CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 Martin P. Catherwood Library 
 
 School of Industrial and Labor Relations 
 
The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924091528590 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
1ING /MDUSTR/AL EDUCATION. 
 
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 might be ten schools of the first grade, two schools of the second grade, and one 
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Technical Education in 
 Evening Schools 
 
 BY 
 
 CLARENCE H. CREASEY 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY 
 
 E. H. GRIFFITHS, M.A., Sc.D. f F.R.S. 
 
 Principal of the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire ; 
 Vice-Chancellor of the University of Wales 
 
 LONDON 
 SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., LIM. 
 
 25 HIGH STREET, BLOOMSBURY, W.C. 
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 upatlons. The heavy lines connect those portions which 
 le first grade, two schools of the second grade, and one 
 Is, and In some places two grades might be held In the 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The interest which is being exhibited at the present time 
 in Technical Education has encouraged the writer in the 
 belief that a brief discussion of the subject, in so far as it 
 concerns Evening Schools, will be welcome. There is to 
 be discerned a tendency to under-estimate the value of 
 the work which can be done by students who have been 
 engaged for nine or ten hours a day in earning a livelihood; 
 but though such study may not be carried on under the 
 happiest conditions, it is voluntary, and it manifests latent 
 qualities of energy and perseverance which no one who has 
 regard to national welfare can afford to ignore. Evening 
 Schools have, in this country, grown to considerable pro- 
 portions, and during the session 1902-3 more than 657,000 
 students were enrolled. While any dispassionate observer 
 must admit that in individual cases sound and meritorious 
 progress is made, few will deny that this is accompanied 
 by an enormous waste of money, time, and effort. For 
 one who reaps full benefit from attendance at the classes 
 thousands fail. One of the most pressing educational needs 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 of the next few years, then, is to adapt the instruction to the 
 capacity of a larger number of earnest students, and it is 
 hoped that this little book may help in the removal of those 
 difficulties which tend to reduce the efficiency of Technical 
 Education in Evening Schools. 
 
 No attempt has been made to deal with the subject 
 exhaustively. The breadth of the subject, closely con- 
 nected ar it is with Pedagogy, with Sociology, and with 
 Economics, coupled with the fact that the present is a time 
 of unrest, of activity, of experiment, has rendered it 
 necessary to deal only with the larger and more widespread 
 groups of industries falling under the general titles of 
 Engineering, Building, Coal Mining, and Metallurgy. In 
 view of the infinite diversity of schools, with their variety 
 of aims, methods, equipment, and staffing, many problems 
 are merely indicated — not discussed. Where definite 
 criticisms and suggestions are made, certain conditions 
 have been assumed to hold, and whenever possible these 
 have been clearly stated. Ordinary Science and Technical 
 Schools and Continuation Schools have alone been dealt 
 with; Trade Schools have been omitted on account of 
 their expense, their slow progress in this country, and their 
 doubtful value in industries in which the use of machinery 
 is so rapidly superseding hand labour. 
 
 The writer is indebted to many friends for assistance 
 and advice during the preparation of the book and in its 
 
PREFACE Vll 
 
 passage through the press. Grateful acknowledgments 
 are hereby rendered to Professor Findlay, Mr. Hammond 
 Robinson, Mr. B. B. Skirrow, Mr. T. L. Humberstone; 
 and to Principal Griffiths, who has kindly consented to 
 write the Introduction. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Introduction by Principal Griffiths - - xiii 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 GENERAL DISCUSSION OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 The Nature and Scope of Technical Education. Mis- 
 conceptions. True Value. Views of Chairman 
 of Directors of Messrs. Clayton & Shuttleworth, 
 Lincoln. Function of Evening Classes. Methods 
 of Entering the Engineering Industry. Professor 
 Fleming's View. Dr. Hopkinson's View. The 
 Engineering Conference, 1903. Professor Barr 
 and the Views of Scotch Engineers. Scheme of 
 the North-East Coast Institution of Engineers 
 and Shipbuilders. The Building Trades. Coal 
 Mining and Metallurgical Industries, - - 1 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 
 
 The Difficulty of Irregular Attendance. Compulsion. 
 Difficulties Arising from Weakness of Adminis- 
 tration and Organisation. Great Activity now 
 being Displayed in Reorganisation. Tendencies 
 Illustrated by Reference to the Schemes in 
 Operation at Bristol and Bradford. General 
 Discussion of Curriculum, - - - - 28 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS OF EVENING 
 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 The Effects of Lack of Preliminary Training, Variations 
 in Age and Experience, Irregularity of Attendance, 
 Want of Connection between the Classes and 
 Special Requirements of Students, and the 
 Students' Freedom of Choice, - - - 63 
 
 ix 
 
X CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 TENDENCIES 
 
 A. Towaras a Standard of Admission. — Methods in 
 Vogue at St. Helens, Rochdale, Blackburn, 
 Stockport, Liverpool, Huddersfield, Swindon, 
 Bradford, West Ham, Manchester, Preston, 
 West Hartlepool, Newcastle-on-Tyne and Bristol. 
 
