American seamen, one of the main causes of the war, but the practice was dis- continued. Before the news of peace could cross the Atlantic, a British army, 12,000 strong, was defeated at New Orleans (January 8, 1815) by fewer than 5,000 men under General Jackson. In the same year Commodore Decatur compelled the rulers of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli to make indemnity for former outrages, and to agree to abstain from depredations on American com- merce. The presidential election of 1812 had resulted in the reelection of Mr. Madison. El- 172 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS bridge Gerry was chosen vice-president. At the presidential election of 1816 James Monroe of Virginia, and Daniel D. Tompkins of New York, Democrats, were elected president and vice- president, respectively. Monroe's administra- tion began under very favorable circumstances. Party distinctions had so nearly disappeared, that Democrats and Federalists combined to support the government. He was reelected in 1820 by all the electoral votes except one. Daniel D. Tompkins was reelected vice-president. The main event of Monroe's administration was the Missouri controversy, by which, for the first time, the country was disastrously divided upon the slavery question. In the session of 1818-19 a bill was introduced in Congress au- thorizing the Territory of Missouri to form a constitution, whereupon James Tallmadge of New- York moved in the House of Representatives to insert a clause prohibiting any further introduc- tion of slaves, and granting freedom to the chil- dren of those already in the Territory on their attaining the age of 25. This motion was car- ried, but the Senate refused to concur. In the session of 1819-20 the debate was long and acri- monious. The Senate sent to the House the Missouri bill with the prohibition of slavery in that State struck out, but with the proviso that it should not thereafter be tolerated north of latitude 36° 30'. This compromise was at length agreed to. The other great event of Mr. Mon- roe's administration was the recognition (1822) of the Spanish American republics, which had declared and maintained their independence for several years. In 1823 the president in his an- nual message put forth a declaration, famous as the "Monroe Doctrine," in which it was an- nounced that any attempt on the part of Euro- pean governments to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere would be considered dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States. In 1819, Florida had been ceded by Spain. In the presidential election of 1824 none of the four candidates (Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay) had a majority of the electoral votes, and Adams was elected by the House of Representa- tives. John C. Calhoun had been elected vice- president by the electoral colleges. Adam's ad- ministration was remarkable for order, method, and economy, but party spirit was higher than it had been for many years. At the election of 1828 General Jackson was chosen president, while John C. Calhoun was reelected vice-presi- dent. In his first annual message (December, 1829) the president took strong ground against the renewal of the charter of the United States bank, as not being authorized by the Constitu- tion. Congress, in 1832, passed a bill to re- charter it, but Jackson vetoed it ; and the char- ter expired by limitation in 1836. The com- mercial part of the community generally took the side of the bank, and the party formed in oppo- sition to the president assumed the name of Whigs, while his supporters adhered to the old name of Democrats. In 1832 arose the so-called nullification movement in South Carolina, grow- ing out of the tariff acts of that year and of 1828. A State convention held in November declared these acts unconstitutional and, therefore, null and void, and proclaimed that any attempt by the General Government to collect duties in the port of Charleston would be resisted by force of arms, and would produce the secession of South Carolina from the Union. Jackson had just been reelected for a second term, while Maptin Van Buren was chosen vice-president. The firmness of the president gave an effectual check to the incipient rebellion, and the affair was finally settled by a proposition brought forward in Congress by Henry Clay, the leading cham- pion of the protective system, for the modifica- tion of the tariff by a gradual reduction of the obnoxious duties. Other events of Jackson's administration were the removal of the public funds from the United States bank, the extinc- tion of the national bank and the beginning, toward the close of 1835, of a war with the Seminole Indians in Florida. In the presidential contest of 1836, Mr. Van Buren, who was sup- ported by the Democrats, was elected. No can- didate having been elected vice-president, Rich- ard M. Johnson was chosen by the Senate. The new administration began under most untoward circumstances. Within two months after the inauguration the mercantile failures in the city of New York alone amounted to more than $100,000,000. The war with the Seminoles was not ended till 1842. At the election in 1840, Harrison and Tyler, the Whig candidates for president and vice-president, were chosen. Gen- eral Harrison was inaugurated March 4, 1841, and died on April 4th. The presidential office devolved on Jonn Tyler, who soon developed a policy in relation to a national bank much more in accordance with the views of the Democratic party than with those of the Whigs. A treaty was concluded in 1842 with Great Britain by Daniel Webster for the settlement of the north- eastern boundary. The Texas question (see Texas) became the prominent issue in the presi- dential contest of 1844, the Democratic party supporting and the Whigs opposing annexation. The Democratic candidates, James K. Polk for president and George M. Dallas for vice-presi- dent, were elected over Henry Clay and Theo- dore Frelinghuysen. Joint resolutions for an- nexing Texas as one of the States of the Union were signed by President Tyler March 1, 1845, which led to a war with Mexico in 1846. Gen- eral Zachary Taylor defeated the Mexicans at Palo Alto May 8th, at Resaca de la Palma May 9th, at Monterey in September, and at Buena Vista February 23, 1847. General Scott landed near Vera Cruz on March 9th with about 12,000 men, immediately besieged that city, which sur^ rendered before the end of the month, and en- tered the city of Mexico on September 14th, after a series of hard-fought and uniformly suc- cessful battles. A treaty of peace was nego- tiated at Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848, by which Mexico granted to the United States the line of the Rio Grande as a boundary, and ceded New Mexico and California. The Oregon dispute with Great Britain, which claimed the whole region, while the United States claimed as far north as latitude 54° 40', was settled by the treaty of 1846, which adopted the bouiidary of the parallel of 49°, with a modification giving to Great Britain the whole of Vancouver Island. HISTORY 173 In the Democratic National convention of 1848, Lewis Cass was nominated for president, and William O. Butler for vice-president. By the Whig convention Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore were nominated. The question of slavery had a powerful influence on the political combinations of this period. In 1846, during the Mexican War, a bill being before Congress authorizing the president to use $2,000,000 in negotiating a peace, David Wilmot, a Demo- cratic representative from Pennsylvania, moved to add thereto a proviso prohibiting slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. This pro- viso was adopted in the House, nearly all the members from the free States voting for it, but failed in the Senate from want of time. Several delegates seceded from both the Whig and Dem- ocratic conventions of 1848, on the failure of those bodies to pronounce in favor of the prin- ciple of the proviso. These, with the Liberty party, formed in 1840, organized a free-soil or free Democratic party, and Martin Van Buren was nominated for president and Charles Francis Adams for vice-president. Van Buren and Adams received at the election, in November, a popular vote of 291,263, but secured no electoral vote. Taylor and Fillmore were elected. The application in 1850 of California for admission as a State roused the slavery controversy, and the difficulty was complicated by the application of New Mexico for admission, and by a claim brought forward by Texas to a western line of boundary which would include a large portion of New Mexico. Finally, a compromise was pro- posed by Henry Clay in the Senate as a final settlement of the whole question of slavery, and after a long discussion the result aimed at was attained by separate acts, which provided for: (1) the admission of California as a free State; (2) Territorial Governments for New Mexico and Utah without excluding slavery, but leaving its exclusion or admission to the local population; (3) the settlement of the Texas boundary ques- tion; (4) the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; (5) the enactment of a stringent law for the arrest and return of fugitive slaves. President Taylor died July 9, 1850, and was succeeded by the vice-president, Millard Fillmore. The whole weight of his administra- tion was given to the support of- the compromise measures. The Democratic National Conven- tion of 1852 nominated for president Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, who was known to hold opinions satisfactory to the South on the subject of slavery, and William R. King of Ala- bama for vice-president. The Whig National Convention nominated for president General Winfield Scott, and for vice-president William A. Graham of North Carolina. The National Convention of the Free-soil party nominated John P. Hale for president, and George W. Julian for vice-president. Pierce and King were elected. The passage in 1854 of a bill for the organiza- tion of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, by which the Missouri Compromise Act of 1820 was repealed, roused great excitement and in- dignation in the free States. The struggle in Kansas between the anti-slavery and pro-slavery parties (see Kansas) and the assault by Brooks on Sumner (see Sumner, Charles) added to the feeling. Preparatory to the presidential canvass of 1856 the Republican party was formed, which absorbed the entire Free-soil party, the greater part of the Whig party, and considerable acces- sions from the Democratic. That portion of the Whig party opposed to anti-slavery measures was merged, especially at the South, in an organ- ization called the American party, from its oppo- sition to foreign influence^ and particularly to Roman Catholic influence, m our political affairs, but popularly known as the "Know-Nothing Party '' from the secrecy of its organization and the reticence of its members. This party nomi- nated Millard Fillmore for president, and An- drew J. Donelson of Tennessee for vice-president. The Democratic National Convention nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania for president, and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky for vice- president. The Republican National Conven- tion nominated John C. Fremont of California for president, and William L. Dayton of New Jersey for vice-president. Buchanan and Breck- enridge were elected. The chief interest of Mr. Buchanan's administration centered around the slavery controversy. A constitution for Kansaa framed at Lecompton in 1857 was laid before Congress in the session of 1857-58, and its dis- cussion resulted in a schism in the Democratic party, and eventually in its division into two bodies, one of which looked upon Stephen A. Douglas as its leader, while the other supported Breckenridge for the presidency. The Demo- cratic National Convention met at Charleston, April 23, 1860, and a controversy on the subject of slavery immediately arose. A non-committal platform having been adopted, mo^t of the Southern delegates withdrew and adopted a plat- form of their own, denying the right of Congress to interfere with, and asserting its duty to pro- tect, slavery in the Territories. The convention adjourned May 3d, reassembled, in Baltimore June 18th, and nominated Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois for president, and Benjamin Fitzpat- rick of Alabama for vice-president. The latter afterward declined, and Herschel V. Johnson of Georgia was substituted. A convention called by the seceding delegates convened at Baltimore on June 23d, and nominated John C. Brecken- ridge for president, and Joseph Lane of Oregon for vice-president. The " Constitutional Union " party, composed mainly of the American party, nominated for president John Bell of Tennessee, and for vice-president Edward Everett of Massa/- chusetts. The Republican National Convention assembled at Chicago on May 16th, and nomi- nated for president Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, and for vice-president Hannibal Hamlin of Maine. In the election, November 6th, Mr. Lincoln received the electoral votes of all the free States (except three in New Jersey), 180, and was elected. Mr. Bell received the votes of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, 39; Mr. Douglas the 9 votes of Missouri and 3 from New Jersey; and the remaining Southern States cast their 72 electoral votes for Breckenridge. A convention was at once called in South Carolina, and on December 20th unanimously adopted an ordinance of secession from the Union. Before the end of May, 1861, eleven States had passed ordinances of secesBion (South Carolina, Mlssi» 174 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS sippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina). On February 4th a Congress met at Montgomery Ala., and framed a constitution for the "Confederate States of America." _ Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was chosen president, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia vice-presi- dent. After governmental organization, the first warlike act was the bombardment by the Con- federates of Fort Sumter, which surrendered April 13, 1861. On July 21st was fought the battle of Bull Run, near Manassas Junction, Va., the first of any magnitude during the war, in which the Union forces under General McDowell were defeated by the Confederates under Gen- eral Beauregard, and fell back in disorder to Washington. Soon after General McClellan, who had cleared West Virginia of Confederate troops, was placed in command of the army of the Potomac. On August 10th, a battle was fought at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, Mo., between the Confederates under General Mc- Culloch and the Federals under General Lyon, who fell. This- was followed by a varying and indecisive warfare in that State. On August 29th, Forts Hatteras and Clark, N. C, were taken by General Butler and Commodore String- ham; and on November 7th, Port Royal, S. C, by Commodore Du Pont and General T. W. Sherman. On October 21st, a portion of General Stone's command, having crossed the Potomac at Ball's Bluff, about midway between Harper's Ferry and Washington, was defeated by the Confederate General Evans, with a loss of 1,000 out of 1,900 men. On February 6, 1862, the Federal Commodore Foots, with a fleet of gun- boats from Cairo, reduced Fort Henry on the east>bank of the Tennessee River in Tennessee; and on the 16th Fort Donelson, on the west bank of the Cumberland, surrendered with about 13,000 men to General Grant. The Confeder- ates under McCulloch and others, just driven out of Missouri, were defeated at Pea Ridge, Ark., March 7th-8th. In the night of April 7th, Island No. Ten in the Mississippi, a few miles above New Madrid, Mo., surrendered, after a series of operations by General Pope and Commodore Foote, lasting over a month. The Federal fleet was now enabled to proceed down the river as far as Vicksburg, Miss., receiving the surrender of Memphis, Tenn., June 6th. The battle of Shiloh, Miss., raged two days (April 6th and 7th), when the Confederates under Beauregard fell back to Corinth, leaving the field in the posses- sion of the Union army under Generals Buell and Grant. Corinth was evacuated after some operations against it under General Halleck. An important event of the year was the capture of New Orleans toward the close of April by naval and land forces under Captain Farragut and General Butler. Early in the year Roanoke Island, New Berne, Beaufort, Washington, Ply- mouth, and other places on the coast of North Carolina were occupied by the Federals. On April 11th, Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah River, was reduced. Toward the end of August the Confederate General Bragg started on an invasion of Kentucky from East Tennes- see. He captured Richmond, Lexington, and Munfordsville, and on October 1st entered Frankfort. The Union forces under General Buell moving against him, he slowly retreated to Perryville, where, on the 8th, a severe battle was fought. During the succeeding night Bragg continued his retreat, and passed into East Ten- nessee. About the end of September the Con- federates under Generals Price and Van Dorn advanced against Corinth, Miss., now defended by General Rosecrans. Their assaults (October 3d, 4th) were repulsed with great loss. General Rosecrans, having superseded Buell, moved intp Tennessee, and marched upon Murfreesboro, where Bragg's forces were concentrated, reach- ing Stone River near that place on December 29 and 30th. Here bloody engagements occurred December 31, 1862, and January 2, 1863, which resulted in Bragg's retreat. Still greater ope- rations took place on the eastern theater of the war. Brisk fighting occurred in the Shenandoah Valley (March-June), with decided advantage on the whole to the Confederate General Jackson over Banks, Fremont, and others. About April 1, 1862, General McClellan transferred his forces to Fortress Monroe, near which a remarkable naval duel had taken place (at Hampton Roads) and began a movement upon Richmond up the peninsula between the York and James Rivers, fighting at Yorktown, Williamsburg, Seven Pines Fair Oaks, and Mechanicsville, and, during a retrograde movement to Harrison's Landing on the James, at Cold Harbor, Savage's Station, Frazier's Farm, and, finally (July 1st), at Mal- vern Hill. About the midcfle of August his army was transferred to the Potomac. The Confed- erate army, commanded by General Robert E. Lee, who had succeeded J. E. Johnston, had retired to Richmond, to assume the offensive against Washington. On August 9th an inde- cisive battle was fought by General Banks against Jackson at Cedar Mountain; and on August 29th and 30th occurred the second battle of Bull Run, between the Union army under Pope and the Confederate forces under Jackson and Longstreet, in which the latter had the advantage. Lee moved to the Potomac above Washington and crossed into Maryland. Jack- son captured Harper's Ferry with 11,500 men. McClellan, advancing to meet Lee, found him on September 15th strongly posted across Antie- tam Creek near Sharpsburg, where, on the two following days, a bloody battle was fought. In the night of the 18th, Lee retreated into Virginia. McClellan crossed the Potomac about November 1st. On the 7th he was superseded by General Burnside, who moved down the Rappahannock to Fredericksburg. Lee had made a parallel movement down the south bank and strongly intrenched himself on the bluffs behind the town. On December 13th, Burnside crossed the river and made repeated attacks on the enemy's posi- tion, but was repulsed with great slaughter, and on the 15th returned to the north bank. On January 26, 1863, Burnside was superseded by General Joseph Hooker. About the close of April Hooker began to cross the Rappahannock, and concentrated his forces at Chancellorsville, where a bloody engagement ensued. May 2d-4th, in which the Union army was worsted by the forces under Lee, Hooker recrossing to the north side of the river. General Jackson was mortally HISTORY 175 wounded. About the beginning of June, Lee again assumed the offensive. The main body of the Confederate army crossed the Potomac above Harper's Ferry, June 24th-25th, and march- ing across Maryland entered Pennsylvania. Hooker moved north, so as to cover Washington, and on the 26th crossed the Potomac about half way between Washington and Harper's Ferry. On the 28th he was succeeded by General Meade. 'The latter advanced into Pennsylvania, and on July 1st, 2d, and 3d the two armies met in the great battle of Gettysburg, which ended in the discomfiture of the Confederate army. On the 4th, Lee began his retreat, and on the 13th re- crossed the Potomac. Meade crossed on the 18th, and reached Warrenton on the 25th, where he was soon confronted by Lee on the other side of the Rappahannock. In the west important operations had taken place under Generals Grant and Sherman against Vicksburg. Close pressed, on July 3d, General Pember- ton surrendered that Confederate stronghold, with 27,000 men, to General Grant, who, on the 4th, occupied the city. The result of this cam- paign rent the Confederacy in twain, and de- cided its fate. Port Hudson, La., on the Mis- sissippi, surrendered after a siege to General Banks, July 8th. Rosecrans remained quietly at Murfreesboro till June 23, 1863, when he ad- vanced, forcing Bragg to retreat to Chattanooga, which was occupied by a detachment on Sep- tember 9th, Bragg retiring into Georgia and posting his troops in the vicinity of Chicka- mauga Creek, east of Trenton. Here, Septem- ber 19th and 20th, occurred a severe engage- ment, in which the Federals were worsted and fell back to Chattanooga, where they were be- sieged by Bragg. On October 23d, General Grant arrived and took command. A series of move- ments was at once initiated, which resulted in driving Bragg from Chattanooga (November 25th) and forcing him to retreat into Georgia. An army under General Burnside, which had occupied Knoxville, and was besieged there by Longstreet, was relieved at the beginning of December. All Tennessee was now recovered. In Arkansas, General Steele had captured Little Rock, September 10th. Fort Wagner, on Mor- ris Island at the entrance of Charleston Harbor, after vigorously repelling a heavy assault, had about the same time been reduced by a regular siege under General Gillmore. On April 20, 1864, Plymouth, N. C, was compellea to sur- render to a Confederate force under General Hoke, and as a consequence Washington, N. C, was evacuated by the Federals eight days later. On October 31st, Plymouth was retaken by the Federal fleet. On April 12th Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi about forty miles above Mem- phis, was taken by assault by the Confederates under General Forrest, and many of its colored defenders were killed after the capture. In August, Forts Gaines and Morgan, commanding the entrance to Mobile Bay, were reduced by a fleet under Admiral Farragut, aided by a land force under General Granger, and the Confed- erate fleet there was destroyed. ' West of the Mississippi, the most important movement in 1864 was Bank's disastrous Red River campaign in the early spring. In September and October, General Price with a considerable force made a raid through Missouri. In Virginia, General Grant, who had received the chief command of the Union armies, began on May 4th to cross the Rapidan and advance into the "Wilderness." Here (May 5th and 6th) and at Spottsylvania Court House near by (May 8th-21st) followed a series of sanguinary engagements, which baffled the direct advance. Grant then advanced by a succession of flank movements to the Chicka- hominy, where, on June 3d, he suffered a dis- astrous check in the second battle of Cold Har- bor. On the 12th, having determined to attack Richmond from the south, he began to move, crossing the Chickahominy below Lee's position, and effecting the passage of the James, June 14th-15th. Lee thereupon retired within the in- trenchments covering Richmond. On the 15th and 16th a part of the Union forces unsuccess- fully assailed Petersburg, and on the 19th Grant began a regular siege. An invasion of Mary- land under General Early in July, which threat- ened Washington, failed, and led to operations in the Shenandoah Valley, in which General Sheridan nearly destroyed Early's forces at Winchester. On May 5, 1864, General W. T. Sherman started from Chattanooga on his cam- paign against Atlanta, in which he was ably opposed by Johnston, and vainly assailed by his successor in command. General Hood. At- lanta was evacuated by the Confederates on September 1st. Near the middle of November he started for the coast. Marching through the heart of Georgia without opposition, he reached the vicinity of Savannah, capturing Fort Mc- Allister December 13th, and occupying the city December 21st. On December 16th and 16th, Hood, who had marched north with his army, suffered a bloody repulse before Nashville by Thomas. An attempt in December, by a fleet under Admiral Porter and a land force under General Butler, to reduce Fort Fisher at the mouth of Cape Fear River, commanding the approach to Wilmington, N. C, failed; but on January 15, 1865, it was carried by an assault under General Terry, aided by the fleet. The Federal forces occupied Wilmington on February 22d. The siege of Petersburg and Richmond continued till April 3, 1865, when, after Lee's defeat at Five Forks (March 31st, April 1st), those places were occupied by the Federals, hav- ing been evacuated by Lee during the preceding night. Grant vigorously pursued the retreating army, and at Appomattox Court House, on the 9th, compelled Lee to surrender the remnant of his forces, about 27,000 in all, an event which virtually terminated the war. On February 1st, General Sherman started from Savannah on a northward movement through the Carolinas, and reached Columbia on the 17th. General Hardee, being thus taken in the rear, evacuated Charleston, which was occupied by a detach- ment of General Gillmore's forces on the 18th, and the same day the national flag was raised over Fort Sumter. Sherman reached Fayette- viUe, N. C, on March 12th. On the 19th the left wing under Slocum encountered the Con- federate army under General Johnston at Ben- tonville, repelled several assaults, and on the 21st, being reinforced, compelled it to retreat 176 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS to Smithfield, covering Raleigh. Sherman then occupied Goldsboro, whence he advanced on April 10th. Johnston retreated through Ra- leigh, and on April 26th surrendered his entire army, then reduced to about 31,000 men. In the meantime, a cavalry force under General Wilson had swept through Alabama from the north, and passed into Georgia, occupying Selma on April 2d, Montgomery on the 12th, and Columbus, Ga., on the 16th. Mobile was taken on April 12th by General Canby, aided by a fleet under Admiral Thatcher. On May 4th, General Taylor surrendered the Confederate forces in Alabama to General Canby. The last fight of the war occurred May 13th, on the Rio Grande in Texas, between Colonel Barrett (Fed- eral) and General Slaughter (Confederate), the latter being victorious. The trans-Mississippi army of the Confederates, the last in the field, was surrendered by Kirby Smith on May 26th. During the war Confederate cruisers, mostly built and fitted out in British ports, and manned by British sailors, scoured the ocean. Evading vessels of war, they destroyed hundreds of mer- chantmen, doing irreparable injury to the com- merce of the Union. The chief of these were the "Alabama," "Chickamauga," "Florida," "Georgia," "Olustee," "Shenandoah," "Simi- ter," and "Tallahassee." The "Alabama," the most famous, commanded by Raphael Semmes, was sunk off Cherbourg, Prance, June 19, 1864, by the United States steamer "Kearsarge," commanded by Captain Winslow. After the fall of Richmond, President Davis of the Con- federacy fled south, and was captured at Irwin- ville, Ga., by General Wilson's forces. May 10, 1865. He and some other prominent leaders were imprisoned for a time, but no man was punished for participation in the rebellion. The National Republican Convention assembled at Baltimore