ALBERT R MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University Date Due L brary Bureau Cat No It 37 coRwttL iMWimrramm JL fl'V Horticulture Roumania. Maxted Photo The Encyclopedia of Practical Horticulture A Reference System of Commercial Covering the Practical and Scientific Phases of Horticulture with Special Reference to Fruits and Vegetables Ediior-in-Chigf GRANVILLE LOWTHER Associate Editor WILLIAM WORTHINGTON Assisted by the best known scientific and practical horticulturists throughout the country, and particularly in the Northwest • . * lUusirated Volume II PUBLISHED BY THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HORTICULTURE CORPORATION W M FLEMING, President NORTH YAKIMA WASHINGTON. U. S A Copyright 1914 by Encyclopedia, of Hobticultuee corpoeation PEESS of LowMAN & BUnfoeb Co. SEATTLE BUREAUS OF U. S. DBPT. OF AGRICULTURE— BUSH FRUITS 665 Bureaus of U. S. Department of Agriculture Weather Bureau — C. F. Marvin, Chief. Bureau of Animal Industry— A. D. Mel- vin, Chief, Bureau of Plant Industry— W. A. Tay- lor, Chief. Forest Service — H. S. Graves, Forester. Bureau of Boils— Uilton Wliitney, Chief. Bureau of Chemistry — C. L. Alsberg, Chief. Bureau of Btatistics—lj. M. Estal)rook, Statistician, Bureau of Entomology — L. O. Howard, Entomologist, Bureau of Biological Survey— Bi, W. Henshaw, Chief. Office of Bumic Roads— h. W. Page, Di- rector. Office of Experiment Stations — ^A. C. True, Director. rSush Jrruits After the selection of a proper site for the growing of bush fruits, the most im- portant factor entering into it, is the man. This has been demonstrated so of- ten, and in so many parts of the coun- try, one man succeeding where another fails, that it needs no extended proofs here. We will refer to our article on ap- ples as an illustration showing how by the choice of good varieties, and by the proper care in packing and marketing, one man will make a good profit, while another will barely live. Card in Ms book on "Bush Fruits," says: "The yield of black rasp- berries for a given year, as reported by 58 growers ranged from 567 quarts per acre to 9,600 quarts per acre." Just how much of this difference was due to un- avoidable conditions, and how much to preventable circumstances, is not known; but our observation leads to the conclu- sion, that much, very much, depends on the man. "The yield of blackberries per acre as reported by 50 growers, ranged from 1,280 quarts, to 10,000 quarts. The average was 3,158 quarts per acre." The highest yield shows the possibilities of high productions under favorable condi- tions, the low yield shows what to ex- pect under poor conditions with poor management. It is conceded that ail the bush fruits, except perhaps cranberries, do better in a deep rich soil, well drained, than under other conditions. Perhaps in no section of the United States do berries produce larger returns than in the Pacific coast region. Here, nature seems to have fur- nished the conditions of soil and climate best adapted to this kind of fruit. In the Rocky mountain and Alleghany mountain regions it is conceded that a rich loam, with a clay subsoil, is better for most varieties, while for some, a sandy loam is best. Generally, a good corn and potato soil, is good for small fruits. However, for certain kinds of fruits, especially raspberries, a north slope is better than a south slope because they reach a higher development, where the sun is not too hot. A considerable de- gree of humidity in the atmosphere is also favorable. The roots of small fruits do not extend so deeply into the ground as the roots of the larger trees like apples and pears, therefore require more moisture near the surface of the soil, and are more quickly affected by drouth. Fertilizers It is impossible to tell, without know- ing the character of the soil, what fer- tilizers should be used. Some soils are full of humus, and to add fertilizers of that character would be superfluous. Gen- erally, where there is an abundance of humus, there is a lack of some of the mineral elements necessary to a good crop. Other soils lack humus, because they are located in the arid or semi-arid regions, where vegetation has grown but little. These soils are generally rich in mineral elements, because the soils have not been leached by rains and floods. Some soils are disintegrated lime stone, and to add lime might injure them, while others are disintegrated sand stone or basalt. A soil analysis is necessary in order to know intelligently what to add and what fruits are best adapted to cer- tain conditions. 2—1 Qm ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Selection of Varieties There are several considerations which should determine the varieties of any particular species of fruit that should be grown. First. Selection in reference to soil adaptations. Certain varieties of fruits have become adapted to certain condi- tions. These conditions must be ob- served if the best results are to be reached. There are varieties better suited to sandy soils, others to clay, others to black loam, and a study of the nature and habits of the species, or variety of the species, before planting, may obviate much disappointment. Second. Selection of varieties in refer- ence to climate. The U. S. Pomological Society divides the United States and Canada into districts and gives a table of fruits recommended for each district. These recommendations have been made with a ^ood deal of care, and while they might be amended by the State Experi- ment Station, or by the experience of growers in any particular locality, they nevertheless have much merit, and it would hardly be considered prudent for the amateur fruit grower, to select his varieties, without consulting their tables. Third. Selection of varieties with ref- erence to altitude. There are places in the United States where 100 feet in al- titude will make as much difference in the temperature as 100 miles further north. Fourth. Selection with reference to frost. There are three conditions that tend to protect from frost. The first is al- titude, or elevation above the surround- ing country. This does not mean, neces- sarily a high altitude; but it means that in relation to the lands around it, there are lower lands, toward which the cold air will gravitate. The second influence affecting frost conditions is evaporation from large bodies of water. A body of water radiates heat less rapidly than the earth's surface. Therefore, in the autumn, the earth cools faster than the water. When the prevail- ing winds come from a large body of water as a sea, or lake, the atmosphere in the autumn is warmer from the water surface, thus preventing early autumn frosts. In the spring time, the earth ab- sorbs heat faster than the water surface, thus the breezes coming from the body of water are cooler, and the budding of fruit is delayed beyond the frost period. Ex- amples of this are seen on the Pacific coast, Michigan bordering on the lake, and other portions of country similarly situated. The third influence affecting frost is air drainage. To have good air drainage a tract should be so situated that there are no obstructions to the free passage of the cold air downward. A pocket will be frosty. Wherever the air tends to stag- nate there will be a tendency to frost Locations in gaps, gorges or canyons opening out into valleys or broader spaces afford good drainage as there is usually a movement of air forced by the pres- sure from the higher lands and the broad opening permits a free escape. This cir- culation of air tends to prevent the frost from forming. Fifth. Location with reference to mar- kets. It makes a great deal of difference, in handling tender and perishable fruits, whether they are hauled or shipped long or short distances. A long haul, over the ordinary country roads, often bruises and injures the fruits, so that when they reach the local market, they are unsale- able. A long distance shipment takes time, and in that time, the fruits are more or less damaged. Besides the extra expense of a long shipment there are dangers of delays, wrecks and other losses, that often cause trouble. Other things being equal, it is much better to have an orchard near the markets. For the diffei^ent varieties of bush fruits treated, see under their respective names . Blackberry, currant, gooseberry, huckle- berry, raspberry, G-EAT^VILLE LOWTIIER BY-PRODUCTS OF THE APPLE 667 By-Products of the Apple The utilization of cull and possible sur- plus apples is a matter of economic im- portance, and may, in many instances, mean a difference between profit and loss in the apple business. Just as the great packing concerns utilize every particle of their raw material and allow nothing to waste, so can the grower utilize his cull apples in many ways and check or prevent waste. There is a special use for every part of the apple. Seeds are used by large nurserymen for growing ap^ pie seedlings. The skin and core are preferred by the jelly makers on account of high sugar content and the coloring matter of the skin. The pulp or flesh is used for canning, evaporating, apple but- ter, apple paste and other products But the greatest value is in the juice. The maker of juice products strives first of all to get the greatest possible amount of juice from his apples. The amount of juice that the apples contain depends upon the condition of ripeness, as well as upon the variety. An over ripe apple is mealy and contains less juice than one in prime condition. Also cer- tain varieties such as Jonathan and "Wine- sap contain more juice than certain other varieties, such as Maiden Blush and Rome Beauty. A bushel of good cider apples in prime condition should contain from four to five gallons of juice. The amount of juice that is actually taken out depends largely upon the efficiency of the machinery. The large hydraulic presses with a pressure of from three to five hun- dred tons seldom get more than four gal- lons to the bushel, while the small hand presses seldom get more than two and one half gallons to the bushel. Just as the last strippings of a cow's milk is the richest part of her milk, so the juice that is left in the pomace after the first pressing is the richest of the juice. In fact after the first pressing by the best presses it is figured that from 25 to 40 per cent of the sugar content still remains in the pomace. We shall see as we proceed that the sugar content largely determines the quality of the juice, for most of the products made therefrom. The pomace therefore, is very often soaked up and repressed. The products of apple juice may be discussed under three main divisions as follows: Plain apple juice or sweet cider, reduced apple juice, and products of fermentation. S>\eet Cider It would seem that the simplest mar- ketable product of apple juice is sweet cider, which is the juice just as it comes from the press. It is a simple matter to make sweet cider, and it is a market- able product for which there is a good demand. But it is not such a simple mat- ter to keep cider sweet, without in some way impairing its quality. In fact this difficulty of properly preserving sweet cid- er has undoubtedly been the greatest bar- rier to the proper development of the sweet cider business, and likewise the greatest barrier to satisfying the demands of a sweet cider loving public. Difficulty of Keeping Cider Sweet In order to understand something of the cause of the difficulty of keeping cider sweet, it is necessary for us to know something of the composition of apple juice, the processes of fermenta- tion and the organisms which cause fermentation. This will be explained more fully in discussing the products of fermentation. It is only necessary here to explain that certain minute organisms enter the juice immediately upon its be- ing exposed to the atmosphere. Un- der ordinary conditions these organisms develop and multiply rapidly and in doing so transform the sugar of the juice into alcohol. When the formation of alcohol has begun still other organisms enter and change the alcohol into acetic acid. It can be readily seen then that the prob- lem which the sweet cider man has to solve is the controlling or stopping of the work of these organisms. The general practice for many years has been the use of such chemical pre- servatives as benzoate of soda, boric acid and salicilic acid. Benzoate of soda is undoubtedly the preservative that is in most general use, and probably the one that gives best results, so far as chemicals 668 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE are concerned. But even benzoate of soda comes far from giving entire satis- faction. Its use impairs the quality of the juice and does not completely prevent fermentation. Its use is limited by the pure food laws to 1/10 of 1 per cent. Recent investigations by the United States Department of Agriculture have proven the feasibility of other and better methods of preserving sweet cider. The first of these is the cold storage method. It is well known that these ferment or- ganisms do not thrive at a low tempera- ture. Under this method the cider is taken immediately from the press and cooled rapidly to 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and is then held in storage at that temperature. In the Government tests* the juice was held in this way for from 36 to 70 days without noticeable fermen- tation and was held for from 90 days to 125 days before being considered "hard" or "sour." Another method tried out by the Gov- ernment and which bids fair to come into general use is that of sterilization or pasteurization. By pasteurization we mean heating the juice to a temperature that will kill any of the ferment organ- isms which may be present. * It was found that to slowly heat the juice to the required temperature gave it a de- cidedly cooked taste. But a Pasteurizer was devised by which the desired temp- erature was obtained very quickly, under which condition the cooked flavor is scarcely noticeable. Tlje Pasteurizer used for this purpose consists of a steam box in which is a coil of pipe. The juice is passed through this coil and can be taken out at any desired temperature, depending upon the rate of flow. It is heated up to 170 de- grees Fahrenheit and put at once into sterilized containers, care being taken to avoid any possibility of contamination. It must be remembered that hot juice put into a barrel or other container will shrink upon cooling and thus leave a space at the top of the container. For *Ref. Cir. No. 48, Bureau of Chemistry, U, S. Department of Agriculture. *Note, Bui. No. 118, Bureau of Chemistry, iJ. S. Department of Agriculture. this reason the containers are not bung- ed tightly until the juice has cooled. A small hole is bored in the bung. This hole is stuffed with cotton which has been previously soaked in alcohol, so that the air that passes through the cotton is sterilized. When the juice has cool- ed a wooden skewer which has first been sterilized is driven into the hole and sawed off on top. Cider preserved in this way should re- main sound and sweet indefinitely. In the experiments carried on by the Gov- ernment the cider was perfectly sound and sweet at the end of six months. Apple juice may be put upon the mar- ket in reduced forms. Cider boiled down to one-fifth of its original bulk has almost the density of syrup. This product is used in making pies, sauces, apple but- ter and in other cooking. It finds ready sale at good prices in the Eastern mar- kets. Apple juice reduced to one-seventh or one-eighth its original bulk becomes jel- ly. Special apparatus for reducing apple juice rapidly is to be had on the open market. We are now ready to discuss some of the ferments and the products of fer- mentation. It has been said above that when apple juice is exposed to the air in a moderate temperature fermentation begins almost immediately. Fermenta- tion starts in because certain minute yeast cells which are nearly everywhere have entered the juice and have found an ideal place for their development and multiplication. On this development and multiplication they are doing certain work. They are changing the sugar of the juice into carbon dioxide and alcohol remains in the juice. After fermentation has started but is not yet complete we have what we call "hard cider." By the term "dry cider," or "apple wine," we mean cider that has completed the alco- holic ferment, or, in other words, cider in which all the sugar has been turned into alcohol. But cider or wine making is not such a simple matter as it might appear. As soon as the alcoholic ferment has begun, BY-PRODUCTS OF THE APPLE 669 if the juice is still exposed to the atmo- spliere, other ferments which are injuri- ous or destructive to the making of good wine are bound to enter. The thing of primary importance to the cider or wine maker then is avoiding contamination of his liquor. The juice as it comes from the press is put at once into barrels which have been thoroughly steamed or scalded. The barrel is filled only about three-quarters full to avoid overflowing during the period of tumultuous fermentation. When the juice has been put into the barrel a fermentation funnel is imme- diately put into the bung and tightly sealed around the edge of the bunghole with parafiine or vaseline. A fermentation funnel is so arranged that the gases from within the barrel escape, but the air from without cannot enter. In recent years some of the ferment yeasts have been separated into many varieties and pure cultures made of these varieties. It has been found that fermen- tation may be hastened by the use of cer- tain pure culture yeasts, and also that the flavor of the wine depends largely upon the variety of yeast used. After fermentation has been completed the cider is drawn off from the top into freshly sterilized containers, leaving the lees and sediment in the bottom of the old containers. The new containers are tightly bunged and sealed and stored in the cellar ready for use. Perhaps the product of apple juice which is most extensively made in this country at the present time is vinegar. In the manufacture of vinegar, as in the apple industry itself, quality is of first importance. The element of quality in vinegar is largely determined by the per cent of acetic acid. The law in most states requires vinegar to test from four to four and one-half per cent acetic acid. Much of the vinegar made on the farms, in a haphazard way, not only will not stand this test but, on account of decom- position or other cause, is unfit for use, and does not find a ready market. On the other hand a recent writer on the subject says: "Apple cider vinegar is demanded by the trade. There is not one-tenth enough pure cider vinegar made in this country today to supply the ever-increasing de- mand." To make a good product the vinegar maker must first have pure apple juice which must test not less than nine per cent sugar; 10 per cent to 12 per cent is much better. It is upon this sugar con- tent of the juice and its subsequent chem- ical changes from sugar to alcohol and from alcohol to acetic acid that the man- ufacture of vinegar depends. (1) Sugar =AlcoholH-Carbon Dioxide Q6jji2o^=2C=^H^O^+2CO^ [Water (2) Alcohol +Oxygen=Acetic Acid-f C^'H^O +0 =C^H*0^+H20 Theoretically, to get a four per cent acid vinegar requires a cider containing four per cent alcohol. And to get a cider containing four per cent alcohol we must have a juice containing eight per cent sugar. In practice it is best to leave a little margin above these figures to allow for incomplete chemical change or waste. The vinegar maker therefore strives to get a juice as rich as possible in sugar content. The sugar content of the juice depends upon the conditions of ripeness of the apples as well as upon the variety. While an apple that is underripe has not yet changed its starch to sugar, an apple that is overripe has in some peculiar man- ner lost some of its saccharine substance. An apple must therefore be in prime con- dition of ripeness to show highest sugar content of juice. Many tests of varieties have been made, and published lists of the sugar content of different varieties are to be had. It is a simple matter for anyone to make this test with a saccharometer. In prac- tice, however, the vinegar maker seldom has the chance to select his varieties, but must take a mixture of the varieties as they run. It is enough here to say that the average mixture of varieties, if in good condition, will test sufficiently high, and that our favored winesaps and Jonathans are both high-testing varieties. 670 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE The minute organisms that are respons- ible for changing the sugar content of apple juice to the acetic acid of vinegar require special conditions in order to thrive and do their work. The practice of modern vinegar making has been greatly facilitated by a knowledge of the habits and requirements of these organ- isms, and a proper manipulation of the juice to fill these requirements. The yeast plant, which, as has been stated above, is responsible for the alcoholic ferment, thrives best in a temperature of 75 de- grees to 85 degrees Fahrenheit. If the storage room be kept at this temperature the alcoholic ferment should be com- pleted in about four weeks. Special yeast cultures are sometimes used to hasten the process. The acetic ferment, or the bacteria, that are responsible for the chemical change of alcohol to acetic acid require oxygen in order to thrive and to do their work, and the cider must therefore come in contact with the atmosphere. Since only the sur- face of the cider in a barrel comes in contact with the air it is only upon the surface that the acetic ferment works. For this reason the old system of allow- ing the cider to stand in barrels until it becomes vinegar requires a period of many months, usually about two years. The modern vinegar maker hastens matters by passing his cider through a "generator." A "generator" is a tall tank having a perforated false bottom some eight to ten inches from the real bottom, and a false head a few inches from the top of the staves. The space between the false bottom and the false head is filled with rattan or beachwood shavings, or some other suitable material. Just above the false head the cider is fed into a little trough, which automatically dumps and spreads the cider over the perforated head. This allows it to trickle down through the shavings, thus exposing every drop to the air. In this way the same process which requires two years in the barrels is accomplished in a single day. However, for the average orchard man the old barrel process is still prob- ably the most practical. Even this pro- cess may be very much shortened by a proper manipulation of the cider in the barrels. It may be racked off into new barrels frequently and in that way thor- oughly stirred and exposed to the oxygen of the atmosphere. The ideal temperature for the acetic ferment is about 86 degrees Fahrenheit. That is the bacteria is most active at this temperature and becomes less active as it varies either way from this. At 104 degrees Fahrenheit their action ceases entirely. Upon completion of the vinegar process the vinegar maker takes every precaution to check further chemical change or de- composition. He puts the finished product in pure, clean, barrels carefully guarding against the presence of vinegar eels or other foreign matter. The barrels are then tightly bunged and his product is ready for the market. P. S. Dablingtojt, District Ilorticnltnral Inspector. Cabbages The parent from which the variety of cabbages in common use has sprung is supposed to be the wild sea cabbage (Brassica oleracea), a plant found near the seacoast of various parts of England and continental Europe. The cultivated varieties vary greatly from the original type, but present striking similarities amongst themselves. There are some points however, in which the wild and the cultivated are nearly alike and these are in the flower seed pod and seed. Cabbages contain a very small per cent of nitrogenous compounds as compared with most articles of food. An analysis when cooked will show that they genei*- ally contain chemical constituents as fol- lows: Water, 97.4 per cent; fat, 0.1 per cent; carbohydrate, 0.4 per cent; mineral matter, 0.1 per cent; nitrogenous matter, 0.6 per cent; cellulose, 1.3 per cent. They are said to possess anti-scorbutic proper- ties. Apart from that, the analysis shows that they have very little food value. The Soil Cabbages require a deep rich soil, where they can be made to grow rapidly CABBAGES 671 and be crisp and tender. Almost any- good soil that will grow corn, vegetables and other crops successfully will grow cabbages; but with some vegetables it is possible to get the soil too rich while with cabbages there is little danger. The Pacific Northwest is well adapted to the growing of cabbages, and in the low lands of the eastern side of the Cascade moun- tains, where irrigation is practiced and the alkali is strong, excellent cabbages can be grown on land too strong in alkali for fruit trees. However, it must not be supposed that all alkali soils would be good for cabbages; for we have seen the alkali so strong that nothing would grow. We only wish to suggest that land some- times considered waste, because it will not successfully grow fruit trees or hay, may be utilized for cabbages. For an early crop the seed should be sown in hotbeds, early in the spring, and the plants set in rows in the field or garden as soon as the danger of frost is over. The plants are not tender, and will stand considerable cold, so that it is not necessary to exercise the same care as in case of beans, tomatoes, or some other garden plants. For a late crop the seed may be planted in the open, and the plants set almost any time during the summer. It is not uncommon, in the milder climates, to set the plants as late as September, and allow them to stand in the field as late as December, This method is practiced by many growers, in order to avoid the pests that are much more destructive during the summer than in the autumn. Setting the Plants The plants should be set in rows, about three feet apart, so that it is easy to cul- ' •^.'■^'j Fig. 1. The Plant on the Left Is Set Too Shallow. The stem is exposed to the sxm and freezes. The plant on the right is set the proper depth in the soil. tivate between them. Some practice the method of cross cultivation, in which case the plants have to be set in squares about three feet each way, and the rows both longitudinal and transverse. Plants should be set in the evening, and the ground about them well watered, so as to keep the roots wet and the plant sappy during the next day, until the little ten- der root hairs begin their work of supply. If plants are not set during the evening, then they should be covered with a leaf, or paper, or something to protect them from the sun. The stem of the plant should be set deeply enough so that the leaves are within an inch or so from the surface of the ground. It is better to set the stem in the earth up to the leaves than to leave too much of it exposed, as is often done. Varieties Recommended for the Inland Empire section of Oregon, Washington and Idaho. Extra Early Express (Burpee), Early Jersey Wakefield (Burpee), Early Winig- stadt (Burpee), Surehead (Burpee), American Drumhead Savoy (Henderson). On the question of varieties for the South we quote from C. C. Newman, South Carolina Agricultural College. "Contrary to the general opinion, the early maturing varieties are better suited for winter use in the South than the late varieties. If the late varieties are plant- ed at the usual time in the spring, they will mature before fall, and if planted in late summer, they will not mature until midwinter, and are liable to be seriously injured before they are ready to be har- vested. In the mountain section where the summers are not too severe, the late varieties, set out in May and June, mature during the months of October and No- vember. "We have tested practically all the varieties of cabbages in our trial grounds for the last five years, and the Charleston Wakefield, Early Summer Succession, and Late Flat Dutch, have given best results for fall and winter use, when planted to the field the first week in August. There are, of course, a large number of varieties that will produce fine fall cabbages, but 672 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the three mentioned seem to be about the best for this section o? the country. The two first named varieties will mature during October and November, and the Succession will form large solid heads by the middle of December. The late Drum- head Savoy will probably endure more cold after heading than any of the smooth leafed varieties, and is, therefore, very desirable for a very late winter cabbage. It is highly recommended for home use and for local markets. Late Flat Dutch is an excellent variety to follow Succes- sion, Cabbage here will endure a temp- erature of 26 degrees without injury. "Cabbage seed sown in an unprotected bed about October 1st will produce nice, stocky plants for transplanting to the field in early spring. Seed sown at this time will make short, stocky plants, which will head from May to July, according to the earliness of the variety. Seed sown in the open ground about the first of September will usually make too much growth before cold weather, and are liable to run to seed when transplanted in the spring, without forming heads. Seed sown in protected frames early in January will be ready for transplanting to the field early in March. Before trans- planting, these plants should be gradually hardened ofC by exposing them to the cool weather and allowing the bed to become moderately dry. Cabbage plants set to the field in October will not be injured to any great extent, even during the coldest weather. The plants will make consid- erable growth during October and Novem- ber, but from the last of December to the last of February little growth will take place. After the first of March the plants begin to grow more rapidly, and by the first of Aprxl they will begin to form heads. When the plants are set out too early in the fall, they will form small heads by the middle of December, and a large per cent of the plants will run to seed in the spring, without forming mar- ketable heads. "The following table gives some idea as to what might be expected from an acre of fall cabbages: Year 1908 Per cent. Seed Plants Per cent. When Average of plants Yield Variety Planted set to field of plants died matured Weight that headed per acre Charleston Wakefield June 3d Aug. 15 5% Nov. 1 3 lbs. 95% 12,630 lbs. to Dec. 5 Henderson's Suceess'n June 3d Aug. 15 6% Nov. 10 6M lbs. 92% 23,490 lbs. to Jan. 1 Late Flat Dutch June 3d Aug. 15 8% Nov. 25 to Jan. 15 6 lbs. 85% 18,480 lbs. "The soil on which these cabbages were grown would produce about 40 bushels corn per acre. "Ten two-horse loads of stable manure was applied broadcast per acre, and the soil was then plowed eight inches deep with a two-horse turn plow. One thou- sand pounds of fertilizer, analyzing eight per cent phosphorous acid, four per cent nitrogen, and seven per cent potash, was then applied broadcast, and mixed with the soil with an Acme harrow." Harvesting the Crop When mature, if cabbages are grown for the markets, they are generally pulled, some of the outer leaves taken off, the stems cut off, and they are then crated for shipment. If they are grown for home use, they are treated in like man- ner and stored in a cool place, the nearer to the freezing point the better. Some- times the farmer pulls his cabbage late in the autumn or early in the winter, and places them in trenches with the stems CABBAGES— CABBAGE DISEASES 673 Flff 2 Two Heads of Succession Cabbage Cut From the Field After Having Withstood a l^lg. z. -Lwo neaub Temperature of 20 Degrees. upward, throwing a little dirt over them and taking them out as they are needed for use. When the winters are mild, we have known cabbages left in the field all winter to be in fairly good condition the following spring. Granville Lowther Wide Variation in Price of Cabbage Of the 40 different agricultural prod- ucts, the prices of which are obtained monthly by the department of agriculture, cabbage varies most widely in price. For the entire United States the average price paid to producers on January 15 was about $1.26 per 100 pounds. This aver- age is based upon reports of correspond- ents from 778 towns, representing every state of the Union. The lowest average for any state is 24 cents per 100 pounds for New York. The highest average is $3.33 per 100 pounds for Alabama. The average of 24 cents per 100 pounds in New York is based upon reports from 23 towns, eight of which returned 15 cents per 100 as the average; no quotation was above 50 cents per 100 pounds. In the adjoining state, Pennsylvania, the aver- age price was about $1.60 per 100 pounds, not one of the 23 reports received being under $1 per 100 pounds. Here is an average difference of $1.36 per 100 pounds in the average price paid to producers of cabbage in two adjoining states. Crop Reporter, January 1, 1913. Cabbage Methods of Propagation in Alaska. See Alaska. For Propagation in the Gulf States see Ala'bama. CABBAGE DISEASES Black Leg or Phoma Wilt Phoma oleracea F. D. Bailey This is a serious disease of cabbage and cauliflower. Though it has only re- cently been reported in the United States, it has already become widely distributed. In Ohio many fields have been seriously damaged, in some, indeed, the disease was so severe that no marketable cabbage were cut. It is supposed that this dis- ease was introduced from Europe where it has caused severe losses, especially in France, Germany and Holland. It has been known in Australia for a number of years and is thought to be the most seri- ous disease affecting cauliflower and cab- bage in that country. This disease has been found in Oregon, during the season of 1912, in Jackson and Wallowa counties. In the latter, where it probably appeared the previous year, it is already causing alarm. It is very probable that the fun- gus may be introduced on seed, and it is interesting and possibly significant to note that the Wallowa grower purchased his seed from Illinois the year he first observed the disease. 674 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Symptoms The most characteristic symptom of this disease is the blackening and decay of the stem close to the surface of the ground. (Pig. 1.) Cankered areas are produced which sometimes completely girdle the stem and the plant is often broken over by the wind. The outer leaves of affected plants are bluish red in color, a characteristic which remains until the plant dies. Plants may be at- tacked at any time in their growth, more often, however, when they are about one- half grown. Other symptoms are spots on stem and leaves, in which numerous very small black specks can be seen. A wilting, in which the leaves droop instead of falling off, is frequently observed in diseased plants. Cause The fungus which causes black leg of cabbage and cauliflower is known techni- Ot<-.1E.;tui "3 Co-' Fig. 1. Black Leg of Cabbage. The stem is often girdled near the surface of the ground. cally as Phoma oleracea. It enters the plant at some place near the surface of the ground, probably in wounds made by insects. Leaf infection may also take place. Prom these infected spots the fungus spreads, killing the plant tissues and shutting off the food supply from other parts. It comes to the surface to form the pycnidia or small black specks in which great numbers of minute spores are produced. These spores are forced to the surface and are carried by wind, water, insects or other agencies, to start new infection. Many seedlings are in- fected at planting time. If an occasional diseased seedling is handled, spores will be transmitted to the hands and later to healthy plants. The disease is frequently found closely associated with the wounds and injuries of insects, though infection may take place without aid from this source. Treatment The black leg organism is doubtless car- ried over in the stems and leaves of old decaying plants. It is a fungus capable of living in the soil, but one that can be controlled if the proper measures are con- stantly employed. The greatest care should be taken to keep the seed bed free from it, thus making certain that it does not become distributed over the fields. The recommendation is made in Ohio that the seed beds be sprinkled with 4-4-50 Bordeaux at the time of planting, using one gallon of the mixture to each 10 square feet. This operation should be re- peated two weeks before transplanting and again just before transplanting. This method has proven effective in holding the disease in check. It is better to select clean ground for the seed bed each year and disinfect the seed to be used. A safe treatment for cabbage and cauliflower seed is to use a solution of formalin, one- fourth pint in seven gallons of water, allow them to soak for 15 minutes, rinse in clean water and spread out to dry. When the disease appears in the field the affected plants should be removed and burned. The truck growers of the Northwest may well be on the lookout for this dis- CABBAGE DISEASES 675 ease. It must be dealt with intelligently from the first, for, once established, the disease is a difficult one to control. Brown or Black Rot Bacterium campestre (Pam) Erw. Sm. Is a serious disease of these two cruci- fers, and attacks others of the family, including turnips. It is a veritable scourge to the cabbage growers of Ohio and other states. Smith (Farmers* Bui. 68, U. S. D. A.) has published concerning it and has attributed the disease to a specific germ. The diseased heads may be dwarfed, in portions rotted, and brown colors will appear in the woody layers of the plant, including the stem. Badly dis- eased heads emit a penetrating and offens- ive odor. The losses from the brown rot have been very large and specific reme- dies cannot be stated. The author quoted sums up the subject of treatment in one word — prevention. The measures recom- mended are — plant on new land and only from healthy seed beds; avoid succession of the same crops; avoid stable manure and give preference to artificial fertilizers to escape possible infection through the manure. Prevent animals from cropping in diseased fields. Clean tools by scour- ing bright after use in infected soil. Fight the cabbage insects, since these inoculate healthy plants with the disease. Removal of badly affected plants, or newly infected leaves, at intervals, and subsequent burn- ing or deep pitting of this refuse may aid in checking brown rot. Destroy all mustard weeds. The water pores of the cabbage are large, as is evidenced by the great amount of water which collects on the outside of the leaves under certain conditions, which makes the cabbage quite suscept- ible to this form of disease. A. D. Selby, Wooster, Ohio. Club Root Plasmodiophora hrassicae F. D. Bailey This is a destructive root disease of crucifers attacking, among the cultivated crops, the cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, etc. It is caused by a very minute or- ganism belonging to the group Myxo- mycetes, commonly referred to as the slime moulds. The technical name of the organism causing this disease is Plasmo- diophora drassicae. This disease occurs in various sections of the Northwest, but cannot be considered to be a very common trouble. The knotty swellings or club- shaped enlargements (Fig. 1) resulting ^TicluX^ StiJ^. Fij?. 1. Cabbage Plant Affected With Club Root. from the invasion of roots by this fungus prevent the normal growth of head or root and gradually kill the plant. When once established in the soil, the fungus will live for several years. Cer- tain weeds, shepherd's purse and hedge mustard, are good hosts and doubtless furnish opportunity for the disease to perpetuate itself and to spread. Control Care must be taken to keep the seed beds clean. Destroy all refuse from dis- eased plants. Do not allow such material to get into the compost heap. Practice rotation with crops not included in this group of plants, and keep the weeds down. 676 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE pi, M : Fig. 2. Club Root on Turnip. Experiments have shown that an appli- cation of lime at the rate of about 100 bushels per acre when the land is plowed in the spring is a reliable method of con- trol. Damping Off Caused by soil fungi of several varie- ties. The young plants slough off at the ground. The trouble occurs when they are crowded or conditions are too moist. Surface soil should be given a chance to dry. Mainly a seed bed trouble. Downy Mildew, Leaf Blight and White Rust Occur upon plants of the mustard family, including the cabbage. If treatment seems necessary use Bor- deaux mixture. Fnsarium Wilt This trouble has become very destruc- tive in the cabbage growing sections of the Eastern states and bids fair to rank with black rot in importance. It causes a yellowing and wilting of the plants. The only remedy suggested is the breed- ing of resistant stocks. Root Rot, Stem Rot, Rhizoctonia Due to the same fungus which attacks the potato. It would seem that general sanitary measures and rotation is the only practicable remedy. Bibliography for Cabbage Diseases and Diseases of Crucifers Generally 1898. Vermont Experiment Station Bulletin No. 66. 1911. Virginia Polytechnic Institute Bulletin No. 191. 1911. Ohio Experiment Station Bulle- tin No. 228. 1912. United States Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 488. Literature on Diseases of Cole Crops Bulletins and Reports The following literature was complied by the Cornell station in Bulletin No. 292.— Ed. Soft Rot, or Stump Rot Bacillus carotovorus Jones 1901 — A soft rot of carrot and other vegetables.— L. R. Jones (Vt. Rpt. 13 [1900], pp. 299-332, figs. 10). 1904 — A bacterial disease of the cauli- flower and allied plants.— F. C. Harrison (Ont. Agr. Sta. Bui. 137, pp. 1-28, figs. 18). 1909 — The bacterial soft rots of certain vegetables. I.— H. A. Harding, W. J. Morse and L. R. Jones (N. Y. State Tech. Bui. 11, pp. 251-368, figs. 10). Black Rot Pseudomonas campestris, Pammel, Erw. Smith 1890 — A bacterial disease of cabbage. — H. Carman (Ky. Rpt. 3, pp. 43-46). 1898 — A bacterial rot of cabbage and allied plants.— H. L. Russell (Wis. Bui. 65, p. 39, figs. 12). 1898 — A bacterial disease of cabbage and allied plants.— H. L. Russell (U. S. D. A. Office Exp. Stas., Bui. 49, pp. 86-89). 1898— Black rot of the cabbage.— E. F. Smith (U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 68, p. 22). 1904 — Combating the black rot of cab- bage by the removal of affected leaves. — F. C. Stewart and H. A. Harding (N. Y. State Bui. 232, pp. 43-65, pis. 2). 1904 — Vitality of the cabbage black rot germ on cabbage seed. — H. A. Harding, F. C. Stewart and M. J. Prucha (N. Y. State Bui. 251, pp. 177-194). CABBAGE DISEASES— CABBAGE PESTS 67' 1905 — Some bacterial diseases of plants prevalent in Michigan. — ^W. G. Sackett (Mich. Bui. 230, pp. 213-216, figs. 2). 1909 — Some bacterial diseases of plants. — W. G. Sackett (Colo. Bui. 138, pp. IS- IS). Clul) Root Plasmodiophora 'brassicae Wor. 1893 — Club root of cabbage and its al- lies.— B. D. Halsted (N. J. Bui. 98, p. 16, figs. 13). 1893 — Injurious insects and diseases of plants, with remedial measures. — ^W. B. Alwood (Va. Bui. 24, p. 12). 1896 — Prevention of cabbage club root. — F. C. Stewart (N. Y. State Rpt. 1895, pp. 525-529). 1898 — Susceptibility of varieties of tur- nips to club root; experiments with cab- bages, etc. — ^B. D. Halsted (N. J. Rpt. 1897, pp. 270-276, fig. 1). 1898 — Club root and black rot. — ^L. R. Jones (Vt. Bui. 66, pp. 3-12, figs. 5). 1907 — Some important plant diseases of Washington. — W. H. Lawrence (Wash. Bui. 83, pp. 6-9, fig. 1). Boot Kot or Stem Rot Gorticium vagum B. & C. var. Bolani Burt. (BTiizoctonia) 1899 — Three important fungous dis- eases of the sugar beet. — B. M, Duggar (N. T. Cornell Bui. 163, pp. 339-352, 361, pis. 3, figs. 5). 1900 — The rotting of greenhouse let- tuce.— G. E. Stone and R. E. Smith (Mass. Bui. 69, pp. 16, 17, 39, figs. 3). 1901 — ^The sterile fungus Rhizoctonia. — B. M. Duggar and P. C. Stewart (N*. Y. Cornell Bui. 186, pp. 27, figs. 9). [Ibid., N. Y. State Bui. 186.] 1904— Potato failures.— F. M. Rolfs (Colo. Bui. 91, pp. 33). 1905— Rhizoctonia (Rosette). — G. P. Clinton (Conn. Rpt. 1904, pp. 325-326, pi. 1, figs. 3). Downy ffiMew of Criicifers Peronospora parasitica (Pers.) DeBary 1891— Cabbage.— B. D. Halsted (N. J. Rpt 1890, p. 349). White "Rusf of Cnicifers Oystopus Candidas (Pers.) Lev. 1901 — The white mould of radish.— B. D. Halsted (N. J. Rpt 1900, pp. 462, 463, pi. 1). Bulletins covering generally the treat- ment of cabbage diseases: 1904 — Cabbage diseases and insects. — J. B. S. Norton and T. B. Symons (Md. Circ. Bui. 58, pp. 10, figs. 6). 1909 — The control of malnutrition dis- eases of truck crops. — ^L. L. Harter (Va. Truck Sta. Bui. 1, pp. 4-16, figs. 4). 1910 — ^Diseases of garden crops and their control.— N. J. Giddings (W. Va. Bui. 123, pp. 18, pis. 5). 1910 — A brief handbook of the diseases of cultivated plants in Ohio.— A. D. Selby (Ohio Bui. 214, pp. 307-456+vii, figs. 106). 1911 — California plant diseases. — ^R. B. Smith and E. H. Smith (Cal. Exp. Sta. Bui. 218). CABBAGE PESTS Cabbage Aphis. See Aphids; also Cad- bage Louse, this section. CabTbage Cnrcnlio Geutorhynchus rapae. Gyle. Feeds upon the edge of the leaf. Not serious as yet and not in the Northwest so far as known. Cabbage Hair Worm Mermis aWicans Deising Looks like a piece of basting thread. White in color, coiled or coiling and un- coiling or crawling on cabbage heads. From two to nine inches long. Exaggerated reports of poisonings from the presence of this worm came from the South some years ago. The worm is entirely harmless. Reference Bu. Ento, Circ. No. ^2j Revised. Cabbage Louse Aphis 'brassicae Linn. General Appearance Dark greenish yellow to brownish, with dark transverse bands across the abdo- mens of some individuals. All covered with a fine white powder, which gives them a silvery or frosted appearance. Life History The lice appear with the first plants in the spring and increase with such rapid- ity as to soon almost entirely cover the host. This condition prevails throughout the early summer, after which the para- sites begin to reduce their numbers. It is a disgusting pest on cabbage, cauli- flower and brussels sprouts. Food Plants All members of the Gruciferae includ- ing cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, mustard, radish, etc. 678 E3NCYCLOPE3DIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ]!fatTiral Enemies The ladybird beetles, H%ppodamia con- vergens, MegiUa maculata and Goccinella caUfornica, prey to some extent upon this pest. The real check, however, is the in- ternal parasite, Diaeretus californicus Baker. E. 0. EiSsiG CaTbha^e and Radish Maggot PhorHa l)ras$icae Bauche A. L. LOVETT This insect is considered a very serious pest throughout the Pacific Northwest, or wherever cabbages and radishes are grown. In the truck crop regions, where these crops are grown over considerable areas and for a period of years on the same soil, the pest is especially serious. Flants Attacked Besides attacking the cabbage and rad- ish, this maggot feeds on the turnip, caul- iflower, celery, rape, kale, and a variety of the closely allied Cruciferiae. It is also found about the roots of some of the wild plants of this group, including mus- tard and radish. Description The Larva. — It is as a larva that the cabbage maggot is injurious and hence best known to the grower. At this stage It is a footless grub or maggot (see Fig. 1), waxy white or yellowish in color. The Or* MfSf^^ Fig. 1. The Cabbage Maggot {PJiorlia Iras- svcae), a, adult fly; b, got; c, puparium; d, tbe egg (much enlarged). (Original) body is cylindrical, ending bluntly be- hind and tapering to a point at the ce^ phalic end. When mature, it measures about .32 of an inch in length. The Pwpa.— The pupal or resting stage of the cabbage maggot is passed in the soil about the roots of the infested plant. Exceptions to this rule occur in the forms which assume the aerial habit and in the few which pupate in their burrows in the root. The pupa consists of a small brown case or puparium some two-tenths of an inch in length, elliptical-ovate in form and without the ability to move. The Adult — ^The adult insect varies considerably from the maggot that de- stroys the plant. It is a fly which ap- pears to the ordinary observer not unlike the common house fly. It is con- siderably smaller in size, however, and when at rest the wings extend a greater distance back of the abdomen and overlap tnore. The Egg is really very small, measur- ing only .04 of an inch in length. It is white, however, and by the keen observer may be readily seen lying on the soil close to the stem of the host plant. Life History This insect passes the winter as larvae and pupae in and about the roots of their hosts. Possibly some of them pass the o^a^ Su Fig. 2. The Cabbage Maggot. Root of wild mustard showing larvae, pupae and injury. CABBAGE PESTS 679 Fig. 8. The Cabbage Maggot. Radish showing egg. winter also as adult flies, hibernating in sheltered nooks about the field and in outbuildings. As the warm days of spring advance, the flies emerge from their hibernating quarters and also from the pupal cases in the soil, and seek their host plants for the purpose of egg deposi- tion. The eggs are deposited close about the plant, the female fly working herself down below the surface, if the soil will permit, and placing the egg right against the plant root (see Pig. 3). The eggs are often placed above ground on leaves or developing buds. The eggs hatch in from four to ten days, depending on the tem- perature, and the young larvae commence at once to burrow into the tender plant (see Pig. 2). The maggots reach matur- ity in a month to six weeks, pupate and emerge soon after as adult flies. From Pig. 4. J Cabbage Maggot Adult. — Photo by Essig. this time on until late fall one may usu- ally find both larvae and pupae in the soil. As the season advances, a portion of the maggots assume an aerial habit. This is especially true in the fields when early cabbage has been harvested and where the stumps left standing have put out adventitious buds. The flies deposit eggs in these tender buds and the mag- gots burrow into the midribs of the leaves and into the core of the shoots. Control Measures Possibly for no other group of insects will one find such a variety of remedial measures suggested as for the root mag- gots, nor more diverse results following their application. No single remedial measure will ordinarily afford satisfac- tory relief. Combinations of preventive and remedial measures are best. A single application of any solution will seldom suffice; hence the crop should be treated again when the effect of the previous treatment is diminished. Preventives Plowing of the infested fields as soon as the crop is removed will materially lessen next year's brood. The soil should be turned to a depth of four inches or more. Destruction of Stumps. — ^The old stumps in the field or the refuse root crop in the soil should be destroyed. Such materials furnish ideal conditions for the develop- ment of thir^ pest. Rotation of Crops. — ^Where conditions will permit, rotate the crops so that plants of the family Cruciferae occupy the same soil but a single season. The flies are weak fliers and do not as a usual thing travel far to their hosts. Screening Seed Beds. — Cabbage plants yet in the seed beds are often infested with this pest, and the maggots are car- ried with the plants when they are trans- ferred to the field. Mr. Schoene* has studied the value of screening cabbage seed beds and the following discussion is based on his bulletin on this subject. For early settings of cabbage, where the product usually brings a fancy price on ♦ Schoene, W. ,T., New York Agricultural Ex- oeriment Station, 1911, Bulletin 334. 680 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the market, screening the seed beds pays very well and appears practical, in fact, whenever the crop is valuable. From the fragmentary data at hand, it appears that the period of the seedling growth cheeks up very closely with the time when the early emerging adults of the cabbage maggot commence their egg deposition. The usual method is to construct about the bed a frame of six to ten-inch boards placed on edge, well supported and braced, and with cross wires extending over the top to hold up the cloth. Over this frame is stretched cheesecloth, pref- erably a grade of about 20 threads to the inch. These frames may be used for sev- eral years. The following facts are es- tablished concerning their use for cab- bage seed beds. 1. If the cheesecloth is carefully at- tached and the frame is tight, injuries by the maggot may be entirely prevented. 2. The work of the flea beetles can be prevented partially or wholly, depending on the grade of cheesecloth employed. 3. The screen conserves the moisture and prevents baking of the soil between seeding time and that period when plants may be cultivated. 4. Plants raised under cloth grow faster during moist seasons and attain the size desirable for transplanting about ten d^ys or two weeks sooner than plants grown in the open. 5. The extra cost of screening plants ranges from six to 20 cents per 1,000. In the opinion of many this cost is met in the first saving of seed. 6. The screened plants are more ten- der than those not screened, but if the cover is removed a week before trans- planting the seedlings will become suffi- ciently hardened. The seed bed should by all means be located on a fertile, well drained soil where there can be no accumulation of water or washing under the frames by rain. As it is considerable work to re- move the frame to cultivate, see to it ■that the soil is in good condition and free jfrom weed seed. Mand JPicJcing. — ^While a laborious un- dertaking, is often employed on small fields of cabbage. The plants ai'e simply pulled up, the roots examined carefully for eggs or maggots, and the plant reset. This practice may often be employed to advantage when seedlings are transferred to the field. This method is not practical for radishes or turnips. The Tarred Felt Discs. — The tarred felt discs are used for the protection of cab- bage and cauliflower only, the idea here being to prevent the adult female fly from depositing eggs. No better description of the discs or their use can be given than is found in the original description by W. H. Goff, who perfected this treatment in 1898. The description is transcribed from Circular 63 of the Bureau of En- tomology. The cards are cut in a hexagonal form in order to better economize the material and a thinner grade of tarred paper than the ordinary roofing felt is used, as it is not only cheaper, but being more flexible, the cards made from it are more readily placed about the plant without being torn. The blade of the tool, which should be made by an expert blacksmith, is formed from a band of steel, bent in the form of a half hexagon, and then taking an acute angle, reaches nearly to the center. The part making the star-shaped cut is formed from a separate piece of steel, so attached to the handle as to make a close joint with the blade. The latter is beveled from the outside all around, so that by remov- ing the part making the star-shaped cut, the edge may be ground on a grindstone. It is important that the angles in the blade be made perfect, and that its out- line represents an exact half hexagon. To use the tool, place the tarred paper on the end of a section of a log or piece of timber and first cut the lower edge into notches, using only one angle of the tool. Then commence at the left side, and nlace the blade as indicated by the dotted lines, and strike at the end of the handle with a light mallet and a complete card is made. Continue in this manner across the paper. The first cut of every alternate course will make an imperfect card, and the last cut in any course may be imper- fect, but the other cuts will make perfect cards if the tool is correctly made and proT)erly used. The cards should be placed about the plants at the time of transplanting. To nlace the card bend it slightly to open the slit, then slip it on the center, the stem entering the slit, after which spread the card out flat and press the points CABBAGE PESTS 681 o •^ro X>^'*'*-'>— **>- Pig. 5. Tarred Paper Disc and Tool for Cutting. formed by the star-shaped cut snugly around the stem. A Wisconsin grower protected 7,000 plants and secured a splendid crop, while unprotected plants nearby would have been a complete failure if the maggots had not been picked off by hand. Others have reported similar success. One re- ported having lost only 25 plants out of 10,000 to 15,000 that he protected with the cards, where ordinarily he should have lost from 75 to 90 per cent of the crop. This method in actual practice has proved to be cheap, practical and efficient. Its success depends on the timely and proper application of the cards. They should be applied as soon after trans- planting as convenient and must be pressed down firmly about the plant, leav- ing no open spaces. Soil should not be allowed to collect on top of the disc. Eemedial In reviewing the current economic literature as well as in local practice, as revealed by our correspondence, I find the results attending the use of the materials for the control of this pest are as varied as the materials themselves. That many of the treatments recommended are im- practical is certain. Of those remaining none now in current use seem to give uniform satisfaction under all conditions. The Carbolic Acid Emulsion. — ^While giving negative results in our trials, had earlier in the season been suggested to growers, who in several cases commented upon its use most favorably. It is possi- ble the solution was too strong; certainly more trials are necessary to prove the status of this remedy for our conditions. It is prepared as follows: Crude carbolic acid 1 pint Hard soap 1 pound Water 1 gallon Dissolve the soap in the boiling water; remove from the fire and add the carbolic acid. Agitate briskly for some time to form a perfect emulsion. For applica- tion use one part of the emulsion to 30 parts of water. In using this solution draw back the soil from about the plant, exposing as much root surface as practical. Apply about half pint of the material to each 682 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE plant. If a pump is used and the solu- tion applied with considerable force, it will require less material and do more good than when simply poured about the plant. This solution should be applied to the plants as soon as they are well established in the field and the applica- tion repeated about every eight or ten days. Kerosene and Band, — This mixture is made by adding one pint of kerosene to a bucketful of sand, mixing thoroughly. A handful of this substance is placed about each plant as soon as it is well established. Powdered ToMcco. — This material should be placed about the plant as soon as it is set and the application renewed every week. Bran and Glue. — This mixture consists of two pounds of glue dissolved in a gal- lon of water and the addition of suffi- cient bran to make a thin slop. A hand- ful of this is then placed about each plant. This material, in certain cases, has given very satisfactory results. HeTletore Decoction, — ^This solution is prepared by steeping two ounces of pow- dered hellebore in a quart of water for one-half hour. Dilute to make one gallon of solution. Apply in the same manner as the carbolic acid emulsion solution. Literature 1894— Slingerland, M. V. (Cornell Uni. Exp. Sta. Bull. 78.) 1906— Chittenden, F. H. (U. S. Dept. Agn., Bur. Ent. Cir. 63.) 1906 — ^Washburn, F, L. (Minn. Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 100.) 1907— Smith, J. B., and Dickerson, E. L. (N. J. Exp. Agri, Sta. Bull. 200.) 1908— Schoene, W. J. (N. Y. Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull 301.) 1909— Smith, J. B. (N. J. Agri. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rept, 1909.) 1911— Schoene, W. J. (N. Y. Agri. Exp. Sta, Bull. 334.) 1911— Schoene, W J (Jour Eco Ent. IV, 2, p. 210.) Common Cabbage Looper Autographa t>rassicae The larva is a green worm, lined with white about one and a quarter inch long when grown. Has the looping habit like the span worm. Eats the leaves full of holes. Spraying with salt water is useful. Treat same as for imported cabbage worm. Cross-Striped Cabbage Worm. Pionea rimosaUs Guen The moth is pale yellow in color and lays its eggs in masses of 20-40 on the under side of leaves, the eggs overlapping each other like fish scales. The young larva is gray in color with a large head. When full grown it is bluish gray with conspicuous black stripes crosswise of the body. Distributed from the South Atlantic states westward to Nebraska. The worms do considerable damage at times. Poison bran mash is a stand- ard remedy. Mix bran with water and sugar before adding the Paris green. Three ounces of sugar to enough bran to make a mixture that will run through the fingers when mixed in a gallon of water. Cooperation in clean farming is a good preventive. Gather and destroy all re- fuse from the cabbage fields. Cutworms Noctmdae A. L. LOVETT Cutworms are a very serious pest of nearly all our crops. Ornamental shrubs, garden and truck crops, field crops and even small fruits and orchards suffer from the attack of these pests. The sleek, well fed, greasy caterpillars, varying in size, when mature, from one to two inches, are too well known to require a description. The adult moths are noc- turnal in habit, flying mostly at night. Fig. 1. Glassy Cutworm Adult and Larva (Exp. Farms Kepts. 1910.) CABBAGE PESTS 68S The majority of the medium sized, smoky- grey and brownish moths, which are at- tracted to the lights, are adults of the cutworm caterpillars. Remedies The poison bran mash, consisting of bran 16 pounds, Paris green one pound, salt one-half pound, cheap syrup one gal- lon, and warm water to make a coarse mash, is the standard remedy for cut- worms. This may be placed on a field prepared for a crop or may be placed about the base of the plants when they appear. Poultry should not be allowed free range over a treated field. Green, succulent forage of any kind may be sprayed with an arsenical, mowed and placed in small heaps about the field, pre- ferably in the evening. Where these meth- ods are impracticable, arsenical sprays applied to the host are of some assist- ance. For young plants just set in the field, as cabbage and tomato, a mechani- cal barrier consisting of a cylinder of tin or cardboard may be shoved down about the plant. For the climbing cutworms, which at- tack the developing buds of our fruit trees in early spring, the poison baits are very good; but better still, is a belt of some sticky material about the trunk of the tree, or some mechanical device such as a piece of cardboard attached funnel shaped, tight at the top and flared be- low. Cotton batten may be used in a similar manner. Wrap a strip eight inches wide about the tree overlapping it at the edges where it meets. Tie this band at the lower edge, then, taking hold of the upper edge, roll it down over the bottom edge. This makes a very ef- fective funnel. Diamond-Back Moth Plutella macuUpenms The larva is a very small green worm. The moth is about one-third inch long and folds its wings roof-like over its body. A white line borders the inside of each fore wing and these coa- lesce to form a single white stripe down the back with diamond-shaped expan- sions at intervals when the wings are folded. Larvae usually feed on lower surface of leaves and not until quite numerous do they eat holes clear through. Treat the same as for imported cabbage worm. A. D. Selby Dipterous Leaf Miners There are several species, notably the imported turnip leaf miner, native cab- bage leaf miner, imported cabbage leaf miner, native clover leaf miner. They are minute flies which lay their eggs in the cabbage and other plan»t leaves, the young larvae ruining the leaf. Not very injurious and no practical remedy is known. Flea Beetles Several Species Minute beetles that jump like fleas when disturbed. They eat small holes in the leaves of the plant, or if numerous, destroy whole sections of the leaf. Spray with Bordeaux mixture. Harlequin Cabbage Bug Murgantia Mstrionica Hahn Family Pentatomidae General Appearance The adult bugs are black with bright red markings. They are one half inch long and two-thirds as wide. The eggs are almost imitations of miniature white barrels with black hoops and black spots in the proper places for bungholes. They are arranged in clusters side by side. The young greatly resemble the adults, but lack wings and yellow predominates. This color gradually changes to orange and red as the nymphs reach maturity. Life History The adults hibernate in various shelter- ed places over winter and appear with the first warm weather in the spring to feed. The first plants to furnish food are wild mustard, radish and other mem- bers of the cruciferous weeds. Upon these also the eggs are laid and the young soon appear in great numbers in time to migrate to the cabbage plants and work upon them throughout the summer. Successive broods may appear in the 684 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fig. 1. The Cabbage Bug, Murqantia histrionica (Halm.), a and 6, young; c, d and e, eggs; adults at rigM. — After Riley cabbage fields and the numbers so in- crease as to cause much damage. In the southern part of the state the adults continue active throughout the winter. Food Plants This bug is especially fond of all cruciferous plants, including mustard, radish, cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, rape, horseradish, etc. Other food plants are potatoes, eggplant, okra, beans, beets, roses, sunflowers, chrysanthemums, squash, ragweed, pigweed, wild lettuce, lambsquarters and most of the plants be- longing to the caper family. Occasion- ally nursery trees, citrus, locust, cherry, and plum are injured, and the fruit of the grape and corn ears also suffer. Control Methods recommended for the squash bug are also applicable to the control of the cabbage bug. Planting an early crop of cabbage, rape, mustard or radish is especially recommended. The eggs are laid in great numbers upon these plants and together with the adults may be de- stroyed. This practice greatly lessens subsequent attacks. See under SquasTi, Natural Enemies Great numbers of the eggs are destroy- ed by two small internal parasites, Tn- ssoJcus murgantiae Ashm. and Ooencyrtus johnsoni How. The wheel bug, Anlus cristatus Linn., feeds upon the young nymphs in the Eastern states. E. O. EssiG Hop Flea Beetle JPsylUodes punctulata Melsh Fwwhily dirysomelidae General Appearance A very small, black metallic beetle with greenish tinge; oval in form; one tenth of an inch long and half as wide. The eggs are very small, oval in shape and yellow. The larvae are small white grubs about 5 mm. long. The white pupae as well as the larvae are found in the soil. Life History The adults appear early in the spring and are ready to attack the first hop plants as soon as they come through the ground. They feed upon the upper sur- faces of the leaves, completely skeletoniz- ing them. The vines are attacked when young and are often completely destroy- ed before they have reached a height of three or four feet. When disturbed the beetles hop or fall to the ground. They are able to make their way through the soil without much difficulty and lay their eggs upon the roots of the food plants. The larvae are very small and white in color with dusky markings. They live in the ground feeding upon the roots of various plants. When full grown they pupate in the soil from which the adults emerge throughout nearly the entire year, the largest number appearing from early spring to August. There are prob- ably two generations a year. Food Plants This species feeds upon hops, cabbage, potatoes, beets, turnips, dock, lambsquar- ters, pigweed, clover, rhubarb, cucumber, radish, mustard and nettle. Control There have been numerous methods of control recommended for this pest. The measures directed against the hibernat- ing beetles consist in killing all on the poles or burning up the rubbish. In the spring the first step consists in capturing the adult beetles on the young vines. A tarred board or hand hopper dozer is used on or into which the beetles are shaken. Tanglefoot bands around the bases of the tresseled vines, as well as around the poles, not only keep the beetles from the CABBAGE PESTS 685 foliage but capture great quantities of them. Various contract sprays, such as tobacco extract, emulsions, soaps, resin wash, and arsenic also have been used with good effect, but the cost due to great numbers of applications necessary, makes them almost prohibitive. E. O. EssiG Imported Cabbage Web Worm Hellula undalis, Fab The moth is gray in color with mot- tled fore wings which have an expanse of about five-eighths of an inch. The full- grown larvae are about half an inch long, grayish-yellow with five longitudinal bands. Distributed pretty well over the South and Southeast. Does considerable dam- age to cabbages, turnips, beets and the cruciferae generally. Several species of flies are parasites. Bordeaux mixture sprayed on the plants when first set out acts as a repellent. Clean culture and destruction of refuse material is also suggested. Literature Bureau Entomology Bulletin 109, Pt. III. Division Entomology Bulletin 33, New Series. Imported Cabbage Worm Pontia rapae Sch. Family Pieridae Pieris rapae Linn. General Appearance Though this is an imported insect it has become as common as if it had al- ways been here. The adult butterflies are about one and one-fourth inches long with a wing expanse of two inches. The color is white with two small black spots near the middle and a large black spot at the tip of each fore wing. The caterpillars are light velvety green in color and very finely dotted with minute dark spots. The length when full grown varies from one to one and one half inches. The chrysalis is about one inch long and varies in color from yellow to green, light or dark gray. Life History In the northern part of the state the species winters over in the chrysalis stage. while in the south adult butterflies may be seen almost any time of the year. They become very much in evidence early in March and are active throughout the entire summer and fall. Egg laying be- gins soon after the adults leave the chrysalis stage. The eggs hatch in about a week and the young caterpillars begin feeding at ofice. They first feed upon the outer leaves, making them ragged and holey, but gradually work through towards the heart of the cabbage, leaving the dark-green excrement to mark their paths of destruction. The growth is very Fig. 1. Adults, Imported Cabbage Worm. (Tennessee Experiment Station) rapid so that in from one to two weeks they are ready to select some secluded spot beneath an old cabbage leaf or some nearby object and prepare for the chry- salis stage, which, during the first two generations in the summer months, lasts little longer than the larval stage, but which in the fall continues throughout the winter. There are several generations a year. In fact in the southern part of the state it seems as if the breeding is only slightly checked during the winter months. 686 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Food Plants The principal economic food plants are cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, turnip, radish, mustard, and horseradish. Other plants attacked are wild mustard, wild radish, nasturtium, mignonette and sweet alyssum. Control The larvae, working as they do into the heads of the cabbages, make control methods practically impossible after they have once begun. Young plants may well be protected by arsenical sprays which are applied with safety until the heads are half grown. Prof. L. Bruner claims that cornmeal dusted on the cabbages causes the worms to leave. Clean culture should be practiced and no cabbage or host plants allowed to grow during the interval be- tween crops unless they are freely sprayed with strong solutions of arsenical sprays. Natural Enemies Internal parasites, working upon the chrysalids, are important factors in the control of the pest. In this state the small parasite (Pteromalus puparum) is quite widely distributed and is bred and sent to all parts of the state by the State Insectary. In the Eastern states a chal- cid (Apanteles glomeratus) does excellent work in killing off the caterpillars, but this has not been established in this state. A bug (Phymata wolffli) preys upon the butterflies, which they capture on flowers while the wasp (PoUstes pal- UpesJ destroys large numbers of the worms. E. 0. EssiG (Further remedies suggested by A. L. Lovett, of Oregon Experiment Station- — Ed.) For very small plants use Paris green one pound, and air slaked lime, road dust or cheap flour 20 pounds. Mix thorough- ly and dust over plants by sifting through a coarse sack. This material will adhere better if applied in the early morning while the dew is on. For older plants the regular arsenical sprays may be used, adding a little soap to aid them in sticking, or better still, use the resin lime mixture prepared as fol- lows: Stock solution: Pulverized resin 5 pounds Concentrated lye 1 pound Fish oil soap or any cheap ani- mal oil, except tallow 1 pint Water 5 gallons Place the oil, resin and one gallon of hot water in vessel for cooking. Heat until the resin is softened, add the lye solution made as for hard soap, stir thoroughly and add four gallons more of hot water. Boil for two hours or until the mixture will unite readily with water, making a clear amber liquid. Add water to make up for that lost by evaporation. This constitutes the stock solution and may be kept indefinitely. In applying it, for every gallon of the stock solution add first 16 gallons of water, then three gallons of thin whitewash and one-quarter pound of Paris green. Hot water at a temperature of 130 Fahr- enheit will kill the worms and will not injure the cabbage plants. Jfative Cabbage Worm Pontia protodice. Pieris protodice Butterfly, looks much like the last, but has about four angular black marks at and behind tips. Female very different from male, with wings all checkered with black. Worm, obscure, purple color, with four longitudinal pale yellow stripes, two on each side. Head and body minutely dot- ted with black. Pupa, in the main, like the last, but dotted with black. The worm, though not nearly so troublesome as the imported, can be overcome by the same sprays. L. F. Henderson Seed-stalk Weevil CeutorJiynchus quadridens Panz A somewhat serious pest in sections where seed cabbages are grown, as in Long Island. No remedy suggested. Western Twelve-Spotted Cucumber Beetles. See under Cucumber. Literature Bulletins of the State Experiment Sta- tions and the United States Department of Agriculture, mostly of the last two de- cades : CABBAGE PESTS 687 Common Cabbage Looper Autographa (Plusia) Irassicae Riley 1884. The cabbage plusia. — C. V. Riley (U. S. D. A. Rpt, 1883, pp. 119-122, pis. 2). 1893. A few common insect pests. — C. P. Gillette (Colo. Bui. 24, pp. 8, 9, fig. 1). 1898. A spraying mixture for cauli- flower and cabbage worms. — F. A. Sirrine (N. Y. State Bui. 144, pp. 38-46, pi. 1). 1902. Some insects injurious to vege- table crops. — F. H. Chittenden (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent. Bui. 33, pp. 60-69, figs. 2). 1909. Some cabbage worms and sugges- tions for destroying them. — ^W. E. Rum- sey and Fred E. Brooks (W. Va. Bui. 120, pp. 345-352, pis. 2). Diamond-back Moth Plutella maculipennis (cruGiferarwrn) Curtis 1892. Insects injurious to the cabbage. — H. E. Weed (Miss. Bui. 21, pp. 8, 9, fig. 1). 1893. Injurious insects of Maryland. — C. V. Riley (Md. Bui. 23, pp. 83, 84, fig. 1). 1895. The pests of the orchard and garden. — ^L. R. Taft and G. C. Davis (Mich. Bui. 121, p. 62, fig. 1). Imported Cabbage Worms Pontia (Pieris) rapae Linn 1889. Important injurious insects. — C. P. Gillette (la, BuL 5, pp. 171-174, fig. 5). 1894. Insects affecting late cabbage. — F. A. Sirrine (N. Y. State Bui. 83, pp. 658-666, pi. 1). 1895. Treatment of common diseases and insects injurious to fruits and vege- tables. — S. A. Beach and W. Paddock (N. Y. State Bui. 86, pp. 98, 99). 1895. Insects injurious to fruits and vegetables. — J. T. Stinson (Ark. Bui. 33, pp. 81, 82, figs. 2). 1905. The imported cabbage worm. — ^F. H. Chittenden (IT. S. D, A. Bur. Ent. Circ. 60, pp. 8, fig. 6). 1907- Imported cabbage butterfly (N. Y. State [Geneva] Rept. 25, Pt. 3, pp. 243-245, pi. 1). Southern Cabbage Butterfly Pontia (Pieris) protodice Boisd. Potherb Bntterfly Pontia (Pieris) napi Linn Cross-striped Cabbage Worm Evergestis (Pionea) rimosalis Guen Cutworms Various species of Noctuids 1895. Cabbage cut worms. — 0. V. Riley (U. S. D. A. Rpt 1884, pp. 289-300, figs. 10) Describes the following: Dark-sided cutworm, Agrotis messoria •LXmX X * Granulated cutworm, Agrotis annexa Treitschke. Shagreened cutworm, Agrotis maleftda Guen. W-marked cutworm, Agrotis clandes- tina Harr. Greasy cutworm, Agrotis ypsilon Rott. Speckled cutworm, Mamestra sWbjuncta G. & R. Glassy cutworm, Hadena devastatrix, Brace. Variegated cutworm, Agrotis saucia Treitschke. 1895. Cutworms, etc. — J. B, Smith (N. X Bui. 109, pp. 3-13, figs. 3). 1895. Cutworms in Kentucky. — H. Garman (Ky. Bui. 58, pp. 89-107, pi. 1). 1895. Climbing cutworms in Western New York, — ^M. V. Slingerland (N. Y. Cornell Bui. 104, pp. 553-600, pis. 5, figs. 2). 1895. Insects injurious in 1895. — O. Lugger (Minn. Bui. 43, pp. 232-243, fig. 1). 1896. Some injurious insects. — G. C. Davis (Mich. BuL 132, pp. 3-14, figs. 8). 1907. Cutworms. — H. T. Fernald (Mass. Circ. 2, pp. 2). Imported Cabbage Webworm HeTlula undalis Fab. 1899. Some insects injurious to gar- den and orchard crops. — P. H. Chitten- den (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent Bui. 19, pp. 51-57, fig. 1). 1900. Some insects injurious to garden crops. — F. H. Chittenden (U. S. D. A., Bur- Ent. Bui. 23, pp. 53-61, fig. 1). Cabbage Aphis ApMs drassicae Linn 1890- Plant lice and how to deal with them.— J. B. Smith (N. J. Bui. 72, pp. 16- 20, figs. 2). 688 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE 1892. Horticulture and entomology.— E. S. Richman (Utah Bui. 14, pp. 7-10, figs. 7). 1893. Miscellaneous entomological pa- pers.— P. M. Webster (Ohio Bui. 51, pp. 109-111). 1897. Some common injurious plant lice, with suggestions for their destruc- tion.— W. G. Johnson (Md. Bui. 48, pp. 97, 98, -^g. 1). 1909. Some insects injurious to cab- bage, cucumbers and related crops. — F. H. Chittenden (Va. Truck Sta. Bui. 2, pp. 22-30, figs. 4). Cabbage Eoot Maggot Pegomya (PhorUa) ibrassicae Bouche 1894. The cabbage root maggot, with notes on the onion maggot and allied in- sects. — ^M. V. Slingerland (N. Y. Cornell Bui. 78, pp. 481-577, figs. 18). 1905. Root maggots and how to con- trol them. — F. H. Chittenden (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent. Circ. 63, pp. 7, figs. 5). 1905. Cabbage root maggot. Poisoned bran for cutworms. — ^W. S. Blair (Canada Exp. Farms Rpt. 1904, pp. 362-364). 1906. The cabbage maggot and other injurious Insects of 1906. — P. L. "Wash- burn (Minn, Bui. 100, pp. 1-19, eld. pi. 1, figs. 11). 1907. The cabbage and onion maggots. — John B. Smith and E. L. Dickerson (N. J. Exp. Sta. Bui. 200, pp. 27, figs. 13). 1907. The cabbage maggot and other injurious insects of 1906. — ^P. L. Wash- burn (Minn. Bui. 100, pp. 87, pis. 7, figs. 57). 1907. Root maggots.— H. T. Pernald (Mass. Circ. 5, pp. 2). 1908. The apple leaf hopper and other injurious insects of 1907 and 1908. — P. L. Washburn (Minn. Bui. 112, pp. 196-213, ngS. O ) m 1908. Screening for the protection of cabbage seedbeds. — ^W. J. Schoene (N. Y. State Bui. 301, pp. 165-174, pi. 1). Cabbage Flea Beetle, or Striped Turnip Flea Beetle PhplJotreta vittata Fab. 1885. The wavy-striped flea beetle. — C. V. Riley (U. S. B. A. Rpt. 1884, pp. 301-304, fig. 1). 1890. The cabbage flea beetle. — H. Gar- man (Ky.) Rpt. 1889, pp. 23-25). 1891. The striped flea beetle or cab- bage flea.— A. D. Hopkins (W. Va. Rpt. 1890, pp. 147-150). 1895. Remedies for flea beetles. — C. M. Weed (N. H. Bui. 29, pp. 3-7, figs. 5). Harlequin Cabbage Bug Murgantta Mstionica Hahn 1908. The harlequin cabbage bug. — P. H. Chittenden (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent. Circ. 103, pp. 10, fig. 1). False Chinch Bug Nysnis angustatus Uhl 1894. Chinch bugs. — ^L. Brunner and H. C. Barber (Neb. Bui. 34, pp. 153, 154, fig. 1). Cabbage Cnrcnlio CoutorTiyncTius rapae Gyll 1900. Some insects injurious to garden crops. — P. H. Chittenden (U. S. D. A., Bur, Ent. Bui. 23, pp. 39-53, figs. 2). Cabbage Hair Worm Mermis spp et al. 1905. Cabbage snakes. — H, Garman (Ky. Bui. 120, pp. 78-81, pi. 1). 1908. The cabbage hair worm. — P. H. Chittenden (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent. Circ. 62, pp. 6, fig. 1). Lists of Books and Pamphlets 1901. Bibliography of the more impor- tant contributions to American economic entomology. Part VII. — Nathan Banks (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent, pp. 113). Price, cloth, 20 cents. Postage, 3 cents. (Cov- ers the period between December 31, 1896, and January 1, 1909). 1905. Bibliography, etc. (as above). — Nathan Banks (U. S. B. A., Bur. Ent., pp. 132). Price, 10 cents. Postage, 3 cents. (Covers the period between December 31, 1899, and January 1, 1905). 1910. A list of works on North Ameri- can entomology — Nathan Banks, (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent. Bui. 81, pp. 120). Price, 15 cents. Postage, 4 cents. (Application and money for these bibli- ographies should be sent to Superintend- ent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.) Useful works on economic entomology, containing information on the pests of cole crops. CABBAGE PESTS—CALIFORNIA 689 1902. Insects injurious to staple crops. — E. D. Sanderson (New York; Jolin Wiley & Sons, pp. 205, figs. 162). Price, $1.50. 1906. Economic entomology. — J. B. Smith (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., pp. 475, figs. 475). Price, $2.50. 1907. Insects injurious to vegetables. — F. H. Chittenden (New York: Orange Judd Co., pp. 2Q2, figs. 163). Price, $1.50. Bulletins covering in a general manner the treatment of cabbage insects. 1904. Cabbage diseases and insects. — J. B. S. Norton and T, B. Symons (Md. Circ. Bui. 58, pp. 10, figs. 6). 1904. Insects injurious to cabbage. — H. Garman (Ky, Bui. 114, pp. 15-47, figs. 17). 1906. Cabbages for stock feeding. — S. Fraser (N. Y. Cornell Bui. 242, pp. 69, 70). 1906. Farm practice in the control of field-crop insects. — ^F. M. Webster (XT. S. D. A. Yearbook 1905, pp. 465-476, pis. 2, figs. 2). (Published separately as Year- book Separate 396.) California California grows more fruit than any other state in the Union. It is not as large as Texas but its coast line on the west, its high mountain ranges on the east and west extending from north to south through the whole length of the state, and its great central plain, the cli- mate of which is modified by the ocean breezes cooling the temperature in sum- mer and modifying its severity in the winter, make it better adapted to all kinds of fruits, from the semi-tropical to the hardier fruits grown generally in the northern climates, than any other portion of the United States. It has a great variety of soils, as well as of climate. Sometimes within a few miles of each other, two different points, on account of altitude, wind currents, ocean breezes, or difference in soils, may be adapted to the growing of fruits that are generally found at great distances from each other, in other parts of the United States. Cali- fornia grows fewer apples than New York, Pennsylvania or Missouri, and a number of other states, but not far from the ap- ple-growing region may be found oranges, lemons, and other semi-tropical fruits. These fruits have produced immense wealth and have enabled the inhabitants to make beautiful homes, while at the same time there are regions that partake largely of the nature of the arid districts of other states. It has a coast line of 900 miles. Geanville Lowther Harvest Time for Various Crops in California The following table shows the time, at which some of the various fruits, vege- tables, and garden products are harvest- ed: Almonds Aug'ust to September Apples July to November Apricots June to August Blackberries June to September Cantaloupes May to July Cherries May to July Currants , May to June Dewberries May to July Pigs .July to November Grapes July to January Grape Fruit. All the year Guavas All tbe year (two crops) Lemons. All the year Limes All the year Loganberries June to September Loquats May and June Mulberries July to September Nectarines June to August Olives October to January Oranges October to January Fears July to November Peaches July to Christmas Persimmons, Japanese - . November and December Plums June to September Prunes June to September Pomegranates .September to December Quinces October to December Raspberries. June to October Strawberries All the year Watermelons July to October Tegetalbles Asparagus .March to July Beans May to October Cabbage All the year Cauliflower October to June Celery October to June Com May to October Cucumbers April to November Lettuce All the year Melons May to October Onions All the year Peas All the year Potatoes. two crops plant August and February Radishes All the yeac- B. J. WiCKSoisr 2—3 690 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Frost and Precipitation in California No. Frost Precipitation Station Average Date of Date of Aimual First killing , Autumn Last in Spring Earliest in Autumn Latest in Spring inches Sission 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Sept. 26 Sept. 27 Nov. 15 Dec. 3 Oct. 3 Nov. 25 Dec. 14 Sept. 15 Nov. 26 May 26 May 11 Apr. 9 Mar. 23 May 10 Mar. 15 Mar. 24 May 31 Mar. 27 Sept. 13 Sept. 14 Nov. 7 Nov. 20 Sept. 8 Nov. 7 Dec. 12 Sept. 6 Oct. 16 July 6 June 2 May 1 May 1 May 22 Apr. 19 Apr. 10 July 6 May 2 37.8 Cedarville Eureka 13.7 45.8 Redding 36.2 Susanvflle Red Bluff 22.9 25.7 CMco 22.4 La Porte 77.9 Ukiah 35 SilTmriH 46.9 Auburn 33.4 Davisville Sacramento Napa Dec. 7 Nov. 15 Dec. 24 Feb. 26 Feb. 16 Feb. 27 Jan. 25 Feb. 23 Feb. 8 Mar. 5 Mar. 12 Mar. 16 Mar. 4 Mar. 17 Nov. 26 Oct. 28 Nov. 27 Dec. 13 Nov. 9 Nov. 28 Nov. 28 Nov. 26 Nov. 8 Nov. 18 Sept. 21 Apr. 4 Apr. 26 Mar. 30 Apr. 20 Apr. 12 Feb. 18 Mar. 28 Mar. 30 Apr. 27 Apr. 14 May 28 16.6 19.9 23 7 San Francisco 22.5 Livermore San Jose Dec. 2 Dec. 6 Dec. 11 Dec. 7 Nov. 23 Dec. 15 Oct. 25 15.3 14 8 Merced 10 3 Santa Cruz Hollister 27.0 12 3 Fresno 9 2 Independence . King City 3.7 10 8 Visalia Nov. 2i Dec. 17 Apr. ii Mar. 17 Nov. 16 Nov. 15 AprV'il"' Apr. 8 Q R ;San Luis Obispo. . . Bakersfield 19.2 4 8 ^anta Barbara 16.6 Los Angeles JEledlands 'Dec.' 12*" Apr. 8 Feb. 19 Dec. 12 Nov. 24 Apr. 8 Apr. 29 15.6 14. S Needles 2 7 Salton 2 5 San Diego 1 9.4 Talble of Productiyeness A table of productiveness of various articles that can be raised on one acre of ground in California: Alfalfa $ 35 to $ 60 Almonds 75 to 200 Apples 100 to 200 Apricots 75 to 150 Asparagus 100 to 250 Berries 150 to 500 Blackberries 250 to 500 Beans 30 to 100 Cherries 100 to 225 Chestnuts 150 to 400 Figs 100 to 250 Loganberries 250 to 300 Lemons 100 to 400 Melons $ 25 to $125 Nectarines 100 to 200 Olives 75 to 150 Oranges 150 to 800 Peaches 100 to 250 Potatoes (Sweet) 50 to 150 Potatoes (Irish) 50 to 150 Prunes 75 to 200 Pears 100 to 400 Pomelos 100 to 400 Plums 100 to 200 Pecans 150 to 600 Quinces 100 to 200 Raisin Grapes 75 to 150 Strawberries 150 to 300 Table (drapes 100 to 500 Tomatoes 50 to 150 Walnuts 200 to 800 E. J. WiCKSON CALIFORNIA 691 2 ^ m Pi o '^ CO r— * rrj o 00 CO 05 02 O m

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(D O fe So 00 "C (J O Cj I 00 '^i {H US o PCI $ f >.^. S3": -^8 |8 is ii jo f4«^ (^ pq •^esi *^eo s ?*<. 53W Is jO O, a": 2 03 a? I ^o FQ pq p£5 lU^ 4a O § So __ ^o Pg |S CO El jeC aj^" COS g r-^ p^---\ CO S 1 ^8 32 pq o::: a§ ^S •^"5. Ww J^" §;:! O J .So >.o" Jlr -gg ^ - t^i Is 3^ '^^ a PQ caig <2 O CO 1 a; o d A o 03 cS be IB a> V V SfS o 0) o be .s '53 A CD d o d o p) OS •a d OS I— t CQ -M «> •^ o » 5Pl o est. u -: o a ■H CO CD >0 OQ 10 d s '5 u Ki u CJ o "5 d •r-t m OS a m o u d fcc ,d o u PH ix-j «~( >. a 4J 4) $-4 d 9 Domestic— Red June, Burbank, Washington, Bradshaw, Imper- ial Gage, Quackenboss, Arch Duke, Dia- mond, Monarch, Yellow Egg, Coe, Sat- suma, Reine Claude. Btirlington District . W. Peart Burlington^ Ont. Commercial — European — ^Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Lombard, Yellow Egg, Glass, Reine Claude. Japanese — Red June, Abundance, Bur- bank, Chabot, Satsuma. Domestic — ^Abundance, Saunders, Brad- shaw, Imperial Gage, Smith Orleans, Lom- bard, Yellow Egg, Satsuma, Reine Claude. Magara District LiNXJS Woolverton Grimsty, Ont. Commercial — Red June, Burbank, Brad- shaw, Chabot, Gueii, Coe, Quackenboss, Satsuma, Reine Claude. Domestic — Abundance, Washington, Yellow Egg, Shropshire, Quackenboss, Satsuma, Reine Claude. St Lawrence District Harold Jones Maitland, Ont. Domestic — Note — The European and Japanese varieties are only recommended for the Tiome garden in the St. Lawrence Dis- trict, as they have not proved entirely hardy nor very productive. American — Milton, Whitaker, Hammer. European — Gueii, Lombard, Shipper Pride, Glass. Japanese — Red June, Burbank. THE aBAPE There is no more popular fruit than the grape, and, owing to the rapid in- crease in population during recent years, the demand for grapes is constantly grow- ing. For this reason the planting of grapes, which was in a large measure suspended for a few years, is steadily in- creasing, many vineyards now being es- tablished annually. The grape requires a comparatively dry hot season for the development of good flavor and the perfect ripening of the fruit, and as most of the cultivated varieties will not stand very low temper- atures unless protected, the grape sue- v^xxlN J\.±JJa. ceeds best in the most southern parts of tlie Province, the commercial vineyards being confined almost entirely to the Niagara peninsula, and to the district bordering Lake Erie. The grape can, however, be grown successfully over a much wider area than this, and where the summer temperature is fairly high and spring and early autumn frosts are rare, large quantities of grapes are grown for home consumption. Hence the early varieties of this fruit may be ripened pretty generally over the Province as far north as latitude 45 degrees and prob- ably further. Yarieties Recommended General List Approved Iby the Board of Control Commercial and Domestic — Black — ^Moore, Campbell, Worden, Con- cord, Wilder. Red — ^Delaware, Lindley, Agawam, Ver- gennes. White — ^Niagara, Diamond. Foe Northebn Sections — Black — Champion, Moore, Campbell, Worden, Wilder. Red — ^Moyer, Brighton, Delaware, Lind- ley. White — Winchell, Diamond. Bistrict Lists Recommended by the Experimenters Wentworth District M. Pettit Winona, Out. Commercial — Black — Champion, Campbell, Worden, Concord. Red — ^Delaware, Lindley, Agawam, Ver- gennes, Catawaba. White — Niagara, Diamond. Jfiagara District Linus Woolverton Qrims'by, Ont. Domestic — ^Moyer, Campbell, Worden, Delaware, Lindley, Brighton, Wilder, Aga- wam, Requa. BUSH FRUITS In Bush Fruits are included the Black- berry, Currant, Gooseberry, and Rasp- berry. These fruits, while not being of quite so much importance from a com- mercial standpoint as the tree fruits, are grown and consumed in very large quan- tities in Ontario, and as they are used in many ways by housekeepers there will always be a demand for them. They can be grown between the tree fruits to ad- vantage while the latter are young and hence often augment the revenue of the fruit grower materially before the tree fruits come into full bearing. Some idea of the large quantities of bush fruits which are grown will be ob- tained from the Dominion census statis- tics for 1901, where it Is stated that there were at that time 8,116 acres devoted to small fruits in Ontario, on which were produced about 16,000,000 quarts valued at $811,000.00. The strawberry is includ- ed in the above estimate. The present area devoted to small fruits is estimated at 10,000 acres. THE BLACKBEREY The blackberry is not grown so large- ly in Ontario as it might be. It is one of the most profitable fruits to grow where it succeeds well, but as the crop is rather uncertain except in Southern Ontario and in localities farther north where it is protected by a deep snow fall, its range of successful culture is somewhat limit- ed. Where there is not danger of winter killing, a well drained clay loam is prob- ably the best for the blackberry, as it is cooler and more retentive of moisture than lighter soils. The blackberry must have plenty of soil moisture when the fruit is ripening, otherwise but little of the crop will develop. Further north, where hardiness is of greater considera- tion than conservation of moisture, the poorer and warmer soils are preferred, as the blackberry on these soils does not make as rampant a growth and hence ripens its wood better. Varieties Recommended General List Approved by the Board of Control Agawam, Snyder, Eldorado, and for southern sections, Kittatinny. 712 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE District Lists Eecommended by the Experimenters Burlington District A. W. Peaet Burlington^ Ont, Commercial and Domestic — Snyder, Briton, Triumph, Agawam, Taylor. Lake Simcoe District G. C. Gaston Graighurst, Ont. Commeecial and Domestic — ^Agawam, Eldorado. THE CURRA]?fT The currant is a very hardy fruit and for this reason can he grown with suc- cess all over the Province of Ontario, and as fair results are obtained without high culture, almost everyone who has a gard- en grows currants. Like all other fruits, however, the currant becomes most profit- able when it is given good care. The currant is a moisture loving fruit, hence for profit it should be planted in a cool, moist, but well drained soil. It also requires rich soil, hence as a rule the best is a good clay loam which is re- tentive of moisture and cooler than sandy loam. The soil should be thoroughly pre- pared for currants before planting. One year old plants from cuttings if strong will give good satisfaction, although two year old plants are not too old. They should be planted in rows about six feet apart, and from four to five feet apart in the rows, the wide distance being more satisfactory for the strong growing vari- eties and especially black currants. Fall planting is best for currants, as the buds start very early in the spring and should these develop before they can be planted, their future growth will be checked. They can, however, be planted in the spring with success. The plants should be set a little deeper than they were in the nursery, and the soil well pressed against the roots. Thorough cultivation should follow to promote as much growth as possible, but it should be shallow, as the currant roots are near the surface. "The following spring the currants will need some pruning to give them a shape- ly open head, the bush when well shaped liaving from five to seven main branches well distributed to avoid crowding. The fruit of red currants is formed from spurs on wood two years old, while the fruit of black currants is borne on wood of the previous year. Currants should be pruned annually to get the best results. Varieties Eecommended General List Approved by the Board of Control Black — Black Victoria, Champion, Lee, Naples, Saunders. Red — Cherry, Fay, Pomona, Red Cross, Victoria, Wilder. White — White Grape. District Lists Recommended by the Experimenters Burlington District A. W. Peart Burlington, Ont, Commercial- Black — Lee, Naples, Saunders. Red— Cherry, Fay, North Star, Prince Albert, Victoria, Wilder. White — ^White Grape. Lake Huron District A. E. Sherrington WalJcerton, Ont, Black — Champion, Naples, Saunders, Red — Pomona, Red Cross. THE GOOSEBEERX The gooseberry and the currant are the two hardiest bush fruits which are cul- tivated, and the gooseberry, like the cur- rant, succeeds in all parts of the Province, although the hardy gooseberries are con- fined to the varieties derived from the native species and to crosses between the native and the European. The Euro- pean varieties are only grown success- fully in favored locations as in most places they are very subject to mildew. The gooseberry, like the currant, re- quires a cool, moist, though well drained soil to give the best results, and suffers more than almost any other fruit in a dry time. These cool, moist conditions are best obtained as a rule by planting in a well drained friable clay loam. The soil should be thoroughly prepared, as although the gooseberry will give a fine crop of fruit, even if not well cared for. CANADA 713 the size will be small. Gooseberries may- be planted with success either in spring or fall, but fall planting is preferable, as growth begins early and plants usually receive a severe check if planted in the spring. Tarieties Reconnnended General list Approved by the Board of Control Pearl, Downing, Red Jacket. White- smith is one of the best English varieties, but is almost valueless on some soils and in some localities owing to mildew. THE EASPBEBEY Next to the strawberry, the raspberry is the most popular bush fruit grown in Ontario, and as it follows the former in season the consumer is well supplied with these two fruits most of the sum- mer. The raspberry being a native of Ontario, is hardy in almost all parts of the Province, hence it is cultivated over a very wide area. Like the other bush fruits, the rasp- berry does best when grown in a cool, moist, but well drained soil. While this soil should be of good quality, if it is very rich in nitrogen the growth may be too rank and in some localities the canes on this account are more liable to winter injury. The best success is usually ob- tained with a good clay loam, although the raspberry will do fairly well in most kinds of soil. The preparation of the land should be the same as for other bush fruits. Tarieties Eecommended General List Approved by the Board of Control Black — Hilborn, Older, Gregg, Smith Giant. PuEPLE — Columbian, Shaffer. Red — ^Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthbert. White — Golden Queen. District Lists Eecommended by tlie Experimenters Lake Hnron District A. E. SHEERINGTOlSr WalTcertonf Ont COMMEECIAI. AND DOMESTIC — Black — Hilborn, Conrath, Older. Purple— Columbian, Shaffer. RED—Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthbert. THE STEAWBEEEY The strawberry is the most popular fruit cultivated in Ontario. This is doubt- less due in part to the intrinsic value of the strawberry itself, which is one of the most delicious of fruits, but it is believed that the popularity of the strawberry comes largely from the fact that it can be grown by almost every one, as, unlike most fruits, very little land is rectnired to produce sufficient for home consump- tion. Strawberries can be grown in all parts of Ontario where the soil is suitable, hence large quantities are produced and consumed annually, and owing to the dif- ference in the time of ripening between the southern and northern parts of the Province, the season is lengthened very much, and furthermore, the strawberries of one district do not come in such close competition with those from another as they would do if all ripened at the same time. Strawberries will succeed on almost any rich well drained soil, but the larg- est crops are, it is believed, produced on a friable clay loam which is retentive of moisture. It is important, however, to avoid planting strawberries where water is likely to lie at any time, as surface water is very injurious to strawberries, and if water freezes over strawberries in winter they are almost sure to be killed. Varieties Eecommended Commercial — Splendid (Perfect), Bed- erwood (P.), Warfield (Imperfect), not suited to light, sandy soil, Greenville (Imp.), Williams (P.), Saunders (P.), Sample (Imp.), Irene (Imp.), Buster (Imp.). Domestic — ^Van Deman (P.), Splendid (P.), Excelsior (P.), Dunlap (P.), Buby (P.), Bubach (Imp.), Irene (Imp.), Belt (P.), Lovett (P.). Note — In selecting varieties for plant- ing, perfect-flowered varieties should be included to fertilize those having imper- fect flowers. Nelson Monteitb:, Minister of Agriculture. 714 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Caisada Field Pea as a Cover Ceop in THE Rogue River Valley. See Cover Crops under Apple. Canadian Fruit Marks Act. See Laws. Candleberry The candleberry is called also bayberry, candleberry myrtle, tallow tree and wax myrtle {Myrica cerifera). The nuts are called candle nuts and, when put into hot water, furnish a greenish colored sub- stance waxy and oily, which, being refined, is made into candles. It grows in the wet soils of North America, near the sea- shore. The berries intended for making candles are gathered late in autumn. An- other plant belonging to the same genus, grows in Scotland, a small shrub growing a little like the myrtle or willow, of a fragrant odor and a bitter taste, and yield- ing an essential oil by distillation. It was formerly used in the north of Europe instead of hops and in some places is still so used. In Sweden and Wales it is used in dyeing and produces a yellow- ish color. Granville Lowthee Canning and Preserving Fruit in the Home The common fruits, because of their low nutritive value, are not, as a rule, estimated at their real worth as food. Fruit has great dietetic value and should be used generously and wisely, both fresh and cooked. Fruits supply a variety of flavors, sugar, acids, and a necessary waste or bulky material for aiding in in- testinal movement. They are generally rich in potash and soda salts and other minerals. Most fresh fruits are cooling and refreshing. The vegetable acids have a solvent power on the nutrients and are an aid to digestion when not taken in excess. Fruit and fruit juices keep the blood in a healthy condition when the supply of fresh meat, fish, and vegetables is lim- ited and salt or smoked meats constitute the chief elements of diet. Fresh fruit is generally more appetizing and refreshing than cooked. For this reason it is often eaten in too large quantities, and fre- quently when underripe or overripe; but when of good quality and eaten in moder- ate quantities it promotes healthy intes- tinal action and rarely hurts anyone. If eaten immoderately, uncooked fruit is apt to induce intestinal disturbances. If eaten unripe, it often causes stomach and intestinal irritation; overripe, it has a tendency to ferment in the alimentary canal. Cooking changes the character and flavor of fruit, and while the product is not so cooling and refreshing as in the raw state, it can, as a rule, be eaten with less danger of causing stomach or intes- tinal trouble. If sugar be added to the cooked fruit, the nutritive value will be increased. A large quantity of sugar spoils the flavor of the fruit and is likely to make it less easily digested. Nowhere is there greater need of a gen- erous supply of fruit than on the farm, where the diet is apt to be restricted in variety because of the distance from mar- kets. Every farmer should raise a gen- erous supply of the kinds of fruit that can be grown in his locality. Wives and daughters on the farms should find pleas- ure in serving these fruits in the most healthful and tempting form. There are a large number of simple, dainty desserts that can be prepared with fruit and with- out much labor. Such desserts should leave the pie as an occasional luxury in- stead of allowing it to be considered a daily necessity. In the season when each kind of fruit is plentiful and at its best a generous supply should be canned for the season when both fruit and fresh vegetables are scarce. A great deal of the fruit should be canned with little or no sugar, that it may be as nearly as possible in the condition of fresh fruit. This is the best condition for cooking purposes. A sup- ply of glass jars does cost something, but that item of expense should be charged to future years as, with proper care, the breaking of a jar need be a rare occur- rence. If there be an abundance of grapes and small, juicy fruits, plenty of juice should be canned or bottled for re- freshing drinks throughout the year. Re- CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME 715 member that the fruit and juice are not luxuries, but an addition to the dietary that will mean better health for the members of the family and greater econ- omy in the cost of the table. Tresh and Preseryed Fruit for the Market If the supply of fruit is greater than the family needs, it may be made a source of income by sending the fresh fruit to the market, if there is one near enough, or by preserving, canning, and making jelly for sale. To make such an enterprise a success the fruit and work must be first class. There is magic in the word "Home-made," when the pro- duct appeals to the eye and the palate; but many careless and incompetent peo- ple have found to their sorrow that this word has not magic enough to float in- ferior goods on the market As a rule large canning and preserving establish- ments are clean and have the best appli- ances, and they employ chemists and skilled labor. The home product must be very good to compete with the attractive goods that are sent out from such estab- lishments. Yet for first class home made products there is a market in all large cities. All first class grocers have cus- tomers who purchase such goods. To secure a market, get the names of several first class grocers in some of the large towns. Write to them asking if they would be willing to try a sample of your goods. If the answer is favorable, send samples of the articles you wish to sell. In the box with the fruit inclose a list of the articles sent and the price. Write your name and address clearly. Mail a note and a duplicate list at the time you send the box. Fixing the price of the goods is important Make it high enough to cover all expenses and give you a fair return for your labor. The expenses will be the fruit, sugar, fuel, jars, glasses, boxes, packing material, wear and tear of utensils, etc., transportation and commis- sion. The commission will probably be 20 per cent of the selling price. It may be that a merchant will find your prices are too high or too low for his trade, or he may wish to purchase the goods out- right In any case it is essential that you estimate the full cost of the product and the value that you place on your labor. You will then be in a position to decide if the prices offered will compen- sate you for the labor and expense. Do not be tempted for the sake of a little money to deprive your family of the fruit necessary to health and pleasure. Packing and Shipping Each jar or jelly glass must be wrapped in several thicknesses of soft paper (newspapers will answer). Make pads of excelsior or hay by spreading a thick layer between the folds of newspapers. Line the bottom and sides of the box with these pads. Pack the fruit in the padded box- Fill all the spaces between the jars with the packing material. If the box is deep and a second layer of fruit is to go in, put thick pasteboard or thin boards over the first layer and set the wrapped jars on this. Pill all the spaces and cover the top with the packing material. Nail on the cover and mark clearly; GLASS. THIS SIDE UP. The great secret in packing is to fill every particle of space so that nothing can move. Principles of Canning and Preserving In the preservation of foods by canning, preserving, etc., the most essential things in the processes are the sterilization of the food and all the utensils and the seal- ing of the sterilized food to exclude all germs. Bacteria, leasts and Fermentation Over 100 years ago Francois Appert was the first to make practical applica- tion of the method of preserving food by putting it in cans or bottles, which he hermetically sealed. He then put the full bottles or cans in water and boiled them for more or less time, depending upon the kinds of food. In Appert's time and, indeed, until re- cent years, it was generally thought that the oxygen of the air caused the decom- position of food. Appert's theory was that the things essential to the preservation of food in this manner were the exclusion of air and the application of gentle heat. 716 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE as in the water "bath, which caused a fusion of the principal constituents and ferments in such a manner that the power of the ferments was destroyed. The investigations of scientists, partic- ularly of Pasteur, have shown that it is not the oxygen of the air which causes fermentation and putrefaction, hut bac- teria and other microscopic organisms. Appert's theory as to the cause of the spoiling of food was incorrect, but his method of preserving it by sealing and cooking was correct, and the world owes him a debt of gratitude. In their investigations scientists have found that if food is perfectly sterilized and the opening of the jar or bottle plugged with sterilized cotton, food will not ferment, for the bacteria and yeasts to which such changes are due cannot pass through the cotton. This method cannot be conveniently followed with large jars. Bacteria and yeasts exist in the air, in the soil, and on all vegetable and animal substances, and even in the living body, but although of such universal occur- rence, the true knowledge of their nature and economic importance has only been gained during the last 40 years. There are a great many kinds of these micro-organisms. Some do great harm, but it is thought that the greater part of them are beneficial rather than injurious. Bacteria are one-celled and so small they can only be seen by aid of a micro- scope. The process of reproduction is simple and rapid. The bacterium becomes constricted, divides, and finally there are two cells instead of one. Under favorable conditions each cell divides, and so rapid is the work that it has been estimated that one bacterium may give rise, within 24 hours to 17,000,000 of similar organ- isms. The favorable conditions for growth are moisture, warmth and proper food. Yeasts, which are also one-celled organ- isms, grow less rapidly. A bud develops, breaks off, and forms a new yeast plant. Some yeasts and some kinds of bacteria produces spores. Spores, like the dried seeds of plants, may retain their vitality for a long time, even when exposed to conditions which kill the parent organ- ism. Yeasts and nearly all bacteria require oxygen, but there are species of the latter that seem to grow equally well without it, so that the exclusion of air, which, of course, contains oxygen, is not always a protection, if one of the anaerobic bac- teria, as the kinds are called which do not require oxygen, is sealed in the can. Spoiling of food is caused by the de- velopment of bacteria or yeasts. Certain chemical changes are produced as shown by gases, odors and flavors. Bacteria grow luxuriantly in foods con- taining a good deal of nitrogenous mate- rial, if warmth and moisture are present. Among foods rich in nitrogenous sub- stances are all kinds of meat, fish, eggs, peas, beans, lentils, milk, etc. These foods are difficult to preserve on account of the omnipresent bacteria. This is seen in warm, muggy weather, when fresh meat, fish, soups, milk, etc., spoil quickly. Bacteria do not develop in substances containing a large percentage of sugar, but they grow rapidly in a suitable wet substance which contains a small per- centage of sugar. Yeasts grow very read- ily in dilute solutions containing sugars in addition to some nitrogenous and min- eral matters. Fruits are usually slightly acid and in general do not support bac- terial growth, and so it comes about that canned fruits are more commonly fer- mented by yeasts than by bacteria. Some vegetable foods have so much acid and so little nitrogenous substance that very few bacteria or yeasts attack them. Lemons, cranberries and rhubarb belong to this class. Temperature is an important factor in the growth of bacteria and yeasts. There are many kinds of these organisms, and each kind grows best at a certain temper- ature, some at a very low one and others at one as high as 125 degrees Fahren- heit, or more. However, most kinds of bacteria are destroyed if exposed for 10 or 15 minutes to the temperature of boil- ing water (212 degrees Fahrenheit),* but, if the bacteria are spore producers, cook- CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME 717 ing must be continued for an liour or more to insure their complete destruc- tion. Generally speaking, in order to kill the spores the temperature must be high- er than that of boiling water, or the article to be preserved must be cooked for about two hours at a temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit, or a shorter time at a higher temperature under pressure. Yeasts and their spores are, however, more easily destroyed by heat than bac- teria spores. Hence, fruits containing little nitrogenous material are more easily protected from fermentation than nitrogenous foods in which in general fermentation is caused by bacteria. Of course it is not possible to know what kinds of organisms are in the food one is about to can or bottle; but we do know that most fruits are not favorable to the growth of bacteria, and, as a rule, the yeasts which grow in fruits and fruit juices can be destroyed by cooking 10 or 15 minutes at a temperature of 212 de- grees Fahrenheit. If no living organisms are left, and the sterilization of all appli- ances has been thorough, there is no rea- son why the fruit, if properly sealed, should not keep, with but slight change of texture or flavor, for a year or longer, although canned fruits undergo gradual change and deterioration even under the most favorable conditions. When fruit is preserved with a large amount of sugar (a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit) it does not need to be hermetically sealed to protect it from bacteria and yeasts, because the thick, sugary syrup formed is not favorable to their growth. However, the self-sealing jars are much better than keeping such fruit in large receptacles, from which it is taken as needed, because molds grow freely on moist, sugary substances ex- posed to the air. Molds and ITolding Every housekeeper is familiar with molds which, under favorable conditions of warmth and moisture, grow upon al- most any kind of organic material. This is seen in damp, warm weather, when molds form in a short time on all sorts of starchy foods, such as boiled potatoes, bread, mush, etc., as well as fresh, canned, and preserved fruits. Molds develop from spores which are always floating about in the air. When a spore falls upon a substance containing moisture and suitable food it sends out a fine thread, which branches and works its way over and into the attacked substance. In a short time spores are produced and the work of reproduction goes on. In the first stages molds are white or light gray and hardly noticeable; but when spores develop the growth gradu- ally becomes colored. In fact, the condi- tions of advanced growth might be likened to those of a flower garden. The threads — ^mycelium — ^might be likened to the roots of plants and the spores to the flower and seeds. Mold spores are very light and are blown about by the wind. They are a little heavier than air, and drop on shelves, tables and floor, and are easily set in motion again by the movement of a brush, duster, etc. If one of these spores drops on a jar of preserves or a tumbler of jelly, it will germinate if there be warmth and moisture enough in the storeroom. Molds do not ordinarily cause fermentation of canned foods, al- though they are the common cause of the decay of raw fruits. They are not as injurious to canned goods as are bac- teria and yeasts. They do not penetrate deeply into preserves or jellies, or into liquids or semi-liquids, but if given time they will, at ordinary room temperature, work all through suitable solid sub- stances which contain moisture. Nearly every housekeeper has seen this in the molding of a loaf of bread or cake. In the work of canning, preserving and jelly making it is important that the food shall be protected from the growth of molds as well as the growth of yeasts and bacteria. To kill mold spores food must be ex- posed to a temperature of from 150 de- grees Fahrenheit to 212 degrees Fahren- heit After this it should be kept in a cool, dry place and covered carefully that no floating spore can find lodgment on its surface. 718 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Sterilization To sterilize a substance or thing is to destroy all life and sources of life in and about it. In following the brief outline of the structure and work of bacteria, yeasts and molds, it has been seen that damage to foods comes through the growth of these organisms on or in the food; also that if such organisms are ex- posed to a temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit, life will be destroyed, but that spores and a few resisting bacteria are not destroyed at a temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit unless exposed to it for two or more hours. Bacteria and yeasts, which are inti- mately mixed with food, are not as easily destroyed as are those on smooth sur- faces, such as the utensils and jars em- ployed in the preparation of the food. Since air and water, as well as the foods, contain bacteria and yeasts, and may contain mold spores, all utensils used in the process of preserving foods are liable to be contaminated with these organisms. For this reason all appliances, as well as the food, must be sterilized. Stewpans, spoons, strainers, etc., may be put on the fire in cold or boiling water and boiled 10 or 15 minutes. Tumblers, bottles, glass jars, and covers should be put in cold water and heated gradually to the boiling point, and then boiled for 10 or 15 minutes. The jars must be taken one at a time from the boiling water at the moment they are to be filled with the boiling food. The work should be done in a well-swept and dusted room, and the clothing of the workers and the towels used should be clean. In canning fruits it is well to remember that the product is more satisfactoiT if heated gradually to the boiling point and then cooked the given time. Utensils Jeeded for Canning and Preserving In preserving, canning, and jelly-mak- ing, iron or tin utensils should never be used. The fruit acids attack these metals and so give a bad color and metallic taste to the products. The preserving kettles should be porcelain lined, enam- eled, or of a metal that will not form tioublesome chemical combinations with fruit juices. The kettles should be broad rather than deep, as the fruit should not be cooked in deep layers. Nearly all the necessary utensils may be found in some ware not subject to chemical action. A list of the most essential articles follows: Two preserving kettles, one colander, one fine strainer, one skimmer, one ladle, one large-mouthed funnel, one wire frying basket, one wire sieve, four long-handled wooden spoons, one wooden masher, a few large pans, knives for paring fruit (plated if possible), flat-bottomed clothes boiler, wooden or willow rack to put in the bottom of the boiler, iron tripod or ring, squares of cheese cloth. In addi- tion, it would be well to have a flannel straining bag, a frame on which to hang the bag, a syrup gauge and a glass cylin- der, a fruit pricker, and plenty of clean towels. The regular kitchen pans will answer for holding and washing the fruit. Mixing bowls and stone crocks can be used for holding the fruit juice and pared fruit. When fruit is to be plunged into boiling water for a few minutes before paring, the ordinary stewpans may be employed for this purpose. Scales are a desirable article in every kitchen, as weighing is much more accu- rate than the ordinary measuring. But, knowing that a large percentage of the housekeepers do not possess scales, it has seemed wise to give all the rules in measure rather than weight. If canning is done by the oven process, a large sheet of asbestos, for the bottom of the oven, will prevent the cracking of jars. The wooden rack, on which the bottles rest in the washboiler, is made in this manner: Have two strips of wood meas- uring one inch high, one inch wide, and two inches shorter than the length of the boiler. On these pieces of wood tack thin strips of wood that are one and one-half inches shorter than the width of the boiler. These cross-strips should be about one inch wide, and there should be an inch between two strips. This rack will support the jars and will admit the free circulation of boiling water about them. CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME 719 Young willow branches, woven into a mat, also make a good bed for bottles and jars. The wire basket is a saver of time and strength. The fruit to be peeled is put into the basket, which is lowered into a deep kettle partially filled with boiling water. After a few minutes the basket Is lifted from the boiling water, plunged for a moment into cold water, and the fruit is ready to have the skin drawn off. A strong wire sieve is a necessity when purees of fruit are to be made. These ■sieves are known as puree sieves. They are made of strong wire and in addition have supports of still stronger wire. A fruit pricker is easily made and saves time. Cut a piece half an inch deep from a broad cork; press through this a dozen or more coarse darning needles; tack the cork on a piece of board. Strike the fruit on the bed of needles, and you have a dozen holes at once. "When the work is finished, remove the cork from the board, wash and dry thoroughly. A little oil on the needles will prevent rusting. With needles of the size suggested there is little danger of the points breaking, but it is worth remembering that the use of pricking machines was abandoned in curing prunes on a commercial scale in California because the steel needles broke and remained in the fruit. A wooden vegetable masher is indis- pensable when making jellies and purees. A syrup gauge and glass cylinder are not essential to preserving, canning and jelly making, but they are valuable aids in getting the right proportion of sugar for fruit or jelly. The syrup gauge costs about 50 cents and the cylinder about 25 cents. A lipped cylinder that holds a little over a gill is the best size. Small iron rings, such as sometimes €ome off the hub of cart wheels, may be used instead of a tripod for sligntly rais- ing the preserving kettels from the hot stove or range. To make a flannel straining bag, take a square piece of flannel (27 by 27 inches Is a good size), fold it to make a three- cornered bag, stitch one of the sides, cut the top square across, bind the opening with strong, broad tape, stitch on this binding four tapes with which to tie the bag to a frame. To use this bag, tie it to a strong frame or to the backs of two kitchen chairs. If the chairs are used, place some heavy articles in them; or the bag may hang on a pole (a broom handle) which rests on the backs of the chairs. A high stool turned upside down makes a good sup- port for the bag. Put a bowl on the floor under the bag, then pour in the fruit juice, which will pass through compara- tively clear. Before it is used the bag should be washed and boiled in clear water. Selection and Preparation of the Frnit The selection of fruit is one of the first steps in obtaining successful results. The flavor of fruit is not developed until it is fully ripe, but the time at which the fruit is at its best for canning, jelly making, etc., is just before it is perfectly ripe. In all soft fruits the fermentative stage follows closely upon the perfectly ripe stage; therefore it is better to use underripe rather than overripe fruit. This is especially important in jelly making for another reason also: In overripe fruit the pectin begins to lose its jelly-making quality. All fruits should, if possible, be freshly picked for preserving, canning, and jelly making. No imperfect fruit should be canned or preserved. Gnarly fruit may be used for jellies or marmalades by cut- ting out defective portions. Bruised spots should be cut out of peaches and pears. In selecting small-seeded fruits, like berries, for canning, those having a small proportion of seed to pulp should be chosen. In dry seasons berries have a larger proportion of seeds to pulp than in wet or normal seasons, and it is not wise to can or preserve such fruit unless the seeds are removed. The fruit should be rubbed through a sieve that is fine enough to keep back the seeds. The strained pulp can be preserved as a puree or marmalade. When fruit is brought into the house put it where it will keep cool and crisp until you are ready to use it. 720 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE The preparation of fruit for tlie various processes of preserving is tlie second im- portant step. System will do much to lighten the work. Begin by having the kitchen swept and dusted thoroughly, that there need not be a large number of mold spores floating about Dust with a damp cloth. Have plenty of hot water and pans in which jars and utensils may be sterilized. Have at hand all necessary utensils, towels, sugar, etc. Prepare only as much fruit as can be cooked while it still retains its color and crispness. Be- fore beginning to pare fruit have some syrup ready, if that is to be used, or if sugar is to be added to the fruit have it weighed and measured. Decide upon 'the amount of fruit you will cook at one time, then have two bowls — one for sugar and one for the fruit — that will hold just the quantity of each. As the fruit is pared or hulled, as the case may be, drop it into its measur- ing bowl. When the measure is full put the fruit and sugar in the preserving kettle. While this is cooking another measure may be prepared and put in the second preserving kettle. In this way the fruit is cooked quickly and put in the jars and sealed at once, leaving the pans ready to sterilize another set of jars. If the fruit is to be preserved or canned with syrup, it may be put into the jars as fast as it is prepared. As soon as a jar is full, pour in enough syrup to cover it. If several people are helping and large kettles are being used for the preserving, or where fruit (like quinces and hard pears) must be first boiled in clear water, the pared fruit should be dropped into a bowl of cold water made slightly acid with lemon juice (one tablespoonful of lemon juice to a quart of water). This will keep the fruit white. All large, hard fruit must be washed before paring. Quinces should be rubbed with a coarse towel before they are washed. If berries must be washed, do the work before stemming or hulling them. The best way to wash berries is to put a small quantity into a colander and pour cold water over them; then turn them on a sieve to drain. All this work must be done quickly that the fruit may not absorb much water. Do not use the fingers for hulling strawberries. A sim- ple huller can be bought for five cents. If practicable pare fruit with a silver knife, so as not to stain or darken the product. The quickest and easiest way to peel peaches is to drop them into boil- ing water for a few minutes. Have a deep kettle a little more than half-full of boiling water; fill a wire basket with peaches; put a long-handled spoon under the handle of the basket and lower into the boiling water. Let the peaches drain a minute, then peel. Plums and tomatoes may be peeled in the same manner. If the peaches are to be canned in syrup, put them at once into the steril- ized jars. They may be canned whole or in halves. If in halves, remove nearly all the stones or pits. For the sake of the flavor, a few stones should be put in each jar. When preparing cherries, plums, or crabapples for canning or preserving, the stem or a part of it may be left on the fruit. When preparing to make jelly have ready the cheesecloth strainer, enameled colander, wooden spoons, vegetable mash- er, measures, tumblers, preserving ket- tles, and sugar. If currant jelly is to be made, free the fruit from leaves and large stems, If the jelly is to be made from any of the other small fruits, the stems and hulls must be removed. When the jelly is to be made from any of the larger fruits the important part of the preparation is to have the fruit washed clean, then to remove the stem and blossom end. Nearly all the large fruits are better for having the skin left on. Apples and pears need not be cored. There is so much gummy substance in the cores of quinces that it is best not to use this portion in making fine jelly. Making Syrup for Use in Canning and Preserving Such syrups as are used in canning and preserving are made with varying pro- portions of water and sugar. When the proportion of sugar is large and that of CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME 721 tlie water small tlie syrup is said to be heavy. Wlien tlie water predominates tlie syrup is light. There are several methods of measus- ing the proportion of sugar in a syrup. The most scientific and accurate is with the syrup gauge. Careful measurement or weighing is, however, quite satisfactory for all ordinary work if the syrup need not be boiled a long time. In boiling the water evaporates and the syrup grows thicker and richer. The amount of evapo- ration depends upon the surface exposed and the pressure of the atmosphere. For example, if a large quantity of syrup is boiled in a deep kettle the evaporation will not be rapid. If the same quantity of syrup were boiled the same length of time in a high altitude, Colorado for ex- ' ample, and at the sea level, it would be found that the syrup boiled at the sea level would be thicker and less in volume than that boiled in Colorado, From this it will be seen that it is difficult to say what proportion of sugar a syrup will contain after it has been boiling 10 or more minutes. Of course by the use of the syrup gauge the proportion of sugar in a syrup may be ascertained at any stage of the boiling. After all, however, it is possible to measure sugar and water so that you can know the percentage of sugar when the syrup begins to boil. The following statement gives the percentage of sugar at the time when the syrup has been boiling one minute and also what kind of syrup is suitable for the various kinds of fruit: One pint sugar and one gill of water gives syrup of 40 degrees density: Use for preserved strawberries and cherries. One pint sugar and one-half pint water gives syrup of 32 degrees density. One pint sugar and three gills water gives syrup of 2S degrees density: Use either this or the preceding for preserved peaches, plums, quinces, currants, etc. One pint sugar and one pint water gives syrup of 24 degrees density: Use for canned acid fruits. One pint sugar and one and one-half pints water gives syrup of 17 degrees density. One pint sugar and two pints water gives syrup of 14 degrees density: Use either of these two light syrups for canned pears, peaches, sweet plums, and cherries, raspberries, blueberries, and blackberries. The lightest syrups may be used for filling up the jars after they are taken from the oven or boiler. The process of making syrup is very simple, but there are a few points that must be observed if syrup and fruit are to be perfect. Put the sugar and water in the saucepan and stir on the stove until all the sugar is dissolved. Heat slowly to the boiling point and boil gently without stirring. The length of time that the syrup should boil will depend upon how rich it is to be. All syrups are better for boiling from 10 to 30 minutes. If rich syrups are boiled hard, jarred, or stirred, they are apt to crystallize. The syrup may be made a day or two in advance of canning time. The light syrups will not keep long unless sealed, the heavy syrups keep well if covered well. Use of Syrup Grange The syrup gauge is a graduated glass tube, with a weighted bulb, that registers from no degrees to 50 degrees, and that is employed to determine the quantity of sugar contained in a syrup. If this gauge is placed in pure water the bulb will rest on the bottom of the cylinder or other container. If sugar be dissolved in the water the gauge will be- gin to float. The more sugar there Is dissolved in the water the higher the gauge will rise. In making tests it is essential that the syrup should be deep enough to reach the zero point of the gauge. If a glass cylinder holding about half a gill is filled to about two-thirds its height, and the gauge is then placed in the cylinder, the quantity of sugar in the syrup will be registered on the gauge. Experiments have demonstrated that when sugar is dissolved and heated in fruit juice, if the syrup gauge registers. 25 degrees, the proportion of sugar ia exactly right for combining with the pectin bodies to make jelly. The syrup- 2—5 722 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE gauge and the glass cylinder must both be heated gradually that the hot syrup may not break them. If the gauge regis- ters more than 25 degrees, add more fruit juice. If, on the other hand, it registers less than 25 degrees, add more sugar. In making syrups for canning and preserving fruits, the exact amount of sugar in a syrup may be ascertained at any stage of boiling, and the syrup be made heavier by adding sugar, or lighter by adding water, as the case demands. Canning Fruit This method of preserving fruit for home use is, from all points, the most desirable. It is the easiest and commonly considered the most economical and the best, because the fruit is kept in a soft and juicy condition in which it is be- lieved to be easily digested. The wise housekeeper will can her principal fruit supply, making only enough rich pre* serves to serve for variety and for special occasions. The success of canning depends upon absolute sterilization. If the proper care is exercised there need be no failure, ex- cept in rare cases, when a spore has de- veloped in the can. There are several methods of canning; and while the prin- ciple is the same in all methods, the con- ditions under which the housekeeper must do her work may, in her case, make one method more convenient than an- other. For this reason three will be given which are considered the best and easiest These are: Cooking the fruit in the jars in an oven; cooking the fruit in the jars in boiling water; and stewing the fruit before it is put in the jars. The quantity of sugar may be increased if the fruit is liked sweet. It is most important that the jars, covers, and rubber rings be in perfect condition. Examine each jar and cover to see that there is no defect in it. Use only fresh rubber rings, for if the rubber is not soft and elastic the sealing will not be perfect. Each year numbers of jars of fruit are lost because of the false economy in using an old ring that has lost its softness and elasticity. Having the jars, covers, and rings in perfect con- dition, the next thing is to wash and sterilize them. Have two pans partially filled with cold water. Put some jars in one, laying them on their sides, and some covers in the other. Place the pans on the stove where the water will heat to the boiling point. The water should boil at least iO or 15 minutes. Have on the stove a shal- low milkpan in which there is about two inches of boiling water. Sterilize the cups, spoons and funnel, if you use one, by immersing in boiling water for a few minutes. When ready to put the pre- pared fruit in the jars slip a broad skim- mer under a jar and lift it and drain free of water. Set the jar in the shallow milk pan and fill to overflowing with the boiling fruit Slip a silver-plated knife or the handle of a spoon around the in^ side of the jar, that the fruit and juice may be packed solidly. Wipe the rim of the jar, dip the rubber ring in boiling water and put it smoothly on the jar, then put on the cover and fasten. Place the jar on a board and out of a draft of cold air. The work of filling and sealing must be done rapidly, and the fruit must be boiling hot when it is put into the jars. If screw covers are used, it will be necessary to tighten them after the glass has cooled and contracted. When the fruit is cold wipe the jars with a wet cloth. Paste on the labels, if any, and put the jars on shelves in a cool, dark closet In canning, any proportion of sugar may be used, or fruit may be canned with- out the addition of any sugar. However, that which is designed to be served as a sauce should have the sugar cooked with it Fruit intended for cooking purposes need not have the sugar added to it Juicy fruits, such as berries and cher- ries, require little or no water. Straw- berries are better not to have water added to them. The only exception to this is when they are cooked in a heavy syrup. Easpberries 12 quarts of raspberries. 2 quarts of sugar. Put two quarts of the fruit in the pre- serving kettle; heat slowly on the stove; CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME 723 crush with a wooden vegetable masher; spread a square of cheesecloth over a bowl, and turn the crushed berries and juice into it. Press out the juice, which turn into the preserving kettle. Add the sugar and put on the stove; stir until the sugar is dissolved. When the syrup begins to boil, add the remaining 10 quarts of berries. Let them heat slowly. Boil 10 minutes, counting from the time they begin to bubble. Skim well while boiling. Put in cans and seal as directed. Raspberries and Currants 10 quarts of raspberries. 3 quarts of currants. 2% quarts of sugar. Heat, crush, and press the juice from the currants and proceed as directed for raspberries. Blackberries The same as for raspberries. Currants 12 quarts of currants. 4 quarts of sugar. Treat the same as for raspberries. Gooseberries 6 quarts of berries. 114 quarts of sugar. 1 pint of water. For green gooseberries dissolve the sugar in the water, then add the fruit and cook 15 minutes. Ripe gooseberries are to be treated the same as the green fruit, but use only half as much water. Green gooseberries may also be canned the same as rhubarb. (See BTiu'bar'b.) Blueberries 12 quarts of berries, 1 quart of sugar. 1 pint of water. Put water, berries and sugar in the preserving kettle; heat slowly. Boil 15 minutes, counting from the time the con- tents of the kettle begin to bubble. Cherries 6 quarts of cherries. 1% quarts of sugar. 14 pint of water. Measure the cherries after the stems have been removed. Stone them or not, as you please. If you stone them, be careful to save all the juice. Put the sugar and water in the preserving kettle and stir over the fire until the sugar is dissolved. Put in the cherries and heat slowly to the boiling point Boil 10 min- utes, skimming carefully. Grapes 6 quarts of grapes. 1 quart of sugar. 1 gill of water. Squeeze the pulp of the grapes out of the skins. Cook the pulp five minutes and then rub through a sieve that is fine enough to hold back the seeds. Put the water, skins and pulp into the preserving kettle and heat slowly to the boiling point. Skim the fruit and then add the sugar. Boil 15 minutes. Sweet grapes may be canned with less sugar; very sour ones may have more. Rhubarb Cut the rhubarb when it is young and tender. Wash it thoroughly and then pare; cut into pieces about two inches long. Pack in sterilized jars. Pill the jars to overflowing with cold water and let them stand 10 minutes. Drain off the water and fill again to overflowing with fresh cold water. Seal with sterilized rings and covers. When required for use, treat the same as fresh rhubarb. Green gooseberries may be canned in the same manner. Rhubarb may be cooked and canned with sugar in the same manner as gooseberries. Peaches 8 quarts of peaches. 1 quart of sugar. 3 quarts of water. Put the sugar and water together and stir over the fire until the sugar is dis- solved. When the syrup boils, skim it. Draw the kettle back where the syrup will keep hot but not boil. Pare the peaches, cut in halves, and remove the stones, unless you prefer to can the fruit whole. Put a layer of the prepared fruit into the preserving kettle and cover with some of the hot syrup. When the fruit begins to boil, skim carefully. Boil 724 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE gently for 10 minutes, then put in the jars and seal. If the fruit is not entirely ripe, it may require a little longer time to cooli. It should be so tender that it may be pierced easily with a silver fork. It is best to put only one layer of fruit in the preserving kettle. While this is cooking the fruit for the next batch may be pared. Fears If the fruit is ripe it may be treated exactly the same as peaches. If, on the other hand, it is rather hard it must be cooked until so tender that a silver fork will pierce it readily. Quinces 4 quarts of pared, cored and quartered quinces. 1% quarts of sugar. 2 quarts of water. Rub the fruit hard with a coarse, crash towel, then wash and drain. Pare, quarter, and core; drop the pieces into cold water (See Selection and Preparer tion of tJie Fruit — ^paragraph re Quinces and Fears). Put the fruit in the preserv- ing kettle with cold water to cover it generously. Heat slowly and simmer gently until tender. The pieces will not all require the same time to cook. Take each piece up as soon as it is so tender that a silver fork will pierce it readily. Drain on a platter. Strain the water in which the fruit was cooked throu h cheesecloth. Put two quarts of the strained liquid and the sugar into the preserving kettle,* stir over the fire until the sugar is dissolved. When it boils skim well and put in the cooked fruit. Boil gently for about 20 minutes. Crab Apples 6 quarts of apples. 1% quarts of sugar. 2 quarts of water. Put the sugar and water into the pre- serving kettle. Stir over the fire until the sugar is dissolved. When syrup boils skim it. Wash the fruit, rubbing the blossom end well. Put it in the boiling syrup, and cook gently until tender. It will take from 20 to 50 minutes, depending upon the kind of crab apples. Plums 8 quarts of plums. 2 quarts of sugar. 1 pint of water. Nearly all kinds of plums can be cooked with the skins on. If it is desired to remove the skin of any variety, plunge them in boiling water for a few minutes. When the skins are left on, prick them thoroughly to prevent bursting. Put the sugar and water into the pre- serving kettle and stir over the fire until the sugar is dissolved. Wash and drain the plums. Put some of the fruit in the boiling syrup. Do not crowd it. Cook five minutes; fill and seal the jars. Put more fruit in the syrup. Continue in this manner until all the fruit is done. It may be that there will not be sufficient syrup toward the latter part of the work; for this reason it is well to have a little extra syrup on the back of the stove. Stewed Tomatoes Wash the tomatoes and plunge into boiling water for five minutes. Pare and slice, and then put into the preserving kettle; set the kettle on an iron ring. Heat the tomatoes slowly, stirring fre- quently from the bottom. Boil for 30 minutes, counting from the time the vegetable begins actually to boil. Put in sterilized jars and seal. Whole Tomatoes 6 quarts of medium-sized tomatoes. 4 quarts of sliced tomatoes. Put the pared and sliced tomatoes into a stewpan and cook as directed for stewed tomatoes. When they have been boiling 20 minutes take from the fire and rub through a strainer. Return to the fire. While the sliced tomatoes are cooking, pare the whole tomatoes and put them in sterilized jars. Pour into the jars enough of the stewed and strained to- mato to fill all the interstices. Put the uncovered jars in a moderate oven, plac- ing them on a pad of asbestos or in shal- low pans of hot water. Let the vegetable cook in the oven for half an hour. Take from the oven and fill to overflowing with CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME 725 boiling liot, strained tomato, then seal. If there is any of the strained tomato left, can it for sauces. Canned Frnit Cooked in the Oven This method of canning fruit, in the opinion of the writer, is the one to be preferred. The work is easily and quick- ly done, and the fruit retains its shape, color, and flavor better than when cook- ed in the preserving kettle. Cover the bottom of the oven with a sheet of as- bestos, the kind plumbers employ cov- ering pipes. It is very cheap and may usually be found at plumbers' shops. If the asbestos is not available, put into the oven shallow pans in which there are about two inches of boiling water. Sterilize the jars and utensils. Make the syrup; prepare the fruit the same as for cooking in the preserving kettle. Fill the hot Jars with it, and pour in enough syrup to fill the jar solidly. Run the blade of a silver-plated knife around the inside of the jar. Place the jars in the oven, either on the asbestos or in the pan of water. The oven should be mod- erately hot. Cook the fruit ten minutes; remove from the oven and fill the jar with boiling syrup. Wipe and seal. Place the jars on a board and out of a draft of air. If the screw covers are used tighten them after the glass has cooled. Large fruits, such as peaches, pears, quinces, crab apples, etc., will require about a pint of syrup to each quart jar of fruit. The small fruit will require a little over half a pint of syrup. The amount of sugar in each quart of syrup should be regulated to suit the fruit with which it is to be used. Canned Fruit Cooked in a Water Bath Prepare the fruit and syrup as for cook- ing in the oven. Fill the sterilized jars and put the cov- ers on loosely. Have a wooden rack in the bottom of a wash boiler. Put in enough warm water to come to about 4 inches above the rack. Place the filled jars in the boiler, but do not let them touch one another. Pack clean white cotton rags, or perhaps better, cotton rope, between and around the jars to pre- vent them from striking one another when the water begins to boil. Cover the boiler and let the fruit cook ten minutes from the time the water sur- rounding it begins to boil. Draw the boiler back and take ofC the cover. When the steam passes ofi! take out one jar at a time and place in a pan of boiling water beside the boil- er, fill up with boiling syrup and seal. Put the jars on a board and do not let cold air blow upon them. If screw cov- ers are used tighten them when the glass has cooled and contracted. Preserving Fruit In the case of most fruits, canning with a little sugar is to be preferred to preserving with a large quantity of sugar. There are, however, some fruits that are only good when preserved with a good deal of sugar. Of course, such prepara- tions of fruit are only desirable for oc- casional use. The fruits best adapted for preserving are strawberries, sour cher- ries, sour plums, and quinces. Such rich preparations should be put up in small jars or tumblers. Strawberries Use equal weights of sugar and straw- berries. Put the strawberries in the pre- serving kettle in layers, sprinkling sugar over each layer. The fruit and sugar should not be more than 4 inches deep. Place the kettle on the stove and heat the fruit and sugar slowly to the boil- ing point When it begins to boil skim carefully. Boil ten minutes, counting from the time the fruit begins to bubble. Pour the cooked fruit into platters, hav- ing it about 2 or 3 inches deep. Place the platters in a sunny window, in an unused room, for three or four days. In that time the fruit will grow plump and firm, and the syrup will thicken al- most to a jelly. Put this preserve, cold, into jars or tumblers. White Cnrrants Select large, firm fruit, remove the stems, and proceed as for strawberries. Cherries The sour cherries, such as Early Rich- mond and Montmorency, are best for 726 ENCyCLOPBDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE this preserve. Remove the stems and stones from the cherries and proceed as for strawberry preserve. Cherries Preserved with Currant Juice 12 quarts of cherries 3 quarts of currants 2 quarts of sugar Put the currants in the preserving kettle and on the fire. When they boil up crush them and strain through cheese- cloth, pressing out all the juice. Stem and stone the cherries, being careful to save all the juice. Put the cherries, fruit juice, and sugar in the preserving kettle. Heat to the boiling point and skim carefully. Boil for twenty minutes. Put in sterilized jars or tumblers. This gives an acid preserve. The sugar may be doubled if richer preserves are de- sired. Plum Preserve 4 quarts of green gages. 2 quarts of sugar. 1 pint of water. Prick the fruit and put it in a preserv- ing kettle. Cover generously with cold water. Heat to the boiling point and boil gently for five minutes. Drain well. Put the sugar and water in a preserv- ing kettle and stir over the fire until the sugar is dissolved. Boil five minutes, skimming well. Put the drained green gages in this syrup and cook gently for twenty minutes. Put in sterilized jars. Other plums may be preserved in the same manner. The skins should be re- moved from white plums. Quinces 4 quarts of pared, quartered, and cored quinces. 2 quarts of sugar. 1 quart of water. Boil the fruit in clear water until it is tender, then skim out and drain. Put the 2 quarts of sugar and 1 quart of water in the preserving kettle; stir un- til the sugar is dissolved. Let it heat slowly to the boiling point. Skim well and boil for twenty minutes. Pour one- half of the syrup into a second kettle. Put one-half of the cooked and drained fruit into each kettle. Simmer gently for half an hour, then put in sterilized jars. The water in which the fruit was boiled can be used with parings, cores, and gnarly fruit to make jelly. Fruit Purees Purees of fruit are in the nature of marmalades, but they are not cooked so long, and so retain more of the natural flavor of the fruit. This is a particular- ly nice way to preserve the small, seedy fruits, which are to be used in puddings, cake, and frozen desserts. Free the fruit from leaves, stems, and decayed portions. Peaches and plums should have the skins and stones re- moved. Rub the fruit through a puree sieve. To each quart of the strained fruit add a pint of sugar. Pack in steril- ized jars. Put the covers loosely on the jars. Place the jars on the rack in the boilei'. Pour in enough cold water to come half way up the sides of the jars. Heat gradually to the boiling point and boil thirty minutes, counting from the time when the water begins to bubble. Have some boiling syrup ready. As each jar is taken from the boiler put it in a pan of hot water and fill up with the hot syrup. Seal at once. Marmalades Marmalades require great care while cooking because no moisture is added to the fruit and sugar. If the marmalade is made from berries the fruit should be rubbed through a sieve to remove the seeds. If large fruit is used have it washed, pared, cored, and quartered. Measure the fruit and sugar, allow- ing one pint of sugar to each quart of fruit. Rinse the preserving kettle with cold water that there may be a slight coat of moisture on the sides and bottom. Put alternate layers of fruit and sugar in the kettle, having the first layer fruit. Heat slowly, stirring frequently. While stir- ring, break up the fruit as much as pos- sible. Cook about two hours, then put in small sterilized jars. Fruit Preserved in Gfrape Juice Any kind of fruit can be preserved by this method, but it is particularly good CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME 727 for apples, pears, and sweet plums. No sugar need be used in this process. Boil 6 quarts of grape juice in an open preserving kettle, until it is reduced to 4 quarts. Have the fruit washed and pared, and, if apples or pears, quartered and cored. Put the prepared fruit in a preserving kettle and cover generously with the boiled grape juice. Boil gently until the fruit is clear and tender, then put in sterilized jars. Boiled Cider When the apple crop is abundant and a large quantity of cider is made, the housekeeper will find it to her advan- tage to put up a generous supply of boil- ed cider. Such cider greatly improves mince-meat, and can be used at any time of the year to make cider apple sauce. It is also a good selling article. The cider for boiling must be perfect- ly fresh and sweet. Put it in a large, open preserving kettle and boil until it is reduced one-half. Skim frequently while boiling. Bo not have the kettle more than two-thirds full. Put in bottles or stone jugs. Cider Apple Sauce 5 quarts of boiled cider. 8 quarts of pared, quartered, and cored sweet apples. Put the fruit in a large preserving ket- tle and cover with the boiled cider. Cook slowly until the apples are clear and tender. To prevent burning, place the kettle on an iron tripod or ring. It will require from two to three hours to cook the apples. If you find it necessary to stir the sauce be careful to break the apples as little as possible. When the sauce is cooked, put in sterilized jars. In the late spring, when cooking ap- ples have lost much of their flavor and acidity, an appetizing sauce may be made by stewing them with diluted boiled cid- er, using 1 cupful of cider to 3 of water. Cider Pear Sauce Cooking pears may be preserved in boil- ed cider the same as sweet apples. If one prefers the sauce less sour, 1 pint of sugar may be added to each quart of boiled cider. Metliods of Making Jelly In no department of preserving does the housekeeper feel less sure of the i-esult than in jelly making. The rule that works perfectly one time fails an- other time. Why this is so the average housekeeper does not know; so there is nearly always an element of uncertainty as to the result of the work. These two questions are being constantly asked: *'Why does not my jelly harden?" "What causes my jelly to candy?" It is an easy matter to say that there is something in the condition of the fruit, or that the fruit juice and sugar were cooked too short or too long a time. These explanations are often true; but they do not help the inquirer, since at other times just that proportion of sugar and time of cooking have given perfect jelly. In the following pages an attempt is made to give a clear explanation of the principles underlying the process of jel- ly making. It is believed that the women who study this carefully will find the key to unvarying success in this branch of preserving. Pectin, Pectose, Pectase In all fruits, when ripe or nearly so, there is found pectin, a carbohydrate somewhat similar in its properties to starch. It is because of this substance in the fruit juice that we are able to make jelly. When equal quantities of sugar and fruit juice are combined and the mixture is heated to the boiling point for a short time, the pectin in the fruit gelatinizes the mass. It is important that the jelly maker should understand when this gelatiniz- ing agent is at its best. Pectose and pectase always exist in the unripe fruit. As the fruit ripens the pectase acts upon the pectose, which is insoluble in water, converting it into pectin, which is soluble. Pectin is at its best when the fruit is just ripe or a little before. If the juice ferments, or the cooking of the jelly is continued too long, the pectin undergoes a change and loses its power of gelatin- izing. It is, therefore, of the greatest im- portance that the fruit should be fresh, just ripe or a little underripe, and that 728 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the boiling of the sugar and juice should not be continued too long. Fruits vary as to the quantities of sugar, acid, pectin, and gums in their composition. Some of the sour fruits con- tain more sugar than do some of the milder-flavored fruits. Currants, for ex- ample, often contain four or five times as much sugar as the peach. The peach does not contain so much free acid and It does contain a great deal of pectin bodies, which mask the acid; hence, the comparative sweetness of the ripe fruit. Selection and Handling of Fruit for Jelly Making An acid fruit is the most suitable for jelly making, though in some of the acid fruits, the strawberry, for example, the quantity of the jelly-making pectin is so small that it is difficult to make jelly with this fruit If, however, some currant juice be added to the strawberry juice, a pleasant jelly will be the result; yet, of course, the flavor of the straw- berry will be modified. Here is a list of the most desirable fruits for jelly making. The very best are given first: Currant, crab apple, apple, quince, grape, blackberry, raspberry, peach. Apples make a very mild jelly, and it may be flavored with fruits, flowers, or spices. If the apples are acid it is not advisable to use any flavor. Juicy fruits, such as currants, raspberries, etc., should not be gathered after a rain, for they will have absorbed so much water as to make it diflicult, without excessive boil- ing, to get the juice to jelly. If ber- ries are sandy or dusty it will be neces- sary to -wash, them, but the work should be done very quickly so that the fruit may not absorb much water. Large fruits, such as apples, peaches, and pears, must be boiled in water un- til soft. The straiiied liquid will con- tain the flavoring matter and pectin. It requires more work and skill to make jellies from the fruits to which water must be added than from the juicy fruits. If the juicy fruits are gathered at the proper time one may be nearly sure that they contain the right pro- portion of water. If gathered after a rain the fruit must be boiled a little longer than the superfluous water may pass off in steam. In the case of the large fruits a fair estimate is 3 quarts of strained juice from 8 quarts of fruit and about 4 quarts of water. If the quantity of juice is greater than this it should be boiled down to 3 quarts. Ap- ples will always require 4 quarts of water to 8 quarts of fruit, but juicy peaches and plums require only 3 or 3% quarts. The jelly will be clearer and finer if the fruit is simmered gently and not stirred during cooking. It is always best to strain the juice first through cheesecloth and without pressure. If the cloth is double the juice will be quite clear. When a very clear jelly is desired the strained juice should pass through a flannel or felt bag. The juice may be pressed from the fruit left in the strainer and used in marmalade or for second-quality jelly. To make jelly that will not crystallize (candy) the right proportion of sugar must be added to the fruit juice. If the fruit contains a high percentage of sugar, the quantity of added sugar should be a little less than the quantity of fruit juice. That is to say, in a season when there has been a great deal of heat and sunshine there will be more sugar in the fruit than in a cold, wet season; con- sequently, 1 pint of currant juice will require but three-quarters of a pint of sugar. But in a cold, wet season the pint of sugar for the pint of juice must be measured generously. Another cause of the jelly crystalliz- ing is hard boiling. When the syrup boils so rapidly that particles of it are thrown on the upper part of the sides of the preserving kettle they often form crystals. If these crystals are stirred into the syrup they are apt to cause the mass to crystallize in time. The use of the syrup gauge and care not to boil the syrup too violently would do away with all uncertainty in jelly making. The syrup gauge should reg- ister 2B degrees, no matter what kind of fruit is used. Jellies should be covered CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME 729 closely and kept in a cool, dry, dark place. Currant Jelly Til© simplest method of making cur- rant jelly is perhaps the following: Free the currants from leaves and large stems. Put them in the preserving kettle; crush a few with a wooden vegetable masher or spoon; heat slowly, stirring frequent- ly. When the currants are hot, crush them with the vegetable masher. Put a hair sieve or strainer over a large howl; over this spread a double square of cheese- cloth. Turn the crushed fruit and juice into the cheesecloth, and let it drain as long as it drips, but do not use pressure. To hasten the process take the corners of the straining cloth firmly in the hands and lift from the sieve; move the con- tents by raising one side of the cloth and then the other. After this put the cloth over another bowl. Twist the ends to- gether and press out as much juice as possible. This juice may be used to make a second quality of jelly. The clear juice may be made into jel- ly at once, or it may be strained through a flannel bag. In any case, the method of making the jelly is the same. Measure the juice, and put it in a clean preserving kettle. For every pint of juice add a pint of granulated sugar. Stir until the sugar is dissolved, then place over the fire; watch closely, and when it boils up draw it back and skim; put over the fire again, and boil and skim once more; boil and skim a third time; then pour into hot glasses taken 'from the pan of water on the stove and set on a board. Place the board near a sunny window in a room where there is no dust. It is a great protection and advantage to have sheets of glass to lay on top of the tumblers. As soon as the jelly is set cover by one of the three methods given under "Covering Jellies." To make very transparent currant jelly, heat, crush, and strain the currants as directed in the simplest process. Put the strained juice in the flannel bag and let it drain through. Measure the juice and sugar, pint for pint, and finish as directed above. To make currant jelly by the cold pro- cess follow the first rule for jelly as far as dissolving the sugar in the strained juice. Fill warm, sterilized glasses with this. Place the glasses on a board and put the board by a sunny window. Cover with sheets of glass and keep by the window until the jelly is set. The jelly will be more transparent if the juice is strained through the flannel bag. Jelly made by the cold process is more delicate than that made by boiling, but it does not keep quite so well. Raspberry and Currant Jelly Make the same as currant jelly, using half currants and half raspberries. Raspberry Jelly Make the same as currant jelly. Blackberry Jelly Make the same as currant jelly. Strawberry Jelly To 10 quarts of strawberries add 2 quarts of currants and proceed as for currant jelly, but boil fifteen minutes. Eipe Grape Jelly An acid grape is best for this jelly. The sweet, ripe grapes contain too much sugar. Half-ripe fruit, or equal portions of nearly ripe and green grapes, will al- so be found satisfactory. "Wild grapes make delicious jelly. Make the same as currant jelly. Green Grape Jelly Make the same as apple jelly. Plum Jelly Use an underripe acid plum. Wash the fruit and remove the stems. Put into the preserving kettle with 1 quart of water for each peck of fruit. Cook gently until the plums are boiled to pieces. Strain the juice and proceed the same as for currant jelly. Apple Jelly Wash, stem, and wipe the apples, being careful to clean the blossom end thoro- ughly. Cut into quarters and put into the preserving kettle. Barely cover with 730 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE cold water (about 4 quarts to 8 of ap- ples) and cook gently until tlie apples are soft and clear. Strain the juice and proceed as for currant jelly. There should he hut 3 quarts of juice from 8 quarts of apples and 4 of water. Apples vary in the percentage of sugar and acid they contain. A fine-flavored acid apple should he employed when pos- sible. Apple jelly may he made at any time of the year, but winter apples are best and should be used when in their prime, i. e , from the fall to December or January. When it is found necessary to make apple jelly in the spring, add the juice of one lemon to every pint of apple juice. Cider Apple Jelly Make the same as plain apple jelly, but covering the apples with cider in- stead of water. The cider must be fresh from the press. Crab Apple Jelly Make the same as plain apple jelly. Quince Jelly Rub the quinces with a coarse crash towel,- cut out the blossom end. Wash the fruit and pare it and cut in quarters. Cut out the cores, putting them in a dish by themselves. Have a large bowl half full of water; drop the perfect pieces of fruit into this bowl. Put the parings and imperfect parts, cut very fine, into the preserving kettle. Add a quart of water to every 2 quarts of fruit and par- ings. Put on the fire and cook gently for two hours. Strain and finish the same as apple jelly. The perfect fruit may be preserved or canned. To make quince jelly of a second qual- ity, when the parings and fruit are put on to cook put the cores into another kettle and cover them generously with water and cook two hours. After all the juice has been drained from the parings and fruit, put what remains into the pre- serving kettle with the cores. Mix well and turn into the straining cloth. Press all the juice possible from this mixture. Put the juice in the preserving kettle with a pint of sugar to a pint of juice; boil ten minutes. Wild Fruits for Jellies Wild raspberries, blackberries, barber- ries, grapes, and beach plums all make delicious jellies. The frequent failures in making barberry jelly come from the fruit not being fresh or from being over- ripe. Preparation of tlie Glasses for Jelly Sterilize the glasses; take from the boiling water and set them in a shallow baking pan in which there is about 2 inches of boiling water. Covering Jellies Jellies are so rich in sugar that they are protected from bacteria and yeasts, but they must be covered carefully to protect them from mold spores and evaporation. The following methods of covering jellies are good: Have disks of thick white paper the size of the top of the glass. When the jelly is set, brush the top over with brandy or alcohol. Dip the disk of paper in the spirits and put it on the jelly. If the glasses have covers, put them on. If there are no covers, cut disks of pa- per about half an inch in diameter larger than the top of the glass. Beat together the white of one egg and a tablespoonful of cold water. Wet the paper covers with this mixture and put over the glass, pressing down the sides well to make them stick to the glass; or the covers may be dipped in olive oil and tied on the glasses, but they must be cut a little larger than when the white of egg is used. A thick coating of paraffin makes a good covei% but not quite so safe as the paper dipped in brandy or alcohol, be- cause the spirits destroy any mold or spores that may happen to rest on the jelly. If such spores are covered with the paraffin they may develop under it. However, the paper wet with spirits could be put on first and the paraffin poured over it. If paraffin is used, break it into pieces and put in a cup. Set the cup in a pan of warm water on the back of the stove. In a few moments it will be melted enough to cover the jelly. Have the coating CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME 731 about a fourth of an inch thick. In cool- ing the paraffin contracts, and if the lay- er is very thin it will crack and leave a portion of the jelly exposed. Canned or Bottled Fruit Juices Fruit juice is most desirable for drink- ing or for culinary purposes. Grape juice is particularly good as a drink. It may be canned with or without sugar, but, except where the grapes have a large percentage of sugar, as is the case in California, some sugar should be added to the juice in canning. Currant juice may be sterilized and canned without sugar. This juice may be made into jel- ly at any season of the year. Fruit juices that are designed for use in frozen creams and water ices should be canned with a generous amount of sugar. For grape juice good bottles are to be preferred to fruit cans. If you can get the self-sealing bottles, such as pop or beer comes in, the work of putting up grape juice will be light. If bottles are employed, be very careful to sterilize both bottles and corks. Grape Juice Wash the grapes and pick from the stems. Put the fruit in the preserving kettle and crush slightly. Heat slowly and boil gently for half an hour. Crush the fruit with a wooden spoon. Put a sieve or colander over a large bowl and spread a square of cheesecloth over the sieve. Turn the fruit and juice into the cheesecloth; drain well, then draw the edges of the cheesecloth to- gether and twist hard to press out all the juice possible. Put the strained juice in a clean pre- serving kettle and on the fire. When it boils up, draw back and skim. Let it boil up again and skim; then add the sugar and stir until dissolved. Boil five minutes, skimming carefully. Fill hot sterilized jars or bottles. Put the jars or bottles in a moderate oven for ten minutes, in pans of boiling water. Have some boiling juice and pour a little of it into the jars as they are taken from the oven; then seal. Place on boards and set aside out of a cold draft. A good proportion of sugar and juice is 1 gill of sugar to a quart of juice. Basplberry, Blackberry, Strawberry and Currant Juices With all these fruits except currants, proceed the same as for grape juice, but adding half a pint of sugar to each quart of juice. Currants will require 1 pint of sugar to a quart of juice. Cherry, Plnm and Beach Juices To preserve the juice of cherries, plums, peaches, and similar fruits, proceed as for jelly, but adding to each quart of juice half a pint of sugar instead of a quart as for jelly. If it is not desired to have the fruit juice transparent, the pulp of the fruit may be pressed to extract all the liquid. Fruit Syrups The only difference between syrups and juice is that in the syrup there must be at least half as much sugar as fruit juice. These syrups are used for flavoring ice creams and water ices. They also make a delicious drink, when two or three spoonfuls are added to a glass of ice water, Easpberry Tinegar Put 4 quarts of raspberries in a bowl and pour over them 2 quarts of vinegar. Cover and set in a cool place for two days. On the second day strain the vine- gar through cheesecloth. Put 4 quarts of fresh raspberries in the bowl and pour over them the vinegar strained from the first raspberries. Put in a cool place for two days, then strain. Put the strained juice in a preserving kettle with 3 quarts of sugar. Heat slowly, and when the vinegar boils skim carefully. Boil twen- ty minutes, then put in sterilized bottles. About 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar to a glass of water makes a refreshing drink. Similar vinegars may be made from blackberries and strawberries. Majbia Parloa, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Parmei s Bulletin No. 203 732 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Canning Vegetables in the Home One of the many problems that con- front the American housewife is the sup- ply of vegetables for her table during the winter months. "What can I have for dinner today?" is a question often heard. Since the advent of the modern green- house and the forcing of vegetables under glass, fresh vegetables can usually be found at any time in the markets of the large cities. But the cost of forcing vegetables or growing them out of sea- son is and will continue to be very great. This makes the price so high as almost to prohibit their use by people of moder- ate means, except as a luxury. A health- ful diet, however, must include vege- tables, and therefore the housewife turns to canned goods as the only alternative. These are sometimes poor substitutes for the fresh article, especially the cheaper commercial grades, which necessarily lack the delicate flavor of the fresh vege- table. There is practically no danger, however, from contamination with tin or other metals providing the containers are made of proper materials and handled carefully. In some cases the proper care is not taken in packing vegetables for market The decayed and refuse portions are not so carefully removed as they should be and the requisite degree of cleanliness is not observed in their pack- ing. Happily, however, such carelessness is not general. Every housewife may run a miniature canning factory in her own kitchen, and on the farm this is especially economical and desirable, the economy being less pro- nounced in the case of city dwellers, who must buy their fruits and vegetables. Enough vegetables annually go to waste from the average farm garden to supply the table during the entire winter. But usually the farmer's wife cans her to- matoes, preserves her fruits, and leaves her most wholesome and nutritious vege- tables to decay in the field, under the im- pression that it is impossible to keep them. This is a great mistake. It is just as easy to keep corn or string beans as it is to keep tomatoes, if you know how. The same general methods for steriliza- tion and canning operations should be followed in the canning of vegetables as in the canning of fruits. So-Called "Preserving Powders'^ There are a great many brands of so- called "preserving powders" on the mar- ket. These are sold not only under ad- vertised trade names, but by druggists and peddlers everywhere. In the direc- tions for use the housewife is told to fill the jar with the fruit or vegetable to be canned, to cover with water, and to add a teaspoonful of the powder. It is true that these powders may prevent the de- cay of the fruit or vegetable, but they also encourage uncleanly, careless work, and in the hands of inexperienced persons may be dangerous. While with small doses the influence may not be apparent in an adult in normal health, with a child or an invalid the effect may be of a serious nature. The proper way to sterilize is by means of heat, and as this can be done very easily and cheaply the use of chemical preservatives in canning is not to be recommended. Kinds of Jars The first requisite for successful can- ning is a good jar. Glass is the most satisfactory. Tin is more or less soluble in the juices of fruits and vegetables. Even the most improved styles of tin cans which are lacquered on the inside to prevent the juice from coming in con- tact with the tin are open to this objec- tion. While the small amount of tin may not be injurious, it gives an unde- sirable color to many canned articles. Tin cans can not readily be used a second time, while glass with proper care will last indefinitely. There are a great many kinds of glass jars on the market, many of them pos- sessing certain distinct points of advan- tage. The ordinary screw-top jar is the one in most common use. Although cheap in price, these jars are the most expen- sive in the long run. The tops last only a few years and, being cheaply made, the breakage is usually greater than that of CANNING VEGETABLES IN THE HOME 733 a better grade of jar. Tlie tops also fur- nish an excellent hiding place for germs, which makes sterilization very difficult. An improved type of screw-top jar is now in use. These are fitted with a glass top held in place by a metal cover which screws down over the neck of the jar. If the canning or sterilization is con- ducted properly, practically all of the air will be driven out of the jar by the steam. Upon cooling, this is condensed, a vacuum is formed on the inside which clamps down the glass top against the rubber ring and seals the jar automatic- ally. The metal cover can then be re- moved, as the pressure of the outside air will hold the glass top securely in place. Another type of jar in common use re- guires no rubber rings, but is fitted with a metal top, lacquered on both sides and having a groove around the lower edge. This groove contains a composition of the consistency of rubber which is melted during canning by the heat of the jar and forms a seal that takes the place of the rubber ring. These metal tops must be renewed each year, as it is necessary to puncture them in order to open the jar. The most satisfactory jar that the writ- er has had any experience with has a rub- ber ring and glass top which is held in place by a simple wire spring. There are several brands of these jars on the mar- ket, so no difficulty should be experienced in obtaining them. Vegetables often spoil after being sterilized because of defective rubbers. It is poor economy to buy cheap rubbers or to use them a second time. As a general rule black rubbers are more durable than white ones. Buy a good grade of jar. The best qual- ity usually retails at from a $1 to a $1.25 a dozen. The initial expense may be, therefore, somewhat high, but with proper care they should last many years. The annual breakage should be less than 3 per cent on the average. In selecting a jar always give preference to those having wide mouths. In canning whole fruit or vegetables and in cleaning the jars the wide mouth will be found to be decidedly preferable. Containers for Sterilizing The writer uses a tin clothes boiler with a false bottom made of wire netting cut to fit it. The netting is made of medium-sized galvanized wire (No. 16) with one-half inch mesh. A false bot- tom is absolutely necessary, as the jars will break if set flat upon the bottom of the boiler. Narrow strips of wood, straw, or almost anything of this nature may be used for the purpose, but the wire gauze is clean and convenient. There are several varieties of patent steamers or steam cookers in common use. These have either one or two doors and hold a dozen or more quart jars. They are ideal for canning, but they are somewhat expensive and can be easily dispensed with. A common ham boiler or clothes boiler with a tight-fitting cover will answer every purpose. Selection and Preparation of Vegetables The first step in successful canning is the selection and preparation of the vegetables. Never attempt to can any vegetable that has matured and com- menced to harden or one that has begun to decay. As a general rule, young vegetables are superior in flavor and tex- ture to the more mature ones. This is especially true of string beans, okra, and asparagus. Vegetables are better if gathered in the early morning while the dew is still on them. If it is impossible to can them immediately, do not allow them to wither, but put them in cold water or in a cold, damp place and keep them crisp until you are ready for them. Do your canning in a well-swept and well-dusted room. This will tend to re- duce the number of spores floating about and lessen the chances of inoculation. In the following pages are given in- structions for canning some of the more common vegetables, but the housewife can add to these at will. The principle of sterilization is the same for all meats, fruits, vegetables. Corn Contrary to the general opinion, corn is one of the easiest vegetables to can. The United States Department of Agri- culture has shown that the amount of 734 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE sugar in the sweet varieties diminislies very rapidly after the ear is pulled from the stalk; therefore in order to retain the original sweetness and flavor it is neces- sary to can corn very soon after it is pulled— within an hour if possihle. Se- lect the ears with full grains before they have begun to harden, as this is the period of greatest sugar content. Husk them and brush the silks off with a stiff brush. Shear off the grains with a sharp knife and pack the jar full. Add salt to taste, usually about a teaspoon- ful to the quart is sufficient, and fill up the jar to the top with cold water. Put the rubber ring around the neck of the jar and place the top on loosely. Be careful not to press down the spring at the side of the jar. Place the false bottom in the boiler and put in as many jars as the boiler will conveniently hold. Don't try to crowd them in. Leave space between them. Pour in about 3 inches of cold water, or just enough to form steam and to pre- vent the boiler from going dry during the boiling. It is not necessary to have the water up to the neck of the jars, as the steam will do the cooking. Put the cover on the boiler and set it on the stove. Bring the water to a boil and keep it boiling for one hour. At the end of that time remove the cover of the boiler and allow the steam to escape. Press down the spring at the side of the jar. This clamps on the top and will prevent any outside air from entering. The jars can now be removed and cooled or allowed to stand in the boiler until the next day. On the second day raise the spring at the side of the jar. This will relieve any pressure from steam that might accumu- late inside the jar during the second cook- ing. Place the jars again in the boiler and boil for one hour. Clamp on the top as on the preceding day and allow them to cool. Repeat this operation on the third day. In removing the jars from the boiler be careful not to expose them to a draft of cold air while they are hot, as a sudden change in tempera- ture is likely to crack them. After the sterilization is complete the jars may be set aside for a day or two and then tested. This is done by releas- ing the spring at the side and picking up the jar by the top. If there has been the least bit of decomposition, or if sterilization has not been complete, the top will come off. This is because the pressure on the top has been relieved by the gas formed by the bacteria. In this case it is always best to empty out the corn and fill up the jar with a fresh supply. If canning fruits or some ex- pensive vegetable, however, examine the contents of the jar and, if the decomposi- tion has not gone far enough to injure the flavor, place it once more in the boiler and sterilize over again. If the top does not come off, you may feel sure that the vegetable is keeping. String Beans Select young and tender beans, string them, and break them into short lengths. Pack firmly in the jar, cover with cold water, and add a teaspoon of salt to each quart. Put on the rubber and top and boil for one hour on each of three suc- cessive days, as directed under "Corn." A small pod of red pepper placed in the bottom of the jar will give a delightful flavor to this vegetable. Egg Plant Pare the %gg plant, cut in thin slices, and drop in boiling water for fifteen or twenty minutes. Drain off the water and pack the slices in the jar. Cover with water and sterilize as directed under "Corn." The slices of egg plant are pli- able and may be taken from the jar without being broken and either fried in bread crumbs or made into pudding and baked. Beets Although beets will keep in the cellar over winter, it is very desirable to can them while they are young and tender, as the mature beet is apt to be stringy and lacking in flavor. Wash the young beets, cut off the tops, and put them in boiling water for about an hour and a half, or until they are thoroughly cook- ed. Take off the skins, cut in thin slices, and pack into the jars. Cover with water and sterilize in the manner previ- ously described. If a mild pickle is desired, make a mixture of equal parts CANNING VEGETABLES IN THE HOME 735 of water and good vinegar, sweeten to taste, and cover the beets with this mix- ture instead of water. Okra or Gumlbo This is a vegetable worthy of more ex- tended culture. Although extensively- grown in the South, it is comparatively- unknown in the North. It is easily kept and makes a delicious vegetable for the winter. Wash the young and tender pods, cut them in short lengths, pack in the jars, cover with water and steril- ize. Okra is used for soups or stews. Slimmer Squash Cut the vegetables into small blocks, pack in the jars, and cover with water. Add a teaspoon of salt to each quart and sterilize. It is sometimes preferable with this vegetable, however, to pare off the skin, boil or steam until thoroughly done, mash them, and then pack in the jars and sterilize. If canned in the latter way, it is advisable to steam them for an hour and a half, instead of for an hour, on each of three days, as the heat pene- trates the jar very slowly. It is absolute- ly necessary that the interior of the jar should reach the temperature of boiling water. A jar will usually hold about twice as much of the cooked vegetable as it will of the uncooked. English Peas When prepared and canned in the prop- er way, peas are easily kept and never lose the delicate flavor that they possess when fresh. Shell the young peas, pack in jars, and sterilize as directed under "Corn." Asparagus Can the young tips only, in the same way as you would corn. Cauliflower This vegetable usually keeps very well, but if the supply for the winter should begin to spoil it may be necessary to can it during the summer. Prepare it as you would for the table, pack it into jars, and sterilize. Carrots and Parsnips These, if gathered during the early sum- mer and canned, make most excellent vegetables for the winter. The young plants at that season are not stringy and have not yet developed the strong taste that is so objectionable to some people. Prepare as you would for the table, and sterilize. Tomatoes Every housewife knows how to can tomatoes. They are very easily kept, even in the common screw-top jar. If one already has on hand a number of jars of this pattern, it is best to use them for preserves or for canning tomatoes and to purchase the more modern styles for can- ning other vegetables. In using the screw-top jars be careful to sterilize them first by placing in cold water, bringing to a boil, and boiling for about ten min- utes. The rubber and top should also be Immersed in boiling water for the same length of time. Remove them from the boiling water when needed, handling as little as possible. Be careful not to put the fingers on the inside of the top or the inner edge of the rubber. Fill the jar with the cooked tomatoes while steaming hot, put on the rubber, screw on the top firmly, invert it, and let it stand in that position until cool. KoM-EaM This vegetable resembles the turnip in its habits of growth, although in flavor it more nearly approaches the cauliflower. It is grown in many sections of the North, but in the South it is almost unknown Prepare it as you would turnips, pack in the jar, and sterilize. Lima Beans Lima beans lose their flavor very cLuick- ly after being shelled; therefore it is necessary to can them as soon as possible after gathering. Discard all pods that have begun to harden, and proceed as you would with corn. PumpMn or Winter S<3[nash If provided with a warm, dry cellar, one may keep certain varieties of these vege- tables all winter. Some of the best varie- ties, however, do not keep well, and even the best keepers when not properly housed begin to decay in December or January. It is then necessary to can them in order to save them. If one has a limited number of jars, it is a good plan to fill them all with other vegetables dur- 736 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ing the summer aad upon the approach of frost to gather the pumpkins and bring them indoors. By the time the pumpkins begin to spoil, enough jars will be emptied to hold them. They can now be steam- ed and canned in the same way as sum- mer sguash. In this way a supply of jars may be made to do double service. Succotash The writer has found that a mixture of corn and lima beans, or succotash, is one of the most difficult things to keep. This furnishes one of the very best mediums for bacterial growth; so extreme care must be taken in the process of canning. It is advisable to gather the corn and beans early in the morning and prepare and sterilize them in the manner already described. As with summer squash, it is best to boil for an hour and a half, in- stead of for an hour. Tegetajble Eoast A rather unusual dish for the winter may be made by canning a mixture of vegetables. Prepare corn, lima beans, to- matoes, string beans, okra, squash, and egg plant as you would for canning sepa- rately. Mix these in varying proportions, letting the corn and lima beans predom- inate. Add two or three midium-sized onions to each quart of this mixture and run all through a food chopper in order to mix it thoroughly. Pack into jars and sterilize. In preparing for the table mix with an equal volume of bread crumbs, a piece of butter the size of a walnut, and one egg; season to taste with pepper and salt, and bake in a round bak- ing dish until brown. Cut into slices as you would a cake and serve hot with a drawn butter sauce. Corn, okra, and tomatoes, mixed in equal proportions, may be canned in this way as a soup stock. Freshness of Flavor and Color Vegetables when canned properly should retain their attractive color and lose very little of their flavor. It will be found almost impossible to detect any difference either in taste or in appear- ance between the canned and the fresh article if these directions are carefully followed. The volatile oils which give flavor to most vegetables are not lost dur- ing this process of sterilization. Cook- ing for three short periods in a closed container at a comparatively low temper- ature instead of cooking for one short period at a high temperature or for one long period in an open vessel makes the vital difference and insures freshness of flavor and color. After the jars have been sterilized and tested, they should be kept in the dark, as the sunlight will soon destroy the color of the vegetable. How to Open a Jar Jars of vegetables are sometimes hard to open, unless it is done in just the right way. Run a thin knife blade under the rubber, next to the jar, and press against it firmly. This will usually let in enough air to release the pressure on the top. In case it does not, place the jar in a deep saucepan of cold water, bring to a boil, and keep it boiling for a few minutes. The jar will then open easily. Cautions These directions for canning apply only to pint and quart jars. If half-gallon jars are used, always increase the time of boil- ing, making it an hour and a half in- stead of one hour. Do not go into canning too deeply at first. Experiment with a few jars in the early part of the season and see if they keep well. It is not a difficult matter to can vegetables properly. The writer has never lost a can of string beans, okra, egg plant, carrots, parsnips, lima beans, beets, asparagus, or pumpkin in several years' experience and, has had only one can of peas spoil, a few cans of corn during the earlier trials, and a few cans of succotash. Any housewife can do equally well. If you follow the direc- tions here given carefully, you will have no difficulty whatever. If you should hap- pen to fail in the first trial, rest assur- ed that you have done something wrong or left something undone. No housewife who has on hand during the winter a supply of home-canned vegetables ready to serve on ten minutes' notice will ever regret the trouble or difficulties exper- ienced in learning. j^ p, Bea.zeale, Bureau of Chemistry, TJ. S. Department of Agriculture. CANNING VEGETABLES IN THE HOME 737 Amount and Talne of Canned and Dried Frnit in the United States * PRODUCT 1009 1004 1800 Total value $157,101,201 $130,463,076 $99,335,464 Fruits and Vegetables. Value $86,422,383 $72,008,756 $44,802,665 Canned Vegetables : Cases 32,834,820 20,570,616 19,323,730 Value $51,568,014 $45,610,993 $28,734,508 Tomatoes — Cases 12,980,818 9,411,084 8,700,538 Value $18,747,941 $14,020,846 $13,666,560 Corn — Cases 7,451,265 11 ,200,597 6,336,984 Value $10,332,136 $15,952,386 $8,191,383 Peas— - Cases 5,901,703 4,694,402 2,543,722 Value $10,247,363 $7,928,791 $4,465,673 Beans — Cases 3,393,200 2,588,015 1,493,517 Value $6,013,098 $4,133,810 $2,025,123 Asparagus — - Cases 229,742 Value $1,975,775 Pumpkins — ^ -^„^^« Cases 438,426 246,557 138,078 Value $576,043 $346,497 $202,404 Sweet Potatoes — Cases 347,186 102,907 83,526 Value $531,651 $284,385 $124,245 All Other — > Cases 2,092,470 1,236,874 27,365 Value $3,144,907 $2,944,278 $59,210 Canned Fruits : ^^^ „^^ , ,„» t,^^ Cases 5,461,233 4,628,241 4,467,817 Value $12,038,474 $11,722,970 $11,311 ,062 Peaclies — Cases 1,484,808 1,304,867 1,440,356 Value $3,753,698 $3,002,441 $4,283,165 "^^^^^^C^ses 1,205,774 400^341 645,762 Value $1,808,720 $738,013 $1,125,119 ^^'''*^^C^eg 562,811 530,815 5:^1,648 Value $1,825,311 $1,641,010 $1,583,252 Cases 641,201 780,120 672,485 Value $1,833^214 $2,192,010 $2,188,201 IRpfriAS— — Cases 830,324 480,6^7 600,419 Value ..:::... $1,783,026 $1,058,650 $1,092,975 Cherries-" ^82,116 310,-^50 114,??67 vliSe : : . : : : . . : . . . : . . ^ . . . $990:014 $825,522 $307,788 ^" ^^C^a^s 354,109 605,111 .^53,780 Value $853;591 $1,303,515 $730,562 Dried Fruits-^ 484,328.767 m^Wl'Hl fA^Vcs^r Value $21,914,005 $15,604,784 $4,757,005 Raisms-" ^ 121.400,881 14,984.221 vaix?e . : .■ : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : $6;9]2;533 $6,34o,38i $1,002,208 Prunes— H8,498.400 11 7,808,181 ^5 41 ^5,76.5 Value . . 1 . : $5,130,412 $3,200,628 $970,027 Apples— 44,568.244 40.7^7,080 33,212,300 vXe .::".'::."::::::::: $3,008,005 $1,758,010 $1,906,642 Peaches^-™ 46,84.'^,.^01 25,861 ,074 Y£l^^^ vahfe .::...:... $2,423,083 $1,702,205 $312,490 Apricots--. 20,205,.^v60 10,550.57^ 5.465,217 Value . : : .' : *. .' : ". '. .■'/.::::. $2,277,177 $1,41 o,838 $455,394 All <>tl^«*~ 20,4:^8..^06 18,20'^.8?5 701.509 vXe . : : : : :::::: : : : : : : : $2;o73;605 $1,144,1 22 $49,270 Of factory dried fruit California produced $18,212,316, or 83.1 per cent of the total value of this class of products. * Census Bulletin of Manufactures, 1913. 2—6 738 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Cantaloup Culture Introduction The cantaloup in its season is prob- ably the most popular fruit on the Amer- ican table, appearing prominently on every first-class menu. The total consumption in the United States, amounting to ten thousands of carloads, besides the local home-grown product which can hardly be estimated, indicates an industry of great impor- tance. From the growers' standpoint, however, the story of the melon industry is filled with disappointment and failures, diffi- culties and disheartening returns, which are all but discouraging at times, yet each season some growers are making a decided success of the crop, either through a better experience, more fa- vorable conditions, or exceptional oppor- tunities. Although the grower himself may not always realize the determining elements of his success yet to a careful observer it is evident that many of the factors that cause failures in cantaloupes could be overcome by a better grasp of essential points; for instance, a better knowledge of the experience of other growers, a fuller understanding of the needs of the markets, the best methods of harvesting and handling the crop, and the most favorable system of mar- keting for the highest returns. The various cantaloup districts of the United States have been canvassed for any new information on cantaloupes, and this information has been embodied in this article covering the most essential points in regard to good seed, cultural care, harvesting and marketing, also ex- perience and suggestions on insects and plant diseases. Points for Commercial Growers to Consider In order that preparation may be made for a better appreciation and understand- ing of some of the determining factors that may result in success or failure in cantaloup growing consideration is asked of the following questions: First, Are your seasons long enough, and the climatic conditions favorable for cantaloup growing? Second, Are you accessible to markets, or good railroad facilities? Third, Will your cantaloupes come in competition with those from other dis- tricts and cause a glutted market? Fourth, Have you some peculiar advan- tages which will enable you to meet com- petition? Fifth, Have you had experience in han- dling cantaloupes, and do you realize that it requires under favorable condi- tions 100 to 1^0 acres to profitably ship in carload lots? Sixth, Have you any marketing agencies to assist in disposing of your crop, or will you depend upon open consignments? Seventh, Have you considered your market demands as to varieties, and do you know what strains of seed would be best adapted to your conditions? Eighth, What importance do you place on good seed breeding? Do you know that common, ordinary seed may produce as fine specimens as the best seed, but that the well bred seed will produce a greater per cent of uniform, marketable cantaloupes? Ninth, Are you aware that the highest grade of seed can not insure you a crop under adverse conditions, of weather, poor soil or careless management? Tenth, Do you realize that one failure, or even several, does not prove that suc- cess is not possible? It is not our purpose to call attention to all the possibilities of failures nor sug- gest all the points of encouragement, but if a grower can realize the essential CANTALOUP CULTURE 729 points, we feel that the cantaloup in- dustry will be on a more stable footing. In the first place the large acreage for an individual grower should be discouraged, except in the special canta- loupe growing districts where growers have had experience in handling large acreages. If a large acreage is required to make carload shipments, it would be best to have an aggregation of a large number of small acreages handled by in- dividuals working in co-operation. Specialized cantaloup growing has been made a success in a few localities by a large number of growers, but has been attended with ups and downs, of over- production and glutted markets. But there is a great opportunity for a few growers in a great many localities to specialize in cantaloupes, to work up a fancy trade, and to study to cater to that trade and supply them with only the best, that will result in success where now only indif- ferent results are secured. The grower who considers only the producing side of the industry has not measured one- half of the question, for marketing to a profit is the biggest side. The Importance of Oood Seed It is often argued that seed saved from over-ripe cantaloupes are just as good for seed, which on first thought might seem true, but why is a cantaloup over- ripe, when the fields have been picked over twice each day as they should be? It is true it may have been overlooked, but more probably the majority of "over- ripes" are so because there is an inherent weakness toward rapid ripening, in real- ity a poor keeping quality; hence if we plant seed saved from over-ripe canta- loupes that are culled from where the bulk of the cantaloupes are marketed, we are propagating just the traits that we do not want in our cantaloupes for market. Seed breeding means more than the selection of seed from an average crop; that would tend only to produce average results. The same laws that govern the breed- ing of animals also control the improve- ment of plants. Any fair-minded man will acknowledge that thoroughbred ani- mals are more profitable than scrubs, or even average stock, and the same is true of plants. But we must get the true con- ception of seed selection — not the idea of the uninformed farmer who, with his wife spent their evenings for many days selecting seed corn from a lot of shelled corn that he had purchased for feed. The man who selects his cantaloupe seed at the packing shed is almost as far wrong, for the plant that produced the seed has not been considered. Nature makes selections that the grower may often overlook; for instance, cool nights and a short season will act as a natural selection to develop the early ma- turing types, hence the seed from the arid region in high altitudes has proven to be superior to seed growing in the humid sections, both for vigor and early maturity. The big cantaloup growers from California and the Southern states realize this, for they look to Rocky Ford each year for their cantaloup seed, and all testify that they get earlier and more uniform cantaloupes from the Rocky Ford grown seed. Yet because cantaloupes from Colorado are the last to appear on the markets, some might suppose that the seed from there would be late in maturing, when in fact the very opposite is true. Some Points That Seeds Will Not Overcome Poor results are often attributed to poor seed, which is doubtless often the case, but there is evidence to show that complaints about seed may sometimes be made when the trouble is due to other causes; for instance, two fields may be planted with the same stock of seed, but having different soil fertility, or cultural care, may show widely different results in yield, size and uniformity of the crop. As for example, a grower in Texas who complained that certain seed pro- duced too many "jumbo" sizes, while from Southwest Arkansas another complaint from the same strain of seed was to the effect that the cantaloupes were running too small, yet this grower admitted that 740 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE dry weather checked his vines some- what. Some people seem to think that the crop should show absolute uniformity; this is next to impossible, although a study of the ideal representations and the elaborate descriptions in some of the seed catalogues might convey this im- pression. The fact is, cantaloupes do vary even in the hest strains of seed; one can frequently find on one vine, one canta- loup that is very long, while another may be short and round ; this is especially true if the vine has made an unusual growth on account of rich soil or other favorable conditions. The size of the cavity, the development of the netting, and the appearance of the cantaloupes will vary on different types of soil to some extent, and differ- ent seasons will lead the grower to think that the seed was not up to standard of the year before when the seed was equally good, but the season was not as favorable in some respects that this grower overlooks. The same seed out of the same sack has been planted on different days, one just before a rain that was cold and the other after it had warmed up; one came up slowly, small and puny, while the other made a fine growth. Any influence that tends to retard or stimulate the growth of the vines will also, in some way or another, affect the results of the crop; such influence may not be serious, possibly only a few over- sized melons, making packing a little more difficult, but one must expect some variations due to environment. These may he favorable or unfavorable, and they may or may not de wider the con- trol of the grower. There is a long list of these factors—character of the soil, fertility, moisture supply, climate, insect pests, plant diseases, and cultural care; all of these must be considered and con- trolled, if possible, if we would secure the greatest uniformity in results. heredity of the seed is another great factor influencing results and one that is often difiicult to determine since there are always the two forces, environment and heredity, at work, and which of these causes has produced a given effect will often he the question. The only fair way to pass judgment up- on the merits of a certain stock of seed is to compare its results with those of other seed under exactly the same conditions. It is the only means of reading heredity in any system of plant breeding. The methods of plant breeding for the differ- ent crops are essentially the same, name- ly, a nursery test of the seed from in- dividual plants, selected for given traits, and which are then grown under uni- form conditions to detei-mine their rela- tive merit. Method of Developing High C^rade Seeds The method is to select a large number of individuals, save the seed sep- arately and plant in adjacent plats at the same time, under as uniform condi- tions as possible, to test out their breed- ing tendencies — this is called a nursery test. The individual plant is the unit of variation, and hence should always he made the unit of selection. The results of systematic seed selection have clearly shown that there is a wide variation in different plants from even fairly pure seed, and that the more nearly a strain of seed can be the progeny from a single plant, the more uniform and strong its hereditary tendencies will be, provided that the individual plant is not a hybrid, in which case it may break up into a variety of types; but even in long es- tablished strains of pure bred seed there is still the continual" "reverting" or "breed- ing back," so that it is not uncommon to find a cantaloup that is a little "off," so if the general average of the crop is pretty uniformly true, one need not sus- pect a mixture by the appearance of a little variation. Sometimes a variation is along very desirable lines, for there are numerous instances where the selection of the seed from a single plant that seemed differ- ent, has been the beginning of a new strain much superior to the original; such was the history of the disease-re- sistant Pollock cantaloup, while the CANTALOUP CULTURE 741 Ryan's Early Waiters was started from a single early maturing plant. There is plenty of seed saving, but comparatively little seed selection along systematic lines, and there is still less seed breeding for improved hereditary traits. Usually twenty-five hills are planted in each plat, and all are given uniform conditions that the differences that may develop may reasonably be as- cribed to heredity, and the new selec- tions made accordingly. A number of the choicest Individual fruits from the most desirable plats are again saved for the next year's nursery test, and the plats that run most nni- formly alike along desirable lines, are then cut for stock seed. In this way the weak traits and undesirable tend- encies of any individual plant may be eliminated more and more each year, while the strong desirable traits are re- tained and thus the average uniformity gradually increased as far as possible. It will readily be seen that it requires the same care to maintain a grade of quality that it did to build it up in the fix'st place, the tendency to deteriorate being always present. The first nursery grown, before the seed had been bred up much, would have the appearance of a large checker board, because of the many variations. Some would be disease-resistant and some not; some would be early and some late; some prolific and others not, while in netting, color of the flesh, and the size and form of the fruit, the contrasts would be also very marked. Aside from improving and combining desirable traits, the nursery test for can- taloupes has another strong point of merit, namely, keeping the stock seed pure. It is evident that if seed from individual cantaloupes are planted sep- arately in different plats, it would be easy for a keen observer to detect the presence of a hybrid and thus eliminate that plant from being saved for stock seed. So marked have been the results and advantages of the breeding from individ- ual plants to secure uniformity and de- sirable traits, that no one who has fol- lowed it up intelligently can doubt the efficiency of the method; but at the same time it is very evident that it takes care and a good deal of time to accomplish results which at first may seem easy. Seed breeding is practical; it is not a theory or a fancy, but a reasonable, re- sult-producing process. The most success- ful farmers are giving it careful consid- eration, nor does the improvement of seed add a burden of labor and expense, but comes as an added asset to the grower's wealth, and increases his pride in his crop. Comparatively few men are capable of producing their seed for if they are grow- ing cantaloupes for market, their time and attention must be occupied with the crop, and to select, cut and cure high- grade cantaloup seed requires no little training and experience, and some little equipment. The grower who buys his seed should deal directly with a reliable breeder who is qualified, and is making a specialty of growing the crop for seed; a grower should not submit his seed order for "lowest did^' if he expects to get the best seed. Conditions and Cultural Care Climate The cantaloup seems to thrive in rather a wide range of soil and climatic conditions, being grown to some extent in almost all of the states, although from the standpoint of money returns, the area of very successful cantaloup culture is somewhat limited; yet it appears that it is more the question of cultural care, disease and insect pests, or favorable marketing facilities, which determine the success of the industry in a given local- ity, rather than the specific soil or cli- matic conditions. Climatic conditions within certain lim- its are essential to successful cantaloup culture, and the consideration of this topic may answer many questions as to the adaptability of some sections for melon growing. First, there should be a long, hot summer,^ with about five months free from killing frosts, with a 742 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE daily maximum temperature between 80 and 95 degrees during June, July and August, with a night temperature seldom falling below 60 degrees; four months may mature good cantaloupes, but with so short a season frost would probably cut short the profits of the crop, unless, as is done in some of the Northern states having too short season, the plants are started under frames in sods or paper bands; second, there should be plenty of bright sunshine, without excessive rain- falls; this will secure good quality and lessen liability to attacks of fungus trou- bles that are so often fatal to the melon crop in rainy sections or regions of heavy dews; without doubt the clear bright sun- shine and the arid conditions of South- eastern Colorado account for the high flavor and the fine qualities found in the Rocky Ford cantaloupes as compared with the poor quality in the cantaloupes with an abnormal rain fall, which some- times occurs. Sunlight is very essential to the full development of cantaloupes, for the qual- ity is perceptibly inferior in shaded spots ; the dry atmospheric conditions cause rapid transpiration of the moisture from the leaves, thus inducing a quick move- ment of sap or plant juices which in- creases the power to carry and deposit plant foods, thus developing and concen- trating the spice of flavor and producing the very highest qualities. We do not recommend cantaloupes to be planted in an orchard where there is any shade to speak of, as they will not do well. Plate No. 2. Contrast in Growth of Vines : on the Left Alfalfa Sod ; on the Right Old Land. Soil and Fertility It is conceded by all experienced canta- loup growers that the cantaloup thrives best in a warm, sandy loam; clay loam and other types of soil may produce a good crop if the tilth and fertility are good, but heavy soils are apt to be cold and backward, causing lateness in ma- turing, and it is also generally believed that the nature of some types of soils seriously influences the form, size and other qualities of the cantaloup. It is true, however, that the average size will vary in different seasons; in seasons of very favorable growth the cantaloupes will run to a large proportion of "jumbo melons" (larger than standard) ; in sea- sons less favorable there will be more small or pony sizes. An actual test of a crop on a piece of land is the best proof of the fitness of the soil for that crop, for while a chemical analysis may theoretically seem favorable, in practice it may prove otherwise. There are many factors that may in- fluence the results, but in general the land that will grow other vine crops, such as cucumbers, pumpkins and squash, will probably grow good cantaloupes. Soil for cantaloupes should have good drainage, both surface and subsoil, and in irrigated regions the land must have a uniform slope or grade so that the water will run even, without soaking or flooding the hills; if there is one point above another in cantaloup culture that needs special emphasis, it is the caution against oversoaking or flooding of the surface of the field; this will be further discussed under the topic "Irrigation," but the point must be held in mind in many of the operations, and in selecting the field, to have it well drained on the surface as well as the subsoil. If no detrimental soil conditions like seepage, or alkali, exist, the question of fertility is usually the most important one in relation to the soil; barnyard manure is an old standby, and canta- loupes, of all crops, will respond as well to well - rotted compost as to any form of commercial fertilizer, but ex- perience of the most convincing sort has CANTALOUP CULTURE 743 Plate No. 3. The Contrast Between an Imperfect and a Perfect Cantaloup. shown that soil cannot be made to pro- duce good cantaloupes indefinitely, year after year, by applying manure and arti- ficial fertilizers. Aside from fertility there are also the questions of plant diseases, soil bacteria, and unbalanced food supply. Crop-rota- tion has proven to be the most practical and adequate means of preserving not only the proper fertility, but the near- est approach to securing uninfested soil conditions, hence crop rotation becomes an important phase of cantaloup culture Alfalfa to the western ranches occu- pies the same place that clover does to the eastern farmer, or the cow pea to the southern planter; these crops for their respective sections provide ideal soil fer- tility and tilth for the cantaloup. In Colorado alfalfa sod is the ideal soil prep- aration for cantaloupes, and a comparison of the results on alfalfa sod with even well manured old land will convince the most skeptical. (Plate No. 2.) Experience has demonstrated that early matured can- taloupes can hardly be expected on soil following a heavy fertility consuming crop, like sugar beets or corn, a good late crop being the usual result. Nearly all the fine records of early yields and high prices have been made on soil that was in a perfect state of tilth and fertility. Soil can be made too rich in applying manures, and the principal point in the application of fertilizers is to have a rea- sonable amount, and well incorporated in the soil, and in the case of barnyard manure to have it well rotted. In Col- orado manuring in the hill has been found to have no advantage over the broadcast method, owing probably to the wide spreading root system of the plant; commercial fertilizers have not heen profitably used in Colorado. Preparing Land for Cantaloupes The secret of getting soil in that ashy, mellow condition so desirable for canta- loupes, is one largely of experience, for handling soil in the same manner on dif- ferent farms will seldom get the same re- sults; one may be a clay, the other a sandy loam. The texture and the pre- vious cropping has much to do with the way the soil can be handled. In general there must be moisture in the soil dur- ing the winter to secure the mellowing effect of the frost, and the soil must not be handled too wet. If clay or adobe "packs" it will dry hard and lumpy; real sandy soil can be handled wet with less risks than other soils. The soil should be friable so that the harrow will pul- verize it without clogging as it does in mud, and yet not so dry as to leave the field full of clods. Before plowing the soil should be well disked for two reasons. First, to thor- oughly mix the soil with any fertilizer previously applied, and, second, to pul- verize the soil on the surface, so that after the work of preparation is com- plete, the bottom of the furrow will be as finely prepared as the top. Plowing for cantaloupes is usually made to the depth of five to six inches; in the arid region the plowed land must be closely harrowed behind the plow, to prevent too rapid drying of the surface, and should be closed up by fining the soil on top; this is usually accomplished with the steel harrow with the teeth turned nearly flat, or with a float or land-leveler. A fine dust mulch will check evaporation, and Plate No. 4. Leveling Land, and Fining the Soil. 744 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE thus conserve the soil moisture, to enable a more thorough harrowing to complete the preparation. Preparing the land some time before planting is advisable, as the soil becomes settled and the seed will germinate more readily and a more uni- form stand will be secured. The soil should also be harrowed after cold spring rains to check evaporation, which will tend to aid in warming up the soil. Be- fore laying out the rows to plant, while the surface of the soil is dry, the field should be carefully leveled with a land leveler (see Plate No. 4), removing all the high points and filling the hollows and dead furrows so that in irrigating the water will run uniformly without flood- ing the rows, or oversoaking any of the hills. About planting time the field is laid off with a marker in rows five to six feet apart, in the opposite direction to the rows to be planted, which are laid off with the irrigation furrows in the best direction for water to run. The irrigation rows are usually made about the same dis- tance apart, usually six feet; these fur- rows can be made with a single shovel plow or a two-row marker or furrower. In the non-irrigated regions these fur- rows could serve for surface drainage after heavy rains. Planting and Securing a Stand The first requisite in planting canta- loupes is to have the weather warm, for warmth and moisture are the two essen- tials in seed germination. Many growers make the mistake of planting while the ground is yet cold with freezing temper- ature occurring every few nights. If perchance the days are warm enough to germinate the seed, the plants are stunted and make a slow, tantalizing growth, should they be so fortunate as to escape these late frosts of spring. As a general rule, a few days before the latest freeze may be expected, is as early as is safe to plant. It is common for cantaloupes planted as early as the tenth of May to begin to ripen as soon as the earlier planted seed, so as a rule it is not to much advantage to plant very early; the grower must be the judge in regard to his soil and climate. There are two systems of planting can- taloupes — the drill-row and in hills. In the hill system the field is check-rowed like corn, to permit cultivating in each direction, the rows usually being laid off five to six feet apart, and the hills about the same distance in the rows. By drop- ping eight to ten seed to the hill, it will require about a pound of seed to plant an acre. It is advisable to plant plenty of seed in order to secure a good stand, allowing for the attacks of the cutworms and other destructive agencies. There are two methods of planting cantaloupes in hills — with a hoe, and with a hand planter, commonly called a "snap- per." The rotary type of this form of planter is usually the most satisfactory, but some modifications are usually neces- sary to fit it for dropping cantaloup seed. By filling the holes of one of the reg- ular corn-dropping plates with lead, then by boring out with a three-eighths drill ■K H jj tWjjl »fM»W'."»' ».' J." Plate No. 5. Planting Cantaloupes with Garden Drill. bit and by testing and enlarging the holes it can be regulated to drop quite well; the seed box will also need close fitting, to prevent the thin flat seed from leaking out. A block or stop should be attached to the blades at about the depth to plant, about one and a half inches; this will insure uniform depth, which is essential. Great care should be exercised to have the depression or hole formed in the soil by the thrust of the planter filled or leveled with the foot; otherwise the seed will dry out, field mice will more CANTALOUP CULTURE 745 readily find the hills, and a hard dash of rain will form a hard chunk, or crust, right over the seed. The surface of the soil should he dry to insure good work with the planter. A man with some ex- perience can plant from three to five acres per day with a planter, while one acre per day is about all that can he ac- complished with a hoe. The principal argument for the hill sys- tem of growing cantaloupes is the econ- omy of labor, for more of the weeding and hoeing can be done with a horse. In the drill system the rows are usu- ally put about the same distance apart, but the seed are sown in drill rows, the seed being dropped every two or three inches; this method requires about two to three pounds of seed per acre. The seed is sown either with a hand drill, shown in Plate No. 5, the horse planter, or the sugar beet drill is used. The im- portant point is to get the seed dropped uniformly, and the drill set to plant at a uniform depth — not over one and a half inches; as soon as the plants are nicely up they should be thinned to sin- gle plants, far enough apart to permit hoeing between. After the danger from insect injuries is over, and about the time the first blossoms appear, the plants should be thinned again to one plant every two feet, on the average; the tend- ency at this point is to leave the plants too thick, especially if the plants are extra fine. The most advanced plants are selected, which is the cause of the drilled fields usually maturing earlier than the hill planted, and the earlier de- velopment usually compensates for the extra cost of the increased amount of seed, and the added labor of thinning. The essential points in planting are to get the seed planted at a uniform depth, and at a uniform distance from the irri- gation furrow; to have the soil fine and firmed just right, to skillfully conserve and apply moisture, and to keep a crust from interfering with the young seed- iings. In the arid regions the seed is usu- ally planted about one-half inch deeper than it is expected the plants will come through, in order to hold the moisture line to the seed. When the seed is well sprouted the hills are raked off with a garden rake, removing the crust and any clods that might interfere. Sometimes the field is harrowed across the rows with good results, especially where the rows are drilled in. This matter of * 'rak- ing off" and keeping the surface fine over the hills is a very important point to be observed in securing a good stand. Irrigation The moisture problem in cantaloup growing is a very important one. Some times in the humid sections, there is too much water, and it becomes the question of how to save the crop ; but little can be said here, except to select well drained fields for the cantaloupes and provide the field with furrows, like the irrigation furrow, to carry off the excess rain wa- ter, and to plant on somewhat raised hills or ridges. In the arid sections the moisture for the crop as a rule depends on the irriga- tion furrow, and the skill of the grower to so manipulate the soil and water. Too many look upon irrigation as a simple process of running water through the rows, or over the ground, paying little or no attention to the needs or demands or the dangers of flooding or oversoaking the land. "When soil is completely sat- urated with water the air is practically all driven out and the soil settles, which defeats the very object and purpose of plowing and the other work of soil prep- aration, which will dry hard and noth- ing but frost can ever mellow it as be- fore. The application of water to all such crops as cantaloupes should be by sub- irrigation, that is, the moisture should soak through the soil to the plant or seed, from the irrigation furrow, without the surface of the soil, except in the furrows coming in contact with the water; this is essential not only for the needs of the plant but also the same amount of water will serve a longer time the needs of the plants, the water rights in some ditches making it necessary to conserve the moisture as long as possible. 746 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE In order to supply the moisture uni- formly to the seed along the row, the seed must have been planted at a uni- form distance from the water line, about four to six inches; to insure uniformity in the soaking of the rows, the rows should be "logged" out, or smoothed out with a short piece of log about the size of the furrow; this will cause the water to run through quickly, and by regulating the amount in each row, the rows will become uniformly wet without flooding or soaking the ground. Plate No. 6 shows Plate No. 6. Irrig:ating: for Germination of Seed. a field being properly irrigated, to germi- nate the seed. When the water can be gotten through the rows quickly and the amount regulated to supply the rows about as fast as it soaks in the soil, the upper and lower parts of the row will be- come wet at about the same time and amount, with practically little water wasted. The idea is to soak the rows until the water has fully reached the seed, while the surface over the hill remains nearly dry; this is ideal condition for germina- tion and is sufficient for the needs of the plants in all the early irrigations. Later the rows can be soaked till moisture shows on the surface back to the plants. Under arid conditions one irrigation after planting, and one again about the time the plants are coming up, is ordina- rily all that is required until after the first cultivation; after that irrigation and cultivation alternate each other every week or ten days, the exact number of times depending on the weather and soil conditions. The amount of irrigation necessary to secure the best results in cantaloup cul- ture, is subject to so many varying fac- tors, that it is impossible to lay down an exact rule. In the first place, the canta- loup does not thrive in a wet soil, as evidenced by the injury and poor quality of the crop in seasons of excessive rain. The needs of the crop in the first stages are very small, and as light watering as possible to secure the needed moisture is best; then as the plant develops the amount of irrigation should be increased; light, frequent irrigations rather than heavy soakings at long intervals has proven to be the best plan. When the vines are nearly grown and set full of developing fruit a heavier irri- gation is then needed by the plant, but as soon as the fruits have reached their growth, light waterings should again be the rule; to insure the best quality, little if any irrigation should be applied dur- ing the picking season, just enough to prevent severe wilting; it is at this time that the cantaloup "rust" fungus makes its appearance, and moisture and dews are favorable to its development. The dryer the season, the better the quality in cantaloupes, is an axiom that should induce more careful irrigation among cantaloup growers in the irrigated sections. The relation of irrigation to early set- ting of cantaloupes is a somewhat mooted question; there are growers who argue the use of frequent irrigations during the setting period in order to secure a good set, but others prefer to keep their vines dry, even allowing them to show the need of moisture before they will permit irri- gation during this stage. It is evident that the season and cli- matic conditions have more to do with the setting of fruit than the watering; there are experiences that might seem to support both theories; yet continued ob- servations would indicate that a grower is not warranted in following either course to the extreme, but rather the medium plan of providing just enough moisture to secure an even, healthy growth all the way through, would seem to be most favorable condition. An excess of water in hot weather is apt to induce a heavy growth of vine at the expense of early "sets" due to the CANTALOUP CULTURE 747 rank growth, and such succulent growth is also much more liable to succumb to the attack of diseases and insect pests. Hoeing Hoeing the hills is of great importance, but it should be done with skill both as to the time and in the manner it is done, for careless hoeing is a common error; if the seed has been properly planted in mellow soil and the irrigation properly applied, there is no reason for deep hoe- ing in and close to the hill, as it only disturbs the plant and dries out the soil; weeds can be destroyed by rather shallow hoeing. The dry, cloddy soil on the surface of the hill should be removed and replaced with fine mellow soil drawn up from away from the Mil, hilling up the plants as much as possible; even to almost cov- ering the two seed leaves. This will pro- tect the plants from wind and insects to a large measure; but the most impor- tant feature of this process is the hold- ing of the moisture well upon the stems, affording the best condition for a long base for the development of the roots, as well as supplying the plant with moisture. If, on the other hand, the soil in the hill is loosened up with the hoe and not hilled up by drawing the loosened soil to the plant with the hoe, the hill will usually dry out, and only a short portion of the stem be in moist soil to induce root development. Cultivation A thorough preparation of the soil be- fore it is planted to cantaloupes will very much lessen the necessity for so much cultivation afterwards, but a good deal depends on frequent and thorough tillage during the early stages of the growth of cantaloupes; at first it should be deep and thorough, but not close enough to disturb the plants; the culti- vations should be more shallow and fur- ther from the hills as the plants develop. The grower who cultivates deep and close to the hill because the vines do not pre- vent this, is cutting off roots, setting back his crop more than he is doing good. He should understand the growth of the roots, for they form the counterpart of the vines on the surface, only they ramify the soil more thoroughly and to a greater distance than the length of the vines, so it is easily possible to damage the crop by careless cultivation. Examina- tions in the soil between the rows will reveal the tiny rootlets very thick, four to five inches deep, hence surface tillage after the vines start should be the rule; in irrigated regions root pruning seems to be detrimental to the crop. In the humid areas of the South under heavy rain falls, experienced growers recommend deeper planting and deep, thorough cultivations. They argue that deep cultivation will induce a deep root system, so if the season is excessively wet, the deep stirring will dry out the ground faster, and the root pruning will have the effect of checking the too rapid growth of vines that usually accompanies wet conditions and hot weather, and when, on the other hand, the season proves to be a dry one, the heavy soil mulch will conserve moisture in the subsoil, and the deep root system will permit the plants to develop a good crop, while on the shal- low stirred soil the crop will burn up. Tools Used in Cantaloup Culture The fourteen-toothed cultivator, with a steel weeding knife bolted across between the two back teeth, so as to run just below the surface an inch or two, has become the most popular tool for cultivating on land clean of alfalfa roots or trash. This gives ideal tillage, and practically kills all the weeds except in the hills. On alfalfa sod where the crowns would gather on the knife it is not so pleasant to use, yet it will do very satisfactory work, but here the five-toothed cultivator is usually used; this tool is also used to furrow out rows by closing it up and placing a large shovel on the rear shank. When the cantaloupes are "laid by" (cul- tivated and furrowed out the last time), the irrigating furrows are made some- what larger than before and they should be "logged out," so that water can make its way through the rows after the vines have covered the ditches; it is also a good plan to lay the vines around out of the furrows once, to train them as much as 748 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Plate No. 7. The Common Tools Used in Cantaloup Culture. possible away from the furrows; this will keep many of the cantaloupes out of the ditch, though the vines will eventually nearly cover the ground. A two-horse ten-toothed riding corn cultivator makes a splendid tool for large acreage. General Care of the Crop If there is a secret in getting early cantaloupes, it is in growing them from start to finish in such a way that the growth is not checked at any time. The cantaloup does not seem to have the power to rally from a check in growth or an injury of any kind; the setback not only hinders the production of early fruits, but seriously affects the size and yield of the cantaloupes. There are nu- merous instances where unfavorable con- ditions of some kind have checked the growth in some part of a field that was planted and otherwise handled the same; invariably that portion of the field will show marked difference in size, netting or other qualities. The best promise of a good crop is a prompt and steady growth from germination to maturity. The seedling period is the critical time in the development of a crop of canta- loupes, for it is at this stage that the check in growth usually occurs from cold weather, high winds, lack of mois- ture or the attacks of insects. A knowledge of the manner of growth of the root system and development of the seedling, will in a measure explain the reasons for the steps taken and the precautions that are necessary at this time in handling the crop through this important period. The root system that first develops when the seed germinates, penetrates al- most directly down from the seed while the stem or radical is pushing its way to the surface. These little roots seem to form a temporary support for the plant during the first two or three weeks, for up to this time the stem from the seed point to the top of the ground is smooth and white, with no evidence of the lateral roots. The second root system develops from the stem about the time the fifth leaf ap- pears, or four to five weeks after germina- tion; these roots seem to form the main feeders of the plant, for the growth of the plant is almost insignificant until it feels the impulse of this larger and bet- ter root system. The question of good early growth and maturity almost hinges on the success of the farmer in supply- ing the conditions that will favor the early and proper development of this lat- eral, or main root system. It seems evi- dent that the depth of planting and the manner of managing the soil in the hill has an important relation to the early development of these lateral roots. Ex- perience teaches that seeds planted much over two inches in depth are slow and dif- ficult to germinate, being weakened by the long stem that is necessary to reach the surface; and, on the other hand, if planting is too shallow, the seeds are apt to dry out, or if rain follows a crust will form, which must be removed, and that often exposes the seeds that are not planted at a sufficient depth, with fatal results, or leaves the plant with too shal- low a stem support; it is then whipped and wrung by the high, drying winds or exposed to the attacks of the cucumber beetle. Seed will germinate readily when weather conditions are favorable, if plant- ed at about the depth of one and one- half inches. When the seed leaves are nearly to the surface the hills should be raked off, re- moving any crust or dry lumps which may obstruct the little melon plant. Plenty of seed should be used to provide against a loss in handling the hills, or from the attacks of insects. It also af- fords a chance to select the thriftiest in- CANTALOUP CULTURE 749 dividual plants when the thinning is done. Owing to the injuries from the striped cu- cumber beetle, the thinning should be de- layed until the plants have about the fifth leaf, when the beetle will not do much more injury; the extra plants in the hill should be destroyed by pinching or cutting off the stems, as pulling them out may disturb the plants to be left Insect Enemies No sooner has the seed germinated than the struggle for existence begins; an effectual precaution is to plant plenty of seed scattering it well in the hill, and even replanting before it is evidently nec- essary — usually some replanting is re- quired anyway. Crop rotation, also, is often a good way of avoiding infested fields, in fact, "prevention is better than cure," in fighting insects and plant dis- eases. The destruction of insect harbors such as weeds, old vines and plants, should be given more consideration, and the cul- tivation of the fields in the late fall, win- ter and early spring, will destroy many eggs and insects that pass the winter in the soil — grasshoppers and cutworms, for instance. The Striped Cncnmber Beetle This little black and yellow striped bee- tle, about a quarter of an inch long, is doubtless one of the most common melon pests, especially when the plants are young and in the two-leaf stage; long lists of remedies have been tried, but the best that experienced entomologists have to suggest is to spray the little plants as soon as possible with arsenate of lead, at about the usual three pounds to the fifty- gallon formula. The beetles are not killed by this rem- edy, but it acts as an efiicient repellent. Spraying with the Bordeaux mixture is also recommended, but the Bordeaux is better for the little black flea-beetles when they bother, as they do at times, but they usually work more on the cabbage, radish and turnip. The best means of apply- ing sprays to small plants is the small type of sprayer that can be easily carried over the field, the type that has an air chamber in which pressure is pumped in, and that has a cut-off on the nozzle that works like a trigger, thus allowing the hills to be sprayed with little waste of the material. A very good spray pump of this type is The Brown Auto Spray No. 1, manufactured by The E. C. Brown Co., Rochester, N. Y. Dusting the hills with air-slacked lime, through a common cheese cloth sack, is an old means of fighting the beetles but is not as effective as the aresenate of lead spray. The Melon Aphis The melon aphis is doubtless the most serious pest that the cantaloup has to contend with in many places, and one against which resistance is least effectual where conditions are favorable to the aphis. Fortunately for the growers the nat- ural enemies of the aphis usually hold them in check quite effectually; the lady- beetle, the Syrphus flies and the lace- winged fly are the principal enemies to the aphis; some seasons a little parasitic fly destroys many aphis. The only effective measure seems to be a careful watch of the fields to de- stroy the first plants found to be infected with aphis, as it seems that only a few insects are able to pass the winter, and they seem to spread from a few isolated points, and if these can be destroyed by finding them and burying them, early, this has seemed to be the only plan to adopt, as spraying and fumigation has been tried by the most competent experts with very unsatisfactory results. Spraying with "Blackleaf 40," one ounce to ten gallons of water, with a little soap, say seven ounces, is the most ef- fective spray where a few hills become infested, but where the whole field be- comes infested spraying has proven use- less. The introduction of the natural ene- mies, like the lady-beetles, has been tried in California with some promise, but this plan is in an experimental stage as yet. The necessity of supplying the enemy as soon as the aphis appears, makes this plan rather impractical for the grower. Destroying the winter harbor or host 750 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE plant of the melon-aphis would seem to be the best measure to adopt, if possible; this winter harbor has not fully been determined for some points. The Pickle Worm There have been many complaints from growers in the southern part of the United States of injuries from this worm. Careful inquiiT has been made to find the best information on this pest, but there is no known remedy as yet, other than the general precautions of clean farm- ing, rotation of crops and fall plowing; in the more northern melon districts the attacks of this insect are apt to be only periodical, which is true with nearly all insects; they appear in waves; one year they may be very destructive and the next season will hardly be seen, so there is no need of giving up because there have been insect pests one year. The eggs of the larvae of the pickle worm are deposited on the buds and tender shoots of the plants, and as the young worm hatches it feeds in the angles of the stems and leaves, and if the plants were well sprayed with arsenate of lead the first broods would be largely held in check, and subsequent sprays might be profitable. Plant Diseases Crop rotation, seed selection, or breed- ing for disease resistance offer the best means of controlling plant diseases; the spraying of the crop with Bordeaux mix- ture or other fungicides is about the only other means at hand. In Colorado, spraying has not proven as successful as it is reported to be in other states, doubt- less due to different climatic conditions. Careful control of irrigation seems to offer one means of lessening the attacks of some of the fungus troubles in the arid sections under irrigation. Harvesting After all injuries to the crop have been explained and remedial measures suggest- ed, there still remains one great cause of poor returns from the cantaloup crop, viz., careless and unscrupulous methods of marketing. When cantaloupes are scarce and sales are quick, there seems to be no power on earth that will stay the hand of the average grower as he pushes his crop onto the market, with the encouragment of advices from his progressive (?) commission mei'chant; together they have produced a glutted market with inferior products; instead of protecting the markets with a quality that would increase consumption, they simply let it fill up with everything and any- thing, and neither the grower nor the consumer is benefited. It is common for growers to admit that they are shipping cantaloupes that are not fit to be eaten, and it is not strange that a similar com- plaint comes from the consumer. Not till the grower is honest with himself, should he expect good returns. When green or over-ripe melons are al- lowed to go onto the markets, the trou- ble usually is in the picking; careless or mistaken ideas often prevailing. There is a very narrow limit in the stage of ripeness that a cantaloup can be picked and have it in the right condition for distant markets. On one hand, it cannot be picked as green as a tomato or lemon, and still ripen during shipment to fair quality, nor, on the other hand, can it be allowed to show any distinct color of ripeness, like an apple, without it be- comes too soft on long shipments. It should be ripe enough so the flesh will be sweet when cut open, yet too hard to be eaten for a day or two; it re- quires skill and experience to determine the proper stage. Jocularly it has been said: "The canta- loup has three stages in three days — green, ripe and rotten." This expresses the fact that there is a very short period for marketing the crop in good condi- tion, yet if picked at the proper stage, and handled right under refrigeration it can be shipped to distant market in quite normal condition. It is hard to describe to a novice just how to detect the right stage to pick a cantaloup; there is, first, a very slight change of color in the interstices of the netting, hardly enough, however, to at- tract the attention of the inexperienced; second, it is tried with a pressure of the CANTALOUP CULTURE 751 thumb and forefinger on the stem, when it should "slip," that is, separate in the same manner as when real ripe, but re- quiring some little force but not enough to break the stem or flesh out; condi- tions of the vines and climate will at times vary the picker's judgment to some extent; but by occasionally cutting a melon the point can be decided. It is very essential that pickers be carefully instructed, and closely watched, for the good returns should not be expected from green, or over-ripe cantaloupes. Packing and Crating The fruit should be carefully handled, not bruised or roughly shaken to loosen the seed cavity; it should be hurried to the shade and crated as soon as possible; the cantaloupes should be carefully grad- ed before crating, not only as to size, but for condition of ripeness, for there will always be some a little too ripe which must not be crated with the green- ripes, or the markets will suffer. In grad- ing, the ripe melons can often be mar- keted in local or nearby markets, and the ones just right reserved for the long dis- tance shipments. In crating the layers must be uniform and tight, but not so crowded as to crush or bruise the flesh, yet there should not be a loose melon in the crate if it is expected to carry well. In crating, the ends of the crates should be supported on the crating table, so that the slats can spring down in the center of the crate, then when the crate is fin- ished and nailed up there will be no spring of the slats to loosen the pack when the crate is picked up. Plate No. 8. Three Styles of Packing. Plate No. 9. Pony and Jumbo Crates. The basket is used in some sections for local trade. The crate has been the standard pack- age for a long distance haul, but there is a needed reform in the matter of grad- ing and packing cantaloupes, as the old style grading of "pony," "standard" and "jumbo" sizes has proven unsatisfactory. The standard 45-melon crate is good, but the "pony" has included too many imma- ture cantaloupes, and has not been profitable in general and should be dis- carded. The "jumbo" crate is too heavy to handle well, and often difficult to crate well, when there are only a few cantaloupes that run to the jumbo sizes. Three styles of crating cantaloupes are illustrated (Plate No. 8) which will prove adequate to handle the marketable canta- loupes in the simplest way; with only two styles of crates required. The standard sized cantaloupes would be first crated in a regular standard crate 12x12x24, 45 cantaloupes to the crate, then a size larger packed in the same sized crate with 36 cantaloupes to the crate, packed with what is known as the "diamond" pack — as shown in the halftone (Plate No. 8). The larger jumbo sizes are then to be crated in a flat, one-layer crate with 12 cantaloupes to the crate. This crate would probably need to be about 5x14x24; this would be easy to handle, and popular for private home trade. With this style of grading and packing, there could be just three classifications, "Standard 45s," "Standard 36s" and "flats" and there would be less bruising, trying to crowd large cantaloupes into crates, and han- dling large unwieldy jumbo crates, be- sides simplifying the number of different crates. 752 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Plate No. 10. A Convenient Arrangement for Packing:. Marketing Marketing a crop of cantaloupes to good advantage is probably the most per- plexing phase of the industry; we might classify the different methods of market- ing in order to consider them: First, Selling to the Local Trade — There is little to be said on this, other than the grower already knows; good goods, and fair treatment. Second, Sell- ing on Consignment — This seems to be like ''stepping out into the unknown," there are so many uncertainties. There are several factors to consider here; the growers should be organized, in order to buy crates and load to advantage, they must take pains to find responsible com- mission men, they must plan to keep in touch with the markets, to know what the market needs and demands, and live up to their end of the deal in shipping only first-class cantaloupes; they should have some plan of co-operation so that in times of limited markets they could pro- rate the sales or limit the growers to a certain number of crates to be shipped per acre when the market was glutted, and only a certain amount should be sent to the market, as it is better to leave the cantaloupes in the field than to ship and lose the work and still injure the glutted markets. Probably the greatest encouragement in recent years for the cantaloup growers is the plan of the cantaloup distributors forming an exchange, and co-operating in holding the markets free from glutted conditions. The plan is to have the dis- tributors in a district get together each day and divide or prorate the shipments to certain markets, and not send to any one market more than it is possible for that market to dispose of; this plan was worked to perfection in the Imperial valley in California, and in the Rocky Ford district the season of 1911, and growers everywhere should refuse to deal with a commission firm who would re- fuse to co-operate in this way — growers' melons have been used to fight their neighbors too long. Third, Marketing in Transit — There are several commission firms who make this a specialty in handling the large shipments from the big melon districts; in reality it does not differ from the commission form of selling, only the organization of a marketing system to keep in touch with the different markets and their needs; this could be handled by a competent manager of a large association if it were not for the short season that the canta- loupes are handled from any one dis- trict, the large commission firms having the same organization that they can util- ize for other products; hence it is doubt- ful if there is any better plan than to market through some of the well es- tablished agencies. Fourth, Marketing for Cash — This is the Utopian idea of the growers everywhere, and as long as cantaloupes are selling well it is all right, but when the price goes down the cash buyer is gone. Strains and Yarieties of Cantaloupes Rocky Ford There is a prevalent idea that there is a variety of cantaloup known as "Rocky Fords;" strictly, this is erroneous; unless it is a name to embrace the miscellaneous seed that is purchased from Rocky Ford. The fact is, the Netted Gem was the original variety used to develop the Rocky Ford cantaloup industry, but thirty years of selecting and crossing have developed greatly improved types that are distinct and very different in many respects; but there are really only two or three types; one, — the "Pollock," has been renamed "Eden Gem," "Netted Rock," "Rust Re- sistant" and so on, and the selection ideals CANTALOUP CULTURE 753 followed by the men exploiting the new names have established slightly different strains of the Pollock. Hence there is a good deal of confusion in regard to Rocky Ford seed. The markets have a demand for both the green and salmon-tinted flesh in the Rocky Ford strains of cantaloupes; this is entirely distinct from the orange-col- ored meat of the Osage types; and the growers also demand an extra early strain beside the main crop sort. Bust-Eesistant Follock, Salmon-TiBted The original "Pollock" was the result of a hybrid, as running through nearly all the Pollock strains there are the two colors in flesh and various combinations of them — green and salmon-tinted, vine disease-resistant. Eust-Resistant Pollocli, Green-Fleslied The G-reen-Fleshed Pollock is very sim- ilar to the other Pollock, except in the color of the flesh, which runs more green, shading to yellow at the cavity; we would recommend this strain for markets that demand a green-fleshed cantaloup. The general character and appearance of the two strains of Pollock are the same. These two Pollocks are classed as the best late or main crop varieties of Rocky Ford Netted Gems. The Eyan's Early Walters Strain There are localities where the early cantaloup is very profitable and there is a demand for an early maturing canta- loup. Ryan's Early Watters meets that demand; this strain holds the best records of high returns on account of its very prolific yields of extra early canta- loupes. In appearance it is almost iden- tical with the Pollock type; it has the green colored flesh, and the same general flavor. The special point in the selection has been prolific early maturity This strain germinates very strong, vigorous plants, the fruit sets early, and the crop matures in a very short time, yet is ex- tremely prolific, often making yields of two hundred and fifty crates per acre. It is fully a week earlier than the Pol- lock strains. Recommended where the tendency to fungus troubles is not too marked, and for a small portion of a grower's plantings it will doubtless pay in many locations. Early Eust-Resistant, Hybrid This strain has a remarkable vigor of growth until it has set and developed a large set of fruit and then the growth seems to stop — ^that is, the new shoots; the vines seeming to throw all the force into the development of the fruit. This trait seems to make it desirable in one point, as it has not been so seriously at- tacked by the melon aphis as the strains that have plenty of young succulent shoots. This hybrid is the best early strain by all odds. It is early as the Watters, and almost as disease-enduring as the Pollock strains; it is very prolific, and especially so in producing a heavy yield of the first early sets. The flesh of this strain is green, the netting exceptionally good; the canta- loupes are rather inclined to be longer in form than our other strains, and is not quite as regular in size, yet its many good qualities make it the most desirable cantaloup to plant for early, ]Vew Strains of Promise Triple Hybrid No. 3. This melon has an exceedingly heavy close netting, and thick flesh, of a salmon tint at the cen- ter, with a deep zone of emerald near the rind. This cantaloup runs rather large, but on account of its exceptionally attrac- tive appearance, we believe it would be valuable to market growers, especially for local trade. The Osage type of cantaloup that has been grown for several years around Ord- way, Colo., adjacent to the Rocky Ford district, is becoming very popular on the market on account of its exceptionally good keeping quality, and its thick, or- ange-colored flesh that has an exception- ally spicy flavor which many are fond of. But this variety has the weakness of hav- ing a very unattractive form and appear- ance, and a very undesirable tendency to crack open when nearly ripe, thus result- ing in a great loss to growers, and in fact on this account this variety has not been a success except in a few localities. 