 B. Towards Adaptation to Industrial Requirements. — 
 
 Changes Necessitated by the Growing Specialis- 
 ation of Industry. Machine Tool Work at 
 Sheffield. Science of the Workshop at Leicester. 
 Object of these Courses to Train Workshop 
 Foremen. Professor Ripper's Views. Foundry 
 Practice at West Ham. Sanitary Engineering 
 at Manchester. Materials and Processes of 
 Construction at Birmingham. Special Instruction 
 for Building Students. 
 
 C. Towards Organised Courses of Instruction. — Major 
 
 and Minor Courses in Mechanical and Electrical 
 Engineering, Building, Mining, and Metallurgy 
 at Birmingham, Bradford, Brighton, Bolton, 
 Bristol, Derby, Darlington, Huddersfield, 
 Keighley, Longton, Liverpool, Manchester, 
 Nottingham, Northampton Institute, Preston, 
 Plymouth, Peoples' Palace, Rochdale, Swansea, 
 Swindon, St. Helens, Salford, Sheffield, Stockport, 
 West Ham, West Hartlepool, Woolwich, and 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne. Courses Suggested by the 
 Yorks (W. R.) Technical Instruction Committee 
 in Engineering, Building, Plumbing, Mining, and 
 Chemical Industries. General Discussion of the 
 Courses, - - - 8e 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 
 
 Examples from Lincoln, Bootle, Derby, and Sheffield. 
 Scheme of the North-East Coast Institution of 
 Engineers and Shipbuilders. The Great Western 
 Railway Scheme at Swindon. The London and 
 
CONTENTS XI 
 
 South- Western Railway Scheme at Battersea. 
 Examples from Brighton, Accrington, Middles- 
 borough and the Cleveland District, Bolton, and 
 Jarrow-on-Tyne. Mr. Yarrow's Scheme. The 
 Lincoln Builders' Association. The Worshipful 
 Company of Plumbers. The Bradford Master 
 Painters' Association. Suggestions. Comparison 
 with Dr. Rawson's Proposals, and the Scheme in 
 Operation at the Royal Dockyards, - - 164 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE RELATION BETWEEN EVENING AND DAY 
 TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 Necessity for Co-ordination. Comparison of Evening 
 and Day Curricula. Facilities for Evening 
 Students to proceed to Day Courses of Instruc- 
 tion. Scholarship Schemes of the County 
 Councils of Yorks (W. R.), Lancashire, Derby- 
 shire, Cheshire, Staffordshire, Monmouth, and 
 Glamorgan. Entrance Scholarship Regulations 
 of the Universities of Leeds, Manchester, Bir- 
 mingham, Liverpool, and Durham ; the University 
 Colleges of Southampton, Bristol, London, Not- 
 tingham, Sheffield, and Cardiff; and the Central 
 Technical College, South Kensington. Entrance 
 Scholarship Regulations of the Technical Colleges 
 of Manchester, West Ham, Huddersfield, Swansea, 
 and Bristol. Analysis and Discussion, - - 189 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Mathematics. Practical Plane and Solid Geometry. 
 Physics and Chemistry. Machine Construction 
 and Drawing and Building Construction. Applied 
 Mechanics and Steam. Mining. Workshop 
 Instruction. The Essential Dependence of 
 Subjects Emphasised and Illustrated. Logical 
 Order and its Advantages. The Desirability of 
 Correlation, - - - 218 
 
xii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE ORGANISATION OF CURRICULA 
 
 The Arrangement of Systematic Progressive Courses 
 of Instruction in Mechanical and Electrical 
 Engineering, Building, Coal Mining, and,* . 
 Metallurgy,- - - -245 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 
 
 /. Teachers. — Scarcity of Teachers of Certain Science 
 and "Trade" Subjects. Suggestions for Increasing 
 the Supply and Equipment of Teachers. The 
 Need for Educational Methods in Evening 
 Schools. The Training of Non - professional 
 Teachers. Examples from Sheffield and Man- 
 chester. The Special Training of Professional 
 Teachers for Evening Work. 
 