on June 7, 1864, and nominated President Lincoln for reelection, and for vice- president Andrew Johnson of Tennessee. The platform pledged a vigorous prosecution of the war for tne suppression of the rebellion, and favored an amendment to the Constitution abolishing slavery. The National Democratic Convention assembled at Chicago on August 29th, and nominated General George B. McClel- lan for president, and for vice-president George H. Pendleton of Ohio. The election took place on November 8th, the eleven seceded States not participating. McClellan and Pendleton re- ceived the electoral votes of New Jersey, Dela- ware, and Kentucky, 21; Lincoln and Johnson received those of all the other States, 212, and were elected. On March 4, 1865, Lincoln's sec- ond inauguration took place. On April 14th he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, and the Secretary of State, Mr. Seward, dangerously wounded by another conspirator; and on the following day Vice-President Johnson entered upon the duties of the presidency. The ques- tion of emancipation early attracted the atten- tion of the administration and Congress. On April 16, 1862, an act was passed abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia, and on June 9th another act declared that slavery should not thereafter exist in the Territories. On January 1, 1863, Mr. Lincoln issued a proclamation de- claring free all persons held as slaves within the States or portions of States then in rebellion. The 13th amendment to the Federal Consti- tution, • declaring that slavery shall not exist within the United States or any place subject to their control, Was declared adopted by the Eroclamation of the Secretary of State on Decem- er 18, 1865. The first step toward the recon- struction of loyal governments in the seceded States was the proclamation of President Lin- coln of December 8, 1863. Under this scheme governments were organized in Louisiana and Arkansas in the early part of 1864, and in Ten- nessee early in 1865, but senators and repre- sentatives from thos^ States were not admitted to Congress. After the close of the war Presi- dent Johnson appointed provisional governors for several of the seceded States. But Congress did not approve this scheme of reconstruction, and senators and representatives from those States were not admitted. In June, 1866, a joint resolution adopted by Congress proposed the 14th amendment to the Constitution, extending the rights of citizenship to all classes of native and naturalized persons, guaranteeing the validity of the national debt, forbidding the payment of any part of the Confederate debt or of claims for the loss of slaves, etc. In July senators and representatives were admitted from Tennessee, that State having ratified the 14th amendment. On January 8, 1867, an act was passed over President Johnson's veto, confer- ring the right of suffrage on colored citizens' of the District of Columbia, and on the 24th a similar act became a law for the Territories. The congressional plan of reconstruction was developed in the act of March 2d and the sup- plementary acts of March 23d and July 19th, each of which was passed over the President's veto. These acts declared that "no legal State Governments or adequate protection for life or property now exist in the rebel States of Vir- ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, and Arkansas," and divided them into five mili- tary districts. The district commanders were required to make a registration of voters, com- prising male citizens of the United States 21 years old and upward, without regard to race, color, or previous condition, who had resided in the respective States one year, and were not excludedf rom holding office by the 14th amend- ment. Belegates were to be elected in the several States by the registered voters to con- ventions for framing new constitutions. Only when constitutions had been adopted conferring the right of suffrage on colored persons, and such constitutions had been approved by Congress, and when the 14th amendment had been ratified by the legislatures of the respective States, were senators and representatives to be admitted. The conditions of these acts were complied with in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina in 1868, and in Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia in 1870. But the subsequent action of the legislature of Georgia in excluding colored members led to further measures on the part of Congress, and delayed the final restoration of that State until 1870. The adoption of the HISTORY 177 14th amendment was proclaimed July 28, 1868. In February, 1869, a joint resolution proposing the 15th amendment to the constitution, pro- hibiting the denial or abridgment by any state of the Union of the right to vote on account of color or previous condition of servitude, was passed. The difference between President John- son and congress on the question of reconstruc- tion led to his separation from the repubhcan party, and to the passage March 2, 1867, over his veto, of the "tenure of office" act, which took from the president the power to remove, without the consent of the senate, such civil officers as are appointed by the president with the consent of the senate. His attempt to remove Mr. Stanton, secretary of war, led to his impeachment, a resolution to that effect passing the house of representatives February 24, 1868. He was tried before the senate and acquitted in May, there being a majority against him, but not the necessary two-thirds vote. In 1867, Alaska was purchased of Russia. The national republican convention nomi- nated General Ulysses S. Grant for president, and for vice-president Schuyler Colfax. The national democratic convention nominated Horatio Seymour and Francis P. Blair, Jr. The election took place November 3, Virginia, Missis- sippi, and Texas not voting. Grant and Colfax were elected. In May, 1872, a convention assembled at Cincinnati, composed of persons dissatisfied with President Grant. They styled themselves "liberal repubhcans." Horace Gree- ley was nominated for president, and Benjamin Gratz Brown for vice-president. The national republican convention nominated President Grant for reelection, and for vice-president Henry Wilson. The national democratic convention nominated the same candidates as the Cincinnati convention. The election, November 5th, re- sulted in the choice of Grant and Wilson. One of the prominent events of Grant's administra- tion was the settlement by the treaty of Washing- ton (May 8, 1871), and a subsequent arbitration at Geneva, Switzerland (1871-2), of outstanding disputes with Great Britain, of which the prin- cipal (the "Alabama claims" question) related to the charge that the British government had failed in its duties as a neutral in allowing the construction and fitting out of confederate cruis- ers in British ports. The verdict awarded to the UnitedStates an mdemnity of 115,500,000 in gold. In 1876 the repubhcans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes and William A. Wheeler. The demo- crats nominated Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas A. Hendricks. Hayes and Wheeler, although they received a minority of the pojjular vote, were declared by a special cornmission, whose report was adopted by congress in joint conven- tion, to have been elected by a majority of one in the electoral colleges. In 1876, the centennial exposition was held in Philadelphia, in celebra- tion of the one hundredth year of American independence. The exhibitors, from all parts of the world, numbered 30,865. At the follow- ing election (1880) the repubhcans elected Gen- eral Garfield, who was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, July 2, 1881, at the Baltimore and Potomac depot, Washington, D.C., and died September 19, 1881. Vice-prcBident Arthur became president. In 1885, Grover Cleveland succeeded as presi- dent. The anti-polygamy bill, virtually dis- franchising Mormons, became a law in 1886; also the inter-state commerce bill. A bill passed in 1870 prohibiting the immigration of Chinese as laborers, amended in 1882 making the restric- tion to last for twenty years, was further amended in 1888 by taking away from the Chinese now or heretofore in the coimtry the privilege of return unless they had previously procured cer- tificates. In 1889, Benjamin Harrison, elected by the republicans, became president, the issue of the campaign being free-trade vs. protection. In 1890 a protective tariff bill, known as the McKinley act, became a law. It increased duties on 115 articles, embracing farm products and manufactures, and decreased those on 190, i. e., manufactures estabhshed. It placed sugar on the free hst. The coinage act of 1890 made it compulsory for the government to buy 54,000,000 ounces of silver yearly; instead of coining the same, to issue silver certificates therefor. On June 19, 1890, the report of the international American conference was pre- sented, forming the basis of the policy of reci- procity by which treaties were entered into with Germany, France, Spain, Brazil, and the coun- tries of Central and South America. An apphoation of the "Monroe doctrine" in regard to the Samoan group of islands, which had been seized by Germany, resulted in a treaty which saved the absorption of the islands. The Bering sea question, long a diplomatic stumbhng-block between the United States and Great Britain, was referred to a board of arbitration. The pres- idential election in 1892 resulted in the selection of Grover Cleveland. President Harrison retired from office, March 4, 1893. President WilUam McKinley was inaugurated March 4, 1897, and a year later, after a number of attempts to allay the Cuban situation, came the war with Spain. A commission met in Paris to discuss the terms of peace between Spain and the United States. December 28, 1898, Spain ceded to the United States the Phihppines, Porto Rico, and Guam, and agreed to retire from Cuba, accepting the offer of $20,000,000, the United States' proposition. President McKinley was inaugurated for the second term, 1901. He was shot by an assassin on September 6, 1901, and died on the 14th, when he was succeeded by Vice-president Roosevelt, who, after the election of 1904, was inaugurated, 1905, for a full term. President Roosevelt initiated reforms in rail- roads, corporations, and trust methods, and pushed forward the construction of the Panama canal. In 1906, a race war occurred at Browns- ville, Texas, resulting in the colored troops stationed there being ordered out of the state, and in their subsequent expulsion from the Unite4 States army. In March, 1907, the presi- dent issued orders for the exclusion of Japanese laborers. This action opened the way for nego- tiations between the governments of Japan and the United States, which culminated, early in 1908, in the complete restraint of Japanese immi- gration to the United States. In June, 1908, the repubhcan national con- vention at Chicago nominated Wilham H. Taft for president, and James S. Sherman as vice- 178 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS president, who were elected, defeating W. J. Bryan and J. W. Kern, the democratic nominees. The chief features of the Taft administration were the creation of a commerce court and a tariS board, the estabhshment of postal savings banks and parcel post. The fisheries dispute with England was arbitrated successfully at The Hague. In 1912 arbitration treaties with France and with Great Britain were signed. In 1913 the 16th amendment, or income tax law, was adopted. The presidential election of 1912 resulted in the selection of Woodrow Wilson for president and Thomas R. Marshall for vice-president. Noteworthy events of Wilson s first term were : ratification of the 17th amendment providing for the direct election of senators by the people; revision of the tariff, known as the Underwood- Simmons tariff law; establishment of federal reserve banks; workmen's compensation act; eight-hour railway wage law; child labor law; purchase of Danish islands. In April, 1914, the port of Vera Cruz, Mexico, was seized by order of the President and held until September. Upon the outbreak of the European war in August, 1914, the President proclaimed neutraKty. The loss of more than 100 Americans on the British steamer "Lusitania," sunk by a German submarine. May 7, 1915, led to extended diplo- matic correspondence with Germany. During 1915 the naval advisory board and the federal trade commission were established, and the government railway in Alaska was begun. As a result of Villa's raid on Columbus, N. M., early in 1916, a mihtary expedition was sent into Mexico. In midsummer the national guard was mobilized on the Mexican border and the largest appropriations for the army and navy ever made in time of peace were passed by Congress. Follow- ing the Mexican disorders and the disturbing actions of Germany with respect to American rights on the high seas, there ensued a nation- wide movement in favor of mihtary and naval preparedness, accompanied by immense civic parades and other demonstrations. The National Defense act, signed June 3, authorized a regular army of 186,000 and a federahzed national guard with an eventual peace strength of 425,000. Diiring 1916 Congress erected a shipping board, a farm loan board, a tariff commission, and an employees' commission. A council of national defense was established, the Philippines act was passed, and also the Adamson biU adjusting rail- way wage problems. In November, 1916, Woodrow Wilson was re- elected president, defeating Charles E. Hughes, the Repubhcan candidate. On Jan. 22, 1917, President Wilson stated to the Senate the general terms, embodied in four- teen articles, in accordance with which peace should be fixed at the termination of the war. In consequence of Germany's declaration, Jan. 31, of unrestricted submarine warfare. President Wilson appeared before the Senate, Feb. 3, and announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Germany. On Apr. 2, 1917, President Wilson delivered a remarkable address to Congress resulting, on Apr. 6, in a declaration of war against Germany by a vote of 82 to 6 in the Senate and 373 to 50 in the House. On Apr. 17 Congress voted an appropriation of $7,000,000,000 for war pur- poses. Additional war appropriations raised the total voted by the 65th Congress at its first ses- sion to more than $19,000,000,000, of which $640,000,000 was for the aviation service. During the period of actual war, 1917-18, four government loans were floated, as follows: First Xiiberty Loan, 3J^ per cent, June, 1917, $2,000,000,000; subscriptions, $3,035,226,850; aUotment, $2,000,000,000; 4,500,000 subscribers. Second Liberty Loan, 4 per cent, October, 1917, $3,000,000,000; subscriptions $4,617,000,- 000; allotment, $3,808,766,150; 10,000,000 sub- scribers. Third Liberty Loan, 4}^ per cent, April, 1918, $3,000,000,000; subscriptions $4,176,516,850; all allotted; 17,000,000 subscribers. Foiu-th Liberty Loan, 4J^ per cent, October, 1918, $6,000,000,000; subscriptions $6,989,047,- 000; all allotted; 21,000,000 subscribers. The total of the four loans, $16,954,400,000, was purchased by 52,500,000 subscribers. In addition. War Savings Stamps subscriptions to Nov. 20, 1918, amounted to $879,330,000. Of the grand total of $17,833,730,000 realized from Liberty Loans and War Savings Stamps subscriptions, $8,171,776,666 had been advanced, Nov. 15, 1918, to aUied nations, Great Britain receiving $3,945,000,000, France, $2,445,000,000, Italjr, $1,210,000,000, Russia, $325,000,000, Belgium, $192,620,000, and the remainder to lesser countries, including Greece, Servia, Liberia, Cuba, and Czecho-Slovakia. On May 18, 1917, selective conscription was enacted, the Senate voting 81 for and 8 against, and the House 397 for and 24 against. On June . 5, 9,587,000 men registered for mihtary service. On June 13 Pershing arrived in Paris and was followed soon after by the first units of the American expeditionary force. On July 13 a call was issued for 678,000 drafted men. In November a section of the aUied line near Toul was taken over by American troops. At the end of December 195,494 soldiers had been embarked overseas. On Jan. 16, 1918, the federal fuel administrator ordered all manufacturing plants to close during Jan. 18-22 and for nine subsequent "heatless" Mondays, revoked Feb. 13. On Jan. 21 the government requisitioned all Dutch ships in American harbors. Feb. 23 the price of wheat for 1918 was fixed by the president at $2.20 per bushel. Mar. 30 dayhght saving bill went ittto effect throughout the United States. Apr. 6 President Wilson denounced the treaties forced upon Russia and Rumania and asserted that America will meet the German challenge with "force to the utmost." July 2 Secretary Baker announced 1,019,115 U. S. troops sent to France with only 291 lost at sea. JiUy 6 251,000 U. S. soldiers were reported on the battle line in France. July 26 the food board reduced the sugar allowance to two pounds per month per person. Sept. 12, final registra- tion of man power, age 18 to 45, of 13,228,000 brought the total to 23,709,000. Nov. 5 the congressional elections resulted in a Republican majority in the House and the Senate. Nov. 14 Secretary of Treasury and HISTORY 179 Director-general of Railroads McAdoo resigned both places. Nov. 11 an armistice was signed with Germany. Nov. 23 American troops entered Rhenish Prussia. Dec. 2 President Wilson announced to Congress in joint session his plan to participate in the Peace Conference at Versailles. Dec. 4 President Wilson sailed from New York on the "George Washington," arrived at Brest Dec. 13. On Jan. 18, 1919, the International Peace Conference opened at Versailles, France. Presi- dent Wilson headed the American delegation consisting, besides the president, of Secretary of State RoDert Lansing, Gen. Tasker H. Bliss, Col. Edw. M. House, and former Ambassador Henry White. On Feb. 14 President Wilson read to the conference a draft of a constitution for a League of Nations, and on Feb. 23 arrived in the United States to present its propositions before Congress. Utah, which was acquired by the United States in 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, was settled by the Mormons ia 1847. At first church officers ruled the government, but, with the coming of non-Mormons in 1849, the state of Deseret was organized, a constitution adopted, and an appeal made to congress for admission to statehood. Congress refused ad- mission as a state but organized the territory of Utah, September 9, 1850. After forty-five years the territory was admitted as a state, January 4, 1896. The original constitution grants fuU suf- frage to women. • Vermont. The first white settlement was made at Brattleboro, in 1724, as a military station, by the Massachusetts colonists. It served as a base of operations during the French wars. Immigration set in, and, in 1768, 124 townships had been granted by Governor Went- worth, of New Hampshire, by which colony the fee and jurisdiction of the soil were claimed. A coxmter-claim was made by New York in 1763, causing a bitter controversy between the two colonies. In 1777, the people of Vermont declared their independence, and, though admission to the confederacy of states was sought, it was refused, and Vermont remained outside of the Union till 1791. New York had surrendered its claims for a financial consideration in 1790. Vermont was the first state to join the original thirteen. Though not confederated with the other colonies against Great Britain, the "Green mountain boys" had signalized their valor and patriotism in a number of hard-fought battles and expe- ditions. Among these were the capture of Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen, the invasion of Canada, the battles on Lake Champlain, and the two battles near Bennington, which were the primary cause of Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga. Virginia. The name Virginia bestowed by Queen Elizabeth in 1584 on the region now known as North Carolina, discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition, was afterward appMed to the whole country to 45° north. In 1606, James I. gave to the London company, which made the first permanent English settle- ment in America at Jamestown in 1607, the country from 34° to 38° north, extending 100 rnUes from the sea. The colony was saved from ruin by Captain John Smith two years later. Colonization increased rapidly, and in 1619 a legislative body was formed. In 1641, there were 15,000 Enghsh in the colony. In 1676 occurred Bacon's rebeUion, brought on by the tyranny of Sir William Berkeley, the governor. The French war of 1754, of which Braddock's defeat was the most notable incident, first brought George Washington into notice. Virginia, under the leadership of Patrick Henry, was the first to protest against British oppression in 1764, and sent representatives to the continental con- gress in 1775. The most important mihtary event of the Revolution in Virginia was the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, October 19, 1781. Virginia passed an ordinance of seces- sion, April 17, 1861, and in the war that followed became the bloodiest cock-pit of the whole con- test. The most important battles were Bull Run, July 21, 1861; Winchester, May 25, 1862; the battles of the peninsular campaign in the summer of 1862; second battle of BuU Run, August 29, 1862; Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862; Chancellorsville, May 2-4, 1863; the battles of the Wilderness campaign in 1864, ending in the investment of Petersburg and Richmond; and the final surrender of General Lee at Appo- mattox coiu-t house, April 9, 1865. Statutory Prohibition was approved by popular vote, 1914. Washington. The first record in history of the region which is now the state of Washing- ton was the discovery, in 1592, of the strait of Juan de Fuca by a Greek pilot. In 1775 Captain Heceta, a Spanish navigator, discovered the mouth of the Columbia, but was unable to enter the river. In 1789 Captain Kendrick, an Ameri- can, sailed through the strait of Fuca, through the gulf of Georgia and Queen Charlotte sound. On the 11th of May, 1792, Captain Gray, of the American ship "Columbia," entered the river to which he gave the name of his ship. This gave to the United States the priority of claim to the Oregon region, which then comprised the present states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. In October, 1792, an Englishman sailed up and examined the Columbia about 100 miles from the mouth. The coast soon became well-known, and the United States government fitted out expeditions to explore the interior. The most important was that under Lewis and Clark, who, ascending the Missouri, made the Clearwater river, thence entering the Columbia and reaching the Pacific in December, 1805. In 1846 a treaty fixed the boundary at the forty-ninth parallel. The territory of Oregon was formed in 1848, and in 1853 the territory of Washington was estab- lished from a part of the original country. Wash- ington was admitted to statehood November 11, 1889. In 1910 the state granted suffrage to women and in 1914 enacted statutory Prohibi- tion. Waterloo, Battle of, an important battle won by the aUied forces over Napoleon, near Waterloo, a Belgian village eleven miles south of Brussels, June 18, 1815. The prehmi- nary battles had been at Ligny, June 16th (when Napoleon had defeated the Prussians under Bliicher), and at Quatre-Bras, on the same day (when the allies under Wellington compelled the French Marshal Ney to retire). At Waterloo the French numbered about 72,000. The allies 180 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS (British, Dutch, and Germans), under Welling- ton, had about 67,000; the Prussians (about 50,000 more), under Bltlcher, came up in time to take part in the close of the battle, and in the pursuit. The battle began about 11.30 A. M. Briefly it may be said to have consisted of a series of brilliant but unsuccessful charges made by the French, and dogged resistance on the part of the British; in the evening the French Old Guard charged, but unavailingly, after which the allies advanced. The French lost about 35,000, and many prisoners; the allies about 22,000. Marshal Grouchy, though he defeated Bllicher at Wavre, June 18th, failed to prevent him from joining Wellington, and himseK failed to come to Napoleon's aid, though but a few miles distant. The rout of the French was complete, and the disaster final to Napoleon. West Virginia. Immediately after the ordinance of secession, passed by Virginia in April, 1861, a mass-meeting of citizens con- vened at Clarksburg, and denounced the action of the convention, recommending the citizens of Northwest Virginia to meet in convention at Wheeling on May 13th. Other meetings sus- tained the movement, and delegates from twenty-five western counties met in convention, denounced the action of Virginia, and provided for a convention of all the counties of the state adhering to the Union. The latter convention repudiated the action of Virgini% and elected Francis H. Pierpont as governor of the reorgan- ized state of Virginia. The ultimate result was the formation of the new state under the title of West Virginia, and in 1863 the state was admitted to the Union. Military operations in what is now known as West Virginia were mostly confined to 1861. In 1912 constitutional Prohibition was adopted to take effect in 1914. Wisconsin.. The name is derived from the River Wisconsin (originally used with the French orthography, Ouisconsin), from an Indian word, meaning "wild, rushing channel." The first white people in Wisconsin were French explorers, Jean Nicolet and his followers, who entered the region in 1634. In 1658-59 two fur traders, Radisson and Groseilliers, visited the Mississippi and left a record of their travels. In 1665 a Jesuit mission at La Pointe was founded by Father Claude AUouez, and three years later he established the mission of St. Francis Xavier on the shores of Green bay. In 1673 Father Marquette, accompanying Louis Joliet, reached the Mississippi by passing through Wisconsin, and later Father Hennepin and La SaUe traced other waterways within the territory. Trading posts were established soon after this, becoming dependencies of Mackinaw. About the middle of the eighteenth century a settlement was established at Green bay; at the close of the Revolution Prairie du Chien, at the mouth of the Wisconsin, grew into a settlement, and a few years later La Pointe and Portage became per- manent trading posts. England retained Mackinaw after the treaty of 1783, and American dominion was not felt by the Wisconsin traders until after the war of 1812. By the ordinance of 1787 Wisconsin had been a part oi the Northwest territory. In 1800 it was included in Indiana territory. In 1809 it passed to Illinois, and in 1818 to Michigan. In 1828 Fort Winnebago was erected at Portage. In 1832 occurred the Black Hawk war, which almost exterminated the Sacs. The territory of Wisconsin was formed in 1836 out of lands then comprised in the territory of Michigan. It embraced all the land now within the states of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and that part of Dakota which lies east of the Missouri and White Earth rivers. In 1838 aU the territory west of the Mississippi, and of a line due north from the source of that river to the international boundary-line, was taken to form the territory of Iowa. Wisconsin became a state in 1848, the seventeenth admitted to the Union. "VVoman Suffrage. The first state to grant suffrage to women was Wyoming, which in- corporated it in its territorial statutes in 1869, Colorado granted suffrage to women, 1893; Utah and Idaho, 1896; Washington, 1910; CaUfomia, 1911 ; Arizona, Kansas, and Oregon, 1912; Alaska, 1913; Montana and Nevada, 1914. In 1913 the women of Ilhnois were given extensive franchise privileges by state law. In 1917 New York, by a majority exceeding 100,000, voted, full suffrage to women. Many states extend to women the right to vote in local affairs. January 10, 1918, the house of representatives voted to submit a federal amendment extending fuU suffrage to women. In 1918 Michigan, Oklahoma and South Dakota granted suffrage to women. Wyoming was first visited by