754 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Tlie following table gives the usual time of planting and the period of harvest for the different districts. District and State. Dates of Planting. Period of Ripening. Brownsville, Texas Feb. 10 to 20 May 10 to June 10. Gainesville, Fla Feb. 10 to 20 May 10 to June. Imperial Valley, Calif Feb. 20 to March May 20 to July 1. Lake Charles, La March 1 to 15 June 1 to July 1. Northern Louisiana March 20 to April 20 June 20 to July 20. Blackville, S. C April 1 to 15 June 15 to July 10. Belton, Ark April 1 to 20 July 1 to August 1. Southern Mississippi April 1 to 10 July 1 to August 1. Glendale, Ariz April 1 to 20 July 5 to August 5. Atkoa, Okla April 1 to May July 10 to September. Decker, Ind A.pril 1, in hot beds July 10 to August 20. Southwest Arkansas ^.pril 1 to 15 July 1 to August 1. Moapa, Nev ^pril 1 to 15 July 20 to August 10. Dover, Del 'Vpril 5 to 20 August 1 to 15. Anna, 111 April 5 to 15 August 1 to 20. Knox Co., Tenn 4pril 20 to May 20 July 20 to September. Greenriver, Utah ^ipril 20 to May July 25 to August 25. Eastern Washington ^pril 20 to May August 1 to September. Medford, Oregon April 10 to May August 1 to September. Parsonsburg, Md May 1 to 18 July 20 to August 15. Northwest Arkansas May 1 to 15 July 20 to August 15. Rocky Ford, Colo May 1 to June 1 August 5 to October 1. St. Thomas, Pa May 10 to 20 August 25 to September 10. Fredericksburg, Va May 10 August 10 to September 1. King Hill, Idaho May 10 August 10 to September. Michigan May 20 August 20 to September 20. The above table is tentative. It will be noted that there is a wide range of differences in the time of ripen- ing when cantaloupes are planted at about the same time, due to the different seasons, the climatic conditions, and the soil, and these same differences make dif- ferent results in the appearance and qual- ity of the cantaloupes to quite an extent. Philo K. Blinn Ca>'tilotjpes, Grade Rules. Apple Packing. See under CAIfTAXOUP DISEASES Anihracnose The common anthracnose fungus of the muskmelon ( Collet otnohum lagenarium Pass.) is the same as that of the cucum- 'her. It attacks the stems of plants of -all sizes as well as the leaves, resulting in the lesions of the stem and dead spots 3n the leaves. In these the fungus pro- duces the fruiting bodies. After the seedling stage is passed it is usually pos- sible to keep the anthracnose in check by the spraying as recommended for cu- cumbers. The fruit anthracnose of the musk- melon (GoUetotrichum oligochaetum Cav.) is widely distributed. It forms yellowish, diseased spots on the fruits and may disfigure them considerable. Thorough spraying with Bordeaux mix- ture should hold it in check if begun on the young fruits and repeated once or twice at intervals. Cladosporium A fungus occasionally parasitic on melons. It produces sunken spots on the fruit and stems, usually during moist weather. Under such circumstances the fruiting stage of the fungus appears over the fruits in an olive green color. Downy Mildew Plasmopara sp. Downy mildew of muskmelon is caused by the same plasmopara fungus as the downy mildew of cucumbers. It does not appear until toward the middle of Au- gust, but is then very destructive, sweep- ing rapidly over the melon fields and leaving only devastation behind. In its attacks the spots of the muskmelon leaves are somewhat different in shape and usu- ally of a darker color than in the case CANTALOUP DISEASES— CANTALOUP PESTS 755 of the cucumber. One with experience can readily distinguish by the use of an ordinary hand glass. He will then see on the underside of the leaf the violet spores and spore-bearing threads of the mildew fungus. The melons which are unripened upon the vines when attacked by mildew are practically worthless and for this rea- son large losses are usually incurred. The treatment is by Bordeaux mixture. Muskmelon Leaf Blight Alternaria sp. Is a disease more or less peculiar to the muskmelon, although the fungus which causes it has also been found upon cucumber leaves. The leaf blight causes rather large dead areas in the leaves which are usually distinguished from those of downy mildew by their larger size and the tendency of the central por- tion to break out. The prevention of muskmelon leaf blight is by no means an easy matter, requiring of itself great thoroughness and carefulness in the ap- plication of the Bordeaux mixture and also requiring that the downy mildew shall be watched during the same period. For this reason earlier sprayings, if made before August 1st, should be repeated at fortnightly intervals, while those after August 1st should be at weekly or 10-day intervals. Melon growers have succeeded by following these lines, while others who were less thorough were less success- ful, or failed entirely. The treatment is recommended with confidence. Wilt Muskmelon wilts are the same in gen- eral character as those described for the cucumber. Not only the bacterial wilt disease but the wilt due to fusarium has developed upon muskmelons in some parts. The symptoms are the same as for cucumbers, namely: sudden wilting as from lack of water, followed by dying. Gather and burn infected vines and practice rotation. Eoot Rot RMzoctonia The root diseases accompanied by rot- ting of the rootlets and induced by the sterile fungus of lettuce rosette is also found on greenhouse muskmelons. This is liable to be the case where these fol- low diseased crops of lettuce. The pre- vention is thorough soil treatment. A. D. Selby, Wooster, Ohio. For other diseases affecting cucurbi- tous crops, see Gncumlyer, CANTALOUP PESTS Cantaloup Fly Euxesta notata Wield., Family Ortalidae G^eneral Appearance The adult flies are slightly over one- eighth of an inch long, beautiful metallic green in color with eyes dark brown. The wings are transparent with a distinct black spot near the middle of the front margin and a similar spot near the tip of each. The maggots vary from white to dusky brown, the blunt end being often darker than the rest of the body. They are about one-fourth of an inch long when fully matured. Life History The eggs are laid in the tissues of in- jured or damaged fruits and vegetables and while the maggots work principally upon such tissue they are often found in sound and living portions and occa- sionally in apparently uninjured fruits. The pupae are found in the decayed hosts or in the soil, the adults emerging in a very short time. Due to the peculiar habits of the larvae, they have often been mistaken for the maggots of the true fruit flies of the family Trypetidae and have been the occasion of great alarm. E. O. EssiG White-Lined Spliinx Gelerio lineata Fab., Family Sphingidae DeilephiJa lineata Fab. Greneral Appearance This is a very common insect The adult moths are quite large, having a wing expanse of nearly three and one- half inches. The fore wings are green with broad brown bunds on the front and apical margins and in the middle of each. The veins are white. The hind wings are very small, dark brown with a wide lighter band across the middle of each. The thorax is grayish with distinct white 756 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE lines, while the abdomen is dark green marked with black and white spots. The larvae are quite large, often more than three inches long. The color varies con- siderably, but is usually light green with a row of spots along each side of the back. The spiracles, just above the feet, are margined with black and yellow. A pale yellow line extends down the middle of the back. The chrysalis is dark brown. Food Plants The larvae of this species are so com- mon as to be often mistaken for other members of the family. They are usu- ally found feeding upon the foliage of the apple, grape, pear, melon and tomato vines. B. 0. EssiG Melon Aphis. See under ApMds. For other pests of cantaloup and other cucurbitous crops, see Gucumler, Capillarity m Diffeeent Types of Soil. See Soils. Carlots, Cities in Which Fruits aee Sold m. See Beduction of Waste in Marketing, market section. Caes, How Diverted. See Reduction of Waste in Marketing, in market section. Caelot Markets. See Reduction of Waste in Marketing, in market section. Carob The carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a native of the Eastern Mediterranean countries and is widely grown in Italy, especially in the southern part of the peninsula and in Sicily, because of the value of its pods as food for domestic animals. The tree attains a large size, sometimes reaching a height of 50 feet, and in shape is much like a live oak. The heavy dark green foliage, composed of thick, leathery, rounded leaves arranged on each side of a stem, as in the common locust, affords an abundance of excellent shade in hot weather. The tree resists drouth and grows readily on rocky hill- sides where it is impossible to irrigate and where the soil is poor and scarce. At the same time, it is appreciative of good rich soil, and grows larger and more sym- metrical under favorable conditions. The bark of the carob is rather smooth on the larger limbs, and light gray in color, but on the smaller branches, that is, those which are from three to five years old, there are numbers of roughened knots, giving these branches a diseased appearance. But on examination it will be found that all the pods are borne on these branches, and that the knots are the places where the fruiting stems of the previous year or two were attached. These stems fall off with the pods, and the knots disappear in the course of two or three years. The fruit of the carob, as I have said, is in the form of pods, very similar in appearance to bean pods, and called by the Germans St. John's bread. In the spring the young pods, hanging in clus- ters from the branches, look exactly like string beans, being of the same shape and color. Later they become broad like the pods of lima beans and when ripe they are broad and flattened and are two or three inches long and nearly an inch wide. By this time they have become a dark chocolate color and consist of a rather soft shell, nearly filled with a reddish, saccarine flesh, imbedded in which are a number of dark red, flattened seeds. The ripe pods are heavy, and con- tain about 65 per cent of gum and sugar, making excellent food for sheep and hogs, particularly when it is desired to fatten these animals. They are also fed to cat- tle and horses at the rate of about six pounds a day, the pods being crushed and fed either raw or boiled. The seeds germinate readily if fertile, but there must be a number of trees growing near each other and bees must be plentiful to insure fertility. In Southern Italy and particularly in Sicily, the pods are used as food by the people, and the children among the lower classes eat them as they would candy. The ripe pods are either boiled or roasted, and are sold on the streets everywhere, where one may buy a dozen or more for a cent. They have a sweetish, slightly bitter taste, and are somewhat astringent. In the cooked state they are undoubtedly healthful and very nourishing. CAROB— CARROTS— CARROT DISEASES 757 The carob tree is one of the necessi- ties, almost, of the average Italian farm- er. It gives him and his stock ample pro- tection against the hot summer sun; its pods are food for the animals, and for himself as well, if necessary; and it does not demand rich soil. It is most fre- quently planted where little else will grow, in rocky land or about the edges of gardens or olive groves, and with its sturdy form and thick, heavy leaves it withstands perfectly the hot dry Sicilian summers. E. J. Newcomber, In tlie California Cultivator. Carrots The carrot grows wild in the fields and on the roadsides of Great Britain and the seashores of the North Temperate zone of the Old World. It resembles the cultivated carrot, except in the root, which is thin and woody. However this wild carrot is the parent of the cultivated varieties. Carrots vary considerably in the length, shape and color of their roots, and in the proportion of rind to core. The White Belgian, which gives the largest crops, has a very thick root which is white, becoming pale green above, where it projects above the ground. For nutrit- ive purposes, it is inferior to the red varieties. The carrot succeeds best on a light sandy soil, which should be well drained and deeply trenched. If not naturally fertile the ground should be well prepared and heavily manured, in the autumn or winter. For the long- rooted sorts, the soil should be at least three feet deep; but for the shorter rooted varieties a soil of less depth is sufficient. Growing Carrots For the early crop sow the seed as early in spring as the ground can be worked in rows 10 to 12 inches apart if hand cultivated, and 18 to 24 inches if cultivated with a horse. About two pounds of seed are required per acre. Cover the seed about one inch deep. It is advisable to mix in a few radish seed to help locate the rows, since the carrot seed germinates slowly, and cultivation to keep down weeds is frequently neces- sary before the young carrots make their appearance. When the plants are well up they should be thinned to stand two to three inches apart in the row. Frequent shallow cultivation should be given with some light implement throughout the sea- son. Late varieties for stock may be sown the latter part of May or as late as the middle of June in the Northern states. The plant makes its best growth in the cool weather of fall. The crop is harvested usually by hand pulling and topping. The work of pulling is often facilitated by running a plow alongside the rows to loosen them. Where the half-long varieties are grown they can frequently be plowed out. From 200 to 300 bushels per acre is a good yield. The roots may be stored in pits or in the cellar like potatoes. There is a consid- erable amount of hand labor in the cul- ture of carrots, which makes their growth relatively expensive. Besides the use of carrots as a table vegetable they form a favorite succulent food for horses and dairy cows. Foreign experiments show that for stock feeding purposes carrots are about equal to other roots. The agricultural experiment sta- tions in this country have reported but few experiments with this crop as a stock food. Except for the purpose of variety in the diet it will probably be economy to grow other larger yielding root crops, like mangels and rutabagas. Granville Lowtheb Carrots in Alaska. See AlasTca. CARROT DISEASES Leaf Spot iCercospora Apii Fres.) Same fungus as causes celery leaf spot. See under Celery Diseases. Root Rot or Rliizoctoria Corticium vagum B. & C. Var. Bolani Burt. Same as potato root rot, which see. Soft Rot Bacillus carotovorous Jones One of the commonest bacilli parasitic upon plants. It pi-oduces a soft rot on 758 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE many vegetables. Avoid planting infected seed and planting in infected soil. CARROT PESTS Carrot Beetle Ligyrus gidtosus, Dej. Common along tlie Atlantic coast and occurs as far west as Illinois. Called also the sunflower beetle on account of its attack on this plant It is injurious to parsnip, celery and sweet potato. The beetle is one-half to five-eighths of an inch long and robust. Rotate the crops, permit the chickens to follow after the plow in the fall and in case of severe infestations, turn the hogs into the field. Literature Division Entomological Bulletin No. 33, New Series. Carrot Rust Fly JPsila rosae Fab. Imported into Canada, whence it has spread into New York. A very minute fly measuring about one-sixteenth of an inch. Produces a reddish appearance on the leaves of the young plants and rusty blotches on the roots. The stored roots are sometimes infested with the larvae. Rotation of crops is advised, but the same fly attacks celery, hence this plant should be excluded from the rotation. Spray with kerosene emulsion one part to 10 of water, or sprinkle sand, ashes or land plaster mixed in the kerosene along the rows. Make these applications once a week through June. Literature Division Entomological Bulletin No. 33, New Series. Celery Caterpillar. See under Celery, Parsnip Louse. See under Parsnip Catch Crops. See Apple Orchard Cover Crops. Cauliflower The cauliflower belongs to the cabbage family and was introduced into Europe from Cyprus and the Mediterranean coast. It is one of the most delicately flavored of vegetables and is much more delicate in its growth than the cabbage. It is less resistant to heat and cold, and re- quires more care than the cabbage; but under proper conditions, is one of the most valuable of vegetables, bringing a good price in the markets. It forms a dense cluster of incipient flower buds which are the edible portion of the plant. It succeeds best in a rich soil and shel- tered position. It is propagated like the cabbage and given similar care; except that when the head begins to form, the large outside leaves should be pulled over it and fastened together at the top in order to prevent injury from the hot sun- shine. As a crop, they ripen somewhat irreg- ularly and, as the period of frost ap- proaches the immature heads should be pulled with roots and leaves and be planted in a cold cellar or cold frame where many of them will form salable heads. There are many varieties; but perhaps the most desirable are the Snowball and Early Dwarf Erfurt. The insect enemies are the same as those of the cabbage. Being of the same nature as the cab- bage, and requiring similar treatment, we refer our readers to the article under that heading. Granville Lowther CAULIFLOWER DISEASES For the most part cauliflower is affect- ed by the same characteristic diseases as cabbage. They will be found treated un- der cabbage. Eicing This is not a disease but is a trouble caused by the starting into growth of the flower heads, usually after a rain follow- ing a dry spell. It injures the appear- ance but not the quality of the head. The trouble is corrected by cultivation so as to preserve a good dust mulch dur- ing dry periods. Soft Rot or Stump Rot Bacillus carotovorous Jones A common soft rot of vegetables and a most serious one to cauliflower, appear- ing at its worst in seasons of hot, damp weather. The bacillus is a wound para- site but the manner of its spread is un- CAULIFLOWER— CELERY 759 known. It spreads very i^apidly at times. The center of the stem and head usually rot first so that the plant may be beyond recovery before the presence of the dis- ease is detected. The odor arising from the decaying heads is very repulsive. Rotation seems to be the only remedy. Literature Cornell Bulletin No. 292. CAULIFLOWEE PESTS The pests of cauliflower are common to the cabbage and will be found treated under cabbage. Cauliflowee, How GROWisr m Alaska. See Alaska. Celery More and more celery is growing into favor as a garden vegetable It grew wild in England, beside the ditches, in marshy places, in swamps, especially near the sea, producing a furrowed stalk, with compound leaves and wedge-shaped leaf- lets. In its native state, the plant has a coarse, rank taste and peculiar smell. By cultivation and blanching the stalks lose their acrid qualities and assume a mild, sweet, aromatic taste peculiar to celery as a salad plant. Propagation Celery is grown from seed, sown either in a hotbed or in the open garden, accord- ing to the season of the year, and after one or two thinnings out and transplant- ings they are, on attaining the height of six or eight inches, planted out in deep trenches convenient for blanching. The blanching process is one of the most im- portant in the production of celery, and consists in "earthing up," or drawing the earth around the plant to exclude the light. Soils Best Adapted Celery is a native of the swamps, gen- erally adjacent to the sea. Since the draining of the swamp lands near the Great Lakes, large areas of those sections are adapted to the growing of celery. In this industry perhaps Michigan takes the lead. However, in the arid regions, where irrigation is practiced, celery can be grown anywhere and the soils too wet for most other crops, and too strong in alkali, may be used for the growing of celery, and in this manner the "seepage lands" utilized for a very profitable crop. Celery has been successfully grown on lands that in the winter were white with alkali. Granville Lowther For Culture in Alaska, see Alaska. Growing Celery in an Irrigated Section *J. L. Reid, Colorado Experiment Sta- tion, writes as follows: Tarieties In commercial growing only two vari- eties are being used at the present time to any great extent. These are the Golden Self-blanching for the early market, and Giant Pascal for the late market. These supply all that the present market re- quires, for by proper methods, Golden Self-blanching can be put on the market from early August until the Giant Pascal is ready and this latter can be held as long as it is profitable to keep it in stor- age. The Golden Self-blanching is not as crisp and tender nor of as good quality as the Giant Pascal, but owing to its earliness, the ease with which it is blanched and the fact that so much more can be grown to an acre, it is far the more important in respect to the amount grown. Pascal celery does not come onto the market until about the first of No- vember and we are entirely dependent on the self-blanching up to that time. Seed Most of the seed is procured from American dealers, but the growers nearly always ask for French grown seed, be- cause in that country the seed is usually more carefully selected. A few growers have sometimes grown their own seed and obtained excellent results by its use. Sometimes a grower will raise enough seed one year to last him several seasons, preferring to do this rather than use seed bought from unknown sources. Owing to failures as the result of poor seed, the use of home grown seed would be more than justified, even though it cost more. * Bulletin 144, Colorado Experiment Station 760 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Vitality of seed is quite variable, so it is impossible to figure the number of plants whicb. may be procured from a given amount. It is estimated in buying seed that one can count on 2,500 plants per ounce of seed; but this is very con- servative, for some growers get as liigb as 25,000 stocky plants per ounce when they have good seed. The number of plants suitable for planting depends upon the vitality of the seed and the care of the grower. It is the practice to sow enough seed to secure more plants than will be needed and then select the best of these. Very often a surplus stock can be sold at a good profit, and it is also advisable to have extra plants for re- setting in case of damage to young plants by drought or hailstorm. Baising tlie Plants Celery seed is very slow in germinat- ing and sometimes great difficulty is ex- perienced in getting a good stand of plants. Here is where the gardener must ever be on the alert. The seed bed and young plants must never be allowed to become dried out, and yet water must not be allowed to stand on the surface. The young plants are very tender, and a fine spray should be used in watering them. The seed is sown broadcast in the beds or sometimes in very shallow drills four or six inches apart. The seed should be covered very lightly, if at all. Germination will take place in about three weeks. The Golden Self-blanching celery is usually sown between March 1st and 15th in mild hotbeds from which have been taken one or two crops of radishes or lettuce- These beds are made with about one foot of manure, over which is spread between six and 12 inches of soil, and the whole is covered with glass sash. By the time one or two crops of lettuce have been taken from a bed, the manure does not give a strong heat, but just enough to protect on frosty nights. If one de- sires this celery for the August market, it is quite necessary that some artificial heat of this sort be given the seed bed, but fresh beds should be used only with great care or the plants will not be strong. For later sowing of the seeds, frames simply covered with sash may be used. The Pascal celery is mostly sown be- tween April 1st and 15th in frames under cloth, although a great deal is sown in the open ground. The advantages of growing under cloth are that the soil is kept from dying out and the young plants are pi'otected from extremes of tempera- ture. It is not considered profitable to ti'ansplant celery, so it is left in the orig- inal beds until ready for setting in the field, although much more stocky plants may be secured by giving an extra shift. When the plants are grown in hotbeds, as many as 8,000 are sometimes raised under a three by six foot sash. However, when less expensive beds are used, it is better to use more I'oom, as one thus gets far stockier plants. Many growers sow one-fourth ounce of seed to one sash three by six feet, but this crowds the plants somewhat. It is very important that the plants be carefully "hardened off." This is done by gradually getting them accustomed to the wind and sun. The sash is raised more and more each pleasant day until the plants can stand to be entirely uncovered. It is very im- portant that they should never be al- lowed to become cold enough to be frosted as this no doubt is one of the principal causes of going to seed. Several methods are in use for making the plants stocky. Transplanting has al- ready been mentioned, but this is an ex- pensive process. Clipping the tops off lightly once or twice while in the beds is practiced to quite an extent. A few growers have a knife so mounted on wheels that it can be run under the plants, so as to cut off the tap root, thus causing more side roots to develop. Setting of Plants in the Field "When the ground has been thoroughly prepared and danger of trost is over, the plants may be set in the field. If an early crop is desired it is, of course, necessary that the plants be set early, so as to give them as much time as possible to get their full growth. If the plants are crowded in the seed bed, it is a good CELERY 761 practice to thin them and use the plants removed for the first setting. This gives the remaining plants a better chance. A small furrow is made and the irri- gating water is turned into it. This set- tles the soil and puts it in good condition for setting the plants. After the water has seeped out of the ditch it is the plan of most growers to run a small stream into the furrow again. The surface of the water this second time leaves a line along the edge of the furrow and the plants are set along this line, thus mak- ing them all at the same level. In this way none of the young plants are covered when irrigated, and yet all are close to the water. Where self-blanching is grown, a row is set on each side of the furrow, making two rows about 12 inches apart. Where Giant Pascal is raised, plants are set only on one side of the furrow, and that on the south side if the furrows run east and west, so that the plants may escape the reflection of the sun's rays from the water. The furrows are made about four feet apart. The plants are set from six to eight inches apart in the row. With single rows four feet apart, plants eight inches apart in the row, 16,710 plants would be required per acre; with plants six inches apart in the row, 21,780 plants would be used per acre. When self-blanching is grown in double rows, just double this number of plants would be used. It is well to have an abundance of plants so that later on any vacant places may be filled. The beds are watered very thoroughly before removing the plants for setting, and then the plants may be pulled out singly by the roots if it is desired to thin the beds somewhat. The plants are ar- ranged in bunches which can be held conveniently in the left hand. They are put in a box over which is thrown a wet sack to protect from the sun while being carried to the field. In setting, some simply lay a plant on the first finger of the right hand and stick it into the mud on the side of the furrow; others, where the soil is heavier, make a hole in the soil with a pointed dibble held in the right hand and place a plant in the hole with the left, the dibble then being stuck into the soil beside the plant to close the hole. It is a good plan to wet the roots with puddled mud just before starting to set a handful. There is quite a knack and a whole lot of hard work in setting, but it can be learned much more quickly by watching a good workman and by do- ing it oneself than by reading how to do it. CultiTation Since celery is transplanted to fields which are clean of weeds, the plants have the start of the weeds. However, it is generally necessaiy to give one or two hand weedings. A wheel hoe is used once or twice, and four or more cultiva- tions are given with the horse and a harrow-tooth cultivator in the wide spaces. Some make a practice of culti- vating once a week during the growing season. Those who blanch with dirt often use a five-tooth cultivator the last time or two, so setting the teeth as to throw some dirt toward the rows. Irrigation Concerning irrigation, each grower has his own ideas as the result of his expe- rience under his particular conditions. Some do not irrigate more than two or three times during the season. Others irrigate nearly every week, commencing at the time of setting. On sandy, well- drained soils it is necessary to irrigate very often. One must use his own judg- ment, always remembering that celery grows in swamps in its natural condition and, therefore, cannot stand drought. During the growing season the water is run in the furrows which were made at the time of setting the plants. If double x-ows are used, as soon as the crop has a good start this furrow will be com- pletely hid by the tops of the plants, but the water will still follow the ditches in good shape if they have been kept clean of weeds. Since the ditch at this time is shaded by the plants, the soil dries out less rapidly and does not bake so badly. Blaiicliing Blanching consists in so excluding the light that tender stalks free from color- 762 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ing matter may be obtained. Self-blanch- ing varieties for the early market are blanched entirely with boards. The bank- ing of celery high with earth during the hot Slimmer days sometimes hurts the crop. Blanching with boards keeps the celery cleaner, but is quite expensive, owing to the great cost of lumber, so it is generally practiced only for a part of the early crop. Boards 12 to 14 inches wide by any convenient length, usually 16 feet, are used. It takes about 20,000 feet of lumber to blanch an acre at one time, but since during the warm part of the year the blanching will be completed in about three weeks, the boards may be used to blanch a second lot. If the boards are carefully piled each year so they will not warp and are protected from the weather in some way, they will last many years. Some use wire hooks to hold the boards together instead of using stakes. By far the largest part of the crop each year is blanched by means of earth. One horse is used on a celery hiller, which runs between the rows and throws the dirt against the plants. It is generally necessary to run this machine through twice in order to do a good job, and sometimes two horses must be used tan- dem to pull the hiller. Some growers like to finish the earthing with shovels or hand tools, but this adds to the ex- pense. The celery hiller has iron rods so fixed as to lift the leaves out of the way so they will not become covered with earth. About four weeks are neces- sary for blanching with earth in the field. For later use a great deal of celery is left to grow in the field as long as there is no danger of frost, and then removed to trenches for blanching. Giant Pascal is either blanched in this way or is partly blanched in the field by means of ''paper- ing,'' and then removed to the trenches. A great deal of self-blanching is also blanched in trenches. The celery is re- moved from the row, without trimming the roots too closely, and put into long, narrow trenches, so that about two-thirds of the plant will be below the level of the ground. From 12 to 18 inches is as wide as the trenches should be made, for» if too large quantities are stored to- gether, there is danger of loss from heat- ing. The tops of the plants are covered with light material only as there is dan- ger of freezing. When extreme cold weather comes, earth must be used for protection. Careful watch must be kept to see that the celery does not spoil from being covered too deeply, and yet, if it is allowed to become frozen to any great extent, it will be unsalable. As soon as the plants are set in the trench, water is turned in and a thorough irrigation is given. This will usually furnish enough moisture for the crop until it is reaay for the market. If, as is often the case with Giant Pascal, the celery is not dug until late and is to be kept far into the winter, a second or a third irrigation may be necessary in dry seasons. There is a limited market for "papered" Giant Pascal celery. By this is meant the wrapping of each plant in paper dur- ing the latter part of the growing season. This work is commenced in August, and boys are usually hired to do it at two and one-half cents per dozen plants wrapped. Old daily papers are used, and one string holds the paper in place. It is important that this work be postponed until the celery is high enough so that the tops of the leaves will be above the paper after wrapping. Old papers can be bought for $8 or $10 per ton. As soon as there is danger of frost the celery is dug, put in trenches, and handled in the same way as the other; but has however the advantage of being cleaner and is already partly blanched. Storing Since the California and Florida crops get onto the market during the winter and spring, it has not been found profit- able in northern sections to store celery for any great length of time. Harvesting and Marketing Where only a small area is devoted to celery, the plants are usually loosened from the ground by means of a spade. The roots are cut of£ and the plant is laid to one side. Where the acreage is 763 larger, especially where soil is used en- tirely for blancliing, a celery digger is used. Different styles of home-made ma- chines are being used for this purpose, but the principle of them all is to run an edged tool just under the plant, thus cut- ting off the root so it can be taken up by hand. Golden Self-blanching celery is usually "shipped in the rough." A few of the outside leaves are removed and the celery is packed directly into crates. The num- ber of dozen plants in the crate is marked on the outside, the side of the crate is nailed, and the crate is ready for the car. These crates are usually 20x22 inches by 24 inches deep. The top is entirely open, except for a strip along each edge. When celery is to be packed for "shipment in the rough," one of the other sides is left open so that the plants may be packed in from the side. The remaining side is then nailed on and the celery is thus held securely in place. A crate will hold from four to seven dozen of celery, according to its size at the time of marketing. Celery Growing in a Humid Section *C. P. Halligan, of the Michigan Ex- periment Station, makes the following suggestions on celery culture for that section : The distance to plant celery depends much upon the variety, season, methods of blanching and intensiveness practiced. Where celery is to be blanched by boards, the rows may be set from 18 inches to three feet apart while celery which is to be blanched with soil is commonly set from four to six feet apart. At Kala- mazoo and Muskegon, where early celery is grown, the first planting is set in rows about three feet apart and the second crop is planted later between these rows. Sometimes only every alternate row is thus interplanted at first but a late crop is afterward set in the vacant places. This will leave a space of six feet for blanching the last crop with soil. When a summer crop is grown alone and the celery is to be blanched with boards, the rows are set from 18 inches to two feet apart. In other sections, where land is less valuable and the culture less inten- sive, the rows are planted from three to four feet apart thus permitting horse cultivation. In outlying sections, where larger areas are handled, the cost of pro- duction will be less if planted at about this distance. The distance the plants are set in the row is also more or less variable but three plants to a foot is the general rule in this state. Giant Pascal and other large growing varieties are usually set six inches apart while some growers even prefer a space of eight inches for this variety. Table of Plants Reqxiired per Acre Distance Distance Number Lumber between between of required for rows plants plants blanching 18 inches 4 inches 87,000 58,000 sq ft 2 feet 4 inches 65,240 43,500 sq. ft 3 feet 4 inches 43,560 29,000 sp. ft 4 feet 4 inches 32,670 21,750 sq. ft 5 feet 4 inches 26,136 Earth 5 feet 6 inches 17,424 Earth 6 feet 6 inches 14,510 Earth 6 feet 8 inches 10,881 Earth * Bulletin 60, Michigan Experiment Station. One ounce of seed should produce at least 10.000 plants. Cultivation Celery must be kept continuously grow- ing if stalks of high quality are desired. Although an excessive feeder, demanding plenty of plant food and moisture, the plant has a very shallow root system. Therefore, constant but shallow cultiva- tion is absolutely required to produce good crops. As soon as the plants are set in the fields, the rows should be cul- tivated, being especially careful not to throw any soil over the hearts of the plants. Hand hoeing may be necessary between the plants. Cultivation must be then given after every rain and as often otherwise as it is necessary to maintain a fine dust mulch over the soil. This will prevent the moisture of the soil from passing off into the air and in addition to keeping the roots well supplied with water, it will prevent the roots from working deeper into the soil where the supply of air is not so plentiful and the production of plant food not so rapid. Constant cultivation induces a larger and better quality of growth by preserving 764 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE tlie soil moisture and keeping the roots near the surface where the plant food is liberated more rapidly. As the surface of the soil in cultivating should not be thrown up in ridges but kept as smooth and fine as possible, a small-toothed cultivator should be used in preference to the larger shovel tooth t^pes. About the Kalamazoo section, the crop is planted in rows too close to permit horse cultivation and the fields are worked with hand cultivators. These are especially desii^able for cultivating the crop as they permit stirring the soil very close to the plant without danger of in- jury by deep cultivation. Marketing The marketing of the celery crop starts in this state about the first of July and continues more or less steadily until mid- winter. The harvesting season of the various celery districts in Michigan come at such times that one district does not enter into serious competition with an- other in the general markets. The Kal- amazoo, Muskegon and Grand Haven dis- tricts, for example, grow early celery, starting their marketing about the first of July and continue until some time in October. Even these sections hardly com- pete with each other, as the Grand Haven and Muskegon crops are shipped across the lake to Chicago, or Milwaukee, while the Kalamazoo crop is sold largely in other cities, being expressed to points all over the United States. During the fall, the other districts, at Decatur, Vriesland, Hudsonville and other smaller sections where the crop is grown more extensively, begin shipping and aim to dispose of most of their crop before severe freezing weather. A small portion of this crop in these districts is trenched in the field, but is generally disposed of before mid-winter when the California product enters the market Harvesting Celery may be harvested as soon as it attains the proper size and is well blanched. With the earliest crop, to gain the advantages of a high market, it is frequently cut slightly before this time and it often pays better under these cir- cumstances than to wait for the crop to fully blanch and mature. If the plants are left too long after they have matured, they lose their crispness and flavor and are apt to become diseased. When the ci^op is harvested during the summer months and is to be shipped long distances, the plants should be cut and carried to the packing shed early in the morning. In the Kalamazoo district, this work is all performed before 7 o'clock in the morning. The boards used tor blanch- ing are removed only as fast as necessary and laid between the rows to serve as a walk. If the plants are left exposed to the sun and wind, they lose their firm- ness and are apt to wilt, hence the boards are removed only as fast as the celery is cut. Using a stiff knife or spading shovel, the roots are cut a short distance below the surface of the soil and the plants laid in small piles along the boards. As the packing shed is generally nearby, wheelbarrows are used to gather the plants as fast as they are cut, and they are carried at once to the packing house. Where this building is more dis- tant or the operations more extensive, wagons are used and the plants covered with canvas on the way to the packing house. After reaching the packing house, the plants are trimmed by removing the outer leaves and cutting the roots to a more or less conical shape with a flat point near the base of the plant. They are then thoroughly washed in clean cold water which helps to keep them in a firm, fresh condition. After being allowed to thoroughly drain for some time, they are tied into round bunches containing 12 good sized plants. In early July, when the plants are rather small, 13 or 14 of them are sometimes necessary to make a good sized bunch. Generally the only grading practiced by the growers consists in discarding the smallest plants or "culls" and bunching all the marketable sized plants together. Some growers practice more xigid grad- ing, selecting the largest and best plants, bunching separately and shipping these K^ilixjsijjxX 765 to a special market. The smallest plants are sold locally and seldom pay to pack and sliip. In bunching celery, a board about a foot long and eight to 10 inches wide is nailed along the upper edge of the pack- ing bench, with a semi-circular piece cut out along the upper side of it large enough to hold the bases of 12 good sized plants which, when placed in it can be quickly tied into a round bunch. Exti^a stout white string is used, making one tie around the base of the plants and one near the tops. Many of the more careful packers of summer shipments are now wrapping each bunch separately, with heavy brown paper, using open crates. This tends to prevent the heating of the celery in long shipments during hot weather and will undoubtedly be used more as its ad- vantages become appreciated. However, most of shipments are made in tight crates which are lined with heavy wrap- ping paper. The size of the several crates used varies considerably throughout the state but the following is a list of the common sizes used at Kalamazoo: Sizes of Kalamazoo Celery Crates Inches Inches 6x 8x24 0x24x24 6x10x24 6x20x24 0x12x24 6x28x24 6x16x24 10x16x24 6x18x24 10x18x24 6x20x24 10x20x24 6x22x24 10x24x24 10x20x24 In the other celery districts of the state the crates are quite different in form and the celery frequently packed loose in the crates. The following are the sizes gen- rally used: Inches Inches 6x12x20 10x10x18 6x12x22 10x10x20 6x18x22 10x10x22 At Decatur much of the crop is shipped in the rough. When shipped in this man- ner some of the roots are left on the plants and only a few of the outside leaves removed. The celery is then packed in large open crates, being trimmed and bunched in the storage houses of the cities by the commission dealers before being delivered to the re- tailers. Shipping in this manner enables the growers to handle and ship their crop while the weather is favorable and the crop is placed in a fresh, crisp condition upon the market Storing Although most of the celery in Michi- gan is sold before freezing weather, about Hudsonville, Vriesland and some other sections, large quantities of it are stored for early winter. Many market gardeners about the cities of the state dealing with a special or local market also store this crop. When the crop is to be sold in late fall it may be simply banked as high as pos- sible with soil and the tops covered with straw, to protect the plants from light freezes. Celery that is to be stored for early winter is usually trenched. This consists of digging a trench about a foot deep in the field between the celery rows, into which the plants are closely set, so that the tops are not more than two inches above the ground. The trench may be dug by hand or by plowing out a double furrow, and the plants should be lifted from the rows while the foliage is dry, with some soil clinging to the roots. A protection of some sort must then be provided. When blanching boards are at hand they may be nailed together in a V form and placed over the trenches. If the weather then turns warm after trenching, they may be slight- ly raised with blocks or stones, for venti- lation. As it gets colder a light furrow of soil may be turned against the base of the boards, and later, the boards cov- ei-ed with manure to protect the plants. If boards are not available the plants may be covered with hay or straw, until danger of severe freezing, when they may be further protected with manure. The storing of celery in this state for late winter is generally unprofitable, and hence it will seldom pay to erect a celery storehouse for this purpose. Storage pits, vacant hot beds or cellars are often satis- factory for storing this crop. In fact, it may be stored in any place where the plants may be kept cool and moist, with- out danger of freezing and where thorough ventilation may be given, espe- cially during warm weather. 766 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Diseases Celery as grown in Michigan is not as susceptible to injury of fungus diseases as in many other sections of the country. The comparatively cool, moist days ot the growing season are especially favorable for the production of healthy, vigorous plants, but in seasons that are unusually warm, these diseases often become very injurious and sometimes ruin entire crops. Bamping-Off Bhizoctonia This is the most serious disease of the celery plants while in the seed bed. Dur- ing the first two weeks after the seedlings appear, it is especially apt to attack the plants. This disease causes a decay on the main stem or root just at the surface of the soil, which quickly kills the young seedling. During warm moist weather it is apt to be very injurious, spreading rapidly throughout the bed. In the green- house, too much heat, lack of ventila- tion, and watering the plants on dark cloudy days, or late in the afternoon, all tend to promote this disease. Thorough ventilation, plenty of light, judicious care in watering, in general, keeping the plants on the "dry side," tend to prevent this disease. Early Celery Blight Cercospora apii A common disease of celery infecting the foliage early in the season. It first appears as well defined spots on the leaves that soon become so numerous as to cause the leaves to turn yellow and finally die. On the dead leaves the disease multi- plies very rapidly and soon spreads to the other plants. It does not generally ap- pear late in the season, but plants weak- ened by this disease are often afterwards attacked by the late blight. Spraying the plants with Bordeaux mixture, as recommended for the late blight will con- trol this disease, the early spraying be- ing especially important. Late Celery Bliglif Septoria petroselini Of the diseases affecting celery this is generally the most common and serious one. It first appears in late summer or early fall as irregular rusty brown spots on the outside leaves, spreading under favorable conditions over the entire leaf surface and to other leaves of the plants, causing a burned appearance to the foli- age in a very short while. During un- usually warm, moist weather in the grow- ing season, or after the crop is stored, this disease proves very destructive. Plants set upon poorly drained land or plants stunted or weakened by any other means are especially susceptible to it. If the plants are kept growing vigorously and well cultivated they are not as sus- ceptible to it, and are generally able to withstand its effects. However, when the blight has become well established upon the plants it is then too late to apply ef- fective remedial measures. The disease may be prevented also by spraying the plants with Bordeaux mixture,* using the 5-5-50 formula, or the ammoniacal car- bonate of copper spray, beginning when the plants are small, spraying once be- fore lifting them from the seed beds, and continuing the spraying every ten days or two weeks until the plants are ready to blanch by boards. The success of this work will depend largely upon the thoroughness with which the foliage of the plants is covered, as it is important that all portions of the plant be reached by this spray. All diseased plants and refuse left in the field after harvesting should be carried from the land, rather than to turn it under with its spores of this disease to cause another infection the following season. When conditions will permit, rotation of crops will prove very desirable, devoting the land to cabbages, onions, peppermint or some other suit- able crop for two or more years until the land is free of these spores. Insects Affecting the Celery Plant* The celery plant is by no means im- mune to insect attack. It is preyed on by many of the garden pests, army worms, cut worms, the zebra caterpillar, the cel- ery looper and by a number of other cater- pillars. Besides these are several suck- ing insects, plant lice, leaf hoppers, a ♦For details of spraying send to Michigan Experiment Station for bulletin on spraying. CELERY— CELERY DISEASES 767 negro-bug and a thrips. Most conspicu- ous of all is the parsley caterpillar, which works also on carrots, caroway, fennel and other plants of the same fanaily — a naked caterpillar nearly two inches long, green or yellow in color, with transverse black bands, and spotted with yellow. When disturbed, the larva protrudes a Y-shaped yellow horn, from which emanates a sickening odor, pre- sumably distasteful to birds and other enemies. The adult is the common black, parsley swallow-tail butterfly, a beautiful velvet black butterfly having long swal- low-tails, and marked by rows of yellow spots. Control of these insects will depend on their feeding habits. Grasshoppers should be killed by Criddle mixture, which is poisoned and slightly salted horse manure. Flea beetles may be driv- en away or killed by arsenate of lead, while the plants are small, that being the time when most injury is done. Cut worms like poisoned bran, made by mix- ing thoroughly, one pound of Paris green with fifty pounds of dry bran and then moistening it with a little molasses and water. The zebra caterpillar can be usually hand-picked profitably, as well as the parsley caterpillar. The plant lice and negro bugs should respond to a spray- ing with strong tobacco tea or with one of the nicotine extracts. This is true also of the thrips. The leaf hoppers will be driven away by such a spray, but they will return after it evaporates. For the latter, a reg- ular practice of clean culture, and the burning of all rubbish, after cold weather has set in, will gradually get rid of them, especially if this treatment be extended over a wide area. Many noxious insects winter in rubbish, fallen leaves, along hedges, etc. R. H. Pettit, Entomologist of Mich. Exp. Sta. CELEBY DISEASES Bad Seed There is scarcely a more vital question in celery growing than that of the qual- ity of seed used. Seed that is of a bad strain though true to varietal name, may inflict losses of hundreds or thousands of dollars on large growers. Hollow celery, or that otherwise useless, according to present knowledge is very often due to the bad seed. Black Boot Found on plants in seed beds. Damping Off This trouble is caused by a fungus which follows careless watering while the plants are very small, attacks the seedlings at the point where they emerge from the soil, causing them to decay at this point. This disease may be avoid- ed by starting the plants in trays, and subwatering them by setting the trays in a shallow trough containing about 1 inch of water, allowing the water to en- ter through the drainage holes in the bottom of the tray. In this way the sur- face of the soil will remain slightly dry, while the roots of the plants receive plenty of moisture. Where it is imprac- ticable to apply subwatering methods it v/ill be necessary to water very carefully and to avoid extremes of drought and moisture. It is best to prevent too rapid evaporation by partial shading with lath screens. Early Leaf Bligbt Oercospora apii Plants may develop this disease in the seed bed, and it is most prevalent in early summer. Control Keep young plants coated with 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture, later using the non- staining ammoniacal coppe.r carbonate solution. Well-drained, half-shaded fields seem to suffer less than others. Heart Bot Heart rot is a very destructive decay of the inner, or heart, portions of the cel- ery plant after blanching has begun. The inner parts rot very suddenly, emit a penetrating odor and the market value of the affected celery is destroyed. The decayed parts are teeming with motile bacteria to which this form of decay has been attributed. The heart rot prevails too in very hot, steamy weather, but preventive measures are about all 768 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE that can be recommended. It is sug- gested that when the boards are first put up to the celery, under such conditions as accompany the heart rot, they should be left apart at the top and only closed up to the usual point after an interval of several days. This secures better ventilation and often prevents the disease. A. D. Selby, Wooster, Ohio Hollow Celery. See Bad Seed, this section. Late Blight Septoria petroselini var. apii F. D. Bailey The disease commonly known as late blight of celery seems to be the most serious disease of that crop in Oregon. It is commonly found in most parts of this country where celery is grown. It also occurs in Europe, and by many is believed to have been introduced into this coun- try, probably through seed. There is a possibility, however, that a similar disease is present on some native weed of the celery family and has spread to the cultivated varieties of celery. This disease occurs in the plants in the form of spots on the blade of the leaf, though the disease may attack the leaf bases. The spots are small, irregular in outline, and tawny in color (Fig. 1). These spots are caused by a fungus known as Septoria petroselini, var apii. If examined with a hand lens, numerous small black specks which are slightly raised may be seen scattered irregularly in the spots. These spots contain the re- productive bodies or spores of the fungus. These spores escape through a minute opening and, being scattered by wind and rain, cause the growth of new spots. The spots may appear on the first leaves of the seedlings in the seed bed, a fact which suggests the possibility that the disease may be carried through the seed. When the fungus is abundant on the leaves, and especially on the leaf bases, there is a tendency to make the stalks brittle, so that minute transverse cracks are formed which reduce the market value. Usually the spots are clearly defined, but under favorable conditions for the development of the fungus, the entire leaflet may be affected, resulting in a complete wilting of the leaves. The disease may also develop serious- ly in storage, particularly if the storage houses are too warm or are poorly venti- lated. It is probable that the disease lives over winter in the dead leaves that are left in the fields at digging time. #^; Fig. 1. Leaf Spot or Late Blight of Celery. Remedy It is advisable, so far as practical, not to trim the plants in the field. Diseased plants and leaves should not be thrown in the compost heap if the compost is to be used as fertilizer for celery beds or fields. It is also advisable, where pos- sible, to practice a three or four year rota- tion of crops. Spraying must be practiced as a pre- ventive. The seedlings should be spray- ed frequently (at least once a week), be- ginning when they show the first leaves. The plants should be sprayed in the field often enough to cover new foliage, and especially after every heavy rain. Bor- deaux mixture should be used in the 4-4-50 formula. Ammoniacal copper car- bonate may be used for the later sprays CELERY DISEASES— CELERY PESTS 769 in the field, as this mixture does not leave a deposit on the plants. The practice of overhead sprinkling, as followed by many growers, is especially undesirable as this has the same effect as frequent rains and offers ideal condi- tions for the development and spread of the fungus. Where irrigation is neces- sary, arrangements should be made to apply the water in rills. Bibliography 1897 — N. Y. Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 132. California Experiment Station Bulletin 208. Boot Bot RMzoctonia Attacks plants during damp seasons. The roots rot off in some cases. Bust, True and False In Europe the celery plant is attack' ed by one or two rust fungi (Puccinia lul- lata [Pers.] and P. Gastagnei Thum) of the same class of parasitic fungi as those producing rust in wheat. These two rusts have not as yet been discovered in Ameri- ca, though they will doubtless in time become introduced. Celery which is bank- ed in the earth often has the blanched stems marked by rusty spots of various sizes. These spots appear to arise from the contact of the stems with the earth, and on microscopic examination seem to be due to the fungi or bacteria, or both, that may be present in the soil. The difficulty is prevented by avoiding this method of blanching and substituting boards or close culture planting. A. D. Selby, Wooster, Ohio V-JiJjJliJKiX xJaiJXO Apple Leaf Hopper. See under Apple Pests. Cabbage Root Maggot. Sometimes at- tacks celery. See under Calytage Pests. Celery leaf Tyer PMyctaenia ruMgaUs This insect often becomes very trouble- some, not only because it destroys the leaves by eating them, but by spinning a web and tying the leaves together. The insect is thoroughly distributed and may at any time become a troublesome pest in any celery field. As a means of con- trolling this insect, hand picking will be effectual on a small scale. Spray with Paris green in cases where the larvae have become very numerous. Applied so as to reach the underside of the leaves, where the insects feed. It would not be advisable to spray with a poisonous solu- tion late in the season after the edible portion of the celery has begun to form. Celery Looper Ptusia simplex Guen. * In some portions of our country, as, for example, in Illinois, this species to a certain extent takes the place of the cabbage looper (Plusia l>rassicae Riley). It is stated to be the commonest species of its genus in Illinois, and is rather gen- erally distributed in the United States east of the Rocky mountains, from Can- ada to New Mexico. Descriptive The moth is decidedly dissimilar to that of the cabbage looper, having a greater wing expanse, nearly two inches, entirely different coloration, and differ- ently shaped upper wings. The lower edges of the fore wings have a well-de- fined conical projection. The border is not scalloped, the color is somewhat purplish brown, the darker shades being velvety brown. The silver marks are very distinct. The hind wings are ochre- ous or yellowish brown, strongly banded with dark fuscous, particularly toward the white border. The ground color of the thorax, fore wings, and abdomen is duller than that of the hind wings. The lower surface is pale ochreous, with a rather distinct darker band running through both wings near the middle. The egg is milky white, flattened, globular, or turnip-shaped, sometimes with an impressed spot in the center of the upper surface- The upper half of the QS^ is grooved vertically* The larva is similar to the cabbage looper. The color is very pale yellow- ish green. The length is about 1% inches when fully extended. * Chittenden, Division Entomological Bulle- tin 33, New Series. 2 — 8 770 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Remedy Paris green applied to the under side of the leaves. Celery or Parsley Caterpillar Papilio poJyxenes Fab. Family Papilionidae Papilio asterias Fab. General Appearance The most evident forms of this insect are the feeding caterpillars, which are indeed very striking. The youngest of these are noticeably darker with yellow spots. When full grown they are yellow- ish green with distinct black bands and dots on the bodies. If disturbed they throw out a forked, orange-colored scent organ behind the head, which exhales a very pungent and characteristic odor. The eggs are about 1 mm. in length, at first yellow and later reddish brown in color, and flattened at the attached end. The adult butterflies are commonly known Fig. 1. Caterpillar and Chrysalis of the Pars- ley Butterfly {Papilio polyxenes Fab.) (Original.) as the black swallowtails, being black with yellow markings. The chrysalids vary from green to dull gray and are more or less mottled. The zebra cater- pillar is equally striking in appearance but smaller. Life History The eggs are laid upon the food plants from spring to early summer and hatch in about ten days. The caterpillars are voracious feeders and develop very rapid- ly, being ready to form chrysalids in about one month after hatching. Chry- salids hatch in about two weeks. The adults being strong fliers are able to scatter their broods over large areas. There are several generations a year. Food Plants In many localities this caterpillar is a serious pest of celery and parsley, but feeds also upon carrots, caraway, par- snips, dill, fennel and related wild plants. Control Though the caterpillars may be con- trolled by poison sprays on some crops, these are not safe for celery and parsley. The larvae are so conspicuous as to make hand picking one of the best methods of control. If care is exercised to collect and destroy the first larvae the second and more damaging brood will be greatly reduced. Concerted action on the part of all growers is necessary to bring satisfac- tory results. Natural Enemies The ichneumon parasites. Tragus vul- pinus Grav. and T. exidianator Brulle, destroy great numbers of the chrysalids. E. O. EssiG Grasshoppers Some species of grasshoppers often prove destructive pests during the early part of the season, especially where the celery is planted near meadows or other habitat of these insects. Where no fowls are allowed to run, it is practicable to poison the grasshoppers by means of wheat bran to which there has been add- ed molasses and water and enough Paris green to give the mixture a slightly green color. Parsnip Louse. See under Parsnip. Tarnished Plant Bug This insect while not considered a dangerous celery insect, has been known to injure the crop in several instances. While young this bug is very small, be- ing only about one-twentieth of an inch in length, of a yellowish or yellowish- green color, which changes to a faded yellow or dull brown when it is fully grown. It works especially where weeds abound and on crops that are somewhat neglected. As a preventive, keep the celery well cultivated and free from weeds, and do not allow any trash to lie over the ground beneath which the insects can pass the winter. Kerosene emulsion is moderately effective when CELERY DISEASES— THE CHERRY 771 thoroughly applied. The insects are slug- gish during the early morning and many of them can be caught hy means of a large butterfly net; but in all cases it will be as necessary to destroy insects found upon surrounding crops and weeds. Zebra Caterpillar. See Celery Cater- pillar, this section. Celeriac, Culture of. See Alaska. Checking Growth, Cover Crops for. See Apple Orchai'd, Cover Crops, Chemical Composition of Apples. See Fertilization of Apple Orchard. Chemicals Removed by Various Crops. See Apple Orchard, Cover Crops. The Cherry The origin of the cherry, like that of many of our domestic fruits, is lost in the unwritten history of the evolution of plant life. If we could see the cherry from which all varieties of cherries have come, and then if we could see that from which this original cherry sprung, and so on back step by step until we reached a point beyond which we cannot go, there would at least be educational interest ill it, and having traced one species back to its original, we might, with strong pre- sumption of truth, say that this is the path all other fruits have trodden. Being denied this privilege, we classify the cher- ry under its genus, Prunus, and the seed- ling cherry under its species, Avium. There is no doubt that certain varieties were introduced into this country from the older countries, but when they came there were cherries growing wild in this country that came from some source, no one knows where, and in all prob- ability travelled the same path as the cherries of Europe or of the Orient, which under cultivation were improved and brought to this country in the improved state. The wild cherry grew in the Atlantic states and in the Middle states as late as 1865, or even later. The writer came to Illinois about that time and settled on the prairies near a point of timber that skirted the stream called Bruiletts Creek. A little village called Cherry Point had sprung up at the point of tim- ber, extending out into the prairie. In that skirt of timber there were cherry trees large enough to be manufactured into lumber, and they were used for the various purposes of fencing, building, etc. At the time it did not occur to us to measure the trees, for we did not think their size was of much consequence, ex- cept as they could be utilized for the time being, but as we remember them now, they must have been 18 inches to 3 feet in diameter. Then, in the little groves on the prairies were cherry trees of smaller ©ize that nearly always bore fruit. The fruit of the large and the small varieties was not the same in size or color, one being black and the other reddish, but they were cherries and there was no greater difference between them, than exists now between the light and dark colored fruits of the same name, but of improved varieties. In the hill lands of Oregon, near the coast are large wild cherry trees, highly prized for lum- ber. From Prunus Avium the following var- ieties have sprung: First. The Mazzards, or inferior seed- ling fruit of various shapes and colors, the trees often attaining great size. Second. The Hearts, or heart shaped sweet cherries, light or dark, represent- ed by the black Tartarian and Governor Wood. Third. The Bigarreaus, or heart shaped, firm fleshed, sweet cherry, like the Napolean and Windsor. Fourth. The Dukes, light colored, some- what acid in flesh, such as the May Duke and the Reine Hortense. From Prunus Cerasus, the following varieties have sprung: First. The Armarelles, or light color- ed, sour cherry with colorless juice, repre- sented by the Early Richmond and Mont- morency. Second. The Morellos, or dark color- ed, sour cherry with dark colored juice like the English Morello and Louis Phil- ippe. The Mahaleb is a type brought from the Old World, and is hardier and smaller 772 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE o as Xi B THE CHERRY 773 than most other types, therefore is of- ten used as a stock on which to bud, and on which to grow better varieties. Soil Best Adapted In its wild state, the cherry is gener- ally found growing on a porous, sandy, moist soil. It will grow on a variety of soils, but it does best where the soil is not too wet, where there is not too much clay and where there is not a hardpan subsoil. For the best fruiting, there should not be too much humus in the soil, as this leads to a heavy wood growth; but it should be rich in mineral elements. The soil should always be well drained, and if the cherry orchard has not natural drainage, it should be tiled or drained with surface ditches; for the cherry tree will not do its best in a damp soggy soil. Further, during the early part of the year, when the tree is developing or ripening its fruit, there should be more water than in the latter part of the season, when it is passing into a dormant state. Planting the Trees As in the planting of other orchard crops, the soil should be well prepared, graded, pulverized and all roots, trash and other obstructions to subsequent cul- tivation, removed. This is especially im- portant if the ground is to be irrigated; but is subject to some modifications in the humid climates, where irrigation is not practiced. As to whether the square, hexagonal or some other method of planting is adopt- ed, is a matter of choice, depending somewhat on conditions. See our article on planting under Apple. The distances apart will depend on soil, climate, and the purposes of the grower; but most of all upon the varieties planted. For instance, the sour cherry, is not a large tree when it has reached maturity, and may be planted 20 to 25 feet apart, with reasonable assurance that the trees will not crowd each other when full grown. The sweet cherry will grow twice as large as the sour cherry. Fig. 1. A Well Arranged and Well Cared for Cherry Orchard, Three Years Old. — Courtesy N. P. Ry. 774 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE and will require nearly twice tlie space. Where there is plenty of moisture, the trees may he planted at less distance, as where there is barely enough; because where the water is scarce, the roots have to draw moisture from a larger area than where it is abundantly supplied. Where there is plenty of water, and a rich soil, the tendency will be toward a heavy wood growth at the expense of heavy fruitage; while in regions where the soil is thin and the water scarce, the tendency will he toward heavy fruit- age at the expense of wood growth. Un- der these latter conditions, the tree would probably lack vital force and be short lived. Cherries as Fillers It is common in some sections to plant an apple orchard, selecting other fruits as fillers to be planted between the rows of apples and to be cut out when the trees begin to crowd and the apples need the space. For this purpose, peaches, pears, and other fruits have been se- lected. The cherry is not adapted to this form of planting since it requires a different method of cultivation from any of the fruits named. It matures its crop early and requires the remainder of the season for the development of its fruit spurs for the coming year; also re- quires less water during this period, and less humus than the other crops. The rules for the planting of the cher- ry, are but little different from those of any orchard fruits. It is important to have the holes large enough to receive the roots without crowding, and deep enough so that the tree is set a little deep- er than when in the nursery. Tramp the soil well about the surface, to hold the tree from shaking in the wind. The age of the tree at the time of planting is a subject of controversy and opinions differ, generally, with differing conditions. In the Northeastern states, and in Canada, the preference seems to be generally in favor of two-year-old trees. In the Western states, especially the Pacific coast states, the preference is in favor of one-year-old trees. This difference grows partly out of the fact that in the West, where the climate is milder, the seasons longer, and the lands are irrigated, the trees make a much more rapid growth than in the Northeast, and are approximately as large in one year as in the East in two years. Even where irrigation is not the rule in the Pacific coast regions, as in the Wil- lamette valley in Oregon, or west of the Cascades in Washington, the climate is mild, the rainfall abundant and most abundant at the time the cherry most needs it; therefore, this region is pecu- liarly adapted to the growing of cherries. Under these conditions, we think the choice of one-year-old stock is decidedly preferable, to two-year-old stock. Furth- er, the earlier in the life of the tree the head is shaped, the less it is damaged by cutting, and the better top it will form. CultiYating a Cherry Orchard For the first three or four years at least the cherry orchard should have clean culture. This does not mean that vegetables which require cultivation may not be grown among the trees. In fact, we think this is ordinarily an advantage rather than a disadvantage, because it does not injure the trees, insures cultiva- tion, and utilizes much land that is oth- erwise wasted. It does mean that the growing of grass, especially blue grass, or timothy, is not favorable for the best growth of the trees. Much depends on the nature of the soil. West of the Cas- cades where the soil is rich in humus and where the tendency would likely be toward a heavy wood growth, a fall crop of oats, fall wheat or winter rye, might be grown. On the east side of the Cas- cades, where the soil is rich in mineral substances, but lacks nitrogen and humus, a cover crop of clover, peas, alfalfa, or vetch, might be grown. There are no rules that apply equally well under all conditions, and the orchard ist must al- ways decide for himself what are the soil and climatic conditions, and how they should be utilized in reference to the crop he is growing. The cherry, like all other trees, must be adapted to its environment in order to produce the best results. There is perhaps no part of the THE CHERRY 775 United States where the natural condi- tions are more favorable for the growth of the best varieties of cherries, than the Pacific coast region, west of the Cascade mountains. From the Oregon Experiment Station we learn that as high as 500 to 800 pounds of cherries have been grown from a single tree, and that from $100 to $200 per acre net profit is not unusual; but that the money realized often runs as high as $600 to $700 per acre. I think that for Washington, these figures might be easi- ly duplicated, although in exceptional cases, I have seen larger yields. Granville Lowther Cost of Harvesting Cherries The following statement was reported from Ohio to Green's Fruit Grower (Feb., 1912). No. crates per acre 530 Average price per crate $2.00 $1,060.00 Picking, per crate $0.48 Crate (new) .25 Express .20 Commission .20 Total $1.13 Total cost of harvesting $598.90 Net returns per acre 461.10 This covers harvesting costs only and the crop was an unusually large one. Propagation of Cherries W. L. Howard The cherry is propagated almost en- tirely by budding. While seedlings from our common varieties may be used for growing stock, nurserymen always use special kinds of stock which are usually imported from France. The kinds of stock in most general use are the Maz- zard and Mahaleb. The Mazzard is the best stock for both sweet and sour cher- ries in the East. The Mahaleb is more widely used for the sour kinds, however, for it is easier to bud, and is free from leaf blight in the nursery. The Mazzard, however, appears to form a better root system, stronger union, makes a long- er lived tree and is sufficiently hardy. For the plains states the hardier Mahaleb stock should be used. Both of these may Pig. 2. Royal Anns Properly Packed. For Rules for Packing: Cherries see Packing: under Apple. be secured from most any nurseryman in early winter or spring. In a small way, it is quite feasible to grow one's own cherry stock from the seeds of the fruit raised at home. Cherry seeds should not be permitted to become thoroughly dried out at any time. On this account it is advisable to store the seeds through the remainder of the summer, after ripening, in boxes of sand and bury them from eight to twelve inches deep in the ground in a cool place. This will keep them moist, and at the same time they will be suf- ficiently cool and away from the free circulation of air that they will not be- gin to grow. At the approach of cold weather the seeds should be taken up and the open boxes of sand kept on the surface of the ground in the shade of a building throughout the winter. Very early in the 77S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE spring the seeds should be planted in nursery rows four feet apart and an inch or two apart in the rows. Cover with an inch or two of fine soil, if the ground is not too wet. If the seeds are about to sprout and the soil is yet too wet to work well the seeds should be partially covered with the wet earth and then a dressing an inch thick of well-rotted manure spread over the rows. The young seedlings should have thorough cultivation during the sum- mer. About the last week in August or the first week in September, or earlier, if the bark peels readily, the budding should be done. In the South where the spring opens much earlier, the seedlings may be large enough for budding in June. In that event, one year's time is saved, as the tops are cut o:ff immediately, and the young trees often grow to transplant- ing size the same season. Full details for the budding is given under the dis- cussion of peaches. When the trees have had one year's growth from the buds, they are of the proper age to be trans- planted to the orchard. Cherry seedlings are sometimes cleft-grafted in spring, where the buds the previous fall failed to take. Pruning the Cherry The cherry has the annoying habit of occasionally producing strong shoots from adventitious buds along the trunk of the tree or from near the surface of the ground. A close watch should be kept for such interlopers in order that they may be promptly removed. Framework During the early years of the growth of the cherry care should be exercised to secure a proper distribution of the limbs which are to form the frame- "work branches of the tree, particularly writh the sweet cherries, as this species "has the unfortunate habit of dividing into two shoots of nearly equal size with a close angle between, which always forms a weak joint Trees not carefully pruned to overcome this bad habit are liable to •severe injury from splitting when heavily loaded with fruit. Cutting Back In the early period of the growth of the sweet cherry, the annual growth will need more or less severe cutting back, depending upon soil and climatic condi- tions, in order to maintain them within bounds. On general principles this head- ing should be done just before growth starts in the spring. Fruiting Habits The fruiting habits of the cherry are more closely allied to those of the apple and the pear than to the peach, and for that reason the shortening of the annual growth is of less moment than with the peach. Pruning First Four Years W, S. Thoenber During the first four years of a young cherry tree's life in the orchard it should be carefully, systematically and regularly pruned. By this time it should be large enough and its frame work so well de- veloped that the. future pruning would consist largely of the removal of dead, diseased, broken or crossed limbs and an occasional heading back or thinning out of the fruiting wood. Pruning for the production of wood after a tree starts to bear should not be necessary as there is a relationship existing between the amount of wood produced and the size of the crop borne, in the case of most varieties of cherries. How to Prune The first and most essential pruning of a cheriT tree should take place just previ- ous to the beginning of its second year's growth. When one-year-old trees are planted in the orchard, immediately af- ter transplanting, is a good time to give it this pruning. All lateral branches should be cut off close and the top headed back to from 24 to 36 inches from the ground. The purpose of this pruning is to establish a low headed spreading tree rather than a high upright tree. The young tree will require no further prun- ing until the beginning of the third year's growth unless a very strong sprout springs from the root or on the main stem six inches or less from the ground, necessitating immediate removal. THE CHERRY 777 At the beginning of the third year's growth from three to five of the best branches should be selected to form the frame work of the tree. The remainder should be cut off and those headed back to from one-third to one-half of their original length, cutting to outer buds al- ways and maintaining the most central one as a leader, which should be from four to six inches longer than the rest. These branches should be selected with special reference to their position on the main stem and to one another. They should have wide angles, no two should be opposite and be as far apart as possible on the main stem. The pruning for the fourth and fifth year's growth should be very much the same as for the third, using special care to thin the tops and cut back in such a manner as to spread the top as much as possible. After this only the necessary pruning should be done, as heavy pruning tends to produce wood growth which is not at all desirable in bearing trees. When to Prune The pruning of young growing trees should be done late in the winter or early in the spring, but never early in the winter. Cheeries in Alaska. See Alaska. xl 66S of bearing Division or State — age United States 11,822,044 Geographic Divisions : New England 68,236 Middle Atlantic 1,851,144 Bast North Central 3,853,974 West North Central 2,768,659 South Atlantic 1,063,825 East South Central 453,262 West South Central 385,502 Mountain 390,644 Pacific 986,798 New England : Maine 14,288 New Hampshire 9,463 Vermont 18,006 Massachusetts 13,396 Rhode Island 964 Connecticut 12,119 Middle Atlantic : New York 673,989 New Jersey 102,124 Pennsylvania 1,075,031 Bast North Central : Ohio 1,144,271 Indiana . , 815,742 Illinois 843,283 Michigan 760,183 Wisconsin 290,495 West North Central : Minnesota 25,139 Iowa 908,764 Missouri 622,332 North Dakota 5,076 South Dakota 51,613 Nebraska 494,468 Kansas 661,267 South Atlantic Delaware 16,145 Maryland 82,305 District of Columbia 435 Virginia 352,783 West Virginia 332,429 North Carolina 168,065 South Carolina 60,274 Georgia 50,723 Florida 666 East South Central : Kentucky 212,138 Tennessee 201,830 Alabama 25,566 Mississippi 13.748 Cherries — Trees, Production and Talne U. S, Census 1910 -1910 1. . 190£ ) — , — . 1899 Trees not Pro- of bearing Production duction age (bushels) Value (bushels) 5,621,660 4,126,099 $7,231,160 2,873.499 32,587 14,904 38,424 23,445 659,953 791,326 1,541,708 775,587 1,523,247 1,410,298 2,362,344 851,326 1,117,533 515,690 935,537 297,873 364,118 327,706 394,990 391,799 257,112 94,873 143,166 49,457 242,569 9,954 14,401 13.635 581,641 147,854 300,485 83,956 842,900 813,494 1,500,105 436,421 6,653 2,403 7,164 1,550 6,326 1,403 4,133 1,183 6,659 2,506 7,651 1,069 6,776 4,761 10,848 6,043 453 214 464 1,329 5,720 3,617 8,164 12,271 342,959 271,597 544,508 218,642 36,743 44,636 87,225 82,005 280,251 475,093 909,975 474.940 342,328 338,644 657,406 192,954 251,959 363,993 508,516 228,485 239,605 287.376 453,474 204,279 540,580 338,945 590,829 194,541 148,775 81,340 152,119 31,067 38,399 1,526 2,973 960 229,352 260,432 455,022 118,743 247,425 123,314 222,510 62,708 21,484 209 445 4 76,293 5,924 12,981 900 267.529 89,876 164,872 54,047 237,051 34,409 76,734 60,511 4,598 2,634 4,850 8,066 27,774 42,315 60,121 60,452 4 235 568 248 83,323 132,671 134,428 188,693 124,567 79,723 111,043 87,828 74,111 53,788 60,453 33,899 25,764 10,987 15,880 6,551 23,479 4,979 7,199 5,950 498 374 448 112 102,766 52,163 74,340 34,258 128,406 36,303 60,294 11,688 16,673 3,588 4,783 1,159 9,267 2,819 3,749 2,352 778 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Clierries— Trees, Production and Value-— Continued U. S. Census 1910 __1010 . 1909 1899 Trees Trees not Pro- of bearing- of bearing Production duction Division or State— age age (bushels) Value (bushels) West South Central : Arkansas 60,046 47,556 5,993 8,424 7,889 Louisiana 975 760 ^527 921 336 Oklahoma 295,042 150,541 2,372 4,393 *3,221 Texas 29,439 43,712 1,062 G63 2.189 Mountain: ^^^r.^ -,«« Montana 19,93S 24,237 7,497 17,985 807 Idaho 61,S81 95,423 22,609 41,766 12,294 Wyoming 919 4,025 68 251 1 Colorado 203,806 319,624 88,937 173,895 5,387 New Mexico 21,925 26,818 6,384 10,684 5,228 Arizona S12 1,608 476 840 220 Utah 70,775 100,119 21,402 54,170 9,905 Nevada 1,588 787 481 894 114 Pacific : Washington 241,038 229,067 131,392 278,547 52,114 Oregon 223,456 313,770 181,089 269,934 65,347 California 522,304 300,063 501,013 951,624 318,960 * Includes Indian Territory. Varieties of clierries recommended for cultivation in tlie various districts of the United States. See map on page 192. District ]Vo. 1 Highly eecommended — Dessert and market: Tartarian, Black. Kitchen: Bes- sarabian; Brusseler Braune; Lutovka. Recommended — Dessert, kitchen and w^arket: Ostheim. Kitchen and market: Large Montmorency; Montmorency Or- dinaire; Morello, English (Wragg); Rich- mond, Early, Dessert and kitchen: May Duke. Market: Amarelle Hative; Shad- ow Amarelle. Kitchen: Dyeliouse; Phil- ippe, Louis. District Jfo. 2 Highly eecommended — Kitchen and m^arket: Large Montmorency; Montmor- ency Ordinaire; Morello, English (Wragg); Richmond, Early. Dessert and market: Black Heart; Eagle, Black; Elkhorn; Elton; Hortense, Jteine; Rock- port; Tartarian, Black; Windsor; Wood, Q-overnor. Dessert and kitchen: May Duke; Olivet. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann), Dessert: Eugenie, Empress; Span- ish, Yellow. Kitchen: Bessarabian; Dye- house; Late Duke; Late Kentish. Recommbkded — Dessert, kitchen and market: Ostheim. Dessert and market: Downer; Lewelling. Dessert and kitchen: Archduke. Dessert: Choisy, Belle de; Coe Transparent; Early Purple (hiigne; Knight Early; Mezel. Kitchen: Carna- tion; Lutovka; Magnifique, Belle; Phil- ippe, Louis; Royal Duke. District Ko. 8 Highly recommended — Kitchen and market: Large Montmorency; Montmor- ency Ordinaire; Richmond, Early, Des- sert and market: Black Heart; Tartarian, Black. Dessert and kitchen: May Duke; Olivet. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann). Dessert: Coe Transparent; Spanish, Yel- low. Kitchen: Late Kentish. Recommended — Kitchen and market : Morello, English (Wragg). Dessert and market: Downer; Eagle, Black; Elton; Hortense, Heine; Rockport; Windsor; Wood, Governor. Dessert: Choisy, Belle de; Mezel. Kitchen: Late Duke; Mag- nifique, Belle; Philippe, Loui; Royal Duke. District Ho. 4 Highly recommended — Kitchen and market: Large Montmorency; Montmor- ency Ordinaire; Morello, English (Wragg); Richmond, Early. Dessert and market: Black Heart; Hortense, Reine; Windsor. Dessert and kitchen: May Duke. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann). Kitchen: Dyehouse; Late Duke. Recommended — Dessert, kitchen and market: Ostheim. Dessert and market: Downer; Eagle, Black; Elton; Tartarian, Black; Wood, Governor. Dessert and kitchen: Olivet. Dessert: Choisy, Belle de; Coe Transparent; Early Purple THE CHE1R.R.X 779 G-uigne; Eugenie, Empress; Spanish, Yel- low, Recommended for teial — Dessert, kitch- en and market: Suda Hardy. District No. 5 Recommended — Kitchen and market: Large Montmorency; Morello, English (Wragg) ; Richmond, Early. Dessert and market: Eagle, Black; Elton; Rockport; Tartarian, Black; Windsor; Wood, Q-o'o- ernor. Dessert and kitchen: May Duke. Market: Napoleon (Boy al Ann). Dessert: Coe Transparent; Choisy, Belle de; Early Purple Quigne; Knight Early; Mezel; Spanish, Yellow. Kitchen: Dyehouse; Late Duke; Magnifique, Belle. District No. 7 Recommended — Kitchen and market : Montmorency Ordinaire. Dessert and market: Black Heart. Kitchen: Mag- nifique. Belle; Plumstone Morello. District No. 8 Highly recommended — Kitchen and Market: Large Montmorency; Montmor- ency Ordinaire; Richmond, Early; Morel- lo, English (Wragg). Kitchen: Late Kentish. Recommended — Dessert, Kitchen, and market: Ostheim. Dessert and market: Eagle, Black; Tartarian, Black; Wood, Governor. Dessert and kitchen: Olivet. Market: Napoleon (Boy al Ann). Dessert: Spanish, Yellow, Kitchen: Carnation; Dyehouse; Lutovka; Philippe, Louis; Plumstone Morello. Recommended for trial — Dessert, kitchen, and market: Suda Bardy. Kitchen: Bessarabian; Brusseler Braune; Northwest. District No. 9 Highly recommended — Kitchen and market: Large Montmorency. Recommended — Dessert, Kitchen, and market: Ostheim; Morello, English (Wragg), Market: Amarelle Hative. Kitchen: Bessarabian; Brusseler Braune; Lutovka. Recommended for trial — Market: Shadow Amarelle. Kitchen: Dyehouse. District No. 10 Highly recommended — Dessert and kitchen: Olivet. Recommended — Kitchen and market: Large Montmorency; Morello, English (Wragg) ; Richmond, Early. Dessert and market: Wood, Governor. Dessert and kitchen: Archduke; May Duke. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann). Kitchen: Dye- house; Late Duke; Lutovica. District No. 12 Highly recommended — Kitchen and market: Large Montmorency; Montmor- ency Ordinaire; Richmond, Early; Morel- lo, English (Wragg). Dessert and Market: Hortense, Heine; Republican, Black; Windsor. Dessert and kitchen: May Duke. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann) . Dessert: Choisy, Belle de; Eugenie, Empress; Knight Early. Kitchen: Late Duke; Royal Duke. Recommended — Dessert and market : Black Heart; Eagle, Black; Tartarian, Black; Wood, Governor. Dessert and kitchen: Archduke; Olivet. Dessert: Coe Transparent; Spanish, Yellow. Kitchen: Dyehouse; Philippe, Louis; Plumstone Morello. District No. 13 Highly recommended — Kitchen and market: Morello, English (Wragg). District No. 14 Highly recommended — Kitchen and market: Morello, English (Wragg), Des- sert and market: Lewelling; Tartarian, Black; Windsor. Dessert and kitchen: May Duke. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann). Kitchen: Late Duke. Recommended — Dessert, Kitchen, and market: Ostheim. Kitchen and market: Late Montmorency. Dessert and market: Elton; Republican, Black; Wood, Gover- nor. Dessert: Spanish, Yellow. Kitchen: Late Kentish; Philippe, Louis. Recommended for trial — Dessert and kitchen: Olivet. Kitchen: Dyehouse. District No. 15 Highly recommended — Kitchen and market: Richmond, Early. Dessert and market: Bing; Hoskins; Lambert; Lewel- ling. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann), Kitchen: Late Kentish. R%coMM.Ki ■— Kitchen and market: Morello, English (Wragg). Dessert and 780 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE market: Oxheart; Tartarian, Black; Wood, Governor. Dessert and kitchen-. May Duke. Dessert: Early Purple G-uigne; Spauisli, Yellow. Kitchen: Late Duke. District INTo. 16 Highly eecommended— Des^eri and mar- ket: Bing; Tartarian, Black. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann). Recommended — Kitchen and market: Richmond, Early. Dessert and market: Lewelling; Rockport. District No. 17 Highly eecommended — Dessert and mar- ket: Tartarian, Black. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann). Recommended — Dessert and market: Centennial. Recommei^ded foe tkial — Dessert and market: Lewelling. District Jo, 18 Recommended — Kitchen and market: Morello, English (Wragg). Dessert and market: Tartarian, Black; Centennial. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann), CHERRY DISEASES Black Knot Plownghtia mordosa Schw. This is. a conspicuous disease attacking the branches of cherry and plum trees but is more frequent upon the cherry varieties of the Morello type. It is due to a para- sitic fungus. Insects, however, make har- bors of the interior of the knots. The spores of the black knot fungus are rip- ened during the winter and scattered in early spring, finding lodgment on the new branches or in fractures on old ones, where their growth causes the formation of a new knot. Black knot may be pre- vented by spraying with Bordeaux mix- ture, but is more profitably controlled by carefully cutting off affected parts and burning them, making a clean sweep at least once each year and that previous to March 1st. This is a practicable measure and we have confidence in its efficiency. (The disease occurs on wild cherries in the Northwest — Ed ) A. D. Selby, Wooster, Ohio, Brown Rot Sclerotinia fructigena H. S. Jackson The rot caused by Bclerotinia fructi- gefia on many stone fruits, is sometimes serious also on cherries. Moist weather conditions near the ripening time are favorable for the rapid development and spread of the disease. The fruit is more susceptible as it becomes mature. The disease makes its appearance on the cherry as a small brown spot, which gradually enlarges until the whole fruit is affected. A general discussion of this disease to- gether with recommendations for its con- trol, will be found under Peach diseases. Black Cherry Twig Blight Sclerotinia seaveri Rehm Has been found on wild cherry in New York. Clierry Guiumosis H. P. Baess The term "gummosis" by itself denotes simply the abnormal development of gummy or mucilaginous substances, re- sulting in the formation of gum pockets or exudations from various parts of the plant. The tendency to gum formation is characteristic of plums, apricots, peaches, cherries and other stone fruits wherever grown, usually as a response to injury, disease or unsuitable condi- tions of soil, climate, etc. Citrus and other trees are often subject to similar gumming. We are concerned here, how- ever, with this phenomenon as it appears on the cherry, especially on the sweet varieties in the Northwest. Of the two groups of cherries, the sour cheiTies or Frunus cerasus groups and the sweet cherries or Prunus avium group, we find that the former are not nearly so susceptible to gum flow, while the latter seem particularly subject to serious attacks whenever they are culti- vated, if we can judge by the reports that come from such widely separated points as Australia, Europe and the Pa- cific coast. In the state of Oregon serious attacks of gumming in the cherry orchards were noticed at least as early as 1853, very CHERRY DISEASE3S 781 early in the history of fruit raising in the Northwest. It is not known to what extent the cherry industry in other parts of the United States suffers from the presence of gummosis. Little is heard from it in the drier, eastern portion of the North- west; hut in the moist valleys of Wash- ington and Oregon, west of the Cascades, at least, the trouble now reaches such proportions as to dishearten many cherry growers and discourage other orchardists from planting cherries. The conditions demand a thorough investigation as to the causes, means of prevention and pos- sible remedies. Yarious Causes of Cherry Cfummosis As has been intimated, the formation and exudation of gum is to be considered as the result of an injured, diseased or otherwise abnormal condition of the tree. It is a symptom only and not the disease itself. The published literature on cherry gummosis brings to light many explana- tions for the appearance of this phenom- enon, some well proved and others more or less theoretical. Injuries Mechanical injuries, such as bruises, may induce the formation of gum, but the wound usually heals quickly and the gumming ceases. The injection of certain chemicals into cherry trees has repeated- ly caused gum flow, and such insects as borers may produce it; but these causes need not engage our attention. Unfavoralble Soil and Climatic Conditions A disturbed or disordered physiological condition of the tree, produced by un- suitable soil, moisture, climate or other relations not perfectly understood, is un- doubtedly an important factor and pos- sibly even a primary cause in many cases of gummosis. It is often noticeable that trees set in low places, where excessive moisture is likely to be present, are more apt to be subject to the disease than those on better drained ground. But this can- not explain all, since some trees under the best of soil and moisture conditions are severely attacked. Gumming seems to be worse where soils or subsoils are poor or unfit. But may not a weakened con- dition of the trees due to such causes render them less resistant to definite dis- eases? Many good authorities in this country and Europe attribute to late frosts following warm spells many at- tacks of this trouble. Some methods of pruning and cultivation have also been held responsible for a certain amount of gummosis. While all these factors have, no doubt, some influence on gum-produc- tion, yet investigation reveals so many cases inconsistent with these explanations that we must look for other possible causes. The Attacks of Fungi Since the outbreak of a serious cherry disease in Germany in 1899 various bark- destroying fungi have been found asso- ciated with the disease. From observa- tions up to the present it does not seem very probable that any of these are re- sponsible for more than a small amount of injury to living trees in the Northwest. It is possible, however, that they play a more important role than has been sus- pected. There also appear frequently on the trunks and limbs of dead or diseased cherry trees certain fungi of the wood- rotting types. Being found not infre- quently on trees that are not totally dead, they have been suspected by some of hav- ing a hand in extending the diseased con- dition. It is not known, however, that these fungi have anything directly to do with the disease in question. Description of the Disease Numerous distinctly different troubles of the cherry may be accompanied by gum-production, hence, the term "cherry gummosis" should not be applied to any specific disease. It is my present opinion, however, that the greater part of the cherry trouble in the Northwest is due to a single disease appearing in a variety of forms between which there are hardly distinguishable gradations. The More Serious Phases of the Disease The condition most dreaded is where trunk and limbs are quite generally at- tacked. This may appear at its worst 782 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE during the third and fourth year after setting out. Little indication of the dis- ease may be present until tree or branches fail to leaf out or suddenly wilt during the growing season. In these cases girdling has previously taken place. There may or may not be gumming and little relation appears between the amount of gumming and the extent of injury. In the later stages there is usually no difficulty in detecting the disease on ac- count of the fact that no further growth takes place at the affected region, while the adjacent and still healthy parts add a new layer of wood during the growing season. The dead area then appears flattened, and, the dead bark, since it does not expand, frequently, though not always, splits open. In other words, we have the formation of a canker. More Restricted and Localized Cankers In this disease we find certain condi- tions in which a large part of the tree may be rapidly and often fatally involved in a general attack, or in which large dead areas are formed that may girdle trunk or limbs, but the disease does not always appear in such severe forms, and we commonly find small cankers and affected spots that are more restricted and localized appearing on various parts of the tree. Near the center of such spots one frequently discovers the remains of a dead bud or spur. This association of small cankers with dead buds is not uni- versal, but it is so common that it sug- gests the possibility that the diseased spot had its beginning in the death of the bud or spur. In connection with the dying of the tissue there is sometimes an abundance of gum production and some- times very little where only a very small amount of tissue is found to be affected. Again, a canker may entirely girdle a branch with very little exudation occur- ring or none at all. The Blighting of Buds and Spurs There is a very common phase of our cherry trouble which has generally es- caped the notice of the growers or has been passed by as unworthy of much at- tention. This is the blighting of buds and fruit spurs, generally accompanied by gumming, which is present in practically all cherry orchards to a greater or less extent, but is much worse in orchards A Species of Polyphorus. A Species of Polystictus An Imperfect Fungus. Fig. 1. Saprophytic Fungi Which Are Often Present in Half Dead Cherry Trees. CHERRY DISEASES 783 Pig. 2. Tree Showing the Serious Effects of the Disease on the Trunk, Crotch and Limb Bases, a Dangerous Condition. This is avoided by limb-grafting upon mazzard seed- lings. where trunks and limbs are badly dis- eased. Old trees and younger trees seem to be equally affected. This trouble is first noticeable early in the spring when some of the buds, which formed normally in the fall, fail to swell and open when the others unfold. (See Fig. 3.) A drop of gum often appears exuding from the bud or from the affected spurs. (See Fig. 4.) Sometimes affected buds unfold, but before the blossoms open, wilt down and dry up. Often, however, spurs come into full leaf and set fruit, only to die a w^eek or two later. As far as our observa- tion goes, blighting of this sort does not usually take place during the summer or fall. The amount of damage directly pro- duced by this form of disease is not very serious in most cases, but the after effects are probably much more important than has been supposed. Investigation shows that after a spur or bud has been blight- ed, a small area of discoloration usually spreads out from its base onto the branch. This is almost always confined at first to the outer layers of the bark. As in the case of larger cankers, a layer of wound cork eventually separates the diseased tissue from the healthy substance of the branch. The following season, however, the diseased area may spread farther Fig. 3. Spurs Time. Cherry Branches Showing Blighted Failing to Develop at Blossoming 784 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fig. 4. Examples of Spur Blight Due to Bacteria. Drops and masses of gum ooze out from the dead spurs. from the base of the spur, up and down the branch and also, more slowly, around it. The inner parts of the bark and the cambium become affected and a typical canker of small size results. Very often girdling follows and the whole end of a branch may be killed by a canker at its base. Practically all of the dead shoots which so often appear in the top of a tree during the year, seem to be caused by cankers spreading out from spurs or buds that died in some previous season or at the beginning of the same season. Pseudomonas cerasus, Griffin, the Cause of Spur Blight In March, 1909, Mr. F. L. Griffin found bacteria associated with blight of cherry buds. Inoculations with cultures pro- duced the characteristic blight. Repeated tests were made during the next two sea- sons with buds from various districts, with the same results. Careful morpho- logical and physiological studies led him to believe that a new species had been discovered and he accordingly described it under the name Pseudomonas cerasus. This organism, then, seems to be the cause of one form of cherry gummosis. How much it has to do with other phases of the disease only further investigation can show.* Recent Experiments and Observations In February, 1912, the writer began his investigation of cherry gummosis and * See Science, N. S. 34, No. 879, p. 615, No- vember 3, 1911. since that time has confirmed many of Mr. Griffin's previous observations and conclusions. Furthermore, the repeated discovery of bacteria similar to Ps. cer- asus in the diseased areas on trunks, limbs or twigs, and the production of gumming by subsequent inoculation with these organisms, gives strong support to the idea that bacteria cause the character- istic injuries found on the bodies of trees affected with this disease. Summary of Experiments and Observations To sum up the result briefly: 1. The experiments of Mr. Griffin and the writer seem to indicate that a species of bac- terium {Ps. cerasus) is responsible for the blighting and gumming of buds and spurs on common varieties of the sweet cherry. 2. This bacterium is also able to induce gumming when inoculated into the body and branches of these vari- eties. 3. Bacteria similar to Ps. cerasus have been found during the spring in nearly all spreading cankers on the trunks and limbs as well as in diseased spurs, and these, by inoculation into healthy trees, are able to induce gum- ming. 4. From observations made through one season only, it appears that the dis- ease progresses rapidly in the spring and only slowly or not at all during the sum- mer and autumn. 5. It is impossible to state positively from our present knowl- edge that bacteria are responsible for all the more serious phases of the disease on CHERRY DISEASES 785 2—0 fc£3 786 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the body of the tree, or to indicate just what part they play in its spread. The possibility of their being causative agents seems, however, to receive considerable support from the recent investigations. Experiments must be carried on over a number of years before the nature of the disease can be demonstrated beyond a doubt, or recommendations for its control can be made with assurance. The rela- tion which climatic and soil conditions, the attacks of insects or fungi, and the methods of cultivation have to the dis- ease, must be studied thoroughly. This will take time and the cherry grower must not be impatient. Preyention and Control More important in the eyes of the prac- tical orchardist than the cause, is the remedy for the disease. Resistant Stocks and Varieties The Mazzard Cherry as a Stock Attention has been called to the fact that winter injury and unfavorable soil conditions may have a great deal to do with the appearance of gummosis in the cherry. It may be that the more serious phases of the disease cannot occur with- out a previous injury or weakened vital- ity due to some such factors. It is well known, both in this country and abroad, that the so-called Black Mazzard cherry is generally much hardier and less liable to suffer from adverse conditions than are the cultivated varieties. Hence, seed- ling Mazzards have come to be much used in Europe as stocks upon which to graft the commercial sweet varieties. In this country also the Mazzard is coming to be recognized as a sturdy stock which unites with the sweet cherries better than the Mahaleb. A point in favor of the Mazzard as a stock is that it seldom ■"gums." To make use of Mazzard stock and to graft or bud on the limbs the vari- ety desired, gives trunk, crotch and limb bases that are practically free from trouble. If the disease then appears in the top, it cannot involve the entire tree and experience seems to show that the branches are much less liable to suffer from gumming when the body of the tree is clean. Pig. 6. The Results of Artificial Inoculation with Ps. Gerasus. (O) Indicates an inocu- lation. (X) A check puncture with sterile needle. A. Blighting of inoculated spurs. Checks opening normally. B. Gum exuding at points of inoculation on the body of two- year-old tree. The check punctures healed. Examination of orchards aggregating some thousand trees supposed or known to be top-grafted upon Mazzard stocks showed 80 to 91 per cent free from any indication of disease on the trunks where orchards not upon this stock were found, to have, in some case, over 60 per cent and in one case over 80 per cent of the trunks badly cankered or killed by the disease. The writer is convinced that the use of the Mazzard as a stock on which to limb-graft or bud the other varieties, is a thoroughly practical way CHERRY DISEASES 787 of protecting the cherry from this disease in its most damaging form. Pigs. 8 and 9 are illustrations of this method. Other Resistant Stocks Various other stocks, including the Morello, the Dukes and a native cherry (Prunus demissa) have been recommend- V ."* Pig. 7. Bacteria Which Induces Gumming of the Cherry. Magnified 500 Diam. ed as hardy and resistant stocks on which to work the sweet cherry, but until these have been tried out further, the writer strongly advises the use of the Mazzard on account of the present evi- dence in its favor. A word of warning should be given here against unscrupu- lous dealers who sometimes palm off seed- lings of doubtful lineage as Mazzards. There are, however, reliable nurseries from w^hich satisfactory stock may be obtained. The Lambert Cherry The three varieties of sweet cherries most extensively grown for commercial purposes in Oregon are the Royal Ann, Fig. 8. A Year's Growth on a Tree Top- Grafted on the Limbs of Mazzard Seedling Cherry. Trunk and limb bases are free from gummosis, where this method is adopted. This form of crotch is undesirable. Bing and Lambert. These are all sub- ject to gummosis, but the Lambert has had the reputation of being less seriously affected than the other two. Observa- tions in orchards in different sections seem to substantiate the general opinion. Table Showing the Relative Effects of the Disease Upon Royal Ann, Bing and Lambert Trees in an Orchard near Salem, Oregon Variety Total number trees Totally destroyed Half destroyed Badly diseased Moder- ately diseased Slightly diseased Unaf- fected Royal Ann 259 222 259 37% 36% 13% 13% 15% 8% 22% 24% 9% 27% 24% 36% 1% 1% 31% 0% 0% 3% Bing Lambert The argument in favor of the Lambert in this orchard is striking. In budding or grafting the susceptible varieties, it is a matter of good sense to select scions or buds from trees which seem particularly healthy and free from gummosis. In nearly every badly in- fested orchard there are trees of the Royal Ann or Bing varieties which seem to be healthier and freer from disease than the rest. Such may, perhaps, be more resistant than their neighbors, and 788 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fig. 9. Top-Budded on Mazzard Seedling and Headed Back to Produce Stocky Growth. The mazzard body is gummosis resistant. This form of crotch is undesirable. that resistance may possibly be trans- mitted by the scion. Cultiyation Thorough cultivation in the early part of the season is beneficial to the cherry, but spasmodic or irregular cultivation is considered harmful. As far as cherry gummosis is concerned, a tree assisted by proper cultivation and making a vigorous and rapid growth as a result, has a better chance to recover from and outgrow the trouble than a weak tree. Cutting Out the Disease The most successful method of treat- ment in practice among careful cherry raisers consists in the thorough cutting- out early in the season of all diseased, discolored and gum-soaked bark. Per- sistent watch is kept by frequent inspec- tions and as soon as new diseased spots are discovered, they are cut out. Where this has been conscientiously done, and the injuries have been cut out before get- ting very large, the recoveries have often been rapid and the damage from the dis- ease rather small. In cutting out, it is important that all the tissues which are in any degree affected should be removed. The wound thus made should be steril- ized, preferably by the application of a solution of corrosive sublimate (1-1000) ; when dry, large wounds should be coated with walnut grafting wax* as a protec- tion against the entrance of destructive wood-rotting fungi. It is often impos- sible to discover at once all the affected tissue around a gum exudation or canker, and a second or third cutting-out may have to be made during a season, but per- sistence will be rewarded in most cases by a rapid healing of the wound through the growth of new callus tissue over it. Care should be taken not to remove any more of the living and healthy tissues than is necessary in cutting out the dis- ease. Where a small branch is affected, it is often better to remove it entirely and allow a healthy one to take its place. In young trees it is strongly recommended to remove all blighted spurs and cut away discolored tissues that spread out from their base; since our investigations lead us to suspect that many of the seri- ous cankers originate in this way. Spraying seems to be practically use- less as a means of control for cherry gummosis. Slitting of the bark has been recommended by many growers, but we cannot see that much benefit results ex- cept where a gum pocket is opened and the gum is prevented by release of pres- sure from spreading under the bark. On the contrary, where trunks or limbs have been slit deeply, bad wounds are some- times produced, and instances of apparent spreading of the disease along the slit argue against the practice. Other recommendations with regard to treating the diseased trees have been made by various growers. The cutting out of the cankers, however, has resulted in local benefit in so many well-authenti- cated instances under the writer's obser- vation, that he does not hesitate to urge * The formula for making Walnut Grafting Wax is given in the Oregon Agricultural Experi- mMit Station Bulletin No. Ill, p. 96. ^ee under Walnut. CHERRY DISEASES 789 growers to adopt this practice. Although it takes time and patience, it pays in the end. The time to begin is when the trees are very young. Small cankers can be easily cut out, but an old tree full of disease is an almost hopeless case to work on. Snmniary of EecommendatioBS 1. Use a resistant stock like the so- called Mazzard cherry, and graft or bud into the branches to secure a trunk and crotch practically free from gummosis. 2. The Lambert cherry is recommend- ed as being somewhat more resistant to the disease than the Royal Ann and Bing varieties. 3. Good cultivation in the spring is urged as promoting a vigorous and healthy growth and rendering the trees more likely to resist the spread of the malady. 4. The cutting out of diseased tissue and sterilizing of the wound will check the development of cankers in many cases, especially if taken in the earliest stages. New orchards should be carefully inspected for several years and all affect- ed spots treated as soon as discovered. A Partial List of Important Works Eelating to Cherry Gnnwnosis Aderhold, R. Ueder das Kirsch'baum' ster'ben am Rhein, seine Urschen und seine Behandlung, Arb. K. Gsndhtsamt., Biol. Abt 3, No. 4, 1903. Aderhold, R., and Ruhland, W. Der Bacterienhrand der Kirsch'baume. Arb. K. Gsndhsamt Biol. Abt. 5, p. 293, 1907. Beijerinck, M. W., and Rant, A. Sur VecDcitation par traumatisme, le para- sitisme et Vecoulement gommeux chez les amygdalees. Arch. Neerland. Sci. Exact, et Nat, Ser. 2, 11, p. 184, 1906. Brzezinski, P, X Etiologie du chancre et de la gomme des artres fruitiers. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 134, No. 20, p. 1170, 1902. Butler, O. R. A Study on Gummosis of Primus and Citrus. Ann. Bot 27, No. 97, p. 107, 1911. Frank, A. B., and Kruger, P. Das Kirsch'baumster'ben am Rhein. Deut Landw. Presse. 1899, p. 249. Griflan, P. L. A Bacterial Gummosis of Cherries. Science N. S. 34, Na. 879, p. 615, Nov. 3, 1911. McAlpine, D. Fungous Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. BuL Dept. Agr. (Victoria), 1902, p. 67. Mikosch, K. Untersuchungen u'ber die Entstehung des Kirschgummi. Sitzber. K. Akad. Wiss. (Vienna), Math. Naturw. Kl. 115, No. 6, p. 911, 1906. Prillieux, E. Btude sur la formation de la gomme dans les ardres fruitiers. Compt. Rend Acad. Sci. 78, p. 135, 1874. Sorauer, P. Untersuchungen u'ber Gum- mifluss und FrostwirJcungen hei Kirsch- haumen. Part 1, Landw. Jahrb, 39, p. 259, 1910. Part 2, Landw. Jahrb. 41, p. 131, 1911. Die Back Cherry trees are subject to injury from unfavorable conditions of soil, moisture, etc. As a result of such injuries the trees frequently die back from the top and suffer severely in this way. This trouble can be controlled only by planting on soil which is particularly suited to the cherry and by determining the best root stock for any given type of soil or locality. Trees in which die back and gummosis are produced by unusual climatic condi- tions should be cut back in the top to sound wood, and have the trunks pro- tected from sunburn by whitewash or wrapping.,^ Fruit Drop Fruit falls to the ground while small and undeveloped. The trouble is common to many fruits and is due to conditions of climate which lie outside of ordinary control, or to lack of proper pollination, which may be controlled by planting suit- able varieties for cross-pollination. Rains occurring at blossoming time or frost at a critical time may have this effect. R. B. Smith, California Bxpei'iment Station, Bulletin 218. Leaf Cnrl or Witches' Broom Emoascus cerasi H. S. Jackson This disease is quite common in the Northwest, but is not yet very serious. It is caused by a fungus, Exoascus cerasi, which attacks the branches. The affected 790 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE branch is not killed, but the presence of the fungus stimulates it to an unnatural and prolific formation of twigs, resulting in the peculiar "witches' broom" effect. These witches' brooms may be large or small, and are especially conspicuous at blossoming time, since they produce few flowers or none at all, while the leaves appear sooner than those on the normal parts of the tree. These leaves, which are penetrated by the fungus, are reddish in color and somewhat wrinkled or wavy. Not long after they become fully expand- ed the spores of the fungus are produced all over the surface and the affected leaves fall prematurely. Control Since the witches' broom produces no fruit, and is a drain on the rest of the tree, and a source of new infections, we recommend that the affected branches be cut off, a few inches below the diseased portion, and destroyed. Leaf Spot or Shot Hole OyUndrosporium padi H. S. Jackson There are several leaf spot and shot hole diseases which are more or less com- mon on various stone fruits; but the greater part of this sort of injury on the cherry and plum is due to the fungus called GyUndrosporinm pad%. The trouble caused by this organism on the Pacific coast is not usually severe enough to alarm growers, but there is reason to think that the extent of damage is under- estimated. While the amount of leaf area which is destroyed by the fungus is gen- erally not very extensive, the presence of the shot hole spots on the leaves often re- sults in partial defoliation, and in bad eases, even in total defoliation of the tree. This is naturally a severe check on its development. At the points where the infections take place, a small brownish spot appears. This enlarges, and may be surrounded by a reddish border. After a time, the dried center of the spot becomes detached from the margin and falls out, leaving the shot hole effect. On some va- rieties of cherries the center does not drop out, however, as it does in our com- mon sweet varieties. The disease is spread by means of spores produced in the affected spots and the fungus prob- ably survives the winter in the fallen leaves from which, in the spring, spores are carried to the new foliage by the wind. Control The disease can be largely controlled by spraying. According to W. M. Scott, of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, who experimented in Illinois, self- boiled lime-sulphur 10-10-50, commercial lime-sulphur 1-40, and a weak Bordeaux mixture 2-4-50, are equally effective. Re- cent experiments by Butler in Wisconsin indicate, however, that Bordeaux is more effective than commercial lime-sulphur. It is recommended that the spray be applied three times: First, half way be- tween blossoming time and the ripening of the fruit; second, just after picking; third, about one month after the second. Mushroom Root Rot. See under Apple, Powdery Mildew. See under Peach, Shot Hole. See Leaf Spot, this sec- tion. Witches' Broom. See Leaf Curl, 1^ JJlJu JtCJtCi x JT Jc< RS X JiD Bud Moth, Eye Spotted Bud Moth. See under Apple Pests. Cherry Aphis. See Aphids. Cherry Frnit Fly RTiagoletis cinguJata Loew . P. Wilson Unfortunately, due to the habits of this insect, the grower does not know of its presence until the cherries are mature. If left to hang on the tree or uneaten for several days after picking, the presence of a full grown maggot is shown by the rotting and shrinking of one side of the fruit, and about that time the maggots leave the fruit for the purpose of going to the ground, where they pupate and remain over winter. The adult fly resembles the common apple maggot very closely and may prove to be the same insect. Some- what smaller than the common .housefly, the general color is black with lateral borders of thorax light yellow, and head and legs yellowish-brown. Wings with five, more or less distinct black bands, CHERRY PESTS 791 three of which He angled to each other and join at the front edge of the wing near the tip. These flies deposit the eggs from which the yellowish-white maggots or * worms" issue and work in the fruit around the pits. This causes a kind of rotting and softening of the fruit on one side. Just when the fruit is entered is not known, hut the life of the maggot is prob- ably about three weeks, and as the ma- ture stage is reached about the time the fruit is ripe, some idea of the time they enter the cherry may be gained. Since the larvae remain in the fruit for a short time after it is picked they may be dis- tributed quite a distance in fruit The adults are not strong fliers and can hard- ly do more than to spread from tree to tree or at the most from orchard to orchard. Remedies No very satisfactory remedy is at present known, although a great many have been tried. Cherry Fruit Sawfly Hoplocampa coofcei Clarke The cherry fruit sawfly is a native of California and other Pacific coast states and has been known since 1883 in the Suisun valley, California. Considerable damage to young cherries has been done in various sections by the larvae of this insect and occasionally, at least, control measures may be necessary. The presence of the insect may be told by the small round holes bored in the young green cherries, many of which soon drop to the ground. The larvae are small, white and aver- age about one-fourth of an inch in length. The adults are four-winged insects, black with brownish or reddish appendages, about one-eighth of an inch long. Control measures have not been thor- oughly perfected but two applications of arsenate of lead at the rate of four to five pounds to 100 gallons of water, the first application to be made shortly be- fore the blossoms open and the second about 10 days later, have proven effective. Fall plowing is also recommended to kill the larvae and pupae in the soil while a distillate-oil emulsion and nicotine spray is recommended to kill adults at time of egg laying. The insect has been reported as occur- ring in the Suisun valley, El Dorado and Nevada counties, California, and at Med- ford, Oregon, where it is confined to a very small area. The orchard fruits attacked are cherry (sweet and sour), prune, plum, peach and apricot (the peach and apricot only occa- sionally). The females appear about the time the Black Tartarian cherries are in bloom. The eggs hatch about the time the petals xaxi. E. O. EssiG Cherry Leaf Beetle GaZerucella cavicolUs In September a small, dark red beetle, less than one-fourth inch long, may be found feeding on the leaves of cherries. The antennae and parts of the legs are black. It is partial to the wild cherries, and also feeds on peach and plum. This is the cherry leaf beetle. It may be de- stroyed in the fall by spraying with arsenate of lead, three to five pounds in 50 gallons of water. H. A. GOSSARD Cherry Scale Eutecanium cerasorum Ckl. General Appearance The full-grown scales are exceedingly large, often obtaining a height of three- eighths of an inch, though the average is slightly over a quarter of an inch. The general shape is hemispherical, and the bodies are very irregular and lobed. The general color is rich brown, mottled with creamy white. The markings are more or less regular and constant. The entire surface is highly polished and shiny. Food Plants This scale works upon the branches* of cherry and pear trees, collecting in such great numbers as to do considerable dam- age. Control Same as for black scale on deciduous fruit trees or for the European fruit scale. B. O. EssiG 792 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fiff. 1. The Cherry Scale. IJuIrcanium ceraso- rum (ckll) on l*ear. Slightly, reduced. (Oriji:inal.) Cherry and Pear Slug Caliroa cerasi Linn H. P. Wilson This insect is a common pest of pear, cherry, plum and other fruit trees, and although not hard to control often causes considerable damage. The name "slug" Fig. 1. Cherry Leaves In.iured by Sluss. Fi?:. 2. Adult of Cherry and Pear Slug. is applied on account of the slimy black exudation with which the larva sur- rounds itself. It appears to be a native of Europe and was known as a pest as far back as 1740. In America the distribution seems to occur with the areas where its principal host plants are found. A large number of trees, including forest and orchard trees, have been reported as attacked by this insect, but cherry, pear and plum are said to be the favorite plants. When present in any locality the larvae soon make themselves familiar to the fruit grower both by their appearance and by the injury which they do. In the Northwest we have found but two complete broods with some indication that there may be a partial third. The first adults appear in early spring, but for some reason the eggs do not develop or are not laid until May or June; as soon as they hatch the young larvae be- gin feeding on the leaves and from that time until the leaves drop the slugs are present in varying numbers. Most of them, however, are found in two distinct periods: the larvae of the first genera- tion appear more abundant during June and July; the larvae of the second gen- eration are most numerous during Au- gust and September. ^ Webster has worked out the following schedule for Iowa: CHERRY PESTS 793 /JprlL % 1 M May. 10 to i ip io '3 uLtS m Larv& (Tune. iJ ^S 3 Cocodni' duLtSmmm Co Aujust. coons. Stptemhtt To j[o 3 October, IS ^~3 Fig. 3. Diagram of Life Cycle. When present in large numbers, they soon cause the leaves to become brown and the trees to look as if they had been badly scorched by fire. The adult insect is a small shining black fly with four smoky transparent wings, the smoky ap- pearance being caused by a dusky band across the middle of the wings. On ac- count of the saw-like ovipositor with which the insect makes incisions into the leaves, this insect and a number of closely allied species are known as saw flies. Life History and Habits Searching out a suitable place, the adult fly pushes the ovipositor rather slowly into the under surface of the leaf and Fig. 4. Larva of Cherry and Pear Slug. — After Ewimi. (Iowa Bulletin 130.) makes a small oval-shaped pocket into which the e^g, is placed by means of the ovipositor. When the pocket is being ■ made the tissues are so cut as to prevent their growing around the e^^ and de- stroying it or preventing the escape of the larva. The egg is almost colorless and is flat- tened on the lower side. As soon as the eggs hatch the young larvae make their way to the upper surface of the leaf and begin feeding. At first they are yellowish white in color and without slime. In a very short time, however, as the slime spreads over the body, they change to a dirty green and have more the appear- ance of a slug than of an insect. Imme- diately upon hatching they begin feeding on the upper tissue of the leaf, eating out numerous small patches, so that a number of slugs working on the same leaf will leave nothing but the dead brown skeleton of veins. After completing their moults the lar- vae do not feed any more, but crawl or drop to the ground, work their way into the soil from one to three inches and pupate. After moulting the last time, they do not again assume the slimy pro- tection, and instead of being green they are of a yellowish orange color with two minute black eyes. After the larvae crawl into the ground an oval cell about five-tenths inch long by three-sixteenths inch wide is made. 794 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fis. 5. Pupa Cases of Cherry and Pear Slug. When disturbed these cells are very easily broken apart, a fact which might indicate that fall plowing can be used as a method of destroying the pupae, accord- ing to Marlatt. "During the heated season of July and August the transformation from the lar- val to the adult insect is quite rapid, the pupal stage being assumed in from six to eight days, and the adult flies transform- ing and digging out through the soil some 12 or 15 days after the larva entered it."* According to the studies of Peck and Marlatt some of the larvae of this spring brood remain over in the soil until the following spring. This seems to be a pro- vision of nature to carry the species over, should anything happen to exterminate the regular line of succession, such as Fig. 6. Egg of Cherry and Pear Slug. — After Ewinq. * C. C. Marlatt, U. S. Department Agricul- ture, Bureau of Entomology Circular 26, Second Series 1897. lack of food, unfavorable climatic con- ditions, etc. Natural Enemies Although furnished with a sticky cov- ering which acts as a repellant against all enemies, the insect is not entirely free from insect enemies, and in Europe some half dozen insect parasites have been reared from it. In this country a minute fly is said to sting the egg through the upper leaf tissue. Remedies White hellebore, one pound to 50 gal- lons of water. No foliage is injured and the slugs are nearly all dead on the day following the application of spray. "Black leaf-40" gives practically the same results as white hellebore and does not injure the foliage. "Black leaf-40" is more expensive to use than the hellebore. Hellebore is the best remedy to use for cheapness, efficiency and lack of injury to the foliage. To get best results it must be fresh and free from adultera- tion. Arsenate of lead is cheaper but does not kill as quickly and may injure the foliage. CuRCULio. See under Plum Pests. Divaricated Buprestis Dicerca divaricata A flatheaded borer found beneath the bark. May be treated the same as the flat headed apple tree borer, which see under Apple Pests. Dogday Cicada or Dogday Harvest Fly Cicada linnei Deposits its eggs in the twigs of cher- ry and other trees. The musical notes or drumming of the male cicada during the middle of the day is a familiar sound during August and September. Injury by this insect is generally slight and it is scarcely necessary to trim out and burn the twigs containing eggs. Emperor Moth Callosamda promethea Until late in September, full-grown caterpillars of the Promethea Emperor moth may be found feeding on the leaves of cherry, especially of the wild species. This is a large, bluish white, or bluish CxxERRx PESTS 795 green caterpillar, about 214 inclies long, with 4 yellow or red tubercles or horns on the thoracic segments, i. e., on the two posterior rings bearing feet; there is also a large horn of similar color on the back of the 12th segment, count- ing from the head. When full fed, the caterpillar draws the opposite edges of a good sized leaf together, thus making a kind of cylinder, except that the ends are closed, and within this it spins a very tough, light-colored cocoon. The stem of the leaf, enclosing the cocoon, is attach- ed by a strong band of silken threads to the twig which produced it. So strong is this connecting band that it cannot be broken except by a very strong pull. The cocoons may be clipped from the trees and burned after the leaves have fallen. No other remedy than hand-gath- ering is needed when the worms are feed- ing. |I. A. GOSSAED, Wooster. Ohio. Ermine Moth. See under Apple Pests, Fall Canker Worm AJsopfiila pometaria Harris Family Geometridae General Appearance In all of its stages this insect greatly resembles the spring canker worm (Pale- acrita vernata Peck), but differs in that the larvae have three pairs of legs on the posterior half of the body instead of two and the bodies are more distinctly striped. The primary wings of the males also have an extra light band near the middle. The eggs are shaped like small flower pots, be- ing smaller at the bottoms than at the tops, with distinct darker circles at the tops. They are deposited in regular clusters of from fifty to two hundred, standing side by side in exposed places. Life History The life history is practically the same as that of the spring canker worm, but the eggs are deposited in a compact mass and glued to the twigs and covered with hairs from the female's body in the late fall or during the milder portions of winter, as late as March. The young hatch about the same time as those of the spring forms and work about the same. The adults issue from October to December, or as late as spring, and im- mediately crawl up the trunks to de- posit their eggs. Food Plants The foliage of the apple, prune, cherry, apricot and other fruit trees are attack- ed. Control Control measures as adopted for the spring canker worm may be used for this (See under Apple Pests.) Bands around the tree trunks will not prove as effect- ual, because of heavy winter rains, un- less they are occasionally renewed. These barriers must be put in. place during September and October and continued un- til spring. E. O. BssiG Fall Web Worm. See under Apple Pests, Feosted Scale. See under Apricot Pests. Fritit Bark Beetle. See under Apple Pests. Ivy or Oleander Scale. See Apple Pests. Leae Crxjmplee. See under Apple Pests. Peach Borer. See under Peacfi Pests. Pear Blight Beetle. See SJiot Hole Borer, this section. Pear Thrips. See under Pear Pests. San Jose Scale. See under Apple Pests. Scurfy Scale. See under Apple Pests. Smaller Shot Hole Borer XyWborus saxeseni Ratz H. F. Wilson This little cylindrical beetle is quite similar to the shot hole borer in appear- ance, but is only about one-half as large. The burrows are also quite dissimiliar in nature, and on comparison can readily be distinguished. The above species apparently works upon the same trees and under the same conditions as the larger species, and so far as we know, never enters perfectly healthy trees. The life history is not definitely known for the Northwest, but in general is about as follows: The adults reach maturity in the spring 796 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE or summer, and making their burrows in some diseased tree deposit eggs which later hatch out into small white grubs. These are the larvae and remain in that stage through the summer and winter transforming to pupae and adults in the spring. The burrow, instead of being a series of short tunnels, is one large cavity with sides parallel and about the width of the full grown beetle. The sides ex- tend straight up and down and the eggs are indiscriminately deposited in a single mass. It is believed that this insect at- tacks only unhealthy trees. Shot Hole Borer or the Pear Blight Beetle Xylehorus dispar Fabricus H. F. Wilson There is no evidence that shot hole borers attack healthy trees in the North- west under ordinary conditions. Contrary to all reports from Europe and other parts of the United States there appears to be but one brood in this sec- tion. Classification The Scolytidae or engraver beetles, con- stitute a large and important group of Fig. 1. Heart Rot Fungus (Schizophyllum sp.) in Cherry, Issuing Through Burrows of {Xylehorus dispar). beetles, many of which are very destruc- tive to forest trees. From an economic standpoint the members of this family may be divided into two general groups, those attacking healthy living plants and those attacking plants in a more or less sickly or dying condition. Observations made in the Northwest by the writer in- dicate that Xylehorus dispar is distinct- ly a member of the second group. History The widespread distribution of this in- sect in Europe would indicate its being native to that country. We can only theorize on the time and means of im- portation into the United States, but the time must have been several years prior to 1816. About this time the insect was attracting some attention in Europe and has continued to receive more or less at- tention by different writers up to the pres- ent date. Distribution This insect is found in nearly all parts of Europe and England and is gradually spreading into certain sections of Canada and the United States. Occurrence in the Northwest The first reported injury in the North- west which was in Clarke county, Wash- ington, came in 1901, where a grower thought that a great many prune trees were being killed by the beetles. At the same time the beetles were working in Oregon near the city of Portland. In looking over the many inquiries which have been received during the past ten years it is interesting to note the gradual spread of the insect up the Willamette valley until now it is at Junction city, a distance of 125 miles south of Portland. At the present time the distribution ex- tends through the lower part of the val- ley on both sides of the river as far as the foot hills. The infested territory is increasing quite rapidly and the borers will in time undoubtedly spread over the entire western part of Washington and Oregon. From Portland to Salem, Ore., a distance of 53 miles, they are very abun- dant across the entire valley, and few dy- ing trees escape their attack. CHERRY PESTS 797 jVatnre and Extent of Injury The real injury caused by these beetles seems to be almost, if not entirely, second- ary. Many of our orchardists upon find- ing sick and dying trees with the shot hole borer working in them have attribut- ed the cause to the beetles. By visiting many of these places and explaining to the orchardist the true con- ditions, we have convinced them that the trees were suffering from some fungus disease or improper soil condition. The beetles may help to kill the trees and in some cases might cause the death of trees which would have recovered from the disease had the beetles not been pres- ent. In the case of young trees, only one or two years old, this could readily hap- pen, as the burrows extend almost en- tirely around the trees and close to the inner bark. (For example see Pig. 2.) Piff. 2. The Shot Hole Borer. Burrow in yoimg: cherry tree and adults in hibernation In the summer, after the beetles have completed the burrows, such trees can easily be broken off at the point of in- jury. Life History The winter is spent in the adult stage. Both males and females hibernate in the burrows from July and August until the following spring. They emerge during the last of March and first of April and migrate to sick and dying trees, where the burrows of that season are to be made. The entrance hole is usually made about a bud scar or in some roughened place. The beetles have no trouble in picking out the sick trees. The Adnlt The adult bores directly through the bark and into the wood tissue for a quar- ter of an inch or more and then begins the construction of branch burrows ex- tending at right angles to the main bur- row and with the grain of the wood. These channels are all about one-twelfth inch in diameter and from three-quarters to two and a quarter inches in length. The Egg The eggs may be found from the second week in April until the middle of June. When first deposited they are oblong in shape and pearly white in color. They measure 1 mm. in length by 0.06 mm. in diameter and will stand considerable rough handling. There seems to be no regularity in the egg deposition, as there may be from one to seven in each cham- ber of the burrow, placed without discrim- ination. The burrows are not all made at once but are completed in sections, the female spending her time meanwhile between de- positing eggs and resting near the en- trance to the burrow. "When the first branch chamber is finished the mother beetle deposits in it from one to seven eggs, and the fungus food of the larvae having been arranged for, she closes the entrance with frass and pays no more attention to it. The entire burrow is usually completed by the middle of May and then the mother beetle returns to the entrance where she stands guard until the following winter. 798 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE In the fall, when, the beetles have ma- tured, if some of the hurrows are opened, both males and females can be found, the females usually outnumbering the males four or five to one. During the hibernation period the adults apparently do not feed, as the fungus upon which the larvae feed is al- most entirely absent in burrows opened at various times during the winter and there is no evidence of wood burrowing. Fig. 3 The Shot Hole Borer (Xyleborus di$- par) . A, Larva ; B, Pupa ; C, Adult Female ; D, Adult Male; E, Eggs. Host Plants This insect will apparently work and develop in all kinds of deciduous fruit and forest trees and has been reported as working in conifers. The following fruit trees are reported: apple, pear, quince, cherry, prune, plum, hawthorn, apricot, white hawthorn, grape and pome- granate. Nearly all writers on this sub- ject agree that the beetles favor dying trees to healthy ones and several of them state that freshly cut logs and stumps are excellent breeding places. In the North- west we have found them working in cherry, prune, apple, pear and chestnut. Cherry and prune are attacked more be- cause those two trees appear to be more subject to diseased conditions than any of the others. Many cherry trees, espec- ially young ones, die each year from the disease known as cherry gummosis. Prune trees are found growing in all man- ner of places and a great many in unsuit- able surroundings. Naturally many of them succumb, and in addition there seems to be a disease similar to that of the cherry which destroys a great many. Both of these fruits develop what is com- monly known as sour sap, a condition known to be favorable for the develop- ment of the fungus food upon which the larvae feed. An occasional apple orchard is found infested, and I have observed a few pear trees showing attacks of this insect. The Food of Xyleboms Bispar The fungus upon which th© larvae feed is evidently carried to the burrows by the females, since it appears in each burrow almost as soon as started. The earlier entomologists seem to have been in doubt as to the nature of the food found in the brood chambers. Hub- bard, 1897, gives a discussion on this fungus. He writes as follows: "The ambrosia does not make its ap- pearance by accident or at random in the galleries of the beetles. Its origin is en- tirely under the control of the insect. It is started by the mother beetle upon a carefully packed bed or layer of chips, sometimes near the entrance, in the bark, but generally at the end of a branch gal- lery in the wood. In some species the ambrosia is grown only in certain brood chambers of peculiar construction. In others it is propagated in beds, near the cradles of the larvae. The excrement of the larvae is used in some and probably in all the species to form new beds or layers for the propagation of the fungus. "There must be present a certain amount of moisture or sap, and the sap in most species must be in a condition of fermentation.'* As the fungus develops the growth forms into little globules containing the spores. "The young larvae nip off these tender tips as calves crop the heads of clover, but the older larvae and the adult beetles eat the whole structure down to the base, from which it soon springs up afresh, ap- pearing in little white tessellations upon the walls." Natural JSnemies Eichhoft, 1881, reports Caly^ium flU- forme, Oxylaunus caesus and HypopUJosus hicolor as found in the chambers of Xyle- 'borus dispar and probably feeding upon the brood and eggs of the latter. CHERRY PESTS— CHESTNUT CULTURE 799 Schwarz, 1891, reports finding Bactri- d%um cavicoUe in breeding cages of Xyle- dorus dispar, and supposes that they are predacious on the larvae and eggs of this insect. We have as yet found no natural enemies of this insect in Oregon, probably owing to its recent importation. (See also Lesser Shot Hole Borer, this sec- tion. — Ed.) Bibliography of More Recent Literature 1872 — ^Hartig, Th. Ambrosia des Bostri- chus dispar. (Allgem Forst u. Jagd. Zeit Neu, Folg. 13. Jahrg. S. 73-74. Frankfort a. m., 1872.) 1873 — Schiodte, J. C. Fortegnelse overde i Danmark levende curculiones Na- turhistorisk Tidsskrift ved J. C. Schiodte 5 Raekke. 8 Bind s. 47-110. Kjobenhavn. 1872-1873, p. 103. 1879 — Eichhoff, W. Rates, Descriptio, Em- endatio eorum Tomicinorum, p. 320. 1895 — Judeich, Dr. J. F. und Nitsche, Dr. H. "Lehrbuch der Mitteleuropais- Chen Forstinsektenkunde," Vol. I, pp. 549-551. 1896 — Smith, E. P. Ambrosia (Amer. Nat Vol 30 [1896], No. 352, pp. 318, 319). Some notes on the fungus food of Xyleborus. 1896 — Hubbard, Henry G. Ambrosia once more. (American Naturalist, Vol. 30, p. 493, June [general]). 1897 — Hubbard, Henry G. Ambrosia Bee- tles of the U. S. (Some miscellan- eous results of the work of the Di- vision of Entomology, U. S. Dept of Agri., p. 22 [Bui. 7, Bureau of Entomology] ) . 1898— Omerod, E. A. "A Handbook of In- sects Injurious to Orchard and Bush Fruits," p. 185. 1899— Harvey, F. L. and Munson, W, M. Apple Insects of Maine. (Bui. 56, Maine Agri. Exp. Sta., p. 112.) 1899 — Lugger, Otto. Beetles Injurious to Fruit-Producing Plants. (Bui. 66, Division of Entomology, Minn. Agri. Exp. Sta., pp. 310-312.) 1902 — Cordley, A. B. 14th Ann. Rept. Ore- gon Agricultural College, pp. 60-61. 1902 — Fletcher, James. Report of the En- tomologist and Botanist for 1901, (Ann. Rept. Canada Experimental Farms for 1901, p. 249.) 1905 — Fletcher, James. Report of the En- tomologist and Botanist for 1904. (Ann. Rept. Canada Experimental Farms for 1904, p, 240.) 1905— Beauverie, J. Le Bois. Ganthier- Villars, edit, Paris. 1909~-Beauverie, J. Sur une maladie des pechers dans la vallie du Rhone. (L' Horticulture Nouvelle, Lyon, 1909.) 1910 — Beauverie, J. Les Bois Industriels, 0. Doin, edit, Paris. 1910 — Beauverie, J. Les Champignons dit Ambrosia. (Ann. Des Sciences Na- turalles Botanique. Tome XI, No. 1, pp. 31-75.) Speing Canker Worm. See under Apple Pests, Tent Caterpillar. See under Apple Pests, Tussock Moth. See under Apple Pests. Walnut Scale. See under Walnut Pests, White Peach Scale. See under Peach Pests. Chinese Apple. See Apple, Botany of. Choke Berry. See Apple, Botany of. Chestnut Culture Commercial chestnut culture is begin- ning to take a place among the perma- nent horticultural industries of the United States. The enormous annual crops of small, sweet chestnuts, and the lack of appreciation of the value of the chestnut in the dietary of Americans have held back the systematic improvement of the American type into large, desirable kinds, and discouraged, for many years, the in- troduction of improved varieties from Europe or Asia. A few European seed- lings have been growing for nearly a cen- tury within fifty miles of Wilmington, Delaware, and Philadelphia, Pennsyl- vania, where the history of the European chestnut in America largely centers. In all this time, but few orchards or groves have been developed, and only within a few years have any of the seedlings been selected for commercial propagation. 800 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HOKTICULTURE History of the European Cliestnut The European chestnut, which is popu- larly called the "Spanish Chestnut/' was introduced into the United States, not for economic purposes, but by individuals who wished to determine its adaptability to their private estates. Nearly all of the varieties now in propagation are descend- ants from the French "Marrons," and the appellation "Spanish" is an anomaly. New varieties are not being extensively introduced from Europe at present, but many persons have planted the nuts of the best naturalized kinds, like the Para- gon, hoping to discover among the vari- able progeny, seedlings that are super- ior to their parents. The earliest history of the European chestnut, in America, is hidden in ob- scure book notices, or in the note books of those who were interested in early American agriculture. The introductions that mark the be- ginning of the general dissemination around Wilmington and Philadelphia were those of Eleuthere Irenee du Pont de Nemours, who, with his family, emi- grated from France to America in 1799, and after a residence at Bergen Point, N. J., where he took much pleasure in prop- agating a number of European seeds and plants received from France. It can be inferred from Mr. du Pout's journals and correspondence, that he planted a num- ber of French chestnuts in his garden at Bleutherean Mills, Christiana Hundred, near Wilmington, Delaware, in the spring of 1803, and it is certain that a consid- erable number of trees became estab- lished and flourished there, some of which are still in existence. To many of his friends he sent nuts or scions from his famous French Marrons, and from these chestnuts a multitude of seedlings sprang up and are still stand- ing along the fence rows or in the gar- dens. A few of these surviving seedlings, by attracting the attention of enterprising nurserymen, have thereby entered the variety ranks, but there are numbers that have long lain in obscurity, which, if introduced, might justly claim varietal distinction. The history of the named varieties is much confused, for it is based, in many cases, on the uncertain memory of those who have been longest acquaint- ed with the trees. History of the Japanese Chestnut The development of the Japanese chest- nut in America is the outcome of the sys- tematic efforts of a number of nursery- men to introduce varieties from Japan, or to produce valuable seedlings from those already naturalized. In 1876, the S. B, Parsons Co., Flush- ing, N. Y., imported a few trees from Japan through the late Thomas Hogg. (Fuller). The trees, Mr. S. B. Parsons writes, were cultivated with no special care, but the large nuts soon attracted at- tention. The Parsons' Japan was well known a few years ago, but at present no important varieties are cultivated from this importation. In 1882, the late William Parry, Parry, N. J., imported one thousand grafted trees from Japan, and from them a single tree, the Parry, was finally select- ed, and has since become the progenitor of more valuable kinds than any other Japanese chestnut. The Parry Bros., who succeeded William Parry, have se- lected a large number of seedlings of the Parry for commercial propagation. Luther Burbank, Santa Rosa, Cali- fornia, planted a box of the largest Jap- anese chestnuts sent him from his col- lector in Japan in 1886, and from over ten thousand bearing seedlings, after years of critical study and elimination, recently selected three as worthy of per- petuation — the Hale, the Coe, and the McFarland, now owned and propagated by J. H. Hale, South Glastonbury, Conn. The Lovett Company, Little Silver, N. J., were active, at about the same time, in introducing the type through import- ed trees and nuts, and from the trees sent out by them, several meritorious kinds have been named by J. W. Kerr, Denton, Maryland, and J. W. Killen, Fel- ton, Delaware. A number of other firms have been in- troducing and distributing the nuts, but nearly all of the named varieties can be CHESTNUT CULTURE 801 traced to the introductions of the firms mentioned. The varieties of Japanese chestnuts have been considerably confused through the unfortunate practice of some who have sent out seedlings under such names as "Japan Mammoth," "Japan Giant," and "Japan Sweet." These names, as generally used, have no varietal significance, for chestnut seed- lings vary as widely as apple seedlings. Gfeograpliical Adaptability We can give no definite data that will establish the geographical limits of the cultivated chestnuts. Experimental ef- fort is needed to establish their range of adaptability. It is not improbable that their distribution will follow the areas of the American chestnut, falling short of its extension in certain localities, and extending beyond it in others. As a guide to the possible geographical adapt- ability, the range of the American chest- nut, adapted from Sudworth's "Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States," is given. "From Southern Maine to Northwest- ern Vermont (Winooski river), South- ern Ontario, and southern shores of Lake Ontario to Southeastern Michigan; southward to Delaware and Southeastern Indiana, and on the Allegheny mountains to Central Kentucky and Tennessee, Cen- tral Alabama, and Mississippi." (Hardy varieties of chestnuts will do well alonj? the Pacific coast as far northward as Washington, according? to Mr. A. A Qnarnberj?, nut specialist, of Clarke county, Washington. The Japanese and French chestnuts shown in this article were g^rown by Mr. Quarnberg. Fi^s 2 and 3 —Editor ) Uses of the Chestnut Before chestnut culture can become a prominent industry, there will need to be a larger appreciation of the uses to which the chestnut can be put. Popu- lar sentiment will also need revising, so that the chestnut harvest will not be looked upon as public propex^ty, purpose- ly grown for the benefit of the communi- ty at large. The chestnut industry, as a means of enlarging the food supply of the United States, is a horticultural phase that is worthy of serious considera- tion. In many European countries the chestnut is looked upon as a staple ar- ticle of diet. In France GrifBn says, that in France, ''from the Bay of Biscay to Switzerland, there are large plantations, and almost forests, of chestnut trees." The nuts "are broad, large, and resemble the American horse- chestnut or buckeye (Escutus hippo- castanum), and are extensively eaten by human bemgs and animals." -" * * "The poor people durmg the fall and winter, often make two meals daily from chest- nuts The ordinary way of cooking them IS to remove the outside shell, blanch them, then a wet cloth is placed in an earthen pot, which is almost filled with raw chestnuts; they are covered with a second wet cloth and put on the fire to steam; they are eaten with salt or milk. Hot steamed chestnuts are carried around the city streets in baskets or pails; the majority of the working people, who usually have no fire in the morning, eat them for their first breakfast, with or without milk." * * * "These nuts are often used as a vegetable, and are ex- ceedingly popular, being found on the table of the well-to-do and wealthy. They are served not only boiled, but roasted, steamed, pureed, and as dressings for poultry and meats." "Chestnuts are made into bread by the mountain peasantry. After the nuts have been blanched, they are dried and ground. From this flour, a sweet, heavy, flat cake is made. It resembles the oaten cakes so popular among the peasants." In Italy In Italy, Bruhl says that the chestnut forms a considerable part of the diet of the people during the fall and winter, where they are generally eaten roasted. "They are also much eaten in a cooked state; often prepared like a stew, with gravy," He says, also, "the chestnuts are dried until they are as hard as dried peas, then shelled, after horses have been driven over them to crack the shells." The dried nuts can be shipped anywhere ''and are said to be as good for cooking purposes as the fresh ones These are also sold on the streets and eaten like peanuts." 2— -30 802 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE In Korea In Korea, Allen says, "By far the most comnaon food nut is the chestnut, which almost takes the place with the Korean which the potato occupies with us. The chestnut is used raw, boiled, roasted, cooked with meat, made into confections, powdered and mixed with candy, and dried whole, in which latter condition it becomes quite sweet, but is apt to be af- fected by worms." In Japan According to Rein great quantities of chestnuts are raised in Japan, but there they are used less for human food than they are elsewhere. They are fed large- ly to swine. The latter practice may ac- count for the poorer quality of the Jap- anese chestnut; quantity, rather than quality, being the desideratum among the Japanese. Sargent, on the other hand, in referring to the human use of the chest- nut in Japan, disagrees with Rein, and says, *'I have never seen chestnuts of- fered in such quantities in any American or European city as in those of Tokyo, and other Japanese towns." The composition of the European chest- nuts has been shown by Frear to be similar to that of wheat. By the same writer and by others it is stated that the chestnut is easily digested after the starch grains have been burst open and made less resistant to the attacks of the digestive fluids, by cooking. Botanical Considerations The botanical rank of the chestnut groups is much perplexed. Botanists are unanimous in according the Euro- pean chestnut specific rank, but the Japanese and the American types are considered both as varieties and as species by various authors. Personal- ly, I prefer to consider the three groups as distinct species, for as they are grow- ing in America, each has broadly dif- ferentiated characters on which to base specific rank. Fig. 1. Types of Chestnut Foliage. (1) Euro- pean at Left; (2) Japanese in Center; (3) American at Rig^ht. Note relative form, ser- rations, freedom of the Japanese only from leaf blight. CHESTNUT CULTURE 803 European Group The European chestnut is a large, close- headed, but broadly spreading tree, with thick branches and large buds; oblong- lanceolate and generally abruptly-point- ed, thick, leathery leaves, bearing small, sometimes incurved teeth, and generally pubescent beneath when young, and smooth and green on both sides when mature. The burs are enormously large, with a thick, felt-like, hairy lining; the nuts are thickly pubescent at the tip, and sometimes over considerable of the sides; variable in quality from bitter to sweet; with a long point. The trees re- tain the foliage late in the fall, and it is susceptible to the attacks of leaf fungi. (See Fig. 1.) Fig. 2. Alpha Japanese. Chestnut Grown in Clarke county, Washington. — Maooted Photo. American Group The American chestnut differs in a larger, freer, more upright form; more slender branches; larger, thinner, more pointed leaves, with larger, more spread- ing teeth, in a greater pubescence when young; smaller burs, and sweeter, small- er, more pubescent nuts. The foliage is also susceptible to leaf fungi, and is shed earlier in the fall. (See Fig. 1, 2.) Japanese Group The Japanese chestnut is a semi-dwarf, close-headed tree, with very slender, slow-growing wood, bearing small buds close together, and apparently, though not actually, opposite, on the smaller growth. The leaves are smaller than the American or European, quite like the peach-leaf in appearance, long, narrow, generally pointed, with narrow, truncate or cordate base, white tomentose beneath and pale or bright green above, teeth, small and sharply awn-pointed. The burs are comparatively small, with a thin, often parchment-like, hairy lining. The nuts large, comparatively free from pubescence, earlier to ripen, and poorer in quality, though excellent when cook- ed. The foliage of the Japanese is ap- parently free from the attacks of the common leaf fungi. The tree is a beau- tiful specimen for ornamental purposes. (See Fig. 1.) The Blossoms The chestnut is monecious, that is, the male and female flowers are separate on the same tree. Young, vigorous-growing trees frequently produce male flowers only, and after their excessive vegetative vigor ceases and the trees become older, the female flowers develop. The stami- nate flowers are borne in long, slender catkins, and are much more numerous than the pistillate flowers. The pistillate flowers are clustered at the base of a long catkin, on the distal end of which the staminate flowers open later in the sea- son, the catkin aborting down to the lit- tle female blossoms. The pistillate flowers are probably fer- tilized by both sets of staminate blos- soms, the early ones fertilizing the early opening blossoms, and the later ones fur- nishing the pollen for those that are re- tarded. Thomas Meehan tells me that he thinks the pollen from the late stam- inate blossoms performs the function of fertilization, and that the great show of staminate catkins is a waste of energy, in the American chestnut. In both Euro- pean and Japanese varieties, I have noticed that most of the pistils are re- ceptive while the early staminate flowers are in bloom. Suggestive Hints on Chestnut Culture The Production of Varieties Seedlings. The large varieties of cul- tivated, foreign chestnuts have been 804 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE evolved from the wild types through cen- turies of selecting slightly better seed- lings in each successive generation. Chestnut seedlings exhibit variations from the smallest American nuts to the largest Japanese, from enormous pro- ductiveness to appx'oximate sterility, from an acorn-like flavor to a sweet, de- sirable quality, from ripening in August to maturity in October. Some of the seedlings hold their dead leaves all win- ter, others have nuts enclosed in a bur from which it is difficult to extract them. Certain varieties, like the Parry, are ex- tremely prepotent, and their progeny ex- hibit striking similarities. From the de- sirable variations new kinds can be pro- duced. Crosses New kinds may be produced by cross- ing the varieties within the species, or the Japanese, European, and American varieties may be intercrossed. Mr. Luth- er Burbank informs me that he has a few hundred hybrid chestnuts just be- ginning to bear — crosses of Japanese, European, Chinese, chinquapin, and oth- ers, among which are a number of ex- tremely valuable varieties. Mr. Burbank thinks that all the chestnuts intercross as readily as the various varieties of ap- ples. Bud Yarieties New varieties may possibly be develop- ed from bud variations, as tree under ap- parently similar conditions, show the widest differences in bearing tendencies. The variations might be perpetuated in newly grafted trees, though it is quite possible that the violent differences with- in the cultivated varieties are due to the reciprocal action of stock and scion, when the union is imperfect. At any rate, in the pei-petuation of a variety, too much care cannot be used in selecting scions for propagation only from trees with de- sirable bearing tendencies. Propagation G-rafUng. Chestnuts are propagated usually by grafting, though budding, with buds that have been held dormant, is frequently practiced in the spring in the South. The scions are inserted upon the stocks by ditferent propagators in four positions, i. e., in the root, in the crown, in the body or stem, and in the top or branches of the tree. Two methods of grafting are generally employed, the cleft graft for stocks of large size, and the whip-gratt for smaller stocks. A third system, the bark graft, is occasion- ally used for very large stocks. The grafting technique must be performed most skillfully to insure a successful out- come. The scions should be cut with precission, and the young, fine wood, espe- cially in the Japanese varieties, should be discarded. Immediately after insert- ing the scions, the stubs must be careful- ly covered with wax, or with waxed cloth, the latter method being preferable for young trees, as the stubs often do not close tightly. If the stub can be cut two or three inches above a fork, the openings close more firmly. Britton, of the Connecticut station, in 1898, found from grafting over two hun- dred scions of the Japanese and Euro- pean varieties on American stocks, that more scions live when inserted after the leaves had begun to expand. He says that the early grafts that sur- vived made a much larger growth than the later ones. He states also that the scions take more readily in young shoots. Stocks for 6rrafting in the Nnrsery The cultivated varieties of the Euro- pean chestnut are generally propagated, either upon their own American-grown seedlings, or upon native, American seed- lings Japanese varieties are often prop- agated upon seedlings grown from im- ported Japanese seed. Occasionally, seed- ling trees of the European chestnut are imported, but they are worthless for prop- agating purposes as the bodies become at flicted with sun scald. Each species seems to work best upon stocks of the same type, but there is a close affinity between the Japanese and the American stocks, and between some varieties of the Europeans and the Ameri- can seedlings. The European varieties are propagated largely upon American stocks, and suc- cessfully with many varieties, but nur- CHESTNUT CULTURE 805 serymen ai'e coming to use seedlings of the European varieties in preference. The European scions sometimes out- grow the American stubs, making an en- larged, or a poorly united union, the scion frequently blowing out during the first season of growth. The Chestnut Orchard The chestnut orchard should be locat- ed on a well drained, porous soil, with a deep, porous subsoil, through which the roots can descend and supply the tree with moisture in drymg weather It is more important to have thoroughly drain- ed soil than soil of a particular character, and the trees will then flourish on light sands or heavy clays. Limestone lands are generally uncongenial to the chest- nut, due probably to the close proximity of the underlying rocks to the surface, for in limestone soils with well-drained, deep, porous subsoils, the chestnut thrives heartily. The European chestnut should be set not less than forty feet, and the Jap- anese not less than thirty feet apart each way. The trees can be planted much closer at first and cut out to those permanent distances ten or fifteen years later after several profitable crops have been removed. The care of the young orchard should be the same as that given a young apple plantation. Subsequent Care of the Trees Gi'afted chestnut trees are precocious. The grafts of the Japanese sorts on sprout land frequently set fruit the same year of insertion, and their early bear- ing tendencies often prevent a satisfac- tory development of the tree. Two-year- old grafts are commonly loaded with burs in both Japanese and European kinds, though the Japanese varieties as a class bear earlier, both when grafted and from seed It would pi-obably be a profitable undertaking to keep the burs picked from the young trees for three or four years, in order that they might become strong and thoroughly established before the strain of reproduction is upon them. The young trees should also be pruned to an open spreading form, with three to five main branches on which the top will eventually form, after which the trees themselves will need little care other than good culture. If the trees are allowed to over-bear, the nuts run down in size. Bo Yarieties Keed Cross Fertilizing The question cannot be answered satis- factorily with our present knowledge. Nearly all of the European varieties abort a large proportion of their burs when the latter are partly grown, the Paragon and Comfort being fi'eer from it than any of the other kinds. I have seen instances of European trees that are non-productive at ten years old when standing alone, but whether they would be more productive in proximity to other varieties is an open question. The Jap- anese varieties do not abort their burs, and seem to be completely self-fertile. In the absence of definite information, we would advise mixed planting as a safe- guard. Prices of Nuts During the years 1896 to 1898 prices of various varieties of chestnuts sold all the way from $4.00 to $14.00 per bushel. The earliest and the biggest chestnut commands the highest price. Earliness is the more important factor. Quality, at present, is not considered by the pur- chaser, the crop selling lai-gely from the street stands to boys and girls. The nuts should be carefully graded into two or three sizes before shipping and the wormy ones destroyed, as the price of a mixed lot is regulated by the smallest nuts. The chestnuts are shipped in bags, or in crates holding a number of small baskets. The burs and nuts are gathered every few days, and the burs that do not cast their nuts are torn open by an oper- ator wearing leather mittens. European or Japanese Yarieties One of the first considerations to con- front the prospective commercial chest- nut grower is, ''Shall the European or the Japanese varieties be planted, or both?" The question is a difi5cult one to discuss without awakening enmity, for both species have equally earnest ad- vocates. The writer, however, will at- 806 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE / Fig. 3. French (1), and Japanese (2), Chestnuts Grown by Mr. A. A. couver, Washington. Quarnberg at Van- tempt to place their merits side by side as impartially as possible, basing the estimate not on a limited observation of a few trees, but on an acquaintance with both species growing together on a large commercial scale. Japanese Group Advantages 1. Early maturity of tree. 2. Ease of caring for trees. 3. Early ripening of nuts. 4. Large size of nuts. 5. Enormous productiveness. . 6. Small size of bur. 7. Freedom from leaf blight. 8. Freer from worms than Europeans. 9. The money makers in the large groves. 10. Affinity for American stocks. 11. Ornamental value. Disadvantages 1. Overbearing, if not thinned. 2. Poorer quality of many. 3. Delicate growth of some. European Group Advantages Great productiveness of some. Timber value of tree. Finer quality. Beautiful appearance of nuts of 1. . 2. 3. 4. some 5. Prolific bearing of a few. Disadvantages 1. Late maturity of many. 2. Late ripening of nuts. 3. Shy bearing of many when young. 4. Largeness of bur, which may be- come watersoaked and break the trees. 5. Great susceptibility to leaf blight. 6. Greater susceptibiltiy to weevil. 7. Do not compare with Japanese in the commercial groves as money makers. It can be stated as a general principle, that the Japanese flora is better fitted to the climatic conditions of the Eastern United States than the fiora of Western Europe, the latter succeeding best on the Pacific coast. Hence it is thought that if the Japanese species is used as a basis for further improvement, hap- pier results will eventually follow its amelioration in the Eastern United States. The Japanese or European var- ieties, as they exist, should be looked upon only as stepping-stones to better kinds. By the continued judicious selec- tion of seedlings from varieties of the best flavor, the quality of the Japanese chestnut can be greatly improved in a few generations. Some of the finer quality of the chinquapin or of the na- tive chestnut might be infused into the Japanese with happy results, and a more vigorous tree would follow the incorpora- tion of a little European blood. One type should supplement the other where- ever the adaptability of both is proven. CHESTNUT CULTURE— CHESTNUT DISEASES 807 Estimate of Yarieties The varieties of the cultivated chest- nuts are not well enough established, nor have they been grown on a sufficiently comprehensive scale to determine their horticultural value. Some of the most promising kinds are confined to a few trees only. It is therefore impossible, to compare the various kinds, justly, but the reader would probably not be satis- fied unless some expression of prefer- ence was recorded. Nothing more than a personal preference can be expressed, and the following varieties include those that the writer would plant on his own place for commercial purposes. The first list is based upon the behavior of the varieties that are growing on an exten- sive scale, the second list includes those kinds which are promising, but which have not been grown extensively. Varieties Grown Extensively Japanese — Alpha, Reliance, Parry. First choice. European — Paragon. First choice. Numbo. Second choice. Varieties Not in Large Blocks, but Promising Japanese — Kerr, Kent, Killen. First choice. Biddle, Felton, Martin. Second choice. European — Ridgely, Scott, Styer. First choice. Dager, Darlington. Second choice. The Hale, McFarland, and Coe are high- ly spoken of, but the writer has never seen specimens and is therefore unable to give them a fair estimate. G. Harold Powell, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, Newark, Delaware. CHESTNUT DISEASES Antliracnose Marsonia ochroleuca B. & C. Is a disfiguring spotting of chestnut leaves. Small, dead areas with char- acteristic borders are produced by this fungus. Such applications of fungicides as are made for shot hole fungus of the plum and leaf spot of the horse chestnut, will be found useful when treatment be- comes necessary on the chestnut. are immune to this A. D. Selby, Wooster, Ohio. (Japanese varieties trouble. — Ed.) Body Blight The trunks of the chestnut trees in the nursery frequently blight upon the south and west sides. The bark splits or sinks in and the affected tree finally dies. Larger Japanese seedling trees, eight to ten years old, are sometimes affected in the same manner, but I have not ob- served the difficulty on the larger Euro- peans. Imported European seedling trees seem to be more susceptible than any others, and American seedling stocks are affected to a lesser extent. Fig. 1 shows sections of the trunk affected with the body blight. The sections were tak- en from trees in a lot of one thousand imported European seedlings, nine hun- dred and fifty of which died soon after setting out. As the malady nearly al- ways appears on the south and west sides Fig. 1. Sun Scald or Body Blight. 808 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE of the tree, it is thought that the trouble is not unlike the Sim Scald of cherry and other young fruit trees. G. Habold Powell Delaware Bulletin 42 Cankek. See Bark Disease, this sec- tion. Chestnut Bark Disease Diaporthe parasitica Murrill This disease occui's in the northeastern part of the United States and threatens gieat damage to chestnut trees of all species except certain Japanese varieties which seem to he immune. The flavor of these seems to be inferior to that of the improved European sorts but is be- lieved that varieties can be developed by crossing which will combine the flavor of the European and the resistant quali- ties of the Japanese varieties. The disease girdles the twigs and af- fected limbs and otherwise reduces the vitality of the tree. The fungus confines itself to the bark and cambium and seems to gain entrance almost wholly through wounds. No satisfactory method of control has been discovered except that of severe cutting when the disease first appears on branches and twigs. ^ References 1908. Metcalf, Haven. Immunity of the Japanese Chestnut to Bark Disease. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 121. 1909. Duggar, B. M. Fungus Diseases of Plants, Ginn & Co., N. Y. Chestnut Blight, See Chestnut Bark Disease, this section. Chown Oall. See under Apple Dis- eases, Chestnut Weevils According to Chittenden* there are two species of chestnut weevil, the "larger" and the "lesser." They have extremely long, slender beaks or snouts, nearly as fine as a horse- hair, and considerably longer than the body in the female. By means of this long beak the female is able to pene- trate the thickest bur of the chestnut * Bureau of Entomology Circular No. 99. with its long spines and to cut out, with the minute and sharp mandibles at the tip of her beak, a little hole for the deposition of her eggs. These are insert- ed through the husk into the growing nut. The two species resemble each other greatly in color and in markings, the gen- eral color of both being golden yellow, ochraceous, or clay yellow, frequently tinged with olive, and a little paler on the lower surface. The disk of the thor- ax is a little darker with a wide bright band on each side, and the elytra, or wing covers, are mottled with rich light brown or dark brown markings of variable si5;e and extent. Larger Chestnut Wee>il Balaninns prol)oscicleus Fab, The larger chestnut weevil is consid- erably the larger and more robust species. The female rostrum or beak, although proportionately of about the same length as in the lesser weevil, is perceptibly more prominent because less curved, the curvature being toward the tip. It is also more widened at the base. The body measures from one-third to nearly one-half of an inch in length, and the beak of the female is often five-eighths of an inch long. The larvae is milk-white, robust, fully three times as long as wide. The fully developed larva in ordinary resting posi- tion measures nearly half an inch. Al- though the larvae has no true legs, it is able to crawl, slowly and clumsily, it is true, by means of the flattened lower surface, locomotion being aided by trans- vei'se wrinkles. The pupa is of a clearer whitish color than the larva, and shows the principal external organs of the body of the future beetle, all, except the beak, folded tight- ly to the body. This species, like the other weevils under consideration, is native to Ameri- ca and is known from Rhode Island to Virginia, the District of Columbia, south- ern Ohio, and Tennessee, and westward to Kansas. The geographical distribu- tion of this and the other nut weevils has as yet not been carefully studied, but CHESTNUT PESTS 809 in all probability it is considerably more extensive than above stated. Lesser Cliestiiut Weevil Balaninus rectus Say. The lesser chestnut weevil has the scape of the antenna longer than in the preceding species and the first joint long- er than the second. The average length of the body is about one-fourth of an inch, but the size varies, as in all of these insects. The distribution of this species extends from Canada and Massachusetts to North Carolina, Tennessee, and Ohio, and prob- ably farther westward. The larvae is only a third of an inch long and its length is about three times its width. The body is milk-white and the head light brownish yellow. Life History of Both Species The life history is similar for both species. These, as well as related nut and acorn weevils, hibernate in the lar- val condition and in the soil. Both make their appearance with the first blooming of chestnuts. The beetles increase in number as the nuts approach maturity, or until about the middle of September or a little time before the nuts are first marketed. Then they may be seen in greater abundance, several pairs, fre- quently of both species, often occurring on a single bunch of burs. From exam- ination of many burs it is deduced that the first eggs deposited are laid (seldom and very sparingly) in the soft, woolly material surrounding the forming nut; but later they are inserted in the kernel just under the inner skin, and occasion- ally they are deposited somewhat more deeply. In no case has the egg been found in the outer husk. Eggs are laid singly, but many are placed in a single nut, as high as 40 or more (of the smaller weevil) in import- ed nuts, and as many as 9 in native nuts. By the end of September or the first week of October the beetles disappear. At about the same time, when the nuts first fall, the larvae begin to mature and issue from round orifices which they gnaw through the shell. On leaving the nuts they burrow into the earth to depths varying fi-om 2 to about 8 inches, according to the hard- ness of the soil. The larval period prob- ably lasts from three to five weeks in the nuts, and about ten months in the earth. The beetles do not fly readily, but cling tightly to their resting place or drop when disturbed; yet, as their bodies are not heavy and their wings strong, they are obviously able to cover considerable distances especialy with the wind. Or- dinarily, however, they are sluggish, like most other weevils, and probably do not go far from the vicinity of the trees which have sheltered them as larvae, al- though they undoubtedly migrate when food is scarce. Natural Enemies A natural enemy of the nut weevils is known, a small foui'-winged wasplike fly, the braconid parasite UrosigalpTius ar- matus Ashm., which develops in the body of the larva. Methods of Control The most practical remedy for nut weevils that can be suggested is the early destruction of the ''worms'* in the nuts by means of bisulphid of carbon and the observance of clean orchard manage- ment and other cultural methods. Tlie Water Test of Infestation Having doubts of the efficacy of this old-fashioned test of the difference be- tween "wormy" and healthy nuts, an ex- periment was made by the wiiter with native chestnuts obtained from a street vender. To begin, 40 per cent were ob- viously "wormy," and only 60 per cent apparently sound. Resnlts of Water Tests with JVatiie Chestnuts NUTS WHICH ROSE TO SURFACE Per Cent Uninfested 10 Showing minute marks only ; good flavor : salable , 20 Contaimns: full-i?ro^Ti j?rubs 10 Containing: immature ^rubs 60 NUTS WHICH REMxilNED ON BOTTOM Per Cent In pex-feet condition 40 Slightly im'ured 30 Badly infested 20 Completely filled with grubs 10 As will be seen from this experiment, noticeably wormy nuts, as evidenced by 810 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE loss of weight, and the exit holes of the "worms," naturally rise when placed in water, but the remaining nuts may or may not be infested, and hence require further test than whether they will sink or float Direct Eemedies Bisulpliid of Carbon The Talue of bisulphid of carbon as a fumigant for chestnuts infested by weevils is now fully established. The dead weevil larvae are at this time so small that the average person would never de- tect their presence, while if they were permitted to develop they would soon de- stroy the nut for food. The following treatment is recommend- ed* Vu ounce of bisulphid of carbon to one bushel of nuts placed in a kerosene barrel of 50 gallons capacity, tightly cov- ered and left for two days. Scalding and Drying Some growers make a practice of plung- ing the nuts as gathered into boiling water just long enough to kill the con- tained insects and yet not injure the nuts for sale, after which they are dried be- fore being marketed. This may be pro- fitably accomplished by usmg a large sieve, which is filled with nuts, dipped in the water, and removed in ^.bout five minutes. Salt water, it is claimed, is preferable for scalding, the brine serving to keep the shell soft and pliable and rendering the kernels more palatable than when not thus treated. Nuts for planting should not be scald- ed, and care should be taken not to cook the kernels of nuts intended for sale Heat Infested nuts can be subjected to a temperature of between 125 degrees Fah- renheit and 150 degrees Fahrenheit with- out injuring them for food or for seed and this will effect the destruction of the larvae within. Some growers of chestnuts destroy the weevils by kiln-dry- ing. Cold storage has been employed and this is successful in arresting the de- velopment of the larvae, but nuts thus treated were deficient in flavor. Preventives Choice of Location for the Orchard It is most undesirable to plant in the immediate vicinity of woodland abound- ing in wild chestnut and chinquapin, since these trees fui-nish natural breeding places for the insects, and are, thei-efore, a constant menace to successful chestnut culture. Wild chestnuts or chinquapins in the immediate vicinity of cultivated groves should be gathered. To secure good re- sults, it is imperative to plant or graft trees on smooth ground, first for the sake of economy, and second to permit the collection of all of the nuts, leaving none for the propagation of weevils. Two -Lined Chestnut Borer Agnlus HUneatus Weber Occasional outbreaks of this insect have been reported when they have done con- siderable damage The beetle is elongate, black with a more or less gi-eenish tmge, about three- eighths of an inch long. The larva works just under the bark of the tree making galleries which re- sults in a practical girdling. The most important requisite in con- trolling the borer is clean culture. All dead wood should be cut out and burned. Cut and sawed timber should have the bark removed. For shade trees some mechanical pro- tection during the egg-laying season is practicable. Sprays of lime and Paris green are de- terrents, also fish oil and petroleum pre- parations. Eeference Bureau of Entomology Circular No. 24, Revised. Cider Products Made on the Farm There are but few orchardists whose apples are of so uniformly good quality that there is not quite a percentage that will have to be disposed of in some way other than shipping to market. One of the best ways of disposing of this fruit is the making of it into vinegar. The CIDER PRODUCTS MADE ON THE FARM 811 New York Experiment Station recom- mends the following as one of the most satisfactory methods of making vinegar: "When cider is pressed from the apples the barrels should be filled about two- thirds full and the bung replaced by a loose plug of cotton, which will lessen evaporation and keep out bugs and dirt. When the quantity of vinegar to be made is considerable the barrels should be placed in a room where the temperature can be kept at from 70 degrees to 80 degrees during the fall and early winter months. If the batch is small the bar- rels may be left out of doors while the weather is warm and then placed in the warmest room convenient and later in a dry cellar. If the temperature of the storeroom does not fall below 45 degrees the conversion of the sugar into alcohol will require about six months, but the process of fermentation may be hastened by the addition of fresh commercial yeast. When the cider quits working the clear portion should be drawn off, the barrel rinsed out and the liquid replaced, with the addition of from two to four quarts of good vinegar containing some mother. The next process, the change of the al- cohol into acetic acid, may be effected in three months, and may require two years. In any event, it will take place most rapidly in a temperature ranging from 65 degrees to 75 degrees When the vinegar has reached the per cent of acetic acid, the barrels should be filled full and tightly corked. This will prevent other changes and will cause the vinegar to keep its strength. Cider Apple Butter Takes about one gallon of apples, peel- ed, cored and quartered, for three gallons of cider. But apples differ. When using sweet russets for thickening, it only takes about eight gallons of apples to thirty of cider. In hot weather, cider should be boiled down to one-third, the same day it is made, then left in stone jars until morn- ing. In cool weather it may be left in barrel in shade until next day. Run cider out of barrel and strain through a poke made of towel Boil in copper kettle, freshly scoured with salt and vinegar. Kettle must not stand after being scour- ed, but fire and cider must be all ready for it. Cider must not stand in kettle without boiling, or it will have a bitter taste and be poisonous. Put apples all in cider at once, after it is boiled down, but save out some cider to fill in with and to keep it from boiling over. Apples will rise in kettle as they boil to cook, but will soon go down again. It will take about four hours' constant cooking and stirring to make it so it will keep through- out the next summer. When done dip out into stone jars. Next day heat jars in oven of cook stove, tie up and put away. Skim cider while boiling. Never allow a chunk or stick to touch kettle, or your butter will scorch. Turn kettles upside down on grass. Clean next morning while grass is wet If you do not make your butter so thick, put it in jars with stone lids and seal same as fruit. If cider stands all night after it is boiled, let it get hot before putting in apples, and scour kettle before beginning again. Apple Butter Take eight gallons of cider, boil two hours, add ten gallons of ground apples, cook until done in a brass kettle, and add 16 pounds of sugar, either soft white or granulated. When done the apple butter may be flavored by adding cinnamon. This amount makes eight gal- lons of apple butter. Tomato Butter To two gallons of cooked apples and two gallons of tomatoes, cooked and pressed through colander, four sliced lemons, add sugar until as sweet as desired, flavor with cinnamon, cook until it thickens and then can. Peach Butter Pare, stone and cook peaches until tender, then press through colander. Measure out as much sugar as peaches, after they are cooked. Add one-half of the sugar and cook one-half hour, then add the rest of the sugar and cook from one hour to one and one-half hours, or until thick; then can. 812 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PBACTICAL HORTICULTURE Pear Butter Pare, core and quarter pears, cook un- til tender, then press them through a colander, add three-fourths of a pound of sugar to every pound of pears, cook until thick; then can. Grape Butter Pare, core and quarter as many apples as you have grapes, cook until tender, press through colander, cook grapes a few minutes, run through sieve. To four quarts of grapes add three quarts of ap- ples and four pounds of sugar. Cook un- til thick; then seal. riuiii Butter Cook plums until tender, press through colander, make the butter same as peach butter. In making pear, peach and plum butter and in preparing apples for grape butter, enough water should be added in cooking them to cover. Lemon Butter Two cupfuls of sugar, juice of two lemons, two eggs, one lump butter size of an egg; mix all together and cook in double boiler, stirring all the time until it thickens. This is excellent for break- fast with hot biscuits and butter. Use Bipe Fruit The jftrst requirement for good vine- gar is to have the ripe fruit. Good ap- ples under hydraulic pressure will give about four and one-half gallons of cider to the bushel. Pears under the same pres- sure will give more. Every utensil used in the work should be strictly free fx-om must or mold. Hence they should be scalded in very hot water to destroy all germs. After having secured the cider it must be exposed at all times to the air, and the depth of the liquid should be no greater than the surface measure of the vessel holding it. A barrel should not be more than half full during fer- mentation. The temperature should be even and rather warm. Temperature determines the time in which the fermentation is accomplished. Eighty degrees gives quickest results; with this heat good vinegar can be had for use in four months, in which time it should show 6 per cent acetic acid. The ordinary time is six months, with only ordinary temper- ature. By close attention to these par- ticulars a good healthful vinegar can be cheaply made, which will command from 14 to 20 cents per gallon in the market. Well ripened fruit should be used, as it contains the greatest amount of sugar, which aids in yielding the highest per cent of acetic acid. Under no circum- stances use decayed fruit for healthful vinegar. A small yeast cake dissolved in some of the cider and then poured in the barrel will set fermentation going at once. Do not stop the fermentation, but let it complete its work. When fer- mentation ceases, procure some mother of vinegar and put in barrel. If this can- not be had, get some pure sharp vinegar and pour this in the barrel. When com- pleted fill barrel full and cork securely to prevent any undesirable ferments after- wards. Pear Yiuegar Pear vinegar requires some longer time than apple cider, and will show 8 per cent acetic acid, making it sufficiently strong to be afterward diluted one-half. Vinegar can be made from the small fruits, especially the blackberry, but it is more expensive and the color is not favorable. Fruit Butter For fruit butter the cider or juices and the filling should be boiled in separate vessels, to hasten the work and give bet- ter appearance to the product. Any sweetening used should not be added un- til the butters are about ready for re- moval from the fire. Fruit for the fill- ing should be quite ripe, and it then has all its flavors and is more readily cooked. After the juices are sufficiently boiled down the filling may be added and the boiling continued till it presents ap- pearances of being sufficiently thick, when the sugar may be added such as the na- ture of the fruit requires. By withhold- ing the sugars till at this state, you pre- vent danger of scorching, have a bet- ter color to the butters and a better re- CIDER PRODUCTS MADE ON THE PARM--CITRANGB 813 tention of the fruit flavors than can be had by adding the sugar at once. Care must be used to prevent any set- tling of the filling while boiling, for this will result in scorched butters. Never use spices of any kind for flavoring, as these destroy the natural flavors of the fruits used and cause the butters to be- come strong in time; also, they give the butter a dark, uninviting appearance. Juices of one kind of fruit used with filling of another make a very inviting butter. As for instance, pear cider with apples for thickening, or any combina- tion one may like. After butters are cold, if one adds to the surface a few spoonfuls of brandy it will prevent any mold from forming at all. Kept in a cool, dry room, butters thus made will grow better with age. Other Becipes To make apple butter, .take a half bar- rel of good, fresh cider and boil down one-half, then add three bushels of good cooking apples that have been pared and quartered. We have made small quanti- ties at a time in a porcelain kettle on the kitchen stove, but if one can procure a large copper kettle, it is best to make it out of doors, using the long handled stir- rer. When the apples begin to cook up, the mixture should be constantly stirred until done, when it should be smooth and thick. Just before taking off add ten pounds of sugar. If sweet apples are used for both cider and filling, the sugar may be omitted. If the apples are not of good cooking kind, they can be ground up in a meat grinder, which will hasten the cooking process. If this apple but- ter is cooked quite thick, it will keep without sealing. Very nice peach butter can be made by boiling down the cider the same as for apple butter and filling in with peaches. Pear butter is made the same way, using ripe pears for filling. To make grape butter, put grapes on to cook, with water enough to cover, boil an hour or more, pour while hot over a sieve. Measure the juice that drains through and put on stove to boil again. Press the remainder of grapes through sieve to remove skins and seeds. After the juice has boiled down one-half, add half as much sugar as the measured juice, and add the pulp that has been pressed through the sieve or colander. It will need to be stirred only a short time. This is to be sealed in either glass cans or stone jars. Tomato butter is made in the same way as grape butter, except that the juice should be boiled until nearly thick before adding the tomato pulp. A butter made of equal parts of plums and pears is superior to that made of either fruit alone. Cook each fruit in water separately, then put plums through a sieve and add the pears. Use sugar to make sweet enough after the mixture has boiled thick and smooth. Citrange The citrange, which is a cross between the worthless Trifoliate orange of Japan and our ordinary sweet orange, is not an orange, but a hardy substitute for the lemon. The fruits are very juicy, con- taining a larger amount of juice propor- tionately than the best lemons. They make a refreshing "citrangeade," simi- lar to lemonade, which people who have made a comparison pronounce equal to or even better than the latter. The fruits also make excellent pies and marmalade, and for these purposes are probably equal to the orange and the lemon. The cit- range will undoubtedly prove valuable for general culinary purposes in the mak- ing and flavoring of cakes, making jel- lies and preserves, and in many other ways in whlcH the lemon Is now employ- ed. When it is considered that these citranges can be grown throughout a large part of New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington, where there is now a dearth of acid fruits their great value becomes evident. There is at present, however, no mar- ket for the citrange, and it will probably prove of value mainly as a home fruit for cultivation throughout the regions men- tioned, where the sweet orange, the lemon, 814 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE and the lime can not be grown. The trees are attractive in shape and senai- evergreen, so that they will make desir- able lawn trees. Wherever a home can be supplied with them it will be possible on the warm days between the 1st of September and the 1st of December to pick a few fruits and make a desirable and refreshing beverage. Through the senators of the Pacific coast states, arrangements have been made with a few leading fruit growers to give trees of this variety a trial test. A number of young trees have been dis- tributed by the Plant Bureau, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture for the purpose. Citrons There are two species of citron. One is the species Citrus Medica of the same genus as the orange, lime and shaddock or pomelo. The tree is an evergreen shrub growing to a height of about 10 feet; has irregular straggling spiny branches, large pale green broadly oblong, protuberant at the tips and from five to six inches long, with a rough adherent rind, the inner portion of which is thick, white and fleshy, the outer, thin, greenish yellow and very fragrant. The pulp is sub-acid, edible, much less acid than the lemon and the seeds bitter. There are many varieties of the fruit, some of them of great weight and size. The Madras citron has the form of an oblate sphere; and in the "fingered citron," of China the lobes are separated into finger-like divi- sions formed by separation of the con- stituent carpels, as occurs sometimes in the orange. The citron tree thrives in the open air in China, Persia, West Indies, Madeira, Sicily, Corsica, in the warmer parts of Spain and Italy and the American con- tinent. The rind of this species of citron yields two perfumes, the oil of cedra, and the oil of citron, with the ultimate composi- tion of an isomeric with the oil of tur- pentine. When candied, it is much esteemed in dessert and in confectionery. The other species of citron is a variety of watermelon, nearly solid, almost flav- orless, growing on a vine that resembles the watermelon vine, the fruit of which is made into preserves, resembling the real citron. For CuLTUEE. See Watermelon. The first species named is not grown largely in the United States, but is grown with some degree of success and recom- mended by American Pomological Socie- ty as follows, for kitchen purposes: Lemon, Lyman and Orange in Florida and the southern portions of the Gulf States. For Diseases and Pests of Citrois^ of THE Teee Variety, see under Lemon and Orange. For the Vine CitroxN", see under Water- melon and other cucurMtous crops, as; Gucumher, Cantaloup, Squash, etc. Citrus Fruits This subject is treated under the re- spective fruits, as follows: Citrons, Kumquats, Lemons, Limes, Oranges, Pomelos or Grape Fruit, Tang- erines. CITRUS FRUITS— CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AS AFFECTING CERTAIN CROPS 815 Citrus Fruits- State — All citrus fruits * . . Oranges, total Arizona California Florida Louisiana Mississippi Texas Lemons, total California Florida Pomeloes (grapefruit), total California Florida Limes, total B^lorida Tangerines, total California Florida Mandarins, total Louisiana Kumquats, total Florida Trees of bearing age 11,480,768 9,787,927 83,373 G,C>15,S05 2,766,618 266,116 10,452 42,384 956,920 941,293 11,740 710,040 43,424 056,213 45,387 45,369 27,271 3,637 23,234 7 227 6',875 1,988 1,955 -Trees, Production and Value 1910 Census -1910 1909 Trees not of bearing age 5,400,402 4,327.271 56,982 2,093,410 1,097,896 155,016 38,637 867,407 396,111 379,676 7,329 640,597 25,589 600,049 30,239 30,088 3,873 84 3,839 1,923 1,900 3o8 222 Production (boxes) r23,502,122 19,487,481 32 247 14,436,'l80 4,852,907 149,979 3,779 10,694 2,770,313 <(^,7oo,221 12,367 1,189,250 122,515 1,061,537 11,318 11,302 38,752 3,581 34,871 3,896 3,340 1,112 1,091 1 1899 Pro- duction Value (boxes) $22,711,448 7,098,486 17,506,464 6,167,891 52,341 11,116 12,951,505 5,882,193 4,304,987 273,295 222,339 1,285 8,648 22,090 • «•*•• 2,993,738 876,876 2,976,571 874,305 13,753 2,359 2,060,610 30,790 143,180 17,851 1,907,816 12,306 12,478 22,839 12,457 22,714 68,770 it) 4,188 64,082 6,553 (t) 5,945 2,826 it) 2,768 * Includes a small number of citron trees in 1910 and tbe value of tlieir product in 1909, also a small amount of product in 1899. ! Exclusive of a small quantity of citrons. t No report. Cleajst Tillage. See Apple Orchard, Out- tivation of. Climate. See Selecting Site for Apple Orchard, Climatic Condlitions as Affect- ing Certain Crops It seems to be a provision of nature that everything cannot he successfully grown everywhere. The wisdom with which we decide upon the adaptability of crops to climatic conditions will determine in a large measure the degree of success result- ing from our labor. It would be folly to try to grow oranges for commercial pur- poses in Colorado, Montana and Washing- ton. It would be equally unwise to try to grow winter apples in the regions best adapted to the orange. In like manner, but not so marked, there are adaptations of fruits to interior and coast climates. For instance, the climate of Puget Sound in the state of Washington, as contrasted with the interior and eastern portions of the same state. On the west side of the Cascade range, irrigation is seldom prac- ticed, while on the east side, there are sections where nothing could be grown without irrigation. On the west side, the rainy season is in autumn, winter and spring, followed by a dry season in which certain kinds of crops suffer for lack of moisture. On the east side, by the pro- cess of irrigation, moisture is present wherever the farmer chooses to apply it. The result is that on the west side all kinds of fruits of the early maturing vari- eties may be produced. Strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, prunes, early pears, cherries and such like fruits are grown as well on the west side as on the east side, with less labor and cheaper land. Granting, therefore, that on the east side as good berries, prunes and pears, could be grown, it would not seem wise to do so in competition with the west side where they can be produced with less labor. In the irrigated dis- trict, it might be found profitable to sup- ply the local markets, but not to ship to the general markets. An exception might be the case of crops which ma- ture earlier in the dry section and so secure the higher prices obtained for the early fruits, as for example, the Kenne- wick strawberries, which arrive in the market ten days to two weeks before the berries from the coast section. On the other hand, the east side can produce apples and peaches and perhaps other varieties of peax's, better than they can be produced on the west side. They have 816 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE their dry season at a time when the ap- ple needs moisture to make its fullest de- velopment. Second, it needs the bright sunshine to give it color at a period when, on the west side, there is the beginning of the rainy season. Third, in the humid climate, fruits are more subject to fungus diseases, than in the arid climates. It is not contended by fruit growers on the west side, that they can successfully compete with the east side in the growing of apples, but they do contend that they can compete suc- cessfully in strawberries, other small fruits, prunes and pears. Our observa- tion leads us to conclude that their claim is just, except as noted in the case of the earlier markets. I have not seen straw- berries as have been grown in the Vashon Island and other Sound districts nor better cherries than those grown in the Willamette valley, Oregon, nor better raspberries and blackberries than grow in the Puyallup valley. As for the grow- ing of pears, I have seen them as well developed, and to all general appearances, as good as those grown on the east side. It would seem, therefore, that the grow- ing of certain fruits, should be localized into those sections where they will pro- duce the most money with the least ex- penditure of labor. Granville Lowthek Clovers. See Apple Orchard Cover Crop, Clover Aphis on Apple. See ApTiids. DISEASES AKD PESTS OF CEOVEB AjVD AEFAIjFA Clovers, alfalfa and other similar field crops are treated in this work only in connection with the orchard. A brief sec- tion covering some of the principal dis- eases and insect pests of these crops is here given. — Ed. DISEASES Anthracnose Three anthracnoses occur upon clover; the more common of which is due to the same fungus (ColletocricTium trifoM B. (& E.) as the anthracnose of alfalfa. These show lesions of the stems and leaf stalks and may be detected in the new seedlings in late summer through the dying of the leaves of these plants. It is not known how serious this may prove upon clover. The second anthracnose fungus (Gloeos- porium trifoUi Peck.) has been known longer than the first and occasionally shows by killing the tops of large clover stems in meadows. It is apparently not a serious disease, although a very interest- ing one to study in connection with the anthracnoses due to CoJletotriclmm. The third anthracnose upon clover { Collet otricMcm cereale Manns.) is the anthracnose of wheat, rye and oats. Two new anthracnoses have been dis- covered attacking alfalfa; the first of these, Collet otrichum trifolu B. & E., so far as we know occurring exclusively on plants of this family, the other, Colleto- tricfhum sp., occurring only on alfalfa in northern Ohio. The first one, which we may call clover anthracnose, was discov- ered in Tennessee and has appeared upon alfalfa as well as red clover in the south- ern portion of Ohio and in Arkansas. It is less prevalent on alfalfa than upon the red clover. Both of these diseases show as a specific lesion or diseased spot on the stem or leaf stalk in the advanced stages of attack. Following this the plants wilt or die and are discovered in this way. Bacterial Blight (Yellowing) A bacterial blight of alfalfa, of which the causal organism has not been definite- ly determined, has been reported from Colorado where it appears to be spread- ing. In 1907 and to a still greater extent in 1908, there was much complaint of gen- eral v yellowing of leaves of second crop alfalfa in Ohio and adjoining states, even extending to North Carolina. The symp- toms are general yellowing of this crop. Black Spot PfvyllacJiora trilfoUi (Pers.) Fckl, Is due to a fungus which attacks the leaves of clover causing dead spots and dark discolorations on the under side of the leaves. As a rule these attacks come so late in the working life of the leaves that the injury is slight. A. D. Selby, WoQster, Ohio. CLOVER AND ALFALFA DISEASES 817 Croi^ii Gall UropUlijctis Alfalfae H. S. Jackson This is a comparatively new disease in North America. It was first observed in this country in California in 1909, and has since been found elsewhere only in Arizona and Oregon. This disease was first called to the attention of the writer in May, 1911, when specimens of alfalfa crowns affected with this disease were sent in from Josephine county. Since that time it has been reported from a number of sections in Jackson and Jo- sephine counties. It is probable that the disease occurs also in other localities, but our attention has not, as yet, been called to it. The disease was first described from Ecuador in 1892 and has since been re- ported from a number of sections in Europe, notably Germany, Bulgaria and England. So far as is known, the disease affects only the alfalfa. Experiments carried on in an attempt to grow it on clover and other plants have failed. Symptoiiis The disease is characterized by the formation of galls at the crown of the plant. The galls are more abundantly produced at the base of the stem, but may occur on the upper part of the root. The galls in some cases occur several inches above the ground on the stems. They present a veiT much roughened exterior and vary in size from that of a pea or smaller up to four or five inches in dia- meter. In form they are often confluent. Seriously affected plants are killed. Usually the disease will be found in the field in patches in which many of the plants are dead or in various stages of decline. The diseased plants are of a weak growth; the foliage is yellow and the leaves are reduced in size. Cause Crown gall of alfalfa must not be con- fused with the familiar crown gall of trees, small fruits, etc. It is not the same, and it is unfortunate that there is similarity in the common names. Crown gall on trees and small fruits, as noted in another part of this report, is a bac- terial disease. Crown gall of alfalfa, on the other hand, is caused by a fungus of low order, known technically as UropMyctis alfalfae. This is one of ihe Cliytndiales, one of the lowest orders of Phycomycetes. In this group the mycelium is sparingly de- veloped. The presence of the fungus in the tissues, however, causes a stimu- lation which results in an abnormal de- velopment of the cells of the alfalfa at the point of attack. On the mycelium, resting sporangia are produced by a sim- ple sexual process. These are found in gi^oups in small cavities in the tissue of the gall. These groups may be observed with the aid of a good hand lens, by mak- ing a cut through a fresh gall. The spor- angia are liberated by the rotting of the galled tissue and serve to spread the disease. When they germinate they pro- duce a number of small motile spores which cause the infection of new plants. It is probable that the disease has been introduced into the state through seed. It might be disseminated through alfalfa hay. It is possible that it might be carried some distance by the wind and might be spread locally from one part of a field to another or into new fields by accidental transfer of soil in which rest- ing sporangia are present or in which there are bits of decayed galls. This might occur from driving across a field in which the disease is present and car- rying the infectious material in soil on the wagon wheels or hoofs of the horses. Remedy No remedy is known. When the dis- ease becomes so serious as to render the field unprofitable, a rotation of at least three years' duration to other than leguminous crops should be practiced. The disease might be prevented from spreading in a field, if the spots are ob- served soon enough, by a complete de- struction of the diseased plants. It might be advisable also to hoe the top soil toward the center and thoroughly spray the ground with copper sulphate or Bordeaux mixture. As a general pre- 818 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE caution, it might be well to avoid pur- chasing seed from localities in which the disease is known to exist. Seed disinfec- tion might perhaps be practical, but this has not been demonstrated. Crown gall is a serious disease, and if it becomes gen- eral in the state, is likely to cause great loss. It is hoped that all growers will be on the lookout for the trouble and will use every effort to prevent it from spreading. Little is known of the disease as it occurs under American conditions. A thorough investigation of the trouble would be desirable. Dodder of Alfalfa and Clover H. S. Jackson Cuscuta sp. A trouble of alfalfa and clover common in the Northwest and somewhat different in nature from any of the diseases pre- viously discussed, is caused by a parasitic flowering plant known as dodder. The dodders are weeds which, as causing a disease of clover and alfalfa, are known to be common throughout the world, in- cluding nearly all sections of the United States where these crops are grown. Kinds of Dodder Contrary to the usual idea, dodder in clover and alfalfa is not caused by a •single kind or species, but by several different species of dodder which may 'exist upon these hosts. *Hillman gives five species of dodder which are known to affect alfalfa and clover in the United States. Concerning these he offers the following information: "Clover dodder (Cuscuta epithymum, often referred to as Cuscuta trifolii) in- fests both the true clovers and alfalfa indiscriminately. It is widely distribut- ed in foreign countries and in the United States east of the Mississippi river and in the Northern Pacific states. "Small-seeded alfalfa dodder (Cuscuta planiflora) as it occurs in this country appears to confine its attacks to alfalfa in preference to the true clovers. Thus far there is no evidence of any damage from this dodder to red, alsike, or white * Hillman. Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farm- ers Bulletin 306, 190T. clovers. This is by far the most abund- ant and destructive of the dodders in the Western states. "Field dodder (Cuscuta arvensis, as recognized in the botanies) is widely dis- tributed throughout the United States. It infests both the clovers and alfalfa and also many wild herbaceous plants. It has proved injurious to sugar beets in Utah. "Large-seeded alfalfa dodder (Cuscuta indecora) is common in the West, espe- cially in Utah. It infests alfalfa as well as various wild plants, but it does not ap- pear to damage the true clovers. "Chilean dodder (Cuscuta racemosa cliileana) is not generally known in this country. It is common in South Ameri- ca and has been reported from Europe. It is said to have flourished for a time in California many years ago, but sub- sequently disappeared. It is of interest because of its prevalence in alfalfa and red clover seed-producing regions of South America, from which seed is being sent to the United States, for this dodder in- fests both alfalfa and red clover. Little is known of this dodder in its relation to forage crops in this country, but since it is being brought here in considerable quantity from South America it is very likely that it will become one of the sev- eral injurious species established in the United States." The three most common ones found in alfalfa seed in the Northwest are Cus- cuta planiflora, Cuscuta arvenis and Cuscuta indecora. Cuscuta arvenis is common upon clover as well and Cus- cuta epithymum is also common in this state. Appearance in Field Dodder may be recognized at a dis- tance by the yellow appearance of spots in the field. At close range this appear- ance will be found to be due to the abund- ance of the yellow thread-like dodder plants which twine about the stems of the alfalfa or clover. At first the dodder will be seen only in a small area, infect- ing one or two plants. It rapidly spreads in all directions by branching of the threads from these to other plants till large areas are covered. During this CLOVER AND ALFALFA DISEASES 819 spreading, the plant first infested will gradually be killed by the parasite. The dodder dies with it, but continues to grow along the edges of the spot, so that, in the late season, dead spots surrounded by a circle of dodder infested plants may be observed in alfalfa or clover fields. The dodder in the meantime has blossomed profusely and ripened its seed. Dodder in General The dodders, or love-vines, are para- sitic flowering plants closely related to the morning glories, or bind weeds. There are several species occurring in this state besides those species which at- tack alfalfa and clover. Most of these grow on weeds, particularly in moist bot- tom lands, and do no damage to the farmers* crops. These plants are peculiar in that they are parasitic in habit, depending on the plants upon which they grow for their food, instead of elaborating it for them- selves from the soil moisture and air as plants possessing green color are able to do. Dodders are destitute of this green color called chlorophyll and so have not the power of elaborating food for themselves. The plant consists of a yel- low stem which is practically leafless. The leaves have been reduced to very small scales. The flowers are minute and are usually produced in clusters on the stem. Life History During the first stages of growth the young dodder plant is self supporting, but is wholly dependent on the food stored in the seed. The seed, when it first ger- minates, consists solely of a yellow thread-like stem. The plantlet may or may not attach itself to the ground. It grows independently until the food in the seed is used up. During this time the thread-like stem has grown sufficiently to grasp and twine about some green plant growing near by. If this green plant is not one upon which the particular species of dodder naturally grows, it dies. If the plant is one for which the dodder has a natural affinity, it twines about the stem and sends suckers or haustoria into the tissue, thus linking the two plants together. The haustoria serve both as holdfasts for the dodder's support and as feeding organs through which the dodder takes the juices of the host, depriving it of needful food which it has manufac- tured for its own use. Propagation and Dissemination Dodder is most commonly distributed by the seed being mixed with the seed of the host plant. The various species of dodder are common in the districts where alfalfa and clover seed are grown and the seed of both host and parasite are matured about the same time, consequent- ly when an infested crop of clover or alfalfa is harvested, the seed is usually found contaminated with a certain per- centage of the dodder seed. In this way the disease is disseminated far and wide. The mixed seeds germinate when plant- ed, whereupon the dodder soon attaches itself to the clover and alfalfa, and after becoming permanently established on one plant may be spread from plant to plant in the field, slowly infesting considerable areas. When dodder is established in the field it may be disseminated by seed to other parts of the field during mowing and rak- ing. The dodder plant may remain alive for several days on the host plant after it has been cut, and if such diseased plants or parts of plants are scattered to other parts of the field the dodder may obtain a foothold on new plants and thus start other spots. It is shown that in New York dodder (Guscuta epithymum) may live over winter on the crowns of infested plants. The seed of the small- seeded dodder which is so common in the West, may be spread by irrigation water. Preventive Measures Since dodder is disseminated almost ex- clusively through the seed, the most ob- vious method of preventing the introduc- tion of this trouble is by planting clean seed, that is, seed which has no dodder mixed with it. Certain species of dodder infesting alfalfa may be entirely removed by proper screening. The large-seeded species of dodder cannot be entirely re- moved by any process of screening known 820 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE at tlie present time. White and alsike clovei% on account of their small size, can- not he entirely freed from dodder. Red clover, hy thorough re-cleaning, can he entirely freed of clover and small-seeded alfalfa dodder. The size of the screen is important, hut sufficient space is not avail- able here for thorough discussion of the processes of separation. The most logical precaution to take is never to plant seed infested with dodder. This can he accomplished hy huying only the best of re-cleaned seed and having it previously tested hy an expert for the presence of dodder. When dodder becomes introduced into a field, the method of eradication is fre- quently difficult, depending upon the lo- cation of the field and the species of dod- der. Space will not permit a detailed dis- cussion here of the methods of eradication, and interested growers should apply for information to the Experiment Station, giving a full statement of conditions, or should procure a copy of the farmers' bul- letin above mentioned, in which the meth- ods of eradication are fully discussed. Downy Mildew Feronospora trifoJiorum D'By. The downy mildew fungus has occurred in Colorado, and is very liable to occur in other states. No suggestions can yet be made as to its prevention. Leaf Spot Pseudopeziza mecUcaginis H. S. Jackson The common disease of the alfalfa known as leaf spot is prevalent in most sections of the country where alfalfa is grown. It is also the most common fun- gous disease on this crop in Oregon, hut under the ordinary conditions is not re- sponsible for large losses. Symptoms The disease is characterized by the for- mation of brown or black irregular spots on either side of the leaf. The spots are most conspicuous, however, on the upper surfaces. They are small, seldom over one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and are scattered irregularly but frequently very thickly over the surfaces of the leaves. Cause In many of the spots the presence of little shining amber-colored structures with black margins may be observed by the aid of a good pocket lens. These are the fruiting bodies of the fungus causing the disease which is known technically as Pseuclopeziza viecUcagmis. These struc- tures are the apothecia or fi'uiting bodies of the fungus and contain, in a layer on the upper surface, many cylindrical sacs, called asci. Bight spores are formed in each of these asci. The general effect of these spots on the leaves is to cause them gradually to turn yellow and fall, so that the plants, where severely affected, may be almost entirely stripped of foliage. This brings about re- duction in forage, and, on account of hin- dering the normal development of foliage, results in interference with root growth which may cause reduction in subsequent crops. In Western Oregon the fungus is most abundant in the fruiting condition in the fall, when mature spores are produced in large numbers from September to Decem- ber. It is possible that the fungus, under Oregon conditions, spreads all winter. It is probable that the fungus is dissemin- ated locally most frequently by the wind, but there is evidence to show that it may be carried to new localities through the seed. A similar disease, which is considered by some authorities as identical with the alfalfa leaf spot, but which is usually referred to by scientists as Pseudopeziza trifoUorum, occurs in Oregon on red clover. Eemedy On account of the nature of the host crop, no very satisfactory remedy for this trouble suggests itself. When the disease appears to be serious in the spring so that the leaves drop abundantly and the forage value is likely to be much reduced in the first crop, it might be advisable to mow the plants early, as this would cause a tendency to throw out new sprouts which would grow vigorously and might escape CLOVER AND ALFALFA DISEASES 821 the disease. It is also recommended that where it becomes abundant prior to cut- ting any crop, the plants be mowed a little earlier than usual in order to save loss of foliage. This disease is seldom serious enough to warrant plowing up a field. Should it ever become so, rotation to other than leguminous crops should be resorted to. Eoot Jfodules and Root Tubercles Upon Legiiininosae Upon removal of the roots of the clover plant from the soil one finds minute en- largements which are the subject of fre- quent inquiry. These are nodules or tubercles as they were formerly called, caused by the messmate-living of certain nitrifying organisms, or microbes, with the clover plant. To these microbes in this communal life is due the power of withdrawing nitrogen from the atmos- phere and fixing it in the tissues of the clover plants. The same applies in gen- eral to the nodules upon plants of this order, the PapiUonaceae. It thus follows that these nodules are the normal condi- tion of properly nourished leguminous plants of the order PapiUonaceae, and it likewise follows that the full value of this work of nitrogen fixing is only realized for manurial puxiooses when the tissues of the clover plants decay in the soil. Root Rot Fiisarium roseum Lk. — Q-ibhereJla Saudineti (Mont.) Sacc. The same parasitic fungus which at- tacks wheat in the form of scab and also red clover, has been found killing out al- falfa. This fungus may survive in stubble fields where wheat and oats have been grown. It readily kills off the young seedlings of alfalfa and if the soil is not fully prepared for alfalfa seedings, the root-rot may extend its work and further destroy the stand. At present nothing better is known than adequate dressings of lime, preferably raw limestone, for areas to be seeded, together with their proper enrichment While not specifically noted in America, another root rot fungus somewhat known on other crops {RMzoc- toma) has also been reported upon alfalfa from France. Another root rot fungus (Ozonium omnivorum Shear) well known upon cotton, also attacks alfalfa in the Southwest. Rust Uromyces TrifoUi (A. & S.) Wirt The various sorts of the cultivated clover, red, alsike, mammoth, etc., are at- tacked by a clover rust. If one will ex- amine the small, dark spots in the clover leaves, he will find a cluster of this red- dish fungus beneath. This rust does not spread to other plants than clovers and is commonly regarded as more disfiguiing than destructive. It is not nearly so in- jurious as the leaf spot of alfalfa which is similar in appearance. Stem Blight Fiisarium roseum Lk. Stem blight of clover has been found to be due to the same fungus as that of wheat scab. This fungus has been found to cause the death of seedling wheat plants and to follow harvest by attacks on clover stems. It appears at this time to be one of the serious forms of clover sickness. The writer looks upon it as liable to be much more serious even than anthrac- nose. The only present suggestion for control will apply to control of the wheat scab fungus through recleaning of seed and separation of all scab infected kernels. It is quite likely that clover seedings made in a dry year with little grain scab will not be exposed to the same danger from this blight as those made in wet seasons when the disease is very bad in the grain. A. D. Selby Stem Rot. See Wilt, this section. Wilt or Stem Rot Bclerotinia trifoliorum H. S. Jackson The disease known as the alfalfa wilt is common. It was first described in Eu- rope but is also recorded in many widely separated sections of this country. It has been reported as serious in New York and California and has recently been found by the writer to be common in Oregon. It was first observed in certain fields in the Willamette valley. It is found to be most abundant and to spread most rapidly dur- ing the fall, when the surface of the 822 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ground is more or less constantly moist. It seems to be more serious also where there is a heavy stand of alfalfa. The disease is known to attack clover almost as seriously as alfalfa. It is prob- able that this disease is one of the causes for the difficulty frequently experienced in obtaining and holding a stand of alfalfa or clover in Western Oregon, Symptoms The disease is characterized by a wilt brought about by rot developed on the stems at the surface of the ground or some distance above. The disease fre- quently kills the plants and on this ac- count large areas may be found in the field where the plants have been entirely killed out. The roots, however, may not always be destroyed, and may later throw out new sprouts. The rotting is invari- ably accompanied by a white cottony growth of mold over the surface of the stems and leaves and on the ground around the bases of the diseased plants. In this cottony mold are developed, quite abundantly, black irregular shaped bodies of fungus tissue known as sclerotia. In exceptional cases these are as large as a pea. They may also be found inside the stems of plants which have been killed by the disease. Cause This fungus is similar to the one which causes lettuce drop and by some author- ities is considered identical, though this has not been proved by careful investiga- tion. It seems best for the present to consider it distinct and to use the name Sclerotinia trifoHorum. This fungus de- velops no summer spores. The cottony growth is the mycelium which is also de- veloped inside the tissues. The sclerotia are resting bodies from which there devel- ops stalked fruiting bodies known as apo- thecia. These are usually described as de- veloping only after a period of rest, com- monly in the spring of the year in nature. In Oregon, however, they are found devel- oping in fall, almost immediately after being formed, without any period of rest. Under our conditions the disease seems to spread most abundantly during the fall and winter, though this has not been as thoroughly investigated as would be desirable. Remedy No remedy for diseased plants is known. On account of the nature of the host plants, it is probable that no practical remedy will be developed. Where the disease has become serious, rotation should be practiced. The disease seems to be more abundant on heavy soils, es- pecially where the drainage is not rapid, and such soils, if possible, should be avoided. Yellowing. See Bacterial BligM. CLOYER AND ALFALFA PESTS Alfalfa Crane Fly Tipula simplex Doane (Family Tipulidae) General Appearance The adults are long-legged, slender- bodied insects of a light brown color. The females are wingless while the males are winged and somewhat smaller, lighter in color and with longer, frailer legs. The average length of the adult female is about one-half of an inch. Life History The small, oval, dark gray eggs are de- posited as deeply into the soil as the length of the female's abdomen will al- low. They are laid throughout the early spring and summer. These soon hatch into light colored maggots, which begin to feed upon the roots of plants. When full grown they are from three-fourths to nearly an inch in length — the color being a very dark brown. The maggots remain in moist or wet places, breathing water through spiracles at the posterior end. The pupae greatly resemble the lar- vae in shape and color until nearly time to develop into the adults, when the wings and legs begin to appear. The body segments are provided with sharp spines which project backwards and by which they are able to wriggle to the sur- face when ready to emerge. The broods overlap so that all stages may be found. The insect probably hibernates in the lar- val forms and pupate early in the spring, giving rise to the adults. These bring forth young larvae, which become de- structive early in the summer. CLOVER AND ALFALFA PESTS 823 Food Plants The larvae feed entirely upon the roots of plants. Undoubtedly a great variety are attacked. Serious damage has been reported, due to its ravages in alfalfa and clover fields. Control The greatest amount of damage is us- ually done in fields which have long been seeded to alfalfa or clover, where the breeding has not been disturbed. Plow- ing and thorough cultivation will destroy most of the larvae, which are either crushed or die for lack of sufficient mois- ture. The females being wingless are unable to migrate sufficiently to cause serious damage in one year. A cultivated crop once in two or three years as a ro- tation with clover or alfalfa is recom- mended when the destructiveness of the pest warrants strict remedial measures. Natural Enemies Carnes and Newcomer report a tachinid fly as parasitic upon the larvae. E. O. EssiG Alfalfa Looper Autographa gamma calif ornica Speyer (Family Noctuidae) general Appearance The adult moths have a wing expanse of about one and one-fourth inches with the body a little over one-half an inch long. The fore wings are light bluish- gray with rose or rust-colored and light markings, a very distinctive feature of which is one shaped like the Greek letter gamma near the middle. The hind wings and body are dull gray. The eggs are hemispherical and pale yellow. The young caterpillars are light green while the fully developed forms are dark olive-green; head light green; three dark longitudinal lines on the body; a dark spot back of the eye. There are three pairs of well-developed front legs, two pairs of abdominal legs just back of the middle, and one pair at the extreme pos- terior end. When full grown the larvae attain a length of about one inch. The cocoon is loosely spun of white silk; the chrysalis being brownish black in color, or paler. Life History According to J. A. Hyslop, of the United States Department of Agriculture, this in- sect passes the winter in the pupal and adult stages, the moths appearing early in the spring and are especially active, laying eggs in May and June in the alfal- fa fields. The young larvae or loopers are plentiful in June, feeding upon the leaves of the plants. In about two weeks they are full-grown and spin a loose white cocoon among the leaves, in which to pu- pate. After twelve days the adult moths emerge. The entire life cycle requires about a month. There are two generations a year — the second broods coming on in July. Food Plants The larvae are very destructive to al- falfa, working upon the leaves and blos- soms. They also feed upon clover, garden peas, cabbage, barley, elder, dock and wild malva. Natural Enemies As very well shown by Mr. Hyslop, this insect is so held in check by natural enemies that artificial remedies are yet unnecessary. Internal hymenopterous parasites and tachinid flies are respon- sible for the good work. In the state of Washington five of the former and two of the latter have been recorded. Alfalfa Weevil Phytonomus posticus This threatening pest belongs to the snout beetle family. Its native home seems to have been the shores of the Mediterranean sea. It appeared first in this country in Utah, about 1904. It hadf spread by 1914 to the greater part of the alfalfa district of Utah, to several counties in the southwestern part of Ida- ho and several points in Wyoming. It feeds upon other legumes besides al- falfa but does its greatest damage there. life History The eggs are laid in April, May and June, two to thirty in number in one place in the stems of the alfalfa in feed- ing punctures. Females, under favorable conditions, lay several hundred eggs dur- ing the egg laying period. The eggs hatch 824 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE in 10 to 12 days and the larvae begin feeding in the tender stems. After a few days they emerge and find a leaf bud which they enter and feed in conceal- ment. The larva passes through its three moults In three to seven weeks, pupates and emerges in about nine days there- after. The adult is less than one-quarter of an inch long and covered with short, dark brown hairs mixed with gray and black. They do great damage to the stems and leaves of the alfalfa. With a few ex- ceptions they do not reproduce until the following spring, overwintering in the crowns of the alfalfa and in trash about the fields. They spread mainly by flight, soon after emerging as adults, assisted by the winds. Also in freight cars, wagons, irrigating ditches, hay, etc. The state of California maintains a quarantine against both Idaho and Utah. Control Numerous methods have been tried for the control of the alfalfa weevil. The one that seems to be the most promising on a large scale is that of going over the field after each cutting with a spring-tooth harrow with a wire brush attached. This crushes a good many of the weevils and larvae and raises a dust which is dis- tasteful to them. It also forms a dust mulch helping to conserve moisture and stimulates the alfalfa to vigorous growth. The cost of this method is $2 to $5 per acre, according to Merrill. Eeferences Utah Experiment Station Bulletin 110. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 112, California Commission of Horticulture, I, Nos. 1 and 10. Beax Tiirips. See under Bean. CIOYer or Almond Mite BryoMa pratensis Garman General Appearance The young mites are red, becoming brown when fully developed. Though very much smaller than a pinhead this species is much larger than any of the common destructive mites in this state. The eggs are very minute^ so small as to be scarce- ly visible to the naked eye; globular and red. Life History The eggs deposited in the fall hatch with the first warm spring weather and the mites at once begin to work. Their development is very rapid and reproduc- tion exceedingly great, so by summer there are often sufficient numbers to do great damage. Breeding and work con- tinue until fall, when the eggs are laid and operations suspended until these hatch in the spring. Food Plants This mite is an omnivoi'ous feeder and may be found upon a great variety of plants. Peas, clover and alfalfa are se- verely attacked, while they also feed up- on grass, grains and buckwheat. Peach, apple, plum, apricot, prune, cherry, al- mond and quince trees are also among the food plants. Control For this pest Mr. W. H. Volck especi- ally recommends the following formula: Water, 100 gallons; flour paste, 4 gallons; lime-sulphur solution, 5 quarts; iron sul- phate, 2 pounds. The flour paste and lime sulphur are thoroughly mixed in the spray tank after which the iron sulphate is added and all thoroughly agitated. Hatnral Enemies The larvae of the minute black lady- bird beetles {Stethorus vagans Blackb. and Stetnorus picipes Casey) and the green lacewing (Olirysopa caHformca Coq.) prey upon the clover mite but they do not appear to be important factors in keeping it down. E. 0. B&siG GKASSHOPPEBS Talley Orasshopper (Eclaleonotus enigma Scudd (xeueral Appearance One of the smaller species, the adults being about one-fourth of an inch long. The general color is rich amber with red- dish hue around the eyes. The dorsum and carinae of the thorax are dark. The tegmina are mottled with black and dusky spots. The antennae and first two pairs of legs are concolorous with the body, while the femora of the hind legs are richly marked with black and the CLOVER AND ALFALFA PESTS 825 tibiae are pale blue. The young are near- ly of the same general color, with the dark markings less pronounced. Life History The holes in which the eggs are laid are usually drilled in hard or compact soil. The eggs are laid regularly and hori- zontally and cemented together, as well as being surrounded with a liquid cement which renders the mass waterproof. The young hatch the following spring, as soon as it becomes warm and they begin to reach maturity early in June. Pairing .begins soon after and eggs are deposited from August to October. There are two forms of the adults, characterized by long and short wings. The species is very pro- lific and does much damage. It is only occasionally migratory. Fij ESSIS 1. The Valley Grasshopper (Oedaleonotus enif/ma Scudd). (Original.) Food Plants All forms of vegetation, including the foliage of orchards and vineyards, uncul- tivated field crops, such as alfalfa, clover, grain, etc., and cultivated crops, such as vegetables, corn, potatoes, etc., are at- tacked. Differential Grassliopper MeJanoplus differ entialis Thomas General Appearance This is one of the larger hoppers, aver- aging one and five-eighths inches from front to the tip of the tegmina or wing covers. A very beautifully colored insect when fully matured. The head, thorax, abdomen and first two pairs of legs are amber or rich brown, the sutures being dark. The wing covers are brownish gray — the true wings being transparent. The hind femora are yellow with black cross lines, while the tibiae and tarsi are bright red, the former with black spots near the outer base. The spines and claws are black. The antennae are red- dish with dusky tips. The nymphs are green. Life History Egg-laying begins about the middle of the summer. The holes for the eggs are drilled into the soil in bare and vacant places, especially in alfalfa fields. From 60 to 80 eggs are laid by each fe- male. They are protected from winter rains and freezes by an excretion of the female which makes the capsule contain- ing them waterproof. Thjey begin to hatch in the warmer spring months, ap- pearing early in June and keep up their destructive work until August. The young green hoppers, as they mature, acquire wings and assume a yellowish tint, thus causing the belief that there are two dis- tinct species. The largest brood appears early in the summer, and the greatest amount of damage is done by the first of August. Fig. 1. The Differential GrasshopDer (Melano- phis differentialis Thomas. (Original.) Food Plants Practically all kinds of green vegeta- tion, including most of the forage and truck crops. Especially destructive to al- falfa. Orchard trees and vineyards are also attacked, some trees and vines being completely defoliated and many killed. Hopper Dozer The use of the hopper dozer has be- come an important factor in the control of grasshoppers, especially in grain and hay fields, in pastures and even in culti- vated crops. The hopper dozer is con- structed as shown in Fig. 1. The back and sides are made of thin sheet iron or cloth and the pan at the bottom con- structed to hold about two inches of kero- sene. These dozers may be made any length but a two-horse size is the most 826 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE practicable. They are simply drawn across the fields and capture the hoppers as the latter endeavor to escape their approach. Though the hoppers may escape from the kerosene bath they are doomed. z .iiii'JfMfi -TMnr- ■SBBL W H» I Fig. 1. ^ff>t r ZDo * t r- Plan of a Very Good Hopper Dozer. — Alter Lidahn-i The best time of operation is on warm days if possible, early in the season be- fore the hoppers have acquired wings. A brief description of some of the most common and destructive California spe- cies follows. E. 0. EssiG Grape Leaf Hopper. See under Grape. Zebra Caterpillar Mamestra picta Harris The zebra caterpillar often attracts at- tention by appearing in considerable num- bers in the early fall on alfalfa. Comstock * describes the caterpillar as of a light yellow color with three broad longitudinal black stripes, one on each side and the third on the top of the back. These stripes on the sides are broken by numerous pure white lines. The pupa is of a brownish color. The adult moth has dark chestnut brown forewings and pale yellow hindwings. The eggs of this caterpillar are depos- ited on the alfalfa leaves and hatch in a few days. The young larvae eat the epi- dermis of the leaves, which soon appear whitish from their attack. They web the tops of the stalks of alfalfa together. One may go through an alfalfa field and notice here and there plants of which the tops are webbed together and the leaves present a whitish and dead appearance. In the young stages the larvae work in colonies, and only on the upper and con- sequently more tender portions of the alfalfa plant. I have seen as many as 50 small larvae on one leaf and several hundred on the entire plant. As they be- come larger they will scatter to adjoining * Manual for Study of Insects, page 303. plants, eating the leaves as they go. Often at a radius of several feet from the orig- inally infested plant the larvae may be found working on the leaves. Prom September to October the cater- pillars on becoming full grown enter the soil to pupate. The winter is passed in this stage, the moths appearing in the spring. There are probably several gen- erations, but the last generation in the fall is the one in which the larvae are numerous enough to attract attention. At present the best method for the con- trol of this pest on alfalfa is to go through a field picking and destroying infested tops, which are conspicuous be- cause of their whitish color, when the larvae are in the young stages and con- sequently massed on one or two stalks. If the fields are pastured at this time of the year very little damage will result from this insect's attack. This insect occurs in the Atlantic states, Colorado, Utah and California. Besides alfalfa, it attacks cabbage, cel- ery, beets and other garden vegetables. E. J. VOSLER, Cal. Com. Hort IT, 11. Cocoanut Palm The cocoanut palm grows in the tropics along the seashore in rich sandy soil. It is native to the islands of the Indian ocean and is now widely distrib- uted throughout the tropical countries of the world. The only part of the United States where it grows in any considerable quantities is in the southern part of Florida, but even here it does not suc- ceed so well as farther south, showing that it must live in a climate practically free from frost. Geological specimens have been discov- ered in Central and South America, show- ing that it once had a much wider dis- tribution than at present In the tropical islands it has been discovered to be one of the first trees to find a foothold upon the newly formed soil. It is a luxurious grower, often reaching a height of more than 100 feet with leaves from 10 to 20 feet in length. At the bases of the leaves appear large yellow or white flow- COCOANUT PALM-~COLA NUT— COLORADO 827 ers followed by large, liard-slielled nuts. The tree usually begins to bear at the age, or about the age of ten years, and con- tinues fruitful for more than half a cen- tury. It flourishes best in lands near the coast that are so sandy and shelly that little else will grow. The cocoanut is propagated wholly from seeds, which when planted in the nursery, and grown for commercial pur- poses, are planted in rows, and when the plants are large enough, are transplanted into the orchard and set about 20 to 30 feet apart. For a few years, they are given clean cultivation, and then allowed to shift for themselves because they grow in soil not adapted to other vegetable growths. The cocoanut palm is one of the most important nut trees of the world. Its fruits are used in many ways in the tropical countries, either cooked, raw, ripe or unripe. Large quantities are ex- ported to temperate climates, where it is used by confectioners for the making of candies, cakes and bread. The oil is used in making candles, soap and for cooking. The central parts of the stems of the young plant and the tei-minal buds of the old plant are often used as vegetable food or salad. The dried leaves are used for thatching and there is a sap drawn from the young spathes, out of which a pleas- ant drink is made. The lower wood of the old trunk is used in cabinet making, the fiber is sometimes used for cordage, while the shell is used for drinking cups, bowls, bottles and sometimes polished for ornamental purposes Perhaps there is no fruit more profitable, in proportion to the amount of labor expended in its pro- duction, than the cocoanut. Granville Lowthee Cola Nut A small tree, growing to the height of 20 or 40 feet, native to the west coast of Africa and about 500 miles into the in- terior between Sierra Leone and Lower Guinea. The tree has become naturalized in the West Indies and Brazil. There are about 14 species of trees, and the fruit, or nut, is supposed to possess a stimulat- ing power as well as nutritive value that sustains the natives in great feats of endurance. It bears a profusion of purplish flowers, from which grow a brownish yellow fruit, which encloses a nut of red and white seeds. In its tenth year, the tree reaches its maturity, so that it bears more pro- fusely than at any other period. The seeds ripen in October or November and will yield as much as 125 pounds per tree. The extract of the nut is believed to possess medicinal qualities and has re- cently come into use in many parts of the world as a beverage. Granville Lowthee Colorado Colorado gets its name from the Colo- rado river, a name meaning "red or red- dish." It is 380 miles from east to west, and 275 miles from north to south, mak- ing a land area of 103,645 square miles or 66,332,800 acres. Colorado includes an important part of the Rocky mountain range, which is the natural divide between the drainage sys- tems of the Middle states, and the Pacific coast states. Much of it is rough and fit only for mining and grazing, which industries yield its principal wealth. It contains more land at higher altitude than any other ^tate in the Union. About three-sevenths of the state is an elevated plateau, rising gradually from east to west, until it reaches the vicinity of Den- ver. East of this its water drains through the South Platte and Arkansas Rivers into the Missouri and Mississippi and into the Gulf of Mexico. Westward its waters drain through the Colorado river into the Gulf of California. The eastern one-third of the state is part of that great plain called the Mississippi valley, the western portion of which a generation or two ago, was considered a part of the "Great Amer- ican Desert," but which is now being rapidly brought under profitable cultiva- tion. In the mountainous portions are nar- row valleys of alluvial soil, washed from the mountain sides, some of them rich 828 JENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE and well adapted to farming and grazing. The orchards are almost always in the valleys, for several reasons. First, the elevation is too gi'eat, and the climate too severe, in the higher lands, for the growing of fruits. Second, generally irri- gation is required for the growing of truits, and irrigation is not possible on the high plateaus. Third, orchards need to be sheltered from the winds and for that reason need a cove, valley or pro- tected place. From her many peaks and high mountain ranges, the highest por- tions of which are always covered with snow, hundreds of streams are fed, from which water can be diverted for irriga- tion, and thus some of the valleys are becoming sources of plenty. Fruit growing is the leading industry, in the counties of Delta, Mesa and Mont- rose, along the Grand river. It is here that the famous Grand Junction district is situated. On the Arkansas river, the principal fruit section is around Canyon City, although considerable fruit is grown farther dow^n the river near Pueblo and farther east. Canyon City is famous for its cantaloupes, as also is the Rocky Ford district which has given its name to the netted gem variety of cantaloup. Prof. B. R. Bennett, of the Colorado Agricultural college, thinks that fruit growing in mountain districts Is in a class by itself. He thinks that the Rocky mountain district differs from any of the other four great districts of North Amer- ica. The districts here referred to are doubtless the Pacific coast states, the Alleghany mountain region, the Ozark mountain region and the region of the Great Lakes. He has the following in substance to say in regard to the differ- ences. "The difference is primarily due to altitude. Plant tissue in the high altitudes is characterized by a delicacy of cell structure which, noticably in forest trees, makes them brittle. Such trees for instance as the elm, ash and maple which easily withstand the heavy ice storms of the East, are frequently broken in Coloi-ado by storms less severe. This is manifest in fruit in a finer texture so that apples, naturally tough in character, are better when growm in the Rocky mountain district than when grown in lower altitudes. Another fact, that may be either good or bad, is that high alti- tudes tend to make flavor less prominent. For this reason, the Baldwin and Green- ing ai'e desirable varieties when grown in New England, but are too insipid when grown in Colorado. On the other hand, the Jonathan grown in the high altitudes is just suflSciently toned down to give it a desirable flavor, without that acrid taste which characterizes it when grown in the East. Another feature of the orchard industry in Colorado (and in all the Pacific coast states as well) is the early bearing habit of the trees. In the East it is not expected that an orchard will bear to any considerable extent until it is from 8 to 15 years old, while the Colorado orchards will make a much more rapid growth and bear at half that age. "The apple is the most important fruit of the Rocky mountain district. The number of bearing trees in Colorado is over 2,750,000. In 1910 there were of all kinds of fruit trees set 1,873,870. In 1911 it is estimated there were about two mil- lions. It is difficult to estimate the value of orchards in the Rocky mountain dis- trict as these vary considerably with the different places in which they are grown. Some are located in small valleys more or less distant from railroads, and where the lands are not well advertised. In such places bearing orchards would sell for $200 to $500 per acre. In other places, where the orchard areas are larger, the transportation facilities better, and where more advertising has been done, orchards will sell from $700 to $2,000 per acre. The yield per acre for bearing trees is from 150 to 500 boxes; perhaps an average of 250 boxes per acre would be a fair esti- mate. The net income per acre will prob- ably be all the way from $100 to $200. "The apple-growing industry in Colo- rado is rapidly increasing because of the average high market price received for Colorado apples. Apples sell in the mar- kets of the East at a higher price than from any other district except those of the Northwest, so that the proposition COLORADO 829 from the standpoint of the grower is one of high-class fruit. Colorado orchardists do not claim that fruit can be grown cheaper in the Rocky mountain district than in the East, or that cheap grades of fruit are profitable in this district. The aim of the orchardist is to grow fruit that will sell in the best markets rather than fruit for the low class trade of the country. "Prom the standpoint of soils it would be hard to say what would be considered a typical Coloi-ado soil. Orchards are successfully grown on soils all the way from heavy, adobe bottom lands to the lightest sand and gravel soils of the higher mesas. The essential thing is suf- ficient fertility and water enough to en- able the trees to develop the fruit in the best manner. ''The most important fruit for the Rocky mountain district aside from the apple is the peach. Peach growing in the state is largely limited to the protected valleys where the air drainage is such as to give a minimum of losses from late spring frosts and extremes of cold in winter. Palisades in the valley of the Grand, Paonia in the North Fork valley, and a few other districts comprise the larger part of the peach territory of the state. These lands that are particularly well adapted to peach growing have become world famous for their great returns from peaches. A thousand dollars per acre was once not an uncommon return from peaches, and peach orchards have been sold as high as $4,500 per acre. "The pear is still more localized in its production owing largely to the ravages of the pear blight which has made pear growing a precarious business in some districts. Districts that are well adapted to pear growing and are not seriously troubled from this disease, have made big returns from the industry. The pear, however, is not increasing in production in this state to any such extent as are many of the other fruits. "Not the least important of the fruit products of Colorado is the cherry. The cherry is adapted to a greater variety of soils and conditions in Colorado than any of the other fruits except possibly the apple, and in fact the cherry will grow without irrigation in many districts where the apple is not particularly success- ful. In the west slope districts as in the valleys of the Grand, Uncompahgre, North Pork, Animas and in Montezuma county, the sweet cherry is grown possibly more extensively than the sour. On the east side of the mountains the sour cherry pre- dominates. Of the sweet cherries, the Royal Ann (Napoleon), May Duke, Royal Duke and Bing are more largely grown. Of the sour cherries the Montmorency, Morello or Wragg are the leading vari- eties. The sweet cherry is largely mar- keted fresh in boxes. Some of the sour cherries are utilized in the same way, al- though there is a growing tendency to- wards canning the product at canneries near the orchards. The cherry will make a gross return of from |200 to $400 per acre, and is one of our most dependable fruits as fewer failures come in cherry growing than with most other fruits." Glrand Valley The Grand valley is situated on the western slope of the Rocky mountains, in Mesa county, and extends westward to the Utah line. It has an altitude of about 4,600 feet, is about 40 miles long, and 6 to 10 miles wide. It contains approxi- mately 150,000 acres of land, capable of irrigation, some of which is already un- der water and planted to orchards, while about 60,000 acres will come under the Government irrigation project now in the process of construction. The principal crops are apples and peaches. Of the va- rieties of apples best adapted, the Jona- than is the favorite. Here the soil and climatic conditions seem favorable for its growth and a high state of perfection is reached. Granville Lowthee Grand Junction Weather for the Past Sixteen Years Temperature The mean annual temperature is 52.6 degrees. The -highest annual mean was 54.5 degrees in 1900, the lowest 50.1 de- grees in 1903. The highest temperature ever recorded was 104 degrees on June 830 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE 23, 1900, the lowest —16 degrees on Jan- uary 26, 1898 ; other low temperatures were —15, degrees, February 7, 1903; —14 de- grees, February 14, 1905, and —12 de- grees, February 6, 1899. Tlie coldest month was February, 1903, with a mean temperature of 15.2 degrees, the warmest was July, 1901, with a mean of 82.0 de- grees. In February, 1903, there were 14 days on which the temperature was below zero. In July, 1901, there were 12 days with temperature 100 degrees or more, and the temperature exceeded 90 degrees on every day of that month. Precipitation The mean annual precipitation is 8.22 Inches. The greatest annual fall was 11.61 inches in 1906, the least, 3.64 inches, in 1900; other heavy falls were, 11.25 inches in 1897, 10.87 inches in 1899, 10.85 inches in 1895, and 10.25 inches in 1905. The greatest monthly fall was 3.76 inches in September, 1896, and the least, none, in September, 1892, and November, 1904. The greatest fall ever recorded in any 24 consecutive hours was 2.16 inches on Sep- tember 22-23, 1896. The average annual snowfall is 19.0 inches. The greatest an- nual amount was 35.9 inches in 1905, the least, 1.2 inches in 1900. Wind The average hourly wind velocity is 5.1 miles per hour. The prevailing directions are S.E. and N.W. The highest velocities recorded were 41 miles per hour from the N.W. on February 1%, 1900, and 41 miles from the S.W. on April 1, 1903. The winds are generally E. to S.E., from mid- night to noon, and W. to N.W. from noon to midnight. Sunshine and Cloudiness The sunshine has averaged 70 per cent of the possible amount. The month of greatest sunshine is July; of least, Jan- uary. The average of clear days is 193; partly cloudy days, 102; cloudy days, 70. The average number of days with fog is 1; with hail, 2; with thunderstorms, 35; with .01 inch or more precipitation, 57; with .04 or more precipitation, 40. Compiled from U. S. Weather Bureau Records. Prost and Precipitation for Colorado Station Fort Collins Leroy Meeker Pagoda Silt Breckenridge Denver Cope Grand Junction. . Colorado Springs. Hamps Montrose .