 //. Buildings. 
 
 III. The Introduction of Systematic Courses of 
 
 Instruction, - 272 
 
 Appendix 297 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 In the autumn of last year Mr. C. H. Creasey 
 informed me that he was engaged in the 
 preparation of a work on Technical Education. 
 I have been so fortunate as to be able to 
 avail myself on several occasions of the great 
 store of information which Mr. Creasey has 
 gathered on this important subject, and I have 
 also been much impressed by the enthusiasm 
 he has exhibited with regard to a branch of 
 education which, in this country at all events, 
 is generally treated in a spirit of good-natured 
 tolerance. When, therefore, Mr. Creasey 
 honoured me with the request that I would 
 write an introduction to his forthcoming work, 
 I gave a ready consent, for I felt that I had 
 many things that I should like to say on the 
 subject ; but now that the time for fulfilling 
 my promise has arrived, I find the position 
 a somewhat difficult one. On reading the 
 proofs which Mr. Creasey has been so good 
 as to forward me, I discovered that the things 
 I wished to say had already been said by him, 
 
 and that his statements were supported by a 
 
 xiii 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 wealth of evidence which it would not have 
 been in my power to adduce. In these cir- 
 cumstances, it appears to me that the less I 
 say the better. Nevertheless, there are one 
 or two points already dealt with by Mr. 
 Creasey which I shall venture to emphasise. 
 I am afraid we must confess that there 
 prevails a general impression that Technical 
 Education in this country has failed to fulfil 
 the anticipations of those who had most to do 
 with laying the foundations of our present 
 system. I confess that to some extent my 
 own belief is that the country has not 
 received, and is not receiving, a return 
 adequate to the expenditure and effort 
 hitherto devoted to this part of our educa- 
 tional system. At all events, I am afraid 
 that when we study the results obtained in 
 Germany and the United States we must 
 make a confession of comparative failure. 
 Nevertheless, there are some encouraging 
 features. Mr. Creasey informs us that 
 during the Session 1902-3 more than 657,000 
 evening students were enrolled, and when we 
 remember that attendance at these evening 
 classes is voluntary, and that (unfortunately) 
 but little pressure in the right direction 
 is brought to bear by the employers, this 
 fact alone bears eloquent testimony to the 
 
INTRODUCTION XV 
 
 eagerness with which instruction is desired by 
 the people of this country. This is the more 
 marked when we remember the difficulties with 
 which such students have to contend. The 
 encouragement is little, while the obstacles 
 are great. Let me mention a case, by no 
 means exceptional, which recently came under 
 my notice. 
 
 A young man of some eighteen or nineteen 
 years of age, living in this neighbourhood, had 
 to rise about five o'clock each morning in order 
 to descend a coal-pit, in which he was working, 
 by six. Employed all day underground, he 
 returned to his home about 6 p.m., had his 
 evening meal, changed his clothes, and 
 tramped some five miles into this town 
 to attend his evening classes. His classes 
 were over by 9 or 9.30, and it was rarely 
 that he could reach his home again before 
 10.30 p.m. This task was cheerfully per- 
 formed throughout the winter months. It is 
 surely the duty of those who have the 
 direction of educational affairs to see that 
 energy and sacrifice of this kind are not 
 expended in vain, and that every facility 
 and help is offered to those who, in spite 
 of such difficulties, endeavour to avail them- 
 selves of such opportunities as we can offer. 
 I confess that to me it appears that if 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION 
 
 Technical Education has not been altogether 
 as successful as we had hoped, the responsi- 
 bility lies with the teachers and organisers 
 rather than with the disciples. 
 
 Assuming that our efforts have not met with 
 complete success, I will venture to indicate 
 what appear to me to be the chief difficulties 
 which must be overcome before we can attain 
 the results at which we aim. 
 
 i. Want of Co-ordination 
 
 Here, at all events, is a stumbling-block 
 which I trust can now be removed from our 
 path. Hitherto, there has been no relation 
 between the work of Secondary, Evening 
 Continuation, and Technical Schools. Each 
 of these was governed by different, and often 
 unsympathetic bodies. We have now a great 
 opportunity. Whatever may be our individual 
 opinions with regard to the Education Act of 
 1902, no one can deny that it presents possi- 
 bilities of co-ordination and graduation which 
 have, until now, been wanting. True, the 
 Education Committees of our County Councils 
 are new to their work, but no one who, 
 like myself, has served on several of such 
 Committees, can doubt either their zeal or 
 their desire to promote the cause of education. 
 