white men in 1742 and 1744, when Sieur de Verendrye, with a party from Canada, entered the territory and discovered the Rocky mountains. John Colter, of Lewis and Clark's expedition of 1806- 10, explored the northern part of the section and discovered Yellowstone park. In 1807 Ezekiel Williams made extensive explorations in Wyoming, and in 1812 Robert Stuart's courier party discovered the route to the West known as the "overland trail." In 1834 Sublette and Campbell built Fort Williams, afterward called Fort Laramie, and established the first permanent post in the state. In 1834 the first emigrants to the Pacific coast passed along the overland trail, and in 1836 the firS; white women crossed the Rocky moun- tains. Fort Bridger, the second permanent post, was built in 1842. Fort Laramie was garrisoned in 1849 and made a government post. • Indian wars occurred, 1854-1876. In 1866 at the massacre of Fort Phil Kearny, Colonel Fetterman and eighty men were kuled. "The gold mines of Sweetwater were discovered in 1867, and the city of Cheyenne was founded in the same year. The first passenger train on the Union Pacific railroad arrived in Wyoming in 1867. In 1868 the territory of Wyoming was organized. Cheyenne was designated as the capital^ and Laramie was founded. The first terntorial legislature convened at Cheyenne in 1869. An act was approved that year giving women the right of suffrage. Coal was discovered in 1869. In 1890 Wyoming was admitted to statehood. Serious trouble was caused for some years by the state game laws, to which the Indians were naturally unable to reconcile themselves. Premier Lloyd George Photo by P. Thompson General Pershing Photo by Press 111. Service General Diaz PMo by Int. Film Service LEADERS IN THE WORLD WAR 1 President Wilson Photo by Clinedinsi I Marshal Foch Photo by Int. Film Service King Albert Photo by Harris-Ewing Premier Clemenceau Photo by Brown Bros. Field Marshal Haig Photo by Int. Film Service Marshal Joffre Photo by Brown Bros, WORLD WAR CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT While there is now no question as to its chief causes, only the historian of the distant future will be in position to state with absolute completeness all of the causes of the recent international conflict which for more than four years ravaged mankind. Magnitude of the War. The gigantic struggle involved every continent. It affected in some vital way every leading nation. It interfered in scarcely less degree with the peace or with the prosperity of each lesser state. In the end it embattled twenty-eight nations. These embraced more than nine-tenths of the population of the globe! Its battle-lines flamed on arctic marshes, in snowy mountain passes, in African jungles, in Asian deserts, in ItaUan valleys, and in the fair fields of France. Its circling navies sped to every ocean. The blood of its combatants was commiogled in the farthest seas. Its heroes fought in the sky in moving forts, and in caverns of the earth. Under its .banners were ari'ayed soldiers from every race, the white, the yellow, the red, and the black. In sheer magnitude it stands absolutely unap- proached among all the wars of history. Truly the conflict could not be given a fitter name than that of the WORLD WAR. Complexity of the Struggle. In the very nature of the case, the interplay of causes, motives, and issues involved was exceedingly complex. Further, those who have lived through this period of tremendous stress, whether as actors on its battlefields or as noncombatants in remote regions, have all been too close to local aspects of the struggle to judge with accuracy the comparative importance of what they have actually seen. Only the carefully assembled, verified, and di- gested total of all these observed facts will yield final, correct conclusionsj A long period of close study will be required in order to assign with exactness the relative rank of the various causes of the war. Locked archives of the nations will be opened. Secret treaties will be brought to light. The concealed compacts of emperors, kings, chan- cellors, and diplomats will be made known. In a generation or tVo, perhaps, a complete, authori- tative history of the world war may be written on the basis of all these revealed, proved, and well- weighed facts. The Inciting Incident. The assassination of the Austrian crown prince Franz Ferdinand at Serajevo, Bosnia, June 28, 1914, precipitated the most inexcusably criminal war of human record. But this unfortunate event was a mere incident. The murder of a Habsburg prince by a, Jugo-Slav conspirator no more caused the ensuing oonfUct than a push-button under a finger-thrust causes an electric light. It merely turned on a death-dealing current already generated by the Habsburgs and HohenzoUerns of Vienna and Berlin. The attack on Servia brought Russia into the war. The violation of Belgium brought Great Britain into it. Brutal defiance of national rights at sea brought the United States into it. Yet none of these events of themselves engendered the war or impelled the world to unite in arms against the Teutonic powers. The B«al Cause. The great actuating^ cause was the insensate ambition of Germany to impose its imperial autocratic rule upon the entire world. Behind it were the racial and national jealousies of Teuton and Slav, of German and Frenchman, of German and Britisher. All these antagonisms had been fostered and fanned_ well-nigh into flame by a half century of increasing Teutonic aggression. Behind it; too, were the German belief in and de- sire for war in order to fulfil German destiny and to promote German Kultur. Behind it also was the German will to conquer the Entente powers as a step to European supremacy and thence to world power. "Back of it, too, were fifty years of universal military training in Germany, of constant drill in the use of arms, of unceasing military and naval preparation, all conducted with scientific precision, with boasted thoroughness, and complete to the most minute detail. Whatever the relative importance of the various contributing factors, the great outstanding _ fact, made clearer at each new stage of the confliot, is Germany's responsibility for causing and con- tinuing the war and the inexpiable gililt of the Holienzollerns for its shocking atrocities. All diplomatic efforts to prevent the war at its beginning were thwarted by Germany's ominous opposition. All reasonable endeavors to end it afterwards were rendered futile by German pre- sumptions of victory and of the right to dictate a conqueror's peace. An Imperial Conspiracy. Leaving to future historians the selection of the exact term with which to denote it, there was, in essence, a criminal conspiracy between the HohenzoUerns of Germany and the Habsburgs of Austria to establish a world empire by force. Confident that they possessed the power, they determined to impose their rule regardless of treaties, national honor, or human rights. These worshippers of militarism resolved to stop at nothing, to respect no law of God or man, but to rob, pillage, desecrate, burn, starve, enslave, torture, outrage, and murder, — in short, to terrorize by every extreme of frightfulness all who dared to oppose them. Germany expected to strike quickly and to win overwhelming military victory before the other powers were prepared to resist. By exacting stag- gering indemnities from conquered nations, she planned to transform war costs into handsome profits with which to extend still further her rule of blood and iron. To achieve this monstrous design Germany not only completed vast armaments and built more and more deadly instruments of destruction. With like premeditation and thorough- ness Germany placed her secret agents in every country. By an elaborate system of espionage she charted her campaigns in advance and rehearsed attacks in detail years before they were actually delivered. German Propaganda. By cunningly concealed propaganda, Germany systematically sought to lull peaceful democratic nations into a false sense of security. Pacifism and disarmament were covertly encouraged, sometimes to the point of financial support. Even England, under pacifist influences, actually reduced her already puny forces to the "contemptible little army" that the Kaiser later particularly requested his armed hordes to destroy. Side by side with espionage and the secret en- couragement of pacifism, a vigorous campaign was conducted to foster belief in the superiority of everything German. The whole world was to be steeped with the idea that the German is a super- man, that German genius transcends all other genius, and that the German unapproachably excels in every field. According to this widely proclaimed view to emulate the German would be useless and to compete with him impossible. 182 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Americans, especially, were induced to believe that German thoroughness and German efficiency- surpassed that of every other nation. But above all else, the paid tools of the Hohenzollerns extolled German military invincibility. They affirmed that the German army could not be resisted and that to defeat it was beyond human power. They main- tained that German military armaments, munitions, equipment, tactics, leadership, and morale were of a superior order, entirely beyond comparison with that of any other nation. Whole peoples, at times, were brought under the spell of this invincibility myth, though it was exploded whenever Belgians, French, British, or Americans met Germans on equal terms. Germany's Allies. The foregoing facts show how deliberately and with what infinite pains the Hohenzollerns prepared to overthrow the other nations of the world. Yet to this overwhelming evidence must be added the character and the record of Germany's allies. The foremost of these were the Habsburgs, a decaying medieval dynasty which, aided by a small minority of Teutons, ruled the dissimilar peoples of Austria-Hungary with iron repression. Habs- burg monarchs for centuries plunged Europe into its most sanguinary wars, usually to settle some dynastic contention or to gratify some imperial whim. The terrible Thirty Years' war was brought on by the Habsburgs. A Habsburg emperor, after the French Revolution, sent armies to destroy the newly founded republic in France. The Habsburg rule long sought to keep Greece under the yoke of the Turk. It was a Habsburg prince, Maximilian, who tried to enthrone himself emperor of Mexico in outright defiance of the United States and the Monroe Doctrine. Further, it was the Habsburgs who fought to prevent Italy from becoming a nation. Again, it was the Habsburgs of Austria who, in 1908, annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in violation of a solemn treaty._ By these same Habsburgs the Balkan states in 1913 were deprived of the fruits of their victories over the Turks. It was the Habsburgs who planned to crush Servia and to conquer a path to Asia through Slavic countries. Yet these are but a few_ fragments from the black record of this greedy, reactionary house. Such was the character of the feudal autocracy chosen by Germany as her chief copartner in the proposed subjection and despoil- ment of the nations. The next in order among the accomplices of Ger- many was the unspeakable Turk, whose sultan was proclaimed the Kaiser's special friend and whose religion the Kaiser assumed to defend. The civi- lized world will never read the record of this part- nership without a shudder of horror. With the Kaiser's implied consent, hundreds of thousands of Christians in Armenia were starved and slaughtered by the Turks. To aid further the spread of Hohen- zoUern Kultur, the sultan of Turkey, with encour- agement from Berlin, proclaimed a "holy war," calling on Moslems throughout the entire world to rise and slay their Christian neighbors. Last of all was the traitor czar of Bulgaria, the infamous Ferdinand who betrayed his own people and, at the behest of William II, set his armies at the_ throats of their fellow Slavs in the Balkans. This venal tyrant was the first to abandon his HohenzoUern master when the "invincible" German armies crumbled in "victorious" retreat. Democracy vs. Autocracy. The consummating evidence of HohenzoUern guilt was found in their barbarous conduct of the war, in their brutal inhumanities on land and sea, and in their impudent hypocrisy in defending them as necessary punish- ments inflicted in "defense" of the fatherland. As the conflict progressed, the issue became very clear. It was autocracy against democracy, — a life and death struggle between monarchical mili- tarism and the free peoples of the world. How nearly the conspiring HohenzoUerns and their des- potic allies succeeded in their sinister designs and how completely the liberty-loving nations over- threw them at last is shown in the following chro- nology of important events of the WORLD WAR. NOTE: For governments and for geographical boundaries as they existed at the beginning of the war, see the sections on Geography, page 507, and Government, page 585. For changes in governments and rulers resulting from the war, consult the section on History, page 9, and also Rulers of the World, pages 146 and 605, in connection with the following Chronology of the World War. SEVERANCE OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS The nations that formally severed diplomatic relations, whether later declaring war or not, are as follows: Austria against Japan; ... . Aug. 26, 1914 Austria against Portugal, . . Max. 16, 1916 Austria against Servia, July 26, 1914 Austria against United States, . . Apr. 8, 1917 Bolivia against Germany, . Apr. 14, 1917 Brazil against Germany, . . . Apr. 11, 1917 China against Germany, . Mar. 14, 1917 Costa Rica against Germany, . . Sept. 21,1917 Ecuador against Germany, . Dec. 7, 1917 Egypt against Germany, . . Aug. 13, 1914 France against Austria, . . . Aug. 10, 1914 Greece against Austria, . . . . July 2, 1917 Greece against Turkey, . . July 2, 1917 Guatemala against Germany, . Apr. 27, 1917 Hayti against Germany, . . . June 17, 1917 Honduras against Germany, . . May 17, 1917 Nicaragua against Germany, . . May 18, 1917 Peru against Germany, .... Oct. 6, 1917 Santo Domingo against Germany, . June 8, 1917 Turkey against United States, . . Apr. 20, 1917 United States against Germany, . . Feb. 3, 1917 Uruguay against Germany Oct. 7, 1917 DECLARATIONS OF WAR According to the State Department's list,, the nations involved in the conflict made declarations of war as follows: Austria against Belgium, . Austria against Japan, . . Austria against MontenegrO; Austria against Russia, . Austria against Servia, . Belgium against Germany, . Brazil against Germany, . . Bulgaria against Servia, China against Austria, . . . China against Germany, '. Costa Rica against Germany, . - Cuba against Germany, .... Cuba against Austria^Hungary, . France against Austria, France against Bulgaria, . France against Germany, . France against Turkey, . Germany against Belgium, . . Germany against France, Germany against Portugal, Germany against Rumania, . Germany against Russia, . Great Britain against Austria, Great Britain against Bulgaria, Great Britain against Germany, Great Britain against Turkey, . Greece (Prov.Gov.) against Bulgaria, Greece against Bulgaria, Greece (Prov.Gov.) against Germany, Aug. 28, 1914 Aug. 27, 1914 Aug. 9, 1914 Aug. 6,1914 July 28, 1914 Aug. 4,1914 Oct. 26, 1917 Oct. 14, 1915 Aug. 14, 1917 Aug. 14, 1917 May 23, 1918 Apr. 7, 1917 Dec. 16, 1917 Aug. 13, 1914 Oct. 16, 1915 Aug. 3,1914 Nov. 5,1914 Aug. 4,1914 Aug. 3,1914 Mar. 9, 1916 Sept. 14,1916 Aug. 1,1914 Aug. 13, 1914 Oct. 15, 1915 Aug. 4,1914 Nov. 5,1914 Nov. 28, 1916 July 2, 1917 Nov. 28, 1916 WORLD WAR 182a Greece against Germany July 2, 1917 Guatemala against Austria-Hungary, Apr. 22, 1918 Guatemala against Germany, . Apr. 22, 1918 Hayti against Germany, . . . July 15, 1918 Honduras against Germany, . . . July 19, 1918 Italy against Austria May 24, 1915 Italy against Bulgaria Oct. 19, 1915 Italy against Germany Aug. 28, 1916 Italy against Turkey . Aug. 21, 1915 Japan against Germany Aug. 23, 1914 Liberia against Germany, . . . Aug. 4, 1917 Montenegro against Austria, . . . Aug. 8, 1914 Montenegro against Germany, . Aug. 9, 1914 Nicaragua against Germany, . . . May 24, 1918 Panama against Austria, . Dec. 10, 1917 Panama against Germany, . . Apr. 7, 1917 Portugal against Germany, . Nov. 23, 1914 (authorizing intervention) Portugal against Germany, . . . May 19, 1915 (granting military aid) Rumania against Austria Aug. 27, 1916 (accepted by Austria's allies) Russia against Bulgaria, . . . . Oct. 19, 1915 Russia against Germany, . . . Aug. 7, 1914 Russia against Turkey Nov. 3, 1914 San Marino against Austria, . May 24, 1915 Servia against Bulgaria, Oct. 16, 1915 Servia against Germany, Aug. 6,1914 Servia against Turkey, Deo. 2, 1914 Siam against Austria July 22, 1917 Siam against Germany, July 22, 1917 Turkey against Allies, ... . Nov. 23, 1914 Turkey against Rumania, . . . . Aug. 29, 1916 United States against Austria- Hungary, Dec. 7, 1917 United States against Germany, . . Apr. 6, 1917 CHRONOLOGY OF THE Ti^OBLD WAR Events of 1914 JUNE— 1914 38. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, crown prince of Austria-Hungary, and his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, while attending military maneuvers on the occasion of their first official visit to Serajevo, Bosnia, are assassinated by Gavrio Prinzip, a Ser- vian student. JULY— 1914 23. Austria-Hungary sends an ultimatum to Servia, accusing the Servian government of compho- ity in the murder of the crown prince, Franz Ferdi- nand, and making upon the Servian government demands which no state could fully meet without an actual surrender of its independence as a nation. The Austro-Hungarian note further stipulated that Servia must signify acceptance of these demands within 48 hours. 34. Russia, seconded by Great Britain and France, demands that Austria-Hungary prolong the term of her ultimatum to Servia. When urged by Great Britain and Russia to support this denxand for delay, Germany refuses and the proposal is, Hkewise, flatly rejected by the Austro-Hungarian government. 35. Servia replies to the Austro-Hungarian note in extremely conciliatory terms, agreeing to all dem^ds not involving the surrender of her sover- eignty, and proposes, in case her answer is not con- sidered satisfactory, to refer the decision to the international tribunal at The Hague or to a council of the great powers. 36. Sir Edward Grey, British foreign secretary, suggests a conference of representatives of the four powers, England, France, Germany, and Italy, for the purpose of arriving at a plan to prevent compli- cations between Austria and Russia. To this proposal France and Italy immediately agree but Germany refuses. 37. Answering an inquiry from the Prince Regent of Servia, Czar Nicholas II urges Servia to neglect "no step which might lead to a settlement" but promises that it, despite Russia's pacific endeav- ors, war should ensue, "Russia will in no case dis- interest herself in the fate of Servia." 38. Evidently with full appro-s'al of Germany and in disregard of all proposals for mediation, the Austro-Hungarian government declares war against Servia at noon (Tuesday). 39. Russia decrees partial mobihzation against Austria. Sir Edward Grey urges the German gov- ernment to suggest any method whereby the influ- ence of the four powers. Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy, can be used together to prevent war between Austria and Russia. Serious compli- cations between Germany and Russia begin to arise. 30. Germany pronounces objectionable Sazonov's proposal that Russia would desist ff'om military preparation provided Austria should withdraw from her ultimatum such points as violate the sovereign rights of Servia. 31. While Austria-Hungary ostensibly was will- ing to satisfy Russia, relations between Germany and Russia become extremely critical. Austria pro- claims general mobilization of her armies. Russia follows with a similar proclamation. At 7 P. M. Germany sends France an ultimatum demanding within 18 hours a declaration whether, in the event of a war between Germany and Russia, France would remain neutral. Upon being questioned by Eng- land, France explicitly agrees to respect the neutral- ity of Belgium but Germany declines to make such a promise. At midnight Germany sends a 12-hour ultimatum to Russia demanding that mobilization cease not only against Germany, but against Austria- Hungary. AUGUST— 1914 1. As demobilization would have rendered Rus- sia defenseless against a combined German and Austrian attack, no reply was made to Germany's ultimatum. At 7;10 P. M. Germany declared war against Russia. France, as Russia's ally, sent a noncommittal reply to the German ultimatuna which was followed at 5 P. M. by an order for the mobihza- tion of the French army. Italy, though bound by treaty to the Triple Alliance, but regarding Germany and Austria-Hungary as aggressors, declares that she will remain neutral. 3. German troops, violating the neutrality of an independent state, invade Luxemburg. Germany presents a 12-hour ultimatum to Belgium demand- ing free passage of German, armies through Belgium to attack France. 3. Belgium refuses to accede to the German de- mands, stating that France had already (July 31) pledged herself to respect Belgian neutrality. At 6:45 P. M. Germany declares war against France. 4. German military forces invade Belgian terri- tory at Gemmenich. King Albert, telling the Ger- man emissaries that "Belgium is a nation, not a road," appeals to Great Britain, France, and Russia (who, with Germany, had by the treaty of 1839 solemnly guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium) for armed assistance in repelhng the German invasion. Sir Edward Grey dispatches an ultimatum to Berhn demanding that Germany respect the neutrality of Belgium. Germany refuses on the ground of "mili- tary necessity," the German chancellor. Von Beth- mann-HoUweg, angrily rebuking Great Britain for making war just for a "scrap of paper." At 11 P.M. Great Britain declares war against Germany. 5. German forces attack the forts of LiSge, Belgium, and are repulsed with terrific loss. 6. Austria^Hungary declares war against Russia. Servia declares war against Germany. 7. After reducing two of the Li6ge forts by heavy artillery, German forces enter the city. Russia_declares war against Germany. 182b THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 8. French troops occupy Miilhouse. First English forces land in France. Montenegro declares war on Austria-Hungary. 9. Montenegro declares war on Germany. Austria declares war on Montenegro. 13. German heavy artillery begins reduction of the remaining Lifege forts. 13. France and Great Britain declare war on Austria. 16. Austrian forces cross the Save into Servia. 17. Belgian government is' moved to Antwerp. Last Lifege fortresses fall. 18. Servians defeat Austrians at Jadar. 19. Canada authorizes expeditionary force. Germans occupy Louvain. 30. Germans occupy Brussels. French in Lorraine retreat across the frontier. Joffre assumes command of the allied armies in France. Russians defeat Germans at Gumbinnen. 81. Germans levy a war tax of $10,000,000 on LiSge and $40,000,000 on Brussels. 33. Belgian fortress of Namur fails. 33. Japan declares war on Germany. French forces, greatly outnumbered, are defeated at the battle of Charleroi, Belgilim, compelling rapid retreat into France. Von Kluck, with about 200,000 men, attacks Sir John French, with two British divisions, about 80,000 men, at Mons, Belgium. 24. Joffre orders general strategic withdrawal of the alUed armies to the line of the Marne. Gen. French leaves precarious positions at Mons and begins notable 6-day retreat. 36-37. Germans sack and burn Louvain. British fight stubbornly around St. Quentin and Cambrai. 37. Austria-Hungary declares war against Japan. 38. Austria-Hungary declares war on Belgium. British forces end retreat on the Noyon-Chauny- La Ffei-e line, after losing 230 officers and 13,000 men and inflicting losses estimated three times as great upon Von Kluck's divisions. British fleet under Sir David Beatty engages, in Helgoland Bight, a portion of the German fleet, sinking three armored cruisers and two destroyers. 39. Germans capture La F^re. 30. The French evacuate Amiens. 31. Name of Russian capital changed from St. Petersburg to Petrograd. Paris prepares for siege. Von Hindenburg defeats Russians at Tanuenberg, capturing 70,000 prisoners. SEPTEMBER— 1914 1. Allied armies continue retreat. Russians defeat Austrians in Galicia. 3. Russian armies capture Lemberg. 3. French government removed from Paris to Bordeaux. i. German army under Von Kluck, upon reach- ing a point near Louvres, about 17 miles from Paris, the nearest approach made by German forces during the war, turns away from the capital and marches east to strike at the French center behind the Marne. 5. German army begins advance south of the Marne. Joffre disposes the allied forces for a great offensive, ordering his armies to attack and "to die rather than retreat." 6. Battle of the Marne begins, on a line extend- ing from Ermenon\ille to Verdun. With upwards of 1,000,000 men, Joffre confronts German armies totaling 900,000. 7. General engagement continues on the entire line of the Marne with the Allies on the offensive. Germans capture the fortress of Maubeuge. 8. Gen. Gallieni, the "savior of Paris," forms a new army, transports 80,000 men in automobiles eastward from the capital and attacks the rear of Von Kluck's army which is simultaneously attacked on flank by the English army. 9. Left wing of the Allies continues to advance, the British crossing the Marne. Russian army of 1,500,000 overwhelmingly defeats 1,000,000 Austrians in Galicia. Servia wins victory over Austrians on the Drina. 10. Battle of the Marne ends with German armies in full retreat to the Soissons-Rheims line, thus marking the failure of Germany's efforts to crush the French center and capture Paris. 11. Battle in France continues with Allies steadily forcing back the German armies. 13. The great German retreat ends on a pre- viously prepared line from Soissons to the Argonne Forest. Battle of the Aisne begins. 14. French forces reoccupy Amiens. 15. The French reoccupy Rheims. 16. 'The Russian armies attack Przemysl. 31. Russians capture Jaroslav. 33. Servians defeat Austrians near Krupani. 34. The Allies occupy Pferonne. 35. German forces penetrate to St. Mihiel and occupy Camp des Romains. 38. Rheims cathedral bombarded by Germans. Battle of the Aisne closes with both armies approach- ing a deadlock which remained practically unbroken for nearly four years. Turkey closes the Dardanelles. 39. Germans begin siege of Antwerp. OCTOBER— 1914 1. British Indian troops arrive at Marseilles. 3. Russians severely defeat Germans in a great five days' battle near Augustowo. 9. Antwerp surrenders to the Germans. 13. Germans occupy Lille. Alhes stoutly resist German advance toward the Channel ports. British capture Ypres. Belgian government removed to Havre. 14. German forces enter Bruges. Canadian forces arrive at Plymouth. 15. Germans occupy Ostend. 30. Germans forced to retreat in Poland. 30. Belgians flood Yser valley, preventing Ger- man advance toward Calais. NOVEMBER— 1914 I. German squadron of five cruisers defeats British squadron of four vessels off Coronel, Chile, sinking the "Good Hope" and the "Monmouth." 3. Russia declares war against Turkey. 7. Tsingtao surrenders to the Japanese. 9. German cruiser "Emden," after sinking 25 merchant ships in the South Pacific, is driven ashore at Cocos Islands by Australian cruiser "Sydney." 10. Germans capture Dixmude and cross Yser canal. II. Russians take Johannisburg, Bast Prussia. 30. British parliament authorizes an addi- tional army of 1,000,000. 33. Germans heavily attack Ypres, held at great sacrifices by British. 37. Russians occupy Czernowitz. 30. Battle of Flanders for possession of the Channel ports, after six weeks of terrific struggle, ends with the Allies firmly holding their lines from the Lys to the sea. Under the eyes of the ICaiser, several hundred thousand picked German troops had been thrown against the Anglo-Belgian and French forces. The Belgians and the British sacrificed the greater part of their original armies, but, supported by the French under the direction of Gen. Fooh, withstood all onslaughts, maintained control of Calais and Dunkirk, and inflicted upon the German army losses estimated at upwards of 200,000 men. DECEMBER— 1914 3. Austrian forces capture Belgrade. 