-.. Gunnison Salida Pueblo Las Animas Saganche Durango.. San Luis Hoehue Blaine Frost Average Date of First Kill- ing in Autumn Sept. 21 Sept. 26 Sept. 12 Sept. 8 Sept. 25 Oct. 4 Oct. 3 Oct. 29 Sept. 28 Sept. 21 Sept. 29 Last in Spring Date of Earliest Killing in Autumn May 13 May 5 June 7 June 10 May 18 Sept. 7 Oct. 15 Oct. 6 Sept. 17 Sept. 22 Sept. 11 Oct. 2 Oct. 6 May 7 Apr. 27 Apr. 11 May 1 May 16 May 10 Sept. 7 Sept, 12 Aug. 23 Aug. 20 Aug. 27 May 30 Apr. 28 May 2 May 24 May 13 June 9 May 10 May 13 Sept. 12 Sept. 11 Sept. 14 Sept. 12 Sept. 6 Sept. 8 Aug. 25 Sept. 12 Sept, 7 Sept. 10 Aug. 24 Aug. 25 Sept. 13 Sept. 7 Last in Spring June 5 May 26 July 4 July 19 June 6 June 6 May 22 Apr. 30 May 23 June 8 May 28 July 7 May 23 May 19 July 6 June 12 July 5 July 4 May 22 Precipitation Annual inches 15.0 15.0 19.7 XI .o 26.8 13.7 18.4 7.7 14.3 ^\z 8.9 9.7 11.6 l.l 15.9 1L9 13.0 15.3 COMPOSITION IRRIGATED AND NON-IRRIGATED FRUITS ooX Composition of Irrigated and Non-Irrigated Fruits J. S. Jones and C. "W. Colver in Idaho State Bulletin No. 75 report an analytical study of orchard and small fruits, with special reference to the effect of irri- gation on those compounds which ma- terially influence quality in fruit Al- though the attempt has been made to com- pare similar varieties of fruits growing hoth under irrigation and non-irrigation, data were secured with regard to as many varieties as possible whether grown under hoth conditions or not. The principal de- terminations made include total solids, acidity, invert and cane sugar, nitrogen, ash and waste. The leading commercial districts of Idaho were represented and all samples were grown at elevations less than 3,000 feet. The analyses are here grouped and discussed under the three di- visions of drupaceous, pomaceous and small fruits. Summarizing the results it appears that there is a fairly well-defined tendency for apricots, cherries, nectarines, peaches, plums and prunes to elaborate greater per- centages of solid matter when grown in the non-irrigated sections. With the ex- ception of Italian and Petite prunes, how- ever, such differences in sugar and acid are too small to seriously affect taste. There was a remarkable uniformity of composition within each of the several varieties of apples analyzed. The non- irrigated varieties contain slightly greater percentages of acid and sugar, but the dif- ferences practically disappear when these constituents are calculated to the dry or solid matter. Apples grown with irriga- tion contain the smaller percentage of solids insoluble in water, and the non- irrigated apples containing appreciably higher percentages of crude protein, and consequently may have a slightly higher actual food value. In intensity and uni- formity of color, also in percentage of waste, irrigated apples are somewhat su- perior to the non-irrigated. With the exception of strawberries there were but slight differences in percentage of solid matter and in the total sugar con- tent between the irrigated and non-irri- gated: small fruits. The non-irrigated small fruits, however, contain appreciably greater percentages of acid and of crude protein. From a survey of the analytical results as a whole the authors are led to conclude that fruits in general manifest a well-de- fined tendency to elaborate greater per- centages of total solids or dry matter, con- sequently of sugar, acid and crude protein when grown in non-irrigated sections, but that with comparatively few exceptions no marked difference between irrigated and non-irrigated fruits in actual food or mar- ket value should be charged to differences in composition. Cost of Haulixxg Fruits to Maeket. See under Marketing. Connecticut Connecticut has an area of 4,850 square miles. It may be divided into coast land, central low land, and eastern upland. The central lowland is in the valley of the Connecticut river and is a sandy loam well adapted to diversified agriculture. That which is true of the Connecticut river is also true of the bottoms along the other streams, except that the valley of the Connecticut is larger than any of the others. The soil in the upland is, for the most part, a heavy clay. There is a con- siderable difference in the periods of the ripening of fruits. In the bottoms the climate is warmer on account of the ra- diation of the heat and sunshine from the hillsides, and the soils are sandy and warm, and therefore, produce crops that mature and come into the markets before the fruits of the same varieties on the uplands are ready to pick. Apples grow anywhere in the state, but the hills and the uplands produce the best winter varieties because they have the best keeping qualities, and therefore bring the highest price in the market. The soil of the hills seems well adapted to the growing of the best varieties. Peach growing in Connecticut is proving to be an important industry. The only trouble seems to be on account of the danger of frosts that kill the buds in the 832 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE early spring. It is estimated that on tlie lowlands there will probably be a loss of two crops out of five, while on the hills there is less danger, and there will be a loss of one crop out of five, or one out of four, and there are a few favoi^ed spots where there is scarcely any danger from frosts. The peaches of Connecticut are of a very fine quality, well developed, finely colored, and bring good prices in the city markets. Grapes and pears are successfully grown in all parts of the state, and the small fruits do well. The only crop that seems not to succeed well is the cherry, of which it is estimated that there are scarcely enough grown to supply the home demand. GRAKVII.LE LOWTHER Co-opEEATi03s\ Fundamentals of. See Marketing. Corn This cereal is so common in the United States that it is scarcely necessary to de- vote space here to a description of its cul- tivation. For garden purposes there are three kinds in general use. The first is the common field corn, cooked when the ears are not yet mature but after the grain has formed and called "roasting ears." The second is "sweet corn," cooked in much the same way and used largely for canning- The third is "pop corn," which after ma- turity and being thoroughly dried, is heated to a temperature which will cause it to explode into white crisp grains. The field corn requires earlier planting than the other varieties because it is larger and it takes longer to bring it to maturity. Sweet corn may be planted as soon in the spring as the danger of frost is past, and then if there are successive plantings every two weeks, It may be gathered for use from July until late in the autumn. Pop corn is small and matures early. Plant the seed in hills about three feet apart each way. While corn will grow on almost any kind of soil, a deep rich soil is preferable. Granville Lowther Co\En Crops. See Apple Orchard, Cul- twatton of. Cow Peas. See Apple Orcliard Cover Crops. Crab Apples In speaking of crab apples, most old settlers think of the ''Native Wild Ap- ples" which grew in the forests of the Easteim states, or in strips of timber and clumps or groves in the prairie states and the Oregon ci'ab apple native to the Pa- cific coast. The native wild apples, Pyriis voronarm. were found by the early settlers in Can- ada and all the eastern and middle por- tions of the United States. The flowers are large showy, white or rose colored and delightfully fragrant. The fruit rip- ens late, is sour, almost bitter, and was used by the frontiersmen mostly for mak- ing preserves. In the prairie states, this species varied so that some have regarded it a separate species and have named it Pyrus iowensis. The fruit is small, meas- uring from less than an inch in diameter to two inches. Pyrus aiigusttfoUa is the native crab of the Southern states; is much like Pyrus coronaria, and need not be further de- scribed. Pyrus nvularis, the Oregon crab apple, has rather small white flowers and the calyx lobes become deciduous from the mature fruits. The fruit is about three- fourths of an inch long, oblong, yellowish or blushed, and lipens in autumn. It is used by the Indians but is not cultivated. Cnltiiated Hybrids There are four varieties of cultivated hybrids, generally called crabs. These are the Soulard, Howard, Mercer and Ken- tucky Mammoth. Common Crab Apple The crab apples which we cultivate for their fruit are for the most part hybrids between the apple, Pyrus mains, and the primitive Siberian crab, Pyrus 'baccata. The principal list of Siberian crab ap- ples and their hybrids are as follows: Bailey Crimson; fruit medium or large, skin yellow and shaded with a deep rich crimson. CRAB APPLES 833 Brier; tree vigorous and hardy, comes into bearing young, skin pale yellow, washed with a lively red. Cherry; fruit medium to large, skin pale yellow, nearly covered with bright red. Coral; fruit of good size, brilliant color, sprightly subacid in flavor, season October to February. The tree is a good bearer, and comes into bearing early. Currant; fruit small, borne in clusters, of no commercial value. Dartmouth; fruit large, brilliantly col- ored, good in flavor and quality. The tree is not a vigorous grower but comes into bearing early and yields full crops in al- ternate years. Excelsior; fruit very large, nearly as large as the medium sized apple; very at- tractive in appearance and excellent in quality for either dessert or culinary uses. Tree a good strong grower, hardy, healthy and comes into bearing early, yields crops on alternate years. Skin smooth, yellow, shaded and splashed with red. Florence; tree bears young, is a reliable cropper, prolific, fruit of good size, very attractive in appearance, of good quality, mostly overspread with a brilliant pinkish red. Gibb; fruit large, yellow blushed with dull red, highly esteemed for canning, season last half of September. Tree well adapted to northern sections, slow grower but very productive. Hyslop; fruit large, very brilliantly col- ored, dark red or purplish, overspread with thick blue bloom; borne in clusters. The tree is a good grower, very hardy, and a reliable cropper, heavy crops every second year, sometimes annually. Large Red Siberian; fruit of medium size for the Siberian, being larger than the Red Siberian, but smaller than the Transcendent or Hyslop. Tree is a vig- orous grower, hardy, healthy, and a heavy cropper, bears biennially, sometimes an- nually. Large Yellow Siberian; fruit large, clear pale yellow with a shade of red. Tree medium in size, moderately vigorous, very hardy, healthy, comes into bearing young, is very productive. Is generally superseded in the markets by the larger varieties. Marengo; very good variety for home use, where late keeping is required, but larger and more attractive varieties are generally preferred. Martha; fruit large, very handsome clear yellow, more or less overspread with a bright red; excellent in flavor and qual- ity. Tree medium size, very hardy, comes into bearing young, yields good crops an- nually. Season from September to late fall. Minnesota; fruit very large for its class, skin pale yellow blushed or mottled on the sunny side, flesh white, firm, crisp, season from September to October. Montreal Beauty; a very beautiful fruit, tree less hardy than the Transcend- ent, does not come into bearing early, but bears heavily. Fruit large, for its class, yellowish green mostly covered with red. Oblong; fruit medium size, medium all around and not generally recommended. Orange; regarded by some as a desir- able variety for both home use and mar- ket, but no distinctive characteristics that make it particularly desirable. Paul Imperial; fruit small to medium, somewhat irregular in shape, of very good appearance but less attractive in size and color than the Hyslop, and inferior to the Martha in quality. Tree below medium in size, comes into bearing young and is an annual cropper. Picta Striata; fruit handsome, rather mild in flavor, but is hardly large enough for a good commercial variety. Quaker; a late ripening variety only fair in quality, size medium to large; color yellow with red cheek, tree hand- some but not very productive. Queen Choice ; fruit medium or above in size, of a beautiful crimson color, showy and attractive, tree vigorous, very prolific. Red Siberian; fruit small, decidedly or- namental, borne in clusters. Skin smooth, pale yellow, striped and blushed with a lively red overspread with a bluish bloom. September; a very handsome fruit of good quality; ripens a few days later than the Transcendent, in September. Tree a 2—12 834 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE good grower, comes into bearing young and yields good crops biennially. Soulard; is regarded as a hybrid be- tween the common wild prairie crab and the common apple. It originated on a farm near St. Louis, Mo. It is large, of good quality, and one of the most desir- able of all varieties produced in the United States. It is good when baked, makes excellent jams, jellies and pre- serves, hangs on the tree until late frost and will keep in common storage for a year. Tree perfectly hardy. It seems not adapted to the Northeastern states, and in some other portions of the United States has not been sufficiently tested. Transcendent; a beautiful fruit and one of the most popular. Tree a good grower, hardy, very prolific, fruit medium to large, clear bright yellow with red cheeks; sea- son late in August to middle of Septem- ber. Van Wyck; a sweet crab apple, fruit large for a Siberian crab, whitish, shaded with bright red covered with bloom; in- clines to watercore; season from August to September. Whitney; one of the most popular of the large crab apples, especially in the West and North. Tree is thrifty, upright grower, comes into bearing young and is very productive. Season, August and Sep- tember. Yellow Siberian; is sometimes called the Golden Beauty. It is similar to the Red Siberian, except for size it is larger, and in color it is a clear golden yellow. Under certain circum- stances it suffers from blight. It comes into bearing young, is a vigorous grower and a heavy annual cropper. For further information as to the cul- ture and the adaptation of crab apples to special locations, see Apfle. Granville Lowther Crabs, American. See Apple, History of. Crab Apples, Grade Rules fob. See under Apple Packing. Crabs, European. See Apple, History of. Crabs, Native, Future of. See Apple, History of. Crab, Soulard. See Apple, History of. Crabs, Wild. See Apple, History of. Crabs, Smooth, Wild. See Apple, Bot- any of. Crabs, Hairy, Wild. See Apple, Bot- any of. Cranberry There are two species of cranberry; one is known as the Little Cranberry, Vacci- nitim oxycoccus, and the other as the Large American Cranberry, Yacinium ma- cro carp on. The American cranberry grows wild along the Atlantic coast from Maine to New Jersey, and in small areas along the Allegheny mountain range from Southern Pennsylvania to North Carolina. It grows also in some of the Middle states like Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The number of acres planted to cran- berries according to the census reports of 1910 are as follows: Connecticut, 275; Illinois, 1; Indiana, 70; Iowa, 1; Kansas, 1; Maine, 90; Massachusetts, 5,128; Mich- igan, 150; Minnesota, 22; Nebraska, 1; New Hampshire, 23; New Jersey, 8,356; New York, 113; Oregon, 6; Rhode Island, 300; South Dakota, 1; Washington, 5; Wisconsin, 5,821. One of the most surprising things in the study of cranberry culture is the av- erage number of bushels per acre in the sections where the fruit is grown for com- mercial purposes. The lowest average per acre is in Maine, where it is 17 bushels. The highest average per acre is Oregon where it is 119 bushels per acre. Next to Oregon is Massachusetts giving an aver- age yield of 117 bushels per acre and next to Massachusetts, New York with 96 bush- els per acre. The average for the cran- berry producing states is within a frac- tion of 47 bushels per acre. It would ap- pear therefore that the states producing above this average would make the in- dustry profitable, and that Oregon and Massachusetts should make it very profit- able. Structurally the cranberry is allied to the blueberry or huckleberry; but botan- ically it is classed as a distinct species. Soils Best Adapted It is necessary to success in cranberry culture that the soil should be very rich CRANBERRY 835 in humus, boggy and mixed with sand. The water should he within a few inches of the surface, and during the growing season, the whole area should be flooded as in the growing of rice in the South. The cranberry is not, however, a Southern plant but grows either in the northern lat- itudes or the high altitudes which make the climate equivalent to a northern lati- tude. On account of the necessity of maintaining a water level, land should be chosen that has a substratum of hard pan, impervious clay, or something that holds the water, so that while the plants are growing the water may be held from six to ten inches below the surface, and when they are fruiting the water should be held at from one to two feet deep below the surface. On this account, the land should be level, or it cannot be uniformly covered to a sufficient depth. In order to do this, it is better to make a small embankment around the tract to be irrigated. These embankments need not be more than about three feet in height, and if the land is sufficiently leveled, they will hold the water to any depth needed in the growing of the fruits. Grading The work of grading the land should be done with a good deal of care, destroy- ing all roots of plants, shrubs, and what- ever may obstruct the growth of the fruit. The land should be then carefully smoothed down to a level and sanded. The sanding is a process that may require much labor, depending on the distance sand must be hauled. The sand should be scattered over the land to a depth of about four inches. Propagation The propagation of the cranberry for commercial purposes is by means of cut- tings, but for the production of new va- rieties seeds are planted as in most other kinds of fruit. The cuttings are planted as early in the spring as possible and the land kept sufficiently flooded to pro- tect the plants from frost Methods of cranberry culture differ in different localities. L. C. Corbett, Horti- culturist for the Department of Agricul- ture, conducted an investigation some years ago into this subject and the results are in part embodied in what follows. Cuttings * New cranberry meadows are almost always established by planting cuttings. The sanded surface of the area to be planted serves as the propagating bed for the cuttings as well as the home for the established plants. The cuttings consist usually of portions of shoots of the vari- ety to be grown, 10 to 15 inches long. The common practice is to secure the cuttings from vigorous plants by mowing a portion of the meadow with a mowing scythe. The portions of the vines thus secured are then transported to the area to be planted and separated into wisps containing from 8 to 15 separate stems. The wisps are placed at the intersection of marks made to indicate the interval between the plants, usually 18 by 18 or 9 by 18 inches. The cuttings are then forced into the sand with a broad, thin, wedge-shaped dibble. The blade of the dibble is placed midway of the wisp of cuttings, so that the pres- sure exerted upon the cuttings doubles them upon themselves and at the same time presses them firmly in the soil. While the above statement explains the usual method of propagating the cran- berry, new meadows have been established by running the cuttings through an or- dinary hay or straw cutter, thus reducing them to fragments about one inch long. By sowing these fragments in rows or broadcasting them upon the surface, a stand of plants may be secured. Cuttings of the cranberry intended for shipment should be loosely packed in well venti- lated barrels, baskets, or crates. More in- jury results from the heating of the plants in closely packed, unventilated recep- tacles than from drying in well ventilated ones. Harvesting In early days of cranberry culture har- vesting was necessarily done by hand. As the industry expanded, the increased de- mand for pickers rendered it necessary ♦Farmers' Bulletin No. 17G 836 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE that in order to hold the cost of produc- tion within reasonable bounds some me- chanical device be found which would lessen the cost of harvesting by increasing the quantity an individual is able to pick. This demand has been met by cranberry rakes, which effect a decided saving of time and expense, as one person can gath- er 75 to 80 measures of six quarts each in a day, while a hand picker can not gather more than one-half of that quan- tity. There is considerable prejudice among growers against the use of these harvesting devices because of some real or imagined injury to the bogs. This prejudice, however, seems to be disap- pearing; at least the use of the harvesters is each year becoming more general. Harvesting is paid for, as a rule, by the measure. Each person is furnished with a rake and with pails or boxes in which to place the berries as picked. The meadow is then laid off in sections or strips by stretching lines across it. Each picker is assigned to a division. By this arrangement each one gets his share both of heavily and sparsely fruited plants, and the grower is certain of getting the prod- uct from all parts of the meadow. This has not been as satisfactorily accom- plished in any other way. After being picked the fruit is carried to storehouses, where it is allowed to remain, until as- sorted, in the trays in which it was placed at picking time. The trays are of various dimensions to suit the fancy of the grow- er, but most of them hold about three measures (18 quarts) of fruit each. Assorting As the berries come from the field there are many broken branches, leaves and de- fective fruits among them. To remove the leaves and branches, various cleaning devices similar to the fanning mills used for cleaning grain have been invented. After having been winnowed m this fash- ion the fruit is spread upon assorting racks. Operators sitting upon either side of this device look over the berries in much the same manner as beans are looked over in hand picking. Prom the assorting table the berries go into barrels, a few only being crated. Storing Cranberries as they come from the field are immediately placed in storage build- ings upon the plantation. It is the pre- vailing practice to hold the fruit in the storage houses at the bogs until the mar- ket is ready, which is from six weeks to three months after harvest. No artificial cold is needed in the storage houses. The only precaution necessary is to prevent the fruit from freezing, which frequently requii^es the use of a little heat in the storage house. In early times it was thought necessary to pack the berries in casks and cover them with water in order to preserve them for any length of time, but this idea has been abandoned, and the fruit is for the most part stored in small open boxes. Marketing The fruit, as cleaned, assorted, and bar- reled, usually in ventilated barrels, is put on the market. The barrels are similar to those used for packing apples for the domestic market, and are practically of the same size. In the retail stores cran- berries are more often found in bushel crates than in barrels. The crating of the fruit is done by the middlemen, who act as distributmg agents, rather than by the producers. The dealers prefer that the growers pack the product in barrels. jt rices By an examination of the price lists of the New York market from 1870 to 1902, it is found that the prices of cranberries have varied widely in that time. The low- est ranges of prices quoted were in April, 1879, when the berries sold at $3.50 to $4 a barrel; November, 1899, $4 to $7,50; April, 1889, $3.50 to $5.50; November, 1896, and January, 1897, $5 to $5.50; April, 1897, $3.50 to $5; and November, 1901, $6 to $7. The highest prices noted were $15 to $16 a barrel in April, 1874; $14 to $15 in April, 1876; $13 to $13.50 in January, 1884; $13 to $14 in March, 1895; and $10 to $12 in January, 1903. No prices are ac- cessible for 1880, 1881, 1882, 1884, 1885, 1887, and 1888. The usual price has been from $7 to $10 a barrel. CRANBERRY 8S7 Tarieties Selection for Planting The kinds of cranberries vary as greatly in productiveness and habits of growth as do apples or peaches. As a result of this variation, many of the early planted bogs were not profitable, and had to be torn out and planted with a variety of greater com- mercial value. As with apples, those sorts which are largest and command highest prices upon the market are frequently shy bearers, and are only grown in lim- ited areas to satisfy the fads of special markets. The question of the varieties best suited to any given section is one of a local nature, and must be determined by trial. In sections yet to be developed it may be found that the climate and soil conditions are particularly well suited to sorts that are shy bearers In the Cape Cod region, or the opposite may be true. For that reason those contemplating tak- ing up this industry in a new section will do well to secure a number of different varieties of good repute from the various cranberry districts, rather than to place entire dependence either upon native stock or even the best sort from any other region. The history of the development of regions growing other standard fruits in- dicates that varieties are local. CRA3VBEBRY CULTURE IIV THE PACIFIC IVORTHWEST C. N. Bennett Clatsop Cranberry Bof?s. July, 1913. Greneral Description Cranberry culture was established in Massachusetts about 1810; in New Jersey about 1850 and in Wisconsin about 1880, although the berries were gathered for commercial purposes from the wild vines many years before these dates. While these three states produce practically all the cultivated cranberries, they are grown in about one-third of the states. The United States is the only country where they are grown commercially. In the Pacific Northwest the industry is comparatively new, but is by no means an experiment as bogs were established both in Pacific county, Washington, and Coos county, Oregon, about 1890, and at present they are grown commercially from Coos bay, Oregon, to Puget Sound, Washington. There are probably not over 100 acres of bearing bogs along the Pacific coast, and the greater part of these have been neglected and are in poor condition, but there are a few bogs, where the owners understand and care for the bogs prop- erly, that are producing good crops. Within recent years interest has revived and bogs are now being scientifically con- structed and superintended by practical and experienced men and within the next few years the cranberry industry on the Pacific coast promises to be of consider- able importance. There are probably in the neighborhood of 200 acres of new bogs which have been planted within the last two years, the greater part of which is in Pacific county, Washington, and Clatsop county, Oregon, although there are small bogs being planted all along the coast. Prom the best information obtainable it is probable that there is not over 2,500 acres of good cranberry land available in the Pacific Northwest, where all the es- sential conditions can be found and the bogs constructed at a reasonable expense. Requirements Cranberry culture has always proven very profitable when properly managed and where the essential natural conditions are suitable. Most all economic plants show a preference for certain soils and other natural conditions and the cran- berry is very exacting in this respect, but when once these conditions are assured there are few fruits that can be more easily and profitably grown. These con- ditions are well known and easily recog- nized by any one who will take sufficient interest to secure the literature of the subject and exercise moderately good judg- ment. Following are the principal re- quirements : Soil The soil should be an acid peat, free from silt or clay and also free from salt. This soil is found in fresh water marshes and is composed entirely of partly decayed vegetation. It should be at least two feet deep and is probably better if deeper. An 838 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE v^ indication that the soil is suitable is the occurrence of wild cranberries. Topography Drainage and Climate The topography of the land should be such that the water can be thoroughly and easily controlled for irrigation, flood- ing and drainage. The land should be almost but not perfectly level in order that the bogs can be flooded and the water quickly drained off after flooding. It should have a drainage outlet with suf- ficient fall to thoroughly drain the land to a depth of at least four feet. . The land should be protected from high winds and storms and should have good air drainage, which will greatly aid in protecting the crops from frost. There are only certain climates in which cranberries will produce profitable returns. The occurrence of wild cran- berries is an indication that the climatic conditions are favorable. Sand Experience has shown that to secure the highest success and a clean lasting bog and particularly so on the Pacific coast, it is essential that there be an avail- able supply of coarse, clean sand free from silt clay, humus or vegetation or seeds. This sand retains the heat and moisture, prevents excessive weed growth, aids in frost prevention and in combina- tion with the peat forms an ideal soil for the plants. Water Without doubt the most important re- quirement for a profitable cranberry bog is the water supply. It is the means of insuring a profitable crop each year. It must be fresh water and there must be an abundant supply available at all times. It is used for the purpose of irrigating, flooding for frost protection, flooding for protection from insects and plant diseases and in some localities as protection from winter killing. The water supply may be secured either by gravity or by pumping. Where pumping is resorted to it is some- times possible to drain the bogs into the source of supply and thus use the same water over several times. Other requirements to be considered are accessibility and convenience to cities; transportation facilities, both railroad and highway; available labor supply; comfort- able and healthy living conditions; stor- age facilities and markets. Construction The success of a cranberry bog will de- pend largely on the manner in which it is constructed, for after a bog is once Fig. 1. Part of a Thirty-Acre Tract of O. B. Estes of Astoria, Oregon. In the foreground is the sand pit from which the bog was sanded and also the track and cars used in sanding. A large lake of about 300 acres is at the far end of the bog and is about six feet below the bog. It is intended to water from this lake for irrigation and flooding and to drain all the water back into the lake. CRANBERRY 839 planted, with proper care, it will last for a long time. Bogs are known to be 40 years old. In the last few years there have been many improvements in the methods of building the bogs. It has been proven that by using the best meth- ods the profits have been greatly in- creased. In Wisconsin on three classes of bogs, semi-wild, semi-clean and clean or of modern construction the average an- nual yields in barrels per acre were re- spectively 23, 46 and 94. The methods of construction will vary with the conditions. Clearing and Preparing the Surface A raw cranberry marsh is most al- ways covered with a growth of trees, brush, or wild grass, which will have to be cleared and removed either by hand or machinery, depending on the character and amount of clearing. After the land is cleared it is neces- sary to bring it to a uniform surface and to kill or destroy the surface vegetation. This is frequently done by scalping or re- moving from three to six or eight inches from the surface of the bog depending on the character of the vegetation. Scalp- ing is done by hand or by cutters or plows drawn by horses or engines. In some cases instead of removing the scalpings they are turned over and left on the bog. Another method is to plow and cultivate the land sufficiently to kill the undesir- able vegetation. The scalpings are re- moved from the bog by wheelbarrows or small cars. In some cases they can be piled and burned. After the bog is scalped it should be graded to a uniform surface. Sanding Care should be exercised in sanding the bog. The sand should be put on to a uniform depth of not less than three inches; some growers advise putting it on thicker in deep peat than in shallow peat. There are several methods used in sand- ing a bog. In some localities where the winters are severe the sand is hauled on to the bog with sleds and spread over the ice and when the ice melts the sand set- tles uniformly over the bog. Where the sand is located close to the bog it is fre- quently put on with wheelbarrows and often small cars are used with a portable track. Another method used and probably the cheapest where the conditions are favorable, is to pump the sand on with water and distribute it over the bog through wooden pipe. There is some ques- tion if the sand can be put on as clean by pumping as by putting it on dry. Ditches, Dams, Dikes, Gates, Etc. Ditches are required to drain the land in order that it can be worked, and later for the purpose of handling the water for irrigating, flooding and drainage. The same ditches can be used for all purposes to a great extent. The size and location of the ditches will depend on the amount of water to be handled. They should be of sufficient size to flood and drain the bogs within a few hours. The ditches should be at least three feet deep and in Fig. 2. Planting of Prolifics from Wisconsin on Newly Constructed Bogs also method of ditching. Indicates 840 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE y Fig. 3. This Picture Sliows a Year-Old Bog. On tlie near side of the ditch and on the other side is a newly planted bog in wliich all tlie ditches have not been dug. This bog belongs to Mr. Schimpff of Astoria and contains ten acres. some cases deeper. It is sometimes nec- essary to dig large ditches several miles in length in order to secure drainage. The small ditches are usually dug by hand and some of the larger ditches by small dredges. Dams and dikes will be necessary along the ditches in order to control the water when flooding. These can be constructed when the ditches are being dug and they are sometimes built with the scalpings from the bog. In order to control the water for irri- gating and drainage it will be necessary to construct gates and flumes in the ditches. The number and location of these will depend on the arrangement of the bogs. They are mostly built of wood, but in some cases the more important may be of concrete or steel pipe. Water Supply The water supply may be secured from living streams, storage reservoirs, lakes, or it may be pumped from wells into a reservoir. In some places it is necessary to control large areas of land in order to secure sufficient water. It is some- times necessary to carry water long dis- tances in canals or ditches. The distrib- uting system should be so arranged that the bogs can be flooded in five or six hours and drained off in two hours. The design of the water system will also de- pend on whether the water is to be used for flooding or just for irrigating or for both. Where there is sufficient water of the proper character a gravity system will be the best. As there are few places where sufficient water can be secured by gravity it is probable that most bogs will have to depend on pumping plants. The pumps can generally be operated at a very low cost and in most cases will be more economical than a gravity system. Buildings and Equipment The buildings required will consist of some dwellings or living quarters for the superintendent, laborers and harvesters; some tool sheds and a packing and store- house. The storehouse should be so ar- ranged that it can be kept at a uniform temperature and dry and should also be arranged so that it will have good ven- tilation and that the sunlight will not strike the stored berries. The packing and storehouses should be built and op- erated by an association of the growers. These buildings are mostly built of wood, but recently the larger companies are building them of concrete or brick. The machinery and equipment required will consist of some machinery for clear- CRANBERRY 841 ing, scalping and sanding the bogs during the construction period. For the opera- tion of the bogs after they are in bearing about the only equipment required will be spraying outfits; cleaning, grading, packing and sorting machinery; instru- ments for weather observations, equip- ment for conveying the berries from the bog to the storehouse and unless the water is secured by gravity, a pumping plant will be required. The greater part of this equipment should be owned and controlled by an association of the growers. Plants and Planting Cranberry bogs are established by plant- ing cuttings from old vines. These cut- tings should be from eight to ten inches long and are generally planted by forcing the middle of the vine down through the sand into the peat leaving the tow ends of the cuttings sticking up above the surface of the sand. From each of these cuttings runners grow along the surface of the sand and gradually form a thick mat of vines over the entire bog. The vines are generally planted in the spring, but in the Northwest they can be planted during the fall and winter. There are a great many varieties of vines, but the grower need not consider over a dozen varieties. In selecting the varieties care should be exercised as to whether they are early or late, their keeping qualities, color, size and yield. The principal varieties now grown on this coast are the McFarlan and Early Blacks. The vines now being planted are practically all imported from the East, mostly from Massachusetts. Some of the Massachusetts varieties are Early Black, Howe, Centennial, Bugle, McFarlan, Math- ews and Batchelder. Some of the Wis- consin varieties are Prolific, Searles Jum- bo, McFarlan, Bennett Jumbo, Metallic Bell, Palmeter and Howe. The only va- rieties planted from Wisconsin on this coast are the Searles Jumbo, Bennet Jum- bo, and Prolific. The vines are planted about ten inches apart and it takes about 700 pounds to the acre. Developing the Bog After the bog has been planted it will be at least three years before there is a paying crop and during this time the bog will require considerable attention. The principal work during this time will be to keep the bog free from weeds and to control the irrigation and drainage in or- der to get the proper growth of vines. It will also be necessary to guard against insects and plant diseases. Fig. 4. Children Planting Cranberry Vines. 842 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fig. 5. Vines Planted May, 1912; Picture Taken September, 1912. Production and Disposal There will be no cultivation as in many other plants while producing a crop, but there will be some weeding and the ditches and dams will have to be kept clean and there will probably be some spraying required to prevent insects and diseases. The water and drainage will have to be carefully looked after as the quality and yield of the crop will depend greatly on the control of the water. At times it may be necessary to flood the bogs in order to protect them from frost, insect and plant diseases. It may be found advisable to re- sand the bogs to a depth of from one- quarter to one-half inch every three or four years. After the crop has been har- vasted the vines should be pruned. This keeps the bog in better shape for scoop- ing and also benefits the quality and yield of the berries. Harvesting gener- ally lasts three or four weeks during the later part of August and September. The berries are generally picked before they are fully ripe and allowed to ripen in the storehouse. They are harvested either by hand picking on the younger vines or by scooping on the older bogs. After the berries are harvested they are taken to the packing houses where they are cleaned, sorted, graded and packed in barrels or boxes and then stored until time for shipment to the dealers. At present practically all the berries are sold as fresh fruit, but there is an unlimited opportunity to increase the con- sumption by canning and evaporating them which is done at present to a very limited extent. The total production of cranberries in the United States is about 500,000 barrels annually which is only about one pint per capita for the United States. It is con- sidered that the cranberry industry is only in its infancy. Enemies and Hinderances Like all other organisms the cranberry has its enemies and diseases as well as other hinderances, but by proper care and management these enemies and hinder- ances can be controlled or prevented. By flooding or spraying the grower can pro- tect his crops from insects and diseases and by flooding can prevent loss from frost. He can also control weed growth. Wind, rain, hail, and extreme heat and cold are elements over which he has no control, but can be avoided to a great extent by choosing a location where the damage from these sources will be very light. CRANBERRY— CRANBERRY DISEASES 843 References to Literature On account of lack of space it has been impossible to go into much detail regard- ing the various parts of cranberry culture, but by reference to the publications here- after listed more detailed information can be secured. Books Published "Cranberry Culture," by J. J. White. ''Cranberry Culture on a Western Plan," by Augustus G. Gray. U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications Farmers Bulletin No. 176, "Cranberry Culture," by L. C. Corbett. Farmers Bulletin No. 178, "Insects In- jurious in Cranberry Culture," by John B. Smith. Farmers Bulletin No. 221, "Fungus Dis- eases of the Cranberry," by L. C. Shear. Farmers Bulletin No. 227, "Experiment Station Work." Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins No. 119, "Reports on Cranberry Investi- gation." No. 159, "The Cranberry Insects of Wis- consin," by C. B. Hardenberg. "Cranberry Bog Construction," by O. G. Malde. "Cranberry Bog Management," by O. G. Malde. Also the annual reports of the Wiscon- sin Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 86, West Virginia Agricul- tural Experiment Station, "Cranberries in West Virginia," by L. C. Corbett. Special Bulletin K of New Jersey Agri- cultural Experiment Station, "Insects In- juriously Affecting Cranberries," by John B. Smith. The Annual Reports of the Cape Cod Cranberry Growers Association. The Annual Reports of the Wisconsin State Cranberry Growers Association. The Annual Reports of the New Jersey Cranberry Growers Association. The only periodical devoting space reg- ularly to the cranberry industry is the Wareham Courier, Wareham, Massachu- setts. It is published each week. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 193, "Experiments in Blueberry Culture," by Frederick V. Coville, would also be of interest as the blueberry and cranberry are in many ways similar as to natural re- quirements. CRANBERRY DISEASES The fungus and other troubles of cran- berries are not so numerous as in the case of some other fruits. The Depart- Fig. 6. Part of a Bog Planted May, 1912. Planted with Searles Jumbo vines from Wisconsin. Vines one year old at the time the photo was taken. 844 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ment of Agriculture has conducted some investigation as well a^ tlie Wisconsin Experiment Station. The results are em- bodied in what follows. Cranberry Antliracnose Q-loeosporium Sp. Cranberry anthracnose seems to be'most common in Massachusetts and New Eng- land cranberry bogs. It closely resembles the species so injurious to the apple and other fruits. The appearance of the dis- ease upon the fruits is similar to that of scald and rot, and can only be distin- guished certainly by microscopic exam- ination. Cranberry Blast GiUnardia Sp. Cranberry blast is a name giyen to that form of the disease which attacks the very young fruits as soon as the blossoms fall. It causes the fruit to shrivel up, become black, and finally become covered with one of the spore-producing forms of the fungus, which is a species of Guignardia, very closely related to the species which produces the black rot of the grape. The spores produced upon these young berries are the probable source of infection of most of the other fruit. This fungus pro- duces two kinds of fruit, or, in other words, passes through two stages of devel- opment. The earliest stage produces its spores in small black spherical recepta- cles. This fruiting form of the fungus is the most abundant, and it is probably from this source that most of the leaves and fruits are infected. The second stage in the development of the fungus is that in which the spores are produced in sacs. These are inclosed in receptacles as in the other stage mentioned. Blight This trouble has appeared on Wisconsin bogs as a dying of blossoms and very small fruit just at the time of setting. It is sometimes attributed to hot weather. Investigations at the Wisconsin station, however, seem to disprove this theory. As yet no specific cause has been worked out. If the vines are kept in a vigorous and thrifty condition the trouble seems to be largely avoided. Cranberry Eot Cranberry rot has until recently been confused with and attributed to the same cause as the scald. Its effect upon the beriT is very similar to that of the scald fungus. It is produced, howevei*, by a quite different species of parasite, though belonging to the same large group known as the "black fungi." In some cases where the fruit is in an advanced stage of the disease, the presence of the fungus is indicated by irregular black blotches just beneath the skin of the diseased por- tion. Cranberry Scald The name "scald" originated as a re- sult of the belief formerly prevalent among cranberiT growers that the injury was due to the effect of the hot sun upon the ber- ries when they were wet, thus producing what was regarded as a i^eal scalding of the tissues of the fruit Fruit which has been overflowed for a half day or more during hot weather may be injured as a result, and the effect in many instances closely resembles that produced by the scald fungus. A microscopic examination of the berries shows at once the differ- ence. In the berry which has been affect- ed by being covered with water no fun- gous threads or filaments can be found, whereas in the case of the berry attacked by the scald fungus an abundance of such filaments may readily be observed in the pulp of the diseased berry. Only in the rarest instances does the scald fungus fruit on the berries after they have be- come half grown. The disease first becomes noticeable as a small light-colored softened spot on the surface of the berry. This spot rapidly increases in circumference and finally en- velops the whole fruit. Sometimes the diseased portion shows more or less dis- tinct brownish zones. In other cases the zones are lacking and the whole fruit be- comes very soft and has a light watery color. In many instances it is very diffi- cult to tell from the external appearance only whether the disease is due to the scald fungus or the rot fungus. CRANBERRY DISEASES 845 Eemedies and Treatment Only preventive measures are available at present in combating these diseases. After the parasites have once entered the tissues of the plant they are practically beyond the reach of remedies. Hence, efforts must be devoted to protecting the plants and keeping them in the maximum condition of health and vigor, as in this condition they are most capable of resist- ing disease. It has been frequently noticed that the plants on certain cranberry meadows and portions of meadows suffer much more from rot and scald than others. This is no doubt due in great part, in many cases at least, to the soil and water conditions under which the plants are growing. From personal observations and the experiences of growers it is the opinion of the writer that in the majority of cases the control of the water supply is the most important single factor. Water Supply Just what the best quantity of water is and the best way to distribute it can only be determined in each case depending upon the nature of the soil, subsoil, con- tour and drainage of the land. In general it may be said that the water supply should be so controlled as to avoid any great fluctuations in the quantity sup- plied to the plants during the growing season. The cranberry is by nature a water loving plant, and seems to suffer more frequently from a lack of water than from an excess. Destruction of Dead Tines All dead vines and leaves should be de- stroyed. Frequently small areas of vines die, apparently from the attacks of the cranberry fungi. All such vines should be pulled or cut and collected early in the spring, at least within two weeks after the water has been drawn from the bog, and burned. Vines which have been cut in raking bogs to prepare them for scoop- ing should also be treated in the same manner. Such vines if not destroyed in- variably produce the spores of the cran- berry fungi in great quantities and are a fertile source of infection for the young leaves and fruit. Little is to be feared from the rotten berries which have reached maturity, as the fungi very rarely produce any spores on such berries, Disease-Resistant Plants It is a matter of common observation among growers that some varieties rot or scald worse than others. Hence, in setting new bogs or replanting old ones the most hardy varieties should be used. By giving careful attention to the selection of dis- ease-resistant plants for propagation, a practically immune variety can probably be eventually secured. Fungicides The Bordeaux mixture has proved the most efficient of any fungicide used. Satisfactory results from spraying can be secured only by exercising great care and thoroughness in the preparation and application of the mixture. Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture Bordeaux mixture should be prepared as follows: Copper sulphate (bine vitriol or blue- stone) 6 pounds T'nslaked stone lime 4 pounds Water 50 gallons Soap for Use with Bordeaux Mixture To complete the mixture for effective use in treating cranberry diseases, it is necessary to add something to cause it to spread evenly and adhere to the foliage and fruit, whose smooth, glossy surface causes the plain Bordeaux mixture to either collect in drops or run off entirely. Several soaps have been tried for this purpose, of which resin-fish oil soap has proved the best. This is prepared as fol- lows: Resin 5 pounds Potash lye, such as is ordinarily sold for washing purposes 1 pound Fish oil 1 pint Water 5 gallons Dissolve the resin with the oil in a large iron kettle. Let this cool somewhat and then add the potash, slowly stirring the mixture at the same time and watch- ing it carefully to avoid its boiling over. Then add a part of the five gallons of water and continue boiling until the mix- ture will dissolve in cold water. This will require about one hour, when the re- mainder of the water should be added slowly and the whole thoroughly stirred. 846 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Literature Farmers' Bulletin No. 221. Wisconsin Experiment Station Bulletin No. 219. CEAOTERRY PESTS Comparatively little new work on cran- berry insects seems to have been done since that of Professor J. B. Smith, of the New Jersey station, the chief results of which were published by the department of agriculture in 1903. Malde, of the Uni- versity of Wisconsin, has done some work along the same line. Professor Smith is the main authority for notes on cranberry pests embodied in this work. Blackhead Cranberry Worm Eudemis Dacciniana Pack. This is perhaps the best known and most uniformly injurious of all cranberry insects and is locally known as the "vine worm" in Massachusetts and as the "fire- worm" in New Jersey. As a larva (worm) it is a deep, rather velvety, green, slender little caterpillar, not over half an inch long when full grown, and with a shining black head and neck. The adult is a small moth or "miller" with narrow, dusty- brown wings that measure less than half an inch when expanded and seem much smaller because they are so slight. The moths first appear on the bogs in early June, continuing until nearly the end of the month, and again late in July, continuing into August, when they dis- appear for the season. During the day little is seen of them. In the early even- ing and until the darkness sets in fully they are on the wing and hover a short distance above the plants. Before the end of August, they have left, scattered everywhere on the under- sides of the leaves, their minute yellow eggs. There they remain throughout the winter, whether the bog be dry or flowed, and the little caterpillars hatch from them in spring. For a day or two the worms nibble on the under surface of the old leaves or may even burrow into them and then make their w^y to the tip of an up- right, where they spin together the edges of the new leaves. In about three weeks from the date of hatching, the caterpillar is full grown, lines the inside of its shelter more fully and closely with fine silk, and changes to a stubby little yellowish-brown pupa. In a week the transformation is completed and the moth appears about the first of July. The bog at the beginning of July shows very plainly the effects of the in- sect's attack in brown tips that are every- where noticeable; and every brown tip at this time means a barren upright. The second brood which soon appears is more destructive than the first for the reason that they extend their operations farther and the fruit is coming on at that time. They damage the fruit all out of proportion to the food consumed by nib- bling here and there on fruits and foliage until the entire bog may have a burnt- over appearance. Hence the term "fire worm," as applied to this species. There is another brood by the middle of July but the great damage has been done by the second brood. Xellowliead Cranberry Worm Teras minuta Rob. This insect is much more abundant in New Jersey than it is in Massachusetts, and in some localities in the latter state it does not seem to occur as a cranberry feeder at all. It is quite as plentiful on Long Island as it is in New Jersey, and wherever it occurs is apt to be even more injurious than the preceding species. Life History The life histories of these two species differ in that, in the case of the yellow- head, the moths hibernate during the win- ter, come out and lay their eggs during April and May and disappear. The larvae appear a week or ten days later and in feeding spin the leaves together as in the case of the preceding species. The first brood of moths appear in late May or early June. They are bright orange red, while the earlier brood is slate gray. The second lot of eggs hatch in late June, and, early in July, when the cranberries are in full bloom, the larvae ai'e half grown and doing their greatest damage. They pupate about July 15. The pupa is dis- tinguished by a nob on its head. The next brood is not so injurious. CRANBERRY PESTS 847 Remedial Measures Flowing the Bog The application of insecticides on large bog areas where the plants cover the ground as densely as do the cranberry vines is a task no grower likes to con- template; and provided he has control of a satisfactory amount of water there is no necessity for it. As against the "yel- lowhead" (Teras), it will suffice if the water be held on the bogs until the middle of May, or perhaps a little later in cold seasons. This will compel the moths to seek other plants upon which to lay their eggs. As against the blackhead late holding will not of itself suffice, because the eggs are already on the plants and will, under ordinary circumstances, hatch only under the same conditions that favor the start of vines themselves. But there is a little leeway in favor of the plants and the eggs do hatch under water at a temperature not quite sufficient to start the vines. Carefully carried out, this measure is often very effective; the warmth favors the development of the embryo within the egg, and when the worm hatches it drowns. Reflowing When the supply of water is abundant above the bog area, so that a pond or reservoir may be formed, both the yellow and blackheads may be completely con- trolled by drawing the water early, wait- ing until all the eggs have hatched and some of the worms are nearly half grown, and then re-covering the bog with water for 48 hours. This method is so simple and so absolutely effective that the larger growers are adopting it almost uni- versally, and few new bogs are laid out anywhere without considering the matter of reflowage and providing for as good a control of the water as possible. Cover- ing the bogs should begin in the late after- noon and should be completed before next morning, if possible. On a rainy day it may begin at any time, the object being merely to prevent the sun from boiling the young shoots. So drawing off the water should also begin in the early aft- ernoon, and the bog should be practically dry the morning after. Incidentally, this reflowing will rid the bog of numerous other pests and may make a material im- pression on the girdle worm where that is abundant. Insecticides Sometimes it happens that bogs can be neither winter flowed nor reflowed, and the application of insecticides becomes an absolute necessity. Only arsenates are to be relied upon for good results. It fol- lows from what has been said concerning the habits of the worms that when once they have spun up the tips and ax-e feed- ing in their cases they are practically beyond the i^each of our common insecti- cides; and that is particularly true of the first brood. If there is reason to believe from past experience, or because eggs have been found on the plants, that the early brood will be numerous, spraying must be done just as soon as the vines make a start or not later than the date when the first spun-up tip is seen. All things considered, the best insecti- cide for use on cranberry bogs is arsenate of lead. Fire Worm. See BlackJiead Cranberry Worm. Cranberry Fruit Worm Mineola vaccina Riley Bogs that cannot be reflowed and high and sandy bogs suffer most from this in- sect. The adult moth appears on bogs in ordinary seasons about the middle of July, when the berries are setting or have already set. The moth, with wings expanded, meas- ures about three-fourths of an inch and is of a glistening ash-gray, mottled with white and blackish. It is a shy species, not easily started during the day, and flies with a darting motion for quite long distances. It is not generally recognized, therefore, even by growers who annually lose heavily by it. When at rest the wings are folded close to the body, and on a cranberry stem, where it usually rests head down, it is not readily seen even by an experienced eye. The eggs are laid on the young berry, preferably in the calyx, just beneath one 848 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE of the lobes, but they may be on any part of the berry and possibly on the leaves as well. The worms emerge in about five days, and for a day or two feed on the outer side of the berry. Then each worm enters a berry, eats out the seed chamber, and migrates to another. The vacated berry turns red, shrivels up, and eventu- ally drops. In this second berry it be- comes half grown, then works out through a large jagged opening and gets into a third berry. By this time the season is pretty well advanced, the fruit is of good size, and, soon after the worm starts feeding, the newly infested berry begins to turn red. To the ordinary observer the fruit is ripening nicely, if early; but the grower knows better and realizes that every such specimen is lost to him. Quite frequently the worms do not get their full growth at picking time, and emerge from the berries after they are harvested. These delayed forms make their way to any crevice or other shelter that they can find and there spin up for the winter rest. At this time the worm is rather more than half an inch in length, of a bright green color, with a variably marked red- dish tinge on the back. The full-grown caterpillars winter in their silken cocoons, which they make by first rolling in the sand, gluing the par- ticles together with saliva, and then spin- ning their web inside of the rough casing so formed. Remedial Measures Winter flowage is not fatal to these in- sects, and covering the bogs with water at any time after the winter cocoon has been formed would probably be ineffective. Nevertheless, water-covered bogs are less troubled, and it is probable that the earlier the water is put on in the fall the more effective this practice will be. Indications are that if a bog can be safe- ly submerged for 48 hours between Au- gust 10th and 15th, just before the worms reach their full growth, the great majority will be killed off. Sound berries covered for that length of time will not come to harm if the water can be put on and drawn off rapidly enough to avoid scald- ing. Fruits not quite so far advanced may be covered for even a longer time without injury. The vines should be completely covered before the sun beats upon them high enough to warm the water, the cov- ering should be sufficiently deep to pre- vent a scalding effect, and when the water is drawn suniise should find at least every berry above the water level, that the dry- ing off may be gradual. A cool day would almost insure safety to the berries, an in- tensely hot one might cause injury, and the nearer maturity the fruit the greater xne Qangei . If reflowage be not practiced, pick the crop as soon as it is at all practicable, so as to get as many wormy berries off the bog as may be. The worms will emerge in the cranberry house and form their cocoons in cracks and crevices or among rubbish. Give them plenty of shelter in the way of loosely piled slats, boards, or other cover, placed wherever conveniently possible, and any time during the winter clean up thoroughly, so as to reach the hibernating worms. Field mice will eat these worms. Also a liberal use of gaso- line in such places under the usual pre- cautions against fire would reach every one of them. Insecticides are possible only during the two or three days in which the young worm feeds on the outside of the berry, and the only material that offers any chance of good results is arsenate of lead. One spraying per week for three, or pref- erably four, weeks offers a fair chance of success by killing off the berry worms be- fore they get into the berry. On bogs that cannot be flowed the ar- senate of lead, aided by early picking, will probably reduce the amount of injury materially; but on such bogs the develop- ment of the moths may occur earlier and the grower must rely more upon the stage of growth, or, better, the appearance of the moths themselves on the bog, than upon any absolute dates. Cranberry Gl^irdler Gramhus Tiortuellus Hbn. This species, more commonly known as the "girdle worm," is found abundantly in all the cranberry districts, but it is seri- ously injurious in Massachusetts only. The CRANBERRY PESTS 849 larvae, which are slender, grayish cater- pillars, with shining, light chestnut-brown heads, and yellowish thoracic shields, pass the winter in a torpid condition within a silken tube or cocoon, which resists the entrance of water. In New Jersey the adults are found in May ; in Massachusetts they do not fly until July, The change to the pupa takes place in the tube or cocoon made in the previous fall, and on Cape Cod at the latter part of May or in early June. The adult is a pretty little creature, with forewings expanding about three- fifths of an inch, and is one of the long- snouted moths, the palpi or mouth feelers projecting well beyond the head. The forewings are rather narrow and very pale straw-yellow in color. The hind- wings are much broader and of a uniform silvery gray. When the moth is at rest the wings are so closely wrappcjd around the body that it looks like a ".larrow whit- ish cylinder about three-quarters of an inch in length The young worm is very active and strong, and at once begins the construc- tion of the silken tube, re-enforced by bits of vegetation, in which it lives. It works about the running portion of the plants extending along the surface of the sand in the stratum of fallen leaves which always cover an old cranberry bog and from which the delicate clusters of new rootlets take their rise. Everywhere over an infested area, but especially along its borders, these worms can be found in filmy silken galleries following the pros- trate stems of runners, into the surface of which they eat their way, destroying the vital part of the plant and, especially next to the mse of the runners, deeply girdling the stem. They grow rather slowly, and not until November do they make their coarse cocoon of mingled sand and silk that serves as winter quarters. An infested bog is rarely affected over its entire extent. Small areas varying from a few feet in diameter to half an acre or more are found here and there, and sometimes a little patch only a foot or two across will remain for two or three years in succession without becoming en- larged, but rather it will become closed up by runners from the adjacent healthy vines. Hemedial Measures It is quite obvious that insecticides are not available here, because of the con- cealed feeding habit, and that resort must be had to more direct methods. But the insect does not make this cocoon until November, and a submergence of five days immediately after the picking is com- pleted destroys a great many. The sug- gestion is therefore made that, imme- diately after the fruit is off, infested bogs be flowed and be kept covered for at least a week, and better two weeks. While the ripening fruit is on, any water covering kept on over 24 hours would be apt to do material injury. An additional suggestion is that the actually infested area be completely burned off as soon as its extent can be de- termined. For this burning a gasoline torch may be employed, and the heat thus applied directly to the point where it will be most effective. The burned-over area can be immediately reset and the actual amount of injury limited to a minimum. Cranberry Katydid Soudderia texensis Sauss. One of the most destructive insects on the New Jersey bogs is a species of katy- did, though its injuries, as a rule are charged to grasshoppers in general. The injury is chiefly caused by the feed- ing habits of the adult of one species of katydid which chews into the berries when half to full grown, rejects the pulp, and eats the seeds. The injured berries wilt, shrivel, and die ; but when they have just been left by the katydids, the com- mon, shorthorned grasshoppers feed on the exposed pulp and, being detected in this, are quite generally charged with hav- ing caused the entire trouble. One katy- did may eat out several berries at one sitting, and when the insects are at all abundant the percentage of fruit de- stroyed is very large; on some bogs the amount reaches almost or quite one-half the entire crop. The katydids when mature are green, grasshopper-like insects, with very long 2—1.3 850 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PKACTICAL HORTICULTURE antennae, or feelers, and long slender liind legs. Tlie eggs are laid chiefly in two kinds of grasses, locally known as "deer grass" and "double-seeded millet." Occasionally eggs are laid on other grasses or plants, but never on cranberry leaves. Eemedial Measures The character of the remedy to be adopted follows from the egg-laying habits of the species. Allow none of the host grasses to maintain themselves on the bogs and burn over the dams during the winter while the bogs are flowed. From the fact that the very young katy- dids are never found on flowed bogs ex- cept at the edges joining the upland or at the base of the dams, it may be fairly inferred that the eggs do not survive the winter when kept completely submerged, so that destruction of the grasses above the water line might answer. It would be safer, however, to have the grasses out; they have no place on the bogs any- way. For burning the grasses and other host plants on the dams some one of the gaso- line torches now on the market may be used. They give a very intense heat and lick up leaves and plants with extreme rapidity. As they can be used against the wind or while the plants are some- what damp there is practically no danger that the fire will get away, and when the ground is frozen, the covering of leaves and stalks is burned so rapidly that no heat gets to the roots. Grasshoppers and Crickets Numerous short-horned and long- liorned grasshoppers may be found on and about the bogs, and more or less injury is charged to them. As to the common gray or brown short-horned grasshoppers the charge is believed to be practically un- founded. They do sometimes finish up berries that have been opened by the katydids; but direct evidence is lacking that they would or even could get into a sound berry. Nor do they occur in any numbers on clean, well-kept bogs, free from grass and overgrown edges or dams. They belong naturally in the grassy un- dergrowth along the margins, and simply run over when there is an easy oppor- tunity. It is rather otherwise with some of the long-horned, green, meadow grasshoppers, which on grassy, reedy, or sedgy bogs are sometimes present in immense numbers. All of these are fond of seeds, and while the smaller species cannot get into a half or full grown berry, the larger species can, and so they join the katydids in their destructive work, but in comparison do little injury. Most of them have a long, flat oviposi- tor, straight or slightly curved, and they lay their eggs in the stems of the sedges, rushes, and larger grasses found on the bogs. None of these species can cut into leaves. Their eggs are long, slender, nearly cylindrical, and often just a little curved. They are laid in series of any- where from three to eight, one above the other, the number of eggs in any series depending upon the length of the ovi- positor in the species. Where bogs are very full of these little species, a large proportion of the grasses and sedgy plants will be found bearing eggs, and these eggs are so well protected that they survive the winter though they be completely submerged. Accordingly, in early June thousands of the little meadow grasshoppers are found just hatched and under such conditions that they could not possibly have come on from the outside. Remedial Measures The only way to keep these species otS. the bogs is to keep down the grasses. They are not naturally feeders upon the cranberry plant, and exact so small a toll that the actual loss is less than the prob- able cost of getting rid of them. If the grasses, etc., cannot be readily taken from the bogs, they might be mowed, after picking, above the vine level. This would cut off the parts bearing the eggs, and as the loose grass would float when the water is put on, the eggs would either be carried to the edges or would decay with the vegetation containing them. Crickets also occur in greater or less numbers on most bogs, and growers are by no means agreed whether they cause injury or not. That they will eat berries CRANBERRY PESTS 851 on the ground, especially under cran- berry crates, is certain; but it is not proved that they ever go upon a vine to feed upon a berry attached to it. The species lay their eggs in sandy soil, and never in wet or mud land ; so, as a matter of fact, no field crickets can really pro- pagate on the bogs. But they get into the dams, and oviposit in warm sandy places, so that the young may hatch early in the spring and find their way to the moist, warm places in which they delight. Their range of food seems to be wide, and there is almost nothing they will not eat under favorable conditions; but they live on the ground and rarely get out of the shelter of the vines or upon them. If it be deemed desirable the crickets can be kept off the bogs almost entirely by broad, clean, marginal ditches main- tained at least partly full of water. The crickets rarely if ever fly, and, while they are good swimmers, do not ordinarily at- tempt to cross any ditch six feet wide. A flowing just after picking would de- stroy most of the grasshopper and cricket tribe that then occur in their greatest number. Meastjeing Wobm. See Cranterry Span Worm. Cranberry Span Worm Cleora pampinaria Gn. In some sections of Cape Cod certain "span," "inch," or "measuring" worms occasionally become injuriously abun- dant and the most destructive of these is the species above named. The color of the parent moth is pale ash gray, sprinkled with black, and both wings are crossed diagonally by black lines and shades. The worms first appear on the bogs in June and become fully grown by the end of that month or early in July. They are then rather more than an inch long; slender, smooth, livid gray cater- pillars with deeply indented head and long, pointed anal plate. When full grown they bury themselves in the ground and pupate. The moths emerge a few days later. The second brood comes on in early August and pupates before the tenth. The moths ap- pear late in August and September. There seems to be no regularity about the appearance of these insects. Some years they do not appear at all. In others they appear in great numbers and occasionally in armies. Remedial Measures Being an open feeder upon the foliage, this span worm is susceptible to arsenical poisoning, and unless the bogs can be rapidly reflowed and as rapidly laid dry, spraying or dusting are the only alterna- tives. Where the worms are noticed when they first start, spraying the foliage just ahead of them may answer all purposes, and indeed this poisoning of their line of advance should always be done before treating the parts already infested. Eith- er Paris green or arsenate of lead may be applied. Cranberry Tip Worm Oecidomyia oxycoecana Johns This is a minute orange-red or yellow- ish grub about one-sixteenth of an inch in length, found in the growing shoots, whether uprights or runners. It appears on the vines soon after they make a start, and the first indication of its pres- ence is when the small leaves of the tip cease to unfold and become bunched into a compact, bulb-like mass. When this mass is opened, from one to five, and usually two or three, of the little grubs will be found at the very heart of the growing tip, feeding upon the juices and completely checking growth. If it is a runner that is attacked, it is destroyed; if a fruit-bearing upright, the flower buds come out below the infested tip and no harm is done to the crop. But the in- sects continue to appear on the bogs at intervals throughout the season, and the danger is that the late-tipped uprights will form no fruit buds for the next year. The adult is a minute, two-winged fly or midge whose wings when expanded measure less than an eighth of an inch from tip to tip. The male is quite uni- formly yellowish-gray and inconspicuous, but the female has the abdomen deep red, the upper surface of the body gray, the sides yellowish, the head and eyes black. She also has a slender, extensile tip to the 852 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE abdomen, by means of whicli tlie minute white eggs are laid in the very heart of the bud. Eemedial Measures Strictly speaking, no direct remedial measures are known. It is not known positively how the insect passes the win- ter; hence control can not be attempted at that season. The worm never comes within reach of our ordinary insecticides, and therefore direct attack is not pos- sible. Since the loss of the tips attack- ed in spring does not injure the crop of that year, the effort must be to keep the vines in such vigor that they will set fruit buds on laterals and at leaf axils when the direct tip has been lost. This insect is not confined to the cran- berry, and in fact breeds much more abundantly on loose strife (Lysimacha) and on some of the heaths. Therefore, where the species is troublesome, those plants should be kept down on the dams and other bog surroundings. Vine Worm. See Yellowfiead Cranber- ry Worm, Cress The word cress, when applied to plants, refers to any one of several species most- ly of the mustard family Oruciferae. It has generally a pungent taste and is used in salads. The common cresses are the English water cress; the American water cress; common garden cress and the Indian cress. The water cress is an aquatic plant, with long stems, which readily take root in water or very moist soil. It is therefore generally grown along the edges of streams, ponds, ditches, or other places, where it grows partly in the water and partly out. But it may be cultivated by the digging of trenches or small ditches, where the water may be turned on at pleasure. Granville Lowther Water Cress leaf Beetle Phaedon aeruginosa SufEr. Attacks the under side of the leaves and the stems, eating ok the cuticle. The beetles are less than an eighth of an inch long and "shiny, bronzy black." Both the adult and larva are injurious. They probably range from Massachu- setts to West Virginia. Growing the cress in running water which carries the bugs away, or flood- ing for the same purpose are the best remedies thus far discovered. Literature Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 66. Water Cress Sowbiig Mancaseltus tiraehyurus Harger This pest has been troublesome in Vir- ginia, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania, where cress is grown commercially. This creature is not a bug but belongs to the same order as the crayfish. It differs somewhat in appearance from the common dooryard sowbug though similar in general features. The water cress sow- bug is "decidedly shrimplike" in appear- ance, gray in color and when full grown about a half inch long. The only method of control which seems to have worked successfully so far is that of special construction of the cress beds. The beds are constructed sixteen feet wide with a general slope of about three inches to the 100 feet and graded toward the center, through which, running lengthwise of the bed, is placed a square trough made of three ten inch boards. When it is desired to get rid of the bugs the water is shut off from the bed and drained out through this central trough. The bugs follow the receding water and so are caught in the trough. After the water is well out of the trough the bugs are killed with bluestone. The water is kept of£ the bed for twenty-four hours to kill the bugs which remain in the cress. Literature Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 66. Cropping, Preparatory. See Preparor Hon of G-round under Apple Orchard. CUCUMBERS 853 Cucumbers Cucumis Sativus Long Green Cucumber. The cucumber is a well known fruit, grown in all parts of the civilized world, and cultivated from very early times. It is supposed to have been cultivated in the days of Moses, and mentioned in Numbers XI: 5. Alphonso de Condolle affirms that the cucumber was cultivated in India 3,000 years ago. The plant is an annual trailing vine, with stalked hairy leaves, and tendrils by means of which the plant can be trained to sup- ports. There are a large number of var- ieties which may be classified under two general heads as follows: First. Forcing or hot house varieties. Second. Outdoor or field varieties. The "forcing varieties," are started in hot houses or hot beds, and later may be transplanted to the open air, or the growth continued under glass for winter use. The outdoor varieties are planted in hills, about six feet apart, six or eight seeds to the hill and then thinned to two or three after they are fairly start- ed, and the strongest plants left for further development. When the vines are about two feet long, some growers pinch off the tops so that the vine will put out lateral shoots and bear a heavier crop. The fiowers are pollenized by insects, and the varieties will mix by inter- pollination. Soil Best Adapted The cucumber will do fairly well on al- most any soil that will grow corn, wheat or oats; but it does best on deep, rich loam. When the ground is warm and well prepared, it may be planted as early in the spring as the time when danger of frost is past; and the seed covered about one inch deep. There are no spe- cial directions necessary; for the cucum- ber is so common that almost every one knows something of its habits of growth. Picking The time for picking cucumbers de- pends on the uses to which they are to be applied. If grown for pickles, they are picked when about three inches long. The whole area should be gone over every second day and all of the required size carefully removed from the vines, cut- ting the stem about a quarter to half an inch from the cucumber. Care should be exercised to see that the pick- ers do not bruise the vines by tramping upon them, or the crop will be injured. If cucumbers are meant for table use, they may be allowed to grow to consid- erable size, say six inches in length, pro- vided that they should not be allowed to 854 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE approacli too nearly tlie ripening period when the surface skin begins to turn yellow. Certain vines may be selected to pro- duce seed, in which case they should not he disturbed by the picking process, ex- cept to train the vine to produce the larg- est and best specimens. As soon as the seed is ripened the plants begin to die. Varieties If cucumbers are planted for pickles, the varieties producing the largest num- ber of small fruits, rather than a few large ones is preferable. For this pur- pose the variety known as the Boston Pickling is highly recommended. For general home use the White Spine is good. Other varieties are the Cumber- land, Thorburn and Fordhook Pickling. Geanville Lowther Ciicumlbers in the South W. P. Williams Cucumbers can be made a very profit- able crop in all sections where they can be raised early, and shipped to North- ern markets. After the land has been prepared, the best way to fit it for the crop is to plow out furrows with a single shovel cultiva- tor, or a bull tongue, and in this furrow put the fertilizer, and with a narrow cul- tivator thoroughly mix this with the soil. Then with a sweep or cultivator, level the soil into this furrow, and then drill in the seed. The rows are made five or six feet apart, and after the plants are up, they are thinned to about one foot in a row. The seed are sown in the southern part of the Gulf states from March 1st to the 15th, some risk being taken at this time as there are occasional killing frosts this late. Providing the crop is not injured by frost, a few days gain on the market makes a considerable addition to the profits obtained. Cultivation is given the cucumber sim- ilar to that of other crops. Frequent but shallow cultivation is practiced, care be- ing taken not to disturb the vines more than necessary. The soil is ridged slightly to the row so as to allow sur- face water to run off quickly. Cucum- bers require a quick steady growth and thus the land must be sandy so as to give the best action for fertilizers. The best fertilizer found in this sec- tion consists of 7-4-8 goods, using about 700 to 1,000 pounds per acre, and made up as follows: Add Phosphate, 16 per cent 395 Cotton Seed Meal 286 Nitrate of Soda 125 Muriate of Potash 194 1,000 The nitrogen should be obtained from some compound where it is easily avail- able, as in dried blood. The above for- mula is put under the plant, and when the latter has developed the fourth leaf a top dressing of about 75 lbs. of nitrate of soda is given, and about the time the blossoms fall, another dressing of 75 lbs. is applied. The cucumbers are picked when about eight inches long, and packed in hampers or crates. The harvesting in this sec- tion begins about June 1st to the 15th, varying a little with the season. The hampers or crates are put in refrigera- tor cars, there being about 300 to 500 per car. These cars are shipped to vari- ous northern markets, as Chicago, Cin- cinnati, St. Louis and Detroit. The varieties most commonly grown are Davis Perfect, Long Green and Klon- dike. The market requires a long slen- der cucumber, with very small and few seeds, and the above varieties produce cucumbers of this description. Yields run from 250 to 400 hampers per acre, and prices from 40c to $1.00 per hamper. The outlook for this crop is very promising where a person has the right kind of soil, and sufficient coopera- tion among his neighbors that all may combine to ship in car load lots. A mar- ket must be made, and when a place has become known as a shipping point, buy- ers will visit that point. CIJCUMBEE DISEASES For Diseases of Cucumber other than those listed here, see Cantaloup^ Squash and related plants. CUCUMBER DISEASES 855 Anthracnose Colletotrichum sp, Anthracnose occurs on tlae leaves and stems of cucumbers and muskmelons, and on the leaves, stems, and fruits of watermelons. It also attacks other cu- curbits. It is common and sometimes injurious. Appearance Circular dead spots from one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter are formed on the leaves. On the stems anthracnose causes elongated, discolored, and shrunk- en areas, which finally lead to the death of the branch. Watermelon fruits are often badly spotted by this disease, and much injury is done to the vines. Cause Anthracnose is due to a fungus which is related to the fungi causing anthrac- nose in grapes, raspberries, cotton, and beans, and the bitter rot of the apple. It is spread freely by the fruiting bodies, which are produced in abundance in the spots on the leaves and fruit. The de- struction of such vines, together with rotation of crops, is recommended as a means of prevention. Blight. See Downy Mildew^ this sec- tion. Cucumber Rot Cucumbers in Florida have been troubled with a disease which attacks both leaves and fruit. The plants may be attacked when very young. There ap- pear on the leaves irregular water-soaked spots. The leaf becomes dwarfed and misshapen if the disease strikes it when young. If the sun is hot during the day the spots dry up, leaving a brown area, which will fall out. Quite often the in- fection starts along the edges of the leaves. The veins become affected, and it appears as if the disease follows the veins. Early in the morning, if one should examine the under side of the leaves, he would find underneath each spot a drop of bacterial ooze. Later in the day this dries, giving the appearance of a white precipitate. The spot on the cucumber fruit is small, about two milli- meters in diameter. At first it is a trans- parent area, then in the center there ap- pears a small white spot which is the dried bacterial ooze on the surface. If one should cut through an early spot, he would find only a water-soaked area. Later this area turns brown. This brown area spreads along the vascular bundles in the cucumber fruit. Three days later the whole cucumber is soft. The disease is spread over the entire cucumber-growing district of Florida. Much loss is sustained while the cucum- ber is on its way to market The reports show that while the cucumbers are on the way to market, which takes four to five days, they become soft. Remove affected plants from the field and spray with Bordeaux mixture, thoroughly, beginning when the plants have but three or four leaves. O. F. BUKGER, Florida Experiment Station. CucxjMBEE Scab. See Bpot, this section. Damping Off This is a frequent trouble upon green- house cucumbers. It is serious often where plantings are made following lettuce at- tacked by rosette. The fungus in that case is the same as lettuce-rosette {BMzoctonia)'ov lettuce drop {Botrytis), There is a strictly damping-off fungus (Fythium De Baryanum Hesse) that is sometimes troublesome. The Botrytis named at times attacks pruned parts of cucumber plants, also extending its at- tacks to the blossom end of young fruits. The results of Rhizoctonia on green- house cucumbers have been curious owing to attacks on the smaller root branches or rootlets. The growth of the vines is at times checked, accompanied by color- ing of the leaves and reduced fruitful- ness. Some growers have given the name "leaf-curl" to this phenomenon but it is strictly the effect of the fungus named. It has been found necessary in soil treatments where cucumbers follow affected lettuce to increase the strength of formalin drench to 4 or 5 pounds per 50 gallons of water. Wooster, Oliio. 856 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Bowny Mildew Pseudoperoriospora cubensis (B. & C ) Rost. Downy mildew, the most destructive of all cucurbit diseases, is especially in- jurious to cucumbers, but also attacks melons, squashes, pumpkins, gourds, and other related vines. Appearance The first indication of downy mildew in the field is a yellowing of the older leaves in the center of the plant. Faint- ly defined angular spots bordered by the veins will then be detected. These be- come more distinct, and if the weather is moist an obscure violet coating of the spores may be noticed on the under side of the spots. The disease progresses from the center of the hill outward, the young leaves at the tips of the branches living longest. It spreads slowly in bright weather, but under the more favorable conditions afforded by cloudy, humid weather it often develops with the great- est rapidity, so that the fields quickly be- come as if scorched by fire. Downy mildew has been known in this country since 1889, and in various years has caused serious loss, especially to the pickle industry on Long Island and in Ohio and other states. It is also de- structive to cucumbers in greenhouses. Cause Downy mildew is caused by a parasitic fungus closely related to the destructive downy mildews of grape, onion, etc., and to the late blight of potato. So far as known, it is spread entirely by its conidia, or summer spoi^es, produced on the low- er surface of diseased leaves. These are blown about by the wind, but are very thin-walled, delicate bodies, which perish quickly when dried. Conditions Favoring Deyelopment The disease lives through the winter in Florida and probably spreads north- ward each summer. There is also good evidence that it lives over in greenhouses, which may later become the centers of local epidemics. Spray frequently with half strength Bordeaux mixture, coating both sides of the leaves. Beferences Farmers' Bulletin 231. Connecticut Station Bulletin 56. Ohio Station Bulletin 214. Eelworm. See Nematode, this section. Leaf Blight. See Cantaloup Diseases, leaf Mould Not important. Yields to same treat- ment as downy mildew. Leaf Spot Diseases Aside from anthracnose, downy mil- dew, and leaf blight there are a number of other leaf spot diseases hardly distin- guishable from the above, all of which yield to the Bordeaux treatment. Mosaic Disease This disease of greenhouse cucumbers is analogous in character to the mosaic diseases of tobacco and tomatoes and to the yellows of the peach. It is due to an oxidizing ferment in the leaves and is transmitted like the tobacco mosaic dis- ease, by touching first diseased and then healthy plants. The fruitfulness of these variegated yellow plants is very low and it is best at all times upon the appearance of the disease to remove the diseased plants and destroy them. A. D. Sblby Nematodes or Eelworms Eeterodera radicicola (Greef.) Mull, These minute parasitic worms are of- ten very destructive upon cucumbers un- der glass. The greatest injury may oc- cur on the seedling plants, but plants of all ages are destroyed by the parasitic worms. Their presence may be known by the small, bead-like enlargements pro- duced upon the roots or rootlets. No remedy has been discovered that is ef- fective with plants once attacked by eel- worms. The time to prevent this trouble is in the selection or preparation or treat- ment of the soil for greenhouse benches. Indeed the nematodes seem to be present in old sod, and to some extent in decay- ing vegetable matter generally. An ef- fective remedy against eelworms consists in steaming and so treating the soil that the parasites will be destroyed. For this procedure see Ohio Bulletin 73. Also CUCUMBER DISEASES— CUCUMBER PESTS 857 Massachusetts Experiment Station Bulle- tin 55. In thus handling the soil due time must be given for draining and dry- ^^^' A. D. Selby Powdery Mildew Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. Frequent in hothouses, but not trouble- some elsewhere. Selby recommends a dilute copper sulphate solution. Keference Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 214. Root Rot. See Damping Oft, this sec- tion. Spot of Cucumber Fruit or Cucumber Scab Cladosporium cucumerium Ell & Arth. Yields to same treatment as downy mil- dew. Wilt, Bacterial Wilt Bacillus tracheiphillus Scattered plants wilt gradually with- out evidence of injury. The sap tubes are filled with a milky, stringy mass of bacteria instead of watery sap. Insects are instrumental in spreading the disease. Spray with Bordeaux as an insect repel- lent. Cut out and destroy all affected plants. Practice rotation. References Pennsylvania Experiment Station Bul- letin 110. Farmers' Bulletin 231. South Carolina Experiment Station Bul- letin 141. CUCUMBER PESTS For cucumber pests other than those listed here, see Cantaloup, Squash, and related plants. %e, cs«« Fi^. 1. Banded Leaf-Footed Plant Bus:. Banded Leaf-Footed Plant Bug Leptoglossu^ phyllopus, Say This conspicuous plant bug is a suck- ing insect belonging to the same family as the squash bug, and is capable of inflict- ing similar injury to cucurbits. This species is distributed over all the Gulf states and many of the neighboring states. In North Carolina it is quite abundant in some sections. Remedies In case these bugs should become abund- ant, they might be controlled by hand picking during the early morning hours or about sundown, for at such times they are less active than during the heat of the day. It has been suggested that the young nymphs may be killed with kerosene emul- sion. The yellow thistle {Garduus spinossissi- mus) is their normal food plant, which suggests the advisability of keeping these plants cut down around gardens or fields where cucurbits are grown, or leaving only a few plants to serve as traps on which the bugs may be killed by spray- ing or hand picking. Cucumber Flea Beetle Epitrix cucumeris, Harr. A small, black, oval-shaped, jumping beetle, about one-twelfth inch in length, sometimes causes quite severe injury by eating holes in the foliage of young cu- cumbers and other cucurbits. The larva of this species is a leaf miner, attacking the same plants, but seldom causing much damage. Remedies Wire screens or other mechanical cov- ers, poison and repellent sprays, dry poison applications, clean culture are equally effective against flea beetles. Cutworms Various Species These may be destroyed by the use of poison bait made by mixing bran (40 parts) with Paris green (one part) moist- ened to make a soft mash and then sweetened with molasses. Distribute around the hills about sun- down. Keep the chickens out when this method is employed. 858 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Hop Flea Beetle. See under Potato Pests. Melon Aphis. See Aphids. Melon Worm DiapUania Tiyalinata Linn This pest occurs in large numbers in Florida, Georgia and North Carolina. Description and Habits Parent Moths Melon worm moths are beautiful crea- tures, which may often be seen flying about cucurbit fields during the late fall months. They have wings of a pearly white color, bordered with brownish black (Fig. 1). The abdomen is also pearly white, tinged with brown at the caudal end, which terminates in a large movable brush of elongated yellow and dark-brown scales. Nearly all the underside of the body, including the legs, is of the same color as the wings. The wings expand one inch, or a little more. The moths, although shy and rapid fliers, are fre- quently seen during the daytime. Eggs These are pearly white in color, very small in size, and are laid in groups of from two to six or more on the stems, leaves and buds. They hatch in about four days in warm weather. Lariae Just hatched larvae are about a twen- ty-fifth of an inch long, with a pale brown head, and body of a pale yellow color, with no distinct markings. At about three days of age the skin is molt- ed for the first time, and then the body shows two faint longitudinal sub-dorsal white stripes, which become more prom- inent as the larvae develop. By these two white stripes melon worms (Fig. 1) may be readily distinguished until they are nearly grown, when the white stripes dis- appear. These worms often feed for their en- tire lifetime on the foliage, remaining on the underside partially concealed by thin silken webs. They also feed in the terminal bud clusters, and bore into melons and squash like the pickle worms. The habit of feeding on the foliage makes it profitable to use poison sprays as a remedy. Cocoons and Pupae Melon worms spin thin silken cocoons in the folded edge of some leaf, like the pickle worms, but differ from the latter in being inclined to select a green leaf rather than a dying one. When the food plants are nearly defoliated the worms crawl to nearby weeds or grass, and there spin cocoons and pupate. Kemedial Measures Because of feeding freely on the fol- iage, melon worms may be poisoned with arsenical sprays, and the additional meth- ods suggested for controlling pickle worms. See Pickle Worm, this section. Supplementing the poisoning method, the complete removal and destruction of badly infested trap plants, bady in- fested fruit of all cucurbits, and rem- nants of infested crops, together with the practice of deep plowing and rotation, should suffice to prevent serious damage from melon worms. ji i Smith Fig. 1. Melon Worm. 1, adult ; 2, larva 3, pupa. N. C. Exp. Sta. ISorthern Leaf-Footed Plant Bug Leptoglossus oppositus Say. This species has been reported as dam- aging melons in Maryland and the Dis- trict of Columbia, and occurs in many CUCUMBER PESTS 859 htifSf^^ Fig. 1. Northern Leaf-Footed Plant Bug. of the Southern states, including North Carolina. Hand picking as for other plant bugs and destruction of young nymphs by kerosene emulsions are the remedies sug- gested. Pickle Worm Margaronia nitidalis Cramer Description The parent of the pickle worm is a night flying moth of rather distinctive ap- pearance (Fig. 1). The general color, is yellowish brown. The front wings bear a yellowish, semi-hyaline spot near the cen- ter, and the hindwings have the inner two-thirds of the same appearance. The abdomen terminates in a large movable brush composed of numerous elongated scales. In size the moths have a wing expanse of a little over one inch, while the body averages about five-eighths of an inch from the tip of the head to the end of the brush. The shy, retiring habits of these moths prevent their being often ob- served, for they seldom fly in the day- time, unless disturbed, and then quickly attempt to hide. In this respect they dif- fer from the melon worm moths, which are often seen flying about cucurbit fields during August or September. Eggs Freshly laid eggs are white, but soon turn yellowish, as the larvae inside devel- op. They may be laid singly, but more commonly in clusters of from three to eight, on bloom buds, leaf stalks, or leaves, and are usually attached to the plant hairs in such a manner that the egg mass seems to be pierced by the hair. The eggs hatch in warm weather in about four days. Larvae Very young larvae are uniformly yellow- ish white, but after a few days the body segments show transverse rows of brown spots, which become more prominent and nearly black in color before the fourth molt is passed (Fig. 1). Larvae molt four times before attaining full growth, and their distinctive marking, previous to the fourth molt, enables one to separate them readily from the related species called the melon worm. After the fourth molt pickle worms become greatly changed in appearance by practically losing the transverse blackish spots. Pickle worms feed in bud clusters, blooms or fruit and often in the vines, but seldom feed, like melon worms, on the foliage. Fig. 1. Pickle Worm. 1, Moth magnified twice; 2, Larva before fourth moult ; 3, larva ready to pupate. 860 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE . Fig. 2. Pickle Worm Injury to Cantaloup. Cocoons The cocoon is a thin, scanty covering of white silken threads, spun by the worm in a fold of some leaf before transform- ing to the pupal stage. They are general- ly found in dead or dying leaves near the ground, or lying on the soil under the in- fested plants. For this reason the practice of raking up and burning or composting remnants of infested crops, followed by deep plow- ing, is of value. Bemedial Measures Early plantings of cantaloupes and cu- cumbers may escape injury from this pest in the South. Trap Plants Pickle worms evince a decided prefer- ence for the buds, blooms and fruit of summer squash. To secure the best results, seed should be planted two or three times at intervals of about three weeks, making the first planting in time to insure having the squash plants blooming freely by the middle or latter part of June. They must then be examined frequently, and, when worms are discovered, infested blooms and fruit should be gathered and destroyed at least once a week. Destroy infested plants and fruit and as soon as the crop is gathered rake up and destroy all vines, weeds and trash. , R. I. Smith N. C. Exp. Sta. Potato Flea Beetle. See under Pota- to Pests. Striped Cucumber Beetle Diabrotica vittata Fab. General Appearance The adult beetles are small, measuring about two-fifths of an inch in length and half as much in width. The color is yel- low above with black head and three black longitudinal stripes on the wing covers. The under surface as well as parts of the legs and antennae are black. The larvae are very small white grubs with head, anal and thoracic plates brown. They live in the earth. The eggs are oval in shape and bright lemon to orange in color and are laid in the soil. Fig. 1. Striped Cucumber Beetle. Life History The adult beetles hibernate over winter under rubbish or in other protected places, and emerge during the early spring months of April and May. As soon as the host plants appear the eggs are deposited in the soil around the bases and hatch in about nine days. The lar- vae upon hatching feed at the base of the plants upon the roots and stems. The greatest damage is done by the adults boring down into the soil and feed- ing upon the tender appearing foliage. Throughout the entire summer they con- tinue as foliage destroyers and do much damage. They also act as carriers of the bacterial wilt disease of cucumbers. Food Plants Squashes, cucumbers, cantaloupes, pumpkins and watermelons are its favor- ite food plants and suffer most from its CUCUMBER PESTS 861 attacks. Peas, "blossoms and leaves of the apple and numerous other cultivated and wild plants are devoured. Control In many instances control measures are necessary. Cheap coverings are espe- cially desirable for small plantings and may he very practicable for extensive fields. When no coverings are used the plants may be started early in hothouses and set out after they are well establish- ed. If the plantings are made directly in the field an excess of seed should be used to allow for the destructiveness of the beetles. Poison sprays, such as arsenate of lead or Paris green, aid much in controlling it, but successive applications are necessary, because of the rapid growth of the plants. The poisons are sometimes added to Bor- deaux mixture and serve as a remedy for fungous diseases as well. In small patches pyrethrum is an excellent remedy. Repellents such as land plaster or gyp- sum soaked in turpentine or kerosene or tobacco dust placed around the hills will tend to drive the beetles away. Bordeaux mixture is also considered a good repel- lent. E. O. EssiG Common or Grreenlionse White Fly Aleyrodes vaporariorum Westw. General Appearance The adult white flies are about three- fiftieths of an inch long, the males being slightly smaller than the females. The bodies are yellow and the wings pure white. The eggs are exceedingly small, oblong in shape, at first light green, grow- ing black with age and attached by a short stipe. The larvae are light in color, transforming to flat pupae about three- hundredths of an inch long,- oblong-oval in shape; light green and supporting noticeable wax-like rods or spines, which makes this species readily distinguish- able from all others. Life History The eggs are laid upon the leaves of the plants, each female depositing over 100. These hatch in about two weeks into larvae which begin feeding very shortly and after three moults, covering nearly a week, they become pupae, which after two more weeks are ready to emerge as adults. These feed durmg their life of thirty days. Tomatoes and cucumbers suffer most. Fumigation as for scale insects is the best method of control, but emulsions and resin sprays are effective. E. O. EssiG Western Twelve-Spotted Cucumber Beetle Diabrotica soror Lee. Oeneral Appearance A small green black spotted beetle about the size of, and often mistaken by farmers for, a ladybird beetle. The ven- tral surface is entirely black. The lar- vae are white and subterranean in habits, so are seldom met with. Life History The eggs are laid in early spring around the bases of the food plants from one-half to one-fourth of an inch under the ground. They hatch quickly and the white grubs begin feeding upon the roots. The pupal cells are made near the sur- face and in about two weeks the adult beetles emerge. The broods overlap throughout the summer, there being two distinct generations. The adults hiber- nate during the winter. Food Plants Beets, melons, cucumbers, squashes, beans, corn, cabbages, peas, zinnias, daisies, orange, alfalfa, peanuts, potatoes, spinach, lettuce, mustard, roses and chrysanthemums. Control It is seldom necessary to resort to con- trol measures for the larval forms, though they often do much damage. For the adults, however, control measures are of- ten urgent. Poison sprays applied to the tender growth are very effective. l^atnral Enemies Two natural enemies prey upon this beetle; one a tachinid fly, Gelatoria dia- Iroticae Shim., and the other a spider, Xysticus gulosus Keys. E. O. EssiG 862 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Currant The currant derived its name from tlie Greek city of Corintli, where it was first cultivated and became commercially im- portant. Many new varieties have been developed, chief of which is the red cur- rant, Rides TiidruTn, from which have grown several white varieties and many red varieties as well. One peculiarity of the currant is its tendency to varia- tion in color. It is not very unusual to find red, white and striped berries on the same stalk. There is a black species, Eihes nigrum, which is popular in some parts of Europe, but not so in America, because of its pe- culiar flavor, because it is a light bearer and is not commercially profitable. The principal use to which this fruit is ap- plied is in the making of jellies; although it is used fresh for the table, and in the making of pies. There is also an American black cur- rant, Rides flondum, or Amencanum, which resembles the black currant of Europe, but is not much esteemed. There is an American species of flowering cur- rant, Rtbes aureum, but it is not culti- vated for its fruit, since it ripens very unevenly and is not of first-class quality. On the Pacific coast several varieties classed as Rthes sangutneum, are grown for ornament, mostly producing a red flower. The currant is native to the United States, and many parts of Europe. It thrives best in cool, rather humid cli- mates; upon soil that is rich, well drained, and with a clay subsoil. However, it may be grown in hot climates, if planted on the north side of buildings, or where the plants are shaded by trees of larger growth; provided that the ground is suf- ficiently fertilized to support the larger trees and currants as well. The plant is propagated mainly by means of cuttings which may be plant- ed either in the autumn or spring; but if planted in the spring the planting should be early, as they begin to grow earlier than most other shrubs or trees. The cuttings should be made from six to eight inches long, cutting just below the bud for the root, and just above the bud for the top. There is no secret about planting, except that thfere should be a careful preparation of soil, and the cuttings should be set so that at least two buds shall be below the surface of the soil, and one or two buds above the surface. The planting may be done with a spade, or a furrow may be plowed and the plants dropped against the perpendic- ular side of the furrow, and the dirt pressed firmly against them. Currants may be propagated by means of roots; but it is generally done by means of cuttings. Seeds are planted, if it is de- sired to originate new varieties. There is considerable difference of opin- ion about the distance of planting; some say the rows should be made four feet apart, and the plants three feet apart in the row. Others say the rows should be eight feet apart and the plants five feet apart in the row. If I were planting and the ground was so that one could use the square method, I would plant them according to that method, five feet apart each way, then cultivate both ways. By this means, I think labor could be saved and better fruit produced. In adopting this method, there would be a waste of land for the first and second years of growth, but if so desired some other crop could be grown between the rows until the currants needed the soil and space. Cultivation should be shallow, as the roots are fine and grow near the sur- face of the soil. Pruning is a simple process, although it is impossible to reach good results if it is neglected. It should be remember- ed that the fruit is borne on both the old and the new wood, most of it near the base of the one-year-old shoots. Conse- quently most of the wood more than one year old might be cut out and still a crop be produced, or most of the new wood might be pruned off and a crop re- sult; but the new wood bears the strong- er, better fruit, so it is better to sacrifice the old stalks. Card says: "For field cul- ture, four to eight main stems are allow- ed, and these should be frequently re- newed." It is my judgment that wood CURRANT 863 -V..V :..A^ Plate I. Currants. 1. Pomona — Bright red, sweet, very prolific ; hangs on a long time ; excellent, early. 2. Red Cross — Bright red, large, prolific; mild fiavor ; excellent, early. 3. Victoria — Bright red, hardy, prolific, a popular variety ; blooms late and avoids spring frosts ; excellent, late. 4. London Market — Red, firm, acid, prolific, excellent, early. 5. La Versaillaise — Medium sized, dark red, not prolific here. 6. Wilder — Light red, mild, hangs on a long time, excellent, early. 7. Cherry — Dark red, large, not very prolific, good, mid-season. 8. Fay's Prolific — Red, large, prolific, excellent, mid-season. _ . ^ „^ ^. Photo and Descriptions hy J. H. Stahl, Western Washinoton Experiment Station. 864 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL. HORTICULTURE more than three years old should be cut out. Like most other fruits, currants should not be picked when wet; as they tend to mold or decay if so treated. GKi^NVILLE LOWTHER Currants for the Home Garden or Commercial Plantation The currant is one of the few fruits that if planted at all in the home garden is permitted to grow at will, usually more or less choked with grass and weeds or rarely or never given any pruning or cul- tivation. While it will exist under such conditions, it- rarely gives satisfactory returns and for this reason is not gener- ally considered a profitable commercial crop in many parts of Washington. Propagation The currant, like all other cultivated fruits, does not "come true" from seed, so, for this reason, it is necessary to prop- agate it by means of cuttings, layers or division. The wood for cuttings should be of the current year's growth and may be taken any time between the falling of the leaves in the summer and the beginning of growth in the spring. The strongest plants and most satisfactory results are usually secured from cuttings made early in the fall and planted immediately. The cut- tings are usually made from seven to eight inches long. The lower end should be cut just below a bud while the upper end may be from one to two inches from a bud, depending upon the length of the wood. If the cuttings are made late in the fall or during the winter it is usually best to pit them in a callousing pit or pack them in damp moss or soil in a cool cellar until early spring. They should then be planted in deep, rich, moist soil in nursery rows three or four feet apart and the cuttings six or eight inches apart in the row. Plant down to the top bud, making the soil very firm around the base of the cuttings in order to prevent drying out during the sum- mer months. After from one to two yearns growth the plants will be in excellent shape to set in the permanent planta- tion. Soil Almost any good rich soil of sufficient depth and fertility to produce a good crop of grain will produce good crops of currants. While this class of fruit may be grown in hot, dry soil, the best results are secured on cool, moist soils. A well drained, rich, sandy loam with considerable humus in it, or even clay loam properly treated, will give excel- lent results if there is plenty of available plant food. When the soil becomes very hot and dry during the summer it is sometimes advisable to mulch with coarse litter in order to hold the moisture and keep the temperature down. It is diffi- cult, however, to grow good, clean fruit under these conditions. As a plant the currant is a heavy surface feeder and so should receive heavy annual dressings of well rotted manure or a substitute for manure in the form of commercial fer- tilizers. Planting One or two-year old plants from cut- tings or layers give better results for the permanent plantation. Most planters pre- fer a one-year-old plant, as it is easier to handle than the two-year-old plants. Early fall planting gives good results where the plants are mulched before the cold weather comes on, but for general planting early spring gives the best re- sults, especially where the stock is se- cured in the fall or winter and is set out just as soon as the ground is ready to receive the plants in the spring. Late spring planting is not satisfactory since the rootlets and shoots of the currant be- gin to form early and are easily dam- aged in handling. The same care should be exercised as in planting a fruit tree. All broken or bruised roots should be removed, the top thinned and cut back and the plant set from one to two inches lower than it stood originally in the nursery. The square planting plan of 6x6 feet is commonly used. However, it does not give sufl^cient room for the bushy sorts, especially after they begin to bear and the limbs become weighed down with the heavy crops of fruit. A better plan CURRANT 865 would be to place the rows eight feet apart and the plants six or seven feet in the row. This would allow room for thorough cultivation. CnltiTation If the plantation has received an ap- plication of well rotted manure during the winter this should be worked into the soil as early as the ground is ready to work in the spring. This may be done by shallow plowing or deep, double shov- el work. After thoroughly working the manure into the soil the surface should be left smooth and as near level as possible. Regular surface cultivation should con- tinue until picking time. After the crop is harvested, the plantation should again be thoroughly cultivated and then the plants permitted to become dormant and ready for winter. Late summer or fall growths should always be discouraged as there is danger of fall or winter injury resulting from the unripened condition of the shoots. PruniBg The currant will bear some fruit every year whether it is pruned or not, but, if fine, large fruit is desired pruning is ne- cessary. There are two general types of training currant plants, i. e., the tree form and the bush form. The tree form is de- veloped by cutting away all the shodts but one and the removal of the lower buds and branches from this shoot for from twelve to twenty-four inches from the ground, which results in a little tree. This meth- od does very well for the amateur or the novice, but is not practical from a com- mercial point of view on account of the unproductiveness of the plant and the danger of a borer destroying a whole plant instead of one cane, as is frequent- ly the case with bush grown plants. The bush form is the more common method used not only in commercial but in home gardens as well and results in the de- velopment of a well formed bush of from six to eight two to three-year-old fruit- ing canes, and from two to four young shoots or one-year-old fruiting canes. The common difficulty with the cur- rant bush is that there is too much wood left annually upon the plant and so it is compelled to produce a great number of small berries instead of great- er or equal weight of fine large fruit. While currant wood will produce fruit for an indefinite period of time, yet after it passes its fourth to fifth year it ceases to be valuable on account of the inferior quality of its fruit. Good, healthy wood produces its best fruit during the second and third years of its life and should be replaced by young shoots before it reaches its fifth year. In ordinary field culture, from five to eight bearing canes on a plant will give better results than a greater number, especially where these canes have been summer pinched in order to develop strong lateral buds. If these shoots have produced strong, lateral shoots they should be cut back to from three to four inches in length. For market purposes it is better to remove too much wood and produce a small quantity of fine fruit than not enough and produce an un- salable crop of small fruit. Pruning may be done in the fall or early in the spring. Ordinarily it is best to do it just before the plants start into growth in spring. Harvesting and aiarketing Since the currant is largely used for jellies and spice purposes, a rather tart fruit is more desirable than a thoroughly ripened fruit. For this reason as well as the better shipping qualities of slightly green fruit, currants should be picked just before they are ripe rather than after they have become fully ripe. Fruit picked while it is cool ships much better than fruit picked during the heat of the day. Under no consideration must fruit be picked while it is wet with rain or dew, as it soon spoils if handled while wet. The bunch should be removed whole from the plant and kept whole, never shelling or stripping the bunches, as it is sure to lower the grade, if not ruin the fruit entirely. Up to the present time there is no es- tablished method in the West, for marketing currants. The common 24- quart crate is extensively used and is undoubtedly the best and most adaptive Western package. A few growers use a 866 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ten or twenty pound shallow box for near markets, but find it unsatisfactory for long shipments. The pony refrigerator can he advantageously used for the fancy grades, but should not be used for any- thing but the best. Discussion of Yarieties The size, color, productiveness and at- tractiveness of the Red Cross currant makes it an especially valuable new sort, while the mild flavor, productiveness and good plants of the Wilder places it at once among our best sorts. The older standard sorts, like the Victoria, Pomona and Cherry, are popular and very valu- able for home as well as commercial pur- poses. The following notes on varieties were secured from the plants in the experiment station grounds at Pullman, Wash.: Bed Yarieties Cherry A weak, spreading bush with long canes which frequently break in the wind. The foliage is dark green, abun- dant and practically free from dis- ease. The berries vary in size from medium to very large, but are usually very large, of a dark red color and are borne in loose, short, poorly-filled clus- ters. An early to medium productive sort, valuable for home use, but not good for commercial purposes on account of its short-stemmed clusters, which makes picking rather expensive. Comet A medium to large, irregular shaped plant with good strong canes and an abun- dance of dark green, healthy foliage. The berries are rather large, dark red, of a brisk acid flavor and borne in long- stemmed, loose, but well filled clusters. A new% very productive, mid-season sort, not commercially grown. Fays Prolific A large, spreading, irregular shaped bush, with good, strong, erect canes and an abundance of large, light green, healthy leaves. The berries are large, of a dark red color, medium acid flavor, and borne on fine, long branches. A very pro- ductive, late season sort. Valuable for commercial as well as home use. La Yersaillaise A large, spreading, irregular shaped bush with good, strong canes and an abun- dance of large, dark green leaves. The berries are medium sized, of a dark red color, with a brisk acid flavor and borne in long, loose, poorly filled clusters. A good market sort, commonly grown, but not very productive in many parts of the state, London Market A large, strong growing, erect bush with slender, erect canes, which stand the wind well, but break very easily when handled during picking. The foliage is dark green, abundant and free from dis- eases. The berries are medium to large, of a bright red color, mild subacid flavor and very attractive. The bunches are of medium size, short, compact and well filled, making a very showy market sort. A very fine mid-season, productive vari- ety. Long Bunch Holland A rank growing, stocky plant, with short, heavy erect canes and an abun- dance of dark green healthy leaves. The berries are small, of a bright red color, rich acid flavor and are borne in long, loose bunches, A popular mid-season sort, but not so profitable as many larger fruited sorts. Perfection A large, strong, upright growing plant, with long, erect, strong canes and an abundance of fine, dark green foliage. The berries are very large, of a bright red color, brisk acid flavor and are borne in short, compact, well filled clusters. A new, very productive, mid-season variety. Valuable for home as well as market purposes. Pomona A large, rank growing bush with erect rather slender canes and an abundance of small dark green leaves. The berries are medium to large, of a dark red color, a mild acid flavor, and are borne in long, well filled clusters. A comparatively new variety for home as well as for market purposes. CURRANT 867 Red Cross A strong, erect growing plant with stiff, short canes and an abundance of dark healthy leaves. The berries are very large sized, of a dark red color; a mild acid flavor and are borne in long, loose well filled bunches. A comparatively new variety that is rapidly becoming popular for market and home use on account of its large size and productive habits. Red Dutch A large, irregular shaped bush with slender, long canes and an abundance of fine, dark green foliage. The new canes frequently suffer severe injury from the summer winds. The berries are small, dark red, mild acid and are borne in short, poorly filled clusters. An old, very productive, and, while small fruited, popu- lar sort. Tictoria A strong growing, upright, productive bush, with heavy upright canes and an abundance of dark green healthy foliage. The berries are very large, bright red, of a mild acid flavor and borne in rather Plate II. Currants. 9. Fertile de Palluau— Large, red not prolific liere. 10. White Grape — White, mild, prolific, excellent, mid-season. 11. Red Dutch — Bright red, acid, small, good. 12. White Transparent — Very similar to White Grape, mid-season. 13. Black Naples — Large, black, not very prolific, good, late. Photo and DescHptions hy J. H. Stahl, Western WasMnpton Experiment Station, 868 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE small, poorly filled loose bunches. One of our best late sorts. Wilder An irregular shaped, spreading, very productive bush with strong, spreading canes and an abundance of fine dark green foliage. The berries are of medium size, dark red color, very mild subacid flavor and are borne in loose, short stemmed bunches. Its mild flavor and fine quality with other admirable traits make this an excellent sort where a table fruit is desirable. White Varieties White Grape A medium sized, flat spreading, very productive bush, with long, slender canes and an abundance of healthy, dark green foliage. The berries vary greatly in size, but average well, are of a light greenish white color and excellent quality. The bunches are long, loose and poorly filled. A very valuable sort for home table use, but not popular as a market sort. The yellow and white fruited forms of practi- cally all kinds of small fruit are not so popular in the market as the bright col- ored sorts. European Black Varieties Black Champion A large, rank growing, spreading bush with slender, recumbent canes and an abundance of dark green foliage. The berries are medium sized, black, of good quality, and are borne in short, poorly filled bunches. While a very rank grow- er, this variety is a very shy bearer. Black Victoria A very large, strong growing plant, with strong, erect canes and plenty of dark green foliage. The berries are of medium size, pure black color and pleas- ant flavor. The bunches are medium sized but poorly filled. This is the best and most productive black sort tested. None of the black varieties are of com- mercial importance in the West but are occasionally grown for home use. American Black Variety Orandall A large, rank growing, spreading plant with long, strong, erect canes and a rather small amount of light green foli- age, which is frequently diseased. The berries are variable in size, of a blue black color and rather sweet fiavored. The bunches are small, poorly filled and the plants are not very productive. None of the Missouri Yellow Flowering currants are profitable for fruit produc- tion; nor should they be grown near the red or white sorts as they are nearly always the harboring places for the cur- rant fruit worm, which is so hard to com- bat and does so much damage in many parts of the state. W. S. Thoknber, Washington Experiment Station Popular Bulletin 26. Currants for Alaska. See Alaska. Varieties To Be Planted The following varieties are recommend- ed by the American Pomological Society for planting in the various districts: (See Map, p. 192.) District Ho. 1 Recommended as successful — Cham- pion, Lee's Prolific, Naples, Saunders, Al- bert, Red Cross, Red Dutch, Red Grape, Versaillaise, Victoria, White Dutch. Very successful — Cherry, Fay, White Grape, Wilder. Recommended for trial — ^Moore's Ruby. District Ko. 2 Successful — Champion, Lee's English, Naples, Saunders, Albert, Holland, Lon- don, North Star, Pomona, Red Dutch, Versaillaise, Victoria, White Dutch, White Gondouin. Very successful — Cherry, Fay, Red Cross, Wilder. Recommended for trial — Wales, Moore's Ruby, Perfection, Raby Castle, St. Giles. District Ifo. B Successful — Lee, Moore's Ruby, Red Dutch, Versaillaise, Victoria, White Dutch, White Gondouin, White Grape. Very successfxjl — Cherry, Fay, Wilder. Recommended for trial — ^Naples. District No. 4 Recommended as successful — Black Champion, Lee, Wales, Victoria, White Dutch, Wilder. CURRANT— CURRANT DISEASES 869 Very successful — Cherry, Fay, Red Dutch, White Grape.' Recommended for trial — Crandall, Al- bert. District Fo. 5 Recommended as successful — Crand- all. Recommended for trial — St. Giles. District Ko. 6 and District IN^o. 7 Includes Florida, and the Southern states bordering on the Gulf where it is too hot for currants. District No. 8 Recommended as successful — Cham- pion, English, Holland, Versaillaise, White Dutch, Wilder. Very successful — Cherry, Fay, Perfec- tion, Red Dutch, Victor, White Grape. Recommended for trial — Crandall, Wales. District IVo. 9 Recommended as successful — Cham- pion, English, Lee, Naples, Wales, Albert, Cherry, Fay, Perfection, Red Cross, Red Grape, St. Giles, Victoria, Wilder. Very successful — Holland, London, North Star, Pomona, Red Dutch, White Grape. Recommended for trial — Saunders. District No. 10 Recommended as successful — Cherry, Defiance, North Star, Red Cross, St. Giles, White Grape. Very sl^ccessful — Red Dutch, Red Grape. District No. 11 This district includes a part of Texas and New Mexico, and is not adapted to currants. District No. 12 Recommended as successful — Albert, Holland, Victoria, White Grape. Very successful — Cherry, Fay, Red Dutch, Versaillaise, White Dutch. Recommended for trial — English, Lee, Red Cross, Red Grape, White Gondouin, Wilder. District No. IS Recommended as successful — Cham- pion, Lee, Naples, Saunders, Wales. District No. 14 Recommended as successful — Cham- pion, North Star, Red Cross, Red Dutch, Red Grape. Very successful — Cherry, Fay, White Grape. Recommended for trial — Perfection. District No. 15 Recommended as successful — Cherry, Victoria. Very successful — Fay, White Dutch, White Grapes. District No. 16 Recommended as successful — Fay, White Dutch. District No. 17 and District No. 18 Include part of California and Arizona, where it is too hot for currants. CURRANT DISEASES Anthracnose Pseudopeziza rihis H. S. Jackson Currant anthracnose seems to be the most common fungous disease of this fruit which occurs on the Pacific coast. It seems to be widely distributed in the state and is generally known throughout the United States. It is also common in Europe. This disease is known to attack the gooseberry, but usually not in a seri- ous form. It is more severe upon the red and white currants than upon the black. Symptoms The disease is primarily a leaf disease, though it may grow upon practically all parts of the plant above ground including the fruit. On the leaf the disease causes small brown spots which are more or less thickly scattered. When abundant the affected leaves turn yellow and fall. This disease is probably the cause of much of the premature defoliation of currants. The general effect of the fungus is to interfere with the proper development of the fruit and generally to reduce the vitality of the plants, thus interfering with the proper ripening of the fruit and the formation of the fruit buds for the next year. Spots of the disease may also occur upon the petioles and young canes and upon the fruit stalks and young 870 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE fruits. Conspicuous black spots which are slightly sunken are formed on the leaf stalks and petioles and also on the fruit stems. Here the spots are black and from one-fourth to one-half inch long. On the fruit black spots resembling fly- specks are formed. On the young canes the disease pro- duces only a slight discoloration; it oc- curs only upon young canes of the current year's growth, and is very difficult to detect. Where plants are in partial shade they are not as seriously attacked. Older plantations are found to be more seriously affected than more recent plantings. Cause This disease is caused by a fungus known technically as PseVidopezim ritis. The fungus exists in two spore stages. In the spots on the leaves, petioles and canes, the summer spores are produced in pecu- liar fruiting structures known as acer- vuli; these are doubtless disseminated by wind and spattering rain, and when com- ing to rest upon any part of the plant grow into the tissues and cause new spots. It has been proved that the fungus ma- tures on the stems, and it is possible that it winters over on the canes in this condi- tion. It is certain that the fungus is carried over the winter by the foliage, which lies on the ground. Treatment The first infection results from the dissemination of spores from the dead leaves of the previous season, and any method of destroying these leaves might tend to reduce the seriousness of the attack. It would be advisable, there- fore, to plow early, before the leaves come out in the spring, in order to bury the dead leaves. Where practicable, rak- ing and burning the leaves would have the same result and would probably be more effective. A dormant spraying to- ward spring, to prevent any further de- velopment of the summer spores on the canes, would be advisable. Use the Bor- deaux mixture 5-5-50. Spray again when the leaves unfold and repeat at intervals of ten days until the fruit is two-thirds grown, avoiding the blossoming period. If summer rains are abundant it may be found profitable to spray once or twice after the fruit is gathered. Black Knot. See under Cherry Dis- eases. Cane Blight Nectna cinnabarina (Tode) Pr. This is a very serious disease whenever stools are attacked by it. The fungus sur- vives by its threads in the tissues of the stool and upon the death of the canes de- velops as a bright pink mass of the fun- gus upon dead parts. While spi-aying may, and surely must, keep down the risk of infection, whenever stools show attacks by dying of a part of the canes and the development of this fungus these infected stools are doomed and should be removed and burned. A. D. Selby Eeference Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants. Currant Blight, Currant Cane Blight, Currant Cane IVecrosis Botryospfiaeria nhis An Old, Obscure Disease More than twenty years ago, a disease was discovered which has become today a very destructive trouble in the currant plantations of the Hudson valley. New York. The cause of this disease re- mained long unknown; but careful study by botanists of the Geneva and Cornell stations proved it to be due to a fungus which has three distinct spore forms Of these, the basal form is Botry- osphaena riUs, so that this stands as the scientific name of the fungus which causes currant blight, currant cane blight, or currant cane necrosis. Usually, the discovery of the cause of a disease soon leads to a remedy, but in this case no preventive or remedial treatment can yet be recommended. Symptoms of the Disease On certain canes, or portions of the canes, the leaves wilt, turn brown and die. An affected cane will show a sec- tion of dead wood from one to four inches long where the bark has been killed and wood and pith invaded by the CURRANT DISEASES— CURRANT PESTS 871 mycelium of the fungus. This hinders the ascent of sap and thereby causes all the upper part of the plant to wither and die. The general appearance is very simi- lar to that caused by borers in the canes, but when this insect is responsible, a distinct burrow will be found and the larva, itself, may be present. In fungus- blighted canes, neither burrow nor larva can be found, but on careful examination, especially with a microscope, fine, whit- ish, cobwebby threads may be discovered in the discolored pith at the point of at- tack. Dropsy This disease causes very considerable enlargement upon the young stems of the currants, not unlike in appearance the enlai-gements due to crown gall in the peach, except that usually more of the stem is involved than in the other case. The trouble appears to be due to physiological causes and the pruning knife may aid cultural efforts. European Currant Enst Cronartium rihicola Fisch. de Waldh An outbreak of this rust has been re- ported from New York, although before 1906 supposed to have been confined to Europe and Asia. It appears also upon the white pine. Np practical means of control seems at hand. References Ohio Bui. 214. Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants. Knot Due to a fungus, requires further in- vestigation. Leaf Spot Septoria ribis, Desm.; Cercospora angu- lata Wint. Leaf spot of currants is referable to two species of fungi. These fungi produce early spotting and prema- ture dropping of the currant foliage; in some instances the leaves drop even be- fore the fruit has ripened. Bordeaux mix- ture applied as per calendar is effective against this disease, though late appli- cations may render it necessary to wash the fruit. For this reason, if for no other, the first application should be made very early and followed by about two more at fortnightly intervals. xJL* JL/. 0« Powdery Miluew. See under Goose- terry Diseases. Wilt. See Currant BUgfit this section. CURRANT PESTS American Cnrrant Borer Fsenocerus supernotatus Say When red and white currants are leaf- ing out in spring, some bushes are no- ticeably slower in expanding their foliage than other individuals of the same vari- ety. This is frequently due to the pres- ence of stem-boring larvse, either those of the above beetle, which are white, cy- lindrical, and without feet, about a quar- ter of an inch in length, or those of the imported currant borer, which somewhat resemble the above but have a brown head and short legs beneath the body. The parent of the American currant borer is a small, narrow, brownish-black beetle, about %-inch long, with long slen- der feelers and two conspicuous white spots on the back towards the end of the body, and two smaller dots about the mid- dle. These beetles may sometimes be found in the month of June crawling about upon the bushes. The eggs are laid in summer, and the young grubs burrow inside the canes and do not change to pupasj until the following May. The at- tack of this insect, although occasionally serious to fruit growers, is only an excep- tional one, for the species propagates much more freely in the stems of the Virginian creeper. Remedy When currant bushes are being pruned, all the wood which is cut out should be burnt and if the presence of this insect or of the currant borer is detected by the black burrows in the centers of the stems, such stems should be pruned down until the larva is found, so that it may be destroyed. Cottony Scale. See Apple Pests, Cnrrant Aphis Myzus riMs L. When the leaves of currant bushes are nearly full grown, many of them bear 872 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE blister-like elevations of a reddish color, beneath whicli will be found yellowish plant-lice, some winged and some wing- less. The blisters are due to the attacks of these insects, and when, as is some- times the case, they are very abundant, considerable injuiy is done to the bushes. See ApTiids, Remedy Spraying forcibly with whale-oil soap solution or kerosene emulsion will destroy large numbers of these plant-lice at each application; but the liquid must be copi- ously applied and driven well up beneath the foliage by means of an angled nozzle. Two or three applications at short inter- vals may be necessary. Currant Leaf Hopper Empoasca mah, Le Baron A frequent cause of considerable injury to the leaves of currants and gooseberries, is a small pale green leaf hopper which during May and June is found in large numbers beneath the leaves, from which it sucks the sap. This is the same insect that is often so abundant upon apple trees. The mature insect is a slender leaf hopper less than % of an inch in length, and passes the winter beneath rubbish, leaves, etc. It flies to the bushes in spring, as soon as they leaf out The young wing- less leaf hoppers of the first brood may be found about the beginning of June, and should be destroyed before they de- velop their wings and propagate. Remedy Spraying the bushes with kerosene 'emulsion or whale-oil soap solution before the insects become winged, is the best remedy. Care must be taken to drive the liquid well up under the leaves. See also Apple Pests. Jambs Fletcher, Ottawa, Can Currant Maggot or Gooseberry Fruit Fly Bpochra canadensis Loew A. L. LOVETT This insect is possibly as serious a pest of the currant and gooseberry fruits as we have in the Northwest. The attack is on the fruit itself and causes it to become prematurely ripened and altogether worth- less. The first indication of injury due to this insect is a small spot on the one side of the fruit where growth has apparently ceased. Later the fruit shows a cloudy appearance, becomes prematurely ripe and upon examination reveals a dark spot in the interior, which proves, when the fruit is opened, to be a small footless grub. The fruit drops to the ground, and as a result, the crop is shortened greatly or is entirely ruined. The adult of this maggot is a very pretty two-winged fly about the size of a house fly. It is of a pale yellow or orange color. The wings are marked with dusky bands. The grub or maggot is footless, white in color and with the body com- posed of 13 segments. The head is armed with a pair of black, parallel, retractile hooks, the rasping organs of the maggot. Life History The adult flies emerge during May and may be observed about the bushes during late May and June, Soon after emergence the female commences depositing eggs. One female may lay as many as 200 eggs; usually she will deposit but a single egg in a fruit. The egg-laying process is in- teresting; the fly alights on the fruit and hurries about in a nervous manner, keep- ing the wings in constant fanning motion. When at last suited with the location she pierces the fruit with her ovipositor and pushes the egg under the edge of the skin. The egg hatches into a small white grub, which at once commences to feed and travel. Its route may be readily traced just under the skin by the discoloi-ed path of injured cells and excrement left be- hind. After traversing a greater or less distance around the fruit, the maggot turns to the interior and enters one of the seeds. After growing too large to remain in a seed, it binds several seeds together and continues to feed on their contents. Occasionally the larvae leave the fruit be- fore it drops to the ground. More often they remain in the fruit until after it has fallen, where they complete their growth, and when ready to transform to a pupa crawl out of the fruit and into the soil. They enter the soil to a depth of about one and one-half inches, where they form CURRANT PESTS 873 an earthen cell and transform to a pupa. They remain in the soil as a pupa until the following May when they emerge as adult flies. Control Measures This insect is not an easy one to control The fact that the egg is deposited under the skin of the fruit and that the larva spends its entire existence in the interior, makes poison sprays for the larva of no avail. Sweeping An insect net swept over the vines in the early forenoon during June should collect many of the flies. They could then he dipped in hot water or suds. Poultry Young poultry allowed to run in the patch a few hours each day will pick up the fallen fruit containing the maggots and materially lessen next season's crop of flies. Spading Advantage may be taken of the fact that the pest spends nearly 11 months in the soil. Spade up the soil thoroughly to a depth of four or five inches close up about the bushes. This will break up the pupal cells and expose the insect to un- favorable weather conditions and the at- tack of its enemies. MnlcMng Mulching heavily with straw in the spring might prevent the flies from emerg- ing as they are very weak when newly emerged. Cnrrant Soft Scale Lecaninm riT>is Fitch There are occasionally noticed upon the stems of currants and gooseberries clus- ters of lai"ge swollen dark-brown polished scales, about 1-10 of an inch in diameter, beneath which, when mature in July, large numbers of white eggs may be found. These hatch during that month, and the small, mite-like 3^oung crawl all over the plant and suck the sap from the leaves and young growth. By autumn they have grown but little and are covered with a flat brown scale about 1-32 of an inch in length. As winter approaches, they crawl on to the twigs and pass the winter there. During the spring of the next year they grow rapidly and, as they are sometimes in such numbers as almost to cover the twigs, they do a considerable amount of harm by sucking the sap at the time when the bushes require all their vigor to ripen fruit. Remedy Spraying the bushes in winter time either with the lime-sulphur wash or with kerosene emulsion, is the best treatment for this scale. Currant Span Worm Gymatophora ridearia Fitch This voracious caterpillar, which fre- quently does much harm to currants and gooseberry bushes, but particularly to the black currant, is more difficult to control than the common currant worm, the larva of the impoi^ted currant sawfly. The caterpillars are about an inch in length, of a whitish color, with yellow stripes down each side, and one down the middle of the back; the whole body is dotted with black spots of different sizes. There is only one brood of this insect in the year, the moths appearing about the end of June and in the beginning of July. The eggs are laid on the twigs during the latter month, and remain there unhatched until the following spiing. The caterpil- lars may be fonnd during June. Kemedy It is necessary to use a much stronger poison for the currant span worm than for the ordinary currant worm, Paris green, arsenate of lead, or some other ar- senical poison, are preferable to the white hellebore usually recommended. When occurring only in small numbers, hand- picking is practicable, owing to the habit of the caterpillar of letting itself down by a strong silken thread when the bushes are disturbed. In addition to the above, which is the commonest of the span worms found on gooseberries and currants, there are occa- sionally found two much larger caterpil- lars of the same shape and looping move- ment of the body when walking. These are those of the currant angerona (Xan- thotype crocataria, Fab.) which has a caterpillar an inch and a half long or 874 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE more when full grown, of a yellowish- green color, with a whitish line down the back and a broad white band on each side bordered with pale purple, below the spir- acles, and the pepper and salt currant moth {Lycia cognatar%a, Gn.), which has a large caterpillar two inches long, vary- ing in color from green to dark brown, and when at rest standing out rigidly, like many of the other span worms, so as to resemble a twig or the stem of a leaf. Neither of these latter caterpillars is a regular pest of the small fruit grower; but they occasionally appear in such numbers as to require attention. They are easily controlled by the same remedies as given ^ ^^^' James Fletcher, Ottawa, Can. Currant Stem Oii'dler Janus integer After the leaves have fallen so that the stems of currant are well exposed many among them are sometimes observed to have been pruned off across the top, and by splitting the cane, a tunnel is found running down the pith chamber for from four to six inches. The excre- ment or frass of the borers is scattered along the tunnel and after early Septem- ber the lower part of the tunnel will be found to have been cleaned out and is oc- cupied by the grub, enveloped in a thin silken cocoon. A passageway from the center to the bark is eaten out and by means of this opening the adult sawfly, into which the grub transforms, makes its way to the outside the following May. The sawfly is a close relative to the insect which lays eggs to produce the well known currant worm. It has four wings, a shining black body, and light brownish legs. The abdomen of the male is brown- ish yellow, while in the female the first half of the abdomen is of a reddish-orange color and the rest is black. This insect is known as the currant stem girdler. Remedy By cutting ofC and burning about eight inches of the tips from the girdled canes, any time during the occupancy of the tunnel by the larva, the insect will be con- trolled. ^ ^ GOSSAED, Ohio Bulletin 233. Currant Worm or Imported Currant Sawfly Fteronus nbesii Scop. By far the best known of all the insects which injure currants and gooseberries, is the "Currant Worm." The black spotted dark green false-caterpillars of this insect may unfortunately be found in almost every plantation of currants or goose- berries, every year in almost all parts of Canada. The white eggs are laid in rows along the ribs of the leaf on the lower side, towards the end of May. From these the young larvse hatch and soon make their presence known by the small holes they eat through the leaves. Unless promptly destroyed, they will soon strip the bushes of their leaves, thus weakening them considerably so as to prevent them ripening fruit the first year, and also re- ducing the quality of the crop of the fol- lowing season. There are at least two broods in a season in Canada. The first appears just as the leaves are attaining full growth, and the second just as the fruit is ripening. The perfect insect is a four-winged fly which may be seen flying about the bushes early in spring. The male is blackish, with yellow legs and of about the same size as a house fly, but with a more slender body. The female is larger than the male and has the body as well as the legs yellow. Remedy For the first brood a weak mixture of Paris green, 1 ounce to 10 gallons of water, may be sprayed over the bushes, or a dry mixture 1 ounce of Paris green to 6 pounds of flour may be dusted over the foliage after a shower or when the leaves are damp with dew. For the second brood Paris green must not be used, but white hellebore; this is dusted on as a dry pow- der, or a decoction of this powder. 1 ounce to 2 gallons of water, may be sprayed over the bushes. It is, of course, far better to treat the first brood thoroughly, so as to reduce the number of females which would lay eggs for the second brood. Four-Lined Leaf Bug Poecitocapsus Uneatws Fab. An occasional injury of no very great importance, as a rule, to the leaves of cur- CURRANT PESTS 875 rants and gooseberries, is by the four- lined leaf bug. The eggs of this insect are inserted into the twigs of bushes, par- ticularly currants. They are usually placed near the tips and protrude slightly through the bark. As they are white, they can be easily seen and, when once known, can be recognized again without difficulty. Much good may be done in controlling this insect by cutting off all egg-bearing twigs when pruning. The mature insect is a flat, bright green or yellow bug, with four black lines down the back and with the tips of the wings and two large round spots on the thorax also black. The nymphs or immature bugs occur with the adults near the tips of shoots and are ex- ceedingly active. These insects puncture the young leaves of currant and goose- berry bushes as well as of many other kinds of plants, causing brown spots which are sometimes so numerous and close together as to make the leaves wither. Remedy When, as is generally the case, only a few bushes are attacked, shaking off the nymphs and perfect insects into open pans containing water with a little coal oil on the top, is often sufficient. If the attack is more extensive, spraying the bushes with kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap solution will destroy all the insects reached by the spray. The winter is passed in the egg state, therefore, all egg- bearing twigs should be cut off and burnt. James Fletcher, Ottawa, Can. Gooseberry Gall Midge. See under Goosel)erry Pests. Imported Currant Borer Sesia tipuliformis Clerck (Family Sesiidae) Aegeria tipuliformis Clerck. General Appearance The adult females are clear-winged moths with delicate, slender bodies about three-eighths of an inch long and a wing expanse of from five-eighths to three- fourths of an inch. The general color is jet black with deep blue iridescence. There is a yellow band around the base Fi^. 1. Adult Females of the Imported Currant Borer, Sesia tipuliformis (Clerck). The li^ht- bands on the bodies are somewhat confusing, due to extremely bright light when the photo- graph was taken. of the head; three distinct and two indis- tinct yellow bands around the abdomen and two oblique longitudinal yellow stripes on the thorax. Because of sun- shine these lines and bands are mislead- ing in the photograph (Fig. 1) excepting the last two abdominal rings in the left- hand specimen. The areas on the thorax just below the wings are also yellow. The fore wings are opaque along the borders, with a small band enclosing a clear area near the opaque tips which are bronze. The hind wings are clear, excepting a brown border. The legs are banded yel- Fig. 2. The Pupae Cases of the Imported Currant Borer, from which the adult moths have emerged. 876 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE low and black with the inner sides of tibiae and tarsi yellow and the outer sides black. The larvae are slightly more than half an inch in length and yellowish white, with dark heads. The chrysalids are amber brown. Life History The eggs are deposited in the early sum- mer and the young upon hatching bore into the canes of the curi-ants and work upon the inner pith during the summer and winter, eventually destroying the bushes. Late in the spring the pupae are found within the old burrows near an opening through which the adult emerges, drawing nearly all of the pupal case after it. The winter is passed in the larval Stage. BIstnbution Canada and the United States. Food Plants The young caterpillars work on the pith within the stalks or canes of the currant and gooseberry, doing much dam- age to the fruit-bearing wood. In not a few cases entire patches have been ren- dered worthless before the unsuspecting grower was aware of the real cause of the dying bushes. Control Control is rather difficult and consists in cutting out and burning the sickly- looking canes as often as they appear. E. 0. EssiG Imported Currant Sawfly. See Gicr- rant Worm, this section. Obliqne-Banded Leaf Boiler ArcMps rosaceana Harr. Late in May and during June the leaves at the tips of young shoots of currants of all kinds may be seen gathered together by active pale green caterpillars about three-fourths of an inch long, with black heads. Upon tearing the leaves apart these wriggle quickly out of their shelters and fall to the ground. When full grown, which is during June, the caterpillars change to brown chrysalids inside their tents, and from these a little later the moths appear. These are flat and broad in shape, resembling a bell in outline when at rest The front wings are light brown, crossed by broad oblique bands of a darker tint. The hind wings are of a pale ochre yellow. The moth expands about an inch across the wings. The caterpillars are very general feeders and may be found on a great number of trees and shrubs. Eemedy Spraying bushes with Paris green and water to destroy the first brood of the currant worm, will control this cater- pillar also, as it occurs about the same time. The clusters of leaves containing the larvae are easily noticed and should be pulled apart and the caterpillars killed whenever detected. Oyster Shell Scale Mytilaspis ulmi L. Several kinds of scale insects attack currants and gooseberries. These plants seem to be particularly susceptible to the attacks of the well known oyster shell scale of the apple, and the San Jose scale. In neglected plantations these in- jurious insects increase rapidly, and a great deal of injury results to the trees. Eemedy The remedies for scale insects are direct treatment for the destruction of the in- festing insect, and preventive measures such as the invigoration of the tree by special culture and pruning, to enable it to throw off or outgrow injury. Infested plantations should be cultivated and fer- tilized early in the season, and all un- necessary wood should be pruned out. As direct remedies, spraying the bushes at the time the young scale insects first appear in June with kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap, or spraying in autumn before the hard weather of winter sets in with a simple whitewash made with one pound of lime in each gallon of water, gives the best results. Two coats of the whitewash should be applied, the second one immediately after the first is dry. In putting on two thin coats of the wash in- stead of one thick one, far better results have been secured. For the San Jose scale the lime and sulphur wash is neces- sary, and must be repeated every year. CURRANT PESTS— CYTOLOGY 877 «Eea Spider" Tetranychus species In dry years great injury is occasionally done in plantations of currants and goose- berries, as well as on raspberries, apples and many other kinds of fruits, by vari- ous species of spinning mites wbicb are usually spoken of in a general way, by horticulturists, under the name of "Red Spiders." These are all very minute red- dish, or greenish white, mites that are found on the lower surfaces of the leaves, which they cover with a fine network of web in which they live and which ren- ders it difficult to get at them with or- dinary liquid applications. These minute creatures propagate very rapidly, and their injury to trees by sucking out the juice of the leaves is very soon apparent by the bleached appearance of the foli- age, which soon dries up and falls away. Remedy It is probable that most of the kinds of "Red Spiders" pass the winter as eggs on the bushes. Plantations which have been infested one year, should be thoroughly sprayed early in spring with the lime and sulphur wash. Sulphur has a specially fatal effect upon all kinds of mites. If bushes are found to be infested in spring or summer time, they should be sprayed forcibly with kerosene emulsion, which might be followed in persistent attacks, which often occur, by dusting the bushes while wet with powdered sulphur by means of one of the so-called insect guns or horticultural bellows. James Fletcheb, Ottawa, Can. ScuEFY Bakk Louse. See under Apple Pests. Yellow CuRRAisrT Fly. See Currant Maggot, this section. Cytology Cytology is the science which deals with the structure, development, and functions of the cell; of the multiplication of cells into organs and tissues. The cell has been defined as "A mass of pro- toplasm with a nucleus in it." History of Cell Theory Cells were first discovered in various vegetable tissue, by Robert Hooke, in 1665, but it was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century that any insight into the real nature of the cell and its functions was obtained. In 1846, Hugo von Mohl was the first to recognize that the essential vital constituent of the plant cell is a slimy protoplasmic mass, in- side of the cell and not the cell itself. This mass was called the nucleus, and was distinguished from the cell wall which is now supposed to be a protection to the vital part, rather than the vital part itself. The cell theory, in so far as it relates to plants, was established by Schleiden in 1838. He showed that all the organs of the plants are built up of cells, that the plant embryo originates from a single cell and that the physiological activities of the plant are dependent upon the in- dividual activities of these vital units. This conception of the plant as an ag- gregate or colony of independent vital units governing the nutrition, growth and reproduction of the whole, cannot, how- ever, be maintained. It is true that in the unicellular plants all the vital ac- tivities are performed by a single cell, but in the multicellular plants there is a more or less highly developed differentia- tion of physiological activity giving rise to different tissues, or groups of cells, each with a special function. The cell, in such a division of labor, cannot there- fore be regarded as an independent unit. It is an integral part of an independent organism and, as such, the exercise of its functions must be governed by the or- ganism as a whole. Size of Cells Prof. Charles Joseph Chamberlain, University of Chicago, says: "Most cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye, cells which are visible without the microscope being ex- ceptional rather than the rule. The egg of a bird consists of a single cell, as do the eggs of animals and plants. The larg- est plant cells are the internodal cells of the stonewort, CTiara, which reach a length of two inches. The largest egg cell for any plant is that of the Zamia, a plant related to the sago palm; this 878 JENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE cell reaches a length of about one-eighth of an inch. "The most usual shape of the free cells is the spherical, and cells forming a part of a tissue are more or less rectangular in form. "When first formed, the cells of the in- dividual animal or plant are very much alike, but as one examines the cell furth- er from the regions where actual cell multiplication is taking place, it is seen that the originally similar cells are be- coming very unlike. In the higher plants, the outer cells become different- iated into protective tissue, the innermost into conductive tissue, others into as- similative tissue, and still others become reproductive cells. In higher animals, similar differentiations take place, cells which finally become so different as those which form nerves, muscles, glands and even teeth, having been practically alike in the beginning. Among the unicellular organisms, there is often remarkable dif- ferentiation and division of labor, the single cell performing the functions of locomotion, securing food, digestion, as- similation, etc. Such differentiation and the causes which lead to it are among the most important cytological problems. "It is a remarkable fact, that while undergoing nucelar division, the cells of plants and animals strikingly resemble each other, even in the behavior of the most remote constituents of nucleus and protoplasm. "This must mean that animals have been derived from plants, or that struc- tures of amazing similarity have arisen independently in animals and plants. Fertilization "Fertilization is one of the most im- portant problems of cytology. While new individuals without fertilization, even in the more highly organized animals, may occur occasionally (by parthogenesis, chemical stimulus, vegetative multiplica- tion, etc.) such cases are so rare, that fertilization is assumed to occur, unless its absence is clearly established. To the cytologist, fertilization consists in the union of definitely organized male and female elements. The cytological details of fertilization of plants and animals are essentially alike. Fertilization both in plants and in animals is preceded by a reduction in the number of chromosomes, so that the number of chromosomes found in the male nucleus or in the fe- male nucleus is just one half the num- ber found in the body cells of a given plant or animal. Consequently, when the two sexual nuclei fuse during fertiliza- tion, the number of chromosomes which characterizes the body cells is restored. The complicated details of the process by which this reduction in the number of chromosomes is effected is essentially alike in plants and animals. Those cytol- ogists who have investigated most thoroughly the phenomena of fertiliza- tion have come to the conclusion that heredity is referable to a definite cyto- logical basis. A Cytological Tiew of Heredity "Almost without exception, cytologists have believed that chromatin is the physical basis of heredity. The reasons for this belief are briefly as follows: The male and female parents are about equal- ly potent in transmitting characters to offspring; an equal amount of chromatin and an equal number of chromoses are contributed by each parent; nothing but chromatin is contributed equally by each parent. There is usually a great differ- ence in size between the male and the female germ cells. The sperm cell {spermatozoan) of the ostrich, is almost invisible to the naked eye, while the egg is as large as a cocoanut, and such diff- erences in size are usual both in plants and animals. The egg contains a large amount of protoplasm and various food stuffs and in many cases even that little is left outside at the time of fertiliza- tion, only the nucleus entering the egg. Hence, protoplasm and foodstuffs do not transmit hereditary characters. While the male nucleus is usually the smaller at the time of its entrance into the egg, it increases in size so that at the time of fusion the sex nuclei are alike in size. "The organization of embryos and ma- ture organizations from eggs is a cyto- logical problem which has not yet been CYTOLOGx — DATES 879 solved. The visible stages in develop- ment have been observed and described ad mflnitum. Both experimental cy- tology dealing largely with living ma- terial, and anatomical studies of thin sections, stained so as to show the most minute details of structure, are contribut- ing to the solution of the problem, but the fundamental underlying phenomena are still unknown and seem as diflacult as the problem of life. The eggs of the sun- flower and the willow, like the eggs of flowering plants, are too small to be examined with the naked eye, but even when examined by the aid of modern technique and the most powerful micro- scopes, they present no essential differ- ence in external appearance, nor in ex- ternal structure, and yet one will al- ways develop into a willow, and the other into a sunflower. Within the fer- tilized egg are all the potentialities of the adult, even to the color of the flow- er, or the markings of the wings of the butterfly. *'This view of Professor Chamberlain, is in substance supported by H. M. Ber- nard, an eminent French scientist, who in 'Some Neglected Factors in Evolu- tion,' published in 1911, outlines his work as follows: "'The cell, long considered to be the unit of organic structure, is here treat- ed as a form-feature of a fundamental network universally present in pro- toplasmic tissues. The most primitive organisms are, essentially, living net- works from which all the tissues and organs of the higher animals and man have become differentiated, in response to an ever-widening range of environ- mental stimuli. " 'The periodic rise in the level of or- ganic life through the appearance of new types of animals, which the Darwinian theory of variation does not explain, is attributed to a series of units of struc- ture, starting with one simpler than the cell. Each of these units in turn, hy colony-formation, has succeeded in pro- ducing an organism of a more complicated type, and has thus inaugurated a new and higher evolutionary period. In man, the unit of the present period, the build- er of human societies, the psychical func- tions of the organic living network, latent in former peiiods, have been developed by interplay with a psychical environment. The mental development of man and the complicated problems of social life are thus treated as being serial with the simpler phenomena of organic life and as pointing to some future higher develop- ment of the great Cosmic Rhythm.' " Dahlia. See Floral Section, Dates Phoenix dactylifera The dates of commerce are the fruit of a species of palm, a tree which ranges from the Canary islands through North- ern Africa and the southeast of Asia to India. It has been cultivated and much prized through most of these regions from the remotest antiquity. Its culti- vation and use are described on the mural tablets of the ancient Assyrians. In Arabia, it is the chief source of na- tional wealth, and its fruit forms the staple article of food in that country. The tree has also been introduced along the Mediterranean shores of Europe; but as its fruit does not ripen as far north, the European plants are used only to supply leaves for the festival of Palm Sunday among Christians, and for the celebration of the Passover by the Jews. The date palm is a beautiful tree, grow- ing to a height of from 60 to 80 feet, and its stem, which is strongly marked with old leaf scars, terminates in a crown of shining pinnate leaves. The flowers spring in branching spadices from the axils of the leaves, and as the trees are unisexual it is necessary in culti- vation to fertilize the female flowers by artificial means. The fruit is oblong, fleshy and contains one very hard seed which is deeply furrowed on the inside. The fruit varies much in color, size and quality, under cultivation. Those who only know the date palm from the dried specimens of that fruit shown beneath a label in shop windows, can hardly im- agine how delicious it is when eaten fresh in Central Arabia. The dried fruit used 880 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE for dessert in European countries con- tains more than half its weight of sugar, six per cent of alhumen, and 12 per cent of gummy matter. Encyclopedia Britannica Tlie Bate Palm in the United States The date was early introduced into America by the Spanish. The history and present status of the date palm in the United States has been made a sub- ject of study by the Arizona station. The following statements are taken mainly from a bulletin of that station. The palm followed the progress of Catholic missions from St. Augustine to Mexico, New Mexico, Arizona and California, where it is now grown in the open ground as an ornament *as far north as San Francisco. The tree will, however, produce fruit only over a much more limited area. It is not yet grown on a commercial scale anywhere within the United States, though occasional seedlings are found in the desert regions of South- ern New Mexico, Arizona, and South- eastern California, which produce fruit of excellent quality. The greatest impulse was given to date growing in this country by the importa- tion by the Division of Pomology of this Department of rooted suckers supposed to have been taken from female trees known to produce fruit of excellent qual- ity. These were distributed and planted in Las Cruces, N. M.; Phoenix and Yuma, Ariz.; Indio, Pomona, Tulare, and National City, Cal. Of the trees thus planted it appears that 39 are now living, of which 15 have blossomed, seven of them being pistillate or fruit-bearing plants. It may be two or three years before their true fruit qualities can be ascertained. The regions in which the date palm thrives are characterized by deficiency of rain and wide variations of temperature. The summer heat is intense, reaching 115° or more, though in winter the ther- mometer may fall as low as 16° below freezing. These climatic conditions are practically identical with those that ob- tain in the more southerly portions of the great Colorado desert. So great is the similarity in fact that, so far as cli- mate is concerned, we may reasonably expect the date palm to fruit satisfac- torily in the arid regions of our South- west, Although the date palm requires exceptionally intense heat in summer, it will withstand in winter a temperature that would be fatal to the fig or orange. Probably the soil best adapted to the date palm is one containing a small per- centage of clay, fairly free from humus, and charged with alkali. Irrigation and heat are the all-important considerations. Water is indispensable. The roots should be moist at all times. "The date must have its head in the fire and its roots in the water" is an old Arabian proverb. The water should be applied frequently throughout the year, the most in the spring before blooming and in the fall prior to ripening of the fruit. Care should be taken not to irrigate too much at the time of blooming and just after, as this is liable to interfere with success- ful fruit setting. The water may advan- tageously be quite warm, from 75° to 95", and contain considerable alkali. In mid- summer irrigation should be in the late afternoon or evening to avoid scalding. Palms may be planted along streams or flooded basins. All desert regions are characterized by occasional depressions where the water comes nearly or quite to the surface. During the rainy season these are filled with water and some- times do not become entirely dry before another rainy season. The date palm thrives in such spots when once estab- lished, although its trunk may be par- tially submerged for some time. Where irrigation is practiced, however, water should not be allowed to rise above the surface of the soil for any considex'able length of time, and later be allowed to dry away, as baking of the soil under these conditions may result in serious in- jury to the tree. Prom a study of the soil and climatic conditions in Northern Africa, where the date palm flourishes, it seems probable that dates may be grown in the region adjacent to the Salton basin west of Yuma. The date may be propagated from seeds DATES 881 or suckers. The former method is not much used except in originating new va- rieties, because, like many other fruits, the date does not come true to seed. The fruit is generally later and poorer, and the excessive number of males that spring up cannot be distinguished and destroyed imtil the tree blossoms, hence propaga- tion by suckers is resorted to, although the date is difficult to transplant with uni- form success. Frequently as many as 50 per cent, of the transplanted dates die after they have received the best of care, and if neglected hardly any will survive. The Arizona station gives directions for transplanting as follows: Suckers may be removed at any time during the spring or early summer, or even in the winter if proper care be given them after removal. If they are to be planted in the open ground, it is advis- able to remove them during the spring or early summer, April probably being the best month. In winter, when the plants are at a standstill, the suckers may be removed with comparatively small loss, if the bulbs be not less than four inches in diameter and have a few roots. It is necessary, when suckers are removed at this season, to set them in rather small pots, so that the earth, which should be given a daily soaking, may have a chance to get warm quickly. The pots should be kept in a greenhouse, or, better yet, em- bedded in a hotbed of manure, covered with the customary frame and glass. In all cases the leaves should be cut back to six to 12 inches in length. * * * If proper attention can be given it is best to plant the suckers where they are to remain, as a second chance for loss occurs when they are planted in a nur- sery and later removed to the position that they are finally to occupy. A two-inch chisel well sharpened, and an appropriate mallet, are the important tools to use in removing suckers. The leaf stalk should be cut away, exposing the bulb of the sucker, care being taken not to injure the bulb in removing. One should cut in rather deeply at either side, not being afraid of injuring the old plant, cutting out a V-shaped portion extending from the base of the bulb downward for a foot or more and being careful to secure in uninjured condition all the attached roots. If the position of the sucker be not too high above the ground, the V- shaped portion should be continued downward into the soil, that all estab- lished roots be obtained. The Pomona substation in California has the best suc- cess in removing suckers by banking earth about the stem of the plant so as to cover the bulbs a number of weeks prior to removing them. A good system of roots is established by this method of procedure. Male and female flowers of the palm are borne on separate plants. In the male plant the flowers are crowded closely together on a large branched panicle and have an odor like musty flour. If the panicle is shaken when the flowers are well opened quantities of pollen will es- cape, filling the air as if with dust. The flowers in the female panicle are much farther apart; the segments are smaller and less spreading. The center of the flower is well filled by three pistils, two of which soon become abortive. It is evident, then, that male and female trees should be planted near each other. It is quite common to set one male plant in the center of an irregular circle of six or eight females. If the trees are planted in a row along a roadside the male trees should be planted to the windward. The wind may be depended upon as a rule to effect pollination if the staminate is not more than six or seven rods from the pis- tillate flowers. At greater distances pol- lination may be effected, though with doubtful certainty of completeness, by both wind and bees. The palm is peculiar in that the pollen retains its fertility for a long time. It may be transported to great distances and artificially applied to the female blossom with success. Pollen should not be dusted on the flower too profusely, as overpollin- ation is said to weaken the developing dates and cause them to drop from the tree. When artificial pollination is neces- sary the male blossom is cut from the tree as soon as the cracking of the spathe shows that it is about to open. The panicle may then be cut into pieces 2—15 882 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE and a piece tied near the opening of eacli female panicle. The date palm, whether male or female, varies greatly as to time of blooming. It always blooms late, however, thus escap- ing injury from late spring frosts. In Arizona the blossoming period begins about April 15 and continues six weeks or more. In planting male trees suckers should be selected from those that blos- som earliest and most profusely and con- tinue in bloom from three to five weeks. The varieties of dates are almost innu- merable. They vary greatly in size, color, sweetness, delicacy of flavor, and length of time required to mature. The dates of commerce are usually light colored, these being of firmer texture, and are hence preferable for shipping purposes. The average yield of a tree is eight bunches, each weighing about IT^A pounds, though they may weigh as much as 44 pounds. In Arizona seedling trees seven years of age have produced up- wards of 200 pounds in a single season. Young trees blossoming the first or second time should not be allowed to bear more than four or five bunches. Among the various enemies of the date, birds and bees do much injury by feeding on the ripe fruit. Cheese cloth sacks loosely inclosing the bunches on the tree afford the best protection. The expense should not exceed 10 cents per tree. Grasshoppers do much damage by feeding on the foliage. The most serious pest that the date has in this country is a scale insect that was imported on palms several years ago. The insect is small, but conspicuous against the dark green leaves, both sides of which are infested. The Arizona station has not yet discov- ered any means of eradicating the pest. Applications of whale-oil soap washes and fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid gas have been only partially successful. Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Depart- ment of Aj?riciilture, Bulletin 92 Delaware Delaware has a land area of 1,257,600 acres, and with the exception of Rhode Island, is the smallest state in the union. It has a population of 202,322, a large per- centage of which live in manufacturing centers. There were reported in 1909 10,836 farms which give a fairly good esti- mate of the number of farmers. The aver- age number of acres per farm is 95.6, and the average value of fax-m land per acre is $33.63. The soil and climate are not much dif- ferent from those of New Jersey, or any of the portions of country along the Atlan- tic coast. There is in the soil a consid- erable mixture of clay and sand with some humus, which renders it adaptable to the growing of fruits, melons, potatoes and vegetables. The waters also fui^nish reasonable protection from frosts. It has been supposed that Delaware was espe- cially adapted to the growing of peaches; and some supposed it would soon become a great peach orchard; but at the time of the largest hopes in this direction, the "Peach Yellows," a disease not well under- stood, struck the orchards and thousands of acres of trees were dug up, while the planting was in a considerable degree checked. According to the census of 1910 Delaware had of peaches and nectarines 1,177,402 trees; apples, 429,753; pears, 449,692; grapes, 260,936 vines, and straw- berries, 7,194 acres. In 1909 the produc- tion of all orchard fruits together was 65 per cent less than in 1899. For market facilities, there is no state more favorably situated than is Delaware. Of the total value of crops in 1909, 51.4 per cent was contributed by cereals, 21,1 per cent by potatoes and vegetables, 12.9 per cent by hay and forage, and 15.6 per cent by small fruits, forest products, orchard fruits and nuts. Granville Lowther Progress in Apple Grrowing in Delaware Progress in apple growing in Delaware in twenty years is from practically noth- ing to a respectable crop. To realize just what has been done, a comparison must be drawn between then and now. Then a few venturous spirits had been making excursions into the unknown by planting any variety that any one recom- mended. Out of that hodge podge of planting had appeared some few varieties seemingly well adapted for use here, but DELAWARE— DEWBERRY 883 mostly Delaware orchards were the relics of the tree agent age when the glib tongue and beautiful pictures of fruit sold trees well adapted for planting in the north but worthless for this soil and climate. Rem- nants of these orchards still exist in many localities With these were found a few varieties like Winter Grixon and some of the earlier sorts, good enough in them- selves at that date for local consumption, but none of them free enough of scabs, blights, rusts and worm-holes to have com- mercial value. Men who know, said that good, clean fruit had been grown here, but for some reason would not grow any more. No market existed for the stufC that was grown, tor none were so poor as to do it reverence. When a little start had been made and more good fruit was raised than local markets could consume, it was uphill work to convince buyers for the large markets that Delaware could produce any apples suitable for their trade. Today Delaware ranks high in pro- duction per acre and per tree; and year by year advances in quality and quantity. S. H. Deeby, Address before 24th Annual Session of tlie Peninsula Horticultural Society, Dover, Del., January 10-12, 1911. Fruit Crop of Delaware The fruit crop in 1910 amounted to 20,000,000 quarts of berries; 750,000 bush- els of apples; 500,000 bushels of peaches; 631,000 bushels of pears; 279,000 carriers of cantaloupes; S73 carloads of water- melons. Dehydeation. See Evaporation of Fruits. Dewberry The dewberry is one of the most luscious of the small fruits. It has a fine flavor, and is rapidly growing into popu- larity. It requires about the same care and treatment as the blackberry, but is a little more tender, and in the colder regions it would be necessary to protect the canes by a light covering of earth or straw, during the winter. Its habits of growth are somewhat different from those of the blackberry. The blackberry is an upright grower while the dewberry is a trailmg vine and is usually trained on trellises Card, in his "Bush Fruits," doubts the value of the dewberry, and suggests that its place may be occupied with some im- proved varieties of blackberries. This may be true, on account of the dewberry being a poor shipper. It must be in the market not less than 36 hours after pick- ing; but for early ripening and flavor, we have no blackberry that is its equal. Soil and Location In its wild state, the dewberry is found growing on light sandy soils; but experi- ence has shown that any soil adapted to raspberries or blackberries will grow dew- berries successfully. Geanville Lowthek Dewberry Cnltnre Propagation The dewberry may be propagated by layering the tips or from root cuttings. In fact the plants are so easily secured that one may generally get them from his neighbors' plantation more easily than from a nurseryman. If plants are re- quired by the wholesale a good plan is to plow a furrow along the row, place the tips of the runners in this and turn a light furrow back upon them ; the tips must be actually covered. This work should be done before the opening of the picking season in most altitudes, and the plants will be ready for next spring's setting. Deep cultivation that will disturb or break large roots will cause many new plants to start. If an old bed is to be discarded, a good crop of plants may be secured by thoroughly plowing and working down the bed in the spring, allowing the young plants to spring up from the broken roots the following summer. Root-cuttings, from roots the size of a lead pencil, may be taken in the fall, stored in moist sand over winter and planted out in nursery rows the following spring. If these root- cuttings are well eared for during the winter and planted three inches deep in a good soil, kept well moistened, a fair per cent will produce plants. Root-cuttings taken in the spring and planted in the same way will also give fair results. The 884 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE dewberry does not sucker as freely as the blackberry, neither does it root as readily from root-cuttings. Preparation of Land for Planting In an irrigated section the first step in the preparation of land for any crop is proper leveling; low spots where water settles or high spots difficult to irrigate materially cut down the dewberry yield. Best stands are secured when the ground has been deeply plowed, well worked down and pulverized; no doubt fall preparation is advisable for spring setting. Planting The majority of our dewberry beds are from spring settings but many of our ex- perienced growers seem to be of the opin- ion that fall setting would prove as satis- factory and would bring quicker returns. I see no reason for not setting in the fall, the plants would necessarily be quite tender the first winter but could be well protected and should suffer no injury. Planting in the fall should be done in early September and spring planting as soon as the ground can be worked. As to distances for planting there is still some dispute, but, if the plants are to be allowed to grow prostrate, setting 5x5 feet seems to be the most satisfactory system. They can be pruned accordingly and cul- tivated either way. If grown on a wire trellis, rows six feet apart with plants three feet in the row would no doubt be a better system. When planted in the young orchard, the distance can be made such as to best utilize the space. There is no particular objection to planting dew- berries in the young orchard but the grower is to be cautioned about crowding the trees and advised that in most cases it is not' a crop for the old orchard. For planting, the ground is furrowed out one way and cross-marked. The plants are dropped in the furrow at its intersection with the cross-mark, and par- tially covered with the foot. The furrow is turned back, the plants straightened up, the soil iirmed about them, and the job of setting is completed by running water down the row. As with any other plant, the top should be cut back at setting time to offset the loss of roots in digging. Cultivation The cultivation of the dewberry patch should not be unlike that for any other bush fruit. It should be well cultivated in the early part of the season to keep down the weeds and conserve the mois- ture. Cultivation stops at the opening of the picking season and is resumed again at its close, continuing until the end of the growing season. Since deep cultiva- tion which disturbs or breaks the roots tends to start objectionable plants in the middles, the early cultivations and possibly the later ones should be rather shallow. If the plants are allowed to run for the purpose of being trained on a trellis, cul- tivation must be in one direction; when checked equal distance each way the gen- eral plan is to keep the middles open only one way. While it may be possible to overgrow the plants by continual cultiva- tion, it is better to counteract this by withholding water rather than by discon- tinuing cultivation. Good cultivation is no doubt conducive to vigorous, but not necessarily to rampant growth. xmj^aijiou There are really no tricks in irrigating dewberries. The ground should be kept moist and in good condition during the early part of the growing season. The young plants will stand a good deal of water the first season. During the picking season it is the common practice to water after each picking, just a light surface watering. This supplies the roots with the needed moisture to swell the berries to good size and by keeping the surface of the ground moist the berries ripen better, there is less loss from the drying of the fruit. It would be a good plan, no doubt, to try to induce early maturity of the canes by withholding water after the close of the picking season. In localities where the winter snowfall is not great the dewberry patch should be given a late fall irrigation. Fertilizing The grower of dewberries cannot ex- pect that the plants will continue bearing good annual crops without fertilization. If properly cared for, there seems to be almost no limit to the duration of the DEWBERRY 885 plantation. Good stable manure is one of tlie best fertilizers. It maybe applied in early spring before uncovering the plants and the uncovering process as well as early cultivation will help incorporate it with the soil. Frequent light applications are preferable to heavy and irregular ones, as they tend to promote more uni- form growth and yields. Pruning In most sections dewberries are al- lowed to grow prostrate; growers say it is too expensive to trellis them and it might be added that the present system seems highly satisfactory. No doubt, un- der certain conditions, trellising would be advisable but surely could not increase the yield any considerable amount. Where the plants are grown on a trellis, they receive no summer pruning as a rule; the new canes are allowed to trail on the ground under the trellis while the fruit- ing canes are tied to the wires. The only pruning the plant requires — unless it be a clipping back in August to induce early maturity — is cutting out the old canes in the fall or spring and shortening the new ones to three or three and one-half feet. A two-wire t^-ellis is generally used, the top wire being about three feet from the ground. The training of the dew- berry without the trellis requires a little more care in pruning but saves the labor of tying up and allows of early cultiva- tion either way. The first pruning con- sists in tipping the new growths when they have attained a length of 12 or 18 inches; the canes then stand up- right above the old wood and the tips may be mowed off with a sickle or large knife. It is important that this pruning be done at the right time; do not wait until the canes are longer and then cut back to eighteen inches or weak lateral canes will be the result. This early pruning forces out lateral canes and thus increases the bearing surface as well as stiffens the lower part of the cane, making it support itself better^ The general practice is to prune the second time just before picking begins. The main object of the pruning seems to be to get the new wood out of the way of the pickers. At this time the lateral canes forced by the first pruning are cut back to two or two and one-half feet; they should be left long enough to shade the old wood and the fruit, yet short enough to be easily lifted by the pickers. This pruning must not be delayed too long as it starts new growth which should have time to mature. At its best it is not satisfactory and it is probable that the growers will yet learn to avoid this pruning. The third pruning is admin- istered the following spring, and consists in removing all old canes and shortening in the new canes that may have grown too long. There seems to be no reason why this pruning may not be done before covering in the fall other than that the foliage makes the pruning more difficult. Picking In growing dewberries on a large scale one of the serious problems is that of securing pickers. The average picker will pick from five to seven crates a day, and this means that it will take from eight to ten average pickers to pick an acre per day. The general practice is to pick every third day, and the large patch may be divided so as to furnish the pickers employment every day. The pickers must at least wear a glove on the hand used to lift the vines and most of them wear a glove with the tips of the fingers removed on the picking hand. Some growers supply the pickers with a twelve-basket carrier, or two if the pickers are fast and able to carry them. Others advocate the use of the regular shipping crate holding twenty- four baskets. A bale may be made of heavy wire bent in a way to clamp into the grooves that serve as handles in the end of the crate. Of course crates used to pick in cannot afterwards be used as shipping crates. The deck boards and baskets for the second tier are carried along and placed in position when the first tier is filled. In this way the picker carries a full crate in one hand and at the same time does not expose them to the sun for any length of time. A piece of heavy cloth large enough to cover half the crate may be tacked by two corners 886 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE across tlie center of the crate and used to shade one end of the crate while the other is heing filled. The pickers should he made to grade the fruit, and the best way is to have them put the culls in cer- tain boxes and pay them for picking these the same as first class fruit. This plan provides a place for fruit the picker gathers and hates to throw away because it fills up. Dewberries should be picked when a full glossy black. Berries which have gone beyond this stage and turned a dull or more ashy color are too ripe to ship. The cull box is the place for over- ripe, dry, and poorly colored berries. Ripe berries start mold if packed for shipment. Dewberries should not be picked when moist, as after a heavy dew or rain. Pickers are paid by the crate, thirty cents, if they pick part of the season, and thirty-five cents if they finish the season. If the grower does not protect himself in this way, some of the pickers will leave him when picking gets poor. Yields and Eeturns A dewberry plantation in good bearing will yield from three hundred to four hundred crates of berries per acre. Mr. Baldridge's patch, on four and one-half acres of ground was set in 1903. In 1904 it yielded 125 crates of berries, in 1905, 1,800 crates; in 1906, 1,800 crates and in 1907, 2,000 crates. It would probably be hard to give a satisfactory estimate of the cost of production of dewberries. The crate costs the grower 27 cents and picking 35 cents per crate, plus probably 5 cents for overseeing and crating the fruit. At present (1909) the average price paid for dewberries has been $2.25 per crate F. 0. B. the nearest shipping point. 0. B. Whipple Colo. Exp Sta. Bui. 136 Tarieties LOnly three varieties are recommended by the American Pomological Society for propagation, the Lucretia and Mayes or Austin-Mayes having proven successful and the McDonald, which is recommend- ed for trial. — Ed.] BEWBEEEY DISEASES The dewberry is troubled by the same fungus and other diseases, for the most part, as the raspberry and blackberry. The reader is referred to the diseases of these plants. Double Blossom Fusanum ruM Winter A disease known as "double blossom" occurs on several species of rubus; but has attacked the Lucretia dewberry es- pecially. It has been reported from the Middle Atlantic states and westward to the Mississippi, having first attracted at- tention in Illinois. The disease produces witches' brooms on the buds which sometimes remain green after the canes are dead. Diseased buds show larger than normal in the spring and are frequently of a reddish color. The outer flower parts are increased in number and appear crumpled while the ovaries fail to develop fruit. Soon after the opening of the flower buds the fungus fruits and the spores falling upon young buds germinate and grow inward. The fungus remains dormant here until the following spring. Hand picking of the diseased buds is the most practicable method of control at present known. Beference M. F. Cook, Delaware Experiment Sta- tion, Bulletin 93. DEWBEREY PESTS The dewberry is attacked by much the same species of insects as other members of the Rubus family. See under BlacJc- terry and Rasplerry Pests. Diseases of Plants Origin and Katnre of Disease All diseases originate from one of two sources. First, the nature of the organ- ism in which the disease is located. Second, the nature of the environment, which is something outside of the organ- ism and to which it is closely related. Whoever would, therefore, understand disease, must know something of the organism in which the disease is lo- DISEASES OF PLANTS 887 cated, the environment and the relations between the organism and the environ- ment. It is often difficult to distinguish between health and disease; because of the differences between the standards by which comparisons are made. For instance, whoever has seen an oak in the Appalachian mountain range, where it is *'King of the forests," and would com- pare it with the same species and vari- ety found in the semi-arid bluffs of Kansas and Nebraska, would incline to the opinion that the stunted specimen of the semi-arid section is diseased. How- ever, the short, scrubby specimen of the Central West is normal to that region and not diseased. It may be pointed out that certain specimens of that region are decaying, have been attacked by in- sects, broken by storms, are not properly nourished, the leaves turning yellow, and that these particular specimens are dis- eased while the normal specimens, with no visible decay, no external injuries and no apparent lack of nourishment, are healthy. Prof. A. D. Selby, Botanist of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, says: "The idea of disease is not an easy one, though it may seem so be- fore trying to define it. In reality, the term disease as applied to plants means any change in the plant towards re- duced vigor from the ordinary behavior. To put it in another way, a plant is said to be diseased when it shows deviation from the average behavior of the plant in respect to appearance, growth, color of bark, foliage, fruitfulness, time of dropping the leaves, or length of life. In short, when the plant fails to perform those functions, or conform to those aver- ages which have been established by ob- servation for the species and variety in question, we say that it is diseased. Under such general definition, variegated or purple hued spots would be included, although diseased potentially rather than in reduced vigor." In deciding the question of what are favorable and what are unfavorable con- ditions results obtained from experi- ments or from observed phenomena would be determining factors as against any theory. The best conditions would be those in which the best specimens were produced; average conditions would be those in which average specimens were produced; and poor conditions those under which poor specimens were produced. By observations of this char- acter, it can be determined what envir- onments are most favorable for the health and vigor of the plant. In this manner we have come to know in a measure what are the conditions best suited to the different varieties of apples, peaches, pears, plums, grapes, straw- berries and bush fruits. We have by a general study of the subject, by infor- mation gathered from all available sources, from farmers, experiment sta- tions and experts who have traveled widely, made comparisons so that there is a general ideal or standard of judg- ing, by which plants are compared and the plants of normal growth, excessive growth and stunted or diseased condi- tions determined. It would seem that a comparison should not therefore be made between the most perfect specimens and any particular individual of the species, nor should it be made between the more stunted specimens and the same indi- vidual, but with the average, for it is the great law of averages that deter- mines the standard of any race, species or variety. Perfection as a Standard We have often urged that perfection should be the standard by which com- parisons are made, and we still insist on this when we are trying to improve the stock. But judging in reference to diseased specimens is another matter. Perfection is defined as "Having all properties and qualities necessary to its nature, of the best, highest, or most com- plete kind of type, without deficiency, fault or blemish." Sometimes it is de- fined as "Finished, incapable of being improved upon." In this latter sense the word is never used in reference to fruits, for like most other things in na- ture, there is no limit to the degrees of improvement The apple of the future will perhaps be as much better than the apple of today as the finest specimens 888 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE of Spitzenburg are now better than the forest crab, from which they probably came. Perfection is therefore a relative term, in the same sense that disease is a relative term, and a just comparison can only be made with the average. That which is now considered perfection may be very imperfect in the future, and that which is now a standard of health may be considered stunted, because it may fall below the average Hattire of the Organism and Disease There is much more knowledge than formerly upon the nature of organisms and their adaptations to particular localities. It is understood that no two things in na- ture are exactly alike; but several things, like apples, for instance, are sufficiently alike so that the conditions necessary for the growth of one variety may be favorable for the growth of another variety. Still, it remains true, that the different varie- ties of apples are in many particulars unlike, and that the unlikeness is suffi- ciently marked so that conditions favor- able for the growth of one variety may not be the best for another, and in some extreme cases are decidedly unfavorable. This is the reason why the American Pomological Society has divided the United States into districts and has giv- en a list of the various fruits and their varieties that are "Successful, very suc- cessful, fairly successful and recom- mended for trial," in the different dis- tricts. (See page 192). We will compare a few plants that belong to different species, rather than those of the same species, as illustrating our idea. Take celery, cress and cran- berries as illustrations of plants that re- quire a great amount of water. In a dry soil, where the sun was hot, they would sicken and die. On the other hand, al- monds, sand-plums, sage brush and cacti would reach a normal condition and manifest health where the first named group would die. This is on account of the nature of the organism, which adapts one to a wet soil and the other to a dry soil. Because of this difference it would be folly to expect success in the growing of celery without plenty of water, or to expect success with almonds in a damp or sub-irrigated soil. AU Plants Once Aquatic It is taught by geologists that in the early history of our globe the whole sur- face of the earth was successively cov- ered with water, and that all vegetable and animal life was adapted to the wa- ter. With the changes that came from the shrinking of the surface of the earth, the consequent upheavals, the building of mountain ranges and the valleys be- tween them, the subsequent draining of great basins of lakes and seas, and the consequent forming of deserts it came about that gradually both plants and animals became adapted to the many con- ditions existing between the extremes of water and desert. The struggle of all forms of life is for existence and the tendency is in the direction of those changes necessary to existence and to adapt the organism to a given environ- ment. The plant that cannot become so adapted will in so far as that par- ticular locality is concerned, become extinct. Naturally, therefore, the plant or tree that is adapted to the desert will have a small leaf surface, from which little water can be evaporated, or if the leaf surface is large as in the case of the cacti, it must have few stomata, or pores, from which the water can be taken by the action of the heat It must also have a root system, adapted to the dry soil conditions under which it lives. Another example of the leaf formation in adaptation to the different conditions is the difference between the Indian corn and the Kaffir corn. The latter having a thick, compact leaf with few cells ex- posed to the air and which admits of a small amount of evaporation, lives in dry regions. For this reason certain va- rieties of peaches will live and bear fruit where other varieties would die, and watermelons will grow successfully where pumpkins and muskmelons would fail. It has, therefore, come to be ob- served, that plants have certain likes and dislikes, growing out of the nature of the organism, and that if any particular plant gets what it likes it is healthy, but if it does not, it becomes diseased. DISEASES OF PLANTS 889 Org'ans Ha\e Become Permanent Whatever may have been the causes of variation in plants, the facts remain that they are variously adapted, and that these adaptations are suited to all the conditions common on the surface of the earth. This has made necessary or- gans that mark them as different, per- forming different functions in different degrees, and these differences have he- come permanent. Therefore, unless these permanent likes and dislikes are consid- ered, the wants growing out of them sup- plied and they are protected from that which they dislike, there cannot he a condition of health. For this reason it is necessary to study the nature of the organism and the nature of the environ- ment It is only hy this means that it can he determined whether they are adapted to each other, or whether the soil, climate and general surroundings contain injurious elements. If a certain soil, for instance, contained all that was necessary to the health of a tree, hut if at the same time it contained something injurious, the tree would suffer; as in the case of a man who ate a good healthful meal containing all that was necessary to his vigor, hut at the same time took poi- son. Again, it is often true that certain chemical qualities in the soil are good in certain proportions, hut taken in larger portions become injurious. This is true of alkali salts, which in a certain degree are fertilizers, and stimulate the growth and vigor of fruits and other crops, but in larger quantities, become injurious. In certain excessive quantities they kill the little hairs that form on the roots and which gather the food substances in solu- tion, thus causing a lack of nourishment and final death of the plant The symp- toms are generally a yellowing of the leaves. If we may judge by the unfavor- able conditions under which plant life has been observed to grow, we might conclude that there is life potentially in every par- ticle of earth, air and water. In other words, that life is everywhere, and that it strives to clothe itself with whatever forms are adapted to its surroundings. Whoever has observed the growing of moss on the rocks in the desert or on a marble slab in a cemetery, must have wondered at the tenacity with which life struggles to maintain itself, and with which it strives to adapt itself to the most unfavorable conditions. Yet, it would be folly to plant a tree in the solid rock or try to grow a garden on a marble slab. We must, if we succeed, study the nature of the organism and the environ- ment. Health the formal Condition Whatever may be the cause or causes of diseased conditions in plants, we are forced to the conclusion that the ten- dency of life is toward health and toward a more perfect expression of its being. Among the many proofs that may be of- fered are the following: First, The tendency of all plants to change, in order to become adapted to different conditions of soil, climate and whatever environment affects them. Second. The effort to repair any injury that has been done by insects, animals, wounds, diseases or from whatever cause. Diseases Classified We give herewith a general outline un- der which diseases may be classified. 1. Secretional diseases, in which cel- lulose is transformed into gum, resin, manna. The effect is produced by over- action of the normal functions. 2. Diseases produced by fungi and other vegetable parasites. 3. Diseases produced by decomposition, as gangrene, or canker. These are pro- cesses of decay in which the cellulose is transformed into a muddy fluid, a brown powder, or a carbonaceous mass. 4. Diseases produced by the attack of insects and other animals. 5. Atmospheric conditions. 6. Soil and moisture conditions. 7. Ltight, electricity, winds and storms. 8. Crowding so that the food supply is cut off- 9. Isolation and consequent lack of fer- tilization. 10. Unknown causes. Grats^ville Lowther 890 E3NCYCL0PEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE History and Definition Diseases in plants have existed as long as plants themselves—ages before the ad- vent of man. Civilization and agriculture have usually developed together in all parts of the earth and it is not strange that anything that troubled or destroyed an important food plant should be ob- served and the cause sought. In the earli- est historic records as well as in early Greek and Roman times some of the more destructive diseases of plants, like rust and mildew or blight of cereals were widely known and discussed. A special deity was recognized who ruled these phenomena and to whom sacrifices were offered. Injury due to animals, especially in- sects, and to extremes of weather and unfavorable soil conditions were early often associated with their appropriate causes. It was not, however, until the latter part of the eighteenth and the be- ginning of the nineteenth century that the solid foundations of plant pathology were laid by the development of anatomy and physiology. The early works of Unger, "Die Exantheme der Pflanzen," etc. (1833) ; Weigmann, "Die Krankheiten und Krankhaften Misbildungen der Ge- wasche" (1839); and of Meyen Pflanzen- pathologie" (1841), marked an important step forward in the embryo science of plant pathology- During this period mi- croscopical, chemical and physiological work with plants was active. The writ- ers of this period rather overworked un- favorable nutrition as the cause of dis- ease. Maladies that could not be traced to visible external causes were usually held to be due to unsuitable nourishment or the lack of something in the soil. It was not believed that the fungi so often found associated with diseases had any casual relation to them. They were held to be abnormal developments of the dis- eased cells themselves and not independ- ent organisms. It remained for De Bary to determine the true nature and habits of fungi and bacteria and to demonstrate their causal relation to disease in many cases. His careful work gave a great stimulus to investigation in plant and ani- mal pathology and opened what has proved to be the most important field of the science. His two most important works are "Untersuchungen uber die Brandpilze," etc. (1853), and "Morpho- logie und Physiologie der Pilze," etc. (1866). Since De Bary the rapid develop- ment of the subject is well represented by the works of Hartig (1874-89), Frank, (1880-96), Soraurer (1886-8), Marshall Ward (1889-1901). The last work "Dis- eases in Plants," is one of the most ex- cellent and readable expositions of the subject that has appeared. Health and Disease Compared That there is no defined line between health and disease is generally recognized by pathologists and physiologists. A plant continually varies in response to changes in its environment. There is, however, for each individual and for a given species as a whole a certain accus- tomed range or power of adaptation to each factor of its environment and to the various combinations of these factors. The process of natural selection operates to perfect this adaptive attuning of the in- dividual and the species as a whole to the conditions under which they live. If these conditions are subject to great ex- tremes of moisture and dryness or heat and cold, the natural or indigenous vege- tation will be found, as a rule, equal to the emergency, while an introduced spe- cies, if developed under an environment not subject to such extremes, might be seriously injured or destroyed, and if the change is very unusual even the indige- nous species may suffer. A moist, warm, cloudy spring may be followed by dry, hot weather and the tender watery growth be so much dried out and checked that it may be deformed and abnormal in shape, structure and size. This variation may be slight or it may be great If it is slight it may have no appreciable effect on the vigor and growth of the plant. The leaves become a little firmer and smaller and more resistant to the hot, dry conditions, while the maturer leaves that cannot adapt themselves to the change turn yellow and fall, cut off by the parent plant. The plant is better for DISEASES OF PLANTS 891 the change and can live under the modi- fied conditions with greater ease and safe- ty. If the variation is greater, the growth of the plant may be decidedly checked, the leaves being small and many more of them shed. In still more extreme cases the tender leaves may be dried up and killed either wholly or in part. Ac- cording to Hartig, "It is only when the sickly condition leads to the death of some part of the plant that we may speak of actual disease," Where a few leaves, unable to adapt themselves to a changed condition, turn yellow and fall, the leaves themselves may be diseased, but the plant as a whole is benefited by their loss as being relieved of sources of un- controlled drain of its water supply. As the loss of leaves becomes greater, how- ever, we pass from the extremely localized disease to a point where the whole or a considerable part of the plant is weak- ened, either by the direct loss of food that should be furnished by the leaves to the rest of the plant structure, or by the use of reserve food in the reproduction of lost parts. It is evident in such cases that the border line between health and disease is hard to define. The case is not much easier if, instead of variations produced by moisture and temperature, we consider those caused by insects or fun- gi. A few leaves eaten from a tree by some insect or destroyed by a fungus might have no injurious effect on the tree as a whole, and might even be an advan- tage, but as the number of injured leaves increases the tree is weakened and its life threatened. Slight doses of certain poisons stimulate the cells to more vigor- ous growth, acting as a tonic, while a little larger dose poisons and destroys the cell. Leaving all questions of con- sistency of definition, we may practically define as diseased all those conditions of a plant which directly or indirectly en- danger its life or prevent normal devel- opment under given conditions of environ- ment. Or, as Marshall Ward puts it, "We may define disease as dangerous disturb- ances in the regularity, or interference with the completeness or range of the molecular activities constituting normal life — that is, health — and it is evident that every degree of transition may be realized between the two extremes." Prevention Successful treatment of plant diseases consists in preventing the spread of the disease and not in curing the plants al- ready affected. The tiny thread-like plants — the fungi — ^which cause diseases, grow inside the tissue of the leaves, stems, fruit, etc., of the plants, which they attack, and after they have gained entrance there it is impossible to reach them or to treat the tissue which they are destroying. These fungi perpetuate themselves by producing myriads of tiny seed-like reproductive bodies — spores — which are so tiny as to be invisible and so light that they float about everywhere in the air. They are thus carried from one plant to another by the wind, and where they lodge on a leaf or stem and find conditions favorable they germinate and grow. Disease is thus scattered from plant to plant and from field to field. These spores are always produced on the diseased areas of affected plants, and for this reason where it is possible to do so all diseased parts should be collected and burned as soon as the disease appears on them. If this could be done with all plants and all diseases they could be elim- inated at one clean sweep. Unfortunately, some of these fungi live over in the soil or in fragments of decaying plants, which cannot be collected by any practical means. In such cases we have to resort to other means of controlling them. One way of doing this is by using disease resistant varieties. Certain individuals and certain varieties of plants are more resistant to disease than are other indi- viduals and varieties. By planting seed from such individuals, and by continually discarding the plants which succumb to the disease, we originate a disease-resist- ant strain or variety. In some cases this is simple and can be practiced by any one; in other cases where the plants, such as trees, are long-lived, and we have to wait a long time for results, it is objec- tionable, and we have to resort to some more artificial method, such as spraying. 892 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Spraying usually gives immediate but temporary relief. It is the meth- od, however, to which we must resort at present in order to control the large majority of plant diseases. The principle of spraying depends upon the fact that these fungi are more delicate and more easily killed by poisons than are the plants on which they grow. The object is to use some poisonous solution which will not injure the plant that you are "doctoring," but will kill the fungus parasite, or if applied as a preventive, will prevent the fungus from entering the host plant. For instance, if a plant is covered with copper sulphate or some other poisonous solution the spores, which lodge on its leaves and stems, can- not grow and produce disease but will he killed by the poison. In this way plants are protected. In this connection, too, we can readily see the necessity for making the spraying thorough. Fungus spores lodging on exposed surfaces would germinate and grow directly into the leaf or stem, and actually undermine the neighboring surfaces, which might be thoroughly coated with the poison. So spraying in order to be effective must be done in such a way that every particle of surface of the susceptible part of the plant is covered. No possible exposed place should be left on the leaves or the fruit or the stems where the fungus could, perchance, enter. H. W. Barre, Botanist South Carolina Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Clemson College, S. C. Saving Trees by the Use of Cement How the Tree Surgeon Stays Decay with Cement Fillings In our minds disease and suffering are so closely associated that we ordinarily regard the allaying of pain as the funda- mental function of medicine and surgery. We are apt sometimes to overlook the economical gain to the community which the maintenance of health among its members implies. The economic factor is of course quite prominently displayed in veterinary practice, though here also there is pain to be alleviated. When we come to the vegetable kingdom the pure- ly "benevolent" motive for medication is practically absent. This, perhaps, is the reason why we hardly class plant surgery m our minds in the same category as the treatment of human and animal ailments. But while there is thus a pronounced difference in the two fields, in most other respects they are very similai'. The plant, like the animal, is a living thing, subject to the attacks of enemies in life and ultimately to death. Like the stricken animal, also, the diseased plant is ready to receive at the hands of man beneficent medical or surgical treatment. And in plant surgery, as in the practice of the art on the human being, a species of asepsis is essential for success. In the science of plant medication quite an important role is played by cement. This material has, in the practice of tree surgery, a definite, well defined purpose, and certain fixed methods of application. This does not mean that all trees should be treated alike. This is obviously im- possible. However, there are certain principles which must be incorporated into each cavity, and these principles are the same for each case. In order to understand the use of ce- ment in trees we must understand the purpose of the operation and something of the life's processes of the tree. The in- side of a tree is practically dormant, ex- cept the few layers of woody fibers just under the bai'k. The sap ascends in these outer woody fibers, and enters the leaf, where it undergoes the chemical change which produces the "tree-food." This tree-food descends just underneath the bark, building as it goes. It continues to descend and build until it reaches the tiniest roots. Thus we see a real circu- lation in the tree. The central tissues serve no purpose save that of physical support. If any other substance can take its place and accomplish the same result, the tree will continue to live and thrive indefinitely, provided the new center of the tree is sealed tight to the adjoining tissues and remains so. The real life of a tree is represented by the bark, the cam- bium layer jnst behind it, two, three or four inches of sap-wood just behind the cambium, the leaves, and the roots. If these parts are vigorous, it makes little DISEASES OF PLANTS 893 or no difference whether the center is wood or stone. The hark is a protection for the tree. Where the bark remains intact, the woody fibers of the inside are preserved for generations and for centuries, unless some outside agency kills the tree. Destroy any part of the bark by any means whatso- ever, and when the protection is gone the wood decays. Once decay secures a start, its progress is rapid. It continues until checked by artificial measures or until the tree becomes so weak that it is blown over in a windstorm. The tree may ap- pear to be in a perfectly healthy con- dition even with the entire inside rotted away, simply because the vital parts (three or four inches on the outside) are the last to be destroyed. Decay attacks and disintegrates the dormant tissues first, and gradually works outward. Ce- ment in trees fulfills the three-fold pur- pose of stopping decay, serving as a struc- tural support, and providing a surface over which the bark may heal. Is cement work in trees a success? In other words, is tree surgery a real or fan- cied good? Does it save the trees? That depends on the vitality of the tree, and the ability of the man who undertakes the work. A man may be so nearly ex- hausted and so low in vitality that all the doctors in the land could not save him. A tree may be the same. If it is weak and far spent the chances are against it. If it is vigorous and healthy, the chances are all in its favor if the man who oper- ates knows how. The only real test of a tree's vitality is the appearance and dens- ity of the foliage. A rich-green abundant foliage indicates health, and vice versa. And still almost the entire inside may have rotted away! Tree surgery, or that part of it pertain- ing to the filling of cavities, is aptly com- parable with dentistry. The three funda- mental principles of each are the same. The dentist must remove all decay and prevent more, prepare the cavity so that the filling will stay permanently in place, and exclude all foreign substances. The tree surgeon must do the same things, al- though the means to that end may differ somewhat. To remove the decay from a cavity requires chisels and gouges of va- rious lengths and sizes. The smaller cavities are not exceedingly difficult, al- though they require the same exacting care. The larger a cavity becomes the harder the task of removing the decay. It must be followed in the cracks and crevices and away up and down through limbs and trunk as far as it goes. It is sometimes burned out, although this measure is very dangerous unless applied by a man who thoroughly understands its use. When the decay is removed, it is wise to apply corrosive sublimate or a similar solution to destroy any remaining fungi. The walls of the cavity must then be thoroughly waterproofed to protect the wood. The waterproofing material must be durable, penetrating and adhesive. This is the first step and is very similar to the first principle applied by the den- tist. Perhaps the most difficult and trying part is in preparing the cavity so that the filling will stay permanently in place. This requires more than a knowledge of cement and its use. It requires more than a scientific knowledge of trees. It requires both these and more. The operator absolutely must know the practical methods of tree surgery, and have acquired almost instinctive skill with his hands by long practice. Cement improperly put into a tree is far worse than none. The law does not permit un- trained men to practice upon the human body or even that small part of it called the teeth. Why should untrained men operate on trees which are just as much alive as human beings? The cavity must be thoroughly braced if it has any size. No man can set down in words the manner in which this should be done, because it depends absolutely upon the size, shape and general condi- tion of the cavity and the strength of the woody shell. The operator must deter- mine the weakest side or point and brace it with great care. He must know what stress must be borne by the tree and in- sert steel ribs or truss rods to reinforce the trunk. All this must be done with a full appreciation of the fact that there will be some sway to the tree. Often- 894 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE times it is necessary to put the cement in in sections, leaving natural joints which will permit the swaying without damage to the cement fillings. If the operator does not understand the swaying of the tree and guard against it, or does not where necessary huild his cement in sec- tions, all his carefully laid plans up to this point will go for naught. Unless he can keep his filling permanently in place, just as in dentistry, his work is a com- plete failure. The exclusion of foreign substances, especially water, is the ultra-important task of the tree surgeon, just as it is with the dentist. If the water seeps in behind the cement filling, it is only a question of time until the condition of the tree is worse than formerly. No ce- ment work is a success which does not ex- clude the moisture. The skilled tree sur- geon prepares a "water shed" at the edge of the cavity, beyond which the moisture cannot penetrate. To make assurance doubly sure he applies to this water shed all around the edge of the opening an adhesive waterproofing material. At times it is necessary to go farther than this and cover the entire opening with a metallic shield, non-corrosive, which is nailed very tight on the top and along the sides especially. Waterproofing ma- terial is then applied on the outside. All of this must be done with the ulti- mate purpose of allowing the bark to heal over the filling. Therefore the fill- ing must be under the edge of the bark at every point, and the contour of the tree must be restored, so that when the bark does heal over and seal the filling permanently, there will be no evidence of the old yawning cavity save the un- obtrusive scar. As surely as there is health and vigor in a tree the bark will begin to roll out and over the filling. Nature responds wonderfully to proper treatment. A tree is a living creature! This is the foundation fact of tree surgery. It min- isters to the human family in comfort, health, beauty and pleasure. It is past valuation. It makes possible the solemn stillness of the forest. It holds in check the waters that go to form the rivers and insures their continuity. It robes the hills in green and hides their gaunt and lifeless forms. It gives grace and beauty and verdant loveliness to the val- leys. It shades the urban highways where masses of mankind pass to and fro. It shelters and makes beautiful the public parks, the breathing places of the people. Its contribution to the food of man is of untold measure. A tree is a fitting companion to man. It is quite proper that the highest develop- ment of the vegetable kingdom should contribute so largely to the well-being of man. Man should in turn give it rea- sonable care and protection so that its period of ministration may be a maxi- mum. Because a tree is a living organism it is subject to decay and premature death. Tree surgery is the concrete ex- pression of man's desire to protect the physical well-being of the trees and pre- serve them for his own pleasure and pro- fit, and for that of the generations to come. Real tree surgery saves trees. It is well. Thus we have another step in the advancement of man. M. L. Davey, Scientific Amedcan, March 18, 1011. For Pabticulae Diseases. See under the Yarious Fruits. Districts. See Fruits Recommended for Cultivation, under Apple, page 192. Drainage The greatest problem of an arid countiy is irrigation, and the next greatest is drainage, because in irrigation there must be seepage and waste that will injure and render more or less valueless the lower lands onto which this seepage and waste are drained. Very often it causes al- kali deposits; or it becomes boggy so that few crops can be grown upon it. Eeasons for Drainage First — ^It prevents water which falls upon the ground from remaining at or near the surface and renders the soil dry enough to be worked or plowed very soon after a rain, whereas if it is not drained, the farmer must wait for the water to seep away or to evaporate, and thereby lose much valuable time. DRAINAGE 895 Second — It renders the soil porous and spongy, which, enables it to take in the water easily. Third — It prevents the adhesion or ce- menting of the soil, assists in pulver- izing it, and allows the roots of trees or vegetables to pass easily through it. Fourth — It assists in the naixture of the chemicals from manure through the pul- verized portions of the soil, thus greatly increasing the amount of plant food avail- able. Fifth — It allows water which falls on the surface to pass down into the soil, car- rying with it fertilizing substances. Sixth — The temperature of the water of falling rain is generally much warmer than the subsoil of the earth, as is prov- en by the fact that the water drained from the subsoils is colder than the falling rain. A proper drainage system, there- fore, will enable this warmer water to penetrate the earth and warm the roots of vegetables or trees, thus stimulating their growth. Seventh — ^The increased porosity of the soil renders it a more perfect non-con- ductor of heat, and therefore the roots are kept warmer and the trees less in- jured by freezing in winter, Eighth — It assists in aerating the soil, therefore aiding in the decomposition of any vegetable or organic matter in the soil. Ninth — ^Farming operations may be be- gun earlier on account of the earlier dry- ing of the soil in the springtime and an increase of crops is almost sure. Tenth — It economizes labor by allowing work to go on at almost any time without waiting for the ground to become dried out after a rain and before plowing is begun. I have seen farmers with adjoin- ing lands, one with his farm properly drained and the other not drained, and have seen the farmer with his land drain- ed, plowing and cultivating, economizing the time and labor of men employed to work on the farm, the labor of teams, etc.; while the one by his side, with con- ditions almost identical, except that his land was not drained, with his hired men and teams lying idle, waiting for the ground to dry so that he could plow and cultivate. Soil Conditions Where Drainage Is Desirable It is better to drain where the water stands on the surface and interferes with the growing crops; where the water ac- cumulates beneath the surface and orig- inates springs; where there is a sub- stratum of hardpan or hard soil that will not allow the water to pass through, but compels it to seep along on a hard sur- face called a water line; where they are basins or ponds that hold the water. Gen- erally these basins are very rich in humus and under proper conditions would pro- duce abundant crops. It is better to drain where the water flows from high lands that are being irrigated and where waters seep from higher lands. No mat- ter whether these higher lands are irrigat- ed or unirrigated, if there is seepage above, they should be drained. Brains are made of tile or burned clay, of concrete, or stone, or of boards, depending on the character of the soil and the choice of the one who does the draining. They are generally placed at such a distance apart as to carry off the waste and seep- age water, and if the object is to open up and make pOrous a compact soil, they are generally placed about 2^2 to 3 feet deep and 25 to 30 feet apart. The problems of drainage in the vol- canic ash soils of the Northwest are vast- ly different from those in the open, por- ous and sandy soils of some other sec- tions of the country. This grows out of the fact that the volcanic ash soils incline to pack and puddle when the water is placed upon them and are not so suscept- ible to the influence of drainage systems, as are most other soils. Granville Lowther History and Principles The primary object of drainage is to decrease the excessive supply of soil water, while in irrigation the chief ob- ject is to increase the amount of soil moisture. In either case we are dealing with moisture, and a knowledge of its forms, movements and control is of great importance at the beginning. 896 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Importance of Soil Moisture Of all the factors which influence growth, moisture is without douht the most important. Plants suffer more fre- quently for want of proper moisture conditions than they do for want of chemical elements of plant food. Moisture is a carrier of plant food on the soil and in the plant. There is a wide range in which the moisture content will he fav- orable to growth, hut for each soil there is a low limit at which plants wilt for want of moisture, and there is also a line of excessive wetness above which nothing but water plants will thrive. Moisture is necessary to bacteria of the soil. It gives turgidity to the plant cells and makes plant food available. Supply The amount of water in the soil is not always greater in the region of greater rainfall. Soil of a wet climate may dry and bake quickly after rains. The ini- tial amount of water will depend on the rainfall, and stored supply as for irriga- tion. A thing that is more important is the supply during the growing season, so the amount of rainfall is not so vital as the time of occurrence. The rate of loss and the retentive capacity of the soil will modify the amount available during the growing season. Forms 1. Hydrostatic water. This can be seen and is free to move by gravity. It is removed in drains. 2. Capillary moist- ure. This is held against the force of grav- ity by surface tension. It is the form used by plants. There is no distinct line between this and free water. 3. Hydro- scopic moisture This is absorbed by dry soil from the air. Limitations The maximum amount of the different kinds of soil moisture depends on texture, structure and content of organic matter. Movements Percolation. This is more rapid in tile after small streamlets have formed in the soil about the tile, and in coarse grain soils. Run-off may remove a large per- centage of the rain. Evaporation. Most of the rain not lost by percolation is lost by evaporation. Capillarity. Relieves congested condition at the surface when water first comes to the soil. Capillarity depends on gi'avity, surface tension and pi^essures. Control of Capillarity — ^Increase !)> Irrigation — ^Decrease by Drainage We will for the present omit the meth- ods for increasing the moisture content of the soil, and take up the methods of decreasing the water content. The three ways of doing this are: 1. Cultivation. We can hasten evapora- tion by early spiing cultivation of the soil. By increasing the air circulation and leaving the soil with an uneven, rigid sur- face which exposes a greater surface for evaporation. Rolling a light sandy soil causes upward capillarity and increases evaporation at the surface. When rain falls on the soil it can be lost by run-off. Cultivation will check excessive run-off It will also increase the water capacity and there will be less percolation. 2. Growth of Plants. Crops of any sort, weeds and cover crops will dry the soil by transpiration of the water through the leaves. This may be taken advantage of in taking out the excess water in the early spring. We can take advantage of this in the fall, when the cover crop is planted in the orchard to take up the moisture and check the growth, so the buds will prepare for winter. 3. Drainage, Drainage consists es- sentially in the direct removal of gravi- tational water from the root zone of the soil by affording free passages for its percolation and flow. This is the chief means of decreasing the supply. History of Drainage The subject of drainage is attracting more widespread attention throughout the country at the present time than ever before. It becomes more important as the agricultural resources of a country are developed. There are over 1,000,000 square miles in the United States that must be drained before they can be util- ized. Thirteen per cent of the irrigated DRAINAGE 897 lands of the West are already injured by alkali and are in need of drainage. The history of drainage shows that vari- ous methods and materials have been used in the past, but we have now settled on one universal method. The first rec- ord of tile drainage is found in the gar- den of a monastery in France about 1620, where it was noticed that it was very fer- tile in times of drought, and that the quality and earliness of the fruit were very marked. Investigation revealed that tile 10 inches long and 4 inches in diam- eter were in the soil in such a manner as to form a drain at a depth of 4 feet. Bach pipe was funnel shaped and made to fit into the next one. How early they were placed there was not known. In 1650 Captain Walter Raleigh pub- lished a book on drainage called "The English Improved Agriculture," in which he proposed a plan of boring down into the hard sub-strata and letting the water down into the gravelly zone underneath. In 1832 the Denston system was intro- duced by Mr. Smith of Denston, Scot- land. This was a system of clay pipes. In 1833 Smith published a pamphlet en- titled "Smith's Remarks on Thorough Drainage." His plan was as follows: 1. Frequent drains. 2. Shallow depth, some 30 inches. 3, Parallel drains at equal distances apart throughout the field. 4. Minor drains should run down the steep- er places and the main drains run along the chief hollow, tributary drains being provided for lesser hollows. In 1837 Mr. Johnson, of Geneva, N. Y, introduced tile drainage on his farm. This was the first drainage system in America and is in still successful opera- tion. Drainage has been rapidly develop- ed in the Middle West during the last 20 years. Drainage laws and drainage machinery have helped to reclaim swampy areas in the Central states. Box, stone and brush drains have given place to tile drains, which are now in general use. There are over 5,000 tile factories in the United States; some are very large. To make tile requires expen- sive machinery. Soils That Jj^eed Drainage Soil texture and structure. These of- ten determine the need of drainage. Clay offers great friction to the movement of water. It has a greater water capacity and is apt to have a compact puddled structure. In retentive soils the first step in improvement is drainage. Getting out the excess of moisture assists in granula- tion. The addition of fertilizer will only be effective after good drainage. The or- der of improvement should be: 1. Drain- age. 2. Tillage. 3. Manure. 4. Lime. Soil and Subsoil Soil is the surface strata where the bulk of plant foods are found, while sub- soil is the strata on which the soil rests. It is lighter in color, finer in texture and contains less organic matter. Certain pro- portions of gravel and clay form hardpan. Iron or lime may cement and clay and give the condition known as hardpan. Water Zones There are three zones of flow of water through the soil: 1. The saturated zone or the strata through the water moves vertically to the water table. It may move by capillarity or by percolation or both. 2. Surface zone. This is the water table. In winter the water table is very near the surface, and In the summer the water table goes down to various depths, some- times quite deep. 3. Deeper zone. Veins of water. All soils must be drained, but fortun- ately most soils are more or less drained naturally. Natural drainage is much cheaper. The following are the conditions which require drainage: 1. Nearly flat lands upon which the water from the surrounding higher lands collects. 2. Areas adjacent to higher lands where the soil is of such a nature that water which falls on the upland will seep under and out through the low land, mak- ing it wet. 3. Lands inundated regularly by the rise of tides or frequently by the overflow of rivers. 4. Extremely flat lands in wide areas which are underlaid near the surface by 2-— 3 6 898 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE a thick, close, nearly impervious clay subsoil. 5. Lands like rice lands, water mead- ows and cranberry marshes, where water is applied excessively and must be remov- ed again. In general, all low-lying fine-grained soils with fine, heavy subsoil will need drainage. Benefits of Drainage 1. Removes excessive water. 2, In- creases the capillary supply of moisture. 3. Improves the texture. 4. Increases the root pasturage. 5. Affords better air circulation. 6. Makes the soil warmer. 7 Lengthens the growing season; firms the soil. 8. Assists decay and nitrifica- tion. 9. Prevents erosion. 10. Dimin- ishes the effect of drought. 11. Prevents heaving, 12, Prevents the rise of alkali. Drainage does this and more. It pays in increased yields and land values. Road drainage aids in transportation. Sani- tary drainage improves healthfulness. To what extent drainage is warranted de- pends on the crops to be grown. Kinds of Drainage 1, Natural drainage, (a) Through gravel subsoil (b) Through surface run-off. 2, Artificial, (a) Open drains. (b) Underdrains (brush, stone, box for alkali and tile). The object of underdrains is to assist the action of gravity. Both surface and underdrains have their field for useful- ness. A. Open drains or surface drains are essential auxiliaries to tile for drainage of large areas. They remove water from the surface and also from the subsoil. The amount removed from the subsoil depends upon their depth and fall and the amount of water in the channel. Surface they are adapted to: 1. Where the volume to be removed is large. 2. Where the water table is near the surface. 3. Where the drainage is designed to be only for a short time. 4. As a supplement to tile drainage for large areas of flat land. The efficiency of open drains depends on the surface flow of water into the channel. A double plow should be used to make dead furrows that will serve as surface drains and as temporary stor- age for excessive water. In order to drain the subsoil the ditch must be deep enough to permit percolation from the adjacent subsoil and the efficiency will depend on the texture and structure of the subsoil To be effective, an open drain must be evenly graded and have a smooth bottom and sides, and these side walls must be staple. A semi-circular form will give the greatest carrying capacity per cross- sectional area, ^nd will have the least surface friction. Usually the bottom will be made flat, however, and will be about one-half the width of the top. The slope of the wall will vary with the soil. One to one slope is commonly used with clay, and one and a half to one for loam soils. Lighter soils will stand a deeper grade. The fall should be uniform and just suf- ficient to afford scouring without erosion or silting. Silt or sand is more sus- ceptible to erosion than clay. Sedimenta- tion will be less where growth of vegeta- tion in the bottom is prevented. When it is desired to reclaim and im- prove large areas of level land such tracts must be cut up into sections or districts by large open ditches, in order that tile drains may be laid in every part without necessitating the use of mains too large and costly to be profitable. While these open ditches are not desir- able in themselves, since they occupy the land and divide the field into irregular shapes, yet they are necessary to every large system of drainage. They should be located with care, following the course of natural drainage as far as possible, with due regard to straight courses. Construction of Ditches A common method of making small open ditches is to use a team and scrap- er. This is a good method to use where the earth is dry enough to afford a foot- ing. Contractors have done such work for as low as ten cents per cubic yard, where conditions were favorable. A large part of the open ditch work must be done in swamps, and where it is too wet to use a team and scraper. For the construction of small and shal- DRAINAGE 899 low ditclies, what is known as the cap- stan ditch plow is used in some locali- ties. This is an immense plow which makes a ditch by cutting and throwing the earth from the center each way, its action being similar to a common sod plow. There are wings which push the loose earth three feet away from the edge of the ditch, leaving it in a large continuous ridge on each side. The plow is pulled by two capstans, each of which is turned by a team of horses. The cap- stans are anchored ahead, and their winding drums are attached to the plow by winding ropes. This machine makes a clean ditch 8 feet wide at the top, 1 foot wide at the bottom, and ordi- narily limited in depth to 2^ feet. Used in Minnesota. Contract work is taken for about $1 per rod of completed ditch. The earth should be wet for this plow to work easily. Steam dredges are used for the recla- mation of large areas, and are of three different types. 1. Floating dredge; be- gins work at the upper end of the chan- nel and works towards the outlet. There must be sufficient water in the ditch to float the boat which carries the engine and excavating machinery. The excavated earth is deposited on each side of the ditch about 9 feet from the edge of the channel. This style of dredge is adapted to the excava- tion of large channels, varying from 12 to 40 feet wide, and as deep as required. It has been used extensively in the Mid- dle West. The ditch has a shape similar to the letter U. A second type of steam di'edge will make ditches 4 feet at the bottom, 12 to 15 feet at the top, with a depth of from 4 to 9 feet and a slope of 45 de- grees. This machine is placed at the outlet and pulled up grade by means of a drum and cable. No water is required in the ditch in order to operate it. It is limited in its field and not much in favor with contractors. The third type of steam machine has similar limitations. It is constructed to move up grade on the surface of the ground in advance of the excavation. The plant carrying the machinery rests upon long runners which rest upon mov- able rollers. The plant is moved by a cable, one end of which is attached to a winding drum at the engine, and the other to a log anchored some distance ahead of the machine, technically called a "dead man." The excavating machin- ery consists of two dippers which are filled by being pulled toward the machine and then dumped alternately. The machines described have been used for 15 to 20 years. The boats are built and the machinery mounted where the work is to be done. The machines cost not less than $5,000 each. They are operated by contractors, who provide themselves with full equipment to do the work by the cubic yard, under direction of an engineer. Contracts have been taken at 6 to 15 cents per cubic yard. The larger contracts approach the lower figure. Large areas are drained co-opera- tively, each farmer benefited paying a share. In most states the main canal is subject to the drainage law. The course of ditches and streams is crooked in flat land, but artificial drain- age channels may improve and straight- en them. Ditches on rolling land may differ from those on flat lands by having narrow bottoms, since the velocity of flow is sufficient to scour and deepen them. The outlets of tile in rolling land may be shallower where there is a mark- ed rise in the ground surface above the outlet. Cross-Section and Behayior of Ditches It has been found by experience that ditches may be constructed with sides more nearly vertical than was formerly thought practicable In stiff loams and clays it is not desirable to cut sides with slopes greater than 1-1. Loams, 11/2-1. Ditches made with a floating dredge have a slope of about 1%-1- Weathering and erosion will in any case change the slope, so it is of greater im- portance to secure ample bottom width in order to allow this change than to attempt to make the exact slope desired and to expect it to remain. The excavated earth, or waste bank, 900 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE which lies ia unsightly masses along the edge of the ditch will, in a year or so, assume a more workable shape and can he leveled down with the plow and scraper, until the land can be cultivated nearly to the edge of the ditch. It is always well, however, to keep a strip on each side bordering the ditch in grass, to prevent crumbling of the banks and loss of soil from the adjoining field. The space between the waste bank and the ditch is called the borm, and should equal the depth of the ditch. Water will flow with a fall of six inches to the mile, but to be effective the fall of a ditch should be from 4 to 6 feet. Large and deep ditches made straight and so con- structed that they will not receive silt or debris in large quantities will prob- ably be self-cleaning, are necessary for large areas, and should be from 6 to 10 feet deep. In many cases the entire grade for lateral drainage must be made by addi- tional depth of the outlet. The velocity and carrying capacity of the ditch in- creases with the depth. Water eight feet deep will have twice the velocity of that one foot deep for the same width of ditch. This partly explains why shallow ditches make poor drainage outlets. Capacity The capacity depends on the area to be drained, the slope of land and the fall obtainable. See text for tables, Telocity of Discharge This is modified by the fall and a num- ber of other factors. A poor ditch with a rough bottom and irregular sides will carry only about half as much as a smooth, cement-lined canal. Grass and weeds will decrease the capacity to about one-fourth. The form of ditch is very important. Wetted Perimeter The sides and bottoms of the ditch touched by the water are known as the wetted perimeter. Friction varies direct- ly with this factor. The wetted peri- meter should be as small as possible in comparison with the cross section. Disadvantages Open surface drains have several dis- advantages as deep soil drains. 1. They are seldom of sufficient depth. 2. They are apt to have a small carry- ing capacity, due to their uneven grade and rough bottom and sides. 3. They are expensive to maintain. 4. They waste much land. 5. They greatly interfere with cultural operations. 6. They may be subject to serious erosion. Coiered or Underdrainage This is the only complete form of drain- age. Underdrains or any underground channels are constructed for the removal of water. Many kinds of materials have been used for this purpose, but in recent years they have been almost entirely sup- planted by tile. Brush, stones, boards and bricks were formerly used. Under- drainage will improve the soil wherever there is not complete natural drainage. Tile Tile is best for underdrainage because it is the cheapest, the most durable, the easiest to lay, and finally because it will drain the soil most quickly. Box drains will last from ten to twelve years. In draining the land with red tile use well burnt cylindrical tile. These tiles, one to two feet long, are laid through the soil in one continuous line with such a grade that all water which finds its way into them will be carried by gravity to the lower end of the line, thus carrying the surplus away. The water enters the openings at the ends, or joints as they are called. The ends of the tile are placed close together in order to prevent the soil from entering, yet none too close to prevent the water from entering The action of the tile drain in removing the surplus water from the soil is as follows : The drain being surrounded with soil, the spaces of which are filled with water, the water in the soil flows by gravity through the crevices in the ends of the tile and passes off more or less rapidly, according to the grade with which the tile is laid. Other water of the soil DRAINAGE 901 takes the place of that removed by per- colation. Water moves downward and laterally toward the drain, and the lateral distance through which the drain will relieve the soil of water is governed by the resistance which the soil particles offer to the flow of water among them. This process does not leave the soil with- out moisture, but simply removes the excess or free water and makes more room for the storage of capillary or usable water. It does not remove the free water from points below the level of the drain. The free water removed by tile drains may come from rain, or it may come from seepage. Kinds of Tile 1. Red tile. 2. Vitrified. 3. Cement — except the very large ones — is more expensive than the red clay tile. It becomes harder as it ages, and is more durable. The tile should be round in form, straight, and every particle of clay used in making them should be completely burned. Such 9, tile will last indefinitely in earth and water. Where exposed to long-continued freezing and thawing, as at the outlet, the best vitrified tile should be used. After one has become familiar with the product of a given factory, pro- perly burned tiles may be readily dis- tinguished by their color and by their ring when struck with a piece of steel. Good clay may be semi-vitrified by skil- ful burning. Porosity of the finished tile is not important, since the per cent of water that passes through the walls of the tile is very small. Vitrification is desirable. Systems of Drainage Mains, sub-mains, laterals. Single, double, natural, grouping, grid- iron, parallel. The natural and grouping systems are used where the aim is not to secure per- fect drainage, but rather so nearly suffi- cient for ordinary crops as to make the increase in yield pay a fair return for the money invested. They can be used to remove water that has collected in low places. Compare the amount of double drain- ing with the gridiron system and parallel system. The latter has the advantage here, but long parallel lines will require large tile, or else many junctions. The parallel system is generally the best. Depth, Fregnency and Size of Tile Princtples of Drainage — In general we should drain the land where the water collects. 1. Lay the mains in the line of natu- ral drainage, except where a "cut-off" will be in line of economy. 2. Lay the laterals in the line of greatest slope, otherwise the water may ooze out of the tile in the upper part of its course. 3. Use long parallel laterals in place of short ones where possible. 4. Make the lines straight and with easy curves — easy to lay. 5. Bring all the land needing drainage under the influence of the drains. 6. Use the level wherever in doubt. In addition to this, keep the water spread out. Small tile are cheaper. Depth, Frequency and Bis;e of Tile — These three factors are closely related and constitute the most important part of drainage. These factors will depend on— 1. The character of the soil and sub- soil. 2. The amount and distribution of rainfall. 3. The topography of the surface, 4. The crop to be grown. 5. Prevalence of underground water. 6. Level of the ground water. The system should always be arranged with reference to these conditions. Depth The depth must be such that water can get to the tile before it shall have caused serious injury to the crop. The drain should be near the water to be removed, and below the bulk of the roots. This necessitates that it be shallower in clay to work properly. In coarse texture soils the drains attain their full efficiency almost at once, but in dense clay there is an increasing efficiency as the soil be- comes granulated and the system is estab- 902 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE lished. Some silt is washed out through the tile, and tiny streamlets are formed leading to the joints of the tile. A dense clay holds its pores almost full of capil- lary water, which is not subject to perco- lation. With this condition the drain must he near the surface and function chiefly as a surface drain. Deeper drains are necessary in orchards, irrigated fields and all deep rooting crops. In general it is not desirable to lower the water table as far in sand as in clay, because there is less capillary action in the former. Place tile on the boundary of sand and clay if this is from two to four feet be- low the surface. This allows the water to move to the tile through the sand. Generally three to five feet will be suffi- cient depth, and three and one-half is the common depth The rule in the reclama- tion service in draining alkali land is to never place the tile more than four feet below the surface. Frequency or Distance Apart The distance apart is closely related to the depth. It also depends on the tex- ture of the soil and the amount and rate of the removal of rains. 1. Relation of Depth and Distance Apart — If tile placed three feet deep and 100 feet apart lowers the water table one foot from the surface at the highest point, then placing tile four feet deep will lower the water half-way between them, two feet below the surface. We could accomplish the same thing by plac- ing the tile 50 feet apart and three feet deep. If we put the tile deeper it will draw the water further each way, and the tile can be laid less frequently. 2. TJie Amount of Ram and the Time Allowed for Removing It. — ^Water moves through clay very slowly, and if a large amount is to be removed in a short time the drains will necessarily be placed close to the surface, afnd at frequent intervals their function will be primarily as sur- face drains. 3. Influence of Boil Texture,— Im clay the interval must be much less than in sand King found that 48 hours after a heavy rain the water table was one foot higher in clay soils at a distance of 27 feet from the drain. In sand the grade was one foot in 175 feet. Then to remove the water table to within one foot of the drains in clay, the tile lines would be placed every 54 feet, while in sand the distance would be 350 feet. This is probably the extreme, and the tile would need to be larger with this greater dis- tance. Impermeable soil will require fre- quent parallel drains where level. Use the regular, thorough system of drains where level, uniform soil is to be drained. The aim should be to reduce the water table a definite distance in a reasonable time after rains, and the drains must be sufficiently frequent to ac- complish this. The natural system removes water where it has accumulated in low places. Large areas are drained by single lines of tile. The tile follows the natural water course, or is placed so as to inter- cept the seepage. This will do where the aim is to secure only fairly perfect drain- age, so nearly sufficient for ordinary crops that the increased returns will pay a fair return for the outlay. Where in doubt, one could adopt the minimum interval and place the first line of tile at two or three times this interval If necessary, other lines could be placed between these at a later date. Experience with different soil condi- tions has given us a fairly definite dis- tance for placing tile in given soils: 100 feet to 90 feet apart for sandy soils. 60 feet to 75 feet apart for loam soils. 50 feet to 60 feet apart for sandy loam. 40 feet to 50 feet apart for loam. 35 feet to 40 feet apart for heavy loam. 30 feet to 40 feet apart for heavy clay. 30 feet apart for soils high in iron and clay. Size — The size of the tile depends on: 1. The amount of rain. 2. The rate of removal, 3. The amount of surface run-off. 4. The grade. 5. The soil. 6. The area drained. There are times when the crop has taken the moisture out of the ground so that a two-inch rain will not start the tile. At other times it may be necessary DRAINAGE 903 to remove a lai^ge part of the rain in 48 hours. At times the water cannot pass through the soil fast enough, even though the tiles are large enough to carry it off, so that part will need to be removed over the surface. The total rainfall in different sections varies materially. Drainage has to deal with extremes of rainfall rather than the mean. Laboratory experiments are so different from JBield conditions that our best deductions come from the working of drains in land of a known character. Generally, if the main drains have the capacity to remove one-half inch in depth of water from the entire tract in 24 hours, they afford what may be regarded as good farm drainage. This is the capacity of many good systems in alluvial soils. In places where no advantages can be taken of surface flow, mains may be arranged to carry away one inch of water in 24 hours. "Where several laterals empty into a main, the latter must have a capacity nearly equal to their combined flow; but it is not possible to calculate the total or relative sizes with the exactness which is possible with a pressure system of pipes. This is due to the effect of the soil, which acts as a sponge, and gives up its water gradually and to the eddies caused by joints. The greater the fall the greater the capacity. The area of a cross-section of a tile increases in ratio of the squares of the diameters. Thus 2, S, 4 and 5 feet tile have cross-sectional areas with a ratio of 4, 9, 16 and 25 square inches. Friction and eddies are less in large tile, so that doubling the size of tile makes the ca- pacity more than four times as great. Longer length of tile gives less capacity, due to increased friction. In general, a 4-inch tile will drain about five acres, and should not be over 500 or 600 feet long. A 5-inch tile will drain 10 acres; 6-inch, 20 acres; 7-inch, 40 acres; 8-inch, 60 acres. Direct Leyelmg The first working principle in drain- age is the finding of the differences in level of two or more points. A level surface is one that is parallel to the surface of standing water. A water surface is not level theoretically, due to the curvature of the earth's sur- face. It is assumed to be level, and per- pendicular to a vertical line or the line of gravity. Thus a true level line is a curved line whose points are all equi- distance from the earth's center, and is apparently level, A point is above or below another point according as it is a greater or less distance from the earth's center. This difference is called "difference of level" of two points. The height of a point is its distance above a given surface, measured on a vertical line, and is called its eleva- tion. Direct leveling depends on three prin- ciples : 1. That the surface of a liquid in re- pose is level. 2. That a vertical line is perpendicular to that surface. 3. A bubble of air confined in a ves- sel otherwise filled with liquid will rise to the highest point in that liquid. In direct leveling two instruments are necessary. (1) The "Y" level, which is an instrument that can be adjusted so as to mark out a horizontal place in any direction from a given point. (2) A leveling rod, an instrument that can be used to measui-e vertical distances. As accessories to the work, we need a tape line, or chain, for measuring distances, and a set of eleven pins for marking points; also some flags. Definitions A datum line is the base line to which the elevation of every point of a series is referred. Benchmarks are permanent objects whose elevations are determined and re- corded for future reference. Turning points are points where the bearing of the line changes, and these are marked by placing a pin in the hub stake used at this point. Backsights are readings on points whose elevations are known. A backsight is taken for the purpose of obtaining a new height of instrument. Backsights are plus quantities and are to be added. 904 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Foresiglits are readings on stations whose elevation is to be found. Fore- sights are minus quantities and are to be subtracted from the height of the sight line. This gives the elevation of the station road. Laying Out a Drainage System— Records The first thing in laying out a drain- age system is to tramp over the land to be drained and find out the lay of the land and then set up some flagpoles. Just a straight stick with a cloth on top will do, if you do not have regular surveyor's poles. These are placed so that the chain- man can chain the levels. A Preliminary Survey It may be exact or it may be taken roughly. It may be necessary to make a topographic map of the whole area to be dramed. In this sort of a map put in streams, etc. After this you should de- cide on some definite plan. Decide on some bench mark. Then go ahead and take your level notes from which you could figure your total available fall. Should chain all the lengths m order to know accurately how much tile you will need. Then make a statement and put down how many 8-inch, 6-inch, 4-inch and 3-anch and then total up and see how much it will cost. Contour Maps, Relief Maps A contour line is simply a line connect- ing all points of equal elevation. To make a contour map take the elevation of every certain distance, say 100 feet This distance is regulated by the topography of the land to be drained. Sometimes make a topographical map and then be- low make a relief map. Every farm sub- ject to drainage or irrigation needs to be provided with a contour map. Such a Taap will show the proper location of drains or irrigation ditches. Profile Maps These show a cross section of the strata through which the line of tile is to pass They will show you the depth to be dug at each station. In preparing profile maps use a scale of four feet to the inch ver- tically, and 100 feet to the inch horizon- tally. The tile line should be in red ink. Permanent Map Plane table. The permanent map should be accurate so that in after-years it would be possible to go out in the field and locate the drainage system or any part of it immediately. Details of Drainage The bearing of the line is the angle which it makes with the magnetic needle. Length of Laterals This should not exceed 800 or 1,000 feet for 3-inch tile and may be 2,500 feet for 6-inch tile. Amount of Fall Fall is the common term for slope of land or for total head when applied to drains. Available fall is the fall that can be given to a drain in a prescribed distance, and may be greater than the fall of the surface. Grade of a drain is the rate of fall expressed in decimals of one foot per 100 feet. A uniform grade is simplest, but it is often necessary to change the grade. When this is done it is best to change from a less to a greater grade. A change from a greater to a less fall would check the velocity and cause silting of the drain. If it is necessary to change the grade, it is a good plan to use a silt basin. Silt Basins Silt basins are small cisterns in the drain extending to the surface and af- fording a means of cleaning out the silt. They help to collect flood water quickly. They prevent the drain from being clogged and becoming silty. They may afford watering places for stock. In a sm'all drain a large 12-inch tile may be used by standing on end. Larger basins may be used made of brick, or boxed up with wood, and should be three feet in diameter, so that a man can enter and clean out the silt. Collars The use of collars is obsolete. Gravel or straw may be used in heavy soils where convenient, to allow water to enter tile more readily. The big problem in clay DRAINAGE 905 land is to get tlie water into the tile, as it does not draw well, so some- times gravel is put in. This will help for several years, but in a volcanic ash soil or in heavy soils it will become silty. Junctions Laterals should enter the main at an angle of 45 degrees, and with a slight fall. It is then less likely to clog up, and is not so likely to back up and become silty. Sometimes the drop will only be one- tenth of a foot, sometimes more. Sinks They are useful in ponds where there is a layer of hard clay underlaid with sand. They are made by simply digging a small well (probably three feet in di- ameter and 12 feet deep) down through the clay to the sand to let the water through. Sometimes this is all the drain- age that is necessary. Surface Yents They may be on the order of silt basins or catch basins. Surface vents are used to catch surface water. Surface vents are also used to afford ventilation in close soils. Outlets Outlets are very important. It is neces- sary to have a good outlet. Where the outlet is submerged and the velocity of the outflow is checked, sediment is apt to collect and clog the drain The water should have a free spillway at the out- let. Vitrified tile, wood or masonry should be used at the outlet where the drain is exposed to frost. Obstructions The principal obstructions to tile are: 1, Small animals. 2, Roots. 3, Silt. The outlets should be protected with screens to keep out small animals. A good screen is made by a i/4-inch iron rod set one inch apart. The roots of such trees as willow, elm, larch, tamarack and soft maple are troublesome. Also alfalfa and grapevine roots. Trees within 15 or 20 feet of the drain should be girdled or cut down. Silt will be less troublesome in large tile. Small tile must be laid true to grade to prevent trouble. To locate ob- structions dig holes in several places over the tile. When below the obstruction we find the water will fall away into the tile, above the obstruction it will stand in the hole. Digging, Laying to Orade and Covering Bitching Tools— Their Uses Tile spading for removing the first spading is 18 inches long, concave, with a sguare cutting end. It is important that the ditch be started properly, so that the sides are plumb and smooth. The begin- ner makes harder work and less progress by cutting the spadeful too thick. Cut one inch and dovetail at center. A three- foot ditch should be started about nine inches wide. The common round-pointed shovel may be used to remove crumbs from the bottom of first spading. Leave crumbs till last in dry weather. The second spading is removed by use of a spade about 16 inches or less in length, concave with rounded cutting edge. The second spading should go to within one inch of the grade line. Crumbers are us-ed to remove crumbs from the last spading and bring the ditch to grade. They are concave, semi-cylindrical, with rounded cutting blade at either end. The handle may be set at any angle. Can get 3-inch or 6-inch size. Man with crumber should keep near the one who is laying the tile. Tile Hoots Tile hooks are used for smaller sizes of tile, and are a great aid to rapid work where the tiles are cylindrical and the ditch is carefully prepared. A good hook should be less than a right angle, and may be made by running a 10-inch bolt through the pole about two inches from the larger end. The pole should be a little larger than a rake handle, and the end may be used to tap the tile firmly into place Laying to Grade This may be done by use of a line, by use of targets, or by use of line and fre- quent cross lines. Difficulties Quicksand — caving in. Laying Tile In laying tile take advantage of imper- fections in tile and make them fit the 906 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE joints tightly. Keep true to grade and in a straight line or use easy curves. CoTcring As soon as it is inspected, blind tile. The ditch may be filled with a plow, using long double tree where no crop is grow- ing. Flow may be used to open ditch where it will not interfere with crops or surveyor's stakes. Drainage of Farmyards, Buildings and Road— Septic Tank Road Drainage Drainage is the foundation of good road construction. The surface must be crowned. "Use frequent culverts and pas- sages to fields and avoid letting the water accumulate so that it has much erosive power. Use "water breaks" on hills to throw water to side of road. Keep the surface smooth and with a 1 to 20 slope to the exact peak of the road, not round- ed. Side ditches should have flaring sides, 1 to 18 slope on side of hills. Pro- tect the side of the ditch from erosion by paving the bottom with stone or brick. Snlb-Brainage A good road must be thoroughly drained, and artificial drainage should be provided in low, wet places. Get rid of the water in the foundation of the road before frost Three-inch tile with a fall of 3-lOths of a foot per 100 feet — cross drains. Barnyards, Buildings, Etc. There should be a ditch around the farmyard to shut out any water that might run in from the outside. Have the feed floor slope gradually to a catch basin and carry the water below. Water from caves should also be collected and car- ried to a catch basin. This basin should be large enough to check the water and allow the silt to settle. The inlet must be protected by wire grateing. Drain around all basements. Septic Tank Waste from farmhouse and from the other buildings can best be handled by means of a sanitary septic tank. A tank 3x5x6 34 feet is large enough for a farm or for 10 or 11 persons. The liquid as it passes out is free from disease germs, and it percolates away from tile to soil. In close ground it may be well to put a load of gravel along in the trench be- fore laying the tile. The capacity re- quired per person is about four cubic feet. The tank need not be more than 20 feet from the house. Sewage contains about two parts per thousand solids. One of those two parts is mineral matter, the other organic matter. The mineral mat- ter will not dissolve or decompose, and so a manhole is provided at the top for cleaning out about once a year. The liquid leaving the tank should be almost odorless, but in order for this to be so there must be no strong currents in the tank. The inlet should have but a mod- erate fall, one inch per rod. In cleaning out, do not remove the scum, as this contains the ferments, causing decom- position of the sewage. Materials for tlie Septic Tank Gravel, 2^4 yards; sand, % cubic yard; cement, ZMi bbls.; lumber for form; tile at outlet, 50 feet; vitrified brick, 60; sewer tiles; labor. The cost complete is $30 to $35. Special Drainage Problems Muck Lands These lands part with their moisture easily and may become too dry. They set- tle when drained. Open ditches four feet deep and 200 feet apart, or tile drains 150 feet apart will in general be about right. Because those soils part with their moisture readily they may be drained very successfully. Frequently cranberry marshes will not need to be thoroughly drained, but drained part of the year. Drains to Prevent Erosion This is frequently a special problem. On hill sides use open ditches of moder- ate fall, or underground tile lines. Plow the ground so as to have terraces run- ning around the mound and check the run-off. Salt Marshes These are problems that need special attention. To drain salt marshes dyke the tides out and then collect the water DRAINAGE 907 in surface ditclies. This will generally require an engineer. Select land that is close to a market. Should be governed by the location of the land, its nearness to market, as to whether it will pay to drain. Locate the dykes so that the drains will discharge at low-tide. These dykes should be high, strong and wide, and provided with tide gates. Then the drainage area should have main drain and laterals leading to it. The rains and drains should remove the excessive salt in a couple of years, during which time the land may be pastured. Sorghum or rye may be used for the first crop. Cost of draining such lands will be about $30 to $60. Riier and Creek Bottoms Straighten the stream, dyke the upper part of the flat lands necessary, clear the river channel of brush, deepen it if neces- sary, clear the land of organic matter where the dyke is to be built. The slope of the side walls will depend on the char- acter of the soil. They ought to be three feet above the high-water mark. They are ordinarily six or eight feet wide on the top. Sluice gates are necessary so thai you can let the water out when necessary. Drainage of Irrigated Lands About 13 per cent of all the irrigated land in the United States, or about one million acres, is in need of drainage. The reason for this is the excessive use of irrigated water. The first appearance of excessive water is the appearance of swails and swamps, and later on white and black alkali, brought to the surface. The water table rises, and when it reaches to within several feet of the surface the alkali or soluble salts rise to the surface, the water evaporates and leaves this de- posit of salt. (See next article.) Remedy The best remedy is to drain the land. Lower the water table to about four or five feet below the surface. The seep- age from above should be intercepted and removed by a deep cut-off ditch. Use a second ditch if necessary, and then tile below as needed. The size of the drain depends on the area above. It may be necessary to line the canal in places where the soil is gravelly. Kind of Brain It should be four to seven feet deep and may be open ditch. Box drains are often better than tile. Use the larger size, never less than five inches. Box drains should never be less than QxQ inches, while 10x12 or 12x20 inches is often used. Tramp the dirt back into the trench and watch surface irrigation water to prevent it from entering the tile. Obstructions are more frequent in irri- gated land. Alfalfa roots have been cleaned out by dragging brush and wire through. Should leave a manhole to the tile every 500 feet. Arid soils are not full of water crevices and water moves in special underground passages. In planning for a drainage system, the first thing is to study under- ground conditions and lay drains to the water. Cost of Drainage First of all, we must know the num- ber and size of tile required before we can make any definite estimate. Items of Expense 1. No. of Tile — ^Lay direct to source of water and use no more than is neces- sary. 2. Cost of riZe— 3-inch, $16 per 1,000; 4-inch, $20 per 1,000; 5-inch, $30 per 1,000; 6-inch, $40 per 1,000; 8-inch, $60 per 1,000. (Of course, the price of tile will vary at times and in different local- ities. The prices given above are for the local market.) 3. FreigM if Shipped — 3 -inch tile weighs 414 lbs.; 6-inch tile weighs 11 lbs. The cost of freighting tile is about 10c per 100 lbs. This is for small quantities. 4. Hauling and Distributing — 3-inch tile will run about 400 to the load, and 6-inch tile about 175 to the load. Cost about $5 per team. 5. Digging and Laying — $2.50 to $3.50. Considerable tile has been laid in this vicinity for 40-60c per rod. This includes filling the ditch. 908 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE 6. Laying out and superintending, 5 per cent Tile required per acre if laid parallel and 50 feet apart will be 872 feet. Cal- culate tlie cost of sucli thorough drain- age per acre of 4-inch tile. Benefits 1. Cause Firmness and Fineness of the So%L — The excess of water recedes from the surface and takes its place lower in the soil, soon leaving a firm surface, which can be passed over by teams or live stock without injuring the texture. The fineness of the soil is increased by- percolation. 2. Permits Earlier and More Timely Cultivation, — The water from rains and thawing ice passes down through the soil, admitting warm air and rains, so that the surface is ready for early plants much sooner than wet soils. 3. Produces Aeration of Soil. — ^The interspaces of soil becoming relieved of water are filled with air which carries fertilizing gases and furnishes oxygen to the roots of the plants and for the sup- port of soil bacteria. 4. Increases the Temperature of the Soil. — This is explained in King's book on "The Soil." If we allow the surplus water to drain away from the field rapid- ly, rather than to hold it there until it has time to evaporate, it will greatly favor the warming of the soil. 5. Prevents a large waste of fertility by surface washing. 6. Increases the depth of the soil. Approximate Prices and Weights of Tile No. of feet per ton 400 334 250 182 143 111 80 60 56 .^0 27 18 Weiffht Averas;e Price per car- Size in per 1,000 foot in load in inches feet pounds feet S ^ 1§ 4% 7,500 4 20 6% 6,500 5 80 9 5,000 6 40 11% 4,000 7 50 14 3,000 8 60 18 2,400 10 90 25 1,600 12 120 33 1,000 14 150 43 800 16 190-220 62 500 18 265-300 80 400 24 450-526 120 SOO F. E). Jones, New Westminster, B C DEAII^AGE OF lEMGATED LANDS Walter W. Weie Drainage Engineer The drainage of irrigated lands has become a problem whose magnitude al- most equals that of irrigation itself. Fully 30 per cent of the irrigated land of the United States could be benefited by drainage or by some of the preventive measures which are used to stop seepage from canals and laterals. Probably the most important reason why irrigated land needs drainage is that irrigation is an unnatural condition for most of the irrigated soils. These soils have no natural drainage, the capillary drainage channels that are found in the soils of humid sections are often entirely lacking because there has been no water to form them. The soil does not adjust itself to these conditions readily and con- sequently artificial drainage is necessary. Another reason for irrigated lands needing drainage is that often very large amounts of water are used in a compara- tively short time. It is not at all un- usual to learn that 5 to 10 or even 15 acre feet of water are being used during a single season. Only a very small part of this is actually used in the growing of plants and the remainder either is lost by evaporation or seeps into the ground probably to appear at some lower level. A third cause for damage is the pres- ence of hard-pan streaks in the soil which prevents the percolation of water in the directions it would naturally take. These impervious strata may hold the water table so close to the surface that damage is done or it may form pockets which col- lect water, or again it may form a pas- sage for the excessive seepage of a canal or lateral. All soils in arid regions contain alkali to a greater or less degree depending on the degree of natural drainage which the soil has. Gravelly soils which have bet- ter drainage than the deep volcanic ash soils seldom develop bad alkaline condi- tions such as are often found in the deep- er soils. Alkali is a broad term used to cover all of the injurious salts, the most common of which are the sulphates, chlor- DRAINAGE 909 ates and carbonates of calcium, sodium and magnesium. An accumulation of alkali on the sur- face of land is not the cause of the land being unproductive, but is rather the re- sult of a high water table which is the primary cause for the unproductiveness. The surface accumulation of alkali be- ing a result rather than a cause, the only permanent method of removing it is to remove the cause, namely the water, and this can be done only by some method of drainage. Alkali being readily solu- ble in water is brought to the surface by capillary attraction and is deposited as the water evaporates. If then the ground water can be kept in the ground deep enough to prevent its evaporation from the surface there can be no alkali depos- ited. This depth depends upon so many things that it is diflScult to specify ex- actly what it should be. In coarse grained soils such as sand or gravel water will not rise from as great a depth as in the finer grained soils such as the ordinary volcanic ash of the arid regions of Washington. The condition of the surface of the soil also has its influence on the rise of ground water by capillarity. The water can stand closer to the sur- face without injury on land that is well cultivated than it can on land whose sur- face is hard and compact. Land growing crops which shade the land, such as al- falfa or clover, are less subject to alkali than land which is bare. Under ordinary conditions and in soil similar to that which is ordinarily found in the Takima valley, the ground water should never be allowed to come closer than five and one- half or six feet of the surface. One of the fundamentals of drainage in irrigated sections is not only to take off surface water but to maintain a water table below the limit of capillarity and to do this it is generally necessary to have drains at least six feet deep. The gridiron system of tiling which is used in the humid sections is seldom em- ployed in irrigated sections as the water generally comes from some definite direc- tion and can be intercepted or cut off by drains located so as to catch the water before it reaches the land. It is very essential that the individual tract to be drained be carefully studied as to subsurface conditions. By this is meant that a drainage system cannot be accurately planned without a definite knowledge of wher*^ the water is coming from, the location and depth to hard-pan if there is any, the nature of the subsoil, whether sand, gravel or loam and the nature of the surrounding land, whether irrigated or dry, flat or sloping. In gravelly soils or soils with a gravel subsoil it will be almost universally found that the water is traveling in the gravel and that such lands drain readily and for a considerable distance from the drain. On account of the distance that this kind of land will drain the principal difficulty is in determining the amount of water which it will be necessary to handle. In land which has a hard-pan stratum or strata beneath the surface, the diffi- culties are increased. It may be found that water is traveling on top of the hard- pan or it may be beneath or both above and below. If the water is below the hard- pan it is often found that it is under slight pressure and is forcing its way up through the hard-pan. In such cases drains located so as to cut through this strata will often relieve the pressure and carry away the excess water. When the water is found to be on top of the hard-pan some method of intercepting it should be planned. It is not always possible to reach this water at the proper place and depth to give relief, and it must pass too close to the surface before reaching the drains. Dynamite has been used to break up the hard-pan strata so as to allow a freer passage through the soil, where it is closer than three or four feet to the sur- face. It is seldom that by dynamiting the land alone relief can be secured, as there must be some means provided whereby the water can escape. Hard-pan can be successfully broken by exploding from one-half to one stick of 20 per cent stumping powder at intervals of 15 to 25 feet. The depth and distance apart should be governed by the depth and thickness of the hard strata. Attempts have been made to rid land 910 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE of alkali by flooding when no under drains are provided. This method can never give more than temporary relief and may do a great injury. It should al- ways be remembered that alkali is very soluble in water and that the first water which touches it will dissolve the salt. When flooding is resorted to the first wa- ter added sinks into the ground carrying the salts down with it. The more water that is added the deeper the alkali is taken and the farther away it is from the very water that is expected to remove it. The black stain that is seen in the water used for this purpose is not all alkali, but is largely humus and vegetable matter from the soil and should not be removed. Aside from removing some humus the al- ready high water table in the ground is raised and conditions will soon be worse than before. If, howevei% the land is provided with underdrains the water which sinks into the soil is taken up by them and carried away, taking with it the alkali. This then suggests a means of removing the surface alkali from a tract that is provided with underdrains. To remove the surface alkali from a tract provided with underdrainage it should be irrigated freely to carry the alkali down and cultivated so as to re- tard evaporation from the surface which prevents it from returning. If it is de- sired to raise a crop on this kind of land a crop should be chosen which requires considerable water and constant cultiva- tion. There are difficulties encountered in the installing of drains in volcanic ash soils that are not found in most hu- mid sections. This soil when saturated with water becomes very difficult to han- dle as it flows into the ditch or trench almost as fast as it can be dug out. It is quite often necessary to line the trench with sheeting before any work can be done in it. This is accomplished by dig- ging down to the surface of the semi- fluid soil and from there driving down sheet piling of either lumber or metal. These must be made very tight and driven from two to five feet below grade. It is nearly always necessary to construct some kind of a box or flume in the bottom of open ditches which are constructed in this soft material. After a drain has been in place for a time the soil becomes settled and the drain can be deepened or the box removed. On account of the fineness of the soil it is best never to use tile of less diameter than four inches, and six is often better. The soil entering a three-inch tile will soon fill it up, while the larger sizes can be cleansed by flushing. The small sizes are much more likely to be displaced than the larger and their efficiency de- creased. In summing up the drainage situation in irrigated sections the secret is to know your conditions and then proceed with a definite knowledge of what is going to happen. In this way costly failures may be avoided and successful systems in- stalled. Dropping of Fruits. See under Fruits, Setting and Dropping. Drought Curious Benefits Drought is dreaded by farmers and gardeners because it injures grass and grain, fruits and flowers; but scientific observers testify that it brings, as a com- pensation, subtle gifts which enrich the soil and increase future crops. Nature has stored in the earth a rich supply of phosphates, silicates, carbonates and other chemical salts essential to vege- table life. Those on the surface of the ground are soon exhausted, and the large supply at greater depths is often un- reached by subsoil plowing. But a drought is nature's subsoil plow to bring up the rich nutriment below. When the surface is parched, the sun draws moisture from the deeper soil, and this moisture brings with it, in solution, salts of lime and magnesia, of potash and soda. The moisture evaporates, but leaves the salts for the use of plants and grain. Drought, therefore, does a double work. It parches the surface and lessens the present crop. It forces up rich nutriment from the deeper soil and enlarges future crops. Brought in Middle West In the Middle West perhaps no one thing causes greater loss to the fruit DROUGHT— DRY FARMING 911 grower than the lack of rain when need- ed. Any method of treatment, therefore, which will enable us to mitigate this effect, even in a small degree, is well worthy of our most careful attention. How then shall we treat our orchards in order to retain for the use of the trees the greatest possible proportion of the rain which falls upon and among them? It is simply a question of evaporation, and whatever prevents the evaporation of water from the soil is a benefit to the tree and an aid to fruit production. The means of preventing evaporation which naturally suggests itself first is some kind of a mulch to cover up the soil pro- tecting it from sun and wind, and thus keep it from drying out But how are we to secure such a mulch? To cover the ground with straw or any other coarse material to a sufficient depth to properly protect it is a tremendous job and very expensive, when we come to consider both the value of the material and labor of ap- plying it. Moreover, there is a disad- vantage in a mulch of that kind, in that it induces the roots to run near the sur- face, thus limiting the area from which they can obtain their fertility and render- ing them unusually subject to injury from drought in the future should the mulch at any time become deficient. Strange it is how many of our lessons we need to learn through the teaching of what seems a misfortune. We mulch our corn fields, not so much because we want to, as because we have to. Why? Because Dame Nature has filled the soil with a multitude of weed seeds which spring up and grow so vigorously that they practically choke down the corn unless we destroy them. To rid the ground of these weeds we must cultivate, and in doing this we leave a layer of loose mel- low soil on top of the ground, which is really the most satisfactory mulch we can get. It needs to be often renewed to be sure, for every shower packs it down so that to a certain extent it loses its value as a mulch. It is only when it remains light and mellow that it serves this office as it should. Here then is the key to the solution of the problem, namely, frequent sur- face cultivation at least every ten days or two weeks throughout the season. In some experiments reported by Professor Roberts, of Cornell University, the daily evaporation from soil in a warm room, but not in the sun, was found to be at the rate of from one to two tons of water per acre less from portions stir- red to a depth of one and one-half inches every day than from that not stirred. The difference varied greatly with the kind of soil * * * ^ „, « Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station Dry Farming We have a good deal of literature pub- lished now on the subject of dry farm- ing. Really there is no such thing as dry farming, for no vegetation will grow without moisture. The terms are com- parative. In all of the so-called dry farming districts there is more or less of moisture, generally about 15 to 20 inches of rainfall per annum. The question is, how to conserve this moist- ure so as to profitably gi^ow crops, espe- cially those crops that are necessary to support a farming population with a fair percentage of merchants, mechanics and the classes that depend upon the farming population for a living. In so far as our interest in the subject is con- cerned, the question is, how to grow fruit. We are not treating the general subject of agriculture, we are treating the specific subject. There are a great many places in the United States, where by proper cultiva- tion and by the proper selection of trees that will grow fruit with the least possible amount of water, the farmer could have at least a home orchard, or in some instances might produce com- mercial fruits. The almond requires very little water; certain varieties of peaches and plums will grow on com- paratively arid soil. We have seen plums growing wild in some arid dis- tricts where there was not more than 20 inches of rainfall per annum. Then among the apples perhaps the Wagener and the Grimes Golden will grow suc- cessfully with less water than most other varieties. 912 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Volumes have been written upon the subject. Professor W. C. Palmer, of North Dakota, has produced what he calls the "Ten Commandments of Dry Farm- ing." They are given here as he has written them, because they seem to con- dense into very small space nearly all the information that we have ever seen on that subject: I. Thou BTialt Plow Deep. Lets rain get into soil easily. Lets in big rain without run off. Provides more feeding space for plant roots. More plant food made available. n. Thou BJialt Keep tne Surface Soil Loose. Keeps soil moisture from evapor- ating. Lets rain get into soil easily. More plant food made available, due to more moisture. Harrow the grain after it is up two inches or use weeder, III. Tliou malt Cultivate Level, Level soil has the least soil exposed to the air. More evaporation from a ridged soil. Level soil will take in rainfall much faster than ridged soil. On ridged soil the rain runs off through furrows. The soil in the ridges dries out so that the plant has less moist sur- face soil to draw on for food and moisture. Ridging the soil is a most effective way for getting rid of both the moisture in the soil and of rain- fall. IV. Thou &MU Bummer Fallow When the Eainfall Is Less Than Fifteen Inches, The summer fallow saves up two years' rain for one crop. The summer fallow kills weeds and plant diseases. The summer fallow should be cul- tivated When rainfall is over 15 inches corn will be as good a prepara- tion for a crop as the bare fal- low. V. Thou Shalt Add^ Organic Matter to the Soil, Holds moisture and plant food. Improves mechanical condition for the soil. Helps make plant food available. Lessens drifting and blowing of the soil. Lessens washing oJc the soil. Stable manure is the best form. Plow weeds under when green. VI. Thou Shalt Keep Down the Weeds. Weeds use up moisture. Weeds use up plant food. Weeds crowd the plants. Weeds shade the crops. Weeds make it difficult for the plants to grow. Weeds make it hard to work the land properly. VII. Thou Shalt Q-roto Early Maturing Crops, Growing conditions best in early summer. Winter grains better than spring grains. VI II. Thou Shalt Grow Corn Every Three to Five Years. The cultivation given corn saves moisture. The cultivation given corn kills weeds- The cultivation given corn kills plant diseases. Corn best preparation for a grain crop. Corn produces fine stock food, both grain and fodder. Corn produces more per acre than other crops. Do not hill up the corn, as this wastes the moisture. IX. Thou Shalt G-row Clover or Alfalfa Every Few Years. Clover and alfalfa add fertility to the soil. Clover and alfalfa add organic mat- ter to the soil. Clover and alfalfa kill weeds and plant diseases. Clover and alfalfa produce a most valuable hay. Clover and alfalfa produce very valuable seed crops. . X. Thou Shalt Keep StocJc. The most profitable way of mar- keting grain and fodder is through stock. They produce manure, which is very necessary to the soil. They bring about prosperity. Some IffiiscoiiceptioTis Concerning Dry Farming "The following misconceptions concern- ing dry farming may be mentioned as among the most serious: (1) That any DRY FARMING— EDUCATION IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS 913 definite 'system* of dry farming has been or is likely to be established that will be of general applicability to all or any considerable part of the Great Plains area; (2) that any hard and fast rules can be adopted to govern the methods of tillage or of time and depth of plow- ing; (3) that deep tillage invariably and necessarily increases the water hold- ing capacity of the soil or facilitates root development; (4) that alternate crop- ping and summer tillage can be relied upon as a safe basis for a permanent agriculture or that it will invariably overcome the effects of severe and long- continued droughts; and (5) that the farmer can be taught by given rules how to operate a dry land farm." E. C. Chilcott, U. S Department of Agriculture Yearbook 1911. B S R. 27-6 Dby Land Faeming. See Apple Or- chard, Cultivation of. Duty of Watee. See Irrigation. DwAEF Apple. See Apple, Botany of. Easteeist Apple. See Apple, Botany of. Education in the Common Schools Agricultural In an article of this character for a work on horticulture, we are necessa- rily more or less restricted to those por- tions of the subject which relate to our work and the purpose for which it is published. However, in order that we may have a proper setting for that de- partment of the subject suited to our purpose, it is pertinent that we should outline the subject of education and then perfectly treat that part of the subject which is adapted to our work. In a gen- eral outline, we have seen nothing that seems to us clearer and more logical than that by Herbert Spencer, who says that a child should be taught to avoid the dangers of many kinds through which he must pass in order to live. These dangers imply the perils of accident, diseases, temperature, climate, environ- ment and all those things that might af- fect the organism unfavorably. Second, he should be taught those things that pertain to self-sustenance. He should know how to provide for himself and not be dependent upon the intelligence and the labor of others for those things which are necessary to sustain life. Third, he should be taught those things that pertain to social relations, of mar- riage, the family and society in general, and be able to meet the conditions neces- sary in order that he may act the part of a good citizen. Fourth, he should be taught those things that tend to unfold the mind, develop and strengthen the character and that tend to the refine- ments of life. This is not quite a complete outline of Spencer's "Philosophy of Education," but it gives the main points and seems to cover the ground so thoroughly and to be so clear that we have adopted it here. Now, in relation to education in agriculture or horticulture in the public schools, we are confronted with that question in a very practical way in that it is being carried on throughout the whole country. On the question of vo- cational training in the public schools, students are being taught home economics and mechanics. Boys are taught how to handle tools in carpentering and vari- ous other things relating to those oc- cupations which they will probably fol- low when they grow up to manhood and are charged with the responsibilities of life. In ancient times and during the Mid- dle Ages, education was for the most part the privilege of a few persons, most- ly of the aristocratic classes who ruled the masses and these masses were kept in ignorance. With the growth of the democratic and republican ideas of gov- ernment, there has grown up a tend- ency to educate the masses, and to do so at the public expense. Under the old system of education, emphasis was giv- en to the classes. Probably this was. true in part, because science did not oc- cupy the broad field which it has come to occupy with the new discoveries of truth through the means of the tele- scope, microscope and other instruments used for investigation and discovery. Now that science is so large a part of the sum total of human knowledge, and 2 — 17 914 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE that it is so important in order to suc- ceed in any particular calling or busi- ness, it is necessary that the student should know many things that years ago were not a part of human knowl- edge. We must educate in chemistry if our pupils would fairly understand many of the things with which they have to deal, practically. There must he some knowl- edge of bacteriology if we are to intel- ligently control many of the diseases that affect our crops. We must have some knowledge of plant physiology if we are to know the laws of plant life and succeed in the highest degree in the growing of crops. We must have some knowledge of climatic conditions and the adaptations of different kinds of crops to climates. We have come to know that no particular department of work and no particular law exists alone hut all things are inter-related. It would seem proper in an agricultural coun- try, that the students in the public schools should be taught those things that pertain to agriculture or if we par- ticularize in horticulture, it would seem proper that they should be taught those subjects which relate to the dominant industry in the community in which they live. There is greater probability that the son of a farmer will be a farmer, provided the farm can be made to pay, than that he will follow any other voca- tion. In like manner, there is greater probability that the son of an orchard- ist will be an orchardist, provided the orchard can be made to pay, than that he will leave the orchard and go into some occupation with which he is not familiar. Considering the importance of af?ricultural subjects, using the word agriculture in the broad sense to include liorticulture, it would seem entirely proper to teach in the public schools those things that relate to the most im- portant industry in the world, and this is more especially true when we come to consider that in the teaching of those subjects, we are giving as good mental discipline, as good training, and as larg'e an information with reference to the things of life as could be given in any possible course of education that can be pursued, and that in so far as it concerns self-sustenance and the susten- ance of those dependent upon us, it is much more important than the classical courses that have generally been mapped out. This might not apply to persons who expect to acquire a living by teach- ing the classical courses in the schools, but these persons are exceptions. The masses of men must always do the practical work of life, and in order to do it well, they should be trained as early as possible to know how to do those things that they must in future years do in order to live. Carroll D. Wright, in his outline of "Practical Sociology," says: "That part of the public school system which interests the greatest number of persons is to be found below the grade known as the high school, for probably 90 per cent of the children passing through our public schools leave them at the grammar grades, or the highest grade under the high school. Public in- terest is therefore largely centered in the perfection of the primary, inter- mediate, and grammar grades, in which many a child is taught all that he will ever receive in the way of education be- fore entering upon his life work." G-RANVILLE LOWTHEB Methods in Agricultural Education Nearly every one today believes that our schools must become more closely al- lied to the industries by which our people live. But our power and prosperity in the future depend upon the skill and the in- telligence by which our people are able to practice the arts of agriculture and horticulture. It is easy to agree that the schools shall take in agriculture. But it is tremendously difficult to find out just how this may be done. No one knows as yet. There must be myriad experi- ments and a thousand grotesque fail- ures before we succeed. The casual ob- server does not dream of the difficulties and stumbling blocks in the way. It is the work of years to get a new idea really planted and growing in the set EDUCATION IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS 915 conservatism of a social iRstitution like our scliool system. There is danger, wlien professional educators take hold of a live and vital thing like agriculture, that they take all the real live inter- est out of it in order to teach it in a conventional way. When it becomes em- balmed in regular text books, perfunc- tory recitations, and periodical examin- ations, it fails of its true mission. If it would truly succeed, ways must be found to keep it alive, to keep it in touch with country life, to invest it with the realities of extracting a living from the soil. Teachers of agriculture are not yet bred. Hundreds of years have been spent in growing good teachers of mathe- matics, literature, language — let us not be run away with by the notion that we can build up an agricultural Rome in a day. It is necessary to have some foundation for any kind of building. It is highly desirable to instil a spirit of sympathy for agriculture into the minds of all the people and to bring them into actual contact with the agricultural life. For many generations everything in educa- tion has tended away from the farm. The district school never does one thing in all its curriculum to prepare the boys and girls for a living on their fathers' farms. It heads them rather toward clerkly or professional pursuits in the town or city. The object of this article is to call at- tention to the fact that we must JGlnd something different from the traditional text book method of approach if we would really get the genius of agricul- ture into the public schools; to name two or three methods of approach that are different, and to suggest that the best plan for a school to undertake agri- culture is by finding ways to co-operate personally with the nearest agricultural industry, by actually entering into its spirit and its labors. A movement has started in the prune orchards of the Santa Clara valley, Cali- fornia, that bears directly upon these educational questions. The idea is to en- list the interest and the labor of the children and the people of the villages and towns in the harvesting of perish- able fruit crops, paying them full mar- ket wages for their work, furnishing them safe and attractive camping places, facilitating their coming and going, and giving them a season of healthful, ac- tive outdoor life. This is a practical course of study in California agriculture that may well command the co-operation of the educational forces of the state. The school term may very well begin and close so that the children and their parents can take part in the chief in- dustry of the neighborhood. The raising of a school garden is a most delightful and practical method of approach. Not all teachers have the knowledge and sympathy that make for the highest success, but nearly all come of ancestry that lived by the soil; and if their minds are open, their hearts willing, the old interest will come back. Not all rural schools are adapted to gardening, but many of the most suc- cessful school gardens are raised at the homes of the children. Most of the things we now teach would group themselves about and grow out of this practical life — arithmetic, bookkeeping, nature study and science. And let us remember that the thing does not even need to be a commercial suc- cess in order to be successful education- ally. * * * Failure is as natural as success — probably more so. If the bugs get away with the crop, if neglect of a certain point cuts out the profit, if the season was unfavorable, if the frost came too late, was the enterprise then desti- tute of value, and a fair mark for clumsy and thoughtless wit? By no means. It is real life, and it is doing the work it set out to do, no matter whether the ac- tual returns were large or small. It is the experience of many states that the most efficient approach to agri- culture is by the organization of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. These are formed for some specific and tangible purpose, as a competition under certain rules in the growing of wheat, or po- tatoes, or cotton, the raising of poultry or gardens, the baking of bread, the can- ning of fruit. New York is the pioneer. 916 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Under the direction of Cornell University this state began work in 1898. It now has a membership of 75,000 boys and girls in its clubs, and has for its official organ the Cornell Rural School Leaf- let, that goes to 7,000 teachers. Ne- braska began this work in 1905, devot- ing its chief energy to the growing and the cooking of corn, under directions and recipes sent from the State University. In the counties, and finally for the state, with a "corn banquet," bringing together 2,000 to 3,000 boys and girls from all over the commonwealth. The county superintendents of Winnebago county, Illinois, and Keokuk county, Iowa, have made national reputations in this work. An agricultural club may be organ- ized in a single school, and may do en- thusiastic work. It is larger and bet- ter for the whole county to undertake it. Ambitious county superintendents of schools in the rural regions have an in- spiring opportunity for usefulness in this field. There should be means pro- vided for public displays of the results of competition. There should be some periodical to knit the organization to- gether. There should be some leader who can travel about among the different clubs encouraging them and telling them what their fellows are doing. Doubtless the time will come when the superin- tendents and teachers of agricultural counties will be chosen for enthusiasm and skill in this very kind of work. There is a fascinating field lying ready, a field for fame as well as for the high- est service to the state. Edward Hyatt, California State Superintendent of Schools. Egg Plant The egg plant is a native of the warm countries, but has become adapted to al- most all parts of the United States. Pro- fessor Beattie describes its cultivation as follows : The plants for this crop should be started and handled in the same man- ner as for the tomato. After the weather has become settled and the ground quite warm, set the plants in the garden in rows 3 feet apart and 2 feet apart in the row. The soil best adapted to the production of egg plant is a fine, rich sandy loam and should be well drain- ed. Cultivate freely and keep the plants growing rapidly. Many growers believe Egg Plant. — Mdxted Photo. that fresh stable manure should not be used in connection with the growing of egg plant and that the land should not contain unfermented vegetable matter to any extent. Egg plant is used in several ways, among which are the following: Peel and cut into slices one-half inch thick, soak in salt water one hour; boil until tender; then coat with rolled crackers or fiour and fry in butter or fat. Another method is to steam or bake the egg plant whole and serve in the shell, the pulp be- ing eaten with salt, pepper and butter. Varieties Black Beauty, Early Long Purple, Early Dwarf Purple. EGG PLANT DISEASES Anthracnose Gloeosporium melongenae, Ell & Hals. The anthracnose fungus of egg plant attacks the fruits of egg plant and causes EGG PLANT DISEASES— EGG PLANT PESTS— ELDERBERRY ^17 spots in them. These show early as pits in the surfaces of the fruit which show the usual border. Bacterial Blight Bactenum solanacearum Erw. Sm. The common solanaceous blight organ- ism attacks the egg plant as well ^s the potato and tomato. Where attacks oc- cur destruction of the affected plants is all that can be done. Fruit Rot A fruit rot of egg plant likewise oc- curs and may at times appear as a leaf spot fungus. This, like the anthracnose and leaf spot, should yield to treatment by sprays. Ammoniacal copper carbon- ate may be used toward the ripening period. Leaf Spots Two or more leaf spot fungi have been recorded on egg plant. Eot Botrytis A mouldy decay of fruit giving a dusty appearance. Not serious. Stem Rot Nectria ipomoeae Hals. The stem rot fungus of sweet potato has been described upon egg plant by Dr. Halsted. The conidial stage is evidently a species of fusarium and it may or may not be a different one from that with which we have to contend upon the po- tato; it is recorded by Dr. Halsted as the same that occurs on sweet potato. References Smith. Delaware Experiment Station Bulletin 70. A. D. Selby. Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 214. Duggar. Fungus Diseases of Plants. Smith. California Experiment Station Bulletin 218. EGG PLANT PESTS Gkeenhoxjse White Fly. See Cucum- der Pests. Hablequin Cabbage Bug. See Oa'bdage Pests, Red Spideb. See Apple Pests. Egyptian Beet fob Alaska. See AXas- Tea. Egypt, Iebigation in. See Irrigation. Elderberry The elderberry is the purple, black, drupaceous fruit of the common elder, having a sweet, acidulous taste. The shrub belongs to the gemis Bamlucus of the natural order Gaprifoliaceae. There are about 20 species characterized by op- posite pinnate leaves, small white flow- ers, usually in compound cymes, and black, red, white or green juicy fruits. They are not grown largely for home use or for the market. They succeed well on nearly all varieties of soil, but are found more frequently along the streams, in rich, sandy loam, and grow successfully in nearly all the states. They are easily propagated by means of root or stem cuttings, and are often grown for ornamental purposes, since they grow rapidly, are rather graceful in appearance, and grow to a height of from 8 to 12 feet. The fruits are used for making pies, jellies, and elderberry wine. The wine has rather a pleasant taste, and is said to have some medicinal properties, especial- ly for asthmatics. * In considering the possibilities of the elderberry it is well to first mention its good points. 1. Late blooming, being absolutely be- yond danger of late spring frosts. 2. Sure cropping. I think that there has not been a failure of the wild elder- berry crop for 30 years. 3. Freedom from disease. So far I have not noticed any disease on the el- berberry. 4. Freedom from insects. So far as I know there is only one insect trouble- some to the elderberry. 5. Ease of gathering the fruit. The berries grow in large bunches, easily pick- ed and there are no disagreeable thorns to interfere with the operation. 6. Time of ripening. The elderberry ripens just after the blackberries are gone and fills in a period otherwise with- out berries. There are some bad features about the plant, chief to be mentioned being the * F. C Pellett, Iowa State Horticultural So- ciety, 1909. 918 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE difficulty of eradicating it wlien once it becomes establislied. But tliis might prove a desirable feature once a market was created for the fruit, as a plantation would be well nigh permanent and would require the minimum of attention. By itself the elderberry sauce is a little insipid but with a few drops of ap- ple vinegar added it is unsurpassed for pies and mixed with rhubarb makes splendid sauce. A mixture of apples and elderberries makes a good jelly- As an ornamental shrub also the elderberry is worthy of a place. If we can succeed in making as great improvement in this fruit as has been made in the native wild grape in produc- ing the Concord, we will have a fruit equal to anything now on the list, but of course it will require a long period of painstaking experiment. On our grounds the clump that gets the wash water near the kitchen door produces much larger bunches and larger berries than those carefully cultivated in the garden. Granville Lowther Elements Rbmo'ved by Various Crops. See Apple Orchard Cover Crops. Lndive A salad crop, grown for its blanched leaves about the same as head lettuce. In the Southern states, it does better as a fall than as a spring crop. "Sow the seeds thinly in drills, and when the plants are well established thin to 8 inches. Water and cultivate thoroughly in order that a good growth of leaves may be made. "When the leaves are 6 to 8 inches in length draw them to- gether and tie them so the heart will blanch. The leaves should not be tied up while wet or decay will follow. The heads should be used as soon as blanched. For winter use sow the seeds rather late and remove the plants, with a ball of earth adhering to the roots, to a cellar or cold frame, and blanch during the winter as required for use. "Endive is used as a salad at times of the year when lettuce and similar crops are out of season." English Walnut. See Walnut. Europe as Fruit Market. See Market. European Grain Aphis on Apple. See Aphids. Evaporation of Apples The utilization of the poorer grades of fruit IS frequently an important matter to the grower. That portion of a crop which is of too low grade to market in the ordinary way can often be made to pay a large part, at least, of the expense of maintaining the orchard if it is con- verted into some other form than that practiced with the better grades. In some of the apple growing districts the evaporating industry has kept pace with the planting of orchards and has become an important factor in the utilization of the fruit which is unfit or would prove unprofitable for marketing in the fresh state. In some of the older apple grow- ing sections, such as Western New York, the number of evaporators in use is very large, and for many years the industry has been well established. Its present state of development, however, has been a matter of gradual evolution. During its course methods have changed more or less, appliances have been perfected, and marked improvement in the construction of the evaporators themselves has been accomplished. Many evaporators are located in vil- lages, at railroad stations, and at other central points; a considerable number, however, are erected in close proximity to or in coniunction with apple orchards, owned and operated by the fruit growers themselves, each plant being intended on- ly for "working up" the fruit not other- wise marketed from a single orchard. The evaporators located In towns or villages are usually operated by men who make a business of evaporating fruit, and the apples handled in them are bought wherever they can be obtained to best advantage. These are generally of much larger capacity than the ones at the or- chards, and the type of construction and the character and number of conven- iences correspond. The average weight of ripe winter ap- ples of mixed varieties is about 50 pounds to the bushel. In evaporating them about EVAPORATION OF APPLES 919 40 pounds of water per bushel, or ap- proximately 5 gallons, passes off in the form of vapor. The evaporating of ap- pies may be said, in brief, to consist of driving ofC as rapidly as possible, by means of artificial heat, enough of their moisture to prevent deterioration through decay or other natural processes which occur in fresh fruit and at the same time to maintain a desirable texture and flavor. Buildings formerly used for other pur- poses are frequently converted into evaporators. An old dwelling house, a blacksmith shop, a cheese factory, and even a school house and a church are examples. Others are built substantially of brick or stone, thus reducing the risk from fire, which is an important consid- eration. A large quantity of fruit, in the ag- gregate, is still dried by primitive meth- ods. In rural communities, especially where the "home orchard" represents the extent of fruit growing, one often sees during the autumn a flat-topped rock, the roof of some low, easily acces- sible shed, or other flat surface on which have been spread apples, sliced or quar- tered, for drying in the sun. In some sections "strings" of quartered apples hanging by a doorway to dry, or behind a kitchen stove, are still familiar sights. "While much of this sun-dried fruit is intended for home use, large quantities of it are marketed, and it is also export- ed to some extent. This fruit is common- ly referred to as "dried apples," in dis- tinction from that handled in evapor- ators, which is known as "evaporated ap- ples." Types of Evaporators Many types of evaporators are now in use, though in a general classification they may be grouped, for convenience, under a few heads. The more important of thes^ are: 1. Cook stove evaporators. 2. Portable outdoor evaporators. 3. Kiln evaporators. 4. Tower evaporators. 5. Miscellaneous types. It is well to emphasize, at this point, the fact that the descriptions which fol- low are representative of types only and that the details of construction and ar- rangement admit of endless modification. For the most satisfactory results, how- ever, m all types, thorough ventilation is essential to insure a good circulation of heated currents of air. Cook-Stove Evaporators Some of the cook-stove evaporators are small box-like structures, usually made of sheet iron or galvanized iron, of such a size that they can be placed on top of an ordinary cook stove. They are arranged for holding a series of small trays, on which the fruit is placed after it has been prepared for drying. Vari- ous sizes are in use, from one covering only a portion of the top of a common kitchen stove and having a capacity of only a bushel or so a day, to those re- quiring the entire top of a stove on which to operate it. Another style consists of a watertight rectangular box of tin, upon the upper surface of which the fruit is spread. The heat is supplied by boiling water, with which the evaporator is filled, the tem- perature being maintained by placing one end of the evaporator on top of a stove. There are various other styles of this type. Portable Outdoor Evaporators Portable evaporators are especially con- venient when it is desired to dry only a few bushels of fruit at any one time. The usual sizes have a capacity of 5 to 10 bushels a day, and even more in some cases, although the quantity will of course vary with the attention given to them. As they are complete in them- selves and are not too heavy to be read- ily moved, they may be placed where- ever convenience from time to time dic- tates. There are other styles of this type ob- tainable from manufacturers which are made of sheet iron, usually galvanized. As no wood enters into their construc- tion, danger from fire is eliminated. One of these styles is provided with a heat defiector and so constructed that hot currents of air pass over the fruit as ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE well as up througli it, tlie claim being made that this moTement of air induces a more rapid drying of the fruit than in ordinary methods of construction. Kiln ETaporators Of the types having sufficient capacity for handling apples from large com- mercial orchards, the kiln evaporator is hy far the most important. While the principles of construction of the different evaporators of this type are similar in all cases, the details and the arrangement of the appliances are endlessly varied. In constructing kilns the same gen- eral principles are followed, whether the evaporator is a small one with only a c 1 M A £ (Tinir™,""" 6 ff '^^ B. Fig 1. First-floor Plan of an Evaporatoi, showing the arrangement of the principal de- tails A, doors, B, windows; C, parinj? table , D, bleacher ; E, stairs ; F, chimney , G, furnace; H, pipes. single kiln or an extensive establish- ment having several of them. The most satisfactory size of kiln, all things con- sidered, is about 20 feet square. This is a convenient size to fill, so far as the preparation of the fruit is concerned; the heat can be well regulated, made suf- ficiently intense for the purpose desired, and evenly distributed, so that the fruit will dry uniformly, and for various mi- nor reasons a kiln of this size is a desir- able "unit" in the construction of evap- orators of this type. A kiln consists essentially of a floor made of slats and placed over a furnace room or over a system of steam pipes. The floor is usually built from 10 to 12 feet above the floor of the furnace room. Provision should be made for regulating the heat by means of small openings at the base of the walls, communicating with the outside, which can be opened or closed as desired The inflow of cold air can thus be regulated. Such control is especially desirable in windy weather. While many evaporators are constructed without special provision of this kind, it is an important point to have such open- ings, particularly if the walls are brick or otherwise made very tight, so that there is but little circulation of air. If the evaporator is a frame building, the walls of the furnace room may well be plastered or covered with asbestos paper to lessen the danger of fire, which may otherwise be great, because of the intense heat generated within them. If the walls, at least the portion below the kiln floor, are double, with an air space between the two sides, the insula- tion will be more perfect than if they are solid or of only a single thickness, thus best conserving the heat and in- creasing the efficiency of the plant. The height of the walls of the kiln above the drying floor should be sufficient to permit an attendant to work on the floor conveniently and with comfort. Some means for the escape of the air laden with moisture from the fruit is necessary. This may be provided for by means of an opening in the roof, or a cupola-like ventilator may be built, the sides of which should consist of slats placed so that they overlap one another as in an ordinary window blind. An- other form of ventilator is in the form of a tower about Z feet square and ex- tending 8 or 10 feet above the roof, which is sufficiently high to cause more or less draft, and hence augments the circulation of hot air through the fruit. Fig 2 Section of a Kiln Floor, Showing the Method of Construction. EVAPORATION OF APPLES 921 The kiln floor is constructed of strips especially designed for the purpose. Such floors are generally made of pop- lar or basswood strips, seven-eighths of an inch thick, one inch wide on the top surface and one-half inch wide on the under side. In laying the floor, these strips are placed one-eighth to one- fourth inch apart on the upper surface. This makes the space between them wid- er on the under side than on the upper, thus allowing the small particles of fruit which work down between them to drop through without clogging the interven- ing spaces. Reference to Fig. 2 will make plain the method of constructing the floor. The heating apparatus, parers, slicers, bleachers, details of arrangements, etc., referred to here are described under their respective headings. Tower Evaporators At one time tower evaporators were extensively used in some sections for apples, but in recent years this type has been largely superseded by the kiln evaporator, so that at the present time there are comparatively few towers in use. As the name of this type implies, a tower is its characteristic feature of con- struction. It may be likened to an im- mense chimney, provided with the neces- sary appliances for receiving the fruit, except that the heat alone is allowed to pass through it, a separate flue being provided for the smoke. There is no more definitely prescribed manner in which these towers are con- structed and arranged than there is gov- erning the construction of kiln evapora- tors. They may consist of one tower or several. If several, they may be en- tirely disconnected from one another. They may be built side by side or back to back, opening on the opposite sides. They may be entirely within the build- ing, extending through the several floors from basement to roof and projecting above, or entirely on the exterior, open- ing into the interior after the manner of an "outside chimney," common in some sections of the country. They may be built either of wood or brick. They are usually from 4 to 5 feet square, in- side measure, and SO or 35 feet in height, as desired. Heat is supplied by a furnace at the bottom of the tower. There are two principal methods of constructing the towers in regard to re- ceiving and handling the fruit to be dried. The apparatus in one case con- sists of two endless sprocket chains oper- ating over wheels properly adjusted at the top and bottom of the tower. Each sprocket chain is provided with swing- ing brackets, corresponding with one another on each chain, for holding the racks on which the fruit is placed for drying. In one specific make of appara- tus these brackets are arranged in series of six each, so that this number of racks can be put in, one immediately above another. A space of two feet or so in- tervenes on the sprocket chains between each series of six brackets. This sprock- et-wheel-and-chain device for carrying the fruit in the tower is turned by means of a crank, which works on the outside of the tower. The racks on which the fruit is dried consist of frames 4 feet long and 21% inches wide, over which is placed gal- vanized wire netting having a % inch mesh. This size of rack permits the apparatus on which the racks are car- ried in the tower to work readily, those on one side passing upward, while those on the other side move downward, with- out interfering with one another. In this method the point of admitting the fruit to the tower is near the base on the first floor. When the fruit is dry it is removed at the same point. In operating the tower, the appara- tus is turned every few minutes to bring each rack of fruit in its course to the base of the tower, where the heat is greatest. In this way it is made to dry uniformly, and each rack is brought re- peatedly into view of the one in charge; hence he is always able to know its exact condition. In one particular evaporator of this kind there are three towers, about 30 feet high, each holding 120 racks. The capacity of a single tower is about 100 922 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE busliels a day. Tlie fruit is prepared in every detail tlie same as for drying in kilns. In the other method the racks are about 4 feet square and occupy the en- tire cross section of the tower instead of half the space, as in the method just described. The racks are admitted to the tower at the same point as in the other style, but as each rack is put in position it is raised by a lever attach- ment, together with the other racks which may have been already put in place, and held in the new position by dogs or clutches which work automatic- ally, allowing the racks to be moved up- ward, but not permitting them to move downward. The distance which the racks are raised each time the lever is moved is sufficient to allow another rack to be inserted below them at the usual point of admission. It will thus be seen that the racks are gradually raised from the point of insertion on the first floor to the point on the second floor where they are removed. The racks do not come into the view of the operator from the time they are insert- ed until they reach the place where they are removed, and so do not come under the same scrutiny of the opera- tor as in the other style. The arrange- ment of the furnaces is the same in both methods of construction. Miscellaneous Types of Evaporators While the types of evaporators prev^ ously described admit of endless modifi- cation in the details of construction, and other types and styles of lesser impor- tance are frequently seen, there is but one additional evaporator to which it seems desirable to refer in this connection. The type in question has no particular desig- nating term applied to it. Several styles which possess some features similar to this one have been called "cabinet evapor- ators/' and this term is applicable in the present instance. "While it appears to be largely of local reputation, it is believed to possess certain points of merit worthy of more extended application in construct- ing evaporators of considerable capacity. The fruit is dried on racks similar to those used in tower evaporators. In the first one of this type to be erect- ed, so far as the writer has been able to learn, and which is still in use, the com- partments in which the fruit is dried are located in the central part of a large room in which the fruit is sliced and handled after it is removed from the evaporator. Each compartment, of which there are three, is slightly more than eight feet square, or large enough in cross section to receive four racks (two square) on the same plane. The two opposite faces or sides of these compartments are a series of narrow doors, about six inches wide and slightly more than four feet long, which extend horizontally. These doors are hinged on the lower side and held in place by a button at the top. The sides of the interior are supplied with cleats on which the racks rest. Two racks placed one directly on the other are ad- mitted at each door. In the particular case in question, there is sufficient space between the fiooT and ceiling of the room for eleven of these doors, each door ad- mitting, as stated, two racks. It will thus be seen that the capacity of each compart- ment is 88 racks. As arranged in this evaporator, the racks are admitted to the drying compart- ments on the same side of the room that the apples are sliced, the ones that are put in first being pushed to the opposite side of the compartment, thus making room for the second set of racks in the course. The attendant in charge of the drying makes his examinations and removes the fruit when dry through the doors on the opposite side of the compartment. It will thus be seen that the method of handling the fruit is similar to that em- ployed in the case of the tower driers, but the work is all done on a single floor of the evaporator. The heat is supplied by a system of steam pipes which extend in horizontal tiers through the compartments between the racks. Evaporator Appliances, Etc. During the development of the industry, the machinery and other appliances used EVAPORATION OP APPLES 923 in the process of evaporating apples have undergone gx'eat changes, until at the present time a high degree of perfection has been attained. Reference to some of the more important articles for equipping an evaporator may be of value to those who are unfamiliar with them. Nearly all of them may be obtained from manufac- turers ready for use, hence detailed de- scriptions are unnecessary in most cases. Paring Tables Thei e are two general plans of construc- tion. One consists of a single long table common to all the machines; the other, individual tables, one for each parer. Where several hand parers are used they are commonly placed on opposite sides of a relatively wide table, through the center of which, between the two rows of parers, is a sluice 10 or 12 inches wide and as many inches deep. An end- less belt the width of the sluice covers its bottom. This belt works on rollers and is operated by means of a crank at the outer end. As the apples are trimmed they are thrown into this sluice, and the helper who attends to the bleacher fills the crates or trays in which the fruit is handled by turning the crank which moves the belt forward, carrying with it the fruit which has been placed thereon. By this means all the trimmers contrib- ute to the filling of a single tray, thus making it possible to get all the fruit into the bleacher in the shortest possible time after it is pared. This is considered essential in order to make the highest grade product. Such a table as this is especially adapted to small evaporators which are run entirely by hand power. In power evaporators a long table com- mon to all the parers is generally used. The necessary carriers for removing the apples and the parings operate beneath the table. If individual tables are used in such cases, a small sluice may con- nect each table with a carrier which works just beneath the floor, which car- rier in turn delivers to an elevator that connects with the bleacher. By thus placing below the floor the carrier which takes the fruit from the tables, the space above is left unobstructed, which would not be the case were the individual tables connected with a common carrier. Paring Machines Paring machines are made for opera- ting either by hand or power. The more recent patterns have two, or even three forks for holding the apples while they are being pared. The attendant puts an apple on one of the forks while one on another fork is being peeled. The number of bushels which can be pared in a given time of course varies with the size and condition of the fruit, but 70 or 75 bushels for a day of ten hours (or even more if the fruit is of good size and the machine is speeded up to its limit) is not an unusual amount for a good power machine. The hand machines are equally com- plete and satisfactory in their working. Under favorable conditions an experi- enced operator will pare 60 or more bush- els a day if the fruit is not too small. Bleachers In order to make the fruit as white as possible, it is usually subjected to the fumes of burning sulphur. The apparatus in which the fumes are applied is called a bleacher. The form and manner of construction vary greatly, as do most of the other ap- pliances. The requisites are a perfectly tight compartment having a capacity com- mensurate with the size of the evaporator and the necessary facilities for burning the sulphur. Perhaps the simplest form of construc- tion consists of a box sufliciently long to meet the requirements, placed hori- zontally, and large enough in cross sec- tion to admit the boxes or crates in which the fruit is handled. Rollers are placed in the bottom, on which the crates rest, which permit them to be moved along with but little friction. The crates are entered at one end of the bleacher, those previously put in being pushed along to make room for the following ones. The sulphur is usually burned immediately below the point where the fruit is put into the bleacher. A short piece of stovepipe is placed at the opposite end for the 924 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE escape of the fumes after they have passed through the bleacher. Another simple bleacher in which the fruit is handled in bulk (not in crates) consists essentially of a large square box, the interior of which is fitted with a series of inclined planes sloping in op- posite directions to prevent the fruit from dropping to the bottom in a compact mass. The fruit is usually admitted at the top directly from the paring table. It then rolls from one inclined plane to an- other to the bottom, where there is the necessary opening, with means for closing it tightly to prevent the escape of the sulphur fumes, for removing the fruit when it is bleached. The sulphur is burned beneath the lowest inclined plane. In the case of the bleacher where trays are used the sides of the interior are pro- vided with series of cleats for supporting the trays in which the fruit is handled. The distance between the cleats is slight- ly more than the depth of the trays. The sides toward the platform consist of series of closely fitting doors about six inches wide, placed horizontally, through which the trays are entered and removed from the bleachers. The trays of fruit are put into the bleachers and left in the sulphur fumes a suflQciently long time for the fruit to bleach. The sulphur is burned at the bottom of the bleachers, and the tall shafts which are to be seen projecting from the top are ventilators, which give sufficient draft to take the fumes up through the fruit and to allow their es- cape at a point some distance above the workmen. While all of these types may do the work well, they are so constructed that much handling and lifting of the fruit is necessary. There is an upright style in common use in some sections, which reduces the lifting of the fruit by hand to a minimum and serves not only as a bleacher, but also as an elevator. This is especially suited to the smaller, two-story evaporators, operated without mechanical power, in which the slicing is done on the second floor and having the kiln floor on the same level. By this means the fruit is raised from the first or paring room floor to the level of the kiln floor while it is being bleached. The construction is comparatively sim- ple. It consists of an upright box extend- ing from the first floor to three or four feet or any convenient height above the second. The cross dimensions are such as to admit the crates or trays in which the fruit is handled. The crates are ad- mitted to the bleacher at a convenient height, 18 inches or two feet from the bottom, through a trapdoor or some other arrangement which can be tightly closed to prevent the escape of the sulphur fumes. A movable frame, slightly smaller than the cross dimensions of the bleacher, rests on a solid support just below the point where the crates are entered and on which the crates are placed when pushed inside. This frame is connected with a level at the top of the bleachers by means of iron rods which are attached to a cross arm on the level and extend down the sides of the bleacher to the frame. The relative length of the long and short arms of the level must be such that in the sweep of the long arm the frame on which the crates rest will be raised a distance slightly greater than the depth of the crates in which the fruit is handled. There are dogs, or catches, on the inside of the bleacher, which work automatically and permit the crates to be moved up- ward, but not downward. When a crate is put in place, the lever is pulled down, usually by means of a i-ope which passes through the second floor within convenient reach of the helper who handles the crates. The crate which was last put into the bleacher and all that may have been put in previously are raised to the point where they are caught by the clutches just mentioned and so held in that posi- tion. On releasing the lever, it regains its former position and the frame drops to its place just below the level of the doorway through which the crates are admitted and is then ready for receiving another crate. A small-sized stovepipe or other tubing should extend from the top of the bleacher to the exterior of the building to permit the escape of the sul- EVAPORATION OF APPLES 925 pliur I'umes after they have passed through the fruit. The crates are removed through a tight- ly closing door in the bleacher on the sec- ond floor, where the apples are sliced and spread on the kiln floor. The sulphur is burned at the bottom of the bleacher, below the point where the fruit is admitted. It is a safe provision to have this portion of the bleacher coated with cement or lined with asbestos, espe- cially the floor, to lessen the danger of fire. Perhaps the most satisfactory bleacher for evaporators in which an engine is in- stalled is the "power" or "horizontal" type. Its characteristic feature is the movable bottom, or rather false bottom, on which the fruit is carried through the bleacher. Briefly stated, this bleacher consists of a tight box about three feet square and 20 or more feet long, the length being regulated by the capacity of the evapo- rator in connection with which it is operated and the time it is desired to bleach the fruit. The apples are conveyed from the par- ing room to the bleacher by a carrier, or elevator, similar to those already referred to, and are dropped into one end of the bleacher, falling on the movable bottom, which consists of an endless belt of "lugs," turned by the proper gear attach- ment. The speed of movement is gov- erned by the gearing, and is adjusted to correspond with the time it is de- sired to keep the fruit in the bleacher and the length of the latter. When the fruit has been carried through the bleacher, it passes to the slicer, which is located in close proximity to the bleach- er. The end of the bleacher is closed when in actual operation by means of a closely fitted piece of canvas or other ef- fective arrangement. Provision for the escape of the fumes may be supplied as suggested in connection with the upright type previously described. Sulplmr Stores In a large proportion of instances noth- ing more elaborate than a broken or otherwise discarded iron kettle or some similar receptacle is used for containing the burning sulphur. This is the case if the compartment in which the sulphur is burned is a portion of, or in direct com- munication with the bleacher. In other instances, such as the power bleacher just described, where in some cases it is more convenient to burn sulphur at some dis- tance from the bleacher, a small sheet- iron stove about a foot square and 12 or 15 inches high is used. This is connected with the bleacher by means of a small stovepipe. Slicing Machines There are several styles of slicers now obtainable which are operated by hand, foot, or mechanical power. In general, they consist of a table in which a series of knives is so arranged that when the apples are carried over them by a revolv- ing arm they are cut into slices. In at least one type the apples are delivered to the slicing table by an attachment which works automatically. The capacity of slicers varies somewhat, as does the industry of the men who oper- ate them, but from 200 to 400 bushels for a day of ten hours may be expected of a good machine. Small hand slicers which slice only a single apple at a time are sometimes used in the smaller evaporators. Quartering machines are used instead of slicers, if it is desired to dry the fruit in quarters instead of slices. Crates and Trays Crates and trays are essential accesso- ries. A relatively large supply facilitates the handling of the fruit both before and after it is pared, especially where there are no elevators or carriers to convey the fruit from one point in the evaporator to another. They are usually made to hold about a bushel. The bottoms of those in which apples are bleached should be made of narrow slats, and preferably also the sides, to permit a free circulation of the sulphur fumes through the fruit. In the construction of all racks on which fruit is dried, whether for use in a large tower evaporator or in a small cook stove type, a special caution should be 926 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE observed to select only tlie best grades of galvanized wire netting for making tlie racks. If poorer grades are used the acids of the fruit are likely to act on the metals, producing undesirable re- sults. Heating Apparatus Satisfactory results are so dependent upon the heating apparatus that this becomes one of the most important fea- tures of an evaporator. In the smaller types of evaporators, where comparatively little is involved and the question of fuel does not enter seriously into consideration, almost any small stove commensurate with the size of the particular evaporator in question may be used. In the larger kiln evaporators the mat- ter is a more important one. Formerly, ordinary cast-iron stoves were used con- siderably, two or more of them frequent- ly being required to heat a single kiln, but these have largely gone out of use. In their stead large furnaces are now most commonly used. These are spe- cially designed for the purpose and are provided with relatively large fire pots, correspondingly large ash pits, and large radiating surfaces. As it is necessary to burn a relatively large quantity of fuel in a given time, the size of the grate is made with this end in view. For a kiln floor 20 feet square, or 400 square feet of surface, the grate surface is usually about three feet in diameter, containing from five to seven square feet. As to the most satisfactory length of pipe connecting the furnace and chim- ney, opinions differ. Perhaps the most common method of piping is the follow- ing: The furnace, with two flanges for attaching the pipe, is placed in the cen- ter; the pipe from each flange is then extended to the side of the room opposite the chimney, and from this point the two sections, extending in opposite directions, follow the wall, at a distance of two or three feet from it, to the chimney. In a kiln 20 feet square, some 65 or 70 feet are thus required. Ten-inch pipe is a common size to use for this purpose. It is placed about three feet below the kiln floor. Some operators think that a better dis- tribution of heat is obtained if the pipes extend back and forth, two or three feet apart, under the entire floor of the kiln, thus requiring 200 feet or more instead of the shorter length above suggested. The greater length, however, is less fre- quently used than the smaller. In some cases the heat is so intense directly over the furnace that the fruit dries more rapidly in the center of the floor than about the sides. To regulate this and make the drying as uniform as possible, a "deflector," consisting of a piece of sheet iron or tin several feet square, is attached to the floor directly above the furnace. Open grates, which in effect are fur- naces with all parts above the grates removed, are used occasionally and are recommended by some because they re- quire less fuel, less attention to firing, and will dry the fruit in a shorter space of time. On the other hand, so much dust rises from them that they are not used in making the best grades of fruit. Tower evaporators may be heated by the same style of furnaces that are used in kiln driers. The size of furnace sufla- cient to evaporate a given quantity of fruit in a given time is probably about the same in either type of evaporator. Tn some respects a steam system is the most satisfactory method of heating, but it is comparatively little used, possibly due to the larger first cost of installing such a system. It is especially applicable in case of evaporators that are operated in connection with some other business that requires the use of considerable steam power, such as a large cider mill, which requires the power for running the presses. In kiln evaporators the steam pipes are generally placed in as close proxim- ity to the floor of the drying room as is convenient—within a foot or even closer. That every steam pipe nearest the floor may supply the greatest amount of heat it should have its own return to the main return of the system. One inch pipe is generally used for such systems. No very definite data are available in regard to the amount neces- EVAPORATION OP APPLES 927 sary to supply the requisite heat Sev- eral kilns, however, which are said to work admirably, have about 650 running feet of pipe for every 100 square feet of floor space. One-half of this is "riser," the other half "return." In the type of evaporator referred to as "cabinet evaporators," the length of one inch steam pipe requii-ed per square foot of surface directly exposed to the pipes is considerably less than in the case of the kiln just described, although it is probable that in the system in question a greater degree of heat can be main- tained than with the usual piping for a kiln. As previously mentioned, in this system the pipes are arranged in hori- zontal tiers, the racks on which the fruit is placed being inserted between them. Hence, the upper racks receive more or less heat from the lower tiers, as well as from those to which they are directly exposed. In one evaporator of this type, which gives excellent satisfaction, and in which the drying compartments are about nine feet square — that is, large enough to hold four four-foot racks (two square) in the same plane — there are thirty-two one-inch pipes in each tier. Each pipe is about 8^{> feet in length, or approximately 270 feet in each tier. In the evaporator referred to there are eight tiers in each compartment. Bight racks^ — two deep — are placed between each tier of pipes. In another evaporator of this type, hav- ing a capacity of 400 bushels every twen- ty-four hours, a 40-horsepower boiler, with about 15 square feet of grate sur- face, furnishes the necessary steam when run at a pressure of 40 to 50 pounds This is sufficient for drying the fruit and for running the parers, slicers, elevators, etc., required to handle this quantity of fruit. The steam pressure at which such systems are run varies considerably ac- cording to the individual requirements of the systems, A range of from 40 to 90 pounds has been noted in different evap- orators. Fuel Where the owner of an evaporator has an abundant supply of wood and it can be cut at times of leisure, this is probably the least expensive fuel in actual cash outlay that can be had in most of the apple-growing sections. In fact, under these conditions, it is commonly esti- mated that the fuel costs nothing. But in a great number of cases fuel has to be bought, even by operators who are drying apples from their own orchards. For kiln evaporators using the common type of furnaces, hard coal is probably the most satisfactory fuel, and requires less attention than any other. Coke is sometimes used, and if it were as satis- factory as coal, other things being equal, it would be the cheaper fuel. But it re- quires much attention, and even with the best of care it is difficult to maintain a uniform degree of heat. A combination of coal and coke is sometimes used with satisfactory results, in which case the faults and advantages of one tend, in a measure, to equalize those of the other. In a steam-heated plant soft coal serves the purpose in a satisfactory way, and in most apple-growing sections is prob- ably cheaper than any other fuel that is readily available. Quantity of Fuel Required While the amount of fuel necessary to dry a given quantity of fruit will vary more or less, depending upon the condi- tions of the weather, the efficiency of the furnace, the construction of the kiln, the percentage of moisture to be left in the fruit, and various other things, it is roughly estimated that a ton of hard coal, for a kiln evaporator, will make a ton of dried fruit. Probably the average requirement is rather more than this. It is claimed that a tower evaporator re- quires slightly less for the same results. Open grates also considerably reduce the amount of fuel necessary tor a given quantity of fruit, but on account of their objectionable features they can not be used for the better grades of apples. Coke is rather more efficient, 2,600 to 2,700 pounds of apples being evaporated, it is claimed, by a ton of fuel. A good steam system should require considerably less than a ton of soft coal 928 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE to a ton of dried fruit, one estimate be- ing about one-half this amount. These estimates are for evaporating sliced fruit. If the apples are quartered or dried whole, being merely pared and cored, considerably more fuel is required. From 25 to 50 per cent more fuel should probably be estimated for in such cases. Apples Suitable for ETaporation There is an increasing demand for dried apples of the highest quality. The tendency has sometimes been to make quantity at the expense of quality. But prices are governed not only by the sup- ply but also by the grade. The cleanest, whitest fruit, that is well cored, trimmed, bleached, ringed, and dried, is most in de- mand. Carelessness in any particular injures the product. Primarily the economic usefulness of an apple evaporator is through its utili- zation of windfalls and the poorer grades of fruit which can not be marketed to good advantage in a fresh state, and it is these grades that are most often evapor- ated. But the magnitude of the crop also influences the grade of the evaporated product in a decided way. In seasons of abundant crops and low prices for fresh fruit large quantities of apples that would ordinarily be barreled are evap- orated and the grade of stock produced is correspondingly improved. On the other hand, in years of scanty crops, when all apples that can possibly be shipped are in demand at high prices, only the very poorest fruit is evaporated, as a rule, thus lowering the grade of the output. The commercial grading of evaporated apples is based primarily on appearance rather than on dessert quality, and the fact that one variety may make a better flavored product than another is not con- sidered. As a rule, a product of high commercial grade can be made from any sort which has a firm texture and bleaches to a satisfactory degree of whiteness. A variety of high dessert quality, such as the Northern Spy, may be expected to make an evaporated product of correspondingly high flavor. In sections where the Baldwin apple is grown extensively it is in demand at the commercial evaporators, as it meets the requirements in a fair degree and it is also available in relatively large quanti- ties. In the Ben Davis sections that va- riety supplies a similar demand. Most early varieties lack sufficient firm- ness of texture for the best results and are undesirable on this account. On the other hand, some comparatively early sorts, such as Gravenstein and Yellow Summer Pearmain, are considerably prized in some sections; the dessert qual- ity of the latter is especially high. Similarly the product made from other sorts possesses qualities that are due more or less to varietal characteristics. For instance, that from Esopus is said to be unusually white; Hubbardston and varie- ties of the Russet group also make very white stock. The latter make relatively a large amount of stock, by weight, to a given quantity of fresh fruit. Limber- twig is said to produce from one and one- half to two pounds a bushel more of dried stock than most sorts do, but it is not as white as that from some other varie- ties. Preparing the Fruit for Drying Paring No special comments are necessary un- der the head of paring, save to mention this step in the order in which it occurs in the preparation of the apples for dry- ing. The apples are cored in the same operation by an attachment applied to the paring machine for this purpose. The fruit is automatically forced from the fork and drops to the table, where it is next taken in hand by the trimmers. In the smaller evaporators the slicing is often done at the time of paring by a slicing attachment applied to the parers. In nearly all the evaporators the paring and trimming are done by women and girls. Trimming In paring the fruit there is usually more or less skin left around the stem and calyx of the apples and any irregular places that may occur. There will be wormholes, decayed spots, and other blem- ishes which will detract from the appear- ance of the product, if allowed to remain. EVAPORATION OF APPLES 929 Even bruises are objected to by the most exacting operators. Hence all such de- tects are cut out as soon as the fruit IS pared if the highest grade of product is expected. This is done with an ordi- nary straight-back, sharp-pointed knife, having a blade two and one-half or three inches long. Bleaching The fumes of burning sulphur are em- ployed not only to make the fruit white where the freshly cut surfaces have be- come discolored by contact with the air, but to prevent further discoloration after it is sliced. Sulphuring is also generally supposed to bo necessary to destroy fungi and insects, though under present meth- ods of handling this is open to question. Thei'e are no definite standards govei^n- ing the bleaching as to the time required, amount of sulphur necessary to accom- plish the desired end, etc. The aim is to treat until enough of the fumes have been a])sor])od by the apples to prevent discolor- ation after they are sliced and exposed to the air. If it is found that the fruit is not retaining its clean, white appearance with the treatment that is being given, either the length of time that the fruit is kept in the bleacher is increased or more sulphur is burned in the customary time for bleaching. Due caution should be ex- ercised, however, in this connection, in- asmuch as the bleaching of desiccated fruits with sulphur fumes is open to criti- cism. The sale of fruit containing sul- phurous acid in any considerable quantity is ])rohibited by the pure food laws of some states, as well as being restricted in some of the foreign markets. The Fed- eral pure food law will also make definite restrictions. In many cases the bleaching process is doubtless continued much longer than is necessary for the desii^ed results. Until some definite standards are established and recognized, the greatest care should be exercised not to bleach more than the minimum required to maintain the de- sired color a reasonable length of time. The allotted time for bleaching in a large number of evaporators, from which Information has been secured, varies from twenty minutes to one and one-half hours, 2— IS The more usual time appears to be about forty-five minutes. This, however, may be regulated in a measure by the amount of sulphur burned in a given time. The estimates regarding the amount of sulphur used to bleach a ton of fruit vary from four or five pounds to 20 pounds, though but little information of a definite character is to be obtained at present. The usual practice is to start the sul- phrr fumes by putting a few live coals into the receptacle used for the purpose, then adding a small piece or two of stick brimstone. Before this has all been vapor- ized, more is added. This is continued as long as the bleacher is in operation, suffi- cient heat being generated to vaporize the sulphur without the fui'ther addition of burning coals. When apples are dried whole, without slicing or quartering, they require less bleaching than if they are to be sliced, inasmuch as the interior of the fruit does not come in contact with the air. For the most satisfactory results it is essential that the fruit be put into the bleacher in the shortest possible time after the surface is exposed to the air by paring. If a long delay occurs the sur- face becomes discolored, in which case it does not regain its original whiteness in the bleaching process. Slicing, Quartering, Etc. After bleaching, the next step in pre- paring the fruit is slicing, unless instead of slicing it is quartered or dried whole, as is done to a limited extent. In prepar- ing fruit for some of the smaller evapor- ators, as previously mentioned, the slicing is done when the fruit is pared, the bleaching then follows the slicing instead of preceding it. The slices are one-fourth inch in thick- ness, and in the largest degree possible should be cut at right angles to the hole made through the axis of the apple when the core is removed by the parer, thus producing the "rings," which is the form most desired. Other things being equal that fruit is sliced the best which con- tains the largest proportion of "rings," and this point is given more or less weight in grading the finished product. When it is desired to evaporate apples 930 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE in quarters or sixths they are run through machines which cut them accordingly, the cutting being done in the opposite direc- tion from the sliemg; that is, in a direc- tion parallel to instead of at right angles to the axis of the apple. If they are to be dried whole, they are transferred from the bleacher directly to the drying compartment without further treatment Drying the Fruit When the fruit has been placed in the drying compartment of an evaporator, of whatever type it may be, it has reached the most critical stage in the whole pro- cess of evaporation, and it is here that the greatest care and skill are required to in- sure the best possible results. Capacity of Floor Space and Backs In the case of kiln evaporators, the sliced fruit is evenly spread on the floor to the depth of from four to six inches. A kiln 20 feet square will hold the slices of from 120 to 150 bushels of fresh fruit, depending upon the amount of waste in the apples and the exact depth to which they are spread on the floor. If the fruit is in quarters or is dried whole, it may be somewhat thicker on the floor, since in these forms it does not pack down as closely as the slices do and hence does not impede the circulation of hot air through it if the depth is somewhat in- creased. In tower evaporators and other types where the fruit is handled on racks the slices are seldom placed much more than one inch in depth. A rack four feet square will hold from three-fourths of a bushel to a bushel. The fruit is generally put on the floor of the kiln as fast as it is sliced, and the fire is started in the furnace below as soon as the floor is filled, or, in many cases, before it is entirely covered. Oiling the Floors and Backs It is common practice to treat the floor of kilns occasionally with tallow to pre- vent the fruit from sticking to it. This is done every few days, or as often as con- ditions appear to make it advisable. Sometimes a mixture of equal parts of tal- low and boiled linseed oil is used for this purpose. Another practice, with the same end in view, is to thoroughly scrub the floors as often as is necessary with water, using with it some one of the scouring soaps. This is preferred by some operators, who claim that oil or tallow discolors the fruit. At each filling of the racks, where these are used, the surface of the wire netting is lightly wiped over with a cloth mois- tened in lard. This prevents the fruit from sticking to the netting and keeps it clean. Temperature Maintained The temperature maintained in kilns or other drying compartments, in actual prac- tice, is largely a matter of experience, not a factor governed by any definite stan- dards or regulated in accordance with thermometer readings, as might be ex- pected. In general, the object in view is to force the heat as high as possible with- out endangering the fruit. A probable temperature which has been suggested by some of the operators is 150 degrees Fah- renheit, or more when the fruit is first put into the drying compartment, dropping to about 125 degrees Fahrenheit as the drying process nears completion. Suffi- cient and proper provision for controlling the indraft of cold air below the fruit will aid in maintaining the desired tem- perature. Turning the Fruit In order to prevent the fruit from burn- ing and from sticking to the floor by re- maining in contact with it too long, and to insure the most uniform drying that is possible, the fruit, in the case of the kiln driers, is turned occasionally. The inter- val between turnings varies with different operators, with the condition of the fruit, and with the degree of heat which is maintained. Some operators do not turn the fruit until five hours have elapsed after the furnace has been started, while a more common practice is to make the first turning within two or three hours after the drying is begun, or even sooner. For the first five or six hours it is gen- erally turned every two hours or so, and more frequently as the fruit becomes drier, until perhaps it may require turning every half hour when nearly dry. EVAPORATION OF APPLES 931 The objects to be obtained by turning must be kept in mind and the fruit handled accordingly. It should be ex- amined from time to time and turned often enough to prevent scorching or sticking and to insure uniform drying. In the case of the tower evaporators and other types in which the fruit is handled on racks, no turning more than an occa- sional stirring of the fruit with the hand or with a small wooden paddle is re- quired. Sometimes the relative positions of the racks are changed to make the dry- ing more uniform. This is one reason why the tower-dried fruit is generally of rather better quality than that from kilns. The repeated turning on the kiln floor is likely to make the fruit more or less "mussy," while in that which remains practically undisturbed on the racks the rings are maintained in better condition. The fruit also dries more quickly, and is often of better color than the kiln-evapor- ated product, and hence is more attractive in appearance. The same general principles must be ob- served in tending the fruit where steam heat is used in place of direct hot air from furnaces. Time Eequired for Drying The time necessary for drying fruit de- pends upon several factors. The more im- portant are: Type of evaporator; depth to which fruit is spread; method of pre- paring — ^whether sliced, quartered, or whole; temperature maintained; condi- tions of the weather, and, to a certain extent, the construction of the evaporator. The application of these several factors to the point in question readily follows. A good kiln evaporator should dry a floor of slices, other things being equal, in about twelve hours, ten to fourteen hours being the range of variation. Where the fruit is handled on racks the time required is much shorter, but conditions are quite dif- ferent from the kilns, as the fruit is sel- dom more than one or two inches thick on the racks. For slices, five hours is con- sidered a reasonable time, with a range of four to six hours. It is estimated that quarters will require from eighteen to twenty-four hours in the average kiln, while the time for whole ap- ples will range from thirty-six to forty- eight hours. If the atmospheric conditions are heavy and damp, the drying is retarded. Under some conditions it is hardly possi- ble to thoroughly dry the fruit. During windy weather also it is more difficult to regulate the heat, especially if the walls are poorly constructed so that the draft of cold air into the furnace room can not be controlled. This applies espe- cially to kilns heated by furnaces. It is claimed that steam-heated evaporators are less subject to the influence of cli- matic conditions. When Is the Emit J>rjl " Perhaps there is no step in the entire process that requires better trained judg- ment than the matter of determining when the fruit is sufficiently dried to meet the requirements. Like several other steps in the process it is largely a matter of experience, though there are certain general features which are capa- ble of being reduced to words. The fruit should be so dry that when a handful of slices is pressed together firmly into a ball the slioes will be "springy" enough to separate at once upon being released from the hand. In this condition there will be no fruit, or only an occasional piece, that has any visible moisture on the surface. In a slice of average dryness, it should not be possible to press any free juice into view in a freshly made cross section of it. The general "feel'* of the fruit, as it is handled, should be a soft, velvety, leathery texture. The foregoing should represent as nearly as possible the average condition, but it cannot be expected to be absolutely uniform throughout. Some slices — they should constitute only a very small per- centage — will still plainly possess some of the juice of the apple; others — ^like- wise, properly only a small proportion — will be entirely too dry, possibly dry enough to be brittle. The Curing Eoom When a quantity of fruit is considered dry enough, it is removed from the kiln and put in a pile on the floor of the 932 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE curing room. Every day or two the pile should be thoroughly shoveled over to make uniform the changes which take place. Thus managed, the pile in a few days will become thoroughly homogen- eous. The pieces that were too dry will have absorbed moisture, the superfluous moisture of other pieces will have dis- appeared, and the entire mass may be expected to reach the condition above described. Handling the Waste In the usual grades of apples that are taken to the evaporator there are many specimens that are too small to pare or which for other reasons can not be profit- ably used in this way. In the case of some of the larger evaporators which are operated in connection with vinegar fac- tories, these apples, as well as all parings and trimmings, are used for "vinegar stock," but in the smaller ones these portions are usually dried. It is gen- erally estimated that about one-third as much space is required to dry the parings and trimmings as is demanded for the "white fruit." "Waste" and "chops" are generally bleached, but are seldom passed through the bleacher which is used for the white fruit Where they are dried in kilns, which is usually the case, a common way of bleaching is to burn the sulphur in the furnace room after the stock has been spread on the floor. It is generally estimated that the waste from a given quantity of apples will pay the cost of the fuel for evaporating that quantity of fruit; that is, putting it on a bushel basis, the waste from a bushel will pay for fuel to evaporate both the white fruit and the waste from that bush- el. While in some instances, when the price of such stock is low, this estimate may be too high, it not infrequently hap- pens that it more than pays for the fuel. Weight of Evaporated Apples Some varieties of apples will make more evaporated stock to the bushel than others. The grade used also affects the amount, but an average weight — a fre- quent basis of estimates — is about 6^^ pounds of white fruit and 3% pounds of waste to a bushel of fresh fruit When the apples are dried whole, without slic- ing, they will make from one to two pounds more to the bushel than when sliced Handling Evaporated Apples While comparatively few of the manu- facturers of evaporated apples pack their own fruit for the trade, it will be of in- terest to them and of direct value to know something of the methods pursued by dealers, and especially in regard to grading and the requirements of the vari- ous grades. The product of all grades is generally shipped to the dealers in gunny sacks having a capacity of one and one-half to two bushels The "white fruit" is usu- ally bought by the pound. Sometimes the waste is rated by the hundredweight The price paid is not governed by the market conditions alone; the quality is an im- portant factor. Grading In classifying evaporated apples, three grades are generally recognized which are commonly designated as "fancy," "choice," and "prime." Two other grades, which in reality are special grades, are also sometimes recognized, viz.: "extra fancy," and a lower grade than prime — usually called prime with some prefix, frequently the name of a locality, to dis- tinguish it from that grade. The standards demanded for these vari- ous grades are about as follows: "Fancy" is very white, clean stock, free from all pieces of skin and other objec- tionable portions which should be re- moved in trimming, and a good portion of the slices in rings. "Choice" denotes a grade intermediate between "fancy" and "prime," not quite clean enough for "fancy," yet more nearly free from imperfections than the "prime" grade demands. "Prime" must be good stock, well cured, and of a generally attractive appearance. It must be comparatively white and most- ly free from undesirable portions, but stock having a small percentage of such defects is usually put in this grade "Extra fancy," as the name implies, is a fancy grade that is exceptionally fine. It must possess all the qualities mentioned EVAPORATION OP APPLES 933 in describing that grade m a marked de- gree. At least 85 per cent of the slices should be "rings." The grade below ''prime" is the stock that has been so carelessly handled and is so unattractive in appearance that it cannot maintain the standard of "prime " It is packed for an entirely different and much poorer class of trade than any of the other grades. Kinds of Packages Used In packing the fruit, several sizes of packages are in common use. While the proportionate dimensions of the packages may vary with the different dealers and packers, their capacity is more or less a matter of uniform standards. Perhaps the package most used is the 50-pound wooden box. A common form of this box is IOV2 by 11 by 22 inches, in- side measure. Twenty-five pound boxes are likewise much used; these are com- monly made 9 by 9 by 18 inches, inside dimensions A box holding 55 pounds of sliced fruit, having inside measurements of 11 by 11% by 22 1/^ inches, is much used for the export trade. These are generally marked "25 kilos" when intended for ex- port, instead of having the capacity des- ignated in pounds. Pasteboard cartons, holding one pound, or one-half kilo (1.1 pounds) for certain export trade, are also more or less used for the better grades of sliced fruit. These cartons are generally packed in a box or case, 48 cartons to the case. The cartons are 2 by 5 by 7 inches; the case is about 12 by 16 by 21 inches. All of these packages are used as de- sired for- slices or "rings," but the quar- ters and whole fruit are generally packed in the 55-pound boxes, which, however, are expected to contain but 50 pounds of fruit in these forms. Packing The side of the box intended for the top or "face" is packed first, as in pack- ing fresh fruit in boxes or barrels. The first step in packing, therefore, is to "face" this side The "facers" are slices which are perfect rings. These are usu- ally selected from a quantity of fruit which contains a relatively large propor- tion of them; they are then placed on thin boards which are slightly smaller than the top of the box, inside measure, overlapping one another in rows, length- wise of the board. The facers are put in place by inserting the board on which they are arranged into the box, which is first lined with paraffin paper, and then with a dexterous movement of the hand Fig 3. A 50 pound Box of "Fancy" Evapo- lated Apples with Cover Removed. flipping the layer of rings against the in- ner face or the bottom, which is to be- come the top of the box. A press is generally used in filling the boxes. Three men compose a packing gang for each press; one to fill the boxes and weigh the fruit; one to operate the press; a third to nail on the cover, which now becomes the bottom of the box. In filling the boxes, an extension of the box upward is necessary, since 50 pounds of evaporated apples have to be com- pressed greatly in order to get them into a box of the required dimensions. This extension may be another box of same size with a rim nailed around the edge to fit over the box to be filled. The box is placed on a pair of scales and filled with the desired quantity of fruit, by weight; it is then passed to the press. A "fol- lower" slightly smaller than the box is put in position over the fruit and this is pressed down until the fruit reaches the desired point. Quarters and whole apples are handled in essentially the same manner except in regard to the facing- In facing whole ap- 934 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE pies they are placed on the side in rows lengthwise of the bottom (when packed, the top) of the box. The boxes are then filled the same as with slices. Quarters are handled in the same way. Figure 3 is a box of fancy evaporated apples with cover removed, showing the paper lace used for decorative effect. Fig- ure 4 is the same box with the paper cov- ering entirely removed. Cartons are filled by hand, the work usually being done on a table of conve- nient height. Each package is weighed to insure its proper content of fruit. Pig. 4. A 50-pound Box of "Fancy" Evapo- rated Apples with Cover and Paper Lace Re- moved. The sun-dried fruit, of which quite large quantities are handled by some deal- ers, is usually packed in sugar barrels. This is largely exported- The waste is also generally put into barrels, 240 to 250 pounds net usually filling a barrel. Chops are handled in a similar manner. Storing the Truit In years of great abundance of apples, the evaporated product is likely to ex- ceed the immediate demand. While fruit that has been well bleached and cured can be held for a considerable period of time without loss it is by no means im- perishable. The color is first to deterio- rate. The fruit appears to lose the effect of bleaching after a time and turns dark. Though it may retain its flavor for a long time, its unattractive appearance renders it more or less unsalable. When it is desired to hold evaporated apples from one season to another, re- course is had to cold storage. Some sea- sons large quantities are handled in this way. The temperature at which it is stored is usually from 32 degrees to 35 degrees Fahrenheit, or about the same as for fresh fruit. If well bleached and properly cured it may be held for a rela- tively long period. Four or five years is said by commercial handlers to be about the usual limit of time before the color deteriorates. It is seldom, however, that it is desirable to hold the fruit for so long a time. h. P. Gould, Assistant Pomolofjist, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C. Condensed from Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 291. Experiment Stations Alabama—College Station, Auburn; J. F. Duggar*; Canebrake Station, Union- ton; L. H, Moore*; Tuskegee Station, Tuskegee Institute; Gr. W. Carver*. Alaska — Sitka; C. C. Georgesonf. Arizona — Tucson; R. H. Forbes.* Arkansas—Fay etteville; M. Nelson*. California— Berkeley; T. F. Hunt*. Colorado— Fort Collins; C. P. Gillette*. Connecticut— State Station, New Ha- ven; Storrs Station, Storrs; E. H. Jen- K.ins • Delaware—Newark; H. Hay ward*. Florida— Gainesville; P. H. Rolfs*. Georgia— Experiment, R. J. H. De- Loach*. Guam— Island of Guam; J. B. Thomp- sonf. Hawaii — Federal Station, Honolulu; E. v. Wilcoxf. Sugar Planters Station, Honolulu; H, P. Agee*. Idaho— Moscow; W. h. Carlyle*. Illinois — ^Urbana; E. Davenport*. Indiana — La Fayette; A. Goss*. Iowa— Ames; C. F. Curtiss*. Kansas— Manhattan; W. M. Jardine*. Kentucky— Lexington; J. H. Kastle*. Louisiana — State Station, Baton Rouge; Sugar Station, Audubon Park, New Orleans; North Louisiana Station, Calhoun; W. R. Dodson*. Maine— Orono; C. D. Woods*. Maryland— College Park; H. J. Patter- son*. EXPERIMENT STATIONS— FARMS 935 Massachusetts — ^Amherst; W. P.Brooks*. Michigan — East Lansing; R. S. Shaw*, Minnesota — University Farm, St. Paul; A. F. Woods*. Mississippi — ^Agricultural College; E. R. Lloyd*. Missouri — College Station, Columbia; P. B. Mumford*. Fruit Station, Moun- tain Grove; Paul Evans*. Montana— Bozeman; F. B. Linfield*. Nebraska — Lincoln; E. A. Burnett*. Nevada — Reno; S. B. Doten*. New Hampshire — Durham; J. C. Ken- dall*. New Jersey — ^New Brunswick; J. G. Lipman*. New Mexico— State College; Fabian Garcia*. New York — State Station, Geneva; W. H. Jordan*. Cornell Station, Ithaca; W. A. Stocking, Jr.f North Carolina — College Station, West Raleigh; State Station, Raleigh; B. W. Kilgore*. North Dakota — ^Agricultural College, T. P. Cooper*. Ohio— Wooster; C. E. Thorne*. Oklahoma — Stillwater; L. L. Lewis*. Oregon — Corvallis; J. Withycombe*. Pennsylvania — State College; R. L. Watts*. State College, Institute of Ani- mal Nutrition; H. P. Armsby*. Porto Rico — Federal Station, Maya- guez; D. W. Mayf. Sugar Planters, Sta- tion, Rio Piedras; J. T. Crawley*. Rhode Island — Kingston; B. L. Hart- well*. South Carolina — Clemson College; J. N. Harper*. South Dakota— Brookings; J. W. Wil- son*. Tennessee — ^Knoxville; H. A. Morgan*. Texas — College Station; B. Young- blood*. Utah— Logan; E. D. Ball*. Vermont — Burlington; J. L. Hills*. Virginia — Blacksburg; S. W. Fletcher*. Norfolk, Truck Station; T. C. Johnson*. Washington — ^Pullman; I. D. Cardiff*. West Virginia — Morgantown; E. D. Sanderson*. Wisconsin — ^Madison; H. L. Russell*. Wyoming — Laramie; H. G. Knight*. * Director. t Special aprent in charge. t Actinsc director. ExposxjRE. See Apple Orchard, BelecP ing a Bite For. EvAPOEATioiT OF Watee. See Irrigation. Farms *Fariii Value of Important Crops (Average prices paid to producers in the United States.) PRODUCT Feb. 15, 1912 Jan. 15, 1912 Dec. 15, 1911 Nov. 15, 1911 Oct. 15, 1911 Feb. 15, 1911 Apples, per bu Pears, per bu Beans, per bu Onions, per bu Cabbage, per 100 lbs — Sweet Potatoes, per bu. Clover Seed, per bu Timothy Seed, per bu. . Cotton Seed, per ton — Horses, per head Beef Cattle, per 100 lbs . Veal Calves, per 100 lbs. Milch Cows, per head. . . Sheep, per 100 lbs Lambs, per 100 lbs Hogs, per 100 lbs Milk, per gallon Wool, unwashed, per lb . Honey, comb, per lb Brant, P^r ton $ 0.98 $ 0.93 2.38 1.40 2.24 .94 12.22 7.26 16.81 137.00 4.61 6.07 43.40 4.01 5.15 5.79 .163 .140 28.62 2.38 1.17 1.89 .87 10.89 6.99 16.57 134.00 4.46 6.06 42.89 3.89 5.74 .162 .138 27.39 \ 0.86 1.11 2.42 X . JLo 1.83 .79 10.62 6.72 16.70 134.00 4.37 5.98 42.72 3.71 4.93 5.72 .222 .155 .138 26.99 \ 0.73 .85 1.03 1.51 .76 10.37 6.90 16.69 136.00 4.36 6.10 42.70 3.65 4.68 5.86 .218 .156 .136 20.72 \ 0.66 .97 2.27 l!58 .86 10.33 6.91 16.73 137.00 4.32 6.15 42.69 3.68 4.68 6.09 .213 .155 .137 % 1.19 2.23 1.04 1.48 .82 8.37 4.51 25.61 144.00 4.57 6.38 44.98 5.*44 6.93 .221 .173 .133 25.27 t Price to Feeders. * Prom Crop Reporter, Marcli, 1912. 936 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE * rarin Wages The average wages of farm labor in the United States, as reported by correspond- ents of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, for years indicated, was as follows: Year ending June 30, 1911. Y^EAR Wages of Farm Labor, when employed by Month Without Board With Board Day, at harvest Without Board $28.77 27.50 22.14 20.23 19.38 17.69 17,74 19.10 18.60 18.33 18.24 17.97 18.94 16.42 19.87 25.92 26.87 1910 1902 1899 1898 1895 1894 1893 1892 1890 1888 1885 1882 1879 1875t 1869t 1866t t In currency KEEPING OUR CHILDREN ON THE EARM. There is only one way known to the writer to keep children on the farm, after they reach their majority, and that is to make the farm attractive. In order to make it attractive, it must be made financially profitable, and social- ly pleasant. How to make the farm as profitable as other lines of business, is the problem. In order to be made pro- fitable, its products must yield as much money, for a given amount of labor, as other lines of business. If the farm can be made to supply these needs, our young people will not desire to leave it, but if it cannot, they will continue to crowd into the cities for the purpose of mak- ing money, and obtaining social privi- leges they cannot obtain in the country. The days of social isolation are prac- tically past, except for a limited num- ber of persons, who care little for edu- $20.18 19.21 16.40 14.07 13.43 12.02 X^. Xu 13.29 12.54 12.45 12.36 12.34 12.41 10.43 12.72 16.55 17.45 SI. 85 1.82 1.53 1.37 1.30 1.14 X . Xo 1.24 1.30 1.30 1.31 1.40 1.48 1.30 1.70 2.20 2.20 With Board $1.49 1.45 1.34 1.12 1.05 !93 1.03 1.02 1.02 1.02 1,10 1.15 1.00 1.35 L74 Day, other than harvest Without Board With Board ^.42 1 .So 1.13 1.01 .96 • ol .81 .89 .92 .92 . \}Ji . v/JL .93 .81 1.08 1.41 1,49 11.09 L06 .89 .77 .72 ."63 .69 ,67 M .67 .67 .67 .59 .78 1.02 1.08 * From Crop Reporter, March, 1912. cation, entertainment, and the gratifica- tion of the social instincts. The farmer generally tries to educate his family. Even though he has not the advantages in the sparsely settled districts he sends his children to high school, and often to college, during which period they come into contact with the world in a broad- er way than ever before, and develop some kind of social life not possible on the farm. Education has created wants and if the farm will not furnish the means and opportunities to supply them, the best educated of our young people will leave the farm. It is a fact that with the present status of our industrial development, the farm does not produce enough to supply the wants of an educated citizenship. Statistics show that the average farm, in the United States, yields less in net pro- fits than the average wage worker re- ceives. Yet the average farm requires an FARMS 937 investment of over $6,000 for land, stock and farm machinery. So long as it is true that the average wage worker, with no investment at all, can live in town and receive for his year's labor as much as the average farmer receives with his $6,000 investment, it will be impossible to keep our best, most educated and spirited young people on the farm. The tendency has been to build up our manufacturing, mining, and com- mercial industries by bonuses, subsidies, tariffs, land grants and other devices, disproportionately when compared to the importance and extent of the wealth pro- duced and the number of persons em- ployed on farms. The tendency is now to give more attention to the farm, to educate the farmer as to the best meth- ods of production, to show how larger crops can be produced for a given amount of labor, and how greater profits may be obtained without raising the cost to con- sumers. It is a fact that work on the farm is conducted with less system, and less scientific analysis of all the factors in- volved, than most other lines of business. Comparatively few farmers keep any- thing like correct book accounts of the expenses and income of the various de- partments of farm work. Few have any idea as to the best methods of soil con- servation for the various kinds of crops, and how to leave to their children land as rich or richer than they found it, and fewer still seem to recognize the value of a proper cultivation of social life. The isolation of farm life is being, in part, overcome by the use of auto- mobiles which, on account of the rapid travel, seems to shorten the distances be- tween places. But the ownership of automobiles implies more than average conditions on the part of the owners. It implies an additional expenditure for good roads. This means that the farm must be made sufficiently profitable to pay for all these expenses. Generally a fruit growing district yields more wealth, in proportion to a given area, than a country devoted to other kinds of production. It would ■probably be easier therefore for fruit growers to live on smaller tracts of land, live in closer relations to each oth- er, have better roads, more modern im- provements and better social life than farmers in general; but it is neverthe- less a qnestion largely of financial profit, which must be worked out in a more scientific way than formerly. Granville Lowthee miJ^OE ARTICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT Pew farmers realize the extent of their investment in small items of equipment or the time and inconvenience involved in buying numerous articles singly or in small lots. Before planning the farm equipment, due consideration should be given to the necessary outlay for minor items, and where possible the latter should be secured at one purchase, there- by saving time and, usually, money. The purchase of these articles in such a man- ner will mean a total expenditure suf- ficient to impress the farmer with the need for their systematic care. The minor items for a general farm of 160 acres in the Middle Western states will probably cost from $200 to $300. The lists given below are in the na- ture of a census in that they present data from which each individual may secure the information suited to his own use. These lists are printed with that object in view rather than as a recom- mendation of what should be purchased. Farmers' Bulletin 347, following a discus- sion of the various workshop tools, states that the complete equipment of a shop for the making of general farm repairs should include a blacksmithing outfit, a $25 collection of wood working and gen- eral purpose tools, a pipe working com- bination, miscellaneous tools, a harness repair outfit, a work bench, a pair of saw horses, and a grindstone, and that this entire equipment for a shop can be se- cured for about $100 in a fair quality of goods, while for $150 tools of excellent quality can be obtained. The great number of general purpose items, other than those mentioned, to- gether with those for use in connection with the producing enterprises, and the stock of materials needed for the repair 938 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE of farm equipment will easily bring the total cost of a good working equipment in miscellaneous articles up to $250. The expenditure of this sum for this purpose in the organization of the farm is prob- ably out of the question for many farm- ers, but due consideration at the out- set for the necessary investment in minor items will save much inconvenience and disappointment later. Table I Summary of items of minor equipment, with the number and cost of all items suggested as necessary and their total cost 1 2 3 4 5 ITEMS Percentage of farms reporting Average number of items per farm reporting Number of each item suggested as necessary Cost of each item Total cost of items suggested as necessary General purpose: Auger Awl 67 27 88 64 55 94 94 85 35 25 73 42 64 91 45 55 21 82 36 70 67 82 36 79 42 94 85 73 79 39 39 21 42 27 10 30 21 15 3 23 27 18 73 24 27 6 70 35 42 30 61 24 64 30 91 39 33 67 52 3,0 1.9 2.1 1.1 1.0 6.7 1.2 1.1 1,0 1.0 4.3 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 3.0 1.1 1.3 1.0 1.4 1.7 2.5 1.5 1.4 1.0 1.7 1.2 2.3 2.5 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.0 3.9 1.0 2.3 1.8 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 2.2 1.7 * .8 1.3 2.1 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.1 1,4 1.5 3 1 2 1 1 7 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 2 $0.25 .10 1.25 .75 .60 .30 1.50 .75 .40 .25 .40 .30 .75 .75 .40 ,20 .60 .50 .50 .75 .25 1.50 .25 .75 .30 1.25 3.00 1.25 .30 ,50 .50 1.25 1.25 .10 .75 .60 10.00 5-60 16.00 4.00 .50 1.25 .20 .10 10.00 .60 .15 .30 .10 .10 .30 1.60 .60 3.00 4.00 .75 1.00 .50 1.00 $0.75 .10 Ax and handle 2.60 Pinch bar .75 Bench screw Auger bit .60 2.00 Bit brace. 1.60 Steel sQuare .75 Bevel square Try-sctuare .40 .25 Wood chisel , 1.50 Compass Level .30 .75 Drawing knife .76 Scratch &:auiz:e . .40 Gimlet bits Grub hoe .40 Claw hammer 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 i""""' 1 i '.BO Hand ax Hatchet .50 .75 Screw-driver .25 XiOg chain 3.00 Wooden mallet ...,,.. .25 Mattock , , . .75 Compass saw. .30 Handsaw Crosscut saw, large Plane 2.60 3.00 2.50 Iron wedge .60 Tapeline Rasp Brush hook or scythe .60 .50 Cant hook 1.26 Chalk line Buck saw f .10 Carpenter's pincers .60 Anvil Vise , . . . . i 4 "Fovge Combination drill press ............ 4.00 Drills 2.00 Tinner's snips , Cold chisel Whetstone Screw plate. 2 1 1 2'**** 1 2 1 *1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 .40 .10 10.00 Tongs Hat file , .30 *' Round file Taper file Oil can. . , , Machine oil Pipe wrench , Monkey wrench Tool grinder .30 .20 .10 .30 1.50 1.00 3.00 Grindstone Riveting hammer. 4.00 .75 Sledge hammer. Pliers Nippers 1.00 .60 1.00 *Gallons. FARMS 939 Table I— Continued Summary of items of minor equipment, witli tlie number and cost of all items suggested as necessary and their total cost ITEMS Percentage of farms reporting Average number of items per farm reporting Number of each item suggested as necessary- Cost of each, item Total cost of items suggested as necessary General purpose — Continued: Punch Hack saw Saw-set Maul Post-hole digger Wire splicer Wire stretcher Ditch cleaner Tile spade Brick trowel Plastering trowel Sand sieve Pick D-handled shovel Long- handled shovel Counter scale Spring balance Steelyards Platform scale Rat trap Steel trap Jackserew Stepladders Ladder Farm bell Lantern Hoisting block Barrel Padlock Paint brush Whitewash brush Basket Household and farm: Lard press and sausage stuff er. Sausage grinder Hog scraper Hog hook Butcher knife Kettle Treepruner Pruning shears Crates Garden rake Hoe Cultivator Trowel Cold frame Flat Spade Sprinkler Lawn mower Lawn rake All stock: Broom Clipping machine Manure fork Pail Tie chain Tie rope Hand sprayer Wheelbarrow Horse and driving: Bit Blanket Brush Currycomb. Collar 33 18 36 16 41 11 29 22 31 44 6 16 31 31 13 16 34 28 38 24 26 3 45 52 5& 68 16 71 39 48 26 52 45 48 10 62 55 15 39 39 64 88 12 12 3 3 36 64 9 15 42 27 18 9 12 42 40 91 89 89 43 2.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.0 l.*9 1.4 1.3 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.0 1,0 2.1 5.0 1.4 1.4 1.0 1.8 3!o 1.8 3.3 1.4 5.8 1.0 1.0 2.8 1.1 2,4 1.7 1.2 1.3 54.7 1.2 2.4 1.3 1.3 8.0 3.0 1.4 1.1 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.6 5^3 2.3 1.0 1.4 2!s 2.0 2.3 2.7 1 40 1 2 .15 .50 .60 .60 1.25 1.00 1.00 1.25 1.00 .40 1.00 .50 1.00 1,00 1.00 5.00 .50 2.00 8.00 .50 .15 2.00 1.75 2.00 2.00 .90 2.00 .75 .40 .30 .75 .30 5.50 2.00 .10 .05 .30 2.50 1.60 .40 .40 .60 .40 4.00 .25 2.50 .10 .75 .60 4.00 .40 .30 6.00 .70 .15 .25 .26 .75 4.00 .40 2.00 .60 .25 3.00 .30 !66 1.25 1.00 1.25 1.00 .40 1.00 1.00 .50 2.00 8.00 .50 .15 1.75 2.00 2.00 1.80 2.25 .40 .60 .75 1.20 5.60 2.00 .20 .05 .60 2.50 .40 16.00 .50 .80 .75 "4".66" 1.40 .45 .75 4.00 .80 6.00 1.00 .50 6.00 940 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Table I— Continued Summary of items of minor equipment, with the number and cost of all items suggested as necessary and their total cost. 1 2 3 4 5 ITEMS Percentage of farms reporting Average number of items per farm reporting Number of each item suggested as necessary Cost of each item Total cost of items suggested as necessary Horse and driving — Continued: TTflrnpss oil . 34 34 97 20 14 37 69 69 43 31 57 23 23 14 43 23 17 40 14 40 11 62 71 60 63 46 23 14 29 60 11 6 3 3 39 9 15 36 27 6 70 45 21 21 6 30 6 24 12 48 58 tl.5 2.8 6.5 1.8 1.4 2.2 1.2 1.0 tl.2 2.8 1.0 1.3 7.4 2.0 1.9 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.0 4.3 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0 1.5 1.1 1.4 1.6 3.1 1.4 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 3.9 1.0 1.0 4.9 9.9 5.0 3.2 1.1 10.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 5.0 1.6 1.1 1 6 2 2' " * 1 1 fl 2 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 3 $ .25 1.00 .75 .20 .50 .35 .50 .50 .10 .15 10.00 1.00 .05 .10 .75 .60 .75 .75 1.00 .10 .50 1.00 5.00 1.50 2.00 4,00 1.00 1.00 .30 .50 .10 .25 .20 .50 .30 5.00 .25 1.50 .10 .20 .50 4,00 .20 .50 1.50 .50 .10 ,25 .15 1.00 .20 .10 .40 .50 1.00 4.00 .25 .25 .25 .05 .25 $ .50 B'lv nets. 2.00 TTnlfipra 4.50 Muzzle Nosebag Swfiat Dad ,40 .70 Harness punch. Riveting machine Rivets. .50 .50 .10 Tie rope Saddle .30 10.00 Ridinff bridle 1.00 SnaDS • ■ • .20 Sponge Neck straps Syringe SfjOrm aoron .10 .75 .60 .75 Buggy jack Wagon jack Clevis .75 .30 Cbannois skin . Dust robe Lap robe 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1.00 5.00 Evener, 2-liorse 3.00 Evener, 3 or 4-horse Storm front Dash lantern , 2.00 4.00 1.00 Neck yoke 1.00 Whippletree Whip AVhisk broom. . . .60 .50 Cattle: Cow bell Calf muzzle Crate 3'""" Tie rope or chain Dehorning clipper Milk tube .90 4 7 3'"'"' 1 6 Dairy: Milk can 6.00 Milk crock .70 Milk pan. Milk pail i ! 50 Churn Butter crock Butter bowl , 4.00 1.20 Butter scales . . Strainer Skimmer Thermometer Sheep: Bell Shears 1 i' * * 3 1 1 tl .50 !25 "" .45 1.00 Swine: Ring plier Rings .20 .10 Snout clipper 3 3 15 39 6 3 3 3 3 1.0 1.0 2,0 6.6 3.6 3.0 8.0 6.0 1,0 Tongs Crate Portable house 5 20.00 Poultry: Fountain Feed hopper Trap nests Feed pan. , Feed sieve JQuarts. fBoxes. FARMS 941 Table I— Concluded Summary of items of minor equipment, with the number and cost of all items suggested as necessary and their total cost. ITEMS Percentage of farms reporting Average number of items per farm reporting Number of each, item suggested as necessary Cost of each item Total cost of items suggested necessary Poultry — Continued : Hover box Egg tester , Coop Leg bands Bone cutter Bees: Foundation Section box (100) . . . Foundation fastener . Hive Super. Smoker Bee escape Bee veil. Honey crate Honey extractor . . . . Corn: Shock tier Knife Hand planter Ensilage fork Seed tester Seed rack Husking peg Husking gloves . . . . . Hay: Stack cover Carrier Hoisting fork , Pulleys Hay rope, 1-inch ... Trip rope, 3^-inch.. Hand fork Baled hay hook. . . . , Scythe and snath . , . Hand seeder Sickle Slings Knife Small grain and seed: Cradle Binder cover Flail Measure Straw fork Hand rake Sacks Scoop shovel Sugar beets: Beet fork Beet hoe Beet topper Potatoes: Scoop Pork or hook Hand planter Maple sugar: Sap bucket Spout Cover Scoop Gathering pail Tapping bit Total cost of items suggested as necessary , 3 6 3 6 6 6 12 9 15 12 12 6 9 6 6 27 70 61 6 42 9 30 12 3 30 58 55 61 30 88 21 88 70 32 9 67 48 36 15 33 15 36 97 82 3 3 3 3 39 3 21 15 3 12 9 6.0 1.0 3.0 50.5 1.0 •6.0 2.8 1.0 19.6 30.3 1.0 2.0 1.3 13.5 1.0 1.0 2.7 1.3 1.0 1.5 1.3 2.9 n.3 2.0 1.1 1.1 4.5 X132.5 X 65.0 3.2 1.6 1.4 l!l 2.7 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.3 38.6 1.7 2.0 6.0 9.0 471.0 485.0 500.0 1.0 Ji . o 2.0 1 1 4 •110 • 40 3 1 1 1 1 1 38 2 .25 .15 3,00 6.00 .75 .75 .75 1.00 .50 1.00 *.10 .25 3.50 .50 .25 1.50 1.00 .50 1.00 .10 .75 8.00 3.00 1.25 .40 .60 .30 1.25 5.00 .50 2.00 .75 5.00 3.00 .50 .70 .25 .20 1.00 1.50 .50 .25 1.50 1.50 1.75 .20 .03 .06 1.00 ,75 .30 .50 .50 1.50 .50 .'26' 3.00 1.25 1.60 5.00 .45 1.80 .30 1.25 5.00 .50 .75 5.00 3.00 .50 .25 7.60 2.00 1.50 S270.70 xFeet. •Pounds. ®Pairs. 942 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE WATER SUPPLY FOE THE PAEM HOME The failure to employ modern methods of lightening labor inside the house is a great hardship on many farms. Thought- fully planned, conveniently arranged, and carefully constructed buildings are as essential in the country as in the city. Plumbing is becoming a necessity, not only for comfort and convenience but even more for health and cleanliness; and the proper disposal of the wastes of the household should not be neglected. For domestic purposes the water must be clear, pure, and palatable; the es- sentials being freedom from disease germs, turbidity, color, odor and taste. Springs and Wells Of the various sources of supply springs usually rank first and deep wells next in desirability. The character of the water in a shallow well depends upon its past history and present envi- ronment. If it has traveled long dis- tances through the soil without encoun- tering organic impurities or taking up objectionable mineral salts, or if after possible pollution it has been filtered and purified in its travels, its quality is prob- ably excellent. But shallow wells near barnyards or privy vaults should always be regarded with suspicion. It is well to remember that the price of pure water, wherever you go, is everlasting and un- remitting vigilance. To locate a cesspool and a well on the same small piece of ground is almost im- possible without contaminating the water. Slop water of any Mnd should never be thrown near the well. The top 4 or 5 feet of the well casing should be laid in cement mortar to prevent water flowing in without first filtering through the ground. A sewer pipe or waste drain near a well is dangerous because such a pipe or drain is seldom watertight. If a sewer pipe must be run near a well, cast iron pipe should be used. The carelessness that will locate the barn on higher ground than the well and take no precautions to divert the surface drainage is almost as deplorable as the use of the cesspool or privy vault To keep the earth clean in the vicinity of the water supply is of the greatest importance and requires constant watch- fulness. Water Storage Cisterns There are localities where the only available water supply is obtained by stormg the water which falls from the roof of the house during rainy weather. In other places the water is so hard that rain water is desirable in the laundry and bathroom. Construction The size of the cistern needed will vary with the size of the family, the length of the dry season, and the number of plumbing fixtures supplied with the rain water. This cistern may be located close to the house for convenience and should be added by building an 8-inch wall not less than 8 inches in thickness, laid in Portland cement mortar. The bottom should be laid with two courses of brick well bedded in the cement mor- tar. If the water is to be used for drink- ing or for cooking, a filter chamber should be added by building an 8-inch partition wall after the bottom has been paved. This wall should be built a lit- tle higher than the outlet of the over- flow pipe. The walls of both compart- ments should be plastered with a good coat of cement mortar, composed of one part good Portland cement and two parts clean, sharp sand, excepting 10 or 12 inches of the bottom of the partition wall (4 or 5 courses of brick, which are laid together without cement) for the water to pass through. The water from the roof is collected in one compartment and is pumped from the other, the filtering material being put in the first compart- ment. An overflow pipe should be pro- vided on the side of the cistern which the water enters, the opening of the over- flow pipe being fitted with a fine strain- er to exclude insects or vermin. A cut- off should be placed on the rain water pipe leading to the cistern to divert the flow to the outside when necessary, as, for instance, for a short time at the be- ginning of the rains to exclude the dirt collected on the roof and in the gutters. FARMS 943 The cistern may be built of concrete, and may be either round or rectangular. The round form is the more difficult to build, but it Is the stronger. Use of a Pump A small force pump, placed at one end ot the kitchen sink, with the suction pipe reaching to the cistern, is a convenient means of getting the soft water supply if the more expensive method of using a gravity tank or a pneumatic tank and piping the soft water to the sink, wash basins, and bath tub is not desired. If a gravity soft water tank is placed in the attic it can have a direct connection with a rain water leader which will keep the tank full during the rainy season. This conection must be supplied with an automatic cut-ofE which will send the water to the cistern when the attic tank is full. The force pump can be connect- ed to the tank and used to fill it in dry seasons. To have a constant water supply in the kitchen and bathroom it is necessary to have some means of storing it under pressure. An elevated tank which will deliver the water by gravity may be used, or a pneumatic tank which will de- liver it by air pressure. The labor saved by having the water carried to the house, barn and garden, will soon pay for the storage tank, while the value of ade- quate fire protection and the healthful- ness of sanitary plumbing can not be esti- mated in dollars. Elevated Tanks Location of the Tank If the gravity system is chosen, the tank for the storage of the water may be in the attic or on an outside tower. If a windmill is used for power, a small tank can be supported 20 to 40 feet from the ground, on the same tower. These tanks can be constructed of wood or of galvanized steel, and of capacity varying from 300 to 2,000 gallons. If a larger tank is desired, a tank on an independ- ent tower should generally be used with pipe connections to house and barns. When the storage for the house supply is in the attic, too large a tank should not be used, as water is heavy (62.5 pounds per cubic foot) and there is dan- ger of overloading the attic floor unless it has been especially designed to carry the tank. Kinds, Construction and Cost Attic tanks are constructed of wood lined with zinc or lead, of galvanized steel, of cast iron, and of wrought iron. Such tanks should always be provided with an overflow pipe to carry off the water if the float valve fails to shut it off when the tank is full. If of iron or steel, a galvanized steel tank pan with a drain connecting with the overflow pipe should be placed beneath the tank to pre- vent damage to floors and ceilings from condensation of moisture on the outside. The water supply is regulated by means of a float valve which cuts off the inlet pipe when the tank is full enough. The size of the tank will be regulated by the power used to raise the water as well as the amount required by the family. The hydraulic ram or the windmill will require only a small storage tank, as they are so easily set going. If an en- gine is used, a tank that will hold a two or three days* supply would be more convenient and economical. A closed steel tank, fitted with a water seal air valve, may be used in the attic with the overflow pipe leading to the stock tank in the barnyard. This insures a con- stant renewal of the water. There is one farm in Illinois where the water sup- ply is forced to an attic tank and the fall of the surplus operates a water motor for lifting the cistern water to another tank in the attic, and then the surplus water goes to a tank in the hay mow of the barn with an overflow pipe to a stock tank in the barnyard. This illustrates how well the head can be made to save the heels. If all the plumbing fixtures are on the ground floor, the closed steel tank for the cold water supply can be placed in the kitchen or bathroom. If desired, the en- tire water supply can be made to pass through this house tank and so the house supply will be always fresh. With a closed tank there is no danger from overflow. 944 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE A tank like this, 12 inches in diameter and four feet high, will hold 24 gallons and cost about $16. An open galvanized steel tank can be made or can be bought ready made. A ready made one with a capacity of 100 gallons will cost about $8, while a 500-gallon tank will cost about $16. Pneumatic Tanks Sufficient pressure to force a water sup- ply wherever desired in a farmhouse may be secured at all seasons by means of a pneumatic tank built of steel plates and located in the cellar, or in a small build- ing erected over the well, or even buried in the earth if desired. It is superior to an elevated tank because the pipes and tank can more easily be made frost proof in winter and the water will be cooler in summer. It is closed to dust and light and has the additional advantage of rest- ing upon the solid ground. Principle of Action Water is pumped into the bottom of this air-tight tank, and as the water rises in the tank the air above it is compressed. The expansion of this compressed air will force the water through the supply pipes at the bottom of the tank to points where the water is required. The pres- sure is increased by pumping more water into the tank and decreased by drawing water off. A 15-pound pressure will raise water to a height of 33 feet, a 10-pound pressure to a height of 22 feet, etc. The correct amount of air can be supplied and maintained by an automatic air valve, by a pump that forces both air and water into the tank at the same time, or by a hand air-valve. The last method is not self-regulating, but if water is supplied to the tank by a hand force pump, it will not require much more attention to regu- late the air pressure also. Power; Cost The water can be forced into the pneu- matic tank by the same means required to elevate it to a gravity tank, i. e., by a windmill, gas engine, hot-air engine, hy- draulic ram, or by hand. From ten to Pneumatic Pressure Tank Showing Pump and Separator Operated by an Electric Motor. — Courtesy Keicanee System. FARMS 945 twenty minutes a day with a good hand force pump will furnish a moderate sup- ply. If more than 100 gallons a day are required, it is better to use some other means of pumping. If an engine is used, a large tank is more economical, and twenty minutes* pumping twice a week should furnish the supply. With a windmill an automatic regulator should be used, which will throw the windmill out of gear when the pressure reaches a given amount and start it again when the pressure is relieved. The prices vary with the different man- ufacturers. A tank 30 inches in diameter and 10 feet long, which would supply the needs of a family of five, is listed at from $101 to $138 (subject to discount). The expense for repairs to an outfit like this is very slight and the time required for pumping varies with the power used. Neighbors can frequently combine and put in one large plant for supplying water to several houses. This decreases the cost to the individual and gives a greater pressure in case of fire. The greater the horizontal distance the water is carried, the larger the pipes should be to lessen the loss of pressure by friction. Power Available What will be the most convenient and economical means of forcing water into the storage tank depends upon the situa- tion in each case. The source of the sup- ply, the amount required, the need of power for other purposes, the available fuel, and the cost of labor will all have a bearing on the matter. The hydraulic ram and the windmill have the advantage of operation without fuel, but the ram re- quires at least 18 inches of waterfall, while with the windmill the daily supply of water is not always subject to control. The gas or hot-air engine requires fuel and attendance, but the supply is more easily regulated. The Hydraulic Earn The hydraulic ram can be used to fill the storage tanks if the source of supply is a spring, flowing well, or running stream from which enough fall to supply the power can be obtained- Its use is practicable with a fall of only 18 inches, but with greater heads water can be forced to higher elevations and to longer distances. The head can be increased by damming the stream or by sinking the ram into a pit, if a drain can be secured to keep the pit free from water. The relation between the height of the spring, or source of supply, above the ram and the elevation to which the water is to be delivered determines the propor- tion of water raised to water wasted. It is not economy to increase the fall more than is necessary to supply the required amount of water, as the durability of the ram will be lessened. The amount of •water procured by means of a ram from a very small fall makes a good supply be- cause the ram is always going. Windmills The cost of installing a windmill will depend upon the depth and character of the well and its distance from the house and barns, upon the height of the tower, upon the elevation or pressure of the storage tank, and upon the amount of wa- ter required each day. These items vary so much with the individual cases that it is unsatisfactory to attempt to give even general figures. Any manufacturer of windmills will furnish an estimate upon application. tos or Hot- Air Engines Small gas or hot-air engines are now manufactured for the express purpose of pumping water from cisterns, springs, or wells to elevated or pneumatic tanks to furnish supplies for houses and barns. One advantage of the engine over the hy- draulic ram or the windmill is that the water can be pumped when it is wanted, and the size of the storage tank can be more accurately determined. An engine can be selected which will burn any kind of fuel — natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, coal, or wood. Such engines do not re- quire an expert to run them, and, like the power windmill, can be used for driving other light machinery when not needed for pumping water. The arrangement of the pipes to carry the water is governed by the same con- ditions as when other power is used. No more elbows or sharp bends should be 2—19 946 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE used than are absolutely necessary, as they cut down the capacity of the engine; and when the water is to he pumped through a great length of horizontal pipe it is well to increase the size of the pipe. The cost of a two or three horsepower engine will be from $60 to $130. The cost of the fuel is very small, as a half hour's pumping a day will furnish the average supply of water. The House Location In selecting a location for a house there are certain points that should he held in mind. A slight elevation, having proper surface drainage, with protecting hills or woods on the north, is greatly preferable to a narrow valley, a low meadow, or the north side of a hill. The house should face so as to get sunlight into all the rooms, if possible, for "where sunlight does not enter the doctor must" This may be accomplished by facing the house southeast, for example, instead of di- rectly east or south. Foundation and Cellar After the selection of the site some study should be given to the character of the subsoil, the principal factors to be con- sidered in this connection being the water and the air. There is a certain amount of moisture in the upper layer of the soil which is the cause of damp and unhealthy foundations This dampness is derived mostly from the surface water, and is di- rectly proportional to the absorptive power of the soil and can be diminished by tiling and trenching. The ground air is rendered impure by the gases arising from the decomposition and putrefaction that are constantly going on in the soil, especially in that which is contaminated by household wastes. In the construction of the cellar the first thing is to provide such drainage as will draw ofp the water at least one foot lower than the surface of the cellar floor and prevent the ground air from passing through the walls and floors. In building the cellar walls every joint should be entirely filled with mortar. A good coat of asphalt over the outside of the wall turned in at the grade line with a course of slate or bluestone above the ground level will prevent all soaking up of mois- ture. If a drain tile is laid just outside the footing course and the space on the outside of the wall is filled with sand and gravel all the way up to grade, the surface water will be carried away through the drain. The floor of the cellar is best made by a layer of brick or of cinder concrete, covered by a layer of asphalt and finish- ed by a 4-inch layer of stone concrete. A layer of well-beaten clay makes a good cellar floor, but it can not be so easily kept clean. The height of the cellar walls above the ground is important. They should extend a sufficient distance above the ground to admit of windows in the cellar at least 2 feet high. This will in- sure plenty of light and thorough ventila- tion. There should be cellar windows on all sides of the house. Plumbing Important Points to Be Kept in Mind There is a great difference of opinion among those who have made special study of sanitary plumbing concerning many of the details of construction and design, but the vital things to be kept in mind when laying out the system are to use the best material, isolate all plumbing, and con- centrate as much as possible. By "best material" is not meant the most expen- sive, but the most durable. Secure sim- plicity in all needed fixtures. Avoid com- plications in waste pipes. Select sinks without grease traps, bath tubs without inaccessible overflows, wash basins free as possible from fouling places, and water- closets without valves, connecting rods, or machinery. The drainage system must be so con- structed as to carry away completely, auto- matically, and immediately everything that may be delivered into it. It should be constantly and generally vented, fre- quently and thoroughly flushed, and have each of its openings into the house se- curely guarded from the entrance of air from the interior of the drain or pipe into the room. All drains, soil pipe, and waste pipe should be absolutely tight against the leakage of water or air. FARMS 947 The main line of the house drainage system begins at the sewer, flush tank, or septic tank, as the case may be, passes through the house by such a course as may be indicated by a judicious compro- mise between directness and convenience, past the location of the highest fixture that is to discharge into it, and then out through the roof for free ventilation. If possible, have the fixtures which are lo- cated on different floors in a direct line one above the other to avoid any consid- erable horizontal run. If bathrooms or water-closets are required in different parts of the house let each have its own vertical line of soil pipe. All plumbing fixtures on bedroom floors should be con- fined to bathrooms, and under no circum- stances should there be a wash basin or any other opening into any channel which is connected with the drainage system in a sleeping room or in a closet opening in- to a sleeping room. Each bathroom should have exterior location and at least one window for light and ventilation, but pipes should not be placed against outer walls unless adequately protected against frost. Never have plumbing out of sight; let each pipe be in full view, and each closet, bath, or basin be unhid- den by any sort of inclosing woodwork. There is quite as much danger from the dirt which is apt to gather around con- cealed pipes and beneath inclosed sinks, bowls, or closets as there is from the ad- mission of sewer gas. The simplest way to prevent the accumulation of dirt is to make it easier to be clean than to be dirty. Therefore keep the plumbing fix- tures where there is plenty of light. Improvements for the Kitchen The kitchen is a most important part of the house. On it depends the physical life, and to a large degree the spiritual life, of the family. Realizing its impor- tance, sufficient time and thought should be given to it to secure the best results possible from the material at hand. Tentilation, Walls and Floors Perfect ventilation is the first require- ment of a kitchen, light comes next, and in turn the possibilities of perfect clean- liness. The walls should be painted so that they may be wiped off with a damp cloth, making cleanliness possible with- out great demand on strength, and with- out the disarrangement caused by white- washing and kalsomining. In these days of enameled paint the walls and shelves of all kitchen closets should be painted. Painted shelves can be wiped off with a damp cloth every day if need be. Paper in kitchen closets is always a bid for dust and vermin. Hard wood makes the best kitchen floors. Linoleum or oilcloth are labor saving and, if cut to exactly fit the floor and all joints cemented, are perfectly san- itary. Intelligence does not countenance a carpet on the kitchen floor. The Eange Whatever fuel is used, let the range be one of the best in the market. This is true economy. Near the range and under the same ventilating hood should stand the oil or gasolina stove. There is an infinite variety of these stoves, all economical, cleanly, and safe if managed with care. A hood suspended over the kitchen range and connected to a flue in the chimney will gather all the steam and odors and carry them away. Laundry Arrangements When the kitchen is also used as the family laundry, stationary tubs of enamel- ed iron or of soapstone should adjoin the sink. They should be covered to form a table when not in use, but as confined air near plumbing becomes dangerous the covers should close upon rubber knobs or wooden blocks, so as to leave an air space for ventilation. Nickel plated union strips and hardwood wringer hold- ers should be added between the tubs and at the right hand end so that a wringer may be used. One of the needs of the or- dinary farmhouse is a suitable place for the workmen to wash as they come from the fields. When a separate room is fitted up as a laundry, provision should be made here for the men by adding a large sink and bench. The Kitchen Sink The kitchen sink should be of cast iron, plain, galvanized or enameled, broad, and 948 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE of a generous size, preferably with a liigli back to protect the wall from the water which is certain to splash when drawn rapidly from the pipes. The fanc^ets should be set well up and back to avoid the breakage of dishes by striking them against the faucets. The waste pipe should be covered with a fairly fine brass strainer, which should be held securely in place by screws. At one end should be placed a long draining shelf, the shelf should be well grooved and inclined slightly toward the sink. Both tubs and sink should be well trapped, but as grease traps when neglected are filthy things, and as proper care of the pipes renders them unnecessary in an ordinary kitchen, they should be avoided. Kitchen and pan- try sink drains should be treated fre- quently to a wash of hot water and am- monia or soda to keep them clear from deposits of grease. Kitchen sinks are used for the discharge of liquids which in their original condition are not of- fensive, but which after a little retention begin to putrefy, and it is very impor- tant to secure the complete removal of all such matter well beyond the limits of the house before putrefaction begins. Refrigerator drains should never con- nect directly with the drainage system. Hot Water Apparatus A hot water supply may be furnished by a special heating apparatus in the cellar, a furnace connection, or, as is usual in small houses, by a boiler and water front attachment for the range. The cold water should always enter the boiler at some distance below the point of entrance of the hot water from the water front of the range; the greater this distance the bet- ter will be the circulation, and the less time it will take to heat a certain amount of water. The kitchen boiler is simply a storage tank to keep a supply of hot water on hand so that it can be drawn when required. The chemical properties of the water often determine whether a copper or galvanized iron boiler may be used. Certain waters will rust out a gal- vanized iron boiler in a few years, while a copper boiler, used in its place, would last a lifetime. The hot water stores it- self in the upper part of the boiler and is forced out by the cold water entering at the bottom. The upper pipe, or hot water pipe, from the water front to the boiler must not be allowed to sag but must have as much elevation as possible, and also large sized elbows should be used, in order that the flow of water will have the least possible friction to contend with. The more elevation we get from the water front to the boiler the better the water will circulate, but the slight- est rise in the pipe will make a satisfac- tory job. It should be a continuous rise from the range to the boiler. To prevent the pounding of steam in the boiler an expansion pipe should be provided to al- low the escape of steam and air bubbles if the water comes from a tank in the at- tic. This expansion pipe should open over the overflow from the attic tank. When pressure tanks are used the expan- sion pipe must be omitted. The sediment which is constantly accumulating in the boiler should be blown off through the stopcock for that purpose, found under every boiler. The range and boiler are set as close together as they can be for the purpose of getting the best results in regard to the heating of the water. The best kind of pipe for connecting them is either cop- per or brass, three-fourths or one inch in diameter, with fittings of the same ma- terial having threaded joints. Lead pipe is too soft for the purpose and will not stand the high temperatures which the water in these connections often reaches. If it is desired to draw hot water from the different faucets throughout the house at the moment the faucet is opened instead of having to wait until all the water in the pipe has been drawn out, it is neces- sary to have a circulation of the hot water at all times from the boiler to the different fixtures. The hot water pipe is started from the boiler and carried up, as shown in Fig. 2, to the highest fixture and then connected. The return pipe is carried down, as shown by the direction of the arrows, and this pipe connects with each of the lower fixtures, finally ending at the bottom connection of the boiler. Be sure to have some upward slope at all FARMS t/TCi/ points to the pipe wMcli leads from the boiler to the highest fixture; but it is not necessary that the return have a continuous fall. Installation of the Bathroom Walls and Floors The bathroom should be a light, well ventilated room with every facility for cleanliness. Floors and wainscoting of tile or composite material are most de- sirable, but painted walls are much less expensive and give excellent results. Tile is undoubtedly the most satisfactory ma- terial which can be used for the cover- ing of the floors and walls where it can be afforded. Tile floor with covered base and walls finished with cement or hard plaster, painted with enamel paint, are much cheaper. When a tile floor can not be had, linoleum is an excellent substi- tute as it is practically impervious to water. It should be laid before the fix- tures are set, in order that there may be no joints. Cement mixed with small chips of marble well rubbed down after setting makes an excellent floor, one that washes as clean as a porcelain plate and has no cracks to harbor dirt; the cost is only about twice that of a double wood floor, or 50 cents per square foot, includ- ing the necessary cement bed on which it is laid. "When it is desired to lay a ce- ment, composition, or tile floor upon floor joists, proceed as follows: Nail a 2 by 4 to the side of each of the floor joists flush with the bottom. Upon the top of these stretch wire lath, after the joists have first been covered wit!l^tarred paper to prevent them absorbing moisture; and upon this lay cinder concrete, made of one part Portland cement, three parts loose sand, six to eight parts -crushed and screened furnace clinkers; filling in to a level at least two inches above the tops of the joists Upon this is placed the floor finishing Cinder concrete is used because it is so much lighter than that made of stone. When a tile or ce- ment wainscot is too expensive the walls should be painted. Wall paper is not de- sirable in a bathroom, nor is wood paneling. Bath Tub and Lavatory A porcelain lined or enameled iron bath tub is the best medium priced tub. For supplying the tub with water a combina- tion cock is best, allowing hot or cold water to enter the tub separately or the temperature to be regulated to suit the bather. The cock should be placed high, so as to allow of water being drawn into pitchers. The best lavatories are those of porce- lain or enameled iron, with back and overflow all formed as integral parts of the fixture. The basin cocks through which the hot and cold water come are of various shapes, the simplest being the best. The Closet The water closet is the most important plumbing fixture in the house, and should be selected and put up with particular care. A good closet should be simple, neat, and strong, of a smooth material, with ample water in the bowl. Among the modern closets there is none more satisfactory than the flushing-rim, siphon- jet closet, which can be had, including the trap, in a single piece of porcelain. Porcelain is used because no other ma- terial can be kept so clean and sanitary. But even this is an imperfect protection from dirt and disease unless the bowl is flushed so as to clean it completely and absolutely. The water should be poured from the rim of the bowl, so that every part of i,t is perfectly cleaned The wash-down and wash-out closets are sim- ilar in make, but are not so thorough in their action. In the wash-out closet the basin acts as a receiver, a small quantity of water being retained in it, and into this the deposit is made, to be washed out afterwards into the trap by the flush. The water in the basin is prevented from leaking into the trap by a raised ridge which is apt to break the force of the flush so that its whole force is not di- rected into the trap, which is objection- able. The wash-down closet receives the deposit directly into the water held in the bowl by the trap. It has a straight back and a much smaller fouling surface. There is no open vent. The outlet is en- 950 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE tirely covered with water, so that the water does not throw the soil agamst the side. The only advantage the siphon closet has over it is the greater force of discharge given loy the siphon. The siphon closet, like the wash down closet, retains a certain amount of water into which filth is discharged. In addi- tion there is a siphon trap provided with a long ascending arm, so that the water in the trap is at a lower level than the water in the bowl. The water from the flushing cistern is directed not only into the howl, but downward into the trap itself. As a result of this discharge into the trap a siphon action is produced whereby the contents of the bowl are sucked through the trap into the soil pipe without soiling the bowl. The seal- that is, the body of water which prevents the sewer gas from escaping into the house— is deep, broad, and always in plain sight. Flushing Apparatus The flushing cistern or tank for a water closet is always distinct from the main water supply. As a rule, a plain hardwood box, copper lined, is support- ed by brackets from the wall about 7 feet above and communicating with the closet by a pijfe. This pipe is usually about 11^ inches in diameter and should have as few bends and angles about it as possible. The cistern should hold 2 or 3 gallons of water, all of which should be discharged at one time into the closet. The flush of the closet should be quick, powerful, and noiseless, thoroughly scour- ing all parts exposed to fouling. The flow into the cistern is regulated by a float valve which allows the tank to fill, the float rising with the water; when it reaches the proper level the float is entirely raised and the supply shut off. When the tank is emptied by opening the flush valve, which is lifted by pull- ing a chain attached to it, the process is repeated. The cistern is usually provided with an overflow connected with the flush pipe, so that if the ballcock fails to act properly in shutting oft the water the sur- plus will escape through the water closet to the drain instead of overflowing. Soil-PIpe Conxiectioiis The best closets are provided with a brass screw soil-pipe connection, calked with lead and cemented into the base of the closet. The corresponding threaded brass coupling is soldered into the end of the lead bend which connects with the soil pipe. The closet is then screwed in- to the threaded coupling until the base rests on the floor. The closet may be removed at any time by simply unscrew- ing it. No bolts are necessary through the base flanges. In setting a water closet a neater finish can be obtained if a porcelain floor slab is put in with the finished floor. General Suggestions The important need of the work is sim- plicity, not only in detail, but in general scheme. Construct the water closet to be used as a urinal and slop sink and ar- range to draw water through the bath cocks placed at the top of the tub. It not only saves cost, but is a great advantage to have the fewest possible points requir- ing inspection and care and to secure the most frequent possible use of every in- let into the drainage system. Great care must be taken not to throw into the water closet hair, matches, strips of cloth, or anything which is insoluble and liable to clog the trap and soil pipe. A burnt match seems small in itself, but if lodged in the trap it will collect other things and cause serious obstruction of the out- let. Tissue toilet paper should be used. Its cost would be exceeded many times if a part of the system needed to be taken out to free it from newspaper obstruction. It is often found more convenient to have the water closet with a separate en- trance from the hall and entirely inde- pendent from the bathroom. Traps and Tents Every plumbing fixture must have a trap to prevent the foul air from coming back from the drain through the waste pipe. In its simplest form a trap is a downward bend in a pipe, so deep that the upper wall of the pipe dips into the water held in the bend, the extent to which it dips being known as the depth PAEMS 951 of the seal. With slight modifications this is the trap most commonly used for wash basins, laundry tubs, etc. Its greatest fault is the danger from siphonage; that is, the water seal may be carried out of the trap into the soil pipe by the rush of the water when the fitting itself is emptied, by the flow of water from an- other fixture on the same branch waste pipe, or by the discharge of water from a fixture higher up but connected to the same soil pipe. This danger is much les- sened by the introduction of a system of ventilation pipes extending upward either from the trap itself or from the outlet near the trap. To avoid this extra ex- pense of a third system of pipes, it is bet- ter to supply each fixture with one of the patent non-siphonage traps, which should also be self-cleansing. There are several good ones on the market. It is a good habit, after emptying the wash basin, bath tub, or kitchen sink, to allow some clean water from the faucet to run into the fixture in order to have clean water in the traps. All traps should be provid- ed with trap screws, placed below the water line, and arranged so as to be ac- cessible for cleaning. Nothing short of continuous use will prevent the evaporation of the water in the traps. One with a large dip is best, but at the same time the trap must be so formed that at each use of the fixture all the filth that is delivered shall be carried away, the trap being immediately refilled with fresh water. Hair and fibers from cloth sometimes carry the water out of traps by capillary attraction, and care should be taken not to allow such things to enter the pipes. The Soil Pipe The soil pipe should extend from cellar to roof in a straight line, if possible, as each offset or bend forms an obstruc- tion to its proper flushing with both water and air. Use only "extra heavy" soil pipe of uniform thickness throughout, as the hubs stand the calking better. Avoid if possible plumbing fixtures in the cellar if the drain must go under the floor. If it is necessary to make connec- tions with a fixture in the cellar it is bet- ter that the main channel should run under the floor to or near the location of such fixtures that all or nearly all of its length should constitute a part of the main drain thoroughly flushed and venti- lated like the rest of the system. The pipe should be laid in an open trench and so thoroughly calked that under a pres- sure equal to one story in height not a drop of water should escape at any point, and then it should be inclosed in good con- crete, after which the trench should be filled. The soil pipe should pass through the foundation by means of an arch, and the cast iron pipe should extend at least 5 feet outside the foundation; from there on, a carefully laid and rigidly inspected vitrified pipe drain is to be preferred. The joint between the iron pipe and the vitrified sewer pipe should be made with neat Portland cement mortar. If there are no fixtures in the cellar carry the drain in full sight along the face of the cellar wall, or suspended from the fioor beams, so the joints may be inspected. At the point where it is to turn up as a ver- tical soil pipe support it by a post or a brick pier. Use no short turns in the soil pipe, like "tees'* and "quarter bends." Two one-eighth bends or a Y branch and a single one-eighth bend give a more gradual and therefore a better change of direction. Water closets should connect to the soil pipe with a Y branch. The soil pipe should be secured along its en- tire length at distances not over 5 feet with hangers and clamps or hooks, so that it will be rigidly held in position. The joints in the cast iron soil pipe should be made by first inserting a little picked oakum into the socket, allowing none to enter the pipe; it is better formed into a sort of rope. The oakum prevents the lead from running into the pipe to form an obstruction to the flow. Enough molt- en lead is then poured into the hub to fill it. After the lead has cooled it is care- fully hammered with a special calking tool until the space between the spigot and the hub is perfectly gas and water tight. Every joint should be made with a view to being tested with hydraulic pressure. 952 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE In making this test the simplest way is to close all openings into the pipe with wooden plugs or disks of India rubber compressed between two plates of iron forced together with a screw. There is no especial advantage in applying a great head of water, for if a joint is not tight it will leak under a head of a few inches. It is generally most convenient to test the vertical pipe story by story, the plugs being inserted through the water closet branches. There is probably no occa- sion to fear that work once made tight will develop leaks for many years, the tendency to rust after a time, even with tar-coated or enameled pipe, being rath- er to close such slight leaks as may exist. Four inches in diameter is sufficient for soil pipe, and the best results are obtain- ed by running it full size straight above the roof and covering the top with a wire basket such as is used to keep leaves out of gutters. There should always be a trap between the house and the sewage disposal plant, and there must also be on the house side of it an inlet for fresh air. There can be no real ventilation of the system if it is open only at the top, but a generous inlet for fresh air on the drain outside the house, in connection with the opening at the top of the soil pipe, will insure a free movement throughout the whole sys- tem. The fresh air inlet must be guard- ed from obstruction. It may be brought out close to the foundation walls, but not too near windows and doors. If the trap is formed by the submerging of the inlet pipe in the settling chamber of the dis- posal system the fresh air inlet should be placed close to this. The Waste Pipes For all minor waste pipes lead pipe is used, as it may be bent and cut to suit all possible positions and requires but few joints. Only **heavy" lead pipe should be used. As lead is quite a soft material it would not be practicable to use thread joints on it, so the joints are made by the use of solder. Where lead pipe joins to cast iron pipe the connection should be made by means of a brass ferrule of the same bore as the lead pipe, and soldered to it. The ferrule is introduced into the hub of the cast iron pipe and calked tight with oakum and lead. Heating Systems The Ideal System The health and comfort of the home depends to a considerable extent upon the heating apparatus, which, in impor- tance, is second only to that of sanitary plumbing. Stoves are a development of the fireplaces of our ancestors. Their waste of fuel, their uncleanliness, and their inability to properly heat even one room are features recognized by most peo- ple. The ideal heating apparatus is one that will promptly and continuously sup- ply every room in the house with enough warm fresh air to make it comfortable in the coldest weather. It must be easy to manage and not complicated in construc- tion. The cost of installing a steam or hot water system is more than that of a hot air furnace. The amount of fuel used by them is less, but for a small house the hot air furnace is most often used. It has the advantage, too, if properly in- stalled, of supplying fresh air, while the other systems demand special means for ventilation, or dependence must be pl.aced entirely upon opening the doors and win- dows. Furnaces A furnace is a stove within a casing of galvanized iron or brick. Air is admitted to the space between the two and when it becomes heated passes through pipes to the different rooms of the house. The fur- nace may be constructed of cast iron, wrought iron, or steel. The cast iron furnace has fewer joints than the one made of steel plates and will not vary in temperature so rapidly. Direct and Indirect Draft In construction there are two styles, the "direct" and the "indirect" draft. The better class of the "direct" draft fur- naces have a radiator through which the hot gases pass on their way to the smoke- stack, and so utilize much heat that would otherwise be lost. In the "indi- rect" draft furnaces the gases pass FARMS—FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 953 through radiators at the bottom and from there to the smokestack. A direct pas- sage is furnished to he used when the fire is being started or when coal is be- ing added. Some furnaces are "built to seir* by their size and are not furnished with a radiator. These will burn more fuel and give off less heat. The Smoke Pipe The smoke pipe should connect to the chimney as directly as possible, for elbows diminish the draft. The flue should be at least 8 inches by 12 inches and should have no other opening into it for range or fireplace. A clean-out door should be provided at the bottom, fitted with a tight door, and this door must be kept shut, except when cleaning out the flue. The Grate The grate is one of the most important parts of a furnace, and there are many kinds to be had. The essential things are the removal of the ashes and cin- ders from the entire grate surface with- out carrying unburned coal with them, and the admission of air to secure proper combustion of the fuel. In comparing furnaces the average diameter of the fire pot is taken. The space above must be large enough to permit of the thor- ough mixing of the gases with air or else much heat will be lost by imperfect combustion. If soft coal is to be burned a larger combustion chamber is needed than with hard coal, as the supply of air must be greater. Furnaces differ in the manner of bring- ing the air to be warmed into contact with the surfaces heated by the combus- tion of the fuel. The area of the heat- ing surfaces should be about 60 times the area of the grate surface to prevent overheating of the air in cold weather. Where natural gas is available the furnace can be arranged to burn it, but it is well to have a coal grate also in case the gas should be shut off. Wood furnaces are generally more simple in construction and are often built to take a 4-foot stick. Where wood is cheap excellent results may be obtained. The smoke should pass through a radiator, as in case of coal furnaces. Distribution of Hot Air by Means of Pipes Much depends upon the location of the furnace. It should be placed somewhat to the north and west of the center of the house — that is, toward the prevailing cold winds. As the hot air travels best through the pipes leading toward the sheltered part of the house and to the upper rooms, the pipes leading toward the north and west or to the rooms on the first floor should be given the prefer- ence with respect to length and size. Make all pipes as nearly the same length as possible and as short as the location of the registers will permit. Long hori- zontal runs of pipe should be avoided, especially in first floor pipes. The pipes should pitch upward as sharply as possi- ble so the resistance will be less. Each pipe should have a damper near the fur- nace. Each room should have a sepa- rate pipe, if possible, or the heat will go to the less exposed room when a wind is blowing. Exposed pipes should be pro- vided with an asbestos covering, even when made double; double pipes are the best for all work. Bright tin is almost always used for hot air pipes, as it rad- iates less heat than any other suitable material. The registers should be as near the furnace as possible. Nothing is gained by putting them on the exposed side of the room and much heat is lost. First floor registers may be placed in the floor if wall registers would interfere with the pipes to the second floor. Second floor registers should be placed in the wall so as to avoid the necessity of cut- ting carpets and not to furnish recep- tacles for dirt. If only the first floor is heated the registers should be placed in the wall. The net area of the register should be about 15 per cent greater than the section of its hot air pipe. Elmiba I. Wilson, r. S Department of Agriculture. Fermentation and Ferments ^0. 1 — ^Insoluble Ferments Fermentation is a chemical change pro- duced by a class of bodies called fer- ments. Insoluble or organized ferments are single celled, microscopic plants 954 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE wliicli liave a definite structure. Nearly all of them secrete definite chemical prod- ucts capahle of producing fermentation. The insoluble, or organized ferments, are composed mainly of nitrogenous com- pounds, but also contain non-nitrogenous and mineral matter. Some, as the tuber- cular organism, contain cellulose. ]Vo. 2— Soluble Ferments or Enzymes Enzymes are organic compounds, se- creted by cells, and have the property of producing chemical changes. They are also called soluble ferments, chemical ferments, and diastases. Diastase is a white amorphous compound, conrerting starch by fermentation into dextrine and sugar. It is found in the sap of plants, and in animal saliva. There are a great many kinds of soluble ferments, some of which as diastase are capable of acting upon carbo-hydrates, while others, as pepsin and paneretin, act upon proteid bodies. Enzymes produce chemical change, without entering into the com- position of the substance or giving up any of their material to the reacting compounds. A small amount of diastase will change a large amount of starch to soluble forms, without losing its pow- er of action. The enzymes are all sol- uble in water and are precipitated with strong alcohol. Their action is not gen- erally retarded by antiseptics and chemi- cals which are capable of destroying the organized ferments. When seeds are soaked in water, the diastase and pro- teose enzymes are extracted and if pre- cipitated in alcohol and recovered they appear as a light gray powder. An or- ganized ferment is a low form of plant, while a soluble ferment is a chemical compound. Jfo. 3— Aerobic and Anerobic Ferments Ferments that require oxygen for their existence are aerobic while those cap- able of working in the absence of oxygen are anerobic. The aerobic ferments pro- duce carbon dioxide, water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfid as final products while anerobic ferments usually produce inter- mediate products as organic acids. jfo, 4— Conditions Necessary to Fermen- tation The conditions necessary to fermenta- tion are: (1) Moisture. (2) Favorable tempera- ture. (3) A f element body. (4) A fer- mentable substance. Moisture is necessary in order that chemical changes may take place. Dur- ing fermentation water enters often into the chemical reaction, as in hydration changes, and is also necessary as a medium of exchange for the chemical products of the reaction. The most favorable temperatures for the fermentation are between 15 and 60 degrees Centigrade. Below zero and above the boiling point of water, fer- ments are inactive. Some ferments re- quire a different temperature for activ- ity from any others. A ferment body is always necessary to start the fermentation change, and in the absence of a ferment, either organ- ized or unorganized, no ferment can take place. A fermentable substance, with the right kind of ferment to act upon it, is also requisite, as a ferment which ^ acts upon one class of bodies is incapable of chang- ing starch to soluble forms. When a sub- stance is freed from all ferments and is protected from all sources of outside con- tamination, it is in a sterile condition. Many forms of fermentation are produc- ed by the spores of organized ferments gaining access to a material along with dust particles carried in the air. In the preservation of food, a knowledge of the conditions necessary for fermentation is made use of. The products formed by ferments are numerous, as are ferment bodies capable of acting upon all forms of organic matter. Some of the ferments assist in the digestion of food and in the preparation of food products, while others take an important part in every-day life affairs, and in agriculture in the libera- tion of plant food. The growth of plants, the preparation of foods, their digestion and the manufacture of food products all depend largely upon fermentation. FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS— FIGS 955 In tiae growth of plants, ferments play an important part, both in the prepara- tion of plant food and in the chemical changes that take place in the plant. Disintegration of the mineral food of the soil is assisted hy ferment action. The nitrogenous food of the plant is all pre- pared in the soil by ferment action. Aceteiis or Acetic Fermentation A form of oxidation in which alcohol is converted into vinegar or acetic acid by the agency of a specific fungus or fer- ment called ''Mycoderma aoeti,'* The pro- cess involves two distinct reactions in which the oxygen of the air is essential. An intermediate product called "alde- hyde" is formed in the first process. 1 C^HcO + O = H2O + C.H4O. 2 C.H^O + 0=0^0,. Alcoholic Fermentation The fermentation which saccharine bodies undergo when brought into con- tact with the yeast plant or torulae. The sugar is converted either directly or in- directly into alcohol and carbonic acid, the rate of action being dependent on the rapidity with which the torulae develop. Ammoniacal Fermentation The conversion of the urea of urine in- to ammonium carbonate, through the growth of the special urea ferment. Whenever urine is exposed to the air for several days in open vessels, it under- goes this alkaline fermentation. Bntyric Fermentation The fermentation of various forms of organic matter through the agency of a peculiar worm shaped vibrio, with the formation of more or less butyric acid. It is one of the many forms of fermenta- tion, that collectively constitute putre- faction. Enzymatic Ferment This has already been described. The Fermentation Theory of Disease The theory that most, if not all, infect- ious or zymotic diseases are caused by the introduction into the organism of the living germs of ferments, or ferment bodies, already developed, (organized ferments) by which, processes of fermen- tation are set up injurious to health. This is akin to the germ theory of disease. Glycerine Ferment The fermentation which occurs on the mixing of a dilute solution of glycerine with a peculiar species of schizomycetes and some carbonate of lime and other matter favorable to the growth of the plant, the glycerine being changed into butyric acid, butyl and ethel alcohol. With another form of bacterium (Bacillus subtilis) ethel alcohol and butyric acid are mainly formed. tactic Fermentation The transformation of milk sugar or other saccharine body into lactic acid, as the souring of milk, through the agency of a special bacterium {Bacterium lactis of Lister). In this change the milk sugar, before assuming the form of lactic ricid, presumably passes through the stage of glucose. Pektilization. See Apple Orchard, Peetilizee, Commercial. See Apple Or- chard Cover Crop. Fertilizing Value of Rain and Snow Experiments have been conducted dur- ing the past few years at the Canadian Experiment farms by P. T. Shutt, relat- ing to the fertilizing value of rain and snow. The report for 1911 shows that during the year the precipitation amount- ed to 26.97 inches, the total nitrogen per acre brought down by rain and snow was 5.27 pounds, about 84 per cent be- ing furnished by the rain and 16 per cent by snow. Of the total nitrogen 3. 73 pounds was in the form of free and al- buminoid ammonia and 1.54 pounds ni- trates and nitrites. EC! T> Figs The fig is the fruit of any one of the various species of the cultivated varieties of Ficios carica. Pig trees vary greatly in habit, some of them being low trailing shrubs, others gigantic trees. They have alternate leaves, which abound in a milky juice, usually acrid, though in a few instances sufficiently mild to be 956 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE used in allaying thirst. The figs of com- merce are grown on a small tree or shrub, rarely more than 20 feet in height The fig seems to be indigenous to Syria and Asia Minor, but for a long period of time has been grown in the countries around the Mediterranean sea and judg- ing from passages in the writings of Herodotus, and from the Hebrew scrip- tures, it was an article of food and com- merce, centuries before the Christian era. In the warm countries, the tree gen- erally bears two crops in one year, the first in the early summer from the buds of the previous year, the other in the autumn from the buds of the spring growth. Fertilization The question of the fertilization of figs was early little understood. It was be- lieved that the flowers were unisexual and therefore from very ancient times it was the habit of certain growers to place branches of the wild fig in flower over the cultivated varieties, in order that the pollen from the wild flower might ferti- lize the female flowers of the other Prom the Louisiana Experiment Station, we quote the following on the subject of fer- tilization * Southern figs produce pistillate or female flowers and mule or sterile flow- ers. While they do not produce stami- nate or male flowers, nevertheless, they possess the ability to develop an edible product, with no true seed. It is impos- sible for any of our figs to produce true viable seed, hence unless figs of another class capable of producing seed are grown in Louisiana, one may never expect a variety of figs of Louisiana origin. The different blooming habits of our figs easi- ly separate them into three distinct divi- sions. Class 1 — Mission Fiffs, capable of pro- ducing both an early and a late crop. Class 2 — Adriatic Figs, capable of pro- ducing a late crop, but dropping all of its first crop. Glass 3 — San Pedro Figs, capable of producing an early crop, but dropping all of its late crop. The sterile or mule flowers are the ones that develop into our edible fig. The pistillate or female flowei^s invariably drop off. In the Mission class of figs the stenle or mule blooms predominate in both its earlp and late crops, hence, climatic con- ditions being favorable, two crops of figs may be obtained. In the Adriatic Figs the pistillate or female blooms predominate in the early crop, and the sterile or mule blooms pre- dominate in the late crop, hence the early crop drops, and the late crop matures. In the San Pedro Pigs, the sterile or mule blooms predominate in the early crop, and the pistillate or female blooms predominate in the late crop, hence the early crop matures and the late crop drops. Occasionally sterile or mule blooms on both the early crop of the Adriatic type of figs and the late crop of the San Pedro type of figs may develop into edible fruit. Granville Lowtiier Propagation The fig is easily propagated by cuttings, layering, ring-budding, and grafting. Propagation by cuttings is the easiest and most satisfactory way. The work can be done at almost any time of the year; but by far the best results are obtained if done during the winter while the plant is dormant. The cuttings should be taken from strong, healthy plants of the desired variety and preferably from plants grow- ing in the immediate locality. Select the one-year-old branches that are plump and stocky, which are usually found on the outside, where they were well ex- posed to the light. Do not take the long, slender shoots or suckers found on the base of the plant. A good cutting should be at least one foot long, or preferably longer. The cut ends should not expose any pith, but the hard wood of the partition found at the node. The cuttings should not be allowed to dry out, or become shriveled; as soon as made they should be tied into bundles of convenient size and buried in moist sand. The following spring they should FIGS 957 be planted either in the field where they are to remain permanently or in the nursery row. The latter method is usual- ly preferable, as they can be given better care and grown at less expense. They should be planted deep, leaving only the uppermost bud just above the surface of the soil. Some prefer to make the cut- tings late in the spring and plant them at once in the field. This is certainly the most economical method. PlaiitiBg The soil should be thoroughly prepared by deep plowing and enough disking and harrowing to pulverize every clod. Usually clay soils are not plowed deep enough, especially by the beginner. It must be remembered that the fig is natur- ally a very shallow-rooted plant, espe- cially where the subsoil is hard and comes up near the surface. Clay soil should be plowed eight to ten inches deep and then subsoiled to a depth of six to eight inches. This gives opportunity for prop- er root development, and storage of large quantities of water. The best time to do the planting is in the spring. Fall planting is not advisable, as the young plant can not endure very much cold until it becomes well estab- lished. If the planting is done in the fall or winter the young plant should be entirely covered with dirt until spring. The distance apart to plant will depend on the variety and the method of train- ing, whether in tree or bush form. Such semi-dwarf varieties as Brown Turkey are usually planted 10x10 or 12x12 feet apart in this state. Large growing va- rieties, like Celestial, need more room — 15x15 to 20x20 feet. For best results the fig should be plant- ed deep. The young plant should be planted from four to six inches deeper than it stood in the nursery row; and then the entire top of the plant should be cut off at the surface of the ground. This induces a number of branches to come out from below the ground, which give the clump or bush form so desirable in the Upper South- If the cuttings are planted in the permanent places in the field the plants should be cut down to the ground one year after planting. Some growers put from three to five plants or cuttings at each place instead of one, with excellent results. P. C. Reimek, Horticulturist, North Carolina As:ricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigli, N. C. Bulletin 208. Pruning As the Magnolia fig bears only on late wood of the previous yearns growth or new wood of the current year's growth, the object is to produce as much new wood as possible — as in growing grapes. Standard Heads First Year Allow three to five limbs to start close to the top so located as to make a well balanced head, and rub off all other limbs and remove all suckers that may start from the base of the tree. Second Tear Cut previous year's growth back to within 12 inches of main stem. When growth starts allow each of the stubs to throw out two or three limbs, keeping all others off. Third Tear Cut previous year's growth same as sec- ond year, and allow them in turn to pro- duce two or three limbs each. Tools For cutting back, small and large prun- ing shears should be used; for removing suckers from the root use a carpenter's gouge chisel. Soils The fig will grow on most soils, but commercial plantings should be confined to heavy black land and black sandy land, and it must be underlaid with por- ous clay subsoil not more than two feet below the surface. The reason for this selection of soil is that the only danger- ous disease attacking the fig is what is commonly known as Knot Root (NeTua- tode)r and this seldom does injury in heavy black soil. The reason for this, I believe, is that the heavier the land is the less oxygen there is available, and the parasite cannot exist without a cer- tain amount of this element. R. H. BXJSHWAY, Alffoa, Texas. 958 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Districts Where Grown Figs are grown in hot houses, or in specially protected places, in the Northern or Middle states, or they are sometimes grown in very limited quantities hy spe- cially protecting the tree from the freez- ing of winter. But the districts where it can be grown in commercial quantities, according to the recommendations of the American Pomological Society are as fol- lows: District No. If. — Turkey Brown. District No. 5 — ^Angelique. District No. 6 — Angelique, Brunswick, Celesta, Genoa, Turkey Brown, Marseil- laise, Mission, Monaco, Bianco, Osborn Prolific, Reine Blanche. District No. 7 — Celesta, Turkey Brown, Mission, Monaco, Bianco, Osborn Prolific, Reine Blanche. District No. 16 — Mission. District No. 11 — Mission. For description of districts see page 192. For further information and for pro- fits from Fig Culture, see Alabama. Figs in the United States There are but few states in the Union which produce figs for commercial purposes. The following are reported in the census of 1910 and the number of bearing trees produced by each state appended: (Scale, 5 cm per 100,000.) California, 269,001. Texas, 230,171. Louisiana, 71,464. Alabama, 52,731. Georgia, 49,424 . Florida, 12,784. Virginia, 10,136. rlonculture John" W. Duncan. Spring Flowering Bnlbs In the early days of spring the first flowers to appear are such as the snow- drop, the crocus or the scilla, to be fol- lowed a little later by the tulip, the hyacinth and the many varieties of narcissi, see Fig. 1. In order to have a good showing of these flowers, they should be planted during the fall months of October and November. This gives the bulbs a chance to form roots so that they have a stronger start in the spring. When beds are to be solidly planted with these bulbs, the soil should be well pre- pared and a rich sandy loam is un- doubtedly preferable. It is very essential that the beds should have perfect drainage so that there is no danger of water standing on Arkansas, 4,174. ■ Arizona, 3,848. Delaware, 32. Nevada, 14. the ground during the winter, which has a tendency to rot or weaken the bulbs. The soil should, if not naturally sandy, get a good coating of sand mixed into it and should be dug to a depth of at least 15 inches. Well rotted cow manure is perhaps the best fertilizer that can be used, but fine ground bone will also be beneficial. The beds are better to be raised a few inches higher than the sur- rounding ground, to effect a more per- fect drainage. In planting bulbs, many people put a small quantity of sand around each bulb, or often the top soil is taken entirely off the bed to the depth at which the bulbs are to be planted, a coating of sand then spread over the bed, the bulbs then set the proper distance apart and the top soil carefully replaced. Where the bed has been prepared as mentioned in the first place, this plan need not be FLORICULTURE 959 ■ \. * ' ■■■'P i. "^^^ iiii liar * ' """ <■ . '■'^^ ■«( 1 * - •.<'^:V 4? '** , : -^ J ■.*t;,<(& u .• .^i' ^:. -r^/: *r ■■■<«;■ '^^^*^^ ^t^ 1'%^.: ' '-"^f^J, :^. : '^'%^^-^^'%^^m -o^: ^ OS O o a CO to 'i'y^^^r-^.-; ';'«i\;' ?''^7. >::l 960 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ^ ^:jm:^ Fig. 2. Golden Chain (Lahrum alpinum) FLORICULTURE 961 adopted as the bulbs may be more read- ily planted with a trowel. The depth at which each bulb should be planted de- pends mainly on variety but care should be taken that each bulb in a bed should be planted at the same depth, so as to in- sure blossoming at the same time. From four to five inches is deep enough for tulip bulbs and five or six for hyacinths, while small bulbs like the crocus and scilla, etc., three to four inches is sufficient, but better results will follow from a little too deep planting than from too shallow. Larger bulbs like lilies should be planted to a depth of from eight to twelve inches. If in a section of country where the ground freezes during winter, a coating or mulch of coarse litter or leaves should be put on the beds to protect the bulbs from too severe freezing and the changes from freezing and thawing of the ground. This mulching should be removed as early as possible in the spring. In many instances it is necessary to lift the bulbs so that something else may be planted in the beds. This may be done before the plants are thoroughly ripen- ed by lifting with a little dirt along with each bulb which may be placed in a row somewhere else until ripened, when they may be laid past for another sea- son's planting. In the hardy border, bulbs may be planted in patches among herbaceous plants. They will not only do well and make the border look showy in the earli- est days of spring, but have a good chance of ripening there and need not be disturbed from year to year. Where bulbs are grown this way, annuals may be planted to take their places through the later summer months. Some of the varieties of bulbs, like the crocus, snow- drop and the scilla, may be effectually planted in the lawn and make a good showing in the early spring immediately after winter is past. In semi-wild gardens these bulbs are very effective planted along with such plants as the erythoniums, bleeding hearts, etc. "When this is done, each va- riety or color should be in as large a patch as possible. Nature always plants this way. Lawns The importance of a good lawn is one of the principal features of ornamental gardening. Contrary to the expectations of many, a first-class lawn cannot be ob- tained unless there is sufficient depth of soil and the same has received the proper preparation. It should always be borne in mind that grasses are deep-rooted plants and if a fine velvety luxuriance is to be had, the soil must be from 12 to 18 inches deep. In many places we see only a few inches of soil spread on the top of a poor sub-soil, or gravel, or even often on a ledge of rock and a lawn started and kept green on the same by means of copious and almost continuous watering. In no instances of this kind, however, can a good lawn be expected. That fine velvety touch of the good lawn is found only where consideration has been given to the various grasses of which the lawn is composed. Any good soil is suitable for a lawn. It will, however, need some attention to prepare it for the proper plant food. If it is sandy or gravelly, attention should be given to the addition of humus. If, on the other hand, the soil is clayey, or should contain signs of alkali, attention should be given to counteract these and bring into the soil more of the plant foods required by the grasses For the counteraction of alkali in soils abundant quantities of manure should be plowed into the soil and turned up to the storms of winter. In preparing the soil for seeding, it should be deeply plowed, well drained and properly graded and finished to an even surface with an iron rake. In seed- ing a small lawn the sowing may be done by hand but care should be taken to scatter the seed evenly. On a large lawn a hand or power seeding machine may be used, and in many cases it is desirable to use various grasses on a lawn; in fact, it is always advisable to use several spe- cies. The reason for this is that some grasses will thrive better in some soils than others, and by using a combination -20 962 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ^J 'Si si o a B CO fa FLORICULTURE 963 experience lias shown that a better lawn will always he obtained. A good lawn mixture is a combination of Kentucky Blue Grass, Fancy Red Top and Creep- ing Bent in equal parts with, if desired, a proportion of ten per cent (10%) White Clover. In sections where the winter is not severe, the seeding may be done in the spring or early fall, while in some of the mountainous sections, early summer will be more satisfactory for the starting of the young grasses. Where summer seed- ing is done, proper care must be given to the watering and it has been found of great advantage to cover over the ground with a light mulch of well rotted manure. This prevents the hot sun from burning the young rootlets of the small grass plants and also helps to hold moisture after watering. The proper care of lawns after they are established consists of cutting the grass at the right time, sufR- cient watering and the keeping free of obnoxious weeds. The latter can be done only by persistent work from the start in taking them out by the roots. Occasional rolling is beneficial In that it keeps the soil of an even nature. Mowing should not be done as often as sometimes seen; in fact, most people are apt to cut the grass too closely, thus preventing the lawn having that velvety texture so much desired. Good judgment is also required in watering and it is much better to give a good watering and then let the lawn remain until such time as it may actually need watering rather than to sprinkle too often. In the autumn the grass should not be cut too short for during the winter months, at mild intervals, weeds will start in and get ahead of the grass which has been weakened by its continuous crop- ping and therefore cannot cope with its more sturdy neighbor, the weed. Many different fertilizers are used; per- haps one of the most satisfactory is fine ground bone applied in liberal quantities at various seasons of the year. Sheep manure is also one of the best natural fertilizers that may be applied towards the end of winter. Ornamental Trees For the decoration of grounds, both public and private, there are many variet- ies of ornamental trees both deciduous and evergreen that may be used and where the grounds are of sufficient size to warrant the grouping of different species to give the most picturesque effect much studying is required. In the planting of parks or parking, the main thought should always be the appearance of the picture when completed and the size and shape of the tree, the foliage effects both summer and fall and harmony with its neighbor, all require forethought. In general street planting, much more care is necessary than is generally seen in the preparing of the parkings for the trees. When new streets are being laid out, little or no attention is paid to the planting space. The street parking should have sufiScient quantity of good loam for the development of whatever variety of tree is planted. Well shaped nursery grown trees should be selected and planted at a distance of from 30 to 60 feet apart, according to the variety. It is often the custom to cut off the entire top of the tree when planting. This is the greatest mistake ever made by the planter. A tree should be pruned when planted, but the proper pruning is only a thinning out or shaping back of side branches, leaving a straight leader in the center of the tree. When the tree is being dug for planting, it is absolutely necessary to save all of the fibrous roots possible and any of the large roots which may have been mutilated should be pruned back, so that a new growth will start. The most important of all when digging trees out is an immediate cover- ing of the roots from the weather, to prevent drying up. More trees die from lack of this precaution than from any other cause. The drying winds and hot suns, so prevalent in many sections of the country, soon take the vitality out of the fibrous roots and the tree is unable to cope with the transplanting. In planting a street tree, see that a large enough hole is dug to give the tree 964 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE eo 00 <^ e a o 02 M u o to fa FLORICULTURE 965 plenty of nourishment for growth in years to come. Ordinarily, holes five to six feet in diameter by three feet deep should be made for street trees, and good loam used for the entire planting. In planting, place the loose loam in the bot- tom of the hole, treading it firm and rais- ing it so that it -will be higher than the center and the proper height to have the roots of the tree not too deep. This will have to be done in accordance with the quantity of roots the tree has and, as a safe guide, a mark where the soil before touched the stem will be seen, and this should be taken as the place that should again touch the surface of the ground. In no case should the ground slope away from the tree when planting is finished. On the other hand, it is better that the ground should slope toward the tree. In filling in the hole, only fine loam should be put nearest the roots of the tree and as it is thrown in should remain firm, being tamped with a round tamper about the size of a pick handle, so as to make the soil firm over and through the roots. Make the soil firm among the roots and do not be afraid to thoroughly tamp. Trees should be planted, in many loca- tions, in the early spring and before the buds start into a new growth. On the other hand, fall planting will be found more advantageous to many of the va- rieties. Much might be said regarding varieties and it is often a hard matter to settle which variety is the most suitable for a certain location. Some of the best variet- ies of trees for street planting are the Platanus Orientalis (Oriental Plane tree) Acer, Platanoides (Norway Maple) Acer, Pseuda Platanus (Sycamore Maple) Acer, Saccharinum (Sugar Maple) Aesculus hippocastanum (Horse chest- nut) Catalpa Speciosa (Western Gatalpa) Quercus Rubra (Red Oak) Quercus Palustris (Pin Oak) Sorbus Aucuparia (European Mountain Ash) Tilia Europea (European Linden) Tilia Platyphillos (Broad-leafed European Linden) Tilia Dasytyla (Crimean Linden) Ulmus Americana (American White Elm) Ulmus Campestris (English Elm) Eoses In the planting of roses the selection of a good location is the first essential and it is better to keep them from shade and away from the roots of trees. Roses will thrive in any good soil. It has often been said that roses require a clayey soil. This has been proven however to be in- correct, as many of the best rose plants will be found growing in the gravelly and fine sandy soil. The soil however must be well enriched with plenty of decomposed stable manure, cow manure being prefer- able. The ground should have good drainage and should be loosened up to a depth of from II/2 to 2 feet. Roses may be planted in the fall or before the ground freezes, or in the early spring before the growing season starts in. Care should be taken to spread the roots of the plants out evenly and the soil should be drawn firmly through the roots of the plant. When budded or grafted plants are used they should be planted at from three to four inches below the bud or graft, that is, where the rose is united to the stock. This is beneficial, as by so doing new roots are pressed from the base of the rose plant, thereby giving it increased strength and helping to pre- vent the growing of suckers from the briar on which the roses budded are grafted. The distance for planting may be varied according to the varieties planted, 18 to 24 inches being about the general distance for most varieties. In some sections mulching will have to be done in the winter, to prevent the ground from heavy freezing and help protect the plants. This means the cov- ering of the ground with ^yb or six inches of coarse litter. Pruning should be done in early spring before the growth is started in the plants. Cut out as much as possible of the old wood; that is, wood that has flowered last year, leaving the strong shoots of last year's growth which should be cut back to from eight to 12 inches from the ground. 966 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fig. 5. Western Wild Rose (Rosa arkansana) FLORICULTURE 967 From these shoots the fairest flowers will he had. Tea roses and hybrid teas should he pruned more lightly than the hybrids. Perpetuals, ramblers or climbing roses do not require much pruning. All that is necessary is the thinning out of the dead shoots. Roses require lots of culti- vation during the growing season and the ground should be loosened up through the plants once a week, and when the watering is done, the ground should be well soaked, not sprinkled. Insect pests may easily be kept from the rose plants; for the slug or worm which is found eating the leaves, helle- bore powder dusted on the leaves will quickly destroy them. If the White Thrip appears, the ground will have been kept too dry and this may be gotten rid of by plenty of watering and syringing of the plants. For exterminating the aphis, frequent spraying with the hose will be found as effective as anything. For mildew, sulphate potassium in pro- portions of one pound to 40 gallons wa- ter will be found very satisfactory. The number of species of Rosa is ex- tensive and the popular varieties of to- day are hybrids of the many species from all parts of the world. The hardy garden roses have formerly been the hybrid perpetuals or more properly hybrid re- montant — ^largely hybrids of Rosa Damas- cena, Borbonica, Gallica, etc., but within the last decade so much advancement has been made in the hybrid tea class that they have become by far the most popular of all garden roses. The climbing roses are largely hybrids of Rosa Multiflora, Setigera and Wichu- raiana, and so much improvement has been made in the latter hybrids during the last ten years, that no garden is com- plete without a number of varieties of them. The Japanese roses, Rosa Rugosa, are hardy and of much value for natural plantings; their foliage is entirely distinct and during the latter part of the season their fruit is extremely ornamental. On the American native roses, until re- cent years little value has been set unless it has been Setigera and Laevigata, both of which have been used in the hybridi- zation of climbers. There are a number of the native roses which have proven of great value in na- tural plantings of shrubbery in parks and other public grounds, among them being Rosa Lucida, Blanda, Nitida and Arkan- sana. The latter is perhaps the most valuable of any for this purpose. Hybrid Perpetual Yarieties The list of varieties of this class con- tains only those which are of the most vig- orous habit, though there are many oth- ers that may have been found of great value by some rose growers. Abel Carriere — Rich, velvety maroon shaded with violet, large, full and finely shaped. Alfred Colomb — ^Bright, clear red, large and full, form globular and excellent. American Beauty — ^Rosy crimson. Anna de Diesbach — Clear rose. Baron de Bonstettin — Red, black and crimson. Baroness Rothschild — Pale rose shaded with white. Beauty of Waltham — Rosy carmine. Belle Siebrecht Captain Christy Captain Hayward — Crimson-carmine. Charles Lefebvre — Bright crimson. Clio — Flesh color. Duke of Edinburgh — Scarlet-crimson. Eugene Furst — ^Velvety-crimson. Fisher Holmes — ^Reddish scarlet. Francois Michelon — Deep rose. Fran Karl Druschki — Snowy white. General Jacqueminot — Brilliant red. George Arends — Pink. Hugh Dickson — ^Brilliant crimson. John Hopper — Rose, crimson center. Jules Margottin — Bright cherry. Lady Helen Stewart — Crimson-scarlet. Madame Gabriel Luizet — Pale pink. Madame Victor Verdier — Bright cherry. Magna Charta — ^Bright pink. Margaret Dickson — White with pale flesh centers. Marie Baumann — Bright carmine. Merveille de Lyon — Pure white. Mrs. John Laing — Soft pink. Mrs. R. G. Sharman Crawford — Deep rosy pink. Paul Neyron — Dark rose. Pride of Waltham — ^Delicate flesh color. Prince Camille de Rohan— Crimson-ma- roon. Tom Wood — Cherry-red. Ulrich Brunner — Bright cerise-red. Victor Verdier — Rosy carmine. 968 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE a o a o o s 2 CO bo ^ FLORICULTURE 969 Teas and Hybrid Teas The most of the varieties enumerated are the hybrid tea varieties and are the most popular of all garden roses on ac- count of their contmuality of bloom throughout the season. Some tea variet- ies require protection unless in well shel- tered locations. Arthur R. Goodwin — Coppery orange-red. Augustine Guinoisseau — Rosy white Belle Siebrecht — Rosy pink. Betty^ — Coppery rose, shaded yellow. Caroline Testout — Clear rose. Countess of Gosford — Salmon pink. Countess of Shaftsbury — Silvery carmine. Cynthia — Lemon-yellow. Cynthia Forde — ^Rose-pink. Dean Hole — Carmine shaded with salmon. Dorothy Page Roberts — Coppery-pink suf- fused apricot yellow. Duchess of Albany — ^Deep pink. Duchess of Wellington — Saffron-yellow. Earl of Warwick — Salmon pink. Edward Mawley — ^Velvety crimson. Elizabeth Barnes — Salmon-rose, fawn center Etoile de France — Crimson, center fiery red. General Mac Arthur — Scarlet-red. George C. Waud — ^Vermilion tinted orange. Gruss au Teplitz — Cinnabar-scarlet. Instituteur Sirdey — Golden yellow. Irish Fireflame — Orange splashed crimson Jonkheer J. L. Mock — ^Red and salmon- pinfc. Kaiserin Augusta Victoria — Pure white. Killarney — ^Rose color. Konigan Carola — Satiny rose flowers. La France — Pale peach rose center. Lady Alice Stanley — Coral rose. Lady Ashtown — Pale rose. Laurent Carle — ^Velvety-carmine. Liberty^ — Brilliant crimson. Lyon Rose — Buds coral red, flowers shrimp pink shaded coral red and chrome yellow. Mabel Drew — Cream. Madame Abel Chatenay — Rosy salmon ^car- mine. Madame Ravary — Golden yellow, open flowers nankeen yellow. Madame Segond Weber — Bright salmon- rose Margaret Molyneux — Saffron yellow. Marquise de Sinety — Carmine-ochre Melody — Saffron yellow with primrose edges. Mildred Grant — Blush-white tinted with pink. Mrs. Aaron Ward — Indian yellow. Mrs. A. R. Waddell — ^Rosy scarlet buds opening reddish salmon Mrs. David Jardine — Bright rosy pink. Mrs. Wakefield Christie-Miller — Pearly blush Pharisaer — Rosy-white, center deep salmon-rose. Prince de Bulgarie — Silvery-flesh. Rayon de'Or — Cadmium-yellow. Richmond — Reddish-scarlet. Souvenir du President Carnot — Rosy flesh. Viscountess Folkestone — Creamy-pink. White Killarney — White. William R. Smith — Creamy white shaded with pink. Provence Roses Rosa cenUfoha Cabbage or Common — Rosy pink. White Provence — Pure white. Moss Roses Blanche Moreau — Pure white. Countess de Murinais — White. Crested Moss — ^Rose color. Crimson Globe — Crimson. Gloire de Mosses — Blush. Austrian Briar Roses Bosa lutea Austrian Copper — Coppery red (single). Austrian Yellow — ^Yellow (single). Harrisonii — Golden Yellow (semi-double). Persian Yellow — ^Deep golden yellow Japanese Eoses Rosa rugosa Belle Poitevine — ^Rose color. Blanc Double de Goubert — Double white. Conrad F. Meyer — Silvery-rose. Delicata — Soft rose. Madame Georges Bruant — Paper white Repens alba — ^Flowers single white. Rugosa — Crimson. Alba — White Wichnraiana Eoses and Their Hybrids Alberic Barbier — Yellow buds, opening creamy white, double. American Pillar — Flowers single; rich pink with a well defined white eye and yellow stamens. Bonnie Belle — Single pink flowers with yellow stamens. Coquina — Flowers single, pale pink shad- ing deeper at the tips of the petals. Dorothy Perkins — Large clusters of rich, soft rose color. Evangeline — Single flowers, white shaded. Excelsa — Brilliant scarlet-crimson. Gardenia — ^Bright yellow m bud, chang- ing to cream as the flowers open. Hiawatha — Single bright rich crimson with white eye. Joseph Lamy — ^Porcelain white tinted pink. Kalmia — ^Pink with white center, single. Lady Gay — Pink double. 970 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Milky Way— Single white with yellow stamen. Minnehaha— Deep satin rose, double. Mrs. M. H. Walsh— Snow-white Pink Roamer— Pink flowers with silvery white centers. Sweetheart — Pale pink. White Dorothy Perkins— White. Wichuraiana— Type of the group; pure white. Miiltiflora Boses and Their Hybrids Aglaia— Canary yellow flowers. Blush Rambler— Single flowers; blush. Crimson Rambler — Crimson flowers. Fairy — Snow-white. Flower of Fairfield — Crimson rambler. Leuchtstern — Bright rose, distinct white eye. Newport Fairy — Single pink flowers v/ith white eye. Philadelphia Rambler — Crimson rambler bright in color. Queen Alexandra — Crimson. Rubin — Ruby-red. Tausendschon — Soft pmk to carmine rose. Thalia^ — Double white. The Dawson Rose — Pale rose. Veilchenblau — Bluish purple. Wedding Bells — Rosy pink. Sweet Briars Anne of Gierstein — Dark crimson. Brenda — Blush or peach. Lady Penzance — Beautiful soft copper. Lord Penzance — Soft shade of ecru, Meg Merrilies — Crimson. Refulgence — Semi-double flowers, scarlet. BOSE DISEASES Black Spot Actinonema rosae Produces purplish or discolored areas of considerable size on the surface of the leaves, causing them to drop. See Mildew, this section. Cane Blight Affected wood turns a dark purplish or black color, with a sharply defined line between the sound and diseased bark. This trouble is due to a fungus which is apparently undescribed In plant disease literature. It infests stubs left in pruning and often develops down into the main branches, seriously injuring the bushes. May be largely avoided by proper prun- ing. Crown Gfall This is the common crown gall which affects many species of plants. See under Apple Diseases. Bose Leaf Blotch AGtinonema rosae (Lib.) Fr. Nearly as common as the powdery mil- dew. Irregular brown spots appear on the upper surface of the foliage. Climbing sorts are likely to be more immune than bush kinds. Spray with Bordeaux early before blos- som buds begin to form. Secure healthy stock for planting. Reference Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants. Bnst Phragmidium sulcortlciwm Affects the hybrid roses, causing the leaves to turn yellow and fall, with black or bright orange pustules of rust spores on the under side. See Mildew, this section. Mildew Bphaerotheca pannosa and ^. fiumiuU Roses are commonly affected with two different powdery mildews quite different in appearance from one another. The fii^st named is seen most characteristically on the hybrid roses and is particularly severe on the Crimson Rambler. It forms a thick, dense, felty white growth upon the green shoots, buds, and young leaves more than on the surface of the older leaves. This does not affect the tea roses. The latter are particularly susceptible, however, to the second fungus named, which produces a more delicate fungus growth upon the leaves and blossoms rather than the stems, giving them a crinkled appearance. The most effective treatment for these rose troubles consists in spraying the bushes occasionally with a solution of sul- phide of potash (liver of sulphur), one ounce to three gallons of water. Spray the under side of the leaves as well as the top and make up the solution fresh, each time the spraying is done. If the bushes are also affected with plant lice an addi- tion of tobacco extract or cheap soap may be made to the spray. In bad cases of mildew further relief may be obtained by dusting the bushes thoroughly with flow- ers of sulphur while they are still wet with the spray. FLORICULTURE 971 Different yarietles vary greatly in sus- ceptibility, and tlie ordinary grower will find tlie most satisfaction by discarding the most susceptible kinds and growing others which are less liable to disease. R. E- Smith, Cahf Exp. Sta Bui. 218. References California Experiment Station, Bulletin 218. Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants. ROSE PESTS Large Rose ApMd MacrosipJium rosae Linn General Appearance A large aphid, being green and pink in color. The apterous forms have dark cor- nicles and the joints of the legs and an- tennae dusky, while in addition to these the thorax, entire antennae and blotches on the sides of the abdomen of the winged forms are dark. Length, two to three mm. Readily distinguished from the other com- mon green rose aphid by the large size and pink forms. life History Works on the young shoots and buds of the roses, almost throughout the entire year. Especially troublesome in the early spring during the months of April and May. Not so serious a pest on roses as is the small green louse (Myzus rosarum.) Food Plants Roses, wild and cultivated. Control In order to save the buds it is some- times necessary to spray the bushes with a soap and tobacco spray. Washing the bushes every day with a high pressure of water will keep them off and is a prac- tical method of control, IVatnral Enemies Natural enemies completely eliminate the attacks of this pest by the middle of summer. Fnller's Rose Beetle Aramigus fuUeri Horn. (Family Otiorhyn- chidae) Gfeneral Appearance The adults vary from gray to very dark brown in color and from three-eighths to one-half an inch in length. The eggs are about one-twentieth of an inch long, pale yellow and laid in rows. The larvae are milky white and without legs. The pup^ are also white. Life History The eggs are laid in clusters in secluded places on the trunks of trees or at the base of the trees or plants often close to the ground. The young white grubs are subterranean in their habits, doing great damage to the roots of many plants. The adults when seen during the day are very sluggish. They have no power of flight. Much damage is done to plants by this pest unknown to the farmer, owing to the fact that the larvas work underground and the adults feed at night. Food Plants Foliage of citrus trees, roses, oaks, ca- mellias, palms, Carina indica and the roots of strawberries. Young or newly budded citrus trees are often greatly damaged by this pest. Control The larvae, like all subterranean pests, are diflScult to control, but thorough culti- vation and hoeing close to the plants are great aids. In light sandy soil, carbon bisulfid is efficient. The adults being un- able to fly are easily kept from trees by means of a cotton or tanglefoot band around the trunk, but are very trouble- some to low plants and bushes where such methods are impracticable. Poison sprays such as arsenate of lead must be resorted to in such cases to save the foliage. E. 0. EssiG Raspbeery Horn Tail. See Raspberry Pests. Rose Scale Aulacaspis rosae Bouche, Gfeneral Appearance The female scales are nearly circular with very irregular edges and white to gray in color with reddish body. This scale multiplies very rapidly and clusters in great numbers on the stems of roses and kindred plants, especially about the crowns. Somewhat difficult to control. Badly in- fested canes should be cut out and burned. 972 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Spray with kerosene or carbolic acid emul- sion or lime-sulphur during the winter. Eeference Monthly Bulletin California Commission of Horticulture 11., 1 and 2. Eose Snout Beetle RhyncMtes Ucolor Fab. (Family Rhyn- chitidse). General Appearance A small bright red snout beetle, with head, snout and legs black. The average length of the females is about one inch. The males are noticeably smaller than the females. Life Hi&tory The beetles hibernate over winter in sheltered places and appear early in the spring. The females roll up the edges of the leaves into small pockets like minia- ture thimbles into which the eggs are laid and the young reared. The larvae and adults feed upon the foliage, the latter also puncturing the fruit of blackberries and raspberries with their snouts or bills. Food Plants The beetles confine their attacks almost wholly to the wild rose, though they may occasionally work great damage to culti- vated roses and to berries. The adults also feed upon oak leaves and grape- vines. Control As this pest is normally a leaf eater it may be controlled by liberal applica- tions of arsenical sprays. These meet all requirements, except where they damage the fruit* of berries, but even such attacks could have been prevented by spraying the vines before the berries began to ripen. E. 0. EssiG Small Crreen Eose Lonse Myzus rosarum Walk Gfeneral Appearance A very small species, not nearly as large as Macrosiphum rosae; green throughout except dark markings on the winged forms. It is often mistaken for the larger species Life History A very serious rose pest at times, and especially bad in the summer months. It breeds very rapidly, collects in great numbers upon the leaves and excretes a great amount of honeydew which smuts the bushes. The worst rose pest in many parts of the state. Pood Plants Roses, usually more serious on climb- ing varieties. Attacks the leaves and buds and may prevent the production of flowers IVatural Enemies Syrphid flies do considerable work upon this species, but the natural enemies are not numerous enough to check the rav- ages until late in summer, E. 0. EssiG Other Insect Enemies The rose is attacked by various in- sects which are common to fruit trees. Among them are San Jose scale, greedy scale, oystei'-shell scale, red spider, apple- leaf hopper, etc. These will be found treated under Apple Pests. Frosted scale will be found under Prune Pests. LAHBSCAPE OAKDEOT^a By John W. Duncan Landscape gardening covers a broad field and considerable study, taste and judgment are required on the part of those who undertake the business. Land- scape gardening of the best order is the beautification with as little change as possible from what nature has already done. Mere planting and grading does not constitute landscape gardening and the proper grouping or clustering of shrubs and trees make really the most picturesque landscapes. Some of the best landscape scenes are found in this "West- ern country and there is a wide field here for the artificial gardener. The great wealth of native trees, shrubs and other plants found all over this section of the country adds greatly to the work and simplifies the problem. A general theory or plan is necessary before there is any grading or planting, as it is neces- sary to work out the whole from the well studied out plan which should be made in the beginning. The indiscriminate growing of shrubs or plants often spoils a beautiful land- FLORICULTURE 973 scape and the inherent love of nature is absolutely necessary to the best success of a landscape gardener, who must also be familiar with all varieties of trees, shrubs and other plants, besides having a thorough knowledge of grading, drain- ing, road building and the like. Care should also be taken to avoid scattered effects. The best planting of trees and shrubs is accomplished by the grouping of the suitable varieties which can only be decided by a thorough study of the location. Single or individual trees or plants may be used to heighten an effect. It is best always to widen out or leave as much open land as possible. Walks and drives are necessities and therefore should be hidden as much as possible from the landscape. Where there are buildings, the grounds must conform to them and it is a problem to work out the best possible plantings, so that these buildings will not occupy the most prom- inent part of the landscape picture. Ob- trusive or undesirable features should be hidden by the artificial planting of trees and shrubs. Natural plantings should be adhered to as much as possible and the planting of different trees should be care- fully studied so that when they have at- tained their growth they will accomplish the purpose for which they were intended. Avoid as much as possible the making of designs or the planting of trees or hedges which will constantly require cut- ting or pruning into shapes which do not agree with nature. The variety of trees and shrubs should be restricted to those that are perfectly hardy and that will adapt themselves to the locality. In the planting of a large space it is well to have as much open expanse as pos- sible, so as to produce a wide landscape effect. The tall growing trees should be kept in the background with the dwarfer growing varieties in front graduating to irregular belts of shrubs, so that one may look over the foreground to an irreg- ular background of the larger trees be- hind. The best decisions of the varieties to Fig. 7. Japanese Snowball (Viburnum pUcatum) 974 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE use may always be made during the sum- mer when the different deciduous and evergreen subjects may each and all be readily seen to the best advantage, when their leaves are fully expanded. At such times, too, any defects may be noted for remedying at some later period. Conifers and all evergreen trees may be used to good advantage and should be, where plenty of space is available, planted in large groups, so as to avoid a patchy appearance. Consideration should be given to the location of summer trees with particular individuality, so that they can show the same to the best advantage dur- ing the whole of the season. Again, many of the trees or shrubs which have different color of bark or foliage should be grouped so that they will emphasize their particular feature and the particu- lar season at which these features may show to the best advantage. A water effect is one of the most pleas- ing and almost essential features of a fine landscape, whether it is a lake or river effect; either will go a long way toward the effectual natural planting and making of a fine landscape. Many times good ef- fects can be worked out by utilizing springs or small rivulets where there were practically no water effects formerly. In water scenes, the judicious planting of trees and shrubs on the borders or isl- ands will greatly enhance the natural landscape and many water plants may be introduced to make the effect more gar- denesque. In the planting of small estates or home grounds, the mistake generally made is the scattering too much of the trees and Fig. 8. Viburnum pubesceus. FLORICULTURE 975 shrubbery through the lawn, as already mentioned^ The finest effects can be made by the judicious border planting, leaving as much open space forming vis- tas from the house piazza or views from the various windows, so that the grounds will, in reality, look much larger than they really are. History and General Principles of Land- scape Gardening L. P. Jensen- History The history of the gardens of the an- cients is more or less fabulous. The Jewish paradise is supposed to have been situated in Persia, of great extent, watered by a river and abounding in tim- ber and woods. Paradise seems to have borne some resemblance to a pleasure ground of the modern taste The gardens of the Hesperides were situated in Africa near Mt. Atlas, or according to some, near Cyrenaica. They are described as lying in places eighteen fathoms deep, steep on all sides, two stadia in diameter and covered with trees of various kinds plant- ed very close together. The principal Jewish garden was King Solomon's. This garden is said to have been quadrangular and surrounded by a high wall. It con- tained a variety of plants, such as "the hyssop which springeth out of the wall," odoriferous and showy flowers as the rose, lily of the valley, calamus, camphire, spikenard, saffron and cinnamon; trees as the cedar, pine and fir, and fruits, as the fig, grape, apple and pomegranate. It contained water in wells, and in living streams. The situation of the garden was probably near to the palace The gardens of Cyrus, at Babylon, 2,000 years B. C, w^ere of square form and ac- cording to Strabo, each side was 400 feet in length, so that the area of the base was nearly four acres. They were distin- guished by their romantic situations, great extent and diversity of uses and were reckoned in their day among the wonders of the world. They were made to rise with terraces constructed in a curi- ous manner one above the other in the form of steps, and supported by stone pil- lars to a height of more than 300 feet, gradually diminishing till the area of the upper surface was reduced considerably below that of the base. The garden of the Phacacian King, Aelianus, was situated on the island of that name, probably an Asiatic island. It is minutely described by Homer in his "Odyssey," and may be compared to the garden of an ordinary farm house in point of extent and form, but in respect to variety of fruits and vegetables was far inferior It embraced the front of the palace, containing less than four acres surrounded by a hedge and interspersed with three or four sorts of fruit trees, some beds of vegetables and some borders of flowers. It contained two wells, one for the garden, and the other for the palace. The Persian and Grecian gardens of this period seem to have been nearly of the same description as those mentioned We know little of the gardens of the Augustan age of Horace and Virgil, gen- erally thought to be that in which taste and elegance were eminently conspicuous. From the descriptions of the villas Laur- entinum and Thusculum, by the younger Pliny, we gain a general idea of the gar- dens of the Romans. The Laurentinum was a winter residence on the Tiber, be- tween Rome and the sea, now called San Lorenza, seventeen miles from Rome. The garden was small and is but slightly de- scribed. It was surrounded by hedges of box and rosemary, and there were plat- forms and terraces; figs, mulberries and grapes were the fruits. Pliny's Thuscu- lan villa was situated in a natural amphi- theater of the Appenines whose lofty sum- mits were clothed with forests of oak and their fertile sides covered with cornfields, vineyards and villas. Pliny's description of this villa is of importance as showing what was esteemed as good taste in the gardens and grounds of a great Roman nobleman of the first century, under the reign of Trajan, when Rome was still in her glory. The Thusculan gardens may have con- tained from three to four acres and lay around the palace. The terrace is de- scribed as in the front of the portico and near the house; from this descended a 976 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fig. 9. Black Haw (Vihurnum primufolium) FLORICULTURE 977 lawn covered with acanthus, supposed to have been a sort of moss and adorned with figures of animals cut in trees. This lawn was again surrounded by a walk enclosed with evergreens sheared into a variety of forms. Beyond this was a place for exercise ornamented in the mid- dle with box trees sheared as before into numberless different figures, together with a plantation of shrubs kept low by clip- ping. The whole was fenced in by a wall covered with box, rising in different ranges to the top. Another quarter of the house compassed a small space of ground, shaded by four plane trees with a fountain in the center, which, over- flowing a marble basin, watered the trees and the verdure beneath them. Opposite to another part of the house was a plan- tation of trees in the form of a hippo- drome, formed of box and plane trees al- ternately planted, and connected togeth- er with ivy. Behind these were placed bay trees and the ends of the hippo- drome, which were semi-circular^ were formed of cypress. The internal walls were bordered with rose trees and were in a winding direction, which, however, terminated in a straight path, which again branched into a variety of others separated from one another by box- hedges. These were sheared into a vari- ety of shapes and letters, some express- ing the name of the master, others of the artificer, while here and there small obelisks were placed intermixed with fruit trees, sheared as already described. At the upper end of the garden was an alcove of white marble, shaded by vines and supported by marble pillars, from the seat of which recess issued several streams of water intended to appear as if pressed out by the weight of those that reposed upon it, which water was again received in a basin so contrived as to seem always full without overflowing. Corresponding to this was a fountain that threw water to a considerable height and which ran off as fast as it was thrown out. An elegant marble summer house, opening into a green in- closure and furnished with a fountain similar to the one last described, fronted the above. Throughout the walks were scattered marble seats, near to each of which was a little fountain and through- out the whole, small rills of water were artificially conducted to entertain the ear with their murmur as well as to water the garden. It will be seen later that the garden of Pliny had a striking resemblance to the French and Dutch style of gardening of the 16th and 17th centuries. After the fall of the Roman Empire little is known of the art of gardening up to the begin- ning of the 16th century when it was revived by the Medici family in Rome. These gardens were geometrical designs and served as models for other famous gardens which succeeded them until the change of taste in gardening in Eng- land about 1760. The so-called Dutch or Holland style differs but little from those already men- tioned. At the end of the 16th century the French began to copy the gardens of the Italians, and during the reign of Louis XIV, 1651-1715, Le Notre improved and settled the French style in his lay- ing out of grounds and gardens. His taste and style continued in full repute for upwards of a century. Hirchfeld, in his "Theorie der Gartenkunst," Vol. 1, 1779, observes that "if Le Notre had been born under any other monarch than Louis XIV, his taste would in all prob- ability never have spread nor his name been known to posterity. But that age in which a feeling for the fine arts had begun to awaken in men's minds, together with the personal character of this mon- arch, was favorable to pomp and bril- liancy. The nation and the court wished to be dazzled and enchanted by novelty and singularity; and though there cer- tainly was nothing in Le Notre's man- ner that had not before been displayed in France and Italy and with the exception of parterres, even by the Romans, yet the grand scale and sumptuous expense of the plans surpassed everything be- fore seen in France, and produced pre- cisely the desired end. His long clipped alleys, triumphal arches, richly decor- ated and highly wrought parterres, his 2—21 978 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE fountains and cascades with their strange ornaments, his groves full of architecture and gilt trellises, his pro- fusion of statues, all these wonders, springing up in a desert-looking open country, dazzled and enchanted every class of observers." The principal works of Le Notre are Versailles, which cost nearly 200 million francs, Trianon, St. Cloud, Chantilly, and the celebrated ter- race of Saint Germain. He went to Italy and England, and the rest of Europe adopted his style. He died in 1700. The Romans abandoned England to the Saxons in the beginning of the fifth cen- tury and the art of gardening, which had revived in France under Charlemagne, was probably introduced into England at the end of the eleventh century. Dur- ing the following centuries, until after the hundred years of dispute between the houses of York and Lancaster, we find little or no record of gardening until the time of Henry VIII. when the royal gardens of "Nonsuch" were laid out. These gardens were said to have been cut and divided into several alleys, quarters and rounds, set about with thorn hedges. On the north side was a kitchen garden surrounded by a wall Fig. 10. White Fringe {Chionanthes virginica) FLORICULTURE 979 14 feet high; on the west was a wilder- ness containing ten acres. In the gar- dens were pyramids, fountains and ba- sins of marble, one of which was set round with six lilac trees. Besides the lilacs there were 144 fruit trees, two yews and one juniper; in the kitchen garden were 72 fruit trees and one lime tree; lastly, before the palace was a neat bowling green, surrounded with a balus- trade of strong stone. This was in the year 1650. Lord Francis Bacon attempted to re- form the national taste in gardening dur- ing his time, but apparently with little immediate success. He wished still to retain the shorn trees and hedges, but proposed winter or evergreen gardens and rude or neglected spots as specimens of wild nature. "As for the making of knots and figures," said he, "with divers colored earth, they be but toys. I do not like images cut out in juniper and other garden stuff, they are for children.** Sir Henry Wotton said the garden at Lord Bacon's was one of the best he had ever seen, either at home or abroad. It is al- lowed on all sides that Joseph Addison and Alexander Pope prepared for the new art of gardening the firm basis of philosophical principles. Addison had a small retirement at Bilton, laid out in what may be called a rural style. Pope attacked the verdant sculpture and formal groves of the ancients with the keenest shafts of ridicule, and in his "Epistle to Lord Burlington," laid down the most just principles of art, the study of nature, of the genius of the place, and never to lose sight of good sense. But it was reserved for William Kent to carry their ideas more extensively into execution. It was reserved for him to realize the beautiful descriptions of the poets for which he was peculiarly adapt- ed by being a painter as the true test of perfection in landscape gardening is that a painter would choose it as a com- position. Kent was born 1675 and died 1748. Kent was succeeded by Launcelot Brown. Brown was bred a kitchen gar- dener, but was afterwards head garden- er at Stowe. He was extensively em- ployed by the nobility. His new planta- tions were generally void of genius, taste and propriety. His creations were all surrounded by a narrow belt, and the space within was distinguished by numbers of round or oval clumps, and a reach of one or two tame rivers on dif- ferent levels. This description in short will apply to almost every place in Eng- land laid out from the time about 1740, when the passion commenced for new modeling country seats, to about 1785 or 1790, when it, in a great measure, ceased. The leading outline of this plan of im- provement was easily recollected and easily applied. The great demand pro- duced abundance of artists and the gen- eral appearance of the country so rapidly changed under their operation that in the year 1772 Sir ■William Chambers declared that if the mania were not checked in a few years longer there would not be found "three trees in a line in the entire country." This system was, in fact, more formal than the ancient style, which it succeeded, because it had fewer parts. The ancient gardens had avenues, alleys, platoons, circular masses, rows double and single, all from one material wood, but the new style, as then degraded, had only three forms, the clump, the belt and single tree. The good sense of the country soon re- volted at such monstrous productions, and proprietors were ridiculed for ex- pending immense sums in destroying old gardens, avenues and woods, and plant- ing in their place young clumps for no other reason than that it was the fash- ion to do so. The writers who ventured to protest were principally: George Ma- son, in his "Design in Gardening," 1765; William Sheustone in "Unconnected Thoughts on Gardening," 1764; Whately in "Observations on Modern Gardening," 1771; William Chambers in "Dissertation on Oriental Gardening," 1772; William Mason, the poet, in "The English Gar- den," 1772-1789; and especially the writ- ings of Richard Paine Knight, Sir Uoe- dale Price and Rev. William Gilpin, 1780- 1800. The change of taste in gardening seems to have been materially aided by accounts of Chinese gardens, about the end of the 980 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL, HORTICULTURE 17th century. According to these de- scriptions, the Chinese gardens were laid out in the natural style. The gardens of Japan are original and unique. The Japanese landscape garden- er studies a natural landscape and re- produces it in miniature, his composition including mountains, lakes, streams, hills and woods. While these gardens are often very small, they are artificially arranged, and for this reason well worthy of study, as the principles employed may be utilized in the laying out of ground on a larger scale. Fig 11. Dwarf Mountain Pine {Pinus monticola) FLORICULTURE 981 Humphrey Repton was the first who took unto himself the title of landscape gardener and the first to lay down fixed principles for the art His published works are still indispensable to the land- scape gardener. His career a^ a profes- sor began about 1788. The elegant, sen- sible style soon rapidly spread over con- tinental Europe and was introduced into America by Andrew Parmentier, who came here from Belgium about 1824. He was followed by Andrew Jackson Downing, whose "Landscape Gardening" and "Letters to the 'Horticulturist/ *' are well known to have greatly assisted the advancement of landscape art in America. But the one who carried the art to its highest point was Frederick Law Olm- sted. His writings are classics on out- door art, and his work In designing parks and other grounds were object les- sons which have paved the way for the wave of interest in landscape gardening and civic improvement, which is now becoming general throughout the coun- try. General Principles The naturalistic methods of gardening are undoubtedly the most interesting to the American people, and I think the for- mal arrangement should be confined to restricted areas, disconnected from the other parts of the ground. In connection with magnificent architecture and con- sidered as part of the architectural scheme, this kind of gardening is per- fectly fitting. The aim of the landscape gardener is the formation of pictures and the prin- ciples governing his works are the same, whether he is working on a large park or on the area of a city lot. The mate- rials are earth, rocks, woods and water. The buildings, roads and walks are arti- ficial features necessary for the comfort and convenience of man. The first step in the arrangement of any landscape is the making of a plan. This plan should give every detail of grading and planting arrangement It should be made to a scale large enough if possible to give the location of each individual plant. It should show the location of buildings, roads, paths, drains and all existing and proposed features. This plan should be accompanied by written instructions and specifications, and it should be conscientiously followed as a guide in future operations to pre- vent incongruities and confusion. The laying out of the ground should be done in the following order: Locating and building the residence and other structures, grading, laying drains, mak- ing roads and paths, planting of trees and shrubs, and lastly, the finishing of the lawn. The location of the residence and the planting near it should be very carefully considered. Generally the house is finished and the grading done before the laying out of the grounds is thought of, whereas the proper way is to consider the location of the building in connection with the planning of the grounds. Planting about the base of a building helps to connect it with the lawn upon which it stands and softens the stiff, regular lines. This planting should consist of hardy material, which will be effective, even in winter. Porches and parts of the building ought to be planted with hardy vines for purposes of both privacy and comfort. The lawn should be as spacious as possi- ble to give extent to the place, and should have boundaries of closely planted trees and shrubs in irregular masses, the fore- ground of which may be planted here and there with masses of herbaceous and an- nual flowers carefully arranged so as not to cause a spotted effect. Outbuildings should be partially screened by mass plantings so as to show only those parts of them which will add to the beauty of the composition. Avoid the common fault of scattering plants all over the grounds without reason or thought. In the arrangement of the plantation be careful to study the natural growth of the plants such as height, form, rapid or slow growth, texture and color of the foliage and season of bloom. "While most plants have green leaves there are great differences in the shades of green, which differences must be carefully considered 982 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE «0 CD -a FLORICULTURE 983 for the sake of harmony in the landscape composition. Such plants as the blue spruce, purple beech, plum and birch, golden elder and all plants with highly colored leaves, should be used very carefully, as should also many of the plants like the weeping mulberry, weeping elm and the Kilmar- nock weeping willow. Take advantage of the beautiful points in the surrounding landscape by open- ing vistas and plant tall growing trees and shrubs, to shut out undesirable ob- jects. When planting groups and masses, do not indiscriminately mix the plants. Plant several of each kind or variety to- gether, and where more than one kind are used in a group, let them mix slight- ly to avoid the formation of stiff, regular lines. The proper location of drives and walks is an important consideration. They should be as direct as possible and planned for convenience as well as beauty. Except on very small places, a slightly curving road or walk is gener- ally more pleasing than a straight one. Every road or walk should have a dis- tinct aim, such as buildings, pleasing view points, etc. Large bends will only be justified hy natural obstacles, such as rocks, water, or groups of trees The curves should be easy, and gracefully follow the natural contour of the ground. If possible, do not allow roads and walks to run through the center of an open lawn or meadow, but keep them to one side and plant trees and shrubs irregu- larly along their sides in such manner as to prevent long stretches of either road or walk from being seen from any point of view. The entrance to a place should be as simple as possible, and in keeping with the general lay of the ground. Water is one of the most effective features in the landscape, and should be introduced whenever possible. The pond and lake give a peacefulness to the scene not otherwise easily acquired, and the rip- pling brook and the waterfall enliven the woods with their murmurs, the for- mer never resting as it runs along from shadow to sunshine. The planting of the margins of streams and lakes gives an opportunity for introducing a great va- riety of plants which could not otherwise be grown, such as water lilies, cat-tails, calamus, Japan iris, and scores of other moisture-loving plants. The making of artificial ponds and lakes and the plant- ing of them to fit natural surroundings is vastly more difficult than the arrange- ments of ordinary ground surfaces. They are apt to be made stiff and formal in their outline, examples of which are to be found in abundance in our parks and pleasure grounds. A good way is to study Nature's ar- rangement, noting carefully how she goes about the formation of her duties, the obstructions in the streams causing the formation of natural dams, and how she forms her islands in streams and lakes. One may thus gain much valuable in- formation, and by following it he will be able to make and plant the natural water features of his garden. Bridges should be of a pleasing, simple design, harmonizing with their surround- ings. No bridge should be built unless there is a reason for it. Other structures, such as summer houses, arbors and boat houses, should be very carefully placed. If the design is simple and in harmony with its surroundings, the structure may add materially to the beauty of the land- scape, but if not properly designated or placed without apparent reason for its position, it had better be left out, as it would only spoil what perhaps otherwise was a fine composition. In the planting of the naturalistic garden or landscape, we should mainly rely on plants of undoubted hardiness, and for this reason our native plants are splendidly adapted. We have a wealth of native material in our woods, fields and meadows, suited to every local- ity, soil and condition. Nature is the best teacher. Get acquainted with the native material first, then visit as many good gardens as possible and learn how to use this material to the best advan- tage. 984 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Do not try to grow such plants as love shade and moisture on dry hillsides, as is often done, but select plants which are especially adapted to the climate, soil and situation of your garden. Use Ameri- can grown plants in your plantations if you want to succeed. Do not attempt to transplant large trees and shrubs from the woods into your gardens, they will either not live or produce a stunted growth. Small plants may be collected and transplanted successfully. Make use of the many beautiful hardy plants introduced from other countries, especially those from Japan which are well adapted to our American climate. These, as well as our native plants, can be obtained from our American nurseries, where they have had the care necessary for successful transplanting. FLOWERS Most of the flowers treated in this work will be found catalogued in this section, and not as generally treated in the alphabetical order of names scattered through the work. The Standard Dic- tionary gives the following definition of "flower": "Botanically, a flower may be regarded as a sporangia (spore-case) bearing shoot, or sporophore. Only two parts are essential, the androecium (male part) and the gynoecium (female part), these organs being necessary to the production of seed. But not all seed-bearing plants produce flowers in the popular meaning of the term, the conifers and their allies being considered flowerless. As ordi- narily used, the term flower refers to those floral structures whose sporangia- bearing leaves are made conspicuous and are protected by colored leaves. Even when the sporangial leaves are absent (as hydrangeas and chrysanthemums) the clusters of colored leaves are called flow- ers. A flower in its simplest form may consist of only an axis that bears a single sporophyl. The opposite extreme may be seen in certain composites and orchids that possess complex and highly special- ized floral structures, the differentiations having arisen apparently to aid the more easy transfer of pollen or the more effec- tive scattering of seeds. A completely developed flower consists of a central short stem (torus), floral leaves (sepals. Fig. 13. Evergreen Hedge, Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) — Photo hy Duncan. FLORICULTURE 985 petals), and sporangial leaves (stamens, carpels). These parts vary in number in different plants. True flowers are pro- duced only by the higher vegetable or- ganisms. Double flowers are developed by increasing the floral leaves at the ex- pense of the sporangial ones, as the snow- ball." Floriculture was not an important in- dustry until about 100 years ago. Previ- ous to that there was not a comparatively great effort to beautify the homes or to make floriculture an important commer- cial industry. This probably grew out of a number of facts. First, when people are struggling for subsistence and the struggle is severe, they have little time to devote to beautifying their homes, and the energy of life is directed toward ob- taining those things that are necessary in order to live. Second, when society in general has accumulated but little money and there are few wealthy people, not much money can be invested in flow- ers or luxuries of any kind. Third, under these conditions society would lack that cultivated taste which would lead it to devote what energy it could to the cul- ture of flowers. With the growth of edu- cation, with aesthetic culture and with the accumulations of money, which may be diverted from the necessaries of life to the luxuries, flower culture has become an important industry upon which mil- lions of dollars are realized every year. Geanville Lowther Boses for Central Wasliington The following list of roses which do well in the Yakima Valley was compiled by Mr. Burton 0. Lum, of North Yakima: * Dark Red Roses — Etoil de France, H. T.; Louise Van Houtte, H. P.; Sultan of Zanzibar, H. P ; Prince Camile de Ro- han, H. P.; Baron de Bonstetten, H. P.; Reine Marie Henriette, H. P.; Ulrich Brunner, H. P.; G-russ au Teplitz, H. T.; Princess de Sagen, H. T.; Avoca, H. T.; Jubilee, H. P.; Fischer Holmes, H. P. Light Red Roses — Duke of Teck, H. P.; General Jacqueminot, H. P.; Rich- mond, H. T.; Papa Gontier, T.; Liberty, H. T.; Madame Battersea, H. T.; Captain Haywood, H. P.; Duke of Edinburgh, H, P.; Suzanne Marie de Rodocanachi, H. P. There are many other red roses that grow well in Yakima, but all of the above have been easily grown by the writer. Pink Roses (including roses tinted with pink) — Antoine Ri voire, H. T.; Clara Watson, H. T.; Madame Carline Testout, H. T.; Magna Charta, H. P.; Paul Neyron, H. P.; Rosalind Orr, H. T.; Belle Siebrecht, H. T.; Madame Jules Grolez, T.; Prince de Bulgarie, H. T.; Maman Cochet, H. T.; Dean Hole, H. T.; Betty, H. T.; Duchess de Brabant, T.; Mrs. R. S. Sherman-Crawford, H. T.; Viscount Folkestone, T.; Anna de Dies- bach, H. P.; Madame Gabriel Luizet, H. P.; Baron de Rothschild, H. P.; Jonkherr Mock, H. T.; La Tosca, H, T. These pink roses are especially adapted to Yakima. Light Y^ellow Roses — Marie Van Houtte, T.; Amateur Teyssier, H. T.: Safrona, T.; F. Diegin, H. T.; Madame Pernet Ducher; Mile. H. Cambier, T.; Chromatella, N.; Marechal Niel, N.; ounset, JL . Dark Yellow Roses — Le Progres, H. T,; Harry Kirk, H. T.; Doctor Grill, T.; Madame Ravary, H. T.; Francisca Kru- ger, T.; Mrs. Aaron Ward, H. T.; Duchess of Wellington, H. T.; Madame Melanie Soupert, H. T.; Madame Hector Leuillot, H, T.; Melody, H. T.; Isabella Sprunt, T.; Sunburst, H. T. The Hybrid Perpetuals, or H. P.'s, are quite hardy and hold their color better than the Hybrid Teas, or H. T.'s. The Teas must be protected in winter. All yellow roses do better in Yakima if they are in the shade part of the day. White Roses — Frau Karl Druski, H. P.; Kaiserin, H. T.; Souv. Pres. Carnot, H. T.; Margaret Dickson, H. P.; White Maman Cochet, T.; Hon. Edith Gifford, T.; Ivory, H. T. Neither the American Beauty, nor any of the La France roses, are included in these lists, as they do not grow well in Yakima. The buds blight with the ex- ception of a few blooms in the late fall. * Abbreviations II T , Hybrid Tea ; H. P. ll\ bfid Perpetual , T , Tea * N , Noisette. 