6. Russians begin bombardment of Cracow. WORLD WAR 182c 8. British recapture Pasachendaele. Servians inflict crushing defeat on Austrian armies, recapturing Ushitza and Valievo. Powerful British squadron under Vice-Admiral Sturdee, destroys German squadron of five cruisers off Falkland Islands, sinking the "Scharnhorst," "Gneisenau," "Nilrnberg," and "Leipzig." The "Dresden" temporarily escaped. 13. Montenegrins inflict further defeat on re- treating Austrians and occupy Vishegrad. 14. Servians recapture Belgrade and expel all Austrians from Servian soil. 16. German cruisers bombard Hartlepool, Scar- borough, and Whitby on east coast of England. Events of 1915 JANUARY— 1915 6. Russians capture Kimpolung in southern Bukowina, near the Rumanian frontier. 14. British forces occupy Swakopmund, German Southwest Africa. 17. Russians capture Kirlibaba pass in the Carpathians. 34. Important naval battle off Dogger Bank, between German battle-cruiser squadron raiding coast of England and British squadron under Admiral Beatty, results in sinking of German battle- cruiser "Bliicher" and the flight of the remaining German ships to protected waters. 39. German airships bombard Yarmouth, King's Lynn, and other towns in Norfolk, England. 30. Russians occupy Tabriz, Persia. FEBRUARY— 1915 1-4. Gen. von Mackensen, with 140,000 men, desperately attacks Russians on a 7-mile front at Bolimov, 40 mUes west of Warsaw. 4. Germany proclaims the waters around the British Isles a "war zone" after Feb. 18th, declaring her intention to sink every enemy merchant ship found in the zone. 6-8. Russian reenf orcements from Warsaw over- whelm the German advance and force Von Macken- sen's whole army back to the Rawka. 7. Von Hindenburg, after concentrating 9 army corps against 4 Russian army corps in East Prussia, drives the invaders from German soil. 8. Russian warships attack Trebizond. 9. The French capture the heights of Les Eparges but fa0 to expel the Germans from St. Mihiel salient. 10. The United States government warns Ger- many that the German government will be held to ^ "strict accountability" if through its proposed policy of submarine warfare any American merchant ships are destroyed or citizens of the United States lose their lives. 13. German forces occupy Mariampol, Russia. 18. Austrians recapture Czernowitz. 30. In freeing East Prussia the Germans claim the capture of 76,000 prisoners and 300 guns. 34. Germans under Von Hindenburg capture Przasnysz and advance on Ostrolenka. 35. Allied fleet completes the reduction of the forts at entrance to the Dardanelles. 36. German advance against Russians checked near Przemysl. 37. Russian counter-stroke recovers Przasnysz, with 10,000 German prisoners, and forces Von Hindenburg to retreat to the Prussian frontier. MARCH— 1915 3. Austro-Germans, advancing into Galicia, are thrown back to Kolomea. 10. British attack German, lines at Neuve Cha- pelle, capture the village but fail to gain the com- manding ridge east of the town. The net result of this severe battle was an advance of about a mile on a 3-mile front, at a cost of 13,000 men. 13. British expedition under Gen. Jan Smuts wins important victory at Kitovo Hills, German East Africa. 14. Gennan cruiser "Dresden" sunk by British. 18. Great Anglo-French naval attack on inner forts of Dardanelles fails; three battleships lost. 30. Germans bombard Soissons cathedral. 33. Russians capture the great Austrian fortress of Przemysl, after a siege of four months, taking 120,000 prisoners. 38. British steamer "Falaba" sunk with an American citizen, Leon C. Thrasher, on board. APRIL— 1915 4. Replying to Ambassador von Bernstorff's protest against the shipment of munitions to the Alhes, President Wilson states that any change in the laws of neutrality during the progress of a war woiild be a departure from neutrality and that placing an embargo on munitions would constitute such a change. 7. Russians capture Smolnik and the Rostok pass in the Carpathians. 11-13. Turks in Mesopotamia defeated at Shaiba. 17. The British in Flanders capture Hill 60. This action marked the beginning of a series of ter- rific assaults and counter-assaults, continuing for six weeks, known as the Second Battle of Ypres. 33. German attack, using asphyxiating gas for the first time, crushes British positions near Ypres. 34. Allied line near Ypres further driven back by second attack of chlorine gas. 35. British begin landing troops at six points on Gallipoli peninsula. MAY— 1915 I. Von Falkenhayn completes preparation for great Austro-German campaign against Russia under Von Mackensen, assembling 26 army corps and over 4000 guns. American steamer "GuMight" attacked by Ger- man submarine; 3 American Uves lost. 3. ^ Austro-Germans begin a general -offensive in Galicia. Von Mackensen inflicts disastrous defeat on Russians at Gorlice. 4. Italy renounces the Triple Alliance. 7. British passenger steamship "Lusitania" is simk without warning by German submarine off Irish coast, with a loss of 1152 lives including 114 Americans, among them Elbert Hubbard, Albert G. Vanderbilt, Charles Frohmaii, and J. M. Forman. 8. Germans, invading Courland, enter Libau. 9. Gen. d'Urbal, assisted by Foch, Joffre, and later by Retain, with seven army corps and 1100 guns, begins the great Battle of Artois. 10. Repeated attacks by Anzac forces fail to capture Turkish positions at GallipoK. Russian offensive gains against the Austrians. II. French capture Notre Dame de Lorette and Carency, in the Artois sector. 13. President Wilson sends a note calling upon the German government to disavow the illegal sink- ing of the "Lusitania" and other ships. 15-17. Russians severely defeated on the San. 17. French capture the left bank of the Yser- Ypres canal virtually ending the Second Battle of Ypres which, despite local successes due to the use of poisonous gas, resulted in German defeat. 30. British end 12-day attempt to carry Aubers Ridge with the view of retaking LUle. The net result of the battles of Aubers Ridge and Festubert was an advance of 600 yards on a front of 4 miles. 33. Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary to take effect May 24. 34. San Marino declares war against Austria. 87. Italians cross the Isonzo river near Mon- falcone and capture Pilcante and Ala. Russians force Germans at Sieniawa to retreat across the San with heavy loss. 182d THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS 88. British and French capture important Turk- ish positions on Gallipoli peninsula.1 Austrian aeroplanes bombard Venice. Germany makes a noncommittal reply to Presi- dent Wilson's demands concerning submarine war- fare. 31. French capture Souchez, one of the last important actions in the Battle of Artois. JUNE— 1915 I. Austrians occupy Stryj. 3. Austro-Germans recapture Przemysl. British on the Tigris occupy Amara. 5. Final actions of the Second Battle of Ypres close with Bixschoote and Lizerne again in allied hands, but with Hill 60, St. Julien, and Zoimebeke in German possession. 9. Russians resume offensive in Galioia. The American government, "contending for nothing less high and sacred than the rights of humanity," renews its demands upon Germany. II. The Italians capture Gradisoa. 16. French capture Althof and Steinbruck. 17. Italians capture important heights in the Gorizia sector. 31. Gen. Pfetain completes the capture of the "Labyrinth," bringing to a close the great Battle of Artois. While failing of its main object, namely, the capture of the important coal-field and railway center of Lens, the conflict proved that German positions of considerable depth could be carried by sufficient artillery and mining preparation. In this prolonged struggle each side is estimated to have lost 60,000 men. 23. Austro-Germans recapture Lemberg. 28. Austro-Germans launch gigantic offensive against whole Russian line, the concentration for Mackensen's campaign to expel Russians from Galicia aggregating 2,000,000 men and 1500 heavy guns. JULY— 1915 1-7. Russians administer severe check upon Austrian advance at battle of Krasnik. 6. The Italian government proclaims a blockade of the Adriatic. 8. Germany sends a second unsatisfactory answer to the American demand concerning unjusti- fiable methods of submarine warfare. 9. Entire German force in German Southwest Africa surrenders to Gen. Botha. 18. Russians begin evacuation of Warsaw. 21. The United States government sends a pointed note to the German government stating that "it cannot believe that the Imperial govern- ment will refrain from disavowing the wanton act of its naval commander." 23. French forces in Kamerun capture Moopa. 34. Italians destroy one of the forts at Plava. 30. Germans use flame projectors in capturing British trenches east of Ypres. Austro-German forces reach LubUn, Poland. German army crosses Vistula north of Ivangorod. AUGUST— 1915 I. Austria-Hungary protests to the United States against shipments of war supplies to the Entente Allies, asserting that such trade is a viola- tion of neutrality. 4. Immense Russian fortress of Ivangorod cap- tured by the Germans. 5. Germans capture Warsaw. 6. Allied reenforcements landed at Suvla Bay fail to effect the capture of Gallipoli. 9. Austro-Germans break through Russian line between Ostrolenka and Vilna. 10. Austro-Germans capture important Russian fortress of Lomza but are unable to disrupt the main Russian line. II. Russians evacuate Van, Armenia. . 13. President Wilson, answering the Austro- Hungarian protest concerning trade in war supplies, reiterates his earlier statements to Germany {See April 4) , and points out that to prohibit such trad^ would make every nation an armed camp and greatly encourage militarism. 15. Germans pierce the Russian line between the Narew and the Bug. Austrian aeroplanes bombard Venice. 17. Victorious German armies capture Kovno and break the strong Russian hue on the Niemen, thereby compelling the abandonment of Brest- Litovsk and the further withdrawal of the Russians. 19. Russian fortress of Novo Georgievsk falls under fire of German heavy caliber guns. The British Uner "Arabic" is sunk by a German submarine; two American citizens drowned. 31. Failing to drive the Turks from their lines at GaUipoli, the British resort to trench work. Italy declares war against Turkey. 33. Austro-Germans capture Kovel, compelling the Russians to evacuate important positions. 35. Austro-Germans occupy Brest-Litovsk. SEPTEMBER— 1915 1. Ambassador von Bernstorff assures Secretary of State Lansing that German submarines will not thereafter sink either belligerent or neutral pas- senger ships without warnings 1-3. Russians abandon the great fortress of Grodno and the entire Niemen-Bug line, leaving the Teutonic armies in full possession of Poland and its immense fortresses. 6. Czar Nicholas assumes command of the Rus- sian armies, supplanting the Graiid Duke Nicholas. 7. Austro-Germans capture Dubno. 8. Russian armies, striking back, defeat Austro- Germans at Tarnopol and Tremblowa. 18. Germans take Vilna. 23. Bulgaria orders general mobilization and concentrates troops on Servian border. Italians capture heights of Monte Coston. 24. Anglo-French begin the Battle of Loos. 25. Loos village and Hill 70 captured by the English after a terrific struggle. By counter- attacks the Germans recover most of Hill 70. French take Souchez cemetery but lose it in German counter-attack. In Champagne the French penetrate German lines on a 15-miie front. Greece decrees general mobilization. 28. The French attack Vimy Ridge securing the western slopes and most of Givenchy Wood, ending the disastrous Battle of Loos. The failure of the Allies was due to lack of sufficient British reserves and an unfortunate delay in beginning the French advance. The British alone lost 50,000 men. 29. The British force the Turks to evacuate Kut-el-Amara and to retreat on Bagdad. OCTOBER— 1915 1. The Russians finally halt the great Austro- German drive commanded by Von Hindenburg. The battered Russian armies, though managing to main- tain a united front, had suffered unparalleled re- verses for five months, losing 300,000 kUled and wounded and 1,100,000 prisoners. 4. French bring the great Battle of Champagne to a close after taking Massiges plateau and Tahure ridge, together with 23,000 prisoners, many guns, and much war material. The French staff officially estimates total German losses at 140,000. 5. Count von Bernstorff notifies the American government that Germany had given strict instruc- tions to submarine commanders which would abso- lutely prevent any repetition of incidents similar to the "Arabic" case. French and British troops are landed at Saloniki. 6. Austro-German forces estimated at 300,000 under command of Von Mackensen cross the Danube near Belgrade to cooperate with the Bulgarian armies in crushing Servia. WORLD WAR 182e 9. Austro-Germans occupy Belgrade. U. Russians break Austrian line and cross the Stripa. Bulgarians begin attacks on Servia at four points. 13. Edith Cavell, British nurse, is shot by Germans at Brussels. English troops capture portions of the famous "HohenzoUern Redoubt." 14. Bulgaria declares war on Servia. 15. Great Britain declares war on Bulgaria. 16. France declares war on Bulgaria. 17. Great Britain offers Cyprus to Greece for fulfilment of Greek treaty obligations to Servia. 18. Servia protests to the United States against German extermination of civil population. 19. Italy declares war on Bulgaria. Russia declares war on Bulgaria. 31. Italians begin general offensive from the Tyrol to the Adriatic. 38. Greece, decUning to abandon her neutral policy, refuses to aid Servia in return for the cession of Cyprus. 31i Russian counter-offensive in Baltic stops Germaji advance at Platokovna. NOVEMBER— 1915 5. Nish, Servian war capital, surrenders. 7. Italian forces under Garibaldi capture Col di Lana. 10. Russians, assisted by their fleet, beat back German attempts to capture Riga. 34. Servian government is removed to Scutari. 35. Gen. Townsheud, in Mesopotamia, is com- pelled to fall back to Kut-el-Amara where, with about 15,000 men, he is besieged by the Turks. 39. The German government finally declares that all possible provisions should be made for the safety of persons on a vessel about to be sunk at sea. Apparently this constituted a signal diplomatic victory for the American contention for the safety of innocent persons on the high seas. But, as in case of the treaty guaranteeing the inviolability of Belgimn and many time-honored provisions of inter- national law, this agreement was later regarded by Germany as only a "scrap of paper." 30. Teutonic allies capture Prisrend, Servia, "with 16,000 prisoners, also Mouastir. The German-Bulgarian campaign results in the complete subjection of Servia. Surviving Servian troops numbering less than 100,000 are driven into Montenegro and Albania, pursued by the Austriaus. DECEMBER— 1915 6. First meeting of the joint war council of the AlUes is held at Paris. 7. Allied forces in Servia retire before Bulgarians. 10. Bulgarians in Monastir tear down American flag from Red Cross hospital and seize stores. 15. Sir Douglas Haig is appointed commander- in-chief of British armies in France. Events of 1916 JANUARY— 1916 8. Complete evacuation of GalUpoU by the British and French. 11. Russian armies under the Grand Duke Nicholas march through the mountain passes into Turkish Armenia. 13. Austrian forces occupy Cettinje, the capital of Montenegro, and rapidly complete the conquest of the country. 16. At the end of three weeks' fighting the Russians abandon their attempt to recapture Czernowitz, after sujffering losses of about 60,000 men. Though a costly military failure, this demon- stration in Bukowina prevented the central powers from persuading Rumania to join them, and, by forcing the transfer of Mackensen with 250,000 men to the Russian front, relieved the hajd-pressed Allies in the Balkans. 19. King Nicholas of Montenegro, following the complete defeat of his armies, flees to Italy. 33. The Austrians occupy Scutari, Albania. 34. The seat of the Montenegrin government is transferred to Bordeaux, France. 35. The Albanian port of San Giovanni di Medua captured by Austrian forces from Montenegro. 39. German Zeppelin bombards Paris. FEBRUARY— 1916 10. Germany announces armedrnerchant ships will be sunk without warning. 16. Russian forces under the Grand Duke Nicho- las inflict crushing defeats upon the Turks in Armenia, capturing the strongly fortified city of Erzerum, with 13,000 prisoners and 300 guns, the total Turkish losses being estimated at 60,000 men. 31. The Crown Prince, having concentrated 14 German divisions against 3 French divisions on a 7-mile sector, from Brabant to Herbebois, where the front line defenses were about 8}^ miles from Ver- dun, begins the most stupendous series of attacks on a fortified position known to military history. By a withering artillery fire of unparalleled volume in which hundreds of thousands of high explosive shells of all calibers from 4 to 14 inches were used, the French first Hne trenches on a three-mile front were demoUshed and occupied by German infantry on the evening of the first day. 33. Germans, attacking the Verdun defenses, carry Caures Wood with a part of Haumont Wood, and, after leveling Haumont village with a hurricane of shells, take it by storm, compelling the evaouar tiou of Brabant, and crushing by sheer weight of numbers all French counter-attacks. 33. Furious bombardments supported by heavy columns of infantry enable the Germans, though suffering enormous losses, to reach Samogneux, Beaumont, and Ornes in their attack on Verdun. 34. At the end of four days of gigantic attack, after firing, it is estimated, not less than 2,000,000 high explosive shells against the French positions and sacrificing tens of thousands of lives in massed assaults, the Germans have battered their way through the French defenses, until they stand before Douaumont, the first of the permanent forts guard- ing Verdun. At night, under cover of blinding clouds of snow, the decimated and exhausted de- fenders of the outworks of Verdun retire to prepared positions of great strength on Cote du Poivre (Pepper Hill), 1140 feet high, and on the hill plateau of Douaumont, 1290 feet high. Portugal, urged by England, fulfils her treaty obligations to her ally and requisitions 44 German and Austrian ships interned in Portuguese waters. 35. Gen. P^tain, bringing heavy reenf orcemeuts , arrives at Verdun and, with inspiring energy, re- organizes the demoralized defense. The Germans, massing 18 divisions, about 400,000 men, on a front of 4H miles, from Pepper Hill to Hardaumont, throughout the day sent wave upon wave of massed infantry up the snow-covered slopes of the Douau- mont plateau, only to be broken and destroyed in appalling numbei-s by the French machine-gun and artillery fire. Late in the day, by a final supreme assault, viewed from a distant hill by the Kaiser himself, a Brandenburg regiment stormed and took the old dismantled fort of Douaumont, but failed to secure command of the summit of the plateau. 36. Gen. Petain orders a counter-attack which sweeps the Germans back down the hillside and cuts off the Brandenburgers in Fort Douaumont. Austro-Bulgarian forces occupy Durazzo, Al- bania, following its evacuation by the Italians who had there safeguarded the escape of more than 100,000 Servians to Corfu, where they rsorganized as a fighting force and later joined the allied armies at Saloniki. 182/ THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 29. At the end of four days of incessant battle the German attacks on Douaumont slacken. The initial impact of the German drive is broken. The arrival of heavy French reenforcements, transported in thousands of motor lorries, marks the passing of the crisis in the Verdun defense. MARCH— 1916 3. Germans begin artillery attacks on Verdun positions west of the Meuse. 5. German Zeppelins raid coast of England. German cruiser "Moewe" reaches a home port after capturing 15 vessels in the South Atlantic. 6. The Germans, northwest of Verdun, capture Forges and Regnfeville. 10. The Germans, northwest of Verdun, re- capture Crow Wood. , 14. The Germans capture lower portion of Le Mort Homme, or Dead Man's Hill, northwest of Verdun. 30. The Germans attack heavily west of the Meuse, near Verdun, and capture Avocourt Wood. ^. The Germans, northwest of Verdun, take Haucourt Hill. French passenger steamer "Sussex" sunk without warning by German submarine, 60 lives lost; all American passengers saved. 37-38. First war council of the Entente AUies meets in Paris. 30. Russian hospital ship "Portugal" sunk by Turkish submarine. APRIL— 1916 1. At the end of a twelve-day battle fOr Hill 304, northwest of Verdun, the Germans gain Malan- court and Haucourt. 3. After desperate attacks continuing over three weeks, the Germans, northeast of Verdun, enter CaiUette Wood and take the village of Vaux. 3. The French before Verdun recapture the vil- lage of Vaux and recover most of Cajllette Wood. 8. The total German advance since March 7 at Verdun amounts to a mile on a 6-mile front. 9-11. The Crown Prince sacrifices nine infantry divisions in ferocious assaults on the French line northwest of Verdun in vain attempts to capture Hill 304 and Le Mort Homme. 18. The Russians occupy Trebizond. After terrific bombardment of the French lines, twelve German regiments attacking Pepper Hill near Verdun are thrown back with great losseS. 33. Strong Turkish forces occupy Quatia, Egypt, 25 miles east of the Suez canal. 39. British army of 9000 men under Gen. Townshend surrenders to Turks at Kut-el-Amara. MAY— 1916 15-June 18. Great Austrian offensive against Italians in the Trentino. Austrian attack penetrates Italian front between the Adige and the Astico. 15. The British capture portions of the crest of Vimy Ridge. 30. The Russians join the British on the Tigris. Sixty German batteries, northwest of Verdun, concentrate their fire on Le Mort Homme. German infantry captures the French first-line positions. 33. The French, _ in front of Verdun, recapture Fort Douatmiont. 34. The Germans again expel the French from Fort Douaumont. 39. Culmination of German attacks on Verdun positions west of the Meuse. Adding five fresh in- fantry divisions, the Germans gain Cumi^res, Caurettes Wood, and the summit of Le Mort Homme. 31-June 7. After an eight days' battle the Germans northeast of Verdun capture Fort Vaux, opening, with the capture of Fort Douaumont, a breach in the permanent fortifications of Verdun only 4H miles from the city. 31. Great naval engagement off the Danish coast, called the Battle of Jutland, or the battle of the Skager-rak. The British grand fleet under Ad- miral Jelliooe encountered the German high seas fleet under Admiral von Soheer oS Jutland, about 200 miles from the German naval base at Wilhelms- haven and about 400 miles from the British base in the Orkney Islands. The action began when the scouting squadron of battle cruisers under Vice- admiral Sir David Beatty met the leading ships of the German column. At 3:48 P. M. the battle cruisers of each side became engaged at a "range of 10 J^ miles. The engagement continued with the advance squadrons of British battle cruisers attack- ing, regardless of losses, the entire German fleet of battleships and battle cruisers. At 6 P. M. the main division of the British fleet under Admiral JelUcoe came upon the scene and swept the German fleet off the battle area. In the obscuring haze and mist which increased as evening came on, fighting continued intermittently for about two hours. "The battle developed into a retreat and a pursuit, the British cruisers and destroyers inflicting heavy losses upon the German ships during the night. A few days after this severe engagement the British announced their losses to the world. The Germans, on the contrary, concealed and denied theirs, and the Kaiser proclaimed a stupendous "victory" for the German navy. However, the morning following the conflict found the British fleet patrolling the entire battle area. The alleged "victorious" Ger- man high seas fleet never again attempted to dispute the control of the North sea. Its next close ap- proach to the British fleet was on the occasion of its surrender to Admiral Beatty, Nov. 21, 1918. The British lost the battle cruisers "Queen Mary'' (27,000 tons), "Indefatigable" (18,750 tons), "In- wncible" (17,250 tons); the armored cruisers "De- fence" (14,600 tons), "Warrior" (13,660 tons), "Black Prince" (13,660 tons) ; two flotilla leaders and six destroyers, ranging from 935 to 1850 tons, together with about 5700 officers and men, includ- ing rear-admirals Hood and Arbuthuot. The German losses are not definitely known but the following were admitted by the German ad- miralty: battleship "Pommern," battle cruiser "Lutzow," four fast 'cruisers and five destroyers,' and about 2500 officers and men. JUNE— 1916 4-30. Russian offensive in Volhynia and Buko- wina. 5. British cruiser "Hampshire" destroyed by torpedo or mine near the Orkney Islands. Lord Kitchener, British field-marshal and secretary ot state for war, his staff, and other prominent men en route to Russia on a secret mission lose their Hves. Only 12 out of 670 persons on board survive. 6. The Russians recapture fortress of Lutsk. 10. The Russians capture Dubno and other for- tresses, taking 35,000 prisoners. 16. Russians defeat Austrians on the Stripa, taking 14,000 prisoners. 17. Czernowitz taken by the Russians who occupy all Bukowina. 33. Arabian tribes in revolt against the Turks capture Mecca. 33-34. The Germans, northeast of Verdun, capture TThiaumont Redoubt and Fletory. 37. King Constantine of Greece decrees complete demobilization of the Greek army. 30. Russians capture Kolomea, in Galicia. JULY— 1916 1. French and British begin powerful offensive, known as the Battle of the Somme, which continues until November. This relieves the German pressure on Verdun but fails to break the German Unes. _ 5. The French storm German second-line posi- tions on the Somme, capturing Hem and Estrees, WORLD WAR lS2g 14. The British, using cavalry for the first time since 1914, penetrate German second line north of the Somme on a 4-mile front. 17. The Russians repulse the Austrians south- west of Lutsk, taking 13,000 prisoners. 35. The British occupy Poziferes captured from the Germans on the Somme front. 38. Capt, Charles Fryatt is executed by the Germans at Bruges, following his conviction by court-martial of attempting to I'am a German sub- marine on March 28, 1915. AUGUST— 1916 1. British naval forces occupy the port of Sadani, German East Africa. 5. The British rout the Turks at Romani, near the Suez canal, capturing 3000 prisoners. 9. The ItaUans capture Gorizia, taking 10,000 prisoners. 16. The French advance around Mauiepas on the Somme front. 19. The British advance at Thiepval and High Wood on the Somme front. British cruisers "Nottingham"' and "Falmouth" sunk by German submarines in the >forth sea. 37. Rumania declares war on Austria and strikes at the passes of the Transylvania Alps. Italy declai'es war on Germ any. 31. Turkey and Bulgaria declare war on Eu- SEPTEMBER— 1916 3. Bulgarian and German forces enter Rumania on the Dobrudja frontier. 6. The Bulgarians and Germans capture Turtu- kai, taking 20,000 Rumanian prisoners. 13. Bulgarians and Germans occupy the Greek port of Kavala. 15. The British, using a new type of armored car, capture positions on the Somme front. 33. German Zeppehns raid England. 36. Combles, on the Somme front, captured by the Allies. 39. Rumanian forces severely defeated in Tran- sylvania. OCTOBER— 1916 7. The Rumanians in Transylvania withdraw to the Carpathian frontier. 8. The German submarine U-53 sinks, off Nan- tucket, Mass., four British and two neutral steamers. 10. The Italians capture Novavilla, taking 6400 prisoners. 11. The AlUes demand the surrender of the Greek fleet. 33. The Rumanians lose their important Black Sea port, Constanza, to the Germans. 