986 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Flowers and Plants in the United States 1899 and 1909 1899 1909 Acreagje 9,307 18,248 Value $18,758,864 34,872,329 The Cultiyation and Uses of Annnal Flowering Plants Ageratum ''For strengthening the garden's color forces in blue, no annual is so good as the ageratum." Though ordinarily used in bedding and borders in contrast with such plants as geraniums, perillas, amaranthus, etc., the rose, white, and blue ageratums are exceedingly attractive when mingled with alyssum, candytuft, and similar plants. They grow well upon almost all soils and through a wide range of climate; for that reason many combin- ations with them are possible. The plants are neat, bushy, and erect, with a continual profuse clustering of pretty brushlike flowers throughout the season. The dwarf blue sorts make fine borders and are much used where contrasting col- or effects are desired. For early bloom the seed should be sown in cold frames or in boxes in the house early in the season — March — ^but for summer and fall bloom the seeds may be sown in well prepared beds in the open. Seeds sown in August will produce good plants for win- ter flowering. Althaea Rosea. See Eollyhoch. Alyssum For borders, edgings, baskets, pots, rockwork, and for cutting, a liberal use of this dainty little flower is recommend- ed. For borders, the seed should be sown thickly so as to form masses. For winter bloom, sow late in August and thin the seedlings so as to stand about four inches apart, but for spring bloom or for borders the seeds should be sown in the open early in the spring, or even late in the preceding autumn in some localities. Where the plant will not endure the win- ter, however, early spring planting under cover, either in a cold frame or spent hotbed, or in boxes in a dwelling, is most to be relied upon. Alyssum can also be increased from cuttings made from strong new side shoots, as well as by division of the roots. By cutting back after the first flowers fade others will be produced. While white is the most common and popular color, there are yellow varieties of alyssum. Antirriiiinum. See Snapdragon. Aquilegia. See GolumHne. Aster The aster is certainly one of the most satisfactory of the annual flowering plants. The great variety in its size, col- or, form, and season of blooming makes it a most satisfactory plant for supplying cut flowers. In fact, many of the im- proved sorts produce flowers equal in form and size to some of the better sorts of chrysanthemums. The range of color presented in this group is one of its chief merits. Strange as it may appear, the plant world is not very well supplied with blue flowers possessing characters which render them suited to domestic or commercial uses. In the aster, however, are found many shades of blue and pur- ple and for this reason, if for no other, the aster should prove an attractive dec- orative plant. The habit of growth adapts the aster not only to close plant- ing for cut bloom, but some forms are robust, tall-growing plants, well adapted for use in an herbaceous border where late bloom and careless effects are desired. The more compact-growing, large- flowered forms are most desirable for cut blooms, while the tall-growing, open types are most useful in wild gardens or for screens. The wild aster {Aster novae angliae) is one of the most beautiful and most satisfactory of this latter class. The vigor and ease of culture of the aster are factors which contribute to its popu- larity. Plants from seed sown in the open ground in May bloom finely in Septem- ber and October, when the flowers are seen at their best. For July and Au- gust bloom, seeds should be sown in March or April in a cold frame, spent hotbed, or in pots or boxes in a living room. Cover the seeds about half an inch deep with rich, light soil and when the plants have three or four leaves FL0RICULTURE3 987 transfer them to thumb pots or to other boxes, setting the plants about two inches apart each way. After all dan- ger of frost is past transplant the plants so treated to their permanent home, where they should stand about 18 inches apart each way in well prepared beds. Fresh manure or manure used in too large quantities sometimes proves injuri- ous to asters. Only thoroughly composted manure mixed with the soil is safe for these plants. Small quantities of air- slaked lime, or of fresh wood ashes, stirred into the surface of the aster beds prove beneficial to the plants. When giv- en plenty of water and rich, fine soil asters can be grown into beautiful pot plants. In some localities and during some sea- sons the aster is seriously attacked by the so-called black potato beetle or blister beetle (Epicauta pennsylvanica) , an in- sect which feeds upon the partly devel- oped buds, causing them to develop, if at all, into deformed, irregular blossoms. In such localities asters can be success- fully grown under screens of mosquito netting or other thin cloth. Bachelor's Buttons. See Coreopsis, Balsam Impatiens talsamma A native of India, the garden balsam loves a hot sun, rich soil, and plenty of water. The young plants are quick, sure growers, and from seed sown in the open ground in May soon form handsome bushes thickly massed with large, rose- like flowers. Transplanting two or three times has a tendency to dwarf the plants into better shape and to make the flow- ers more double. Balsams are not often given room for perfect development; they will easily cover 12 to 18 inches of space each way. For the finest flowers choice seed is more than usually essential, for cultivation and selection have wrought wonders with this plant. The one objec- tion to the balsam is its habit of produc- ing its flowers, as it were, on the under- side of the leaves, or inside the plant. While the individual flowers are beauti- ful, the obscure manner in which they are borne detracts considerably from the value of the plants. When used at the margin of groups or to crown a terrace they are shown at best advantage. For early bloom the seeds should be sown about the middle of March in a gentle hotbed or in the dwelling house. As soon as the first true leaves have de- veloped the young plants should be trans- planted to thumb pots or to boxes where they will stand about two inches apart each way. An abundance of light and water is at all times necessary for suc- cess with these plants. Care should be exercised to prevent them from becoming drawn, as stocky, symmetrical plants produce the best flowers. Calendula or Pot Marigold The calendula or pot marigold is a hardy annual about a foot high. A mod- erately rich, light soil is most congen- ial to these plants, which should be placed about 8 or 10 inches apart, if planted in mass or in borders. The seed may be sown in the open ground quite early in spring, and the plants will be in bloom early in summer and continue to bloom until late in the autumn. The coloring of the flowers ranges through all shades of yellow from ivory to deep orange. The plants bloom freely and earlier than the marigold, and are use- ful in beds, borders, or backgrounds. The dried flowers are sometimes used for flavoring soups and stews. There are both single and double forms of the pot marigold. One of the most satisfactory methods of propagating this plant is from seeds sown about April 1 in the North in spent hotbeds or cold frames. After the middle of May, in localities north of Washington it will be safe to transfer the young plants to their per- manent summer quarters. California Poppy Eschsclioltzia The eschscholtzia is the state flower of California, and an annual of striking character both as regards the form and color of its flowers, which are bright and rich in their tints of yellow and orange. The plants average about a foot in height, have attractive silvery foliage, and pro- duce their large poppy-like flowers quite 988 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE lavishly from early spring until frost. Tliey are most effective when grown in beds of considerable size, over which the seed may be thinly sown broadcast and lightly leaked in. These sowings may be made early in spring, or late in autumn for earlier germination and bloom the next spring. The eschscholtzia is also very useful as a pot plant and for cut flowers. Calliopsis, Coreopsis Coreopsis is a genus of showy annual or perennial herbaceous plants, with graceful long-stemmed flowers well suit- ed for bouquets. The hardy annuals of this genus are generally known by the name calliopsis. This is one of the gar- den's great forces in yellows, strength- ened with rich maroons and browns. Seeds of the calliopsis for summer flower- ing in situations north of New York city should be sown in March in boxes in a living room or in a gentle heat in a greenhouse or hotbed. In localities south of New York the seeds may be sown in the open in May in good garden soil, with the hope of an abundance of flow- ers from August until frost. The plants should be thinned or transplanted to at least 10 inches apart each way. Their tall, slender habit makes neat staking and tying necessary. All are fine for cutting, especially Coreopsis grandifiora and (7. lanceolata. Caittpamila Canterbury Bells, Bell Flower Slipperwort Campanula is a genus comprising both perennial, biennial, and annual flowering plants. These fine old plants are rich in color, profuse in bloom, and of easy cul- ture. For outdoor effects, when planted in quantity, they are glorious, and fin- est full-blown specimens of such varieties as calyeanthema or Canterbury bells can be transplanted to pots for house decora- tion by soaking the soil about them with water and lifting with a ball of earth. The seeds of the annuals should be sown in April or early in May. The seeds of biennials should be sown outdoors early in July, and the plants may be thinned or transplanted to temporary quarters as late as October. The old practice of covering Canter- bury bells with leaves through the winter is not satisfactory. Transplant them six or eight inches apart in a cold frame, where they will make large plants by spring and are as easily cared for as pansies. In the spring set them 18 to 20 inches apart in beds where they are to bloom. In June and July they flower most profusely, and are in fine form a long time. They also make beautiful pot plants for Easter. If sown early in good soil the hardy perennials will bloom early the next year. All varieties like a rich, sandy soil, with good drainage. Candytuft lb ens The candytufts are among the best white flowers for edging beds, for plant- ing in belts, beds, or massing, for rock- eries, and for cutting. Several of the varieties are fragrant, and all are profuse bloomers The seeds should be sown out- doors in April where the plants are to bloom, and well thinned when they have grown about an inch high. Make a sec- ond planting a month later, and a third late in July for fall flowers. September sowings will give winter blooming plants. The soil for best results should be rich, and the plants given an abundance of water. They branch freely, and if some are removed the flowers will be larger. Canterbury Bells. See Campanula. Carnation. See Pinks, Castor Bean Ricinus The castor oil plant, commonly spoken of as the castor bean, is especially valu- able because it is one of the few annuals which can be used to produce a semi- tropical effect. Its rapid growth and large size make it valuable as the central object in groups where rich, luxuriant growth is required. The variety of color in the foli- age of the different sorts of castor bean is of value in giving contrast, and when used in combination with cannas, calad- iums, coleus, or scarlet sage most strik- ing effects of contrast can be produced. As a background for lower growing plants FLORICULTURE 989 the castor bean lias no equal among gar- den annuals. Only the annual climbing vines, when provided with suitable sup- ports, equal it as a low screen. It can be used with good effect in groups, as masses along shrubbery borders, or as belts for covering and shutting out an un- desirable view. At the North, the castor bean is most satisfactory when started in March or early in April in a gentle heat. A hot- bed, greenhouse, or living i-oom can be made use of for the pui'pose. As soon as the first true leaves have formed, the young plants should be pricked out into small boxes or pots, where they should be kept growing slowly until all danger of frost has passed, when they may be trans- ferred to the open. After transplanting the young plants, it is desirable that they have sufficient room to prevent them from growing too tall and consequently from losing their lower leaves. If planted in the open ground at the same time garden beans are planted, the castor bean will make a growth of from four to six feet by the middle of August. This plant loves a rich soil, plenty of moisture, full sunlight, and great heat. The varieties range in height from 3 to 10 feet and have leaves of correspond- ing size. Centaueea. See Gorn Flower, Chrysantliemunis The chrysanthemums, like the pinks, contain some of the most valuable of the commercial florists' products, both hardy perennial and annual flowering plants. The large flowered types of chrysanthe- mums, which each autumn produce such gorgeous shows in the stores, florists' establishments, and conservatories, are not hardy, and since they are treated as greenhouse plants by the florists they are only mentioned in this list The class of hardy chrysanthemums, which should be more commonly seen in every flower gar- den, and which are known as pompons, are simply noted to give proper relation to the annual chrysanthemums which are the subject of this sketch. These plants bloom most satisfactorily if the seeds are sown early in a hotbed or cold frame and the young plants trans- ferred to the open as soon as the soil has become sufficiently warm to keep them growing without check. If started in a hotbed the young plants should stand 10 to 12 inches apart when set in their pex^- manent locations. Somewhat less satis- factory results can be secured by sowing the seed about corn planting time in the open where the plants are to bloom. The seedlings should be thinned to stand at least eight inches apart. If the same care in regard to disbudding and pinching back is taken with the annual plants as with the large flowered perennials the work will be rewarded by greatly increased size of the flowers. xjlSiXvkXVL The clarkia is one of the prettiest hardy native annuals of the Inland Em- pire. It blooms freely, which character- istic, taken in connection with the va- riety and brightness of its flowers, makes a bed of them in full bloom an attractive sight. They are useful, too, for hanging baskets, for vases, as edging plants, for low massing, or for borders. The seeds should be sown outdoors in early spring and the plants grown in partial shade. The clarkias thrive in a warm, light soil, and their period of bloom is midsummer and late autumn. The average height of the plant is I14 feet. Cobaea ScaBdens Cobaea scandens is a rapid growing, climbing vine which is easily propagated from seed. The dark color and refined character of its foliage, together with its bell shaped flowers, render it a very satis- factory vine for covering broad areas. It is a less rampant grower than the moon- flower, but furnishes quite as satisfactory a screen made up of much finer leaves. The flowers are not conspicuous, because of their modest colors and because they are hidden by the foliage. Their form, however, is pleasing and they are open during the day. When the young seedlings have devel- oped their first true leaves they should be transferred to three inch pots or to tomato cans and kept growing slowly un- til danger of frost is past. In the open, 990 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE a rich border should be provided, for as soon as hot weather comes on the plants grow very rapidly if ample food is at their command. A rabbit netting trellis or sup- port is more satisfactory than cords or smooth wire for this plant, as it fastens itself chiefly by tendrils rather than by twining, as does the morning glory. Cockscomb Celosia crista The cockscomb are prized and planted as an odd and picturesque decorative fea- ture of the garden. The dwarf varieties make novel and attractive borders; the tall ones form striking groups, and when interspersed with other lower growing plants in a border they produce a pleas- ing contrast. There are both red and yel- low forms of the cockscomb, but the bright red and crimson varieties are most ef- fective in gardens and also in winter bou- quets, for which they are cut before fully ripe and dried in the house. The young plants can be grown from seeds sown in gentle heat in April and transplanted to the open ground the middle or last of May, or the seeds may be sown early in May in the open where the plants are to stand. Transplanting into rich soils about the time the combs begin to form makes the flower heads much larger. They are bright from midsummer until frost. Columbine Aquilegia The columbine is a hardy perennial, with manv horticultural varieties, and is a desirable border plant. Its habit of growth is to form large clumps. It blooms profusely early in the season and remains in bloom for a considerable period. It is quite hardy, and is useful for cutting. The peculiar pendant flowers are interesting in themselves because of their unusual form, and this feature, taken in connec- tion with the graceful habit of the plant, gives each clump of columbine a strik- ing and interesting appearance. Sow the seed in the open ground in spring, preferably where the plants are to grow, and thin the young seedlings to about a foot apart. Seeds may also be sown in the autumn for flowering the following season. The plants thrive well under good garden culture, but such rare sorts as Aquilegia coerulea and A. chrysantha do best in partially shaded, well-drained nooks. Few hardy peren- nials are so easily grown from seed. Coneflower Eu\ddeckia Many of the rudbeckias are hardy and perennial, but they may be treated as annuals. The flowers are quite showy and usually have yellow rays, though some are ci'imson and others more or less covered with brown toward the base. The rudbeckias are of very easy cultivation, thriving in almost any soil and climate. Most of them prefer a moist soil, but will thrive in the garden under ordinary cultivation. Rud'beckia hwta — the Blackeyed Susans, or "nig- ger-heads," as they are sometimes called — will thrive in the hottest and driest sit- uations. RiidhecTcia triloba, a biennial, perpetuates itself through self-sown plants. The triloba may be used quite effectively as a border to a large bed of delphiniums or as a screen, as it forms a dense bush between three and four feet high. The rudbeckias are propagated by means of seeds or cuttings, or by di- vision. The Golden Glow, one of the most satisfactory plants of this group, is well adapted for planting in a shrub- bery or herbaceous border. It grows to a height of from three to four feet, and may be used as a screen when lower growing plants are placed in the fore- ground. Coreopsis. See CalUopsis. Corn Flower Centaurea Gentaurea cyanus is also known as "blue bottle," "ragged sailor," "kaiser blumen," and sometimes as "bachelor's button." These bright flowered plants are of a hardy nature, requiring simple culture, yet they are among the most at- tractive and graceful of all the old fash- ioned flowers. When placed in water af- ter cutting, the flowers increase in size. Seed of the annual sorts should be sown in the open in April or May and the young plants thinned to four to six inches apart. They thrive well on all FLORICULTURE 991 moderately rich garden soils. The per- ennials may he grown from seeds sown in gentle heat in March and planted out in May or June. Cosmos Cosmos is now one of the notahle fall flowers. It is a strong, tall growing an- nual, yet its hright, hold flowers have a daintiness and airiness which is height- ened in effect hy the feathery green foli- age. It is most effective when planted in hroad masses or long background borders against evergreens or fences at some distance from the house and the garden walks. From seed started in the house in March or April the plants will have reached three or four feet in height hy September. The bright colored, daisy-like flowers are borne in great pro- fusion and come at a season when they are very acceptable. Because of the ro- bust habit of the plant the young seed- lings should be thinned to 18 inches apart when growa on moderately good soil. Sowing the seed late and in poor soil will dwarf the plants. In the lati- tude of Washington, D. C, the plants perpetuate themselves from self-sown seed. These volunteer plants can be taken advantage of for early bloom. Cypeess Vine. See Ipomoea. Delphinium. See Larkspur. DiANTHUS. See PinJcs. Digitalis. See Foxglove. EscHSCHOLTziA. See California Poppy. Cypress Vine Ipomoea quamocUt The cypress vine is very distinct both in foliage and flower from the moonflow- er and the morning glories. The flowers are small, star shaped, and usually pink in color; they are feather-like both in form and delicacy. The leaflets being fine, the general appearance of the plant is light and airy. While the plant does not grow as robustly as those named above, it if well adapted for covering low screens and arbors. It grows readily from seed, which should be sown in a rich border rather thickly, about corn planting time, and the young plants thin- ned to stand four to six inches apart in the row. Evening Primrose Godetta The evening primroses are choice, free-blooming annuals, with widely open- ed flowers of satiny texture, with deli- cate colors. They are suited for solid beds, border lines, for pots, and to grow in shrubbery borders in shaded places, where few other flowers will flourish. The seed should be sown in an open bor- der or in a cold frame in spring. If the latter, the seedlings should be trans- planted to stand about a foot apart in rather thin or sandy soil. These plants are also successfully treated as biennials by sowing the seed in July and trans- planting the young plants to a cold frame, to be placed in the open the fol- lowing May. The blooming season is from early spring until frost, and the average height of the plants is 1% feet. Forget-Me-IVot Myosotis The dainty little flowers commonly known as forget-me-nots are hardy perennials that love cool, moist soils, and, like pansies, bloom most freely in fall and early spring. They make a satisfactory close border, the beauty of which is heightened by abundant bloom. The forget-me-not is also satisfactory as a winter-blooming plant for growing in cool rooms or cold frames. Another fea- ture characteristic of this plant is that, after once having been introduced into a garden, it perpetuates itself from year to year hy self-seeding like the poppy, portulaca, and several of the other desir- able annuals. Sow the seeds in spring in a warm, sunny border. Most varieties bloom freely the first season and profuse- ly the second year. The average height of the plant is six inches. Four-o'CIock MiraMUs jalapa The mirabilis, sometimes called the "Marvel of Peru," is normally a peren- nial in Its native region, the warmer parts of America, but under garden cul- ture it gives satisfactory results when treated as an annual. The seed may be sown in the early spring under glass and the plants set out in May. The four- 992 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE o'clock is often used as a screen with good resultfe The colored part of the flower, which is white, various shades of red, and striped, is the calyx, drawn out in the semblance of a corolla and surrounded at the base by a leafy in- volucre. In some cases, as in Mirabihs jalapa, only one flower is borne on an in- volucre. The plant is a quick growing, erect, bushy herb, attaining to a height of from two to three feet. Its blooming period is during the late summer and autumn. Because of its habit of opening its flow- ers only late in the afternoon and on cloudy days the popular name, four- o'clock, hab been given. While this plant is a tender annual in the northern part of the United States, it frequently reproduces itself from self-sown seed, and even as far north as New York city it frequently manifests its perennial habit of developing tuberous roots suffi- ciently large to be lifted and stored like those of the canna. Foxglove Digitalis The tall flower stems of the foxgloves are particularly attractive when seen growing among shrubbery or in bold masses along walks or drives. As a back- ground for lower growing plants the fox- gloves are also very useful and interest- ing. The spikes are frequently a foot or more in length and thickly strung with many showy, thimble-shaped flowers. Some of the new sorts rival gloxinias in shadings and markings. Plants may be grown from seeds sown in the open in May and the seedlings transplanted where they are to grow in the open or, preferably, to a cold frame, where they make extra strong plants that will flower profusely the next season. They are most satisfactory when treated as biennials, sowing the seed every year in rich, deep soil and partial shade. The average height of the plants is from two to three feet. When the center spike be- gins to fade it should be cut out and the side shoots will, in consequence, grow more vigorously. 0«^ilIardia In the gaillardias are found both annual and perennial plants offering a wide se- lection of varieties and a profusion of bloom over a long period. The blooming period begins early and continues late in autumn. They are well adapted to mix- ed borders and are very satisfactory as cut flowers. The stems are of good length, carry the flowers well, and keep fresh as cut flowers for a long time when placed m water. The annual gaillardias are all propa- gated readily from seeds sown in the open, but earlier flowers will be secured by sowing seeds in a hotbed and trans- planting the plants to the open as soon as killing frosts have passed. In either case the blooming plants should not stand closer than ten or twelve inches. They grow and bloom best when fully exposed to sun and air, and when planted on a fertile but light and well drained soil. GoDETiA. See Evening Primrose. Hklianthits. See Sunflower. Hollyhock AttJiaca rosea These too frequently neglected old- fashioned perennials are most pleasing and attractive when seen in groups or long rows against evergreen hedges or shrubbery as a background, and, in turn, form a very satisfactory background set- ting for plants of lower growth. The color variety in these plants is very great, ranging from pure white through almost every conceivable shade of yel- low red, and rose to ashen-gray and al- most black. Although hollyhocks are permanent and hardy, even during the first winter, it is advisable to make seed sowings every year, as the flowers on young, vigorous plants are much finer than those upon old ones. Seed sowings should be made in April or May, and not later than June, to flower the next year. In the final transplanting each seedling should be given a foot or more space each way to allow for full development. The average height of the hollyhock is four feet; many sorts, however, are much shorter, while an equal number are taller than the average above stated. FLORICULTURE 993 Ipomoea Morning Glory, Moonflower and Cypress Tine The plants included under the names morning glory, moonfiower, and cypress vine, while all classed together hotanxcal- ly, are quite varied in form of fiower and foliage. Their chief merit rests in the fact of their rapid growth and ability to cover large spaces in a short time. The shoots grow long and are well provid- ed with foliage, two factors which adapt them well for temporary uses, such as covering structures and summerhouses, and for immediate effect upon new build- ings. All three of the above named types grow readily from seed, the morning glory and cypress vine both giving good returns from seeds sown in rich borders about corn planting time. The moon- flower can be propagated either from seeds sown in a hotbed about the first of March in the climate of Washington, or from cuttings carried over winter in a greenhouse. For best success with the Imperial Japanese morning glories and the moonflowers the seeds should be filed to make a slight aperture in the hard, horny covering, or they should be soaked for several hours in warm water. If these precautions are not observed a poor stand will usually be the result. Both these groups profit by being start- ed in a hotbed or greenhouse in March or April, and are then transplanted to the open only after all danger of frost has passed. Larkspur DelpMnium Blue is a comparatively rare color among our cultivated plants, and for that reason the delphinium, which shows this color in great variety, is particularly valuable. The brilliant flower spikes can be seen from a distance and are striking- ly effective in beds or masses, in bor- ders, shrubberies, or in combinations with white lilies or other plants where a high contrast is desirable. The tall sorts should be planted among shrubbery or used as a background for other low grow- ing plants whose bloom will produce a pleasing contrast with the larkspur. The dwarf types are better suited for bed- ding and for low borders. Improvements are continually being made in the size of the flowers, as well as in the length and fullness of the spikes. Some of the species fiower both early and late, and the season for all can be prolonged by care in cutting away withered flower stems as fast as they appear. The del- phinium is sometimes increased by divi- sion, but like most other plants they are more robust when grown from seed. This plant is easily propagated and adapts itself to many conditions, but in a soil deeply dug and well enriched with fine old manure their blooms are largest and best. For best results the plants must have ample room to grow; 1"!^ to 2 feet each way is not too much for the taller sorts. Animal Tarieties These include the rocket and hyacinth- flowered larkspurs, so called from their long, narrow flower spikes. They bloom best in a rather cool, moist soil. The seed may be sown in the open border, either in spring or fall, preferably the latter, so that germination may take place very «arly in spring. As the seed- lings grow, thin them to stand 6 to 18 inches apart, according to variety. The shades of color include light, dark, and azure blue, white, buff, rose, apple blos- som, pink, brick red, red lilac, dark lilac, violet, and fawn. The varieties are sel- dom kept separate, as they are quite as pretty and convenient for cutting when sown in mixture. Some of these are real- ly hardy biennials, but because they bloom the first season they are treated as hardy annuals. Perennial Tarieties These are usually taller than the an- nuals, requiring more space between the plants. If sown in the autumn or very early in spring many will bloom the first season. The foliage is clean and attractive and the habit of growth strong, producing long flower spikes. Lobelia The Erinus varieties (lobelias) are charming little plants that bloom very quickly from the seed and continue gay with flowers all through the season. For 2 — 22 994 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE beds, edgings, baskets, and pots there is nothing prettier; their clear colors and generous bloom make them welcome anywhere. The seeds may be sown outdoors in early spring where the plants are to grow. As the plants appear they should be thinned moderately, or transplanted several inches apart in rich, open soil. Liquid manure given while they are in bloom greatly improves the flowers. Many sorts are also good winter con- servatory plants of trailing habit. The perennial or tall varieties are handsome, showy plants, found quite effective for backgrounds and grouping. Marigold Tagetes There are two distinct types of garden marigolds, each with numerous horticul- tural varieties, derived from two distinct species. The French marigold, which is the most compact and regular in growth, and consequently the most valuable as a bed- ding or a border plant, has been develop- ed from Tagetes patuUy while the Afri- can marigold, which is of a more spread- ing and open habit of growth and there- fore less suited for bedding purposes, but well adapted for herbaceous or shrub- bery borders, has been developed from Tagetes erecta. The common names of these plants give no clew to their nativ- ity, both being tropical American plants, in spite of common names to the con- trary. The French marigolds are all useful bedding plants. The habit of growth is erect and compact, with good foliage. The flowers are well formed, bright in color, and occur from June until frost. While these plants can be grown and successfully brought into bloom from seeds sown in the open in April in the latitude of Washington, such plants do not give as early bloom or the profusion of bloom which will be borne by plants started in a house and shifted for a time into pots which confine the roots of the plant and check it, so that when set in the open the increased food supply has a tendency to induce the development of flowers rather than wood, a tendency which is maintained, much to the grati- fication of the gardener, throughout the season. When transferred to the open the plants should be set at least a foot apart each way. The same distance should also be given plants grown from seed sown in the open. There are both double and single forms of the French marigold. The named varieties are espe- cially good, but very satisfactory results are obtained from mixed seeds. The African marigolds frequently grow two or more feet in height, and for this reason are better suited for planting in mixed borders or along belts of trees and shrubs than in beds or masses in small areas. This is, however, the com- mon marigold of the garden in America. The leaves and flowers are strong scent- ed. The range of color in the flowers of this type of marigold is from sulphur yellow to orange, the darker shades be- ing more commonly met with than the lighter ones. Mignonette Reseda Every indoor or outdoor garden must have mignonette in plentiful supply. The seed can be sown at any time, and if successive plantings are made, its frag- rant, modest colored flowers may be gath- ered outdoors until November. For early bloom in the open, sow seed in pots or boxes under glass in February or March and thin or pot off the seedlings, to make stocky plants for bedding out, as soon as severe frosts are past. To insure a succession of bloom throughout the sea- son, sow a row or two at a time in the open about April 15 in the vicinity of New York, and earlier southward, repeat- ing regularly at intervals of about three weeks till August. The July sowing will make good winter flowering plants. The average height of mignonette is one foot. MooNFLowEE. See Ipomoea, MoBNiNa Globy. See Ipomoea. Morning Olory The Imperial morning glory is the most varied and most beautiful of the group. One of its interesting features is the variety of its flowers and leaves. The FLORICULTURE 995 latter differ greatly, in shape, as well as in size; some are plain green, while others are oddly marbled and hlotched with white or yellow. The colors and markings of the flowers vary from pure white to rose, crimson, and carmine through blues and purples of every shade to almost black. There are velvety single self-colors, a few doubles and semi- doubles, others with quilled or feathered petals, many fancifully bordered, blotch- ed, striped, penciled, and marbled — hardly any two plants from a seed pack- et seeming alike. The vines are vigorous, growing rapidly to a height of 30 or 40 feet. In sowing or planting they should be allowed about twice as much space as the ordinary morning glory, and in the open should not be sown quite as early in the year. IToonflower Ipomoea tona-nox The moonflowers are the most vigor- ous in growth of any subdivisions of the genus included in the above list. The leaves are large, frequently &ye or six inches across, and the large white flow- ers, which open soon after sundown, are frequently four to six inches across. These plants with good soil conditions and plenty of moisture will make a growth of from 40 to 50 feet during the season. IVasturtinms A wide range of colors has been de- veloped in this favorite flower, the nas- turtium, which for three or four months of the season makes a better display than almost any other plant. No other annual will produce such a profusion of flowers for so long a time with the same outlay of time and labor. The maximum of bloom is produced on thin soils, and the plant never flags through the hot- test weather; in fact, too much rain or moisture greatly reduces the supply of flowers. In soils too rich the leaves pre- dominate and the plants are apt to rot off in wet weather, especially if standing too close. The seeds should be planted an inch deep, and the seedlings thinned to 10 or 12 inches apart. The rows for bed- ding varieties should not be less than a foot apart, and for tall varieties four feet. Dwarf or Tom Tlmnito Jastnrtiuins TropaeolUTn minus These plants have a neat, compact habit of growth and attractive foliage, and are not infested by insects. Blossoms appear in two months from the date of seed sow- ing, and continue throughout the whole season. A bed of dwarf nasturtiums in full bloom is a sea of color. It is said that a good bed, 6 by 20 feet in size, will yield about 1,000 flowers per day. The average height of the dwarf variety is nine inches. Tall or Climbing Jfastnrtiiims Tropaeolum majus Besides their ordinary garden use for trailing over fences, trellises, stone walls, etc., the climbing nasturtiums can also be grown as pot plants for winter-flower- ing as screens, or as trailers for hang- ing baskets and vases. Sow plenty of seed in drills, and thin to six inches apart in the row. Like the dwarf forms, these plants bloom most quickly and pro- fusely in poor soil. Their flowers are usually a little larger than those of the dwarf sorts. The average height of the plant is ^Ye feet. NemopMla The representatives of the genus Nemo- phila are dwarf, compact growing, hardy, annual herbs, which produce an abun- dance of showy bell-shaped flowers from early spring to late autumn, for which reason they are esteemed for borders and for bedding purposes. All the species may be propagated from seed. If the seeds are sown in the open about the middle of August and then transplanted in late autumn very early flowers may be obtained. For summer and late fall blooms the seed may be sown in the open in April and not transplanted. The nem- ophilas love a moist loam, with partial shade, and produce an abundance of showy flowers, which are very valuable for bedding and for cut flowers. The whole plant is more or less hairy. 996 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Pansy Viola tricolor The pansy, sometimes called hearts- ease, is a favorite with almost everyone. It is a plant that demands more than ordinary attention, but none repays such attention more liberally. For very early outdoor bedding the seed is sown in the autumn — September — in a cold frame, or in rich, moist garden beds, from which the plants can be transferred to a cold frame, setting them two or three inches apart each way before severe winter weather begins. In spring three-fourths of them can be lifted out for bedding, and the rest left to bloom in the frame. For winter bloom in a frame, set the plants about twice as far apart, and thin out half of them in spring. Cover the blooming plants with sash, adding a cov- ering of matting or straw in very cold weather. In mild weather remove the mats and lift the sashes to admit light and fresh air and to prevent the plants from becoming drawn. In outdoor beds raised a few inches above the ground, with a mulch of dry leaves and some brush to hold them in place, pansies will often winter nicely and bloom until mid- summer, when a relay of young, vigor- ous plants should be ready to replace them. Spring sowings should be made early, so as to secure good flowers during the early rains. Seed sown in a cool, moist place in June and July, and well tended, will give good flowering plants for fall. If they come into bloom in the heat of summer the flowers may be small at first, but as the weather becomes cooler they will increase in size and beauty. Through summer heat the flowers are finer in a somewhat shaded place, but in almost any situation good pansy seed will give fine flowers in spring and fall. Early fall sowings give the finest spring flowers. Petmiia Because of the ease and facility with which all of the single-flowered varieties of the petunia can be grown from seed this plant commands attention as a worthy candidate for the summer flower garden. The young plants grow rapidly and come into bloom early, and in addi- tion to this they furnish a continuous wealth of blossoms until destroyed by frost. The large-flowered strains are very beautiful and of great variety. "While the single sorts are common and inexpensive, the double giant-flowered varieties are rendered expensive because they must be reproduced from seed which sets only after careful hand pollination of the flow- ers, which is in itself an expensive oper- ation, or from cuttings, of which an in- dividual plant can supply but a limited number. For best results the seeds of all sorts should be sown in a gentle hotbed, cold frame, or in fine soil in a box placed in a sunny window in March or early in April for localities north of Washington, D. C. When the soil has warmed suf- ficiently and the danger of frost has passed, the seedling plants should be transplanted to a rich garden loam and placed about a foot apart each way. The seed of the double varieties is less vigor- ous than that of the single sorts and therefore requires more attention to pre- vent extremes of temperature and of moisture to insure good germination. If the seeds are sown in boxes in the liv- ing room, a pane of glass may with ad- vantage be kept over the top to maintain a close atmosphere, and thus prevent the loss of moisture until the young plants are well out of the ground. In planting, the seeds should be scattered over the surface of the soil and brought in con- tact with it by firming. They should not, like most other seeds, be covered. Petunias are attractive in beds and masses, serve well for broad borders or bands and thrive well in window boxes. They are not exacting as regards soil conditions, thriving well in almost any arable soil, and they endure drought well and bloom profusely. Phlox Phlox dncmmondii The annual phlox, sometimes called flame flower, is particularly useful and attractive when sown in masses or ribbon beds of contrasting colors. Few annual plants are more easily grown from seed. FLORICULTURE 997 give a quicker return of bloom, or offer sucli a variety to clioose from as do the phloxes. There are few desirable colors beyond their range, and if given good soil and plenty of water they furnish a sup- ply of delicate flowers for cutting through- out the season. The phloxes are also use- ful as window garden plants, and may be used as an undergrowth for tall, bare- stemmed plants. The first sowing of seed should be made as soon as the frost is out of the ground in the spring; later ones in May, either where the plants are to bloom or in a seed bed, as the phlox transplants readily. In transplanting set the taller kinds about a foot apart; if planted too thickly they suffer from mil- dew. The removal of flowers and seed- pods makes the plants more bushy and compact and lengthens their blooming period. -The average height of the plant is about a foot. Pinks Diantlius The large and varied genus of Bian- thus contains some of our most beautiful and most profitable flowers. The most of them are hardy perennials that bloom freely the first season, the plants remain- ing green all winter and blossoming the next year also if lightly protected by a mulch of straw, cut fodder, or leaves. Old plants flower the earliest, but as young ones give the largest, finest flow- ers, sowings are made every year. Seed can be sown under glass or in an open sheltered bed in March. The seedlings are easily transplanted and should stand 8 to 12 inches apart; dwarf ones, about six inches. If especially large brilliant flow- ers are desired, a bed of well mixed turfy loam, leaf mold, and well decayed manure should be prepared for them. Good drain- age should be provided, as the plants are impatient of too much moisture and are more liable to winter-kill in moist than in well drained situations. In fact, the plant is hardy to severe cold, but suc- cumbs when exposed to low temperatures in wet places. The Carnation Pink Diantlius caryopJiyllMs This plant, which is the forcing carna- tion of the American florist, can be grown from seeds sown early in the season in hotbeds, the young plants being given fre- quent shifts to pots of increased size as they grow until all danger of frost is past and the growing season is well on, when they may be transferred to the border where they are to bloom. If they are given a rich soil and an abundance of moisture, the bloom will moi^e than re- pay the extra trouble taken. Seedling plants are more variable in character than plants propagated from cuttings, and for that reason are not well suited for com- mercial purposes. On the continent of Europe this type of dianthus is more commonly used as a gar- den annual than in America. The form known as "Marguerite carnation," which has recently come into popular favor, is well adapted to cultivation as an annual. The majority of its flowers come double, and it has a pleasing habit of growth. Poppy Papaver In the spring, even before the tulips are fairly gone, old gardens begin to be gay with poppies, which, in some one or other of their many forms, continue a procession of bright blooms until frost. No other plants possess so bold and bril- liant a flower, coupled with the same grace of stem, airiness of poise and del- icacy of tissue as the poppy. For beds and borders, with a background of green, there is BotMng wMcH ^ill produce a more striking contrast. Some sorts are admirable for naturalizing in open wood- ed grounds; others, like the Shirley, are beautiful for cutting. A sandy loam suits poppies best, and as their strong tap roots are diflScult to transplant it is well to sow seeds where the plants are to bloom. Seed sowings made in the autumn and at intervals in spring will provide a long succession of flowers. The seeds should be sown thinly and covered very lightly, as the seed is quite small. As soon as the young seedlings are well established thin the plants to stand about a foot apa4rt. The plants which bloom most pro- fusely are those grown from fall or early spring sowings while the earth is cool and moist. 998 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fortulaca TMs bright flowered, thick leaved an- nual (portnlaca) is unrivaled for bril- liancy among plants of low growth. It possesses the ability to flourish under ex- tremely adverse conditions; even the hot sun and a light sandy soil, with sparse water supply, will not destroy it. It is satisfactory for beds, edgings, and rock- work, and for filling up irregular spaces or unexpected gaps in flower beds. As an undergrowth for taller plants it is also valuable. It flourishes, carpeting the ground with a mat of succulent foliage that in the forenoon is hidden by the gay- est flowers The plant is particularly use- ful in the Northwest. The seed does not germinate until hot weather, and should be sown late. Beyond the sowing, this plant requires little care. The hardy character of the plant is shown by the fact that it can be transplanted while in full flower through the driest, hottest sea- sons. The average height of the portu- laca is six inches. At Washington and southward this plant will perpetuate itself by self-sown seeds. In some soils this is sufficient to cause the plant to assume a weedy char- acter. It never becomes troublesome like its near relative, the weedy garden purs- lane, or "pusley" (Portulaca odracea) Pot Marigold. See Calendula. RioiNXJS. See Castor Bean. RuDBECKiA. See Cone-Flower. Salvia. See Scarlet Sage. Scarlet Sage Balvta splendens The scarlet sage is a standard bedding plant that keeps the garden bright with color until late in autumn. This plant lends itself to many uses; it makes a good pot plant, does well in window boxes, and is useful for cutting to give color. Its best use, however, is as a hedge or border plant where long broad bands of intense color are desirable. In the climate of Washington, D. C, seeds should be sown in window boxes or frames in March or April and the plants set outdoors during the latter part of May, or the seed may be sown outdoors after the first of June if protected from heavy rains and strong winds. The plants grow and bloom profusely in any light, rich soil. Both the tender and hardy perennial sorts bloom the first year and all are treated as annuals. Scotch Pink. See Pmk$. Snapdragon Antirrhinum The snapdragon is a valuable border plant. It flowers the first year from seed sown as an annual. The bright color and peculiar form of the flowers always attract attention. The newer sorts offer variety of colors and of markings. The spikes are useful for cutting and keep fresh a long time. From seed sown in the open ground in May plants will bloom in July and August For early flowers the seed should be sown under glass in February or March and transplanted into beds of warm, dry soil moderately en- riched. If protected by a cold frame or even a mulch of leaves, the plants will winter well and bloom early the following year. The snapdragon, like most peren- nials and biennials which bloom the first year, and of which a particular display is desired, should be treated like an annual and sown every year. The plant blooms freely and continually until frost, its aver- age height being one and one-half feet. Stocks MattMola The group of plants known as stocks of- fers many desirable qualities. The plants are vigorous, have a good habit of growth, fragrant flowers in various colors, a long season of bloom, and are adapted to a wide range of cultural conditions. Stocks are suitable for bedding, edgings, pot cul- ture, house or conservatory use, and for cutting. For bouquets and floral work the double white sorts are especially use- ful. To secure early flowers, seeds should be sown under glass in March or April, and the young seedlings transplanted when an inch high into other pots or boxes, or into the fine soil of a spent hotbed. Advantage should be taken of showery May weather to transfer the plants to garden beds or deep, rich soil, setting them about a foot apart each way. As with other plants, frequent trans- FLORICULTURE 999 plantings during the early stages of growth tend to give them a more dwarf and compact habit. For late flowers seed sowings may be made in the open ground in May. If plants that began to bloom late are carefully lifted and potted in the fall they will flower freely during the winter in a house or room that is tolerably cool and moist. The blossoms are very lasting. The average height of the stocks is from one to one and a halt feet. Sunflower Selianthus These tall growing, bright flowered an- nual plants have not received the atten- tion they deserve. They have suffered the misfortune of having been cheapened by use as a burlesque. In reality, however, the tall growing, large flowered sorts, as well as the dwarf, many flowered var- ieties, are useful when skillfully employ- ed in mixed plantations with other herb- aceous annuals. The golden yellow disks are like sunbursts among the shrubbery. The tall habit of the plant and the dense foliage of some varieties suit them well for backgrounds and screens. Their long stems and extraordinary lasting qualities make them of value as cut flowers. The seed should be planted in the open garden in spring, at about the same time that corn is planted, and the plants thin- ned to stand from two to four feet apart, according as the plant is dwarf or tall growing. There is wide variation in the height and habit of growth of the differ- ent varieties, which range from two to ten feet in height, with from one to many flowers. Sweet Peas Lathy rus odoratus The sweet pea during the last decade has been greatly modified and improved by careful selection and cultivation, the flowers being larger and more varied in color and marking than formerly. The result is that the sweet pea has come to be one of the most popular annual flow- ering plants. It repays well the attention given it. The flowers are well suited for bouquets, and lend themselves well to table decoration. While the climbing habit of the plant is such as to prevent its use in groups and borders, its height is not sufficient to allow its use as a cover or screen for a lattice. The most satisfac- tory method of growing it is in long rows provided with rabbit netting wire, sup- ported by strong anchor posts and inter- mediate stakes, to prevent the wire from sagging between its supports. Sweet peas require a soil deeply tilled and well supplied with plant food. A satisfactory method is to open a trench about a foot wide and ten inches deep in rich garden loam, in the bottom of which about three inches of well rotted manure are placed, with two inches of fine top soil scattered immediately over it. Upon this bed sow the peas in double rows about eight inches apart, the seeds be- ing placed from half an inch to an inch apart in the row. Cover the seed about three inches deep, and after the young plants appear and have attained sufficient height fill the trench completely. As the sweet pea can hardly be placed in the soil too early in the spring, all gen- eral preparatory work should be done in the autumn, and the seeds sown as early in March as practicable. In sections with a winter temperature less severe than that of Washington the best results will un- doubtedly be obtained from fall sowing. Sweet William. See Pinks, Sweet William Dianthus harhatm The sweet William, which is to be found in every grandmother*s garden, is one of the most satisfactory members of this group for annual planting. While seed can be sown in the open early in the sea- son, about corn planting time, the best results in the way of early bloom come from plants produced from seeds sown in a hotbed noc later than the 10th of March in the latitude of New York, the young plants being pricked out into flats or, preferably, into thumb pots, and later shifted to three inch pots before planting in the flowering border. The outside planting of hotbed grown plants should be delayed until the season has advanced suf- ficiently to prevent the plants suffering from a check by cold after being placed 1000 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE in the open. The pot grown plants should be set at least ten inches apart and seed- lings from seed sown in the open had best be thinned to stand at least eight inches apart. The Scotcli Pink, or Grass Pink Dianthus plmnariibs The Scotch pink is a hardy dianthus, which, when treated as an annual in like manner as the sweet William, gives very satisfactory results. The delicately fring- ed, variously colored, fragrant flowers give the plant an odd yet attractive appear- ance. The flowers of all the plants of this group are most satisfactory for bouquets and table decoration because of the length of time they will keep in a fresh and attractive condition after being cut and placed in water. Verbena The verbena is a low growing annual, with a decumbent or creeping habit. The flowers are borne on terminal or lateral shoots, which lift themselves from five to seven inches off the ground, and when grown in mass the plants will form a mat which in full bloom will give the soil the appearance of having a carpet of flow- ers. Because of the ability of the plant to form a compact growth and produce a wealth of flowers over a long period, the verbena is frequently used as a bedding plant where carpet bedding effects are desired. The contrasting colors in the varieties which come true from seed al- low of securing pleasing combinations of colors which are effective where low growing plants can be used. The length of stem and the texture of the flower are such that the verbena is of value for bou- quets and table decorations. The ver- bena can be used with good effect in beds, borders, mounds, and in window boxes. While the verbena grows readily from cuttings and from layers, seedling plants are more vigorous and as a rule produce better flowers. For the earliest bloom in the latitude of Washington, D. C, sow the seeds early in February in a moderately warm living room or greenhouse. For general outdoor planting the seeds may be sown about March 10, either in a living room, hotbed, or greenhouse. Soak the seed a few hours in tepid water and sow in seed boxes filled with light, rich soil; cover one-fourth of an inch deep, press down firmly, and water sparingly. When the seedlings are about an inch high trans- plant them into other boxes, placing the young plants two or three inches apart each way. If thumb pots are available use these in place of boxes. When plant- ing out time arrives choose a bright, sunny situation. Make the soil rich and compact rather than light, but in all cases provide good drainage. Set the young plants 10 to 15 inches apart each way and give good cultivation until they cover the ground. With such treatment the ver- bena should give continuous bloom from early summer until killed by frost. Zinnia (Yonth-and-OM-Age) The zinnia is easily grown from seed sown in the open ground. When sown in April the plants will bloom abundantly and continuously through the entire sea- son. Of late, great improvements have been wrought both in the color and form of the flower. During the month of August zinnias are at their best. To se- cure large flowers and a profusion of bloom the plants must be given ample room for full development, as well as an abundant supply of food. Strong, rich soils suit the zinnia. If the seeds are sown in a dwelling house or in a hotbed in March and the young plants are prick- ed out once or twice before being placed in their permanent situations more satis- factory results will be secured than from outdoor sown seeds unless equal care in thinning or transplanting is given. The plants can be used for groups, beds, bor- ders, garden lines, and summer hedges. Their average height is one and one-half feet. L. C. COBBETT, Washln^on, D. C. FLORICULTURE 1001 S3 be o &4 w .<^ ^j> CO ta £:* "^ "iw o CO pi "*-• !=i O ^i ^ «w H 1^ 4Ji . m o <1? 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A • •5-1 J3 B-2 . 03 ^ a §5 & 83.9 a2CQCQt>lS3 1002 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE DISEASES OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS Ornamental plants are for the most part subject to the same kinds of troubles as plants of the same species or family but which may have acquired more economic importance. Usually a reference to the list of diseases of kindred plants found in the main body of this work will give the reader the information needed for recognizing and controlling the diseases of ornamentals. A few of the more im- portant ones are given in this section in alphabetical order with the exception of roses which may be found under Rose in the Floriculture section. Anthracnose Maples, oaks, lindens, sycamores and other trees are affected by some one of the anthracnoses. The leaves of young trees and shoots are affected. It may be controlled by the use of Bordeaux in the nursery and early in the season. Reference Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants. Black Spot of Maple Rhytsima acennum (Pers ) Fr. This fungus occurs on maples, willows and other forest trees. It appears as an irregular black spot upon the leaf Not serious. Carnation Bud Rot Bporatnchum poae Pk. A serious bud disease which has caused severe losses in greenhouses in several states. It causes a disfigurement of the flowers with eventual rotting of the en- tire flower in severe cases. Controlled by general sanitation and destruction of all diseased specimens by burning. Reference Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants. Crown Gall Bacterium tumefaciens This disease is common to many spe- cies of plants. A full discussion will be found under Apple Diseases. Decay or Brown Rot of Trees Polyporus sulpTmreus (Bull.) Fr. This fungus seems to be universal where trees are grown and attacks the elm, maple, oak, beech, birch, willow, pop- lar and many, if not most, other shade trees including the conifers. When the fungus reaches the fruiting stage it appears as a bright, sulphur-yel- low, sponge-like cluster, very striking in appearance. The spores find lodgment in wounds, broken limbs and knots and the growing fungus thus finds entrance to the heart wood, which decays and is eventually reduced to a brittle mass which may be readily ground to powder. Control The only practicable method of control is by painting wounds made by pruning or otherwise with some heavy antiseptic paint. Reference Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants. Ensarinm A species of fusarium produces a wilt of China asters and a rosette of carna- tions. Sterilization of the soil seems the only remedy. Reference Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants. Leaf Blotcli See black spot of maple, this section Rhododendron Rust Chrysomyxa rhododendri (Dec.) DeBary This is the most common disease of rhododendron and occurs in practically all regions where the rhododendron is na- tive and particularly where spruce and fir abound as the fir is also a host plant. No method of control has been worked out. Powdery Mildew See under Apple, Pear, Peach Diseases. Root Rot Several forms of root rot attack carna- tions, violets, asters, etc. The trouble is most likely to occur in alkaline soils or soils poorly drained. Care should be taken not to set out plants which are already affected and attention to drainage and manuring to correct alkaline condi- tions will be effective. These rots have a wide range of host plants. See under potato, lettuce, beans, etc., where it ap- pears as a damping-off and rhizoctonia. See index. FLORICULTURE 1003 Root Bot of Trees Various forms of root rot attack shade as well as fruit and forest trees. These will he found fully discussed under diseases of the various fruit trees. See index. Soft Bot of Calla Bacillus aroideae, Town This organism has caused a serious soft rot of the calla which destroys the plants ahout the time of blossoming. The disease occurs chiefly in the bulhs, flower stalks and petioles. Controlled by selection of healthy bulbs and by changing beds every three or four years. Reference Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants. White Rot Polyporus sguamosus (Huds) Fr. This fungus fruits in a conspicuous bracket. It is found upon many species of forest and ornamental trees. Prevent by painting all wounds to pre- vent entrance of spores. INSECT FESTS OF ORNAMElJfTAL These plants are attacked by much the same list of pests as infest similar spe- cies amongst the economic plants. Refer- ence to the various fruits and vegetables belonging to the same family will usually furnish the reader with the desired infor- mation as to the method of control in the case of a pest of a given plant. Holly Holly is sometimes troubled with scale insects of various species. They may be controlled by the usual methods adopted for the fruits, which see. Ivy or Oleander Scale Asptdiotiis hederae (Vail.) General Appearance Circular flat scale, one-sixteenth to one- eighth of an inch in diameter, the male scales being very much smaller. The col- or varies from light to dark gray. On lemons this species often appears quite red and is occasionally taken for red scale iChrysompfialus aurantU), but the lack of the small, central dark exuviae to- gether with its smooth, flat surface makes it easily distinguishable from red scale and also from the greedy scale (Asptdio- tus caonetUae), which is decidedly pointed. Life History Same as the other species of this genus of which the San Jose scale is given as typical. This species is cosmopolitan and is everywhere throughout the state. It is a greenhouse pest and often causes alarm to citrus growers by appearing on the fruit, but we find it attacks only old "tree ripes." It is perhaps most serious in many of the olive orchards in the Sacra- mento valley, where it infests the fruits so as to make them unfit for pickling pur- poses. Distribution Throughout the entire country. Food Plants Ivy, oleander, holly, boxwood, orange and other citrus species, olive, plum, cherry, currant, maple, camellia, grass, clover, yucca, asparagus, fern, pepper tree. Control Same as for San Jose scale. ISTatural Enemy A small chalcid parasite works effective- ly upon this scale. . O. EssiG Privet San Jose scale. Sometimes troubles hedges of this plant. See under Apple Pests. Red Violet Lonse Rhopalosipfium violae Perg General Appearance All forms are dark red; the wings are noticeably clouded along the veins which easily distinguishes this species from all others infesting violets. Life History Viviparous females, winged and apter- ous, bring forth young continually throughout the early spring and summer months. Evidently the entire life cycle is passed upon the violet. Food Plants Cultivated violets. Jfatnral Enemies This species is usually held in perfect control by internal parasites. E O. EssiG 1004 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Florida Florida is mainly a peninsula 350 miles long by 60 to 100 miles wide. On the north there is an arm, reaching west- ward along the Gulf, more than 100 miles long and 50 wide, once known as West Florida. The extreme length of the state from north to south is 450 miles and it contains an area of 58,680 square miles, of which 4,440 is water. The surface is generally level, or slightly undulating; hut in the northwest it is hilly, or at least broken and called hilly; yet none of the elevations rise more than 300 feet above the level of the sea. For the main part the soil is formed of calcareous rocks, overlaid with sand, clay and drift. No state in the Union has so much coast line as Florida (1,150 miles) and none so many navigable riv- ers. Among the rivers navigable for steamers are the St. Mary, forming part of the boundary between Florida and Georgia, and navigable as far as the town of St. Mary's; and the St. Johns, which flows into the Atlantic near the northeast corner of the state. This river rises in the South, and with its tributaries and la- goons has more than 1,000 miles of navi- gable water. It flows through a series of lakes, lagoons and swamps, and for 150 miles above its mouth has a width of two miles. The Indian river is a narrow lagoon or sound about 100 miles long. The rivers rising in Alabama and flowing through Florida are the Perdido, Escam- bia and Choctawhatchie. Those rising in Georgia are the Appalachicola, Ocklocko- nee and Suwanee. Those flowing from Lake Okeechobee are Withlacooehee, Peace Creek, Caloosahatchiee. Rivers of the in- terior are Ocklawatha and Kissimmee. The chief harbors of Florida on the Atlantic coast are St Augustine, Fernan- do, Port Orange and Jacksonville, and on the Gulf coast Key West, Charlotte Harbor, Tampa, Cedar Keys, St. Marks, Appalachicola and Pensacola. Numerous lakes of pure water dot the state, the largest of which is Okeechobee, having an area of 500 square miles and discharging its waters by several outlets into the Everglades. The Everglades are swamps full of islands covered with vines and shrubbery, and in the rainy season mostly covered with water, forming an addition to the Lake Okeechobee. There are many small islands along the Gulf coast, and from the southern end of the peninsula, a chain of reefs and islands called quays or keys extend in a southwesterly direc- tion for 200 miles. Many of the streams of Florida are subterranean, having been formed by the action of the water in wearing the limestone rock, which forms so large a part of the sub-stratum of Florida soils. For agricultural purposes Florida may be divided into the Upland region, com- prising the northern tier of counties; the Northern and Central Florida region, and the Treeless and Alluvial region, south of a line drawn from Charlotte Harbor to Cape Carnival. Again, the state is some- times divided into sections designated by the natural productions or flora, as fol- lows: 1. The oak, hickory and pine, upland region, comprising most of the northern tier of counties. 2. The long-leafed pine region, which lies chiefly in Northern and Central Flor- ida, dividing it into rolling, flat and hum- mock lands. 3. The pitch pine, a treeless and allu- vial region in the southern part of the state. The hummock lands are small eleva- tions or hillocks, rising above the sur- rounding swamps and generally covered with grass, shrubs or trees. Its surface soil is generally underlaid with clay and therefore the timber that grows upon it is adapted to the conditions described. All the fruit trees grown in Florida do well on the hummock lands, and it was formerly supposed they would not succeed on the sandy soils, but this has lately been proven a mistake, for by fer- tilizing from the marshes, or by the use of shells from the sea, or other methods, it has been proven that certain kinds of fruits, especially oranges, will reach a high state of perfection. There are many varieties of sandy soil, from the coarse sand containing 95 per cent of insoluble FLORIDA 1005 matter to the liummock lands mixed with clay. These differences have been caused hy the action of the winds and wares and have made a scientific study of the quali- ties of soil and their adaptability to cer- tain forms of vegetable life necessary in order to reach a fair degree of success. However, by a study of adaptation of crops to conditions men are making large profits in fruits and vegetables grown for the early markets of the Atlantic coast cities. The principal fruits grown are the cit- rous fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes. Other species of fruits are peaches, pears, plums, grapes, Japanese persimmon, or kaki, strawberries, pineapples, bananas, guavas, mangoes and cocoanuts. Many kinds of vegetables are grown among which are beans, beets, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, egg plant, Irish po- tatoes, lettuce, watermelon, muskmelon, onion, okra, English peas, pepper, radish, squashes, rutabagas and sweet potato. The marl or drained lands of the southeast coast raise mostly tomatoes, egg plant, peppers and okra. Cocoanuts are grown mostly along the coast and in the southern part of the state. Bananas are not largely cultivated for the markets but are grown mostly for home use. Grapes grow rapidly owing to the long season for growth and the vines of the native varieties grow to be very large. The Scuppernong is the leading variety and produces immense quantities of fruit. Pears are rather subject to blight. The most resistant varieties are the Kieffer, Le Conte and Smith. Peaches grow in almost all sections, but seem to prefer the hummock or flat woods lands, if these lands are properly drained. The varieties of peaches rec- ommended are the Alexander, Early Cream, Florida Crawford, General Lee, Imperial, Angel, Colon, Ferdinand, Honey, Peento, Waldo and Turn Yum. Geanvillb Lowther Varieties of Fruits and Jfuts for Central and South Florida Planting The following list is recommended by Griffimg Bros, of Florida. CiTETTs Feuits — Budded on Sour Orange and Rough Lemon Roots. Oranges — Early Ripening, Boone's Early, Parson Brown, Centennial, Medium Early, Homasassa, Medium Sweet, Tangerine, Mid-Season, Mandarin, Pine- apple, Ruby, St. Michael's Blood, Tan- gerine, Washington Navel, Late Orange, Jaffa, King, TardifE, Valencia Late. Gbapd Fruit — Duncan, Florida Common, Marsh Seedless, Pernambuco, Triumph. Lemons and Limes — Kennedy, Villa Francha Lemons, Persian Seedless, Florida Key Limes. Kumqttats— Nagami (oblong), Marumx (round). Nut Trees- Pecans — Bradley, Columbia, Curtis, Presi- dent, Randall, Schley, Stuart, Van De- man. Japanese Walnuts, Japanese Chestnuts. Peaches — ^Angel, Bidweirs Early, Bid- well's Late, Florida Crawford, Florida Gem, Glen, Gibbon's October, Griffings No 4, Hall's Yellow, Honey, Howard, Jewell, Miami, Peento, Ceylon, Suber, Waldo. Plums — Excelsior, Gonzales, Happiness, Kelsey, McCartney, Stumpe, Terrell. Figs — Brown Turkey, Brunswick, Celes- tial, Lemon. Japanese Persimmons — ^Hyakume, Okame, Triumph, Tana Nashi, Zengi. Peaks — Cincincis, Keiffer, Magnolia, Le- Conte, Suwanee, Apples — Jenning's Florida. Mulberries — Downing, Hicks, Merritt, Stubbs. Pomegranate — Sweet, Purple Seeded. Grapes — (Bunch varieties) Agawam, Con- cord, Delaware, Elvera, Niagara. Grapes — (Muscadine varieties) James, Scuppernong, Thomas. 1006 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE FKOST AND PEECIPITATIOIS^ FOB FLOKIDA Station Frost Average Date of First Kill- ing in Autumn Last in Spring Date of Earliest Killing in Autumn Latest in Spring Precipitation Annual inches De Funiac Springs. Pensacola Talahassee Jacksonville Archer Eustis New Smyrna Tampa Bartow Jupiter Myers Miami "Key West Nov. 21 Dec. 5 Dec. 8 Dec. 6 Nov. 28 Dec. 28 Dec. 24 Jan, 9 Dec. 21 Dec. 29 Mar. 13 Feb. 23 Mar. 4 Feb. 19 Mar. 9 Feb. 18 Feb. 17 Feb. 8 Feb. 16 Feb. 14 Oct. 27 Nov. 12 Nov. 4 Nov. 12 Oct. 24 Nov. 28 Nov. 28 Nov, 28 Nov. 18 Nov. 18 Dec. 21 Mar. 29 Apr. 6 Mar. 28 Apr. 6 Apr. 16 Feb. 24 Mar. 18 Mar. 19 Mar. 17 Apr. 7 Feb. 14 Feb. 19 67.8 56.8 58.8 53.4 54.9 49.6 51.1 53.1 54.5 58.7 55.1 58.3 37.9 NoBTH Ploeida. For bloom period of Apples, see Louisiana. Food Time Required for Digesting Food How Cooked H.M. Apples, sour, hard Raw 2 Apples, sweet, mellow Raw 1 3 ...3 ..3 ...1 2 Bass, striped Broiled Beans, pod Boiled Beans and green corn Boiled Beef Fried Beefsteak Broiled Beef, fresh, lean, dry Roasted 3 Beef, fresh, Jean, rare Roasted Beets Boiled Bread, corn Baked Bread, wheat, fresh Baked Cabbage , Raw ... Cabbage, with vinegar Raw 2 Cabbage Boiled 4 Carrot, orange Boiled 3 Catfish Fried 3 Cheese, old, strong Raw 3 Chicken, full grown Fricasseed -..2 Codfish, cured dry Boiled 2 Custard «Baked 2 Duck, tame Roasted 4 Duck, wild... Roasted 4 Bgrgs, fresh Raw 2 Eggs, fresh Scrambled -.1 fresh Roasted 2 fresh Soft boiled-...3 fresh Hard boiled..3 fresh Fried 3 Fowls, domestic LIlRoasted """"i Hashed meat and vegetables.... Warmed Lamb, fresh Broiled , Milk Boiled .., Milk Raw ..... Mutton, fresh Broiled . Oysters, fresh....... Raw Oysters, fresh Roasted Oysters, fresh Stewed . Parsnips Boiled ... Pork, steak , Broiled . Eggs, Eggs, Eggs, 50 SO 00 30 45 00 00 30 00 45 as 30 30 00 30 13 SO 30 45 00 45 00 30 00 30 15 00 30 30 00 30 30 00 15 00 55 15 30 80 15 Food How Cooked H.M. Pork, fat and lean Roasted 5:15 Pork, recently salted Stewed 3:00 Pork, recently salted Fried 4:15 Potatoes, Irish. — , Baked 2:30 Potatoes, Irish Boiled 3 :30 Salmon, salted Boiled 4:00 Sausages, fresh.... Broiled 3 :20 Soup, bean .Boiled 3 :00 Soup, chicken Boiled 3 :00 Soup, mutton Boiled 3:30 Soup, beef, vegetable Boiled 4:00 Trout, salmon, fresh Boiled 1:30 Turkey, domesticated Roasted 2:30 Veal, fresh Boiled 4:00 Veal, fresh Fried 4 :30 FoEECASTiiTG Frost. See Frost. Freight Rates of Movement in. See Reduction of Waste in Marketing under Marketing, Frost Frost is frozen dew; the moisture of the atmosphere crystallized by the cold. Young and tender plants are often in- jured by the frost, thereby causing much loss to the farmer and horticulturist. In- asmuch as the wealth of the world is mainly produced from the soil, all kinds of business and commerce are therefore affected by frost conditions and all classes, as well as the farmer and horticulturist, suffer loss. If, therefore, we could know the conditions and provide against them, it would greatly lessen the uncertainty of crops. With our present knowledge FROST 1007 this can be done in a measure, but tbere is much to be learned and much to be accomplished before we can be fully as- sured against losses caused by cold. Frost occurs only during calm, cold nights when the mercury is as low as 32 degrees Fahrenheit. This statement makes it necessary to distinguish between a frost and a freeze. There can be no frost without freezing, but there can be a freezing temperature without frost pro- vided there is little moisture in the air. Freezing occurs at that degree of tempera- ture at which water will solidify; or at which ice will melt. Thus the freezing point and the melting point, or the point of fusion, are one. The freezing point of water is 32 degrees above zero; the freez- ing point of mercury is 39 degrees below zero; the freezing point of sulphuric ether 46 degrees below zero, and the freezing point of alcohol, 203 degrees below zero. The freezing point of water is the approx- imate danger point of vegetable life. We call the degrees of the thermometer be- low the freezing point, degrees of cold; the degrees above the freezing point, de- grees of heat. When the atmosphere which comes in contact with the body of a plant or animal is colder than the body, it absorbs heat from the body and is called cold, because it is so in relation to the temperature of the body. All animals and plants have a certain power of main- taining the heat of the body in defiance of external cold. This power in animals is due to the process of combustion, in which carbon and hydrogen taken into the sys- tem as food, "unite with oxygen. This is accomplished by means of breathing, which oxygenizes the blood. The normal heat of the blood of birds is 100 to 112, while in mammals it is 96 to 102. Thirty degrees below this normal temperature is almost sure death, because at this point circulation stops; while ten degrees above is almost equally dangerous, for then the system is consumed by heat. Plants, dur- ing the summer, store food; they breathe and manufacture heat out of food parti- cles just as do animals, but not in the same degree nor in the same manner. Plant life resists cold by the radiation of heat. There is considerable difference in the rapidity with which the different va- rieties of plants give off heat. This can be illustrated by the differences of radia- tion in soil, rock and water. Animals know that during the cool nights of spring and autumn, after the earth has become cool, by huddling up against a large rock they can keep warm. It has held its heat longer than the soil. Horticulturists know also that adjacent to large bodies of water the temperature is modified by the radiation of heat from the water after the soil has lost a much greater degree of heat. An illustration of this is seen in Western Michigan along the eastern shore of the lake, where a strip of territory about 15 miles wide and 150 to 200 miles long is protected against cold by the milder temperature of the lake during the cold season, and that region Is a good fruit-growing section, whereas other portions of the state grow compara- tively little fruit. Banger Point There is considerable difference in the power of plants to radiate heat, and in the rapidity of radiation, and these facts determine in a large measure their re- sisting power to a temperature greater than that of their bodies. It is very in- teresting and yet very difficult to determine with exactness the de- gree of resisting power belonging to any particular plant, for there are so many counter influences that modify any rules. The Missouri Agricultural Experi- ment Station has found that dormant peach buds can stand a temperature of eight or nine degrees below zero with no injury. When the buds are appreciably swollen, zero weather is the danger point; when the buds are showing pink, they can stand 15 degrees above zero; when the buds are almost open, 25 degrees is the danger point; when they are newly opened, about 26 degrees would be the point of danger; when the petals are be- ginning to fall, 2S degrees above zero is cold enough to cause uneasiness; when the petals are off, they can stand 30 de- •grees above zero; when the "shucks" (calyx tubes) are beginning to fall off, 32 degrees above zero is the danger point. This shows the different degrees of resist- 1008 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ing power of the same varieties of fruit during different degrees of development. The United States Department of Agri- culture makes the statement that the danger point for apples when they are showing pink is 20 degrees above zero; in full bloom, 2Q degrees above zero. Pears showing pink are in danger at 20 degrees above zero, in full bloom 27 de- grees above; peaches showing pink, 23 de- grees above and in full bloom, 28 degrees above. It will thus be observed that there is substantial agreement between the conclusions reached by the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station and those of the United States Department of Agriculture, although these conclusions are differently expressed. Mr, P. J. O'Gara states that in Southern Oregon the temperature at which the apri- cot is injured when in the bud is 28 de- grees above zero, and 30 degrees when in blossom. Cherries are injured at 29 de- grees, just before the blossoms open, and plums are injured at 30 degrees above zero when the flowers begin to show white. It should be observed further that the latitude to which a tree is acclimated has much to do in determining the degree of cold it will stand without injury. Trees of the same varieties brought from Flor- ida will not stand the cold of the North- ern climate as well as those grown in the North, which have for several years, per- haps for generations, been used to the colder atmosphere. Furthermore, it makes a difference whether the cold comes suddenly or gradually. It is with plant life as with animal life, that the tendency of nature is to provide against injuries caused by sudden changes. Animals suf- fer more from cold if the change is sud- den than if it is gradual. In the gradual changes there is a closing of the pores of the skin, a shrinking of the muscles and drawing upon the food substances for the manufacture of heat, a lighting of the fires of the system that protects in a de- gree not possible where the change is sud- 'den. The same law prevails among plants, but not in the same degree. How- ever, it is observable that following a very warm day, if it should turn suddenly cold, the fruit buds are much more sub- ject to injury than if the same degree of temperature followed a cool day. In the winter of 1908 and 1909 in the North- western part of the United States, the tem- perature was lower during the months of January and February than for eighteen years before, and more damage was done to the tender varieties of fruit during that winter than had ever been known in the history of fruit growing in that re- gion. We made in our own orchard and in the orchards of our neighbors the fol- lowing observations: First* Peach trees and the trees that belong to the prunus family, such as almonds and apricots, are among the tenderest trees and have less power to resist cold than apples, pears and other varieties. The almond will stand about 14 degrees below zero without killing; the peach will stand about 18 degrees. Among the varieties of peaches on our place the Early Grawfords were the ten- derest, while the Elbertas, Carmens and Salways were comparatively hardy, A few feet of altitude when the mercury is down to the danger point may deter- mine whether an orchard will be killed or not. For instance, in one orchard the trees were killed in a little depression or draw that ran through the place, but at a point twenty feet higher they were not killed. It was argued by some of the neighbors that this was due, in part, to the fact that this low portion of land was irrigated more and did not mature the wood as well, or that the wood was too ^appy, and therefore more easily frozen. In making other observations I have con- cluded that there may be some force in this, and that if an orchard has been properly irrigated so that it has matured its wood normally, it is in better condi- tion to stand the cold than where it is overirrigated, and therefore the wood sappy; or where it has lacked irrigation, and therefore the tree not sufficiently vi- talized. Among the apples the cheaper va- rieties generally stood the freeze better than the higher grades. The exception to this rule was in the case of the Ben Davis, on which there was very little fruit the following year. It was shown FROST 1009 that the English walnut is tender, and the wood was "badly injured by the freeze. Pear trees were comparatively hardy, about a medium between peaches and apples, or perhaps a little nearer ap- proach to the apple. Plums were not hardy; there was a fair crop of prunes and but few apricots, as the wood was not hardy. Pears were heavily loaded with bloom and bore a good crop. The effects of rain or extra humidity should be remembered when considering the resisting power of a tree or plant. It is the same as with animal life. If ex- posed to rain, the body radiates heat much more rapidly than if it is kept per- fectly dry. As has already been remarked, plants do not respond so sensitively to these changes of temperature as do ani- mals, but any person knows that he has less power to withstand the cold if his clothes are wet than if they are dry. It is so with plants. If a cold wave follows a shower of rain, plants are much more sensitive to the cold and in much more danger of being killed than if the atmos- phere is dry. The degree of vitality, also, in a plant has much to do with de- termining its resisting power. Conditions Which Affect the Frost Problem There are three conditions that affect the frost problem. The first is eleva- tion; the second is air drainage; the third is evaporation, usually from large bodies of water, which tend to modify the tem- perature. In rough or hilly country there will be what is known as thermal belts, usually following the contour of the hills. Low or pockety lands will be relatively cold while higher situations above the level of the natural air outlets will be relatively warm and orchards situated on this high- er land will not be so liable to suffer from frosts. There are valleys that are often called lowlands through which the air currents sweep with force enough so that there is seldom frost to injure the vegetation. Reference has already been made to pro- tection by lakes, bays, inlets or bodies of water that modify the temperature Even several miles inland this is often true. For instance, the prevailing winds from the Pacific ocean are generally from the west or northwest. These winds are ob- structed l:)j the Cascade mountain range so that the territory along the foothills on the east side of the mountain range is more or less protected from the winds, but there are mountain passes like the Cowlitz pass, for instance, through which these winds sweep with considerable force. The air currents coming through the Cowlitz pass and sweeping down the Naches valley, which is part of the drainage system of the Yakima and Co- lumbia rivers, modifies the temperature in the Naches valley so that, while the valley itself is not at a higher elevation, only being about 1,100 to 1,500 feet above sea level, yet they are seldom injured by frosts, while the lands in the Ahtanum valley, only a few miles separated from the Naches and on substantially the same level, but sheltered from the winds of the coast by a higher elevation of the mountain, generally are not quite so well protected from frosts and ordinarily there will be a little more danger to fruit crops in the Ahtanum valley on a general elevation than in the Naches; but there have been notable exceptions. One of these exceptions was in April of 1911, when a cold current of air came down from the north and settled in the Naches valley, and did as much damage or perhaps more than in some of the other valleys on the same level. There are exceptions to the general rules grow- ing out of the changes in the direction of the wind, but the fact still remains that wind currents have much to do in preventing the settling of frosts upon the earth's surface. The ctuestion of how the higher altitude furnishes better protection from frost than the lower is one about which a great many persons inquire. We can perhaps better answer this by saying that we are living upon the bottom of an ocean of air very like the ocean of wa- ter in which living creatures breed and grow. This ocean of air is not less than fifty miles deep, and is perhaps much deeper than that. One law of this at- 2—23 1010 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE mospliere is the same as the law of the sea, that is, that cold contracts it and increases its weight, while the heat ex- pands it and lightens its weight, so that, because it is heavier the coldest air tends to settle into the lowest places on the uneven surface of the earth just as the coldest water tends to settle into the lowest places on the uneven bed of the ocean. This law may be demonstrated in the heating of our homes. Those whose homes are heated with hot water know that the pipes which carry the hot water from the furnace to the upper rooms are called the hot water pipes and that the hot water rises from the boiler in the furnace room to the upper rooms of the building, and that after the same water has been cooled by contact with the air of the upper rooms, it is carried back by return pipes into the furnace room to be reheated and rise again. Thus is kept up the general round of circulation during the winter. Another illustration is in the circulation of the air in our homes from hot air furnaces. The heated air rises from the furnace, pouring from the regis- ters and driving the cold air of the rooms into the lower story where by means of cold air ducts it is carried into the fur- nace room either to be reheated or to be carried away from the house. Every travel- er has noted how, after the sun has set and the air is cooling, the colder air tends to settle in the valleys, while the warmer air tends to rise to the higher altitudes; he knows that in ascending the hillsides he will sometimes feel very sensibly a change in temperature in a distance of a few feet. During the day, especially in the summer time, the temperature of the valleys is warmer than that of the higher levels, because the radiation and reflection are greater. This can be illus- trated. If we stand beside a large build- ing on a hot day and get the direct rays of the sun at the same time that we get the reflected rays from the building, we will find that it will be much warmer near the side of the build- ing that reflects the sun's heat than it will some distance away from the building. During the day the south slope of a hillside receives the direct rays of the sun's heat, during the night these hills radiate that heat and send it into the atmosphere to warm the colder air coming down from the hills. An illus- tration of this heat radiation at night is seen in the heated stone buildings and pavements of a great city where long after midnight the walls and walks are hot, especially during the hottest weeks of summer. We have seen persons trying to sleep on the beaches or in the parks at night because the radiated heat from the buildings in which their rooms were located was unendurable. These facts, together with the uneven surface of the earth, cause a constant circulation of the atmosphere of our globe. Why the Highest Mountains Are Covered With Snow If heated air rises and cold air settles it is pertinent to ask why the highest mountains are covered with snow and why the air is colder as we ascend. There are two principal answers to this question. The first is that or near the sur- face of the earth there are innumer- able particles of dust and layers of clouds and vapor that act as a blanket or covering to hold the reflected and radi- ated heat from the earth's surface. It is the same principle as when we sleep in a cold room, the covering on the bed which keeps us warm does not warm the atmosphere of the room, but it holds the heat radiated from our bodies. So, if we rise above a certain altitude, we rise above that blanket of dense atmosphere which we call the earth's covering. Another reason is that in the highest altitudes of the mountains there is less friction of air currents, less generation of heat through friction, and therefore after ascending above the vapor, dust and clouds into a rarer atmosphere it be- comes colder. We say "we rise above the clouds," but we speak in comparative terms, because we have not, in ascend- ing the highest mountains, gone beyond all clouds, but beyond the general alti- tude of clouds. An illustration of this is seen on the Pacific coast where the pre- vailing winds are from the west. These FROST 1011 winds carry the clouds against the moun- tain range and deposit a large amount of rainfall on the western slope. Compara- tively a small amount of moisture is car- ried in currents high enough to cross the mountain range from the west to the east, for the average amount of rainfall on the west side is about forty inches per annum, while the average amount on the east side would he about ten inches per annum, or only one-fourth that of the west, but of the amount that is carried across the mountain range from west to east the highest peaks and the eastern slopes receive their share in the form of snow and ice, and the air is never warm enough at that altitude to melt it. When we say, therefore, that the higher alti- tudes are warmer, that is true up to a certain point; it is true in summer where there is much radiation of the sun's heat from the surface of the earth and after the sun has set and the cool air of the mountains is coming down the valleys; it is also true up to a certain altitude only, but beyond that the higher we ascend the cooler the atmosphere. Granville Lowther For additional information on orchard sites and soils, see Selection of Site under Apple Orchard, FROST AlVI) FROST FORECASTIIVG m THE 3V0RTH PACIFIC STATES * Protection against frost injury is by no means a new thing, although perusal of some recent writings and discussions would lead one to believe that it is. As a matter of fact, however, the protection of plants and fruits from frost injury dates back perhaps more than two thou- sand years. It is known that the Romans practiced heating and smudging as a protection against frost injury; this fact is vouched for by Pliny, who recom- mended the practice. Smudging was also recommended by Olivier de Serres, a French agriculturist, in the sixteenth cen- tury. He recommended the use of wet straw and half-rotten manures so as to produce a heavy smoke. In the latter part of the eighteenth century the prac- tice of smudging was compulsory in parts of Germany, and failure to comply with certain set regulations resulted in prose- cution before an officer of the law who imposed exemplary punishment. It is also recorded by Boussingault that the Indians of Peru practiced frost preven- tion, and that this was inherited from the pre-Spanish civilization. A reference to the literature which we have at hand shows some of the earlier work in frost prevention was by no means so crude as one would suppose. As a matter of fact, some of the modern practices are less scientific in their adaptations than the earliest attempts at frost prevention of which we have any record. During the eighties and early nineties the French vine growers did some remarkable work; and we find them even at that time using heavy oils as fuel, placing these oils in flat ironware dishes. There were also used many prepared fuels, which would render a very dense smoke. There had also been devised systems of automatic lighting which were more or less success- ful. These systems were operated by a mercuric column, not very much unlike some of our modern automatic alarm thermometers. Even at this time it was understood that there is a certain ad- vantage in co-operation in frost preven- tion since the work done by one grower nearby aided in the protection of the crops of others. About the same time that the French vine growers were carry- ing on their work in frost prevention by certain heating and smudging devices, our California and Florida orange grow- ers were experimenting. At this time some of the deciduous fruit growers of the Sacramento valley and elsewhere in California were also working along this line. Mr. Edward A. Beals, of the U. S. Weather Bureau, ^ located at Portland, Oregon, says with respect to the history of frost prevention in the Northwest: *Very few growers in the Northwest a few years ago made any attempt to protect their orchards from frost, and those that did were not very successful, * Office of Pathologist, Medford, Ore Bulle- tin No 5 ♦Weather Bureau Bulletin No. 41. 1012 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE as their methods were crude, and where the necessity was greatest the orchards were badly located and the task was al- most hopeless from the start. Frost warnings were issued by the Weather Bureau during that time, although very little attention was paid to them, as fore- knowledge of frost is of practically no benefit to the horticulturist unless he is prepared to protect his crop from threat- ened injury. In 1907 Mr. P. J. O'Gara, one of the scientific assistants in the Bureau of Plant Industry, was sent to the Rogue River valley to study the pear blight, which was making inroads among the pear and Spitzenburg apple trees in that section of the country. He quickly real- ized that the fruit growers were losing much more fruit by spring frosts than they were willing to acknowledge, and being familiar with orchard-heating methods in California, he soon induced a number of orchardists to adopt similar methods in the Rogue River valley. The plan was so successful the first year that it was tried the next on a fairly large scale and with even greater success. In the meanwhile a few orchardists in other important sections had taken up this work, and by the spring of 1910 the move- ment had obtained large proportions in four important fruit centers, viz.: Rogue River valley, Yakima valley, Lewiston or- chard district, and the Boise orchard dis- trict. EOGUE RIYER TALLEY * When Frost May Be Expected and Where Erost Is Likely to Occur The conditions obtaining in the Med- ford district are thus described by Mr. P. J. O'Gara: In the spring it is found that during the day, that is between sunrise and sun- set, the wind blows mostly from northerly quarters. These winds are not moisture laden as a rule, the relative humidity often being as low as twenty-five per cent at a temperature of seventy degrees Fah- renheit. During the night when frosts are likely to occur the winds die down altogether, or change to a southerly quar- * Office of Pathologist, Bulletin No. 5. ter. The winds from the south are very dry, and the relative humidity is often much lower during the period in which the winds come from the south. If the winds continue to blow from the north- west or westerly quarters, frosts rarely occur, because these winds tend to raise the dewpoint, or, in other words, bring in air with a larger percentage of water vapor present. While the water vapor content of the atmosphere is high, dam- aging frosts cannot occur. It is only when the dewpoint temperature ap- proaches the freezing point or is below it that we may expect a serious freeze. As a rule it is only on the valley floor that serious injury may be caused by low temperatures during the blooming period or some time thereafter. Even on the valley floor where there may be some slight elevation no frosts occur, while serious injury may result only a few feet below. The hillsides surrounding the valley usually escape frosts altogether, and the average variation in temperature in favor of the lands lying above the val- ley floor is from five to six degrees; therefore, even though a heavy frost may occur on the valley floor, the temperature may not go to freezing on the uplands. During the past season some records were made by observing temperatures on and near the ground, as well as on the roof of the Garnett-Corey building, which is fifty feet above the street level. While temperatures ranged as low as twenty- three to twenty-five degrees on the ground and four feet above it, the temperature on the roof was from thirty-two to thirty- five degrees. There is at times, therefore, a difference of twelve degrees or more between the temperature on the ground and at a height of fifty feet above when taken on the valley floor. Under usual conditions we are quite safe in saying that there may be little danger to the crops on the higher lands surrounding the main floor of the valley. The experience of the season of 1911 indicates that a heavy rain followed by a cold wave gives practically the same temperature on valley floor and hillsides, and also that under certain conditions FROST 1013 ..<,..,, .),V -1 7 et ff , ii ;Ht • - ii^* n-* IH i '.4 i ; **> 1 - ■ ,vft VSl \*^ ■ Fig. 1. Official Thermograph Record, United States Weather Bureau, Medford, Oregon. April 10 to 17 inclusive. Note the short space of time during which low temperatures prevailed. the injurious temperature may not con- tinue for more than two hours and in some cases but a few minutes. Frost Preyention * High winds never occur during the time that the temperature may be below the freezing point. A slight breeze usual- ly comes up from the south during the early morning. However, this breeze is never sufficient to more than waft the smudge through the orchards and does not interfere to any great extent in keep- ing up the temperature where fires are built. It will be seen that the conditions in the valley are ideal for the prevention of injury from freezing. t The Rogue River valley is surrounded on all sides by mountains ranging from 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, and with many peaks much higher. During periods of frost it is usually calm, and in the several years during which careful observations have been made the great- est movement of the air recorded during a spring frost has been from one to three miles per hour. Contrast this with the severe freezes which have occurred in other districts where wind velocities ranging from twenty to thirty-eight miles per hour were recorded when the ther- mometer stood at fifteen degrees or more below the freezing point. The fruit grow- ers of the Rogue River valley little realize the wonderful climatic assets they are so fortunate to have. It can be truly stated that the only reason for losing a crop by frost is carelessness or neglect. YAKIMA VALLEY The conditions in the Yakima valley are described by Mr. T. R. Reed, special observer for that district. The conditions favorable for frost in the Yakima valley include the usual con- ditions of high barometer following a spell of cloudy, cold weather in which the soil has lost its accumulated heat, clear sky and very light or no wind. It is considered by local observers that frost is most likely to follow a period of bad weather and the shift of wind from the south or southwest into the northwest or north. It is popularly supposed that danger of frost is small unless the veering to northerly quarters has been preceded by quite a marked period pf southerly wind. This of course may be a popular way of indicating the necessary intensity and duration of the cyclonic low* occupy- ing the Northwest; but it is worthy of note that judging from observations this season, dangerous frost is not likely except following protracted cloudy and cold weather, and that all the really serious frosts of the season have followed days on which the maximum temperature has been under 65 degrees and the current temperature under 60 degrees at the time of the afternoon observations. High barometer alone, while causing frost in other localities in the state, has repeatedly failed to bring freezing tem- peratures to this valley, attributable partly, perhaps, to active air movement often occurring in connection with anti- cyclonic weather. A freeze may occur * Farmers' Bulletin No. 401. t Office of Pathologist, Bulletin No. 5. * Note — An area of low pressure at the north- west of a given point would be accompanied by southwest or south winds. 1014 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE M O u N r S I H S 1 .^ ^ ''"'"/ '^ • ^ ■''«. 'i/'////.' ^ ^OU NTAi.^S •-«/* ■» »* /•# rt T*« /*«,# ^*,^^« Fig. 2. Rogue River Valley Fruit District. here when the Northwest is occupied hy low pressure; in fact, when a rain fore- cast would seem more legitimate than a frost warning, as on the night of the 6th of April; hut this is an uncommon con- dition. Under such conditions the barom- eter may show no fluctuation worth speaking of,. the surface currents may he from the south, in fact nothing to war- rant a frost warning being issued except the fact of a clearing sky and a sharp fall in temperature. The forecaster has then to determine whether the wind is to remain light and the sky clear, and this is an extremely precarious undertaking. Perhaps the daily rise in the barometer occurring at the time his decision is being made adds to the difficulty; and he must be able to distinguish to a certain extent between the periodic and the unperiodic move- ment, for it is the latter upon which he depends in a large measure to foretell the condition of the sky. Under such conditions, and unless the forecaster is sure of his position, it is wiser to place on their guard those who wish to protect their orchards, for the growers would rather be warned a few times unneces- sarily than to have freezing temperatures — AfUr Meed. descend on their orchards without fore- warning. The freeze occurring on the morning of April 6, 1911, when the temperature at North Yakima dropped to 25 degrees, could scarcely be foreseen, either from the weather map or from local observa- tions, but it is a type of local freeze which should be studied and for which the local observer should be constantly on guard. The ensuing freezes, which occurred with unusual frequency and severity for this section, were more easily foreseen. Between the inclusive dates of April 5 and 15 nine heavy frosts were recorded in North Yakima, and during the first half of the month there were more than this number in the neighborhood of Moxee and on the low ground below Union Gap, Seven times the minimum temper- ature dropped to 28 degrees or lower at the North Yakima station. The severest freeze of the entire period occurred on the morning of the 13th of April. The North Yakima station registered 24 de- grees; in Moxee 16 degrees was reached, and the temperature in the lower valley ranged from 17 degrees at Sunnyside to 28 degrees at Parker Heights. FROST 1015 On the two mornings following what was very nearly a repetition of the phe- nomenal temperatures of the 13th was experienced. It was undoubtedly a stren- uous period for the fruit men and one which is not likely to be repeated for many years. It showed the necessity of using an ample number of smudge pots and also the value of orchard firing on a large scale, showing the greater ease of heating a large district than a small one, or one in which heating is practiced only in a sporadic way. North Yakima men were unsuccessful in maintaining safe temperatures, partly because they used too few pots — generally about 40 to 50 to the acre — and partly because each heated orchard was sur- rounded by unheated ones, and the wind, which was a feature of several frosty nights, effected a dispersion of heat and smoke. "When practically all the orchard- ists fire, windy conditions can much bet- ter be coped with. On the morning of the 11th in particular orchardists re- ported that whereas under ordinary cir- cumstances they could raise the tempera- ture six degrees to seven degrees with 55 pots to the acre, on this morning it could only be raised three degrees. On the south slope of Nob Hill the smoke blew rapidly away, scarcely reaching the lower branches of the trees. It was on this night (lOth-llth) that the severest freeze occurred in the Nob Hill and Fruitvale districts, which are generally least affected by frost, the for- mer being considered immune. The ther- mometer in the Weather Bureau shelter in North Yakima registered 29 degrees, and in Moxee 28 degrees; 31 degrees was reported from Parker, 28 degrees from Zillah, and 33 degrees from Sunnyside. That conditions as usually experienced suffered a complete reversal will be seen when it is stated that the temperature I ^*^T* JUr'Tfm.jr JV*/».« i Cm.'<^. fA^tA*f t^HU^J JtrmJftM "-v. '"V"-^-^^^ .,^.,^ /''' ^l IJ Fig. 3. Yakima Valley Fruit District. -After Reed. 1016 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE on Nob Hill and Fruitvale varied between 20 degrees and 23 degrees * The reports from these districts showed much uni- formity and many readings were made from reliable instruments. Moxee varied only a degree from North Yakima, and Sunnyside, which more often corresponds with Moxee, was even warmer. An inter- esting problem is here presented and its solution may disclose some interesting facts. The following is suggested by ob- servations this spring: A study of a topographic map of the region should be made in order to appre- ciate the situation. The Yakima valley is inclosed on all sides by mountain ranges varying from 2,500 to 3,000 feet in height and higher in the Cascades to the west. Access is had to the valley by two gaps on the north and one on the south. Noc- turnal air drainage will always be from north to south under normal conditions, following the slope of the land, and ob- servations show this actually to be the case. Fruitvale and the northern slope of Nob Hill are the first to benefit by the northwest breeze from the Naches can- yon, as they lie directly in its course and in close proximity to the Nachez gap, from which it issues. There may be a similar breeze from Selah gap, a little to the eastward, but observations do not cover this point, nor are there any extensive orchards in line with Selah gap to benefit by such a breeze if there were one. The Naches valley above Naches gap forms a natural reservoir for the air drainage from a vast mountainous area, and it is natural to conclude that when the convergent air is expelled into the Yakima valley below through the outlet formed by Naches gap a mixing of the air and possibly an adiabatic warming en- sues, which would account for the com- * This statement was based on temperatures as recorded at Scudder's station, located at the mouth of the Moxee yaUey. Had we more sta- tions in the valley southeast of Scudder's I be- lieve they would show that minimum tempera- tures do not vary a ^reat deal from those re- corded at Bender's station in North Yakima The district at the lunction of the Moxee and Yakima yalleys, represented by the Scudder sta- tion, is probably the coldest in the region above Union ffap, due to the air drainage from not only the <=5elah Pud Naches valleys, but also from the Tipper Moxee. paratively higher temperatures encoun- tered in the region lying directly in its path, as at Fruitvale, and the compara- tively lower temperatures in the Fair- view and Moxee districts, which lie sev- eral miles southeast of Fruitvale. The Weather Bureau station is located in the city of North Yakima, and, there- fore, between the two districts under dis- cussion, Fruitvale being northwest of the city and Fairview and Moxee southeast. The thermometer at this station strikes a pretty fair mean, for while Fairview is often two degrees and Moxee five degrees to eight degrees colder than the North Yakima station, Fruitvale is usually a few degrees warmer. As the breeze from Selah gap spreads out and flows across the valley it loses its force, its tempera- ture is lowered by radiation, and with further southeastward movement its character is changed from a protective wind to a more or less destructive one. On the morning of the 11th, when the conditions in these districts reversed, a freezing wind was blowing from the south and southwest, having blown from this quarter throughout the night. There was no counter breeze from Naches gap, and the minimum temperature reported from the Naches valley above, a district from which comparatively high temperatures are usually looked for, was 22 degrees. Thus it appears that strong connection exists between a reversal of the customary wind direction and a reversal of tempera- ture conditions in the several localities under discussion. Boise Edward L. Wells (See diagram C) The Boise valley is well suited to the growing of such fruits as apples, pears, prunes, sour cherries, and common ber- ries. Some fruit has been grown in the valley for many years, but It is only with- in the last few years that scientific fruit growing on a commercial scale has be- come an important industry. While the entire region is more or less subject to spring frosts these frosts are rarely sufficiently severe to cause wide- spread damage. For this reason, prior to FROST 1017 1909, comparatively little attention was given to measures to protect fruit from frost injury. The spring of 1909 was one noted for a succession of damaging frosts, resulting in almost a complete failure in many orchards. This failure turned the attention of the growers to- ward protective measures, and some of the more progressive of them provided themselves with oil pots and oil for use in 1910. The spring of 1910 was much more favorable for fruit than that of 1909, so much so that there was a good yield of fruit in most of the unprotected orchards, as well as in those that were protected. This being true, there was little increase in 1911 over the area heated in 1910; the entire area in the upper part of the valley adjacent to Boise probably not exceeding 1,000 acres. Like that of 1910, the spring of 1911 was not a good one to demonstrate the effi- ciency of protective measures, for while some very low temperatures were ex- perienced, these low temperatures oc- curred when the buds were least suscep- tible to injury, and little damage oc- curred that could be directly traced to frosts. It is probable that orchard heating will not become common in this valley as it is in the Grand valley in Colorado and in the Rogue River region in Oregon, until another season like that of 1909 is experienced, when the practical value of heating can be demonstrated. The topography of this region is pe- culiar and gives rise to some weather conditions that make frost forecasting a difficult matter. The Boise river, in its upper reaches, flows through a rugged mountainous region. About six miles southeast of Boise it emerges from a deep box canyon, the mouth of which marks the head of what is known as the Boise valley, which extends thence northwestward with increasing width to- ward the Snake river. Northeast of Boise are the Boise mountains, reaching in 12 miles an elevation of 7,500 feet, or 4,800 feet above the city. Toward the southwest the ground rises in a series of widening benches. Through this bench land, where most of the large orchards are located, run several water courses, rather unimportant naturally, but form- ing a means for air and water drainage, and apparently playing an important ^ --- — t j^^iGie Fig. 4, Boise Valley Fruit Pistnct -After Reed. 1018 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE part in determining local temperatures on frosty nights. The entire region may- be classed as arid, having approximately 13 inches of precipitation annually at Boise, and somewhat less at points away from the mountains. Water for irriga- tion is supplied by the Boise river. In fair weather there is quite a no- ticeable mountain and valley breeze blowing down the valley, or from the southeast from early morning to about 10 a. m. and up the valley or from the northwest in the afternoon. Frosts oc- cur ordinarily upon the approach of a strong high-pressure area from the northwest. The outflow from this high, combined with the ascending currents already mentioned, makes a strong northwesterly wind in the afternoon, which has come to be considered as the surest indication of frost. At night, in addition to the ordinary nocturnal les- sening of the wind velocity, the descend- ing current opposes the outflow from the high, causing a stagnation of the air highly favorable for the occurrence of low temperatures near the ground. At such times there is a noticeable tendency for the colder air to settle into the shal- low depressions along the water courses already mentioned. When conditions for '"-'-«c^. "--^^ rapid radiation are particularly favor- able no two thermometers in the valley will indicate the same temperature. At other times the distribution of tempera- ture is fairly uniform. Whenever there is any considerable amount of wind at night frost does not occur. Sometimes when the crest of the high reaches or passes this region before morning an easterly wind will spring up. A brisk easterly wind, coming as it does off the mountain range, partakes of the nature of a Chinook. Usually the effect of these chinooks is hardly noticeable except over Boise and the belt of land lying between the foothills and the river. Sometimes, however, the effect becomes noticeable on the bench lands, and on rare instances the Chinook has been known to pass over the city and mate- rially affect the temperature on the bench. Lewistoii-Clarlcston District For the purpose of a study of the tem- perature conditions at different points in the valley a temperature station was es- tablished in a favorable location in the Clarkston (Wash.) section, one and a half miles southwest of the Weather Bureau station. ^^^ ""-^x^x/ ^ Kay $tirti0it A Vin«,lo^i/ Tiittrict w-' V I' ^ / 'y/- * ;/''■ C«ff/f'/',r, OreAtt^ Dttt^sef '^'>. '-'/z Se^M ^Ji»i/^ /jL/zre^^f 7$" //tf^w/^C. Pig. 5. Lewiston-Clarkston Fruit District. •After Reed. FIiOST 1019 Owing, however, to tlie fact that or- chardists have not taken up the idea of orchard heating to the extent that has characterized certain other sections, there has not been given the careful study to conditions here as elsewhere. COLORADO Orand Junction District The most distinctive climatic feature of this section, especially of its lower valleys, is the comparative uniformity of the weather conditions from day to day. This is due to the high mountains, which practically surround the section and deflect the course of low pressure areas. A storm approaching from the west will usually cross the Continental Divide either to the north or the south of Colorado, where the height of the mountains is less. In consequence, the sudden changes that attend the passing of a low center are rarely experienced here. Severe cold waves, so common on the Eastern plains, are comparatively rare. There is, on the contrary, a ten- dency for a stationary area of high pres- sure to form over this region in winter, where it may remain for days, and even weeks, together. When one of these highs controls the weather, the sky is clear, the wind light, and of the moun- tain and valley type, the day tempera- tures are moderately high and remark- ably uniform, and the nights cool, but seldom excessively cold, except when the ground is covered with snow, and where the air drainage is poor. The annual mean temperatures range from 52.5 degrees, at Grand Junction, to less than 32 degrees, at the higher levels. The night temperatures depend large- ly on the topography, air drainage exert- ing a greater control over this factor than does the absolute elevation. The mildest weather, in cold spells, is found where the night wind is the strongest, which is usually below the larger can- yons. The comparative freedom from frost experienced by such regions has led to the development of an extensive fruit-growing industry. The growing season, or interval when frost is not to be expected, varies great- ly in different localities. Where longest (in the Grand valley), it extends from early in April to late in October; above 9,000 feet, frost may be expected every month. It is probable that the growing season is longer, in most localities, than is indicated by the attached frost table; a temperature of 32 degrees, which is taken as the standard, is not generally destructive to the staple crops. Average Date of Killing Frosts Stations Length of record years Last in Spring First in Fall Precipi- tation Av. Annual Inches Cedar Edge. . Colbran Delta Durango. ..... Grand Junction , Grand Valley. . Lay Mancos Meeker Montrose Pagoda — .. .. Paonia Silt T. S. Ranch.... 8 13 12 16 14 9 10 14 10 13 8 12 8 May 20 May 26 May 16 May 28 April 18 May 10 June 16 June 9 June 12 May 16 June 12 May 5 May 21 April 27 Sept. 23 Sept. 24 Sept. 25 Sept. 26 Oct. 18 Sept. 29 Sept. 6 Sept. 17 Sept. 12 Oct. 2 Sept. 3 Oct. 3 Sept. 27 Oct. 10 11.02 15.16 7.82 17.51 8.74 12.30 12.70 16.88 16.10 9.50 18.26 12.16 11.99 10,69 1020 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE In the lower valleys the amount of sunshine is large, especially during the summer months; the greatest cloudiness is usually found in spring. At the lower levels the wind move- ment is light, and is commonly of the mountain and valley type. The wind blows toward the mountains in the afternoon, and in localities attains con- siderable velocity. After sunset the wind subsides, and toward morning there is a light breeze from the moun- tains toward the lower levels. At the summits of the mountains the winds are generally from the west, and are fre- quently very strong in winter and spring. The precipitation, up to the 10,000- foot level, is fairly represented by the table. It will be seen that, in the princi- pal agricultural districts, the average is less than 15 inches, and is less than 10 inches over important areas. There is an increase in precipitation with alti- tude up to the highest points where ob- servations have been made; an annual mean of more than 40 inches is indi- cated for certain localities. By far the most important part of the precipitation occurs in winter and early • iM niJii (hett •S. 'C«4vB(t^ it SSnk ff»Sl»Sf ^9unrt J> ft" X^'' I D^atHf* Fig 6 Grand Junction Fruit District. Show- ing Position ot District Below the 8,000-foot level (U S Weather Bureau ) spring, March and April being usually the months of heaviest snowfall. In the southern counties there is a pronounced tendency toward drought in late spring and early summer; June is often prac- tically rainless. From the latter part of July until September, thunderstorms are common, but the precipitation is sel- dom heavy, except in the San Juan mountains The snowfall in the lower valleys is light, and remains on the ground but a short time. With increasing elevation, the depth increases rapidly; near the mountain summits a total fall of over 30 feet has been observed in a single year At the very highest levels, prac- tically all the precipitation is in the form of snow. Although the depth of snow varies much from year to year, the fall IS so great that there are but few streams in this section that do not carry enough water for present needs, even m a dry season. Fbederick H. Beandenburg, District Forecaster. The Occurrence of Injurious Spring Tem- peratures in the Fruit Districts of Western Colorado The fruit district under consideration embraces portions of the Grand and Gunnison valleys and branches thereof in Mesa, Delta, Montrose and Garfield counties in Western Colorado. The fruits principally raised are apples, peaches and pears. On account of variations in elevation, topography, air drainage, etc, fruit in some sections reaches a tender stage and is liable to injury (sometimes by the latter part of March), while that in other sections is still dormant. But, on the other hand, the later localities are the most likely to be visited by late spring freezes, and danger there is not entirely over until after the first of June. The Grand valley fruit section is the lowest in elevation in the district and, in general, the earliest. Near the upper end it is narrow, and protected on the north by the Little Book cliffs, which rise more than a thousand feet abruptly almost from the edge of the orchards. In general the valley slopes towards the FROST 1021 Grand river, and down stream at the average rate of about ten feet per mile; so that air drainage is generally good, especially in the upper and middle por- tions. Also, in the narrow upper end mountain and valley and canyon hreezes are naturally strongest and most effi- cient in stirring and warming up the air on frosty nights. So that Palisade, especially that portion close to the cliffs, is the earliest locality and the least like- ly to "be injured by late spring freezes. Outside the Grand valley the orchards are generally located on hillsides, slop- ing mesas or benches, or in narrow val- leys, so that air drainage is usually good. For example, the fruit in the Paonia section is largely raised on the comparatively steep sides of the valley of the North Pork of the Gunnison river and in the narrow valley bottom, down which a wind usually blows during the latter part of the night and in the early morning, especially during clear weath- er. Damaging spring temperatures are most likely to occur in the district when a high-pressure area of considerable en- ergy advances in the rear of a low- pressure area across this part of the state from the northwest. If the Mgh. has advanced so far that the district lies well within it, local air drainage produces considerable differences in min- imum temperature. But if the district lies in the region of circulation between the high and the low (particularly if the latter be vigorous and lie central over the southern part of the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains), tem- peratures will be more nearly uniform, and mountam and valley and canyon breezes are likely to be weakened or en- tirely counteracted. If the center of the high pass some distance north of the district, some cloudiness may be ex- pected (especially if there be a low over Arizona), and temperature fall will be retarded. It has been found that there is no useful relation from the viewpoint of the forecaster, between the evening dew-point and the minimum tempera- ture the following morning; although the quantity of moisture in the air af- fects radiation and hence the fall of temperature. The minimum tempera- ture on an April morning at Grand Junction is usually about five eighths of the maximum temperature of the preced- ing day. If the air be very clear, still and dry, the minimum will be lower than the above relation indicates. E. S. Nichols, Local Forecaster, XJ S Weather Bureau. METHODS AM) ORGAMZATIOF IK FROST riGHTING P. X O'Gaea. Efficiency of Present ITethods The present methods of frost preven- tion by means of fires and smudges, using the various types of oil pots and heaters, are by no means perfect. Per- haps in time we will have some method of orchard protection that is better than the oil pot now in use. It must be under- stood at the outset that the orchardist cannot afford to equip his orchard with apparatus of too costly a nature; it must be simple, or at least easily work- able, and not too delicate for practicable use. The protection ot orchards from frost injury is not an experiment in Rogue River valley. A perusal of the records will show that the experimental stage in practical orchard heating has passed. A glance over the valley will show the large commercial orchards equipped with fuel pots for burning crude oil, distillate and coal, while oth- ers are protected by means of wood, which has proven very successful. A commercial orchardist who has for the past four seasons saved his crop, valued at more than $1,000 per acre, is not much in need of advice. If the cost of saving his crop is well below the maximum it would seem that, for him, his method must be the best. During the 1911 season of frosts the Rogue River valley orchard- ists did not experiment. In saving the crops from frost injury a safe approxi- mation would put the number of fires used at fifty thousand. A large number of these were fuel pots burning crude oil and distillate, but there was also a very 1022 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE large number of wood fires, which, though somewhat clumsier to handle, were none the less effective in obtain- ing the desired results, namely, saving the crops from damage. Types of Orchard Heaters In a commercial way, the types of pots used are the Fresno, Bolton and Hamilton. The Ideal coal pot was in use during the 1910 and 1911 frost periods. It is not the object of this article to dis- cuss the relative merits of the different types of pots. The writer, however, has contended that the simplest type, which of course, will be the least expensive, is the one which will grow in favor with the fruit growers. A lard pail type is just as efficient as the Fresno pot with its row of holes near the upper rim. The Bolton pot has one disadvantage with respect to the arrester, or partial cover, which is placed over the mouth of the pot. No doubt in burning 28-degree test distillate this type of pot will work very nicely, but with crude oil or slop distil- late the heavy coating of soot will tend to clog the openings and, in the course of a night's use, will have a marked ef- fect in reducing the efficiency of the pot. It may even clog so much as to put out the fiame. However, this pot, used open and without arrester, may be equal to the Fresno or lard pail type, and has proven so in actual test, since, burned Fig. 1. Hamilton Reservoir Type of Orchard Heater. that way, it is practically the same as the other two types. The Hamilton heater is so arranged as to increase or decrease the burning surface so as to regulate the amount of heat. This pot, which is made in the form of a rectan- gular trough, is not so saving of fuel as might be supposed, since there is often a tendency for the flame to burn back of the apron which hangs downward from the sliding cover, and which regulates, or is supposed to regulate, the amount of fuel burned. The Ideal coal heater is designed to hold 25 to 30 pounds of coal, and is very satisfactory so far as heat- ing is concerned, but the fact that a great deal of time is required to lay the fires, or prepare the heaters, is some- what against their use. There are a Pig. 2. Oil Stove Type, large number of heaters on the market, each one with its particular claim for efficiency; but as yet, with the fuels we have, it is a question as to what superi- ority one type may have over another. So far there has been no real efficiency test made in any part of the country where heaters have been used side by side under absolutely like conditions. It is the young orchard, which covers only a small part of the ground and traps lit- tle heat, with the fruiting area very low down near the ground, that is diffi- cult to protect from frost injury. A test in such an orchard would really be worth while. Fuels The fuels used are crude oil, 28-degree test distillate, coal, wood (old rails and cordwood), straw, sawdust and manure, the latter being mainly used to produce a dense smudge. One of the greatest difficulties in the use of crude oil and FROST 1023 slop distillate is the presence of water, which tends to extinguish the flame or cause the pots to boil over. The pres- ence of water in crude oil is due to the fact that water is forced into the rifled delivery pipes as a jacket so that the oil will flow readily. Crude oil cannot he forced through long lines of pipe without this water jacket. Outside of the fact that the crude oil often contains water, it has a very great tendency to deposit large amounts of soot on the trees, as well as tending to clog certain types of pots. Besides, a very large amount of residuum is left behind so that a second or a third filling will so coat the sides and bottom of the pot that it will hold much less oil in future fillings, and will, therefore, burn for a much shorter peri- od. For instance, a pot that will hold one gallon when clean will not hold more than three-fourths of a gallon after hav- ing been burned two or three times. This is a very serious defect, and one that cannot be overlooked. The crude oil from the wells of the Pacific coast is unlike that of the East or Middle West in that it has an asphaltum base. No matter what the type of pot, a heavy asphaltum oil cannot be perfectly burned; that is to say, combustion is not complete. The heavy asphaltum base requires a much larger amount of oxygen than even the best type of pot can furnish, hence the large amount of residuum left on the sides and bottom of the pot. The oils of the East have a parafline base and burn much better. At this time, however, it would seem im- possible to bring this oil m so as to compete with the Pacific coast product. The freight charges would bring the price up to a point where its use would be prohibitive. The distillate burns readily, leaves but very little deposit and does not tend to produce so much soot. This is what is called the 28-degree test. Its cost to the growers is very much above that of crude oil, and, therefore, was not used in 1911. The distillate used is known as "slop" distillate, and, although it was supposed to test 23 degrees, it has been found to test about 20 degrees, or per- haps a little more. This slop distillate proved to be very little, if any, better than the crude oil, since some of it con- tained water; and, besides, it tended to produce a great deal of soot. The amount of residuum left in the pots was in many cases nearly egtual to that left by the crude oil. Both the crude oil and the slop distillate will eventually be re- placed by a better fuel. We will either use a distillate, such as the 28-degree test, or the lighter paraffine oils of the East. The cost of crude oil laid down at Medford is about four and one-half cents per gallon, and that of the slop distillate six and one-quarter cents per gallon. The 28-degree test distillate, in 1910, cost the growers approximately nine cents a gallon. The greatest ele- ment of cost in obtaining these crude products is the high freight charge. Crude oil at the wells in California is worth scarcely two cents a gallon, and the distillates, which are refinery prod- ucts, do not cost more than twice that figure. By some of the fruit growers wood has been used for several years. That wood has been effective in preventing frost injury even when the temperature may run very low is proven by an exam ination of the orchards where wood was properly used. In connection with the wood one grower used a small amount of crude oil, which he threw upon the wood fires ranged along the east side of the orchard so as to produce a dense smudge just before sunrise. In the Hol- lywood orchard wood was also used for its heating effect, and the dense smudge was produced by adding quantities of stable manure to the wood fires. An examina- tion of the orchard showed that the method worked very well. In other or- chards the same scheme of using wood and manure was carried out, and excel- lent results were obtained. In some very small orchards sawdust and shavings, put into large paper sacks and satur- ated with crude oil, also proved to be quite effective. These fires burned from six to seven hours, giving off a consid- 1024 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE erable amount of heat and a very dense smudge. Methods of LiglitiBg The methods of lighting the different fuels are not difficult. With crude oil and distillate a small amount of gasoline or kerosene, squirted from an oil can onto the surface of the oils, was easily ignited by a torch. In most cases the torches were home-made affairs, hut were none the less serviceable. A man could easily light the pots as fast as he could walk. The cover on the pot was quickly thrown off, a few drops of kerosene or gasoline spilled on the sur- face of the oil and the torch quickly ap- plied; this is the work of but a moment, and scarcely needed a stop on the part of the operator. In order to ignite the wood it is necessary to pile it in a par- ticular way Fine material is not abso- lutely necessary if the wood is dry. A kerosene can and a torch are all that is needed. A small amount of kerosene spilled on the wood, which is piled "dove-tail" fashion, and the torch applied will easily start it. During the past sea- son of frosts some difficulty was experi- enced in lighting the wood on account of the fact that during the week previous there had been a heavy precipitation amounting to about 1.27 inches. How- ever, this exigency was overcome by us- ing kindling and a little more kerosene and some crude oil. In using wood the particular thing to keep in mind is that it should be dry. Frost conditions are almost certain to follow a heavy rain, and this was particularly true during this season. Planning the Frost-Fighting Campaign; JVumber of Pots or Fires per Acre The work of planning the frost-flght- ing campaign really begins the previous fall. If crude oil or distillate is the fuel to be used the pots must be purchased so as to be on the ground not later than the last week of March, even though frosts do not usually occur before the first week of April. The fuel oil is also ordered in tank cars of 6,000 to 10,000 gallons each, and upon delivery is emp- tied into large storage tanks on the ranches. These tanks are usually of concrete, and are placed upon an eleva- tion so that the work of unloading the delivery wagons, as well as the subse- quent filling of the tank wagons for de- livery to the pots in the orchard, is effected by gravity. Pumping crude oil is rather an impossible task, or a diffi- cult one at best, especially when it is cold. Distillate is easier to handle, but the gravity method of handling it is much quicker and saves a lot of work. The method of filling the pots is usually by means of a large hose attached to a gate valve on the delivery tank. An- other method is to use large buckets with which to fill the pots. When this method is used the hose is dispensed with, and only a large gate valve or mo- lasses gate is used. Six men working eight hours can easily fill 2,000 pots. The number of pots to be used per acre will vary within wide limits. Large spread- ing trees, with the fruit borne not low- er than four feet from the ground, may easily be protected from the most serious freeze we have experienced during the past four years by using sixty-five to seventy pots per acre. However, it is to be understood that the sides or outside rows should be reinforced by at least two rows of pots. This is especially true of the sides of orchards in the direction of the prevailing wind. However, it is a good plan to reinforce all sides so as to meet any emergency. During the 1911 season sixty-five pots burning slop distil- late saved the Potter and Goold pear orchard when the temperature outside of the orchard registered 20 degrees by a tested thermometer. The results in this orchard are so clear that there is no mis- taking the effectiveness of systematic orchard heating. A few pear trees of the same variety standing about ten rods outside of the heated area lost their en- tire crop. The number of pots to be used will depend upon the geographical position of the orchard, its elevation, and the size and height of the crop bearing portion of the trees. In a young orchard of per- FROST 1025 haps four to eight years of age it will take two or three times as many pots as in an old orchard, with spreading limbs almost touching each other and effective- ly trapping the heat. A perfect knowl- edge of the frost possibilities of any par- ticular tract will guide one as to the amount of protection necessary. It would be safe to say that from 150 to 200 pots will be needed in very young orchards situated in what are known as "cold spots." Every orchardist knows, or should know, where these spots are. When wood is the fuel to be used it should be secured early, and must be dry. Most of the firing done by wood has been with old rails which were well seasoned and burned without difficulty. Cordwood has also been used to a some- what less extent, but, nevertheless, with entire satisfaction. Wood is very clum- sy and much in the way, and there is no doubt that its use will be abandoned in the near future. Some growers, however, are of the opinion that wood is the best fuel, and it is quite probable that for small tracts its use will be continued. There is really no difficulty in handling it if properly placed, but for large tracts I would rather think its use to be quite out of the question. The element of time consumed in placing it as well as the space it takes up in the orchard, thus interfering with cultivation, argues against its use. The number of wood fires necessary for large trees may be all the way from 25 to 50. The fires should not be large, since large fires tend to produce convective air currents and may be more harmful to the orchard as a whole than the same number of small fires. In most orchards it was found that the temperature could be raised six to ten degrees. Manure, sawdust and rubbish are used mainly to create a smudge, and are of practically no value in raising the temperature. In using wood these materials are often quite an additional help in holding the heat gen- erated by the burning wood. It often happens that the temperature cannot be kept above the danger point; if this hap- pens toward morning the smudge is ben- eficial in protecting the frozen blossoms and fruit from the morning sun, which would tend to thaw them too rapidly. It is not the freezing of the fruit that causes the injury; it Is the thawing. Blossoms may be frozen solid for sev- eral hours and not be injured if thawed out very slowly. Freezing causes the water to be abstracted from the cell pro- toplasm. The protoplasm has taken this water up from the soil very slowly. If the water which has been abstracted from it can be returned very slowly the cell will recover its former activities. No matter what fuel is to be used a plen- tiful supply should be distributed in the orchards. Even if fifty pots will do the work it is better to have one hundred or more for each acre even in an orchard of old trees. The same may be said of wood. It is only necessary to light as many fires as will keep the temperature above the danger point. It is as great a mistake to light too many fires as it is to light too few, for the reason that burning unnecessary fuel may cause a shortage at a time when lack of fuel would mean a total loss. Once the tem- perature goes very much below the dan- ger point it is hard to raise it, and if this happens ve*ry near sunrise a smudge dense enough to protect the frozen blos- soms may be hard to secure or to keep hanging over the orchards. It is best to take no chances. Thermometers and Frost Alarms Good thermometers should not be overlooked, and no fewer than two or three per acre should be used for the best results. These instruments should not be the very cheap kind, although it is not advised that they should be very expensive. All thermometers should be tested and the correction for the differ- ent points on the scale carefully marked so as to be easily read. A thermometer with its correction is just as good as one that reads absolutely true. As a mat- ter of fact, the very best thermometers are not accurate, and must have correc- tions made for different parts of the scale. For the orchardist, it is usually sufiicient to know within at least half a 2—24 1026 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ^||^**;«^^***<>»»-/»«*i^«^^* >^**« *^^^^^^r^2^^^* «<««««WOTi^^^^^^«S<;&*«5^:W!^>^j^j/ •Xw^^X^V" ^ Fiff. 3. Carbcndale degree of the correct temperature read- ing, since he is quite certain to keep on the safe side at all times. Besides the thermometers in the' field, the frost alarm thermometer, which is designed to awaken one when a certain temperature has been reached, may be more or less advisable. Of course, all a frost alarm thermometer can do is to indicate that a certain temperature has been reached. It is usually made to ring at, say 33 or 32 degrees, and does not necessarily in- dicate that dangerous temperatures will follow. During the past the local fore- casting station has indicated very nearly the hour when it would be necessary to fire as well as forecasting the possible temperature, so that with this in mind those who had no frost alarm thermom- eters got along very well with a good alarm clock. It would be a serious mis- take to begin lighting up without know- ing whether or not the temperature would go below the danger point; this is where the local forecaster's work is of greatest value. Frost Alarm. Physics of Orchard Heating In all that has been published no figures have been given to show what a certain quantity of fuel will do under actual conditions. Of course, this can- not be accurately stated, but we can give what we might expect under set or ideal conditions. We will take as an instance the protection of a pear orchard with the trees set 25 feet apart on the square. With the trees in good bearing the maximum height at which fruit is borne is not more than 15 feet, and is usually much below this. We will consider each pear tree as growing in a cubical space which, under normal at- mospheric pressure at our elevation above sea level (1,400 feet) and at a temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit, contains, in round numbers, 600 pounds of air. If this space contained 600 pounds of water it would require 600 British Thermal heat units to raise the temperature through one degree Fah- renheit, but since the space is filled with air under the above conditions it will FROST 1027 take only one-fourth as many heat units to raise the temperature one degree with- in such space. If one oil pot is provided for such a space, that is, one pot per tree, we will have 70 pots per acre. Each pot will have to take care of 600 pounds of air. Most of the crude oils used as fuels for orchard heating in this dis- trict average nearly eight pounds per gallon, and it has been found by labora- tory test that a pound (one pint) has a calorific, or heat value, of about 18,000 British Thermal units. Some oils test higher, some lower. In burning tests in the field under actual frost conditions it has been found that for the lard pail type of pot, such as the Bolton, with or without perforations in the upper rim, two pounds of oil are consumed per hour. Naturally, the oil consumption is greater when the pots are first lighted, and this is also true where there is con- siderable air movement. Of course, com- bustion is not perfect, hence the total calorific power of the oil is not utilized. However, since we are dealing only in round numbers we will suppose that combustion is fairly complete. Then two pounds of oil will give of£ 36,000 heat units per hour, or 600 per minute. Now, since the cubical space occupied by one pear tree contains about 600 pounds of air at our average pressure and at a tempera- ture of 32 degrees, it means that each minute 600 heat units are expended on 600 pounds of air, or sufficient to raise the temperature of this mass of air through four degrees Fahrenheit. "We have not taken into account the small amount of water vapor present under frost conditions, as this would not ap- preciably alfect the calculation. It is supposed, of course, that the air is not in motion, and that there is no radiation of heat beyond the imaginary cubical space occupied by the tree. In actual practice we know that radiation does take place, and that there is usually some air movement. Of course, this is offset to a very great extent in old or- chards by the trapping of the heat and the braking effect on wind currents, due to the extended branches, but in young orchards, . covering but a small ground area, air movement and radiation are practically . the same as in the open. There is one thing to be said, however, under our conditions. Upward radiation of heat is not so great as one would sup- pose. During the past four years a large number of observations have shown that the temperature of the atmosphere dur- ing a freeze rarely reaches the danger point at a height of 15 to 20 feet above the level* of the valley floor. Since this is true, there would be no tendency for heat to be radiated from below into this upper stratum of warmer air — in fact the heat movement would rather be the re- verse, that is, downward. As previously explained in another part of this arti- cle, frosts which occur in this valley are due to depression rather than elevation. It is the cold air coming from very high elevations in the surrounding mountains that flows downward into the valley floor, tending to push the warmer air upward. For a while radiation from the ground, which has taken in heat during the hours of sunshine, tends to warm this cold air. But to return. We have shown that with no wind and with one oil pot for every pear tree the temperature may be raised four degrees per minute within the calculated space. But if the air moved only 100 feet per minute, or a little more than one mile per hour, the temperature could never rise more than one degree above the temperature of the incoming cold air. At four miles per hour it could rise but one-fourth degree. This would be true only in the outside tree rows, on the side from which the air movement comes. For all the rows beyond the outside row, some of the heat units generated in the first row would be added to the heat generated in- side. This interesting calculation shows that an orchard in the form of a solid square would not be so difficult to save from frost injury as one of the same area of only a few rows. During the past four seasons this has been demonstrated in several of our orchards. In the Potter and Goold orchard the main body of pears has easily been saved when tem- 1028 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE peratures ran as low as 20 degrees out- side, while two rows of pear trees ex- tending beyond the main body of the pear orchard but surrounded by apple trees fully larger lost most of their crop, although protected by a greater number of fires. No orchard heating device on the market effects perfect combustion of crude oil or distillate, therefore the theo- retical figures given above are hardly approached in practice. In some tests carried out in this district the beneficial results of certain devices did not show up when it came time to harvest the fruit. The time to tell whether orchard heating has been successful or not is when the fruit is picked and brought to the pack- ing house. Just to make fruit stick upon the trees is not protection. A misshapen or frost marked fruit is not commercial either for fancy box trade or for the can- nery. Canneries do not want badly frost marked pears, as the waste is too great. In the above calculation we have consid- ered only crude oil, but practically the same figures will apply to all the heavier distillates. It might be well to mention something in regard to other fuels we have used in this district. A pound of dry pine wood, under perfect combustion, will generate about 6,000 heat units. A pound of oak contains practically the same number of heat units. Coal, under the same conditions, has approximately 12,000 heat units. The average weight of a cord of pine is about 2,000 pounds, and that of oak is about 4,000 pounds. These figures are, of course, only approximate, but they will serve as a basis for calcu- lation in case anyone should desire to use wood or coal for orchard heating pur- poses. The use of wood and coal has been discussed in previous articles, also in United States Farmer's Bulletin No. 401, which may be obtained by address- ing a letter to the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Meteorological Instruments Wherever it is found necessary to pro- tect orchards from frost injury each fruit grower should provide himself early in advance of the season for firing not only with fuel, pots or other heating appara- tus, but also with a sufficient number of thermometers. It is also advised that each fruit grower should have a good maximum-minimum theremometer. A dew-point apparatus or psychrometer for determining the dew-point temperature, accompanied with tables, would also be a valuable part of the equipment. The dew-point apparatus is simply two fairly good thermometers fixed together, with one of the bulbs covered with linen. A string tied into the rings of sufficient length to whirl the instrument completes it. In using the instrument, wet the covered bulb and whirl rapidly so that evaporation will take place from the wet surface. When the mercury in the wet bulb thermometer cannot be lowered any Fig. 4. Thermograph, or Self-Registering Thermometer. further it should be read simultaneously with the dry bulb theremometer. The readings are referred to tables (See U. S. Parmer's Bulletin No. 401) which give the dew-point temperature. The dew- point temperature, when found in the early evening, is usually in close agree- ment with the minimum temperature the following morning, providing the sky re- mains clear and there is no wind. This is true during only a part of the year. The following data taken from the rec- ords made by the Medford United States Weather Bureau station for the years 1909, 1910 and 1911 will show that the above statement holds good. It will be noted that the dew-point temperatures observed, both when frosts occurred and when they did not, agree fairly well with the minimum temperature: FROST—FRUIT GARDEN 1029 ^/a5- SLING PSYCHROMETER Year Bat e 1909 April 19 . 1910 April H . 1910 April 9 . 1910 April 11 . 1910 April 13 . 1910 April 25 . 1910 May 2 . 1911 April 14 . 1911 April 25 . 1911 April 28 . Temp. Dew- during point nijsrlit legrees depfrees 29 29 27 27 44 44 41 40 29 26 42 44 40 42 23 22 41 43% 31 27 Vj Time .6 :45 p. m .6:30 p.m. .6:30 p.m. .6:30 p.m. .6:30 p.m. .6:30 p.m. .6:30 p.m. .6:30p m. .6.30 p.m. ,6:30 p.m. These figures are taken at random from tlie records and represent pretty- fairly all the data which have heen re- corded during the above years through- out the frost season. The minimum tem- peratures are for such nights as re- mained clear and with very slight air movement, which was from the south. An aneroid barometer is also a valuable instrument. By carefully noting the movement of this instrument one may readily learn to predict with more or less certainty the kind of weather to be expected. With the pressure high the chances are that frost may be expected and the reverse when the pressure is low. In making readings with all me- teorological instruments there should be a set time for observations. Random readings, taken at odd times? are of very little value. A careful record will surely repay the observer many times for his trouble. It would be a very fine practice for each grower to be able to tell what were his maximum and minimum tem- peratures, barometer, wind direction and estimate of velocity, dew-point tempera- tures and rainfall for each day in the year. This data would not only be valu- able to himself, but to the district as a whole. Lastly, whenever it is possible get the weather from the nearest United States Weather Bureau station. The lo- cal observer is usually better equipped to tell what weather conditions are likely to be expected and what emergencies are to be provided for than anyone else. He is also able to tell what temperatures are injurious to the several kinds of fruits through the season. Injurious tempera- tures are not the same for all varieties, nor are they the same for any one vari- ety during different stages of its growth. Fruit Garden In all undertakings of this sort it is very important to have a clear and intel- ligent idea of what is to be done. There are so many matters which have to be adjusted to one another that the essen- tial items are sure to be overlooked, unless the project is systematically de- veloped. The garden-plan should be made as carefully as the plan for a house and with as much attention to detail as the architect gives in his finished draw- ings. Every tree and bush should be lo- cated and its species and variety desig- nated. After this much has been done, it will be easier to decide on drainage, cultivation and management. Unless these things are done, all other questions are settled by guesswork. There is no end of entertainment for winter evenings in this matter of making a design. Many families spend years of pleasant recreation in planning houses which they never build, but gardeners* plans are cheaper and just as Interest- ing. We all know that the common city lot, or suburban garden, is not an ideal place for fruit growing, agriculturally and geologically speaking. The soil is apt to be made up of ashes and the drainage secured by a varying admixture of tin cans and discarded umbrellas. While such soils do not appear under terms of high praise in the agricultural survey, they are not altogether impossible to the determined city gardener; and the first term in their utilization is that of drain- age. loao ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE It may be difficult for a perfect igno- ramus to tell by looking at a piece of land wbetber it is drained enough or not. Yet a good deal can be told by observa- tion. If water stands in pools on the surface for any length of time after a rainstorm, it indicates that the drainage is poor. If the soil is left very hard and brick-like when it dries out after a rain, better drainage is required. The best way to secure drainage where such treatment is required is by means of porous drain tiles. These must be fur- nished with some satisfactory outlet, either into the sewer or open ditch. They should be laid through the soil at a depth of two to four feet, and the branch drains in the small garden should be thirty feet apart. Good drainage is essential to success with a fruit garden. Preparation of the Soil Considerable care will be needed to prepare an unsuitable suburban lot for a successful amateur garden. In many cases the city dweller or suburbanite is compelled to make the soil first. Per- haps he has to buy it. In case the place has no good soil on the surface, it will be necessary to get a supply, even though it has to be bought from contractors. For our purposes we need a strong, grav- elly soil, without too much clay. If we can get surface soil containing vegetable matter, humus and loam, so much the better. The best preparation to be given to soil comes through drainage and cultiva- tion. The ideal way to prepare the gar- den is to spade it up deeply — just as deeply as possible. This work should be done early in the spring. Then the land should be planted with some crop which will make a vigorous growth. Cow peas, soy beans, crimson clover and buckwheat are the best crops, each one having its particular advantages. Any one of these will add humus and life to the soil. Sup- pose a crop of this sort has been grown the first year; it will be allowed to stand through the winter and will be plowed or spaded in the following spring. The second year the ground should be plant- ed to some crop requiring high cultiva- tion, such as beets, cabbage or potatoes. A liberal allowance of barnyard manure should be given, and the hoe and cultiva- tor frequently applied. The third year the ground will be in excellent condition for planting. This program will be ef- fective on everything except the most re- fractory soils. On better land the prep- aration may be reduced to a single year, and on good land the soil may be dug up and planted to fruit trees the first year. Flant Food Backyard lots are apt to be deficient in available plant food. There are usually enough chemicals in the soil to grow trees, but they are not accessible and di- gestible. The deficiency is to be made good with fertilizer. In beginning the garden, no fertilizer can be compared with well-rotted barnyard manure. This should be used liberally. A garden 50 feet square would usually be able to use two cords of stable fertilizer to good ad- vantage at the beginning of its cultiva- tion, and might have one cord annually for the first two or three years. As soon as the work is well under way, soil in good condition, and the trees beginning to make some growth, the amount of barnyard manure should be materially reduced, or cut off alto- gether. At the same time, the amount of chemical fertilizer should be increased. For smaller gardens it will be found best to buy ready-mixed fertilizers, de- pending a good deal on the advice of the best dealers. Such dealers can supply mixtures suitable for fruit trees and are Willing to give information regarding amounts to be used, times of application, etc. Getting the Trees Varieties to be planted should be se- lected, as far as possible, on the basis of the gardener's own taste, corrected only by what you are able to learn regarding their probable success in the locality. Of course, if you know nothing about the different varieties of peaches, plums or apples, you would better consult the ex- FRUIT GARDEN 1031 pert, and, in this case, the professors at the agricultural college will give un- prejudiced and reliable advice. The best nurserymen can he relied on in this way, also; since it is to their interest to sup- ply only such trees and varieties as will succeed and please their customers. But avoid, always, at all times, the itinerant tree peddler. In nearly all cases trees should he ordered in the fall, and they should be delivered and planted in the spring. A great deal of superstition surrounds the practice of tree planting. Many per- sons imagine there is some hocus-pocus about it. In many of the horticultural books there will be found most elaborate directions, amounting almost to religious ceremonies, for the planting of trees. Much of this is unnecessary and nonsen- sical, as is shown by the fact that com- mercial tree planters do the work with low-priced, ignorant help, and still ac- complish it very rapidly. I have seen a gang of four men, no one of them able to read Caesar, plant 800 trees in a day — and every tree grew. A very able Ameri- can horticulturist has recently advocated a new and striking method of tree plant- ing, which consists in cutting off all the roots and most of the top from every nursery tree, and inserting the stubs in holes driven in the soil with a crow- bar. The most amusing thing about this proposition is that it succeeds admirably in most cases. Wherefore, let us say that young fruit trees may be planted with every prospect of success if the most ordinary common sense is exercised. Broken roots should be cut away, and the top of each tree should be liberally pruned before setting. Water or fertili- zer should not be put into the hole with the tree roots. Under most circum- stances, both should be omitted from the process altogether, though either one may be applied in small quantities to the surface about the tree after it is plant- ed. Management After Flanting In order to make the fruit tree suc- ceed, constant and intelligent labor is required. The garden must be well tilled, especially during the early portion of the summer. Tillage ought to cease about July 10th in central latitudes. Trees ought to be pruned year by year. Several books have been written about pruning, and I hesitate to condense their information into a single paragraph. Some regular treatment, such as spray- ing, should be planned for the suppres- sion of insects and fungus diseases. In- formation on such matters can be se- cured from books, or from experts, who may be consulted without expense. The annual supply of plant food is to be kept up. Where trees are grown in dwarf forms or on trellises, there is more or less training to be done. Dwarf Fruit Trees It will be quite wrong to pass over the subject of dwarf trees in the discussion of city lot fruit gardens. On all small places the dwarf trees are of great ad- vantage. Their principal superiority in this case lies in the large number of them which can be put on a small tract. Dwarf fruit trees bear fruit exactly like the ordinary trees, and of the same varie- ties, such as Baldwin apples or Anjou pears. In size they may stand anywhere below the ordinary fruit trees, but, of course, for backyard gardens the smallest sizes are desirable. These dwarf fruit trees are secured by budding or grafting the ordinary vari- eties upon diminutive stocks. For ex- ample, the smallest dwarf apples are grafted upon so-called Paradise stocks, these being simply very diminutive apple trees grown from cuttings. Dwarf peach trees are secured by budding the ordi- nary varieties on small slow-growing plum roots. Dwarf pears are secured by budding the pear scion upon quince roots. Unfortunately, the demand for such things is not great enough in this coun- try to insure a constant supply. Dwarf pears and dwarf apples can be secured from leading American nurserymen, but it is almost impossible to get dwarf peach or plum trees without sending to Europe or propagating them at home. This busi- ness of home propagation is worth try- 1032 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ing, however. It is auite as interesting as fruit growing itself, and is capable of furnishing liberal education to the boys, not to mention the girls Some other advantages of dwarf fruit trees will be fairly plain without argu- ment. They bear fruit at a much earlier age than the ordinary trees, often yield- ing good crops two or three years after planting. The trees being small are eas- ier to care for, easier to prune, easier to spray. It must not be understood that it is cheaper to grow fruit in this way, or that the dwarf trees are to take the place of standard trees in money-making enter- prises. We are talking of them now only as a jfirst-class entertainment; but they do form an almost essential feature in the design of a city fruit garden. Some Specific Suggestions Our country is so large, and its climate and soils so diversified, that we cannot possibly lay out one fruit garden which can be adopted everywhere. Points to be kept in mind are: (1) that a consider- able diversity of fruit should be put in every home garden; (2) that these should be chosen according to personal taste; (E) that due attention should be paid to the adaptability of all varieties to the soil and climate; (4) that varieties should ripen in succession; (5) that va- rieties of fine appearance and high qual- ity be chosen in preference to those which are commercially successful, Frank A. Waugii, Amherst, Mass (Courtesy Woman's Home Companion.) *Fruit Trees — ^Winter Killing of About once in each decade, and some- times oftener, a severe winter occurs in which an unusually large number of fruit trees are killed. An examination of the orchards after such winters shows many irregularities as to the extent of the injuries in orchards differently lo- cated and managed. Some varieties of fruits are uniformly less hardy than oth- ers, and the winter injury to these sorts * Compiled from Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 157. may be traced directly to their greater tenderness. On the other hand, trees normally perfectly hardy in a locality may suffer serious injury or be entirely killed during such "test" winters, while other trees of the same varieties in the same orchard may escape injury entirely. During the prolonged cold winter of 1903-4 great losses were suffered by or- chardists in the Lake Erie peach belt. Some orchards were entirely destroyed; others were apparently uninjured and came through the winter in a vigorous, hardy condition; and still others, while suffering severely, yet contained sections, rows or parts of rows, or individual trees that came through the winter uninjured. Many theories were advanced by the orchardists as to the cause of these anom- alies, and as many contradictions ap- peared. The theory of insufiicient drain- age, which might be advanced as the cause of the injury in one orchard, would receive direct refutation in the next. If an orchard on elevated ground escaped in one instance it might be par- tially or entirely killed in another. In order to learn the cause of these irregu- larities, the horticulturist of the Ohio Ex- periment Station and his assistants vis- ited both injured and uninjured orchards in Catawba island and the peninsula of eastern Ottawa county, in Ohio, and made a thorough study of the matter, reporting the results of their investigations in a re- cent bulletin of the station. Their investigations show that while a general or direct cause of the injury was, of course, the severe and long-con- tinued cold, the specific causes of the varying degrees of injury were exceed- ingly numerous. Generally speaking, it was found that where the vitality of the tree or orchard had been lowered by any cause whatever during its previous his- tory the chances of injury to the tree by the cold were by so much increased. Fac- tors observed in different orchards which contributed to low vitality in the trees were an insufiicient degree of fer- tility, a low physical condition of the soils, prevalence of San Jose scale, leaf FRUIT TREES— WINTER KILLING OP 1033 curl, peach tree borers, extremely dry condition of the ground in some sandy and gravelly ridges, "water-logged" soils, etc. Injury on Bare Ground There was a marked contrast in the extent of the winter injury on bare soils — soils given clean cultivation — and on covered soils. The bare soils froze deeper and the injury was much greater than on soils covered with a mulch or other ma- terial. The greater depth to which bare soils freeze in winter than covered soils was brought out in an experiment made at the station. A plat of peaches in an exposed situation was selected and a strip of sod 10 to 12 feet wide removed from one row, leaving the bare surface of the soil fully exposed to the cold. Another row alongside was left in grass which had been clipped and al- lowed to lie upon the ground, t When the sod was removed the ground froze to a depth of 18 inches, while under the thin sod covering of grass and weeds in the other row the ground froze to a depth of about eight inches. The trees in the bare ground "were very slow in starting into growth the following spring of 1904. All of the trees in this row were seri- ously injured by the cold, many large branches dying, while in one case the entire tree was so badly injured that but few leaves appeared throughout the sea- son, and these upon shoots so feeble and slender that the tree might well be con- sidered dead. Later in the season, how- ever, some of the trees rallied slightly, though all showed a serious lack of vital- ity. The trees in the sod * * * did not sufter in the least degree — all mak- ing a healthy, uniform growth during the season of 1904." Talne of Cover Crops The value of an annual cover crop as compared with clean cultivation was found in an orchard 18 years planted, one-half of which had been cultivated during the first half of each season and then sown to crimson clover, while the other half was given clean cultivation t See tfnited States Department of Agricul- ture, Farmers* Bulletin 202, p. 11. during the growing season. "Upon the clean culture area there was a much greater percentage of injury from the cold of the winter than upon the crim- son-clover section. Where the clover crops had been grown and plowed down the trees showed remarkably healthy, heavy, dark-green foliage^ contrasting sharply with the yellowish, sickly foliage of the clean culture plat" Another grow- er in the injured peach region stated that "not a single orchard or section of an orchard of which he knew, that had received even a light dressing of barn- yard manure within the last year or two, had suffered noticeably from cold." Injury in Seale-Infested Orchards A 13-year-old orchard of 660 trees was found located on shallow limestone soil covered with a dense, heavy growth of bluegrass. The San Jose scale had wrought havoc in the neighborhood, but it had been kept under control in this orchard by spraying. As a result, not a tree in the whole block was killed by cold. Across the road from this orchard was another, located on similar soil and also in sod, but in which the scale had not been controlled. "The story is told in two words — entirely dead." Injury from Leaf Curl Another instance is cited in which an orchard was sprayed in the spring of 1902 for the control of the scale, with the exception of three rows through the middle, which were overlooked. As a result, the scale increased rapidly during this season on these unsprayed trees, and they were also attacked by leaf curl, which practically defoliated them. The whole orchard was sprayed in 1903, nev- ertheless the trees had been so weakened by the leaf curl of the preceding year that the good care given them in 1908 was unavailing, and every tree in the three rows was killed, while every tree on either side of them which had been sprayed came through the winter sound, vigorous and healthy. Benefits from Banking Trees A simple, easy, and very effective meth- od of preventing winter killing of peach trees was observed in the orchard of one 1034 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE grower. Just before winter set in this grower hauled manure to the orchard, hut instead of scattering it beneath the trees in the usual way he hanked a very few forkfuls immediately around the stem of the tree. When the supply of manure ran out peat or earth was hauled into the orchard and hanked around the stems of the tree in the same manner. "The results from the use of these ma- terials were uniform, and, surprising as it may seem, every tree that received this simple treatment survived the winter without the least injury from cold, while the few trees and sections of rows left here and there unhanked and serving as 'checks' in the experiment died almost to a tree." Another orchard of some 500 trees a little farther to the west of this orchard, "which had received the same high culture and good care, with the ex- ception of the simple hanking process, was almost a total loss." The trees in these orchards were extremely vigorous and had made a rank growth, which made them peculiarly susceptible to injury by freezing. Orchards in Sod On the same farm trees on a piece of ground which was so stony that it could not be cultivated and which was kept in bluegrass sod, with a heavy mulch of coarse material, such as cornstalks, barn- yard manure, etc., about the stems, accord- ing to the true "sod-and-mulch" method, came through the winter without injury. These investigations bring out striking- ly the necessity of such continuous and thorough cultural practices in the orchard as shall maintain the trees at all times in a vigorous, healthy condition. The fer- tility and vegetable matter of the soil must be maintained by the addition of manure or the growing of cover crops. Spraying to control insect pests and fun- gus diseases must be thorough and un- remittent. Trees on undrained or very rich soil, trees weakened by over bearing or by borers, all alike invite winter in- jury. Cover crops and mulches protect the ground from deep freezing and re- sultant winter injury. Sod serves the same purpose Banking up the trunks with a few shovelfuls of manure or earth appears to have a marked favorable in- fluence. Fruit as Food Edible fruits show the greatest range in form, color, and appearance and are found in almost countless varieties; yet from the botanist's standpoint all our fruits are the seed-bearing portion of the plant. The edible fruits of temperate regions fall into a few groups— stone- fruits, like cherries and plums; pome fruits, like apples and pears; grapes; and berries, like strawberries, blackber- ries, and currants. There are several prod- ucts, such as muskmelons, cantaloupes, and watermelons, sometimes classed as fruits and sometimes as vegetables, which, of course, would not belong to any one of these groups. Tropical fruits are not so easily classified, though the citrus family (oranges, lemons, etc.) includes many of the more common sorts. There are a few vegetable products which are not fruits in any botanical sense, but which by common consent are included in this class of food products since their place in the diet is the same. The most common of these products is rhubarb, and there are few uses of fruit which the acid rhubarb stalk does not serve. Angelica stalks, which are candied and used for making cakes and confec- tionery, are much less common, though the total amount used is large. It is cer- tainly more natural to include preserved, candied, and crystallized ginger root with candied pineapple, candied cumquats and similar products than with any other class of food materials, and old-fashioned candied sweet flag root may also be men- tioned in this connection. Wild and Cultivated Fruits In an account of the first Virginia col- ony it is stated that the Indians ate wild mulberries, crab apples, and huckleber- ries, but nothing is said of their cultivat- ing fruits, though they raised corn and other vegetables. Wild fruits have been part of the diet of primitive man when- ever obtainable, and no one can say with certainty when wild varieties were first cultivated, but it must have been early FRUIT AS FOOD 1035 in the history of the race, since such fruits as apples and pears have been un- der cultivation so long that the varieties now grown have scarcely any resemblance to the very small, woody, inferior fruit of the wild parent. As a country becomes more thickly settled, less and less re- liance can be placed on wild fruits, and the market gardener and fruit grower become of increasing importance. In the United States, strawberries, blackberries and raspberries are examples of fruits which are still eaten both wild and cultivated, and cranberries have so recently come un- der cultivation that many persons still think of them as a wild fruit. Huckle- berries and blueberries are practically un- known, except as they grow wild, though attempts are now being made to bring the blueberry to greater perfection under cul- tivation. Among little known wild fruits elderberries and scarlet haws or thorn apples, to give them their New England name, may be mentioned. Both are used for jelly making to some extent and the former for other purposes also, but as yet neither is considered as of much impor- tance. It would be difficult to say why some fruits which are considered to be fairly palatable and equal to others which are generally eaten have obtained so little popularity. For instance, both wild and cultivated mulberries have long been known and prized by many, but are per- haps unknown to the majority of persons and very little used. In the same way the medlar, a fruit closely related to the apple and common enough in parts of Europe, is almost unknown in the United States, though it could be readily grown, if desired. In some of our cultivated fruits, like the banana, seed is almost never found; in the case of others, for instance the orange, the seedless and seed-bearing var- ieties are both common; but in the ma- jority of fruits seeds are present in great- er or less abundance. It has been said that seedlessness is a result of long con- tinued cultivation, but it seems more prob- able that the seedless forms are due to the propagation and cultivation of natural sports without seeds. Seedless sports are by no means uncommon m wild fruits. Thus the native American persimmon is now and then found bearing seedless fruit, and such a form could be perpetuat- ed by horticulturists, if need be. The seed- less navel orange has been propagated in recent times from a seedless sport, and it seems very probable that bananas, though the wild forms are commonly full of seeds, were propagated from a seedless sport in times too remote for record. In- deed, it may be said that there is an al- most universal tendency to cultivate and perpetuate varieties in which seeds are few in number or small in size, and quite naturally, since such fruits are more con- venient to use and contain a higher pro- portion of nutritive material in a given bulk* In general, it is true that size, yield, color, flavor, texture, and chemical com- position are modified by cultivation. The commercial fruit grower, of course, desires a fruit of good appearance, hav- ing satisfactory shipping and keeping qualities, and too often the consumer is satisfied to accept a product in which such qualities predominate. Discriminating purchasers, however, will insist on good flavor, texture and cooking qualities as well, and such demands should be more often urged in order that quality may re- place appearance as a standard in cultivat- ing fruit for market Market Conditions and Fruit Snpply The fruit market has been very great- ly modified and extended by improved methods of transportation and storage. A man need not be very old to remember the time when, at least in the Northern states, bananas were a comparative rar- ity outside the large cities, and oranges and lemons, though common commodities, were rather high in price. In the sum- mer there was an abundance of the com- mon garden fruits, but in winter apples were practically the only sort which was at all plentiful. A few years have wit- nessed a great change, and now there is hardly a village so small that bananas and other Southern fruits can not be pur- chased at reasonable prices. In Europe 1036 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the situation is much the same Such quantities of bananas are now taken to England and sold at such reasonable rates that they are sometimes spoken of there as the poor man's fruit. At the present time there are a number of fruits, such as avocados or "alligator pears," man- goes, and sapodillas, which are fairly well known in our large markets though sel- dom seen in the smaller towns. The enormous development of the fruit grow- ing industry in California and Florida, which includes the products of both tem- perate and warm regions, as well as the possibilities of supplying the Northern markets with tropical fruits from Porto Rico and Hawaii, makes it probable that within a few years the avocado, the man- go, and other tropical fruits will be as well known as the pomelo or the pine- apple Improvements in transportation have also materially lengthened the season of many fruits, such as strawberries, which can not be stored for any considerable period. Florida and the Carolinas now send their berries to Northern markets months before the home-grown crop can be expected and several weeks before that from tidewater Virginia or New Jersey is ripe As an illustration of the effect of improved methods in shipping fruit, it may be mentioned that melons from the south of France, hothouse peaches from Belgium, and peaches, plums and other fruits from South Africa are now sent to our American markets in winter. The introduction or origination of new var- ieties of fruits also prolongs the season. As an instance may be cited the Peen-to peach, a Chinese variety which can be successfully raised in Florida and Texas, and which is found in our Northern mar- kets in early spring, though at present at prices which clearly make it a luxury. Furthermore, improved methods of cul- ture and transportation have extended the area planted to old and well-known var- ieties. Color and Flavor of Fruits Fruits, like leaves and flowers, owe their varied color to a number of chemi- cal compounds, the green to chlorophyll (the characteristic coloring matter of green leaves), the yellow to xanthin bodies and other yellow pigments, and the blue and red to solutions in the cell sap of complex coloring matters which have in most cases been isolated and classified. Several coloring matters are often present in combination and give rise to the great variety of shades which dif- ferent fruits present. In white fruits coloring matter is absent from the epi- dermis and the cells are said to be filled with air. As fruits develop, mature, and deteriorate, the coloring matters present undergo marked chemical changes, and color is one of the most common means of judging of ripeness. Attractive color has a decided effect on market value, and the public demand varies greatly in different regions. Thus, a yellow or russet dessert apple is de- manded in the French market, while in many parts of the United States the red apple has the preference. A faded, dull color is often an indication of staleness; strawberries and raspberries which have been kept too long have little of the bril- liant color of freshly gathered fruit. That fruit colors in general are not very per- manent is shown by the way the color deteriorates on long-continued cooking or fades when canned and preserved fruits are exposed to the light. In preparing such fruits as plums, peaches, etc., for the table, the skin may be readily removed without injury to the flavor by first immersing them for a short time in boiling hot water. A silver knife should always be used for paring apples, pears, and other fruits, as if a steel knife IS used the acid of the fruit acts on the iron of the knife and frequently causes a black discoloration, and there is also very commonly a noticeable metallic flav- or. If pared or cut fruit is exposed to the air, it rapidly turns dark in color, ow- ing to the action of oxydases, as some of the ferments normally present in fruits are called, upon the tannin or other readi- ly oxidizable bodies which are also nor- mal fruit constituents. In the same way the brown color of the bruised spots in apples is caused by oxid- FRUIT AS FOOD 1037 ation by means of the oxydases present in tlie fruit of the tannin m the crushed cells. Such bruised portions contain a larger proportion of starch than the rest of the apple because the tannin hinders the transformation of starch into sugar. In investigations carried on at the Ore- gon Agricultural Experiment Station with a view to preventing the discoloration of evaporated fruits and vegetables, it was found that treating sliced apples with a weak solution of common salt (1 to 2 per cent) resulted in a product which was very bright and white and of better ap- pearance than that obtained by the well- known domestic method of treatment with cold water. It seems probable that the Oregon method may find application in the household. Fruits owe their flavor in considerable degree to the sugars and the malic, citric, and other acids which they contain, but the flavor which is so characteristic of different kinds is almost entirely due to ethereal bodies. The amount present is often too small for determination by the usual chemical methods. However, in many cases these flavor-giving bodies have been studied and their chemical nature is known. The flavor of strawberries has been shown to be dependent in part at least upon the presence of a volatile oil with pronounced strawberry odor which is found in small proportions in the extract- ed fat of the dried berries. Recent Ger- man investigators* have identified the compound ethers which give bananas their characteristic flavor. With the orange and other citrus fruits the oil found in the skin has a very char- acteristic odor and flavor which are al- ways associated in our minds with the flavor of the fruit. Obviously, the small amount of these bodies of pronounced odor and flavor can not materially modify the nutritive value of fruits, but they are of great importance in considering the place of fruit in the diet, as they are very largely responsible for its attractiveness and palatability. There is no doubt that we all eat more readily the foods which please our palate than those which are of indifferent flavor, and there is every reason to believe that the foods which please are actually digested more easily than those which do not, since they stimu- late a normal and abundant production of digestive juices. Composition of Fruits Determining the proportion of water, protein, fat, carbohydrates (nitrogen- free extract and crude fiber), and ash m fruits as in other foods furnishes a convenient basis for pudging of their rel- ative food value. It is quite common for chemists to determine, instead of their proximate constituents, the propor- tions of the different nitrogenous bodies present, as well as the amounts of the different sugars, etc., which in the ordi- nary method of analysis are grouped with the other carbohydrates. The more detailed analyses are of great interest and value for many rea- sons, but with our present knowledge it seems fair to assume that the vari- ous sugars and starches, for instance, have the same nutritive value, and so a knowledge of the total quantity of these bodies present gives very satisfac- tory data for estimating the food value of the group.* Very many analyses and studies of fruit and fruit products have been made by chemists of the agricul- tural experiment stations, as well as by the different Bureaus of the Department of Agriculture. Table 1 summarizes a large amount of such data and shows the composition of fresh, dried, and pre- served fruits and fruit products, and for comparison the composition of a few other foods as well. In this table and the discussions which follow, attention has been given especially to the fruit of northern and temperate regions and no attempt has been made to summarize the considerable amount of data available regarding tropical fruits, except some which are grown in the United States or which are fairly well known at least in the larger markets. Special studies of * Dent Essi^indtis, 1905, p 81. * An extended summary of the more detailed analyses ot fruits and fruit products may be found in Konig's Chemie der mensehlichen Nahrungs und Genussmittel. Berlin, 1903, volume 1, fourth edition, pages 820-895. 1038 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE tropical fruits have been made by tbe California and by the Maine experiment stations, and the Bureau of Chemistryt of this Department has reported an ex- tended series of investigations of such fruits and the jams and preserves made from them. Most of the fruits and fruit products included in the table are too well known to need description. Of those which are less familiar, the avocado or "alligator pear" is a green or purple fruit not un- like an egg plant in appearance. The portion eaten is the pulp which sur- rounds the single large seed. In tex- ture it is soft and somewhat like butter, and to this quality it doubtless owes the name "midshipmen's butter," given to it in the days of sailing vessels. The avo- cado is eaten in a variety of ways, but is most commonly served as a salad. This fruit has a delicate, almost nut-like flavor, and is every year becoming more popular. Earlier publicationsj of this Department have discussed the avocado at length and described its cultivation and uses. The fruits of several sorts of cactus are very commonly eaten in Mexico and other regions where cactus is abundant, and are common though less well known in New Mexico and the Southwest. Un- der the name of prickly pear or Indian fig fresh cactus fruits, particularly the oblong, oval, yellowish or reddish fruits of Opuntia flcus indica, showing here and there characteristic tufts of fine spines or bristles, are occasionally seen at certain seasons of the year in large fruit shops. Cactus fruits may be used for jam making and in similar ways. A rather hard solid preserve or "cactus cheese," which may sometimes contain nuts, is a Mexican sweetmeat. Many varieties of the guava, a very aromatic tropical and sub-tropical fruit, are grown in the warmer regions of the United States, and its uses are so varied that it is often said the guava occupies tXTnited States Department of Agrriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 87. t United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 77 ; Farmers' Bulletin 169. much the same place in cookery in the Tropics as the apple in northern regions. The fresh fruit is seldom seen outside the regions where it is grown, but guava jelly and guava paste are common com- mercial products, and have been popu- lar ever since the days when the West India merchantmen brought these del- icacies, preserved tamarinds, and oranges and lemons to our northern markets as well as such staple goods as sugar and molasses. The roselle or Jamaica sorrel is the fruit of a widely distributed tropical hibiscus which is grown extensively in California and Florida. The fruits some- what resemble okra in form, are of a dark magenta color, and have an acid flavor much like that of cranberries. They are used for jams, jellies, etc. The Surinam cherry is the fruit of a South American tropical shrub now grown to a limited extent in Southern Florida and California. It is about the siize and shape of an ordinary cherry, and owes its common English name to this fact. The fruit is bright red in color, and has a sharp but pleasant acid flavor. The Surinam cherry is used for jelly making, etc., but is seldom a com- mercial product. The loquat, commonly though incor- rectly called the Japan plum, is grown to a considerable extent in the southern United States. The small, yellowish, plum-like fruits are almost translucent when ripe, and are covered with a downy fuzz or bloom. The pulp is soft and tender and quite tart until fully ripe. The flavor is distinct and agreeable. Lo- quats are used both raw and cooked, and both fresh and preserved fruits are commercial products. The sapodilla, a tropical fruit which thrives in regions like the warmer parts of Florida, suggests a good-sized russet apple in appearance, but when broken open is quite different in character, as it contains a number of rather large flat brown seeds embodied in a tender brownish white pulp. The flavor is characteristic, and to some palates sug- gests a combination of a pleasant mild acid with caramel or brown sugar. The FRUIT AS FOOD 1039 sapodilla is a not uncommon commercial fruit in large fruit shops. Perliaps no fruit of tlie Tropics is more often discussed than the mango, some persons being exceedingly fond of this juicy aromatic fruit while others are as outspoken in their dislike. There are countless varieties of the mango, and many of them have a rank turpentine- like flavor, and are very fibrous. These qualities are not apparent, however, in the best varieties, which are of very delicate flavor and very palatable. The fruit is cooked in a variety ot ways, be- ing a staple article of diet in the Tropics, and is also eaten fresh. Some difSculty is experienced in shipping mangoes, as the flesh is very juicy and tender, but they are occasionally found in market at least as far north as Washington, D. C. Table I Average composition of fruit and fruit products. Refuse Edible Portion Water Protein Ether Extract Carbohydrates Ash Kind of Fruit Nitro- gen- free extract Crude Fiber Fuel value P^r pound Fresh Fruits Apples Per ct. 25.0 6.0 29.0 35.0 Per ct. 84.6 86.0 81.1 75.3 86.3 79.2 80 9 88.9 85.0 79.0 79.1 85.6 77.4 82.9 81.9 89.3 77.9 87.4 74.6 84.7 89.5 82.9 67.0 86.9 89.4 80.9 66.1 80.2 89.3 78.4 76.8 79.6 85.8 84.1 89.6 94.4 86.5 84.0 77.9 75.8 90.4 85 92.4 82.4 26.1 29.4 29 2 9.7 19 15 4 18.8 16 5 Per ct. 0.4 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.0 .4 1.5 6.6 1.5 61.0 1.3 1.3 ,6 1.0 .2 .6 .6 .4 .6 .6 2.5 .8 .7 1.0 .8 1.4 .4 1,0 1.5 .9 1.0 1.7 .1 .6 2.1 1.7 .5 2.0 1.0 .4 .4 .7 1.6 4.7 5.3 3.1 .6 2.1 4 3 2.8 Per ct. 0.5 "■*i6!2' .6 1.0 1.3 .8 .6 *"'6'.3" *1.V .7 .6 .7 a' ••*i7:i .2 .1 .6 .7 .6 .3 ■"'i'e' '*'i*.6 6.3 .7 .3 1.0 1.6 .7 .6 .2 3.0 22 1.0 2.3 .5 1.5 2.8 .3 5.4 Per ct. 13 Per ct. 12 Per ct. 0.3 .6 .9 .8 .5 2.7 .6 .2 .7 1.0 .6 .3 .5 .6 .3 .6 1.1 .6 .6 .6 .6 .6 4.4 .6 .4 .4 .9 .6 .3 .5 .6 .6 .6 .6 .2 .7 .8 1.1 .6 .8 .6 .7 .3 .4 2.0 2.4 5.3 2.6 .9 1.3 2.4 2.4 Calories 290 Apricots 13.4 270 Avocado 6 8 512 Bananas 21.0 84 11.7 16.5 8 4 1.0 2.5 3.7 .2 16 460 Blackberries. 270 Cactus Fruit 375 Cherries 5.0 365 Cranberries 215 Currants. 12.8 13.1 i a6.1 18-8 266 Currants (black) a 370 Fip 380 Gooseberries a *i4'9" 8.0 cl3.1 4.3 6.6 255 Grapes Guava a 25.0 450 315 Huckleberries 16-6 346 Lemons Loquat 30.0 7.4 20.2 9 9 16.5 1.1 .6 1.2 7.5 205 395 Mango a &40.0 220 Medlar a , 455 Mulberry a 14 3 72! 2.1 15.9 5.7 i 3.3 11 6 280 Muakmelons Nectarines 50.0 6.6 17.9 27.0 18.0 10.0 &25.0 24.0 40.0 5.0 630.0 5.8 185 305 Olives 407 Oranges 240 Peaches 5 8 15.7 29.7 15 1 9 3 3.6 1.5 1.8 2.1 .4 190 Pears 163 Persimmons 630 Persimmons (Japanese) , 174 Pineapples 200 Plums 20 1 16.8 1 2.7 18.9 9 7 1 2.9 12.6 3.8 66.0 2.5 1.1 10.3 12.2 395 Pomegranates. , Prunes 460 370 Raspberries (red) 255 Raspberries (black) 310 Red bilberry , 190 Rhubarb stalks 40.0 105 Roselle calyx , 236 Roselle pod 290 Sapodilla a , • 640.0 20.0 6.0 16.6 18,6 6.0 13 2.8 2.1 1.4 .9 425 Scarlet haws 212 Strawberries Surinam cherry 180 260 Watermelons 59.4 6.7 140 Whortleberries 10.3 62.0 3.2 6 1 390 Dried Fruits Apples 1,350 Apricots 62.5 1,290 Bananas a 55.8 83 4 2 1 .7 1,240 Banana flour. 1,610 Citrons , 78.1 1,525 10 74 6 68 66 3.8 6.2 6.9 1,615 J^gs 1,475 1,635 a European analysis. 6 Assumed. c Including 3.5 per cent skin and seeds. 1040 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Table I— Continued ■ Refuse Edible Portion Water Protein Ether Extract Carbohydrates Ash Kind of Fruit Nitro- gen- free extract Crude Fiber Fuel value per pound Dried Pruits— CoEtinued Prunes Per ct. 15.0 10.0 Per ct. 22.3 14.6 8.1 617.3 17.2 42.4 61.1 81.4 45.2 40.0 85.6 77.2 21.0 56.5 36.7 58.0 64,7 14.5 88.1 81.1 61.8 76.6 74.8 10.4 14.4 12.1 18.2 12.3 Per ct. 2.1 2.6 7.3 5.7 2.4 .3 .2 .9 1.9 .8 .6 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.7 .6 .7 .3 .4 .5 ,7 .1 .7 .5 .1 .3 Per et. ■■"3'.3* 1.8 1.1 1.7 2.4 .8 2.1 .6 .1 ""q.z .1 27.6 25.9 .1 .1 .3 .7 .1 !i' .1 .2 .1 .2 100.0 ""h.5 .3 .1 1.0 1.9 1.3 1.8 Per ct. Per ct. 71.2 2.1 73.6 . 2.5 80.2 67.0 6.4 71.2 3.0 54.4 Per ct. 2.3 3.4 2.6 2.5 4.5 .5 .7 .4 2.8 .7 .4 .5 .7 1.1 3.6 1.7 3.4 .3 .3 .3 .7 .5 ,6 :? .6 3.0 .4 Calories 1,400 Raisins Rasoberries 1,606 1,705 St. John's bread 1,480 Zante currants fEInjrlish currants^ 1,495 Canned Fruits, Preserves, Jellies, Etc. Crab a,DDles fcanned^ . . 1,12a Apple sauce 37.2 17.3 48.8 56.4 12.8 21.1 77.2 40.9 68.5 11.6 4.3 84.5 10.8 ' 18.0 36.4 22.3 24.0 730 Apricots (canned) 340 Apricot sauce. . • 1.000 Blackberries (canned) • • 1,15a BluebernKi (canned) . . 276 Cherries (canned) . . . 415 Cherry jelly 1,455 Figs, stewed 785 Grape butter • 1,116 Olives, green, pickled 27.0 19.0 i,4oa Olives, npe, pickled 1.206 Orange marmalade 1,586 Peacaes (canned) 220 Pears (canned) 356 Pinfts^,ppleij cftTiTied) . . . . . , . , , 715 Prunes, stewed . . , 430 Strawberries, stewed 460 Angelica stalks (candied) 87.3 83.0 86.1 77.6 86.1 1.5 1.1 .6 1.0 .7 1,650 Apricots (candied) 1,446 Cherries (candied) 1,465 C/itron (candied) 1,380 Ginger root (candied) 1,620 Fruit Products Olive oil 4.035 Raspberry juice 49.3 92.2 91.5 78.3 12.0 12.5 35.3 12.6 18.2 .6 .2 1.6 2.2 11.4 9.2 9.2 22.5 ,4 a49.9 6.9 4.5 18.0 74. S 74.4 52.6 55.2 81.2 100.0 1.1 .4 .3 1.0 .5 4.4 .3 .2 1.0 1.0 .5 1.0 .5 3.5 .2 936 XFnfermented grape juice 150 Other Foods for Comparison Cabbage Potatoes., Wheat flour, high grade 15.0 20.0 145 385 1,650 Com meal, bolted 1,666 White bread 1,215 Beans, dried 1,605 Honey 1,620 Sugar, granulated ... .... ... 1,860 Butter '. "ii.6 1.0 85.6 3.0 3,605 1 a Probably contained added sugar. 6 European analysis. Most fruits, like otlier classes of foods, contain more or less material, snch as pits, skin, etc., whicli is inedible. When such portions are removed a larger or smaller part of the edible material is almost always of necessity removed also, and is spoken of as "waste.** In re- porting analyses the amounts of inedible material and waste are grouped together under the heading "refuse.** As may be seen from the above table, the proportion of refuse in fruits varies within rather wide limits. Thus, of pears it constitutes on an average 10 per cent of the total fruit, peaches 18 per cent, apples and grapes 25 per cent, and bananas 35 per cent, while in the case of raspberries and blackberries there is no refuse and the whole fruit can be eaten. The analytical data quoted above show that fresh fruits are in general dilute foods — that is, the proportion of water which they contain is large, compared with the total amount of nutritive ma- terial. It has been suggested that fruits containing 80 per cent or more of water be classed as flavor fruits and those with less than 80 per cent as food fruits. As FRUIT AS FOOD 1041 may be seen fi^om Table I sucli fruits as strawberries, blackberries, and rasp- berries would be included in the first class, and fresb figs, bananas, grapes, etc., in the second. In dried fruits which have been concentrated by evaporation the percentage of nutrients is very much high- er than in fresh fruits. Some preserved fruits also possess a comparatively high nutritive value, owing to the evapora- tion of water by the heat of cooking or to the addition of sugar, or to both factors. Candied fruits, such as cher- ries and apricots, which are included in the table, may be looked upon as typical examples of this class of fruit products. As regards composition, the water con- tent is low and the carbohydrates and consequently the energy value is very high, owing to the added sugar. Olives and the avocado are remarkable for the large percentage of fat which they contain, but in general it may be said that this constituent is present in very small proportion in fresh fruits. In the case of the apple, pear, etc., it seems probable that the small amount of fat obtained in chemical analysis con- sists of the coloring matter contained in the fruit or of wax found in the skin. That the amount of wax may be consid- erable is evident when we recall the fact that fruit wax is collected from bay ber- ries and other fruits in quantities suf- ficient for candle making and other pur- poses. That common fruits actually con- tain fat, though it is not generally as- sociated with them, is shown by a re- cently published study of the fat of woods strawberries. The dried berries when extracted yielded a small amount of oil, cloudy at ordinary temperatures, but clear when heated, and much like linseed oil in its properties. In the majority of fruits and fruit products the carbohydrates are the food constituents most abundantly represent- ed. The figures in the table show that the proportion of nitrogen-free extract varies greatly, being lowest in the fresh and highest in the dried and preserved fruits. It is interesting to consider also the values which have been reported for some of the constituents not shown in the table, but included in the group "nitrogen-free extract" In seeds which are commonly eaten, such as the cereal grains, and beans, peas, and other legumes, the nitrogen-free extract is quite largely made up of starches. In fruits, however, sugars and the so-called pectin bodies, with very often more or less starch, make up the group. The princi- pal sugars in fruit are cane sugar, grape sugar (glucose), and fruit sugar (levul- ose), the last two being usually pres- ent together in equal quantity and designated invert sugar or reducing sugai'. The stage of growth and the de- gree of ripeness have a very marked ef- fect on the kind and amount of sugar, and it is therefore difficult to give aver- age figures for the quantities present which will be fairly representative. An idea of the range in the sugar content of ripe fruits may be gathered from figures quoted from a summary* published sev- eral years ago. According to these data, invert sugar ranged from 2 per cent in round numbers in large early apricots to 15 per cent in grapes and a variety of sweet cherries. A number of fruits (strawberries, gooseberries, raspberries, and apples) contained about half the latter quantity. The cane sugar ranged from less than 1 per cent in lemons to 14 per cent in a variety of plums. Bananas also contained a fairly high per- centage, namely, 11 per cent. Fruit sugar rarely occurs unaccom- panied by grape sugar, but has been thus reported in the mango and in amounts large in proportion to the grape sugar in sweet apples and sweet pears and a number of varieties of grapes. In the case of grape sugar large amounts — 18 to 30 per cent — have been reported in juice of different sorts of grapes, while in dried fruits the values are even high- er, 32 per cent having been found in prunes, 54 per cent in Zante or "English'* currants, which are of course a small seedless grape, 61 per cent in raisins, 4S per cent in figs, and ^Q per cent in dates. * Lippman : Chemie der Zuckerarten, 1895, third edition, pages 493, 591 ; 1904, faurtli edition, pages 200, 794. 1042 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE The acid in fruits, which in proximate analyses is not usually determined sep- arately, varies within rather wide limits, 1 to 2 per cent heing reported on an average in such fruits as apples, pears, plums, strawberries, etc., and as high as 7 per cent or more in lemon juice. It often happens that of two fruits with the same acid content one has a much sourer taste than the other, because the acid is not so much masked by sugar. Fruits contain a comparatively small amount of mineral matter — less than 1 per cent on an average — consisting quite largely of potassium salts, with a little phosphoric acid, iron, lime, etc. As a class, it is apparent that fresh fruits are directly comparable with green vegetables and root crops rather than with more concentrated foods, such as flour or meal. The dried and some of the preserved fruits, which are more con- centrated than the fresh, compare fav- orably with bread, dried beans, and simi- lar foods on the basis of total food ma- terial present. There is this difference, however, that the cereals and dried legumes contain fairly large proportions of protein, while the quantity present in fruits is always small. In other words, fruits — fresh, dried, and preserved — are sources of energy rather than of tissue- forming material. Grape juice and other freshly express- ed juices are pleasant and wholesome Deyerages. They are commonly preserved for winter use at home as well as on a commercial scale by sterilizing in bottles. The fruit juices are dilute foods, as the figures given for grape juice in Table 1 indicate. Fruit syrups made by adding sugar to the juice are extensively used in the household and in other ways. The food value of such articles is, of course, considerably increased by the sugar which they contain. In connection with the subject of fruit juices and syrups, it may be of in- terest to mention the Turkish prepara- tion, which is made by evaporating grape juice until it is of the consistency of molasses, then thickening with flour or starch, and spreading it out to dry in the sun in thin sheets. This product is not unlike the peach leather, which is an old-fashioned domestic product still made to some extent in much the same way in the southern United States by drying crushed peach pulp on platters in an oven. Plum leather is also some- times made in the same way After soak- ing in water for some hours peach leath- er is ready for use on the table or for making puddings, etc. Another Turkish preparation called sujuk or rojik is made by stringing walnuts on pieces of stout twine about a yard long and immersing them in a mixture of grape molasses and flour. After receiving a coating about one-fourth of an inch thick they are with- drawn and hung up to dry, and may then be preserved in jars in good condition for a few months. Sujuk is said to be an excellent article of food and palatable. Sometimes wheat grits are used to thick- en the grape syrup, and the nut and syrup mixture is made in the form of cakes about one-half an inch thick when dried. Vinegar, which contains about 3 per cent of extractive material and 0.5 per cent ash, in addition to 6 per cent acetic acid and over 90 per cent water, is one of the oldest fruit products and also one of the oldest and most common condi- ments and household preservatives. It owes its use in the diet to flavor and other qualities rather than to the very small amount of nutritive material which it may contain. Honey vinegar,* malt vinegar, etc., are well known, but vine- gar made from fruit juice is far more common. By fermentation the sugar in the original material is converted into acetic acid, and to this the vinegar large- ly owes its flavor, though the salts and other materials originally present in the fruit juice have an effect upon this qual- ity. Vinegar made from apple juice— that is, cider vinegarf—has always had a repu- tation for good quality, though other fruit juices are of considerable importance in domestic vinegar making, banana vine- * For description and method of making, see united States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 276. tVinegar making and related questions are taken up in United States Department of Agri- culture. Farmers* Bulletin 233. FRUIT AS FOOD 1043 gar being one of the sorts whicli is rath- er favorably known in regions where this fruit is grown. The acid juice of lemons and limes is used like vinegar as a con- diment, and many persons consider that lemon juice is more delicate. It is some- times claimed that it is more wholesome also, but this seems hardly more than a matter of opinion, as there is no reason to suppose that the small amounts of vinegar ordinarily used are in any way harmful. Verjuice, the expressed acid juice of green apples, crab apples, or other un- ripe fruit, was formerly used as a con- diment and was greatly prized. It has survived in modern cookery in a limited way and may occasionally serve a use- ful purpose when lemon juice is not read- ily obtainable. Ripening and Its Effect on Composition As fruits grow to their full size and ripen they undergo marked changes in chemical composition with respect both to the total and to the relative amount of the different chemical bodies present When stored after gathering, the changes continue, some fruits improving on stor- age and others deteriorating very rapid- ly. In general, ripe fruits are less acid than green and contain less starch, woody material, crude fiber, and the carbohy- drates commonly referred to as pectin bodies and correspondingly larger amounts of the different sugars. Fruits contain oxydases and other fer- ments, and these are believed to play a very important part in the chemical changes which accompany growth and maturity. Many diverse views have been expressed regarding the exact nature and extent of the processes involved and the compounds formed in ripening fruit. The question as a whole has been a favorite one with chemists, and the agricultural experiment stations have made a number of important contributions to the sub- ject. One of the most recent and valu- able contributions, both from a biblio- graphical and from a chemical stand- point, is the series of investigations pub- lished by Bigelow * and his associates, of the Bureau of Chemistry of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, on the ripening of winter and summer apples and of peaches. With winter apples it was found that the starch increases from early summer until the maximum is reached in midsummer and then decreases and finally disappears. The malic acid content decreases from early summer un- til maturity, while cane sugar and in- vert sugar increases. In the case of peaches, as the fruit de- velops from early summer to ripeness the proportion of fiesh increases and the pit decreases. During this period the weight of reducing sugars increases about eight times and that of cane sugar or sucrose and acids considerably more than this. An increase is also noted with the vari- ous forms of nitrogenous substances. Throughout the whole period of growth the proportion of solids to water in the flesh of the peach remains fairly con- stant. The pit, on the other hand, be- comes harder and the percentage of water in it decreases as growth progresses. It is interesting to note that throughout the whole period of growth no appreciable amount of starch is found in the peach. Between the condition known as market ripeness and full ripeness considerable growth takes place in the peach, there being an increase in both water and solid matter and in reducing sugar and cane sugar. A German investigator $ found that when black currants were picked when slightly green and kept for a few days there was an increase in sugar and a decrease in the acid content. The changes which take place in gooseber- ries do not appear to be of the same character. Picked when green, they con- tain 3.9 per cent sugar and 27.2 per cent acid. When stored at a cool temperature for six days they had taken on the dark color of ripe berries and contained some- what smaller proportions of both sugar and acid. A knowledge of the changes which ac- company the growth, ripening, and stor- * XT. S. Department Asrricultnre, Bnreati of Chemistry Bulletins No. 94 and No. f)7 t Landw. Jalirb. Schweiz., 19 (1905), p. 600. 1044 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE age of fruits is very important com- mercially as well as from the housekeep- er's standpoint. For instance, in cider making it is desirable that the fruit should he used when the sugar content is high, as the auality of cider and vine- gar is largely determined by the amount of sugar present. As every housewife knows, underripe fruit— that is, fruit which still contains the so-called pectin bodies rather than the sugars and other carbohydrates characteristic of fully rip- ened fruit— is the most satisfactory for jelly making. In the case of bananas the underripe fruit, rich in starch, is best for cooking, and the very ripe fruit, in which the starch has been changed into sugar, for use uncooked. It is not unlikely that failure to recognize this distinction is re- sponsible for the digestive disturbance which many persons experience when bananas are eaten, as the raw, underripe, starchy fruits are generally conceded to be difficult of digestion. The underripe bananas, when dried, sliced, and ground, yield a flour or meal rich in starch, while the riper fruit with the higher sugar con- tent, sliced and dried, is very sweet and not unlike figs in flavor and composition. Ways of ServiBg Fruit As regards the way in which they are served fruits range from the muskmelon, watermelon, and avocado, almost never cooked, to cranberries and the ordinary varieties of quince, which are not eaten raw. The methods of preparation are quite varied, including drying or evapor- ating, and baking, boiling, and stewing, while quantities of fruit are used in pud- dings, pies, and other dishes, and for the preparation of jams, jellies, and pre- serves. Fruit juices are used for bever- ages, and both fruits and the juices are very commonly prepared for the table by freezing fruit ices being considered as among the most appetizing desserts. Some fruits, notably the green and the ripe olive and less generally the lime, are prepared for the table by pickling in brine. Even a casual examination of cookery books and the periodical literature de- voted to such topics shows that the ways in which fruits and fruit products can be cooked and served are practically end- less. The housewife who desires to vary her menu by the use of more fruit and fruit dishes can do so very readily by consulting such sources of information. The temperature at which fresh fruits are eaten is largely a matter of fashion or individual taste. With the increased use of ice in our homes during recent years it has become a very common custom to serve fruits colder than was formerly the case. Cool or even cold fruits are very refreshing and many prefer them served thus. There are others, however, who maintain that overchilling lessens the delicate flavor and accentuates the acid taste. They insist that the fruits gathered in the cool of the day and stored in a cool but not a cold place are at their best. Still others find them sweetest and most palatable when brought from the garden warmed by the sun. Place of Fruit in the Diet In most families fruits are commonly thought of as a food accessory, and are prized for their pleasant flavor or for sup- posed hygienic reasons rather than for their food value; yet a study of avail- able figures shows that they constitute a by no means unimportant part of the diet, since they supply, on the basis of recent statistics, 4.4 per cent of the total food and 3.7 per cent of the total carbo- hydrates of the average American diet. With a view to learning something more definite regarding the possibilities of fruits as sources of nutrients, the rela- tive cost of nutrients supplied by fruits and other foods, the digestibility of a fruit diet as compared with an ordinary mixed diet, and related questions, ex- tended investigations were undertaken at the California Agricultural Experiment Station by Prof. M. E. Jaffa, the work as a whole being carried on in co-operation with the nutrition investigations of the Ofiice of Experiment Stations. In the first series reported six dietary studies were made with fruitarians — two women and four children who had lived on a fruit and nut diet for several years. The dietary studies covered from 20 to 28 FRUIT AS FOOD 1045 days, and the daily food consisted of dif- ferent combinations of fruits and nuts, of which the following day's ration may serve as a sample: 475 grams apples, 110 grams bananas, 850 grams oranges, 5 grams dates, 2 grams honey, 10 grams olive oil, 55 grams almonds, 70 grams pine nuts, and 50 grams walnuts. The later studies were made with one of the women and two of the children included in the first group, and in addi- tion with two elderly men who had been vegetarians for years and had limited their diet almost exclusively to fruits and nuts, and with two young men, university students, who were accustomed to the or- dinary diet, though one of them had ex- perimented with a vegetarian and fruitar- ian diet for some time. The students and one of the elderly men ate three meals a day at the usual hours. The others ate but twice, the first meal being taken between 10 and 11 o'clock in the morn- ing and the second between 5 and 6 o'clock in the afternoon. As before, the diet in- cluded a large assortment of fresh fruits, with considerable quantities of dried fruits and nuts, and some honey and olive oil. In a few cases small quantities of other foods were also eaten. Considering these studies as a whole, the diet of the women and children fur- nished from 32 to 43 grams of protein and 1,190 to 1,430 calories of energy per day, the cost ranging from 15.7 to 27 5 cents. It is the usual custom to discuss dietary studies on the basis of the amounts eat- en per man per day, and the results ob- tained with these women and children, when recalculated to this basis, showed a range of 47 to 80 grams of protein and 1,850 to 2,805 calories of energy, the cost of the daily food ranging from 21 to 55 cents per man per day. In the studies with the young and the old men the pro- tein supplied by the daily diet ranged from 40 to 85 grams and the energy from 1,712 to 3,305 calories, the average being 62 grams protein and 2,493 calories, the cost ranging from 18.1 to 47 cents per per- son per day. These amounts are consid- erably smaller than have been found on an average with families living in many different regions of the United States and under a variety of conditions, as is shown by the fact that with 52 families in com- fortable circumstances the average pro- tein in the daily diet was 103 grams and the average energy 3,500 calories. On the other hand, in many of the dietary studies made under the auspices of the Ofiice of Eixperiment Stations it has been found that persons living on a mixed diet have obtained amounts directly compar- able with those supplied by the fruitarian diet. Thus, at the North Dakota Agricul- tural College several years ago a diet- ary study showed that the food consumed per man per day by a group of students furnished 64 grams protein and 2,579 calories and at Lake Erie College 68 grams protein and 2,610 calories, calculat- ed on a uniform basis per man per day. In a recent investigation carried on at Harvard it was found that the diet of nine students who lived at the college commons and, from necessity or choice, endeavored to live cheaply supplied, on an average, 89 grams protein and 3,068 calories. In this case the average cost was 39.9 cents per day and at the North Dakota and the Lake Erie colleges 13 and 18 cents, respectively. It will thus be seen that in the California investigations the fruit and nut diet supplied the sub- jects with amounts of protein and energy which are directly comparable with those obtained by many other persons from a mixed diet, though in general the quanti- ties were smaller than are supplied by the diet of the average family. It should be said that the persons living on a fruit and nut diet apparently maintained their normal health and strength. It seems fair to say that at the present time the consensus of opinion of well-in- formed physiologists is that the ordinary mixed diet is most convenient and satis- factory for the average individual. It is equally clear from the investigations re- ported that fruits and nuts should not be looked upon simply as food accessories, but should be considered a fairly econom- ical source of nutritive material. It must be remembered, too, that the use of fruits, fresh and preserved, often makes palat- able an otherwise rather tasteless meal. Jam with our bread is a reasonable com- 1046 BNCYCL0PE3DIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE bination, the highly flavored fruit product •whetting the appetite for the needed quan- tity of rather flavorless bread. Digestibility of Fruit In addition to the dietary studies, a large number of digestion experiments were made at the California Experiment Station for the purpose of learning how thoroughly a diet made up of various com- binations of fruits and nuts was as- similated. In such an experiment cover- ing ten days, made with a child seven years old, on an average 82 per cent of the protein, 87 per cent of the fat, 96 per cent of the nitrogen-free extract (sugar, starches, etc.), 80 per cent of the crude fiber, and 54 per cent of the ash of the food eaten were digested, and 87 per cent of the energy of the diet was available to the body. In 30 experiments with men, 75 per cent of the protein, 86 per cent of the fat, 95 per cent of the nitrogen-free extract, 79 per cent of the crude fiber, and 55 per cent of the ash of the fruit and nut diet were digested, and SQ per cent of the energy was available. These values are comparable with those obtained from an ordinary mixed diet, as is shown by the fact that in 93 experiments with young men 93 per cent of the protein, 95 per cent of the fat, and 98 per cent of the total carbohydrates supplied were assim- ilated. The average coefficients of digest- ibility which have been calculated for fruits in connection with the nutrition in- vestigations carried on under the auspices of the Oflice of Experiment Stations are protein 85 per cent, fat 90 per cent, and carbohydrates 90 per cent, and those for fresh vegetables, protein 83 per cent, fat 90 per cent, and carbohydrates 95 per cent The feces excreted per person per day on the fruit and nut diet in the California experiments were less in amount than has been the case in some experiments with a mixed diet or a ration of bread and milk. This is contrary to what has been commonly found with a vegetarian diet made up of bread and other cereal foods, garden vegetables, etc., and con- taining little if any fruit or nuts. The percentage of so-called metabolic nitrogen in the feces from the fruit and nut diet did not exceed that reported by other in- vestigators in tests with a bread and milk diet. In other words, if the amount of metabolic products can be looked upon as a measure of the work of digestion, no more effort is required to digest the fruit and nuts than is needed for bread and milk. Although, as Professor Jaffa points out, it is undoubtedly advisable to wait un- til more data have been obtained before making definite statements regarding the digestibility of fruits and nuts, enough has been done to show that they are almost completely digested and have a higher nutritive value than is popularly attribut- ed to them. In view of this it is certain- ly an error to regard fruit as something of value only for its pleasant flavor or for its hygienic or medicinal properties, or to consider nuts simply as an accessory to an already hearty meal. As shown by the composition and digestibility of both fruit and nuts, they can be favorably compared with other and moi'e common food. So far as can be learned, comparatively few investigations have been made to as- certain the digestibility of particular fruits, raw or cooked. In a series of in- vestigations by Bryant and Milner the di- gestibility of apple sauce was determined when eaten with a simple basal ration. The coefficients of digestibility for apple sauce alone were calculated in the usual way and were, protein 28 per cent, nitro- gen-free extract 99.6 per cent, crude fiber 96 per cent, and ash 100 per cent, while all the energy supplied by the apple sauce was considered to be available to the body. The coefficient ^f digestibility of protein is low, but, as the authors pointed out, the total amount of this constituent present was so small that it may be disregarded. This investigation, like those at the Cali- fornia Experiment Station, indicates that the fruit carbohydrates (sugar, starches, etc.), that is, the principal nutritive ma- terials which fruits supply, are very thoroughly assimilated. Few studies seem to have been made to determine the ease or rapidity of digestion of diiferent fruits in the stomach, but a comparison of available data indicates that fruits compare favorably with other FRUIT AS FOOD 1047 common foods as regards stomach di- gestion. Apparently it is fair to say tlaat stomach digestion is influenced by the nature of the fruit and its stage of ripe- ness. Beaumont states that mellow sour apples eaten uncooked require two hours for digestion in the stomach and mellow sweet apples 1.5 hours. Another observer notes that about five ounces of raw ripe apple requires three hours and ten min- utes for digestion in the stomach, but states that if the fruit is unripe, and con- sequently contains a high proportion of cellulose, a much longer time may be re- quired. Little is definitely known regarding the relative digestion and absorption of fruits in the intestine, but experiments indicate that as a class ripe fruits are quite thoroughly digested, and it is evident that, generally speaking, fruits, like other foods, usually remain in the intestinal tract long enough for the body to absorb the nutritive material present, and that therefore the rate of intestinal digestion would not be a matter of special impor- tance. Relative Economy of Fruits and Other Foods In connection with his studies of the comparative value of fruits. Professor Jaf- fa summarizes data regarding the cost of nutrients and energy supplied by fruits as compared with some other foods at cer- tain values per pound. Some of his data follow: Table No. 2- Comparative Cost of Total Kiitrients and Energy in Fruits and Other Food Materials at Certain Average Prices Price per pound Cost of 1 pound protein Cost of 1,000 calories energy Amount=? for 10 cents Kind of Food Material Total weight of food mate- rials Pro- tein Fat Carbo- hy. drates Energy Fresh Fruits Apples Bananas Grapes Oranges Peaches Pears , Cents 1.5 7.0 4.0 6.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 1.5 7.0 5.0 5.0 7.0 7.0 12.0 10.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 16.0 5.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 20.0 25.0 20.0 3.5 2.0 2.6 5.0 5.0 6.0 20.0 5.0 5 1 H Dolls. 5.00 8.75 4.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 3.33 7.50 5.38 ■12.50 3.33 7.00 7.78 7.50 5.26 3.50 5.66 4.35 91.43 10.00 26.66 32.00 26.66 32.00 26.67 53.33 40.00 53.33 80.00 17.78 53.33 20.00 83.33 1.31 1.30 1.06 .59 .22 .54 .56 '"".22" 5 56 83 Cents 7.3 23.3 11.9 35.2 25.1 11.5 8.1 25.0 25.9 23.3 18.9 27.4 40.0 8.9 6.9 10.2 8.4 6.9 13.8 5.6 12.8 13.2 10.1 37.2 12.0 12.2 13.4 10,5 13.3 47.1 45.5 53.2 128.2 22.5 22.2 10.5 U.8 1.5 4.2 4 3 3 2 11.2 3.1 71 4 4 8 Lbs. 6.67 1.43 2.50 1.67 2.50 3.33 3.33 6.67 1.43 2.00 2.00 1.43 1.43 .83 1.00 .67 1.00 1.00 .62 2.00 .62 .62 .62 .62 .02 .62 .62 .62 .62 .62 .62 .62 .50 .40 .50 2.86 5.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 1.67 .50 2.00 2.00 6 67 Lbs. 02 .01 .03 .01 .01 .02 .03 .01 .02 .01 .03 .01 .01 .01 .02 .03 .02 .02 Lbs- 0.02 "'"!63' "■".6i* """oi* .01 "*'!6i' .02 .03 " ' ' Lbs. 0.72 .21 .36 .14 .19 .42 .64 .18 .16 .20 .26 .18 .10 .55 .71 .50 .62 .69 .39 .94 .42 .40 .62 .14 .44 .43 .40 .51 .40 .11 .11 .09 .04 *""!i4" .26 3.00 1.06 1.06 1.67 .48 1.19 .05 98 Calories 1,467 429 837 284 398 866 Plums 1,232 Watermelons. Blackberries Cranberries Currants Raspberries • 400 386 430 530 365 Strawberries Dried Fruits Apples . . , , 250 1,121 Dates Figs 1,450 988 Prunes Raisins , 1,190 1,445 Jams, Preserves, Etc. Apple preserves 727 Apple jutter .01 1,780 Currant and raspberry jam •...., 781 Gooseberry jam 752 Orange marmalade 983 Prune sauce 267 Strawberry preserves 833 Apple jelly Currant jelly - 812 744 Guava jelly Quince jelly Apricots, canned Pears, canned 952 760 .01 211 220 Peaches, canned 188 Grape juice Other Foods for Comparison Porterhouse steak 78 .07 .07 .09 .17 .46 .18 .18 .07 .07 .11 .02 .04 .03 .01 444 Leg mutton, hind 445 Whole milk , 925 Skim milk 860 Wheat flour, patent roller process, high grade and medium White bread 6,600 2,430 Rye bread 2,360 Sugar 3,106 Candy 892 Beans, dried Celery Potatoes, 90 cents ner bushel .45 .02 .12 .03 ni 3,210 140 2,068 1048 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE From the data in the foregoing table it appears that fruits are comparatively expensive sources of protem as compared with flour or dried legumes, the fruit 3uices being the most expensive and the dried fruits the cheapest of the fruit prod- ucts Ten cents on an average will pur- chase fully as much energy when spent for fresh fruits and more when spent for dried fruits than for lean meats, but much less than when expended for wheat flour. From the data as a whole it is apparent that fruits are reasonably cheap sources of energy m the diet and are well suited on grounds of economy for combination in reasonable quantity with cheap proteid foods to furnish a well-balanced ration. Cooking and Its Effects on Fruit — Jelly Making As is the case with all vegetable foods, the heat of cooking breaks down the car- bohydrate walls of the cells which make up the fruit flesh, either because the moist- ure or other cell contents expands and ruptures the walls or because the cell wall is itself softened or dissolved. Texture, appearance, and flavor of fruit are mater- ially modified by cooking, and if thorough it insures sterilization, as in the case of all other foods. The change in texture of- ten has a practical advantage, since it implies the softening of the fruit flesh so that it is more palatable and may be more readily acted upon by the digestive juices. This is obviously of more importance with the fruits like the quince, which is so hard that it is unpalatable raw, than it is with soft fruits like strawberries. When fruits are cooked without the ad- dition of water or other material, as is often the case in baking apples, there is a loss of weight, owing to the evapora- tion of water, and the juice as it runs out carries some carbohydrates and other soluble constituents with it, but under ordinary household conditions this does not imply waste, as the juice which cooks out from fruit is usually eaten as well as the pulp Cooking in water extracts some of the nutritive material present. Thus, a German investigator found that after boiling, apples and pears contained four or five per cent and peaches about seven per cent less carbo- hydrates than the uncooked fruit In this case also such removal of nutritive material is of no practical importance The idea is quite generally held that cooking fruit changes its acid content, acid being sometimes increased and sometimes decreased by the cooking pro- cess. Kelhofer* showed that when goose- berries were cooked with sugar the acid content was not materially changed, these results being in accord with his conclusions reached in earlier studies with other fruits. The sweeter taste of the cooked product he believed to be sim- ply due to the fact that sugar masks the flavor of the acid. It is often noted that cooked fruits, such as plums, seem much sourer than the raw fruit, and it has been suggested that either the acid was increased or the sugar was decreased by the cooking pro- cess. This problem was studied by Sutherst,t and in his opinion the in- creased acid flavor is due to the fact that cooked fruit (gooseberries, cur- rants, plums, etc ) usually contains the skin, which is commonly rejected if the fruit is eaten raw. The skin is more acid than the pulp, as was shown by analyses of gooseberries, in which the skin was found to contain 2.7 per cent acid and the pulp 1.8 per cent To de- termine whether acid is formed when fruit is cooked, Sutherst boiled a mix- ture of nearly ripe gooseberries in water for about thirty minutes and then meas- ured the amount of acid by trituration with sodium hydroxid solution. The boiled portion was found to contain less acid than the raw, probably because some of the acid was volatile and passed off with the steam. As regards the effect of cooking on the kind and amount of sugar present, un- cooked gooseberries were found to con- tain 1.2 per cent cane sugar and 5.8 per cent invert sugar. After boiling, no cane sugar was found, while the invert sugar amounted to 6.9 per cent. This *Landw. Jahrb. Schweiz, 19 (1905), pp e01» 602 t Chemistry News, 92 (1905), No 2393, p 163. FRUIT AS POOD 1049 Indicates that all the sugar undergoes in- version during cooking, the acid present bringing about the inversion in the usual way. When fruits or fruit juices are cooked with sugar, the material very commonly solidifies or jellies on cooling, and this well-known property is taken advantage of in jelly making. In the case of some fruits, like the apple, the jelly-yielding material must he extracted from the fruit by cooking with hot water, while in the case of other fruits — the currant, for Instance — this extraction with hot water is not necessary, as the expressed juice will produce a jelly. Heating the ex- tracted or expressed juice is commonly considered a necessary step in jelly mak- ing, but some fruit juices will, on stand- ing, jelly without heat, and laboratory tests have shown that jelly may also be obtained without the addition of sugar. Cooking and the addition of sugar are, however, important features in the prac- tical consideration of jelly making, as they have a decided effect upon the yield, jQlavor, and keeping qualities of the re- sulting product. Some fruits, like the ordinary var- ieties of pear, possess so little of the jel- ly-yielding material or possess it in such an unusual form that they do not yield a good jelly under ordinary household methods of treatment. The proportion of jelly-yielding material, like other con- stituents, varies with the stage of ma- turity, underripe rather than overripe fruit being best for the purpose. The jelly-yielding bodies are known to be carbohydrates and have been called pectin, pectose, pectin bodies, or some similar name. They have been commonly grouped with the plant gums and similar carbohydrates, and the true nature of these materials has been the subject of a great deal of study.* At the present time the consensus of opinion seems to be that * The Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture has reported a number of im- portant studies on the lelly-vieldinff constitu- ents of fruit and an extended summary of previous investigations of the chemical nature of pectins and related questions. TJ. S. Dept Agriculture^ Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No 94; Journal American Chemistry Society, 28 (1906). p. 200. the pectins are composed of seveial of the simpler carbohydrates united to form a complex carbohydrate. In some fruits, like the apple, where the jelly- yielding material must be extracted with hot water, the pectin is apparently united with cellulose as a part of the solid pulp As shown by the investigations of Bige- low and Gore at the Bureau of Chem- istry, 40 per cent of the solid material of apple pulp may be thus extracted with hot water, and consists of two carbo- hydrates, one of which is closely relat- ed to gum arable. That such carbo- hydrates as these should yield a jelly is not surprising when we remember that they are similar to starch in their chem- ical nature, and, as every one knows, starch, though insoluble in cold water, yields when cooked with hot water a large proportion of paste which jellies on cooling. When fruits are used for making pies, puddings, etc , the nutritive value of the dish is, of course, increased by the ad- dition of flour, sugar, etc , and the dish as a whole may constitute a better bal- anced food than the fruit alone. It is commonly believed that dishes in which fruits are cooked with the addition of sugar, butter, and a flour crust of some sort are less easily digested than simple rations of bread, butter, and fruit hav- ing an equivalent nutritive value. The large number of digestion experiments which have been made with various mixed diets do not indicate that there is any special difference between the two rations as regards thoroughness of diges- tion, but additional experiments must be undertaken before It can be said with certainty whether or not there are actual dfferences in the ease and rapidity of digestion. In different countries opinions vary markedly regarding the relative whole- someness of raw and cooked fruit. Thus, as has often been pointed out, the Ger- mans use comparatively little raw fruit and consider it far less wholesome than cooked fruit. On the other hand, in the United States raw fruit of good quality is considered extremely wholesome, and 1050 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE is used in very large quantities, being as much relished as cooked fruit, if in- deed it is not preferred to it. It has been suggested that the European prejudice against raw fruit may be an unconscious protest against insanitary methods of marketing or handling and the recogni- tion of cooking as a practical method of preventing the spread of disease by fruit accidentally soiled with fertilizers in the fields or with street dust. Oyerripe, Decayed and Unripe Fruit Overripe fruit is often injurious, very probably because it has begun to fer- ment, and stale or partially decayed fruit is obviously undesirable for food purposes. In addition to a deterioration in flavor there is always the possibility of digestive disturbance if such fruit is eaten raw. Of course, where apples are raised or where they are bought in large quantities for family use the thrifty housewife will sort them over and use for cooking the sound portions of those which have begun to decay. In such cases, however, the best available meth- ods of storing should be followed and sorting should be done at frequent inter- vals, for if decay has proceeded very far the flavor is without doubt injured. If fruits could be kept unbruised and with the skin unbroken, decay would be much delayed, as the mold spores, rots, etc., which cause decay, find their readi- est entrance through broken skins. That mechanical injuries are the principal causes of decay was shown in a study of citrus fruits. When the skin of an orange or lemon is broken the blue mold finds access to the wound, and under fav- orable conditions of moisture and tem- perature develops readily and causes de- cay. An examination of hundreds of boxes of California oranges showed that a large percentage of all the fruit was made susceptible to such decay by ac- cidental injuries to the skin in packing. It is not at all strange that decayed fruit should have a decided characteristic odor and flavor when we remember that the decay is very commonly caused by fungi, especially molds and rots, which penetrate the pulp and grow and develop rapidly. The fungi live upon the cell contents, particularly sugars and pro- teids, and produce bodies of marked chemical characteristics, including odor and flavor. It is said that the most un- pleasant effects are due to one of the com- mon molds. It is almost universally believed that green fruit is unwholesome and causes serious digestive disturbances, yet those who have been brought up in the coun- try know that if illness had always fol- lowed eating it there would have been few well children in the community in the summer. Recognizing that green fruit may be a cause of illness at times and at other times apparently harmless, two German scientists have recently car- ried on extensive studies to ascertain the truth of the matter. Chemical analyses were made of fruits of varying degrees of ripeness, and studies in which green fruit was eaten in considerable quanti- ties and under varying conditions were carried on with both animals and men. It appears from the results of the experi- ments that although unripe fruit is un- doubtedly often harmful, particularly for children, the danger from such foods, espe- cially green gooseberries, plums, pears and apples, when eaten raw, is less than is commonly thought, and the effects de- pend in marked degree upon individual peculiarities. The green fruit was found to contain the same chemical compounds as the ripe fruit, though in different proportions — that is, no chemical element was found in the green fruit which was foreign to the ripe fruit and which could be con- sidered in itself a cause for illness. The injurious effects of raw unripe fruit therefore, it appears, do not depend upon chemical constituents, but rather on the unusual proportions in which the con- stituents occur, and especially the large percentage of hard cell tissue, which, if imperfectly masticated, it will readily be seen, might be a source of digestive de- rangement. Possibly the excess of acid in the green fruit is also a cause of di- gestive disturbance. Cooked green fruit was found to be practically harmless, be- FRUIT AS FOOD—FRUIT GROWERS' UNIONS 1051 ing especially palatable and wholesome when cooked with sugar. The possibility of injury by bacterial contamination was considered, though the data available were not sufficient for final deductions. It is now well known that such diseases are usually caused by micro-organisms, so possibly the green fruit very frequently picked up beneath the tree is only an accidental carrier of the real cause of the digestive disturb- ances which may follow eating it. AEEA BETOTEB TO FRUIT IN GREAT BRITAIN The area devoted to fruit production was reduced in 1910 by an amount equal to that gained in the previous year, re- verting accordingly to the position in 1908. The following table gives the area of each kind of fruit for the four years during which the particulars have been shown separately in the returns: Small Fruit: Strawberries Raspberries Currants and Gooseberries Other kinds (including mixed areas) Total Orchards: Apples Pears Cherries Plums Other kinds (including mixed areas) Total 1910 Acres 27,451 8,840 25,530 22,488 84,309 172,031 9,636 11,597 16,397 41,012 250,673 1909 Acres 30,064 9,257 26,106 21,689 87,116 173,168 9,475 11,474 16,777 40,442 251,336 1908 Acres 28,815 9,323 26,241 20,501 84,880 172,751 9,604 11,868 15,683 40,391 250,297 1907 Acres 27,827 8,878 25,590 19,880 82,175 172,643 8,911 12,027 14,901 41,694 250,176 Report by R. H. Rew to the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, Great Britain. ERUIT GROWERS' UJVIOJfS AHD ASSO- CIATIOlSrS IN NORTHWEST Britisli ColumMa Armstrong Fruit Growers' Association, Arm- strong. Boswell-Kootenay Lake Union, Boswell. British Columbia Fruit Growers' Association, Victoria, Creston Fruit and Produce Excbange, Creston. Grand Forks Fruit Growers' Association. Grand Forks. Hammond Fruit Association, Ltd., Hammond. Hatzic Fruit Growers' Association, Hatzic. Kaslo Horticultural Association, Kaslo. Kelowna Farmers' Exchange, Ltd., Kelowna. Kootenay Fruit Growers' Union, Ltd , Nelson. Mission Fruit Growers' Association, Mission. Okanogan Fruit Union, Ltd., Vernon. Queens Bay Fruit Growers' Association. Queens Salmon Arm Farmers' Exchange, Salmon Arm. Summerland Fruit Growers' Association, Sum- merland. Victoria Fruit Growers' Exchange, Victoria. Western Fruit Growers' Association, Mission. California California Farmers' Union, Fresno. California Fruit Exchansre, Sacramento. California Fruit Growers' Exchange, Los Angeles. Fresno Fruit Growers' Company, Fresno. Lincoln Fruit Growers' Association, Lincoln. Lodi Fruit Growers' Union, Lodi Loomis Fruit Growers' Association, Loomis. Newcastle Fruit Growers' Association, New- castle. Penryn Fruit Growers' Association, Penryn. Sebastopol Apple Growers' Union, Sebastopol. Sebastopol Berry Growers' Union, Sebastopol. Stanislaus Farmers' Union, Modesto. The Supply Company of the California Fruit Gro-wers' Association, Los Angeles. Turlock Fruit Growers' Association, Turlock. Vacayille Fruit Growers' Association, Vacayille. Winters Fruit Growers' Association, Winters. Colorado Boulder County Fruit Growers' Association, Boulder. Capital Hill Melon Growers' Association, Rocky Ford. Crawford Fruit Growers' Association, Crawford, Delta County Fruit Growers' Association, Delta. Denver Fruit and Vegetable Association, Den- ver, Fair Mount Melon Growers* Association, Swink. Fowler Melon Growers' Association, Fowler. Fremont County Fruit Growers' Association, Canon City. Granada Melon Growers' Association, Granada. Grand Junction Fruit Growers' Association, Clifton, Palisade, Grand Junction. Kouns Party Cantaloup Growers' Association, Rocky Ford. Lamar 'Melon Growers' Association, Lamar. Longmont Produce Exchange, Longmont Loveland Fruit Growers* Association. Loveland. Manzanola Fruit Association, Manzanola. Manzanola Orchard Association, Manzanola. Montrose Fruit and Produce Association, Mont- rose Newdale Melon Growers' Association, Swink. 1052 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Colorado — Continued Palisade Fruit Growers* Association, Palisade. Paonia Fruit Bxchauffe, Paonia. Pent County Melon Growers' Association, Las Animas. Produce Association, Debeque. Rifle Fruit and Produce Association, Rifle. Roaring Fork Potato Growers' Association, Car- bondale. Rocky Ford Melon Growers' Association, Rocky Ford. San Juan Fruit and Produce Growers' Asso- ciation, Duran^o. The Producers' Association, Debeque. Western Slope Fruit Growers' Association, Pal- isade Idaho Boise Valley Fruit Growers' Association, Boise. Caldwell Fruit Growers' Association, Caldwell, Council Valley Fruit Growers' Association, Council. Bmmett Fruit Growers' Association, Bmmett. Fruit Growers' Association, Moscow. Lewiston Orchards Assembly, Lewiston. Lewiston Orchards Association, Lewiston. Nampa Fruit Growers' Association, Nampa New Plymouth Fruit Growers' Association, New Plymouth. Parma-Roswell Fruit Growers' Association, Parma Payette Valley Apple Growers' Union, Payette. Southern Idaho Fruit Shippers' Association, Boise. Twin Falls Fruit Growers' Association, Twin Falls. Weiser Fruit and Produce Growers' Associa- tion, Weiser. Weiser River Fruit Growers' Association, Weiser. ITontana Bitter Root Fruit Growers' Association, Hamil- ton. Missoula Fruit and Produce Association, Mis- soula. Woodside Fruit Growers' Association, Wood- side. N"ew Mexico San Juan Fruit and Produce Association, Parmin^on. Oregon Albany Fruit Growers' Union, Albany. Ashland Fruit and Produce Association, Ash- land. Benton County Fruit Growers' Association, Corvallis. Brownsville Fruit and Produce Association, Brownsville. Coos Bay Fruit Growers' Association, Marsh- field Coauille Valley Fruit Growers' Union, Myrtle Point Cove Fruit Growers' Association, Cove. Dallas Fruit Growers' Association, Dallas. Douglas County Fruit Growers' Association, Rosebursr. Dufur Valley Fruit Growers' Union, Dufur. Dundee Fruit Growers' Association, Dundee. Bstacada Fruit Growers' Association, Bstacada. Eugene Fruit Growers' Association, Busrene. Hood River Apple Growers' Union, Hood River. Hyland Fruit Growers of Yamhill County, Sheridan. Imbler Fruit Growers' Union, Imbler. La Grande Fruit Association. La Grande. Lincoln County Fruit Growers' Union, Toledo. McMinnville Fruit Growers' Association, Mc- Minnville. Milton Fruit Growers' Union, Milton. Mosier Fruit Growers' Association, Mosier. Motmt Hood Fruit Growers' Association, Sandy. Newburg Apple Growers' Association, Newburs:. Northwestern Fruit Exchange, 418 Spalding Building. Portland. Northeast Gaston Farmers* Association, Forest Grove. Oregon City Fruit and Produce Association, Oregon City Rogue River Fruit and Produce Association, Medford Salem Fruit Union, Salem. Santiam Fruit Growers' Association, Lebanon. Springbrook Fruit Growers' Union, Springbrook. Stanfield Fruit Growers' Association, Stanfield. Sutherlin Fruit Growers' Association, Suther- lin. The Dalles Fruit Growers' Union, The Dalles. Umpqua Valley Fruit Growers' Association, Roseburg. Washington County Fruit Growers' Association, Hillsboro. Willamette Valley Prune Association, Salem. UtaJbi Bear River Valley Fruit Growers' Association, Bear River City. Brigham City Fruit Growers' Association, Brigham City. Cache Valley Fruit Growers' Association, Wells- ville. Centerville Fruit Growers* Association, Center- ville. Excelsior Fruit and Produce Association, Clear- field (post office Layton E. F. D.) Farmers & Fruit Growers' Forwarding Associa- tion, Centerville Green River Fruit Growers' Association, Green River. Ogden Fruit Growers' Association, Ogden. Springville Fruit Growers' Association, Spring- ville. Utah County Fruit and Produce Association, Provo. Willard Fruit Growers' Association, Willard. Washington Apple Growers' Union of White Salmon, Un- derwood. Bay Island Fruit Growers' Association, Tacoma Brewster Fruit Growers' Union, Brewster. Buckley Fruit Growers' Association, Buckley. Cashmere Fruit Growers' Union, Cashmere. Clarkston Fruit Growers' Association, Clark- ston Cowlitz Fruit and Produce Association. ICelso. Dryden Fruit Growers' Union, Dryden. Blma Fruit and Produce Association, Blma. Felida Prune Growers' Association, Vancouver. Garfield Fruit Growers' Union, Garfield. Goldendale Fruit and Produce Association, Goldendale. Grandview Fruit Growers' Association, Grand- view. Granger Fruit Growers' Association, Granger. Kalama Fruit Growers' Associati^^n, ICalama. Kennewick Fruit Growers' Association, Kenne- wick. Kiona Fruit Growers' Union, Kiona. Lake Chelan Fruit Growers' Association, Che- lan. Lewis County Fruit Growers' Association, Cen- tralia. Lewis River Fruit Growers' Union, Woodland. Mason County Fruit Growers' Association, Shel- ton. Mount Vernon Fruit Growers' Association, Mount Vernon. North Pacific Fruit Distributors. Spokane. Northwestern Fruit Exchange, 510 Chamber of Commerce Building, Spokane Peshastin Fruit Growers' Association, Pcshas- tin. Pullman Fruit Growers* Association. Pullman. Puyallup and Sumner Fruit Growers' Associa- tion, Puvallup. Spokane County Horticultural Society, Spo- kane. Spokane District Fruit Growers' Association, Spokane. Spokane Inland Fruit Growers' Association, ICeislinff. Spokane Valley Fruit Growers' Co., Otis Or- chards. Spokane Valley Growers* Union, Spokane. FRUITS— PREPARING FOR MARKET 1053 Wasliiugton — Continued Southwest "Washington Fruit Growers' Associ- ation, Chehalis. Stevens County Fruit Growers' Union, Myers FaP^ The Green Bluffs Fruit Growers' Association, Mead. The Rid^efield Fruit Growers' Association, Rid^efield. The Touchet Valley Fruit and Produce Union, Dayton. Thurston County Fruit Growers' Union, Turn- water. Vashon Fruit Union, Vashon. Walla Walla Fruit and Vegetable Union, Walla Walla. Wenatchee District Fruit Growers' Union, We- natchee. Wenatchee Valley Fruit Growers* Association, Wenatchee. White River Valley Fruit and Berry Growers' Association, Kent. White Salmon Fruit Growers' Union, White Salmon. Yakima Valley Fruit Growers' Association, North Yakima Yakima Valley Fruit and Produce Growers' Association, Grander. Yakima County Horticultural Union, North Yakima Zillah Fruit Growers' Association, Toppenish. —Better Fruit, January, 1913. Fruit Geo wees* Association, Yakima. See Marketing. Peuit Maeks Act, Canadian. See Laws. Fruit Merchandising, Economics of. See MarJceting. FEEPABCTG FRUITS FOE MARKET Rules for picking, sorting, packing of various fruits in use by tlie Yakima Val- ley Fruit Growers' Association: Compiled by Charles L. Hamilton. Picking 1. Care should be used by pickers not to break off the fruit buds for the follow- ing year. 2. Never allow the orchard boxes fill- ed with fruit to stand in the sun. 3. Where possible, pick fruit during the coolest part of day. 4. Picking at proper time is just as important as any other part of the work. (a) Fruit picked too early is usually unfit for food. (b) Fruit picked too late is usually too ripe for shipment, as in the case of overripe peaches, cots, prunes, plums, etc. (c) Apples picked after heavy frost do not hold up well. (d) Rain on fruit that is maturing in-' jures the keeping quality. (1) In the case of yellow peaches causes them to ripen without showing proper amount of yellow color and often causes them to turn black at pit (2) Cherries, plums, prunes and cots will ripen and start to decay soon after packing where rain comes at time fruit is almost ready to move. (3) Pears are affected in the same way as cherries, plums, prunes, etc., but will hold up longer. (4) Apples that receive heavy rains when maturing will not hold up as long as they would under proper climatic con- ditions, 5. Care should be exercised in picking the different kinds of fruit so the mar- ketable qualities will not be injured. (a) CHE3RRIES: (1) Cherries should be carefully pick- ed from tree so as to secure part or all of stem. (2) When picking cherries, all blem- ished, misshapen, stemless or green fruit should be thrown out by pickers. (3) Pick into small buckets and pour gently into orchard boxes. (4) Boxes should not be filled over six inches deep and should never be allowed to stand in sun. (b) PRUNES AND PLUMS: (1) Care should be taken by pickers to pick fruit with stems intact. (2) Pickers should be very careful in picking not to brush off the bloom. (3) Gloves should not be used in the handling of prunes and plums. (4) Prunes and plums should be hard ripe for picking, fruit should contain some sugar and be matured enough so it will continue ripening and have a good flavor. (5) Wherever possible, pack directly out of picking buckets. (Saves handling, protects the bloom). (c) PEACHES: (1) Peaches should be hard ripe for picking. (a) White peaches should be in such a condition that they will have lost that deep green cast and show light green or silvery white and be filled out. (6) Yellow peaches, when in condition to pick, should have lost the deep green cast and should show a golden yellow on 1054 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the sunny side. They should he well fill- ed out. (2) Peaches should be laid in basket or bucket, never allowed to drop. (3) Pickers should throw away all blemished or niisshapen fruit. (4) Baskets or buckets filled with fruit should be hauled from orchard to packing house in a wagon that has a good set of springs. (5) Peach trees should be picked over from three to five times during season. (d) APRICOTS AND YAKIMINES: (1) Should be hard ripe for picking. (a) Should show yellow over most of specimen. (b) Should be matured enough so that it will continue ripening and have a good flavor. (c) Wherever possible pack directly from picking basket or bucket. (d) "Where necessary to haul loose fruit in orchard boxes care should be taken in pouring from pail into boxes (jf) Place bucket in box, place hand on fruit, tip bucket and allow fruit to roll out gently. (2) Boxes should not be filled over six inches deep. (e) PEARS: (1) Care should be taken not to pick fruit before it is in condition to ripen. (2) Should be green for shipment. (3) Large growing varieties, such as Bartletts, Flemish Beauties, Clapps Fav- orite, etc., should be 2% inches in diam- eter, or larger. (a) The first picking of Bartletts, Flem- ish Beauties, Clapps Favorites', etc., from young trees, should be 2i/> inches in diam- eter, and from the older trees that are heavily loaded 2% inches. (4) Pickers should be very careful in picking to secure the stem of pear in- tact; by lifting up and out with a light side twist on pear, it will come off spur easily without breaking stem. (5) Pears should never be poured from bucket into orchard box, but trans- ferred by hand. (f) APPLES: (1) Apples should be carefully picked and handled- (a) Care should be used by picker to secure stem of apple intact. (i) By lifting up and out with a light side twist, apple will come off spur easi- ly and without pulling out stem. (2) Lay apple in picking basket, do not drop Every apple dropped bruises two or more. Bruised apples are unmarket- able. (2) Large apples should be transferred from picking bucket to orchard box by hand. (3) Small apples may be carefully poured from bucket into box. Place bucket in box, tip slowly, holding hand over top of bucket, allow apples to roll out gently. (4) Apples should not be picked when frosty. (5) Windfalls, if picked up, should never be mixed with the good fruit. (a) If grower wishes to have windfalls handled, he should first store them away for two or three weeks so that bruises will have a chance to show up. Cb) It is impossible to sort windfalls right if direct from orchard. Sorting 1— GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS: Sorters should study the rules carefully until thoroughly familiar with them, for on them, next to the packers, rests the responsibility for proper grades, and care- ful work on their part will make it pos- sible for the packer to put up a good box of fruit. Packers should be equally familiar with grading rules and should not place abso- lute dependence upon the work of the sorter. They should look for and lay out the off grade fruit which will sometimes be passed by the very best sorter; on the packer who is the last to see the fruit be- fore it is wrapped and packed in box lies the ultimate responsibility for the proper grade and pack. 2— APPLES: *(a) Apples should be sorted from or- chard boxes into four boxes where the three grades, Extra Fancy, Fancy and C grade, are made; only three boxes will be * See article on Packing under Apples. FRUITS— PREPARING FOR MARKET 1055 necessary where C grades are not packed. Place the box for the Extra Fancy on the right hand side of the orchard box, box for Fancy on left of orchard box, and where C grade are packed, place a box for them on the left of the box for Fancy, place a cull box on the floor. (b) Care should be taken by the sort- er to mark the grade on each box in such a way that marks will not show when boxes are used for packing and are nail- ed up. (c) In sorting, apples should be LAID in the box, not DROPPED. (d) If one end of the box is filled full of fruit and apples allowed to roll from that end to the other, punctured apples and bruises will be the result. (e) Where apples are packed into the single grade to be known as Fancy, only two boxes are necessary, one on the right of the orchard box for the Fancy, and one on the floor for the culls. If C grades are to be packed another box to contain them should be placed on left of orchard box. 3^ — PE ARfc) I The apple suggestions apply also to pears. 4— PEACHES, APRICOTS, PRUNES, PLUMS, CHERRIES, ETC.: Sorting out of inferior fruit should be done by pickers in the orchard when pick- ing, and by the packers when packing. Packing 1. Proper packing is just as important as proper sorting, for a good neat pack helps sell the fruit. Observe these two rules carefully: (a) Wrap fruit neatly. (b) Do not mix sizes; failure will mean an unattractive package, which will injure the sale of the fruit. There should be little variation in the sizes of the pack- ed box because the use of different sized specimens makes it impossible to keep all the spaces the same size, consequently the packer loses the alignment and is in dan- ger of changing the pack. 2— CHERRIES— 10-lb. Boxes: (a) In making box, top should be nail- ed on, bottom left off. (b) Box should be placed before pack- er with open bottom up. (c) Carefully pack the bottom tier, which will be the top when pack is com- pleted. (d) In packing the first tier, care should be taken by the packer to place the flattest side of the cherry next to the board. (e) Two boxes should be used. While filling in the first box that has been faced, pick out proper sized fruit to face second box. (f) Use only the square pack, never a broken one. (g) Both ends of box must be packed aiiHie. (h) Keep all stems on first two tiers up, and all stems down on the bottom which will be the top of the box to the packer. (i) See that the corners are well filled. (j) After box is nailed up there should be no stems showing. Edges of the box where cherries are exposed should pres- ent a packed appearance. (k) Nailers should be very careful when lidding up not to cut or mash any of the fruit; all such cherries should be removed and replaced with good fruit. 3— CHERRIES in 20-lb or 25-lb. Boxes: Follow same instructions when packing either 20-lb. or 25-lb. boxes as those given for 10-lb, except that two tiers should be packed instead of one. 4 — CHERRIES — Strawberry Crates : Where strawberry crates or Four Hal- lock Carriers are used for packing cher- ries, hallocks should be well filled, shaken down and topped or faced so they will be rounding full. There should be no stems showing. Use square pack. 5— APRICOTS, YAKIMINES, and all the larger varieties of PRUNES and PLUMS, and all such fruit: (a) Should be packed in four basket prune crates, unless special order is given to put them up otherwise. (b) Pick as large a percentage as pos- sible with stems on; throw out all stem- less fruit where skin is broken or torn. (c) Fruit too small to pack 6x6 should never be packed in prune crates and 1056 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE should only be shipped in 4-inch peach baskets where special order is given. (d) Wherever possible use square pack. (e) Size of crate 4l^xl6xl7%, except for extreme sizes, then increase or dimin- ish depth only. (f) Care should be used by the packer in placing the paper in the basket. Crate should be placed on packing table with slatted side toward the packer; after four baskets are fitted into the crate, they should have the paper fitted into them in such a way as to cover half the bottom of each basket, allowing the remaining pa- per to lap over the slatted sides of the crate; after first tier is packed in basket fold paper over it and pack second tier which in turn should be covered by the paper, and the third or last tier packed, after which the remaining paper should be folded over the top. (g) Pack all Italians and Tragedies three tiers, stem end down; pack top tier with creased sides lined up. (h) Varieties that will go 4x4 in a square pack, or larger, may be packed two tiers; Hungarians, Bradshaws, Peach Plums and similar varieties smaller than 5x5 should not be packed. 6— CRAB APPLES: (a) Crab apples should be shipped in apple boxes only, unless otherwise spec- ified. (b) Double line the boxes and fill in. (c) Care should be taken by those fill- ing in boxes to keep out all imperfect fruit; boxes, after being well shaken down and nailed up, should have from one to one and a half inch bulge, counting top and bottom. (d) Never mix varieties. 7— PEACHES: (a) Pack direct from picking pail or basket into three or more boxes if the fruit does not run uniform in size. (b) The folded ends of the paper on wrapped peach should go down, as a cushion for the fruit to rest on. (c) In packing, the boxes should rest on an incline with the lower end to the packer. The peaches in the top tier should rest in the spaces between the peaches in the lower tier, so that no peach will lest squarely on top of another. (d) In packing the larger sizes, both tiers should be carried forward together so as to regulate the height of the pack, (e) The stem of the peach should always be packed down. (f) Each box should show a bulge not to exceed three-eighths of an inch. (g) The packed box should never be accepted by warehouse where the fruit is. loose and the box rattles. (h) All peaches that go five across the end of the box or smaller should be pack- ed in a 3x3 pack. Those larger than five across the end of box should be packed three by two. (1) 3x3 Pack. Place first peach in lower left hand corner, the other two to be so placed that the space between the first and second and second and third will be the same size as that between the low- er right hand corner of box and the third peach. Place the next three peaches in the spaces formed by the placing of the first three, continuing the pack in the same manner until the tier is finished, al- ways taking pains to see that the spaces are the same size and the alignment of the fruit is perfect. In starting the sec- ond tier begin on the opposite side of the box and pack directly over the spaces formed by packing of the first tier. (2) 2x3 Pack. Start the box with the two and then the three. Place the first two peaches so that the -spacing between the peaches and the two corners of the box will be the same as that between the peaches. Place the three peaches in the spaces provided by the placing of the first two. Continue the pack in the same man- ner, remembering always to keep the spaces the same size and alignment per- fect. Pack the second tier directly over the spaces formed by the packing of the first tier. 8 — PEARS : (a) Two or more boxes should be used in packing pears. (b) Always pack direct from box into which fruit has been sorted, never from a canvas table. FRUITS— PREPARING FOR MARKET 1057 (c) Bartletts and Flemish Beauties should weigh, when packed and nailed up, fifty-two pounds A variation of from fifty-one to fifty-three pounds is permis- sible if pack is good. (d) The Clapps Favorite, which is a lighter pear, should weigh, when nailed up, from forty-nine to fifty-one pounds; nothing under forty-nine pounds should be accepted by nailer. Those over fifty- one and not to exceed fifty-two pounds may be accepted if pack is good and lid will go on without cutting or mash- ing fruit, (e) Buerre de Anjous and Cornice should weigh from forty-eight to fifty pounds. (f) Winter Nelis should be packed five tier deep, never six. The smaller sizes will be light, often not over forty- six pounds, but are acceptable if the pack is tight. (g) The weight of the packed box should be regulated by the firmness with which pears are placed in the tier. (h) The large 3x2s and 3x3s should be packed loosely, while the smaller sizes should be packed tightly. All 4x3 packs should be tight. (i) Care should be taken by nailer not to cut or crush any of the fruit along the edges of the box; all such fruit should be removed and replaced by good pears. (j) The proper way to place pears in the box: Ih starting the tiers of any pear pack, the first row along the end of the box should be laid with the blossom end of fruit toward the end of box, and with the stem pointing directly away from the packer and slightly down; the remain- ing pears of each tier should be so placed that the stem will be pointing directly toward the packer and slightly up. (k) Never line pear boxes. (1) The first tier should always be packed with the smooth wrap of the pa- per down, that is, the bottom of the box should always be faced so that the nailed up box will present a neat appearance. (m) The 3x2 pack, 3x3 and the 4x3 should be used in the packing of pears. "(1) The 3x2 pear pack. All 3x2 packs should be four tiers deep. Start the pack with three pears, placing them in the lower end of box in such a way that there will be one in each corner and one in the center. Place the next two in the spaces provided by the packing of the first three, continue pack in the same man- ner until the tier is finished, remember- ing always to keep spaces the same size and the alignment perfect. Pack second tier over first tier spaces, third tier over second tier spaces, and fourth tier over third tier spaces. (2) The 3x3 pear pack. This pack should always be five tiers deep. In start- ing the 3x3 pack, place the first pear in lower left hand corner of box, the other two to be so placed that the distance will be the same between the first and second and the second and third as that between the third pear and the low- er right hand corner of box. The next three pears are placed in the spaces pro- vided by the placing of the first three, and continue the pack in the same man- ner until the tier is finished, remember- ing always to keep the spaces the same size and the alignment perfect. The sec- ond tier is to be packed over the first tier spaces, the third over the second tier spaces, the fourth over the third tier spaces, and the fifth or last tier over the fourth tier spaces. (3) The 4x3 pear pack. This pack should always be five tiers deep. In starting the 4x3 pack, place a pear in each of the two lower corners, the next two to be so placed that the spaces be- tween the two corner pears and the two inner pears will be the same size as the space between the two center pears. Place the three pears in the spaces provided by the placing of the first four. Continue to pack in the same manner until the tier is finished, remembering always to keep the spaces the same size and the alignment of the fruit perfect Pack the second tier over first tier spaces, third over second tier spaces, fourth over third tier spaces, and fifth over fourth tier spaces. * See Packing under Apples -2G 1058 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE 9— -APPLES • (a) Prom two to five boxes should be used when packing apples. (b) Always pack direct from orchard or peach box into which apples have been sorted, never from a canvas table (c) A box should be placed in a con- venient position to receive the odd sized apples for which no box has been started There are 20 or more different apple packs so it will readily be seen that all the dif- ferent sizes cannot be packed at one time (d) All apples should be packed on cheek with the stem directly from the packer Never allow the apples to slip sideways, as that brings the stem of one apple m contact with the side of another, often causing punctures; it also fills up the spaces and changes the alignment of fruit (e) To regulate the height of apples on end of box, place the end apples in the box m such a manner that the shortest diameter from cheek to cheek will come directly up and down; after packing the first two rows next to end of box in such a manner, apples may be turned so the greatest diameter from cheek to cheek will be up and down. If packed in this way, the box when finished will have a good bulge and the ends will not be too high. (f) A bulge of from one to one and a half inches on all packed boxes, counting top and bottom, is required. (g) Loose packed boxes, as well as those that are too high, should not be received at warehouse except for a re- pack. (h) Apple Packs— 2x1, 2x2, 3x2 and 5 tier straight (1) The 2x1 pack takes care of all those apples that are larger than three across the end of box. Pack should be three tiers deep. Start the box with the two, one in each lower corner of box next to packer. Place the one in the space between the two corner apples; then place next two in the spaces on either side of the one. Continue pack until tier is fin- ished, always remembering to keep stems directly from packer, spaces same size, apple on cheek, the alignment perfect, and the apples in their tier firmly held in place by the pack. The second tier is to be packed over the first tier spaces and the third over the second tier spaces. (2) The 2x2 pack takes care of all ap- ples larger than four across the end of box and those that are just large enough to go three across the end. They should always be four tiers deep Place first apple in lower left hand cor- ner of box, the next to be so placed that the space between it and the first apple and the space between it and the lower right hand corner of the box will be the same size. The next two apples to be placed in the spaces provided by the plac- ing of the first two; continue pack in the same manner until tier is finished, al- ways remembering to keep stems direct- ly from the packer; spaces the same size, apples on cheek, the alignment perfect and the apples in the tier firmly held in place by the pack. The second tier should be placed over first tier spaces, the third over second tier spaces, and the fourth over third tier spaces. (3) The 3x2 pack takes care of those apples larger than five across the end of box and up to and including those that will just go four across the end. Place first three apples in the lower end of box next to packer in such a manner that there will be one in each corner of box and one in center. The next two to be placed in spaces provided by the plac- ing of the first three. Continue the pack in the same manner, always remember- ing to keep the stems directly from pack- er, apples on cheek, spaces the same size, the alignment perfect, and the apples in the tier held firmly in place by the pack. The second tier should be packed over the first tier spaces; the third over second tier spaces; the fourth over third tier spaces, and the fifth or last tier over fourth tier spaces. (4) The five tier straight pack takes care of all those apples that are just large enough to pack five across the end of box. It is the only apple pack to be used where one apple rests squarely on top of another apple. FRUITS—SETTING AND DROPPING 1059 10— NAILING UP: (a) The nailer should be thoroughly familiar with the rules because he is the last person to handle the box before the lid i^ nailed on. It should be his place to turn back to the packer those boxes that are not properly packed; those that are too high or too low, or those in which pack has been changed. He should also be able to tell whether the sizes are mixed and if so send them back for a repack. Unattractive packs, that is, those in which the fruit has been poorly wrapped, should not be accepted by him. (b) Care should be taken by the nailer not to injure the fruit in the pack- box by the manner in which he nails it up. 11— TIERING ON RANCH- (a) Wherever possible the nailer should stack the nailed up boxes away in such a manner that each size, grade and variety will be separate. (b) The 10-lb. cherry boxes should be stacked with top down. (c) Apples and pears should always be stacked on side with all the markings one way (d) Prune crates, strawberry crates and peach boxes should always be stack- ed so that the weight comes on the cleats; all stamped ends should be one way in stack. 12— HAULING INTO WAREHOUSE: In loading wagon with fruit to be tak- en to warehouse or to a car, each load should contain boxes of the same size, grade and variety as far as possible; that is, do not mix sizes, grades and varieties in a load if a load can be made up other- wise. There are certain places in the ware- house marked off for each variety, each size and each grade. If in making de- liveries to the warehouse two or more varieties, two or three grades of each variety, and six or ten sizes of each grade are made in the same load, there can be only a few boxes to go into each stack. Consequently when fruit is load- ed into car, only a few boxes of that one load can be run into it, and when returns are made on fruit it will be found that the one load may be divided into eight, ten or even more parts and sent out in that many different shipments. SETTING AWD DE0PPI1V61 OF FRUITS One of the discouragements in fruit growing is the uncertainty which attends the formation and development of fruit buds. Failure to set fruit even though the trees bear an abundance of blossoms, the dropping of immature fruits, the biennial bearing habit of certain apples and unfavorable weather at blooming time, are common and seemingly unpre- ventable drawbacks to profitable fruit growing. The Biblical injunction "to dig about and dung the trees" may be obeyed both literally and figuratively and yet the trees may fail to blossom, or to set a crop, or the fruit drops, or wind, rain, cold or frost may destroy the em- bryonic fruits. Indeed, seemingly, the better the culture, the greater the retro- gression in sexual reproduction, and the forces set in motion by the cultivator in no way nullify the effects of bad weath- er. Roughly the above problems fall under two heads- First, those having to do with the formation of fruit buds; sec- ond, those having to do with the devel- opment of the buds. CoBtrolling Fruit Buds Can the fruit grower influence the formation of buds? Though he cannot wholly control the formation of buds, he can at least greatly influence their formation. We may lay down as the first principle having to do with the formation of fruit buds, one founded on the exper- ience of fruit growers with practically every fruit- that plants develop fruit buds only where there is a store of food materials in twigs and branches. An- other statement to much the same effect is that plants will not form fruit buds when the food material is being largely used in the production of new wood and new leaves. Many facts and horticultural practices substantiate the statements just made. Thus, trees unduly luxuriant in growth do not set fruit; plants without sufficient food for both wood and fruit bearing da 1060 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE not as a rule produce fruit; in warm, damp climates trees and vines grow to great size and with much foliage but bear little or no fruit; pruning, which is fav- orable to wood growth, is antagonistic to fruit production. Plants that are pro- ducing too much wood and foliage and too little fruit may be subjected to sev- eral treatments to induce them to bear fruit. Water Supply Regulation of the water supply some- times induces the formation of fruit buds. In the irrigated regions of the West, vegetative growth may be stopped by withholding water and the setting of fruit buds thus be materially influenced. It is a matter of common observation every- where that a dry season is more con- ducive to the formation of fruit buds for the ensuing season's crop than a wet one. The water supply in unirrigated regions may be regulated only through drainage, but fortunately drainage may often be made an important means of in- ducing early fruitfulness and a fruit-bear- ing habit. Other things being equal, trees on wet, sodden soils do not bear fruit early in life and do not set fruit regu- larly and in proper quantities. Under such conditions there is insufficient food for either wood or fruit production. The remedy is obvious and the subject needs no further discussion. light Much can be done in securing the proper formation of fruit buds by giving the trees an abundance of light. The outside row in an orchard, where the trees have most light, usually bears the most fruit. It is true that these isolated trees have more food and moisture as well as more light and because of these two factors, also, many buds set. Yet light must be counted as important and is to be secured by proper spacing and by developing open-headed, well pruned trees. Food Supply The food supply has much to do with the formation of fruit buds and probably the most rational procedure under average orchard conditions to induce fruit bearing is to regulate the supply of food. With the widely varying conditions of differ- ent orchards, this is not easily done. It does not appear from any information that we now have that there is a storage of pai-ticular food for fruit buds and of other food for wood growth, but rather that Stored food is quite as available for one sort of growth as for the other, yet it is generally supposed that the kind of food given plants influences the amount stored and consequently, the number of fruit buds formed o-r the amount of growth made. Briefly, the behavior of foods upon manner of plant growth is supposed to be this: An abundance of food, especial- ly if it contains nitrogen, and if at the same time there be a plentiful supply of water, is most favorable to the formation and growth of cells, hence of wood and leaf growth. If the amount of food be decreased, and more particularly if the nitrogen as compared with the potash and phosphate be decreased, and especially if there be an increase of light and air, wood growth is lessened and the number of fruit buds is materially increased. Sometimes the excess of food and moisture is already in the soil and the problem then is to reduce the quantities and so bring on fruit-bud formation. The orthodox method of reducing the quanti- ty of plant food and soil moisture is to sow a grain crop in the orchard. The trees under such treatment cease to make wood growth and use the assimilated substances in the making of fruit buds. This procedure, it should be said at once, is seldom necessary. The fact that leaf and wood growth and fruit bearing in plants are opposed to each other is well recognized by fruit growers; but the knowledge is quite too often wrongly used, exemplifying again that *'a little learning is a dangerous thing." Thus, to bring trees into bearing is often the owner's excuse for double- cropping orchards, putting an orchard down to sod and withholding proper cul- tivation. Pruning Pruning often materially aids in caus- ing the storing of plant food for the FRUITS— SETTING AND DROPPING 1061 formation of fruit buds. One of the gen- eral aims of pruning is to regulate the crop of fruit by removing parts of the plant that those remaining may store the necessary food. The theory of pruning to cause formation of fruit buds is sim- ple but the practice is not so simple. The effects of pruning are so varied under dif- ferent conditions that it is exceedingly aifficult to give directions as to its use in influencing the setting of buds. Heading-in may sometimes be used to advantage in pruning for fruit. It con- sists in cutting back young, unbranching shoots which set few or no fruit buds Heading-in is a necessity with dwarf trees. Practice differs as to whether the operation should be performed in sum- mer or winter but it is usually performed in summer and is then spoken of as sum- mer pruning. Heading-in greatly thick- ens the top, thereby excluding light, and must be practiced very judiciously or moi^e harm than good is done. Summer Pruning Summer pruning is rather commonly used to influence the formation of fruit buds for the succeeding season. The theory is that by removing a part of the young shoots of the current season, we take from the trees the portions which are making the greatest demands on the plant's nutritive powers and that the re- maining parts of the shoots with their buds are enabled to store up greater quantities of reserve food than they oth- erwise could. This summer heading-in should be done before growth ceases. So much, however, depends upon several varying factors that no fixed rule can be given as to time; thus, much depends iipon the fruit, the varieties, soil, climate, weather and the amount of growth. Summer pruning is a weakening pro- cess and may permanently injure a tree in our climate. With standard trees it is only of advantage in moderation in eastern North America and as usually practiced more often results in evil than in good. Summer pruning is of more value in the early life of the tree than later on. Summer pruning as means of inducing fruitfulness is greatly overesti- mated under American conditions and be- longs more properly to the elaborate sys- tems of pruning and training practiced by Europeans- Binging Those who do not find pruning a suf- ficiently drastic method of checking wood growth to augment fruitfulness may re- sort to the removal of a ring of bark from the trunk of the tree. In rather ex- tensive experience on the grounds of this station, we have found ringing of some use with the apple. Our practice is to remove a ring of bark from one-half to one inch wide from young apple trees at the period when the trees are making the greatest growth, usually about the middle of June. If the ringing is done earlier in the season or later in the sea- son than June, injury is certain to re- sult. Should it be done when the growth is being checked by drought, injury would also result The theory upon which ringing is based is simple. Crude sap passes from the roots to the leaves through the out- er layer of wood. In the leaves this crude material is acted upon by various agencies and transformed into food sub- stances. This accumulated material passes downward through the inner bark to be distributed throughout the plant where needed. When trees are ringed the flow of sap upward through the wood con- tinues as before the operation, but the newly made food-substance can not pass below the girdle and, therefore, accumu- lates above and is used for the formation of fruit buds, though at the expense of other parts of the plant. Heredity Is heredity a factor in bud formation? Can the fruit-bearing habit be passed down from one tree generation to an- other? Can the habit be augmented and intensified by selection? Individuals in an orchard vary as to time of coming in- to bearing, regularity of bearing and num- ber of buds formed in any season. But it has not been proved that buds chosen from the trees best in these respects would produce trees that are early bear- ers, or more regular in bearing or more 1062 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE fruitful. Tlie present trend of science is against such a possibility. Even were it possible, there are a number of practical drawbacks. Thus, from tree generation to tree gen- eration constitutes a period of time too long for most men to bend their efforts, especially with that clear conception of exactly what is wanted that is required in the intricate problem of plant selection. The variations at best are but slight and hundreds of trees would have to be ex- amined to find one or two from which to start a new race. One would have to make sure, too, that the selected plants would not fall behind their fellows in other characters. The variations men- tioned are almost certainly the result of environment and are not passed on from one tree generation to another so that, even were the obstacles not so great in practicing selection that few men would be able, or would take the pains to sur- mount them, heredity could not be count- ed as a factor in causing the formation of buds. Biennial Bearing Another phase of the subject of fruit- bud control is the biennial bearing habit of some varieties of the several fruits and especially of the apple. So marked is this habit in apples that we can ascribe it as one of the characters of that fruit. A good deal of attention has been given by orchardists and experimenters to bi- ennial bearing in apples, but as yet no one has been able greatly to change na- ture's way. It is maintained by some that the biennial bearing habit is due to the heavy crop which exhausts the tree's energies and that a light crop follows be- cause of such exhaustion. This can be but partly true; for all can call to mind two, three, or four heavy crops of some varieties after which the trees settle down to bearing in alternate years. Thinning Nor does thinning, often proposed as a remedy for overbearing, prove of much value. Pruning seems to alter the condi- tion but little. We have on record sev- eral experiments in which blossoms were stripped from the trees during the bear- ing year to cause the setting of fruit during the off year. The trees so treat- ed usually bear some fruit the off year but seldom a satisfactory crop. Nor is the matter one of food supply. Orchards amply supplied with food are not always annual bearers. Peculiarities of the sea- son ha-ve something to do with alternate bearing but do not wholly account for it Eliminating all the above conditions — admitting, however, that all have some in- fluence of the bearing habit — we must conclude that the biennial bearing habit of apples is a peculiarity of the species. Good cultivation, an ample supply of food at all times, careful attention to pruning and training, proper control of pests and systematic thinning, are all means which can be used to some extent to circumvent nature. Bevelopment of Fruit Btids Leaving now the formation of fruit buds, let us see what can be done to con- trol the development of fruit buds. Blooming, the prelude of fruiting, had little significance to the fruit grower un- til the discovery was made that many varieties of several fruits were unable to fertilize themselves and that failures of fruit crops were often due to the plant- ing of infertile varieties. The knowledge obtained by experimenters in this field has to some degree modified the planting of all orchard fruits. Pollination and fertilization are events which take place in blossoms that must be reckoned with by fruit growers. M. Ul.iJlIlcl>iMiUIl It is necessary to distinguish between pollination and fertilization, terms sup- posed by many to have the same mean- ing. Pollination is the dusting of the stigma, the female organ of a flower, with pollen, the male element. Fertilization is the process in which the male cell unites with the female cell. Fertilization takes place only after pollination, but a flower may, of course, be pollinated and fertilization not take place, a fact always to be remembered. Fruits set and de- velop, for most part, only after fertiliza- tion. The young fruits when first form- ed have but a slight hold upon life. Un- FRUITS— SETTING AND DROPPING 1063 favorable influences, no matter how slight, naay cause them to perish. Fertilization gives the tiny fruit life, and enables it to hold upon the parent plant through nourishment drawn to supply the em- bryo which has been formed in the seeds. Thus fertilization usually, not always, de- termines whether a fruit is to develop or to drop. Shortly after blooming time, we have the fruit "drop," resulting for most part from a lack of fertilization But fertilization does not insure the complete development of fruit. Even af- ter a perfect union of male and female cells, so far as it can be determined, much fruit drops in every orchard and without regard to whether the trees bear few or many blossoms. Crops of many varieties of several fruits do not set because of the infer- tility of the blossoms — ^that is, with many finiits pollen may be produced in abun- dance, seemingly perfect in appearance, and potent on the pistils of other varieties, but which may wholly fail to fertilize the ovaries of the variety from which it came* There is a great difference in the quan- tity of pollen produced by the varieties of the several fruits, but it is doubtful if insufficiency of pollen is a factor of much importance in the failure of trees to set fruits. Varieties that do not set fruits often have abnormal or abortive pistils or stamens. A high percentage of abnormal flowers nearly always indicates a weak- ness in fruit setting. Another cause of the failure to set fruits is the difference in time of maturity of stamens and pistils. When these organs do not mature at near- ly the same time, fruits do not set unless pollen is supplied from some other source. The female organs of fruits are receptive, however, for several days and the pollen is not shed at once from all anthers and is produced with such prodigality as in most cases to insure the pollination of late maturing stigmas. The solution of the problem of self sterility in the main, then, is to so plant that varieties will be cross-fertilized. It is obvious, if cross-pollen ization is to play an important part in fruit growing, in planting to secure it varieties must be chosen which come into blossom at the same time as those that they are expect- ed to fertilize. There are several causes of dropping other than lack of fertilization that need the attention of fruit growers. Weather Weather conditions have much to do with the dropping of fruit. Prolonged cold saps the vitality of young fruits and causes many of the more tender ones to perish and let go their hold upon the tree. Rain, whether a dashing shower or a pro- longed drizzle at a low temperature, or even an extremely moist atmosphere with- out a fall of rain, weakens the chances of full development of fruits if such con- ditions prevail soon after fruit forma- tion. Sometimes a lack of light causes fruit to drop, and thus we may explain the greater number of fruits at the tops of trees, on well pruned trees, in open- centered trees and in orchards not thick- ly planted. "June Drop" The "June drop," especially of the peach, may be explained in part as fol- lows: When fruits reach a certain size the food stored in the tree the previous year is exhausted. Now if the leaves of such trees are not fully expanded and if they are not able to furnish a new sup- ply of food, the young fruits often drop. The June drop is especially liable to take place if there be one or more of the un- favorable conditions mentioned in the previous paragraphs. With some fruits there is a tendency to drop in late sum- mer when seeds are making great de- mands for food. In such cases the trees become exhausted and cast a part of their load. If at this time there be a drought, or, on the other hand, too much rain, as is often the case, fruit not infrequently drops in considerable quantities. It seems worth while with trees which habitually drop their crop to try to direct the food to the fruit-bearing branches by pruning out surplus wood, cutting out water-sprouts, and stimulat- ing the growth of fruit buds the previ- ous season. All factors which are con- 1064 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ducive to the best nutrition of the tree influence its capacity to retain the crop. Insect and Other Injury Fruits often fall because of insect or fungus injury to tree or fruit. The ef- fects of serious injury to the foliage or the puncturing of the fruit by any one of the innumerable insect pests are too well known to demand attention, though insect injury must by no means be thought to be a sure cause of the drop- ping of a crop. Some insects, as cod- ling moth, curculio, and the berry worms may remain until the fruit is fully developed. Orerloading Lastly, it may be of distinct advan- tage for a tree to drop a part of its load if it have more fruit than it can bring to the best maturity. If it does not do so naturally, the fruit grower should take the matter in hand and thin the crop. Frosts and Weather The weather, as we have indicated in a previous paragraph, has much to do with the setting and dropping of fruit. A study of the weather as it affects the formation and development of fruit buds was made at this Station several years ago covering a period of 25 years be- ginning in 1881.* Since the report of this study can no longer be had the main conclusions are again published here. During this 25-year period late frosts ruined the fruit crops in Western New York in four years, seriously lessened the yield in five years, and did much damage to pears, peaches and plums in three other seasons. That is to say, in more than half of the 25 years, "unrea- sonable" frosts caused serious loss to fruit growers over the section as a whole. The years of frosts appeared in cycles, as there was but one harmful frost dur- ing the first eight years of the 25, then for six years in succession the crops were damaged seriously, while during the latter half of the period the frosts were more evenly distributed. * U P Hednck, Bulletin No 209 New York A^icultural Experiment Station, March, 1908 During seven years when frosts did little or no harm, cold, wet weather play- ed almost as disastrous a part and re- duced the crops to unprofitable propor- tions; while in five of the years of frost the damage was increased by the effects of cold storms. These storm years, like the frost years, came in cycles. A first short period of three years, beginning in 1881, was marked by storms, as was a longer period of seven years beginning in 1888 During the first period, wind strong enough to harm the blossoms, even without the accompanying rain, was a feature of each season, as was al- so the case in 1905; while in another year, without injurious rain storms, the wmd alone did considerable harm to blossoms. Sunshine at blooming time, with warm, dry weather, marked five years, only, of the 25; and in each of these years the crops were excellent. In three of them the records were broken for one or an- other of the fruits and enormous yields were secured from practically all fruits. From these facts, and more detailed data given in the original bulletin, we must conclude that rain and the cold and wind that usually accompany it in mid- May cause the loss of more fruit than any other agency. Killing frosts take second place as destructive forces, though the sudden, plainly evident harm they do attracts more attention and causes more complaint than the slowly developing, more concealed damage from a long, cold storm without freezing temperature. Frosts usually blacken and destroy im- mediately the reproductive organs of the flowers, giving very plain evidence of harm; but such evidence is often given undue weight, so that the injury from light frosts is frequently overestimated. Cold storms, or even very cool days without frost, at blooming time lessen or destroy the crop in several ways. The rains wash oif the tiny grains of pollen from the delicate anthers of the flowers and thus prevent their journey on the body of some insect, so that they fail to perform their fertilizing office. Even if a pollen grain chance to reach the pistil FRUITS— SETTING AND DROPPING 1065 it may fall to adhere and grow since the ram also washes of£ and dilutes the adhesive, stimulating secretion upon the stigmas. Provided neither of these causes prevents the journey and proper placing of the pollen, the cold of such storms often so lessens the vitality of the grains that they germinate very slowly or not at all. The cold and the rain also check the activities of bees and other insects, and as these are the effective carriers of pol- len grains, the possibility of successful pollination is still further lessened. Dampness is favorable to the growth of most fungi — which cause our leading leaf and fruit diseases — and such fungi frequently attack and ruin flowers dur- ing May storms. Winds, alone, do comparatively slight harm to fruits early in the season, but occasionally are strong enough to whip blossoms from the trees and to prevent the flight or active work of insects. If they are drying and long continued they may evaporate the secretion from the stigmas and thereby prevent the reten- tion and germination of the pollen; while cold, dry winds from the north at bloom- ing time chill vegetation and retard all plant activities. On the other hand, light breezes on nights when frosts would otherwise occur may sweep away the set- tling chill and prevent damage; or, in favorable localities beside large bodies of water, may bring in clouds or fogs to check heat radiation and prevent freezing. Unfortunately, at least in a narrow sense, man cannot control the weather to any great extent. Orchard heaters are now used to warm the temperature of an orchard and prevent frosts. By small fires, especially of damp, smouldering, smoke-producing materials, orchards and vineyards may occasionally be protected from light frosts. By proper placing of windbreaks — ^not so simple a matter as it may at first appear — some advantage may be given tender fruits. By white- washing the trees in early spring, blos- soming may be retarded a few days. A definite amount of heat is necessary to bring buds to maturity, and since white objects absorb less heat than dark ones, such whitening of the trees may occasion- ally carry the buds unopened safely through a frost that would destroy the flowers. Aside from these comparatively un- important exceptions, we can do nothing, after the orchard is established, to pro- tect fruit trees from weather stresses. But we can do much to protect future fruit crops by careful study, before we locate the plantation, of weather condi- tions and crop adaptations. It would be most unwise to set apricots, plums and peaches, which are relatively tender at blossoming, in any locality where the average date for the last killing frost is as late as May 10; yet some late bloom- ing or cold resistant varieties of even these fruits, on some hillside rightly lo- cated or beside a favoring lake, might escape frosts often enough to make their culture highly profitable since they could be sold in near markets never glutted with such fruits because of general un- favorable conditions. Orchard Site In choosing a location for an orchard we must consider latitude, altitude, and general topographic conditions, especial- ly proximity to large bodies of water, since these all affect general climatic conditions. Perhaps fully as important as general location, however, is the choice of a par- ticular field on which to plant fruit trees or grape vines. Omitting all discussion of soil, markets, roads, and other sur- roundings, the lay of the land may fre- quently determine its value for an or- chard or vineyard. Every fruit planta- tion has a local climate varying in the different parts of the tracts in accordance with the lay of the land. Low lying spots show the greatest extremes — ^lowest tem- perature in cold weather and highest temperature in hot weather. Converse- ly, on the elevated portions of a tract the temperature is most equable — ^less cold in low temperature, less hot in high temperatures. The direction of the slope of the ground causes variation in the 1066 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE temperature probably because of tbe greater amount of heat absorbed from tbe sun by southerly slopes and because of the different exposures to prevailing winds. A slope also gives better air drainage than a level. The difference between high land and valley, slope and plain, is often amply sufficient to account for the idiosyncrasies in frost injuries so often noted. Some fruit growers in the state claim to obtain a certain degree of immunity irom frost through good air dramage secured by planting at a sufficient dis- tance so that tops do not touch and by keeping the heads within bounds by pruning. Quite as essential as location in doing the little that can be done to avert frost injury is the selection of varieties. Some varieties of each of the several fruits blossom later than others and these are usually in least danger of frosts. The length of time during which different varieties are in blossom is worth con- sidering, though it varies considerably in accordance with the fruit, the variety, and, most of all, the weather. The average length of the period of bloom for the different species of fruits is: For apples, about nine days; for pears, seven days; for peaches, eight days; for plums, seven days; for cher- ries, seven days, and for grapes, ten days. The time from first blossoms until all have dropped may vary greatly, as the blossoms of some fruits do not last longer than 48 hours in very hot, dry weather. Blossoms of tree fruits, after opening, do not close night or day, though pollination probably takes place during the day only. Other things being equal, of course it would be in the fruit grower's favor, in a locality where late frosts are liable to occur, to select late-blooming varieties. Such varieties cannot be selected by knowing only their time of ripening; for some early fall apples blossom late, like Williams, and some late winter apples blossom early, like King and "Wagener. That is, there is no corelation between the time of blooming and the time of ripening of fruits. Early varieties do not necessarily, though some may, blossom earlier than late varieties. It is not pos- sible, therefore, by selecting late varieties to escape danger from late frosts. Circulai 22, New York Experiment Station, Geneva, N 1 Fungus A thallophytic plant destitute of chlor- ophyl, and deriving nourishment wholly or almost wholly from organic com- pounds, as a mushroom, toadstool, puft ball, mold or mildew. The fungi reproduce chiefly by sex- ual spores. They are divided (1) morpho- logically, into three classes: Phycomy- cetes, Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes; and (2) physiologically as parasites and saprophytes. Their chemical composition is complex and variable. They contain proteids, cellulose, gums, oils, sugars, acids, enzymes, resins, alkaloids, and various pigments, but no starch. More than 40,000 species have been described; many of them microscopic. Some are ed- ible, others poisonous; the antidote being atropin, stimulants or heat. Many have no economic interest; others cause dis- eases of plants and animals. PatJiol A soft, spongy, morbid growth of ab- normal excrescence. Algal fungus (Bot) Any phycomycetous fungus. Bracket Fungus^ n. A fungus of the order Agaricales grow- ing on a tree trunk, resembling an in- verted bracket, as others of the poly- pori. Cap Fungus, n, A fungus with an expanded part, call- ed the pileus, or cap, supported by a stem; a mushroom or toadstool. Fungi tmperfecti (Bot.) Imperfectly known fungi, or those whose true character and relationships are unknown; 400 genera are included in the three orders, SpJiaeropisdales, Melan- conctales and MomUales, into which they have been divided. FUNGUS— GALLS 1067 Fungus Beetle, n. A beetle that lives in or upon fungi, as an endomycMd or Mycetophagid, Fungus Cellulose, n The cellulose found in fungi; a term used by De Barry and others. It always resists the action of ammoniacal copper oxid, but has the same chemical composi- tion as ordinary cellulose. Fungus eeredri (Pathol) Hernia of the brain. Fungus Disease, n. Mycetoma. Fungus Gnat, n, A minute mycetophilid gnat, whose larvae inhabit fungi. Fungus Midge Fungus Hematodes A soft bleeding or ulcerating carcino- matous tumor of rapid growth. Fungus Fit, n. A pit for growing mushrooms or other fungi. Fungus Stone, n. A mass of earth and mycelium, used for propagation (as of the Polyporus tul- er aster in Italy). Fungus Tinder, n Tinder made from a fungus, as from Polyporus igniarius. Hedgehog Fungus Same as hedgehog mushroom. Horsetail Fungus Same as horsetail mushroom. House Fungus, n. Any saprophytic fungus growing on moist wood in houses. MiTk Fungus, n. Any species of Lactarius, a genus of agarics, yielding white or colored juice. L. volemus and L. delicious are edible. BUelf Fungus, n. A fungus attached to its supporting surface like a shelf. — Btundmd Diationat^ Fungi. See Diseases of Various Fruits and Vegetables, Fungicide. See Spraying. Galls A gall, in thq^ botanical sense, is an excresence on a plant due to some injury, from instruments as in cultivation or grafting, or from animals, insects, bac- teria or fungi. The disease manifests itself in a cal- lous growth, or hypertrophied tissue on some part of the tree or plant. In some respects it resembles, in relation to plant life, the tumor on the animal organism. Some galls are caused by bacteria, as in the case of crown gall {Bacterium tume- faciens). Some are caused by toxins in- jected by an insect that injures or punc- tures the bark, others are caused by the mechanical irritation of the plant cells as in the case of sucking insects like the woolly aphis. Crown galls, so called because they most frequently occur on the crown of the plant, may occur anywhere on the plant. The organism causing crown gall is a bacterium and all galls so caused are called "Crown G-alls" wherever they appear. Naturally we would suppose "Crown Gall" was on the crown, no mat- ter what were the causes, but according to the literature of the subject it might be on the lateral roots, the trunk or the branches. Some Causes That Produce Galls Gall Fly 1. A kind of insect which stings the plant in laying its eggs. Gall Midge 2. An insect that punctures the bark, leaf or surface, and deposits its egg in the cavity. The subsequent growth, consti- tuting the gall, is either the eftect of some virus deposited with the egg or of the irritation caused by the larva which lives in the gall until it has completed its development. Gall Louse 3. An aphid which often infests the roots of orchard trees, forming what is generally called "Aphis gall." Apple Gall Quercus infectona 4. The gall or oak apple of the gall oaH.. Gall Beetle 5. A beetle that produces galls by puncturing the bark. 1068 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Gall Moth Gelechia pinifolia 6. A gall making moth, similar to a ^'Clothes moth." Gall Fungus 7. Any fungus of the order Chytridia- ceae, that causes galls in plants, specific- ally, one producing a disease in cranber- ries and related plants. - Gall Bacterium Bacterium tumefaciens 8. A bacterium that seems to be al- ways present with crown gall and may infect healthy trees with the disease. Gall Worm 9. The Nematode eel worm. It is not properly an insect but belongs to that class of animals known as Vermes. It attacks the potato more generally perhaps than any other field crop and this may be an objection urged against planting po- Fig. 1. Crown Gall on Roots of Apple Trees. tatoes among orchard trees, unless under conditions where the freezing of winter would kill the worms. Forms of Crown Gall *Hedgecock says that the different forms of gall, such as "hard gall," "soft gall," and various other forms and var- ieties of the disease such as are found on raspberries, blackberries, the peach, ap- ple, etc., also the hairy root galls, are but varying forms of the same disease. Though the disease varies in the different plants and different stages of develop- ment, yet in all cases it is the same in character, produced by the same causes and always somewhat contagious. Hence in no case should shrubs bearing this crown gall be allowed to go into the trade. Like nearly all bacterial contag- ious affections, the only safe way to treat it is to absolutely bar its entrance. Economic Effects of Crown Gall tStewart says that "Crown Gall, Bac- terium tumefaciens, in New York is com- mon on apple trees as well as on several other woody plants. During 12 years of experience he has never known of a well authenticated case in which crown gall has seriously affected apple trees in the orchard." In 1899, C. H. Stewart & Co., of Newark, N. J., set out an experimental orchard of 500 trees, mostly Baldwins, all affected with crown gall. The trees have now been set nine years, and show as good growth as the trees planted at the same time and free from crown gall. The bark is smooth, healthy in appear- ance and the trees look thrifty and vig- orous. "In 1901, we planted 22 apple trees af- fected with crown gall to determine the effect of this disease upon the growth of the trees. The trees were three years old. The galls varied in size from one to two inches in diameter, and were lo- cated mostly on the tap root, but in a few cases on the lateral roots. Some of the trees had several galls each. We be- lieve the galls were typical of those found on the trees of New York nurseries. Five of the trees were dug up in 1903, five in 1905, and five in 1907. In no instance was there any evidence that the galls had increased in size or number or that they had been in any way injurious to the trees. Probably apple trees bearing large galls should be rejected, but unaffected ♦Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 186. t New York (Geneva) Experiment Station, Bulletin 328. GALXiS 1069 trees from the same lot may be planted without fear of had results." On the other hand, *Thompson, of Mis- sissippi, puts crown gall among the most serious apple diseases. Our ohservation leads us to the con- clusion that more crown gall occurs in our apple orchards, in connection with "Root grafting," than is generally sup- posed Often the graft fails to properly unite and a favorable opportunity for the entrance of the bacteria is presented. Great care should therefore be exercised in the grafting of nursery stock. tW. B. Alwood has given the results of experiments made with crown gall in grafting on diseased and healthy roots. Experiments showed: 1. That there is practically no differ- ence in the susceptibility of varieties to infection. 2. Experiments with grafting diseased scions on diseased roots cut into three sections. (1) The top cut, only five lived. Three showed cases of crown gall, and two were weak. (2) Of the middle cut, only six grew, and these were weak, and all showed cases of crown gall. (3) Of the third cut or tip of the roots, only one survived, and it had gall. 3. Healthy scions on healthy roots. (1) From the first cut 11 strong healthy plants. (2) From the second cut eight strong healthy plants. (3) Prom the third cut five plants de- veloped, four healthy and one weak. There was not a case of crown gall in the lot. 4. Healthy scions with long roots, on- to diseased roots, set in the ground at considerable depth, to see if the disease would be communicated from the lower diseased root, to the healthy upper root. It was not so communicated. 5. The diseased root of No. 4 was cut off the following year, and the healthy part planted. This developed no disease the second year. 6. Healthy graft on healthy root, but a piece of crown gall was bound to the root at the point of contact with the graft. Three out of 12 show crown gall, the other nine are healthy. 7. A healthy scion on a healthy root, and a thin slice of diseased tissue was in- serted under the bark. Out of the 12 planted, six grew and four showed more or less traces of gall. 8. Twelve healthy scions were grafted onto healthy roots and inoculated with gall. Nine showed decided cases of crown gall, one suspicious and two healthy. 9. Healthy scions were grafted onto healthy roots. After planting, some fresh galls were sliced with a sharp knife and used for inoculating the soil about the trees. Eleven plants grew, all healthy except that two of the plants show in- cipient cases of crown gall. 10. Galls were cut away with a sharp knife. They have developed fibrous roots, but no normal roots. The part of the roots below the cut seems atrophied. rocket Gophers and CrowB €rall *Soft crown gall occurs frequently on roots injured by pocket gophers or mice. Of course the abundance of soft tissue in the root knots would probably lead a rodent to attack the diseased parts rath- er than a smooth healthy root. Yet, the fact that in some orchards, crown gall is rare except in trees whose roots have been injured by mice seems to indicate that the disease is more commonly the ef- fect rather than the cause of animal at- tack. N. Hollister, of the Biological Survey, writing from Banning, California, May 5, 1909, stated that in that vicinity almond trees are killed by root knot, or crown gall, and he sent photographs of a four- year-old tree that had died from this disease. The old gopher tunnels had ex- tended to its roots and no doubt the roots had once been injured by these animals. From what is now known of the nature of this disease, and the fact that it oc- curs commonly on trees once injured but * Mississippi Experiment Station, Bulletin 147 t Virginia Experiment Station, Bulletm 140 * David E Lantz, in the Year Book, De- partment of Agriculture, 1909 1070 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE not killed by gophers or mice, it is safe to conclude that it is often caused by the attacks of these animals. Crown Oall on Almond tR. E. Smith reports crown gall on the almond in California as somewhat serious. "Large swellings appear on the main roots just below the ground and to some extent on the smaller roots. This results in a gradual failure and dying of the trees. This is one of the commonest troubles of our stone fruit trees, being found both in the nursery and on the mature orchard soils. The organism would seem to be abundant in California soils, since cases are not rare of infec- tion on the roots of trees grown from pits in Tirgin soil." Woolly Aphis Galls *R. I. Smith, in treating the subject of woolly aphis, says: "The woolly aphids occur in damaging numbers, principally on the roots, and are responsible for the stunted, unhealthy growth and even death of hundreds of apple trees each year. In spite of this, their presence often remains unnoticed except by orchardists who give strict attention to the condition of their trees. The extent of the damage must be far greater than is commonly supposed, when the number of infested trees in nur- sery blocks, together with those in both young and older orchards is considered. In short, the woolly aphis is one of the most serious apple pests, ranking with the San Jose scale and the codling moth. For Description of Woolly Aphis, see ApMds. Similar to all plant lice, the woolly aphids subsist on the plant juices, feeding by means of piercing and sucking beaks. Wherever they feed, galls of greater or less size are produced, the exact reason for which is not fully understood. It is due probably to some poison injected by the insect into the tissue of the plants. The galls formed on the soft root tis- sue are of large abnormal growths which soon commence to decay, their destruc- tion being hastened by the entrance of t California Experiment Station, Bulletin *, * ?^?^ Carolina Experiment Station, Bulle- tin 206. fungi and bacteria. As the roots weaken and die, the aphids die also, or move to other roots, so that when looking for the first time for signs of woolly aphis, one may find badly injured roots from which the insects have all disappeared. By further search, live aphids may be discov- ered on the few live roots remaining, or close by the trees. The continual weak- ening and rotting of the infested roots is what renders woolly aphis damage so disastrous. The drain on the vitality of the tree soon results in a sickly dwarfed appearance of the root. Nematode Koot Gall or Eoot Knot *The nematode is not an insect nor is it related to the insects. It belongs to the class of animals known as vermes or true worms. The common earth worm is the best known example of the class, al- though it occupies a position in a high- er group than that of the nematodes. There are a good many species of nema- todes, some living in the ground, some parasites on animals, and a few live para- sitically on plants. Often in moist soil, rich in humus, such as vegetable gardens, there may be large numbers of white transparent worms. These are nematodes however, that do no appreciable injury to plants, and it is only the parasitic species of which this subject is an example. The Heterodera radicicola is widely dis- tributed over the world and attacks large varieties of plants. In the Argentine Re- public it is said to be the most destruc- tive pest of the vine occurring in that country. In the United States it is chiefly destructive in greenhouses. This parasitic species is an exceedingly small worm-like creature about one-sev- enty-fifth of an inch long, and of a trans- parent whitish color. It has a sharp slen- der organ on the head that enables it to make its way into the more tender por- tions of the roots, where it embeds it- self in the tissues. Here it develops and lays eggs, from which succeeding genera- tions arise. These may scatter through the soil and attack other portions of the roots. It is not so much the direct drain upon the roots, however, that causes the * H. J. Quayle, California Experiment Sta- tion Bulletin No. 192, 1907. GrA.LjLS 1071 damage as it is the decay of the hyper- trophied tissue due to irritation caused by the work of the worms. They make conditions favorable for the attack of wood rot fungi which hasten the decay. *Schofield gives the following list of plants commonly attacked: Beets, car- rots, celery, egg plant, lettuce, carnation, muskmelon, pumpkins, potatoes, salsify, squash, tomato, watermelon, clover, cow peas, rape, soy beans, catalpa, cherry, elm, peach. The following are subject to at- tacks of nematodes and although these plants are not in themselves liable to serious injury, they should not be plant- ed on soil infested with it for fear of keeping the gall worm alive: Alfalfa, vetch, sweet clover, asparagus, cabbage, cauliflower, garden peas, horseradish, strawberries, kale, lima beans, onions, radishes, spinach, sweet potatoes. The following plants are seldom, if ever, affected with them: Barley, oats, wheat, rye, corn, sorghum, milo, kaffir, timothy and redtop. At present no method is known to eradicate the pest from infested soils. For Methods of Control, see under Potato Pests, Crown Gall of Alfalfa tGalls and gall-like swellings appear on the main roots just at the surface of the ground and the plants die. The trouble is favored by excessive moisture in the soil and is caused by a fungus, UropTilyctis alfalfae. This new disease in California had not been reported any- where else in this country at this writ- ing (June, 1911), G^all of Commerce There is a form of gall called the "Gall of Commerce" which is a product of the gall fly (Cynips), which lays its eggs in the soft twigs of an oak in West- ern Asia and Eastern Europe. They are rich in tannin and are used in making ink, dyeing, tanning, etc. Fungus Galls on Trees Professor J. W. Tourney, formerly of thie Arizona station, has shown that a ♦ Nevada Experiment Station Bulletin 91. t Smith, California Experiment Station Bul- letin 218. warty growth is due to a microscopic vegetable organism — a slime mould fun- gus, which in the case of the parasite determined for Arizona soils has been named for that investigator, Dendro- phagus glohosus. There is evidence to show that when the trees are transplanted to the orchards, the galls continue to grow, forming ultimately large warts. When they girdle the trunk they interfere with the movement of the sap. Young trees often die of the disease. The galls of varying sizes affect the base of the trunk, the larger roots, and sometimes oc- cur on the stem above the surface of the soil. Affected trees show signs of starva- tion, yellowish foliage and enfeebled growth. *Insect Galls What are commonly known as galls are vegetable excrescences and comprise all abnormal vegetable productions develop- ed on plants by action of animals, more particularly by insects, whatever may be their form, bulk or situation. For the larvae of these insects, the galls provide shelter and sustenance. The ex- citing cause of the undue or excessive growth in the case of the typical galls ap- pears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid or virus secreted by the female insect and deposited with her egg in the puncture made by her ovipositor in the outside Dark or foliaceous parts. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the cells affected by it so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part in the formation of many galls. A certain relation is necessary between the stimulus and the plant, as evidenced by the limitation in the majority of cases of each species of gall insect to some one vegetable structure, still, it must be a quality of the irritant of the tissues rath- er than the specific peculiarities on the part of the plant affected that principally determines the nature of the gall. Thus the characteristics of the currant gall, SpatJiegaster laccarum, which occurs alike on the leaves and on the flower ♦ Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition. 1072 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE stalks of the oak, are obviously due to the act of oviposition and not to the func- tions of the parts producing it. The red galls of the sawfly, Nematus galhcola, are found on four different species of willow. Galls vary remarkably in size and shape according to the species of their makers. The polythalamotis gall, found on the roots of old oak trees, may attain the size of a man's fist; the gall of another Cynipid, which occurs on the male flow- ers of oak, is two millimeters or barely a line in length. Many galls are brightly colored, as for instance, the oak-leaf hairy galls of Spathegaster tricolor, which are of a crimson hue. The variety of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns or cups, others are lenticular. Galls are formed by in- sects of several orders Among the Bymenoptera are the gall wasps (Cynips and their allies), which infect the various species of oak. They are small insects having straight antennae and a com- pressed, usually very short abdomen with the second or third segments great- ly developed and the rest imbricated and concealing the partially coiled oviposi- tor. The transformations from the lar- val state are completed within the gall, out of which the perfect insect tunnels its way usually in autumn, though some- times after hibernation. Among the commoner galls are the oak apple or oak sponge, the currant or ber- ry gall, "oak-spangles," generally reput- ed to be fungoid growths until the discov- ery of their true nature by Frederick Smith, and the succulent "cherry galls." Galls are formed by the 7iemopte7'ous and homopterous insects. Literature Hedgecoek. Field Studies. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 186. Stewart. New York Experiment Sta- tion (Geneva) Bulletin 328. Smith, Brown and Townsend. Crown Gall on Plants. (Cause and Remedy). Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 213. Smith, Brown and McCulloch. Struc- ture and Development of Crown Gall. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 255. Smith. Crown Gall and Sarcoma. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 85. Mississippi Experiment Station Bulle- tin 147. The following deal with Nematode Galls: California Experiment Station Bulla- tin 192. Nevada Experiment Station Bulletin 91. Kentucky Experiment Station Bulletin 142. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 217. Granville Lowtiier Garden. See TegetabXe, GARDENER'S PLANTING TABLE 1073 rt -s «M ft rl 2- O O CD ^ CQ ^ g SJ pl 1— J .S . ri ^ g o ^ 2 s « 5? » ^ « 2 53 o 1 s fl ho ^! 03 03 S <^ ^ CQ O O OS nil p^ o d (^ CD a 8 c« ^ 05 o o S «M ■+-S CQ O CD 'CS

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tH CC *H 00 4J p +3 .-ij CO .■*^ CO CO CO ."P ''^ .-p ."" lOCOCOCO^'^.p-P^"^'^'^ "^ TH 05 GALLS— GEORGIA 1075 D. S. Stanley, at Weiser, Idaho, re- ports that the growing season for garden crops will vary from the Medford, Ore. season from a week to 30 days at each end, the Weiser season being for the most part later and shorter, but crops will mature much quicker so that so long a growing season is not needed. Roseburg Nursery Co., Roseburg, Ore., reports that many of the hardy crops list- ed may be planted as early as midwinter. The time to mature the crops is about the same. Prof. O. M. Morris, at Pullman, Wash., reports that the season for early vege- tables will be a month to six weeks later than Medford and crops mature in about the same period, though the growing season is not so long. In this the dates were considered for the upland regions of Eastern Washing- ton. The Snake river sections could, in practically every case with early vege- tables, plant about one month earlier, and in the case of late planting the work could be done about one month later and still give the plants time to mature. Irrigation will not be necessary with any of the crops mentioned, but suffi- cient temperature will not be attained to grow such crops as watermelons, pep- pers, egg plant and tomatoes successfully on a large scale. Gaeden Slug. See Radish Pests, Georgia On account of its altitudes and lati- tudes, its mountains, hills and valleys, Georgia produces the kinds of crops grown in every state in the Union. On its seacoast and islands in the south- eastern portion, it produces oranges, lemons and bananas; in its higher eleva- tions, it produces small fruits, pears, peaches, plums and apples. It has great- er resources than are found in any of the Southern states east of the Rocky mountain range. Its climate, soil, tim- ber, coal, minerals and marble are all natural advantages, while its navigable rivers and railroad lines give it better transportation than is available to most Southern states, and tend to make it a section of great possible development. The eastern portion of the state was once a part of the bed of the Atlantic ocean. This is shown by the Tertiary and Metamorphic rocks which cover a large portion of the state. The soil in the lowlands and valleys is alluvial. In the Cumberland plateau and the Great valley regions there are red and brown loams, rich in decomposed limestone, calcareous shales and sandy or gravel formations. In the Piedmont plateau and Appala- chian mountain regions the surface is generally sandy, but in considerable areas the subsoil is a red clay, derived largely from the decomposition of horn- blende. For horticultural purposes, the state has been divided into four parts as fol- lows: First: The fig and citrus belt, in what is known as the Quatenary formation. Second. The pear and melon belt, in what is known as the Tertiary forma- tion. Third. The peach and grape belt, in the Metamorphic formation. Fourth. The apple and the cherry belt, in the Tennessee Dip. It is interesting to know why these fruits thrive in the sections designated. Why is the apple, for instance, adapted to the Tennessee Dip, and not to the sec- tions occupied by the Quaternary or Tertiary formations? Soil conditions have something to do in determining this question; but the principal reason is found in the climate. In another connection we have shown how, in a mountainous country, great changes occur in short distances, on ac- count of elevation. That which is true in a general way is true in Georgia. Other conditions enter into it, such as wind currents, and relations to large bodies of water, so that the climate of Georgia is perhaps as variant as that of any other state in the Union. There are nine climatic belts in the United States and all of them are represented 1076 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE in Georgia, except that of Southern Florida. The average rainfall for the whole state is 49.3 inches. The maximum rainfall at Rahun gap, in the extreme northeast part of the state, is 71.7 inches. The minimum rainfall is at Swainboro, Emanuel county, a little southeast of the center, 39.4 inches. The Quaternary represents the Pleis- tocene, or glacial age. It represents the formation of soils in an age when glaciers, some of them miles in extent, ad- vanced and retreated across the Ameri- can continent and Northwestern Europe, carrying rocks, soil, trees and other vege- tation; crushing, grinding, eroding and pulverizing everything in their track. During this period, Arctic types of plants and animals were forced southward, and during the retreats other forms, grown in the south, were carried toward the north. It is not because the soil thus formed is not favorable for the growth of apples, but because this Quaternary or glacial drift in Georgia is found in a climate that Is almost tropical, and therefore adapted to oranges, lemons and bananas, rather than to the growth of deciduous fruits. As compared with the whole state, this citrus belt is small. The Tertiary formation is the third leading division of sedimentary and fos- siliferous rocks, formed in the bottoms of the lakes, bays, estuaries and inland seas. These basins were uplifted by the cooling and shrinking of the earth, and consequent changes in its crust, and became rocky hills, which eroded and disintegrated, forming soil. This soil is especially adapted to melons and pears. Here, also, sweet potatoes, yams, pump- kins and other vegetables reach a high state of perfection. This section in- cludes more than half the whole area of the state of Georgia. The Metamorphic formation is mostly limestone, clay, slate, schist, mica, quartz, etc., laid down by the action of the water, and then transformed by the heat, by chemical agency, pressure or by all of these combined. This formation in Georgia has been lifted to a higher ele- vation than the Tertiary, and is the home of the peach and the grape. It is a red clay and will grow a very high grade of grapes and peaches; yet peaches are not grown so extensively here, in this Metamorphic formation, which is mostly a red clay, as in the Tertiary. This is probably due to the fact that the Meta- morphic formation is farther from the navigable rivers, bays and main lines of railroad than the other sections, and therefore farther from the markets. The so-called Tennessee Dip is a lower stratum of rock, therefore an older forma- tion than the Metamorphic and the Ter- tiary. Yet, though it was lower and old- er, in the process of upheavals it was thrown to the surface, and now occupies a higher elevation than the later forma- tions. It is generally known as the Cam- brian layer, composed of a thick series of slate, schists, sandstones and con- glomerates, together with igneous rocks. These are the formations that when erod- ed and disintegrated compose the basis for the soils of the Tennessee Dip, called the apple belt. This is not to signify that apples do equally well in all the sec- tions of the Tennessee Dip, but that in the coves of the hills and mountains, where there is good air drainage and protection from winds, they reach a high state of perfection. This region is the northwestern portion of Georgia; the citrus belt is the southeastern; and the pear, peach, melon and grape belts lie between these extremes. During the de- cade 1890 to 1900, the area devoted to peaches was doubled. Gbanville Lowthee GEORGIA— GINGKO— GOOSEBERRY 1077 STATION FROST Average Date of First Killing in Autumn Last Killing in Spring Date of Earliest Killing in Autumn Latest Killing in Spring Precipita- tion Annual Inches 21 31 Clajrton Oct. Adairsville Oct. Dahlonega Nov. Elberton Nov. S Atlanta | Nov. 7 Covington | Nov. 9 Augusta ' Nov. 9 Harrison | Nov. 12 Talbatton ' Nov. 12 Dudley I Nov. 11 Savannah | Nov. 27 Lumpkin i Nov, 11 Morgan | Nov. 13 Poulan 1 Nov. 13 Jesup ' Nov. 20 Waycross j Nov. 18 Thomasville Nov. 21 April 15 April 3 Mar, 31 Mar. 29 Mar. 24 Mar. 31 Mar. 18 Mar. 20 Mar. 23 Mar. 20 Feb. 26 Mar. 11 Mar. 10 Mar. 11 Mar. 17 Mar. 13 Mar. 2 Oct. 1 Oct. 16 Oct. 15 Oct. 25 Sept. 27 Oct. 25 Oct. 8 Oct. 25 Oct. 25 Oct. 23 Nov. 1 Oct. 25 Oct. 21 Oct. 25 Nov. 4 Nov. 4 Nov. 8 April 24 April 24 April 24 April 7 April 10 April 11 April 16 April 1 April 10 April 8 April 5 Mar. 31 April 8 Mar. 28 April 11 April 8 Mar. 19 68.5 47.6 59.9 50.0 49.9 50.7 48.5 6l!7 50.1 51.0 50.5 50.6 50.9 57.0 50.8 53.8 Southern €^eorgia For Block Peeiods of Apples, see Louisiana, Gingko A tree much prized by the Chinese and Japanese, sometimes regarded as a sacred tree and planted near their temples. It belongs to the genus Balisliuria of the yew group of conifers. Its fruit, which grows to about the size of the American plum, has a disagreeable odor, enclosing a seed that when roasted tastes some- thing like maize or Indian corn. It is of no commercial value in this country. The tree is a graceful, stately grower, and is sometimes planted in Europe for or- namental purposes. Granville Lowther Gooseberry The gooseberry is of the genus Rides, natural order Baxifragaceae. This fruit is native to the Northern hemisphere, and grows wild in many parts of North America, especially the Eastern and Mid- dle United States. There are about a half dozen species cultivated in Europe, some of them for their fruits, and some for their flowers. Some of the European varieties grow to enormous size, weighing nearly two ounces per berry; but these are not the best for their fruits and have not proven to be successful on the American conti- nent on account of their tendency to mildew. Also the sMn is tough and they are very sour. History of American Oooseberry The history of the American goose- berry with notes on culture is given by Dr. Wm. Saunders, of the Dominion Ex- periment Station, as follows: "As late as 1846 no cultivated varieties of American species of gooseberries were mentioned by writers, the first reference, according to Bailey, being in 1849 in the Northern Fruit Culturist, by Goodrich, where the author writes: 'We have it from good authority that native sorts have been discovered both in New Hamp- shire and Vermont well adapted to gar- den culture.* In 1847 the Houghton's Seedling was exhibited at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, this being the first improved form of the native gooseberry of which there is a record. 1078 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE "There is a good field for work in im- proving the native gooseberries, as there is no apparent reason why the size should not be equal to the best English varieties. The quality of the American varieties is considered by some to be better than the average English gooseberry, but the fla- vor is not nearly as good as the best of the English sorts. Propagation "Gooseberries may be propagated either from cuttings or by layering. The aver- age person will usually get the best re- sults from layering, as cuttings are of- ten very unsatisfactory. To propagate by layering, the bushes should be pruned severely in the autumn. This will induce a strong growth of young wood the next season. When these have made most of pMm])(^pO j y ] »UjiW!»jiM» » m )j(j^^ English Varieties of Gooseberries — Columbus, Chautauqua and Red Jacket — recommended by F. W. Rane for New England. (New Hampshire Experiment Station.) their growth, which will be early in July, the earth is heaped up around and through the bush until only the tips of the young shoots are left uncovered. The soil is packed down and then a cover- ing of loose soil thrown over to retain moisture better. Most of the American varieties will have rooted well by autumn, and the young plants may be detached and planted in nursery rows either the same fall or the following spring, to be grown there for one season. English varieties usually take two years to root, and the soil must be left about the bushes for that time. Cuttings of American va- rieties will sometimes give fairly satis- factory results if made from well ripened wood and treated as currant cuttings. The cuttings are made six to eight inches or less in length, and buried in soil over winter. In spring they are set out in nursery rows, planting deep enough so that only one or two buds are above ground. Both American and English varieties may be propagated from green wood cuttings in a greenhouse, or hotbed with bottom heat. Soil, Planting and Culture "The gooseberry is a moisture-loving plant, hence a soil should be chosen where there will be a constant supply of water during the growing season. In dry soils gooseberries suffer very much in a dry time, the foliage often falling prematurely and the fruit being scalded by the sun. The soil should be a cool one. Moist soils are usually this, but the surface of a sandy loam soil gets very hot in the summer, hence is not the best for this fruit. Well drained, heavy clay loams are the most suitable for goose- berries, as these usually are both cool and moist. The soil should have abun- dant plant food easily made available. A good application of well rotted manure thoroughly worked into the soil will do much to bring about these favorable con- ditions. The soil should be well prepared and made mellow as for a crop of roots. As gooseberries start to grow early in the spring it is usually preferable to plant in the autumn, and as the leaves drop early they may be planted in September and will be in good condition when win- ter comes. Well rooted cuttings or layers may be used as plants. They should be set in rows about six feet apart and four feet apart in the rows. "Cultivation should be very thorough so as to retain moisture and keep the soil cool, and as the gooseberry roots near the surface cultivation should be shallow; GOOSEBERRY 1079 mulching with straw is sometimes advis- able to keep the soil cool. "As the gooseberry makes much more wood than it is desirable to leave, severe pruning is necessary. English varieties are usually trained to a single stem, but this is not necessary, although the freer circulation of air when trained in this way may help to prevent the spread of mildew The usual custom in America is to grow the gooseberry in bush form. The bush should at first be brought into a good shape by leaving a few of the strong- est shoots regularly distributed to make an open head. Five or six of these shoots are quite sufficient to leave at first. As the bush gets older, new shoots are al- lowed to grow to take the place of the older ones, as the pruning should be done with a view to having only vigorous bear- ing wood. Fruit is borne on year-old wood and from spurs on older wood It usually is not desirable to have any wood more than three years old The best time to prune is in the autumn or winter. The weakest young shoots should be cut off at the ground, also all the stronger young shoots not required for fruiting or to take the place of the older branches to be cut away. The side shoots from the older branches should be headed back or cut out altogether so as to maintain a fair- ly open head, making it as easy as pos- sible to pick the fruit and yet leaving suf- ficient wood to produce a good crop and to shade the fruit from the sun, as in a hot, dry time gooseberries are liable to be injured by scalding. When branches are more than three years of age they should be removed to make way for younger wood. It is advisable to cut out all branches which touch the ground as there will then be a better circulation of air, and the fruit will be kept off the ground. Gooseberries will often begin to bear the second year after planting, but there will not be a full crop until the fourth sea- son. If the soil is kept in good condi- tion by an annual application of well rotted barnyard manure in the autumn, harrowed in the following spring, and if the bushes are kept sprayed and well pruned, the plantation will not need to be renewed for many years." Varieties The list of American gooseberries recommended by Card, is as follows: Apex, Champion, Downing, Excelsior, Houghton, Hudson, Jewitt, Orange, Pale Red, Pearl, Red Jacket, Smith, Strubler, Tree, Victoria Hybrids or Unclassified Varieties Cedar Hill, Crystal, Hale Golden, Moun- tain, Newell Seedling, Orange Jumbo, Stein. English Cfooseberries Blucher, Chautauqua, Columbus, Crown Bob, Dominion, Excellent, Frontenac, In- dustry, Jolly Angler, Keepsake, Lady Pop- ham, Lancashire Lad, Leveler, Lord Bea- consfield, Matchless, Portage, Puyallup, Queen of the Whites, Red Champagne, Red Jacket, Red Warrington, Smilmg Beauty, Spineless, Stockwell, Success, Sul- phur, Sunset, Tally Ho, Thumper, Tri- umph, Wellington Glory, White Eagle, White Smith. Originated by Br. Wm. Saunders Perhaps no American has done so much to improve the gooseberry as Dr. Wm. Saunders, of the Dominion Experiment farm, Canada. The following varieties are due to his patient toil and intelli- gence, as the best of his productions: Deacon, Richland, Mabel, Duncan, Al- ma, Pearle, Flora, Silvia, Ralph, Red Jacket, Gibb, Rideau, Ruth, Saunders. Eecomm ended by the American Pomological Society Recommended by the American Pomo- logical Society for the United States and Canada : *District IVo. 1 Successful: Industry, White Smith, Josselyn, Smith. Very successful: Downing, Houghton, Pearl. Recommended tor tbial: Columbus, Keepsake. Bistrict No. 2 Successful: ChautauQua, Columbus, Crown Bob, Industry, Wellington, White * See Page 192. 1080 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Gooseberries. 1 — Golden Prolific, a large English variety, green in color, turning yellow when ripe ; quality excellent. 2 — Keepsake, much like the Golden Prolific hut does not bear as heavily. 3 — Industry, another English variety turning dark red when ripe ; quality excellent. 4 — Chau- tauqua, a variety much like the Golden Prolific but of a lighter color. 5 — White Smith, an English variety, medium to large, and of good quality when ripe. 6 — Lancashire Lad, resembling the Chautauqua but not as prolific. 7 — Pearl, medium in size, midway between the English and American types, very prolific and an excellent berry. 8 — ^Portage, large, dark red, spiny, of good quality. 9 — Josselyn, medium in size, red when ripe, of good quality, very prolific. 10 — Houghton, small, prolific, of good quality; its chief objection is its size. Oregon Champion Gooseberry is not in this list, but is one of the best varieties for Western Washington. — I\}ioto and Descriptions hy J. H. 8talil, Western Washington Experiment Station. GOOSEBERRY— GOOSEBERRY DISEASES lUol Smith, Champion, Houghton, Pearl Red, Pearl, Smith. Veby successful: Josselyn, Downing. District Ko. 3 SuccESSFux: Chautauqua, Columbus, Crown Bob, Champion, Downing, Hough- ton, Smith. District Ko. 4 Successful: Industry, Josselyn, Pale Red, Smith. Veey successful: Downing, Houghton. Districts Nos. 5, 6 and 7 Are not suited to the growing of goose- berries, therefore none is recommended. These districts include Florida, parts of Georgia, North and South Carolina, and the states westward to Texas on the Gulf of Mexico. District Ifo. 8 Successful: Crown Bob, Champion, Pale Red, Pearl, Smith. Very successful: Downing, Houghton. Recommended for trial: Chautauqua, Columbus, Industry, Wellington, Carrie, Competine, Craighead. District Hio. 9 Successful: Chautauqua, Columbus, Crown Bob, Industry, Wellington, Carrie, Champion, Josselyn. Very successful: Downing, Hough- ton, Pearl. Recommended for trial: Competine, Mathews, Smith. District Fo. 10 Successful: Chautauqua, Columbus, Industry, Champion, Houghton, Pearl, Poorman, Smith. Very successful: Downing. District Ho. 11 None is recommended for this dis- trict, as it includes a part of Texas, with the Pecos and Rio Grande rivers as dom- inant features. Gooseberries do not suc- ceed in this section. District Ko. 12 Successful: Berkeley, Chautauqua, In- dustry, White Smith, Champion, Oregon. Very successful: Downing, Houghton, Josselyn, Smith. Recommended for trial: Pearl Red, Pearl. District No. 13 Recommended as successful Down- ing, Pearl, Smith. Very successful: Industry, Houghton. District No. 14 Successful* Downing. Very successful: Champion. Recommended for trial: Industry. District No. 15 Successful: Industry, Downing. Very successful: Champion. Districts 16, 17 and 18 Include California and Arizona, and none is recommended for these districts. A study of these recommendations will show that the Downing and the Hough- ton are more generally recommended as very successful than any other varieties. For Varieties Grown in Alaska, see AlasTca. GOOSEBERRY DISEASES Deaf Spot. See Currant Diseases, Powdery Mildew This is the most serious fungus disease which is known to attack the foliage and fruit of the gooseberry. It is a native disease; that is, due to a fungus which doubtless occurred upon wild gooseberries before cultivated varieties were planted in this country. It is found to be much more serious upon European varieties than American varieties. It is probable that varieties originating from European species, not having this fungus to contend with, have never developed any natural immunity. This disease is present in more or less severity in all parts of the United States where gooseberries are grown. Symptoms This disease is characterized by the production of a superficial white mold or mildew in spots on the fruit and foliage of young canes. It probably first starts upon the young foliage, but is first noticed by the grower upon the fruit. The spots are at first whitish but later become buff or almost brown in color. From the fruit the disease spreads rap- idly to the foliage and young canes. If examined with a pocket lens the spots, when young, are seen to consist of a 1082 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE white cob-webby growth. Several spots may grow together and large patches may be formed. In older spots the moldy growth turns brown. Later in the year small blacli specks, just visible to the unaided eye, appear in the brown mold in older spots. The berries, when attacked on one side, may develop unevenly, and in severe cases may crack and decay. When at- tacked at a later stage they do not crack; but the presence of the mold renders them unsalable. The leaves of diseased shoots are small and where badly affected gradually turn brown. The general effect on the plant is to reduce the vitality and market value of the crop. Cause This disease is caused by a fungus be- longing to a group known commonly as the powdery mildews. These fungi are superficial in their growth; that is, the mycelium develops largely on the outside of the affected spots instead of in the tissues as is the case with most fungi. The mycelium sends short branches into the outer cells of the part of the plant attacked. These absorb the sap. In the early part of the season the summer spores are produced in chains on the erect branches of the mycelium. These are produced in great abundance and soon fall apart, giving the surface of the spots a dusty appearance, from which fact the name "powdery mildew" has originated. These spores are easily spread by the wind or other agencies and start new spots wherever they come to rest. This superficial mycelium, as noted above, soon turns dark and becomes thick-walled, and later in the season black spherical re- ceptacles are formed which have long thread-like appendages attached. These are called perithecia; they are hollow and enclose a single large sack or ascus, inside of which are found eight rather large spores. This stage, which may be referred to as the winter spore stage, serves to carry the fungus over winter. The perithecia, when mature in the spring, burst, forcibly ejecting the spores, which, on coming to rest upon young leaves or fruit, germinate, causing the first spots. It is thus seen that the fun- gus, which remains over the winter on the canes of the current growth and on the leaves and ground, etc., serves as a source of infection in the spring. Treatment This disease is one of the most difficult among the powdery mildews to control. The standard remedy for years has been to spray with potassium sulphide, 1 ounce to 2 or 3 gallons of water, begin- ning when the buds break open and con- tinuing at intervals of ten days until about seven applications have been made. This, wherever used thoroughly, has been found to control mildew. Co-operative experiments conducted by the writer in Oregon during the past season indicate that an application of winter strength lime-sulphur to the dor- mant branches, followed by applications of lime-sulphur diluted 1-30 on the fo- liage at frequent intervals, gives excellent satisfaction. On account of the slight deposit of lime-sulphur it may be found desirable to use potassium sulphide in the later sprayings. H. S. Jackson Rust. See Currant Diseases, For other Diseases or Gooseberry, see under Currant Diseases Fruit Worm. See Currant Pests. GfOoseberry Fruit Worm ZopfioUa grossulariae Riley Just before gooseberries ripen, clusters of two or three may sometimes be no- ticed which are prematurely colored and which are joined together by the webs spun by the caterpillar or a small moth. These caterpillars are pale greenish-white and sometimes have a reddish tinge. They live inside the berries and, when the contents of one berry are consumed, at- tack another near at hand, joining it to the first by a silken web. When full grown they fall to the ground and spin brown parchment-like cocoons, just be- neath the surface of the ground. The moths, which are pale grey, marked with dark streaks and bands, are very rarely GOOSEBERRY PBSTS—GOURD—GRAPES 1083 observed. They fly early in spring, and there is only one brood in the year. Remedy The best method of controlling this insect, which fortunately is never very abundant, is to pick by hand the clusters of injured berries. It is clainaed that chickens and other poultry are useful in destroying the larvae and chrysalids; and it is certain that, while chickens are very small, they are useful in a garden in de- stroying a great number of injurious insects. The old hen, however, should be kept securely cooped up and not allowed to run at large. James Fletcher, Dominion Entomoloaist, Ottawa, Can Gooseberry Midge Cecidomyia grossuXariae This is a small, yellowish fly, about one-tenth of an inch long, which deposits its eggs beneath the skin of the young fruit. Remedy, hand-picking and destruc- tion of the infested berries. Mealy Flata or Frosted Lightning Hopper Ormenis pruinosa This insect is sometimes found on gooseberry as well as grape, sassafras, corn and other plants. It is a lead-colored or pale green, wedge-shaped insect, frosted over with a whitish bloom, and has its wings lying flat against its sides and prolonged behind the body to meet each other. It is a sucking insect. No remedy is needed. The eggs are laid in twigs of sassafras and other trees in a continuous raised slit, sometimes in Sep- tember or soon thereafter. Oyster Shell Scale. See Apple Pests, Scale Insects. See Apple Pests. For other Pests op Gooseberry, see Cur- rant Pests, Gourd The gourd belongs to the order Cucur- "bitaceae and includes the following: First: The calabash, or bottle-gourd, having a hard rind and club shaped, technically called Lagenaria Vulgaris, Second: Squash; any one of the trail- ing annuals of the genus GucurMta. Third: Pumpkin; the large round fruit of the genus CucurMta pepo. Fourth: Muskmelon; Gucumis melo. Fifth: Watermelon; GitrulUs vulgaris. Sixth: Cucumber; Gucumis sativus. For CULTU3RE, see Squash, Cucumber, etc. Grafting. See Propagation under Apple. Grain Aphis. See Aphids. Grain. See Apple Orchard Cover Crops, Grapes The subject may be divided into two parts. First, "Grapes of the Old World," second, "Grapes of America." Grapes of the Old World There is just one species of grape cul- tivated in the Old World, and that is Vttts vinifera. This is the grape of an- cient and modern agriculture, renowned in history, fable, myth, allegory, and poetry. Orientals believed that it was planted in the Garden of Eden, to be cared for by our first parents. Milton says: "They led the vine to wed his elm." It seems pretty clear that the Canaanites grew large vineyards and grapes of very fine quality, at the time of the conquest of that country by the Israelites upon their return from Egypt, as early as 1500 years before Christ. The history of the grape dates back to the oldest his- toric times and has followed civiliza- tion into all parts of the world. In fact, seeds of the grape are found in the re- mains of the Swiss lake dwellings of the Bronze Period and entombed with the mummies of Egypt. Virgil gives fifteen varieties of grapes, while Pliny gives ninety-one varieties, and describes fifty kinds of wine. From the "Grapes of New York" we quote the following: "The history of the development of the vine from VirgiFs time through the early centuries of the Christian Era and of the Middle Ages to our own day is largely the history of agriculture, in the South- ern European countries, for the vine dur- ing this period has been the chief plant cultivated by the Greek and the Latin nations. 1084 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Characteristics of the European and American Grapes "The Old World grape is grown for wine; the American grape for the table The differences arise largely out of the purposes for which they are grown. The Yitis mmfera varieties have a higher sugar and solid content than do those of America. Because of this richness in sugar, they not only make better wine, but keep longer and can be manufactured into raisins. The American grapes are not good keepers, and do not make good raisins. Taken as a whole, the European varieties are better flavored, have a more agreeable aroma, and lack the acidity and what some call the *foxy odor' of the American grape. It is true that in some of the varieties there is a disagreeable astringency and that many are practi- cally without flavor; yet, all in all, that species produces by far the better flavored fruit. On the other hand, American table grapes are more refreshing, and the un- fermented juice makes a much more pleasant and refreshing drink. The bunches and berries of the European grape are larger, more attractive in ap- pearance, and are borne in greater quan- tity vine for vine and acre for acre than the American grape. The pulp and skin of the Vitis v%mfera are less objection- able than those of the native species, and the pulp separates more easily from the seeds. The berries do not shell from the stem nearly so quickly, hence the bunches ship better. In comparing the vines, those of the Old World grapes are more compact in habit, make a shorter and stouter annual growth, therefore re- quire less pruning and training. The roots are fleshy and more fibrous. Taken as a whole, the species is adapted to more kinds of soil, and to greater differences in environment, also is more easily prop- agated from cuttings than the American grapes. The cultivated forms of the wild vines in this country have few points of superiority over their relatives from the Eastern hemisphere; but these few are such as to make them now and probably ever the only grapes to be cultivated in the commercial vineyards east of the Rocky mountains. Indeed, had it not been for the discovery that the vine of the ViUs mmfera could be grown on the roots of any one of the several species of the American grapes, the vineyards of the Old World grape would have been almost wholly destroyed within the last half century because of one of its weak- nesses. This weakness is its non-resist- ance to the phylloxera^ a tiny plant louse working on the leaf and root of the grape, which in a few years wholly de- stroys the European vine, but does com- paratively little harm to the American vine. Three other pests are much more harmful to the European than to the American vines; these are black rot, downy mildew and powdery mildew. "The susceptibility of the European grape to these parasites debars it from cultivation in Eastern America so effec- tively that there is but little hope of any pure-bred variety ever being grown in that region. However, by combining the good qualities of the foreign grape with those of the American grape, and by careful selection and breeding, we may in time secure varieties in all re- spects equal or superior to those of the Old World. "Doubtless the quality of resistance to various diseases which belongs to the American grape is due to natural selec- tion, resulting from the war which has been waged for ages between host and parasite, and the fact that they have been able to survive is a guarantee that they will perpetuate their powers of re- sistance. "In the western part of the American continent European grapes have suc- ceeded. At the old missions in New Mexi- co, Arizona and California, grapes of the European varieties were grown before settlements were made in the eastern parts of the United States. Great elBforts were made by the Eastern colonists to grow European grapes and manufacture wine as an article of commerce. Several of the legislatures gave subsidies to French and German experts to establish successful and profitable vineyards; but after more than one hundred years of GRAPES 1085 a si o a; -4-> o bo B OS .a 03 0! O a a o p< o cs o 1086 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE failure, the project was abandoned. Since then, many attempts have been made hut they have not proved successful. There have been practically three hundred years of failure to grow European grapes along the Atlantic coast and it has always proven that unless the varieties are im- proved or become better adapted, they cannot be made profitable. The American drape "The American grape is pre-eminently a North American plant. There are about fifty species of the genus Titis, more than half of which are found on this conti- nent. But few other plants in America or in the world are adapted to such varied climate and soil conditions. In North America, wild grapes abound on the warm, dry soils- of New Brunswick and New England, about the Great Lakes in Canada and the United States, and almost anywhere in the valleys and rich wood- lands of the Southern states. They thrive in the dry woods, sandy sea plains and reef keys of the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida, where the vines of the Scupper- nong often run more than a hundred feet over trees and shrubs, rioting in natural luxuriance. They flourish in the moun- tains and limestone hills of the Virginias, Tennessee and Kentucky. They are not so common in the West, yet they are found in almost all parts of the Missis- sippi valley, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. Even in the Rocky moun- tain and Pacific coast states, in semi-arid plains and mountains, grapes are found growing wild. It is certain that these wild grapes were not distributed over these regions by the hand of man. They have doubtless been growing in this re- gion from before the time of the migra- tion of the first savages. The agents for their distribution were birds, which car- ried the seeds; animals, lake and river currents. When the seeds were dropped, they entered the competitive struggle for existence with other plants, and suc- ceeded. But climate, soil and other con- ditions of environment tended to modify them. The species found in the forests have tended to develop long, slender trunks and branches in their struggle to obtain sunlight and air. On the dry sands, or among the rocks, they are short and stubby. Still another form runs on the ground. One is almost evergreen, while nearly all others drop their leaves. Some are long-lived, growing and bearing fruit for nearly two centuries; while others are scarcely longer-lived than the ordinary shrub. Some have enormous stems a foot or more in diameter, others are slender and graceful. Not less re- markable than the differences in struc- ture is the adaptability of the genus and some of the species to varied climatic conditions. Several of the wild grapes develop full size and display natural lux- uriance and fruit-bearing qualities only m the Middle states, but may be found on the dry, gravelly, wind-swept hills far to the north or in some hot and humid atmosphere of the South, as if to show indifference to wet or dry, heat or cold. "On the other hand there are many strong points of resemblance between the score or more of species. The organs and characters that do not bear the strain of changed environment nor suffer in the perpetual warfare with nature, are much the same in all the species of the Yitis, Thus, the structure of fruits, flowers and seeds is practically identical All have naked tipped tendrils; leaves and leaf buds are very similar, and various species usually hybridize freely. They are alike in the unlikeness of individual plants in any of the species; that is, all of the indi- viduals of the genus are most variable, and the seeds taken from the same vine may produce plants quite unlike one an- other and quite unlike the parent. These few facts regarding the evolution and dis- tribution of American grapes lead to two important conclusions: "First, the species are so distributed throughout the United States, and Indi- viduals of the species grow in such lux- uriance and abundance, as to suggest that we may be able to improve and domesti- cate some one or more of them for all the agricultural regions of the country. For it is proved that nearly all the wild grapes have agricultural possibilities; and experience with many plants teaches GRAPES 1087 A Yakima Valley Vineyard. that the boundaries of areas inhabited by the wild species of a given region coincide with those suited to the produc- tion of the domesticated plant in that region. It is not possible to tell where the grape-growing regions of the future are to be located; for species and indi- viduals of that fruit are so common that no one can say where the grape in America is most at home. "Second, grapes are so variable and plastic in their nature that they yield readily to improvement. Besides being variable, they hybridize freely and thus the plant breeder can obtain valuable starting points. There are indications that some of the characters of the grapes follow Mendel's law of *the inheritance by the offspring of the dominant traits,' and when once these have been determined, and the more important unit characters segregated and defined, it ought to be possible to rearrange and combine the characters of this fruit with some system, and surely with more certainty than in e pas . Granville Lowther Propagation The Scuppernong grapes of the South are almost exclusively increased by means of layerage. For this purpose the vine is pulled down in spring and covered with soil at intervals of two feet. Another method now in common use is to lay the new canes in shallow trenches in early spring and cover only two or three inches deep. When each node has thrown up a shoot a foot long earth is piled in about them, when they will take root. If the vine be slightly twisted or other- wise bruised at the points where covered, they will readily take root and form strong plants during the season. Late in fall or the following spring, the vine may be cut into sections, each part having roots being a separate plant. Nearly all of the many scores of va- rieties root readily from cuttings. Grape cuttings should be made in early winter before there has been a hard freeze, from wood of the last season's growth. Vines with the joints close together make better cuttings than those having the joints far apart. Begin at the butt end of the vine, cutting it off squarely just below a joint or node. Counting this joint one, skip two more joints and cut the vine off at least two inches above the third one. It is best to have at least three joints for each cutting, although it is not absolutely 1088 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE necessary to have more tlian two. The cuttings will range in length from 10 to 14 inches, although the majority are usually about 12 inches long. Pack the cuttings in bundles of fifty each and store in green sawdust in a cool cellar until spring. The ground on which grape cuttings are to be planted should be moderately rich and plowed very deeply, preferably the fall before they are planted. The cuttings should be planted out early in April, care being taken to see that their buds have not begun to push out while packed in the sawdust. In the nursery the rows should be four feet apart and perfectly straight, being lined up with a wire or garden line. The cuttings may be planted by making holes about four inches apart, like planting apple grafts, or a furrow from eight to ten inches deep may be made. In either case, the cuttings should not stand up straight, but should lean toward the south, and the soil be packed very firmly around the bottom joint; only the top bud should be left above ground and the soil should be almost up to it. The cuttings will often strike root from both the joints under ground, thus mak- ing very strong plants. They should grow in nursery rows for one, or pref- erably, two years, when they are ready to be moved to the permanent planting. The vineyard rows should be from eight to ten feet apart and the vines from six to eight feet apart in the rows. At the time of planting the vines should be cut back, leaving only about two buds to each branch. Old grape vines are sometimes renewed or the varieties changed by cleft-grafting. This is done in the manner described for cleft-grafting the apple, except that usually the soil is drawn away from around the plants and the vines sawed off below ground at least three or four inches. The vine is split open and two scions inserted and the earth packed around them. It is not necessary to use grafting wax on the wound. The soil should be drawn around the scions, leav- ing only one bud of each above ground. Single Eye Cuttings When wood for making cuttings is very valuable or scarce, rapid propagation is effected by means of single eye cuttings, using either the matured wood of the new growth in fall or the green growing wood in summer. The cuttings in either case are made by using only one joint for each, and must be started into growth by being covered an inch deep, while lying flat in a sand box or bed in a greenhouse or hotbed. Single eye cuttings make weak vines. w . L. Howard Gi^rapes in Northeastern United States Next to the Pacific coast region, that section of country known to horticultur- ists as District No. 2, is the greatest grape growing section of the United States. (See Page 192.) This section includes Nova Scotia, Maine, below 500 feet elevation; New Hampshire and Vermont, south of lati- tude 44 degrees; Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, south of latitude 44, except Long Island; North New Jersey; above 500 feet elevation; Pennsylvania, east of the Susquehanna river and above 500 feet elevation, north of latitude 41, west of the Alleghaney river, and all that portion of the state lying north of the Ohio river; Ohio and Indiana, north of latitude 40 degrees; the lower peninsula of Michigan; and Ontario south of Atlantic coast, the lake region of "Western New York, Ohio, Ontario, Michigan and the Hudson river valley are the leading features of District No. 2. There are in the Lake Brie valley of Western New York, alone, over 30,000 acres of grapes. This section, in connec- tion with Northwestern Pennsylvania, produces annually over |2,500,000 worth of grapes for the markets. The following on the culture of the grape is adapted to this region: Culture Location *The ideal location for the vineyard is gently sloping land. Many fine vineyards are located on steep hillsides, yet the * Circular 19, New York Experiment Station. GrRAPE S 1089 liability of washing and difficulty of til- lage tend to render such vineyards less productive and shorter lived. The shores about the large lakes appear to he espe- cially well adapted to grapes — ^these dis- tricts in some instances extending sev- eral miles hack from the water. But very rarely can grapes he grown in our northernmost latitudes without the in- creased labor and cost of covering in winter, except under the tempering in- fluence of large bodies of water. Low situations that prevent a free circulation of air, such as river bottoms and the basins of small lakes, should be avoided, as such locations are more liable to un- seasonable frosts; and also their poor air drainage favors powdery mildew and black rot. There is much difference of opinion as to the direction the rows should run. In the "Chautauqua Grape Belt" the prevailing direction is north and south, where the slope is not too steep. This is ideal for this section, as the morning sun rapidly dries the dew on the east side of the rows while the prevailing wind dries it on the west. The constant west and northwest wind is probably the chief reason why this dis- trict is so free from black rot. Where the slope is steep, the rows must neces- sarily run at right angles to it. The foregoing does not necessarily mean that the grape can not be grown on level land, for such is not the case. Many fine, vigorous vineyards are so situ- ated, but, as a rule, sloping land has the better natural surface drainage. The region about a large body of water is usually rolling or sloping. Hence, more vineyards are found on the slopes than on the typical flat land. Soils Experience shows that grapes may be grown upon a great variety of soils. Pro- ductive vineyards are found on loam, sandy loam, gravel, gravelly loam, heavy clay and clay loam. It is not so much a question of the kind of soil, as the condition of that soil as to texture, drainage and fertility, and the possibil- ity of washing. It is true that certain varieties exhibit a soil preference, but most commercial varieties will thrive on many types of soil. Drainage The first essential is that there be good drainage. The cultivated grape does not thrive with its roots continu- ously in water, though it be more toler- ant in this respect than most fruits. A natural conclusion prevails that sloping land is well drained; yet this is not al- ways true. Especially where the soil is shallow, an impervious rock or hardpan below may form basins or "kettle" holes in which water is retained and the soil becomes saturated, as the water must rise to the surface to escape. Under such conditions, a slope is as badly water- logged and as poorly drained as a low- land area. If there be not good drainage, the field should be tiled. Preparation of Soil In the preparation of the soil for set- ting grape vines the grower should exer- cise the greatest care. A little thought and work before setting will pay for themselves many times over. As a gen- eral rule it is poor practice to reset to grape land that has just been in vine- yard, without putting under a good green manure crop two or three times before planting. When it is desired to reset land where a vineyard has been pulled out, or even where a new location is selected, sow mammoth clover in August and plow this under just before it blos- soms the following summer; then seed it again to clover and plow it under the following spring, when ready to plant. Deep turning under of a green manure crop, followed by thorough dragging and rolling, puts the soil in the best of tilth. Once gotten in good tilth after thorough preparation, it is far easier to maintain in good condition than without such preparation. In fitting the field, preparatory to plant- ing, plow as deeply as possible, with a two-horse plow, into lands eight or nine feet wide — the width depending on the distance apart which the rows are to be made. This will leave dead furrows eight or nine feet apart. Then with a subsoil plow, go twice through each dead fur- 2—28 1090 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE row. Much of the soil loosened by the subsoil can now be thrown out by again going through each furrow with the two-horse plow, once each way. This insures deep planting and increases great- ly the area for root growth. Vines The selection of vines is an important part in the foundation of the vineyard. Too often it is neglected altogether, by reason of the inability of the prospec- tive grower to judge vines, or else poor vines are purchased knowingly because they are cheap. A poor vine purchased because of cheapness is a poor invest- ment. A vineyard started with poor vines is handicapped at the start and rarely, if ever, overcomes the burden, even with good aftercare. First-grade one-year vines are to be preferred to those two years old. They are as a rule much better, though to the amateur a large vine promises more. Very frequently two-year vines represent the poorer one-year vines of the previous season transplanted and allowed to grow in the nursery row another season. Most commercial vineyards are set with one-year vines, while the amateur usual- ly sets those two years old. There are doubtless some good two-year vines, but they are the exception. Varieties The Concord is pre-eminently the com- mercial black grape in New York. In Chautauqua county probably 95 per cent of the acreage is of this variety. The season of good black grapes could be considerably lengthened by planting Moore Early with Concord, as both these varieties stand up well and could be ship- ped to the most distant markets. Moore Early and Worden are frequently sold as Concord, as are several other black grapes. In the latitude of Western New York, Moore Early ripens about ten days before Concord. If one is close to local markets, Worden should have a place in the commercial vineyard and by all means in the home vineyard. Its quality is excellent, but it will not stand ship- ping. It ripens about a week before Con- cord. Worden has proven very produc- tive and its clusters are large, compact, with large berries. For red grapes, Catawba should cer- tainly oe planted where it will thorough- ly ripen. It is of good quality and a good keeper. For quality, the Delaware is the grape par excellence and, with close pruning and good feeding, it is a very profitable grape. For green grapes, Winchell, or Green Mountain as it is listed by some nurserymen, should more generally be planted. This is a very early grape, of excellent quality, a good bearer of large-shouldered, compact clus- ters. For markets that prefer a green grape and one extremely early Winchell will find a ready sale. Niagara needs no recommendation as a market grape and with proper care and especially allowing it to ripen fully, it will become even more popular. By the selection of var- ieties, black, white and red, that ripen in succession, the grower can overcome to a certain extent the frequent glutting of the market that occurs in seasons of big crops when only one or two varieties are grown in an entire district and all are being shipped to the same markets. On the other hand he must not go to the other extreme and set too many varieties unless these can be handled in car lots or disposed of locally. Cross-Follination Owing to the fact that certain varieties (self -sterile) of grapes will not form mar- ketable clusters when planted by them- selves, away from other varieties, it is necessary that the prospective grower learn whether the varieties he is setting be self-fertile or self-sterile. If he is setting both, he should alternate the two classes so as to insure pollen dis- tribution from the self-fertile to the self- sterile. The varieties given in this cir- cular are all self-fertile. Never set va- rieties known to be self-sterile in large solid blocks. Distance There are many recommendations as to distances apart for rows and vines. Some of the older vineyards are set 10 feet by 10 feet, but the prevailing dis- tances are rows 9 feet apart and vines GRAPES 1091 8 feet. A most suitable distance appears to be 8% feet by 8 feet, as an S^^-foot row can be plowed most satisfactorily with a three-gang plow by going twice through the row, and the subsequent til- lage with spring-tooth and disc may be economically done. Many of the newer vineyards are being set 8 feet by 6 feet, and some even 8 feet by 4 feet In this instance the grower plans to take out every other vine as soon as two or three crops have been harvested; or else to leave all and put up but half the wood per vine that is usually put up where they are 8 feet by 8 feet. But observa- tion has shown that orchardists who have set trees closer than they should have been — intending to remove alternate trees when they arrived at maturity — ^find it exceedingly heartbreaking to remove a healthy bearing tree; and this, no doubt, will hold with the vineyardist who is set- ting 8 feet by 4 feet with the intention of pulling out each alternate vine. Planting The field having been plowed in lands of the desired width, stakes are now set in the furrow at the interval decided upon for the vines in the row. These should be lined carefully each way. Then with the hoe and shovel, the hole is dug in the bottom of the furrow with the stake as the center. This can be readily done, as the plowing has loosened the soil. There is not much danger of setting the vine too deep, but rather the other ex- treme. The hole should be dug deep enough so that the bottom may be filled in with surface soil, leaving a mound in the center of the hole upon which the base of the vine is to rest It should be lairge enough to acdommodate the roots without crowding. The roots are cut back more or less severely, depending on their growth and condition, but gener- ally to about eight or ten inches from the base. The top is cut back to two or three buds. The roots are then spread out in the hole so that they are equally disposed in all directions, the base of the vine resting on the mound, with the roots sloping downward at quite an angle; then a little of the surface soil is tamped firmly upon them. More soil is added and firmly packed, until the hole is nearly filled, but the soil last filled in is not tamped, leaving the surface soil loose. The vine should now be deep enough so that the two or three buds of the top are just above the ground. The following winter or spring the growth of the previous season is cut back to two buds, for we should aim, above all else, to get a good, well-estab- lished root system. Then at the begin- ning of the second year we find our vine in apparently the same condition as the year of setting. This spring we should set the trellis posts, putting on but one wire. The trellis is not put up to fix the future training, but to get the canes out of the way for cultivation. Some fruit may set this season, but it should be re- moved early. The following spring the vine is ready to be trained permanently upon the trellis and a variety of systems are presented. The grower can choose the one he believes best suited for his varieties and local conditions. The la- bor problem is an important factor to be observed in this selection as it is more costly to prune and tie some systems than others. Alleys When the vineyard is to cover more than three acres it is best to provide al- leys or driveways for each such area, these to run both parallel and crosswise to the row. They facilitate all vineyard practices, especially cultivation and har- vesting, by permitting ready access and shorter hauls. The alleys should be wide enough to permit turning with a two- horse wagon. The tendency is to provide too few alleys rather than too many. Tillage Frequent and thorough tillage is very essential for the vineyard. The first spring operation is plowing under the cover crops, with the single horse and gang plows. This can be done as soon as the weather and soil conditions will per- mit. A single furrow is plowed up to or away from the vines on either side of the row; then follow this with the gang plow, and, if the cover crop was particu- 1092 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Kennewick Tokays. GRAPE] S 1093 larly heavy, with the disc harrow. The three-gang plow will cover an 8i/^-foot row in one bout. Where no cover crop was sown, the disc may replace the plow. The subsequent cultivation is done with the grape hoe, hand hoe, spring-tooth harrow, and disc harrow. Just about the time that the root-worm has transferred to the pupa or "turtle" stage and has got- ten into the upper layer of the soil, ready to emerge and, as adult, to lay its eggs on the canes, the grape hoe may be used to throw a furrow away from the hills. This exposes the delicate pupal stage of the insect to the sun and other climatic conditions which are very destructive to it. Cultivate at regular intervals of ten days and always just be- fore the soil has crusted from a rain, and especially often in a season of drought. About the first of August dis- continue cultivation, the last operations being gang plowing, dragging, and plow- ing a single furrow up to each side of the hill. Care should be observed to keep the soil level throughout the entire width of the row during the growing season. This insures a more uniform distribution of rainfall. Cover Crops The vineyard should be sown to a cov- er crop at this time by broadcasting and dragging in with the spring-tooth har- row or else drilling it. Before sowing, it is well to watch the weather maps pretty closely and try to sow just before or just after rain. If good cultivation has been given we will have now a good seed bed. Mammoth clover, vetch, Can- ada field peas, clover mixed with cow- horn turnips, and winter wheat mixed with cow-horn turnips can be used. Mammoth clover sown at the rate of 20 pounds per acre has proven very satis- factory and makes an ideal nitrogenous cover crop for the vineyard. It decays rapidly and adds much nitrogen and humus to the soil. The next most promising nitrogenous cover crops for the vineyard are hairy vetch and a mixture of mammoth clover (15 pounds) and cow-horn turnips (1 pound per acre). A mixture of winter vfheat (1 bushel) and cow-horn turnips (12 ounces per acre) promises a very satisfactory non-nitrogenous cover crop. In addition to furnishing and liberat- ing plant food in the soil, the organic matter derived from a cover crop im- proves the mechanical condition and con- serves moisture. A crop growing late in the fall, after the vines have ceased growing, also utilizes nitrates that are being formed then and would otherwise be lost by leaching, especially on knolls and hillsides liable to washing. There can be no doubt that the grape does best under frequent and thorough tillage, and this means that organic matter and humus are being rapidly burned out of the soil. Hence the loss must be sup- plied by the use of stable manure, cover crops, or organic commercial fertilizer. Intercropping Many growers grow potatoes, cabbage, beans, etc., between the rows of the young vineyard for the first two years, while others interplant blackberries, rasp- berries, currants, gooseberries and straw- berries for indefinite periods. Observa- tion shows that neither of these plans is in keeping with the best vineyard prac- tices; and both the primary and second- ary crops suffer as the result of such sys- tems. The only crop that should be allowed in the vineyard is the cover crop. Fertilizers The fertilizers required by the grape are still largely a matter of experiment, and until this phase is thoroughly worked out, the grower must rely on his vines to tell him what is needed. Even should the wood growth indicate a lack of nitro- gen, it would not indicate that more nitrogen should be added to the soil, as there might be a sufficiency already pres- ent, yet unavailable by reason of poor tillage, lack of drainage and other faulty practices. MannriBg The above statements will apply equal- ly well to the use of stable manure. It is probable that stable manure does pro- duce vigorous wood growth in some in- stances and it is just as probable that its direct fertilizing value has been over- 1094 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE estimated. Its greatest value lies in its power to improve the mechanical condi- tion of the soil by making it more por- ous and increasing its water-holding capacity. P. W. Gladwin, Geneva, N. Y. HISTORY OF THE PRODUCTION OF R4ISO GRAPES IN CALIFORNIA The grapevine has long been cultivated in California. The mission fathers were the first to grow successfully the Euro- pean grape in that state. They had but one variety, which is still largely grown, and is known by the name of the Mission grape. It was planted at San Diego in 1769; San Gabriel in 1771; Los Angeles, 1781, and Santa Barbara in 1786, and was largely used for wine making. It was nearly 80 years later before the raisin grape was introduced into California. The First Introduction of the Raisin Yine In 1851 Colonel Agostin Haraszth, of San Diego, grew some Muscatel vines from seeds of Malaga raisins. In March, the following year, he imported the Mus- cat of Alexandria from Malaga, Spain, and ten years later, during a visit to that place in September, 1861, he selected cut- tings of the Gordo Blanco, which were afterwards grown and propagated in his vineyard in San Diego county. He was thus the first to introduce the raisin vine into California. Another importation of the Muscat of Alexandria was made in 1855 by A. Delmas, and planted at San Jose. G. G. Briggs, of Davisville, also imported Muscatel grapevines from Spain, while R. B. Blowers, of Woodland, Yolo county, started one of the first raisin vineyards in 1863 from Gordo Blanco cuttings received from Colonel Haraszth. Early Yineyards in Southern California In the more southern parts of the state. Riverside entered the field in 1873, when Judge John Wesley North, the founder of the colony of that name, first planted the . Muscat of Alexandria; but grape growing in that district did not become general until about three years later. In El Cajon valley, San Diego county, the same variety of raisin vines was planted by R. G. Clark, in 1873, but most of the vineyards in that county were not planted until 1884-86. In Orange county raisin grapes were also planted about the year 1875-76 by MacPherson Brothers, who, at one time, were the largest growers and packers in the state. Raisins were also produced in San Ber- Moore's Early. Wonder. Maxted PJioto GrR-APES 1095 nardino and Los Angeles counties in former years, but owing to the ravages of what has since become known as the Anaheim disease, which destroyed thous- ands of acres from 1884 to 1889, growers became discouraged, and oranges and lemons have taken the place of vines al- most entirely. Beginning of the Eaisin Industry in Central California In 1876, W. S. Chapman imported some of the best obtainable Muscat vines from Spain for the Central California Colony in Fresno county, which, however, proved in no way different from those already growing in that county. Who produced the first raisins in California will prob- ably never be satisfactorily proved. Ac- cording to a report of the California State Agricultural Society, raisins were exhibited by Dr. J. Strentzel at the state fair in 1863. The first successful raisin vineyards in the state were those plant- ed by G. C Briggs, of Davisville, in Solano county, and by R. B. Blowers of Woodland, Yolo county. The former vine- yard contained mainly Muscats of Alex- andria, and the latter, Gordo Blanco. Both these vineyards produced raisins as early as 1867, but it was not until 1873 that any quantity was placed on the market. First Fresno Yineyards In the fall of 1873, Muscat vines were first brought to Fresno, when 25 acres of the Muscat of Alexandria were plant- ed in the Eisen vineyard. In 1876-77, T. C. White planted the Raisina vineyard in the Central California Colony, Fres- no, with Gordo Blanco Muscatels brought from Blowers' vineyard at Woodland. The following year Miss M. F. Austin planted her "Hedgerow" vineyard with the same variety, and Robert Barton also planted 25 acres of Muscat vines, but did not make raisins until later. The Butler vineyard, one of the largest, was first planted in 1879, while Colonel Wil- liam Forsyth commenced grape growing in 1881-82. Most of his vineyard, how- ever, was planted a year or two later. Production of Kaisins Doubled in Five Years Twenty-five years ago Fresno county commenced to take the lead, which it has kept increasing ever since, while South- ern California, especially Los Angeles and Orange counties, continued to fall off in their production, as illustrated by the following summary: 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 Fresno Riverside and San Bernar- dino Los Angeles and Orange Counties Yolo San Diego Tulare Kern Other smaller districts. . 2,140,000 2,580,000 2,780,000 1,340,000 200,000 120,000 4,500,000 3,900,000 3,600,000 1,500,000 500,000 160,000 7,000,000 3,800,000 1,700,000 2,500,000 400,000 200,000 8,800,000 5,400,000 840,000 2,500,000 800,000 220,000 240,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 9,500,000 5,300,000 160,000 2,400,000 150,000 300,000 80,000 500,000 Totals. 9,400,000 14,460,000 16,000,000 18,860,000 19,740,000 These figures are only an approximation. Kings county does not appear in this list, as it was then part of Tulare coun- ty, not being organized into a separate county until 1893. Within the last 20 years great changes have taken place. Orange and Solano counties no longer produce raisins; Los Angeles county very few; Yolo county, which at one time pro- duced Sultanas and Thompson's Seed- less in considerable quantities, now finds it more profitable to ship them as table grapes; while the large vineyards in Riv- erside and San Bernardino counties are more devoted to wine grapes. Of the 52 counties in California, only ten produce raisins in any quantity: 1096 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Twelve Counties Where Raisins are Produced— (Crop of 1909) Pounds Fresno 83,404,000 Tulare 20,000,000 Kings 18,000,000 Sutter 4,500,000 San Bernardino 3,600,000 San Diego 3,200,000 Madera 2,400,000 Yolo 2,000,000 Kern 1,100,000 Colusa 900,000 Los Angeles 600,000 Riverside 296,000 Total 140,000,000 CRAPES IN ORECiON The grape culture lias not, as yet, iDeen very highly developed in Oregon; this industry should receive much more at- tention. There are two sections in the state that are specially adapted for the production of the Yinifera or European grape as it is commonly called, near The Dalles and in parts of Southern Oregon in such regions as the Rogue River val- ley. The best areas ate found principal- ly on red hill lands that are provided with good air and soil drainage, have a warm sunny exposure and are out of the fog and frost belt. Such grapes as Tokay, Muscat, Thompson Seedling, etc., grow to the highest degree of perfection, possess splendid quality and are un- excelled by any grapes the writer has ever tasted. There is a large demand for the product and much more attention should be given to this industry. These lands can also grow the Ameri- can or table grapes. Much more atten- tion should be given to this product, as we are steadily importing grapes from Eastern points. The Umpqua valley of- fers a good field for early table or Ameri- can grapes like the Worden, Concord, Delaware, Niagara and Brighton. These varieties also succeed well in the Wil- lamette valley on the silt loams along the rivers and on the sunny, rich hill lands when such lands are not exposed to cold winds. The vines are planted in rows about five to six feet apart and the plants from six to eight feet apart in the row, according to the system of pruning. The renewal systems of pruning, in which bearing wood is cut away each year and new bearing wood produced, are the bet- ter. Part of the canes should be re- moved. A strong vine can stand four canes, while some of the weaker grow- ing sorts should have but two canes. At times it is best to limit the number of bunches the vine is allowed to produce, and throw greater vitality into the re- maining bunches. Grapes must be given exceedingly good care the first three years and not be al- lowed to bear during that period, so that more vitality may be thrown into the growing vines. They will need severe cutting back the first few years and when pruned upright each will pro- duce arms for fruiting. European va- rieties are usually grown on stumps, al- though sometimes they are placed on wires, while the American varieties are always grown according to the latter method. — Oregon Experiment Station Bulletin 111. GRAPE GROWIINTG IN THE SOUTH Introduction Grapevines grow well in neariy all parts of the South, and with reasonable care they seldom fail to produce abun- dant crops. The grape may, therefore, be set down as among the most satisfactory fruits grown in this section. Grapes ripen at a season when other fruits are scarce; their acid flavor is especially agreeable in the warm days of July and August, and they can usually be sold at a fair price. In the South the vines are never injured by severe freezes, and therefore need no winter protection. Oc- casionally a late spring frost destroys the early blooms, but never hurts the vine enough to prevent its bearing a fair crop of fruit. Pew fruit-bearing plants are less particular about the soil in which they grow, and few will yield so much fruit in proportion to the land they oc- cupy and the labor they require. Wild grapes are abundant in the woods throughout the entire region, and where- ever grapes are found growing wild the cultivated vines are sure to succeed. GRAPES 1097 There is no part of the South where grapes of fine quality can not be grown in sufficient quantity for home use, and in many parts they are an exceedingly prof- itable market crop. The Question of Soils Grapes will grow on any soil which is suited to the growing of peaches. The best soil is one which is fertile, but not excessively rich; which is loose and easi- ly worked, and which is underlaid by an open and porous subsoil. Neither thrifty vines nor heavy crops of fruit can be pro- duced on a sterile soil. On the other hand, if the soil be too rich, containing an excess of humus and nitrogenous ma- terial, as is usually the case with creek- bottom soils, the vines will make a rank growth, but the fruit will be small, im- perfect, sour, and lacking in flavor. The presence of lime in the soil is always beneficial. The character of the subsoil also is very important. The surface soil is easily changed and modified by cultivating and fertilizing, but the subsoil will remain practically unchanged. As the roots of the vines are easily injured by excessive heat and drought or by standing water, the subsoil should be of such a texture that the roots can penetrate below the reach of intense heat, and still not suffer from too much moisture. When the sub- soil is loose and porous it not only per- mits surplus water to pass down through quickly, but it also assists the water from below in passing back to the sur- face in times of drought, thus securing to the vine the constant and uniform supply of moisture essential to its healthy growth. Soils underlaid with hardpan, those which are inclined to wash badly, and those which are not naturally well drained should always be Niagara. — Maxted Photo 1098 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE avoided when selecting a location for an extensive vineyard. Preparing the Ground In preparing the ground it should he plowed very deeply, as no loosening of the subsoil is possible after the vines are planted. An excellent plan is to plow the ground in "lands" the width of the rows, making the "dead furrows" come where the vines are to be planted, and running the plow through them several times so as to break up the subsoil to a good depth. This thorough loosening of the subsoil is especially necessary where an underlying hardpan prevents good natural drainage. It will be better if all the ground is subsoiled, and if the work is done some weeks or even months in advance of the planting. Just before planting, the ground should be plowed again, reversing the "lands,** so as to make the ridge come where the furrow was. This should leave at least two feet of loosened soil where the vines are plant- ed, and will afford the roots ample room for a free growth, besides doing much to insure them against suffering from drought. Laying Out a Tineyard In laying out a vineyard the rows should be made to run as nearly north and south as possible if the vines are to be trained on a trellis, but if only stakes are to be used the rows may be run in any direction. By running the trellis north and south all the fruiting parts of the vine have nearly the same exposure to the sun, while the fruit, main stem, and roots are shaded and protected dur- ing the hottest part of the day. Protec- tion of the soil from washing is of first importance, however, and the direction of the rows for any method of training should be made to conform to the slope of the ground when the vineyard is on the side of a hill. Distance Apart of Tines The distances between the vines should be somewhat greater than is recommend- ed for Northern vineyards, as the longer growing season produces a heavier growth, and it is never profitable to crowd the vines too closely. The rows should be at least eight feet apart, and the same distance between the vines in the rows is close enough for such mod- erate growers as Delaware, Elvira, and Gold Coin. Vines of the stronger grow- ing varieties like Concord or Carman should be at least ten feet apart; 12 feet is none too wide for such rank grow- ers as Fern, Laussel, and Herbemont. Some give the stronger vines as much as 16 feet, and find that distance none too great on good soil. Vines of the Scup- pernong family should never be crowded, and 8 by 16 or 12 by 12 feet is close enough for them. Planting Only strong, one-year-old vines from cuttings or layers should be used for planting. Two-year-old vines are usually larger and heavier, but do not often grow so well or make as good vines as those planted at one year, while the three and four-year-old vines sometimes sold "for immediate bearing" are of very little value. It is more economical and in every way more profitable to pay a good price for good vines than to use old, stunted, or unhealthy vines which cost nothing. The holes in which the vines are planted should be of sufficient size to give room for the roots to be spread out in their natural positions, say from 15 to 18 inches in diameter, and deep enough to allow the vines to be set about two inches deeper than they grew in the nursery rows. Very little is gained by making the holes larger than is needed. Where they can be secured, it is very beneficial to put a few pounds of bones in the bottom of each hole and cover them with a little soil before the vines are planted. It is not usually possible to do this for a large vineyard, but where only a few vines are planted to furnish fruit for home use a sufficient supply can commonly be found around a slaughter house or in the fields, and they more than repay the trouble of gathering them. No other fertilizer need be used at the time of planting. The tops of the vines should be cut back to two or three buds. In planting, G-RAPES 1099 ttie holes should be filled with the finest and richest soil. If the surface soil taken from the holes is rich, fine, and mellow, it will be good enough, hut if the vines are being planted in a hard clay or a light, sandy soil, it will pay to haul rich woods soil for filling about the roots. The filling should be packed and tramped down firmly, and a slender, 5-foot stake set by the side of each vine, the stakes being kept in the line of the row, so as not to be in the way of cultivation. All the vines of each variety should be planted together, and, as soon as the planting is completed, or while it is in progress, a complete record should be made, showing the location of all the vines of each variety. Propagation Originating l^ew Varieties Grapevines are propagated by seeds, layers, and cuttings, and by grafting- Propagation from seeds is employed only for the purpose of originating new vari- eties. Seedling grapevines may differ widely from the parent stock, and from each other, even when the seeds are from a single cluster of grapes; they require a long time to come into bear- ing, and their fruit is usually inferior to that of some of the established vari- eties. Nevertheless, it is by the raising of seedlings that all new varieties are originated, and the man who grows a hundred seedling vines feels amply re- paid for all his labor and trouble if he finds among them a single one which pro- duces grapes of superior quality. Although propagating grapevines from seeds is rarely profitable, the work is of intense interest, and it is the only means by which new and better varieties can be secured. As work of this kind belongs to nurserymen and experimenters rather than practical grape growers, a full treatment of the methods is unnecessary here. Tarieties for Shipping, for Wine, and for Table Use The better varieties for shipping, as given by the same report, in order of maturity, are Diamond, Moore Early, Brighton, Ives, Delaware, Niagara, Con- cord, Perkins and Diana. Varieties recommended for wine are Norton, Lenoir, Clinton, Concord, Ives, Thomas, Missouri, Riesling, Catawba, Delaware, Elvira, Warren and Noah. The Georgia Experiment Station, in its Bulletin No. 28, recommends the follow- ing varieties, enumerated in the order of their ripening: For shipping: Moore Early, Delaware, Ives, Niagara, Concord and Carman. For tal)le or local market: All the varieties named above, with the addition of Presly, Winchell (Ch'een Mountain), Bell, Brighton, Brilliant, Empire State and Goethe. For wine: Goethe, Missouri, Riesling, Elvira, Catawba, Herbemont, Delaware, Scuppernong, Norton, Cynthiana, Cun- ningham, Ives, Concord and Thomas. Varieties of the Scuppernong family, including Thomas, Flowers, Tenderpulp, and others, should be planted in every vineyard south of latitude 35 degrees, and are especially valuable along the Gulf coast from Texas to Florida. The vines grow with very little care, and the fruit ripens very late, after most other vari- eties have disappeared. Cuttings When vines can be grown from cut- tings, it is the simplest and easiest method of propagation. Cuttings of the Labrusca, Riparia, and some of the soft- er-wooded Aestivalis classes, root very easily. Cuttings should be made as soon as convenient after the leaves drop in the fall, and should be made from strong and well-ripened wood of the present sea- son's growfh. Each cutting should have at least three joints, and should be from 8 to 12 inches in length. The cut at the lower end should be made just be- low a joint, or the cutting should have a short "heel" of old wood. The latter form is the better, but of course only one such cutting can be made from each shoot. The top of the cutting should be an inch or two above the upper joint, and, as a matter of convenience in handling and planting, the cuttings should be of nearly 1100 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE equal length. They may be planted as soon as made, or may be tied in bundles and buried in well-drained soil until spring. The making of cuttings may be deferred until late in winter if neces- sary, but they are much better if made earlier. When made in the fall or early winter they have time to become well calloused, and so are more sure to form roots and grow promptly as soon as the soil becomes warm in the spring than when made later in the season. Cuttings should be planted in loose, rich, and light soil as early in the spring as the ground is in condition for work- ing. Dig a V-shaped trench, making one side straight and smooth, and a trifle less than the length of the cuttings in depth. Place the cuttings about two inches apart, against the smooth side of the trench, carefully press the lower end of each firmly into the soil, and have the top about even with the surface of the ground. Fill the trench nearly half full with fine soil and then tramp thoroughly, throwing the whole weight of the body on the heel so as to pack the soil very closely about the lower ends of the cut- tings. Then fill the trench full, tramp again, and finish by drawing in loose soil to leave the surface level. As much of the success in growing cuttings de- pends on having good soil packed very closely about the lower ends, special care should be taken in that part of the plant- ing. Cuttings may be planted more rapidly and more easily by simply opening the soil to the required depth with a spade, and pushing them down into place and then tramping the soil back against them, but when planted in that manner it is impossible to secure uniformly close con- tact between the soil and the lower ends of the cuttings, and success is much less sure. When properly made and planted in good soil, at least 90 per cent of the cuttings of such varieties as the Concord and Niagara will grow; but of some other sorts, like Norton and Cynthiana, not more than ten per cent can be expected to make vines. The rows of cuttings should be at least four feet apart so as to give ample room for cultivation, and by the end of the season the young vines should have made a growth of from two to four feet or even more. They will then be ready for planting in the vine- yard at any time after the first frost in the fall, or they may remain in the original rows until spring. This is the most common method of propagation, and fully 90 per cent of the vines sold by nurserymen are raised in this way. Layering All varieties may be propagated by layering, and many varieties, especially those like Norton, Cynthiana, Scupper- nong, and other hard-wooded sorts of the Aestivalis and Rotundifolia classes, can not be easily propagated by any other means. Layering should be done either in early spring or late in the summer, the spring layering being the more eco- nomical and making the better plants. For spring layering a trench of two or three inches in depth is dug, and a cane of the last season's growth is laid into it and fastened in place with a few wood- en or wire pegs. When the young shoots from this cane have made a growth of from 6 to 12 inches, the trench should be filled with fine soil, well tramped in, and the shoots tied to stakes to keep them out of the way of cultivation. When treated in this way the canes laid in the trench will usually make both shoots and roots at each of the covered joints, and so make as many new vines as there are shoots. The trenches should be made lengthwise of the rows, so they will be out of the way, and in digging the young vines should be separated by cutting the canes just beyond the shoot nearest the parent vine. Layering may be done in midsummer by bending down and covering shoots of the present season's growth, but it is not often possible to secure more than one or two new vines from each shoot. If the layering is done very late in the season, it is safer to cut a tongue on one side of the shoot which is buried, mak- ing the tongue an inch or two in length and about one-third the thickness of the shoot, as roots will start more quickly from such a cut surface than where the GRAPES 1101 bark is unbroken. Wlien treated in tbis manner many varieties will make strong roots by spring, even wben the layering is done as late as September or October. Propagation by layering is more sure than by cuttings, and it is often more convenient and satisfactory when only a few new vines are wanted. It has the further advantage of being practicable in summer when cuttings could not be made to grow. Plants grown from layers are not so convenient for handling and planting as are those grown from cuttings, but there seems to be no difference in the growth or productiveness of the matured vines. Cultivation Grapevines need no special cultivation beyond that necessary to keep them free from weeds, and all the cultivation given should be very shallow, in order to avoid injury to the roots. Ordinarily the first working in the spring should be done with a one-horse turning plow, beginning in the middles and backfurrowing, so as to throw the soil away from the vines. The narrow strips left along the rows should be cleaned off with a hoe, fertil- izers should be scattered in the open furrows on both sides of each vine, and the ground plowed again, the soil be- ing thrown toward the rows at the second plowing, thus covering the fertilizer. For the later workings there is nothing bet- ter than an ordinary five-toothed culti- vator and an occasional hoeing along the line of the row. Cultivation should cease when the growing fruit begins to weight down the vines, but as soon as the crop has been gathered the middles should be run through with a cultivator and the ground seeded with cow peas or crim- son clover, both for their fertilizing ef- fect and for the protection they afford the ground during the winter. Pruning The training and pruning of grape- vines is the most important item in their management, and it is in this part of the work that the greatest number of mis- takes occur, although the principles in- volved are really very simple and easily learned by any one who will give them a little thought and attention. Definition of Terms The terms commonly used in speaking of the different parts of a vine are as follows : A shoot is a green or immature growth less than one year old. A cane is a matured shoot. An arm is a cane two or more years of age, and is a permanent part of the vine, which is usually fastened to the trellis in a horizontal position, and on which the spurs and branches are produced. A 'branch is a division of an arm or shoot. A spur is a cane which has been short- ened to from one to three joints; if left longer it is usually called a cane. The stem is the permanent portion of the vine below the arms or canes. Where the stake or renewal system of training is followed the stem may be only a few inches in length, while in the canopy system of training it reaches to the top of the trellis. Objects in Tiew Most other fruiting plants do better with very little pruning, as the object is to secure the greatest possible amount of fruit from each plant and to make each plant grow as large as possible; but with grapes the object is to secure the greatest possible yield of fruit per square rod or per acre, and not per plant While a single grapevine bears less fruit when trained to a trellis and kept pruned to a few feet in length than when allowed to grow at will over the tops of trees, the yield of fruit in return for the time, labor and expense is much greater when the vines are restricted to a con- venient size and are trained in a some- what unnatural form; hence, in cultiva- tion, extended growth of vine is sacrificed to secure an increased yield of fruit. The objects to be kept in view in prun- ing are to keep each vine within its al- lotted limits and make it assume the form desired, to remove any useless parts and so secure a more vigorous growth of productive wood, and to remove an ex- cess of fruit. It should always be kept in mind that the fruit of the next sea- son will be borne on shoots of this sea- son which were produced on wood grown 1102 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE last season, and that it is usnally desir- able to remove as much, of the old wood as is possible and at the same time to leave as much of the new wood as the vine can support with a thrifty and fruit- ful growth. As each bud on the spurs will probably produce a new shoot, and as each shoot will ordinarily produce from two to six clusters of fruit, the number of clusters being quite uniform for each variety, the amount of fruit which may be expected from each vine can be estimated quite closely, and the pruning should be done accordingly. When too much bearing wood is left and the amount of fruit produced is exces- sive, both the clusters and the berries will be smaller, and the vine may be so weakened as to require several years to recover a healthy growth. Too close pruning should also be avoided, as it les- sens the opportunity for fruit bearing, and causes an excessive growth of coarse and sappy vine. The after effects of too close pruning are rarely harmful to the vine, and there is far less danger in pruning too closely than in permitting the vine to grow at will or to produce an excessive crop at the expense of its future thrift. The natural tendency of a vine is to make its most vigorous growth from the buds farthest from the roots, and, whatever method of pruning and training may be adopted, the aim should be to confine the growth very near the root or main stem. Time of Priming In winter pruning, ordinary varieties should have from one-half to three- fourths of the entire vine cut away. This work may be done at any time after the leaves drop in the fall, and should be done before the buds begin to swell in the spring. Late pruning is better than no pruning, but permits a great loss of .sap which would have been used in the development of new growth if the work had been done at the proper time. Summer pruning is of great value in giving the vine its desired form, in removing an excess of fruit, in making that which is left larger and of better quality, and in making the next winter pruning simpler, easier and more satis- factory. This summer pruning should be- gin by the removal of surplus shoots as soon as the first growth starts in the spring, so that the entire strength of the vine may be used in the directions where it is wanted, and should be repeat- ed two or three times at intervals of a week or ten days. In many vineyards this is the only summer pruning given, but the vines will bear more evenly, pro- duce better fruit, and be longer lived if any excess of fruit clusters is removed as soon as they appear, and if the fruit- bearing shoots are broken off so as to leave only two or three joints beyond the last cluster of fruit. All summer prun- ing should be done so early in the sea- sou and so promptly that no tools are needed for the work; it should all be done while the new shoots are still so young and tender that they are easily broken off with the thumb and finger. When the wood has become so firm that it will not break easily it may as well remain on the vine until the next winter. Pruning late in summer, or the removal of leaves so that the sun will hasten the ripening of the fruit, is never profitable. It costs time and strength for the vine to develop leaves, but when they are once fully grown they become feeders instead of consumers, and every one should be preserved. As the system of pruning adopted must depend on the style of trellis used, the subject will be treated further in con- nection with systems of training. Gathering and Packing For home use or for making wine, grapes should not be picked until they are fully ripe. Many varieties become highly colored some days, or even weeks, before they are fully matured; but they are not really ripe and in the best con- dition for use until the stem of the bunch begins to shrivel or soften so that it can be easily bent. Even for market, the fruit should not be gathered until very nearly matured, as it ripens but lit- tle after being removed from the vine. The unripe fruit may soften somewhat on its way to market, but does not be- GRAPES xXUo come sweeter or better flavored, and will retain the excess of acid which disap- pears when the grapes are ripened on the vines. Gathering grapes for market should be done only in fair weather when the vines and fruit are not wet with either dew or rain. The stems should be cut with a knife or scissors and the bunches should be laid in shallow wooden trays or bas- kets for carrying to the packing shed. Baskets holding five, eight or ten pounds, with covers fastened on by wire hooks, are the best packages in which to ship, as they are inexpensive, easily handled in transportation, and convenient and tempt- ing to purchasers. The fruit should be al- lowed to lie a few hours so that the stems will become slightly wilted; and all diseased, unripe, or bruised berries should be removed before packing begins. The bunches should be placed in the bas- kets with the stems downward and packed snugly, the smaller bunches being used to fill the spaces between the larger* ones. The top of the fruit should be about half an inch above the top of the basket and should be even and level. The baskets should be so full that some pres- sure will be needed to bring the cover down into place, though the pressure should not be so great as to crush the grapes or break them from the stems. A basket which is not packed closely will never carry the fruit in good con- dition; and, as the fruit is sold by weight, close packing is economical. The name of the variety, as well as the name and address of the grower, should be stenciled on the tops of the covers before they are put in place. Mixed or inferior fruit will seldom pay for shipping and will never add to the good reputation of the grower. Nearly all of our grapes ripen in July or August while the weather is still warm and it is difficult to keep them any great length of time without placing them in cold storage, which is expensive. They can be kept a short time by wrap- ping each bunch in paper and putting them in a cool place. Still better re- sults will be secured by placing a layer of cotton batting in the bottom of the box, then a layer of fruit covered by another layer of batting. Not more than two layers of fruit should be placed in a box, and the upper layer should have a thick covering of cotton. Neither of these methods will be found profitable for market purposes, but will often be desirable when a little fruit is to be kept for some special purpose. There is con- siderable difference in the keeping quali- ties of different varieties, and, in general, the late-ripening sorts will keep longer after being gathered than will those which ripen early in the season. Influence of Nativity As the character of every seedling is determined by the ancestry and environ- ment of the growing seed, it is only rea- sonable to look for the best varieties for cultivation in any given locality among those springing from seeds which were grown in the same or a similar region. Among the native grapes there are cer- tain species which succeed best in certain localities, some being quite local, while others are found widely distributed. The same vital principle which governs the range of the native species also controls the range of the cultivated sorts, and the best varieties for cultivation in any locality will usually be found among the descendants of those species which grow wild in the same region. Among the valuable hybrid varieties it is rare to find a satisfactory one which is not, in part at least, descended from the wild native species of the locality. The Vini- fera varieties, which are the common sorts in Europe and in California, are generally worthless in the Southern states, and their hybrids,^ even those having only a small percentage of the foreign stock, usually show great li- ability to disease. The Labrusca is native to the north- eastern part of the United States, and there the varieties of that parentage, like Concord, Moore Early, Catawba, and others, are among the best; but farther south, where the wild Labrusca is un- known, they are less desirable. They be- come less valuable the farther they are removed from their place of origin, and, in the extreme South, they are weak in 1104 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE growth, short-lived, and uneven in rip- ening their fruit. While many of the varieties which succeed well in the ex- treme South are derived more or less from Lahrusca, nearly all have been derived in part from some of the species native to that region. In the Carolinas and in the mountain region of Northern Georgia and Alabama, many of the pure Lahrusca varieties do well, but farther south and southwest they are generally unsatisfactory, while those varieties de- scended from Lincecumii or Bourquiana blood are usually long-lived and prolific. It is such a well-established fact that much of the whole character and useful- ness of a variety depends on its ancestry, that many nurserymen now give the pedi- gree of each variety in their catalogues, a practice which is of great assistance to the purchaser in making a selection suit- ed to his particular locality. Varieties for the South in Gieneral The species which have been most pro- lific of varieties suited to the Southern climate and soils are Rotundifoha, 7ut- pina, Eiparia, Bourquiana and Lince- cummii, though a few good sorts have been developed from GordifoUa, Aesti- valis, Munsoniana, and others. A few valuable varieties have been produced from hybrids of various species with the Ymifera or European grape, many of them giving fruit of very high quality, but the vines are usually short-lived, and the clusters uneven and unattractive in appearance. No one variety of grape is suited to all localities, nor does any one variety cover all the needs of any locality. Few vari- eties are in their prime of fruiting more than ten days or two weeks, while the time between the ripening of the earli- est and the latest sorts is more than two months. Every vineyard intended to produce fruit for home use should con- tain early, medium, and late ripening varieties even when it consists of only three vines. When a dozen or more vines are planted the selection of varieties should be such as will not only give a succession in ripening, but fruit of differ- ent flavors and qualities at each succes- sive period. It requires no more room, labor, or expense to plant and care for a vineyard which will yield fruit con- stantly during two months than for one which matures all its fruit within two weeks Those who plant for shipping to a distant market or for making wine will usually find it better to grow only one or two varieties, but for a local market and for home use the larger the assort- ment of good varieties the better. The number of good varieties is now so large and the characteristics of the diiferent kinds are so varied that it is not difficult to secure sorts which will be healthful, vigorous, and prolific on every fertile soil, though, as already stated, the choice of varieties should be govern- ed by locality, soil, and the use to be made of the fruit The black waxy soils of Texas, the sandy coast soils of Mis- sissippi and Alabama, and the mountain regions of Georgia and the Carolinas need very different assortments to give the best results. Farm Bulletin 118 IMPOETAKCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCUFPERNONa F. C. Reimer The Scuppernong was the first Ameri- can or native grape to be brought into cultivation. It has always been the most important variety of this species and has been more generally planted than all of the other Muscadines combined. It be- came popular as soon as introduced be- cause of its great hardiness — growing and bearing well under neglect, and produc- ing an excellent table grape and wine. The vine is a vigorous grower and at- tains immense size, as is seen by Fig. 1, which shows a Tyrrell county vine meas- uring seven feet six inches around the trunk. It is notably healthy, not being seriously affected by either insects or diseases, and is generally a regular and heavy bearer when growing on suitable soils. It is long-lived; some of the vines now bearing good crops are more than a hundred years old. One marked pecu- liarity of the vine is the splittxng-up of the main trunk into several divisions, GRAPES 1105 Fig. 1. Characteristic Old Scuppernong Trunk. Circumference seven feet six inches. (F. C. Reimer, North Carolina Experiment Station.) when it becomes very old; also the pro- duction of aerial roots when trained on arbors. The vine can be quite readily distinguished from the dark-fruited vari- eties by the light-colored ends and nodes of the young shoots, the whitish or light- green tendrils and new growths of the aerial roots. The flowers are perfect, and appear during June in North Carolina. Flowers (and fruit) are borne on the new wood, and not on the old wood^ as some of our popular writers have stated. The clus- ters vary considerably in size, containing from one to 25 berries, usually being much larger on sandy than on clay soils. The berries are round, large, often be- coming an inch in diameter; the color varies from pale green to golden russet; skin thick but tender for a Muscadine. The pulp is tender, juicy, with a sweet, rich, characteristic aromatic flavor; and the quality is very good, especially when grown on sandy soils. The chief defects of this grape are the readiness with which the berries shatter from the clus> ter when fully ripe, and the irregularity of ripening of the berries even on the same cluster. The ripening period covers the entire month of September in North Carolina. The Scuppernong is distinctly a wine grape. It makes a rich, light-colored wine, which has no superior among sweet wines. The large plantings in this state, some of which cover from 100 to 600 acres, were made primarily for wine pro- duction. A bushel of fruit will produce from three to four gallons of wine. It is also a good table grape when used soon after gathering; but as the skin is often broken in picking, where the stem is attached, the fruit sours readily during warm weather. It cannot be shipped successfully except when used for making wine. This is distinctly a grape for sandy soils, and should never be planted ex- tensively on heavy clay. It is more pro- ductive, and the clusters and berries are larger, more juicy and of better quality on sandy or sandy-loam soils than on clay soils. VARIETIES OF GRAPES FOR TEXAS There is no fruit which is so generally grown in Texas as the grape. There is no considerable area for which there may not be selected a few kinds which are suited to the soil and local conditions, and hence produce abundantly. For the eastern portion of the Coast District, the Niagara does well almost universally. It seems to be short-lived, hence a few vines should be planted every few years to keep up the vineyard. Black Spanish, or Lenoir, and also Herbemont, do well in this area. Concord fruit does well, as a rule, but does not ripen its berries evenly in the cluster. In Eastern Texas the varieties named for the east coast do well, and a long list of others. For the southwest, or semi-arid coast, from Rockport on south- west and south, and for some miles to the interior, most all the leading com- mercial varieties of grapes do well. They are also designated in our horticultural literature as European varieties. The southwest coast of the semi-arid belt is well adapted for producing such varieties as the Malaga, Flame Tokay, Black Hamburg and a number of other leading 2—29 1106 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fig. 2. Exceptionally Fine Cluster of Scuppei-nong Grapes. (F. C. Reimer, North Carolina Experiment Station. ^ kinds so popular in the markets Of course, this southwestern belt of the state must be understood as an irriga- tion section. When grapes are well cul- tivated and properly irrigated, they pro- duce well and mature and develop as high a flavor and color in this belt as in California. Thus far there is no trace of phylloxera on grapes in this belt. The vineyardists should be certain to get healthy vines which are free from this pest. There are resistent stocks upon which these varieties can be grafted, and thus secure immunity from this dreaded insect pest. Once this pest gets a hold and is left to breed and multiply, it will spread very rapidly to other vines and other vine- yards. Central Texas, North Texas, the Red River Belt, East Texas and Central East Texas all are blessed with one or the other of the leading varieties, succeed- ing and producing luscious fruit most bountifully. But in the whole territory thus far mentioned, and for all kinds of grapes noted as suited to the re- spective areas, all require spraying to secure best results. The leaves blight, or have the spot disease, and in other cases the fruit rots badly in the clusters. The vines of these varieties should be sprayed thoroughly with Bordeaux mix- ture before the buds start in the spring, then again just before the blooming peri- iod and again just after the blooming peri- od; the fourth treatment may be given two weeks after the third, and again two or three weeks after the fourth. Care must be taken not to spray the berries just a short period before they ripen. But for an area in Texas which seems especially well suited for grape culture, the Panhandle and Llano Estacado terri- tories certainly claim most careful and serious attention. The Concord, Tri- umph, Carman, Beacon and many others of the same type do well. The plants are specially vigorous, and even when the first blooms are killed by a late frost they often produce the second, or even the third, crop of blossoms and mature many splendid clusters of fruit. In no area in Texas will the foliage remain as healthy, bright and vigorous during try- ing seasons as in this area. Hundreds of small family vineyards have been exam- ined in a season and but few neglected vineyards have shown leaf blight of any kind. In fact, no similar domain exists in Texas for growing grapes successfully with as little spraying. Texas should produce more grapes. The soils and climate should be more closely studied by districts. Texas has within its vast miles of areas soils so composed and so lo- cated as to successfully and profitably produce grapes of commercial value, pro- vided the proper types and blood relation- ships be kept in mind in choosing vari- eties for any given locality. John S. Kerr GliAPElS 1107 Yarieties Varieties of grapes recommended by the American Pomological Society for the various districts in the United States: See page 192. District Ho. 1 Highly becommended — Dessert and Market: Diamond; Herbert; Lindley; Moyer; Victor; Worden. Market: Cot- tage; Moore Early; Niagara. Dessert: Brighton; Lady; Winchell (Q-reen Moun- tain) . Recommended — Dessert and Market: Agawam; Barry; Delaware; Massasoit; Merrimac; Murray; Salem; Vergennes; Woodbury. Market: Concord; Hartford; Wilder. Dessert: Duchess; Eumelan; Nectar. Wine: Clinton. District IVo. 2 Highly recommended — Dessert and Market: Agawam; Catawba; Delaware; Diamond; Lindley; Massasoit; Salem; Vergennes; Worden. Market: Concord; Moore Early; Niagara. Dessert: Bright- on; Winchell {Green Mountain) . Recommended — Dessert and Market: Barry; Herbert; Isabella; Merrimac; Moyer; Victor. Market and Wine: Ives. Market: Champion; Cottage; Hartford; Perkins; Pocklington; Wilder; Woodruff. Dessert: Diana; Duchess; Empire State; Eumelan; Goethe; Hayes; lona; Jeffer- son; Lady; Prentiss; Ulster. Wine: Clinton. Recommended for trial — Dessert and Market: Murray; Woodbury. Dessert: Nectar. District ISTo. 8 Highly recommended — Dessert and Market: Herbert; Worden. Market: Con- cord; Cottage; Moore Early; Niagara. Dessert: Lady; Nectar. RBCOMMENDED-Dessert ana MarJcet: Agawam; Catawba; Diamond; Lindley; Salem. Market and Wine: Ives. Mar- ket: Champion; Hartford; Perkins; Wild- er, Dessert: Brighton; Empire State; Goethe; Prentiss; Ulster; Washington, Lady; Winchell (Green Mountain). Wine: Clinton. Recommended for trial — Dessert and Market: Brilliant. District IVo. 4 Highly recommended — Dessert and Market: Brilliant; Delaware; Worden. Dessert and Wine: Flowers. Market and Wine: Ives. Market: Concord; Cottage; Moore Early; Niagara. Dessert: Bright- on. Wine: Norton Virginia; Scupper- nong; Tenderpulp; Thomas. Recommended — Dessert and Market: Agawam; Barry; Carman; Catawba; Herbert; Jaeger, Herman; Lindley; Lutie; Massasoit; Merrimac; Muench; Salem; Superb; Vergennes; Victor. Des- sert and Wine: Eden; Herbemont. Mar- ket: Champion; Hartford; Perkins; Woodruff. Dessert: Berckmans; Duchess; Elvira; Eumelan; Goethe; Hayes; James, Jefferson; Lady; Olita; Triumph; Wash- ington, Lady; Winchell (Green Moun- tain). Wine: Clinton; Cynthiana; Noah. Recommended tor trial — Dessert: Nectar. District Ho. 5 Highly recommended — Dessert and Market: Carman; Delaware; Diamond; Muench; Superb; Worden. Market: Moore Early; Wilder. Dessert: Bright- on; Empire State; James; Olita. Des- sert and Wine: Eden; Flowers. Wine: Cynthiana; Scuppernong; Tenderpulp; Thomas. Recommended — Dessert and Market: Agawam; Barry; Brilliant; Catawba; Herbert; Isabella; Lindley; Lutie; Mas- sasoit; Salem; Vergennes, Market: Con- cord; Cottage; Niagara; Perkins; Wood- ruff. Dessert: Berckmans; Diana; Duch- ess; Elvira; lona; Jefferson; Lady; Ul- ster; Walter; Winchell (Green Moun- tain). Dessert and Wine: Herbemont. Market and Wine: Ives. Wine: Noah. Recommended for trial — Dessert: Eumelan. Raisin: Alexandria, Muscat of. District Ko. Highly recommended— Desseri: James; Memory; Mish. Recommended — Dessert and Market: Catawba; Diamond; Lenoir; Lindley; Jaeger, Merman; Worden, Dessert and Wine: Herbemont. Market and Wine: Ives. Market: Niagara, Dessert: Jeffer- son; Olita; Olivet Oadinet. 1108 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE District Ko. 7 Highly becommended — Dessert and Market: Bailey; Brilliant; Carman; Del- aware; Diamond; Gold Coin; Laussel. Dessert and Wine: Flowers; Herbemont. Market and Wtne: Ives. Market: Moore Early; Niagara; Wilder. Dessert: James. Wine: America; Cynthiana; Norton Virginia; Scuppernong; Tenderpiilp; Thomas. Recommended — Dessert and Market: Beacon; Catawba; Dracut Amber; Jaeger, Berman; Lenoir; Lindley; Muench; Rommel; Vergennes; Worden. Market: Champion; Concord; Cottage; Hartford; Perkins; Pocklington. Dessert: Berck- mans; Black Hamburg; Brighton; Cala- brian; Empire State; Griesa, Piedmont; Jetferson; Olita; Olivet Oadtnet; Peru, Kose of; Prince, Black; Triumph; Win- chell {G-reen Mountain); Wylie. Wine: Bell; Clinton; Fern Munson; Mission; Missouri Riesling; Noah. Baisin: Alex- andria, Muscat of. District Jfo. 8 Highly recommended — Dessert and Market: Delaware; Worden. Market: Concord; Moore Early; Niagara; Pock- lington; Woodruff. Dessert: Elvira; Goethe. Recommended— De^^erit and Market: Agawam; Barry; Carman; Catawba; Dia- mond; Jaeger, Herman; Lindley; Merri- mac. Dessert and Wine: Herbemont, Market and Wine: Ives. Market: Cot- tage; Hartford; Perkins, Dessert: Bright- on, Empire State; Triumph; Washing- ton, Lady; Winchell (Green Mountain). Wine: Cynthiana; Missouri Riesling; Norton, Virginia. District Jfo. 9 Highly eecommended — Market: Janes- ville. Dessert: Winchell (Green Moun- tain). Recommended — Dessert and Market: Delaware. Dessert: Empire State. Recommended for trial — Dessert and Market: Brilliant District M, 10 Highly recommended — Dessert and Market: Agawam; Delaware; Worden; Bailey; Brilliant; Carman; Catawba. Market: Concord; Moore Early; Wilder. Eaism: Muscat of Alexandria; Thomp- son (Seedless). Recommended — Dessert and Market: Barry; Lindley; Salem; Beacon; Lenoir. Market: Champion; Hartford; Niagara; Pocklington. Dessert: Brighton; Eume- lan; lona; Lady. Market and Wine: Ives. Wine: America; Scuppernong; Herbe- mont. District Ko* 11 Highly recommended — Denser ]t; Flame Tokay. Baisin: Alexandria, Muscat of. Recommended — Dessert: Black Ham- burg; Malaga, Wine: Mission. District No. 12 Highly recommended — Dessert and Market: Agawam; Delaware; Isabella; Lindley; Salem; Worden. Market: Con- cord; Moore Early: Niagara. Dessert: Black Prince; Brighton; Duchess; Goethe; Prentiss; Sweetwater, White. Wine: Mission; Zinfandel, Raisin: Alex- andria, Muscat of. Recommended — Dessert and Market: Barry; Catawba; Diamond; Herbert; Massasoit; Vergennes; Victor. Dessert and Wine: Herbemont. Market and Wine: Ives. Market: Champion; Cottage; Hartford; Perkins; Pocklington; Wild- er; Woodruff. Dessert: Berckmans; Black Hamburg; Black Morocco; Corn- ichon. Black; Diana; Elvira; Empire State; Elvicand; Flame Tokay; Hayes; lona; Lady; Olita; Peru, Rose of; Ul- ster; Walter; Washington, Lady. Wine: Clinton; Cythiana; Noah; Norton, Vir- ginia. Raisin: Sultana. District No. 13 Recommended — Dessert and Market: Diamond. District IN^o. 14 Highly recommended — Dessert and Market: Delaware; Worden. " Market: Concord; Moore Early; Niagara. Des- sert: Black Hamburg; Sweetwater, White. Raisin: Alexandria, Muscat of. Recommended — Dessert and Market: Diamond; Isabella. Dessert and Raisin: GRAPES 1109 Thompson Seedless. Market: Pockling- ton. Dessert: Black Prince; Brighton; Flame Tokay; Peru, Rose of. Wine: Zin- fandel. Recommended for trial — Dessert and Market: Agawam. Dessert: Emperor. Market: Wilder. District No. 15 Highly recommended — Market: Con- cord. Dessert: Sweetwater, White. Recommended — Dessert a:i:l Ma^^^' Delaware; Diamond. Market: Moore Early. Dessert: Black Hamburg. Wine: Mission. Recommended for trial — Dessert and Market: Worden. District No. 16 Highly recommended — Wine: Zinfan- del. Recommended — Dessert and Raisin: Thompson Seedless. Dessert: Black Hamburg; Cornichon, Black; Emperor; Flame Tokay; Pierce; Peru, Rose of; Sweetwater, White; Verdel. Wine: Ma- taro; Mission; Riesling, Johannisburg. Raisin: Alexandria, Muscat of. District No. 17 Highly recommended — Dessert: Flame Tokay. Raisin: Alexandria, Muscat of. Recommended — Dessert and Raisin: Gordo Blanco (Muscatel) ; Thompson Seedless. Dessert: Black Hamburg; Black Morocco; Cornichon, Black; Mala- ga; Palomino (Golden Chasselas) ; Peru, Rose of; Sweetwater, White. Wine: Zin- fandel. Raisin: Sultana. Recommended for trial — Dessert: Em- peror; Pierce. District No. 18 Highly recommended — Dessert and Raisin: Thompson Seedless. Raisin: Alexandria, Muscat of. Wine: Mission. Recommended — Dessert: Black Moroc- co; Black Prince; Cornichon, Black; Flame Tokay; Black Hamburg; Peru, Rose of; Sweetwater, White. Dessert and Raisin: Gordo Blanco (Muscatel). Raisin: Sultana. Wine: Zinfandel. Aven Nelson, secretary State Board of Horticulture, Laramie, Wyoming, recom- mends the following varieties for that state : Moore's Early; Brighton; Concord; Beta and Janesville. Brighton. Concord. — Maxted Photo 1110 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE HOME MANOTACTUBE All) USE OF UNFEEMEHTED OEAFE JUICE Unfermented grape juice has no doubt been used ever since wine lias been made trom tbe grape. The following practical suggestions will enable housewives to put up unfermented juice at the time of the fruit harvest, and thus to utilize much fruit that is now annually lost through inability to preserve it in the fresh state. In this form it is a pleasant, wholesome drink and food well adapted to home use. On some farms enough such preventable waste occurs almost every year to largely reduce the possible profits, or even to cause failure to meet the running expenses of the farm. By preventing this waste an unprofitable farm may often be made profitable. Historical Notes Galenius, the Greek physician and writ- er, says (A. D. 131) : "A good many Asiatic wines were stored in bottles which were hung in the corner of fireplaces, where, by evaporation, they became dry." This process was called "fumarium." The G-reeks had two kinds of wine, "protoplon," or first juice of the grape before pressing, and "denterion," or pressed juice. The Romans called them "vinum primarium^* and "vinum second- ariumy Some of them drank the juice before fermentation had started, and called it ^'mustum" After the must or juice had been through a heating pro- cess (called "reduction" nowadays), they called it ''frutum,^' and when, after long heating, it had been reduced to one-half or one-third its oiiginal volume, they called it ''sapa," This was used by the Romans on their bread and was equiv- alent to what we now call grape syrup. In Europe physicians often send their patients to the wine-growing districts during vintage time to take daily rations of the fresh juice as it comes from the crusher. This, however, restricts its use to a brief season of the year and to the immediate vicinity of the vineyards, or to individuals who are yet strong enough •to undertake the journey. Of late years repeated efforts have been made to pre- vent the juice from fermenting and to preserve it in vessels of such size and shape as can be easily transported, thus rendering its use possible at all times of the year. Until recently its use has been almost exclusively restricted to juice for medicinal or sacramental pur- poses. Unrestricted and general use has been retarded through lack of knowledge of the principles underlying the process of manufacture. This lack of knowl- edge and of the necessary skill in apply- ing it has resulted in many failures, thus rendering the production of a good ar- ticle uncertain and expensive. Composition of the Grape The grape contains 12 to 28 per cent of sugar, about 2 to 3 per cent of nitro- genous substances, and some tartaric and malic acids. The skins contain tannin, cream of tartar, and coloring matter. The seeds contain tannin, starchy matters and fat The stems contain tannin, di- verse acids and mucilaginous matter. The value of the juice made from any grape is determined by the relative pro- portion and composition of these vari- ous parts. Causes of Fermentation It is well known that grapes and other fruits when ripe have the invisible spores of various fungi, yeasts (ferments), and bacteria adhering to their skins and stems. When dry these spores are inert, but after the grapes are crushed and the spores are immersed in the juice they become active and begin to multiply. If the juice is warm, the changes take place rapidly; if, on the other hand, it is cool, the change is slower. But in either case, if left alone, the organisms in- crease until the juice ferments. The most favorable temperature for fermen- tation is between 65 degrees Fahrenheit and 88 degrees Fahrenheit. Cold checks, but does not kill, the ferment This fermentation, now commonly called the elliptic yeast, changes the sugar in the grape to alcohol and carbonic-acid gas, and is the leading factor in converting must into wine. Hence it will be readi- ly seen that to keep grape juice sweet fermentation must be prevented, and to GRAPES nil be salable the product must be clear, bright, and attractive. Metliods of PreTenting FermentatiOB Fermentation may be prevented in either of two ways: (1) By chemical methods, which con- sist in the addition of germ poisons or antiseptics, which either kill the germs or prevent their growth. Of these the principal ones used are salicylic, sul- phurous, boracic, and benzoic acids, for- malin, fluorides, and saccharin. As these substances are generally regarded as adulterants and injurious, their use is not recommended. (2) Mechanical means are sometimes employed. The germs are either removed by some mechanical means, such as fil- tering or a centrifugal apparatus, or they are destroyed by heat, electricity, etc. Of these, heat has so far been found the most practical. When a liquid is heated to a suffi- ciently high temperature all organisms in it are killed. The degree of heat re- quired, however, differs not only with the particular kind of organism, but also with the liquid in which they are held. Time is also a factor. An organism may not be killed, if heated to a high tempera- ture and quickly cooled. If, however, the temperature is kept at the same high degree for some time, it will be killed. It must also be borne in mind that fun- gi, including yeasts, exist in the grow- ing and the resting states, the latter being much more resistant than the for- mer. A characteristic of the fungi and their spores is their great resistance to heat when dry. In this state they can be heated to 212 degrees Fahrenheit with- out being killed. The spores of the com- mon mold are even more resistant. This should be well considered in sterilizing bottles and corks, which should be steamed to 240 degrees Fahrenheit for at least fifteen minutes. Practical tests so far made indicate that grape juice can be safely sterilized at from 165 degrees Fahrenheit to 176 degrees Fahrenheit At this temperature the flavor is hardly changed, while at a temperature much above 200 degrees Fahr- enheit it is. This is an important point, as the flavor and quality of the product depend on it. This bulletin being intended for the farmer or the housewife only, the writer refers such readers as desire to go into the manufacture of grape juice in a systematic manner for commercial pur- poses to Bulletin 24, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, Department of Agriculture, on the same subject, this publication treat- ing only of methods that can be applied in every home. Home ManxifactTire Use only clean, sound, well-ripened but not over-ripe grapes. If an ordinary cider mill is at hand, it may be used for crushing and pressing, or the grapes may be crushed and pressed with the hands. If a light-colored juice is desired, put the crushed grapes in a cleanly washed cloth sack and tie up. Then either hang up securely and twist it or let two per- sons take hold, one on each end of the sack and twist until the greater part of the juice is expressed. Then gradually heat the juice in a double boiler or a large stone jar in a pan of hot water, so that the juice does not come in direct contact with the fire, at a temperature of 180 degrees Fahrenheit to 200 degrees Fahrenheit; never above 200 degrees Fahr- enheit. It is best to use a thermometer, but if there be none at hand heat the juice until it steams, but do not allow it to boil. Put it in a glass or enameled vessel to settle for 24 hours; carefully drain the juice from the sediment, and run it through several thicknesses of clean flannel, or a conic filter made from woolen cloth or felt may be used. This filter is fixed to a hoop of iron, which can be suspended wherever necessary. After this fill into clean bottles. Do not fill entirely, but leave room for the liquid to expand when again heated. Fit a thin board over the bottom of an ordin- ary wash boiler, set the filled bottles (ordinary glass fruit jars are just as good) in it, fill in with water around the bottles to within about an inch of the tops, and gradually heat until it is about to simmer. Then take the bottles out 1112 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE and cork or seal immediately. It is a good idea to take the further precau- tion of sealing the corks over with seal- ing wax or paraffin to prevent mold germs from entering through the corks Should it be desired to make a red juice, heat the crushed grapes to not above 200 degrees Fahrenheit, strain through a clean cloth or drip bag (no pressure should be used), set away to cool and settle, and proceed the same as with light- colored juice. Many people do not even go to the trouble of letting the juice set- tle after straining it, but reheat and seal it up immediately, simply setting the ves- sels away in a cool place in an upright position where they will be undisturbed. The juice is thus allowed to settle, and when wanted for use the clear juice is simply taken off the sediment. Any per- son familiar with the process of can- ning fruit can also preserve grape juice, for the principles involved are identical. One of the leading defects so far found in unfermented Juice is that much of it is not clear, a condition which very much detracts from its otherwise attrac- tive appearance and due to two causes already alluded to. Either the final ster- ilization in bottles has been at a higher temperature than the preceding one, or the juice has not been properly filtered or has not been filtered at all. In other cases the juice has been sterilized at such a high temperature that it has a disagree- able, scorched taste. It should be remem- bered that attempts to sterilize at a tem- perature above 195 degrees Fahrenheit are dangerous, so far as the flavor of the fin- ished product is concerned. Another serious mistake is sometimes made by putting the juice into bottles so large that much of it becomes spoiled before it is used after the bottles are opened. Unfermented grape juice prop- erly made and bottled will keep indef- initely, if it is not exposed to the at- mosphere or mold germs; but when a bottle is once opened it should, like can- ned goods, be used as soon as possible, to keep it from spoiling. Hantifacture of larger QuantHles Another method of making unferment- ed grape juice, which is often resorted to where a sufficiently large quantity is made at one time, consists in this: Take a clean keg or barrel (one that has pi^eviously been made sweet). Lay this upon a skid consisting of two scant- lings or pieces of timber of perhaps 20 feet long, in such a manner as to make a runway. Then take a sulphur match, made by dipping strips of clean muslin about 1 inch wide and 10 inches long into melted brimstone, cool it and at- tach it to a piece of wire fastened in the lower end of a bung and bent over at the end, so as to form a hook. Light the match and by means of the wire sus- pend it in the barrel, bung the barrel up tight, and allow it to burn as long as it will. Repeat this until fresh sulphur matches will no longer burn in the bar- rel. Then take enough fresh grape juice to fill the barrel one-third full, bung up tight, and roll and agitate violently on the skid for a few minutes. Then burn more sulphur matches in it until no more will burn; fill in more juice until the barrel is about two-thirds full; agitate and roll again. Repeat the burning pro- cess as before, after which fill the bai-- rel completely with grape juice and roll. The barrel should then be bunged tightly and stored in a cool place with the bung up, and so secured that the package can not be shaken. In the course of a few weeks the juice will have become clear and can then be racked off and filled into bottles or jars direct, sterilized, and cork- ed or sealed up ready for use. By this method, however, unless skillfully handled, the juice is apt to have a slight taste of the sulphur. A Few Useful Appliances An ordinary cider press is not expen- sive; nevertheless the majority of farms do not have one, and it frequently occurs that a farm is located so far away from any establishment dealing in such im- plements that the fruit might spoil or not be sufficiently valuable to justify the purchase price and time lost and ex- pense incurred in getting it. A very ef- ficient lever press for this and similar uses can be made by any farmer handy with tools. The material can be found G-xvAPElS 1113 on almost any farm at any time. The press consists of the following parts: Two upright posts set deep and firmly in the ground side hy side and about 12 inches apart. (It is a good idea to attach some deadmen to them in the ground to prevent them pulling out too easily.) Be- tween these posts the lever is hung by means of a bolt, or the lever may be hung to the side of a building, or a hole notched into a tree large enough to ad- mit the end of the lever and a bolt run through that. At the other end of the lever are two posts, so set that the lever can be raised up between them by means of block and tackle. The press itself con- sists of two timbers on which the press bottom rests, and on this bottom is the press basket, consisting of the two sides and two ends, and so constructed that it can be easily taken apart and set up again, being held together at the ends by means of rods. The sides and ends should be bored full of small holes from three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter to allow exit for the juice. After the press is filled, the top (which is made to fit in the inside of the bas- ket) and cross blocks are put on and the lever is then allowed to press down on it. A press like this has the advan- tage that it can be filled in the evening and left to press until morning while the farmer sleeps. The precaution, of course, must be taken to set a tub large enough to hold the juice under the press. It is perhaps well to state that the longer and heavier the lever the great- er the pressure it exerts. "Where it is not convenient to make the lever very long, weights are placed or hung on the outer extremity of the lever to increase the pressure. It will thus be seen that with a little ingenuity a person can adapt the press to suit his individual rectuire- ments. For ordinary purposes a press basket 3 feet square and 2 feet high will be found a very convenient size. This will accommodate a ton of crushed grapes. Composition of XJnfermented Grape Juice Herewith are given the component parts of a California and a Concord un- fermented grape juice, the former being analyzed by the California Experiment Station, the latter by the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture: Concord Cali- fornia Per cent Per cent Solid contents 20.37 20.60 Total acids (as tartaric) .663 .53 Volatile acids .023 .03 Grape Sugar . . . 18 54 19.15 Free tartaric acids .025 ,07 Ash .255 .19 Phosphoric acids .027 .04 Cream of tartar M .59 This table is interesting in so far that California unfermented grape juices are made from Viniferas or foreign varieties, whereas the Concord is a LabrusJca or one of our American sorts. The differ- ence in taste and smell is even more pro- nounced than the analysis would indi- cate. Flavor and Quality in Grape Juice In the making of unfermented grape juice a great deal of judgment can be dis- played and many variations produced so as to suit almost any taste by the care- ful selection of the varieties of grapes from which it is made. From the Mis- sion grape, for instance, when fully ripe, a juice would be obtained that would be delicate and simply sweet, without any other taste; from the Muscat we would get that rich musky flavor found in our leading raisins; in the Concord that sprightly foxy taste so well known; in the Catawba or Isabella that fragrance so peculiarly their own, and in the lona a pleasing, mild, yet just pronounced enough aroma and taste to strike the right spot. Thus we might continue along the list. Equally as pronounced variations in color can be had, as, for instance, almost colorless, yellow, orange, light red, red, and a deep purple. The writer has often been asked what kind of grapes should be used in making unfermented grape juice, when, as a mat- 1114 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ter of fact, it can be made from any grape, not only this, but iinfermented juice is made from other fruits as well, for instance, apples, pears, cherries — and berries of different kinds yield excellent Juices. It is really good judgment in selecting the right varieties when plant- ing for fruit production That also de- termines the quality of our unfermented juice For instance, the richer, sweeter, and better in quality the fruit we use, the richer, sweeter, and better will be our unfermented juice. If, on the other hand, the fruit is sour, green, and in- sipid, the juice will be likewise. As stated before, the intention of this bul- letin is to show how to avoid some wastes, and to increase income by utiliz- ing those products of which there is a surplus; and instead of, as is usually done, letting them rot, convert them into something that can be kept, used, and disposed of at any time when desired, or when fresh fruit is not available. Uses of Unfermented Gfrape Juice The uses are indeed many. It is used in sickness, convalescence, and good health; as a preventive, i*estorative, and cure; by the young, by persons in the prime of life, and by those in old age. It is used in churches for sacramental pur- poses; at soda fountains as a cool and refreshing drink; in homes, at hotels, and at restaurants as a food, as a beverage, as a dessert, and in many other ways. When people become accustomed to it they rarely give it up. When properly prepared, unfermented grape juice can be made to please the eye by its color and attractive appearance, the sense of smell by its aroma or fragrance, the palate by its pleasant flavor It i*:^ food and drink, refreshment and nourishment, all in one Not a by-prod- uct, but made from fruit going to waste — one of the blessings given us, that some are too careless, others too ignor- ant, to make use of. Food Value of Unfermented Grape Juice The effects of unfermented grape juice on the human system have been studied for a number of years, especially at the so-called grape cures so long in vogue in Europe. A smaller number of investi- gations have been made in laboratories. It is quite generally claimed that using a reasonably large amount of unfer- mented grape juice with an othex^wise suitable mixed diet is beneficial and that digestion is improved, intestinal fer- mentation diminished, and that gains m body weight result. It should not be forgotten that the abundant diet and hygienic methods of living practiced at the grape cures play an important part, but even taking all this into account it seems fair to conclude that some of the good results can be directly attributed to the unfermented grape juice Grape juice contains the same kinds of nutrients as other foods. The percentage of water is high, and thus it resembles liquid foods more closely than solid foods. It is sometimes compared with milk, the most common liquid food. It contains less water than milk, more carbohydrates, and less protein, fat, and ash. Carbo- hydrates, largely present in the form of sugar, are the principal nutritive ingred- ients. It is evident, therefore, that grape juice is essentially an energy yielding food, and may help the body to become fatter, though it can not materially assist in building nitrogenous tissue. Sugars in moderate amounts are wholesome foods, and grape juice offers such material in a reasonably dilute as well as palatable form. Undoubtedly the agreeable flavor increases the appetite, a by no means un- important consideration. A FEW 000» RECIPES (xrape IVectar Take the juice of two lemons and one orange, one pint of grape juice, one small cup of sugar, and a pint of water. Serve ice cold. If served from punch bowl, sliced lemon and orange add to the ap- pearance. An Invalid Drink Put in the bottom of a wineglass two tablespoonfuls of grape juice; add to this the beaten white of one egg and a little chopped ice; sprinkle sugar over the top and serve. This is often served m saniLariums. GRAPES 1115 1116 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Grape Punch Boil together one pound of sugar and half a pint of water until it spins a thread; take from the fire and when cool add the Juice of six lemons and a quart of grape juice. Stand aside overnight. Serve with plain water, apollinaris, or soda water. Orape Sherbet For eight persons mix one pint of grape juice (unfermented), juice of lemon, and one heaping tablespoonful of gelatine, dissolved in boiling water; freeze quick- ly; add beaten white of one egg just be- fore finish. Cfrape Ice Cream One quart of unfermented grape juice, one quart of cream, one pound of sugar, and the juice of one lemon. Syllabub One quart of fresh cream, whites of four eggs, one glass of grape juice, two small cups of powdered sugar; whip half the sugar with the cream, the balance with the eggs; mix well; add grape juice and pour over sweetened strawberries and pineapples, or oranges and bananas. Serve cold. Bohemian Cream One pint thick cream, one pint grape juice jelly; stir together; put in cups and set on ice. Serve with lady fingers. Besides the recipes just given many more are enumerated, such as grape ice, grape lemonade, grape water ice, grape juice and egg, baked bananas, snow pud- ding, grape gelatine, junket and grape jelly, tutti-frutti jelly, grape float, grape jelly, grape juice plain, grape soda water, and scores of others. Geobge C. Htjssman, Expert in charge of Viticultural Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States De- partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C Grapes in the United States Number of bearing grape vines in the United States according to the census of 1910. California, 144,097,670. New York, 31,802,097. Michigan, 11,013,576. Ohio, 8,326,800. Pennsylvania, 5,271,261. Missouri, 3,026,526. Kansas, 2,889,845. Oklahoma, 2,388,213. Illinois, 2,170,340, Iowa, 1,983,465. New Jersey, 1,603,282. Nebraska, 1,221,736. Indiana, 1,049,232. Arkansas, 805,921. Texas, 712,201. Kentucky, 605,002. Virginia, 424,601. Oregon, 381,302. Tennessee, 338,758. Washington, 322,007. Alabama, 287,431. West Virginia, 284,074. Georgia, 277,658. Delaware, 260,936. Colorado, 254,292. New Mexico, 250,076. Utah, 204,445. Wisconsin, 148,348. Maryland, 138,801. Arizona, 131,579. Connecticut, 107,054. South Carolina, 79,708, Mississippi, 77,012. Idaho, 68,269. Minnesota, 61,916. Massachusetts, 58,277. South Dakota, 38,647. Louisiana, 31,041. Florida, 20,962. Maine, 9,731. Vermont, 9,318. Rhode Island, 7,662. North Carolina, 1,955. Montana, 986. New Hampshire, 759. North Dakota, 379. Wyoming, 74. Nevada, 2. GRAPES 1117 Production and Yalne of toape Tines in the United States Division Number of Vines of bearing age 1910 Number of Vines not of bearing age 1910 Production (pounds) Value or State 1909 1899 1909 1899* U.S.,.. 223,701,522 59,928,644 2,671,065,206 1,300,984,097 $22,027,961 $14,090,234 Geog. Divs.. New Eng.. Mid. Atl.. E. N. C... W. N. C. S. Atl.... E. S. C... W. S. C... Mountain. Pacij&c 207,84i 38,676,641 22,708,296 9,222,514 1,903,341 1,308,203 3,937,376 936,328 144,800,979 92,370 12,613,556 2,825,671 1,740,265 543,306 265,641 943 918 537,267 40,366,650 3,413,161 293,527,780 194,730,671 41,088,852 32,439,760 8,143,715 8,265,667 4,858,195 1,984,597,404 4,324,300 299,058,493 159,936,481 40,735,442 34,579,571 14.817,562 14,228,318 5,286,730 728,017,200 $ 108,348 4,945,342 3,129,363 1,156,625 909,900 348,397 304,454 128,532 10,997,000 1 112,614 3,484,987 2,244,659 870,382 721,124 356,687 371,965 115,206 5,812,610 *Includes value of wine, grape juice, raisins, etc. Area of Vineyards and Production of Wine in Specified Countries, 1912-1911 (From a report of the International Institute of Agriculture) Country Spain France Italy Luxemburg. Roumania. . Switzerland xxrea 1912 Acres 3,123,356 4,148,663 11,008,305 3,830 174,030 58,563 1911 xxcres 3,187,533 4,156,501 11,063,161 3,618 176,523 58,563 Production (wine) 1912 Gallons 369,838,000 1,567,559,288 1,162,348,000 1,074,379 33,021,250 23,854,551 1911 Gallons 389,572,846 1,185,740,254 1,126,793,360 3,614,797 26,243,625 22,580,459 — Crop Reporter, January, 1913 1118 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE o OS xn M k OS o hs m u OQ *a P^ en o © H fVJ a> 4.3 o ft o en C3S O 00 o OS 1> o CO o o •p ;^ o a ^ Oi C31 00 W N* CO 2 ■<:}^ fXl m rH iH l> CO p 2 rH CO t^ Oi 03 O SodcfiTc^T'dJ'co" ft CO „ooco<©oooco £ rH CO tHN 00 00 Sco'rH'rfH'rHOO" O O i-HO „ CO •* lO CO CO b- £ CO CO «3 -^ 05 (M 5 CO -"lij^oq 00 laD "^H 1:3 lO CO >d^"00 N r-T do CO r-t 00 ^OOt^O(M»OCO Sooxo-^oot^h- goOOiOiOTJiiN SSNOOCOOOt-TiH O O iHt> :as ; . : P O 5 03 o»t! „ r-t (M (M »0 (M (M ^ CO -^ O CO »o »Q ^ 0 01 cDcsic^^i>c3:^oq SON-COOCO P^iHCO CNtH Ot^eo-*KO OOOOCNCOOOO i>xha»Nio>o 5«5l>xft«>00 •^ COCOtHOOIN «*OOiOCOO> 3l>ooco>oio«^ ?5 '^ 00 lO r-i t-t r- 1 ^OOb; tMN CO t4 ^■<#1>05 0SCO_ 00 iH 3i 53 03 o R CO CO PI m •ri o m © o rH Oi CO o 05 00 o o CB CO o CD o o C3S cn o 03 1-H 00 o 05 O CD CO o o O '""^ pc^ ,00 00 005 Sj>co tH si IN'* "^ PSoQCNj' 00 0(M N P'* '^ acNj ot> ■Tt^CO 00 00 CD OCOr- (N SCftOOtHOi gcooo 000 P<^ c<» * c3 o3 CJ o ioP'iS ^ CMtH COCO 3 CO o£2 CO „U3O00O °2ici05cob- §" OS tH «\ 00 0? PS 5 * &f) '0^ fl •43 p>q pi m ^ CI3 h OJ 4P S © u © ^t^^o .rH • ?3'<*'eo •rH • ^000 .r-4 . c» ©00 P«° 00 rH r-( '. ". 2 »0 10 tH ■ . C35 gr-«T}^ . . Oi scfco : : P*i . : tH • • „CNItH *. '. '. Som • . • 29 cSocuo • • . 2<^ . . . pt- : : : (M ; • • „00 00 • -US gcow . -co C3J P^« . . rH • • w ' I t ." .' U ' ' ' s : '. : : : C3 • . . . . " " * • P : : : : : a ' ^ oS I " u .2 « . : Si : : 0^"^ :j ft-^rfl : t 3 c g'S w P^^K^W^JO OjCOt^ 10 • coo 01 (M • ■*HCOrt< tH • C& .Ot£co tH 3CO O-^ x J\/o,^ V % 3' S." place and eacli tier througliout the car is braced in the same manner. After load is completed the space left in the doorway for bracing measures 2 feet 7^/4 inches and is braced by means of gate braces constructed of 2x4-inch material, as follows: Each gate consists of two uprights 5 feet 4 inches long and four cross pieces, about 2 feet 4 inches long, built in be- tween each row, making five gates in the center bracing as indicated by heavy lines in diagram No. 2, The uprights are first put in and cross pieces cut from i/^ inch to 1 inch longer than the exact measure- ment and wedged in so as to take up any slack and keep the load from shift- ing. Cross pieces are first put in between the uprights on the car floor and securely toenailed to the car floor and the up- rights with additional cross pieces about 14 inches apart and securely nailed to the uprights. After all the gates have been completed car strips are nailed to the uprights on each side of the brace, on top of the lower cross piece and un- der each of the other cross pieces, there- by preventing gates from shifting side- ways and making a solid load. . JtL. OOLEi GEAPE DISEASES Anaheim Diseases. See Miscellaneous BisedseSj this section. AntliracHose Ephaceloma ampelinum De By. Anthracnose has also been called "bird's-eye rot," on account of the pecul- iar spots it produces upon affected grapes. Like most of the other diseases of the grape, it attacks the leaves and shoots as well as the fruit. On the leaves it at 'first appears as minute, irregular, dark brown, slightly sunken spots, having a darker margin. These spots usually be- come lighter colored when old, and fre- quently crack or fall out, leaving irregu- lar holes in the leaves. This disease presents much the same appearance on the shoots as on the leaves, though the spots are frequently larger and more sunken. They also tend to run together and form irregular patches. The disease is most characteristic and conspicuous upon the fruit. The spots are usually brown at first and surround- ed by a narrow, dark purplish margin; they increase in size and gradually be- come grayish white and somewhat sunk- en. Frequently two or more spots unite and cover a considerable part of the ber- ry. The fruit becomes hard and more or less wrinkled. If only a small part 2 — 30 1122 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL. HORTICULTURE of the berry is affected it may contimie to grow, causing the diseased area to rupture and the seeds to heconae ex- posed. The bursting of the berries and the exposure of the seeds may, however, be produced by other causes, such as the powdery mildew and certain physiologi- cal disturbances. On the diseased areas the minute spores or germs of the fungus are fre- quently produced in immense numbers. The fine, thread-like filaments which constitute the vegetative part of the parasite live during the winter in the tissues of the vines and are ready for active growth in the spring. The anthracnose is quite widely dis- tributed in this country, but fortunately has not caused any great general loss. Its eradication is difficult, however, once it is well established. Treatment Diseased shoots should be cut and burned. The spraying program for black rot will usually control this disease, in connection with the cutting out of af- fected shoots, except where unusually severe, in which case the sulphate of iron solution is used in the following formula: Sulphate of iron, 110 pounds; sul- phuric acid, 1 quart; hot water, 26 gal- lons. First pour the acid upon the sulphate of iron, then add the water. Care should be used in handling, as the preparation will injure skin and clothing. Apply thoroughly just before the buds begin to swell in the spring. Eeference United States Department of Agricul- ture Farmers' Bulletin 284. Bitter Eot Melancomum fuhgineum Resembles ripe rot. Is restricted to the Southern states. The black rot treatment will control it. Black Knot Bacterium twmefaciens *This is one of the commonest and most widely distributed diseases of the vine. It consists of peculiar growths, or swell- * California Experiment Station Bulletin 19T. ings, usually near the surface of the ground on the upper parts of the roots or the lower part of the trunk. It often occurs, also, on all parts of the trunk and branches, but only rarely on the canes. As a rule it does little damage unless it occurs on young vines, or attacks old vines very severely. In some cases where the knots occur on a branch or arm they could be re- moved and the vine might recover per- fectly. It is not uncommon to find vines with large masses of knots on all sides of the trunk and on all the arms, which yet make a vigorous growth and produce good crops. When the knots extend all around the trunk of an old vine, how- ever, it may be girdled, and, while it seldom dies, it may become weak and worthless. The knots appear only on vines grow- ing in moist places, and especially in sandy soil in the hotter regions. It is now known to be due to an in- fection by the crown-gall organism, Bao- terium tumefaciens. Anything which causes a rine to grow vigorously late in the season and pre- vents the proper ripening of the wood, renders it susceptible to the disease. In accordance with these ideas, the remedies advocated aim at causing the vine to ripen its wood early and com- pletely. These remedies are drainage of the soil, fertilization with phosphatic manures, longer pruning, raising the trunk of the vine, and removal of the knots. Swabbing with lime, sulfate of iron, and other antiseptics has proven useless. See Crown Gall under Apple Diseases, Black Rot GiMgnardia didwelUi (Ell.) V. & R. Black rot is the most generally dis- tributed and destructive fungous disease of the grape in the region east of the Rocky mountains. It gains entrance to the plant by means of minute germs called spores. These are borne in small black spore cases, and can not be seen with the naked eye. They are distributed GrRAPE DISEA-SES 1123 cliiefly by the wind and rain. When these spores come in contact with the young and tender parts of the vine, un- der favorable conditions, they germinate and produce a slender tube, which pene- trates the tissue and may destroy it. This disease attacks the leaves "and shoots, as well as the fruit. It usually makes its first appearance on the leaves and young shoots, producing reddish- brown dead spots. The fruit may be at- tacked when young, but usually the dis- ease does not attract attention until the berries are half grown or more. Brown or blackish spots first appear; these spread and soon affect the whole berry, which becomes black and shriveled. These diseased berries remain attached to the vine, and their surfaces become covered with minute black pustules, which con- tain the summer spores of the fungus. During the winter and spring another form, called the winter, or resting spore, is produced upon these old, shriveled berries. These spores help to carry the disease over from one season to another. This fact would indicate the desirabil- ity of destroying, by burning, all diseased fruit, as well as leaves and prunings, as early in the spring as possible. Treatment This disease can be effectually con- trolled by thorough spraying with Bor- deaux mixture (4-3-50 formula). Five or six applications are usually necessary during the season, the first being made when the shoots are eight inches long. For the last one or two applications, some fungicide which does not stain the fruit should be used. Neutral copper acetate, one pound to 50 gallons of water, has been found the best non-staining preparation. The spray should be put on by nozzles giving a fine spray and di- rected by hand so as to cover all leaves and fruit. References Farmers* Bulletin 284. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 155. Cornell Bulletin 253. Cornell Bulletin 266. Cornell Bulletin 293. Cohire or Bropping The raisin grape, Muscat of Alexan- dria, IS subject to a blossom drop without setting of fruit. Failure of the blossoms to pollinate properly is assigned as the cause. The remedy is to plant occasional rows of other varieties such as Palomino, Per- runo, Beba and Berger. Reference California Experiment Station Bulletin 197. Beowh Rot. See Downy Mildew^ this section. California Vine Disease. See Mis- cellaneous Diseases, this section. Downy Mldew Plasmopara viticola (B. & C.) Berl. & De Toni Downy mildew in certain seasons and in northern localities east of the Rockies sometimes causes more loss than black rot and is a close rival for first place among the fungous enemies of the grape. It attacks all the tender growing parts of the vine. Usually it is at first most noticeable on the foliage, producing greenish-yellow, irregular spots upon the upper surface, which become reddish brown. At the same time there appears on the under surface of the leaf a thin, loose, white, downy growth, suggestive of hoar frost. This growth consists of the fertile fungous filaments bearing the sum- mer spores, which under favorable con- ditions are distributed by the wind and water to the berries and other parts, where they germinate, penetrate the tis- sues, and continue their destructive work. The young shoots are also frequently at- tacked and killed. The fruit, if attacked when young or only partly grown, shows first a brown- ish spot, and later becomes covered with the gray, downy growth of the fungus. This form of the disease is sometimes called "gray rot" by vineyardists. When the berries escape the disease until they are half grown or more it appears as a brownish or brownish-purple spot which spreads and soon involves the whole ber- ry. The affected fruit becomes soft and wrinkled and falls to the ground when 1124 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE disturbed. This stage of the disease is sometimes called "brown rot." Besides the summer spores mentioned, there is also produced within the dis- eased tissues another form of reproduc- tive body, sometimes called a winter, or resting spore. These spores are produced in much smaller numbers than the sum- mer spores and are provided with a rather thick, dark-colored outer covering apparently intended for their protection during the winter. This disease, like the black rot and many others, develops most rapidly and does most injury during hot, wet weather Treatment It is desirable to destroy as many as possible of the diseased leaves, shoots, and berries, which may contain the winter spores. Thorough spraying, as recommended for the black rot, will ef- fectually control this diseasa References United States Department of Agricul- ture Farmers* Bulletin 284. Connecticut Experiment Station Bul- letin 56. Little Leaf. See Miscellaneous Dis- eases, this section. Powdery Mildew Uncinula spiralis The only important fungous disease that is of special interest to grape grow- ers in the Northwest at the present time is the disease known as the powdery mildew. This is most serious on the European varieties and consequently is of special interest in California and those sections where these varieties are grown. Symptoms The disease may attack any herbace- ous part of the Tine, On the leaves the fungus appears in the form of white or greenish-white patches of mildew These may run together till the greater part of the leaf is covered. The fungus may also attack the young canes, beginning at the base in the form of small patches; or in severe cases the whole surface may be covered. The green or white mildew is easily rubbed off, leaving on the canes brownish spots which soon turn black. If severely attacked the canes fail to grow or mature properly. When the dis- ease attacks the blossoms they fail to set. If the young fruit is attacked when quite small the berries may drop off. If attacked when half grown they develop irregularly and the affected parts become hardened, the ripe berries becoming ir- regular in form. If severely affected they may crack, thus becoming useless for table or market use. If this cracking is early they may still be used for wine, though in moist seasons they may be at- tacked by various molds. The berries are usually not attacked after they be- gin to I'ipen. When only slightly af- fected the berries may ripen without cracking, but are disJEigured by spots or blotches which reduce their value for market purposes. Cause The cause is a fungus known technical- ly as XJncmula spiralis. This, like all fungi commonly known as powdery mil- dews, grows more or less superficially on the surface of the affected parts. The fine thread-like mycelium is largely ex- ternal, sending short feeding branches into the epidermal cells of the ho^t. From this superficial mycelium erect branches are formed which break down into short cells or spores. When abun- dant these give the spots the powdery appearance that accounts for the popu- lar name of this and other related forms. These spores are spread by the wind and thus may come to rest on a healthy part of a vine. They germinate by putting out a thread of mycelium which branches and attaches itself to the surface of the host and grows into a fungous plant which, when it has reached its full de- velopment, produces spores in countless numbers like that from which it grew. This stage, which is known as the sum- mer spore stage, serves to spread the fungus rapidly. Later in the season another form of the fungus, sometimes spoken of as the winter or resting stage, is produced. This form gives rise to spores borne in tiny sacks in receptacles which protect them until spring, when they are set free It is from the germination of these GRAPE DISEASES 1125 spores on the vines that the first new infections of the summer spore stage start in the spring. Treatment Where this disease is serious enough to cause any amount of loss the vines must he protected by some fungicide. It has been found that the best method is to dust the plants with dry sulphur. The fungicidal value of diy sulphur rests largely in the vapors which are given off during hot weather (above 75 de- grees) Below this temperature the fun- gus does not grow well. If the vines are covered with a sulphur dust and the temperature rises above 75 degrees P., the sulphur is volatilized and pre- vents the growth of the fungus. The vines may be dusted either when dry or wet with dew. They should not, however, be very wet An application should always be made when the blossoms begin to open. In some sections this is suf- ficient; in others, a previous application when the vines are about six to eight inches long should be made. Sometimes three or four dustings are necessary. The vines should be carefully watched and when any signs of mildew are detected an application of the sulphur dust should be given to prevent its spread. Any method of application by which the herbaceous parts of the vine are completely covered with a very fine coat- ing of sulphur dust may be used. The most efacient method is by the use of some form of hand or knapsack duster, several forms of which are good. The best are of European manufacture, Mr. A. H. Carson, Commissioner of the Oregon State Board of Horticulture and a prominent grape grower at Grants Pass, in a letter dated Sept. 17, 1912, gives the following information concerning his experience in regard to the control of powdery mildew under Oregon condi- tions: "For controlling the mildew, we use the best brand of fine sublimed sulphur. The first sulphuring is done when the grapes first bloom. It is important to sulphur at this time, as there is an in- visible mildew that attacks the bloom, and if sulphured at this time the grapes will set much heavier than if not sul- phured. The vines should again be sul- phured when the grapes have formed about the size of a BB shot. If the sea- son is normal, not too much rain, it will not be necessary to sulphur again until the grapes begin to show color, then a third sulphuring should be done. "No grape grower need fear the mil- dew if sulphur is used at the time of growth as I have indicated above. Sul- phuring the vines as I have indicated is a sure preventive of the mildew, but, should the mildew develop among any of the vines before sulphuring, you cannot stop it on the vines that it has developed on, but you can prevent it spreading to healthy vines. The best sulphuring ma- chine I know of is the Torpille Vermorel, made in France, H. C. Shaw Co., Stock- ton, California, sole agents for the United States. The machine costs $15 1 o. b. Stockton. One man with this machine can sulphur from 10 to 12 acres in 10 hours. For a small vineyard, sulphur shaken on the vines from a gunny-sack will give results." H- S. Jackson Crown Gall. See under Apple Diseases, Red Leaf. See Miscellaneous Diseases^ this section. Ripe Rot Glomerella rufomaculans Berk. Spauld. & von Schrenk Ripe rot has also been called bitter rot. The name bitter rot is, however, applied to another fungous disease of the grape. As the present name indi- cates the disease usually appears on the fruit when the latter is nearly mature, and under favorable conditions continues its development and destruction after the grapes are picked. It also attacks the leaves and stems, but is most noticeable and injurious on the fruit The first in- dication of the disease is the appearance of reddish-brown discolored spots which spread and finally extend over the whole fruit. The surface then becomes dotted with dark, slightly elevated pustules, in which the spores are borne. At this stage of development this disease is not easily distinguished from the early stages of black rot and bitter rot. The berries do 1126 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE not shrivel up, however, as in the case of the black rot, and usually are easily detached from the bunch. The spores mentioned are produced in large num- bers and serve to spread the disease. The fungus causing this disease is closely related to that which produces the bitter rot of the apple. It is dxflacult to determine how much injury is done by this disease on ac- count of the liability of confusing it with other fungous troubles. It is quite generally distributed, and may cause more loss than is usually attributed to it. Treatment Spraying as recommended for black rot will largely prevent this disease The later applications are especially impor- tant and should be very thorough. Root Rot The roots of the grape are known to be attacked by several different fungi, especially when the root system has be- come weakened or injured by other causes. Three forms of root rot are of sufficient importance to be mentioned here. yibnssea Syprogaea This fungus is usually associated with insect injury, caused either by Phylloxera or by the grape root worm. It has been found in New York, Pennsylvania, and Missouri, and appears to hasten the death of plants, especially those on which the root worm has been at work. Treatment This root rot can be prevented only by the destruction of the insects which injure the root system and thus give the fungus opportunity to gain a foot- hold. Ozonivm There is a root rot of a more serious nature prevalent in and chiefly restricted to Texas and New Mexico. This is caused by a fungus known as Ozoni%m, which also attacks the roots of cotton and a great variety of other plants. It is most destructive in the black waxy, clay soils, which are very poorly aerated. Plants attacked die suddenly, the leaves and fruit withering up in a day or two and remaining on the vines. Treatment No remedy is known for this root rot of the grape. Soil upon which other plants have died with the same disease should be carefully avoided in planting vines. ArmiUana Mellea. For description of this disease see Root Rot, under Ap- ple Diseases. References U. S. Department of Agriculture Farm- ers' Bulletin 284. Duggar. Fungus Diseases of Plants. RouGEOT. See Miscellaneous Diseases, this section. Shelling The shelling or dropping of grapes from the bunches before maturity may be due to various causes. In some localities in New York and Pennsylvania this trouble is rather serious. The cases which have been studied have be«n found to be due mostly to an imperfectly known fungous disease, which appears to be induced chiefly by improper pruning and train- ing Allowing the vines to produce too heavy crops is also likely to increase this trouble. Stem Cankers These are caused in many cases by freesses which cause dead spots, which become enlarged in healing. Drain the soil and prevent late growth. White Eot Coniotherium diplodiella The appearance of this disease is sim- ilar to the later stage of the downy mil- dew. Occurs in the Southwest and Ohio. It may be controlled by the same means as black rot MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES There seem to be a number of troubles of the grape, at present little understood, which have attacked the vines in Cali- fornia. Anaheim disease, also called the Cali- fornia Vine disease, was of the greatest importance a number of years ago when almost all the vineyards in Southern Cali- fornia died from a mysterious trouble GRAPE DISEASES 1127 which received this name. At present vines are occasionally affected with some- thing which might pass for the same disease, hut it is difficult or impossible even for the experienced plant patholo- gist, save, perhaps, one who was familiar with the Anaheim disease at the time of its first and greatest period of preva- lence, to say just what is really Anaheim disease and what is one of the various troubles which have received other names. We quote as follows from Cali- fornia Experiment Station Bulletin 197: Mysterious Dying of Vines Anaheim Dtsease "The vine, like most plants, especially fruit trees, which are cultivated on a large scale, is subject to diseases of more or less intensity whose cause is not thoroughly understood. These diseases are (1) caused by parasitic organisms which have so far escaped detection, or (2) what is usually known as 'physio- logical/ "Physiological diseases are presumably due to some unfavorable conditions. For example, chlorosis^ or the failure of the leaves to develop chloropfiyll properly, is due to an excess of soluble lime carbon- ate in the soil, and is intensified by cold, dampness and the susceptibility of the variety. "The most serious of these two classes of diseases, which affects the vines, is the Anaheim, or, as it is sometimes called, the California Vine Disease. Notwith- standing that it has been the subject of continuous investigation for over 15 years its cause is still quite obscure. Even the characterization and detection of the disease are so uncertain that vine- yards, which after several years of ob- servation by the most experienced in- vestigators have been pronounced infect- ed, have later been declared free. This has led to such a diversity of opinion that while one expert claims that the disease exists in every vineyard in the state, another would have us believe that no such disease exists at all, and that all cases of dying vines can be ascribed to one or other of the recognized vine dis- eases. "Neither of these extreme views seems to explain completely the observed facts. "While many cases of supposed Anaheim have proved to be nothing but Phyllox- era, root rot, vine hopper, drought, etc, there still remains a large number of un- explained cases. "In some cases the symptoms are prac- tically identical with those of some of the 'physiological' diseases which affect the vine in Europe. Typical cases of Rougeot have been noted in Contra Costa county, of Brumssure in San Joa- quin, and of Folletage in Fresno, Kings, and other counties. In Sonoma county the disease of Red Leaf, which has some analogy with Anaheim, has been studied by Mr. 0. Butler. An account of these diseases may be found in Bulletin 168, entitled 'Observations on Some Vine Diseases in Sonoma County/ "In a general way, as these troubles are due to soil and climatic conditions which weaken the vine, they are to be combated by cultural methods which tend to invigorate. Shorter pruning, thorough cultivation, irrigation or drainage, and fertilization will in most cases be effective in curing vines which are not too far gone. "Many cases have been brought to the attention of the station during the last two years, in which vines which were apparently healthy the previous year have failed to bud out in the spring, or budded out weakly and very late. The cause, in most cases, seemed to be some injury to the vines during the growing season of the previous year. This cause was in many cases the attacks of vine hoppers. Black Prince vines growing in Tokay vineyards have very often been killed. This seems to be because the vine hoppers, having a special fondness for this variety, congregate in large numbers on such isolated vines. Whenever the hoppers are sufficiently abundant to cause the dropping of the leaves in summer, the vine fails to ripen its wood properly. Without mature green leaves the buds and canes do not receive the stores of starch which they need for the new growth in spring, and will either grow 1128 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE poorly the following year or fail to start at all. "When a new growth of leaves in autumn follows summer defoliation hy hoppers, mildew, or other causes, the ef- fect is even worse. The new shoots which start exhaust what food reserves the vine possesses, and the leaves are killed by the early winter frosts before they have been able to return the supplies they have taken from the canes. Similar, but less severe, effects have been observed following a bad attack of mildew. *'This starvation of the canes and buds may be brought about in another way, namely, by the production of too large a crop. It is often possible, by excessive- ly long pruning, to cause a vine to pro- duce an abnormally large crop of grapes. The larger the crop the more material it takes from the vine, and if too large, the vine is unable to support it and at the same time lay up reserve materials in its canes and buds. In consequence, an extra large crop is often followed by weak growth in the spring, and a con- sequent small crop the following autumn. Vines of heavy bearing varieties may even be killed in this way, by repeated long pruning "This fact has been long recognized by practical grape growers. Lately, Pro- fessor L. Ravaz,* of the National School of Agriculture at Montpellier, France, has advanced the opinion that the death of vines, as a consequence of overbear- ing, is much commoner than is usually supposed. This overbearing may occur as a consequence of various conditions other than long pruning. Some seasons are peculiarly favorable to heavy crops. Certain diseases and injuries induce tem- porary heavy bearing. Whatever the cause of abnormally heavy crops, Profes- sor Ravaz believes that they may result in the death of vines. This is the ex- planation he gives of the death of large numbers of vines in Southern France, Algeria, and other countries, and he ascribes our so-called Anaheim disease to the same cause. * "Influence de la surproduction sur la Vege- tation de la Yi^jne,'* by L. Ravaz, Coulet et fits, Montpellier, 1906 "This is substantially the explanation given of the dying of vines in Santa Clara, in Bulletin 134, which was pub- lished before the region was declared infested by Anahetm disease. Whether this explanation is sufficient is still doubt- ful, though it is rendered probable by the fact that healthy young vineyards are now growing in Santa Clara, on the same soil where vines have been killed by Anaheim disease." €[RAPE PESTS Acliemon SpMnx or Hawk Moth Pholus achemon Drury Family Bphingidae Philampelus achemon Drury General Appearance The adult moth is of a brownish-gray color with light and dark variegations and well defined dark brown spots. The hind wings are rich pink with brown border and dark spots. The body is red- dish gray with two deep brown triangu- lar spots on the thorax. The expanded wings measure easily four inches across. The larva or caterpillar is first green, changing to reddish-brown as it grows older. The dorsum is brown with from six to eight whitish, oblique bars along the sides. The pupae are rich brown. Life History The eggs are green and round. The winters are passed in the chrysalis stage, the adults emerging about the time the foliage appears upon the grapevines. The eggs are glued to the leaves and hatch in a comparatively short time into small green caterpillars. These are rav- enous feeders, grow very rapidly and do much damage to the foliage of the vines. In about one month they are full grown and go into the ground to pass the winter in the pupal stage. Food JPlants The caterpillars feed upon wild and cultivated grapevines and the Virginia creeper. B. O. BssiG Apple Leaf Hoppek. See Apple Pests. Black Scale. See Apricot Pests. Blister Mite. See Pear Pests. GRAPE PESTS 1129 California Grape Root Worm *Adoxus obscurus Linn. Family Chrysoinelidae General Appearance The adult beetles are about three-six- teenths of an inch long, jet black in color and partially covered with fine whitish hairs giving them a grayish cast. The prothorax is noticeably narrower than the rest of the body. The antennae and legs are usually black, but are some- times brown. The eggs are elongated, yellowish-white and one-twenty-fifth of an inch long. The full-grown larvae are white with brown heads and about one- fourth of an inch long. The heads are usually curved in towards the ventral surface of the body. The pupae are white and about the same size as the fully de- veloped larvae. Life History The eggs are laid early in the spring, usually in clusters of from one to two dozen, in cracks or crevices beneath the bark upon the trunk of the vines, any- where within six inches above the sur- face of the ground. They hatch in from eight to ten days and the young larvae immediately seek the roots of the vines underneath the ground and attack first the small rootlets which are often en- Fig. 1. Adoxus ohscurus Linn. (Original.) tirely destroyed. The large roots are also attacked and large patches of bark re- moved. They continue to feed under- ground until fall, when they are full grown and remain dormant during the winter, transforming into delicate pupae in the spring and after about two weeks emerge as adult insects. The larvae and * The light-colored form has the wing covers, tibiae and basal half of the antennae brown, while the rest of the body is black. This species is known as Adoxus vitis Fourc, and the life history and habits are almost iden- tical with those of Adoxus ohscurus Linn. pupae are usually found within a radius of fifteen inches from the trunks and at a depth from two feet to less. The adults appear about May to begin egg-laying and disappear in June. Food Plants The larval forms work upon the roots and the adults work upon the foliage and fruit of practically all the commercial varieties of grapes. Control Thorough cultivation, close to the bases of the vines, will kill many of the larvae and pupae. The adults may be kept in check by repeated applications of arseni- cal sprays. Jarring them into receptacles, containing oil, is also recommended. E. O. EssiG Cottony Cushion or Fluted Scale Icerya purchasi Mask. General Appearance The adults are distinguished by large, white fiuted cottony masses with distinct red or yellow bodies, varying from one- fourth to one-half inch in length and three-fourths as wide. There are two varieties, as follov/s: Icerya purchasi var. crawii CklL, of which the body proper is yellow or light brown, and Icerya purchasi var. maskeUi CklL, the body of which is very dark brown or almost black. The eggs and young are bright cardinal red. Life History The large cottony masses are the egg- sacs of the females, and may contain from four hundred to a thousand eggs. The males soon after hatching secrete themselves in a white cocoon for trans- formation, which requires nearly one month. The females are matured in from three to four months. There are several broods during the summer, when the scale increases enormously and may do great damage. Food Plants All citrus trees, pomegranate, quince, apple, peach, apricot, fig, walnut, locust, willow, pepper, grape, rose, castor bean, spearmint, rose geranium, purslane, am- brosia, nettle, sweet-gum, white oak, flow- 1130 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ering almond, pecan, potato, nightshade, Bermuda grass. Control Artificial control by sprays and fumiga- tion are never practiced because of the efficiency of natural enemies. This is the one case where nature controls perfectly a serious pest. Predaceoiis Enemies The common Vedalia (Novius cardi- nails) and the Koebele's ladybird (Novius koehelev) are the ladybird beetles which 'keep the cottony cushion scale in com- plete subjection. In many localities in California the former is the most effi- cient, but in some places, and especially in Ventura county, the writer found the latter doing most of the control work. While these ladybirds are usually present in limited numbers in most sec- tions, yet at times they completely dis- appear and the cottony cushion scale in- creases so as to cause considerable dam- age before the beetles can again be estab- lished. It is always well to keep a close watch of this pest, and if it appears without being accompanied by the larvae of the Vedalias, adults of the latter should be obtained and liberated as soon as possible. True Parasites There are two true parasites which also prey upon this coccid: the hymen- opterous enemy, Ophelosia crawfordi, and the dipterous parasite, Crypto cMetum (Lestophonus) iceryae Will. The latter is often responsible for as much effective work as are the Vedalias, though this fact is not generally known. E. 0. EssiG Cottony Maple Scale. See Apple Pests. Ctjtworms. See Index. Erinose* Erinose is a disease of the vine char- acterized by swellings on the upper sur- face of the leaves, and corresponding de- pressions on the lower surface. These swellings, when numerous, cause consid- erable deformation of the leaves, but not ♦Revised from Bulletin No. 136, by F. T. Biolettl and H. H. Twl^ht, by H. J. Qnayle, California Bxperiment Station. the change of color to yellow or brown which is characteristic of most fungous diseases. Even very badly affected leaves retain almost their normal green color on the upper surface until late in the season. The depressions on the under side are coated with a thick felt-like cov- ering, which, at first pure white, grad- ually turns rusty and finally becomes dark brown. Generally, the swellings and corresponding depressions are iso- lated and few in number on the affected leaves, but in severe cases they are nu- merous enough t^ become confluent and the whole lower surface is then com- pletely hidden by the felt-like covering. Occasionally, indeed, the felt-like mate- rial extends to the upper surface in nar- row strips bordering the veins, and may even be found on the petioles and flower clusters. Many have the impression that they are attacked by a fungus, and, in fact, the coating has a strong superficial resem- blance to some fungous growths. A mi- croscopic examination shows, however, that it consists of a mass of hypertro- phied hairs or abnormal outgrowths of the epidermal cells of the leaf. They are larger, more abundant, and more per- sistent than the normal leaf-hairs of the leaf, and differ also in being often branched and usually unicellular. This abnormal growth, in common with simi- lar growths found on other plants, is called an erineum, from a Greek word meaning woolly. This is the derivation of the word erinose, which means woolly disease — a very appropriate name. The erinea of leaves were formerly supposed to be of fungous origin, but are now known to be due to the attacks of minute mites. The feeding of these mites exerts a stimulating effect upon the epidermal cells of the leaf, which causes them to grow out into the abnormal hair-like pro- cesses already described. The mite caus- ing erinose of the vine is known as Eriophyes vitis^ and is related to the mites causing a similar disease of the walnut and the leaf blister of the pear, both of which are very common. The Eriophyes vitis is not a true in- sect, but a mite or acarid belonging to GRAPE PESTS 1131 the class of Arachnida to which "belong also spiders, scorpions, ticks, and onr common red spider so destructive to fruit trees. These mites are extremely minute, and only a practiced eye can per- ceive them among the tangled mass of erineum on the leaf, by the aid of an ordinary hand magnifier, and then only with great difficulty. Amount of Injury Erinose was formerly considered to he a very serious disease of the vine, owing to the fact that its effects were confused with those of the powdery mildew. It is only in very exceptional cases that it is, alone, capable of doing serious injury to the vine or its crop. All varieties of vines are not equally attacked. Accord- ing to Ravaz, certain American species such as Berlandieri, Mustang, Cinerea, Cordifolia, and Scuppernong are immune. All varieties of Vinifera are susceptible, but not equally. Of varieties cultivated in California, Sauvignon, Sirah, Mar- sanne, and Gamay Teinturier are said by Ravaz to be little subject to attack; while xxramon, v/insauT>, anci jd ronuignan \ KDmauL Muscatel) are very susceptible. The worst cases so far observed in California have been on Flame Tokay and Mission, but it has been found also on other varie- ties, among them Zinfandel and Muscat. Methods of Treatment Since sulphuring the vines for the treat- ment of odium has become general in Prance, there has been little trouble with erinose. The mite seems as sensitive to the fumes of sulphur as the red spider, and several sulphurings during the late spring and early summer are recom- mended for the control of the mite. The vineyards badly affected are usually those in which little or no sulphuring has been done, or those where the growth of foliage has been so luxuriant as to prevent the evaporation of the sulphur by the sun. In the latter cases the vines are so strong that they practically receive no harm from the disease. Tests made on Tokay vines indicate that the erinose can be easily and readily controlled at any stage by sulphuring. In severe cases a winter treat- ment of the vine stumps is practiced in France. This treatment consists in pour- ing about one quart of boiling water over the stump. For very large stumps a somewhat greater amount of water is used, and for smaller vines a proportion- ate amount. This method is said to be very efficacious, and with the portable boiler constructed for the purpose two men can treat from fifteen hundred to two thousand vines per day. Cuttings taken from afCected vines for the purpose of rooting or grafting may be thoroughly disinfected by placing them in hot water (122 degrees Fahrenheit) for ten min- utes. If this is done carefully all the mites and their eggs will be destroyed without injury to the cuttings. BuROPEAisr Fruit Scale. See Apple Pests. Frosted Scale. See Prune Pests. GIrape Berry Moth Polychrosis v%teana Clem. The larva of the grape berry moth infests the berry or fruit of the grape. The first generation attacks and webs together the grape clusters even before the blossoms open or soon after the grapes are set. Later-appearing larvae bore into the green or ripening fruit and produce a purplish spot much resembling m appearance the injury due to the black- rot fungus, with which it is frequently confused. Within the fruit the larvae feed on the pulp and seeds, passing from one grape to another, and several of these discolored and shriveling berries will often be found more or less webbed together with numerous particles of larval excrement, and sticky with exud- ing grape juice. Other insects attack the fruit of the grape, such as the grape-seed insect (Isosoma vitis Saunders), whose larvae feed on the seeds, causing the ber- ries to shrivel late in the summer, and the grape curculio (Graponius inaegua Us Say), whose injury closely resembles that of the grape berry moth. But the principal cause of wormy grapes through- out the country is the larva of the species under consideration. Until recently it was thought that our grape berry moth was introduced from Europe many years ago, but this has been disproven. It is very probable that the grape is the sole 1132 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE food of this species. This important fact greatly simplifies the question of its con- trol, for if the species had other food plants vineyards would be reinfested from outside sources despite thorough treatments. Distribution and Destructiyeness The American grape berry moth oc- curs from Canada south to the Gulf and westward to California. It is very gen- erally distributed over this area, and wherever the grape is grown it is more than likely to be found. Description and Life History The grape berry moth is small, the wings expanding not quite one-half inch. The general color is purplish brown. Moths appear in the spring from hiber- nating pupae, beginning about the time the shoots of the grape are pushing out, and continuing to emerge for some weeks. The earlier-appearing individuals deposit their eggs on the blossom clusters, while those coming out after the blossoms are shed oviposit on the clusters of young grapes. The minute scale-like eggs of the first brood of moths are difficult to find, as at this time they are relatively scarce, but may be readily detected during summer as a glistening or whitish spot on the surface of the berries. The larvae of the first generation feed upon the blossoms and small berries, webbing them together more or less and producing a more or less ragged bunch of grapes, or the clus- ter may be almost entirely destroyed. Moths of the second and later generations deposit their eggs on the developing grape berries, and the resulting larvae bore into these, feeding on the pulp and seeds, the entrance point of the berry being marked by a purplish spot, which renders their detection quite easy. By this time the insects will have increased greatly in numbers, and the larvae will be attacking almost exclusively the ber- ries of the grape, for which reason their work is much more conspicuous. Second- brood larvae infest the grape during July and August, the later-appearing indi- viduals probably not developing to moths but hibernating in the pupal condition. Many of the earlier-appearing insects of this brood appear to complete their life cycle, and moths develop, giving rise to a third generation of larvae. Treatment Poisons The use of arsenical poisons against the first brood of the grape berry moth was recommended by Mr. Marlatt, of the Bureau of Entomology, in 1895.* Since this time the recommendation has been amply justified in the experience of nu- merous vineyardists, who, in connection with the fight against the grape root worm, found that their early sprayings for this pest were also controlling the grape berry moth. The first treatment should be made just before the blossoms are ready to open, and the second just after the blossoms have fallen. A third treatment in a week or ten days is also advisable in badly infested vineyards. In all these treatments special care should be exercised to force the spray well through the clusters of blossoms and young fruit. It will be noted that the second and third treatments for the grape berry moth will coincide with the first and second treatments for the grape root worm, and the arsenicals recom- mended for that insect will be equally satisfactory for the grape berry moth. A, L. QXTATNTANCB, Farmers* Bulletin 284. C^rape Blossom Midge Gontarinia joTinsoni Sling. Present in the Erie and Chautauqua grape sections in New York. It is a tiny fly, almost microscopic, and yet seems capable of destroying a whole crop. They emerge from the soil about the time the buds of the early flowering grapes are ready to open. The eggs are laid in the opening flower bud and the larvae so injure the flower that no berry sets. Their presence is indicated by the swelling and reddening of the bud. By the last week in June the larvae have entered the ground, where they remain in pupation imtil the following spring. * Yearbook. United States Department of Ag- riculture, 1895, p. 404, GRAPE PESTS 1133 One or two early applications of a nico- tine spray is the only remedy suggested. Literature New York (Geneva) Bulletin 331. Grape Cane Borer AmpMcerus dicaudatus Say. The young shoots of the grape during the spring months in some districts will often be observed to suddenly break off or droop and die, and if examination be made a small hole will be found jnst above the base of the withered shoot, with a burrow leading from it a short distance into the main stem. Within the burrow will be found the culprit in the form of a peculiar cylindrical brown beetle about half an inch long. This beetle has long been known as the apple twig borer, from its habit of boring into the smaller branches of the apple in the manner described for the grape. It also sometimes similarly attacks pear, peach, plum, forest and shade trees and orna- mental shrubs. To the grape, however, it is especially destructive, and the name "grape cane borer" is now given to it as more appropriate. Much complaint of this beetle is always received during the winter and early spring. Frequently all the new growth is killed, and in some cases vines have been entirely destroyed. It is extremely common in the states bordering the Mississippi, from Iowa to Arkansas, and also in Texas, often be- coming, throughout this region, the most important insect enemy of the vine. It also occurs eastward to the coast, but rarely causes much damage in its eastern range. It breeds in dying wood, such as large prunings, diseased canes, and also in dying or drying wood of most shade and fruit trees. It has been found by the writer breeding very abundantly in roots of uprooted maples and in diseased tam- arisk stems. In old, dry wood it will not breed, so far as is known, nor in vigorous live growth, but seems to need the dying and partially drying conditions mentioned. The insect has but one brood yearly. The beetles mature for the most part in fall, and generally remain in their larval burrows until the following spring. A few may leave the burrows in the fall and construct others in the twigs of apple or other plants in which to hiber- nate. In the spring, however, they be- gin their destructive work early, burrow- ing into the axils of the grape and oc- casionally also into other plants. This is undoubtedly partly for food, but seems largely malicious, for it certainly has nothing to do with egg-laying, although it may have some connection with the marital relation. The eggs are laid chief- ly in May, or as early as March or April in its southern range, and the larvae develop during summer, transforming to pupae and beetles in the fall. On the Pacific coast a closely allied but somewhat larger species (AmpMcerus puficUpennis Lee.) breeds in grape canes and other plants, and probably has sim- ilar burrowing habits in the adult stage. Kemedies It will be apparent at once that to limit the work of this insect it will be necessary to promptly destroy all wood in which it will breed. This means the careful removal and burning of all dis- eased wood and prunings at least by mid- summer, thus destroying the material in which the larvae are probably undergo- ing their development. If precautions of this sort are neglected and the beetle appears in the vineyard in spring, the only recourse is to cut out by hand every affected part and destroy the beetles. On warm days they may some- times be collected in numbers while run- ning about the vines, Washinf^ton, D. C. Grape Curciilio Craponius inaequalis Say The grape curculio is one of the "snout beetles" belonging in the same family as the so-called plum curculio. The par- ent beetle deposits her eggs in little cav- ities which she eats into the grapes, and the resulting larvae feed upon the pulp and seeds, producing an injury quite similar to that done by the grape berry moth. The beetles cut small, rather characteristic holes in the grape leaves when feeding, and the berries often show 1134 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE a purplish coloration at the point punc- tured in egg-laying. If infested berries be examined it will be readily possible to distinguish between the grape curculio and the grape berry moth, smce the grubs of the former are whitish and quite desti- tute of legs, whereas the larvae of the berry moth have well developed legs, are greenish in color, quite agile, and like- ly to escape quickly upon being disturbed. Distribution and Bestriictiveness The grape curculio is a native species, feeding originally on the wild grape, as it does at the present time. It is dis- tributed well over the United States east of the Rocky mountains. Life History and Habits The insect passes the winter in the adult or beetle stage, hiding under trash in and near vineyards, especially border- ing woods. About the time in the spring that the grape is in bloom the beetles come from their hibernation quarters and for the first few days or a week are quite sluggish, but gradually become more active, feeding on the foliage of the grape until the berries are about one- fourth grown or of sufficient size to be suitable for receiving the eggs. This habit of feeding on the exposed portions of the vines some three or four weeks be- fore egg-laying permits of their ready destruction by arsenical poisons. Late in June, in the latitude of West Virginia, the females begin depositing eggs in the berries, excavating a cavity in which a single egg is placed. About four to six days, varying with the temperature, are required for the eggs to hatch, and the resulting larva burrows through the pulp, reaching the seed in three or four days, which is penetrated and the con- tents devoured. In 12 to 15 days the larva has become full grown and leaves the berry by eating a hole to the out- side, falls to the ground and at once seeks a suitable place for pupation, as under stones, lumps of earth, or just be- low the surface of the soil. Here an earthen cell is made and the larva trans- forms to the pupa, the adult beetle emerg- ing in the course of 18 or 19 days, at first blackish m color with gray hairs, but soon becoming the normal brown color. The life cycle from eg^ to adult, as stated by Brooks for a large series of individuals, requires about 35 days. The new generation of beetles feed upon the foliage until fall, when they go into hi- bernation, appearing the following spring, as stated. Treatment Poisoning The beetles feed freely upon the foli- age of the grape in the spring for sev- eral weeks before egg-laying begins and continue feeding in the fall after egg- laying ceases along with beetles of the new generation, and it is thus an easy matter to bring about their destruction by arsenical sprays. The treatments ad- vised for the grape berry moth and root worm, with perhaps an additional treat- ment two or three weeks later, will prac- tically control the insect. Farmers' Bulletin 284. Cfrape Leaf Folder Desmia funeralis Huber This insect occurs in considerable num- bers in some sections every year, but the total injury is not usually very great. They may be easily detected in a vine- yard by the characteristic rolling of the leaves. One edge is rolled up rather tightly to about half way across the leaf, making a tube less than the diameter of a lead pencil, in which the larva lives. The leaf is always rolled on the under side. The insects feed by eating ofe the free edge of the leaf m the interior of the roll, so that they are always protect- ed by the outer layers of the rolled por- tion. The insect hibernates as a chrys- alis, appearing and laying eggs upon the vine in the spring. The larvae of the first brood appear about the first of June and by the twentieth of June they change to pupae. The larva is a green- ish-white caterpillar, about an inch long when full grown. They wriggle out of their nests very vigorously when dis- turbed and drop to the ground. There are two broods in a season. This insect occurs, apparently, through- GRAPE PESTS 1135 out the United States. It is very com- mon in the Eastern and Middle Western states, but there is a striking difference in habits between the insect there and what is considered the same species in California, In the East, the leaf is sim- ply folded over on the upper surface and the edges sewed down by strands of silk. There the larva feeds by eating off the upper surface of the leaf, thus skeleton- izing it. In California the leaf is very dis- stinctly rolled, and instead of eating off the upper surface it feeds on the free edge. The moth is nearly an inch across the expanded wings, and is black with white markings. There are two white spots on each wing, those on the posterior wings being larger, and in some specimens fus- ing into a single large spot. There are also two white bands across the abdomen, one about the center and one near the tip. The wings are also bordered with a fringe of white, and the tarsi and apical half of the antennae are white. Control Measure The only control measure which is likely to prove effective is to spray with an arsenical before the rolling of the leaf is commenced, so that they may be obliged to eat the poison, even though they are within the rolled portion. If they are not too abundant, hand picking or simply crushing the folded portion of the leaves will be the most practical. H. J. QUAYLE, California Experiment Station Bulletin 192. GrapcTine Hoplia *HopUa callipyge Lee. Family Scarahaeidae General Appearance The adult beetles vary from five-six- teenths to three-eighths of an inch in length. The head and thorax are dark brown, being the darkest portions of the entire body. They are often covered with fine golden pubescence, giving them a mottled appearance. The wing covers or elytra are brown — nearly as dark as the * Another species, Hoplia sackenii Lee, also occurs in the central and southern part of the state and works upon the grapevine. Honlia puMcolUs Lee. is lighter in color than H callipyge Lee. and occurs in the Sierra foot- nills, but apparently is not a pest. Fig. 1. The Grapevine Hoplia (Hoplia cal- lipyge Lee), Showing Dorsal and Ventral Aspects. head and thorax or considerably lighter in some species. They are also pubescent and often appear white mottled, due to the fact that the fine hair or powder is removed in certain places. The entire ventral surface, excepting the head, is beautifully iridescent silvery green, as are also the blunt posterior end of the ab- domen, the coxae and femora of the legs. The rest of the legs and antennae are brown. The larvae are white grubs and live in the soil. Life History The life history of this beetle has not been worked out, but it probably re- sembles that of the other chafers. The glossy white eggs are laid in old pas- tures. The grubs feed upon the plant roots and grow very slowly, requiring from one to two years to become full grown. They remain in the larval or pupal stage throughout the winter and emerge as adult beetles early in the spring and attack many kinds of vegeta- tion. Food Plants The usual food appears to be the young buds and older foliage of rose bushes. 