34. The French under Gen. Mangin recapture Fort Douaumont, Fleury, CaUlette Wood, Thiau- mont, Damloup, and all the other important posi- tions lost to the enemy during the siege of Verdun. In less than seven hours three French divisions re- cover the ground which the flower of the German armies had struggled in terrific daily battles for seven months to obtain, at a loss to the Germans estimated at 250,000 to 500,000 men, and to the French of nearly an equal number. In this final operation which marked the climax of the costly German failure, the French took 6000 prisoners with total casualties of less than 5000. The moral effect was a humiliating defeat to Germany while the French rejoiced that their battle-cry "Passeront pas!" {They shall not pass) had been proved true. NOVEMBER— 1916 1. The Italians advance east of Gorizia, captur- ing Bossvica and 5000 prisoners. 6. British liner "Arabia" sunk without warning in the Mediterranean. 7. The French take Ablaincourt and Pressoire. 13. The British advance on the Ancre, taking 3500 prisoners. 18. Austro-Germans in Rumania reach the Wal- laohian plain. 35. Austro-German forces continue the invasion of Rumania, capturing important towns. 38. The Rumanian capital is removed from Bucharest to Jassy. The Greek provisional government under Venize- los declares war on Germany and Bulgaria. DECEMBER— 1916 1. The AlUes land marines in Greece, seizing Pirseus and Athens. King Constantino agrees to the demands of the Allies. 6. Bucharest captured by the Austro-Germans. 10. ^ Lloyd George, made British prime minister following the resignation of Asquith, announces new war cabinet. 13. Gen. Nivelle appointed commander-in-chief of the French armies. 15. The French, attacking northeast of Verdun, penetrate the German lines, capturing important works, 11,000 prisoners, and 115 cannon. 18. President Wilson asks the belligerent na^ tions to state their war aims. 36. _ Germany, replying to President Wilson's note, ignores his request for definite statement of peace terms and suggests a peace conference. Events of 1917 JANUARY— 1917 8. Germans capture Fokchany, taking 4000 prisoners, and Gabresska with 5400 prisoners, prac- tically completing the conquest of Riunania. 10. The allied governments state their terms of peace. 17. Great Britain repeats to President Wilson the alUed demand for the expulsion of the Turks from Europe and mentions specifically the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France and of Italia Irredenta to Italy. 34. German troops thrust back the Russian lines near Riga. 35. The Germans capture Russian positions on the GaUcian front. 31. Germany proclaims unrestricted submarine warfare, declaring her intention to sink without warning all merchant ships in the war zone, specify- ing that one American vessel a week will be per- mitted to sail on a prescribed route under certain limited conditions. FEBRUARY— 1917 1. Ten vessels are sunk with the loss of 8 lives on the first day of unrestricted submarine warfare. 3. The United States severs diplomatic relations with Germany. Count von Bernstorff is given his passports. 6. Fourteen ships, including the passenger steamer "Port Adelaide," are sunk by submarines in the war zone. 8. Brazil, Peru, Chile, Uruguay, Bolivia, Panama, Cuba, and Argentina refuse to recognize the German blockade. 10. Ambassador Gerard leaves Germany. 16. British troops in Mesopotamia force the Turks back on the Tigris. 33. Seven Dutch steamers torpedoed by a Ger- man submarine while sailing supposedly under a safe conduct from Germany. 34. Ku1>el-Amara captured by British. 35. The British attacking German positions on the Ancre capture Serre. 36. President Wilson asks authority to arm merchant ships. 182h THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 28. The XJ. S. government publishes a communi- cation from Zimmermann, German foreign minister, to the German minister at Mexico City, suggesting an alliance against the United States whereby Mexico would be given opportunity to reconquer Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. MARCH— 1917 I. Submarine warfare during February resulted in the sinking of 134 entente vessels and 54 neutral vessels, total tonnage, 465,770. II. The British under Gen. Maude capture Bagdad. VS. The American steamship "Algonquin" sunk by a German submarine. IS. Revolution in Russia compels abdication of Czar Nicholas II. 17. Allied forces in France advance on a front of 45 miles. The British capture Bapaiune, and the French take Roye and Lassigny. 17-19. Germans in France retire to Hindenburg Une, evacuating 1300 square miles of territory on a front of 100 miles, from Arras to Soissons. 31. The American steamer "Healdton" torpe- doed by German submarine, with loss of 21 lives. 23. German raider "Moewe" returns from a second cruise in the Atlantic during which 27 vessels are said to have been sunk. 34. The British announce retaking of 54 towns and 600 square miles of territory in districts evac- uated by the Germans in their strategic retreat to the Cambrai-St.Quentin-Laon line. 36. The "St. Louis," first American armed ship defying German submarine blockade, arrives in a British port. 39. The British in Palestine defeat the Tufks near Gaza. APRII^1917 1. The armed American steamer "Aztec" is torpedoed without warning by a German submarine off Brest, with the loss of 11 lives. 3. The Germans repulse the Russians in Vol- hynia. 6. The United States declares a state of war exists with Germany. 9. Canadian trooiis capture Vimy Ridge. Other British attacks near Arras make important gains. 13. The British advancing between the Scarpe and the Loos, capture Vimy, Givenchy, and other positions about Lens. 14. Waj credit of $7,000,000,000 voted by Con- gress; loans of $3,000,000,000 to the AlUes au- thorized. 18. After a three days' battle between Soissons and Rheims, the French announce the capture of 17,000 prisoners. ^ 33. Strong British attacks near Vimy, supported by tanks, gain at all points on 8-mile front. British airplanes destroy 39 German machines with a loss of two. 30. The Russians in Arinenia evacuate Mush. MAY— 1917 4. American naval squadron begins operations in European waters. The French capture Craonne, near Rheims. 13. The British and Fren(}h announce captures, in operations since April 9, of a total of 49,579 men, 444 field guns, and 943 machine guns. 14. The Italians begin an offensive from Tol- mino to the sea, advancing their lines east of Gorizia and on the Garso. 15. Gen. Petain succeeds Gen. Nivelle as com- mander-in-chief of the French armies, with Gen. Foch as chief of staff. 16. The British capture BuUecourt. 18. Selective Service act passed by Congress. 34. The Italians capture important positions near Jamiano, taking 10,000 prisoners. 30. The armed American steamer "Silver Shell" destroys an enemy submarine in the Mediterranean. JUNE— 1917 4. Austrian counter-attacks regain positions lost to Italians near Jamiano. Gen. Brusilov succeeds Gen. Alexeieff as com- mander-in-chief of the Russian armies. 5. Registration in United States of 9,587,000 men of draft age. 7. The British, storming the German lines on a 9-mile front, capture the whole Messines-Wy tschaete ridge, taking 6400 prisoners. Nineteen mines, bur- rowed for a year beneath the ridge, and filled with hundreds of tons of explosives, were exploded at the moment of attack, the shock being perceptible in Loudon. 13. Gen. Pershing and his staff arrive in France. 35. The French win an important position on the Chemin des Dames. 36. The first American troops are landed in France. JULY— 1917 1. Russian army, led in person by Kerensky, begins offensive in Galicia, capturing 10,000 prison- ers but ending later in a disastrous retreat (July 19-Aug. 3). 3. German attacks on the Chemin des Damea are repulsed. American expeditionary force reported to have safely arrived in a French port after defeating two submarine attacks en route. 7. Twenty-two German airplanes bombard Lon- don and the Isle of Thanet, killing 59 people. 10. By sudden attack the Germans capture British positions east of the Yser, north of Nieuport. 30. Kerensky becomes premier of Russia. The Austro-Germans in Galicia advance against the Russians on a 26-mile front, capturing important positions. 33. The Russians in Galicia retreat on a 155- mile front from the Sereth to the Carpathians. 31. The French and British in attacks near Dix- mude captiu-e many villages, including Verloren- hoek, St. JuHen, and Bixschoote. AUGUST— 1917 3. The Kerensky government in Russia renews its pledge to the Allies to continue the war. 3. The Austro-Germans capture Czernowitz which changes hands for the tenth time during the war. 8. German troops under Mackensen reach the Susitza river; Russo-Rumaniau forces retire in the Okna valley. 14. China declares war on Germany and Austria. 15. The Canadians, advancing uear Loos, cap- ture Hill 70, dominating Lens. The Germans bum St. Quentin cathedral. 19-33. The Italians resume the offensive on a 37-mile front, capture Selo, and take 13, 000 prisoners. 30. The French capture important positions north of Verdun, including Dead Man's Hill. 39. The Austro-Germans in Rumania occupy important positions abandoned by mutinous Rus- sian troops. SEPTEMBER— 1917 1. The Italians on the Isonzo report the capture of 14 fortified mountains and 27,000 prisoners. 3. The Germans occupy Riga, evacuated by the Russians. 8. United States department of state publishes text of messages of Count Luxburg, German charg6 d'affaires at Buenos Ayres, to the German foreign office in Berlin. These were sent by the Swedish legation in Argentina to the Swedish foreign office in Stockholm as their own official messages. They contained the recommendation of Count Luxburg WORLD WAR 182i that Argentine merchant ships should either be allowed to pass the blockade or else be "sunk with- out a trace" {spurlos ■versenkt). 14. The Italians capture Monte San Gabriele. Russia proclaimed a republic, with Kerensky premier. 31. The Germans on the Dvina capture Jaoob- stadt, and repulse the Russians on a 25-mile front. 36. The British, attacking the German lines near Ypres, capture Zonnebeke. 28. The British in Mesopotamia take Ramadie, capturing the Turkish army under Ahmed Bey. 39. The Italians take important heights on the edge of the Bainsizza plateau. OCTOBER— 1917 1. German airplanes raid London. 9. Franco-British attack near Ypres results in capture of Poelcappelle. 13. German navy lands forces in the Gulf of Riga. VI. The Russian fleet, defeated in the GuH of Riga, is trapped in Moon Sound. 18. The Germans, attacking by land and sea, capture Moon Island. The Russians begin evacua- tion of Reval. 33. The French, near Soissons, take Malmaison fort and 8000 prisoners. 34. Austro-Germans inflict disastrous defeat upon the Italians at Caporetto, compelling their withdrawal on a wide front with heavy losses. 35. The French drive the Germans across the Oise-Aisne canal, taking 12,000 prisoners and 120 cannon. 36. The Austro-Germans reach the ItaUan fron- tier, increasing their captures to 60,000 prisoners and 30O guns. Brazil declares war on Germany. 38. The Austro-Germans capture Gorizia. The Italian losses resulting from the Austro-German breach at Caporetto exceed 100,000 prisoners and 700 guns. 31. The Austro-Germans reach the line of the Tagliamento, capturing 60,000 prisoners and several hundred guns from the Italian rearguard. NOVEMBER— 1917 3. German raid on a front-line salient in France occupied by American troops repulsed with loss of Private Thomas F. Enright, of Pittsburgh, Corporal James B. Gresham, of Evansville, Ind., and Private Merle D. Hay, of Glidden, Iowa, the first Americans killed in action. 5. The Italians abandon their lines on the Tagliamento and begin to retreat on a 93-mile front. 7. Overthrow of Kerensky and provisional government of Russia by the Bolsheviki. The Austro-Germans, outflanking the Italian rearguard on the TagUamento, capture 17,000 prisoners. 8. Gen. Diaz appointed commander-in-chief of the Italian forces, succeeding Cadorna. 9. The Austro-Germans take Asiago and reach the line of the Piave which the Italians successfully defend. 16. Clemenceau made premier of France. 30-33. Battle of Cambrai. Successful surprise attacks delivered by British under Gen. Byng, be- tween St. Quentin and the Scarpe, penetrate Ger- man positions west of Cambrai to a depth of five miles on a 10-mile front, tanks being employed to break down wire entanglements. Over 8000 pris- oners and many guns were captured. 33. The Bolsheviki government in Russia an- nounces demobilization of a part of the armies. 33. The Italians repulse powerful Austro-Ger- man attacks from the Asiago plateau to the Brenta. 37. Russian Bolshevik envoys enter German lines and arrange negotiations for an armistice. 30. German attacks south of Cambrai penetrate British Une to a depth of two miles on a 7-mile front, taking 4000 prisoners. DECEMBER— 1917 I. First meeting of the Allies' supreme war council at Versailles. 3. Surprise counter-attack by Germans near Cambrai forces British to give up a fourth of the ground gained by Gen. Byng's advance of Nov. 20-22. Berlin claims the capture of 6000 British. ' 3. Bolshevik emissaries begin negotiations for an armistice with the Germans at Brest-Litovsk. 5. The British evacuate Bourlon Wood and other positions west of Cambrai. 6. Explosion of munitions vessel wrecks Halifax. The Austro-Germans take Monte Sisemol on the Asiago plateau, capturing 4000 prisoners. 7. The United States declares a state of war exists with Austria^Hungary. 10. British forces under Gen. Allenby occupy Jerusalem. II. Powerful Austrian attacks against the Ital- ians between the Brenta and the Piave are repulsed. 14. Allied naval council formed. 33. Austro-German forces on the Asiago plateau storm Col del Rosso and Monte ValbeUa, cutting off 6000 Italians from the main army. Events of 1918 JANUARY— 1918 3. Germany demands of Russia Poland, Cour- land, Esthonia, and Lithuania. 8. President Wilson states to the Senate fourteen points or conditions in his view necessary for the establishment of peace. 18. Lloyd George declares to trades union con- ference: "We must either go on or go under." 30. British, in naval action at entrance to the Dardanelles, sink the Turkish cruiser "MiduUa," formerly the German "Breslau," and disable the "Sultan Yawuz Selim," formerly the German "Goeben." 38-39. Italian forces capture Col del Rosso and Monte ValbeUa. FEBRUARY— 1918 6. Mackensen in ultimatum to Rumania de- mands that peace negotiations begin in four days. 9. Central Powers and Ukraine sign a treaty of peace. 11. Bolsheviki declare end of the war. 15. Germany renews war on Russia. 18. The Bolsheviki capture Kiev. 31. Germans advance in Russia, capturing Minsk and Rovno, with enormous food and war supphes. 33. The United States embassy leaves Petrograd for Vologda. MARCH— 1918 3. _ By treaty of peace with the four Central Pow- ers, signed at Brest-Litovsk, the Bolshevik govern- ment _ pledges to evacuate Ukraine, Esthonia, Livonia, Finland, Erivau, Kars, Batum, and the Aland islands, also to pay a large indemnity. 9. Russian capital removed from Petrograd to Moscow. 13. German troops occupy Odessa. 18. Great Britain and the United States take over Dutch shipping in British and American ports. 31. Germans begin tremendous offensive on a 50-mile front from Arras to La F6re. 33. The Germans break the British front in the Cambrai-St. Quentin-La Ffere sector, practically destroying Gen. Gough's army and taking P^ronne and Ham. Berlin claims capture of 25,000 prison- ers and 400 field guns. Paris bombarded by long- range guns placed at a distance of 75 miles. 182i THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 84. The Gennana eontiiiue to force back the Biritisb on tbe Soinme front, captuniiig Bapaiinie, Nesle, Guiseard, and Chaimy. 26. The Germans capture Barleux and Etalon. The French take troeT a portion of British front south Iaces ail Ameman f ocoes in France at the e, are held to slight local gains. 85. The Germans force back the French and British in tihe Lys salient. 86. The First Division ©f the American army goes into line on the Picardy front. S8. The Germans capture EenMud Hill. MAY— 1918 1. Gavrio Prinzip, Servian assassin of the Austro-Hungariaii archduke Franz Ferdinand,^ dies in an Austrian foil/ress. 6. Eiumania signs trealy of peace mtih Central Powers. 14. Italian naval forces enter the Imrboic of Pola and sink an Austrian battleship. 19. Major Raoul Lufbery, American aviator, Aot down near Toul. Australian troops capture VTHe-smr-Ancre. 8S-June 14. German submarines sink 19 Ships off the Atlantic coast of the United States. 87. The Germans capture the Chemin des Dames ridge, regarded as impregnable, and sweep forward toward Pads on a 46-mile front. 38. The great German "victory drive" reaches the Aisne. The American First Division wins the fcattle of Oamtigny, capturing the town in a brilliant attack, the first American offensive. 8Sk The Germans take Soissons, with 25,300 prisoners. Allied retreat continues. 30. Germam counter-attacks on 'Oamtigny re- pulsed by the Americans. The Fifth and Sxth regi- ments, United States Marines, ordered to the Mairae battle fnont where the Germans are nearest Paris. JUNE— 1918 1. The greait German drive, rolling forward 6 or 7 miles a day, reaches the heights of the Maixke near Ohaiieau ThMsrry, ■only 60 imiles from Paris. _ Airiv- iiBg at 'the battle front, 'l^e American jyurines £0 into the line at 'C8iateau Thierry. it, ta the fierce battle oi Chateau Thienry the American Marines block the German drive at tlae point of its nearest approach to Paris, Imirliog back the enemy's veteran battalions. 'This victoiiaua staxtd 'electrJI&eB France. 3. At Jaulgonne, German sTioci troops force the passage of the Marne but are driven back across the river by Araerioain counter-iattacks. ^ 6-7. American Mariiiies« attackxog stromg posi- tions in Belleau Wood, near Chateau Thieciy, drive the 'GermaiQS back more than 2 miles, captunmg Bouresciites and entering Torcy. 9. The Germans, oompeMed finally to notice the Americans, in a report leJerrijig to ike attack of June 6-7 on Belleau Wood, say: "Americans who attempted to attack northwest of Chateau Thierry were driven back beyond their positions of depar- ture with heavy ijosses." _ The Germans bepm a new drive l>etween Mant- didier and Noyon. 10-11. Am'eriicain Marine attatt, with bayimet ajmd riJQe, machine gun positions considered im- pregnable by the enemy and complete the capture of BeUieau Wood, south of the Ourcq, putiting out of action three ci^jck German divisions and seriously damaging their morale. While in itself a minor enigagesment ■of ihe great war,, this •victory proved the fighting quahty of the Ameri'cans and inf-usod a new spirit 'Of confidence into the Allies. 11. Allied oounter-attacks regain mjudi graund between Montdidier and Noyon. The Germans claim «3cptu!pe -of 75,000 prisoners since May 27. 13. The German hi^ tooimjiiaand, segaAvflleafl ^ losses, hurls specially selected di-visions of skid: troops against the Marines in BeUieau Wood "in order to prevent at all costs 'the Am-eri'Cans bemg able to achieve success." Though depleted in num- bers, the Marines mot ■only wiSastand all attacks 'but continnite to mdvaraoe. 15. The Austrians laiunoh a powerfuil o£f , 43.7,524 67,0fi0 37,355 1,695 335. 62,870 92,255 io,oeo 149,097 13t^8 2,797' 193,669' 1 358,671 , 69,000 298,989h 18,834 3,923 478,410 ' 800,156 ' 102,0001 84,125 6,923 I,3Sff 122,24* '. 214^648- 31,000 160,037 IO;380 2,205 197,426 370,048 44iPeo. 22,122 l',4S0 4.1 fi- 3Qi033 54,001 7,PflO 32,372 2,622 610 52,751: 88,355 13,000 83,226 7',380 P,251 111,068 : 202,915- 31,089' 232,537 1«,.71S 3,69-1 285,4i!:5 1 53S>41» 79iB00 41,606 2,788 605 58,169 103,168 17,0fla 645,037 44,842 9,696 852,131 ,1,551,706 232'.0QO 255,754 20,093 4,140 350,852 630,839 93,000' 215,9891 18>032 3,737 280,303 ' 51-8,011 92;0OQi 150,347 13,122 2,646 210,924 ' 377,039' 59,080' 190,629 I»,626 3,773. 267,905> . 4S0,933 72;flB0 159,475 13,819 2,699 209,129. 385,122 62,000' 60,593 5,207 1,108 87,687 . 154,593 22,000 121,598 10,428 2,188 n7,a98 , 311,312- 43,000. 362,825 24,909 5,263- 475,020' ' 868;02S l-W-,0flO- 374,317 25,799 5,178 452,771 858,065. 123,000 222,698 21,029 3,747 286,2431 633,717 86,000 139,321 12,071 2,660 185,105 339,167 68,000 297,456 25,608 5,341 421,056 749,461 115,000 88,299- 4,255 830 100,784- ' 194', 1 68 34,000 118,278 9,875 1,959 162,630 , 282,742 43,000 12,090 561 107 17,039 2a; 797 5,000 37,519 2,776 600 62,603' 93,49^ 12,000 304,208 20,574 4,792 425,136 754,710 95,000 33,497" 1,674 465 43,326 78,962 12,000 1,009;345 69,529 13,115 1,367,044, 2,451,033 328,000 197,481 16,743 3,833' 251,644 469,701 71,000 65,963 6,086 1,177 86,728 167,964 25,000 554,709 43,540 8,946 762;741 1,369,936 1185,000. 170,956. ■ 16,315 3,407 238,748 429,42© 78,000 63,319 4,701 947 106',SS3' 175,850 26,000 &15,973 63,237 13,692 l,14Si322 : 2,042,224 1 275,000 53,589 3,849 7S5 73,503 ■ 131,726. 16,000 128,019 10,776 2,532 167,877 299,2041 49iOfiO 57,899 5,197 1,087 78,471 142,654- 28,(100 188,946 18,E53 3',8I0' 257,609 ' 4-68,518 70,000 409,743 34,256 7,334 621,474 972,807 166,000 44,158 3,051 630 53,224 101,063 16,000 27,244 2,354 631 40,887 71,016 91,0001 181,526 15,788 3,335 251,053 461,702 67,000 110,167 7,705 1,688 192,57,3 1 312;133 39,000 125,846 11,522 2,683 179,085 319,036 52,000 244,884 20,599 4,301 308,871 5781665. 87,000 22,896 1,831 285 34,367 59,369 11,000 9,586,508 744,865 158,064 12,966,594, k3,456,021 3,417,000: Alabama . Arizona. . Colorado. . . Gbninecticut.. EHstt. o£ Columbia. Tltaidk... Idaho. Blinois .... Iildiana. . . Iowa Kansas. . . . ^ORtuaky-. I^amfflaiia. . Massachusetts . m^ihigaii Mbmesota .... KSfiaourl. . . Hbfiiasks. VSevadai. ^ Mewr Haanpshire . New Jersey New Mexico Nfew York North Carolina. . Nbrtii Dakota. . . Ohio Oklahoma.. Oregon Sennsyliirania.. . . Bliode Island. . . Sbuth Carolina . . Sbuth Dakota. . . Texas Utah -^^annont . -Virginia -Washington. . . . -Weat Virginia. -Wisconsih. . . . -Wyoming United States. MOBlLIZEiy STRETfGTH AND CASUALTY LOSSES OP THE WORLD TTAR Aleteu Nations B^^m ^itish Empire . J^aaae Gleeoe Italy Japan Id^tenegTO . . «. PiiEtuEal B^umania Sfervia United States. Total MOBILIZBI)- 267,000- 7,500,000 7,500,000 230,000 5,500,000 800,000 50,000 100,000 750,000' 12,000,000- 707,343 4,272,521 39,676,864 Centbal PowEHa AustriarHungary Blil^ari'a Germany Turkey Total Gk-and Total 6,500,000 400,000 11,000,000 1,600,000 Wi500;000 5a',176-,864 Dkad 20,000 692;065. 1,385,300 15,000' 4601000 300. 3,000 4,000- 200,000 1,700,000 322,000 67,813, 4,8691478 800,000 101,224 1,611,104 300,000 2,812,3SS 7,681,806 WOTTNDBD. 60,000 2,037,325 2,675,000- 40,000 947,000 907 10,000 5,000 12O',0OO' 4,950',000. 28,000 192,483. 11,065.715 Prisonehs on MlSBITTGF 10,000 360,367 446,300 45,000 1,393,000 a 7,000 200 80,000- 2,500,008 100,000 M,3Sa 4,966,233' 3',2OO,O0O' 152,399 3,683,143 670,000 7,606,542 18,671,257 1,211,000' 10,826 772,522' 130,000 2,124,347 7,080,5801 TbTAL Castjaltibs 90,000 3,089,757 4,506,600 100,008 2,80O,OOOi 1,210 20',oaa> 10,008: 400,flOff 9', 150,0601 27<«,65g 5,211,000 264,448 6,086,769 1,000,008 12',S42,217 33,434,443. Copyright, 1890, bj NotiiiHQ I'ligto Co. CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT LANGUAGE It has been estimated that more tham twelve hundred languages were spoken, in. the two Americas. These languages gjve evidence of no continuously progressive type of culture. The many tribes have changed their vocabu- laries; but the identical method of putting words together has survived without change. One striking characteristic is the fteouency of loaag woatdis. This is well illustrated by the Aztec word for letter-postage — amathcuiloUt- quitcatlaxtlahuilli, the literal m<>a,n.nnigt of which is, "the payment received for carrying a paper on which something is written." By compari- son and classification of the countless dialects aitdl lai^uaiiges, they are reduced to a few great groups: the Tum^h group covers the northern part of the Rooky Mountains; the Aztec group has its seat in Central Mexico and Central Amer- ica," the Maya group has its seat in Central America and Yucatan; the Appafe.rfuan tribes inclnde aH those with which the English and the French first came into contact from the Atlantic to the basin of the Mississippi, and also the tribes of the northern part of South America; the Amazonian tribes occupy a large part of South America. The Hamitie race beloDgs historicaHy to the northern parts of AJHea, the sotithem parts of Europe, and the western parts of Asia. The Hamitie people were called, by the historic Gleeks, Pelasgic. Their dviKzation has been so overlaid by that of the Aryans as to be almost whoHy obscured. The great Hamitie civiliza- tion was that of E^rpt, long considered the eariiest of aD the civSfeations. HAMITIC TON&UES Sidonian, Kgyp-tiart^ Berber, Iberian, or or Biscay an Keltic Berber, or Libyan F^aisgian, (probably) Min^ean-t (probably) Galla (probably) B^OFe the Nineteenth Century we knew liffctte more of Semitic literature than what was contained in the ancient Hebrew Scriptures and in that ba€iy of Arabic Mteratiire that grew up after the era of Moharanoed. Oiar knowledge has been greatly added to by the nuTmerous inscriptions which have been found and de- ciphered. The Semitic races first appear his- toricaily in the great desert region covering Arabia and extending to the border of the Mes- opotamian River valleys. The Seniitic tongues are dififerent dialects, rather than different lan- guages. The Koran made the Arabic language sacred, as; well as. classic. About the Eleventh Century tfcat treasure-house of tales, ''The Thousand Ni^s and a Night/' was produced. From the Canaanite family came our Hebrew Bible, a hbrary of very varied literature. AMERICAN LANGUAOESS BBackfeet Cree, ....... MoomtagnQi, . . . Micmoc, . . Ottawa, Abenaki, PassQiiiiuaquoddy , Pequoid, . ... Moheean LenaJ)e, Nantfieolce, .... Powhatan Miami,, Sac Fox Kickapoo, .... Shawnee^ .... Caddo, . , Pawnee, . Arickaree, Wishita, . Ute, ... Comanche, Carib, . Arawak, Seneca, . Cayuga, . Onondaga, Oneida, . Mohawk„ TuBcarora, Huron,, . ^ Assiniboin, Sioux, . . Crow, . . Winnebago, Omaha, Mandan,, Oto, . . Ponca, . Osage, . Kansas, Tutelo, Cherokee, Creek, - . Choctaw, Chickasaw, Yemassee, Sleminole, Chippewa, Kutchin, Kenai, . . TaculUe, . Umpqua, Hoopab, . Apache, . Navajo, . Lipan, . . Tolteo ? Aztec, Ghlchimec Pipile §» Nicarao i Abiguilao Tzendal, . . Quich^ . Cabkchiquel, HiiiaBteca, . Maya, . . . QuLchtja, . . Amard, . . ji- Algoukin, . . . . — Iroquois — Dakota -—CJMBhta-Musko ki , — Cadldo Kioway, .... — SBroshonee,. . . . Wnt Indian, Tupi,. . . . Guarani, . . Mundurucu, Ordra, . . Ticuna, . . ParentintiUfc Mtjra„ . . . PurupuriJ, . Piro Mirdnihai, . . Caish^na, . > B gen p 184 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 3 a£Ji.,S to a n OS < n O as 1^ P >?; o & Ha » n a Os PS o H "3 -2 •Is |5^ Old High German Middle High German High German -^ Gothic X Old Dutch J Low German { Anglo - Saxon- Friesian Saxon IDansk Svensk Norsk Lettic E. Salvia W. Slavic Lithuanian Old Prussian Lettic Russian Bulgarian Illyrian Lech Czech Palabian Doric Aeolic Attic Ionic Portuguese Romansch Wallachian Ladin Italian Catalan | Castilian ) Provencal Old French- Welsh Cornish (died out beginning of Nineteenth Century) Breton (intro- duced from Britain) Gallic (inscrip- tions in Gaul) Gaelic Erse Manx SEMITIC LANGUAGES Chaldsan, or Babylonian. Jewish,^ . . Aramaic, . Syriao, . . Nabatffian, Palmyrite, Hebrew (proper) Phenician, . . . Canaanite, . , Edomite, . . , Moabite, . . . Punic, or Carthaginian, . Assyrian. -Aramaic. Hebrew. Arabic. Sabsean following Minsean, which may have been Hamitic. Ethiopic, or Geei. Amharic (possibly Hamitic). Aryan (Indo-European, Indo^er- manic) Family. To this family belongs the first place. From the Aryans sprang both Persians and Greeks midway in its development; this family rules both Eu- rope and America, the African coasts and AustraUa, as well as the north and south of Asia. Its Uterature, both in abun- dance and quahty, is unsurpassed by those of any of the other world fami- lies of language. From the Aryans have come the great world hteratures m poUtios, art, letters, science, and religious truth. From them came the Iliad and the Odyssey, the Vedas of India, and the Shih-nameh of Persia, the Eddas of the Norsemen, the Gudrun, the Lay of the Nibelungs, the Beowulf, the Romaunt of Roland, the Arthurian Tales, and the Keltic Mabinogion. One group of the Aryan family con- quered and civiUzed India and Ceylon, Sanskrit was the language in their day of greatness. The group that traveled farthest west was the Kelts. These were soon followed by the Teutonic tribes. Then came the Slav, Serb, or Wend. "The care of the national language I consider as at all times a sacred trust and a most important privilege of the higher orders of society. Every man of educa- tion should make it the object of his un- ceasing concern, to preserve his language pure and entire, to speak it, so far as is in his power, in aU its beauty and per- fection. * * * ^ nation whose language becomes rude and barbarous, must be on the brink of barbarism in regard to everything else. A nation which allows her language to go to ruin, is parting with the best half of her intel- lectual independence, and testifies her wil- lingness to cease to exist."