1136 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE which often suffer greatly from the at- tacks. As early as 1893 it has been known to do considerable damage lo the buas and leaves of grape vines in Cali- fornia. Occasionally large areas of vine- yards are completely stripped. It also feeds upon greasewood. Control The larval and pupal forms are found in the soil, especially in unplowed past- ures and places around fences, ditches, etc. Thorough cultivation of these places will not only kill the young then present, but will keep the adults from laying eggs there. Poison sprays applied when the beetles begin to appear in consider- able numbers and repeated every week will aid materially in saving the buds and foliage. Jarring the beetles into a suit- able receptacle containing oil may also prove e:Kective, especially if only small areas are badly infested. E. 0. EssiG <5lrape Leaf Hopper Typhlocyha comes Say. General Appearance The adult insects are very small, scarcely more than one-eighth of an inch long. During the summer they appear light yellow with the wing covers or elytra mottled with red. As the sea- son advances the color becomes darker, and in winter it is dark red; this change is due to the increasing brightness of the red markings, which are very faint during the summer months. The young appear very much like the adults, except- ing that their wings are not fully develop- ed and there are less of the red mark- ings. Life History The eggs are bean-shaped and so small as to be almost microscopic. They are inserted just beneath the epidermis on the underside of the grape leaves and hatch in from 15 to 20 days. The young nymphs begin at once to feed upon the first-appearing foliage by extracting the juices from the leaves with the sharp beaks. There are two broods a year — winter and summer. The adults of the former hibernate and begin feeding upon the first foliage in the spring. During May they begin egg-laying, which gives rise to the summer brood. This brood grows very rapidly and lays eggs within a few weeks, dying off in the fall. Their ^ggs give rise to the coming winter brood. Thus the destruction may begin in May and end only when all of the leaves have fallen. Food Plants The principal and practically the only food during the summer months is the foliage of the grape, but during the winter many other plants are attacked, such as grasses, clovei*, alfalfa, mustard, ragweed and filaree. Control A spray containing .02 of one per cent nicotine has proven to be the most effective contact insecticide for this pest This must be applied when the nymphs begin to appear about the first of June, and great care taken to drench the un- der sides of the leaves. High pressure is necessary for good work. Screen cages have been used very suc- cessfully in many localities in the state. Plowing and cultivating close to the vines and practicing clean culture aid in re- ducing the numbers. Ifatnral Enemies So far no internal parasites of this pest are known. The larvae of the California green lacewing Chrysopa caUfornica Coq. devour the young nymphs. Ladybird beetles also prey upon the young, but are of little consequence in the matter of control. Grape Phylloxera "^Phylloxera vastatrix Planchon General Appearance The presence of this pest is usually manifested by its work, which consists in the formation of rough wart-like galls upon the leaves and small knots upon the roots. The lice producing the galls are very small and orange-colored. White eggs and the young are also to be found within the galls, which are seldom found in California. The root lice are about one-twenty-fifth of an inch long and * According to priority rules the scientific name of this species should be Ferity mbia vitifoliae (Fitch). GRAPE PESTS 1137 greenish-yellow in summer and a little darker in winter. Life History During the months of July and August some of the eggs laid by the females of the root forms hatch into individuals which acquire wings. These seek the foliage of the vines and lay large eggs which produce true females and small eggs which produce males. These mate and each female lays a single winter egg upon the bark of the two-year-old wood. In the spring this egg hatches into a root form (or gall-making form) which gives rise to the root forms in other stages. These lay eggs which give rise to the many summer generations of de- vastating insects. In California the lat- ter hibernate in the soil and may con- tinue for at least four years without re- vei^ting to the sexual forms. Food Plants This insect feeds upon practically all varieties of grape vines, but is most dam- aging to the European varieties. Many cultivated varieties and hybrids as well as wild species are slightly attacked, but not so as to greatly impair their growth. These latter are known as resistant vines and are important factors in the selection of roots for vines set out in Phylloxera- infested districts. While the leaves are damaged to some degree, the main source of injury is due to the attacks upon the young and vigorous roots, which are com- pletely destroyed. The roots of the so- called "resistant stock" do not material- ly suffer from such attacks. Control By far the most important method of control is the use of resistant root stocks upon which are grafted the desired vari- eties. Of course care must be exercised in selecting stock for the various vari- eties and expert advice obtained before making extensive selections or plantings. Direct remedies for infestations are un- satisfactory. Flooding the vineyards if the water can be held for a month will almost exterminate the pest, if done in the winter, but such a method is imprac- ticable in most of the grape-growing sections of the state. Carbon bisulfid is an efficient remedy in loose sandy soil, but in such places the pest is usually less abundant. IVatural Enemies In the Eastern states many predaceous insects feed upon the gall form, but as this stage does not occur to any extent in California there are practically no re- sults from these or other natural checks. B. 0. EssiG Grape Root Worm, or Grape Vine PmiA. Fidia vtticida Walsh. See Cal- tfornia Grape Boot Worm, Grape Scale Aspidiotus (Diaspidiotus) uvae Comst. This insect has a wide distribution over the eastern part of the United States and has proven of considerable im- portance. Infested vines have the appearance of being covered with a "dingy white scurf." The habits of this scale are somewhat similar to those of the San Jose scale, but the grape seems to be iti only host of economic importance. The female gives birth to living young, 35 to 50 during May and June. These are active for about two days when they set- tle down to a sedentary life under cover of a waxy shield which they excrete. Spray with lime-sulphur once, about one week after the first appearance in the spring. Later applications are neces- sary sometimes. Reference Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt. VII. Grape Seed Chalcis Evoxystoma vitis In the latter part of the summer grapes will sometimes shrivel and dry up. Examination of the seeds will find some of them missing and others en- larged. The swollen seeds may be found to contain a small white grub. This is the grub of the grape seed chalcis, which emerges, a wasp-like fly, some time the following summer. According to Gossard it prefers the wild grapes. Destruction of affected berries is all that is needed. 2—31 1138 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Reference Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 233. GRASSHOPPERS y alley Grasshopper Edaleonotus enigma Scudd. General Appearance One of the smaller species, the adults being about one-fourth of an inch long. The general color is rich amber with red- dish hue around the eyes. The dorsum and carinae of the thorax are dark. The tegmina are mottled with black and dusky spots. The antennae and first two pairs of legs are concolorous with the body, while the femora of the hind legs are richly marked with black and the tibiae are pale blue. The young are nearly of the same general color, with the dark markings less pronounced. Life History The holes in which the eggs are laid are usually drilled in hard or compact soil. The eggs are laid regularly and ESSI^. Fig. 1. The Valley Grasshopper (Edaleonotus enigma Scudd). horizontally and cemented together, as well as being surrounded with a liquid cement which renders the mass water- proof. The young hatch the following spring as soon as it becomes warm, and they begin to reach maturity early in June. Pairing begins soon after and eggs are deposited from August to October. There are two forms of the adults, char- acterized by long and short wings. The species is very prolific and does much damage. It is only occasionally migra- tory. Distribution Throughout the lower San Joaquin val- ley, especially in the Turlock region. Food Plants All forms of vegetation, including the foliage of orchards and vineyards, un- cultivated field crops, such as alfalfa, clover, grain, etc., and cultivated crops, such as vegetables, corn, potatoes, etc., are attacked. Differential Grasshopper Melanoplus diff event ialis Thomas General Appearance This is one of the larger hoppers, averaging one and five-eighths inches from front to the tip of the tegmina or wing covers. A very beautifully color- ed insect when fully matured. The head, thorax, abdomen and first two pairs of legs are amber or rich brown, the sutures being dark. The wing covers are brown- ish gray — the true wings being trans- parent. The hind femora are yellow with black cross lines, while the tibiae and tarsi are bright red, the former with black spots near the outer base. The spines and claws are black. The an- tennae are reddish with dusky tips. The nymphs are green. Life History Egg-laying begins about the middle of the summer. The holes for the eggs are drilled into the soil in bare and vacant places, especially in alfalfa fields. Prom 60 to 80 eggs are laid by each female. They are protected from winter rains and freezes by an excretion of the female which makes the capsule containing them waterproof. They begin to hatch in the warmer spring months, appearing early in June, and keep up their destructive work until August. The young green hoppers, as they mature, acquire wings and assume a yellowish tint, thus causing the belief that there are two distinct species. The largest brood appears early in the summer, and the greatest amount of damage is done by the first of August. Fig. 1. The Differential Grasshopper {Melan- oplus difterentialis Thomas). GRAPE PESTS 1139 Distribution Especially abundant in the San Joa- quin valley, though the species has a somewhat wider range throughout the state. Outbreaks have been recorded at Newman and Los Banos in past years. This year it was especially abundant in Madera county. Food Plants Practically all kinds of green vegeta- tion, including most of the forage and truck crops. Especially destructive to alfalfa. Orchard trees and vineyards are also attacked, some trees and vines be- ing completely defoliated and many killed. Hopper Dozer The use of the hopper dozer has be- come an important factor in the control of grasshoppers, especially in grain and hay fields, in pastures and even in cul- tivated crops. The hopper dozer is con- structed as shown in Fig. 2. The back and sides are made of thin sheet iron or cloth and the pan at the bottom construct- ed to hold about two inches of kerosene. These dozers may be made any length but a two-horse size is the most practic- able. They are simply drawn across the fields and capture the hoppers as the lat- ter endeavor to escape their approach. '*r'i jfiftr. W //• rr x>, « at & r- Fig 2. plan of a Yery Grood Ilopper Dozer. (After XTrbalins ) Though the hoppers may escape from the kerosene bath, they are doomed. The best time of operation is on warm days if possible, early in the season be- fore the hoppers have acquired wings. A brief description of some of the most common and destructive California spe- cies follows. B. O. EssiG Gbeedy Scale. See Apple Fests, Jfematode Root G^all These tiny creatures belonging to the order vermes cause irritation of the roots of numerous plants including the grape. On this plant they give rise to galls or swellings somewhat similar to those pro- duced by the phylloxera. *Quayle says that "no satisfactory remedy has yet been found for con- trolling parasitic nematodes. In green- houses the usual procedure is to sterilize the soil, but this, obviously, is not ap- plicable to a vineyard. However, if the soil is known to be infested, disinfec- tion is sometimes practiced before plant- ing out young vines. This is done by an application of carbon bisulfid to the soil. Trap plants have also been used, these being annuals that are pulled up before the nematodes escape. In time it may be found that resistant stock is the solu- tion of the problem. In the bulletin al- ready referred to it is stated that the Isabella is slightly resistant, while Yitis riparia has shown no nodules after the first year This fact is interesting as a suggestion that both phylloxera and nematoaes may be controlled by the same resistant.*' Pear Tiirips. See Tear Pests. Red or Orange Scale Ghrysomphalus auranUi Mask. Oeneral Appearance Distinctly circular and flat, the female scales varying from one-sixteenth to one- eighth of an inch in diameter. The scale or shell is transparent, allowing the red female body, which gives it a distinctly red color, to show through. The male scales are elongated, very much smaller and gray or dark brown in color. Life History The young are born alive in great num- bers. They ai^e usually produced during the warm summer months from June to September, but in the milder sections may continue to appear much longer. Like other coccids the males are winged and so small as to be scarcely observed. The females settle on the trunks, limbs, foliage and fruit, and cause great dam- age. Trees may be entirely killed ty their attacks. It is one of the most seri- ous pests known to citrus fruit culture. * California Experiment Station Bulletin 192. 1140 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Distribution Throughout the Southern citrus belt in California. Food Plants All citrus trees, camphor, fig, olive, rose, pear, plum, apple, quince, willow, oak, grape, acacia, tea plant, wattle, sago palm, nightshade, English walnut, eucalyptus, passion vine, date palm, Cal- ifornia fan palm, goldenrod, lignuni- vitae, fuschia, box elder, agave, cocoanut and pistacia. Control Spraying is efficacious on deciduous fruits with lime-sulphur (1-9), caustic soda distillate water mechanical mixture or distillate emulsion. Natural Enemies Various species of the ladybird beetles, green and brown lacewings and several internal parasites. E. 0. EssiG Kose Chafer Macrodactylus suhsptnosus Pabr. With the blooming of the grape, an awkward, long-legged, light-brown beetle about one-third of an inch in length fre- quently appears in enormous swarms, at first devouring the blossoms, then the leaves, reducing them frequently to mere skeletons, and later attacking the young fruit. By the end of July these unwel- come visitors disappear as suddenly as they come. Though now distinctively a grape pest, it was first known as an enemy of the rose, whence its name, "rose-bug," or rose chafer. It attacks also the blossoms of all other fruit trees and of many orna- mental trees and shrubs, and, in fact, in periods of great abundance, stops at nothing — garden vegetables, grasses, cer- eals, or any green thing. At such times plants appear a living mass of sprawling beetles clustering on every leaf, blossom, or fruit. The rose chafer occurs from Canada southward to Virginia and Tennessee and westward to Colorado, but is particularly destructive in the eastern and central portions of its range, notably in New Jersey, Delaware, and to a less extent in New England and the Central states. It passes its early stages in grass or meadow land, especially if sandy, the lar- vae feeding on the roots of grasses a few inches below the surface of the ground like the common white grub, which they closely resemble except in size. The eggs are laid in the ground in June and July, and the laiwae become full grown by autumn and transform to pupae the fol- lowing spring, from two to four weeks prior to the emergence of the beetles. Remedies The rose chafer is a most difiicult in- sect to control or destroy, and the enorm- ous swarms in which it sometimes ap- pears make the killing of a few thousands or even millions of little practical value. Experiments conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry during the season of 1911 indicate that a very thorough applica- tion of arsenate of lead when the beetles first appear, just before the blossoms open, will make a profitable crop possible even in areas where the pest appears in great numbers. References United States Department of Agricul- ture Farmers' Bulletin 70. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 97. Rose Snoitt Beetle. See Bose Fests under Floriculture, "Stink Bngs^' There are several species varying in color and size. Two of these, the green stink bug and the bound tree bug, reach a half inch in length. They are green with a margin of red or yellow. They puncture the berries, leaving a nauseous odor. Hand picking is all that is necessary. Reference Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 233. Small Steel-Blne Grapevine Flea Beetle HalUca carinata Germ. Family CfirysomeUdae General Appearance The adult beetles are less than one- fourth of an inch long, metallic bluish or purplish in color with antennae and legs black. The last venti-al segment of the male has a deep elongated depres- sion. GRAPE PESTS— GREENS 1141 Life History The adult beetles emerge from hiber- nating quarters in the spring and deposit their eggs upon the vines. These hatch very soon and the young grubs begin to feed upon the foliage, completely skeletonizing the leaves. When full- grown they drop to the ground and spin a coccoon in the soil in which to pupate. The adult beetles are very active, jump- ing quickly when disturbed. They also fly freely. Food Plants All stages of the pest are very de- structive to the young and tender foli- age of the grapevine — though they also attack various vegetables and elms. Control Same as for the grape root worms (Adoxus odscurus). Poisoned sprays are especially recommended for the flea ^^^^■^®' E. O. EssiG White-Lined Sphinx. See Cantaloup Pests. White Peach Scale. See Peach Pests, Wire Worms Elatridae The larvae of the click beetles. The fact that they work in the soil makes con- trol uncertain and difficult Salty fer- tilizers, such as Kainit or nitrate of soda have been used with good effect as repel- lants to wire worms. Clean cultivation and the use of poisoned baits, such as green alfalfa treated with strychnine and placed under boards or buried in the ground are effective; poisoned slices of potatoes, carrots or other vegetables are Miscellaneous Insects Quite a large number of insects which make the vines one of their food plants but never attaining any great impor- tance, may be kept in subjection by prac- ticing clean culture and cleaning the vineyard of all refuse and burning it as well as keeping down weeds and rub- bish along fences and lanes. Grape, Profits From. See Alatama. Green Apple Aphis. See article on Apliids. Greens The word "greens" is used to designate the leaves and stems of certain varieties of young plants used as food. These plants were generally boiled, sometimes with a piece of bacon, and when cooked were eaten with salt and vinegar. Rather a large list of plants is used in this way, among them the following: California Peppergrass; Cardoon, the prickly artichoke, native of Lhe Mediter- rean region; Chard, a variety of white beets, cultivated for its large leaves, leaf stalks and midribs; Chervil, a garden herb, native of Europe, of the parsley family, the young leaves of which are used for greens, soups and salads; Chic- ory, a perennial herb of the aster family, native of Europe and Asia, naturalized in the United States, has a dandelion-like root and heads of bright blue flowers; Chinese Amaranth; Chinese Artichoke; Chinese Cabbage; Chinese Mustard; Chives, small perennial herb of the lily family, allied to the leek and onion; Corn-salad, called also lamb's lettuce; Cress (see Index); Dandelion, a peren- nial or a biennial herb of the aster family with a large yellow flower, the leaves sometimes used for food; Dock, of which there are many varieties or species, but it is the leaves of the yellow dock which are used for food, Endive, of which there are numerous varieties, forming two groups, viz., the curled and nar- row leaved, and the Batavian or broad leaved (see index) ; Globe Artichoke; Goosefoot, called also lamb's quarters, pigweed; Ice Plant, a creeping i>lant of the fig-marigold family; Kale, a variety of headless cabbage, yielding curled and wrinkled leaves; Lettuce; Malabar Night- shade, a slender climbing plant of the goosefoot family — care should be used in nightshade, for some varieties are poisonous ; Mustard ; Nasturtiums ; Orache, the garden orach or mountain spinach; Parsley, much used in garnish- ing dishes and flavoring soups; Pepper- grass; Pigweed, a plant that belongs to the goosefoot family and the variety used for greens is sometimes called "lamb's quarters;" Pokeweed, a stout, smooth, 1142 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE perennial herb with large tender leaves, sometimes used as greens, but the root is more or less poisonous, is purgative, emetic and somewhat narcotic — the leaves should he used when they are young and tender; Sorrels, of which there are several variet^'es having a sour, acid, pleasant taste, used as pot herbs, and in the making of pies; Spinach; Tur- nip; Purslane, familiarly known as **pusley," a prostrate fleshy annual of the gardens and waste places of both the Old and the New World, with thick and red- dish-green leaves and stems. Geeer, Ralph C. See Eistory of Or- cTiarding in Old Oregon under Apple. Geese in the Orchards It has been discovered that geese in an orchard are useful because they devour the waste fruits, generally full of worms and hatcheries for another generation of pests. This seems to have been first dis- covered in Canada, where the wild geese from the lakes and rivers entering the orchards cleaned up the waste fruits, and it was found that in these orchards there were fewer pests than in the or- chards of adjacent communities where the geese did not enter. Later the ex- periment of growing tame geese in the orchards of Ohio and certain other sec- tions was successful not only on account of the work they did in the orchards, but on account of the profit yielded in the sale of feathers and meat. Geese are easily grown and the young are not nearly so tender and likely to die as chickens. Besides, they yield good profits and do less damage to trees than swine, which are often used in the orchards for the same purpose. However, in the irri- gated sections they would, during the season in which irrigation is practiced, greatly interfere with the ditches, and would from this viewpoint be objection- able. In cases where they could be cared for during the season of irrigation, or where irrigation is not practiced, it seems to the writer that they could be made useful and profitable. Granville Lowther Grapefruit or Pomelo The fruit of a tropical tree Citrus de- cumana nearly allied to the orange. The fruit, which resembles the orange in shape, is externally pale yellow and varies in size from the smaller grape- fruit or pomelo of the size of a very large orange to that of the pompelmoes, which may be eight inches in diameter. The tree is supposed to be a native of Malay and the Polynesian islands, but is generally cultivated throughout the tropics. The leaves are like those of the orange, but downy on the under surface, as are also the young shoots. The flowers are large and white and are succeeded by very large globose-like fruits, pale in color, but with more pungent flavor than the orange. The fruit is sometimes known as shad- dock, after Captain Shaddock, who intro- duced it into the West Indies, also "for- bidden fruit." It is recommended by the American Pomological Society as adapted to the following districts. (See page 192.) Fob Citlture of the Pomelo, see Or- ange. District Ko» 6 Highly recommended — Dessert and Market: Aurantium; Blood; Hart; Josse- lyn; Mammoth; Pernambuco; Triumph; Walters. Recommended — Dessert and Market: Royal. Recommended for trial — Dessert and Market: Marsh Seedless. District Ho. 17 Recommended — Dessert and Market: Marsh Seedless; Pernambuco; Triumph. District Ho. 18 Highly recommended — Dessert and Market: Marsh Seedless; Triumph. Recommended — Dessert and Market: Champion; Hart. Guam The island of Guam belongs to the Ladrone group, east of the Philippines and west of Hawaii. It is the largest in the group and the only one with any GUAM— GUAVA— HAZELNUT OR FILBERT 1143 considerable population. It was ceded to the United States in 1898. The remainder of the group belongs to Germany. It is 29 miles long and from three to ten miles wide, and is said to have about 200 square miles of territory. On the east side it is high and precip- itous, slopes off to a low plateau on the north and is mountainous in the south. It is estimated that about 1 per cent of the soil is now in cultivation, and that about 50 per cent, or one-half, is arable. The island is heavily wooded and except for a few clearings may be said to be an almost impenetrable jungle. The tim- ber is valuable for fine furniture, ship- building and ornamental work. The fruit industry of the island is un- developed, although there are valuable native fruits. The cocoanut is the finest in the world, and pineapples, bread fruit, sour sop, custard apples, bananas, melons and other tropical fruits grow luxuri- ^^ ^* Granville Lowther Guava The guava is a tropical fruit of an American tree of the myrtle family. There are two varieties, the red guava and the white guava, by some regarded as distinct species. One is called Pisi- dium Guaiava pomiferum; the other Pisidium Guaiava pyriferum. The fruit of the first variety or species mentioned resembles the apple, and the second resembles the pear. The name came from the Mexican guayaba. The species which produces the bulk of the guava fruit of commerce is a tree from 15 to 20 feet in height, with short-stalked or ovate leaves inclined to be oblong, strongly marked veins and covered with a soft tomentum or down. The fiowers are borne on auxiliary stalks, and the fruits vary much in size, shape and color, numerous forms and varieties being known and cultivated. The variety most widely cultivated is the "white guava," whose fruits are pear shaped, about the size of a hen's egg, covered with a thin white or yellowish skin filled with soft pulp of a yellowish color and having a sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic taste. The pulp of the apple-shaped variety, sometimes called the red variety, is darker in color and not so fine in flavor. However, both kinds are used in the making of guava jelly and guava cheese, which are manufactured in the West In- dies and exported to the different coun- tries of Europe. Guavas are not largely grown in the United States, but experiments justify their planting in the following districts. (See page 192.) District No. 17 Recommended — Dessert, Kitchen and Market: Cattley (Strawberry). Kitchen and Market: Chinese (Mexican), District No. 18 Recommended — Dessert, Kitchen and Market: Cattley (Strawberry). Kitchen and Market: Chinese (Mexican). Hawthorne: See Apple, History of. Hazelnut or Filbert This nut is a genus Corylus of shrubs and trees of the order Cupuliferae and grows almost wholly in the Northern hemisphere. The male flowers are long and cylindrical, a spike shape some- times designated as ament or catkin. Hazels, alders, certain varieties of wil- lows and poplars, have similar flowers. Fig. 1. Native Hazelnut from the Upper Wenas, Wasliington. The nut is marked at its base with a scar or cicatrix. The flowers on the stem of the hazel are developed the year pre- ceding their appearance; the male flow- ers last over winter naked, the female enclosed in a bud. In early spring the male catkins elongate and produce an abundance of dry pollen, while the female flowers are distinguished from the leaf buds only by their larger size and pro- jecting red stigmas. 1144 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE The nut is enveloped at the base by a sheath of succulent leaves or bracts. The European hazelnut, Gorylus avell- ana, from cultivation has produced sev- eral varieties, differing in size, shape and flavor of the nuts which are known gen- erally as filberts. It is easily cultivated, will grow almost anywhere, but seems to grow best on a light and rather dry soil. Perhaps the best nuts shipped into this country come from Spain, where they are carefully cultivated, and before ex- port are baked in order to insure their good keeping. The American hazel, Gorylus Ameri- cana, is very like the European, but is a smaller shrub. It has not been culti- vated in America, but is native to most parts of the Eastern United States. Oil is obtained from hazelnuts that is said to be nearly equal to that of al- monds and is used by chemists and per- fumers as a basis for their combines. The wood is very hard and flexible and is therefore much prized in Europe for poles, flshing rods, hoops, handles, etc. From the Oregon Agricultural College Bulletin 111 we quote the following: "While a great deal of interest is mani- fested in regard to filbert growing, few plantings have been made upon which we can make careful observations. Un- doubtedly there is a considerable area of land adapted to this nut, as one finds wild species growing prolifically through Western Oregon. It is a question yet as to the best soils to use. Some believe that the clay loams will produce large trees, but not heavy bearers, and there- fore will not be as profitable for filberts as other classes of soils. We find the nut growing naturally on the deep moist loams. Most authorities believe they should be encouraged to grow as a tree rather than as a bush. They should be given good cultivation and care. The best varieties are the French and Spanish, such as Barcelona and DuChilly." Granville Lowther Z Pig. 2. Filberts Grown in Clarke County, Washington. 1, DuChilly ; 2, Barcelona. Nuts grown by A. A. Quarnberg. HAZELNUT OR FILBERT 1145 Filberts in tlie Kortliwest The filbert, or hazel, as it is often called, is best suited of all nut-bearing trees to garden culture. They are gen- erally described as shrubs or low trees In "Nut Culture in the United States," published by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, it is stated: "All are unisexual, having staminate blossoms in catkins, developed in the axils of the leaves, on the wood growth of the previous year. The catkins are visible as early as August of the previous season, and in March and April scatter the pollen freely. The pistilate blossoms compose a star-like tuft of crimson stig- mas projecting beyond the short, scaly bud, the inner scales of which keep pace with the growth of the enlarging pistils so as to nearly or wholly enclose it at maturity. The pistillate blossoms some- times bloom later in the spring than the staminate ones on the same bush, and in such cases it is necessary to supply pollen from other sources, at the proper time, to secure crops of nuts." In Oregon and Southwestern Washing- ton the Barcelona blossom in January and DuChilly in February A. A. -Quarnberg, the nut expert of Clarke county, Washington, says; "The filbert is a commercial nut of much promise in the Northwest, which by climatic conditions is especially adapted to its culture The filberts con- sumed in the United States must either be produced in the Northwest or continue to be imported from foreign countries, as repeated efforts to raise them in Eastern and Southern states have been so dis- couraging that the business has now practically been abandoned. There is, therefore, a ready market for almost any amount of filberts that may be grown in this part of the country, and favorable conditions for their culture is a valuable asset and a resource worth developing. "The industry is yet in its infancy, but is expected to advance more rapidly now that it is known that it can be made a success. The filbert is not generally known and appreciated as it deserves to be; a good filbert is mild and has a fine fiavor. "As far as known the first experimental filbert trees of European varieties were planted in Clarke county in the spring of 1894 by Nat. M. Norelius, Henry J. Biddle and the writer. In the following years others planted in small quantities, but it remained for John E. Norelius in 1900 to set out enough trees, 300 in num- ber, to be called an orchard, and which at that time was the largest filbert or- chard in the Northwest. Each year has since added to the number of planted trees so the time is not far distant when filbert culture will be numbered among the important industries of the country." The soil and climate of Southwestern Washington and the Willamette valley have been demonstrated to be well adapted to filbert raising, by growing the largest and finest of European varieties for a number of years. Filberts as Fillers The filbert is well adapted to be used as a filler for walnut orchards, as it will come into bearing early and will never reach a height to interfere with the wal- nut trees and may be easily removed when the walnuts need all the space. They are usually grown in tree form and not as bushes when planted m commer- cial orchards, and are usually planted about 10 feet each way. The thin, unfruitful twigs are removed and the fruitful limbs shortened back nearly to the female buds. Care should be taken to leave sufficient male catkins for an ample supply of pollen. The fruit spurs are near the extremities of the last year's growth, and nuts are more abund- ant where light and air have ready ac- cess. In the fifth or sixth year trees should bear considerable fruit Trees of this age in England are reported to pro- duce three to four pounds of nuts each. Successful filbert orchards are grown at Monmouth, Springfield, Eugene, Shaw, Corvallis and other points in the Will- amette valley. 1146 BNCYCL0PE3DIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE HAZELlSrUT PESTS Hazelnut Weevil Balmvinus oMusus Blanch. *Hazelnuts or filberts are injured in mucli tlie same manner as are chestnuts and pecans and by a similar weevil. (See Chest7mt Weevils.) In 1891 this weevil was reported as badly damaging hazel- nuts in Iowa. The beetle differs from others which attack edible nuts, exclusive of acorns, by its shorter, more robust form and shorter beak. It is about one-fourth of an inch in length, and the beak does not exceed half the length of the body. The vestiture varies from gray to och- I'eous, and the elytra are moderately mot- tled. This species occurs from Massachusetts and New Hampshire westward to Minne- sota and Texas. Injury has been noted in Massachusetts, New York, Indiana, Iowa and Minnesota. Keiiiedies Since hazels are not cultivated in this country to any extent, no remedy need bo employed other than gathering entire crops and destroying isolated bushes where it is unprofitable to gather the nuts. It would be quite possible, owing to the small size of the hazel plant, to control this species by jarring, as for the plum curculio. Apple Leaf Hoffer. See Apple Pests. Heading Tbee in Nusery. See Nursery, under Apple. Hickory Nut The hickory is a group of the walnut family Juglam and belongs to the genus Hicoria or Garya. It grows naturally in North America, exclusively, where it is found in several species and varieties. The trees are large, growing sometimes to 100 feet or more in height and two to three feet in diameter. Its leaves are pinnately divided and its flowers pistil- late. The fruit is enclosed in a thick shell with a tough green husk which opens when ripe and permits the fruit with its shell to easily drop out. * Bureau of Entomology Circular 99 About ten species of hickory have been tabulated by botanists, only five of which have any commercial value. These may be arranged as follows: 1. The shag bark, or white hickory, Hickoria ovata, a species in which large loose layers of bark form on the outside of the tree containing an oily substance which made it of value to the pioneers in the kindling of fires, or in producing a quick, intensive heat. The nuts of this species are sweeter than those of any other species, but on account of the hard shell in which the kernel is encased it has not become so popular as the pecan. 2. The black hickory, Hicoria lacimosa, has a shag bark, but the shags are short- er and narrower than the "shag bark," and for this reason it is called "shell- bark." It also has larger leaves and darker wood than the white hickory. 3. Hicoria a'bla is noted for the tough- ness and hardness of its wood. It is sometimes called **broom hickory" be- cause the frontier settlers where it grew cut the young saplings and made them into brooms. 4. Hickoria glahra, or "pig nut," rep- resents a species that grew along the streams or in wet lands whose nuts were elongated in form, bitter in taste and cov- ered with a thin husk. 5. Hicoria pecan. For a description of this species see Pecan. The other spe- cies being of little commercial value are not treated in this article. Ii6ilf bpot Marsonia juglandis (Lib.) Sacc. According to Selby this disease is quite general in Ohio, causing a premature dying of the leaves. Requires further study. Koot Bot Several species of root rot similar to those attacking the apple and other fruit trees are responsible for the dying of hickories. HiGKOKY Nut Pests. See Pecan Pests. HORSERADISH 1147 Horseradish Horseradish is known botanically as CocJileana amoracia. It is a perennial plant of the natural order Gruciferae, having a stout cylindrical root, from the crown of which spring large radical leaves on long stalks four to six inches broad and about a foot in length. It is indiginous to Eastern Europe and has been grown for many centuries. The root, which is the part used com- mercially, is from a half inch to two inches in diameter, and from one foot to three feet in length. It has numerous lateral branches which when started in a field or garden make it very difiicult to eradicate. It is dried or grated and canned, or in other ways preserved, and used as a flavoring agent on meats, in vinegars, etc. As a medicine, it is anti-scorbutic. The following is from the Fruit-Grower and Farmer, and is a good description of the methods of production and hand- "Horseradish requires a good soil, pre- pared in about the same manner as for corn. The plants withstand consider- able drought and are practically frost- proof. In fact, frost even adds to the flavor of the horseradish. The crop is propagated from root cuttings and from 10,000 to 15,000 are required to an acre. The roots are planted 18 inches apart in the row and about 3 feet between rows. In planting it is important to be sure to turn up the top end of the cutting, otherwise the root will be crooked and not so marketable. Set the roots in a slightly slanting position and cover two or three inches deep. Cultivate as often during the summer as is needed to stimu- late growth, keep down weeds and con- serve the soil moisture. "The best root cuttings are about the size of a lead pencil and eight or nine inches in length. As there is usually very little taper to them, it is best to cut the lower end slanting and the up- per end square across, so as to distin- guish which end to put down. "The horseradish season lasts the year through to some extent, but is most ac- tive during the oyster season. Harvest- ing begins about November 1st, although earlier in some sections, and requires a great deal of hand work. There is one good feature, however, in that the crop may be left in the soil without injury from freezing, and be dug as needed. "An extensive grower near St. Joseph, Missouri, has two large storage caves, each about 200 feet long, with a shaft in the center leading to the outer air. The roots are hauled and dumped in the shaft and then scattered each way in the cave below. Here they keep perfectly and may be marketed at whatever time they are wanted. "The most profitable way to market horseradish is for the grower to grind the roots and pack the pulp in wide- mouthed bottles. There are a number of grinders or graters on the market for this purpose. Some are operated by hand and some by machine power, and either kind can usually be obtained from the local hardware man. "The bottles usually used for packing horseradish are of eight ounces capac- ity, and of such size it will usually re- quire about 6,000 to 8,000 to contain the crop of one acre of horseradish roots. The retail price of bottles this size is about 10 cents each, or 80 cents a dozen at wholesale. "In preparing the roots for grinding, they are at first washed and peeled. Af- ter grinding, the pulp is mixed with diluted malt vinegar at the rate of about six gallons of vinegar to a bushel of pulp. This quantity will about fill 18 dozen eight-ounce bottles. Malt vinegar is considered very essential for packing horseradish, as cider vinegar will turn the product dark and makes it unsal- able. As malt vinegar is generally too sharp, it is customary to dilute it, using three parts water to one part of malt vinegar, where the vinegar is about 110 proof. More or less water may be re- quired, according to the strength of the vinegar. It is always best to go by the taste of the packed product, rather than by any specific recipe, as the important thing is to maintain the piquancy of the horseradish as the prominent character- 1148 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE istic, rather than the sharp acidity of the vinegar. "Horseradish mixed with vinegar, mus- tai'd, spices and salt is a condiment that has considerable favor in some markets. It keeps longer than the horseradish alone. ''After bottling, put in the corks, then cover the top with sealing wax so as to make the bottle air-tight. This aids in keeping the contents white and piquant, whereas, if the sealing wax is omitted, there will be enough air filter through the cork to darken the upper part of the horseradish in a short time. If a restaurant or hotel trade is to be sup- plied, it will pay to furnish the horse- radish in bulk or in quart or half-gallon, screw-top jars. In larger cities this is done with profit." HORSEEADISH DISEASES Brown Spot Alternaria hrassicae (Berk.) Sacc. Occurs in Europe and America upon cabbage and horseradish, producing brown spots with concentric markings. This disease may be controlled by thorough spraying with Bordeaux. Reference Duggar. Fungus Diseases of Plants. Root Rot TMelavia dasicola (B. & Br.) Zopf, This disease attacks a variety of plants in addition to horseradish, among them the lupines, tobacco, and the violet. The distribution seems to be from Ohio eastward in the United States and in Europe. The attack is especially severe in seed beds. The roots fail to develop normal- ly. The roots may be browned and rough- ened on the outside, but the fungus pene- trates to all parts of the interior of the root. It is thought that this disease is almost constantly associated with an alkaline soil. Thorough aeration and general sanitary measures are required. Reference Duggar. Fungus Diseases of Plants. White Rust. See Cahlage Diseases. HORSERADISH PESTS Cabbage Worm. See Cab'bage Pests. Harlequin Cabbage Bug. See GaMage Western Army Worm. See Beet Pests. Hop Aphis on Plum. See ApMds. Horticulture Horticulture is a department of the science of agriculture. Agriculture is the larger term and includes the growing of cereals, grasses, farm products and all kinds of vegetation useful to man- kind. Horticulture is used in a restricted sense, and is that department of agricul- ture which treats of the growing of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants. Horticulture may, therefore, be divided into pomology or the growing of fruits, olericulture or vegetable garden- ing, floriculture or the raising of orna- mental plants for their individual uses or for their products, and landscape hor- ticulture or the growing of plants for their uses in the landscape. Practically, horticulture will treat of the adaptations of horticultural plants to certain varieties of soil, climate, altitude and general en- vironmental conditions. Ernit Growing Why is fruit growing more difiicult than other branches of agriculture? First: It is more difiicult because the fruit tree is more highly organized than the grasses, the cereals, and the root crops. The higher and more complex the organization the greater the difficulty in understanding it. Just as a machine with a larger number of parts requires more careful study than one less com- plex, so the tree that is more highly organized requires more careful culture and handling. Second' The fruit of the tree, which is the part of value, is tenderer than the valuable part of hay, corn, wheat, po- tatoes, oats, and other farm products. It must, therefore, be handled with great- er care. In handling apples and peaches, for instance, each one must be carefully handled without bruising, while hay can be handled with a fork, and potatoes, HORTICULTURE— SECRETAMBS OF HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES 1149 wheat, oats and corn with a shovel with- out injury from rough usage. Third: Fruits are consumed for the most part raw or in their original form and even the beauty and attractiveness of the raw product makes a great dif- ference in the price, while with products grown for stock, such as hay, corn, etc., or products grown for human food where the grinding or cooking destroys the original forms, the uniformity of color and shape is of less consequence. Fourth: The fruit tree, being more highly organized, is sensitive to favor- able or unfavorable conditions of soil, climate, winds, frosts, sunlight, and humidity. For instance, a species of grass will be less injured by heat or cold, will be less affected by rain or sun- light, than fruits; while spring frosts come at a time when cereals, grasses and root crops are not likely to be injured, and at a time when the blossoms are forming on the fruit tree and in danger of destruction. It is, therefore, neces- sary to select a site for the orchard where the blossoms are not likely to be killed by spring frosts. This makes wind cur- rents, air drainage, elevation, and evap- oration from large bodies of water factors in the selection of orchard sites. Fifth: The coloring of fruits is a factor in their commercial value, while in grasses, grains and root crops it is a negligible quantity. Sixth: The form of the fruit, even, makes a difference in the value, while picking, assorting and packing are arts requiring great discrimination, rapidity of motion, and a degree of intelligence not so necessary in the handling of most other farm products. Seventh: The diseases of fruit trees, insect pests, and their remedies present a field for study, investigation and skill that is equalled only by the study of diseases and cures of the human family. Tree pruning or surgery are subjects related to the surgery and cure of dis- eases in the animal kingdom. Eighth: The marketing and shipping of fruits are much more complex than the same transactions with reference to hay or grain. For instance, it is never necessary to put hay in cold storage pre- paratory to shipment or to precool it or ship it in refrigerator cars. Neither is it necessary to protect it from extreme cold to prevent freezing. Hay can be shipped in bales and grain in sacks, while fruit must be shipped in barrels, boxes or crates and handled with great care. Ninth: In the use of the by-products of fruit, such as cider, vinegar, canned goods, dried fruits, jellies, jams, butters, etc., there are many subjects for study. Upon the whole, horticulture will, in the necessities of the case, be regarded as a profession, and while the student will be a worker in the field, he must also, part of the time, pursue his studies in the library and the laboratory; while he will gain practical information by con- tact with living things, he will interpret them by the experience of the past and through the information gained largely from books, and by means of the appara- tus of the scientific laboratory. Granville Lowthee Horticultural Laws, Oregon and Washington. See Laws, List of Secretaries of Horticul- tural Societies Ameiican NTirserymen's Association — Geo. C. Seaj?er, Rochester, N. Y. American Florists Association — W. N. Rudd, Morgan Park, 111. American Pomoloffical Society — L. L. R. Taft, Lansmff, Mich , Treasurer American Civic Association — Clinton Rogers Woodruff, Philadelphia, Pa American Apple Growers' Con^ress~T. C. Wil- son, St. Louis, Mo. American Rose Society — Benjamin Hammond, Pishkill-on-Hudson. N. Y. State Horticultural Societies Ari!5ona — R. H. Forbes, Tucson. Alabama — P. F. Williams, Auburn. Arkansas— Prof. Krnest Walker, Fayetteville. British Columbia Fruit Growers' Association — W. J. Brandrith, Ladner, B. C. California State Floral Society — Mrs. Henry P. Tricon, San Francisco. California — ^H. H. Lillienthal, San Francisco. Colorado State Board of Horticulture — 1> R. Statler, Secretary, Capitol, Denver, Colo Colorado State Horticultural Society — Martha A Shute, Benver, Colo. Connecticut Pomoloprical Society — H. C. C. Miles Milford Connecticut — H. C. C Miles, Milford. 1150 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Delaware, Peninsula Horticultural Society — Wesley Webb, Dover, Del. BloricJa — E. O. Painter, Jacksonville. Georgia — J. B. \Vnft:lit, Cairo. Idaho State llorticuitural Society — Prank F, i'lerce, Fayette, Iclalio. Illinois — W. B. Lloyd, Kinmundy. Indiana — 0. O, Woodbury, Lalayette. Indiana — W. N. Yost, Meridian. Iowa — W^esley Greene, Davenport. Kansas— Walter Wellhouse, Topeka. Kentucky — W. R. Button, Bedford. Louisiana — B\ 11. Burnette, Baton Rouge. Maine — K. L. White, Bowdoinliam. Maryland — Pro! 0. P. Close, College Park. Massachusetts— William P. Rich, Boston. Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association — F. Howard Brown, Marlboro, Mass. Michigan—Charles B. Bassett, Pennville. Minnesota — A. W, Latham, Minneapolis. Mississippi--H. E. Blakelee, Jackson. Mibsouri — Dr. W. L. Howard, Columbia. Montana — M. L. Dean, Missoula. Nebraska— C. G. Marshall, Lincoln. New Hampshire — B. S. Pickett, Durham. Now Jersey—Howard G. Taylor, River ton. New Mexico — J. D. Sena, Santa Fe. New York—B. C. Gillett, Penn Yan. Western New York Horticultural Society — John Hall, 204 Granite Building, Rochester, N. Y. North Carolina— Prof. W. N. Hutt, West Raleigh. North Dakota — 0. 0. Churchill, Agricultural College. Northeastern Iowa Horticultural Society — Chas. F. Gardner, Osage, Iowa. Northwestern Iowa Horticultural Society — W. B. Chapman, Washta, Iowa. Northwest Fruit Growers' Association — H. J. Williamson, Portland, Ore. Ohio~F. n. X^allou, Newark. Oklahoma—J. B. Thoburn, Oklahoma City. Oregon — Frank W. Power, Portland. Oregon State Board of Horticulture — H, M. %YilUamson, Portland, Ore. Oregon State Horticultural Society — H, C. At- well. Secretary, Forest Grove, Ore. Ontario Fruit Growers' Association — P. W. Hodgetts. Toronto, Ont. ^ , ^ ^ Pomology and Fruit Growers' Society— Peter Reld, Chateonguay Basin. P. Q, Pennsylvania— Chester J. Tvsrn. Ploradale. Rhode Island— Arthur C. Miller, Providence. Royal Horticultural Society— F. J. Crittenden, Rsn., F, L. S., Vincent Square, Westminster, S W England. South Dakota— Prof. N. E Hansen, Brookings. Tennessee— Prof. Charles A. KefPer, Knoxville. Texas— Prof. E. J. Kyle, College Station. TTtah— J. Edward Taylor, Salt Lake City. Vermont— M. R. Cummings, Burlingtcn. Virginia— Walter Whatelv, CroKet Washincton— R. E. Trnmhull, Wenatchee. Western Horticultural Societv— F. W Brodrlck, Agricultural College, Winnipeg. Man w^PRt Vfrgin^a — A. L. Dacv. Morgantown. T?isconsin — F. Cranelleld. Madison. Wyoming— Aven Nelson, Laramie. Hotbeds. See Yegetable, HucKLEBEKEY. See Blueherry, Hudson's Bay Company. See History of OrcTiarding in Old Oregon. Humus. See Cover Crop, Apple Or- chard. Idaho The altitude of Idaho varies from 738 feet at Lewiston, to 12,078 feet at Hynd- man Peak, and its mean elevation is about 4,500 feet. The Snake river, which rises in the YeHowstone National Park, is, with its tributaries, the principal drainage sys- tem of the state. A small portion drains into Great Salt lake in Utah, and a larger portion into the Pend d'Oreille, Kootenai and Spokane rivers in the north, which empty into the Columbia. The Snake river is also a tributary of the Columbia. In the northern part of the state crops are grown successfully without irriga- tion and the hardier varieties of ap- ples and small fruits succeed well. Gen- erally the apple orchards of this region are planted on lands where there is con- siderable humus, and the water percolates through the soil from the lands of high- er elevation and furnish a system of sub- irrigation so that surface irrigation is unnecessary. In the southern part the conditions are arid or semi-arid, the rainfall varying from 9 to 17 inches, but there are irrigating projects that bring the Snake river into prominence as the source from which a large agricultural and horticultural region can be watered. Perhaps the oldest fruit-growing districts are the Boise, Payette and Weiser val- leys. The soil is mostly a volcanic ash, sometimes of immense depth, and when well watered may be made very produc- tive. The largest crops grown in Idaho are hay, wheat and potatoes. Next in im- portance comes stock raising. The fruit industry is not as large as in some of the sister states west of the Rockies, but there are large areas where this industry can be made commercially profitable and where it is rapidly growing into impor- tance. Granville Lowthee IDAHO 1151 Table Showing Idaho's Irrigated Lands Compiled by Herbert Hale, Assistant Commissioner of Immigration, Labor and Statistics, State of Idalio. No. A,cres No. Aci'es County — Under Canal Actually Length of Cost of Systems. Irnjiatcd. Canal. Construction. Ada 196,667 94,000 213 ? 1,207 000 Bannock 129,360 70,964 417 375,500 Bear Lake 41,744 31,024 194 76,100 Bingham 758,940 458,320 1,938 3,012.532 Blame 335,764 21 0,G50 850 4,431 .430 Boise 41,349 22,161 268 1G6.650 Bonner 1,000 710 10 2.500 Canyon 128,905 92,090 1,241 3,003 930 Cassia 25,183 18.700 138 52 320 Custer 6,580 3,690 112 13,?50 Elmore 110,837 34,706 90 536,725 B^remont 523,864 236,085 1,435 1,432,240 Idabo 7,616 3,950 75 41,550 K( otenai 8,060 6,620 29 226.000 Latah .... Lemhi 31,025 21,160 120 71,063 Lincoln 33,041 12,595 270 1 36,668 Nez Perce 7,180 5,040 41 316.,500 Oneida 156,176 93,285 634 1,000,712 Owyhee 126,000 6,514 102 1 68.000 ^lio^hone Twin Falls '.".'.*.*.".'.'.■.*.'.*.'.*.*.*.".' * 242,"l3d '201,"! 50 "681 4.003,23i Washington 43,388 30,070 170 218,770 Total 2,954,608 1,656,593 9,021 $20,491,771 HORTICULTURE IN IBAHO Commercial Orcharding Fruit growing on a commercial scale in Southern Idaho is confined chiefly to the Boise, Payette and Weiser valleys. The Snake river canon offers particular advantages for the culture of peaches and grapes. Council valley is one of the newer fruit districts that promises well. Other sections will no doubt grow fruits commercially. The majority of our new lands may- be planted to orchards without any previ- ous cropping. Some soils, however, should be thoroughly subdued by the culture of alfalfa before planting. The successful starting of an orchard requires special attention to the essential things, which are thorough preparation of the land, the selection of good trees full of vigor, careful planting, the use of water in setting and proper topping of the trees. Too much care cannot be exer- cised in these operations. Frequent cultivation of the orchard the first year and later years, and the application of water in such amounts and at such times as the soil conditions will demand are necessary for satisfac- tory growth of the trees. Irrigation should cease in time for the maturing of the trees before the first frosts occur in the fall. When the orchard reaches the bearing age it Is necessary to seed to red clover for the purpose of adding nitrogen and humus, and improving the physical con- dition of the soil. The clover is allowed to remain two years, when it is plowed up, and two years of clean cultivation follow, after which the orchard is again seeded to clover. The training and prun- ing of the trees aims to produce trees sufficiently strong in their main scaffold- ing to support the loads of fruit, and as low-headed as practicable to reduce the cost of spraying, pruning and picking. In pruning, due attention should be given to the different requirements of different fruits and even of different varieties, in order that a regular fruiting habit be induced and maintained. Careful handling of the fruit, proper grading and honest packing with attrac- tive packages all make for a ready sale and satisfactory prices. In the market- ing there is a great advantage in co- operation, and local fruit growers' asso- ciations are a necessity. Apples The apple is the leading fruit, with the prune second. The planting and care of Xj-Oa ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the orchard up to and including the fifth year is about $125 pei* aci^e. The fifth year the trees should yield a box to the tree and may pay for the expense of that year and a little more. From this year on the yields will increase until the tenth year, when they usually reach full bearing and produce eight to ten boxes per tree. A full-bearing orchard should give a net profit per acre of from $150 to $400. The orchardist should always average more than $100 profit per acre per year and a profit of $500 to $600 per acre is not uncommon. The leading vari- eties are Jonathan, Rome Beauty and Winesap. jtririiuCftD The Italian prune is the variety that is grown commercially. It comes into bearing the fifth year, or may bear a little the fourth year. It costs about $100 per acre to bring the prune or- chard into bearing. Full bearing is reached about the eighth year, when the trees should produce 200 pounds, or eight crates of fruit each, making ten tons per acre, which should give a gross income of $150 per acre, or a net profit of about $110 per acre, assuming that the prunes are sold on the trees. This is a conservative statement, as under favorable conditions the profits may ex- ceed $200 per acre. Peaches Being somewhat more susceptible to injury from frost, the peach has not as wide an adaptability as apples, pears and prunes. Its culture will therefore be very largely confined to the favored loca- tions such as the Snake River canyon and certain foothill locations in the lower valleys. Peaches should bear some fruit the third year. The sixth year they should give a net profit of from $200 to $500 per acre. The Alexander, Early Crawford, Blberta, Champion, Sulway and Late Crawford are the leading va- rieties grown. Other Orchard Fruits The culture of the pear is much like the apple and the profits are about the same. The best varieties are the Bart- lett, Flemish Beauty and Anjou. Sour cherries may be grown everywhere and are a profitable crop, netting about as much per acre as peaches. Sweet cher- ries may be grown in the more favored localities. Plimis are gi'own everywhere in family orchards and produce well. Lewiston has, perhaps, the most favor- able climate for the production of the less hardy fruits. Sweet cherries, peaches and grapes are grown there on a commercial scale. Small Fniits At Lewiston the European grapes are grown quite extensively. It costs about $165 per acre to bring vineyards into bearing. The expense of producing a crop is about $75 per acre, and the net returns are about $350 to $400 per acre. The vai'ieties grown are Flame Tokay, White Malaga, Raninnania and Black Cornichon. In Southern Idaho the Euro- pean sorts can be grown only in the most favored locations, while the Ameri- can grapes, such as Concord, Diana, Worden, Niagara, Sweetwater, Moore*s Early and Brighton, may be grown suc- cessfully all through Boise, Payette and Weiser valleys and in the more protected locations as far eastward as Twin Falls and possibly farther. Gooseberries and currants succeed well everywhere, but they are as yet grown chiefly for home use. Black raspberries and dewberries are grown commercially and are very profitable. Strawberries easily net $300 to $400 per acre. Horticultural Statistics Two years ago the prophecy was made that the planting in the succeeding two years woud be greater than any previous time in the history of the state, and the results have more than fulfilled this prophecy. The reports of the deputy inspectors show that there has been about 20,000 acres increase in the orchard acre- age of the state. In the main, this new planting has been wisely and carefully done. The lands selected usually have been adapted to fruit culture and the varieties have been wisely chosen. IDAHO 1153 The shipments of fruit have also in- creased rapidly. The crop of 1910 was the largest in the history of the state. The value of the fi^uit crop shipped out of the state in 1910 is estimated at about $2,500,000 — 2,000 cars of apples, with a value of $1,750,000; 600 cars of prunes, with a value $400,000; other tree fruits and small fruits making up the remain- der of the total of $2,500,000. With the coming into bearing of thousands of acres of young trees in all parts of the state, the total fruit production will rapidly in- crease. Table Showing the Acreage of Commer- cial Orchards in the Counties Named County Acres Ada 8,000 Bannock 1,000 Bear Lake 1,000 Bingham 1,500 Blaine 1,000 Boise 1 ,000 Bonner 2,500 Canyon 9,000 Cassia 1,000 Custer 500 Elmore 2,000 Fremont 3,000 Idaho 6,500 Kootenai S,000 Latah 1,500 Lemhi 500 Lincoln 4,000 Nez Perce 5,000 Oneida 1 ,000 Owyhee 1,000 Shoshone 1 ,000 Twin Falls 4,000 Washington 4,000 Total 01,000 Elias Nelson VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR IDAHO Selection of Variety Varieties that may be well adapted to home uses may be decidedly lacking as commercial sorts. Tender fruits are not adapted to shipping to distant markets be- cause they bruise easily, consequently their keeping qualities are poor. Color and size are essential in good market apples, while these elements are not as important as quality for home use. Nat- urally then the selection of the kinds of apples depends upon the use to which the orchard is to be devoted, whether for productive apples for home use or for market purposes. Kinds That Sell Best An inquiry into the market will show that the apples finding readiest sale at highest prices are fairly large and highly colored. No color seems to meet the customer's fancy quite so well as a clear bright red, although a few yellow sorts of known quality are also in demand. It does not necessarily follow that such apples are sold in greatest quantities, but it does mean that they should bring large returns to the grower. Where freight rates are high, as they are on Western apples, this is an additional rea- son necessitating high market prices for this product. The people who have money for the purchasing of fine fruit are also endowed with an understanding of the merits of the leading varieties, and are tiuite particular in their demand for certain kinds. As a general rule these people have been accustomed to apples all their lives, and this experience has developed an acquaintance not only with the merits of these varieties but also with the season of the year when each kind is at its prime. While they would not hes- itate at paying a good round price for a box of Jonathans at Christmas time they would display considerable reluctance when offered the same box a month later even at a reduced price. The same is true of other varieties. The point is that in selecting varieties the orchardist must taken a long look into the future and weigh well the bearing which the season of ripening and the present acre- age now planted to a variety will have upon the returns of the orchard he is now planting. The aim of orchardists should be to keep the market well sup- plied with the best varieties for all sea- sons, not to overstock the market at one season and at another furnish an in- sufficient supply. Most Popular Varieties At present the most popular varieties of apples produced in Idaho and sell- ing on the Eastern and European Mar- kets are the Jonathan, Rome Beauty, Winesap and Grimes. In the warm val- leys under irrigation in Southern Idaho 2 32 1154 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE and at the lower elevations in other parts of the state, these varieties attain the highest degree of perfection. "With the exception of the Winesap, which re- quires a long season to mature, all are adapted to the "Panhandle" section of Northern Idaho. It is thought by some that the Mcintosh Red and the Wagener are better adapted to Northern Idaho than the Rome Beauty. They are un- doubtedly popular sorts and should be planted where seasons are short and where early maturing varieties are de- sired. The proportion of each variety to be planted deserves careful attention. In the warm valleys it is perhaps best to devote only one-third of the orchard to early winter sorts, such as the Jonathan and Grimes, with the other two-thirds equally divided between Rome Beauty and Winesaps, which are late winter va- i-ieties. In sections where the growing season is short and the early winter varieties really become late winter sorts, and the fall varieties such as Wagener and Mcintosh Red come into season in early winter, the same ratio should be maintained. It will be noted that only a few varieties have been mentioned and this has been done advisedly. The most common mistake made by commer- cial orchardists is in planting too many varieties. Instead of confining their at- tention to the best of a list of varieties adapted to a locality, they plant of each kind, so that when harvest time comes they have more expense and trouble than is necessary to handle the same quantity of a few selected varieties For Home Use The choice of apples for home use and local market offers opportunity for per- sonal preference to a large degree. Al- most any of the varieties that have proven themselves well adapted to home use and local markets in other sections of the United States can usually be grown successfully in Idaho. If one has developed a particular fondness for special sorts those are the ones he should plant, not only because their quality suits, but because they are likely to get better attention. However, for the sake of those who may be unacquainted with any varieties, the following list has been prepared, classing them according to the season of ripenmg: For early summer — Early Harvest, Yellow Transparent, Red June, Red Astrachan; for midsummer — Oldenburg, Benoni, Sweet Bough, Che- nango; for fall — Wealthy, Maiden Blush, Jefteris, Gravenstein, Mother, Fall Pippin, Mcintosh, Tompkins King; for early win- ter — Jonathan, Grimes, Yellow Bellflower, Delicious, and for late winter — Spitzen- burg, Stayman Winesap, Aiken, Winter Banana, Rhode Island Greening, York Imperial, Roxbury Russet, Ben Davis. J. R. Shinn, Idaho Experiment Station, Better Fruit, Jan^ uary» 1^12 For additional information on Orchabd Sites and Soils, see Selection of 8ite under Apple Orchard. Fi^ 1. Map of Idaho. Showing Normal An- nual Isotherms Based on the Kecords of the United States Weather Bureau. The Iso- thermal Imes represented heie indicate the mean annual temperature of the territory throuf?h which they pass. IDAHO— ILLINOIS 1155 Frost and Precipitation in Idaho No. Frost Precipitation Station Average Date of Date of First Killing in Autumn Last in Spring First in Autumn Last in Sprmg Annual inches Post Falls Murray Moscow Lake. . Payette Boise... Soldier. Blackfoot Garnet American Falls, . Pocatello . Chesterfield Oakley. . Lewiston 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Sept. 17 Sept. 18 Oct. 2 Aug. 29 Sept. 26 Oct. 24 Aug. 29 Sept. 12 Oct. 20 Sept. 14 Oct. 11 Aug. 10 Sept. 7 Oct. 27 May 22 May 30 May 10 July 2 May 10 May 3 July 4 May 29 April 22 May 28 April 10 July 21 June 5 April 8 Aug. 29 Aug. 14 Sept. 6 Aug. 15 Sept. 7 Oct, 2 Aug. 5 Aug. 22 Sept. 26 Sept. 3 Sept. 26 Aug. 1 Aug. 22 Oct. 10 July 9 July 17 May 30 July 27 June 5 June 5 July 26 July 5 May 4 July 1 May 2 July 30 July 7 April 29 24.6 40.4 23.6 16.4 12 1 12.9 13.2 8.0 6.3 12.4 9.8 10 8 8 14.68 MAP Of IDAHO Showiiuc tha HORMAt ANXIIAL PRROtPITATIOX Basod on thn Rnoords or tha U. 8. WEATHSR BORBAU SCktt or art which drains into Illinois. The oldest geological formation is the Hudson and Trenton limestone, of the Silurian age, in the southeast. West of this is the Niagara formation extending across the state, and further west is the Hamilton limestones and sandstones of the Devonian age. The soil for the most part is fertile. Originally the southern portion, as far north as the town of Wa- bash, was covered with very heavy for- ests, mostly of hardwood. North of this were prairies interspersed with sand ridges and dotted with hundreds of small lakes. This region is very productive of melons, cucumbers, certain classes of veg- etables, and small fruits, and from this section a large amount of vegetable products is shipped to Chicago and other cities of the North. The richest lands are alluvial flats along the streams and where heavy vegetation has rotted on the surface. In the northwest the tempera- ture is modified by Lake Michigan, so that it is often milder in winter in the lake region than 75 miles further south. In the northeast the climate and soil are well adapted to the growing of apples, pears, plums and cherries of the hardier varieties, but this region is a little too cold to risk commercial orchards of peaches, pears, apricots and the tenderer varieties of cherries and other fruits. The soil is a sandy loam with a clay subsoil INDIANA—LOSS BY INSECTS IN THE UNITED STATES 1159 originally covered with oak, hickory, wal- nut, maple and most kinds of hardwood. In the southern portion of the state the soil, the climate and the contour of the land are adapted to the growing of fruits. The soil is for the most part a whitish clay that shades off in places to a dark red color. These soils are rich in lime, iron and other constituents that are adapted to fruits. The climate is, on the average, 10 per cent warmer than in the northern portion of the state. This protects the tenderer fruits from in- juries by winter freezes. The land sur- face is uneven, and this gives a sufficient air drainage so that fruits are protected from frosts in early spring. There are apple orchards in the eastern part of this section ranging from 40,000 to 50,000 trees. The largest pear orchard is in Washington county, 12,000 trees. Peaches and other fruits of the tenderer varieties are grown in abundance, and commercially this portion of the state produces consid- erable wealth in fruit. According to the census of 1910 the total number of bearing fruit trees in Indiana was 10,050,759. Of these there were: Apples, 5,764,821; peaches and nec- tarines, 2,130,298; pears, 708,723; plums and prunes, 566,988; cherries, 815,742; quinces, 56,847; grapes, 1,049,232 vines; nuts, 19,179 trees; small fruits, 5,919 acres. The counties producing the largest number of bearing trees are Harrison, 194,321, and Washington, 112,000. Granville Lowther Frost and Precipitation in Indiana Station Frost Average Date of First Killing in Autumn South Bend. Angola Lafayette... Marion Farm Land . Rockville.., Indianapolis , Connersville Bevay Princeton.. . Marengo. , .. Oct. 8 Oct. 14 Sept. 29 Oct. 2 Oct. 14 Oct. 8 Oct. 19 Oct. 3 Oct. 24 Oct. 21 Oct. 10 Last in Spring May 10 April 27 April 26 April 24 xvprn aX April 22 April 16 April 27 April 19 April 12 April 10 Date of First Autumn Sept. 20 Sept. 21 Sept. 14 Sept. 14 Sept. 26 Sept. 13 Sept. 21 Sept. 14 Sept. 27 Sept. 30 Sept. 24 Last in Spring May 81 May 21 May 29 May 22 May 21 May 15 May 21 May 21 May 15 May 14 May 4 Precipitation Annual inches 34.5 38.7 37.9 37.0 38.5 37.8 41.9 38.2 43.1 57!6 The Annual Loss Caused by In- sects in the United States Orchards and small fruits suffer heavily from insect pests. The methods of treat- ment necessary to prevent these losses are expensive. There are several hundred insects which feed upon the roots, trunks, foliage and fruit of the trees. Among those which feed upon the apple are the woolly aphis, San Jose scale, codling moth, tent caterpillars, etc. It is a very difficult matter to estimate the amount of loss chargeable to these insects. It is known that whatever afEects the vigor of the tree itself will lessen the pro- ductiveness. It is, therefore, necessary not only to keep the tree in vigorous and healthful condition, but to destroy the insects that feed upon it. Mr. C. D. Simpson, special field agent of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States, gave some recent estimates of losses in the several states as follows: 1160 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Product Value Cereals $2,000,000,000 Hay r)80,000,00() Cotton 600,000,000 Tobacco 53,000,000 Truck Crops 265,000,000 Sujfars 50,000,000 Fruits 130,000,000 Farm Forests 110,000,000 Miscellaneous Crops 58,000,000 Animal Products 1,750,000,000 Total $5,551,000,000 Natural Forests and Forest Products Produce in Storage Grand Total Percentage Amount of loss of loss 10 $200,000,000 10 53,000,000 10 00,000,000 10 5,800,000 20 53,000,000 10 5,000.000 20 27,000,000 10 11,000,000 10 5,800,000 175,000,000 $595,100,000 • • 100,000.000 100,000,000 , , $705,100,000 In 18S9 Professor Forbes reached the conclusion that the annual loss to crops in the state of Illinois was $2,375,000. It is estimated that in 1892 insects caused a loss of $2,000,000 to the apple crop of Nebraska. Professor Sligeiiand estimates that in 1897 the insect taxed the apple growers of New York $2,500,000. In 1900 one-half of the crop of Idaho was damaged, while in 1901, the loss was even greater than that. Mr. McPherson estimates that in Idaho the loss in 1902 was $250,000. In many sections of the Pacific Northwest the loss in that year was from 50 per cent to 75 per cent. The American Agriculturist estimates that the average apple crop for the five years from 1898 to 1902 was 47,000,000 barrels. This includes apples of first and second quality. It has been shown by careful observa- tions in various apple-bearing states that the codling moth may cause a loss of from 20 per cent to 40 per cent of the fruit which would otherwise be sound and marketable. In computing the actual monetary loss to the apple growers of this country by the codling moth, we prefer to take the lower estimate rather than the higher. This 20 per cent de- crease in merchantable apples would rep- resent some 12,000,000 barrels, and at an average profit of $1.00 per barrel indi- cates a loss of $12,000,000, less the value of this fruit for cider, vinegar or some other use which brings in small returns. The average price for cider apples will not exceed SO cents per barrel, which would represent a reduction of $3,600,000, leaving a net loss of $8,400,000. The loss throughout the country in small orchards, supplying local needs, undoubtedly avei*- ages much higher than in the large com- mercial orchards which supply the bulk of the fruit of the markets. The esti- mate made by Mr. Simpson of the loss in such home orchards is $3,000,000, which added to our former figures gives a total direct loss to the apple crop annually from the codling moth of $11,400,000. One would be perfectly justified in esti- mating the actual loss in merchantable apples at a much higher figure than 20 per cent, and an average might be as- signed of 35 per cent to 40 per cent, which would have very greatly increased the apparent monetary loss. The apple is a perishable fruit and must be con- sumed within a limited period. It is not like wheat and other cereals the standard grades of which have fairly fixed values and which may be kept indefinitely. The cold storage system has very much ex- tended the marketing period of apples, but the attack by insects greatly reduces the amount of fruit of actual cold stor- age capacity, and the bulk of the crop must find an immediate market. There- fore, if the additional fruit which is now rendered unsalable by the codling moth should be thrown on the market, the ac- tual price of apples would probably be affected even more than the increased supply would indicate. The increase in our export apple trade, which is being ac- tively encouraged by the Department of Agriculture, and the development of cold storage facilities for fruit, will undoubt- edly increase the market for apples from year to year. iSTevertheless, one is war- ranted in taking the lower estimate con- sidered above in view of the probable INSECTICIDES 1161 decrease in price wliicli would result if the codling moth damage did not mate- rially reduce the crop every year. The census of 1900 placed the number of apple trees in the United States at 200,000,000. On the authority of Mr. Tay- lor 165,000,000 of these were in bearing condition and the cost of spraying and other treatment for these will range be- tween 5 cents and 10 cents per tree. As an offset to untreated orchards the lower estimate of costs may be taken, namely, 5 cents, which gives a charge for treat- ment of $8,250,000. Combining the direct shrinkage or loss and the cost of protec- tion from still greater loss, gives a total tax, chargeable to the codling moth, of nearly $20,000,000. The insect losses to other deciduous fruits are quite as heavy as in the case of the apple, and especially when the treatment for the San Jose scale and other pests are considered, and in the case of citrus fruits the cost of treatment is much greater and the actual losses are again heavy. We are war- ranted, therefore, in placing the loss to fruits from insect pests as high as 20 per cent annually. Granviixe Lowther Insect Enemies. See Benefioial Insects, Propagating and Distributing. Insecticides How Contact Insecticides Kill It has long been known that certain substances when brought in contact with the outer surfaces of insects will pro- duce death. Why they kill has not been so well understood. In order to answer this question Geo. D. Shafer, of the di- vision of entomology of the University of Michigan, undertook a series of elab- orate experiments with results as re- corded below. The insecticides experimented with were gasoline, kerosene, benzol, xylene, turpentine, creosote, aniline oil, carbon disulphide, chloroform, ether, pyro cresol, special kreso-dip, creolin, chloronaphtho- llum, crel oil, zenolium, to-bak-ine, py- rethrum, hydrocyanic acid gas, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and hydrogen. By "contact insecticide" is meant any substance which kills by contact rather than by being eaten, and the definition is made to include gases and powders as well as the liquid sprays. The first part of the experiment was undertaken to ascertain if the various miscible oils such as kerosene and gaso- line plugged the breathing apparatus of the insect and so produced death by suf- focation. It was found that the plugging actually took place, but that suffocation was not the cause of death; for it was discovered that grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars and other insects would re- gain their activities after having lain in the water for several hours apparently dead or in a closed vessel containing car- bondioxide with all oxygen excluded. But these same insects when subjected to treatment with an insecticide would lose all motion in a few minutes and never thereafter recover. It was therefore con- cluded that death was the result of some other cause than mere suffocation. In fact numerous experiments extending back as far as 1670 show that insects succumb from suffocation with difficulty. Besides, an oil was found that as effectu- ally plugged the trachea of insects as the oils mentioned, but that when removed from it they gradually recovered. Experiments were then made which showed that insects would die under the influence of the vapor of gasoline as readily as if dipped in the liquid itself, showing that death was the result of some influence of the gasoline rather than suf- focation. Tests were next made to ascertain if the substances used actually passed into the tissues of the insect body. This was found to be true, but the absorption took place in many cases only after consid- erable time had elapsed, in some cases long after death had taken place. Careful observations were then made to detect the effect upon heart action and respiration. In many cases, though not all, heart action was greatly increased, sometimes to the point where it was no longer possible to count the beats, then they would suddenly fall below normal. Respiration was irregular also. 1162 E3NC X CLiOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HOrtTIClJLTXJR.B The next part of the experiment was a series of very careful measurements to determine the freedom of absorption of oxygen, which is essential to the life of the insect while under the influence of the insecticide. This part of the experi- ment led to the conclusion that it is the prevention of the proper absorption of oxygen into the body tissues of the insect that renders the kerosene, gasoline, car- bon disulphide and similar insecticide so poisonous. "Lime-sulphur is a special rather than a general contact insecticide." Its strong persistent ability to take up large amounts of oxygen and "its ability to soften the wax about the margin of the scale insect like the San Jose scale are the important properties that make it efficient as a scalecide." Reference Michigan Agricultural College Experi- ment Station, Bulletin 11; Geo. D. Shafer. Insecticides. See Sprays, Iowa Iowa is 310 miles east and west and 210 miles north and south. It is part of the great Mississippi basin and is mostly an undulating prairie, rising in swells or small ridges like the waves of the sea in the ordinary calm. Beginning with the Mississippi river these elevations rise gradually higher and higher to a divide running diagonally from a height of 1,694 feet in the northwest to a slight elevation in the southeast. There are now no swamps, although in early times the state was largely covered with swamps. There are few natural forests, although in the northwest there is a considerable area that was at one time covered with trees. There are skirts of timber along the streams. Two-thirds of the state is drained by streams leading to the Missis- sippi river. The western drainage is to- ward the Missouri river. The northern part has a number of small lakes similar to those of Minnesota, formed by the same action or system of glacial deposits, some of them surrounded by a natural wall of loose stones, the water pure and clear. The climate is a little severe, the mer- cury occasionally dropping to 40 degrees below zero. The average rainfall is about 31 inches. No less than five separate sheets of drift cover the state, giving a variety of productive soils. Iowa is not so well adapted to fruit- growing as are some of the states further south. Some of the very hardy varieties may be grown successfully, but it lies in a latitude where the mercury occasionally drops to 40 degrees below zero, while the climate is not modified by ocean or lake breezes, and there are no sections shel- tered by high elevations or mountain ranges. However, hardy varieties of ap- ples, sour cherries, currants, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries and blackber- ries are successfully grown for home use in all parts of the state. Commercial orcharding is not extensively conducted. The drainage systems for Iowa are the Mississippi and Missouri rivers with their tributaries. The principal fruit-growing sections are counties bordering on the Missouri river and on the Bes Moines, which drains into the Mississippi, The principal apple producing counties near the Missouri river are: Fremont, 159,959 bearing trees; Harrison, 130,898; Mills, 242,466; Page, 145,895; Potawata- mie, 259,113; Taylor, 112,585. The coun- ties on the Des Moines river producing the largest number of trees are: Mahas- ka, 110,203; Polk, 146,895; Warren, 114,- 158. The total number of bearing apple trees in the state is estimated at 5,847,- 034; the total number of peaches and nectarines, 1,090,749; plums and prunes, 1,155,041; cherries, 908,764; grapes, 1,983,465; strawberries, 2,917 acres; rasp- berries and loganberries, 1,573 acres; blackberries and dewberries, 2,279 acres; nuts, 163,337 trees. Geanville Lowtiier Apples Kecommended for Commercial Planting in Northern Iowa Oldenburg (Duchess), Patten (Patten Greening), Wealthy, Northwestern (Greening), Salome (Trial), Colorado Or- ange (Trial). IOWA 1163 For Home Use Lowland (LievXand Easp'berry), Olden- burg (Duchess), Charlamoff, Patten (Pat- ten Greening), Wealthy, Eastman, Long- field, Northwestern, Delicious (Trial), Sa- lome, Black Annette (Trial), Windsor, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Colorado Orange. Apples Eecommended for Commercial Planting in Southern Iowa Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Delicious (Trial), Stayman (Btayman Winesap), Gano, Black Ben Davis and Ben Davis, York Imperial (Trial). For Home Use Red June, Oldenburg (Duchess), Beno- ni, Chenango, Dyer, Wealthy, Fameuse (Snow), Roman Stem, Bailey Sweet, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Salome, Deli- cious, Tolman Sweet, Stayman (Stayman Winesap), Winesap, Ralls (Genet), Gano, Black Ben Davis, Ben Davis, York Im- perial. The following fruits are suggested as standard varieties for Iowa: Apples Duchess of Oldenburg, Wealthy for northern drift, Jonathan for southern loess. Crabs Hyslop, Florence, Martha, Virginia. Plums De Soto, Wyant, Miner. Cherries Early Richmond, Montmorency. Grapes Moore's Early, Worden, Concord. Raspberries Older, Kansas. Blackberries Snyder, Ancient Briton. Currants Victoria, Red Dutch, White Grape. Gooseberries Downing. Strawberries Dunlap, Warfield. While none of the varieties mentioned are perfect, they have proven the most satisfactory out of all the varieties tested and can be safely used as a standard for comparing other varieties. Apples Foe Noethekn Drift: Patten's Green- ing, Longfield, Charlamoff, Salome, Ma- linda. Northwestern Greening. Sweet ap- ples — Tolman. Foe Southern Loess: Benoni, Maiden's Blush, Fameuse, Grimes Golden, Winesap, Stayman, Genet, Roman Stem, Gano. Sweet apples— Sweet June, Ramsdell's Sweet, Paradise Winter Sweet. For des- sert use— Early Joe, Pall Wine, Chenan- go, Dyer, Rambo. Pears Kiefeer, Seckel, Flemish Beauty, Bart- lett. Peaches For Southern Loess: Champion, Cros- by, Elberta, Triumph. Grapes Foe Southern Loess: Diamond, Ni- agara, Agawam, Brighton. Raspberries For Southern Loess: Cuthbert, Turn- er, Cumberland, Columbian. Bewberries Lucretia. The above lists are suggested by the Iowa State Horticultural Society, The state society does not recommend a list of fruits for planting in any dis- trict; it recognizes the fact that each grower can select varieties better adapted to his locality than anyone else. The list given is to assist those who have not given much study to varieties. Where no locality is mentioned the varieties named are for general planting on all soils. The northern part of the state is mostly cov- ered with drift and the southern part with loess. The soil, rainfall and eleva- tion changes the temperature so that the thermal zones do not correspond with de- grees of latitude. As an example: Budd- ed peaches seldom prove profitable when planted north of the line showing a mean annual temperature of 49 degrees, though they may be grown much farther north. For additional information on orchard sites and soils, see Selection of Site un- der Apple Orchard. 1164 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Frost and Precipitation in Iowa Station Charles City. , . Larrabee Alta Hampton Fayette Elkader Sioux City . . . . Sac City Iowa Falls Grundy Center Independence. . Carroll Newton Belle Plaine. . . Amana Cedar Rapids . Iowa City Clinton Davenport. . . . . Atlantic Greenfield Des Moines — Washington.. Corning Clarinda Corydon Bonaparte Keokuk Frost Average Date of First Killing in Autumn Sept. 5 Sept. 20 Sept. 26 Oct. 2 Sept. 18 Sept. 23 Sept. 23 Sept. 22 Sept. 22 Sept. 26 Sept. 26 Oct. 12 Sept. 22 Oct. 8 Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. 13 Sept, 19 Oct. 9 Oct, Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. 22 Last in Spring 3 11 7 4 8 5 1 May May May May May May May April 30 May 7 May 3 May 4 April 20 May 5 April 26 May 1 April 23 April 19 April 23 April 28 April 22 May 11 April 29 April 28 April Zo April 26 April 19 April 28 April 20 April 11 Date of First in Autumn Sept. 12 Sept. 12 Sept. 12 Sept. 20 Sept. 11 Sept. 11 Sept. 13 Sept. 12 Sept. 12 Sept. 12 Sept. 12 Sept. 27 Sept. 12 Sept. 20 Sept. 20 Sept. 20 Sept. 20 Sept. 20 Sept. 13 Sept. 18 Sept. 2 Sept. 18 Sept. 12 Sept. 13 Sept. 12 Sept. 13 Sept. 18 Sept. 20 Sept. 18 Last in Spring May 21 May 31 May 30 May 31 May 31 June 1 May 21 May 19 May 31 May 31 May 31 May 21 May 31 May 19 May 31 May 14 May 14 May 14 May 26 May 22 May 31 May 21 May 22 May 14 May 19 May 3 May 19 May 14 May 2 Precipitation Annual inches 30.4 30.7 33.2 32.7 31.2 31.1 29.8 34.0 27.4 35.0 32.4 33.6 34.5 31.2 37.1 32.3 32.9 32.4 31.7 32.4 28.7 31.3 33.1 35.3 33.3 Irrigation History of Irrigation Irrigation is the process of watering land by ditches or other artificial means. It is generally employed where the rainfall is insufficient for the growing crops, or where it comes at unseasonable times. The sources of supply are snows in the mountains, glaciers, lakes, rivers, springs, underground waters obtained by means of pumps, artesian wells, etc. Ancient Irrigation In ancient times the inhabitants of Egypt along the Nile, and of Babylonia along the Euphrates irrigated their lands by means of crude systems for lifting water from wells, rivers and ditches. Professor James H. Breasted, of Chi- cago University, a noted Egyptian arch- aeologist, says: "The date of the earliest irrigation in Egypt is not less than 3500 B. C, It is impossible to say how much earlier, perhaps several centuries — may be five or six, or even eight." Professor D. D. Luckenbil, Babylonian archaeologist, writes: "The earliest ref« erence to the digging of canals for irri- gation occurs in the inscriptions of Urni- na of Lagash, who lived about 3000 B. C. It is evident from inscriptions which date from later times, but mention events whose occurrence must be placed before the date of Urnina, that irrigation was known to the inhabitants of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys centuries IRRIGATION 1165 Old Waterwheel at Benton City, Washington. — Golville Photo 1166 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE before 3000 B. C. About 3500 B. C. would certainly be conservative. There is an ancient document called the 'Laws of Hammurabi' which contains a section on irrigation, and reads as follows: " 'If any one is too lazy to keep his dikes in order and fails to do so, and if a breach is made in his dike and fields are flooded with water, the man in whose dike the breach was opened shall replace the grain which he has destroyed. If he is not able to replace the grain, he and his property shall be sold and the people whose grain the water carried off shall share the proceeds.' "If any one opens his irrigating canals to let in water, but is careless and the water floods the field of his neighbor, he shall measure out grain to the latter in proportion to the yield of the neighbor- ing field." This document dates from 2340 B. C, and indicates that irrigation was under the control of the government at that date. Sargon left a tablet about 3800 B. C. which relates to the story of his boyhood as follows: "I am Sargon the mighty king. My mother, of noble race, cone ived me and bore me in secret. She put me in a basket of Sur and closed up the openings with bitumen. She cast me into the river. The river carried me along to Akki, the irrigator. Akki, the irrigator, took me up. Akki, the irrigator, reared me up to boyhood. Akki, the irrigator, made me a gardener." (McCurdy, His- tory-Prophecy and the Monuments.) It was doubtless the system of irriga- tion in use in Babylonia to which the plaintive song of the Hebrews referred when they said: "By the rivers (irri- gating ditches) of Babylon, there we sat down, yea we wept when we remembered Ziion. Early Irrigation in America Irrigation was practiced in prehistoric times by the town-building Pueblo In- dian tribes inhabiting portions of New Mexico and Arizona. The descendants of these tribes still utilize some of the lands which were tilled by irrigation at the time when the Spaniards first came from the south and practiced many of the primitive customs of their ancestors The early missionaries of the Pacific coast also used the same customs (learned from these Indians), and m Southern Califor- nia particularly are to be found the ruins of substantial dams and head works built by Indian labor. The Mexicans, of mixed Spanish and Indian origin, gradually ex- tending their settlements from the south, through necessity practiced irrigation. There are said to be ditches in Arizona and New Mexico, one of which is buried 50 feet beneath the present surface of the soil. The Mormons Irrigate The first irrigation practiced in the United States by English-speaking people was by the Mormons near Salt Lake, in Utah. Brigham Young, their leader, was a man of vision, imagination and great ability. Whether from necessity, or from inventive genius, he succeeded in turn- ing the waters of the little canyons and streams onto the parched desert and after a few years mastered the art of modern irrigation. Gary Act Projects The early settlers in the arid regions irrigated their land by means of small ditches which could be constructed at little expense. When it became necessary to reclaim larger areas of desert the ex- pense became too great for small co-opera- tive enterprises and for the relief of this condition the "Carey Act" was passed by congress, which "provides that the fed- eral government will grant, without charge, to each of the states containing desert lands 1,000,000 acres, or as much thereof as the state shall cause to be re- claimed, provided that such states shall bind themselves to dispose of the same in tracts of not to exceed 160 acres to actual settlers." Under this act the state does not reclaim the land, but avails itself of the benefit of the law by means of contracts made with construction com- panies. "At the request of the state the federal government segregates the tracts desired. The state then makes a contract with some company to construct the nec- essary reservoirs and canals." When the work is completed the land is patented IRRIGATION 1167 to the state, and in turn patented to the settler when he has complied with the provisions of the law. The construction company is paid a fixed sum for the wa- ter, the enterprise is under the supervi- sion of the state authorities and the water users have charge of the canals for main- tenance. What Carey Act Lands Are and How Title Is Obtained Thereto Under the operations of this act the federal government turns over to the states such land as they may desire to procure for reclamation from time to time. When this land is turned over to the state for reclamation it enters into a contract with some company to construct an irrigation system and sell water rights therein to the settlers at a price fixed by the state contract and upon the terms therein specified. Upon the mak- ing of a contract the irrigation company proceeds to construct the irrigation sys- tem under the general supervision of the state engineer and subject to his approval and direction from time to time. When the construction of the system is ad- vanced to such a state that water can be delivered or will shortly be delivered the state opens the lands to settlement, sell- ing the land at fifty cents per acre to all entrymen who purchase water rights of the irrigation company at the price fixed in the state contract. Thus it will be seen that the entei'pnse from its incep- tion to the final turning over of the sys- tem is subject to state inspection and supervision — with a consequent assurance not only as to the feasibility of the orig- inal undertaking, but also as to the meth- od by which the irrigation system is con- structed and finally completed. The procuring of title to these lands is simple and comparatively inexpensive and is free from the difficulties and long- residence requirements of the homestead and government reclamation laws. Only thirty days* residence is required before final proofs may be made. As soon as an entry is made, the entryman can, if he wishes, at once begin the improve- ment of his land by doing his clearing, plowing, etc., and if, when water is ready for delivery, he has one-eighth of his holding under cultivation (that is, seeded and ready for irrigation), and then begins actually irrigating that one-eighth, he may at once give notice of intention to make final proof, by publication in a newspaper published in the county in which the land is situated for four weeks immediately preceding the date set for making final proof, during all of which time he must reside on the land, and if married, he must establish his home with his family. In this way, title can be se- cured with only about thirty days* resi- dence. It will be seen from the foregoing that the term of residence and the length of time required for proving up is largely optional with the settler. He may put one-eighth of his land under cultivation and have it ready for irrigation as soon as water is delivered. He may then turn the water onto this one-eighth and imme- diately begin publishing his four weeks* notice of intention to prove up and at the expiration of that period may make final proof, thus making his final proofs in about thirty days. On the contrary, if he does not care to make his final proofs at once, he may continue cultivation and residence and not prove up until the end of the three years' period allowed by the statute. Of course, the great advantage of proving up in the shortest possible pe- riod is that it relieves one of the neces- sity of continued residence on the land and enables him to perfect his title im- mediately. Questions Answered Eegardin^ the Carey Act Land and water rights under the Carey act are assignable both before and after proof. Married women can not file on lands under the Carey act, but widows may. One person may file for another under power of attorney. It is not necessary to visit the land before filing. Within one year after notification that water is ready for delivery the settler must cultivate one-sixteenth of the entry; 1168 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE he must then cultivate an additional one- sixteenth the second year, and the third year final proof must he made showing one-eighth of the land under cultivation. This is the maximum time allowed the settlers. He may, as already stated, do all his cultivating and complete his proofs in about thirty days. The Carey act, under which these lands are entered, should not he confounded with the United States reclamation act or with the homestead laws. Under the reclamation act the settler is required to conform to the homestead laws of the United States; to pay the cost of his water right, and to actually reside upon the land for five (5) years. None of these requirements apply to Carey-act lands. The homestead commutation clause does not apply to lands taken under the recla- mation act. Under the Carey act the settler pays the state 50 cents per acre for the land in two equal instalments, contracts with the irrigation company for a water right for the land at the price per acre fixed hy the State Land Board, and after residing upon the land for about thirty days, and putting one-eighth of it in cultivation and under irrigation, may make final proof and entitle himself to receive his patent for the same. After the irrigation system is com- pleted and approved by the state authori- ties, it is turned over to the settlers for operation. They thereafter own and op- erate it for their own benefit and are thus relieved of paying any profit on operation to anyone. This is accomplished by the organization of a settlers' operating com- pany, the shares of which are transferred to the settlers on a basis of one share for each acre. This stock is issued to the settlers at the time they make their en- tries and execute their water contracts, no additional charge therefor being made. After final proof the settler can mort- gage the land and water right, subject to the lien for deferred payments on his water right. This is a great advantage to the settler of moderate means, as he can thus obtain any additional money which he may require to cultivate his land, make improvements, buy machinery, etc., and thus he avoids the disadvan- tages of the long period of residence re- quired under the reclamation act, during which time he has no title to the land, and no right to mortgage it to secure money for making improvements. RECIAarATIOlN^ BY THE UNITED STATES OOTERNMENT Reclamation Act The reclamation act was made a law by the signature of President Roosevelt on June 17, 1902. This act provides that all moneys re- ceived from the sale and disposal of pub- lic lands in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Ore- gon, Nevada, South Dakota, Utah, Wash- ington and Wyoming, beginning with the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, includ- ing the surplus of fees and commissions in excess of allowances to registers and receivers, and excepting 5 per cent of these amounts, which is set aside for educational and other purposes, shall be set aside and appropriated as a special fund in the treasury of the United States, to be known as the "reclamation fund," to be used in the examination and survey for, and the construction and mainte- nance of, irrigation works for the stor- age, diversion and development of waters for the reclamation of arid and semi-arid lands in the said states and territories. The lands so reclaimed are subject to homestead entry, and there is absolutely no charge for the land itself, but the settler must pay to the United States, in not more than ten annual instalments, without interest, his proportion accord- ing to the number of acres he owns, of the amount expended by the United States in reclaiming his land. The collection of operation and maintenance charges is not definitely provided for in the recla- mation act; however, the authoi*ity of the Secretary of the Interior to collect such charges has been upheld by the de- cision rendered in the Baker-Swigart suit, which was in effect a test case on this point. IRRIGATION 1169 Amendnients Tlie amendments to the reclamation act have heen relatively simple; most of them relate to work on the Indian reser- vations, or to interstate or even interna- tional complications. Probably the most important is that of June 25, 1910, re- lating to advances to the reclamation fund. Under this amendment an ad- vance or appropriation of $20,000,000 was made, to complete the reclamation proj- ects and such extensions as may be deemed necessary for the successful op- eration of the works, also to protect water rights claimed by the United States. Another and very necessary pro- vision of this act of June 25, 1910, was the repeal of section 9 of the original reclamation act, which, by attempting to limit expenditures, largely by state lines, tended to lack of economy, and forced a construction of works where the need was not wholly established. Purpose The purpose of the reclamation act is to provide for the reclamation by irriga- tion of arid lands, the motive being one which is fundamental to the growth and maintenance of a democratic form of government. It gives opportunities for citizens to obtain homes on small farms where they may support their families. Under good irrigation it is possible to practice intensive agriculture to the highest degree, and thus produce the most valuable crops. Establishment of the Keclamation Service Immediately after the reclamation act was approved, the Secretary of the In- terior was advised by the Director of the Geological Survey regarding the investi- gations which had already been made by the Geological Survey as to the extent to which the arid region could be re- claimed. During many years preceding the pass- age of the reclamation act the Geological Survey had been preparing topographic maps showing the possibilities of many streams that could be used in irrigation, and their catchment areas. Thus, when the reclamation act became a law, there were already employed in investigatiou a considerable number of men experienced in such work. Under authority from the secretary, these men were organized on July 2, 1902, into the sub-bureau known as Rec- lamation Service, under the Geological Survey. This organization was so con- tinued until March of 1907, when the service was separated from the survey and made a separate bureau under the Department of the Interior. Indian Irrigation Under an agreement made in 1907, be- tween the office of Indian Affairs and the Reclamation Service, certain irrigation work on Indian reservations, authorized by Congress and provided for in appro- priations under the control of the Indian office, is being performed by the Recla- mation Service. The cost of such work is returned to the reclamation fund from authorized Indian appropriations upon statements rendered monthly. Work Accomplished Under the Eeclama- tion Act A summary prepared by the Reclama- tion Service shows results to June, 1913, in connection with the twenty-eight dif- ferent projects upon which operations have been carried on by the service in the various states enumerated above, as follows: Present plans contemplate the ulti- mate irrigation of 3,000,000 acres. Of this acreage, water was available for 1,300,000 acres. Some 27,000 farms are included in this area. The service had at this time something over 5,000,000 acre-feet of reservoir ca- pacity available by the construction of numerous storage dams. Eight thousand miles of canals and ditches had been constructed. Investment The total net investment of the Recla- mation Service to June 30, 1913, amount- ed to $77,231,555.24. VMT OF MEASUREMENT The standard measurement for water in many sections of the country is known 2—33 1170 ENCYCL0PE3DIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE as the "miner^s inch.** This method came from the custom followed by miners in appropriating water for the separation of gold from the sands and gravel. The "miner's inch" as a unit of measurement was well adapted to the mining industry, hut it seems not well adapted to the conditions of agriculture. The "acre- foot," or fraction thereof, as a unit of measurement is better than the miner^s inch, because it conveys an idea of a certain depth of water over a certain area of land, as an acre. Almost every one is familiar with the expressions in- dicating inches in depth. For instance, it is known that in the Yakima valley there is on the average six inches of pre- cipitation per annum, and that this classifies the land as arid. They know, too, that 15 to 20 inches classifies land as semi-arid, and that 30 to 40 inches is sufficient for the growing of corn and general farming, but no one, unless he has had special education in hydraulics, knows the relations of a miner's inch to any depth of water covering an acre of land. The United States Government makes its reports of precipitation in terms of inches. It also estimates the water de- livered to the irrigators under its proj- ects in the same way. Different canal companies use different units of measurement, so that it is diffi' cult to express these units in the terms of acre-feet, or the miner*s inch. For in- stance, in the Yakima valley, "Washing- ton, are the following ditches with the following units of measurement: Naches and Cowichie Ditch, one miner's inch per acre; Yakima Valley Canal Co., one inch per acre, measured over a wier. The Selah Ditch Co. gives two-fifths inches per acre, measured under six inches of pressure. The Terrace Heights Company gives one-third of an inch per acre, measured through a meter. The Tieton, a government project, gives two and seventeen-one-hundredths acre-feet. The Moxee Canal Co. gives one cubic foot per second for 160 acres of land. The Wash- ington Irrigation Company one cubic foot per second for 160 acres. The Fow- ler Ditch Co. one cubic foot per second for 150 acres. The difficulty is for the average per- son to know what relations these differ- ent standards sustain to each other, or to the standard adopted by the govern- ment. The miner's inch is not a uniform unit for all states. The court of Kittitas county, Washington, has defined the miner's inch as "the amount of water which will constantly flow through an opening one inch square through a plank one inch thick in the side of a box in which still water is maintained at a con- stant depth of four inches above the top of the opening." — Engineering News^ Nov. 7, 1907. In California the measurement is taken from center of the opening instead of the top. Generally throughout the Yakima val- ley a miner's inch is defined as the flow of water through an inch aperture under six inches of pressure. In some cases the aperture is made two inches wide and one-half inch long instead of one inch square, and this gives less water than the inch square because there is more friction surface. A continuous flow of one miner's inch is commonly sup- posed to be enough to irrigate two acres. However, this depends on the character of the soil and the character of the crop grown. It is necessary to distinguish between the terms "miner's inch," "cubic inch" and "acre inch," as it is to distinguish between the terms "second foot," "cubic foot" and "acre foot." The cubic foot is a cube of one foot on every side and contains 1,728 cubic inches. It also contains seven and one- naxx gallons* The acre-foot is one foot deep over one acre of land. The second-foot is a cubic foot of water discharging from a certain point in one second of time. The "acre-foot" is a measurement of volume, while the term "second-foot" is a statement of the rate of flow. A con- tinuous flow of one second-foot for 24 IRRIGATION 1171 hours will cover one acre two feet deep, equal to two acre-feet. Approximate Estimate of Water It requires an engineer with proper instruments to obtain an accurate esti- mate of the amount of water flowing in a ditch, but an approximate estimate may be made as follows: Secure the cross section by measuring the depth in a number of places at given distances across the stream, adding them together and dividing by the number of measure- ments taken. This will give the average depth, which should be multiplied by the width of the stream at the surface. This will give the number of square feet in the cross-section of the stream. Then measure off on the ditch bank any dis- tance, say 20 feet parallel with the cur- rent. Throw a stick into the center of the stream where the water is running at its greatest velocity and far enough above the first measurement so that the stick will have time to acquire the same velocity as the stream before it reaches the point of the first measurement. Take the time in seconds required for the stick to float the distance measured. This will give the velocity of the mid-current. Eighty-three per cent of this will give the average mean velocity of the whole stream. Multiplying the number of square feet in the cross-section by the velocity of the stream, in seconds, will give the number of cubic feet per second of time. In the case of small ditches reduce all measurements to inches. On account of the filamentous or thread-like character of water there is a tendency to compres- sion as it passes through an orifice. After the discharge it continues to converge so that the section of the water after leaving the orifice is smaller than the orifice from which it discharges. This is because the inertia of the water opposes any change in direction, and the converg- ence continues for a distance of about half the diameter of the orifice. Laterals A lateral is a ditch taken from the sides of the main ditch. A sub-lateral is taken from the side of a lateral. In taking water from the main chan- nel, leading it out in different direc- tions over the lands, many laterals and Fig. 1. Showing Metliod of Conducting Water Around a Low Spot at the Corner of an Orchard. 1172 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE sub-laterals and brandies of sub-laterals the open ditcli system is cheaper, never- may be necessary in order to convey theless in tlie end it is naore expensive, water to the lands to be irrigated. When and that there is considerable loss on it reaches the land, it is generally dis- account of evaporation and seepage. Just charged at the highest point to be ir- how much this loss is, depends largely rigated, and from there carried in pipes, upon the soil, amount of sunshine, wind, or small ditches for distribution. and the intensity of heat. The irrigation system if seen on a Measurements to AscertaiB Loss map would resemble somewhat a river j^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ Colorado, California, with its tributaries reversed. The tribu- jj^^-^^ Washington and Wyoming, care- taries of a stream flow from the higher ^^^ measurements have been made which lands m rivulets creeks and^ streams ij^^i^^^q that the losses range from al- into the mam channel. The irrigation ^^^^ nothing in some of the best and system flows from the main channel and ^^^^ favorably situated canals, to 50 per branches into smaller ones as the water ^^^^ ^^ canals built in porous soils. Pip- is conveyed to the lands to be irrigated, ^^^ ^^ ^^^ always practical, but where it which lands must be lower than the m- ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ .^ .^ ^^^^^ especially in those take of the canal, m order that there sections of the country where water is may be a gravity flow. scarce. The economy which could be ef- How to Conduct Water to Land fected by the use of piping in the dis- What is the best method of conduct- tribution systems is illustrated by the ing water to the lands? It is general- following table compiled by the pipe com- ly conceded that while as an initial cost panies: Canals carrying 100 cu. ft per second, or more, loss per mile. ... 1% to 5% Canals carrying 50 to 100 cu. ft. per second, loss per mile. 3% to 8% Canals carrying 25 to 50 cu. ft. per second, loss per mile 7% to 14% Canals carrying 15 to 25 cu. ft. per second, loss per mile 10% to 18% Canals carrying 5 to 15 cu. ft. per second, loss per mile 16% to 27% Canals carrying 2 to 5 cu. ft. per second, loss per mile .20% to 40% The preceding percentages of loss are general averages and may vary in differ- ent localities according to climatic and soil conditions; but it will be noted that the losses rise very rapidly as the volume decreases. Hence the smaller the ditch the greater the loss. The greatest econ- omy is therefore secured in those cases where the pipe would of necessity be small, say from 4 to 12 inches in diam- eter. These losses are wholly prevent- able, and as water becomes more valu- able and the cost of delivery greater, pre- vention will pay. On many irrigated dis- tricts the slope of the land is too great for ditches unless stop-boxes or drop- boxes are provided. In many cases lands 4-jnch pipe: Slope 1 in 20, discharges 0.6 sec. ft. Slope 1 iti 50, discharges 0.38 sec. ft. 6-inch pipe: Slope 1 in 30, discharges 1.5 sec, ft. Slope 1 in 60, discharged 1.0 sec. ft. 8-inch pipe: ^ Slope 1 in 40, discharges 2.8 sec. ft. Slope 1 in 80, discharges 2.0 sec. ft. 10-inch pipe * Slope 1 in 50, discharges 4.6 sec. ft Slope 1 in 100, discharges 3.2 sec. ft. and crops below the ditch are damaged by breaks due to washing where the slope is too great. Capacity of Fipes It may be interesting to note the rela- tive carrying capacity of several typical sizes of ditches compared to those sizes of wood pipe which, on various gradients or slopes, will carry approximately the same quantity of water as the ditches given—the ditches being assumed to be built on that gradient which will not in- duce an excessive velocity. It should be borne in mind that much greater veloc- ities are permissible in pipes than in ditches. r" r" , . . Ditch requires 1.0 ft. bottom width . . . Ditch requires 2 ft. bottom width . Ditch requires 2.5 ft. bottom width . . . Ditch requires 3.0 ft. bottom width IRRIGATION X173 12-inch pipe : Slope 1 in 75, dischai'^es 6.3 sec. ft Slope 1 in 150, discharaes 4.5 sec. ft. 16-inch pipe : Slope 1 in 100, dischargees 11.7 sec. ft. Slope 1 in 250, discharges 7.25 sec. ft. I Ditch requires 3.5 ft. bottom width \ Ditch requires 5.0 ft. bottom width ) Ditch requires 4.0 ft. bottom width The gradient or slope of a pipe line refers to the slope of a straight line drawn between the intake of the pipe and the center of the discharge end. This line is technically called the hydraulic grade line. The pipe may be laid at any dis- tance below this line, but never above it. There are many variables entering into a determination of the actual duty of water. In general terms, however, it may be said that seldom will one second-foot be required for 60 acres, more often 100 acres, and with economy where ordin- ary crops of wheat and corn are grown as many as 200 acres. As heretofore suggested, the steeper the grade the greater will be the amount of water a given size of pipe will carry, and hence a small pipe on a steeper grade will often carry as much water as a comparatively large ditch which always must be built sufficiently high to dis- charge onto the adjacent fields. This means a loss of cultivated area, and of- ten serious inconvenience to the irrigator. With buried pipes carrying water under pressure, these annoyances are avoided entirely, and the water may be delivered with facility upon any portion of the field. If wood pipe be used gate valves can be introduced with decided economy and convenience. In addition to this, they can always be closed when the neces- sary water has been applied, and thus the pipes can always be kept full, whence economy and conservation. A full pipe means a saturated pipe, and when the wood of the pipe is saturated there can be no rot. Experience has proven be- beyond doubt that rot is prevented by saturation. Basis for Selling It is always much more satisfactory to sell water based on a price for the ac- tual water used, rather than to sell it on the basis of acres irrigated. The latter method invites waste on the part of the user, since it is but human nature for the irrigator to draw on the water sup- ply up to a point where he feels satis- fied he is getting all he pays for. By the other method he pays for exactly what he gets. The temptation being removed, the loss from this source is eliminated and the irrigable area correspondingly in- creased. In fact, some states, notably Idaho, have a law requiring all charges for water to be "based upon the quantity delivered to consumers and not in any case to depend upon the acres irrigated." With a pipe system it is easy to deter- mine the amount of water used. SYSTEMS OF rEEIGATION There are several systems of irriga- tion, each having some merit, and per- haps each one best under certain circum- stances. Flood The first is the system of flooding which is used in the rice fields with a degree of success that justifies its con- tinuance. Experience seems to have proven that this system is the best for the conditions under which rice is grown, and perhaps no other system could be adopted that would be so practical for the growing of this crop. Check The second is the check system, which makes the ditches in squares around the trees and overfiows the ground inside of the squares or causes the water to per- colate through the soil in the ditches. Furrow System The third is the small furrow system, which makes small laterals about three feet apart and allows the water to run from the main lateral on the high point of the land in small streams. From these small ditches the water percolates through the soil until the whole surface soil is wet. It is presumed that when the surface shows that the water has per- colated until the dampness from each stream meets in the center one and one- 1174 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fig. 1. Furrow Method of Irrigation. -Colville Photo half feet from the ditch that it has perco- lated also to a depth which is equivalent to its lateral percolation. Then it is turned onto another portion of the field or orchard and as soon as the irrigated portions are dry enough they are cul- tivated while the water is still running, and thus irrigation and cultivation in dif- ferent parts of the orchard are being carried on at the same time. Underground Method Another method is underground ditches into which the water is run and allowed to saturate the soil at greater depth than is possible with surface irrigation. The most popular method at present for most conditions is the small furrow method of surface irrigation, although it is conceded that the underground method has many things to commend it, and seems to be ideal when the conditions of soil are right for its application. Among the things urged in favor of un- derground irrigation are the following: First: Economy of water, because there is less evaporation by this method than where water is placed on the sur- face. Second: Economy in time, since there is not the trouble of making surface ditches five times a year or as many times as the land is irrigated, and no time is wasted in waiting for the ground to dry for cultivation. The amount of water taken up by the surface soil un- der force of capillary attraction is not IRRIGATION 1175 Fi^. 2. Check-Furrow System. Two Longi- tudinal Furrows are Connected by Four Cross Rills for Each Tree. By putting check dams in the main furrows water can be held around the tree until taken up by the soil. sufficient to make the ground too wet for cultivation. Third: Placing the water below the surface, at a depth of from 1 to 3 feet, causes the roots to penetrate more deep- ly, to break up a new substratum of soil from which they extract food which is equivalent to extending over a much wider lateral surface, and therefore in- creasing the life of the tree besides in- creasing its rapidity of growth and bear- ing capacity. Fourth: In case of sub-irrigation from other lands this underground system is a drainage system as well as an irriga- ting system. Fifth: It tends to aerate the soil, for a certain amount of air passes through these underground ditches. Sixth: In case there is lack of water, this system will save enough above any other system known to enable us to grow cover crops which may be turned under at the proper period and thus fertilize the soil. These reasons urged by some who ad- vocate that system are not universally accepted; for on the other hand it is argued : First: That while there is less evap- oration, the loss by drainage is greater often than by evaporation. Second: While it is true that the tend- ency of the root system is toward the water, yet the feeding roots are natural- ly near the surface, and the water should be placed where they are. Third: In case a surface coating of manure is given, surface irrigation car- ries the fertility downward to the roots, whereas by the underground method, al- kali and other injurious substances are lifted to the surface by capillarity. FACTORS DETERMIMIVG DUTY OF WATER F. E. Jones The method of applying water is an important factor, for it has been found that furrow irrigation saves more water than the flooding method, and deep fur- rows have an advantage over shallow ones. Sub-irrigation is not practical, but re- sults in a great saving of water over the other methods of application. The method of planting enters into the amount of water required to mature the crop, for if crops are planted thinly, less water will be used; the amount of shade produced by the plant affects the evap- oration; and a cultivated crop will con- serve more moisture than an uncultivated one. Kind of tillage. In order to be most effective, cultivation must be promptly done after the water has been applied, for as much water is lost in the first 24 hours as is lost in the three days follow- ing. On heavy soils it is necessary some- times to wait two or three days. The kind of ditches. Small, shallow ditches result in a great percentage of loss. The skill of the irrigator. This is one of the most important factors in deter- mining amount of water used. The amount and frequency of irriga- tion is a factor in the duty of water, for the land must be very level to make it possible to use as little as two inches of water at one irrigation. As a rule, a four or five inch irrigation will thoroughly wet a soil as far as the roots of ordin- ary crops go. Heavier amounts neces- 1176 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fig. 3. Artesian Well Near Walla Walla, Washington. 579 feet deep with flow of 2,224 gallons per minute. 62 pounds pressure. sary for meadow than for cultivated crops. Method of purchase. The best plan is to practice rotation in the use of water, and make the best use of the water while it is on the farm. The highest duty is obtained by this method rather than by having a continuous stream during the season. Summary. A low duty of water is due to excessive appropriation, bad contracts, loss by seepage and careless irrigation. The duty of water may be increased by preventing seepage, draining the land, providing for rotation in use, and charg- ing for the quantity received. Amount and Frequency of Irrigation In irrigation practice it is important that the irrigator know the amount of IRRIGATION 1177 water necessary for the crop and the fre- quency with which it should be applied. The conditions which determine the amount of water that should he applied at a single irrigation are as follows: (a) Amount — 1. The capacity of the soil and siih- soil to store water. The question that confronts the irrigator is what quantity of water can he stored in the soil for the proper growth of the plants. The range for sandy soils will be between 5 per cent and 15 per cent, the optimum being about 10 per cent In clay loams it is safe to say that it is impossible to store more than 30 pounds (a half foot) in the first four feet of a silt soil. If the amount of water in the soil is not down to the wilt- ing point of plants at the time of applica- tion of water, the soil will not take up the maximum amount. The following table shows the lower and upper limit of storage capacity of a clay soil, and the available moisture for use of plants in each foot of the soil: Clay Loam Soil — Available Lower Upper Moisture, Depth Limit XJmlt Lbs First foot 17.01% 25 77% 6.92 Second foot 1J).86% 24.3% 4.11 Third foot 18 56% 24 03% 5.72 Fourth loot ....15 9% 22.29% 6.786 Total ponnds per cubic foot 23 54 2. The depth of the soil stratum pene- trated by the roots of the particular crop. If the roots of a crop penetrate deeply a larger amount of water may be applied to the soil without a large amount of it go- ing beyond the reach of the roots. If the roots grow to the water the plants will not need to wait for the water to come to the roots. Plants probably root deep- er in arid soils and may be encouraged to do so by cultivation of the soil about six inches in depth. Plants have been found to penetrate the soil with their roots to depths as follows: Apples feet Strawberry 22 inches Alfalfa, 174 days old 5 to 30 feet 3. The rate at which the soil "below the root zone may supply water by up- ward capillarity to the roots. The neces- sary moisture may be below the roots, but will not travel up fast enough. 4. The extent to which the soil and subsoil may become dried out. If at the time of irrigation the soil is very dry it is capable of taking up a lai-ge amount of water. The texture of the soil will also have an effect on this factor. (b) Frequency. This is one of the most important questions that confronts the practical irrigator. The conditions which determine the frequency of irrigation are: 1. The amount af available moisture which may be stored in the soil. If the difference between the upper and lower limit is only a few per cent it will deter- mine the amount of water stored at one time. 2. The rate at which the moisture is lost through the crop and through the soil. As to the crop it sometimes is neces- sary to irrigate to bring up the seed. A young crop will make very little de- mand on the water in the soil. A wheat crop makes the heaviest demand on the soil from the time it begins to head until it reaches the dough stage. 3. The degree of saturation a particu- lar crop will tolerate before it is injured in quality and quantity. Irrigation will nearly always check the growth of the crop for a few days. The fewer the num- ber of irrigations the smaller may be the labor involved and the lower the cost. A heavy soil will store water longer, usual- ly, and will require fewer irrigations. METHOD OF IRMOATIlVf^ WITHOUT WASTE WATER H. M. GiLBEBT There Is considerable alarm among those inexperienced in irrigation over the suits, court injunctions and threat- ening notices sent out by various canal companies. The accompanying illustra- tions will suggest to the irrigator how he can greatly lessen, and in many loca- tions entirely stop, the running of waste water from his land. The solution to the whole proposition of waste water is: level contour ditches made with a two-horse plow at the lower end of the irrigation rows. These level contour ditches should be sufficiently near together to irrigate the 1178 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE portion of orchard they cover. Ordinar- ily they should cover 10 to 30 per cent of the orchard, the larger proportion being where the hillsides are steeper or where the irrigator wants to irrigate hur- riedly, and therefore has a large quanti- ty of waste water to care for. HeadDitcK Head Ditch Htfad Difch XlMraUn*L Illustration No. 1 is for a field where the general slope is in one direction with low point in or near the middle of low side. Heavy lines indicate large furrows made with two-horse plow on contour levels These heavy lines represent practically level ditches. Illustration No. 2 is where the slope is in two directions with low point at one corner. Here again heavy lines indicate large furrows made with two-horse plow. To locate these level contour ditches place an instrument at low point, then take stakes numbered 1, 2, 3, etc, and place them on the two boundary lines at elevations six inches, one foot or two feet apart, according to the steepness of the field. Then turn the instrument up the diagonal row and place another line of stakes numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., on the same levels as those on the boundary. By plac- ing these stakes along the fence row or under the trees they can be left through- out the season. In this way the ditches can be cultivated over and remade for the next irrigation without the use of any instrument or running of levels. IWu&TraTion Z ^ ' " ' Lowroint Illustration No. 3 shows a head ditch running on a ridge diagonally through the tract, feeding irrigation rows on either side on different slopes. You will note there are two low points on this tract, requiring that there be two sets of contour ditches. The level, however, is set as in Illustrations Nos. 1 and 2, at the lowest point, and the contour levels ascertained in the same manner. Illustration No, 4 shows two sorts of home-made levels. Either of these will be sufficiently accurate for running these contour lines. Of course, a surveyor's tlluifrafiPn 3 Low R"n+ IRRIGATION 1179 F\ ^^^Si^M Cross Uii^s C Gas c==:m u Illustrfltjo/-^ level would be preferable, and an archi- tect's level can be procured at a cost of about $50.00. Tbe agricultural papers are also advertising a level for $15.00, which would no doubt be sufficiently ac- curate. In addition to this, any farmer can take a pocket level or a carpenter's level and with a little ingenuity locate the necessary points sufficiently accurate. The illustrations here given will not meet the exact situation in many tracts, but any irrigator can make it possible to apply the plan to any tract The advantages of no waste water are: 1. Freedom from damage suits, court injunctions and attorneys' fees. 2. The saving of water and using it on your own land, better irrigation with the same amount of water. 3. Saving soil fertility, not leaching off the best elements and running them off to the ocean. 4. No swampy spots and no drainage necessary on your own land, for you will not run any of your furrows to the low points. In fact, by keeping up contour furrows at low points, where they cross ravine or swale, you can keep the water out of low points. Head Pitches Proper arrangement of head ditches will greatly assist. Where there is more than two inches fall to the rod in your head ditch, use board flumes made of 1%- inch or 1%-inch fir, rough. I have used such a flume for 13 years before it rotted out Bore holes one inch in diameter to let out water for irrigation furrows. Control size of opening by galvanized iron slides to be obtained from hardware stores at small cost, as they are made from scraps. Level head ditches where possible are the most economical and ef- ficient. SUMMARY OF USEFUL INFORMATION The following summary of useful in- formation has been gathered from vari- ous sources: Doubling the diameter of a pipe in- creases its capacity four times. Double riveting is from 16 to 20 per cent stronger than single riveting. A cubic foot of water contains seven and one-half gallons, which is equal to 1,728 cubic inches. To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water, mul- tiply the height of the column in feet by .434. The weight of a cubic foot of water at 32 degrees Fahrenheit is 62 1/^ pounds. A gallon of water weighs eight and one-third pounds To find the total pressure of water on any surface multiply its area in square feet by the vertical depth of its center of gravity below the water surface in feet, and the total by the weight of one cubic foot of water. The pressure of air at sea level is 14 73 pounds on each square inch of surface, therefore a cubic inch of air will sus- tain a column of water 34 feet high. Factors Affecting the Flow of Water There are certain factoids affecting the flow of water. One is that the smallest inclination to either side, or any wind- ing or changing of the direction of the stream, affects the rapidity of the flow. Any bend in a pipe that deviates from the perpendicular will retard the velocity of the flow of water The length of a vertical fall will affect the force or momentum, because water, like other bodies, gains momentum with the distance it falls. Another factor affecting flow, is the friction of the sides. If weeds are al- lowed to grow along the sides of a ditch; if the sides are irregular in shape; if there are obstructions of any kind; or in 1180 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the case of pipes, the material out of which it is made determines in some de- gree the amount of friction. Wood pipe IS supposed to have less friction than cement pipe, and iron pipe less friction than wood. To find how much water will discharge at a given point, multiply the velocity by the cross section in square feet, which gives the number of cubic feet per second of time. A second-foot of water on ordinary soil will irrigate from 80 to 160 acres. The water necessary to mature cer- tain kinds of crops is estimated as fol- lows- Tomatoes, 24 inches in depth over the ground, or two acre-feet. Potatoes, 17 inches; onions, 36 inches; strawberries, 27 inches. Orchards of tree fruits are variously estimated, depending on the climate, soil, kinds of fruits and the age of the trees. Young orchard trees can be grown with less than half the water required for old trees in full bearing. One foot deep per acre is 43,560 cubic feet, equal to the number of square feet per acre. lEMC^ATIOH OF OECHABDS It is Impossible to give any correct rules for irrigation that will apply to all cases. There are so many conditions of soil, rainfall, seepage, climate and kinds of crops that the orchardist must neces- sarily learn from the experience of others who have lived for a considerable time in the community where the orchard is located. However, the following may be helpful in determining the amount of water needed. Varieties which mature their fruits early require less water than those which mature late. For this reason cher- ries, early peaches, prunes and apricots require less water than late peaches, pears and winter apples. The non-deciduous fruits require more water than those which drop their leaves in autumn, not only because there is little evaporation from the tree during the winter, but because of climatic con- ditions. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, for the leaf and root sys- tem of the olive are so constructed that they will bear with less water than is required for the peach More water is required for large than for small trees, and the larger the tree, other things being equal, the more water required. Shallow rooting trees will gen- erally require more frequent irrigation than those of the deep rooting habit. Trees with tap roots, such as apples and pears, must be irrigated with special reference to the supply of water for the tap roots as well as the lateral roots. In the fine volcanic-ash soils, in adobe, or in scab soils that puddle or cement, or harden when dry, or in any other way tend to become impervious to the air, there should be more than usual care to see that the water goes below the roots, and that the soil is sufficiently aerated. This may be done by growing alfalfa, or dynamiting the soil, or by digging holes to considerable depth to let the water down below the puddled section. Where the water does not penetrate about the roots of the trees, there will be manifestations of disease such as die back, yellows, rosette, etc. These may also result from excess of water. Lack of moisture may also prevent bearing the following year, since it may prevent the proper development of fruit buds. Irrigate the Center For a number of years the general practice, in irrigating an orchard, was to run the laterals about three feet apart between the rows of trees with the lateral nearest the tree not nearer than two and one-half feet. This left the center of the space in which the tree stood without a lateral. The laterals on either side be- ing two and one-half feet from the tree row made a space of five feet occupied by the tree row. This seems to be all right for the lateral roots, which tend to reach out toward the center, but it leaves the tap roots often without water. In making some experiments, we found that when the center was watered by a small lateral, made with a shovel, that this lat- eral required much more water than either one of the others. This suggested IRRIGATION 1181 tlie idea that the water followed the tap root to greater depth, and also that there was considerable ground immediately about the tree which had not been wet. Alkali BetweeB the Laterals It is the experience of irrigators that where there is alkali in the soil the pro- cess of irrigation tends to wash it away from the center of the ditch toward a point about midway between the laterals. It is not uncommon to see strips of white alkali encrusted on the surface at regu- lar distances apart, according to the dis- tances of the laterals. As a result of this, the method of neglecting to irrigate the center of the space in which the trees stand is one which drives the alkali to- ward the tree. In soils where the al- kali is strong enough so that it ap- proaches the point of injury to the tree, concentrating it at the center might in- jure the bark and tender roots near the surface. We had four specimens of soil analyzed and found that there was much more alkali in the surface soil near the tree than a specimen of soil taken from the center of the ditch, or than at one foot depth below the surface. We have been of the opinion that the crust of alkali injured the bark of the j^oung growing tree and caused it to crack, exposing the cambium and render- ing it susceptible to the attacks of In- sects. Our opinion was based upon the number of instances where these condi- tions of injury occurred in soils strong in alkali, where this method of irriga- tion was practiced. This opinion is not sustained by the authorities and is ad- vanced as one that is yet to be proven by experiments. We know that we are right in so far as it concerns the irrigating of tomatoes and other tender plants, but as to wheth- er the bark of the young tree is suffi- ciently resistant so that it would not be injured by a strong encrustation of al- kali in the soil about it, is a question that can be determined better by expe- rience in the orchards than by any other method. However, for other reasons, if not for this, we would recommend irrigating the center in which the trees stand, and since the laterals cannot be made with a plow or other instrument commonly used for such purpose, we would take the more laborious method of making them with a shovel, and irrigate about the body of the tree, thus killing a number of in- sects that might work injury, letting the water into the soil about the tap roots, and driving the alkali away from the tree. Granville Lowther Cost of Pumping One pumping plant, unigue in its un- usual sprinkling system, is thus described by the owner, Mr. F. B. Allard: *'I have a pumping plant with which I am watering 11,000 apple trees. I am doing it in the following manner: "I first pump it into a railroad water tank, then I have one mile of four-inch steam pipe connecting the tank with every ten-acre tract with hydrants at different places. On this main line of pipe and 100 feet apart I have uprights starting with one-inch pipe and reduc- ing to three-quarters, 30 feet high, with a whirling sprinkler on each of them, which is forced to run by means of a double-stroke force pump, which takes the water out of the big tank and puts it into the main pipe at 100 pounds pressure, and this spray is carried on one side by the breeze in the forenoon and in the opposite direction in the after- noon, wetting a strip of ground 300 feet wide and one mile in length, or a strip of ground equal to 40 acres, on which I am raising alfalfa between the trees. "From the bottom of the well to the top of the tank it is 160 feet. My gaso- line bill last year was $150, or 1.4 cents per tree and 99 c^nts per acre. This year it was $225 or 2,29 cents per tree, and next year it will be about $300 or 2.73 cents per tree, and I figure that when the trees have reached the age of six years they will require about $500 worth of distillate, or 4.54 cents per tree — ^figur- ing that the price on the distillate re- mains the same as at present "I am going to connect every tree with the main line of pipe with a smaller 1182 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE pipe. Part of this is done now; then I will be able to take care of the orchard with about one-fourth the cost of doing it the old-fashioned way." Cost of Pumping from Well The cost of installation and mainten- ance of a pumping plant in the Moses Coulee District, Washington, is thus re- ported by Mr. H. G. Otis: "My well is 397 1-3 feet deep. It is 224 feet from the surface of the ground to the water. The well is 10 inches in- side diameter and takes a casing 8% inches. I have a 32-H.P. Fairbanks- Morse oil-burning engine and a No. 30 Pomona pump head. The cylinder is 8 inches, double stroke. The casing is 275 feet, so that the cylinder is immersed about 50 feet in the water. The well furnishes all the water we can pump, of a very excellent quality. The cost of drilling the well was $6 per foot for the first 300 feet and $6.50 for the 97 1-3 feet. The cost of the engine and pump com- plete is $3,100. "We can run on three gallons of oil per hour and the oil costs, laid down at Quincy, IV2 cents per gallon. I pay my engineer $2.00 per day and board and it takes very little of his time in running the plant. He can put in most of his time attending to irrigating. "The plant furnishes 310 gallons per minute and we figure that this will fur- nish water for 160 acres. I will have the land well piped and try to economize as much as possible. My well house is 18x42 with a concrete floor. The installing of the plant cost about $200. The work is very well done and on a solid concrete base. We have installed 2,500 feet of 6-inch inside diameter concrete pipe with bell-shape ends. We have 2-inch and 1- inch outlets which we use in irrigating trees or alfalfa. This pipe cost 20 cents per foot F. O. B. Quincy. The freight on the 2,500 feet was $80. We are now in- stalling 3,600 feet of 6-inch and 5-inch galvanized tin pipe which cost 15 cents for the 6-inch and 12 1/^ cents for the 5- inch F. O. B. Wenatchee. We like the tin pipe a great deal the best. "The cost of pumping is about $4 per acre. I would suggest that on a large scale the work could be done at less ex- pense and would suggest that several farmers go in together to put down a large well and a large engine with elec- tric motor and run the pump and all other machinery on the farm by elec- tricity. This I think is a far better way." Fig. 4. Pumping Plant of Mr. P. B. Allard. Standpipe to left has a sprinkler at the top. IRRIGATION 1183 Cost of Pumping Water for Irrigating On the cost of pumping water for irrigating purposes, Elwood Mead of the Gov- ernment Service made investigations which clearly set forth the cost of furnishing water to land under various systems of pumping, as follows: Summary of Data Concerning Cost and Duty of Water Under Sixty Pumping Plants in Santa Clara Talley in 1^04 No. of plant Power Discharge Area watered Amount of water raised during season Depth of water applied during season Height water raised Cost of water per acre Cost of water per acre-foot Cost of raising 1 acre-foot of water Ifoot (i. e., per foot-acre- foot) Total cost of water for season 1 Steam Cu. ft. per sec. 1.56 1.10 .76 2.34 2.34 2.56 .90 1.18 1.18 .72 1.42 .92 1.04 .98 .72 1.88 .45 .75 1.93 .63 1.23 1.32 1.34 1.01 2.83 1.29 1.29 2.56 2.07 2.07 2.11 .93 .92 2.53 1.30 1.65 2.17 1.22 1.29 1.31 .82 1.87 .81 2.23 1.22 2.13 1.87 1.17 1.23 1.86 .22 1.35 1.15 1.23 2.70 .13 1.75 M .71 .85 Acres 150 19 23.5 25 15 30 22 12.5 15 12 85 22.5 18 30 25 34 24 20 38 18 50 55 75 25 70 10.5 U 30 19 16 15 23 21 20 40.5 24 10 20 35 85 70 40 73 150 33 60 35 35 45 34 30 15 41.5 35 139K 14 43.5 21 24M 40 Acre-feet 315.4 35.6 13.4 38.7 14.5 31.6 11.6 14 9.7 14.4 54.7 17.8 5.1 54.1 14.3 21.2 10.8 16.6 70.6 17.4 26.5 74.5 107.9 19.4 70.2 49.4 46.5 39.7 44.2 24.5 31.3 28.8 16.6 48.2 21.9 22.4 23.6 13.6 26.8 36.4 33 45 29 158.5 57.6 60.6 36,2 28.9 72.6 55.4 14.6 9.4 27.6 38.6 202.3 2.3 45.6 9.5 20.6 67.2 Feet 2.10 1.87 .57 1.55 .97 1.05 .53 1.12 .65 1.20 .64 .79 .28 1.80 .57 .62 .45 .83 1.86 .97 .53 1.35 1.44 .78 1.00 4.70 4.23 1.32 2.33 1.53 2.09 1.25 .79 2.41 .54 .93 2.36 .68 .77 .43 .47 1.13 .40 1.06 1.75 1.01 1.03 .83 1.61 1.63 .49 .63 .66 1.10 1.45 .16 1.05 .45 ,85 1.68 Feet 110 50 140 28 28 22 70 58 58 50 75 27 86 77 27 68 44 24 115 46 88 88 24 27.5 19.5 52 52 37 43 43 34 49 55 60 93 73 91 121 100 85 53 80 118 44 91 50 38 46 38 40 23 63 102 50 60 43 59 107 115 110 $10.50 10.37 5.83 5.96 3.73 3 77 3.59 5 60 3.20 8.33 3.80 2.58 2.17 11 40 3.00 2.44 1.83 5.65 7.16 6.89 3.34 5.96 3.33 1.44 2.63 8.95 8.09 3.30 4.21 2.81 5.67 7.30 4.86 5.75 4.52 3.75 21.80 3.65 6,83 2.56 3.11 9.18 3.07 2.47 11.42 2.68 3.14 3.34 6.24 5.09 2.93 2.13 4.17 6.83 3.76 1.00 6.14 3.81 4.79 12.12 $4.99 6.54 10.22 3.85 3.86 3.58 6.81 5.00 4.95 6.94 5.90 3.26 7.66 6.32 5.24 3.92 4.07 6.69 3.85 7.13 6.30 4.40 2.32 1.86 2.62 1.90 1.91 2.49 1.81 1.84 2.72 5.83 6.15 2-39 8.36 4.02 9.24 5.37 8.92 5.99 6.61 8.15 7.72 2.33 6.64 2.56 3.04 4.05 3.87 3.12 6.03 3.40 6.27 6.19 2.59 6.09 5.86 8.42 5.63 7.22 $0,045 .111 .073 .137 .138 .163 .097 .086 .085 .139 .079 ,121 .089 .082 .194 .058 .093 .279 .034 .165 .072 .060 .096 .067 .129 .037 .037 .067 .042 .043 ,080 .119 .112 .040 .090 ,065 .101 .044 ,090 .070 .125 .102 .065 .053 .072 .051 .080 .088 .102 .078 .262 .054 .061 .124 .043 .142 .099 .079 .049 .066 $1,575 197 2 do 3 do 137 4 5 do do 149 56 6 do 113 7 8 9 do do do 79 70 48 10 11 Gas Steam 100 323 12 13 Gas Steam. 58 39 14 Gas 342 15 do 75 16 Steam. 83 17 Gas 44 18 Steam 111 19 do 272 20 21 Gas Steam 124 167 22 23 do Gas 328 250 24 do 36 25 Steam 177 26 Gas 94 27 do 89 28 Steam. 99 29 Gas 80 30 31 32 33 34 do Electric Steam do do 45 85 168 102 115 35 do 183 36 37 do do 90 218 38 do 73 39 40 41 do do Gas 239 218 218 42 43 Steam do 367 224 44 Steam 370 45 do 377 46 47 48 do do Gas 155 110 117 49 50 do Steam 281 173 51 52 53 64 Gas do Steam Gas 88 32 173 239 55 Steam 524 56 Gaa 14 57 59 Steam Gas do 267 80 116 60 Steam Totals or averages 486 2,272.1 2,568.4 1.13 66 4.96 4.38 .066 11,261 See office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 838, gations/* Irrigation and Drainage Investi- 1184 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Cost of Water Per Acre C. J. Blanchaed, ^statistician United States Beclamation Service 1. The cost per acre of water rights or of water for irrigation in the arid region, under the present conditions of construction, is far higher than is usual- ly appreciated. During earlier decades, before any considerable number of large irrigation canals had been built, it was a relatively simple and inexpensive mat- ter for farmers to join together and build small canals that could be enlarged as the demand for water increased. All such easily available opportunities, how- ever, have been utilized and development has proceeded to a point where on most of the recent irrigation systems it has been necessary to provide storage, thus adding materially to the cost. 2. There has also been a notable in- crease in the cost of labor and of ma- terials used in construction. This con- dition has been pointed out in various hearings before Congress, notably in the series before the Ways and Means Com- mittee of the House of Representatives at the time of the granting of the $20,- 000,000 loans. It is there shown, notably in a statement submitted by Representa- tive Mondell that one of the arguments for increase of the reclamation fund was in the fact that common labor had ad- vanced from the time of the preparation of the plans for works in 1903 and 1904 from 20 per cent to 50 per cent, and that the efficiency of such labor had fallen ofe in greater proportion. Costs were al- so affected by the increased price of ma- terials and equipment 3. The following table gives in con- densed form lists of some of the recently constructed and proposed larger private projects and Carey-act projects. These figures, obtained from printed reports of state engineers and public data show that on over 90 modern irrigation systems being built by private or corporate capi- tal the cost per acre averages nearly $53. This cost does not include the annual cost for operation and maintenance. 4. The cost to the settler is increased by the fact that payment is made on most of these projects in instalments bearing interest at 6 per cent or even more. The total payments made for such a water right with simple interest at 6 per cent would be about $70.50 per acre on the basis of ten equal annual instal- ments of the principal as compared to $53 without interest. COST OF miVATB IRRIGATION PROJECTS Cost of water right Name oX Project Acreage chai'ge or Company in project per acre ^ Colorado — ^Amity Canal 80,000 $100 ^Beaver Land & I. Co 20,000 175 Catlin Canal 25,000 100 Colorado Co-operative Co. 5,200 60 Denver Resv. & I. Co... 200,000 45 East Palisade I. Dist. , . 645 63 ^Fort Lyon Canal 70,000 100 *Grand Valley Canal 40,000 60 Greely Poudre I. Co 125,000 45 Mesa Co, Irrigation Dist. 2,568 73 Orchard Mesa I. Dist 0,122 110 Otero Irrigation District 20.000 40 Palisade Irrigation Dist. 6,000 41 Paradox Valley I. Co... 30,000 45 «Pueblo-Rocky B'^ord I. Co. 100,000 150 oRedlands I. & P. Co. 5,000 100 Routt Co, Dev. Co 30,000 45 S. Palisade Hghts I. Dist. 700 127 Montana — Conrad Land & Water Co 40 Great Falls Land & I, Co. 36,000 50 Nebraska — ''Belmont Canal & I. Dist. 20,000 25 Tristate Canal 60,000 42 New Measico — French Land & L Co 40,000 50 Oregon — Bonanza Project 20,000 30 Ea^le Valley 21,700 80 sTurnish 6,000 60 Paradise 300,000 60 Willamette Valley 20,000 50 South Dakota — Red Water I. Ass*n 4,000 40 Utah — Provo Reservoir ....... 12,000 80 '^XJtah Lake Pumping. . . . 8,000 40 Wa8Mn Highly eecommended: Belair; Eure- ka; Sicily; Villafranca. Recommended: Genoa, District Ho. 18 Recommended: Eureka; Lisbon; Sici- bon; Villafranca. Recommended: Genoa. LEMON DISEASES 1235 District No. 17 Recommended: Eureka; Lisbon; Sici- ly; Villafranca. LEMON DISEASES Blue and Green Mold PeniciUmm italicum and P. digitatum. See Orange Twig Blight Sclerotinia Whertiana The twigs die back from the tip in moist weather, showing to some extent a white moldy fungus upon the surface in which may be imbedded small, hard, seed-like bodies or sclerotia, at first white but finally becoming black. A mass of gum exudes at this point. This fungus, which is the same as that causing the cottony mold, occasionally infects the tree itself, both with lemons and other citrus trees, with the effect just described. The infection comes from spores pro- duced by the growth of the fungus upon the green manure crop. Not serious. Brown Rot PytniacysUs citropMJiora A very virulent form of decay, spread- ing rapidly through the boxes from fruit to fruit. Affected specimens show a brown, rather dry decay of the rind upon which a delicate, scanty white mold de- velops when considerable moisture is present. Fruit out in the open shows no mold on the surface. Affected fruit has a peculiar odor which is very character- istic. Mostly seen in lemons held in stor- age for curing. In wet weather this de- cay often appears on the fruit while still on the tree, but it is mostly confined to that within two feet of the ground. The disease affects all kinds of citrus fruit in this manner. The fungus which causes this trouble is primarily a soil inhabitant, living nat- urally in the ground beneath the trees where its spores are produced. Orchard infection is prevented by keep- ing the trees pruned up somewhat from the ground, cultivating the soil under the trees in summer and covering it in win- ter with straw or a green cover crop. Spraying the ground under the trees in winter with thick Bordeaux mixture is also helpful. The worst infection, that of lemons in storage, is contracted in the tank of the washing machine where the water becomes extremely infectious from the presence of spores brought in with the orchard soil and dust. This is easily controlled by disinfection of the wash water with copper sulphate. Literature Bulletins 190, 218, California Experi- ment Station. Cottony Mold— White Rot Sclera tinia libertiana Causes decay of the fruit in the curing house with the production of an abund- ant white mold spreading over the lem- ons. In this mold are found irregularly- shaped, black, seed-like bodies called scle- rotia, from which another stage of the fungus develops. The same fungus also develops in the orchard soil during the rainy season and often becomes very abundant upon green-manure crops or other vegetation growing about the lem- on trees, particularly upon the vetch. The sclerotia develop upon green-manure crops or directly upon the soil, the latter during the rainy season, and out of them grow little funnel-shaped toadstool-like bodies which give off the spores of the fungus. Infection occurs in wounds in the pres- ence of moisture, generally from the washing water and usually at the stem end. Washing in bluestone solution of the same strength used for brown rot does not kill the spores. In regard to the control of this trouble, we may say that the cottony mold has had a very marked prevalence since the use of vetch as an orchard cover crop became so general. There is much ground for believing that these facts are related to one an- other, cottony mold having become more abundant on account of the opportunity given for its development in the orchard by the presence of the vetch plant, upon which it develops particularly well. 1236 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Literature Bulletins 190, 218, California Experi- ment Station. Gray Mold Botrytis vulgaris This produces a dark-colored decay of the rind, on which a dirty gray mold de- velops. The fungus is able to develop at low temperatures close to the freezing point, and sometimes causes considerable loss in fruit held in cold storage. Not ordinarily very serious. Lemoii Gummosis Characterized by the exudation of gum from the trunk of the tree just above the point of budding. The tree appears yel- low and dies when badly affected. Oc- curs on poorly drained, heavy soil, espe- cially if the point of budding is deeply covered with earth, and where the soil about the trunk is undisturbed by culti- vation. This trouble is more common on lemons than on oranges. In order to successfully control gum diseases in orchard trees, soil conditions must first of all be improved by securing drainage, removing soil from about the bud and thoroughly cultivating or dig- ging about the tree. Water must not be allowed to stand about the trunk or the soil remain continually saturated. After thus improving conditions, the tree itself may be treated by taking out narrow slits of bark on several sides of the trunk, extending from the ground up to the fork. These slits should pass through the gummy portion and also the unaf- fected bark. This will usually suffice to effect a cure if taken in time and if soil conditions are sufficiently improved. Literature Bulletins 200, 218, California Experi- ment Station. Bed Eot A curing-house trouble in which the rind develops a rusty bronze color and gradually dries down into a sunken con- dition with a dark red or black color. Cause unknown; apparently not a para- Peteca This trouble shows itself in the form of deep sunken pits in the rind of the lemon after it has been in the curing house for some time. The tissue at these spots is found to be dried and shrunken prematurely. The trouble is not serious, save in its effect upon the appearance of the fruit. Cause unknown. Wither-Tip, "Tear Stain» Colletotrichum gtoeosporioides The effects of this disease consist in a general way in a spotting of the fruit and leaves and killing back of the twigs, and an attack upon the young, newly-formed fruit, causing it to drop. Wither-tip is a trouble of quite common occurrence in Florida and probably most other citrus- growing regions. It has been known to exist in California for some time, but there has always been a question as to how much this fungus is really parasitic and how much it develops simply in a secondary manner upon tissues injured in other ways. The most pronounced effect upon lem- ons attributed to the wither-tip fungus has been a slight spotting of the fruit, the spots being quite numerous upon the exposed side of the lemons while still on the tree, each spot of small size and reddish color. Such spotting has been quite generally attributed to this fungus, and yet it may be said that in numerous efforts made to produce such an effect by direct infection with the spores of the wither-tip fungus, entire failure has al- ways been the result The fungus commonly shows itself to the eye in the form of numerous minute black dots upon the surface of dead twig tips or on dead spots on the leaf. In the latter case, starting on spots killed by fumigation, fire or other Injuries, or pos- sibly without preliminary injury on old, nearly dead leaves, the spots slowly spread in an oval form, with a yellow band between the dead and green tissue and the characteristic black dots (pycni- dia) upon the surface of the dead por- tion. Another fungus, a species of Pleospora, having a similar appearance and effect, has also been found quite abundantly on citrus trees in the northern part of the state. LEMON PESTS 1237 The wither-tip fungus is one of the commonest inhabitants of our citrus trees. Every dead twig, every fallen leaf, every leaf or twig injured by fire or any other cause, immediately becomes cov- ered with a flourishing growth of this fungus. Young lemons which fall to the ground from any cause show the same fungus upon them after a short time. It has even been found that the most healthy green leaves, if picked from the tree and placed in a moist chamber, soon become covered with this wither-tip fun- gus. Trees suffering from gum disease, gophers, drouth or any other influence which causes them to lose their vitality and begin to weaken and die back in the branches, soon develop an abundance of this organism. It is also likely that cit- rus insects, like the red spider and any other which punctures or injures the fruit, may promote the development of this fungus. All in all, our conclusion has been that it is extremely doubtful whether the wither-tip fungus ever attacks sound, un- injured, vigorous foliage, twigs or fruit, or develops at all, save in a secondary manner or following some other injury. R. E. Smith, California Experiment Station Bulletin 218. LEMOF PESTS Chaff Scale Parlatoria pergandu Comst General Appearance Small, circular, elongated, irregular scales with first exuviae near the side. Male scales are decidedly longer than broad. The color is a light gray. Life History Quite a prolific species which does not spread very rapidly. The breeding con- tinues through the summer and fall months and the broods overlap as in the other armored scales. The trunk, large and small limbs, foliage and fruits are attacked, Bistribntion This species is limited to a few locali- ties in California, having been imported from Florida. Food Plants Orange, lemon, Japonica sp. All parts of the plants and the fruits are attacked. Control Fumigation with full schedule No. 1. This is not a very difficult pest to com- ^^^- E. O. EssiG Citms or Greenhouse Mealy Bug Pseudococcus citri Risso General Appearance Small mealy-coated soft-bodied insects, from one-fourth to three-eighths inches long and two-thirds as wide. They are specially characterized by a large amount of white waxy secretion covering the bodies. There are no perceptible wax tails or appendages. Life History The eggs are deposited in loose cottony masses by the females upon the food plants, mostly during the late fall and winter months. The young upon hatch- ing move about very freely seeking suit- able feeding places upon the tender fo- liage or young fruit. The females con- tinue to move at will throughout their existence, but the young males soon spin a small white cocoon in which to pupate. Transformation requires but a short time, the two-winged males emerging when the females are about half grown. After copulation the males die and the females continue to develop for some weeks or months before egg-laying be- gins. During the spring months the young are to be found in great numbers, but by summer they have so hidden them- selves as to give the general impression that the pest leaves the trees during that period. In the fall the adults begin to deposit the large masses of eggs which make them more conspicuous. The en- tire strength of the female is converted into eggs, only the shriveled and dry skin remaining after all have been deposited. The insect naturally hibernates during the winter in the Bgg state, but due to the uneven hatching caused by the warm weather in southern latitudes, practically all stages of the young and the adult 1 O'iQ XMlOO ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE males and females may be also abundant during the winter months. Food Plants Works on a great variety of plants in- cluding the citri and cucurbits. The fruit as well as all tender growing parts of the plant are attacked. Control The control of this pest has been some- what complicated and unsatisfactory, al- though at the present time considerable or complete success attends the efforts of careful work. Without doubt the best control measure is the application of a carbolic acid emulsion spray, which should be applied plentifully, from ten to fifteen gallons to an average size tree, and under a pressure of 200 pounds. We have found that two angle "Bean Jumbo" nozzles on a 'T" to each rod give best results. Large-holed discs should be used in the nozzles to insure a coarse driving spray. If the mealy bug is present in great numbers it may be necessary to make two, three or even four applications a week or so apart. During the winter, when there are large numbers of egg-masses, or in the spring when the young are hatching, is the best time for applying the sprays. Fumigation has often given excellent killing results, but is not at all recom- mended for this pest, unless some other destructive scale insect, such as red, yel- low, black or purple scale, is present and needs that treatment. Experience lias shown that an excessive dose gives little better result than the ordinary black- seale dosage. Silver Mite of the Lemon Enopliyes oletvorus Ashm. Phptoptus oleivorus Ashm. deneral Appearance The adult mites are so small as to be invisible except with the aid of a lens. They are light yellow in color, long and pointed anteriorly with two pairs of legs near the head. The eggs are exceedingly small, circular and faintly yellow in col- or. The presence of the mite is easily told by the characteristic silvery chafing of the skin of the lemon, due to the de- struction of the oil cells. In Florida the oranges are also chafed, causing a rus- selling* Life History The eggs are deposited singly or in small clusters on the leaves or fruit. They hatch in less than a week in hot weather but require twice as long in cold weather. After several molts the mites become full grown in from two to three weeks. The young and adults feed upon the oil in the succulent parts of citrus plants, which is obtained by piercing the oil cells with their beaks. The adults are capable of rapid locomotion and move freely. They breed from spring until late fall, giving rise to many overlapping broods a year. Food Plants Works upon bark, foliage and fruits of citrus trees. In California its attacks are usually confined to the lemon. Control Same as for the citrus red spider. See Apple Pests. E. O. EssiG Lettuce Lettuce is a hardy annual, almost uni- versally grown in American gardens, and is highly esteeraed as a salad plant. It is generally grown out of doors from seed planted early in the spring, or it may be grown by a succession of plant- ings at different times during the year. It is not easily in3ured by early or late frosts. Samuel B. Green, in ^'Yegetadle Gar- dening,'' recommends the following: Yarieties There are many varieties and each year finds many additions to the list of those offered by seedsmen. In the matter of quality, those forming a head like the cabbage have the preference. Varieties that form only a bunch of leaves are largely raised by market gardeners to supply the common demand, since they are more easily grown and are less liable to injury in handling than the heading varieties. Some of the most desirable kinds are as follows: LETTUCE 1239 WMte Tennis Ball, or Boston Market A very popular market variety adapted for hotbed and early spring use only. It forms a solid head of medium size but quickly goes to seed in warm weather. Hanson Forms large solid heads and is a gen- eral favorite; excellent for spring or sum- mer use. Black-Seeded Simpson A popular forcing variety that stands well without going to seed and does not form a head but a mass of curled leaves. Orand Rapids A very desirable lettuce for forcing. It resembles Black-Seeded Simpson, but is a better shipping variety. Black-Seeded Tennis Ball A popular sort for forcing or early gar- den culture. It forms large, solid heads and is highly esteemed. Salamander A good heading sort for summer use. Bnttercnp Bright chrome yellow in color, very beautiful; tender and desirable. A popu- lar new sort. Lettuce is now being extensively grown in almost all the Northern and in some Southern states in hotbeds and marketed for winter use. Of late years this has grown to be a considerable industry. In this manner it is easily grown and the principal question is how to keep it fresh and crisp after taken from the hotbed and before it reaches the consumer. To secure this end the growing of lettuce in pots is sometimes resorted to. R. L. Watts, of the Tennessee Experiment Sta- tion, suggests the following advantages of pot culture; Advantages of Bot Cnltnre 1. The chief advantage is in making it possible to retain the succulent condi- tion of the lettuce until it reaches the table. 2. Attractiveness of heads when of- fered for sale increases prices fully one- third on the Knoxville market. 3. The handsome appearance of curled varieties is highly appreciated by those who value lettuce for garnishing pur- poses. 4. It enables grocerymen to keep a constant supply of lettuce in a perfectly fresh condition. 5. It enables the consumer to keep a supply of lettuce to be used at will. This is a very important element, for cut let- tuce should be eaten before it withers, and it is not possible by the usual method of marketing to keep the heads in a fresh condition more than a few hours. 6. A crop may be cut from the per- manent bed every month when pot cul- ture is practiced. With the usual meth- ods a crop is cut from the same space about every two months during winter and spring- 7. Pots removed from the permanent bed when the plants are ready for mar- ket may be replaced at once by pots from the sandbed— a great economy of space. The expense of pots and slight increase of labor in marketing are the only dis- advantages, but we believe the advantages mentioned above overbalance the disad- vantages and render pot culture desir- able and profitable for gardeners depend- ing upon local markets. Size of Pots It is not practicable to use pots smaller than two inches. Those exceeding three inches in size are too expensive and the balls are too large for convenient mar- H.6ijing. Effect of Bots on Yield The use of pots decreases the yield about 15 per cent. Plants grown with their roots thus confined are more com- pact but weigh less at maturity than plants set in open beds. Pot culture, then, is a disadvantage when lettuce is sold by weight or measure. The adop- tion of the system means a slight sacri- fice in quantity for quality. Value of Sodinm Mtrate in Pot Cnltnre The decrease in productiveness wheij. pot culture is employed is due to the confined and crowded condition of the roots. This difficulty can be almost en- tirely overcome by the application of con- 1240 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE centrated commercial fertilizers at inter- Tals during growth, provided potash and phosphoric acid are mixed in the soil when the pots and benches are laUed. One application of sodium nitrate should be made while the pots are plunged in sand and two after they have been set in the permanent bed. Dissolve 30 ounces of nitrate in 25 gallons of cold water and pour half a pint of the solution around each plant. The effect upon the plants is remarkable. Growth is not only has- tened but the foliage becomes darker and more healthy in appearance. Varieties for Forcing A great many varieties of lettuce are recommended for forcing purposes, but fortunately it is not difficult to decide upon a few that are entirely satisfactory for culture throughout the country. Of the headed varieties, Boston Market leads. It is almost exclusively grown in the large establishments near Boston and New York. It makes a very solid, com- pact head that generally commands re- munerative prices. Boston Market and other varieties of this class require very sandy soils to secure the best results. Grand Rapids is a favorite with many growers. It is exceedingly hardy, up- right and vigorous in growth and not liable to rot. The curled leaves form a beautiful head, rendering it especially desirable for marketing in pots. Curled Simpson and Black-Seeded Simpson have been leading forcing varie- ties for many years. They have been used largely in hotbeds and cold frames. The heads of both varieties are more compact than those of Grand Rapids but not so handsome. Black-Seeded Simpson is larger than Curled Simpson and for this reason is the more profitable when grown to be sold by measure. Adapted to Southern Conditions Lettuce is an easy plant to grow and can be had at a season when most veg- etables are scarce. There is such a de- mand for this plant that it is a luxury on many tables. Many of the varieties cannot stand the hot summer sun, but when given a little protection they may be successfully grown from September to June. The yield is influenced by the soil, but with careful management inferior soils may be changed to such a degree as to grow a satisfactory crop. The best soil for lettuce is a sandy loam, or loam underlayed with a good porous clay sub- soil and one that is well drained. With- out a clay subsoil much of the plant food will be leached out and lost. A deep sandy soil is quicker, but it must be con- stantly fed to produce good results, which makes it a soil very expensive to operate on. Care must be taken to select a soil that will not become water-sogged after a rain. Lettuce is a quick-growing crop, and requires a large quantity of humus in the soil. Well-rotted barnyard manure applied to the soil is one of the best means of adding humus to it, but this is not always available. A good compost heap is another way of securing humus. The cheapest substitute for manure is the plowing under of leguminous crops. Lettuce growers should have their soil covered with a leguminous crop of some kind, when the lettuce season is over. Unless the grower is willing to give up the time and necessary expense to bring the lettuce soil up to the above require- ments it will not pay to handle the crop. Prepare the land by broadcasting stable manure or well-rotted compost and then plow it deeply. The land should then be harrowed until the soil is in the best possible condition. These preparations should be completed at least ten days before the time to set out the plants. About one thousand pounds per acre of the fertilizer given below should be ap- plied to the soil and well incorporated with it before the plants are set: Acid Phosphate (16%) a95 lbs. Cotton Seed Meal 286 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 125 lbs. Muriate of Potash 194 lbs. Total 1,000 lbs. This is a 7-4-10 goods. The above should be used in addition to manure. When the plants begin to head apply about 150 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre. An application of 75 LETTUCE DISEASES 1241 pounds per acre should be made in about ten days. Plants are ready for setting in about six weeks from the time the seeds are sown. If the weather is warm the seed may be sown in the open, but in case cold weather prevails the hotbeds or cold frames should be used. The seed bed should be made as carefully as possible, the soil being thoroughly broken up and finely pulverized with a good supply of well-rotted manure worked into it. One ounce of seed is enough for 2,000 plants and five pounds for one acre. The seed should be sown quite shallow in drills eight inches apart in the cold frames, firming the soil above them with a board. When planting the seed in the open the drills should be 18 inches apart. The seed does not germinate readily in warm weather, therefore it is better to shade the seed bed in the middle of the day to prevent it from drying. When the plants are ready for trans- planting weed out and destroy all dis- eased and feeble plants, as weak plants will not head. In transplanting avoid setting the plants too deeply, for if the base of the leaves is set in the soil the plants are liable to rot oif or will not head. The plant should be set so that the bottom leaves will come at a level with the surface of the soil. As soon as the frames are set the beds should be well watered and shaded. When the plants have recovered from the trans- planting the shade should be removed. The plants should be kept clean and fre- quently cultivated, also well watered. The early plants will not need protection, but after November sash should be placed over them at night. It is the practice of many growers to use cloth instead of sash. The cloth is cheaper from the standpoint of the initial cost but will cost more in the long run. The latter will last two years while the sash will last twenty or more if well cared for during the summer. A better quality of lettuce can be produced under glass and the moisture conditions can be more easily controlled. There are two types of lettuce, namely, those that head and those which do not. The latter is preferred for the North Cen- tral and Western markets, while the head- ing varieties are preferred for Eastern markets. Both kinds are valuable for local markets and home use. The best varieties in each class are given below. Heading — Big Boston, Hanson, Giant White. Not Heading — Grand Rapids, Curl Simpson. Lettuce is packed in seven-eighths- bushel hampers for shipment. W. P. Williams lETTUCE DISEASES Bacterial Disease of Lettuce The characteristic symptoms of this disease are so well marked that it need not be confused with any other lettuce disease. The edge of the leaves first turn brown, and later become dried and blackened. Also the leaves become first brown spotted, the spots afterwards turn- ing black. Brown or black spots may be found along the midrib. When the lettuce begins to head, the disease gets into the head and causes what is known as black rot. The conditions which seem to favor the spread of the disease are warmth and wet weather. The infection does not always take place in the field, but may be transmitted from the seed bed. Suggestions as to Treatment This disease can be spread through the field. Diseased plants should be taken off the field and burned. Do not pull up the diseased plants and put them in the alleyways. As moisture and warm weather supply the conditions under which the disease thrives best, the beds should be kept thoroughly drained. Do not let the cov- ers down at night unless you are sure there will be frost, and raise them early in the morning as soon as the atmos- phere is warm enough. Be sure and plant the seed bed where there were no diseases the previous year. Do not set out any plants from an infected seed bed. O. F. BXJEGHER, Florida Experiment Station. 1242 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Damping' Off Gortiemm vagum This trouble is caused by a soil fungus frequently called Rhizoctonia and known teelmically as Cortictum vagum. This fungus, which is widespread, is capable of causing damping-off diseases in many different kinds of seedlings and plants. In its attack on lettuce it may either *'damp off* the young seedlings at the sur- face of the ground or, if it attacks older plants, it may produce the rosette. This condition is characterized by the failure of the center leaves to grow. Control Either steam sterilization of the soil or a treatment with formalin has been found effective. In sterilizing with form- alin, use a 5 per cent solution of the 40 per cent formaldehyde in water and drench thoroughly. Allow soil to dry before setting plants. Downy Mildew Bremta lactiwae This disease is caused by a fungus which in its life history is similar to the fungus causing the onion mildew. This disease occurs, in general, only under certain conditions favorable to the growth of the fungus. It occurs in the greenhouse or in forcing frames which are kept too warm or moist and may ordinarily be controlled by properly reg- ulating these conditions. Symptoms It is recognized by yellow areas on the upper surface of the leaf and by the white downy growth of the fungus on the lower surface. Control It is advisable to burn diseased leaves or plants and water the beds in such a way that the foliage is kept dry. Drop Bclerotmia libertiana The fungus causing this disease occurs on many different kinds of plants, and since it is a common soil organism of a type that is hard to control should be carefully guarded against. The affected plant shows no definite diseased spots- It grows slowly, finally the stem and lower leaves become watery and soon the whole plant collapses and rapidly decays. Control It is claimed that the disease can be eradicated from a bed in two years if all diseased plants are removed and de- stroyed as soon as they appear and the place is immediately drenched with Bor- deaux mixture or a solution of bluestone. This is necessary in order to prevent the sclerotia or resistant stage of the fungus from maturing. In some cases it may be easier to change or sterilize all of the soil in the bed. The disease can be held in check by the careful regulation of tem- perature and water supply. A low night temperature with constant day ventila- tion is very essential. Gray Mold Botrytis cinerea This disease is due to a common fungus and is in all essentials like the drop. After the plant has collapsed, a gray mold appears and at this stage great numbers of spores capable of spreading the dis- ease are produced. The same control measures apply as for drop. Leaf Perforation Mar soma perforans This disease has recently been found in greenhouses in several localities in the Northwest, and as it has caused con- siderable damage in Ohio, where it was first discovered, it seems advisable for the growers to be on the lookout in order to hold it in check. Symptoms On the leaves this fungus causes spots which die and drop out. On the midrib, many sunken, elongated spots are pro- duced. A plant once affected seldom ever recovers and the new leaves are mis- shapen and unsalable. The spores of the fungus are often scat- tered by watering or air currents. They are produced in great numbers on the spots of dead leaf tissue which fall out. Control It is claimed that Bordeaux mixture can be used in the seed beds and on seed- lings to keep the disease down, but if LIME— LIMB DISEASES AND PESTS 1243 infestation becomes serious, thorough fumigation of the houses and soil sterili- zation will he profitable. F. D. Bailet Leaf Spot Beptona consimUis E. & M. The leaf-spot fungus is frequently upon wild lettuce plants and occasionally upon outdoor lettuce, especially in late seasons. The small characteristic leaf spots are not difficult to distinguish from anthrac- nose. The remedies are confined to avoid- ance. Tip Burn Tip burn of lettuce leaves is often brought to notice. Usually it is asso- ciated with unsatisfactory watering in the greenhouse, or with extreme changes to summer weather. The remedy consists in the methods of watering employed. Bibliography 1910. Stevens & Hall, Diseases of EconomiG Plants, 1909. Duggar's Flant Diseases. 1910. Ohio Experiment Station, Bulle- tin No. 214. 1911. North Carolina Technical Bulle- tin 8. Lettuce CuLTxmE m Alaska. See AlasJca. Lime The lime, Citrus medica, is a small tree of the orange family. Its fruit resembles the lemon in appearance and character but it is much smaller and is not so ex- tensively cultivated because not so gen- erally in demand. There are two varieties, the sour lime, var, acida, and the sweet lime, var. Limet- ta. The juice of the lime is acid tonic and considered a preventive of and rem- edy for scurvy. The sailors of the British navy are sometimes called "lime juicers" because the law reauires that the crews be fur- nished with a weekly allowance of lime juice or lemons as a preventive of scurvy. Varieties recommended for the districts where grown: (For Map of Districts, see page 192.) District Ko. 6 Highly ebcommended — Dessert, Kitchen and Market: Rangpur. Recommended — Kitchen: Turanj. Bistrict IVo. 17 Recommended — Mexican. Bistrict IVo. 18 Recommended — Imperial; Mexican. LIME DISEASES ANB BESTS For the most part the lime is attacked by the same diseases and pests as attack lemons and oranges, which see. Biplacus Ceroputo Ceroputo yuccae Coq. General Appearance This insect is continually mistaken for the regular mealy bugs belonging to the genus Pseudococcus. It differs in having a tooth on the inner surface of the claw, and a row of spine-groups on each side. The cottony covering is very dense and arranged in broad segmental plates. The males are nearly half an inch long, with dark and orange-colored bodies, and long anal filaments. The cocoons are elliptical in shape, white in color and scattered among the females. Life History The young are born alive and soon se- crete wax enough to completely cover them. The broods appear in the late spring and early summer, and are espe- cially abundant during the months of April, May, June and July. The males mature when the females are about two- thirds grown; the life period of the fe- males being from three to five months. This species lives under the ground on roots of black sage, Ramona stachyoides, and above ground on other plants. As an aerial form it does not appear until late in the season. The adults in all probability hibernate under ground in winter. Food Plants Black sage, banana, orange, lime. Natural Enemies Coguillett bred an internal parasite from specimens taken in Los Angeles county. This he named Blast othrix yuc- cae Coq, E. O. Essig 1244 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Liquid Manure Tank Liquid manure tanks, whicb. can be built at a very small cost, have proved tlieir worth not only by improving the sanitary conditions around tlie barns but by benefiting the soiL The first one erect- ed in Pierce county, Washington, cost $100. The tank is built of concrete and coarse gravel, the walls being 8 inches thick. The tank may be built any length to suit the dairyman. One of the most successful ones in Tacoma is 65 feet long, 36 feet wide and 7 feet deep. All of the urine and manure from the dairy is run through pipe connections to the tank together with about 60 per cent of water. When opportunity comes to put the liquid manure on the soil, it is necessary to empty the water-tight tank by means of a pump into a tank wagon with low wheels. Or if the tank is built on a side hill, a pump may not be neces- sary. A perforated pipe is built on the rear of the wagon, extending about 2 feet on either side of the wheels. The perforations are about a half inch in dameter, and the pipe is about 4 inches in diameter. By means of a lever, the driver can regulate the flow. The concrete tanks ought to be con- structed about 50 feet from the barn, and if possible so situated that it would only be necessary to drain the fluid from the receptacle into the wagon. By means of a screen any obstacle that will tend to clog the perforations in the pipe on the rear of the wagon may be eliminated. It has been found that the urine is just as valuable for fertilizer as the manure, and the liquid fertilizer is much easier to handle. Dr. S. a. Rhoades, Tacoma. Wash. LoiranbeiTV The loganberry is a hybrid originated by crossing the Red Antwerp raspberry with the Aughinbaugh blackberry. It has come to be regarded as of consider- able commercial importance and is re- garded by many fruit growers as one of the most profitable fruits. lOGANBERRY CULTURE IN THE WILLAMETTE YALLEY Britt Aspinwall Used by special permission of the Pacific Horticultural Correspondence School, Port- land, Oregon Copyilglited, all rights reserved Before going into the loganberry bus- iness on a commercial basis it is import- ant that that the followmg requisites be observed: (1) Selection of soil, (2) proper drain- age, (3) right proportions for yard, (4) camping facilities for pickers, (5) pro- tection from fi^osts, (6) shipping facili- ties, (7) wood, (8) good plants. Selection of Soil (1) I prefer a deep, rich, dark loam soil; bottom land is usually richer than upland, especially the silt soils near the rivers, but as much of it has a gravelly subsoil it is harder to keep the moisture near the surface by cultivation than on the upland prairie soil. Loganberries do fairly well on the red hill land but not so well as on black loam. Proper Drainage (2) Drainage is very important, as loganberries will soon die out where the water stands around the roots for sever- al days at time. As the rows should run north and south it is best to select land that drains either to the north or south, if surface drainage is used, so the water will run off between the rows during the winter. If there is not good surface drainage, or if it drains to the east or west, the land should be tiled. Right Proportions for Yard (3) This is a point that is many times overlooked. I have seen loganber- ries set out with the rows from 40 to 60 rods long, making it unhandy in every way about picking and carrying out the berries. We find that rows from 45 to 50 hills long are the most convenient in picking, as it gives the pickers only a short distance to carry the berries to the ends of the rows. We always set them out leaving a 16-foot road through the middle, and rows of the above length on each side of the road, so as to build the packing sheds and evaporators in the middle of the yard and work across the LOGANBERRY—CULTURE IN THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY 1245 road so as to save as mucli turning as possible with, tlie teams. Camping Facilities for Pickers (4) This is important in every large yard where pickers have to come and camp. It is much easier to get pickers to come where they have a good place to camp in the shade, as the picking season is during the hottest part of the year when families are glad to get out of the cities and camp out. Convenience to the yard, good water and dry wood are all important in getting and keeping pick- ers. Protection from Frosts (5) The ordinary precautions observed in selecting a site for an orchard should be taken here. Where a yard is pro- tected by trees it is less apt to freeze during a hard winter or late spring than in the open. Shipping Facilities (6) This is important, especially if the berries are to be shipped fresh, as hauling them over rough roads makes them settle and bruises them so they will spoil sooner; besides, it is considerable expense to haul for several miles to a shipping point. It is much more con- venient to get pickers when near a sta- tion, as they usually come a few at a time for several days until the berries get ripe enough to keep a full force busy picking them. Wood (7) Wood on the place is important if the berries are to be evaporated, as it requires about a cord or a little more for each ton of evaporated berries. It is also necessary to have wood for camp- ers to burn. GfoocL Plants (8) It is almost impossible to make a success of raising loganberries without good plants to start with. It is important that they have good roots and are set out without becoming wilted or heated. There are two kinds of plants sold, viz.: eye or bud plants and tip plants, which are obtained by burying only the tip end of the vine, in the fall of the year. These make a much stronger plant and are the only kind that should be set out. Transplants are young plants that are nurseried out m the sprmg of the year and have one year's growth; but I pre- fer a good tip plant to anything else as it is not stunted by being grown one year in a row too crowded, and when once started the roots are not disturbed. If it is practicable the plants should be dug with a little dirt on the roots and set out as soon as possible. Where good plants are not obtainable close enough so they can be hauled they should be packed in good condition so they will neither heat nor dry out before arriving at destination. Where shipment is made for some distance transplants are pre- ferred by some growers. Preparation of Gronnd For the best success the ground should be plowed in the fall and again in the spring and thoroughly worked up and put in the best of condition. Do not try to rush matters and work the ground after the plants are set out, but get it in good shape larst. The fall plowing should be from 10 inches to a foot deep and in the spring about six or eight inches deep. After it is all prepared in good condition, mark both ways with a marker, making the rows eight feet each way and set out where they cross. This is the fastest way, as one man can dig holes with a shovel for about five to set out, setting out in good condition about six acres a day. Some use a wire for lining up the rows, which is a good plan on a small yard but is much slower. In setting them out take a good shovel- ful of dirt out and put the plant in, spreading the roots out in good order and packing the dirt in around them by hand, so as to keep them from drying out. Af- ter the plants are set out they should be worked both ways during the first summer once each week with a disc har- row or spring-tooth, followed by a clod masher when the weather is at all dry. It is best never to try to raise anything between the rows the first year, as it is harder to cultivate during the summer, and in harvesting the crop the vines are usually injured to considerable extent; besides scarcely any two crops need cul- 1246 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE tivating at exactly the same time. The vines will not make much of a growth until about the first of August, when they will shoot out over the ground making vines sometimes 20 to 30 feet long before the first of Octoher. As soon as the vines begin to grow out in the way, so as to bother with the cultivation, they should be turned lengthwise of the rows and the ground cultivated only one way. Then is a good time to commence setting the posts in the rows so as to get them all in and the wires up before the first of October, when it is best to train them up. In setting the posts use good strong posts, preferably cedar, seven feet long, and set them not over 32 feet apart in rows and two feet in the ground. This makes a five-foot trellis. Three No. 12 galvanized wires, placing them 20 inches apart with the last one on top of the posts, are used. The end posts should, be anchored good, as there will be a heavy strain on the wires when the vines are loaded with ripening fruit or during the winter if they get covered with snow. The cost per acre for setting out logan- berries, figuring labor at $2.00 per day, is as follows: Cost of plowinfif (twice) and fitting land $ G OO Cost of Rottini? 680 plants (each man one acre) 2 OO Ahont 180 cedar posts at 10c 18.00 500 potmds galvanized wh*e at He... 15 00 Dti^ffinj* h'ios and anchoring end posts 5 OO IlanUnsr In and setting: posts 3,00 ??(ret<»hinc: wire and stapling: f^ OO Dead men for anchoring and staples . . . l.OO $53 OO Of course this will be increased by an advance in the price of posts, wire or labor, or on the other hand decreased by a decline of prices, but I think it ia a fair estimate of the average cost. The cost of plants will vary in different years and will also be governed as to whether tips or yearling transplants are used. XFiUulUg XIIG VlIiCS The first year the vines should be trained upon the wires the latter part of September or during October. In. training them up the first year a num- ber of the shorter canes will have to be tied to the wires to keep them up, but after the first year they can be trained without tying by wrapping them around the wires. In training spread the vines out covering as much space as possible and avoid bunching them on the wires, as it will bother in picking the berries if the vines are bunched. The top wire will carry most of the weight and we run the vines out on this wire and the sec- ond one, turning the ends down just enough to hold them good unless more plants are wanted, when they will have to be trained with the tips down to the ground so they can be covered in the fall. To secure plants from the vines train them with the tips to the ground and cover about three inches deep about the first of October, They will take root in the fall and make good strong plants for setting out in March or April. They may be covered by plowing a furrow to them, if the tips are nearly even, or with trowels. Cultivation After the vines are all trained up in good order the land should be plowed, throwing the dirt to the vines. Plow the first two rounds with one horse on a vine- yard plow and the last one should be made with a team on a heavier plow. Next to the vines it should be plowed shallow so as to not injure the roots, but the dead furrow in the center should be quite deep so as to afford good drain- age during the winter. Leave the ground in this condition without harrowing un- til spring. In the spring of the year as soon as the land is in good condition to work, plow it, throwing the dirt to the center of the row. The last furrow should be shallow and close to the rows so as to save as much hoeing as possible. Follow the plow with a harrow to keep the ground from drying out, then hoe out all the weeds in and between the hills. This may be done either by hand or with a horse hoe. The horse hoe is more practicable in a large yard as it saves considerable time and expense. Af- ter hoeing follow up with a disc harrow, throwing the dirt toward the vines, level- ing it down. After this keep it worked during the summer with a disc harrow and spring-tooth harrow or something LOGANBERRY CULTURE IN THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY 1247 similar once each week, followed each time with a clod masher to keep a dust mulch on the surface. They should be worked up till about the middle of July and the last time should be gone through with a disc harrow to throw the dirt up to the rows and between the hills so as to keep them from drying out. Picking Picking season will start in about the 20th of June, but it is sometimes a week or ten days earlier or as much later. It will last about six weeks. If the ber- ries are to be shipped to the market fresh they will have to be picked very firm, but if they are to be evaporated they must be left on the vines until fully ripe as they will dry heavier and make a better fruit if fully ripe. It requires about five good pickers for each acre. Everything should be in readiness before picking starts, plenty of wood and water for the pick- ers, carrier for picking into, etc. A good yard boss is also very important. One who knows just how the berries should be picked and can get along with the pickers is the kind to have. He must be able to get through the yard several times a day. The rows should all be numbered so the yard boss can keep a book of just which row each picker is on and know who is respon- sible if any berries are skipped. If they are to be shipped to the cannery or to the market fresh, a good packing shed should be provided in the center of the yard so as to make it convenient f6r the pickers to bring in the berries. The cost of picking is about $20 per ton of fresh fruit. Pickers are paid 5-6 of a cent per box for the first two weeks of picking, 1 cent per box for the next two weeks and 1% cents for the bal- ance of the season. As the berries are a little thinner at the last of the sea- son than at the beginning this makes an average price of about 1 cent per box. This method of paying gives the pickers who stay through the season as good pay as though they received a cent a box straight through, but those who quit after picking a few days get less pay for what they have done and any that have to be engaged later in the season get more pay as the berries get thinner on the vines. Each picker is numbered and has a ticket with a place for the picker's number at the top and figures running from one to 12 down through the center with the grower at the bottom. The check men punch out the number of boxes picked, giving a new check with only one hole punched each time. Three colors are used, one for each price paid for picking. Each color is also marked whether 5-6 of a cent, or 1 cent or 1% cents per box. The check man puts the picker's number on each ticket with an indelible pencil. We also number the carriers, so we can at any time check against the picker by keeping tab every few days when dirty berries are found. Pick in the common hallock, either square or good tin tops, and use car- riers to hold 12 of them. The carriers should be as light as possible and have tight bottoms. Use %-inch stuff for the ends and %-inch for the sides and bot- toms. If they are built with the end pieces 5 inches high and the handles about 9% inches high they will easily stack up as well as when crated, which is very important when they must be piled on the platform of the dryer so as to have enough to run through the night. When evaporating the berries there should be at least four carriers for each picker, but when they are to be packed and shipped fresh two will do, as they are emptied much faster and none have to be left for storing the berries for night work. We use two-wheeled spring carts with a bed large enough to pile 12 car- riers on the bed and as many can be piled on top as can be handled. The check men take this cart up the road through the center of the yard and load on the berries as fast as btought to the ends of the rows, giving checks for them; when loaded they return to the evapora- tor or packing shed and unload, loading up with empties while the other one is being loaded. This keeps the pickers in the yard out of the way, and two men 1248 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE can handle ttie berries for 100 or 125 pickers in this way if everything is con- venient In large yards of 100 acres or more the hauling could probably be done better and cheaper with a flat-top spring wagon or an auto truck. A good average crop of loganberries, taking it one year with another for sev- eral years, is about four tons or a lit- tle more of fresh fruit to the acre, al- though with proper care on good land they frequently yield as high as six or seven tons. Evaporation There are several kinds of evaporators, but I prefer either a stack or tunnel dry- er. A good stack dryer with a good lift is very good and will give good service, but is more expensive than a tunnel dry- er. There are many different styles of tun- nel dryers built, but unless one knows just what kind he wants he should get an experienced man to make the plans and build it, as it is necessary to get them about right to get the best results. It requires about 30 trays 25x42 inches to handle the berries from an acre of land. The trays should be made of 4- mesh galvanized gray cloth and be well braced to keep them from sagging. Three or 3%-mesh cloth will do, but if the finer mesh can be obtained it will be more satisfactory. It requires from 20 to 30 hours to dry loganberries with the heat at about 140 degrees. A man who understands the business should be in charge of the drying, as it 1? an easy matter to spoil several dollars worth of berries in a very few minutes' time. Af- ter the berries are evaporated they should be binned in a dark bin and shoveled over each day till they do not pack any more or they will pack and mold. It requires from 5 to 5% pounds of fresh loganberries to make one pound evaporated, depending largely on the con- dition of the fruit when picked. If it is a little green it will take more pounds of fresh fruit than if fully ripe when picked. The cost of evaporation is va- riously estimated at from $30 to $75 per ton of evaporated fruit Of course it de- pends largely on the size of the evapor- ators and the amount of fruit handled, but I believe the cost for evaporating in a yard of 20 acres or more can be re- duced to $40 per ton or lower by run- ning a double 12-hour shift, using three men in the day and two at night. It would probably require a little extra help some days during the busiest part of the season and less help to wind up with. The daily output from a 20-acre yard will average about 1,000 pounds of evap- orated berries daily, of course running considerably more during the heaviest picking and less during the fore and lat- ter parts of the season. It takes a lit- tle over a cord of wood to the ton of evaporated fruit, and the man in charge of the drying for each shift will prob- ably ask about $4.00 per day of 12 hours and the other help can usually be had for $2 00 or $2.50 per day. We run our shifts from midnight till noon, except the regular day help. The cost of a good stack dryer for a yard of 10 acres would be about $1,000, depending, of course on the kind of build- ing put up and cost of material, and a tunnel dryer would be probably $200 less. For an acreage of 15 acres or more I would recommend a tunnel dryer, as the cost is considerably less and the cost of handling the fruit is also less. The cost of a tunnel dryer for an acreage of 20 acres or more can be figured at about $50 for each acre of berries. A dryer with 10 34-foot tunnels should handle 50 acres if the tunnels are built with a drop of 1% or 2 inches to the foot and with a good draught. Pruning Tines As soon as the picking season is over and the old vines are ripe they should be cut ofe at the ground and pulled out, throwing them between the rows where they can be cut up by running over them several times with a sharp disc harrow. As soon as the old vines are out the new ones should be trained up on the wires ready for the next crop. If this is done soon after picking it is much easier, as LOGANBERRY CULTURE IN THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY 1249 the vines grow fast in the fall of the year, and the sooner it is done the few- er vines there are to handle. If the vines are to be tipped they should be trained down within about 12 or 14 inches of the ground so they will grow about the right length before tipping, but if no more plants are wanted they should be run out on the wires. As soon as they are trained the old vines should be cut up ready for the land to be plowed after the first rains in September. The cost of cutting out the old vines and training up the new ones is about $12 per acre each year if done the first thing after picking. If they are left for some time afterward the expense will be considerably more owing to the extra growth the new vines have taken on. One of the most important things in connection with loganberry culture is the cutting out of the old vines. This should be done as soon as possible after the picking season is over, as they are taking the strength out of the roots that should go into the new vines for the next year's crop, and if there is any dis- ease in them it is spreading to the new vines. If they are taken out early and disked up in the rows I think there is very little danger of any disease spread- ing from them, and they make a good fertilizer. Some growers have resorted to spraying their vines for anthracnose, but a close inquiry reveals the fact that the new canes were left lying on the ground during the winter, where they are far more susceptible to disease than when trained up on the trellis. The cost of spraying is said to be about $1 per acre when put on in good shape with a power sprayer. As stated before, how- ever, if the vines are cut out as soon as possible after picking, and the new ones trained upon the trellis so as to disc up the old ones and plow them under, I think there will be no need for spraying for several years to come. Some growers are also taking the old vines out and burning them, but I think this is a mistake and an unnecessary expense. Most of the land in the Willamette Loganberry Field, Showing Method of Trellising. — Courtesii Southern Pacific Railroad Co. 2—38 1250 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE valley will raise loganberries if they are properly handled, but unless they are to be well cared for they had bet- ter not be set out at all, as a little mismanagement in the work, such as not setting them out when the ground is in the best of condition, or working them at the proper time, will result disas- trously and it requires only a few days to set them back a great deal. Unless one has had experience he should get some experienced man to handle his yard the first year at least, if he goes into the business very extensively. It re- quires good judgment to grow loganber- ries the same as it does to make a suc- cess with an orchard, and as every sea- son is different no one rule will work every year. There is at the present time a great and growing demand for canned and evaporated loganberries, besides for the juice, and as the Willamette valley is the most ideal place that can be found for their culture it promises well to be one of the leading horticultural industries here in the future. When loganberries are shipped to the market fresh they seem to sell best in the 24-box double crates. These cost about 15 cents each, including crates and hallocks. They should be packed with care, being careful not to set the top boxes on any of the berries in the low- er ones so as to bruise them and make them leak, as they will present a very unsightly appearance when they arrive at destination if bleeding much. In pack- ing them it is not necessary to face them as in strawberries, but see that the boxes are well filled and put into the crate properly. Evaporated berries are packed in one- pound paper boxes with 24 or 36 to the case, and in bulk in 10, 25 and 50-pound boxes. The trade apparently takes to them better in bulk than in the one- pound boxes. The cost of boxes, waxed paper for lining, and labor in packing in bulk is about $40 per ton for the evaporated berries. LOGANBERRY JUICE C. I. Lewis, Used by special permission of the Pacific Iloiticultuial Correspondence School, Port- land, Oregon Copyrij?hted, all rights reserved No phase of horticulture on the Pacific coast has attracted so much comment, and favorable comment, the past two years, as the loganberry, and the rest of the nation has been aroused to the true merits of this berry. We are realizing that we have a new food, so to speak. The merits of the loganberry have been realized largely from the fact that it could be canned successfully, and made a most excellent pie; that it could be easily evaporated, and that it made a most ex- cellent jelly. Not until recently, how- ever, have we realized that probably the greatest asset was its juice. Loganberry juice is being pronounced by experts wherever tried as superior to grape juice. We know that a wonderful business has been built up in the manu- facture of grape juice. It would seem, therefore, that a splendid opportunity is presented to Pacific coast growers in the manufacture of loganberry juice. This beverage is very refreshing and healthful, easy to manufacture, and easy to keep. The organic acids of the logan- berry seem to be very largely self-pre- servative, much more so than those found in any other berry. The manufacture of loganberry juice is as yet in the experi- mental stage. It is being manufactured almost entirely for home use, there being but a few firms who are attempting to manufacture it commercially, and the next few years should demonstrate to us the proper technique to employ in the manufacture of the juice. Experiments will demonstrate the real value of the loganberry as a commercial asset. In considering the loganberry juice I would make three divisions: First, bev- erage^ for home manufacture, or to be sold in bottles for home consumption. Second, a syrup for soda-fountain trade in the East. Third, special concentrated juices for the use of caterers. All three of these fields are very large and any one of them could be made to use the juice from a large acreage. LOGANBERRY DISEASES AND PESTS—LOUISIANA 1251 Home Mamifacture of Juices The simplest way to make loganberry 3uiee that we have ever tried is the fol- lowing* Place just enough water in the bottom of a kettle to cover the loganber- ries. Heat nearly to the boiling point, but do not allow to boil. Stir them oc- casionally and crush them if possible. After they become soft strain the mix- ture through a cloth jelly bag. Allow the mixture to drip thoroughly, putting the juice back on the stove and adding one- third sugar by measure. Again heat the juice up to about 200 degrees and bottle. Drive in the corks tight and cover with paraffin. Such juice can probably be kept indefinitely, as I have kept it at least two years. This is a heavy juice and will need to be greatly diluted before drinking. From one-half inch to an inch of this juice in the bottom of a glass of water is a beverage of sufficient strength. In mak- ing punches the addition of the juice of four lemons to each gallon adds to the quality. Recipe No. 2. This is being used by a grower in Southern Oregon. The juice is made very largely as Recipe No. 1, ex- cept that before final bottling the juice is allowed to stand for about nine days, when it slightly ferments and has the snap of sweet cider after it begins to work a little. Some people prefer a beverage of this nature. Recipe No. 3. This to put up the juice absolutely without any cooking. To do this a fruit press should be used to ex- tract the juice. All bottles and utensils used should be sterilized. This is not the best process for the average person to use as most of the juice will spoil. Recipe No. 4. Heavy syrups. Caterers who have made punches find that if in- stead of adding one-third of the measure of sugar, we add about eleven pounds of sugar to each gallon of juice that a very heavy syrup results; that the sugar tends to set the flavor of the berry and that this amount of sugar tends to result in a better flavor than where a small amount of sugar is used. It is claimed by some that this preparation will keep without cooking. When this is diluted it makes a most excellent punch, especially where the juice of about four lemons is added to the gallon of the liquid. Commercial Manufacture of Jxiices The commercial manufacture of logan- berry juice is in its infancy. Little in- formation as to the amount of juice which can be obtained from an acre is obtain- able. One man has reported that he has obtained 90 per cent juice. If this is so the average yield of juice from an acre would be tremendous. The commercial manufacture of loganberry juice would be very similar to that of apple cider and grape juice. The machinery, etc., used in making sweet apple juice, or carbon- ated apple juice, would be applicable to the manufacture of loganberry juice. Of course you must use great care to have all the buildings and all instruments sterilized and to keep the juice in cold storage after bottling. Probably a small amount of cooking, sweetening and bot- tling, much along the lines indicated in Recipe No. 1 for home use, would be one of the principal ways for utilizing logan- berry juice. Those who like a carbonated drink could very easily carbonate the juice. For shipping east in all probability the best line for us to experiment along will be that of making heavy syrups, that we can ship in barrels or kegs and have the eastern people either bottle this for the soda-fountain trade or for caterers. For a method for holding berries for soda-fountain trade, see Method of Hold- ing Fresh Berries, under Storage. lOailVBEEEY DISEASES AWD PESTS The loganberry is attacked by much the same list of diseases and pests as the related raspberry and blackberry. The diseases and pests of loganberry will be found listed under the above plants. Peosted Scale. See Apricot Pests, Louisiana Louisiana is one of the largest and one of the most important of the Southern states and has the most important sea- board city of the South. It was said by Napoleon Bonaparte that whoever held New Orleans held the key to North Ameri- 1252 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ca. Tlie Mississippi river, with its im- mense volume of water, flows in a wind- ing way along the western border of the state for a considerable distance, then across the southeastern corner of- the state, leaving 37,000 square miles on the west side of the river and 4,346 on the east. This river flows through allu- vial soils of low elevation, requiring the protection of levees, of which there are 1,500 miles. The coast line of the delta and eastward consists of lands little above sea level, intersected by small tracts of elevated prairies and low ridges covered with live-oaks. North and westward the land rises until in the northern part of the state the hills attain a height of 500 feet. The entire state was formerly an an- cient gulf whose shores at one time touched Cairo, 111., which has been grad- ually filled in by the deposit brought down by the Mississippi. The climate is semi-tropical. In sum- mer the mercury reaches 105 degrees. In winter it seldom drops far below the freezing point, but occasionally there are heavy snows, and in the winter of 1895 the mercury fell to 9 degrees above zero. This being 23 degrees belov'^ freezing point, great damage was done to the crops and especially to the orange groves. This, of course, was extreme and does not occur once in a generation, but the mer- cury often falls to the point of danger. The prevailing winds are from the ocean and Gulf, which for the most part fur- nishes protection from the cold. The rainfall varies from 40 to 60 inches, ac- cording to the location. Less than two-fifths of the land area is under cultivation and the principal crops are sugar-cane, cotton, corn and rice. Judging by the ease with which the fields could be irrigated from the river beds that are higher than the sur- rounding lands, it is possible that Louis- iana may in the future produce enormous quantities of rice. The sandy hills of the uplands in the northern part of the state will successfully grow apples, peaches, pears, plums and cherries that are se- lected with reference to a southern cli- mate, but it is too far south to grow the best-keeping varieties of apples and place them on the market in competition with those grown in the northern sections. Further south in the central portion of the state are the bluff-lands that produce peaches, plums, berries and immense quantities of vegetables. In the Gulf re- gion lemons, oranges, persimmons, figs and bananas are grown successfully. How- ever, it should be borne in mind that there is danger from what is called northers, or cold waves. Hundreds of acres are planted to strawberries in all parts of the state and this fruit is ship- ped in carload lots to the northern mar- kets, where it brings very profitable re- turns. Soil * The bluff soils of Louisiana are not friendly to all fruits. Being tenacious of moisture as well as highly fertile, some of the soil tends to produce excessive vegetation rather than heavy fruiting. The fruits belonging to the more tem- perate regions do not possess full hardi- ness so far as Louisiana conditions are concerned. They become weakened by climatic influences and soon become a prey to various insect and fungus at- xacjBis. Another serious drawback is the uncer- tain character of the seasons. An open winter may induce very early blooming and subsequent frost will then kill the fruit. Measures adopted in Northern states for retarding the blooming period are not applicable here. Another source of trouble is the ten- dency of some trees -to overbear. This no doubt is the most prominent cause of the early death of some trees. The only remedy for this is to thin the fruit thoroughly and systematically, a thing that very few people, outside the com- mercial orchardists, ever practice. To meet losses sustained, it is neces- sary to plant some fruit trees every year, so that as they bear and commence to fail, new trees will come into bearing and supply plenty of fruit. ♦Bulletin No. 112, Ajyri cultural Experiment Station, Baton Eougre, La. MAINE 1253 Cultivation in the Station orchard has consisted in keeping the orchard as clean as possible, and no fertilization has been given except an occasional crop of peas. Frequent use of the cultivator, and plow- ing when necessary, has accomplished this fairly well. In the rainy portion of the summer it has been difficult to fol- low, and it is probable that some injury may have resulted by later cultivation, which seemed to be necessary. Geanville Lowther Frost and Precipitation in Louisiana Frost Precipitation Average Date of Date of Station First Killing in Autumn Last in Spring First in Autumn Last in Spring Annual inches Shreveport ... Monroe Lake Providence Alexandria Melville Baton Rouge Amite Lake Charles New Ileria New Orleans Port Eads Nov. 11 Nov. 7 Nov. 8 Nov. 8 Nov. 3 Nov. 21 Nov. 6 Nov. 28 Nov. 30 Dec. 15 Dec. 20 Mar. 4 Mar. 15 Mar. 14 Mar. 12 Mar. 12 Feb. 28 Mar. 16 Feb. 24 Feb. 24 Jan. 24 Ja.n. 26 Oct. 20 Oct. 10 Oct. 15 Oct. 19 Oct. 10 Oct. 27 Oct. 19 Nov. 4 Nov. 3 Nov. 11 Dec. 5 April 2 Mar. 29 Mar. 30 April 9 Mar. 29 Mar. 20 April 1 Mar. 29 Mar. 20 Mar. 27 Mar. 17 46.1 47.5 50.9 54.9 53.6 54.6 60.1 53.3 53.7 57.6 55.2 LiTELLiNG, Henderson. See History of Orcharding in Old Oregon, under Apple. Maine The surface of the state of Maine is gently rolling, forming a part of the "New England Uplands." Above these uplands rise isolated mountain peaks and clusters of peaks from 3,000 to 5,200 feet in height in contrast with numerous river valleys, level uplands and lakes, making a setting of beautiful scenery, which, together with its cool climate, invites many summer visitors with tents, cottages and summer homes to many parts of the state. The needs of this summer population have given a new impulse to market gardening and horti- culture, especially of the varieties of fruits adapted to the summer markets. Geologists say that there was a period of general uplift which caused the rivers to cut below the general uplands and de- veloped well-marked valleys for them- selves. Then came the period of great continental glaciation. The glacier or ice sheet overran all Maine, irregularly scouring out the bedrock to produce rock basins, damming up many river valleys with glacial deposits and completely dis- arranging the drainage lines. This is the origin of the numerous lakes in Maine, the largest of which is Moosehead lake of about 120 square miles, making possible the production of fruits which would otherwise be too tender for that latitude. The principal commercial fruit of Maine is the apple, of which, according to the census of 1910, there were 3,476,- 616 trees. The census of 1900 showed 4,184,781, showing a decrease in the num- ber of trees of 708,165. The counties producing the largest number of bearing trees are: Oxford, 444,529; Kennebec, 409,593,* Androscog- gin, 376,746; Franklin, 374,464; Penob- scot, 283,223; Cumberland, 269,658; Sum- merset, 258,985; York, 237,242; Waldo, 206,251. 1254 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Of peaches and nectarines there are reported for the state 5,102 trees, of which York county has 3,068. Of pears there are reported for the state 46,683; plums and prunes, 43,561; cherries, 2,403, and grapes, 9,731 vines. The total number of acres of small fruit is 1,260, distributed as follows: Strawberries, 698; raspberries and logan- berries, 127; blackberries and dewberries, 145; cranberries, 151. Mr. G. M. Twitchell, president of the Maine State Pomological Society, says: "Maine is a natural apple-growing state and trees spring up wild in every local- ity. This being so, the first thought with the future orchardist will be to avail himself of the strength, vitality and en- during power of selected native stock. If this leads to the establishment of nurseries in Maine, a long step will be taken towards results now impossible. Supplied as the farms through the fruit section are so generally with bearing tre«s, I am forced to the conviction that before we urge further increase we should emphasize better treatment of what we have. The man who fails to care for his old trees will never give proper at- tention to a new orchard. The steady increase of pests and diseases, brought here largely on fruit stock, forces atten- tion to the trees now standing and their protection in every way possible. Be- yond this there is call for an organized movement to cut down and burn every worthless tree or those so situated as to be of no earning value. These har- boring spots for all pests and disease spores must be reduced to the utmost that the cost of protection to growing orchards may be minimized. It is de- sired that this end be reached without drastic legislation, but the protection must in some way be insured. The de- velopment of the industry outweighs the wish of any individual and must be the sole standard. The apple industry is worth to Maine from two to three mil- lion dollars yearly. If the trees now standing and of bearing age were looked after and protected from insect pests and diseases, this total would be more than doubled." Granville Lowthek Productfon of Fruits in Maine Small Fruits—1909 and 1899 The following table shows data with regard to small fruits on farms. CROP Small IVuits, total Strawberries Blackberries and dewberries. , Raspberries and loganberries. Currants. Gooseberries Cranberries other berries Number of farms reporting 1909 3,464 1,464 1,051 1,076 824 536 103 Acres 1909 1,260 698 145 127 80 59 151 1899 1,585 612 123 131 31 30 90 Quantity (quarts) 1909 2,285,415 1,626,250 153,816 164,121 76,031 65,867 100,192 109,138 Value 1909 $233,124 168,847 JLu, oiiX 20,667 6,986 5,881 7,967 6,865 lAcres reported in small fractions. Strawberries are by far the most im- portant of the small fruits grown in Maine, with raspberries and loganberries ranking next, closely followed by black- berries and dewberries. The total acre- age of small fruits in 1909 was 1,260, and in 1899, 1,585, a decrease of 20.5 per cent. The production in 1909 was 2,285,000 quarts, as compared with 1,705,000 quarts in 1899, and the value $233,000, as com- pared with $158,000. Orchard Fruits, G^rapes and Huts — 1909 and 1899 The next table presents data with re- gard to orchard fruits, grapes and nuts. The acreage devoted to these products was not ascertained. In comparing one MAINE 1255 year with the other the number of trees or vines of bearing age is on the whole a better index of the general changes of tendencies than the quantity of product, but the data for the censuses of 1910 and 1900 are not closely comparable and the product is therefore compared, although variations may be due largely to tem- porarily favorable or unfavorable climatic conditions. The total quantity of orchard fruits produced in 1909 was 3,694,000 bushels, valued at $2,208,000. Apples contributed over 98 per cent of this quantity, pears and plums and prunes most of the re- mainder. The production of grapes and nuts was relatively unimportant. The production of all orchard fruits together in 1909 was 156.7 per cent great- er in quantity than in 1899, but that of grapes decreased. The value of orchard fruits increased from $834,000 in 1899 to $2,208,000 in 1909, while that of grapes declined from $7,584 in 1899 to $6,954 in 1909. It should be noted in this connec- tion that the values for 1899 include the value of more advanced products derived from orchard fruits or grapes, such as cider, vinegar, dried fruits, and the like, and may therefore involve some duplica- tion, while the values shown for 1909 relate only to the products in. their orig* inal condition. CROP Orchard Fruits, total. Apples Peaches and nectarines . . . Pears Plums and prunes Cherries Apricots Quinces Mulberries Unclassified Grapes. Nuts, total. Black walnuts.. Oilnuts Chestnuts Butternuts Unclassified Trees or Vines of bearing age 1910 Farms reporting 42,976 683 10,857 7,065 3.165 48 48 1 2,880 32 5 24 38 Number 3,686,452 3,476,616 5,102 46,683 43,576 14,288 93 93 1 9,731 4815 231 30 192 211 Trees or Vines not of bearing age 1910 Farms reporting 17,362 320 3,170 3.614 1,271 25 46 510 Number 1,090,768 1,045,123 3,320 13,013 22,491 6,653 69 109 1,944 4142 63 19 18 29 Product 1909 Quantity! 3,694,251 3,636,181 2,014 38,964 14,637 2,403 25 23 4 231,529 412,922 1,600 2,975 1,280 6,295 Value $2,207,748 Z^ 121, olo 3,205 43,524 31,954 7.164 38 43 4 6,954 4414 50 60 100 152 1899 Quantity! 1,438,919 1,421,773 1,895 11,200 2,282 1,550 (2) (2) 3219 275,800 29,050 (2) (?) (S) (2) 329,050 ^Expressed in bushels for orchard fruits and pounds for grapes and nuts. ^Included with "unclassified." » Consists of products not separately named by the enumerator, but grouped under the designation "all other." 4 Includes almonds, pecans, filberts and hickory nuts. The following table shows the quantities of the more advanced products manu- factured by farmers from orchard fruits and grapes. Values were not called for on the schedule. PRODUCT Cider Vinegar Wine and grape juice Dried fruits Farms reporting, 1909 Number 9,549 2,884 54 267 Per cent of all farms 15.9 4-8 0.1 0.4 Quantity produced Unit Gals... Gals... Gals... Lbs 1909 939,085 197,996 328 15,034 1899 376,110 68,072 62& 26,210 Mantjbes, Gbeen. Fertilization of. See Apple Orchards, Manxtbes, Stable. Fertilization of. See Apple Orchard^ 1256 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Marketing Fruits Next to tlie growing of fruits tli6 mar- keting is the most important to the pro- ducer. In fact, tlie manner of marketing and the profits or losses consequent upon it often determine whether any particu- lar person or community of persons can continue in the business of production. Methods of Marketing There are several different methods of marketing, among them the following: 1. Barter, a system under which the producer exchanges his products for some other commodity. 2. Huckstering, where the fruit is de- livered by the producer direct to the con- sumer. 3. Selling to buyers who pay cash, ex- pecting to sell again at a profit. 4. Consignment to commission men who handle the fruit on a commission basis and sell at auction to the retail trade, or to other merchants by any one of a number of methods in use. Selling agencies or associations of sell- ers have lately endeavored to form con- nections in all the fruit markets of the world and handle the fruit on a com- mission basis. The so-called "selling agencies" are large organizations of com- mission men with wider connections than the commission merchant could have, working as a mere individual or firm. Stock companies composed of a large number of stockholders who may or may not be growers are frequently formed representing capital necessary to finance the business. 5. Co-operative marketing, where the growers only are members of the organi- zation, and where the form is that of •pure co-operation. Stock is sold or a fee 'Charged for membership in the associa- tion and each member has one and only *one vote, regardless of the amount of fruit shipped through the association. 6. Direct to consumers through "Mar- kets" established generally in the centers of trade to which the fruit is shipped and sold by the producers, the agents of the producers or by the managers of the market. There are various modifications of the methods and some sellers employ any or all of them as circumstances dictate. A brief description of the various methods will be helpful in correctly understanding the systems named, and in understanding the value to the producer of a careful study of market conditions and the de- velopment of a good marketing system. Barter Money has come to be the universal medium of exchange, so that the system of barter of goods for goods has almost if not entirely disappeared. But in the beginning, and still in very primitive societies, the natural division of labor which results from differences in age, sex and natural ability gave rise to commodities which in the absence of money were exchanged for each other directly. Thus old men and boys could make bows and arrows while the strong men could hunt. The results of each kind ot labor would be exchanged for each other without the use of any medium. On this simple basis the value of the articles exchanged was easily measured by balancing in the mind of each party to the trade the strength of his want for his own and the other man*s goods. The Idea of Yalue While the elements of the above situa- tion would be comparatively simple, the idea of what determines value is, even in such simple circumstances, not an easy conception to grasp, since many factors enter in to complicate it. Among the fac- tors which go to determine value, we may mention utility, or the usefulness of a given article and labor or the cost of production. The utility of a thing is determined by the number and strength of the wants which it supplies, i. e., by how badly we want or need it. But utility alone does not determine the market value of a thing or the price it will bring in exchange. As for example, the usefulness of air does not give it a market value, though manifestly we could not live without it. However, if there were only a limited amount of air and some one had it for sale, it would MARKETING FRUITS 1257 at once have a market value, and the value or price of any given unit would be determined, first, hy how badly folks wanted air, and, second, by how much there was of air to supply the want; i. e., when the amount is unlimited there is no market value, but when the amount is limited there is a market value, pro- vided, of course, that the need of it still exists. One other factor which affects value but in a more indirect way, is the cost or labor which is necessary to produce a thing. Manifestly, that which is hard to get will be relatively scarce as com- pared with that which costs little labor. Therefore, the cost of a thing may affect the supply and in this way affect its value. The effect which labor may have is always in proportion to the effect which it may have on the supply. Labor alone cannot determine the value of a thing. For example, it might cost an enormous amount of effort to produce a barrel of air, and yet when produced the merest child can see that it would have no value whatever on the market, simply because the quantity on hand was already so enormous that every one could have all he wanted for the breathing. Or again, I may find a diamond. The labor is nothing. The value is great, simply be- cause the desire on the part of people for diamonds is great, while the supply is limited. Thus it appears that labor af- fects value only when it has an influence in affecting the supply in such a way as to affect the value. It is true that in the case of the staple commodities for which there is a universal demand the labor cost fixes the point below which price does not ordinarily fall. Hence, in order to have market value we must always have cost, or whatever goes to determine quantity or supply, bal- anced by utility, or whatever goes to de- termine the strength of our wants. The balance of these two factors (utility and labor, or want and cost) is, in the final analysis, the cause of market value. The so-called law of supply and demand is, therefore, the final explanation of econo- mic value and includes all factors which enter into the problem. The above conclusion is disputed in some quarters but the disagreement arises, like most disputes, out of misun- derstanding of the use to which the terms "value," "market," "supply" and "de- mand" are put. At the outset it should be understood that the term "value" as here used ap- plies to "exchange" or "market" values only. "Value in exchange" is perhaps a better term to use since it carries the full notion along with it. If no exchange can be made for goods then there is no market, and no price or value can be placed upon them. A "market" is simply the point at which an exchange takes place. Here again we should be careful to avoid misconceptions. We do not mean by the market for peaches, for example, the particular warehouse where we un- load our orchard wagon. The market for peaches may be world-wide, in which case the peach market embraces all the varied conditions under which peaches were being sold at a given time; never- theless, though there may be 1,000 places where peaches are selling, the market is the ''exchange'^ and there can never be a peach market where peaches are not sell- ing or where there is no possibility for an exchange to take place, either because there are no peaches there or because no one will or can buy them. Peaches have no value or price where there is no mar- ket for peaches. By "supply" is meant "effective supply." That is, supply which actually offers Itself for sale or which it is known will be offered for sale at a given price The mere existence of a supply of peaches at Wenatchee in the orchards does not affect the price of peaches in New York unless the supply gets to New York or is known to be on the way. In other words, unless in some form it is offered for sale in New York. There is no market for Wenatchee peaches in Mars. Consequently there is no price set or value fixed upon We- natchee peaches by the Martians. In the same sense "demand" is not 1258 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE merely general desire for a tiling. It is "market demand." That is, demand which is willing to purchase or make an exchange for a given article. Demand which never becomes effective in some markets never affects the price or value of a thing. That is to say, if there is no market, if one man having money and an- other having peaches cannot meet, either personally or through some middleman or agent, so as to make an exchange, there is no market and no price, no value. A desire for peaches in Mars does not affect their price in Wenatchee for the reason that this kind of demand is not effective. The problem which faces the grower of peaches in Wenatchee who knows of the general desire of men for peaches and who has on hand in his orchard a supply of 10,000 boxes for which there is no market, is not at all a problem of how to account for value in general or of how to account for the fact that he can get nothing for his peaches in Wenatchee. The simple fact is that there is no market, no point at which the general desire of men the world over for peaches and his 10,000 boxes can be brought together so as to effect an exchange. Therefore there is no price, no value. His problem is rather how to create a value for his peaches by first creating a market It is a problem in market making, a problem in distribution, and to this problem individuals and associa- tions of distributors must address them- selves. As an example of the operation of this law in the fruit-marketing business we might take the case of apples and banan- as. If it costs as much in labor to pro- duce 10 apples as it costs to produce 15 bananas, from that viewpoint 10 apples could be equitably exchanged for 15 bananas; but if the habits of the people were such that consumers preferred bananas to apples, then the case might be reversed and 10 bananas might sell for as much as 15 apples. In this latter case, the profits in bananas would be much greater than the profits in apples, because the cost of producing bananas is one- third less than the cost of producing ap- ples. If the cost of producing bananas and apples were equal and the demand equal, the prices would be equal; but if the cost of production were unequal or the demand unequal, then the price would be unequal. The fact that cost of production in dif- ferent localities may vary in comparison with the demand gives rise to the natural tendency for an industry to become local- izsed into those sections where the great- est values can be produced with the least labor. But tariff laws between the na- tions or other artificial conditions may greatly modify this tendency. Money and Prices The money market itself sometimes fluctuates, depending on the supply of money in proportion to the demand. In cases of the financing of great enter- prises, a period of great speculation or of disturbances between nations, money may be in great demand, and the prices of other commodities proportionately af- Characteristics of Markets Wynard Hooper, financial editor of the Times, London, writing for the Encyclo- pedia Britannica, says: "The conditions required in order that the operations of a trading body may display the fully de- veloped market features, whether for com- modities or securities, are: "1, A large number of parties dealing. "2. A large amount of securities or commodities to be dealt with. "3. An organization by which all per- sons interested in the commodity or se- curity can rapidly communicate with one another. "4. Existence of and frequent publica- tion of statistical and other information as to the present and probable future supply of the commodity or security. "The changes which take place in prices in any market, whether fully organized or not, depend largely upon changes of opinion between buyers and sellers. The changes of opinion may be caused by er- roneous as well as by correct informa- tion. They may also be the result of wrong inferences drawn from correct in- formation. In markets for commodities MARKETING FRUITS 1259 of the Jfirst importance, such as wheat, cotton, corn and iron, the state of opinion may vary much within a few hours. The broad characteristics of markets of this class are similar. There is a tendency in all of them to show phenomena of an- nual periodicity due partly to the sea- sons, the activity of certain months being in normal years greater in the case of any given market than that of other months. This tendency is always liable to be interfered with by the special forces at work in particular years, and the great increase in the facilities for communica- tion between dealers by telegraph and of transportation of commodities between widely distant points, which was one of the marked features of the development of the economic organism in all active commercial countries during the last thirty years of the nineteenth century, have still further interfered with it. Nev- ertheless, a tendency to annual periodicity is still perceptible, especially in markets for produce of the soil the supply of which largely depends on meteorological conditions of the areas where they are grown on a scale to furnish an appre- ciable proportion of the total produce. "Periodicity of another kind, known as 'Cyclic,' and due to a different set of causes, is believed to exist by many per- sons competent to form a judgment." The law of "cyclic" changes is ob- served in the United States, with a good deal of regularity, as a period of reces- sion about every ten years and a period of great financial depression about every 20 years. This has been true with slight modification for more than 100 years. Further, there are fiuctuations in the markets of annual crops, such as pota- toes, more marked than in crops like apples for instance, where it takes sev- eral years to grow the trees. Yet in the case of apples, peaches, pears and other tree fruits, much depends on the tend- ency to freezes, frosts, heavy rains at blooming time and other climatic and meteorological conditions. Tendency to Equilibriiiin ''Notwithstanding all the uncertainties named, there is a tendency toward equilibrium," and, as Mr. Hooper further remarks, "Disturbances may take place through a change in: (1) Supply, or an opinion as to the future probable sup- ply; (2) demand, or opinion as to the fu- ture probable demand; {?>) in both simul- taneously, but such a change that demand is increased or decreased more than the supply, or vice versa." However, every market is at every mo- ment tending to an eq.uilibrium between the quantity of the commodities offered and the quantity desired. A moderate disturbance caused by any of the changes named, or a combination of them, will produce an immediate ef- fect on the prices of commodities, which again will tend to react on both the sup- ply and the demand by altering the opin- ions of buyers and sellers. If no further change tending to disturb the markets takes place, the market will gradually settle down to a state of equilibrium. It is the interest of buyers, as the mar- keting season approaches, to create the impression that there is an abundant crop and that the supply will be large in proportion to the demand. This is sometimes done in order that the fruit may be purchased at low prices. It is the interest of the growers to create the impression that fruit is scarce in order that they may obtain high prices. There should be some reliable agency for the furnishing of information that is avail- able to all, so that the question would not be one of opinion alone, but of opin- ion based on the facts. The government monthly reports are available to all in the "Crop Reporter," but the method of gathering the information, compiling, and getting it out to the farmers by mail only once each month, often brings the information too late for intelligent ac- tion. There should be some means of reporting similar to that of wheat, corn and other standard products Future Delivery A certain proportion of purchases are paid for at the time of purchase, but an increasing number of commodities are purchased for future delivery. This is on account of the tendency to large or- 1260 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ganizations of buyers, who desire to sup- ply all their customers at all seasons of the year with whatever the market de- mands. "With the buyers' organization, future delivery is a kind of insurance that the products can be supplied at a given price. With the seller or seller's organization, it is a promise to supply it at a given price. The seller believes he can furnish the fruits at that price at a profit. The buyer knows, if the goods are delivered according to contract, that he can supply the market at a profit. This would seem to be better for both the seller and the buyer, but it has been sub- ject to many abuses. Market Corners "Corners" often i^esult from the con- tract for "future delivery." They may result from a mistaken judgment of a number of persons as to the supply of products. As a result, persons who have made contracts for future delivery at certain dates, are unable to fulfill them. The fact that the market is oversold soon becomes known and the persons holding products who could supply the demand raise the price against those who are buying to fulfill their contracts. If a dealer has undertaken to deliver 100 cars of fruit at a certain price and it becomes known that fruit is much more difQcult to obtain than he calculated it would be, and those who have the fruit for sale know that he is compelled to de- liver, they might compel him to pay two prices in order to fill his contract. He has contracted to deliver believing that he could do so at a profit, but in the case described he does so at a loss. There are a few growers who will contract ahead to deliver fruit at a fair profit. Others will contract to deliver a certain proportion of the crop at a fair profit and hold the remainder of the crop for speculation, taking their chances that it will be higher than the average. The Standard Dictionary defines "a cor- ner" as follows: "A corner is the result of the pur- chase, or contract for the purchase, of a commodity by a person or combination of persons so as to command the market and be able to fix the price of the com- modity." Selling to Buyers Who Pay Cash Selling to buyers who pay cash for the products is an old method and has a num- ber of advantages. The producer re- ceives his money early and so is enabled to meet his obligations without borrow- ing heavily. Some claim that in the long run the grower who sells for cash at the prevailing market price at harvest time will, all things considered, come out ahead of those who wait for an expect- ed rise later. In a fruit-growing district where a large volume of fruit must be marketed, this method can only succeed in the case of a few. To attempt to force the whole output of a district upon the market at once would be out of the question both on account of the enorm- ous capital required and because of the disastrous effect on prices. Another advantage to the grower is that it closes the transaction without further risk to him, compelling the buy- er to assume the risk of unloading with profit on future markets. It is vastly superior to the consignment method, a discussion of which follows. The Consignment Method Under this system fruits are consigned to commission merchants who sell the fruits on a percentage basis, at auc- tion, to the retail trade, or to other com- mission merchants as seems to them best. This system is subject to many abuses and temptations. I would as willingly send my pocket-book to a man in Chicago or New York whom I did not know, or if I did know would not trust, as to send him my fruit. When he has possession of the fruit, if he is dishonest, he might say that "It arrived in bad condition," sell it for a good price, send the consignor the price of damaged fruit and keep' the balance. He might be a partner of a firm of retail merchants and keep the fruit, reporting it to be in bad condition and return to the grower or shipper whatever he pleased. He might do any one of a num- ber of things which would be to his own advantage and the disadvantage of the MARKETING FRUITS 1261 grower, or he migM be honest. There are honest men in the business, but they have to compete with men who are dis- honest. The consignment method has the dis- advantage of the grower furnishing all the fruit, running all the risks of trans- portation, markets, the honesty or dis- honesty of the person to whom it was consigned, while the consignee runs no risks, has no capital invested, and is often financially irresponsible. There is a move- ment now on foot which may result in re- quiring the consignee to send to the con- signor a certificate from the buyer stat- ing to whom the fruit was sold, the price paid, the date of sale and other important items. "Consigned goods are supposed to be the property of him by whom they are consigned, to be disposed of by him to whom they are consigned." The system might also be improved by requiring that persons acting as con- signees for the public should give bond for the honest and faithful perform- ance of the duties of their position. With honest and far-seeing men engaged in this business, there is a business pride in pleasing their customers, establishing confidence and continuing in the busi- ness, but the system furnishes unusual inducements to irresponsible persons. The legislature of the state of Wash- ington, in 1912-13, passed laws designed to protect the grower and consignor of products, and to prevent fraud on the part of commission merchants to whom products are consigned. The essential weakness of this method of selling anything lies in its violation of the axiom of trade "never part with your property without a consideration." By this method the producer virtually gives away his product, almost his only reliance being placed in the honesty of those who handle it for him. It is argued that the necessity on the part of the com- misson man to return a fair price to his client in order to retain his business, and the **honor of the house," are sufficient safeguards to the grower. While indeed there is much to be said on this side of the question, it has been the sad experience of growers that the "honor of the house" is a vain depend- ence and that the only real safeguard is a community of interest. This common interest is not present. The commission man is interested primarily in his com- mission, not in the profits of the pro- ducer. The opportunities for taking advantage of the trustful grower are numerous and have in the past proven too great temp- tations for the commission men. The or- dinary grower has no means of tracing his product and it is easy to return a false report of "arrived in bad condition" or other subterfuge to cover up a deal in which the commission man has reaped a big profit. The current expression "As well trust your pocket-book to a man you do not know as consign your fruit to be mar- keted away from home" gets at the es- sential weakness of the system. The in- jury to the business has reached almost the stage of demoralization at times. Yet it must be said that the steps by which the consignment business grew up are perfectly natural ones. Selling Agencies Lately there have grown up organiza- tions known as "Selling Agencies." These agencies, in so far as we can discern their purposes and methods, are not much dif- ferent from "Commission Merchants," in- asmuch as they sell on commission. The differences seem to be largely in the fact that they are organized in a large way, as fruit distributors or sales agents, are therefore more responsible and are less subject to temptations to dishonest deal- ing. They cover a large territory, and have good facilities for successful dis- tribution. They generally publish that they "Have no capital stock and are prohibited from engaging in the business for profit." They have a "Central Organization," and subsidiary "District Organizations." The management of the "Central Or- ganization" is under the control of a board of trustees, consisting of one rep- resentative from each district organiza- tion. "The board of trustees elect all the of- 1262 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ficers of the exchange." *'Th.e right of recall is reserved by each district" "All officers holding positions of trust are bonded." "An annual open meeting is held by the trustees, at which all inter- ested growers are privileged to be pres- ent and receive a general report of the business." Provisions are sometimes made "Where- by upon questions of sufficient importance the voting stx-ength of the trustees is pro- portionate to the relative shipping ton- nage of their respective districts." The principal functions of such an ex- change are "The distribution and market- ing of fruits, and the gathering and dis- semination of market information." The City Market The Market is a place where traders or producers are awaiting buyers, in shops, stalls, booths, open spaces, or oth- er convenient places for the accommoda- tion of the general public. The idea is to bring the producer and the consumer as nearly together as possible. Originally, the producer brought his goods, rented space, or a stall, and sold to the pruchaser direct. The purchaser, in turn, bought at the market-place and carried the goods purchased to his home. In ancient times slaves did most of the buying in the market-place. In later times the system of the delivery of goods has caused the managers of markets to provide for the delivery of the articles purchased to the homes of the pur- chasers; but in turn, the use of the auto- mobile has made it possible for persons on pleasure trips to stop at the market on the way home and purchase such things as they choose, delivering them without the added expense of the mar- ket delivery. The manager of the market now often acts as selling agent, receiving the prod- ucts on consignment, selling them at th'e prevailing market price, and returning to the producer the amount received, less a commission and the cost of delivery to the purchasers. In most of the large cities of the United States and in Europe there are one or more market places. In some of the cities of Europe a huge collection of shops with various co-operative stores may be seen as an evolution of the old market system. The market has gen- erally been considered the trading place of the poor and middle classes where they could purchase at less price than in the ordinary mercantile establishments, an-d where they could eliminate the cost of delivery by delivering the goods them- selves. At the same time, the producer is supposed to get more for his goods in this way than by the ordinary methods of sale. Stock Companies Local organizations are often formed in which the organization is jQlnanced by the sale of stock. Sometimes this stock is owned wholly by the fruit growers, sometimes partly by the growers, and at other times mostly by bankers, merchants and others who believe the stock a good investment, or who desire to help the in- dustry as an asset to the town. Some of these organizations have been very suc- cessful from the stockholders' view- point, in that good dividends have been returned to the holder of stock. Some of them have also been of benefit to the grower as well as the stockholder. In this kind of organization there seems to be, inevitably, a conflict of interest between the stockholder and the grow* er. The grower naturally desires to make as much out of his fruit as pos- sible. But if he makes large profits it often happens that the stockholder makes small profits. It mostly depends upon the management and purposes of the or- ganization. If the dominant purpose is to make money for the growers, then it cannot at the same time conserve the interests of the stockholders. If the dominant purpose is to make money for the stockholders, then it must in the na- ture of things buy the fruit for a small price and sell at a higher price, and this would not sufficiently conserve the in- terest of the growers. In other words, the growers and the stockholders are on opposite sides of the market problem. This is true if the stockholder and the grower are one and the same; for then MARKETING FRUITS 1263 tlie stockholder-grower is in competition with himself. However, many of these stock companies have been suhstantial- ly mutualized by allowing the stock to represent buildings, storage plants, ware- houses, etc., and the selling agency a mutual association in the interests of growers. State Marketing Agency As usual, California takes the initia- tive. California has passed through years of struggle not common to the Eastern states, and from experiences growing out of her necessities, has evolv- ed some lessons of value to all the world, but more especially to all the Pacific coast states. In the November (1913) election, she voted on the question of a *'State Produce Exchange Market, for all California Farm Products." Thirty thousand signatures were neces- sary in order to get the question on the ballot. The signatures were obtained. The proposed law called for the ap- pointment by the governor of a commis- sion of five, each to receive a salary of $6,000 per year and devote his entire time to state work. One of the five was to go out of office the first of 1915, two the first of 1917, and two the first of 1919. The act was to give the commis- sion an attorney at $4,000 per year, and a secretary at $3,500 per year and such other employees as were necessary to car- ry on the work. The bill called for an appropriation of $200,000 to place the exchange on its feet. It called for at least two oflices, one in Los Angeles and one in San Francisco. It provided that the commission may sell all agricultural, horticultural, dairy and farm products on consignment, within or without the state; that agencies and packing houses may be established all over the state; that a standard system of packing be established and enforced; that a bureau of information be estab- lished; that supply and demand prob- lems and other questions of interest to the producers be investigated and bulle- tins issued to them. It is to be supported by fees collected from consignors, and is to make settlement with the growers once each month. This bill failed to pass but has many earnest supporters and will probably be presented again. Marketing and Parcel Post A new feature of marketing conditions has arisen on account of the enactment of the parcel post law, which places the government as a carrier of parcels in competition with the express companies. In some Instances, parcels have been carried by the government from the place of manufacture or production to the con- sumer, thus eliminating the agent, mer- chant, commission man or whoever form- erly acted as distributor to the consum- er. In other cases, the express com- panies have reduced their rates in order to meet the competition caused by the parcel post acting as distributor. In New York city, for instance, the express companies have organized a class of consumers to whom they agree to dis- tribute farm products at much lower prices than they would have to pay un- der the ordinary methods of distribution. At the same time, in carrying out that plan, they can give to the farmers for their products more than they had form- erly received. One of the express com- panies cited this instance, that the farm- ers in the outlying districts were receiving 50 cents per bushel for their apples. The consumers were paying 15 cents a quart, which is equal to $4.80 per bushel. This left for carriers and distributors $4.30 per bushel. It made the price of apples so low that farmers could not afford to produce them, and the price to consum- ers so high that few could afford to buy them. The express companies figure that they can pay to the farmer 75 cents per bushel, which, as the lower grades of ap- ples are produced in some of the sec- tions of the East without much expense, will leave to the producer a fair profit; then they can be distributed by the com- panies to the consumers at less than half the usual cost, greatly reducing the cost of living and increasing the profit to the producer. The difficulty in such a method is largely with the farm3rs, for the express companies complain that they are not sufficiently organized so 1264 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE that they can be depended upon to fur- nish the products regularly and in such quantities as will supply the demand. €0-OPEEATIYE MARKETUfG It is hardly possible to understand co- operative marketing, without a brief his- tory of co-operation. In all ages of human history persons have combined their interests in some degree for mutual pi'otection against adverse conditions. It was not until the beginning of the 19th century, however, that modern co-opera- tive movements took shape. The chief of these societies were those organized under the teachings^ of F. M. C. Fourier, a Frenchman, and Robert Owen, an Englishman. Fourier's eco- nomic theories were that up to a certain degree "Each should work for all and all for each." In the production of wealth, society should be divided into "phalanxes, series, and groups." Each group was to have charge of one kind of work, and each series one special branch of that work. In the distribution of products a cer- tain minimum was to be assigned to every member of the society, whether capable of work or not, the remainder to be shared in proportion to the labor per- formed, the quality of the labor, and the capital invested. Robert Owen was the owner of large cotton spinning mills at Lanark, Eng- land. His theory was that "All men are equal." He obtained the assistance of certain benevolently inclined capital- ists with whom it was arranged that af- ter the capital invested should have re- ceived five per cent per annum all the profits should be laid aside for the educa- tional, religious and moral improvement of the workers. Owen made the town of Lanark a model to be visited and studied by philanthropists of all civilized lands. Of it he wrote, "For 29 years we did with- out magistrates or lawyers, without a single legal punishment, without paupers, without intemperance or religious ani- mosities. "We reduced the hours of labor, well educated all the children, greatly improved the condition of adults, paid interest on capital, and cleared 300,000 pounds ($1,500,000)." Out of the impetus given by the teach- ings of Fourier and Owen have grown the "Rochdale Societies," "Union Shops," and other organizations for the benefit of wage workers, farmers and others. Catises That Led to tlie Movemeiit Aneurin Williams, M. P., author of "Twenty-Eight Years of Co-partnership, Etc.," writes as follows in the Encyclo- pedia Britannica: "The end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th were culminating days of industrial revolution; when the older organizations of society had given way to the factory system, and the popu- lation of the factory districts was suf- fering a martyrdom, with ruin of body and degradation of character from un- bridled competition, long hours, women's and children's labor, pauper apprentice- ship, great fluctuations of trade and em- ployment, dearness and adulteration of provisions, the truck system and insani- tary homes." The English missionaries sent to India about that period, when the power loom was installed to take the place of hand weavers, reported: "The bones of hand weavers are scattered all along the high- ways, for they have starved and their friends are too poor to bury them." Eochdale Pioneers About 1844, 28 poor men at Rochdale, Lancashire, England, got together a capi- tal of 28 pounds, and opened a little shop, which has in all essential particu- lars been the model of most of the, mod- ern co-operative societies. They succeed- ed in improving the position of work- ingmen by enabling them to buy pure provisions at less cost, unadulterated; to save money, to pass from retail to whole- sale trade, from distribution to manu- facturing, ship owning and banking, and to live with an object and ideal. The principal difference between the Rochdale plan and the Robert Owen plan was in the method of dealing with the profits. The Owen plan provided that after five per cent on the investment was paid, the profits should be kept for the MARKETING FRUITS 1265 improvement of society or divided equit- ably among the investors. The Roch- dale system provided that after five per cent on the invested capital was paid, all profits ehoiild be allotted to the purchas- ing members, in proportion to their pur- chases until their purchases amounted to five pounds. Thus each member found it to his interest to purchase at his own store and introduce new purchasers, be- cause the profits on purchases by those not members went to the holders of stock or of membership certificates. The modern co-operative societies also do a banking business and lend money to their members to buy cottages. It is because small amounts are contributed and owned by so many persons that in the aggregate the wealth is great. The management is democratic, each member having one vote, and not, as in most stock corporations, a voting power in proportion to the stock owned. Financing a Co-operative Movement It has been considered that the fruit business is not as safe an industry on which to advance money as the growing of such products as wheat, corn, oats, cotton, hay and other staple commodi- ties, for which there is a constant de- mand in something like fixed quantities. "While it is true that the staple crops fluctuate more or less, yet if wheat for instance, is high priced on account of a shortage in the supply or for any other reason, the tendency would be to sub- stitute some other food such as corn, potatoes, rye, etc., to supply the deficit in wheat, and the tendency would be to- ward an equilibrium. With fruit, it is argued that there is less demand, that it is not a staple like wheat, but is more of a luxury, and that therefore the fluctua- tions are greater. Further, the danger from frosts and other climatic conditions is greater to fruit than to other crops. Therefore bankers hesitate to lend money on fruit. Bankers are not to blame for this be- cause they are handling trust funds 'and are hedged about with laws which if violated would in case of panic imperil them. In case, however, the fruit grow- er can not get such accommodations as he desires, it is possible for him to finance himself. How to Finance Himself Suppose the farmer considers that he is taking the risk because he owns the fruit. He joins a strong co-operative association and signs a contract to de- liver his fruit to the association. Sup- pose then that in the local community there are 300 members of the association and that they agree to start a small bank of their own. This can be done in a small way without much added expense of office rent, clerk hire, or furniture. Suppose the average deposit of the 300 members is $300 each. This would make an aggregate amount of $90,000, on deposit. The presumption is, that 25 per cent of this amount must be kept on hand for the xise of depositors, but that 75 per cent may be used as working capi- tal. This would leave $65,500 for work- ing capital to be used by members of the association. The risk is not increased materially by the farmers making their own deposits in their own banks. They assume no risks they would not assume in the ordi- nary way of banking. This plan is not new but has been tried in many farming communities in the United States and in Europe and found to be practicable. Granville Lowther Tlie Fundamentals of Co-operation H. C. Atwell Forest Grove, Oregon All co-operative undertakings involve the same basic principles. Organized co-operation may be limited to a single community, or it may em- brace several communities as units of a wider co-operative system. I. Confidence There is one fundamental, however^ which is vital to success of any co-opera- tive undertaking whether local or general. No matter how narrow or how wide the scope of your co-operative system, it will fail if its members have not confidence in one another. Lack of confidence has been 2—39 1266 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the principal deterrent to co-operation among larmers Stockholders m any- other line of production elect their direc- tors from among their own members, and then go their way serenely confident that their chosen representatives will conduct their affairs with honesty of purpose, and to the best of their ability. Why should not farmers take the same sensible course? Slow growth of the co-operative idea among farmers is largely due to their isolated condition. Large farms and bad roads make neighbors few, and inter- change ot ideas among them difficult These unfavorable conditions have always been a feature of rural life The result- ing mental attitude has become an in- herited trait Confidence is the chief corner stone of co-operation Without it the edifice can not stand. Confidence is, however, the outgrowth of acquaintance. Acquaint- ance depends on opportunity for frequent intercourse. If this opportunity be not afforded, distrust instead of confidence marks the dealings of man with man. Distrust is fatal to successful co-opera- tive effort. The smaller the area whose growers attempt to co-operate, the easier it is to promote that confidence which acquaintance begets. 11. A Modest Beginning The local association should not under- take to do too much at the outset Con- struct your buildings and provide your machinery with a view to future exten- sion, rather than with the idea of afford- ing present facilities for future needs. If you contemplate a cannery equip your- selves to handle at first only those fruits and grades for which there is most ur- gent need of outlet. When you have proven yourselves, you can more safely expand If successful with your initial venture, you will have won self-reliance and credit These mean capital. III. A Strictly Co-operative Basis Many types of local growers' organiza- tions exist Some are very democratic, every member having an equal voice. Others allow participation on basis of acreage or of fruit output Others are pure stock companies, with or without limitations upon number of shares any member may hold. Some are organ- ized for profit of stockholders. This will most likely be true when a considerable portion of stock is held by those who are not fruit growers. Other associations are composed entirely of growers, to whom is prorated back whatever profit is earned by the organization. If I were asked which is the ideal form of local organ- ization, X should answer, speaking of course from the growers* standpoint— "an association strictly co-operative and non- profit sharing, each member contributing capital and having a vote in proportion to his acreage of bearing trees." Only such associations as transact bus- iness of their members at cost can ex- pect long to retain the confidence and support of their members. Payment of large dividends to non-fruit growing members, or to those whose stock hold- ings exceed the proportion of their bear- ing acreage, is demoralizing. Such divi- dends are earned at the expense of the grower. Such arrangement defeats the primary object of the association, which is to reduce expenses of the grower to the minimum. It is, moreover, unnecessary to organ- ize on a dividend basis. You don't need to ask your banker, merchant and money lender to become stockholders. Your land and trees are sufficient basis for all the capital you will require. Finance your own undertakings. Let each mem- ber advance, borrowing for the purpose if he must, such proportion of the need- ed capital as his bearing acreage is of the total bearing acreage. The association is then equipped and out of debt. It can borrow, at low rates, any sum it may re- quire for crop movement. Not only is the strictly co-operative as- sociation the ideal one, but it is desir- able that all local associations embraced in one central organization (of which I shall speak later) be organized along identical lines This uniformity is found in the different locals of the Yakima Val- ley Fruit Growers' Association, in the state of Washington Their's is an ex- ceedingly well thought out plan, compre- MARKETING FRUITS 1267 hensive in detail and efficient in execu- tion. IT» Provision for Off Grades and By- products Most local associations would and should ship their best fruit in its fresh condition. There are often times, how- ever, when highest-grade fruit and most efficient distributive machinery can not overcome a dull market. Fruit growers will also always have more or less off- grade fruit. Happy is that local associa- tion which is equipped to can, and evap- orate, and make into jellies, juices, cider and vinegar, the fruit for which it can not otherwise find a profitable market. Some of these by-products will make a nice profit. Any of them will assist ma- terially in paying expenses of the associa- tion. These instrumentalities should not, as a rule, be considered the main proposi- tion They should be regarded in the light of insurance; insurance that you won't have to throw away or give away your product if fresh fruit prices are not satisfactory; insurance that there will be no waste of culls; insurance that the local buyer will offer you a fair price, because he knows that you have other means for disposing of your fruit. If most of your apples command a fancy price, you can afford to let your apple- canning machinery lie idle. If all your prunes are wanted fresh, you can bank the fires in your evaporator. V. Control of Bistribntion by Contract Holders Safeguards should be adopted, and made of uniform application, whereby control of output and of marketing fa- cilities shall remain in the hands of those who produce the fruit marketed. Those local stockholders who ship no fruit should not be allowed to dictate through what channels the growers' product shall be marketed, after it passes from the hands of the local association. Such stockholder is, of course, entitled to a reasonable return upon his stock, and to a voice in local management and charges. Beyond that he has no right. To give him a share in control of ultimate dis- tribution, at once takes the local associa- tion out of the list of growers' organiza- tions It makes it possible for private interests to secure local control and there- by to direct distribution into channels an- tagonistic to the grower. To prevent this undesirable result, every local association should embody in its fundamental law the provision that "in all matters pertaining to marketing and affiliation, voting shall be restricted to members holding marketing contracts." Adoption of this provision should be in- sisted on, before the local association is permitted to participate in any co-opera- tive central selling agency. YI. Freedom of Officers From Connec- tion With Competitors Chiefly aimed at the same object is my next fundamental, that provision should be made that no officer or trustee should be permitted to hold any office or position in the employ of, or to be con- nected with, or to own any stock in, any competing organization or firm. Without this wise and just provision, the associa- tion might be put to great embarrassment, and its plans perhaps nullified. Excep- tion, of course, should be made where a man holds stock in another growers' co- operative association. TIL A Self- Continuing Contract Another fundamental of co-operation is that every fruit-growing member of a lo- cal association should be required upon becoming a member to sign a self-contin- uing contract. By this I mean a contract whereby the grower agrees to turn over to the local association all his fruit, grow- ing and to be grown, during every year continuously- The contract should not be for the current year or for a limited number of years. Opportunity should, however, be given the grower to cancel the contract in any year. Otherwise the local association would be given an un- reasonable power, and it would be dif- ficult to get any fruit signed up. The pivilege of withdrawing should, how- ever, be confined to a short period, and to such season of the year as will enable the local directorate to know in advance what they can depend on for the ensu- ing year. The point is covered by the 1268 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE following clause in the growers' contract provided tor in the plan of the Yakima Valley Fruit Growers' Association: "Provided that the grower may cancel this contract on March first of any year, by giving notice in writing at least 20 days prior to said date." This provision releases a grower from necessity of turning in his fruit the next year, if he is dissatisfied with results of the previous year. The management, on the other hand, know 20 days prior to Maixh first just how many acres they will control for the ensuing year, and can plan accordingly. This arrangement adds to the efficiency and economy of the local management. Without this pro- vision the directors would not know, un- til time for shipment, and in many cases not till after shipping season had open- ed, whose fruit they would have to handle. Such a state of uncertainty is not only embarrassing to the management, but it renders it impossible for them adequately to perform the most import- ant function of their office. Every man- ager of an association not having the continuing contract will tell you that the average grower will defer signing up his crop as long as he can. California Fruit Growers* Exchange, after much bitter ex- perience along this line, adopted the con- tinuing contract. YIII. Tenalty for Outside Selling It is a lamentable fact that there is a considerable element among fruit grow- ers, as among other classes, who will not, without compulsion, perform a contract, when it is temporarily for their interest to break it. Such men are not without encouragement from outside influences, whenever an opportunity is seen to em- barrass co-operation. To guard against occurrences of this kind, the contract made by the local as- sociation with its growers should contain a clause imposing a penalty for selling fruit outside the association. Without such provision, the association would have no solid foundation. It would be in continual uncertainty as to how much fruit it could control. It would be in almost as weak a condition as without the continuing contract. This penalty should be sufficiently large to act as a deterrent to outside selling. In Cali- fornia the sum specified varies from 25 to 50 cents a package. Following may serve as a guide in formulating a provi- sion to cover this point: "In consideration of the benefits con- ferred on me by acceptance of this con- tract for packing and marketing my fruit in the Fairview Fruit Growers' Associa- tion, I agree that, if at any time during the life of this contract I shall tail to deliver to said association all my fruit, as hereinbefore agreed upon; or if I shall dispose of all or any of it elsewhere, oth- erwise than as herein agreed upon, I shall forfeit and pay to said association, as liquidated damages, an amount equal to 50 cents for every box or package of fruit shipped or sold otherwise than as stipulated in the contract; it being spe- cially agreed that it is impi^acticable and extremely difficult to fix the actual dam- ages which would be thereby suffered by said association." It will be noted that I have included in the foregoing form allusion to a con- sideration, and have designated the pen- alty as liquidated damages, both features worth consideration. Too much care can not be bestowed on the growers' con- tract It constitutes the basis of market- ing operations. IX. Maintenance of High Standards In this connection I would say that a good reputation is as essential to success of an association as of an individual shipper. Constant vigilance must be maintained by the management, lest some growers assume that the good work of others will offset their own carelessness. X, Pooling Pooling is a necessity incident to co- operative marketing. It will, however, have a tendency to lower the average grade, unless watchfulness is exercised by those in authority. As far as practicable the fruit only of those grows who have Similar conditions should be pooled. Pool- ing is a purely local issue. It should be confined to fruit raised within a limited area. It is not practicable to extend its MARKETING FRUITS 1269 scope much l^eyond the limits of an in- dividual association. XL Co-operation in Buying" The local association should aim not only to sell its members' fruit but to purchase their orchard supplies. Great savings can he thus effected in the pur- chase of many items. The association can also manufacture some lines of spray material, largely reducing the cost thereof to members. The Eugene, Ore- gon, association makes a superior lime- sulphur, at exactly one-half the cost of the boughten article. If the various locals are combined in a central agency the latter may purchase for all, in which case a larger percentage may be saved, on account of the larger quantities hand- led. California Fruit Grovi^ers' Exchange, through a subsidiary company, thus an- nually saves to its growers several hun- dred thousand dollars. Benefits accruing to the grower from exercise by the local association of its purchasing function will often keep him in the co-operative ranks, when he would otherwise be inclined to cancel his mem- bership. XII. Sen ice Only for Members If one is not willing to assume the burdens of membership in a local asso- ciation, he should not expect to share in its benefits, either in the sale of his fruits or the purchase of supplies. To allow him to do so on an equality with members is an injustice to them. To serve an outsider for profit opens the way to discord, and introduces the element of speculation, from which a co-operative or- ganization should stand entirely aloof. Xin. flioice of Manager Not a Subject for Economizing A co-operative organization should econ- omize in all matters except the hiring of a manager. In that office, the man is the first consideration, his compensation a secondary matter. Success or failure depends on the manager. The directors can advise. They can not execute. The executive head should be patient, tact- ful, competent, aggressive. He should receive a salary commensurate with his ability. XIV. A Central Selling Agency Thus far we have discussed funda- mentals of co-operation as applied to in- dividual associations acting independent- ly. We have treated them as unrelated entities. We have strengthened the weak parts. We have constructed a perfect local machine; a machine that, a few years ago, would adequately have per- formed the functions of distribution. It may yet suffice for the handling of many products. However, as regards commodi- ties produced in large quantities, and over wide areas, the problem of distribu- tion is too big for the local association. The great problem confronting all pro- ducers of material commodities is effi- cient distribution. That distribution is most efficient which brings producer and consumer into closest relation, which most thoroughly and evenly covers the consumptive field. Evenness of distribu- tion avoids gluts and fills the empty mar- ket. Economy of distribution eliminates superfluous media of exchange, and avoids duplication of effort. It thereby cheapens price to consumer and enlarges consumptive demand — conditions which make for cheap, rapid and widespread distribution, by insuring economy and even rewards of production, without in- creasing burdens of the consumer. The American people are awakening to this fact, and also to the fact that, without combination of distributive agencies, evenness of supply and stability and rea- sonableness of price are impossible. Pro- moters of manufacturing and other cor- porate enterprises have recognized the same fact. They have been compelled to unite with others similarly situated, to eliminate wasteful methods of distribu- tion. Their activities have been directed toward evenness of supply; not over- supply in one market and under supply in another. "Big Business" has come to stay, because it answers an economic want. It is based on co-operation. Co-operation and com- bination are supplanting competition and waste. The biggest of big businesses, however, has made but slight progress to- ward establishing itself on the basis of co-operative centralized distribution. Ag- 1270 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE riculture, representing over 50 per cent of the population of Canada and the United States, is the one department of production most in need of, and most conspicuously lacking, efficient organiza- tion along this line. Fruit growers have made gi'eat prog- ress in local organization, hut as before stated, the local association is impotent before the problem of wide- spread distribution. It matters not how well the local is organized and managed, how efficiently it is equipped, or how thoroughly co-operative is its construc- tion, efficiency of distribution can not be attained through independent action of a score or more of local associations, each striving to overload the same mar- kets, each duplicating the other's ex- pense account. Only by centralizing their distributive energies can they secure that evenness and economy of distribution necessary to secure best results. They must unite in one central selling agency. This is my fourteenth fundamental. In advertising, also, the locals may pro- fitably co-operate. In 1911 California Fruit Growers' Exchange, a central sell- ing agency, spent $50,000 in advertising California "Sun-Kist" oranges. Results were so satisfactory that they will this year devote $100,000 to the same object. Could any merely local organization af- ford such expenditure? If it would com- bine with the other local associations, its individual share of such expense might not be oppressive. In 1911 the same California organ- ization, through the subsidiary company I have alluded to, was able, by levying 5 cents a box on fruit sold by it, to es- tablish box factories, at a cost of some $200,000, and thereby save 6 cents on the cost of every box to be used by its mem- bers during a term of several years. These are two concrete examples of what confidence and common sense may accomplish, when applied to co-operative endeavor through a central agency. These facts came to my knowledge dur- ing a recent trip to California, and may be news to some of you. I might cite other activities of the same organization, all on the same scale, and all impossible of performance, except through a strong central agency. Fundamentals Eelating Specially to a Central Agency Assuming that a central selling agency is necessary, if fruit growers are to reap full benefit from efficient local organiza- tion, I wish to mention some vital prin- ciples specially relating to the central agency. All the fundamentals I have dis- cussed apply, for most part, to both local and central organizations. There are, however, three which apply only to a central agency. XY. No Capital Stock The central exchange should have no capital stock. By this I mean only a nominal capital. California Fruit Grow- ers' Exchange has, in the last six years, sold nearly $70,000,000 worth of citrus fruits, kept constantly employed some 100 high-salaried sales agents, and hand- led several million dollars worth of fer- tilizers, boxes and other orchard supplies. Its capital, all that time has been not to exceed $16,000. The local, not the cen- tral, organization is where capital is needed. Packing houses and storage houses should be financed locally. Grow- ers have the land and the credit to build them. Fruit passing through the hands of the central exchange can be easily made to provide funds for any extraor- dinary need of the central. Accumula- tion of large capital at headquarters would arouse distrust on part of grow- ers. It would embarrass the central agency in many ways. The latter should not be burdened with large financial re- sponsibilities. It should be free to de- vote its entire energy to distributing, ad- vertising and gathering market informa- tion. California Fruit Growers' Ex- change does not handle a cent of the proceeds of fruit sold by it. The pro- ceeds go direct from its sales agents to the district associations into which the various locals are grouped. Expenses of the central are covered by requisition made by it to the district associations. MARKETING FRUITS 1271 XVI. District Organization It will be found expedient to follow the California plan, in matter of district organization. There various locals are grouped together, within convenient geo- graphical lines. Each group constitutes a district, with an organization com- posed of representatives from each local within the district. The principal functions of the district organization should be control of all mat- ters within its boundaries, relating to in- spection, picking, grading and packing fruit; co-operative purchase of supplies; choice of directors for the central ex- change, and adjustment of any disputes arising between central exchanges and local associations. XYIL A Council of Representatives Provision should be made whereby, upon questions of sufficient importance, voting strength of the directors of the central exchange could be proportionate to the relative shipping tonnage of their respective districts. This could be ac- complished by providing an auxiliary board, said board to be composed of one representative chosen by each district or- ganization, and to be known as the Coun- cil of Representatives. This council would be called together only when the board of directors of the central exchange should, upon request of two of its mem- bers, demand the submission to said council of any specific question before the board. When called together, the vot- ing strength of each member of said council would be a number of votes equal to the number of carloads of fruit shipped by all growers then affiliating under the district organization represent- ed by him during the last preceding sea- son. Any decision of said council would be final and binding on the directorate of the central exchange. This plan is a feature of the Cali- fornia system. It is interesting to note, however, that, while it aftords necessary security to larger districts, if conditions should require it, this council has not been called into service during the last six years. Heed for Improving System of Bistribntion I have thus outlined principles, the application of which I regard as funda- mental to successful co-operation. I ac- knowledge my indebtedness for valuable suggestions to the able and comprehen- sive article on ''Co-operation in Handling and Marketing Fruit," written by Mr. G. Harold Powell, and appearing in this section. Several of them are advo- cated in the report of the Committee of Eleven, an organization working in Washington and Oregon for the estab- lishment of a central selling agency, and of which I am a member. That there is need of improvement in our system of distribution can hardly be denied. In face of the fact that increasing produc- tion demands increased consumption, high cost of living is curtailing con- sumption. To meet necessities of con- sumers, prices must be reduced. Shall this be accomplished by reducing the farmer's returns? Already he is receiv- ing a reduced proportion of the retail price, although his expenditures for liv- ing and labor have increased. Evidently consumers' cost can be lowered only by reducing the aggregate of tolls for car- riage, insurance, brokerage, commission and retailing. As aptly put in an editorial of the Oregonian, "Middlemen bear the price paid to producer and bull the price paid by consumer." I do not preach a crusade against mid- dlemen. We should not expect or wish entirely to eliminate them. They are average citizens, and are making the most of their opportunities, as the rest of us are trying to do. We are, nevertheless, justifiable in seeking to dispense with their services, whenever possible, and to hold their charges to a reasonable basis, always. Our products pass through too many hands before they reach the consumer. This again means waste — a waste that works against two classes, the producer and the consumer. As the Oregonian well puts it, "only the middleman profits by the confusion." There is little doubt that a central selling 1272 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE agency can establish more direct rela- tions with consumers, and maintain those relations more steadily, than can an in- dividual or a local association. Co-operation Witli Coiisximers The many consume! s' leagues, spring- ing up in the more densely populated dis- tricts, afford our opportunity. Why should not the producer and consumer co- operate? They can, if they will both or- ganize. Central selling agencies and cen- tral purchasing agencies will he familiar features of the near future. The mayor of Indianapolis, with his 900 consumers, has pointed the way. Of course, this idea will be declared absurd on "com- mercial row." The railroads said gov- ernment regulation was impracticable and unjust. Now they want more of it The trusts declared the Sherman Anti-Trust Law a dead letter. Now they are making haste to adjust themselves to its require- ments. The hack driver decried the elec- tric line trom the steam railroad station. Now he collects fares on the same elec- tric line, and doesn't get his coat spat- tered with mud. Changes of business methods gradually work out their own adjustments, without serious injury to any ciass. Other Examples of Widespread Co-operation California Fruit Growers* Exchange is not the only successful example of co- operative distribution on a large scale. In Holland thousands of egg producers market through central organizations. Grain farmers of the Central West have their central shipping association. Nu- merous examples might be cited. Nearer home, though not embracing so many dif- ferent communities, is the Puyallup and Sumner Fruit Growers' Association, in the state of Washington. That organiza- tion, under the conspicuously able man- agement of Senator W. H. Paulhamus, has long been an object lesson in success- ful co-operation. Long after Senator Paul- hamus* fame as a statesman shall have faded from the public memory, he will still be quoted as the man who made the Puyallup valley worth $1,000 an acre, through his efficient exploitation and marketing of the lowly evergreen black- berry Growth of Movement for Wider Co-operation In California the deciduous fruit in- terests are seeking to organize on lines of California Fruit Growers' Exchange. It is no infant's task to merge all their divergent interests. Happily, the bur- den has fallen on J. W Jeffrey, manager of the Deciduous Fruit League of Sacra- mento, and late Commissioner of Hoi^ti- culture of that state. His 30 years' effi- cient and valiant service for co-operation is a guaranty that the cause will not lag under his guidance. Central Selling Agencj for Northwest Apples In Washington and Oregon the apple growei's are feeling their way to- ward one another. Three years ago, when I began to agitate a growers' central sell- ing agency for Northwest apples, I was voted a dreamer. It was argued that if a central selling agency could even be start- ed it would quickly collapse before the problem how to handle all the apples of the Northwest in one pool, in view of the mutual jealousies of vaiious localities. Of course, no idea of attempting such a thing was contemplated by us. Other equally unreal men of straw were set up by those whose zeal to discover obstacles in the pathway of co-operation overshad- owed their fund of information. In my judgment, organization of our agricultural class, for a more compre- hensive system of co-operative distribu- tion, is one of the most important works to which our public-spirited citizens can address their efforts. There is great in- terest, nowadays, in the problem how to better social conditions of the farm, how to get people back to the land. The banker, the agricultural college and the commercial club have joined to find a so- lution. They hope to solve the problem by popularizing agricultural education, and teaching the farmer how he may ex- tract more from the soil. Leaders of the propaganda overlook the fact that the most potent organization to effect better methods of farming better methods of MARKETING FRUITS— CO-OPERATION 1273 handling farm products, greater agricul- tural prosperity, better rural citizenship and social life, is a successful associa- tion of farmers themselves, formed to se- cure better distribution of their products. In a community having such an asso- ciation in successful operation, it is un- necessary to raise the cry "back to the land." Every one who can afford it gets back, without waiting to have a pry ap- plied to him. If some of our well-mean- ing friends would devote a part of their energies to urging upon farmers the nec- essity and advantages of co-operative or- ganization, instead of side-stepping the question lest they distui-b the eauanim- ity of local middlemen, they would be reaching their object by the most direct and effective means. If our enterprising agricultural colleges would take up the question of co-operation among farmers, their students might return to the coun- try with some sympathy for, and knowl- edge of, the best means of upbuilding their fathers' business and improving its environment, [Since the preparation of this article the "North Pacific Fruit Distributors'* has been organized, making the largest central selling agency in the Northwest. —Ed.] rO"OFEEATIOK IN THE HAKDLINO AHB MAEKEXINa OF FRUIT The handling and marketing of crops through co-operative associations is more highly developed in fruit growing than in any other agricultural industry in America. These organizations are formed to purchase the supplies used in the production and marketing of the crops, to standardize the harvesting, handling, grading, and packing of the fruit, to sell the fruit of the members as a unit under whatever system of marketing is adopted, to prevent disastrous competition by bringing about an equitable distribution throughout the country, and to handle the fruit business in other ways collective- ly rather than individually whenever it can be done more economically and ef- fectively. There are several hundred of these associations among the fruit grow- ers of the "Western states and a number that are successful among the fruit grow- ers in the Central West and along the Atlantic coast. Co-operation in the West Fruit growing is a highly specialized industry in the Western states. The growers there have often had extensive business experience before engaging in horticulture. The industry in the West is confined to the valleys and foothills or is more or less geographically local- ized in other ways. Land values are usually high in comparison with the price of land in the East, cultural prac- tices are more expensive and intensive, the markets are thousands of miles dis- tant, and the problems of production, transportation, distribution, marketing, and legislation are too complex for the average individual grower to meet and solve alone. Under these conditions co- operative effort is a business necessity, just as the consolidation of capital in other industries is necessary for its own preservation. The production, buying, distribution, and selling of crops must be accomplished by working together. Things must be done in a large way if the fruit grower is to deal on the same level with the combinations of capital with which his product comes in con- tact at every step from the orchard to the consumer. The Western fruit grow- ers have therefore formed associations of various kinds to work out the prob- lems that confront them. At the foundation of the semi-arid western horticulture lies the necessity for irrigation, and the irrigation systems, which are largely owned and controlled by the farmers, form a common tie which binds them closely together and makes co-operation in other things more easily accomplished than is the case in the humid fruit-growing sections of the East. They may co-operate to protect the or- chards from insect pests and diseases or from frost, to pick the fruit, to prepare it for shipment, and to direct its distribu- tion, storage and marketing. They may own outfits for spraying and fumigating, packing houses that cost thousands of dollars, and storage plants of large capac- 1274 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ity. They may develop a system of dis- tribution and of market reporting which keeps them in daily touch with the mar- kets iji every part of the United States and Canada and with the general move- ment of fruit in transit They may ad- vertise their products extensively and through their organizations handle the legislative and other public-policy ques- tions that vitally affect the industry. Co-operation in the East In the central and eastern parts of the country the growing of fruit is not usu- ally specialized or localized. It is more likely to be an incidental feature of the general agriculture of a community. It Is slowly developing into a specialized in- dustry, especially in many sections of the Bast and South, though it is still large- ly in the hands of men whose only ex- perience has been gained on the farm. In the eastern half of the United States, where irrigation is not required, the dif- ficulties of production are more easily overcome, competition among fruit buy- ers is more or less keen, markets are comparatively close at hand, and the problems of transportation and of mar- keting are not as acute as they are with the Western fruit grower. The need of co-operation has not faced the Eastern fruit grower as squarely as it has the grower in the West. Hence, the co-operative movement has been of slower development in the East, except in such industries as grape growing in Western New York and the citrus-fruit industry in Florida, where the stability of the capital invested has been threaten- ed as a result of a haphazard system of individual distribution or of local sell- ing and marketing. Under these condi- tions there have been formed virile or- ganizations of growers for the distribu- tion and marketing of the products, and such organizations when properly di- rected have been successful. The Individualism, of the Farmer Co-operation among farmers is more difficult to effect than the consolidation of capital in other business enterprises. The farmer is the most individualistic of American citizens. It is not easy for him to transact his business with his neigh- bors. Independence in handling his af- fairs is a tradition that has been his for generations. He would rather conduct his business man to man, as his fathers have done before him, unless necessity compels him to do otherwise. The co- operative movements that have been or- ganized among prosperous fruit growers have usually failed. The social, the po- litical, or the altruistic motives have not been strong enough to hold a group of money-making farmers together. The only successful co-operative efforts until recently have been those which have been born of desperate necessity. Co-operation must be effected when the fruit industry is at low ebb to have the virility to live in the face of the attacks to which all such efforts are at fii'st sub- jected, but after the growers have learn- ed the power of co-operation as a busi- ness opportunity, their organizations be- come permanent and exert a powerful in- fluence in the development of a better social life, and, through their participa- tion in the progress and management of rural affairs, in the development of a better citizenship. No other agency is so powerful in bringing about better farm- ing, better methods of handling the in- dustry, a greater prosperity, and a better community than a group of farmers who are successfully organized to protect and develop their agricultural interests. The American farmer is beginning to realize that the powerful influence of consoli- dated capital has been the source of the tremendous industrial progress of the last generation. He is beginning to take a greater interest in the possibilities of co-operative action when applied to his own problems. Fundamental Principles of Co-operation There are many kinds of co-operative associations among the fruit growers of the United States. In a non-profit asso- ciation, which represents the ideal type of co-operation, the members usually have an equal voice in its management and share proportionately in its benefits and risks. Such an organization is a voluntary industrial democracy in which MARKETING PRXJITS— CO-OPERATION 1275 the fi'uit growers manage and control the distribution and marketing of their own products. Every member of the associa- tion is a bona fide producer and his fruit is handled exclusively by the association. All of the operations are carried on at cost, and after operating expenses, de- preciation, and a reasonable interest on the capital invested in the equipment of the association are deducted, the profits are distributed to the members in pro- portion to the amount of business each has transacted through the organization. The powers of the association are vested in a board of directors selected by the growers, who manage and control its affairs and business through officers or agents appointed by it and subject to its advice and dii*ection. The Organization of a Co-operatiie Association The first step in organizing a co-opera- tive association is to incorporate it un- der the laws of a state. This usually has to be done under the laws that author- ize the formation of stock or member- ship corporations, as few of the states have provided for the incorporation of non-profit co-operative agricultural or horticultural associations. The association needs to be incorpor- ated on broad lines. The articles of in- corporation should set forth the purpose for which the association is formed and should provide for every activity in which it may wish to engage. They should define the principal place of busi- ness, the life of the association, the num- ber and power of the directors, the vot- ing power and property rights of the members, the amount of the capital stock, and all other things of a general nature that are needed to be included in the incorporation of such a body. A code of by-laws needs to be adopted for the government and management of a co-operative association. The by-laws should define the method of exercising the power of the corporation through the board of directors and the oflacers ap- pointed by it, the conditions surrounding the admission of members, the dues or stock to be paid by each, and the condi- tions surrounding the same. They should provide broad powers for the manager, including the supervision of the harvest- ing, grading, packing, distribution,, and sale of the fruit, or for such of these operations as the association may wish to perform. They should define the grades to be adopted by the association for each kind of fruit They should contain a provision by which the grower gives the association the exclusive right to market the fruit, with the possible exception of the lowest grades, and to harvest, grade, and pack the same. This includes the selling of the fruit for the members either as individuals or through pools of fruit, a penalty to be collected by the as- sociation for every package sold outside of the association. These objects are at- tained by the signature of the farmer to the by-laws of the association, or the association may require a special con- tract to be executed with the co-operating member. The methods of providing money for operating expenses, such as a fixed as- sessment against every package of fruit handled by the association, and the meth- od of prorating the balance if the total amount of the package assessment amounts to more than the operating ex- penses, and other things usually includ- ed in such organizations should be set forth in the by-laws. Types of Co-operative Associations The fruit growers' organizations vary in form from' joint-stock companies com- posed of growers or dealers or of both, who distribute their own products or the products of others, to the simple non- profit form of co-operative association which purchases the supplies and distrib- utes the products of its members at cost. The voting power of the members in the different associations varies from a single vote for each member to a vote proportional to the amount of stock owned by each or to the acreage held by each. His voting power may depend on the probable crop production or the ac- tual production of the preceding year. The capital may be contributed in limit- ed amount equally by each member in 1276 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE proportion to the acreage held by each or to the probable production of each member, or unequally without reference to either of these factors. It may be con- tributed by business men who are not fruit growers, but who desire to encour- age the formation of associations; or the capital stock may be subscribed as an in- vestment and a high rate of interest paid on it before the profits are distributed to the growers. Some of the associations handle fruit on speculation or for non- members at a specified rate per package. All of these types of so-called co-opera- tive associations and many others are in operation with a greater or less degree of success. 'The most virile and effective from the standpoint of the producer are those which are strictly co-operative, non- profit in type, each member contributing an equal amount of capital and having an equal voice in its management or a vot- ing power and capital contribution in proportion to the acreage of bearing fruit held by each. The association handles the fruit of the members only and the fruit is under the control of the asso- ciation from the tree to the market. The objection urged against this form of or- ganization is that the small grower has an equal voice with the large grower in fixing the policies of the association. The objection to the voting power based on acreage is that the exceptional grower has no more influence than a poor grow- er of equal acreage. There is equally strong objection to the form of power based on production, as the pro rata of production may vary with the seasons. All of these objections are discussed in the following pages. Causes of Failure in Co-operative Associations Not all of the co-operative associations are successful. In fact, comparatively few of them have been distinctly success- ful, especially among the early associa- tions formed before the citrus-fruit grow- ers of California organized to distribute their products and to protect the capital invested in their industry. The citrus- fruit organizations, most of which are founded on the true co-operative, non- profit basis, have had a far-reaching in- fluence on the co-operative movement in the United States. The orange and lemon growers of Cal- ifornia have the most powerful and suc- cessful organizations to be found in any agricultural industry in the United States, if not in the world, one organ- ization acting as an agent in distributing $15,000,000 worth of fruit a year for its 6,000 members, organized into more than a hundred associations on a non-profit basis. This agency sends fruit to every part of the United States and Canada and to several foreign countries, main- taining its own exclusive representatives in all of the principal markets of Amer- ica. Many of the co-operative associa- tions organized in recent years have been formed on the principles that underlie the citrus-fruit associations, and these, when wisely managed, have shown great strength. The Management of a Co-operative Association Several factors have contributed to the downfall of fruit growers* associations. Many of them have been formed by im- practical, often unsuccessful, enthusiasts with high motives, but with no business experience and little standing in their communities. Others have been formed ahead of their time when the industry was too successful for the members to be held together. Many of them have been managed by incompetent, low-salaried men, not infrequently by those who have been unsuccessful in business. The suc- cessful handling of a co-operative associa- tion requires a manager who is compe- tent to assume the general direction of the affairs and business of the associa- tion. He must have a high order of business ability, sterling integrity, un- usual tact and judgment in handling men, and unlimited energy. An association under any other kind of management is not a serious business undertaking. It is more difficult to direct a co-oper- ative association than a stock company or corporation. In the latter the man- ager is responsible to a board of direc- tors, but the stockholders do not often MARKETING FRUITS— CO-OPERATION 1277 take an active interest in the manage- ment of its affairs. In the co-operative association the manager is also subject to the advice and control of the board of directors, hut the farmer who joins with his neighbors in an association is likely to take more than a passing in- terest in the management of the associa- tion. A manager who cannot hold the interest and the confidence of the mem- bers, who fails to develop a progressive, constructive business policy, will fail in handling a co-operative organization. Nor can such an organization succeed if the directors do not realize that it must have a strong, competent, aggressive, well-paid manager at its head. It is not too much to say that no single factor has operated against the success of the co-operative associations as much as the incompetent managers selected by the directors of the associations to handle them. A board of directors cannot manage a co-operative agricultural association. The outcome of the organization will be determined in large degree by the character and abil- ity of the manager. The Payment of Dividends Another factor that has operated against the success of many so-called co- operative associations has been the pay- ment of high dividends on the capital invested, the stock having been sub- scribed unequally by a comparatively few members. The organization in which the business is not transacted at cost cannot hold the confidence and support of its members. The payment of one or two high dividends on the capital stock before the proceeds are distributed to the growers has caused the downfall of many associations that have been well organ- ized in other respects. Another danger- ous element has been the ambitious ef- fort of new associations to buy and sell fruit and supplies outside of the mem- bership. The speculative element must be rigidly excluded from co-operative asso- ciations. The harvesting, grading, pack- ing and handling of fruit not grown by members invariably leads to a lowering of the established standards of grading and packing and to injury to the reputa- tion and financial standing of the asso- ciation. Disloyalty of Members a Cause of Failure Many co-operative efforts fail through the disloyalty of members when the asso- ciation is subjected to the skillful, in- sidious fire of those who oppose it. The farmer is not used to having his business attacked, and those who are interested in disrupting the organization appeal di- rectly to his pocketbook by attempting to show that the association does not realize as much for the fruit as the farmer could realize outside the associa- tion. They also persistently insinuate that the association is grossly misman- aged. It is a favorite practice of the oppo- nents of co-operative distribution and selling to offer association members a premium on their fruits. The apple grower is tempted by a premium of 25 to 50 cents a barrel over the probable re- turn of the association; the peach grower by an advance of 10 to 20 cents a box or basket, and the pear or small-fruit grower by an equally attractive bonus. The man with a small crop and a still smaller capital often falls before this kind of temptation, and if it is held out long enough the association may be disrupted. These devices are coming to be well un- derstood and the fruit grower who joins an association in good faith and sells out for a small premium is in danger of los- ing the respect and confidence of his neighbors. The Membership Contract It is a fundamental necessity that the members be held together by a contract or a provision in the by-laws which gives the association the exclusive right to pick, pack, haul, grade, mark and sell the fruit of its members, or to perform as many of these operations as it may de- cide to perform, or to supervise or regu- late these operations under rules made by the association. The contract should be drawn for a term of three to five years, giving the grower the privilege of withdrawing by notice at the end of 1278 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE any fruit year, thereby making his con- tinued connection with the association voluntary. The contract should specify a penalty to be assessed against every package of fruit sold outside of the asso- ciation, this penalty to equal not less than 25 per cent of the value of the fruit. Under any other plan an associa- tion cannot build on a solid foundation. It cannot foresee the probable volume of business to be transacted, nor can it provide the means to purchase the sup- plies for handling the crop or reach that degree of stability that is essential to the success of a business undertaking. The membership contract with the grower is the foundation stone on which the busi- ness of the association is reared and without which its existence and stability are problematical. Co-operation in the Purchase of Supplies In every co-operative association there should be a division for the purchase, sale or manufacture of supplies of every kind used in the production, packing, handling, shipping and marketing of the crop. The association should be prepared to pur- chase fertilizers, materials and equip- ment for spraying and fumigation; the facilities used in frost protection, prun- ing or harvesting; orchard machinery, or any other equipment on which a saving can be made by co-operative purchasing. It should be prepared to purchase the supplies for fruit handling and market- ing, such as box shooks or packages, pick- ing boxes, nails, wrapping paper, and all kinds of packing-house equipment. The money needed to operate this pur- chasing division may be raised by as- sessment, by the individual notes of the directors of the association, or in other ways. The association should sell the supplies to the members at a fair mar- ket price, and at the end of the season should prorate the surplus to the mem- bers or invest it in the business, after deducting the operating charges, deprecia- tion and other necessary expenses, in- cluding interest on the assets and capital devoted to this supply division. Co-operation in the Handling* of Fruit The condition in which fruit reaches the consumer depends largely on the care with which it is handled. The most common rots of apples and pears, of small fruits, and of citrus fruits are directly related to the mechanical bruising of the fruit, most of the diseases not having the power of penetrating a healthy, un- injured skin. The association must there- fore provide rigid rules for picking. It must either supervise the harvesting, grading and packing of the fruit and pro- vide for the most rigid inspection of every lot before it is accepted by the association for shipment, or else the har- vesting, grading and packing must be done by the association. In most of the associations where the fruit is not packed in central packing houses it is picked and packed by the grower according to the rules of the association, and inspected by an employee of the association before it is accepted for shipment. This system works fairly well with the small deciduous fruits, which have to be handled quickly from the field to the consumer. It is not a satisfactory sys- tem to apply to the citrus fruits or to the apple or pear crops. With these the handling, grading and packing must be standarized, and this can be done only when the association controls all of the handling operations or actually performs them. Many apple associations establish rules of grading and packing. The asso- ciation grower picks and packs the fruit, and the association accepts or rejects it by inspecting the packages when delivered at the railroad station, the association ware- house or some other point. But experi- ence has shown that the grower can rarely be depended on to pick and pack the fruit in the best manner. It requires skilled labor, and fruit grading and pack- ing is an art that is acquired by few in- dividual fruit growers. An association, therefore, that operates on this principle seldom reaches the highest degree of suc- cess, and is likely to fail outright. A better plan is to have the grower pick the fruit when directed to do so by the MARKETING FKUITS-~-CO-OPERATION 1279 association. It is then graded and packed according to the rules of the association in the orchard or in the fruit house on the farm by trained men in the employ of the association. Under this plan the grading and packing of the fruit of the entire membership can be done with com- parative uniformity. Even then the pack- ages need to be inspected before they are accepted by the association. Every package rejected should be regraded and repacked or placed in a low grade. This system is in operation in several of the most successful co-operative apple growers' associations in the United otates. Another plan is to grade and pack the fruit at a central packing house owned and controlled by the association. The growers pick the fruit, haul it to the packing house, and there it is graded and packed by the association. This is the plan that was formerly in general oper- ation in the orange and lemon-growing districts and is followed to a limited extent at the present time. The objec- tion to this plan is that no two growers handle the fruit with equal care, and the different lots of fruit therefore vary in physical condition and in susceptibility to decay. Under this system there is a wide variation in the percentage of decay that develops in the fruit of dif- ferent members while in transit to mar- ket. If the fruit is pooled, the grower who handles his fruit carefully has to share the losses that develop in the fruit that has been carelessly handled. The most satisfactory plan in the cit- rus-fruit industry (and this may be ap- plied to some other fruits) is to have the association train gangs of laborers who shall pick the fruit of all of the members. The laborers should be paid by the day, as contract or piecework places a premium on rapid, careless work. In this way the picking can be stan- dardized, the quantity of fruit that passes through the packing house can be con- trolled, and the grading and packing can be uniformly done. This system has been generally adopted in the citrus-fruit industry as a result of the investigations of the Department of Agriculture into the causes of decay in oranges and lemons while in transit from California to the East. This in- vestigation showed that the decay was the result of the improper handling of the fruit in preparing it for shipment, and that it could be controlled by plac- ing the handling of the fruit entirely in the hands of the associations. The same laborers often fumigate the orchards of the members for scale insects and spray the trees wherever spraying Is practiced. The Central Packing House The tendency in the co-operative move- ment is toward a central packing house where the fruit of the members is brought together and is graded and packed for shipment. In the small-fruit industry this plan is hardly practicable. It is sometimes successfully operated in the deciduous-fruit and in the grape indus- tries. There are about 200 of these as- sociation packing houses in the citrus industry in California, and the Florida citrus growers are rapidly organizing along these lines. A packing house is erected by the association, usually along- side the railroad, and is equipped with the necessary appliances for fruit han- dling and packing, the manager of the packing house being usually the general manager of the association. Precooling and cold-storage plants, box-nailing and labeling machinery, and other devices re- quired in the industry, are to be found in many of the association houses. The Pooling of Fruit There is a growing practice in the co- operative associations to pool and sell the fruit as a common commodity under the brands of the association rather than to sell the fruit of each grower sep- arately. The pool is an arrangement by which the similar grades of fruit of all of the growers are united and sold to- gether. At the end of a pool, which may vary from a daily pool in the sum- mer-fruit business to a monthly or semi- monthly pool in the citrus-fruit busi- ness or a season pool in the apple in- dustry, the grower receives his pro rata 1280 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE of the proceeds based on the number of pounds or packages of each grade that he has contmbuted In theory the grower has the privilege of contributing to each pool his pro rata of the fruit of the as- sociation as a whole, the manager of the association usually apportioning to the growers tlieir quota in accordance with their respective acreage. The pool- ing arrangement greatly simplifies the practical business methods of the asso- ciation. Th€ successful working of tlie pooling system depends on having the handling, grading and packing of the fruit under the direction or control of the associa- tion. It may but does not often succeed where these operations are in the hands of the grower. It depends, further, on having a large proportion of the fruit of the association of uniform grade. There is considerable variation in the average quality of different lots of fruit in the same grade, even under the most rigid system of grading. The fancy grade of one grower may average better than the fancy of another, though the fruit of both is entitled to be graded fancy under the established rules of the association. No grower is willing to admit that he does not raise the best fruit in his com- munity, and where it happens that his fruit falls below the average and he is paid for a larger proportion of the lower grades than his neighbor he may become dissatisfied, when he will either drift along and finally leave the association or will adopt better cultural methods. In some communities there is a friendly ri- valry among the association members in securing the largest proportion of the higher grades of fruit. The grade of fruit grown under similar conditions of soil and location depends largely on the cultural skill of the grower, and the pub- licity that the association affords regard- ing the results of grading the fruit of different growers is a strong factor in stimulating better cultural methods in a community as a whole. On the other hand, the pooling system may not encourage the unusually skillful grower to develop fruit of the highest average grade. If he stands alone as a skillful grower, he will not get the full advantage of his extra-fine fruit in the pool, as the practical effect of the pool is to lower the price of extra-fine fruit and to raise the price of fruit that can barely enter a grade. An association ought, therefore, to be composed of mem- bers located similarly as to soil and other physical conditions and having similar cultural skill and, preferably, similar acreage. Unless these fundamen- tal conditions are carefully guarded, the pooling system may tend to lower the average grade of the fruit of a com- munity because the grower, realizing that the identity of his fruit is lost in the pool, may grow careless in his cultural practices and trust to the better fruit of his more careful neighbors to raise the average net returns of the grades in which his fruit is pooled. The Size of a Co-operati>e Association In theory a large association can han- dle a business more economically than a small one. It is not usually practicable, in the orange business for example, to organize an association and build a pack- ing house unless there are at least 150 cars of fruit to ship. The largest asso- ciations do not often ship more than 750 cars, and only a few of these large asso- ciations are highly successful, as they are likely to become unwieldy and difficult to hold together. There is a wide difference in the char- acter of the fruit grown on different soils at different altitudes or with other dis- similar physical conditions. The varia- tion shows in the texture of the skin, in its color and clearness, in the flavor of the fruit, and in those qualities which give it style and attractiveness. There is no system of grading by which the fruit grown under different conditions can be made uniform and similar. An association should therefore include not only those growers who are similarly skillful, but also those whose fruit nat- urally shows similar characteristics. In a community in which the fruit is somewhat variable it is a wiser policy to organize several associations, each MARKEl iNG B^'RUITS— CO Of DERATION 1281 with its "brands of fruit, than to attempt to market all of the fruit under the same brand through one organization. These organizations may act independently in the purchase of supplies and in the mar- keting of the fruit, or they may federate and form an agency to act for them in the distribution and marketing of the fruit, in the purchase of supplies, and in promoting the co-operative movement in other ways. It is only under this method of organization that the co-oper- ative association can reach its highest de- velopment of better methods of fruit growing and In rural development. Tlie Organization of the Citrns-Fniit Indnstry of California The citrus-fruit industry in California, which has developed commercially since 1873, when the Washington navel orange, originally grown in Brazil, was sent to Riverside by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, represents an invest- ment of 150 to 175 million dollars. The annual shipments of oranges and lemons have reached the enormous total of 40,- 000 to 50,000 carloads, with a value in California estimated to vary from 20 to 30 million dollars. Between 125,000 and 150,000 acres have been planted to citrus fruits, and from 100,000 to 150,000 people depend on the industry for a livelihood. The industry is localized largely in Southern California, though it is extend- ing rapidly in the interior valleys to the north. No other horticultural industry in the United States of equal extent is so compactly located. None presents more difficult problems or requires a more skillful distribution and marketing of the crop. Oranges and lemons are distributed from California practically every day in the year for distances of thousands of miles to all of the important cities and towns in the United States and Canada, and some are exported to other countries. When the industry was small no com- plicated problems of distribution or mar- keting faced the grower. The fruit was sold for cash to buyers on the ground or to brokers who represented distant commission houses or other interests, or it may have been sent direct to a com- mission firm in some far-away city. As the industry grew larger and there were several thousand carloads of fruit to sell, the grower began to realize that the sys- tems of selling the fruit already in oper- ation were inadequate to bring to him the proportion of the returns which his capital was earning and to which he con- sidered himself entitled. Under the sys- tem in operation there were frequent gluts in a few of the markets and ap- parently no effort among the buyers to equalize the distribution of the fruit geographically or throughout the year. The buyers were said sometimes to have fixed the maximum price which would be paid the grower and to apportion the citrus-fruit area into districts so as to reduce competition among themselves. The result was disastrous to the pro- ducer and became so serious in the early nineties as to threaten to wipe out the capital invested in the industry. About this time the growers began t6 organize small associations for the pur- pose of preparing the fruit for shipment, and in order that it might be assembled in quantity and sold for cash or shipped as a unit. Mr. T. H. B. Chamblin, of Riverside, was the pioneer in organizing the citrus-fruit growers of Southern Cali- fornia. The Pachappa Fruit Association was the first one formed, about 1888. A number of these growers' associations were soon formed, and in 1893 a plan was outlined by Mr. Chamblin, and finally adopted in principle, which federated a number of the associations and provided for the preparation of the fruit for mar- ket by the local associations, for the organization of district exchanges to be made up of the local associations, which were to receive orders for the fruit and apportion them among the associations, it being the intent at that time to ship only such fruit as was sold before picking, and the formation of an executive com- mittee, made up of representatives from the district exchanges, to market the fruit. Out of this federation grew the South- ern California Fruit Exchange in 1895, and later, in 1905, the California Fruit- 2 40 1282 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Growers' Bxcliange, whicli now handles about 60 per cent of the citrus fruits grown in California. There are many other associations of growers not con- nected with the exchange which are or- ganized on the same general principles, and these associations, together with the exchange and a few large growers who market their own fruit, handle about 85 per cent of the citrus-fruit crop. In order that the principles which un- derlie the largest co-opeiative fruit-mar- keting organization in the United States may he understood, a brief outline of the exchange system follows: The California Fruit-Growers' Ex- change represents about 6,000 growers who have organized themselves into 100 or more local associations. The associa- tion usually owns its own packing house, where the fruit of the members is as- sembled, pooled and prepared for market under brands adopted for the different grades by the association. The associa- tion usually picks the fruit of the mem- bers. The associations in the different re- gions combine into one or more district exchanges which represent the associa- tion in the business operations common to each and which sell the fruit in co-oper- ation with the California Fruit-Growers' Exchange through the district or local agents of the latter or at auction, receiv- ing the proceeds therefor through the California Fruit-Growers' Exchange, an incorporated agency formed by a repre- sentative of each of the sixteen district exchanges, which acts as the selling agent for these district exchanges. The California Fruit-Growers' Exchange takes the fruit of the district exchanges after it is packed and with their advice places it in the different markets, sells it through its own exclusive agents to the trade or by auction, and collects the pro- ceeds and transmits them to the district exchanges, which in turn pay the growers through the local associations. The central exchange, the district ex- change, and the association all transact business for the grower at actual cost. The central exchange through its agents is in daily touch with the markets of America, thereby enabling it to distribute its fruit intelligently. The local ex- changes and the associations receive a daily bulletin from the central exchange which outlines the condition of all the markets the preceding day, states the selling price of all exchange cars, and gives the growers such information as will help them to pack and distribute their fruit to the best advantage. The limits of this article are too re- stricted to permit more than a brief out- line of the battle that the citrus-fruit growers of California had to wage for fifteen years before the co-operative prin- ciple was on a firm foundation. At first the growers were inexperienced in meet- ing the attacks of those who were opposed to co-operation among the producers. Pow- erful financial interests of various kinds were arrayed against them and were or- ganized to oppose them. Vicious attacks were made on the integrity of the officers. The results obtained by the associations were belittled, the growers' association contract was assailed in the courts, and the methods of marketing the fruit were attacked. The most determined efforts were made to show that the growers' or- ganizations were illegally formed. Finally the growers combined with the buyers at one time to market the entire crop, but this incongruous combination of pro- ducers and dealers was dissolved at the end of a year and a half. The history of the citrus industry in California is largely a record of the prog- ress in the co-operative handling and dis- tribution of the crop by the producer and of his determination to receive an equitable share of the value of the labor expended in its production. The battle has been won; the co-operative principle is firmly fixed. It is the balance wheel that gives stability to the industry and to the relations that exist between it and the agencies with which it transacts busi- ness. Fewer serious efforts are made now to break down the co-operative principle among the growers. New schemes of fruit-marketing are proposed from time MARKETING FRUIT S---CO-OPERATION 1283 to time, the organizations are frequently attacked in the courts under one guise or another, and other insidious naove- ments are started, all having in view the possible splitting open of the co-operative organizations and a return to the meth- ods of marketing which would destroy the systematic distribution and market- ing now in operation and reinstate the chaotic speculative methods that were formerly in vogue. The co-operative movement in the citrus industry is the result of a slow, painful evolution, and the grower does not appear to be deceived by these efforts, no matter how ingeni- ously and artfully they are conceived. Selling the Fruit by Co-operative Associations The co-operative associations sell the fruit in a variety of ways, the method of sale depending on the character and condition of the industry and the prac- tices that have grown up around it. A large proportion of the deciduous sum- mer fruits is sold f. o. b. cars at the point of production, subject to inspection on arrival in market, or for cash f. o. b. cars, or at auction. Some are consigned to commission merchants. From 25 to 30 per cent of the citrus fruits of Cali- fornia are sold at public auction in the Eastern and Central Western markets, and a large proportion of the Western deciduous fruits is sold in this manner. Among the apple associations it is a common practice to send to the trade in advance of the harvest a catalogue of the probable number of boxes of the different varieties and sizes of the higher grades of fruit that the association has for sale, and finally to sell the fruit to the highest t o. b. bidder. The lower grades are consigned to commission firms, are sold for cash, or are marketed in other ways. Few of the organizations, except those that transact a large business — ^like the citrus-fruit growers of Florida and Cali- fornia, the peach shippers of Georgia, and the deciduous-fruit shippers of California — ^have attempted to regulate the distribu- tion of their products throughout the country, nor have any serious attempts been made to carry the distribution be- yond the wholesale dealer, the broker, or the auction companies. The co-operative method has brought about large econo- mies in the purchase of supplies, in the cost of preparing the fruit for shipment, and in the charges for distribution and sale. It has improved the methods of fruit packing and grading enormously. It has sometimes doubled the net returns to the individual grower for his product. The difference in the price that the asso- ciation receives for the fruit and that which the consumer pays is often 100 per cent or more higher than the original selling price, and this contracts consump- tion. As long as the country is prosperous and the present method of distribution and sale does not cause a disastrous over-supply in the principal markets, the growers will be satisfied to continue the methods now in operation. But as the fruit business increases it will be neces- sary for the growers' associations to de- velop methods for increasing consump- tion. This will be accomplished by a more general distribution of their prod- ucts, by the development of their asso- ciations into marketing organizations, by equalizing the distribution of the fruit over a longer period through a greater use of cold-storage warehouses, by stimu- lating a greater interest in fruit con- sumption through systematic advertising, and by placing the fruit in the consumer's hand at a cost nearer that which the producer himself receives. As the Ameri- can fruit business increases, the grower may be expected to bring about as great an improvement in the methods of dis- tributing and selling his products to the consumer as he has already accomplished in the handling, grading, packing and preparation of the fruit for market. G. Haeold Powell, Poraolo^ist and Aetinj? Chief, Buieaii of Plant Industry (1910 Year-book) 1284 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE YAKIMA YALLEY FRUIT 61R0WERS' ASSOCIATIOIV Fbank E, Sickles, General Manager. The Yakima Valley Fruit Growers' As- sociation was organized in the fall of 1910. It was the outgrowth of a wide- spread feeling among the fruit growers of the valley, who faced the fact that an enormous acreage had been planted to fruit trees which would soon come into bearing, that only through co-operative effort and organization could a solution of the marketing problem be found and the industry placed upon a permanent business basis. Their purpose was ex- pressed in the preamble of the articles of incorporation which were filed Novem- ber 7, 1910: "We, the undersigned, realizing the advantages to be gained by drawing more closely together the fruit growers of the Yakima valley and the advantages that may be gained by co-operation and unity of action among said growers, and for the purposes of cementing the business relations which should exist among the fruit growers as a class, to the end that they may all work together for their mutual interests in securing the most favorable markets for their products, and in attaining the highest standard of qual- ity of fruit shipped from the Yakima valley, do hereby agree to form an asso- ciation or corporation for mutual advan- tage, and not for profit, and to that end hereby make and subscribe and do hereby adopt the following articles of incorpora- tion, to-wit:" The list of the first-year directors, with their residences, shows that from the first the organization was valley wide, bringing together, perhaps for the first time, into united and harmonious action, men living "above the gap" and men living "below the gap," phrases which will be familiar to Yakima people. Following is the list: E. M. Sly, Kennewick; B. D. Thomp- son, G-ranger; J. E. Shannon, Geo. E. C. Johnson, North Yakima; John Bobie, Lower Naches, and M. E. Olson, Parker. The plan of organization which was adopted and which we outline below, is the work very largely of Mr. N. C. Rich- ards of North Yakima, who has been from the beginning general counsel for the association; and its successful devel- opment and application to practical busi- ness has been the result in great measure of the organizing skill, tireless energy and unfailing faith of Mr. J. H. Robbins, who until June, 1913, was general man- ager. The association is generally recog- nized as one of the most successful of all co-operative organizations and has al- ready served as a model for many other such enterprises; a somewhat full ac- count of its plan may be of value to fruit growers everywhere. The organization is incorporated under the provisions of the so-called "Fraternal Lodge Law" of the State of Washington; and the fact is suggestive of the spirit, purpose and method of the oi-ganization As a corporation it is therefore what is known In some states as a "membership corporation" as distinguished from a "stock corporation." Ho Capital Stock The association has no capital stock. The reasoning which controlled the ac- tion of the organizers may be stated somewhat as follows: Many of the evils which have sprung from the tremendous growth of modern corporations have had their origin in the fact that there are two distinct sets of interests and meas- ures of values in every corporate con- cern, the business itself and the stocks based upon it; and the two are often by no means identical; when the concern grows large two distinct lines of enter- prise spring up, the conduct of the cor- porate business and the flotation and manipulation of the stock. This segrega- tion of interests attaching to stock from those attaching to the business itself they believed to be especially dangerous in a growers' marketing organization, for the peculiar conditions, relations, needs and purposes of the business emphasize the danger at every point. The growers* only interest in the organization is to secure through it the maximum of re- turns at the minimum charge; the stock- YAKIMA VALLEY FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION 1285 holders' only interest is to do a maximum of business at a maximum of profit — wliich means a maximum charge to growers, modified only by the necessity of making the charge low enough to se- cure the business. The stockholders' in- terests and the shippers' interests are not and cannot be made to be anything other than essentially antagonistic. Ex- perience has shown that it is practically impossible to remedy this condition by any system of stock control or limitation. A right start may be made in a growers' stock organization but the shifting chances of time will soon bring in a con- dition where combinations of stockhold- ers can control the corporation against the interests of the growers, and the very common spectacle will be exhibited of a growers' co-operative organization con- trolled by non-growers. By making the basis the man with his tonnage and not dollars Invested in stock all these diffi- culties are avoided. Non-Profit Making The association cannot do business at a profit. Under the terms of its charter it must perform its services for the grower at cost. Its charges for any sea- son must be based upon the necessities of the budget for that season, and if any surplus remain at the close of the year, it must be returned to the members. This assures the growers a sales-service at cost, removes the temptation to build up a large surplus in the organization by making excessive charges and makes it impossible for the association to perform services for non-members or to go into a general mercantile business to the pos- sible endangering of its legitimate pur- poses. Membership Any person who is the owner or lessee of lands set to any kind of merchantable fruits is eligible to membership upon complying with two conditions: 1st, sign- ing a contract for the marketing of his fruit, which will be referred to again more in detail; and, 2nd, paying or bind- ing himself to pay the membership fee. A certificate is issued to each member which is not transferable except to a lessee or grantee of the land owned by the member and described in his crop contract- It can, therefore, at the option of the member, "go with the land" or fol- low him and attach to other land of which he may become the owner or lessee. If he sells to another member, the cer- tificate may be turned into the associa- tion and reissued to the next grower applying for membership, the member- ship fee to be turned over to the retiring member. In case a member ceases to be a grower, his certificate may be can- celled. The certificate entitles the member to all the privileges of the association so long as his crop contract continues in force. Should he withhold his crop from the association for any reason, he loses his right to any and all privileges of the association, but can afterwards renew his contract and be restored to the enjoy- ment of privileges upon the basis of the same certificate and fee. Membership Fee Every member pays a membership fee of $100. In what manner this is paid rests entirely in the hands of the district associations; it may be paid in cash, se- cured by notes payable as suits the con- ditions of the growers, or by making a percentage deduction from the member's crop returns; the plan is very flexible and admits of adjustment to the peculiar conditions of each district and individual. These membership fees are usually de- voted by the districts to providing local warehouse facilities. Crop Contract This is a tripartite agreement between the grower, his district association and the association. By it the grower agrees to market all his fruit grown on the land described in the contract through the association, and agrees to pay for market- ing, loading and such selling charges and commissions as may be necessary in or- der to meet expenses. The contract is perpetual and continues from year to year unless cancelled by the grower on March 1st of any year, after giving twen- ty days' notice in writing of his inten- 1286 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE tion to cancel. It provides for liquidated damages to be enforced against the grow- er who violates his contract. The con- tract also authorizes the association to withhold from fruit returns all associa- tion charges and all amounts due for supplies furnished the member. Federal Flan The association is organized on the federal plan first worked out so success- fully by the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. A somewhat close analogy can be drawn between it and our Ameri- can form of government, which begins with the town or county, passes up into the state and ends by federating the states into one national government. In the association, the units are the district associations, which aro all brought to- gether and federated in this association, commonly known as the "Central"; or, since the organization of the North Pa- cific Fruit Distributors, as the "Sub-cen- tral." Again this association is federated with the other districts of the Northwest in the distributors, which thus becomes the "Central." The district associations are all sep- arately incorporated under the "Lodge Law" and are independent, self-governing organizations, without capital stock, and under the terms of their charters obliged to do business only for their own mem- bers and to do it without profit; they are thus, like the sub-central, purely co-oper- ative. It is the plan of the association to strengthen and build up the district or- ganizations into well-governed, business- like bodies, independent and thoroughly competent to care in the best possible manner for local affairs. In pursuance of this policy, the trained experts in charge of sub-central's departments are always at the service of the districts for counsel and guidance, and responsibili- ties are placed upon them wherever prac- ticable. Community interests are cared for — illustrated by the fact that the asso- ciation does the district business through the local bank authorized by the district. GoemmeBt The growers hold their membership Immediately in the district associations, naturally choosing the one whose ship- pmg facilities best serve their individual purpose. The members elect the trustees, each member having one vote which he may cast either in person or by proxy; the trustees elect the officers, appoint the manager and of course constitute the active governing body of the district. The trustees elect from their number two "representatives to sub-central." These representatives from each district constitute the board of trustees of the association, in whose hands rests the en- tire management of its affairs. These trustees elect the usual officers and ap- point the general manager, and other necessary executive officers. As the board of trustees is a large and some- what expensive and unwieldy body, it elects an executive committee of seven members, consisting of the president and six other trustees fairly representative of the different divisions of the valley, which meets at least every month and constitutes the every-day business end of the management so far as the growers are concerned. The members of the ex- ecutive committee receive their expenses and a per diem of $5. Functions of the District All purely local affairs are cared for by the districts; this includes warehous- ing, consolidating less than carload ship- ments by different members, and distribu- tion of supplies. The districts may, and many of them do, add to these necessary things such other helpful activities as they think wise under their local condi- tions. Under their charters they are per- mitted to undertake any co-operative en- terprise for their communities that the members wish. By this principle of home rule local interest and pride is aroused and the individual members are kept in closer touch with their organization. The settlement of all local issues is then left to the local growers. Functions of '^Sub-central" Broadly speaking, the sub-central re- ceives the fruit when loaded and has charge of shipping, marketing and col- lecting; it consolidates less than carload shipments from the districts; it buys all YAKIMA VALLEY FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION 1287 supplies and distributes them to the dis- tricts; it maintains an inspection depart- ment to secure absolute uniformity in grade and pack throughout the valley; it takes care of all purely inter-district mat- ters, and looks after the organization of new districts; it distributes all returns to the growers and makes the deductions in payment of supply accounts. Functions of "Central'^ The North Pacific Fruit Distributors are general sales agents for the associa- tion and handle all carload shipments. Supplies Thus far the association has attempted to handle no supplies for its members except such as may be classed as strictly orchard supplies, sprays, boxes, paper, nails, etc. Contracts and purchases are made by the sub-central and distributed through the districts. Each district is held responsible for all supplies fur- nished through it to its members. Sup- plies are sold to members at current re- tail prices and charged to the district at cost price plus a charge intended to cover sub-centraFs expense in handling the business. The balance of the difference between cost and sales price thus passes into the hands of the district, where it may be disposed of as the members of each district may direct. Pro rata deduc- tions are made from the crop returns of members in payment of their supply ac- counts. For the two seasons of 1912 and 1913 the association handled $360,000 worth of supplies, paying for them at or before maturity. The business methods thus indicated and the large amounts pur- chased make it possible for the associa- tion to buy at very low prices. Financing In the inception of such a co-operative enterprise, perhaps the most serious prob- lem to solve is that of finance. Organiza- tion and promotion work is costly; much of the work each year must be done be- fore the shipping season begins and until that time no revenue is available. More- over, at all times a working capital is essential, and co-operative enterprises have often found it difficult adequately to meet this need. At the outset the association met the difficulty in two ways: First, the membership fee of $100 was divided between the district and the then central, thus furnishing to central an immediate fund for initial expenses. In April, 1912, this rule was changed and since that date central has received no part of the membership fee. Second, in order to furnish the new or- ganization with a basis for credit, each early member gave his note to the asso- ciation in an amount equal to $10 for each acre planted to fruit. These notes, known as "acreage notes," were given to be used as collateral under conditions laid down in the by-laws. In April, 1912, the giving of these notes was discon- tinued and in February of 1913 the asso- ciation, having no further need of the notes which had been already accumu- lated, and which aggregated in amount over $60,000, cancelled and returned them to the makers. At the time these changes in the financial plan were made, a plan was adopted which makes provi- sion for the financing of the association in a far more permanent and satisfactory way. Under this plan, a box deduction is made from the returns of all fruit shipped through the association; for ap- ples and pears, 5 cents a box; for peaches and prunes, 1% cents a box, and for other fruit propor- tionate amounts; those deductions are considered as a loan to the association and are represented by notes, due three years after date with 4 per cent inter- est coupons attached. The first two sea- sons* business has brought into this sur- plus fund the sum of $85,000, this with another year's accumulation will provide a sufficient working capital, furnished by and belonging to the growers in the exact proportion in which they from year to year make use of the privileges of the association; in case they for any reason sever their connection the capital con- tributed by them is automatically re- turned to them as the notes mature. The current running expenses of the association are met by the usual system of charges upon fruit handled. 1288 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Fooling la the first two seasons the association had no general system of pooling. In 1913, a general pooling system was adopted and now prevails. Soft fruits are pooled by districts while for winter apples there is one season's pool covering all districts. Warehousing The association now operates twenty- six warehouses, located in the different districts, which afford large common storage facilities. It has planned a series of cold-storage plants to be owned and operated by the association. The first unit is located at North TaMma, and provides cold storage for 120 cars, besides exten- sive common storage and general ware- house facilities for handling supplies and fruit shipments The second unit is now nearing completion at Zillahj it will pro- vide cold storage for 550 cars, ice-making capacity of 10,000 tons annually, and car pre-cooling trackage for 14 cars at a time. Advances Another serious problem which presents itself to co-operative marketing organi- zation is the financing of its growers. Money is needed by the individual grower to carry on preliminary orchard opera- tions; more money is needed to harvest the crop, and after it is delivered to the warehouse it is often difficult for him to wait for the return of his money from the markets and the closing of pools. To meet these needs the association has gradually developed a three-fold system ^of advances as follows: (a) Advances for spraying, thinning, general orchard labor and payment of "water assessments prior to delivery of fruit Application for these must be made at the district office; the orchard must be inspected and the loan guaran- teed by the district; a second inspection is made by the association's field depart- ment and the advance, if made, secured by interest-bearing notes and crop mort- gage. (b) Advances on delivery of fruit. These are made by the district managers upon request as soon as each load is delivered; the amount per box is fixed by the sub-central office from time to time. The purpose of these advances is to provide the grower with money for harvesting expenses. No interest is charged. (c) General advances made on the basis of fruit delivered. Application is made at the district office and forwarded to sub-central office for action. These advances also draw no interest. Growth The association was organized in the fall of 1910. During the season of 1911 it shipped 300 cars and ended the year with 328 members; in 1912 it shipped 2,020 cars and ended the year with 689 members; in 1913, a short-crop year, it shipped 1,300 cars and ended the year with 964 members; it now has 25 affili- ated districts and the membership is well past the one thousand mark. KORTH PACIFIC FRUIT DISTRIBUTORS H. C. Samfsof, Secretary 'Treasurer, Introduction Experience and observation convince all intelligent persons that under present conditions no great business or industry can succeed without such organization and such intelligent management and di- rection as will result in the largest vol- ume of business attainable at a minimum of expense. As soon as the growing of deciduous fruits in the Pacific Northwest began to assume large proportions, it became ap- parent to the thoughtful persons inter- ested in that industry that if our more than two hundred million dollar invest- ment was to be preserved and become the great factor of our agricultural and com- mercial world that was anticipated, some means must be devised to bring the grow- ers together into an organization for their mutual protection, and to provide a meth- od whereby the product could be stand- ardized and so sold as to eliminate, so far as possible, the element of waste in as- sembling, and unnecessary cost in selling and distribution; and whereby the con- NORTH PACIFIC FRUIT DISTRIBUTORS 1289 sumer might receive his fruit at a lower price, which would increase consumption and thus secure an outlet for our ever- increasing tonnage. From time to time, at different places where fruit growers congregated, much discussion and feehle attempts to bring about the above results had been made. But nothing tangible was accomplished until at the Growers* Congress, held No- vember 11 to 17, 1912, at Spokane, Wash- ington, in connection with the Fifth Na- tional Apple Show, in a meeting at which were present hundreds of the best-known growers and heads of growers' unions, bankers, transportation men and others, it was decided to call a convention of delegates of the growers from the four Northwestern states to meet at Spokane December 16, 1912. On this date over four hundred dele- gates, representing all the fruit-growing and producing districts in the Northwest- ern states, met and decided to undertake the organization of a central selling and distributing agency, and a committee of nine was appointed to outline a plan. This committee recommended that the four Northwestern states be divided into nine sections, which would represent the prin- cipal fruit-producing districts; that each of these sections elect a representative, and that such representatives organize and direct a central selling organization. The plan recommended by the committee was unanimously adopted by the conven- tion of delegates and the committee was authorized to proceed with the perfection of such an organization. Acting under these instructions, the committee on December 17, 1912, incor- porated the North Pacific Fruit Distrib- utors, a purely mutual corporation organ- ized without capital stock under the non- profit corporation laws of the state of Washington, the members of the com- mittee acting as incorporators and as a temporary board of trustees. On March 21 and 22, 1913, the incor- porators and trustees held a meeting at North Yakima, Washington. Present by invitation of the trustees at this meeting were many representative growers from all of the Northwestern states. After two days and two nights of most earnest dis- cussion, a preliminary organization was effected. It was apparent that for the various fruit districts of the Northwest to con- tinue marketing their crops in sharp competition with each other meant dis- aster to the industry. Fortunately, most of the principal growers and shippers fully realized the situation and began a diligent study of a practical plan for overcoming the jealousies and prejudices that existed in the different districts. When the time came for permanent or- ganization, the board of trustees, with the assistance and guidance of general coun- sel, adopted a code of underlying prin- ciples for by-laws, which had stood the test of the large California and Florida citrus organizations, and which had saved that industry from disaster in those states. The details of that plan were modified to meet the requirements and after one season's experience it is fair to state that the institution has assumed a strong position in the fruit-growing and fruit-marketing world. Permanent Organization At Hood River, Oregon, May 30 and 31, 1913, occurred the final organization and actual affiliation of six sub-centrals, in- cluding the Apple Growers' Association of Hood River, Oregon; Yakima Valley Fruit Growers' Association of North Yakima, Washington; * Walla Walla Fruit Distrib- utors of Walla Walla, Washington; Idaho- Oregon Fruit Growers Association of Payette, Idaho; Montana Fruit Distribu- tors of Hamilton, Montana, and Spokane Fruit Growers' Company of Spokane, Washington. The Central Idaho-Washington Fruit Growers* Association of Garfield, Wash- ington, completed affiliation on July 19, 1913, and the Wenatchee-North Central Distributors of Wenatchee, Washington, completed affiliation on July 19, 1913. Tonnage and Results From July 8, 1913, to August 30, 1914, the distributors handled a total of 3,958 cars of fruit and 1,125 cars of potatoes, 1290 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE making a total of 5,083 carloads with a total of 2,989,295 packages, exclusive of potatoes and melons, aggregating a realized price, net to the distributors, of $3,069,953.51, without the loss of a single penny through failure to collect. Distribution of fruit covered 243 cities in 38 states, 33 cities in six Canadian provinces, and 179 carloads were exported to 16 cities in 10 European countries. Shipments were also made to South America, South Africa, Australia and the Philippines. The average price realized per box for apples for all varieties of all districts, all grades and all sizes, was $1.26, f. o. b the shipping point. Of total shipments of 3,958 cars of fruit, 2,102 cars (54 per cent) started on f. 0. b. orders, 1,790 cars (45 per cent) were started as tramp cars, but 3,284 cars (83 per cent) were delivered on a f. o. b. basis; 26 cars only were shipped on con- signment and only 92 cars (2% per cent) were finally delivered on consignment. (Leading authorities of the Northwest es- timate that heretofore at least 70 per cent of our entire apple tonnage was con- signed.) A majority of these, however, were damaged cars or rejections that could not be successfully delivered on the basis shipped, and, to avoid unneces- sary sacrifice, were turned over to re- sponsible dealers for sale for our account. Cars sold through auction numbered 299 (71/2 per cent). System of Financing The system of financing is worthy of consideration. A grower or organization that accepts a loan or advance from a dealer or buyer virtually mortgages his or its tonnage to that buyer and his particular market, and therefore shuts off all other buyers and all other terri- tories from the sale of his fruit. Prices may be far better in other territories and possibly freight rates less, but the fruit must go on to the man who lent the money if the obligation exists. But if (as with the growers with the North Pacific Fruit Distributors) the money is borrowed from the banks — ^the legitimate institutions to borrow from — all buyers and all territories are opened as a market for the fruit. During the past season a total of $551,- 000 was made available for advances to the growers of our respective districts This was in part from funds on hp-nd in local or sub-central reserve funds; in part through bank accommodations arranged with local banks by the sub-centrals, and in part through bank loans arranged tor by the central office. And what is most gratifying to note is that over $400,000 additional was voluntarily offered by Spo- kane banks upon growers' warehouse re- ceipts This, however, there was no oc- casion to use. No one fact stands out in bolder con- trast with the past than does this tribute paid to the distributors by the conserva- tive bankers of the Northwest when they so completely reversed former practice and either lent or offered to lend nearly one million dollars for advances upon a product so perishable in nature that it had been heretofore regarded by them as an utterly impossible security. It is interesting to note also that of the amount borrowed, every dollar was re- paid on or before maturity of the loan and the greater part even before ma- turity. By the just and equitable plan of pool- ing like varieties, grades, etc., of fruit (of each separate district within itself), there has been brought to the industry such stability that fruit products under the distributors' control are considered a safe and acceptable collateral not pre- viously regarded as possible under the most favorable conditions. Retail Price and Consumption Never before throughout the Northwest has been maintained anything like a uni- form price for a given grade and variety of fruit throughout the several producing districts. Heretofore each district has graded its fruits according to its own notion and maintained its own individual price This encouraged middlemen to speculate on prices and destroyed all pos- sibility for anything like a uniform price to the trade throughout the whole coun- try. The selling methods this year have NORTH PACIFIC FRUIT DISTRIBUTORS 1291 operated toward a more common under- standing of price conditions and the elim- ination of bargain hunters to the material advantage of hoth the retail trade and general consuming public. Again, never before have the growers of the Northwest themselves had such a source of dependable information with respect to prevailing prices and true market conditions, common knowledge re- specting which, from the standpoint of growers, retailers and consumers, has had a decidedly beneficial effect toward in- creasing consumption. Sales Policy With the announcement last August of the sales policy of the distributors there was brought to the Northwestern boxed apple business a stability and orderly control wholly lacking and entirely ab- sent during the speculative years of the past. The announcement that the sea- son's sale would begin upon a price basis sufficiently moderate to attract the deal- ers' investment early in the season (thereby affording the trade, as prices advanced, due and proper protection upon their investments previously made), met with a guick response and a hearty ap- proval from the trade. They were quick to observe that the growers under that policy would eliminate much of the risk heretofore attending early sales and that the growers who controlled the product in the first instance, instead of the pur- chaser and speculator, thus became the real regulators of the market. It re- mained only to adhere strictly to the policy outlined and to demonstrate good intentions and good faith in efforts to maintain a uniform price, coupled with a steadfast refusal to undersell previous quotations, to gain the trade's entire con- fidence This enabled the organization to book and make advance sales of a sub- stantial portion of the surplus and in a most positive and material degree relieve the accustomed harvest pressure and avoid the usual declining markets at that critical season of the year. None previously had been sufficiently bold to advocate low or moderate prices at the opening of the season. The very audacity of the proposal was both start- ling to the growers and a pleasing inno- vation to the trade. The trade, while acknowledging the decided advantage that would accrue alike to themselves, the growers and consumers, were neverthe- less skeptical regarding the ability to reconcile the growers to even a moder- ately low opening price and successfully maintain such a policy. It is pleasing, indeed, to note, however, that the grow- ers quite generally were most favorably impressed with the force of the proposi- tion; and, with a greater degree of unan- imity than would ordinarily be expected, quite loyally supported the plan. A steady market was maintained until the middle of March, when distributors' holdings were all disposed of and it re- leased its steadying infiuence. Within a very few days speculators realized that the situation was in their hands and they began cutting prices, and the apple mar- ket was soon in a chaotic condition, where it remained until the end of the season, resulting in the loss of thousands of dol- lars to the storage-apple holders. Purpose The purpose of the organization is to get a larger economy in assembling, a wider distribution, a lower price to the consumer and therefore an increased con- sumption; scientific advertising; and, in short, to put the business on the same basis as any other business stands in or- der that the grower's business may be managed in a business way and under the control of the grower himself. Goyernment The four states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho and Montana are roughly divided geographically (and regardless of state lines) into a number of "Sub-Central Dis- tricts" — at present nine — ^which number may be increased or decreased at any time. Each sub-central district elects one trustee to represent it on the central "Board of Trustees " Each sub-central al* so elects two members of the "Council of Representatives," In these two bodies rests the general control of the organiza- tion. 1292 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Board of Ti"ustees The Board of Trustees, with as many members as there are districts, generally speaking are in control of the central's affairs. Regular monthly meetings are held, unless formally postponed, and spe- cial meetings are held from time to time as business demands Each trustee has equal voice and vote in these meetings regardless of the tonnage he represents. The board of trustees determines all pol- icies, elects all officers, determines all salaries, determines all changes, and all increases or decreases in sub-central mem- bership, and has general control of all property and other interests of the com- pany. Coimcil of Representatives The Council of Representatives, with twice as many members as there are dis- tricts, meets only when called by the trustees on the demand of two trustees or on the demand of eight members of the council itself, and then considers only those special matters which are specified in the call. The voting strength of each member is on a tonnage basis, namely, each member shall be entitled to one vote for each 100 cars or major fraction there- of marketed by his district through the central. Action taken on any matter prop- erly considered by the council is binding on the board of trustees and all officers of the corporation. Modus Operandi The North Pacific Fruit Distributors is a large assembling, distributing and sell- ing agency. In the orchards of Oregon, Washington, Idaho and Montana, its ma- chinery is the 6,000 growers, 94 local as- sociations, and its nine sub-centrals. In the markets its machinery is its central, branch and district offices, and its more than 100 exclusive agency connections through which it covers every portion of the civilized world. Through its North- west growers, locals and sub-centrals it makes a survey of the crop situation, gathers the Information of available ton- nage of its various districts as to variety, grade and sizes, tabulates this data in its stock book at the central office, each week checking in order to keep a correct up- to-date record of the stock available. From its salaried representatives it gath- ers a knowledge of the crop and market conditions throughout the entire world, and this information through many thous- and telegraphic and telephonic reports keeps the central office thoroughly inform- ed on matters concerning the world's markets. From this world-wide machinery the central receives orders for fruit, which orders it transmits through the sub-cen- tral and local organizations to the grow- er. These growers and locals assemble and load their fruit, assemble the neces- sary manifests and other data, and this data through locals and sub-centrals by telephone and telegraph finds its way to the central. Many hundred copies of a bulletin or "tramp sheet," plus many per- sonal telegrams transmits daily the knowl- edge and data of this fruit available to the exclusive agency connections and to possible customers in the markets of the world. Back from these world's agencies come the orders for fruit, some to be load- ed to order and others for fruit already loaded. These orders are then trans- mitted through the sub-centrals and locals. From the agency connections of the mar- kets of the world comes the money for the cars sold. All this via the central, reaches the growers through the sub-cen- tral and local associations. From the growers, locals and sub-cen- trals, come the reports of the condition and nature of the fruit when loaded. And as the cars pass through the cities where the agents are established, and likewise when they reach their destination, back to the central from the world agencies come similar reports of inspection with condi- tion of fruit, and the central again is in position to collect the necessary damages, make necessary allowances and otherwise intelligently handle the situation. METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FBUIT- MAEJKETI]V(^ AGENCY There are approximately 10,000 dealers in fruits and vegetables in carload lots in the United States and Canada, not to mention those in foreign countries. Un- der the most favorable conditions it is METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY 1293 doubtful if more than 2 per cent have ever been represented in person in any one season at Northwestern shipping points. Under less favorable conditions the percentage drops to a minor fraction of 1 per cent. It is on this minority factor that the individual fruit grower or shipper unaffiliated with any organized sales agency depends for his market, while he loses sight ot the fact that 98 per cent or more of the total buying power is lost to him. While the cash demand f. o. b. in any comprehensive scheme of marketing is an important and not-to-be-disregarded part of the whole, it is equally true that any system. which does not provide means for reaching the 98 per cent or more of the trade who are the stay-at-homes or ab- sent buyers is fatally weak and wholly inadequate to meet industrial needs of a business which is inherently competitive. It is axiomatic that true value is the pivot on which supply and demand bal- ance. In order to secure maximum value 100 per cent of the demand must be em- ployed; also, where the supply is increas- ing from year to year, new demand must be created at least to keep pace with the additional supply if decline in values would be prevented. If only 2 per cent or less of the demand is employed there will be many times when it will be found far inadequate to absorb the supply at prices profitable to the producer. Having seen then that the absent buy- ing class forms by far the most important section of the market, it will be interest- ing to note some of the machinery and some of the many operations in the pro- cess of a complete transaction between the merchant, i. e., the Northwestern pro- ducer, and his customer, i. e., the buyer in a distant market. When it is remembered that in the case of Northwestern fruits the producer is distant about 2,500 miles from the aver- age of his markets, the difficulties and complications of the business can be guessed, and will hereafter be illustrated. For purposes of demonstration a typical transaction has been selected, all docu- ments photographed and reproduced as under: Figure 1 S., a fruit grower of the Wenatchee val- ley, has a carload of Rome Beauties to sell. He makes a manifest of the lot, and mails it to his sales agency. Figure 2 Bearing in mind that maximum value depends on the employment of maximum demand, the idea is now to offer this car to the whole trade, i. e., to everyone of 1294 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the 10,000 or so dealers, and to do it practically simultaneously. This is pos- sible under modern conditions only by means of a resident sales organization. The country is divided into zones, and a resident salesman established at the most important distributing center in each. The aim is to restrict the size of each of these zones to the extent of the salesman's ability to cover .all of the trade therein daily, either in person or by telephone. There are 103 district agencies in this country and Canada and three foreign agencies, in the case of the particular sales agency in illustration. Upon receipt of the manifest from S., the sales department issues a bulletin repro- ducing the manifest in detail, and further describing the offering, where and by whom grown, and price wanted. It is in- teresting to note that in this case the producer has set a price on the merchan- dise which is less than its worth, and one of the first items of service on the part of his agency is to set the correct value on the fruit, in this one action saving the producer several times the amount of the fee for the entire service. It is of course well known that the producer is rarely in position to estimate the correct value of his merchandise, as he has not the de- tailed information on which to base a. valuable judgment. A bulletin is mailed to the entire list of district sales offices, and by this means the entire buying pow- er of the whole market is concentrated on the offering. This means that the maximum demand is being employed to insure the desired maximum value. Figure 3 Five days after the issue of the bulle- tin the first results are seen in the shape of a telegram from Cincinnati branch; the salesman having canvassed his mar- ket, one dealer w-as found who was will- ing to buy the car at a price 50 cents per box less than the price asked. In declin- ing this offer a counter-offer is made, sub- ject to confirmation, in order to test the strength of the position. The sales man- ager making this move knows that in a few hours more there will be received from other sections of the country in- li^ FOSTAt TEt«Q«AI»H *- COmUKHCmL CA«iES fc>)(* )&***«x^ TELEGRAM MiHIIT lETTEW *'*"* THE WESTERN UHIOH TZLEQmMm COMPANY ISSSSS «i*»rC«« tm *«l«-»l«* «*«».« «»»*««« •¥» *i.S, ■«■!«* i»*i«lSl Fig-. 3. quiries or offers for this lot, if the de- mand exists anywhere. t n iiii>i iiJ i M> ««•» . „.,. „, _ „„„ „„„ ^ „ *im«i*A ♦f*»!r« *»««»* immts-m *»f**r »#aN«r tummnw t«iea. THE WOTIRH UHK m TE UEGRAPH COHSPANy 1M0i^VV**Mf 9««m*m^ «MK*«M Wnir ii iura «3^5^K»»««™.»« Fig. 4. Figures 4 and 5 The next morning two other branches are heard from: Pittsburgh, which offers METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY 1295 hi.: it >.m «**. «ite% ««w«r *!»««»*» 8***»* **Ni» Fig. 5. a somewhat better price than Cincinnati, and Boston, which submits an order from a well-known dealer at full asked price, whereupon the Pittsburgh offer is de- clined and the Boston order confirmed, and the first stage of the transaction has been completed. This is a perfect illustra- tion of the system. Cincinnati, by means of the salesmanship of the resident rep- resentative, was made to offer all that the condition of the market there warranted. Pittsburgh was in somewhat better shape, but the one market that could afford to buy and use this car at the extreme value was Boston, and by the operation of the system this important fact was discovered and capitalized. Fig. 6. Figure 6 Here the grower is notified of the sale, and instructed to begin loading, pending receipt of detailed instructions by mail. Under the old crude methods, the con- firmation of sale would have been regard- ed as about the closing step in the trans- action, whereas, under the comprehensive system nowadays employed, the process of turning the fruit into money has there- with only begun, and will not be complete until the delivery is safely made and the money actually paid over. The "usual terms" in the fruit trade being "inspec- tion and acceptance at destination," the producer is practically obligated to as- sume the risks of sound and satisfactory delivery to the buyer; hence, modern mar- keting service contemplates not merely the negotiation of the sale but the safe- guarding of the producers' interests against all the hazards of transportation to a distant market. In the perishable- fruit trade a multitude of things can hap- pen to a shipment between the time of its sale f. o. b. and delivery to the buyer. Hence, the latter part of the service, while less spectacular than the negotia- tion of the sale itself, is nevertheless equally important or even more so. It is likewise the most expensive part of the service. Figure 7 One of the greatest disadvantages of the fruit business is the matter of rejec- tions by the buyer. It is human nature to blame the other fellow, but experience shows that the seeds for most rejections are sown by the seller himself at the time of negotiating the sale. Frequently the fruit is overdescribed by a too enthus- iastic salesman, and the buyer given grounds for justifiable rejection on the basis of misrepresentation. The tempta- tion to do this is so great that strictly first-class fruit salesmen are harder to find than salesmen in almost any other business. Also, the fruit trade has been developed very rapidly, and has far out- stripped the methods for its conduct. It has been customary to do the business entirely on verbal understandings, where- as, in other fields of merchandising, sales 1296 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ^ Fij^. 7. are usually confirmed in writing. Modern sales agencies in the fruit trade are en- deavoring to correct this defect, and in this illustration is shown the quadrupli- cate order form which is executed as soon as the sale has been confirmed by tele- graph. In these are set down each and every verbal understanding of whatever nature. The grading rules under which the fruit is to be packed and shipped are indicated, and every possible precaution is taken to remove all possibility of mis- understanding, and therefore of justifiable rejection. The original of this form is filed by the sales agency and a duplicate mailed to the shipper for his guidance in making the shipment. There is a coupon on his copy for him to date and sign and mail back to the sales agency, which forms a written acceptance and confirma- tion of the sale for his account. The triplicate is mailed to the buyer and the quadruplicate to the district sales office at point of destination. Thus, in one operation, all four parties to the transac- tion are notified in identical language, and any exceptions may be noted and filed in time to permit correction and avoid dispute. While this system does not entirely do away with rejections, it to a very important extent minimizes them. Figure 8 Letter from sales department to grower, transmitting the order, and giving cer- tain instructions. The time being mid- winter, with cold weather prevailing along the route, extra precautions must be taken to prevent the fruit from being frozen in transit. At this juncture the sales department has completed its serv- ice for the time being and the transac- tion is taken up by the traffic department — an indispensable adjunct to any suc- cessful marketing system. This depart- ment, as all others, is manned by experts in their line. METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY 1297 nth » iif ♦^ t.jitrr the i.»l*% l>rwt»et*Gr y*>S( v«r fri *s ft* J-f-j^s «> iy-8 Fig. 8. Figure 10 Cold weather in the Rockies threatens to delay the shipment. Figure 9 The traffic department instructs the grower in the steps to be taken in the protection of his interests. 2 — 41 Figure 11 Further instructions by traffic depart- ment to grower, showing very low temper- atures prevailing along the route over 1298 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Great Northern Railway Comfanv. «T«*JaHT 8»tt OF t-ADING-.-0»IQ(N*t.— NOT NeaOTlAeLi;. *****""" M*«*ay tt^^i w sW «w-» >>t ix^^f< ixtraoTtos axront li 8 !». f i^f n OMitM A<«» ««!,»#* 1 *» „< MTi0» So 8 to B Br.J„ #20. v*»5*r-»- 1 « ».»*.>.,,< :''"■ S.«f.«:,^ Home Btjj 2.00} 1 •75 i Mtju. : y«S^.tl.*.. « C<» !.«> ■ 2/6 I I/L So^-ton I IT'^S »««*««* "Arrived, 77" ■.^s J' *«>.<»« fi*-:f.*fr ** rs«>« «<«,<» f es » OS «s*!,.v K.MIS *!»- tJ!»i> «»«., ««*» (!>«SH 5<>y«;^,fci:< »> tJ»f« *»« «>#»«« »o ».«»iv*t. »r(»s>»r Fig. 14. 1300 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE that Sf-ii I 2 3 i S iO II 12 13 n 15 <>*r« *«s#^to : sc»o -am *«»rr 17 l« J9 ^ il 23 2$ « 27 ^ SO 31 ?§s1m0tin,17h, '■ 1/18^13 | Tent •»«<'>»«a »» tHiftCWAf GIf to MTM^frf. «»»!*]!.»* **K « IS? e!VE«»»o» 3» ©r*f s«»o« »« lCW«8»SO« *?* &i*t:«SS<3« r*»«ii« »?*T«»i» *« C*«»« tE*" «V '*, 0£P ^^hiiJiik^ '>'■ \L Si/ ^miin T« JCiritUAKKif *^»f»«« l^mim^ CM^37317 "'BtIS^*^' i 5^' /. 4 ' / - / ^ /?,/77 / ^"X 2-.^ ff ^3 Fij ment warns the carrier and ofttimes prevents loss and a claim, or, if warn- ing does not suffice and the car is de- layed or damaged, the record oft- times enables claims successfully to be prosecuted that might otherwise be de- clined for lack of substantiation. Govern- ment weather maps, received daily, are checked up and temperatures at various points entered on traffic cards, as shown in the illustration. Figure 16 On the left, invoice in triplicate; original to the buyer, duplicate to district sales office, triplicate on post binder, form- ing automatic charge record. On the right, (a) draft in triplicate; (b) deliv- ery order; (c) inspection permit. The draft is drawn on the buyer for the amount of the invoice, payable on arrival of the car. Attached to the draft is the delivery order, without which the buyer cannot get possession of the car, which is billed to the sales agency itself with in- structions to notify the buyer on arrival. With the invoice sent by mail direct to the buyer is enclosed the inspection per- mit, so when the car arrives the buyer is notified by the railroa'd, presents his in- spection permit, examines the shipment, and if as represented and in good order goes to the bank, pays the draft, detaches delivery order, presents it to the railway company, and takes possession of the car. In order to keep close tab on the collec- tions the accounting department writes the draft in triplicate; the duplicate go- ing on a post binder in numerical order, and the triplicate is used as a "tickler card." The traffic department having al- ready figured out the date on which car should arrive, the accounting department allows a reasonable time for the clearance of the funds, and sets a date on which they should be reported by local bank, and the "tickler card" is set under that date. When it rolls around, if draft is not re- ported paid, a tracer is started. METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY 1301 ftosrw^Kfsnm r»,?T £«<;«»««! I «.«» Fig. 16. Figures 17, 18 and 19 All show steps In the checking and trac- ing of the car by the traffic department. *»w ev«^f;m< t» »i)ite»*i»4,<;« )r»««tjt ft t^ orislmX kill x«-» U»» 16^* 22tt« *n JO'A tiri 4-» lO-A «4tk lii r! 25tJ, im^SASS ^-'« *tHl»t»ii txnt^i •t at, *»aX »8« »c Tt *« tJ»«y »»»» 8e»a *bi» to tnspoat It, 4i>» 4MMkS« «ro« ftf»t It «lil profctoy go tfcroaf1> «ltiu>ttt »aj Sou,;*. »* •« hOFiag tale sMiy ^ tft* »«,»•. 9» «1}1 icMp »!«»» »»tol> of Itt p«»«lag«. JK!I!T89«3«BB« tmiT BtflHASSS, Fig. 17. Figure 20 Showing the telegram received by the sales department from its Boston branch, reporting the safe arrival and acceptance of the car by the purchaser, whereupon the notice shown at the bottom is issued to the owner. Nothing now remains but the receipt of the money by the account- ing department, and its payment to the grower less the marketing fee. Figure 21 On February 12 local bank reports credit of proceeds of draft, whereupon account of sales is issued to the owner, showing the entire financial transaction in detail. The amount of money reported by the bank must, of course, correspond to the gross amount shown in the accounting, and by means of this and other checks and balances it is very easy for the trans- action to be audited and traced from its inception to its conclusion. CM'.MX •* OlU»»«JH *««*» Xamrtt trxly. Fig. 18. 1302 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE imsfrrw* *»%. V»t, l^i Toar OAT »f S»»» 9*»ati*» l>««#«4 SJsiwkjs* tfe» »l«ht of th« 30«li. »« »«•• *«■»«*«« it 4ni««otl», Mi will 12 • Sttfftaa m«r« 4«»8 not »»•« to ?x» my l»» t««ip»i»t»)r» »af«oi»at to AMSHt^ tht* «i)slpB«at tilaAA X'm rsat* whieii It t« atevla »i)iS »» «!•» »«ry »ot>«fttl that tb« 8«r »lll »ryl*» *»f8r» t »««t!]tttr ^t» •*<»tTi »«'r«r«» Fig. 19. Figure 22 The modern voucher system of account- ing is used. This illustration shows the face, inside and endorsed back of the voucher employed in payment of this transaction. ^HkAili EtECRAPH - CABLE COM PAN *• WgHT UTTERgftAii jNDtPewacwT coMPtriTiVE p»Dc»esssv« •A '^vr^Xtif^ J Fit?. 20. Figure 23 Arrival and inspection report issued by destination branch. With the receipt and filing of this document, the transaction is complete. The foregoing shows the necessary steps in a normal transaction. When accident of any kind befalls, and the fruit busi- ness is full of accidents, the operations are increased and complicated many fold. In making sales the aim is always to avoid what are called ''pocket markets," that is, markets at some terminal from whence cars cannot be diverted, on the through rate of freight. There are very few such markets, if the freight is ex- pertly routed in the first place, and this is another fine point taken advantage of by the traffic department in the growers* interest. Should cars be rejected, several alter- natives offer: either an adjustment can be negotiated with the original purchaser, should he be disposed to be reasonable, or, if the circumstances warrant, the car can be resold to some other buyer and di- verted on the through rate. In such a case, practically the entire transaction is duplicated. Cases have been known where the same car has been sold five or six times to as many different buyers. In spite of all precautions there is a cer- tain percentage of losses on account of defective service by the transportation companies, and such losses must be re- covered by means of claims. The success- ful prosecution of railway claims is a fine art. Success depends largely upon the proper fortification of the claim at the time of its inception, and this is pos- sible only under organized methods of sale and traffic. One prominent sales agency in the Northwest, whose methods are here illustrated, has collected in loss and damage claims for the benefit of its members during the past four seasons about $35,000. Under the old individual system of marketing most of this money was either lost by the growers through default or in some cases claims were collected and retained by the consignees as their legitimate perquisite. The genius of the traffic service, how- ever, lies not so much in the collection of claims as in the prevention of claims. It is much better to deliver fruit to the market in prime condition than to dam- METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY 1303 Fig. 21. age the market by forcing upon it dam- aged fruit, even though the loss is re- covered from the carrier. The organiza- tion of the fruit industry of the North- west has just begun. Much remains. Only through thorough education of the fruit growers as to the importance of every single step in the preparation of their product for sale to the absent buy- er and transportation to markets thous- ands of miles distant, and their close co- operation with their sales agencies, will the production and sale of Pacific North- west fruit be brought to the point where it may be said to be a science. 7^.^' \ ^ ^}»^^feww^ ^n w ^ia ^ uy ^ j | # i f^ I ^ " i^- " **■ «*^>*«ffl'j?-^-'M^ * IXW* **«.****»4kX W. F. GwiN Fig. 22. 1304 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ^1? Wh« w* 3. J» Shallan Fig. 23. ECOIVOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISIIVG It is characteristic of the weak and derelict to charge their failures to out- side influences. Let not those upon whose strength and sanity the welfare of an industry depends, and who, in turn, depend upon that industry, make this mistake. The fact is that most of the "ills that flesh is heir to" are from with- in, not without. This is an axiom of human activities as well as human life. On this hypothesis nearly all of our own particular economic ills can be attributed to our sins of omission and commission, and the few remaining ones, justly charge- able to the other fellow, can be corrected without the costly necessity of eleminat- ing him. Speculative Land Values In the first place, there has been almost from the beginning, both within and with- out our ranks, reckless promotion of the industry, and "Bull" speculation in its ECONOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING 1305 securities (land values) until there has come the inevitable period of reaction and readjustment, and the "morning after" headache which follows a speculative de- bauch. Up to this time, it may conservatively be said that our investments have main* ly a speculative value; we are right now at the period of our development when these values must be shown to be in- trinsic or else readjusted downward. Their conversion from speculative to in- trinsic character depends upon our abil- ity to demonstrate a sustained average earning power for a period of three to five years, in correct proportion to the in- vestment. In the most favored districts, scientific management, applied to every phase of the business from nursery stock to consumer, is the only thing which can accomplish this. In the less favored dis- tricts, where production is less generous and regular, where overhead charges are necessarily higher, readjustment of values seems inevitable, and in some cases re- version of the land to more suitable crops. Too Many and Inferior Yarieties Attendant upon this first evil, followed closely a second and almost equally detri- mental one, namely, the extensive plant- ing of inferior varieties. These plantings are now for the most part in bearing, and the product is going into the markets in violation of every economic law, and at the peril of our cherished reputation. For, it must be remembered, this reputa- tion was originally founded on strictly high-class varieties, and eternal vigilance is the price of its maintenance. Some idea of the extent to which this inferior variety matter figures in our market prob- lem is had from the following quotation from a Washington newspaper of recent issue. It refers to the holdings of a single association, of a single district (and one of the best in the Northwest) in a single storage center: "There is now in storage in one of the Eastern market centers 100,000 boxes of association apples, of which the num- ber of varieties is 79. Most of this fruit is of inferior varieties, and should not be grown here. We should reduce our vari- eties to ten at most; not to exceed six or eight, as a matter ot fact " The foregoing pronouncement is abso- lutely correct. The aggregate of these in- ferior varieties becomes appalling. The future holds absolutely no hope for com- mon varieties. It is worse than ''ship- ping coals to Newcastle" to ship them to the East, where they can be produced at far less cost, and of equally good and sometimes better quality. The sooner we in the Northwest eliminate them, the bet- ter, for meanwhile they are a positive detriment to our industry. Weaknesses of Co-operative Marketing The third count in our self-indictment is voiced in the following quotation from Report No. 98, United States Department of Agriculture, on "Systems of Marketing Farm Products": "Certain weaknesses have appeared in co-operative marketing as in co-operation tor other purposes. The business cannot thrive under an incompetent manager; the board of directors must not nag the manager and require him to accomplish results without the power to do so; de- ficient capital is fatal, and credit in buy- ing and selling is often so. A common weakness of these associations is found in desertions by members; instead of sell- ing all their products through the asso- ciations, they sell some of them through other channels. If a competitor offers to a member a higher price than he gets through his association, he sells to the competitor. Sometimes the business of the association is too small, so that the percentage of i-eceipts that must be de- voted to expenses is fatally high, A weak spot in co-operation, frequently observed years ago, was the fact that some of the operators looked upon co-operation more B.S a means of social reform than of economic benefit. Social theories and en- thusiasm are usually detrimental to suc- cess." Extravagance in administration on the one hand, false economy on the other hand, loose systems of finance, accounting and warehouse administration, all contri- bute to the leaks that, unless stopped, are fatal to any business, as well as de- 1306 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE striictive to the mutual confidence which is the basis of co-operation. The next point to be considered is the amazing shoil-sightedness of our in- dustrial sales policy. We have done prac- tically nothing to create and stimulate a demand for our own products. We have moved along the lines of least resistance. We have had no very clear idea of how our product reached the market and no concern about what became of it when it got there so long as the price of it was in our pockets. At last, stung by a touch of adversity out of our erstwhile complacency, but still without general understanding on the part of our rank and file of the media and processes of trade, and the laws of merchandising, it is perhaps natural that in the general confusion of the public mind, and the general desire to fix the responsibility for our misfortunes, we are disposed to take a crack at every head that shows itself— the middleman, the railroad company, the sales agency, the manager of the local association. Because it is human nature to fear and distrust, most, the things that we least understand, those factors farthest from us come in for the larger share of the blame. Where- as, I repeat, nearly all of our trouble comes from within, not without, and from our misconception of our problem. Mature of the Problem In the first place, ours is a manufac- turing and merchandising problem, rath- er than one of simple farming. There- fore, we must employ the methods of the manufacturer-merchant rather than those of the farmer. We are manufacturing an article of food, which we desire to place in the hands of millions of consumers, all over the world, taking in exchange their money. Our problem is, then, the deliv- ery of our products into the hands of these millions of consumers in the most economical manner, and the return of the money to ourselves in the shortest possible space of time, and with the least possible cost of service. The processes by which these things are done under mod- ern conditions of civilization are always complicated, but in our case are rendered infinitely more so by, first, the perishable nature of our merchandise, and, second, the isolation of our plant from the mar- kets. Our factory is 2,500 miles distant from the average of our markets. What is the solution of this problem? In the writer's judgment, the solution lies in intelligent, universal co-operation. Co-operation is a word freely used, but, unfortunately, not always understood, and most often the user of it does not think of co-operation as extending be- yond himself and his neighbors. The writer would have you think of it as ap- plying all the way down the line, from the producer, through the bankers, the railroads, the wholesalers, the retailers, right up to and including the ultimate consumers of his merchandise. He would also have you remember that education is the companion of co-operation. Co-operatiou Amongst Ourselves This we are learning gradually to do, though as yet we have gone but a little way along the road. Co-operation With Bankers Fortunately, the bankers are being roused to their responsibilities toward the industry and an appeal made to their intelligent selMnterest. It is to be hoped and confidently expected that soon they will accept their full share of that re- sponsibility and help to work out a sys- tem so safe and so conservative that they can afford to lower their present almost prohibitive rates of interest. In this con- nection, consider the history of the larg- est single fruit industry in the United States — the United Fruit Company. This company started out with $10,000,000 cap- ital, and undertook to reorganize a busi- ness that was unprofitable and unsatisfac- tory to all concerned. Their capital is now $36,000,000. They have paid during the last four years 25 per cent dividends on thirty odd millions of capital and accumulated profits of $16,000,000. Their securities in the New England market, and in Bos- ton on the stock exchange, are considered so stable that the savings banks and the conservative bankers and brokers recom- mend them to widows and children as in- vestments. This, too, in spite of the fact ECONOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING 1307 that the banana is so much more perish- able than the apple that there is hardly any comparison. They are, in fact, al- most as perishable as strawberries. They will chill at a temperature of 50; in faci, 55 is considered dangerous. They will cook at a temperature of 65 to 70. So that the problem of transporting bananas from Central and South America in steamers, transshipping them under all sorts of weather conditions at seaboard, and forwarding them across the contin- ent to Pacific coast cities, even to Alaska, as well as to England and the continent of Europe, is an exceedingly difficult and complicated one. Yet all these things have been worked out successfully, and the company has, through its own intelligent effort, made the banana an article of household con- sumption in every hamlet, town and city, not only in this country but in Europe, where, prior to the organization of the company, American bananas were un- known. During the early days of their introduction in Europe, the company had also to overcome the determined opposi- tion of the dealers, who denounced them as vegetables rather than fruit. So, the point to be made is that the perishable nature of the fruit business does not indicate that under proper organization it is a business of too great hazard for the banks to figure on as closely as they would on any other article of mer- cnanuise* Co-operation With the Railroads The physical side of the industry should be so organized that the trans- portation risks of the railroads are re- duced to almost a pig-iron basis, there- by saving them tens of thousands of dol- lars annually in loss and damage claims. Growers should co-operate with them, and they with the growers in the supply of adequate storage facilities at shipping point, whereby we not only serve our- selves but also relieve them of the al- most impossible task of supplying suffi- cient refrigerator equipment to move our whole crop in six weeks. Then can we go to them for recognition in the way of reduction in rates proportionate to the re- duction in their risk and expense, and with confidence in their reasonableness. Co-operation With the Middlemen Before denouncing them as parasites and demanding their elimination, let us first study them and examine into their relations to ourselves and to the con- sumers and see whether they are not men, like ourselves, neither better nor worse than we, and whether they are not per- forming a useful service and doing it better than we could ourselves, and there- fore entitled to their place in the econ- omic scheme of our organization. If, after we have made a thorough study of the subject, it appears that there are superfluous middlemen, then the superflu- ous has no justification for existence, and should be eliminated. If we find that abuses exist among the middlemen let us by co-operation and education elim- inate the abuses. What is a middleman? The United States Department of Agriculture (Re- port No. 98) describes him thus: "In -addition to finding purchasers for commodities on the market, securing goods for persons intending to buy, at- tending to transportation and storage and making and transmitting collections of money, the functions of a middleman may include also the collection of small lots to make a carload, shipload or other large unit desired by a certain buyer or class of buyers; and likewise the middleman may serve to distribute a large consign- ment among many purchasers. A carload of berries is too much for an average re- tail merchant to handle; it is generally necessary to secure ^ number of such buyers in order to dispose of a car of such produce. On the other hand, the trade in fruit, as in many other farm products, is conducted over such a vast extent of territory and in such large quantities that it has become necessary for most of the individual consignments to be of considerable size. Freight rates and conditions of freight service make it almost necessary that shipments of most farm products be made in car lots. Hence the double service of collecting small con- signments into carloads and of distribut- 1308 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ing carloads among many buyers lias be- come a necessary part of the present sys- tem of distribution." Witli reference to the "Elimination of the Middleman/' the government report sayb • "Co-operative marketing does not neces- sarily, and in fact, often does not, elim- inate any middleman in the process of distribution. ... It often happens that when the middleman is eliminated by the association his services are per- formed by the association itself. There has been a transfer of service from one to another, but no discontinuance of the service." Middleman an Economic Factor Prom the foregoing, then, the logical conclusion is that certain middlemen be- tween producer and consumer are neces- sary economic factors, and the point to be determined is whether the middlemen now existing are performing their func- tion in the most economical manner, and whether we, as producers, can perform their functions at a lower cost to our- selves than they can perform them for us. That is really the first step in our problem of distribution. The writer is satisfied, from 12 years of active experi- ence in the marketing of both manufac- tured and raw products, that the elimina- tion of the essential middleman is im- practical and impossible, at the present stage of social and economic development In his judgment, the essential middlemen in the fruit trade, other than the associa- tions and sales organizations of the pro- ducers themselves, are the wholesale fruit merchants and the retail fruit mer- chants. For years, the question of the elimination of the jobber has troubled manufacturers of every sort of com- modity; the brightest minds in the coun- try have wrestled with the problem; mil- lions of dollars have been spent in ex- perimenting to that end, and in the vast majority of cases it has been proven, to the complete satisfaction of those con- cerned, that the jobber has a clear title to his economic existence, because of his ability to perform his function, spread as it is over a multitude of productions, more cheaply than the manufacturers or producers of those separate commodities could perform it individually. There have been a few producers who have found it possible to eliminate the jobber economic- ally; but there have been special rea- sons for these exceptions. Everyone of them have been based on a commodity which is consumed in great quantities by the masses, and which has an all-the- year-round sale. Even with these condi- tions in their favor, the elimination of the jobber has involved the expenditure of huge sums of money, for where the jobber is eliminated, the producer must replace his services ; the building of ware- houses in every city; the maintenance of warehouse and office forces at every point; the extension of credits to the re- tail trade, which in itself is a giant un- dertaking, the maintenance of delivery equipment, etc. It is perfectly manifest that no such undertaking is practical in our case, for many reasons, but one is enough, viz.: ours is a season commodity; ours is a six-months' business, and the eco- nomic waste involved in the attempt to replace the jobbers' facilities by our own would be unthinkable. If then, it ap- pears impractical to eliminate the jobber, let us see whether there are not abuses in the exercise of his function. Beciprocal Eelatioiis Most certainly, in many cases, there are, but we ourselves have, unconsciously perhaps, but certainly, contributed to the growth of these very abuses. Therefore, let us co-operate with the jobber in the correction of these abuses. Once you con- vince him that you are in earnest and mean to give him a square deal he will meet you more than half way. It is a familiar complaint with us that the job- ber exacts an abnormal profit and thereby curtails the consumption of our fruit. The facts are that the history of the fruit trade for 10 years past shows that the trade has lost money on their apple pur- chases every other year, and made money every other year. The trouble with us is that if we think of him at all, it is that he ought to contribute his services every year at cost, or less. How many of ECONOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING 1309 us in the past, having sold our crop at a satisfactory price and delivered our ap- ples to the buyer, ever gave another thought to our customer, or cared a rap whether he made a profit or a loss? Frequently, too, we ourselves have robbed our customer of a profit on his purchase by shipping to his competitor in his home market other fruit to be sold on consignment. It happens time and again that we, consciously or uncon- sciously, have misrepresented our product in making sales, and on other occasions have subjected our customers to loss by dishonesty in the preparation of our prod- uce. In other words, both by active and passive means — by what we have done as well as what we have left undone — we have contributed to the abuses which we are prone to lay solely at the door of our neighbor, the middleman. The writer does not wish to be misunderstood as charging the growers, as a class, with deliberate dishonesty. On the other hand he believes that most of them are just as honest as most of the middlemen, but he does wish to emphasize that what is needed is a system which will protect us from our own dishonesty, and which will protect the jobber from our dishonesty, protect the jobber from his own dishon- esty, and protect us from the jobber's dis- honesty. System, education and co-oper- ation alone can accomplish these things. Tn the development of this system we have been sadly lacking- And in this omission we have injured ourselves far more than anyone else has injured us. The up-to-date manufacturer-merchant studies the progress of his merchandise all the way from his factory to its ulti- mate consumer. He follows it long after he has been paid for it by the jobber. Right now the Department of Justice at Washington is prosecuting a manufac- turer of a well-advertised breakfast food for making an agreement with retail gro- cers under which they were forced to take a reasonable profit, and were not allowed to cut the price. Hundreds of manufacturers in every line of merchan- dise are finding that the tendency of the trade is not to make an abnormal profit, but, under stress of fierce competition, to sell popular brands of merchandise at cost or less than cost. Knowing that sooner or later this will react upon him- self, the manufacturer resorts to every lawful means to maintain the selling price of his commodity. And the writer knows from experience that it is the most difficult thing in the world to do. There- fore, the matter of exorbitant profits is an abuse which is comparatively easy to correct, if we but choose to take a hand in the game and play it according to the well-known rules which are an open book to all men of business experience. Our ^'Specialty Line" The first thing we need to do is to recognize the perfectly self-evident fact that what we are producing is a "specialty line" rather than (in the trade sense) a staple The high level of our invest- ments, the high cost of production, heavy overhead expenses, high cost of trans- portation, all contribute to the necessity of producing an article which can be sold at a price at which only the more prosperous classes of the people can con- sume. The distinguishing features of our commodity are superior appearance and attractiveness, and its package. These are also distinguishing features of nearly every manufactured, advertised specialty. "White House Coffee," "Quaker Oats," "Cream of Wheat" are all advertised brands — specialties — of staple bulk com- modities. Shorn of the brand value, cre- ated by advertising and careful packag- ing, and sold in a paper bag, the same merchandise would cost the consumer about one-half of its actual price. Take for example "Cream of Wheat." The con- tents of this package consist of wheat farina. Bulk wheat farina is quoted on the Portland market today at $3.25 per 100 pounds wholesale; "Cream of Wheat," $5.50 per case of 36 packages, the net weight of which is 1 pound 13 ounces, or 65 pounds net per case. Sixty-five pounds of No. 1 wheat farina in bulk would cost $2.11, or 38 per cent of the price charged for the packaged, brand-copyrighted, ad- vertised article. Cream of Wheat is man- ufactured in the Bast; a local prepara- 1310 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE tion manufactured on the coast, and packaged, is offered at $4 per case of 36 packages, against $5.50 for the Cream of Wheat, but the Cream of "Wheat sells better than either the local packaged ar- ticle or the bulk article, for the reason that its manufacturers have convinced the consumers, through advertising, that it is better. An almost perfect analogy exists be- tween Cream of Wheat vs. bulk farina and Northwestern boxed apples vs. the Eastern barreled (or bulk) product. Any difference is in our favor. If the analogy is real and not merely apparent it be- hooves the producers of boxed apples to study the elements of their merchandis- ing problem and take instant steps to modernize their selling system. Value of Advertising For seven years the speaker was con- nected with the sales and advertising de- partments of the manufacturers of "Force," the well-known breakfast food. Those manufacturers appropriated $1,- 000,000 for advertising before they turned out one single package from their mills. The manufacturers of Cream of Wheat probably did the same thing, and what is more important and signifi- cant, they maintain their advertising year after year, for without it competition would soon drive their article out of the markets. Compare this performance with ours. The comparison isn't very credit- able to us. Suppose a company were organized with $250,000,000 capital to manufacture an article to compete with Cream of Wheat and were to build a magnificent factory, equip it with the most modern machinery, turn out large quantities of the manufactured product, induce the wholesale grocery trade to buy a stock of it and then stop right there. What would happen? Why only one thing could happen. The wholesaler would find the article hard to sell, and would push other articles of easier sale; the retailer would be slow to take hold of a new article for which there was no special demand from their trade, and the manufacturer would fail. That is just as certain as daylight. But no manufacturer would do any such thing. If he did, his bankers would have a lunacy commission appointed for him. What the manufacturer would do is to appropriate a sum of money out of his capital and devote it to the creation of a demand for his article, through adver- tising, and create that demand from the ultimate consumer. He would naturally depend on the merit of his article to please, but he would continue his adver- tising campaign year after year, as long as he was in business, to defend his busi- ness against competitors. Under these conditions a whole new situation is cre- ated. The retailer would find the con- sumers calling for his brand, and would have to buy a stock of it in self-protec- tion, because if he didn't his competitor across the street would. The wholesalers likewise would send to the manufacturers for a supply. But whether the retailers and wholesalers did this gladly or not, the point is they would do it. This ac- complished, the manufacturer would own a brand which would increase in value every year, and which would be superior to the fluctuations of the open market for bulk commodities. Where the Orower Failed Now, who will say that the boxed-apple producer of the Northwest is not in very much the same ridiculous position of the manufacturer mentioned in the first in- stance? Ours is an investment of $250,- 000,000. We have provided a magnificent plant and equipped it with the most mod- ern devices; we have produced a spe- cialty article of high merit, and have packaged it conveniently. But, after un- loading our product on the buyers at prices which have fluctuated violently from year to year, we have stopped — dead; and thought our job was done. We have expected the jobber and retailer to push our product to the consumer, not caring whether they made a profit or a loss. In fact, any suggestion of profit by any middleman has been rather offen- sive to us. Tet, we have expected these men to push our product, and thereby displace barreled and bulk apples on which the dealer, perhaps, has invested E3C0N0MICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING XoxX lais money, and on which, he can and does make a satisfactory margin of profit. Must Finance Our Own Selling and Advertising We, as manufacturers, have got to fi- nance our own selling and advertising campaign. We ought to know by this time that the dealers are not going to do it for us. We have got to vitalize our selling system and abandon the primi- tive methods which work, perhaps, in the sale of cheap bulk commodities but which will not develop and maintain our trade in markets which are right in the heart, as it were, of the Eastern apple orchards The food manufacturer, even after ap- propriating large sums for advertising, does not expect his article to be sold with- out active work on his part. So he sends trained salesmen into the markets, not primarily to sell the wholesaler for ship- ment from the factory, but to work the retail trade. The wholesaler is the last link in the chain to consider, though an important one. The manufacturer's salesman calls on every grocer in town and takes orders for as many cases of the commodity as the grocer is willing to buy. These orders are assembled, taken to the wholesalers, and the wholesaler's order is taken for several times the amount of the aggregate of the retail or- ders. The retailers are sold at a fixed price, which allows them a fair margin of profit when sold at the advertised price to the consumer. The jobber, in turn, is allowed the customary jobbers* discount. From first to last, the manufacturer, whose business it is, takes the initiative and assumes the expense. He can afford to, as his campaign is going to enable him to sell his product for a much higher price than would otherwise be possible. It is only by these necessary expenditures that he can accomplish his object. Hav- ing taken these steps, the town is ready for the advertising, and not before, for if the advertising were to be sprung pre- maturely the consumers would call once or twice for the article, would not find it in the stores, and the campaign would fail. Value of a Brand The foregoing is a plan which, in my judgment, is perfectly practical, with cer- tain modifications, to apply to our indus- try. The course I would propose is to select a brand with a catchy name, copy- right it, and allow it to be used only by strictly reliable packers, under a revo- cable license, and only on a few high- class varieties, and only on the extra- fancy 150 size and larger of those varie- ties. The brand would appear on the wrappers and also on the box. On the maintenance of the quality of this brand would depend its success, so too many precautions could not be taken to see that every box bearing the brand is strictly up to grade. The next move would be to select one state in the Union in which to make a thorough test of the plan. Let us say Indiana, as that state is not only rich and populous, but at the same time one of the poorest consumers of boxed apples in the Union, relatively. Indianapolis is a rich, prosperous city of 253,650 inhabitants. Start, say, in In- dianapolis, with the special brand of Jonathans and Grimes Golden. I would ship several carloads of the brand to In- dianapolis, either placing them in storage temporarily, or else timing their arrival conveniently. The next step would be to send one or two thoroughly trained, experienced specialty salesmen there. I could lay my hands on just the right men in a moment. I would have a thor- ough canvass of the retail grocery trade made, and also the fruiterer trade. There is about one grocery store to every 200 of the population; fruiterers additional. This would make 1,168 groceries alone in Indianapolis. Not over one-quarter to one-half of these would be good stores in good parts of town. Say about 300 in all. The "live wire" salesman can work about 25 grocers in a day if he has a quick-talk- ing proposition, which this would be. In two weeks' work one man could cover the town pretty thoroughly. Have this sales- man explain to the grocer the extraordi- nary quality, appearance and merchant- ability of the product; the convenience of the package; the advantage of co-operat- 1312 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ing with tlie producers to work up a box trade, which would avoid measuring, bags, string, etc., and save him money all around. Under which conditions he could afford to handle the fruit at a reasonable profit, especially as there would be no waste or loss by decay. Any "live wire" could make a friend and a co-operator of that grocer. Without going further into the argument, suffice to say that a "whirl- wind campaign" could be made. Explain to the grocer that on a certain morning a full page "ad" will appear in the In- dianapolis newspapers written by an ex- pert, so as to command instant attention by every housekeeper in town. And that in that ad. a full list of the grocers and fruiterers who can supply the fruit will also appear. That is a good ad. for the dealer. That advertisement will state the price per box at which the consumer can buy this brand by the box from the gro- cer. That would be the first intelligent step ever taken by Northwestern pro- ducers to regulate the profits of the re- tailer, and it would be doing it in a way that would not make the retailer our enemy for life, but would have his full approval. Then take the order of the retailer for five, ten, fifteen or twenty-five boxes of the advertised brand for delivery through his wholesale grocer or whole- sale fruit merchant. Perhaps under this system the wholesale grocers throughout the country generally could be induced to carry boxed apples, like the wholesale grocers in Texas do now. If so, it would be another big advantage gained, as the wholesale grocers would not carry any but the advertised brand. Then assemble these orders on the various jobbers, de- liver them, and get the jobbers' order for a generous stock over and above what we have sold for them. By taking the re- tailers' orders at a fixed price, you can then allow the jobbers a fair margin of profit and no more; but this time you have not only limited his profit, but you have forced him to buy, and you have done it all without making him your enemy for life, but have made of him, too, a co-operator. In conjunction with this campaign, if the advertising appro- priation permitted, it would be well to have a couple of well-trained girl dem- onstrators who could be dressed in cos- tume to represent the Western girl; per- haps in cow-girl costume. Merely walking along the street would set the whole town buzzing. Have them take baskets of sample apples and go from house to house in the better sections of the city, get in- terviews with the housewives, leave a little cook book filled with recipes and also with some needed educational matter on varieties, have her sample an apple of the sort we are selling, and then take her order on her nearest grocer for a box or two. It would also be entirely feasible to arrange with the Sperry & Hutchinson syndicate or some other of the trading-stamp or coupon exchanges, to accept our copyrighted wrappers as one coupon or a fractional coupon, inter- changeable with United Cigar Stores cou- pons. Sunny Monday soap and a host of other premium coupons. This would attach a premium feature to our brand, and give us all the advantage of an or- ganized premium department without having actually to establish such a de- partment. Any man whose wife saves soap wrappers and pesters him for cigar coupons knows how strong an appeal they are to the children and women, and to men as well. The desire to get some- thing for nothing, being human, is just as strong with the prosperous classes as with the poor. If this plan were care- fully worked out and properly executed the result would almost inevitably be: the thorough establishment on the mar- kets so worked of the given brand and a steady repeat business for carloads from the wholesale dealers throughout the fall season. Later on, when fall varieties were exhausted, another ad. could be run on intermediate mid-winter varieties; later of the spring varieties. Another most important feature of this campaign would be the badly needed education of the consumer, the retailer and the whole- saler as to the correct rotation of varie- ties, and in a short time we could abolish such absurdities as Arkansas Blacks and G-anos selling on the fruit stands in Octo- ECONOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING 1313 ber and November, to sicken and disgust the consumer and kill the demand, while Jonathans and Grimes Golden are being ignorantly held in storage. Educating the Consumer So, by this plan, the consumer also will have been educated by us, whose business it is to educate him, and it will have been done right. The effect would be lasting, as we will have made a friend of the consumer — a co-operator. This is my idea of co-operation. Co- operation that is intelligently construc- tive, not destructive. Destroy the abuses as we find them; yes. But let us be sure we haye found them first, or we may destroy something that is inherently val- uable, and only needs a little sympathetic co-operation to contribute to our needs. The progressive methods that I have proposed will cost money, assuredly. But spread out over a large volume of busi- ness, with growers co-operating and sup- porting, the per package cost would not be high. Three cents per box would do a very great deal; 5 cents per box would do more, and in my Judgment would re- turn in increased profits many fold. Our industry has reached a point where such methods are not an extravagance, not a luxury, but a necessity. We have got to spend money to make money. It may not be a violation of the pro- prieties if I illustrate the principles which I have sketched by referring to the institution with which X am connected — the Northwestern Fruit Exchange. Or- ganized at the beginning of the shipping season of 1910, the exchange has expend- ed $150,000 in the development of a sys- tem of merchandising, specifically adapted to Northwestern fruits. We firmly be- lieve in the principle of f, o. b. sale, for many valid reasons. First, it is the ac- cepted and proven system by a great ma- jority of the successful fruit industrials. The United Fruit Company sells 75,000 cars of bananas annually on a f. o. b. basis strictly. The California Vegetable Union, American Cranberry Exchange and scores of others, the most successful in their several fields, all operate on this principle. We contend that the fruit is worth more, f. o. b. shipping point, than at any other point; worth more intrin- sically; worth more as an article of mer- chandise for the merchant wanting it for immediate sale; worth a good deal more to the merchant wanting it for storage purposes. It would therefore seem that the shipping point is the place where it would be most desirable for the grower to have his market established. At that point we can absolutely guarantee, if we are careful enough, that the fruit is strictly first class. We cannot do that — absolutely — 24 hours after it has left shipping point, but we can say everything good about it while it is at shipping point that could possibly be said about the fruit, and say it truthfully. Again, if the market is established f. o. b. it means the crop is a cash crop to the fruit grow- ers. With interest rates ranging from 8 to 12 per cent, that in itself is a big item. As a matter of fact, the exchange made a record for the entire season of 1911 of an average of 24 days between date of shipment and date of full pay- ment for every car handled during the season. Furthermore, during the season of 1911 the exchange sold for one asso- ciation that I could name nearly 75 per cent of its entire output prior to the har- vest of the fruit from the trees, and 99 per cent of the whole f. o. b. shipping point. Sales Department Another very important feature of our problem which shows the great need of co-operation is in the operation of the sales department. The exchange believes that there is only one system which is practical in a large sales operation of perishable fruits, namely, resident sales- men. The value of any commodity is based on supply and demand. In order to obtain maximum value, the sales man- ager must have at his daily command the whole demand of all the markets of the world. Traveling salesmen as a main system is expensive and impractical. I know of one large producer who tried that system, and he says it cost him $200 per car to sell his fruit at unsatis- factory prices. The trouble is that the o 42 1314 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE traveling salesman and the demand only- meet by accident. It takes one man 30 days to cover the state of Iowa through- ly. When he is in Keokuk the demand may be in Council Bluffs, and vice versa. The average fruit dealer buys from hand to mouth and does not anticipate his wants very far ahead. Only a few of the larger operators in the big cities do that. That the principle of resident salesmen is correct, it is only necessary to point out that practically everyone of the large successful organizations have adopted it; the California Fruit Growers' Exchange, the United Fruit Company, etc. In the same government publication from which I have already quoted, appears the fol- lowing: "The co-operative marketing associa- tion keeps itself well informed with re- gard to prices and market conditions in all the markets in which it sells or can sell its goods. This is done by means of telegraphing. The prosperous marketing association doing a large business at the present time expends a large amount of money in telegraphing. The annual ex- pense of the Eastern Shore of Virginia Produce Exchange for telegraphing is about $25,000, and the annual expense of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange, which handles the principal portion of the citrus crop of California, is $75,000. The best success of the marketing asso- ciation necessarily depends on a knowl- edge of the best markets in which to sell the products. The manager of the asso- ciation must in effect be in every market in which he sells and all the time." Obviously, under a system of traveling salesmen, this would be impossible. Bo not misunderstand me — traveling sales- men are all right, as an auxiliary, but not as a system. Resident Salesmen In the presence of the necessity of hav- ing resident agents in all the markets, the problem that confronted the exchange (and it is the problem of the whole in- dustry) was how to maintain, without assistance, such a comprehensive and costly system. The California Fruit Growers' Exchange can do it, as they are dealing in a commodity which is packed and shipped from California every day in the year. Their system of sales branches costs them, so I have heard, $25,000 per month, or $300,000 per year. The United Fruit Company can maintain 52 branches of their own throughout the year, and without assistance, as they, too, have a product which is shipped the year 'round. But we in the Northwest are dealing in a commodity which is har- vested through a period of about 100 days, and marketed through a maximum period of about six months. No matter, then, what our total volume, we could never afford to maintain a branch office system without assistance, unless we wish deliberately to adopt an economi- cally wasteful method. For, with the salesmen busy six months and idle six months, there would be not only an un- thinkable economic waste, but also de- terioration in the men. No man can work actively for six months and loaf the other six months and be as good a sales- man or business man at the end of his six months' idleness as he was before. Besides all this, the men would fall out of touch with the trade and become rusty. Had the exchange been unable to find a solution to this question before it started business, it would never have started. It found the solution in operation. It found there were other associations in other parts of the United States producing other and non-competitive fruits and vegetables, whose commodities came into the market at opposite or nearly opposite seasons to ours, and who had the same need for resident salesmen that we had, and who had also the same economic problem. And by intelligent combination of these factors a tonnage was provided that rotated all the year 'round, and the service thus co-operatively established was put in charge of specially trained su- perintendents and has worked beautifully, and at a cost vastly lower than any one of the co-operating concerns could have created it independently. At the present time there are 123 branch sales offices in the exchange system. Each of these offices is responsible for a certain terri- tory in its vicinity. Thus we aim and come very near to being in contact every ECONOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING 1315 day of our active season with, every one of the 10,000 carload buyers of fruit in thie United States and Canada. Foreign Markets Recognizing from the first the impor- tance of developing the foreign markets to their capacity, the exchange sent the writer to Europe last summer to make a personal study into the conditions and establish such connections as were neces- sary. As a result of that investigation the exchange decided to establish its own office in London under salaried manage- ment, and was most fortunate in the op- portunity of engaging as manager of the office a fruit man of unusual training and talents, trained in the business on both sides of the water. An exclusive agency was also established in Germany, the exchange agents controlling the only system of fruit branch houses in Europe. These branches are in Duisberg, Cologne, Essen, Frankfort, Mannheim, Leipsic, Dresden, Munich, Berlin and Hamburg, the headquarters being in Bremen. The managing director of the agency, by spe- cial arrangement, visited the Northwest in August and September, making a care- ful study of conditions here in order bet- ter to fit him for the work. Value of Foreign Markets However, I feel that there is danger of overestimating the capacity and the ex- tent of the foreign markets. In fact, I think they are already being very gener- ally overestimated. The fact is that the capacity of Germany at the present stage of her industrial development is not much over 250,000 boxes of Northwestern apples per annum, at profitable prices. More than that amount is being shipped there this season, but the results have been that for the past few weeks at every sale in Hamburg there have been from 20,000 to 30,000 boxes of apples offered and out of each sale from one-third to one-half left unsold for lack of a bid. It must be remembered that by the time first cost, transportation, duty, interior freight, high taxes, etc., necessary to deliver a box of our apples to the interior of Ger- many, are added, the result is an article of luxury, which only the rich man can afford to buy. It is not for the man in the street who earns from two marks to four marks daily. Again, the great dif- ference in the value of money must be considered. Four marks, German, is about $1, American, so that a box of ap- ples which sells for $3 in Germany is the German equivalent to about 12 marks. But one mark (23.8) will buy in Ger- many, in the necessaries of life, what $1 will buy in America. So that the man who pays $3 for a box of apples, or 12 marks, is really exchanging, in terms of the necessaries of life, not 12 marks but $12. There are not many Americans who could afford to pay $12 per box for ap- ples. Nor are there many Germans. Per- haps when freight rates are lower, and as the condition of the working classes in Germany improves, ways and means may be found to increase the consump- tion materially. The foregoing is also true, to a large extent, of England as well as Germany. And even more so of other European countries, where money is even cheaper than in Germany. Heavy duties limit the introduction of our apples in Russia; also in France. There is a small business in Scandinavia, but the total population is not great and the masses are poor. All of these markets are easy to congest, and under such conditions they are far less elastic than American markets of similar size, and are liable to slump very violently and disastrously. Outlet for Surplus I do not wish to be understood, from the foregoing, that I am not in favor of developing the foreign markets. On the other hand, the exchange has shown that it does believe in so doing, in the most practical way. But neither do I believe in building castles out of thin air. The foreign markets, in my judgment, will prove to us, as they have to most other American manufacturers, chiefly valuable as an outlet for our surplus, which we can use to take the pressure off our home markets. We shall have to make our money in our home markets, and, save in exceptional years, will have to sell our goods in the foreign markets at something under American parity. There 1316 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE are other parts of the world in which markets may be developed besides Eu- rope. There is South America, the mar- kets of which have been partially de- veloped, but which this year (1913) have been glutted with Northwestern apples, partially due to insufficient cold storage accommodations which are necessary be- cause of the infrequent steamer service. Then there is South Africa, which ap- pears to offer a market at certain seasons of the year. Australia has been partially developed, but the trade is limited on ac- count of the insufficient and infrequent steamship service. There is some market in the Philippines and a small market in the Orient. Of the exact conditions in some of these markets very little reliable information is available, and the exchange is now considering the employment of a foreign trade commissioner to cover the markets of the globe and make a close personal study not only of their present capacities but of their possibilities. This tentative plan of the exchange will be put into effect in the near future with the approval and support of its co-opera- tive membership. Also with the approval and support of its members it proposes to put into practical working elfect next season its policies of advertising, exploita- tion, education and co-operation all down the line straight to the consumer. . F. GWIN, Gen Mn^r Northwestern Fruit Bxchansre THE HAHBLIHG OF DECIDUOUS FEUITS 0^ THE PACIFIC COAST Picking, Packing, Precooling, Etc. The fruits classified under the general term deciduous fruits are those produced by trees which drop their leaves in win- ter. They are called deciduous to distin- guish them from citrus fruits, which are borne on evergreen trees. The fruits which come under this designation, and which are shipped in a fresh state from the Pacific coast, include apples, apricots, cherries, peaches, pears, plums (includ- ing prunes), nectarines, grapes, and the small fruits, such as strawberries,* rasp- * While the strawberry holds its leaves through the winter, its fruit is similar to the deciduous fruits in its shipping requirements, and It is therefore classed with them berries, and blackberries. The handling problems included in this article refer to the preparation of the fruit for shipment and for marketing in the fresh condition, although the greater part of the deciduous fruits grown on the Pacific coast is mar- keted not in a fresh condition, but as canned and dried fruits of all kinds, in- cluding prunes and raisins. There has been an enormous growth and development of the deciduous-fruit industry on the Pacific coast. Up to 12 years ago most of this development had been in California, where the fresh-fruit shipments in 1909 equaled 15,280 carloads, but recently the planting of deciduous- fruit orchards in the states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Colorado, and Utah has been made on a very large scale. The development of these new districts and the rapid increase m the production of deciduous fruits have alarmed many of the growers, especially in California, at the possibility of overproduction, and the advisability of adopting means to prevent further planting, or at least to stop over- development and the booming of new re- gions by land speculators, has been seri- ously discussed. Plans are being made to increase the demand for and con- sumption of these fruits by advertising and by the development of new markets. It is at last realized that too much atten- tion has been given in the past to the business of inducing people to plant fruit trees and that not enough consideration has been given to the selling of the crop and to finding a profitable market for the fruit that is already on hand. Transportation Problems The problems connected with the trans- portation of deciduous fruits from the Pa- cific coast are essentially problems grow- ing out of the necessity for wide distribu- tion. Ever since the first carload of fresh fruit was shipped from California, in 1869, the bulk of each crop has had to be mar- keted in the Eastern states. It is a re- markable fact that this business, built up on the far western edge of the continent, has been and will for many years con- tinue to be almost wholly dependent upon HANDLING DECIDUOUS FRUITS ON PACIFIC COAST 1317 the Atlantic seaboard and adjacent states for a market. The fruit has to be trans- ported 3,000 miles, crossing lofty moun- tain ranges and hundreds of miles of des- ert, to the cities and centers of popula- tion of the East and Central West. Great engineering problems have had to be solved in accomplishing this result. It is stated that in crossing the continent a car has actually to be lifted or raised a ver- tical distance of more than two miles. Upon the safety, efficiency and despatch of the transportation facilities depends the whole success of the fresh-fruit in- dustry of the Pacific coast. The perish- able nature of the product and the diffi- culty in handling such an industry 3,000 miles from the center of consumption have made it necessary to develop an ample and efficient fruit-refrigerator-car service, which is now admitted to be the largest and best of its kind in the world. The distance which the fruit has to be transported and the expense and risk in- volved necessarily require that the fruit reach the market in the best possible con- dition. This has enforced a degree of uni- formity in grading and packing which, to- gether with the high shipping qualities of the Western fruits, is largely responsible for the successful marketing of the Pa- cific-coast product in competition with the Eastern fruits produced near the markets, but which, taken as a whole, are not as attractively or uniformly packed. The diffficulties and the expense of shipping and marketing the Pacific-coast fruits to some extent safeguard the grower against the temptation that confronts the Eastern grower with nearby markets and lower freight rates, to attempt to market large quantities of inferior, badly graded, and poorly packed fruit. It must not be assumed that no poor packing is done and that no poor-grade fruit is shipped from the Pacific coast. In fact, much of the Western fruit has the reputation of being poor in quality, though often beautiful in color and fine in appearance. This reputation has not militated to any great extent against the sale of Western fruit, owing to the fact that the consumer has thus far bought fruit products principally on appearance. But as competition grows keener and as high-grade fruit from nearby sections comes to be more carefully and attractive- ly packed so as to reach the market in sound condition, fruit of poor quality will suffer. The poor quality of some of the Western fruit, especially the peaches, apricots, plums, and other quick-ripen- ing fruits, is the result of picking long before the fruit reaches full maturity in order to protect it against the ripening which takes place during the transcon- tinental trip. After fruit is picked the ripening processes progress much more rapidly than they do under the same con- ditions of temperature while the fruit is on the tree. Unless some means are em- ployed to check this ripening as soon as harvested the fruit is too far advanced, even under the present method of re- frigerator-car shipment, before it reaches the market. Handling, Packing and Marketing The deciduous fruits are produced un- der the most diverse conditions — in the valleys, in the foothill and mountain dis- tricts, under irrigation, and with natural methods of tillage. Under such varying and extreme conditions the product varies in quality and appearance as well as in season It is owing to this divers- ity in the conditions of production that the problems of deciduous-fruit handling and of marketing have not been system- atized and organized as they have been in the citrus-fruit industry. The citrus- fruit industry is largely organized into associations of growers. The fruit of the different growers is uniformly graded and packed in central packing houses owned by the association, each packing house having its own brands to designate the different grades. The fruit is not shipped under the name of the grower who pro- duces it, as all of the fruit of the same grade is pooled. Many of the associations of growers also pick and haul the fruit of the members to the packing house. They have developed trained gangs of pickers and other laborers who work un- der efficient foremen, and they, more than those engaged in any other agricul- XaXo ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE tural industry in the country, have evolv- ed methods to insure the careful and uni- form handling of the product. In the handling of deciduous fruits this system does not prevail except in local areas. There are few central packing houses except in some of the grape dis- tricts in California. The greater part of the deciduous-fruit crop is packed in the orchard where it is grown, usually by the grower, except in some of the apple and other fruit districts in Oregon and Wash- ington. While certain standards of grad- ing and sizing are supposed to exist, they fall far short of the uniformity prevail- ing in the grades and brands of citrus fruits. When packed in central packing houses each grower's fruit may hold its individuality until it is sold. The estab- lishing and maintaining of uniform grades and brands, except in the case of growers having a large acreage, is impos- sible under this system. It frequently happens that a carload consists of fruit from 25 to 50 growers, each packing and handling in his own individual way. It naturally follows that there is the widest variation in the packing and grading, al- though the shipping companies have standards to which the grower must con- form in a general way. The one great object in growing fruit is to sell it at a profit. Fruit growing is a business and as such is dependent upon business methods and principles quite as much as the manufacture and sale of boots and shoes, of steel implements, or of other articles. The manufacturer real- izes that the success of his business de- pends upon the proper distribution and sale of his products and he pays as much attention to the sellmg as he does to the manufacturing. It is the business of the fruit growers, either for themselves or through their agents, to study com- mercial methods and principles and apply them to their industry. With the estab- lishment of better distribution and busi- ness methods in marketing fruits, the dangers from overproduction will largely be avoided. This m«ians, first of all, the produc- tion of first-class fruits, uniformly and honestly graded and packed and delivered to the consumer in sound and attractive condition. This is the business of the growers, and is the fundamental factor upon which depends the success of the in- dustry. Too often the growers have ascribed the cause of their difficulties to others — to the shippers, to the transporta- tion companies, to commission merchants, or even to the weather — ^losing sight of the fact that with the exercise of a little care and good judgment on their part many of these difficulties would not exist. The fruit growers of the Pacific coast have mastered most of the problems re- lating to the production of the fruit — such as relate to the various orchard practices of tilling, fertilizing, pruning, thinning and spraying. It frequently hap- pens that after a grower has used the ut- most care in producing his crop he nulli- fies all through the handling he gives it in preparing it for market. It does not matter how excellent his orchard practices are, if his fruit does not reach the markets in sound and attractive condition he may find that he receives no more for his crop than a more careless or slipshod neighbor, and he is at a loss to understand why. During the last eight years the Bureau of Plant Industry has conducted investi- gations of the factors which govern the shipment and storage of fruits. It has been shown by many experimental ship- ments that there is a direct relation be- tween the handling and the treatment in all the various processes of preparing the fruit for shipment and its behavior while in transit or storage. This has to deal with the picking, packing, hauling, and cooling of the fruit. Mechanical Injuries It is generally recognized that fruit must be handled with great care if it is to be kept sound, but few have realized until it has been demonstrated to them, how easy it is to injure fruit in hand- ling and how much injury is actually be- ing done. In the investigations conduct- ed by the Bureau of Plant Industry it was not uncommon to find 10 or 15 per cent of apples injured by rough handling HANDLING DECIDUOUS FRUITS ON PACIFIC COAST 1319 in picking and packing. Frequently, also, from 10 to 50 per cent of oranges were found to be injured by the clippers in sev- ering the fruit from the trees or in hand- ling it in the packing houses. Again, from 5 to 40 per cent of table grapes were found to be cracked or broken more or less severely at the pedicles. The work of the Bureau of Plant In- dustry has shown that the more common kinds of molds which cause decay in tran- sit and storage have not the power to penetrate the unbroken, normal skin of the fruit. It has been shown that molds generally gain entrance through mechani- cal bruises or abrasions of the skin made in the handling of the fruit in prepar- ing it for market. Some common forms of such injuries are bruises and scratches made in the picking of the fruit, in squeezing it and dropping it roughly in- to picking boxes, bags, baskets, or pails, or in pouring it from the field bag or pail into boxes. Hauling on springless wag- ons (sleds are sometimes used) may seri- ously bruise the fruit. Dirt, gravel, dried branches, or twigs in the bottom of the field boxes are also a frequent source of injury. Injuries of these types are not only difficult to detect but offer ideal con- ditions for the starting of decay. Many fruits are injured by scratches made by the finger nails of pickers and packers. In the case of soft fruits much bruising results from excessive squeezing in pack- ing. The tips of peaches are most deli- cate and easily bruised or injured. In examining peaches in shipping and stor- age experiments tip injury is frequently found to be the greatest source of decay. Grapes are perhaps the most easily in- jured of all fruits. An examination of grape berries shows that from 90 to 95 per cent of the injuries consist of breaks or cracks at the pedicle where the stem joins the berry. Sometimes the bending aside of a berry is sufficient to cause a slight rupture or crack at that point and all such berries are susceptible to decay when they are packed. This indicates the extreme care with which all hand- ling of grapes must be done. Handling must be reduced to a minimum and al- ways, when practicable, the bunches should be handled by the main stems, for every time a bunch of grapes is lifted there is danger of injury unless it is done with the utmost care. Grapes are often injured in placing them in the baskets — by rough handling, excessive squeezing or crowding, or twist- ing and binding the long bunches to form compact masses. It has been shown that unbroken grape berries carefully handled and laid in loosely do not decay under normal conditions of shipment, and the nearer the packing can be made to ap- proach this ideal condition the less will be the danger of injury and resulting de- cay. Very soft fruits like cherries or ber- ries are very easily injured, especially when these fruits are allowed to become over-ripe. It is important to have the picking operations keep pace with the ripening of the fruit This means going over the cherry trees several times. Ber* ry plantations at the height of the sea- son must be gone over daily. The softer or more susceptible the fruit is to in- jury the more carefully must it be handled throughout all the processes of preparing it for shipment. During the last two years the trans- portation investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry have been extended to the table-grape industry of California. Care- ful observations on handling methods have been made and extensive shipping experiments have been carried on in or- der to demonstrate the results of careful handling in preparing the fruit for mar- ket. The experiments consisted of ship- ping a series of crates and boxes of grapes packed under known conditions through to New York, where the packages were carefully inspected and the actual per- centage of decay were determined. The ordinary commercial pack was used in comparison with the same fruit carefully handled by the government investigators. Records on 50 such shipments were ob- tained during the shipping seasons of 1908 and 1909. The records of shipments made in 1909 show an average of 1,2 per cent of decay 1320 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE in the carefully handled lots and 5.8 per cent of decay in the commercial pack of the same fruit. Moreover, this difference was maintained after arrival in New York. The grapes were held for a week under open-market conditions, and de- terminations of the decay were made three, five and seven days after arrival. The carefully handled lots were still in merchantable condition five days after ar- rival, with an average of 5.2 per cent of decay, or less than the average decay found in the commercial packs on the day of arrival. The decay in the commercial packs had reached 15.8 per cent five days after be- ing received, and they were far past a marketable condition. The carefully handled lots had a great advantage aside from their better and sounder condition, in that they ware in fit shape to be re- shipped from large centers to smaller surrounding towns, thus allowing a much wider distribution and extension of the market. The importance of this fact can best be appreciated when considered in connection with the problems of overpro- duction and the possibilities of increas- ing the sale and use of the fruit. As long as the commercial packs continue to arrive at or near the limit of decay commercially allowable, the possibilities of reshipment are extremely limited and the market for the fruit is cut down ac- cordingly. In the careful-handling experiments with grapes and oranges nothing has "been attempted which can not be done nxnder commercial conditions. In the case x)t citrus fruits the piecework system has been changed to the day-payment plan, thus doing away with the tendency to rapid and careless work. In the grape industry no such radical change is neces- *sary, as the day-payment plan largely -prevails, but the pickers, packers, and all those who handle the fruit must be im- pressed with the necessity of doing their several operations with the utmost care. The fault lies largely in requiring as much and as rapid work to be done in a day as possible. Nearly every grower knows or believes that care is necessary, but very few realize how much damage is really due to requiring their help to work at topmost speed in order to get the work done as cheaply as possible. In many instances growers are astounded when informed of the amount of injury which is done. In the hurry and anxiety to get ofE as much as possible and to hasten all operations, the bruises, the scratches, and the punctures which re- sult are too often overlooked. Naturally it will cost more to handle the fruit carefully. At first sight it seems unreasonable to advocate spending more money in preparing fruit for market dur- ing seasons of low prices, but it has been found to be good business policy to make the increased expenditure. The saving in the quantity of sound fruit gotten to market will alone very nearly balance the increased cost. Using the average percentages of decay in the carefully handled and the commercial packs of grapes already noted, the saving in favor of careful handling amounts to nearly 45 crates per car, or a full carload of grapes tor every 21 shipped, and this does not take into consideration the in- crease in market value and consequent salability of the sounder fruit, the price of fresh fruit being always depreciated by the presence of decay. What has been found to be true in the grape industry applies with equal force to all other branches of fruit growing. Sound fruit of good quality, honestly and uniformly graded and packed, is the fundamental factor upon which the suc- cess of the business depends. Refrigeration Another factor of prime importance in the successful shipping of fresh fruits long distances is quick and efficient re- frigeration. The deciduous fruits are all shipped during warm weather and must be kept cool while in transit. The full transcontinental trip requires usually from 12 to 14 days, which may be com- parable to a period of about two weeks in cold storage. As already stated, it has been found that the ripening processes are hastened HANDLING DECIDUOUS FRUITS ON PACIFIC COAST 1321 when tlie fruit is picked. The develop- ment of molds also goes on at a rapid rate while the fruit is warm. Reduc- ing the temperature retards the ripen- ing and prevents the development of the molds. The length of time that the fruit will remain in good condition depends upon the promptness and the thorough- ness with which it is cooled. Careful records made of many decidu- ous-fruit packages show that the tempera- tures of the packed fruit during the great- er part of the season are extremely high. The range runs from 80 degrees to over 100 degrees F., and the average of all temperature records made is between 90 degrees and 95 degrees F. At such temperatures the fruit ripens very fast and decay and deterioration are extreme- ly rapid, especially if the fruit has been roughly handled and injured to any great extent Records made in refrigerator cars show that the rate of cooling in the fruit packages is very slow when the ice of the car is depended upon both to reduce the temperature and to hold it low. It frequently happens that several days elapse before the fruit is cooled sufficient- ly to retard ripening and decay. This is the main reason why the Pacific-coast fruits are picked so long before they have acquired full quality. When they are not picked green, they become over- ripe and soften before the ice of the car has a chance to reduce the temperature below the danger point. Frequently a very distinct advantage may be gained by allowing the fruit to remain open over night and packing while it is cool in the morning. More cooling can usually be obtained in this way than in one or two days in the refrigerator cars after the fruit is packed, especially where it is wrapped in paper. This is particularly true for grapes, and many growers and packers take advantage of it. It has been asserted that before a •system of overnight cooling was adopted it was impossible to ship peaches and plums in sound condition from some of the interior points of the San Joaquin Talley of California. During the last eight years the Bureau of Plant Industry has conducted investiga- tions of different methods of quickly cool- ing fruits before shipping. This prac- tice, which has for its object reducing the temperature as quickly as possible, has been designated "precooling." Under this system the ice of the refrigerator car is not expected to cool the fruit, but only to keep it cool during the trip across the continent. Precooling is usually done by mechani- cal means after the fruit is packed, either in a warehouse or a cold-storage plant be- fore loading on the cars or after loading by forcing large volumes of very cold air through the cars, thus reducing the temperature of the fruit much more rapid- ly than can be done with ice alone. Pre- cooling may also be done before packing, and when this is practicable it is com- paratively easy, because there is a chance for the circulation of the air around the fruit. The disadvantage of such a sys- tem is that the packing has to be done in cool rooms to avoid the condensation of moisture on the cold fruit. The best system of precooling, whether in cars or in warehouses, has not yet been definitely determined, although two of the great transportation companies of the Pa- cific coast are erecting mammoth plants to precool in the cars all the fruit shipped over their line. One great disadvantage of this system is the delay which must necessarily ensue in assembling the cars from the different districts. Much of the beneficial effect from precooling will be lost unless the work is done as soon as possible after the fruit is packed. A de- lay of even 12 hours during warm weath- er may very seriously affect the results. Another disadvantage in car precooling is the great difficulty or impossibility of so distributing the air that every pack- age will be reached. Under the best con- ditions some of the packages will be cool- ed very much more quickly than others-, depending upon the method of applying the air. Precooling in a warehouse or cool room consists in placing the fruit in a refrig- erated room, with sufficient piping to keep 1322 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE the room temperature well below the de- sired point until all the packages are thoroughly cooled. The packages may be so stacked that a thorough circulation is possible, resulting in greater uniformity in the cooling than is the case in the closely packed car. One disadvantage of having the pre- cooling done in warehouses is the expense of building and maintaining the neces- sary plants, and this must be borne by the shipping companies, growers' asso- ciations, or individual growers. Under this system the expense and responsibil- ity fall on the shipper, while under the car-precooling system the transportation companies bear the burden. However, the transportation companies must require that the fruit be delivered to them in sound condition and fit for shipment, and whether the placing of the packages in proper condition for safe shipment should include the reduction to a proper and safe temperature is an open question. The advantages of precooling in the handling of deciduous fruits are mani- fold. The first and most important of these is the fact that, if precooled, the fruit may be left on the trees to attain a greater degree of maturity, thus assuring a much better quality. It has been shown that the soft fruits, like plums, peaches, and apricots, may be allowed to remain until they reach a hard-ripe condition and may then be shipped long distances without deterioration. In the case of cherries and berries, precooling will en- able the crop to be shipped greater dis- tances, thus assuring wider market dis- tribution and more satisfactory condition on arrival. Precooling is now recognized as one of the important factors in the safe shipping and handling of highly perishable prod- ucts, and its use will be extended as its advantages and application are better un- derstood. It should never be used as a means to overcome difiiculties arising from improper or rough handling. Used as a means to insure safe shipment af- ter the grower and packer have done their share, precooling is both valuable and legitimate. Used as a means to over- come the effects of rough handling, pre- cooling only retards decay and deteriora- tion for a time, and the troubles develop when the fruit warms up after arrival in market. A, V. Stubenraugh, Expert in charge of Fruit Transportation and Storage Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. (1909 Year-book.) EUEOFE AS A MABKET FOE OUR APPLES AlVD PEARS Henby B. Miller American Consul at Belfast, Ireland Great Britain is not in a general way an apple-growing country, Ireland is per- haps the best apple-producing section of the empire, but its production does not exceed over 50,000 barrels. The apples grown in Ireland are especially prized for cooking purposes and there is no doubt but that the production of cooking apples will tend to increase, but it will be many years before it will have any appreciable effect upon the market. The Department of Agriculture is endeavoring to encour- age apple growing by establishing experi- mental orchards and giving instruction in horticulture in various districts. The table given shows the importation of apples into Great Britain for four years, together with the countries of their origin. A review of the apple importa- tion into Great Britain for a period of years prior to this schedule shows that for a number of years the annual im- portation amounted to between five and six million dollars. In 1892 the imports for some unknown reason nearly doubled and reached about $10,000,000, and since that time they have remained close to that value, varying only slightly either way, and for the last year of statistics, 1908, the total imports amounted to $10,- 398,500. It seems clear, therefore, that there is little likelihood of any decrease in this quantity of imports of apples into Great Britain. There is a fair prospect, under favorable conditions of industrial prosperity, of this amount being consid- erably increased. The United States of America shares in this market to the extent of something over one-third, averaging for the past EUROPE AS A MARKET FOR OUR APPLES AND PEARS 1323 four years $4,000,000 per annum. Canada is now our strongest competitor, sharing about equally with us in the amount of exports. Belgium and Prance are the next in trade, Australia and Tasmania following. We are not competitors with the Australian and Tasmanian apples, for they come into the markets at a different time of the year, mostly during May and June, while our apples are almost entirely fall and winter varieties. The great bulk of apples in the mar- kets of Great Britain are shipped in bar- rels, and measured by the Pacific-coast standard of quality and pack, are of a very inferior grade. The consumption of apples in Great Britain is, however, largely for cooking purposes, and on this account it consumes an enormous quanti- ty of inferior and low-grade stock. The bulk of these apples is bought by brok- ers from the orchard, thrown into the barrels in an indiscriminate and careless way, and shipped without thought or care for the reputation of the business. This style and method of handling fruit, when it is met by the superior skill and care of growers and shippers of the North Pa- cific coast, will be very readily discovered in the trade. Scabby, wormy, scaly fruit is the rule rather than the exception in the apples shipped from the Atlantic coast of the United States. Commanding the apple trade of Great Britain in the future depends on the quality of the apple placed in the English markets and the style of packing. The class of trade to which the growers for export can appeal, is the class that buy the best goods and pay high prices. The most serious obstacle at present standing in the way is that American fruits, as a rule, are not well packed and graded. Also the cost of transportation has been against us. With the building of the Panama canal the cost of transportation ought to be reduced, and with the educa- tion of the producer the quality and pack- ing of fruit will be of higher grade. A little better understanding in relation to the varieties for the market in future plantings would be of great value. The taste of the British apple consumers de- mands a fruit filled with juice; a dry ap- ple will never be popular there. Suffi- cient acid to make it a good cooker is also important The present cost of transporting a box of apples to the European market from the Pacific coast is 75 cents. The great market for the apples of the Northwest in Europe cannot well begin until the completion of the Panama canal. Considerable quantities of good grade stock will find a market there from now on, at a profitable rate, and ship- ments ought to increase very materially every year, but the market for the Pa- cific-coast apples is not likely to reach into the million dollar class until the completion of the Panama canal. By that time, however, shipments ought to reach in the markets of Europe from three to six million dollars per annum, and cost of transportation should not be over 35 cents per box. Apples are coming into the British mar- ket in January and February from the Pacific coast badly injured by freezing. This, of course, will not occur in ship- ments by steamer after the opening of the canal. The following are the leading varieties of apples being imported into Great Britain, with their selling value accord- ing to the order in which they are men- tioned: Grimes Golden, Yellow Newtown Pip- pin, King, Northern Spy, Jonathan, Rus- set, Baldwin, Gano and Ben Davis. There are many other kinds in the mai kets, both in barrels and boxes, but it is safe to take the above as all being standard varieties. Kings, Jonathans and the best of the Baldwins are marketed before the first of the year. 324 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Importation of Apples into the United Kingdom FROM Germany Netherlands Belgium France Portugal Spain United States of America Other foreign countries Chamiel Islands Australia: West Australia South Australia (including north territory) Victoria New South Wales Queensland Tasmania Canada Other British possessions Totals , 1905 5 19;385 141,105 121,800 276,440 220,165 122,760 4,684,340 1,020 61,445 139,770 122,175 1,000 894,590 3,519,750 320 $10,352,965 1906 I 70,390 64,480 126,395 80,585 228,395 17,780 4,342,190 1,040 52,810 300 117,715 106,990 l,oOu 666,505 2,889,910 535 5,767,885 1907 g 20,890 100,580 176,560 107,240 171,585 81,880 4,299,000 1,935 28,520 2,920 59,115 218,005 0,0*5 i? 4,604,370 2,400 $11,156,635 1908 7,695 475,265 365,420 212,440 5,165 3,649,215 1,935 24,950 2,295 264,115 140,555 6,970 25 1,114,530 4,007,780 1,440 $10,398,515 Importation of Apples into Cfermany FROM Belgium France Italy — Netherlands Austria-Hungary Switzerland Servia United States. . . Australia Totals 1907 Bushels 378,632 187,200 3,329,376 906,964 2,140,656 i,iyo,iov) 168,576 442,992 75,888 8,983,632 1908 Bushels 820,608 220,416 298,176 998,160 3,005,472 2,986,464 207,600 64,272 8,640,816 1909 Bushels 509,568 187,200 3,329,376 906,864 2,140,656 1,193,136 168,576 442,992 8,983,632 NOTE.— The jfigures for 1909 are for the first eleven months only. The value of the importations of fresh apples and pears into Germany has been between $5,000,000 and $8,000,000 per an- num for the past 10 years. The share of the United States in this trade is com- paratively small, but will increase with the better methods of growing and pack- ing, and the reduced cost of transporta- tion. Germany is making a creditable effort in the production of apples, and the num- ber of apple trees planted in the empire is over 52,000,000. German reports place the imports of pears and quinces together in the follow- ing table: EUROPE AS A MA;RKET FOR OUR APPLES ANB PEARS 1325 FROM 1907 Bushels 1908 Bushels 1909 Bushels Belgium France Italy Netherlands Austria-Hungary Switzerland Totals 349,300 208,700 173,900 402,100 944,650 71,750 300,950 181,550 158,100 432,450 60,600 2,195,950 1,278,500 459,600 278,950 308,300 1,570,000 305,000 3,009,650 The average import price per 100 kilos (220.4 pounds) in 1907 was 14.82 marks ($3.53); in 1908, 13.13 marks ($3.12)'; in 1909, 17.34 marks ($4.12). The average import price in 1907 and 1908 was about 1% cents per pound, and in 1909 nearly 2 cents per pound. From this table it seems that the United States has no part of conseguence in the pear trade. Importation of Pears into the United Kingdom FROM 1905 1906 1907 1908 Germany Netherlands Belgium France United States of America Other foreign countries . . Channel Islands Cape of Good Hope Australia Canada Other British possessions Totals ^ 59,080 138,975 221,455 1,019,205 471,490 6,650 19,240 6,440 44,560 51,965 25 ) 117,830 89,895 327,630 1,736,055 437,010 4,280 52,595 20,395 23,765 51,905 10 > 87,425 $ 9,390 199,865 64,415 611,715 422,430 1,190,270 1,415,310 132,210 470,185 11,570 5,465 30,845 29,570 35,365 56,100 75,240 23,290 18,540 83,455 10 10 $2,039,095 $2,861,370 $2,393,065 $2,579,620 Pears to the value of $2,500,000 are an- nually imported into Great Britain, This amount has been remarkably constant for the past five years. France has a little over half of this trade, with Belgium usually second and the United States third. A pear satisfac- tory to the Christmas trade will have lit- tle opposition in the British markets, be- cause the French and Belgian pears are difficult to keep so late, and as soon as pears begin to soften the dealers do not care to handle them. One of the finest openings for fruit is this British market for winter pears. Fruit commission houses have been paying from 2 to 3 cents each for pears in 20-pound boxes of from 40 to 50 pears each. The following varieties are common sellers: B. Clargeau, Beurre Hardy, Doyenne du Comice, B. de Anjou, Easter Beurre, American Duchess, Beurre D'Arenberg, Charles Ernest (this is an exceptional favorite as a winter pear), B. Magnifigue, Glow Morceau (is a high-priced and popu- lar winter pear), Josephine de Malines (is one of the best winter pears). This season the Kieffer has been a splendid seller. Small pears, such as Winter Nelis, however luscious, do not seem to answer the demands of this market. During the latter part of February this year large consignments of Bartlett pears came to the British markets from Cape Town, South Africa, under the name of 1326 E3NCYCL0PEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE "Boa Chrelien," also known in the street as "William pears." These pears were in- troduced from France to England hy a man by the name of William, and there- fore pass under his name here. The same pear "was introduced into America by a Mr. Bartlett, and hence in the United States is known as the Bartlett pear. Thousands of boxes of these pears are consigned into the British markets now, and will continue to come until some time in May. They come in small, single-layer boxes of 28 pears each, and sell here at $1 per box from the commission houses. This fruit comes by steamer a distance of over 6,000 miles, requiring about 20 days for the trip from Cape Town to London. Those that I have seen have been landed in fine condition. The best opportunity seems to be to produce something good for the holiday season. The Royal Horticultural Society of Great Britain is to a large extent re- sponsible for the development of horticul- ture in South Africa. They are taking great interest in the production of fruit for the British markets in the various British colonies, and the results of their efforts are showing good returns in many cases. Importations of Apples and Pears into France FROM Germany Austria-Hungary , Turkey United States. . . Canada Other countries.. Totals 1908 Bushels 19,765 790 695 21,250 I have been able to get very little infor- mation concerning the French markets, but from the above table you will observe that so far as imported apples and pears are concerned, the market for foreign stock is not very great. My advices indi- cate that no pears are imported into France from the United States, and those that are imported are of two varieties, "Amorelle" and "Blanche." Horticulture in France is a most pros- pering industry, and besides growing fruits for their own markets they are ex- tensive exporters to various European districts. In October, 1909, a Technical Board of Horticulture was created and attached to the Ministry of Agriculture. The purpose of the board is to promote horticultural development in France. In the European markets, especially in pears and the more delicate fruits, France has a great advantage over the United States, and in arranging for mar- keting our fruits in this part of the world care should be taken to avoid such plant- ings for this trade as are likely to be ruinous against the French product. A special study should be made of the French productions in order to get a thor- ough understanding of this phase of the subject. It is clear that any apple-grow- ing section, in order to make a perma- nent success, must establish and main- tain a standard of fruit and pack that will fix its reputation high and substan- tial in the markets of the world. A single ship from New York has just brought into Liverpool over 30,000 bushels of apples, and this is only one of several ships clearing every week car- rying fruit during the season. The Brit- ish markets consume between 10 and 12 million dollars worth of imported apples each year, with an increasing tendency. The parliament of Ontario, Canada, a year ago passed an act providing for the REDUCTION OF WASTE IN MARKETING 1327 grading, marking and inspection of ap- ples, with, penalty of a fine for falsely marked packages. This has had a good effect in improving the grading, and has brought better returns in cash. The formation of an association of Ontario fruit growers and the establishment of general packing houses, with uniform packing guaranteed by the association, has had a still better effect, and the as- sociation products bring the highest price in the market THE EEBUCTIOK OF WASTE IN HABKETIHG Fkaitk: Andrews Assistant Chief of Division of Production and Distribution, V, B. Bureau of Statistics Of the items entering into the cost of marketing fresh fruits and vegetables, possibly one of the greatest is the loss due to waste. Two important causes of this waste are slowness of delivery to the buy- er and the glutting of markets. Delay in transportation may cause the produce to decay or wilt, so that it may bring small, if any, returns, or, even if it arrives in good condition, it may be too late to be sold at good prices. A loss in selling price may be caused also by a faulty dis- tribution of consignments, whereby some markets are overstocked, while there is a scarcity at others. These two causes of waste are being overcome, to some degree at least, by improved methods of distri- bution, as used by shippers, and by bet- ter transportation service. It is the purpose of this article to show the working of two general plans, whose extended use dates back scarcely 10 or 15 years. One plan is used by shippers to distribute consignments among cities and towns in such manner as to avoid a glut; the other scheme is employed by trans- portation companies to move perishable freight quickly, and at the same time to be ready to change its destination on short notice, even when it is on the way to market. The Carload as a Unit A Saving in Money and Time In farming on a large scale, the unit of quantity for a shipment is regularly a carload. The advantage of a car lot over a smaller quantity is so great that the smaller shipment competes at a disad- vantage, except in near-by markets. Not only are the freight rates for carloads lower, but the time of transit is shorter and the risk of injuring the produce in transit is less. A car lot may be sent to any one of a large number of cities and towns, while the smaller shipment is lim- ited, by the higher freight rates and by delays in transit, to fewer markets. Since car lot shipments form such a large proportion of the total supply, con- ditions which affect their marketing in- fluence also the marketing of the smaller lots of highly perishable fruits and veg- etables. Home-grown produce is more apt to bring good prices in the neighboring city or town under conditions which tend to reduce the danger of an oversupply from distant regions. Hence, changes affecting the movement of carloads, as dis- cussed in this article, affect the entire truck-growing industry. There are a number of plans by which small shippers join in making up a car- load. This is regularly done by farmers' co-operative associations. Country buyers also gather prodrce from various farmers, arranging their ,)urchases so as to have carloads for shipment. Of the other plans for combining smaller lots in carloads, two of the more noteworthy are the local "pick-up" service of some railroads and the system employed by some forwarding agents. Combining Small iJots There are forwarding agents whose business it is to collect small consign- ments at various points in the Mississippi Valley and to ship them to market. The forwarding agent gathers enough produce to make a full carload at a given station, consigns it to himself at the destination, and delivers the contents to various con- signees. By this system a small ship- ment by a producer is carried as prompt- 1328 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE ly as a full carload. The territory served by these forwarders includes stations in Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Illi- nois, Michigan, and a few points in In- diana. The forwarder, being responsible to the shippers, makes it his business to check the contents of the car as they are taken out, to note their condition, and to report to the shipper any irregular- ities as to the condition or number of packages. The car manifest of the for- warder shows the names of the shippers and of the consignees, the number and contents of packages. The manifests that happened to be in the office of one of these forwarders one day in July, 1911, and which were apparently not unusual, con- tained each a long list of separate items ; the manifest for one car contained a list of packages for no less than 32 different consignees. A so-called "pick-up" system is con- ducted by different railroads for collect- ing less-than-carload lots from various sta- tions and combining them at transfer points into full carloads. Small consign- ments are collected from a number of sta- tions and brought to a given point to be combined into carloads. Among the typi- cal transfer points for combining small shipments into carloads are Canton, Miss., and Norfolk, Va. The growth of freight and express serv- ice on interurban trolley lines has made it easier to market small shipments of perishable fruits and vegetables prompt- ly. The interurban electric lines gather up small shipments and concentrate them at forwarding points. Large quantities of fruits and vegetables are thus handled from points in Southwestern Michigan. The produce Is collected from such points as Berrien Springs, Bau Claire, and Mill- burg, and transferred to boats at St. Jo- seph and Benton Harbor to be forwarded thence to Chicago. This service is prompt; fruit collected one day is on the Chicago market early next morning. A similar traffic is carried through Norfolk, where railroad freight from truck-growing re- gions is transferred to coastwise steamers for New York and the North. Freight Service General ImproYements in Railroad Facilities Progress in methods of hauling perish- able fruits and vegetables is part of a gen- eral betterment of railroad service. Im- proved roadway, heavier rails, larger cars^ and more powerful engines, together with more efficient handling of the traffic, all help toward quicker and cheaper market- ing of produce. Some of the features of these improvements are shown in statis- tics compiled by the Interstate Commerce Commission. "Within the past 20 years the quantity of freight moved has increased many fold. During the year ending June 30, 1889, the freight traffic on railroads of the United States equaled about 69,000,000,000 ton- miles; 20 years later this freight amounted to 219,000,000,000 ton-miles. This increased traffic is accounted for not only by an extension of railroads, but by an increase in the amount carried per mile. The density of the traffic in 1909 was more than double that in 1899. To move this freight the size of the trains was increased as well as the number of loco- motives. In 1889 there was an average of 10 and in 1909 between 14 and 15 locomotives in the freight service for every 100 miles of railroad, while the average number of tons carried in a freight train more than doubled. Tracing a Oar's Movements The freight carried on many railroads is divided into classes, based upon the kind of service rendered. The highest class of goods is given the quickest and most regular service. A second class of goods, and even a third or a fourth, may also be moved in trains having regular times for arrival and departure, but which are slower than the "manifest," "red ball," or "vegetable express" trains. These classes are distinct from the classes upon which freight rates are based. Fresh fruits and vegetables are usually included in the list of commodities which are given this best service. Trains car- rying these perishable products are run at greater rates of speed and with greater REDUCTION OF WASTE IN MARKETING 1329 regularity than are ordinary freight trains. Delays are reduced to a minimum, and especial care is taken to have the cars carrying these fruits and vegetables move promptly along the way. Where the traffic justifies it, entire trains are made up of such produce. One feature of this service is the tele- graphic report which is made of each car as it passes each reporting station on its route. These "passing" reports, however, are made on some railroads for lower classes of freight also. Some of the principal parts of this sys- tem were in use before 1885 on at least one railroad. Cars were reported by tele- graph on passing certain points, and their movement was recorded in the central office, not only in writing but by means of pegs. Each car was represented by a peg bearing the symbol of the car and in- serted in a block which represented the train. The route over which the cars moved was represented by a board on which vertical lines and spaces indicated the various stations from which "passing" reports were made. When a train was reported to have passed a station, the block representing the train was moved past the place on the board that repre- sented the station. The telegraphic re- port mentioned each car in the train ; cars not so mentioned were accounted for, with the reason for delay, or were the subject of prompt inquiry from the central office. This system is now in use on a number of railroads. The information shown on the board is kept also in written form, and, on some railroads, it is summarized in circulars, issued daily. The "board" is convenient but not an essential part of this sytem. Some railroads do not use a board at all; they keep all their "pass- ing" records on paper. To facilitate telegraphing in some of these "passing-report" systems, each car may be given a symbol after the train is made up. The symbol consists of a letter or group of letters, which indicate the station of origin, and a number to desig- nate the car. The car is known by this symbol until it reaches its destination and the contents are delivered. Bates of Speed The average rate of speed over long distances for carloads of perishable freight depends largely upon the character of the roadbed and the number of transfers from one railroad to another. From Los An- geles to Chicago and from Jacksonville, Fla., to Chicago, the rate of speed aver- ages about 13 miles an hour, including all stops. One train was scheduled to run from Los Angeles to Chicago in 173 hours and 25 minutes, the average rate being 13.1 miles per hour. A vegetable express run from Jacksonville to Chicago over three or four different railroads covers about 1,140 miles in 89% hours, the aver- age rate being 12.7 miles per hour. By another route the trip from Jacksonville to Chicago is reported to be made in as short a time as 84 hours. Over some routes which do not traverse mountains the average rate, including stops, is about 16 miles per hour for long distances. A certain train from New Orleans to Chi- cago covers 930 miles in 57 hours and 20 minutes, the average rate being 16,2 miles per hour; and on the Atlantic coast a train carrying Florida produce northward runs from Tampa, Pla., to Richmond, Va*, in 54 hours and 15 minutes, making an average of 15.8 miles per hour. After p. train is once made up and does not have to stop so often to receive new cars the rate of speed is naturally much higher. Between Memphis and Chicago the aver- age rate of speed for a certain train is 18 miles per hour, while the rate from New Orleans to Memphis is 14 to 15 miles per hour. From Tampa to New York the rate for the distance south of Potomac Yard, Virginia, is about 16, while the distance between Potomac Yard and New York is covered at an average rate of more than 18 miles per hour. At the rates of speed mentioned in the preceding paragraph, a train would run from 312 to 432 miles in 24 hours. The time taken to move cars from Potomac Yard, Virginia, just south of Washington, D. C, to New York, is about 12% hours; to Boston from Potomac Yard, 36% to 40 hours; and to Montreal, 46% hours. These figures include the time required 2—43 1330 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE for icing and for transferring the cars from one road to another. From Miami, Fla., to New York the time is approxi- mately 96 hours, and from Miami to Chi- cago about 108 hours. It is thus possible for fruit and vegetables grown in regions as far away as Southern Florida to be delivered to consumers in Chicago or New York within five or six days from the time of gathering. Regularity of Service While these fruit and vegetable trains, as any others, may be late sometimes, nevertheless their regularity is such that transactions are reported to be made oft- en, if not usually, with the expectation that the produce involved will be deliv- ered at about a certain time on a certain day. For instance, a car of vegetables from a South Atlantic shipping point may be bought by a dealer, who expects the car to reach Jersey City on a Friday night in time to be ferried across North river to a wholesale market in New York, which opens at 1 a. m. Should this car be delayed several hours the vegetables would miss the Saturday morning market and might be delayed two days in reach- ing the retail merchants. Two instances of delays will serve as illustrations. A merchant in Philadel- phia mentioned a consignment of straw- berries which reached that city from Florida six days late, and a Chicago deal- er complained, about the same time, of losing $500 on a car of strawberries that reached him too late to take advantage of a good market. Delays like these, it is believed, are by no means as frequent under present conditions of freight serv- ice as in earlier times. Extension of Demand and Snpply Number of Markets Inquiries were made by the Bureau of Statistics of this department in August, 1911, as to the different kinds of highly perishable fruits and vegetables which were received in car lots for local use in cities having a population of not less than 25,000. Of the 103 cities for which reports were made, peaches were sold by the carload in at least 87; watermelons. in 86; cantaloupes, 77; bananas, 72; strawberries, 71; tomatoes, 66; oranges, 65; grapes, 53; lemons, 39; pears, 32; pineapples, 28; plums, 24; celery, 18; cherries, 13; cucumbers, 11; green beans, 11; apricots, 11; and each of about 25 other commodities of this class were re- ported to have car-lot markets in from 1 to 10 different cities. The reports on which these figures are based are probably incomplete to a greater or less degree; some products are no doubt omitted which should have been included. If it had been possible to secure complete lists of all such products for each of these cities, the figures just given would prob- ably have been larger. As they stand, these incomplete figures show a wide range of markets where car-lot shipments of fresh fruits and vegetables may be sold. The producer has many good out- lets for his crops; if market conditions in one place are not satisfactory, there may be other places where fair prices may be obtained. The cities which ab- sorb these products by the carload in- clude many whose population is less than 50,000. Of the 87 car-lot markets for peaches in which returns were made in this investigation, 30 were cities of less than 50,000 inhabitants; 23 of these smaller cities took cantaloupes by the carload, 19 received grapes and straw- berries, and 17 received tomatoes. Other products of this class also found sale in car lots among these smaller cities. The number of car4ot markets for fruits and vegetables has increased great- ly during the past decade. This is in- dicated by reports made by railroad freight agents and produce dealers in various cities as to the year in which the first carloads of certain products were received for local use. The products for which the fullest reports were made were peaches, strawberries, cantaloupes, tomatoes, and grapes. Of the 42 mar- kets which reported the year when the first carload of peaches was received for local use, 13 had become car-lot mar- kets within the past decade; the mar- kets whose first carload sale of straw- berries was made since 1900 numbered REDUCTION OF WASTE IN MARKETING XOd-L 15 out of a total of 35 reported; for can- taloupes, 21 out of 40; tomatoes, 19 out of 32; and for grapes the car-lot markets, which, were opened within the past 10 years, numbered 13 out of a total of 24 for which reports were received. Taking account of the minor products of this trade, as well as the five leading ones just mentioned, the average rate of in- crease in the number of car-lot markets for highly perishable fruits and vegeta- bles was over 40 per cent in the decade beginning with 1901 as compared with the ten years just before. Wide Range of Sources of Supply Many of the large markets, and smaller ones also, receive their fresh fruits and vegetables from regions which are far apart. The examples given here refer to large cities, but illustrate conditions at many others. The sources of supply of a given product in a market like Chi- cago or New York may often be traced by the price quotations in those markets for perishable fruits and vegetables. It is common in those, and in other mar- kets as well, to mention the state or locality where the products quoted were produced. By tabulating quotations of different commodities it is thus easy to learn also the time when the produce from a given locality is on a given mar- ket. For the season of 1910 the quota- tions of Florida tomatoes appeared in the produce reports at Chicago, New York, and Kansas City early in the winter and continued to about the middle of June, when Texas tomatoes began to appear. These were followed, in the Chicago mar- ket, by shipments from Mississippi, and about the first week of July the produce of more northern fields. Among the states which contributed tomatoes to the Chicago trade in 1910, besides Florida, Mississippi, and Texas, were California, Tennessee, Missouri, and, of course, Illinois. New York's supply came also from a large number of states, among which were California, Florida, Texas, Mississippi, Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware, while some were imported from Cuba. The supplies of peaches, strawberries, cantaloupes, string beans, and other products were also drawn from a wide range of territory. In 1910 there were at the same time quoted in New York City strawberries from Florida, Lou- isiana, Virginia, Maryland, and the Caro- linas, and while some of these southern berries were still in the market, supplies came in from New Jersey and New York. The cantaloupes used in New York in the latter part of June and the first of July, 1910, were coming from Florida, Georgia, and the CaroUnas, and also from Arizona and the Imperial Valley of Cali- fornia. A few weeks later melons from Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and New Jersey met, on the same market, those from New Mexico, Nevada, and Colorado. In April and May of the same year the asparagus sold in New York City was grown some near the Pacific coast and some in the regions along the Atlantic. Peaches from Texas and other Western states were included with those from Eastern states in the receipts at New York. The sources of supply in a given mar- ket are governed to some degree by changing conditions of trade. Under some conditions it would be profitable for the produce of a certain state to com- pete in a given city with produce from states which are nearer that market, but whose own crops are short. For instance, when the Arkansas peach crop is small, Georgia may be shipping to points as far west as Denver, while if the Arkansas yield is large, Georgia peaches might get into few markets west of Chicago. Systematic Distribution Finding a Market A personal acquaintance between buyer and seller is an important factor in successful marketing. A truck gar- dener who visits the different markets occasionally and meets dealers there is in a much better position to sell his produce than if he consigned it to strangers; and, further, the co-operative association hav- ing representatives in important markets throughout the season may be expected to 1332 ENCYCL0PE3DIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE sell on much better terms tlian the in- dividual shipper who visits the market only occasionally. Likewise, among mer- chants, the man who keeps in touch with other markets knows much better how to distribute his excess supply, or send orders to meet the demands of his cus- tomers, than the dealer whose acquain- tance is not so large. The shipper or his representative should know also the characteristics of the various markets which may take his produce. For instance, a certain town will be able to use one full carload of cherries, while for another town it would be better to make up a mixed car con- sisting of cherries and two or three other kinds of fruit; or, again, in one city, as New York, it is important for certain produce to be delivered in time for the night market, while at Chicago the ship- ments will be on time for the regular market if they reach the railroad ter- minals or the steamboat wharves before daybreak. Reports of market conditions are given regularly and with varying degrees of accuracy in daily newspapers, trade and agricultural journals, and in circulars is- sued by dealers and organizations. In addition to these sources of information, some shippers and dealers receive spe- cial reports, by mail or wire, from dif- ferent markets. Control of Produce in Transit Information as to the location of a given car in transit may usually be ob- tained from the railroad company which is hauling the car. But some large ship- pers have a system of their own by which they trace the movement of cars in transit, in order to distribute them among the different markets to the best advantage. One organization in California adopted this system of distributing ship- ments: When a member shipped a car of produce, he turned the bill of lading over to the manager of the organzation and allowed him to direct the movement of the car to market. The object of having one central authority select the markets was to prevent sending an over- supply to any one place. On receiving the bill of lading, a record of the car was made on a card in the office of the organization and the card filed in its proper place in a drawer. This drawer was divided into several rows of com- partments, opening upward; each row had 31 compartments, and there was one row for each principal market in the United States. The 31 compartments rep- resented each one day of a month. When a card was filed its location was deter- mined by the destination named in the bill of lading and by the day of the month on which the consignment was due at the destination. For instance, a carload of cherries shipped to New York from a point in the Sacramento valley on May 27 would be represented by a card filed in the New York row of the drawer and in the compartment numbered 7, if the consignment would be due in New York on June 7. The arrangement of these cards showed at a glance the intended distribution of this association's ship- ments among the different markets, and when too many consignments of a given kind of fruit were on the way to a given market the grouping together of several cards in one box served as a warning that the destination of one or more cars should be changed. This drawer showed only such fruit as was shipped by this association. News of other shipments and of their probable time of arrival at des- tination was secured, to some extent, by the association. When it became known that a certain market was about to re- ceive an oversupply of a given fruit, one or more of the shippers who had con- signed to that market would be notified by the association manager, so that they might select another city to which to di- vert their consignments. In case they should refuse to make such a selection the rules of the association gave the man- ager the right to divert the shipments himself. The movement of a car in transit was traced by the association by a system similar to that used by some railroads. Each car shipped east by the association was reported by telegraph as it passed certain points along the way. REDUCTION OP WASTE IN MARKETING 1333 In a similar way other large shippers keep in close touch with the progress of a car on its way to market, at the same time keeping informed as to the prices and relative supplies in different cities and towns. For produce moving from the South northward many of the principal points of diversion are along the Ohio and Po- tomac rivers, hut the route of a car may be changed at any one of a large number of railroad junction points. Cairo, Louis- ville, Cincinnati, and Potomac Yard (near Washington) are important points from which these shipments are distributed among various destinations. Between Eastern markets and producing regions in the far West and Southwest the chief points of diversion include Min- nesota Transfer (between St. Paul and Minneapolis), Council Bluffs, Chicago, and St. Louis. Over one route from Cen- tral California to the East the principal points from which one leading shippers' association receives "passing" reports are Roseville and Truckee in California, Og- den, Council Bluffs and Chicago. A Cin- cinnati firm may receive notice of a Flor- ida shipment when the car passes Jack- sonville, Atlanta, and Chattanooga, and another notice just before the arrival at Cincinnati. On peaches shipped by this fast-freight service to Northeastern mar- kets from Tampa, a car's progress over a certain route is reported from Jackson- ville, Fla.; Savannah, Ga.; Columbia, S. C; Hamlet and Raleigh, N. C; Rich- mond and Potomac Yard, Va. The service of diversion includes not only changing the destination of a car in transit, but forwarding it to a destin- ation beyond the one originally named. For instance, a car shipped to Cincin- nati may be forwarded under certain con- ditions to Indianapolis for unloading; or, it is reported, a car consigned to a given town may be partly unloaded there and the remainder of the consignment sent on to another town. This, however, costs more in freight than would a direct ship- ment of a full carload to one market. How a Car Is Diverted Conditions on one route will illustrate how the system of reporting car move- ments may be used by a patron of the rail- road. Suppose a dealer in Chicago, on a Thursday morning, wishes to know the location of a carload of tomatoes which were shipped to him the morning before from Crystal Springs, Miss. He makes the request of the railroad company's agent in Chicago, giving the initial and number of the car and the date and place of shipment. On consulting the "pass- ing" reports it is found that this car, known in transit by the symbol "CS-4," passed Fulton, Ky., at 6 a. m. that day (Thursday) and would be due at Cairo, 111., at 8:30 a. m., or, let it be assumed, about an hour after the time the dealer made inquiry. It would be due in Chica- go Friday at 4:50 a. m. With this infor- mation the dealer knows that, if he de- sires to divert the car, he may select cJne of a number of markets located north of the Ohio river. He knows that there is a large movement of tomatoes toward Chicago and believes that the prices on Friday will be better in some other places than in Chicago on the day his produce is due on the market. He has already received news from some points. An as- sociate in St Louis may have telegraphed the evening before that the supply al- ready in that market, together with what was due to arrive on Thursday, would be about as much as could be sold at fair prices; that, if more was received, prices would probably be low. On the other hand, a report from Indianapolis may indicate good prices for Friday morning, better ones than are promised in Chicago for that day; so the Chicago dealer orders the car to be diverted to Indianapolis. He may wait until 3 p. m. Thursday before reaching this decision, so that he may hear from other markets. Meanwhile the car has been moving north- ward. The order for diversion is sent by the superintendent of transportation to the proper oflacial at Effingham, 111., where the car is due to arrive about 5:45 p. m., and where transfers are regularly 1334 ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE made for Indianapolis. It reaches that city early Friday morning, about the time it would have reached Chicago had there been no diversion. BistributiB^ a Car Lot Cities and towns which do not require a full carload of a given product are often supplied from neighboring car-lot mar- kets. Small lots of perishable goods may be forwarded in refrigerator cars devoted to local service. For small consignments of fruit and vegetables intended for neighboring towns refrigerator cars are run on regular schedules from Chicago and other large cities, and each car is assigned its own route. The service on one railroad will illustrate this traffic. This railroad sends out from Chicago, every night except Sunday night, 11 trains hauling such cars. One of these trains, leaving Chicago at 9:45 p. m., takes cars for 14 different routes; three of these cars are run only two days of each week, five of the cars are run on three days of the week, and six cars are run on six days. A car may be transferred from one train to another, making one, two, or more transfers before it reaches its destination. From this train cars are transferred at various points in Iowa; one car is taken off at Cedar Rapids, another at Marshalltown, still another at Ames, a fourth at Tama, while at Eagle Grove three cars are taken off and given to three different trains. At Belle Plaine two more trains are each given a car, and at Mason City another transfer of a car is made, Interurban electric lines and steam- boats help to distribute small lots of fresh fruit and vegetables from car-lot markets. In addition to the traffic on steam rail- roads, large quantities of this kind of produce are thus distributed from Cin- cinnati by trolley lines and river boats, while lake steamers assist in this work at Chicago. Shipments of less-than-carload lots of this highly perishable produce are apt to be more frequent in times of high prices. Under some conditions less-than-carload lots may be shipped all the way from Chicago to St. Paul, or even to Omaha. But, as has been said in the first part of this article, the regular way of transport- ing these fresh fruits and vegetables is by carload lots, shipments in smaller quanti- ties, except for short distances, being chiefly to markets where a larger quan- tity could not be sold. Conclusion The extension of better ways of distrib- uting fresh fruits and vegetables among the various markets and the improvement in transportation service have done much to reduce the waste in marketing, but there is still room for improvement. Sometimes a crop in a given region will be too large to be marketed promptly. There may be too few cars to carry the produce, and it spoils while awaiting ship- ment; or it may be loaded in cars and started on its way, but the increased num- ber of cars may be more than the rail- road can handle promptly, and a conges- tion of traffic may cause a delay of sev- eral days on the way. Or, even with quick and adequate freight service, the produce may yet fail to be well marketed. It is not always practicable for shippers to determine beforehand the approximate supply which a given city or town is about to receive, or to judge how much can be sold there at fair prices, and an error in the shippers' judgment may re- sult in glutting a market. But in spite of occasional losses due to car shortages, freight blockades, and overstocked markets it is a widespread opinion among shippers that there are fewer losses on fresh fruits and vegetables now than there were 10 or 15 years ago; and the tendency of the present time is to reduce still further the waste in mar- keting. Year-book, 1911. Maei<:eting Cantaloxipes. Cantaloup Culture, See under COST OF HAULING TO MARKET 1335 Cost of Hauling. Products to Shipping Points Table 1 — Ayerage Cost of Hauling Products from Farms to Shipping Points — Totals for States Eepresented PRODUCT HAULED Apples Barley Beans Buckwheat Corn Cotton Cottonseed Flaxseed Fruit (other than apples) Hay Hemp a Hogs (live) Hops Oats Peanuts Potatoes Eice Rye Timothy seed c Tobacco.. Vegetables (other than potatoes) Wheat Wool Number of counties reporting 114 226 22 8 981 555 110 51 99 761 7 316 14 798 19 569 18 78 5 113 152 1,051 41 Miles to shipping point 9.0 8.2 7.4 11.8 10.7 10.4 11.6 8 3 5.2 7.9 11.7 7.3 8.1 8.2 7.5 8.4 8.0 9.8 9.8 9.4 39.8 Average Days for round trip 0.9 .7 .8 .8 .6 1.0 .9 .7 1.1 .7 .7 .7 1.0 .6 .6 .7 .8 .7 .9 .8 5.6 Pounds in one load 2,300 3,970 3,172 2,438 2,696 1,702 1,654 3,409 2,181 2,786 3,393 1,941 3,665 2,772 1,363 2,679 2,407 2,625 2,410 2,248 1,852 o, oZS 4,869 Cost per load $2.79 2.67 2.75 2.90 1.78 2.76 2.42 2.70 3.53 2.32 2.10 2.00 3.89 1.82 1.67 2.34 2.70 2.23 1.92 2.28 2.84 2.86 21.39 Cost per 100 pounds 3.12 .07 .09 .11 .07 .16 .15 .08 .16 .08 .06 .10 .11 .07 .12 .09 .11 .08 .08 .10 .15 .09 .44 Cost per ton per mile }.25 .16 .20 .27 .19 .27 .28 .16 .28 .19 .23 .25 .19 .19 .30 .22 .29 .19 .20 .20 .31 .19 .22 a Kentucky only. b Average for six states only. c Iowa only. Apples Apples were reported as a surplus crop so generally by the correspondents in this investigation that a fairly good basis is afforded for finding average conditions of hauling this fruit frona farms in the United States. Owing to the small num- ber of returns from some states, the aver- ages for the geographic divisions and for the United States in Table 2 should be used in comparison when the figures for a single state are considered. The high cost per 100 pounds for haul- ing apples from farms in the South-Cen- tral division is due largely to the small loads taken, and in the Western division the long time for the average round trip makes the cost per 100 pounds twice the average for the North and South At- lantic and North-Central divisions. It is to be noted in connection with this product that it is the practice in some sections for the farmers to sell their apples on the trees, the buyer to do all the picking and hauling. This, however, does not invalidate the figures as given in Table 2. 1S36 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE Talble 2— Average Cost of Hauling Apples from Farms to Shipping Points Number of counties reporting Average Miles to shipping point Days for round trip Pounds in one load Cost per load Cost per 100 pounds Maine 5 5 1 2 1 15 3 8 8.8 6.2 7.1 9.2 10.6 7.4 7.1 8.2 1.3 .5 .7 .6 .7 .6 .7 .8 2,180 2,630 3,000 3,250 2,000 2,623 2,667 2,362 $4.74 2.02 2 62 2 63 2.80 2.15 2.51 2.73 $0.22 New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Connecticut .08 .09 .08 .14 New York New Jersey Pennsylvania .09 .09 .12 Virginia. 7 11 10.9 10.0 1.0 1.1 2,750 2,332 2.88 4.00 .10 West Virginia .17 Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Missouri 5 3 6 4 13 7.0 9.7 5.8 9.1 10.6 .7 1.2 .5 .7 1.0 2,170 2,283 2,367 2,638 2,108 2.14 4.20 1.25 2.06 2.56 ,10 .18 .05 .08 .12 Kentucky Tennesisee 4 8 6 11.6 11.2 19.2 .8 1.0 2.0 1,600 1,656 1,700 2.20 2.62 4.76 .14 .17 Arkansas .28 Oregon California 3 4 11 8 16.6 1 9 1 7 2,583 4,600 6 02 10.40 .23 23 Geographic divisions: North Atlantic 40 18 31 18 7 7.9 10.6 8.5 13.8 13.7 .7 1 .8 1 2 1 8 2,490 2,584 2,267 1.617 3,558 2.53 3.18 2 26 3.11 8.36 .10 South Atlantic North Central .12 .10 South Central 19 Western .23 States repr^ented 114 9.6 9 2,300 2.79 ,12 Feank Andrews, XT. S. Department of A^riCTilture, Bulletin No. 49