— F. Schlegel. "It is with words as with sunbeams, the more they are condensed the deeper they bum." — Southey. "Though our comparison might be bold, LANGUAGE 185 it would be just as if we were to say that the English language is a conglomerate of Latin words bound together in a Saxon cement; the frag- ments of the Latin being partly portions intro- duced directly from the parent quarry, with all their sharp edges, and partly pebbles of the same material, obscured and shaped by long rolling in a Norman or some other channel." — Whewell. The English language is a conglomerate. Whenever there is an invention made or a psychological truth discovered, or a new article of commerce is introduced, or contact or inter- course with a new nation or people is estab- lished, a new word or set of words is added to our vocabulary. Every new game or fashion creates new names. Our complex civilization is reflected in a complex vocabulary or lan- guage. It is important that we should familiarize ourselves with the soxirces of our language, and with the sources of its strength, and each do his share towards preserving it in its purity and beauty. We should have an intelligent interest in our mother tongue in order that we may use it intelligently. We must spend a little time in the study of the past of our lan- guage, because it is only in the Hght of that past that the present is intelligible. Few of us are conscious of the changes taking place now, yet these changes must be taking place, for ours is the same language used by Chaucer, yet how different. New words are coming in, and old ones becoming obsolete every year. Slang is responsible for the introduction of many new words. When we first hear a slang phrase, we are surprised; but in this day of great surprises, we quickly grow accustomed to it, and soon adopt it as an integral part of our language. We use it as though it were not a thing of yesterday, but had existed as long as the language itself. If we were to examine some of these slang terms, we should find that many of them have been incorporated into the language, and are properly used in polite society and in serious composition. Trench says, "If the English language were to be divided into a hundred parts, forty-five of these might be Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as now some prefer to call them; forty-five Latin (including, of course, the Latin which has come to us through the French); five perhaps would be Greek. We should, in this way, have allotted ninety-five parts, leaving the other five to be divided among all the other languages, which have made their smaller contributions to the vocabulary of our English tongue." It will be interesting to find what classes of words come from the different sources. The Anglo-Saxon is the basis of the English language: it is the warp while the Latin is the woof. The monosyllables in great part are Anglo-Saxon. The articles, conjunctions, pro- nouns, prepositions, numerals, and auxiliary verbs are Saxon. Verbs of action and words that relate to the primaiy action of the senses are Saxon, as, think, feel, sing, see, talk, walk, run, and the like. Ever since the English language began we have been filibusters; we have plundered every other tongue for words to make our meaning plain; we have raided where we would, and have never hesitated to put ourselves under obligation to all strangers coming to our shores, or whose shores we have visited. The history of the English language is, in fact, but the his- tory of the English people, and of their doings. The early British language was under debt to the Celts, first of aU; and we find in our pres- ent-day vocabulary such words as apply to Celtic things, as, bard, shamrock, whiskey, clan, dirk, cromlech, kilt, etc. The Anglo-Saxons, whUe they eagerly discarded words of Celtic origin, as did the French later, enriched their language from the Latin. The Roman occupation of Britain, from about A. D. 43 to A. D. 410, bequeathed to us five or six terms: castra, a camp, has been retained in Doncaster, Lancaster, Gloucester, Winchester, Bibchester, Exeter, formerly Excestre; strata, a paved road, in street. Park street, Stratford, Stretford, Streat- ham, Stradbroke; colonia, a colony, in Lincoln; partus, a harbor, in Portsmouth, Portchester, Portsea; pons, a bridge, in Pontefract; fossa, a ditch, in Fossway, Fossbridge; vallum, a rampart, in Wallbury. The conversion of the British to Christianity is marked by another influx of Latin words and terms relating to the Church: abstinence, avarice, bounty, cardinal virtues, conscience, charity, chastity, confession, consistory, contemplation, contrition, indulgence, recreant, relic, reverence, sanctity, spiritual, unity, etc. Then the Danes lent a hand, giving us: to plough, to ask. Nor is it without a strange irony that the lawless Vikings gave us our word "law." The early supremacy of the Dutch in agriculture, in horticulture, and in ship building is made evident by the fact that a large proportion of the English words, dealing with the farm, the garden, and the ship, are of Dutch origin, and were borrowed from the brave little republic when the English went to school to the Hol- lander, to learn what he had to teach. A few of the words they give us are: ahoy, aloof, ballast, bluff, blunderbuss, boom, brack, brack- ish, brandy, bruin, duck (a fabric), golf, growl, hoarding, knapsack, landscape, leaguer, loiter, manikin, measles, mope, mumps, pink, sheer, slim, sloop, swab, 'switch, uproar, wagon, yacht, dock, hull, skipper, fly boat. During the First Century that followed the Conquest in 1066, the language of the native population was, as they were themselves, utterly crushed and trodden under foot. The Conquest revolutionized our language as it did our life. A foreign dynasty, speaking a foreign tongue, and supported by an army of foreigners, was on the throne of England; Norman ecclesiastics filled all the high places of the Church, and places of honor and emolument. This meant that French became the language of the court, of society, and even of the many Norman families who employed the Saxons as servants. But the masses of England still spoke their native tongue. The better or richer families of the Anglo- Saxons began to adopt the French fashions and manners, and to speak the French language, as a mark of gentility. The many churches and castles, which the Normans built in different parts of England, meant that the French would THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS thoe be used, aad add to tbe nafiaeiiee at wtsk to make a new "FjngHs h tanguage. Tlie laim- goage of diivaiky was excliasivelQF FiemeJa, and tHougbt m such words as honoE, gkny^ zenown, Iiosty champkiir -valiiantr feat, ackieveiuieiii, couiEte^,. gendde, etic Witb tue law^^r, who was a gzeait pgm&t duriimg thds time af txanaktioii, came sticb words as adyoeaite, aJIiarace, ciiaJ;teis, demise, diKwise, derauinHr, dnmaiim, , estate, fiie£, hmoagev liege, krpJity, mianoE, pemaaalit^, poir- Buit, iE£d,ty, treaty, Turacher, etc. The wemds which destaabe the piirsuits of geatl^fdk are mostly; of French origin; and it^ is ai GUirioius coiumeiit oil histcnry that, as Wamba. ptants oiit in "I-^pamhoe," wMle hve animals — ox, sheep, calf, swine, deer — re- tain their native names, they are described by Frraieh woatds — heei, mmttam, veal, pork, Tienir eoBi — when they are hremght to table. The "Saxon" serf had the care of the animals while they were alive, but when kiHed they were eaten by his "Fientrh'' ampeiiQis. Abandant words lelating to kiw, gevemmjent, and property have their origin in the CouoiqiiLest. Sneh are; enstoim, pcimie, court, assize, tax, eoimty, city, Judge, jnry, justice, paas tograph, ete. Our miosimiil voeaboikary is kxg^ froiin the Italian, as the following words bear witness: contralto, duet, opera, pianor, quartet, sok^ s(»ata, soprano, stanza, triO', tronmbone, aikgro, adagia,. baiitoiae, cantaJia, canto, fugjtie, can- zoEbet, etc. The French give us terms of dress and eoc^- mg: fknince, jewd, pattern, plait, toilet, toa- sore, vestuire, trousseau, costume, mijdel, paruke; diraf», embroider, furbelow, iaeket, apparel, apron, bracelet, barooeh, buckle, fikassee, frittar, gem, jelly, jaice, omelet, poirhoil, peel, pe, rag- oot, sanee, sa>usage, victuals, salad, etc. The advent of the Engliflh in the New World is known by the adoption of tobacco,, potato^ tepee, wigwam, toboggan, moccasin, pemmican, etc. Were it wise to use the space for it, iUustrjb- tions of wojrdsi taken fioMt every language could be giv«i. But Plough has already be^ dcsie to show the composite make-up of our moth® tongue,, and to show the sources of its ^rength. Every American sboiald speak En^ish. If a foragn word has been adopted into the Eng- h^ language, why not let it take the Engjish f omma? Let the jiiral of syllabus be syllabuses; of cactus, cactuses; erf focus, focuses; etc. Let others take on the English spelling; as, technic, not teckmique; grip, njot grippe; coa- servatory, not conservatoire; exposure, not expos6, etc. Only a pedant will use serviette in place of napkin. Let the studraat or wouldr-be author not try to adorn his style with foreign words; let him use the most usual terms to produce the desired effect. Let. hi™ remember that, though Eng- lish has borrowed a great deal of French, thou^ it has lost, a large stock of English words, ilBm^ it has adopted many a French idiom, and' has been influenced by French in endless indirect waysy it stiU remains English. In former times "hard work made ojie sweat"; moiw-ai-days excessive labor causes pirofuse per- spiiration. If a man, thus overheated, were to stand in a draught, he might catch his death of cold, get very sick, and even die. This reads well enough as an ordinary warning; but in a treatise on hygiene for po^Hilar use, the matter is now presaited as follows: "If a person, whose system ia excited by vigorous exertion, should saddeoly expose himself to a current of air, he would probably cheek his persgwratioiii and eon- traet a dffiease which might involve the most serious and even fatal comsequences." Which form of expiressioin shaD we cultivate? Which rcconnnraids itsdf to you? Dr. Freeman says: "In almost every page I have found it easy to put some j^in English word, about whose meaning there can be b« doubt, instead of those needless French and Latin words which are thought to add dignity to style, but which in truth only add vaguraiess. I am in no way ashamed to find that I can write purer and clearer English now than I did fotir- teen and fifteen years back; and I think it well LANGUAGE 187 tec menticm the taet for the eoeoBraigeineiit &t younger writers. The eormmon temptatiom ef b^nmers is to write in what they thirifr a more elated tstaimrt. It needs some years of prac- tice before a man fulty' takes' in- the truth that for leal strengtb, and afco-ve aD, for real ctear- ness, there is notEiing like the old IlDglisb: speech of our fathers." CAPITALS^ 1. The first word of every full sentence dioiald begjn wfth a capital, unless a literal reprint of the writing of an illiterate person, who does not begin a. sentence with a capital!, is to be made. Two lines of izLvaAoa were a^^ed. MoatgpmRry (fescended Lake diamplain with 2,000) men, and aSter a campaign of two months captured Montreal. 2. Every Bae or verse of poetry should begin with a capital. Morning, evening, noosti,, amd nighty "Praise GodI " sang Ttieocrite-. Then ta his poor trade he- turned. Whereby the tc. 4. The words yes and no should "be followed by a colon, provided the words that follow are a continuation or repetition of the question: Can these words add vigor to your hearts? Yes: th^ can do it; they have crften done it. 5. The colon is more often used than any other mark after the salutation in a letter' My dear Sirs: Interrogration Point. 1. An interro- gation naark is placed at the end of every direct question: Will you go? He a^ed me, "Will you go? " 2. T3ie mark of interrogation should not be ■used when it is only affirmed that a question has been asked, and the expression denoting inquiry is put in any other form than that of a direct question: I was asked it I would go to Europe next summer. Note. — It should be placed inside of the quotation marks if it belongs properly to the quotation, and oirt- oide in 'crtfliar cases; — He ajgked, "Will you Tstum by diiiie oVlook? " What can be more intereBting than '•* the passing crowd " ? Xjxclarinatloii Point. This point is used after any expression of strong emotion, and after interjections: Friends, countrymen, And lovers 1 'hear me for my cause, and be silent that you may heaa-. The heavens and earth, O Lord I piFoolaim Tl^ boundless power. Oh! luaithiiig is fourther from oiy thou^bts than to deceive you. Oh, that all 'cLLsses &i sooiaty were both 'SiifighiteBed and virtuo(ust Ttie Marks of Parentheses. B an expression is inserted in the feody of a sentenoe with whidi it has no coniiieDti(OTi in sense or can- struction, it should be enclosed by tihe anaikB of parentheses. The test is, can the rd6 to be enclosed be omitted vitfeut injury itio the sense? I have dearly seen icharity (if charity it may be called) insult with an air of pity. Sh^ had managed this matter so -well (odi, how arfcM a woman she was), that my ttather's heart was gone before I suspected it was in daigoi;. Notice the use of the amark ©f interrogation in this sentence: " While the Christian desires the approbation of his fellow-men (and why should he mot desire it?), he disdains (to recdve their good-will by dishanoraMe means." Tbe Dafib. 1. The dash is insed to lehow an abrupt break in a sentence; to show a bmb- pension in the .thoTugbt; ca' laaa lepigrainmaftic turn in sentiment. -CloHely lollowlng icame — what do you suppose? T& eye (of tSs dbfld — who can look unmoyed into that "well unde- filed," in which heaven itself seeniis to ibe re- flected? 2. The da^ is used where there is an .eUipsiB of such words as, nevmeby, that is, etc. to separate adjectives in apposition but closely connected. These ipoets — Homer and Viijgil — wrote epics. Brackets. These marks, used f or meaiily the same punpcfflesas the parentheses, aiefBuuUy confined to exipressions inserted in or iapjpended to a quotation, and pot belongiEig to it. They are intended to give an -ex^xlaMatioii, to rectify a mistake, or to supply an oxmission; as, Be had the finest head ,[af hair] I ever saw; * * * because the people love the princijpleB of the Constitution [long continued aip^iis^ and to-da,y, etc. Hyphen. 1. The hyphen is used in form- ing compound words. Wlffin each of the words of which a compound is formed retains its origi- nal accent, they should be united fey a hyphen; The alF-pow'eijful God; Iner mM the country," not "aU oner the oouM'fary." Allege. Do not use this word as a syno- mym for sa^ or tell, as in "He aUeges that the engiine ran sixty miles an hour." Instead, "H« says or tells us that, etc." Allow. This word is frequently misused in the West a/md tdaie South for think; to be laf opinion; to admit; as, "He allows his horse can beat yours." Instead of this say, "He thinks or is of the opinion that, etc." Almost — Nearly. These two adverbs should mot be used imdiscriminately. Almost re- gards the ending as am act; neairly, its begin- ning. A man that receives an injury ;so severe that he oom«s off with bardy his life is almost killed; a man that escapes what would bave kilted him is nearly kilted. These wcsrds are correctly used in "I am almost dome with my work " ; "I nearly ran over the child." Alone — Only. That is alone that is un- accompanied ; that is onJy, of which tiiiere is no other. "Virtue only makes us happy" means that nothing else can do it. If we say, " Virtue alone makes us happy," we mean that virtaiie unaided makes us happy. "This means oi lo- comotion is used by man only." Alternative. Do not use this word whee more than two things are referred to. You may have the choice of three courses, not of three alternatives. Always. Of ten used redundantly. "When- ever I see her, I think of mother," not "1 always think of mother." Ameliorated. "Her troubles are greatly amelioraied" should be "are lessened." Among. "H« Tiras tlaere among the rest" should be "vxith the rest." Among One Another. "They ex- tiianged votes among one another" should be "with one another." Amount. "A surprising amount of per- fection has been readied" sEoidd be "A sui^ prising degree of perfection, etc." And . Do not use and in place of the partide to. " Come to see m.e," mot 'Come 'and see me." And should never introduce a relative clause unless it joins it to a coordinate relative "daiise. " I have a dress worn by my aunt, and which m forty-five years old." In this sentence leave out amd ami use that iiostead of whidi. (See Biaie 12 Hot the comma, under Punctua^taon.) Antecedeots. This word used as a -sub- 192 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS stantive means those persons or things which have preceded any person or thing of the same kind in a certain position. Thus the anteced- ents of General Sherman in the army of the United States are General Washington, General Scott, and General Grant. To call the course of a man's life until the present moment his antecedents is nearly as absurd a misuse of lan- guage as can be compassed. If, instead of " What do you know of his antecedents?" it is asked "What do you know of his previous life?" or better, " What do you know of his past ? " there is sense instead of nonsense, and the purpose of the question is fully conveyed. Anticipate. This word is often used in place of expect, or foresee. Anticipate means to go before, so as to preclude another; to get the start of, or to get ahead of; to enjoy, possess, or suffer, in expectation. It is therefore misused in " By this means it is anticipated that the time for Europe wiU be lessened two days"; and in "Her death is hourly anticipated." It is cor- rectly used in " If not anticipated, I shall here- after make an attempt at a magazine paper on the Philosophy of Point"; and in "Why should we anticipate our sorrows? 'Tis like those who die through fear of death." "Were Greeley's movements those that it was anticipated (ex- pected) he would make?" Anxious is often used where desirous would better express the meaning. Anxious means full of anxiety; suffering from suspense or un- certainty; concerned about the future. "I am not anxious to get to Canada" should be "I am not desirous, etc." " I am still more anxious to have you live in New York" should be "etiU more desirous." Anyhow is permissible in conversation, though incompatible with dignified diction, in which such phrases as "in any event," "he that as it may, " "at any rate," and the like are to be preferred. Appeals is used in this sentence instead of drafts: "There are constant appeals upon the resources of the government." Approach is sometimes improperly used in the sense of address, petition, appeal to ; thus, "The teachers have approached the Educational Department in some matters that concern their interest." Apt is often misused for likely, and sometimes for liable. " What is he apt {likely) to be doing ? " "Where shall I be apt (likely) to find him?" " If you go there, you will be apt (liable) to get into trouble." Aren't in colloquial use is admissible, but are you not is preferable. I'll, I'm, etc., are good form because they are contractions of the verb only. As — as; So — as. Use the former in affirma- tive propositions, and the latter in negative propositions. He is as tall as you are. He was never so happy as now. Aside is sometimes misused for apart. "Words have a potency of association aside (apart) from their significance as representa- tive signs." As Though is often used for as if. In the sentence, "The child looked as though her hair had never been combed, " supply the elliptical clause, and you will see the need of using if in place of though. " The child looked as (she would look) though her hair, etc." " The woman looks as (she would look) though (if) she were tired." At. "They do things differently in (not at) the South." At all is superfluous in such sentences as, "She had no friends at aU"; "I do not want any at all"; "If she had any desire at all to see, she would have waited." At Best. At Worst. These phrases re- quire the article or a possessive pronoun used in them. Always say, " I did the best I could," etc. " He was at his worst." Audience is often used in place of specta- tors. The audience hears; the spectators see: therefore say, " The spectators at the ball game," not "the atidierece." " The ttt«iience at the con- cert, etc." Avenge and Revenge. We avenge the wrong done to others, and revenge the wrong done to ourselves. Avoid is often used in the place of prevent or hinder; as, " There shall be nothing lost if I can avoid it." It should be "if I can prevent it." A'wful is too frequently used as an inten- sive. Avoid this use of it; e. g., I was awfully glad to see you. A While Since should be a while ago. Bad Cold. Say a slight or a severe cold. Colds are never good. Badly is inelegantly used for very much. "1 shall miss you very much," not "I shall miss you badly." Balance means the excess of one thing over another, and should be used in this sense only: hence it is improper to talk about the balance of the edition. In this case say rest or renminder. You may speak of the balance of the account. Beastly. One may properly say "beastly drunk" but not "beastly weather." Before is sometimes used in place of rather than. " War before peace at that price " should be " War rather than peace at that price." Between in its literal sense applies to only two objects; as, "The candy was divided between the two boys, or among the four children." When used of more than two objects, it brings them severally and individually into the relation ex- pressed; as, "a treaty between three powers." When used to express contrast — "The three boys are brothers, but there is a great difference between them." Black — Blacken. We black stoves and blacken reputations. Blame It on is a vulgarism used in place of accuses or suspects. "He blames it on his brother" should be "He suspects or accuses his brother." Both is often used in such sentences as " They are both aUke"; "They both ran away from school," etc. Omit both from each sentence. It is incorrect in "He lost all his fruit — both plums, peaches, and pears." Bound should not be made to do service for doomed, determined, resolved, certain, or will be compelled. "He is bound to do it" should be " He is certain, resolved, or determined to do it.' "He is bound to fail" should be "He is doomed, destined, or sure to fail." But is often misused. " I do not doubt 6irf LANGUAGE 193 he will be here" should read "doubt that." "I should not wonder but he will succeed" should read "wonder if." In " I have no doubt but that he will go " suppress but. Change but to than in " The mind no sooner entertains any proposition but it presently hastens, etc." But is correctly used in "I have no fear but that she will succeed," which means a very dif- ferent thing from " I have no fear that she will succeed." By should be with in "The room was filled by ladies and children " ; also in " The ball ended by a waltz." There is a difference of meaning in these two sentences: "I know a man by the name of Brown," and "I know a man of the name of Brown." Which do you mean? Calamity means in an abstract sense source of misery or of loss, but it is often misused to mean hss. Calamities are causes, losses are results. "The fire caused a great calamity" should read "caused a great loss." It is correctly used in "The falling of the building, which caused the death of two firemen, was a great calamity." Calculate is wrongly used in "He calcM- lates to get off to-morrow." "The sentence should read "expects, purposes, or intends to get off." Caliber is often misused for order, as in "His work is of a higher caliber than hers is." Capable is often used in place of suscep- tible. "We need more articles capable of illus- tration" should read "susceptible of illustra- tion." Condone is sometimes misused for com- pensate and atone for. It means to pardon, to forgive. "The abolition of the income tax more than condones for the turmoil of an election" should read " atones for, etc." Congregate. Together. In "A large number of people congregated together in the hall," omit the word together, because to congregate, unaided, means to collect, or gather together. Consequence is sometimes used instead of importance or moment; as, "They were all persons of more or less consequence " should be "of more or less importance." "It is a matter of no consequence" should be "of no moment." Consider means to meditate, to deliberate, to reflect, to revolve in the mind; and yet it is made to do service for think, suppose, and regard. Thus: " I consider his course very unjustifiable " should read " think his course." " I have always considered it my duty, etc." should read "thought it my duty." Conversationist. See Agriculturist. Co-operate Together means co-oper- ate or operate together, and can mean no more, which makes it plain that the co or the together serves no purpose — is a superfluity. Creditable should not be used instead of credible. Say, "two credible witnesses," not "creditable witnesses." Say, " I am credibly informed," not "creditably informed." Crushed out. The rebellion was finally crushed out. Out of what? We may crush the life out of a man, or crush a man to death, and crush — not crush out — a rebellion. Dandy. This adjective belongs properly to the "gushers." It is their sole adjective. He is a dandy man; The refreshments were dandy; The sunset was daredt/. Dangerous is misused in the sentence " He is dangerous," when we mean " He is sick." Say," He is not in danger," ox"iiQt dangerously ill." Dearest. Do not begin a letter "My dearest John," unless he is the dearest of three or more Johns with whom you are acquainted. Deceiving should not be used in place of trying to deceive. It is when we do not suspect deception that we are deceived. " He is deceit)- mcrme " should read " He is trying to deceive me." Deprecate means to endeavor to avert by prayer, and so should not be used in the sense of disapprove, censure, or condemn. Do not say, "He deprecates the whole proceeding." Desperately. Do not say, "He was des- perately wounded," but "badly wounded." Despite should not be, as it often is, pro- ceeded by in, and followed by of. Sa,y," Despite all our efforts," not "In despite of all our efforts." Detect is often misused for distinguish, recognize, discover, see. "I did not detect any- thing wrong in his appearance" should be "I did not discover anything wrong in his appear- ance." "I could not detect any difference be- tween them" should be "I could not see any difference between them." Die with — from. Man and brute die of, and not with or from, fevers, old age, and so on. Differ — ^Dif f erent. The prepositions from and with are both used with the verb differ, but the weight of authority is on the side of using from. Different to is sometimes used instead of different from ; but it is incorrect. " She is differ- ent than you would expect her to be" should be "different from what you would expect her to be." The word than implies comparison and demands the comparative degree. Different is in no way a comparative. We say greater than but different from. We may differ with a per- son, but things differ /rom one another. Dock — "Wharf . A dry dock is a place where vessels are drawn out of the water for repairs. A wet dock is a place where vessels are kept afloat at a certain level, while they are being loaded or unloaded. A wharf is a sort of quay built by the side of the water. Vessels lie at wharfs and piers, not at docks. Don't. This is the contraction for do not, and not for does not: therefore do not say, "He don't want it." Sach other is properly applied to two only ; one another must be used when the number considered exceeds two. We say," Great authors address themselves to one another," vmless we refer to only two authors. Effect — Affect. Effect means to bring about; as, "to effect a reform." Affect means to influence ; as, " His ideas will affect the char- acter of the reform." Elegant. "This is a fine morning," not "This is an elegant morning." Emigrant — Immigrant. These two words are not infrequently confounded. Emi- grants are persons going out of the country; immigrants are persons coming into the country. Ending of Sentences. Sentences end- ing with prepositions are always more terse, always quite as idiomatic, and always simpler, 104 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF PACTS than they would be if differently constructed. "The man I gave it to," not "The man to whom I gave it." " The verb it belongs to," not " The verb to which it belongs," etc. Enjoy Bad Health. Does anyone en- joy bad health? Say, "He is in feeble or delicate health." Equally as Well. As well, or equally well, expresses quite as much as equally as well. Everlastingly means perpetually, eter- nally, forever. Do not say, " The horse was ever- lastingly running away." Every. " Every one of us has this in com- mon" should be "All of us have this in com- mon." Except. See Accept. . Excessively. Say, "The weather is very warm," not "excessively hot." "My friend was exceedingly popular," not "excessively popular." Excise Laws. An esxise is a tax levied on domestic products; it is an internal revenue tax. New York has license laws and license commissioners and properly they should be so called. New York's excise laws, so called, are properly license laws. Exercise — Exorcise. Do not use these words interchangeably. Exercise means a put- ting into use, action, or practice; exorcise to cast or drive out (an evil spirit), by religious or magical formulas or ceremonies. Expect. We cannot expect backwards. " I expect you thought I would come to see you yesterday" should be "I suppose, etc." "I expect you know all about it" should be "I sus- pect you know, etc" Experience. "We experienced great hardships" should read "We suffered." Extend. "They showed me every kind- ness" is better than "They extended every kind- ness to me." Farther — Further. Use farther for all distances that can be measured either great or small. Use further in all other sentences. Female applies to animals, as well as to women, and so should not be used in such sen- tences as, "With the dislike not unnatural to females, etc." Fewer — Less. Fewer refers to number, and less to quantity. Instead of "There were not less than twenty scholars absent," we should say, " There were not fewer than twenty scholars absent." Instead of "There were not less than ten chapters in the book," we should say, "There were not fewer than ten chapters in the book." Find. "I think the men /i?id everything" should be "supply everything." Fixed. Tins word is often misused for or- ranged; as, "I must fix the books." "Who fixA the dishes on the shelves?" It is vul- garly used thus; "I will fix him." "The jury was fixed." "You must fix up, if you go. " Your affairs are in a bad fix." Former — Latter. The less the writer uses these words the better. In the interest of force and clearness their use should be studiously avoided. It is nearly always better to repeat the noun. This avoids the reader's going back to see which is former and which is latter. Got — Have. If a man inherits a fortune, you say he has money; if he obtains money through his own effort, you say "He has gotten, money." "He has books" means merely that he possesses them; "He has gotten his books" means that he has obtained them through effort. Have shows simple possession; got shows pos- session plus the effort to obtain the thing. Had Ought. This expression is incorrect because had is used with the past participle of the principal verb to form the compound tense. Ought is a defective verb and has no participle: therefore ought cannot be used with had. Hain't is a very objectionable vulgarism. Handy should not be used in the sense, near, near by, close at hand; as, "The store is handy." Say, "The store is near." Have to Have or Had to Have. Bet- ter than "I have to have my work done by three o'clock" is "I should, must, or ought to have my work, etc.'' Got to get is another unpleasant repetition. Hence is superfluous in the sentence, "It win be many years hence, we apprehend, before he returns." How. "I have heard how, in Italy, one is beset on all sides by beggars " should read "I have heard that, in Italy, etc." However. Use how, not however, in such a sentence as, "However could you tell such a story!" If. Use whether in place of if in these sen- tences: "I doubt if the book will suit you"; "I wonder if he has come." Ill — Sick. Almost aU British speakers and writers limit the meaning of sick to the expres- sion of qualmishness, sickness at the stomach, nausea, and lay the proper burden of the ad- jective sick upon the word ill. They sneer at us for not joining in the robbery and the imposition. Richard Grant White says, "I was present once when a British merchant, receiving in his own house a Yankee youth at a Httle party, said, in a tone that attracted the attention of the whole room, 'Good evening! We haven't seen you for a long while. Have you been seeck' (the sneer prolonged the word), 'as you say in your country?' 'No, thank you,' said the other, frankly and promptly, 'I've been hill, as they say in yours.' " In — Into. In is sometimes an adverb and sometimes a preposition. As an adverb it is correctly used in these sentences: "Come in"; "Go in." As a preposition in should be used with verbs of rest and into with verbs of motion. These words are correctly used in: "He sat in his chair"; "He ran into the house." Incite — Insight. . Incite means to rouse to a particular action; as, "The mob was in- cited to set the house on fire." Insight is a noun and means the power or faculty of immediate and acute perception or understanding; as, "The strongest insight we obtain into nature is that which we receive, etc." In Our Midst is not according to the genius of our language. It should be written in the midst of us. Also in the midst of them, and not in their midst. Inaugurate should not be used in place of begin for the simple things of daily life. It is a big word misused. Individual should not be used for person. LANGUAGE 195 The word is used correctly in " Changes both in individuak and commuaities are often pro- duced by trifles"; incorrectly in "That indir vidual left here several hours ago." Innumerable Number should not be used. Say instead innumerable times or num^ berless times. In so far as. The in is superfluous in this phrase. "In so far as I know" should be "So far as I know." Intend is often misused for purpose. "I intend to attend college this winter" should read " I purpose to attend college this winter." We purpose seriously; we intend vaguely. Just Going to Go is better expressed by just about to go. Just going to say by just about to say, etc., or by about to go. Just Next. Doesn't "He was next me" express as much as "He was just next me"? Kids. It is better usage to speak of one's gloves than of one's kids. Silk gloves are not Kind of. "What kind of man is he?" is correct. "What kind of a man is he?" is in- correct. Lady. Address a stranger as madam, and not as lady. People of culture and refinement will never say, "She is a fine lady," a "clever lady," etc. Ladies say, "The women of Amer- ica," "women's apparel." In similar instances men should be used in place of gentlemen. Lie — Lay. By a vulgar error these verbs have been so confounded as to deserve some notice. To lie is neuter, and designates a state: to lay is active, and denotes an action on an object; it is properly to cause to lie. "A thing lies on the table"; "Some one lays it on the table"; "He lies with his fathers"; "They laid him with his fathers." In the same manner, when used idiomatically, we say, "A thing lies by us until we bring it into use"; "We kiy it by for some future purpose." The confusion arises probably from the fact that lay appears in both verbs. The words are correctly used in the following sentences: I lay myself upon the bed (action). I lie upon the bed (rest). I laid myself upon the bed (action). I lay upon the bed (rest). I have laid myself upon the bed (action). I have lain upon the bed (rest). A hen lays an egg (action). A ship lies at the wharf (rest). The murdered Lincoln lay in state (rest); The people laid the crime upon the rebels (action). Learn — Teach. The uncultured often change these verbs. To teach is to give instruc- tion; to learn is to take instruction. "I will learn if you will teach me" is correct. Leave. The vulgar say, "Leave me be"; "Leave it alone"; "Leave me see it." Of coiu'se let is the verb to be used here. Lend. Frequently confused with loan. Lend is a verb, loan a noun. A loan is the completed act of lending, or is the thing lent. "Friends, Romans, Countrjrmen, lend me your ears." "The Anglo-French loan was negotiated in New York." Reference to best authorities invariably shows that loan as a verb is objectionable, and, though commonly used in the United States, is not approved except perhaps infinancial terms. Less. See fewer. Like — Love. We like acquaintances, horses, flowers, pictures, etc. We love wives, sweethearts, kinsmen, truth, justice, and country. Like — As. "He looks like you." This sentence may mean either "He looks as you look," or "He resembles you in his appearance." The sentence should read "He looks as you look," or "He is like you." Like is followed by an object only, and does not admit of a verb in the same construction. As must be followed by a verb expressed or understood. Like is sometimes improperly used in the sense of as though, thus: "It looks like it was caused by fire." Loan. See Lend. Lot — Lots. Very inelegantly used for a great many, a great deal : " He had a lot of money left him"; "Lots of trouble came her way." Luncheon is a more elegant form than lunch, especially in the sense Of a formal repast. Make a Visit. We do not make visits, we pay them. May and can are often confused. May expresses permission or probability; can expresses power or ability. "May I go?" asks for permission. "Can he do this?" questions his ability to do it. Similar distinction should be made between might and could. Middling. This word is an adjective, not an adverb ; hence we cannot say a thing is mid- dling good, or that a thing was middling well done. " He resided m a town of middling size" is correct. Mind is often misused for obey. To mind is to attend to a thing so it will not be forgotten. "Will you obey me?" not " Will you mmd me?" Mistaken. " If I am not mistaken " should be "If I mistake not." You are mistaken is a correct form of expression; it means you have been led into error. Most. This word should usually be omitted from conversation and writing. Very is the better word in almost every instance. " It would m/}st {very'} seriously affect us." This word is often misused for almost. "He comes here most every day" should be "He comes here almost every day." Mutual. This word is often confounded with common. These words are correctly used in these sentences: "Our former correspondence was renewed, with the most hearty expression of mutual good will." "We have two friends in common." "They met at the house of a com- mon friend." "Their mutual dislike (not dis- like for each other) was well known." Myself. This pronoun should be used only where increased emphasis is aimed at, as in "I will do it myself," etc. It is incorrect to say, "Mary and myself were satisfied." Nicely. "This word is frequently misused in the attempt to make it do service for well, in this wise: "How do you do?" "Nicely." "How are you?" "Nicely." Numerous is often used in place of large or many. "We have numerous acquaintances," should be " We have many acquaintances." 196 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Of All Others. "Of all others she is the last one you would expect." Is she one of the others? If not, why class her as such? Of Any is often used in place of all. "She is the smallest of any I have known" should be "the smallest of all, etc." Off of. The latter of these words should be omitted from the sentence. Say, " The pears fell off the tree," not " The pears fell off of the tree." On to. " We get on a horse, on a chair," etc., not "on to." One should be followed by one and not by he. "Can one visit his friends there?" should be "Can one visit one's friends there?" Only. This word is probably more often misplaced than any other word in the language. "He only sang for us." "He sang only for us." The first means that he sang, but did not play for us; the second one means he sang for tis and not for any one else. A change in the po- sition of only in almost any sentence will effect the meaning of the sentence the same as in this illustration. Other. This word should not be omitted in sentences like the following: "He said that his wife was dressed better than any {other) woman there." Ought — Should. Ought is the stronger term. "What we ought to do, we are morally bound to do." "We oxLght to be truthful and honest, and should be respectful to our elders." Over. Do not use over in the sense of more than. "It is over a yard long" should read "more than a yard long." Ow^n is often misused in place of confess. "I ovm I saw her do it" should be "I confess I saw her do it." Pair. "A new pair of shoes" should be "a pair of new shoes." The shoes are new, not the pair. Pants is a vulgar abbreviation for panta- loons. Party is often used by the ignorant where good taste would use the word person. Not "the party that I saw," but "the person." Past. This word is incorrectly used for last in such expressions as, "The past three days," "The posi year." Pell-mell means mixed or mingled to- gether. It cannot properly be applied to an individual. " He rushed pellr-mell into my arms " would be to say " He rushed into my arms mixed together." Per. Per day, per man, per pound, etc., are better expressed by the plain English a day, a man, a pound, etc. Ten dollars per is the slang for ten dollars a week, a month, apiece, etc. Perform. The short word play is to be preferred in "She performs on the piano beau- tifully." This sentence would be improved by using well or admirably in place of beautifully. Peruse is often used when the word read would be in better taste. Place is misused for where in "Let's go some place." "I want to go some place." Polite should not be used for kind before the word invitation. Ported is incorrectly uised for inform in such expressions as, "The man posted me"; "If I had been better posted." Prejudice should'not be used in a favorable sense. You cannot say "The man is prejudiced in his favor." We should say, "He is prepos- sessed in his favor." Prepositions. If you are in doubt what preposition to use after any verb, or with any noun, always consult the dictionary. Preventive and not Preventative. This adjective, in common with subsequent, in- dependent, relative, antecedent, and possibly others, is often incorrectly used as an adverb. "Previous to our visit" should be "previously to our visit." " Independent oi this reason" should be "independently of this reason." Procure is often made to do the work of the Anglo-Saxon word get. "Where did you procure it?" should be "Where did you get it?" Promise often does duty for assure. "I promise you I was agreeably surprised" should be " I assure you, etc." Providing should be provided in such sentences as, "He offered to provide a stable and supply the necessities of the company pro- viding the control of the board should be turned over to him." Purchase— Buy. Use purchase in refer- ence to great matters, as, " the Louisiana pur- chase" ; use buy with reference to ordinary mat- ters, as, "He bought a book, his dinner, etc." Railroad Depot. A depot is properly a place where goods or stores of any kind are kept; and the places at which the trains of a railroad — or, better, railway — stop for passengers, or the points they start from or arrive at, are prop- erly the stations. Raise — Bear. We rear children and raise animals. Raised the rent is incorrectly used for increased the rent. Real. should not be used for very in such phrases as real pretty, real nice, real angry. Resurrect is still marked colloquial in the recent dictionaries. Retire. It is only the over nice that retire in the sense of go to bed. Sunday is the first day of the week, and Sabhath is the last day of the week. Saw is sometimes carelessly used for have seen. "I never saw anything like it before" should be " I have never seen anything like it until now. " We say properly, " I never sow anything like it when I was in Paris." Set — Sit. These verbs, hke lie and lay, are often confounded in their use. To set is transi- tive; to sit is intransitive. "I set the hen, but she sits on her eggs." Incorrectly we speak of a setting hen, instead of a sitting hen. In Matthew, it was prophesied that Christ should come "sit- ting upon an ass " and, therefore, His disciples took a colt and "they set Him thereon." The verb is correctly used in^ these sentences: "My dress sits well"; "We will sit up," that is, will not go to bed; "Congress sits." "We set down figures," but "We sit down on the ground." An apparent contradiction is found in the sentence, "The sun sets"; but the verb sets in this sentence has a different origin from the verb set that we have been discussing. Long ago they used to say, "The sun settles"; but settle has been shortened to set. LANGUAGE 197 Shall — Will. The radical signification of will is purpose, intention, determination; that of shall is obligation. I will do means I pur- pose doing — I am determined to do. I shall do means, radically, I ought to do ; and as a man is supposed to do that which he ought to do, I shall do came to mean, I am about doing — to be, in fact, a mere announcement of future ac- tion, more or less remote. Always keep in mind that I shall, you will, and he will, are the forms of the future, and that I will, you shall, and he shall, imply volition on the part of the speaker. Will and shall in the first person are properly used in the following quotations from "The Absentee," one of Miss Edgeworth's novels: — "Gone! Forever gone from me," said Lord Colambre, as the carriage drove away. "Never shall I see her more — never will I see her more, till she is married." "We vnll do our best to make you happy, and hope we shall succeed." They are also used properly in "I shall be drowned"; "We shall have to go"; "Is the time coming when we shall desert Thackeray?" These two words are coming more and more to be used interchangeably, so that one authority says there is no distinction to be made in their use ; but this is not yet true. There is determi- nation expressed in shall as well as in will. Suppose you had put a book upon the table, and had told me not to take it from the table, not to read it. I might say, " I shall go to the table; I shall take the book; and I will read it." Shall here indicates a future action with intention added to the thought; and will ex- presses determination. "I will go to the table for supper" indicates that you have been told not to go to the table, but that you will go in spite of this prohibition; while "I shall go to the table" indicates only futurity of action. Where there is nothing to rouse the will or to show a prohibition, shall is often used inter- changeably with wUl, as in " Will you come to the table?" "Yes, I will come to the table," in which sentence will expresses futurity, and not determination. You shall do it shows intention on the part of the speaker to make the other person do his will, and not his own will. "You will do it" usually shows simple futurity. Still, in the case of the child and its mother, the child says, "I won't do it!" and the mother puts her will into operation and says, "You will do it," meaning I will that you will to do it. "He shall do it" and "He vnll do it" follow the same rules as the second person. The words are incorrectly used in " Will I cut myself?" "I iinU drown, and nobody shall help me." Will cannot be used interrogatively in the first person singular or plural, as can be seen by the sentence, " Will I put some more coal on the fire?" To determine whether to use would or should, express your thought, whenever possible, in the present tense, and then use would for will and should for shall. These words are used correctly in the following sentences : "I would come to you if I could." " I should have been sorry if I had gone." "I would I were there." "I should go hunting to-day if the weather were good." "I should prefer to hear the music." Sick — 111. See 111. Since when, should not be used for since that time, or since what time, according to the meaning. Smell of. We smell the rose, not smell of it. Splendid. Splendid, awful, and dandy seem to be about the only adjectives some of our superlative young women have in their vocabu- laries. Standpoint. This idea is better expressed by view point or point of view. Stop for stay is a Briticism. To stop is to arrest motion ; to stay is to remain where motion is arrested. We may stop at a hotel; but how long we stay depends upon circumstances. Storm. To a storm a violent commotion of the atmosphere is indispensable; so say rains or snows, unless it really storms. Street. We live in not on a street. Things occur in not on a street. Stricken is used when misfortune is im- plied ; as, " He was stricken with death." Struck is used in all other cases; as, "He was strucA; by a stone." Such. "I have never seen such a small man" should be "I have never seen so small a man," as may be seen by transposing the words of the first sentence which then becomes "I have never seen a man such small." Such a Pretty, Such a Lovely, are incorrect, and should be so pretty, so lovely. Sure. "He will surely be here," not "He will be here sure." Sustain. We do not sustain injuries; we receive them. Teach. See Learn. That. This word is not an adverb, and so cannot modify an adjective; so, that good, that worthy, etc., should be so good, so worthy, etc. The, like a, should be used brfore both nouns or both adjectives when they denote different objects. "The fish and monkey" should be "the fish and the monkey" ; "the secretary and treasurer" (if one man), "the secretary and the treasurer" (if two men). The should be used before Reverend, Hon- orable, etc. The Reverend James Smith, D. D. T hence. Do not use thence with the prepo- sition from. "He came thence" is correct. Think for. "He hears more than you think for " is wrong. Omit the for. Those Kind. " That kind of shoes is good," not " those kind." " This sort of people (not these sort) will suit you." To. Never say, " She was to my house yes- terday." Use at in place of to. Try. We make experiments, not try them. Twice Over. The over serves no purpose in "He said it tvnce over in different ways." Under the Circumstances. Better in the circumstances. Universally — All. " He was universally praised by all who heard him" is better ex- pressed by "He was universally praised," or "He was praised by aU who heard him." Upon — On. We call on persons, and speak on subjects, and stand upon the table. 198 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Use to. Use to should be used to. "We used to live there " is correct. Vocation — Avocation. A man's vo- cation is his profession, his calling, his business; and his avocations are the things that occupy him incidentally. Miss Brown's vocation is teaching ; her avocations are embroidering and painting. Ways. Wrongly used for way; as, "The house is a loi^ ways off" should be "way off." Well — Tvhy. These two words are used by Americans in almost every sentence. Un- less they are absolutely necessary in a sentence leave them out. Wharf. See Dock. . W^hat. "He would not think but what I said it" should be "but that." Wlience. " Whence came ye ? " not " From whence came ye?" Whence means from what place, source, or cause. Whole of. "AU of the school," not "the whole of the school." Widow Woman. Are not widows al- ways women? Another error of this sort is brother men. W^ithout is a preposition and should not take the place of the connective unless; as, "I shall not go without my father consents" should read "unless my father consents," or "without Toy father's consent." In this last expression without is a preposition. Worst Kind. A vulgarism we sometimes hear used in the sense of very much. " I want to go the worst kind." Worst Way. This belongs in the same category with worst kind. FORMS OF LANGUAGE COMPOSITION The following table includes the principal forms of language composition : — I. PROSE. (1) Narration. — Letters, jouraals, memoirs, biog- raphies, history, travel, news, fiction. (2) Description. — Descriptions of external ob- jects, of character and its development, of intellectual processes. (3) Exposition.— Essays, treatises, editorials, re- view.s, criticism. (4) Argument. — Argumentative essays, debates, briefs, etc. (5) Persuasion ok Oratory. — Orations, -addresses, lectures, sermons. II. POETRY. (1) Epic and Narrative Poetry. — The great epics, metrical romances, metrical tales, bal- lads, pastorals, idylls, etc. (2) Dramatic (including all narrative poetry which presents actors as speaking and acting for themselves). — Tragedy, comedy, farce, opera, melodrama, mask, interlude, etc. (3) Lyric. — Odes, sacred and secular songs, elegy, sonnets, simple lyrics. (4) Didactic. — Moral essays in verse, satiric poetry, etc. It is the object of words to convey thought; but in order to present connected thought, words must be properly arranged with a definite end in view. Such an arrangement of words is called a language composition. There are two types of composition, prose and poetry. Prose is the plain language of every-day speech in distinction from the more emotional and artistic language of poetry. The chief varieties of prose composition are: narration, description, exposition, argument, persuasion. Narration presents events in sequence of time, it presents a story; description paints a picture; exposition defines a term or explains a proposition; argument establishes the truth or falsity of a statement; persuasion arouses the emotions, and influences the will. Narration pre- sents events with special reference to time and place and persons, with their attendant motives and circumstances. It is the aim of narration to make the reader an eye-witness of the events related. Under narration may be classed letters, jour- nals, memoirs, biographies, history, travel, news, fiction, and that great body of literature comprehended under the term " stories." The sequence of events in narration may be with or without plot. If it be simply a sequence of time, then the narration is said to be without plot, as in letters, diaries, news of the day, journals, memoirs, biographies; but if there be a subtle relation of cause and effect, which binds together the sequence of events, then we have a narrative with a plot, such as stories, and novels, and dramas. A plot has been de- fined as "any arrangement of the parts of a narrative so that the reader's interest is aroused concerning the result of the series of events detailed." Letters, books of travel, memoirs, and biograr phies owe their interest to the charm with which they are told, and the real worth of the succes- sive incidents treated. Letters of Thoreau to his friends, of Emerson, Hawthorne, Channing, Alcott, give us the charm of Concord life in the golden days of those philosophers, and also give us a, model of letter-writing in their simple beauty of style, and the value of their subject matter. Books of Travel have aU the personal charm of letters, and added to that the deep interest of new scenes, visited by an apprecia- tive narrator. Travels consist largely of de- scription, which should be well selected and accurate. Stanley's "In Darkest Africa," Roberts's "Forty-one Years in India," Grey's "Travels in Austraha," are interesting books of travel. Memoirs relate chiefly to matters of mem- ory, events that have come under the author's personal experience. Memoirs are related to history, but are less systematic and more con- versational in style. "Yesterdays with Au- thors," by J. T. Fields, is a volume of memoirs of noted literary men he knew. Biography is a history of an individual life, somewhat more extended than a memoir. An autobiography is the life history of the writer himself. Biographies form a very im- portant branch of history. If one would know the history of a time he must know the men of that time. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin furnishes a much better picture of life in his times than pages of our best histories. American Men of Letters series, American Statesmen series, give a fine study of the develop- ment of the American nation. History is a formal and connected account of the life of a nation. Historical narration ex- LANGUAGE 199 plains the sequence of events, their cause and effect, and their bearing on civilization. The historian records truth for the instruction of mankind. It is, therefore, required of him that he make his records with impartiality and accu- racy, and with the highest regard for morality. Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- pire," Motley's "Rise of the Dutch Republic," are histories written with the charm of romance, because they are narrated with the vividness of an eye-witness and are aglow with human sympathies. New^s forms a most important branch of letters. The editorial and the news columns in- fluence more people to-day than any other form of literature. Thousands, who are utterly un- acquainted with books, read with eagerness the daily news, so the newspaper of to-day has be- come a popular educator. It is the privilege of the newspaper to present a high standard of pure grammatical English, and of morality. Clearness, brevity, accuracy, are the pssential qualities in a news reporter. He must choose language that will convey his exact meaning, and give all essential details in as brief a manner as is consistent with accuracy and clearness. Daily news is read for the information it conveys, and not for beauty of style, yet it is desirable that the news writer cultivate ease and the charm of naturalness in writing up the simplest occurrences of the day, if he can do all this in quick and graphic sentences. News writing differs greatly from the writing of editorials or leaders. The news reporter simply gathers up the facts of the day and presents them without bias of opinion, whereas it is the business of the editor to discuss facts and give opinions. Edi- torials properly belong under exposition and persuasion, rather than under the division of prose narration. Fiction, from the earliest dawn of litera- ture, has been the favorite form of composition. The mind revels in the creations of the imagina- tion, and myths and folk tales are the delight of all peoples. Modem fiction has had phe- nomenal development, and the growth of the short story has been without parallel. Fiction includes stories, novels, and romances, both' in prose and verse. The aim of fiction is principally to entertain. The general reader of fiction does not want instruction, he is seeking diversion. Incidentally, however, to the enter- tainment that is furnished by a modern novel, there is much instruction given by our best writers of historical novels, concerning customs and man- ners, and domestic and social life, and the history of the time in the midst of which the plot is set; but more valuable than these outer facts of life is the study of motives and behavior, and de- velopment of character, and the insight, which is given into human nature, and the conditions of human society which lie beyond our range of observation. If well selected, and not read to excess, novels form a valuable means of educa- tion, as well as of intellectual entertainment. The novels of Dickens, Victor Hugo, Tolstoi, have opened the eyes of the public to unsuspected social conditions. Bunyan, Goldsmith, Eliot, Hawthorne, have given us a deeper insight into human nature. We see how men and women behave under certain circumstances, and the relation of good and evil conduct. The Short Story is not, as often claimed, a creation of recent date. Myths, legends, fa- bles, folk-tales, are all forms of short stories, which were invented when language was young. Myths are old-world fairy tales, and have for their heroes gods and goddesses, and for their agencies the forces of nature. Homer's "Odyssey," Virgil's "jEneid," Longfellow's "Hiawatha," are poems woven out of mythic fancies. Fables are stories in which animals and inanimate things are represented as having the attributes of human beings. iEsop's fables have been translated into every language. Parables are concrete examples of spiritual truths. They are frequently used in the Bible. Allegories are concrete stories to illustrate abstract truths, but more extended than parables or fables. An allegory gives a detailed descrip- tion of one thing under the image of another. Spenser's "Faerie Queene," Swift's "Tale of a Tub," are good types of allegories. Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is the best known allegory of modern times. Legends and Folk -Tales are the stories of daily life and heroic adventure that are common among all people. The field of the short-story writer has been greatly extended in modern times, and now includes every domain of fact and fancy. The short story of domestic life, or a brief chapter in personal history, may be said to characterize the modern short story, and is the favorite form of fiction. Newspapers and magazines con- tribute largely to this form of literature. It is to be greatly regretted that the popularity of the short story has led to its abuse, and that much that is unworthy both in plot and workmanship is found in active circulation. But literature has been enriched by the number of really worthy short-story writers, and American literature is especially rich in the number who have pre- served for us tones of local coloring and contem- porary characters. Bret Harte, Mark Twain, Frank Stockton, have contributed the riches of their humor, and Nathaniel Hawthorne, Richard Harding Davis, Sarah Orne Jewett, Robert Louis Stevenson, George W. Cable, have added the beauty of their most delicate touch to the creation of the modem short story. "A New England Nun" by Mary E. Wil- kins, "Story-tell Lib" by Annie Trumbull Slosson, "The Blue Flower" by Henry Van Dyke, " Christmas Stories " by Charles Dickens, and incidents related in story by Maupassant are a few of the long list of excellent short stories. Description follows narration and has already been included in narration. Every story must contain word pictures of persons or places or objects of interest. Description of external objects is simpler than the delineation of character. In a few strokes of the pen Sir Walter Scott places before us the person of Re- becca, but her thoughts, her feelings, her inner struggles, are revealed to us by a slower process of description. We are quickly introduced to Silas Marner and his home; but the real man 200 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS and his nobility of soul, we do not comprehend until he stands before Godfrey Cass and offers to give up to him his daughter. It is because George Eliot can describe such moments as this that she is ranked among the world's greatest novelists. Shakespere stands first of all writers in his power to describe soul experiences. Exposition differs from narration or de- scription in this that it does not deal with con- crete things, but with ideas, either separately or in combination. Exposition presents defi- nitions, doctrines, principles, or views, with the aim to instruct. Exposition is often intro- duced into the midst of narration or description for the purpose of explanation, to give a point of view, or to present a situation more fully. An Essay is a composition which aims to set forth the author's views on a certain subject. It is less elaborate than a treatise, and varies in length from the brief school exercise to the elaborate essays of Macaulay, or Emerson, or Carlyle. Editorials, reviews, criticisms, are familiar forms of the essay. An Editorial may be called a short essay, giving the views of the editor on some subject of the day. The editorial is very different from the news item ■which was classed under narra- tion. The reporter simply records facts without personal comment, whereas it is the business of the editor to record facts and give opinions, explaining where necessary, and commending or condemning as occasion requires. News- papers set forth social and political problems of a local or national character, and it is the aim of the editorial to shape public thought. Back of the editorial "we" is the personality of the writer; but sometimes the writer himself is lost in the political party or organization which the paper or magazine represents. Reviews are more elaborate forms of edi- torials, they deal with the subject at greater length, and are more exhaustive in the discus- sions. Reviews often treat of literary subjects, as book reviews, music, art, lives of noted men, explorations, etc. Criticisms are for the purpose of setting forth excellences and defects, and are designed to be constructive rather than destructive, as defects are pointed out that the true principles upon which the work is constructed may be better understood. Argumentative Discourse is for the purpose of establishing the truth or falsity of a proposition. Its aim is to modify or induce belief. It is assumed that there is reasonable doubt in the minds of the hearers, and by rea- sonable argument they must be convinced. In the conduct of such a discourse the subject or proposition is first stated briefly and concisely, then follow the arguments drawn up in order and, finally, the conclusion, which consists of a restatement of the proposition reinforced by the strength of the arguments. In the presenta- tion of a debate, both sides must agree on the preliminary statement or proposition, and then each side must furnish proof to establish the truth of the main proposition as presented af- firmatively or negatively by that side. Persuasion is the highest type of argu- mentative discourse, and includes addresses. lectures, sermons, orations. The aim of persua- sion is so to move upon the feelings of the audi- ence as to influence the will. In exposition and argumentation the appeal is to the will, but the end of oratory has a view to action. Mark Antony, over the dead body of Caesar, aimed to excite the populace to violence. Orations are elaborate compositions and are delivered on formal occasions, as Daniel Webster's Bunker Hill oration, Edward Everett's Gettysburg oration, the orations delivered by Burke, and Peel, and Fox. Clearness and force are strong qualities in an oration, but, in addition to these, all the beauties of composition are in place. As oratory is the highest form of prose composition, nothing trivial or low in language or thought should be allowed. The main idea should be developed by both language and gesture. Words must be made alive. Addresses and Speeclies are less formal than orations, yet they all admit of the three-fold structure into introduction or ex- ordium, body or argument, and conclusion or peroration. The strength of the discourse de- pends upon the skill with which each part is handled. Ready and fluent speech are desir- able qualities in all public speaking; but the ornate language of an oration would, on ordi- nary occasions, be out of place. A Lecture is less formal than an oration, but it demands a scholarly presentation of a subject in a clear and logical manner. The subject presented should be of importance, not too familiar, and presented in such a way as to interest and instruct. Sermons are the most familiar forms of discourse. They are founded usually upon some passage of Scripture, and are intended for instruction. Besides their expository character, sermons usually contain appeals to the listener, and admonitions. The theme of the sermon is presented in the Bible text; and, in addition to this, it is often necessary for the minister to make explanatory remarks before he begins the body of his argument. The introduction must contain a clear putting of the question, all necessary explanation must be made, and usually an outline is given of the plan to be fol- lowed in the body of the sermon. It is interest- ing to note the three kinds of arguments used in the body of a sermon. Firsty there is the argument of fact. This is an argument which appeals directly to sense and reason, and not to prejudice. The audi- ence is assumed to be impartial, and concrete questions are presented to their judgment. Second, argument of principle is also ad- dressed to the reason of the audience, and not to feelings or interests. Arguments of facts es- tablish or disprove some concrete matter of human experience, whereas argument of theory or principles estalslishes the fundamental law upon which the judgment of those facts is based. Third, argument of policy aims to persuade by appeals to motives of action. It aims to in- fluence the will to act in harmony with the prin- ciples outlined in the previous arguments of fact and theory. What is right is presented as the expedient. The "I ought" becomes an obliga- LANGUAGE 201 tion. It is through the medium of the feelings that most men are moved to action. The conclusion of the sermon sums up the main points of the argument, clearly and concisely. It may at times be done in a single sentence; sometimes it is best done by the repetition of the opening text which has been established. Poetry differs from prose in form and dic- tion. The form of poetry is verse. It is arranged in lines of regularly recurring accented and unaccented syllables. The language of poetry differs from prose. Certain privileges are granted to the poet which are called "poetic licenses." Words are chosen for their beauty of sound or association. Figures of speech are more frequent in poetry than in prose, and inverted structure is frequently employed. The essential difference between prose and poetry is, however, in the writer's aim. The chief aim of prose is to instruct and to convince ; the aim of poetry is to appeal to the emotions, to touch the heart of the reader, to play upon his sympathies. Epic Poetry recites some great and heroic enterprise. Epic poetry is the longest and, ex- cept the drama, the most complex of all poetic composition. Its theme is noble, its underlying plot simple ; it has one hero but many actors ; supernatural agencies are often introduced. The treatment of the story is grave and dignified. There are but few great world epics. Homer's "lUad" and "Odyssey," Virgil's ".Slneid," Dante's "Divine Comedy," Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," Milton's "Paradise Lost," are the greatest, and their themes are of universal interest. Metrical Romances and Narrative Poetry are inferior to the epic. They present plot and story, but with less comphcation of action, and with simpler theme. Spenser's "Faerie Queene," Scott's "Lay of the Last Minstrel," Longfellow's "Evangeline," Lowell's "SirLaunfal," Mrs. Browning's "Aurora Leigh," are examples of this kind of composition. The Ballad and the Tale are the sim- plest forms of metrical romance. "Chevy Chase," "Robin Hood," Chaucer's "Canterbury- Tales," Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome," Coleridge's "Rime of the Ancient Mariner," are good illustrations. Narrative poems of a mixed character have been variously classed under minor epics or pas- toral poems: Tennyson's "Idylls of the King," Scott's "Lady of the Lake," Longfellow's "Tales of a Wayside Inn," Whittier's "Snowbound," William Morris's "Earthly Paradise." These classifications are not binding. Dramatic poetry presents action, what men do and say, and, in our greater dramas, motives and the moral train of consequences. Passion is strong, incident exciting, thought vigorous. Scenery, costume, dialogue, aid in the presentation of the story. The drama lives its life upon the stage. The main divisions of the drama are tragedy and comedy. Comedy itself has the subordi- nate divisions: farce, opera, melodrama, mask. The Greek drama presents to us the highest form of dramatic art before the age of Shakes- pere. In the golden age of Pericles we have the tragedies of .^schylus, Euripides, Sophocles, and the comedies of Aristophanes, later we have the comic plays of Menander. Greek drama, like our own English drama, was written in poetic form. Tragedy deals with grave topics, and stirs the deepest feelings. It presents the unusual struggle between good and evil. Some crime has been committed, and the consequences of this act are worked out upon the stage in a chain of events which involves many people. The plot becomes more or less complicated, yet in Shakespere's dramas the skill with which the leading characters and the central theme are presented, preserves for the audience unity of action throughout the play. King Lear, Othello, Macbeth, Hamlet, present the great drama of Good versus Evil, and will make a good begin- ning for the student who wishes to become ac- quainted with tragedy. Comedy, unlike tragedy, has a happy ending. The passions of men, love, hate, jeal- ousy, ambition, are still the hidden springs of action, but there is a happy turn in the current of events, and Good triumphs without violence or bloodshed. Browning's "Pippa Passes" presents Good and Evil, and the superior power of the good, but it is not for the stage — it is too analytic. Shakespere's plays again pre- sent to us the best study. " Merchant of Venice," "Midsummer Night's Dream," "As You Like It," "All's Well that Ends Well," "The Tem- pest," "Taming of the Shrew," "Merry Wives of Windsor," also Sheridan's "Rivals," Gold- smith's "She Stoops to Cojiquer," will repay many times reading. Shakespere's historic dramas may be classed among comedies or tragedies, according to the relation of good and evil working out of the theme. "King Henry, the Eighth," "King John," "RichardTI," and "Richard III" should be studied. The Farce is a minor comedy, which pre- sents ridiculous and extravagant situations. It is familiar to the modern stage. The Mask is usually a presentation of some pastoral scene, and introduces supernatural characters. The "Mask of Comus" by John Milton is our best example. Opera and Melodrama are forms of comedy where music and action are combined. In an opera the parts are entirely simg, while in melodrama singing and speaking are com- bined. Wagner's operas are the noblest con- ception we have of the power of music combined with dramatic art. Lyric Poetry, as the words suggest, is poetry set to music. Originally the voice of the singer was accompanied by some musical in- strument, as the harp or lyre, hence lyric. Lyric poems express the personal feeling of the author, and are moved by some fervor of emotion that must sing itself out. Not only are all song poems, both religious and secular, classed as lyrics, but odes and sonnets belong to this group. Odes express so wide a range of feeling that it is difficult to form an exact definition. The Greek odes of Pindar and Anacreon differ from our modem conception of the ode, which we regard as more stately and dignified. Exa.mples of odes found in our own English are Milton's "Hymn on the Nativity," Wordsworth's "Inti- mations of Immortality " Shelley's " Ode to a 202 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Nightingale," CoUins's "Ode to the Passions," Dryden's "Ode in Honor of St. Cecilia's Day," Tennyson's " Ode to Memory." Elegy is a reflective poem on some mournful subject, or, as in modern elegies, a eulogy over the dead. Milton's "Lycidas" belongs to this class, also Gray's "Elegy written in a Country Churchyard," Shelley's "Adonais," a tribute to Keats, and Tennyson's " In Memoriam," a trib- ute to his friend, Arthur Hallam. A Sonnet is a complete poem of fourteen lines. The personal element is strong, and the themes are tenderness of emotion and beauty of thought and expression. The sonnet is the poet's poem. Shakespere, Spenser, Milton, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Browning, and other great poets have delighted in this form of verse. Read "What is a Sonnet?" by Richard Watsoa Gilder to understand its charm. Didactic Poetry is the least poetic of all poetic forms. It aims to teach, while the higher aim of poetry is to reveal life and beauty and joy. Pope's " Essay on Man," Cowper's "Task," Dryden's "Absalom and Achitophel, " are examples of poems which are so didactic that they are little read. Lyric poems like Shelley's "Cloud," Wordsworth's "Daffodils," Longfel- low's "Rain in Summer," Bums's "To a Wee Mousie's Nest," Tennyson's "Crossing the Bar," Newman's "Lead, Kindly Light," will always remain popular, because they appeal to the emotions and the imagination, rather than to critical thought. The aim of poetry is to arouse the emotions and to give pleasure. ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS, AND DEGREES A., a. Adjective, A. Alto. A., ana. Answer. o„@. (Lat. ad). To; At. a, do. The like quantity of each. A. A.G. Assistant Adjutant General. A. A. A. St L. American Academy of Arts and Letters. A. A. A. S. American Association for the Advancement of Science. A. db A, S. R, Ancient and Accepted Scottish Kite. A. A. S. S. (Lat. Academi(e Antiqua- rince Societatis Socius) , Member of the American Antiquarian Society. A. A. V. Amateur Athletic Union. A. B, (Lat. aHiutn baccalaureua) , Bachelor of Arts. A. B, Able-bodied Seaman. A&6r., Abbrev. Abbreviated, Abbre- viation. Abl.^ ablat. Ablative. Abp. Archbishop. A. B. S. American Bible Society. A. C, (Lat. ante Christum), Before Christ; Analytical Chemist. Acad. Academy. A* C. A. American Congregational Association. Ace*, Accus» Accusative. Ace, Acct. Account. A, D. (Lat. anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. A,D.C, Aide-de-camp. Ad., advt. Advertisement. Adj. Adjective. A<^t. Adjutant. Adjt.Qen. Adjutant General. Ad lib.. Ad libit. (Lat. ad libitum), At pleasure. Adm. Admiral. Admr. Administrator. Admx. Administratrix. Ads. Advertisements. Adv. Adverb. ^., JSt, (Lat. cetatia). Of Age, Aged. A.E.P, American Expeditionary Force. A.Q., AgtGen. Adjutant General. Ag, (Lat. argentum), Silver. Agl. Dept. Agricultural Department. Agr., Agric. Agriculture, Agricultural. Agt. Agent. A. H. (Lat. anno Hegirce), In the year of the Heglra, or flight of Mohammed. A. H. C, American Hospital Corps. A. H. M. S. American Home Mission Society. A. H. S. (Lat. anno kumancB salu- tia). In the year of human salva- tion. A. L. of H, American Legion of Honor. Ala. Alabama. Aid, Alderman. Alex. Alexander. Alf. Alfred. Alg. Algebra. A. M. (Lat. anno vtUTidi), In the year of the .world. A. M. (Lat. ante meridiem), Before noon. A. M. (Lat. attium magiater). Mas- ter of Arts. Am., Amer. America, American. A, M. D. Army Medical Dept. Amer. Phil. Soc. American Philo- sophical Society. Amt. Amount. A. N. Anglo-Norman. an. (Lat. anno). In the year. Anal. Analysis. Anat. Anatomy, Anatomical. Anc. Ancient. Anon. Anonymous. Ans. Answer. A. N, S. Army Nursing Service. A. N. S. S. Associate of the Normal School of Science. Ant., Antiq. Antiquities,Antiquarian. A nthrop. Anthropology, Apthro- pological. A, O. H. Ancient Order of Hibernians. A. O. U. American Ornithologists' Union. A. 0. V. W. Ancient Order of United Workmen. Ap.. App. Apostle, Apostles. A. P, A. American Protestant As- sociation; American Protective Association. Apoc. Apocalypse, Apocrypha. Apog. Apogee. App. Appendix. approx. Approximate, -ly. Apr. April. A. P. S, Associate of the Pharma- ceutical Society. Aq. (Lat. ogua). Water. A. Q. M. Assistant Quartermaster. A. Q. M. G. Assistant Quartermas- ter-General. Ar., Arab. Arabic, Arabian. Ar„ Arr. Arrive, Arrives, Arrived, Arrival. A.R. A. Associate of the Royal Academy. Arab. Arabic, Arabian. Aram, Aramaic. Arch. Architecture. ArchCBol. ArchEDology. Archd. Archdeacon. A. R. H. A. Associate of the Royal Hibernian Academy. Arith. Arithmetic, Arithmetical. Ariz. Arizona. Ark. Arkansas. Arm. Armorican, Armenian. A. R. R. (Lat. anno regni regia or regince), In the year of the King's (or queen's) reign* A. R. S. A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. A. R. S. M. Associate of the Royal School of Mines. Art. Article. A. iS., A.-S. Anglo^axon. Aaat. Assistant. A. S. S. U. American Sunday School Union. Asayr. Assyrian. Aatrol. Astrology. Aatron. Astronomy, Astronomical. A. T. S. American Tract Society. Atty. Attorney. Atty.-Gen. Attorney-General. A. U. A. American Unitarian As- sociation. A. U. C. (Lat. anno urbia condUcB), In the year from the building of the city — Rome. Aug. Augmentative. Aug. Augustus; August. Auxil. AuxiUary. A. V. Authorized Version. A. V. Artillery Volunteers. Avoir. Avoirdupois. B. Bass; Book. B., Brit. British. b. Born. B. A. Bachelor of Arts. [A. B.] Bal. Balance. Bait., BaUo. Baltimore. Bank. Banking. Bap., Bapt. Baptist. Bar. Barrel, Barometer. BaH,, Bt. Baronet. Bat., Batt. Battalion. bbl., bbls. Barrel, Barrels. B. C. Before Christ. B. Ch. (Lat. baccalaureua cAirur- gicB), Bachelor of Surgery. B. C. L. (Lat. baccalaureua civilia leaia). Bachelor of Civil Law. B. D. (Lat. baccalaureua divinitatia) , Bachelor of Divinity. Bd. Bound. Bdla. Bundles. Bda. Bound in boards. B. E. Bachelor of the Elements; Bachelor of Elocution. Belg. Bel^ic, Belgian. Ben., Benj. Benjamin. Berks. Berkshire. Bih. Bible, Biblical. Biog. Biography, Biographicali Biol. Biplogy, Biological. B. L., B. L. L. (Lat. baccalauTeva Ifi- gum). Bachelor of Laws. hU. Bales. B. M. (Lat. baccalaureua mediciws), Bachelor of Medicine. B. M., B. Mu8. (Lat. baccalaureua musicas). Bachelor of Music. B. 0. Branch Office; Board of Ord- LANGUAGE 203 B. O. Bachelor of Oratory. BoK Bohemian, or Czech. Bost. Boston. Bot. Botany, Botanical. B. P. O. E. Benevolent and Protec- tive Order of Elks. Bp. Bishop. Br.fBro. Brother. Bret. Bas-Breton, or Celtic of Brit- tany. Brig. Brigade. Brig.~Gen. Brigadier-General. Brit. Britain, Britannia, British. B. S. Bachelor of Surgery; Bachelor of Science. B. 8c. (Lat. baccalaureus sciential). Bachelor of Science. B. S. L. Botanical Society, London. Bt. Baronet. bush. Bushel. B. V, Blessed Virgin. B. V. M. Blessed Virgin Mary. bx., bx8. Box, Boxes. C. Cent, Cents; Centigrade; Consul; Centime, Centimes; a hundred. C, Cap. (Lat. caput). Chapter. C. A. Chartered Accountant. Cal. California; Calendar. Cam., Camb. Cambridge. Cant. Canticle. Cant. [Cantaur.] Cantab. (Lat. Cantabrigiensis) , Of Cambridge. Cantuar., Cant. (Mid. Lat. Cantua- Ha), Canterbury. Cap. (Lat. caput), Capital; Chapter. Caps. Capitals. Capt. Captain. Card. Cardinal. Cath. Catharine; Catholic. C. B. Companion of the Bath. C. 'C. Catholic Clergyman, Catholic Curate. C. D. V. Carte-de-Visite. C, E. Civil Engineer. Cel. Celsius. Celt, Celtic. Cent, (centum), A hundred; Centi- grade. Centig. C!entigrade. Cert., Certif. Certify; Certificate. Cf. (Lat. confer), Compare. C. /(. Cubic feet. C. G. Coastguard; Commissary-Gen- eral. C.G. S. Centimetre-Gramme-Second. C. H. Court House. Ch. Church; Chapter. Chal. Chaldron. Chal., Chald. Chaldee. Chan. Chancellor. Chap. Chapter. Chas. Charles. Chem. Chemistry, Chemical. Ch. Hist. Church History. Chic. Chicago. Chin. Chinese. Chr. Christ; Christian; Christopher. Chron. Chronology, Chronological. C. I. Order of the Crown of In- dia. C. I. E. Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire. Cin. Cincinnati. Cit. Citation; Citizen. Civ. Civil. C.J. Chief Justice. CI. Clergyman. Class. Classical. Clk. Clerk. cm. Centimetre. C. M. Certificated Master; Com- mon metre. C. M. (Lat. chirurgi