INTRODUCTION XVll 
 
 Knowledge will come by experience, and I 
 hope and believe that in the next few years 
 many of the difficulties which have presented 
 themselves under this heading will disappear, 
 and that the scattered units of our present 
 heterogeneous system will, under the wise 
 direction of a central authority, arrange 
 themselves in symmetry and harmony. 
 
 2. Our Evening Classes cannot be successful 
 until our Educational Authorities decide that no 
 student shall be admitted until he is able to 
 give evidence that he is in a position to profit 
 by the instruction which will be offered him. 
 
 In Chapter IV., Mr. Creasey indicates the 
 steps which have been taken to meet these 
 difficulties in certain localities, but I am afraid 
 that, at the majority of our evening classes, 
 any student is permitted to attend any course 
 he may select. No teacher can be successful 
 under these conditions, and the effect is seen 
 in the dwindling of enthusiasm, and the falling 
 off in attendance as the Session progresses. 
 
 I have known cases of evening classes in 
 Mechanics where some of the students appeared 
 to be ignorant of the most elementary rules of 
 Arithmetic, whereas others attending the same 
 class had a sound knowledge of Elementary 
 Mathematics. In these circumstances the 
 .unhappy teacher has little choice ; he has to 
 
xviii INTRODUCTION 
 
 neglect the needs of both the best and the 
 worst students, and address himself to what 
 appears to be the average member of the class. 
 Hence those who require most assistance, viz., 
 the best and the worst, are precisely the ones 
 who receive least attention of all. The result 
 is inevitable : those who understand nothing, 
 and also those who find that they already 
 know everything that is told them, cease to 
 attend, and I believe that the irregular attend- 
 ance, of which unfortunately we have over- 
 whelming evidence, is chiefly due to this cause. 
 For each class a standard should be fixed, and 
 care should be taken that those below are 
 rejected, while those above that standard 
 should be promoted to a higher class, or, if 
 necessary, a special class should be formed for 
 their benefit. 
 
 Motives of economy naturally prompt the 
 members of our Education Committees to 
 regard large classes with favour, but this is 
 false economy, both from an educational and 
 a financial point of view. Small classes with 
 regular attendance will yield a greater return, 
 whether regarded from a grant-earning or an 
 educational standpoint. Regular attendance is 
 the best evidence of sound organisation. 
 
 3. Another serious cause of weakness is the 
 absence of thoroughly organised courses of 
 
INTRODUCTION xix 
 
 instruction. I confess I do not see why the 
 students at a Technical School should have 
 greater liberty in their choice of studies than 
 the undergraduate at a University. It is the 
 habit of most educational committees to give 
 emblazoned certificates to all and sundry 
 students who have acquitted themselves with 
 any degree of credit in any and every subject. 
 It is part of my duty to sign hundreds of such 
 certificates annually, and I cease to wonder 
 that employers attach little or no importance 
 to these official-looking documents. If, how- 
 ever, these rewards were only presented to 
 those who had successfully completed some 
 organised scheme of study, they would have a 
 real meaning which would soon be appreciated 
 by men of business. 
 
 In Chapter IV., Mr. Creasey gives many 
 examples of such organised courses as they 
 exist in Birmingham, Bradford, etc., and I 
 trust that similar courses, modified to suit the 
 requirements of each particular district, will 
 be established in all the Evening Technical 
 Schools throughout the country. 
 
 I would ask attention to the fact that 
 nearly all the difficulties I have so far indi- 
 cated arise from the lack of sufficient control 
 and direction. Take the case of a lad who 
 has decided to join a Technical School. He 
 
XX INTRODUCTION 
 
 studies the Prospectus, and thinks that he 
 would like to attend a course in this or that 
 subject. He has little guidance as to the 
 value of those subjects in themselves or their 
 relation to other studies. He obtains the 
 necessary forms, pays the small fee demanded, 
 and presents himself at a course of lectures 
 which possibly may be of little, if any, advantage 
 to him. 
 
 Mr. Creasey well illustrates this point when 
 he states that a study frequently selected by 
 the students when entering a Technical School 
 is that of Electricity and Magnetism, a subject 
 which should certainly be taken at the end, and 
 not at the beginning of any Physical course. 
 What is wanted is more guidance. I would 
 suggest that in all Technical Schools certain 
 of the Staff should be appointed to act as 
 Advisers, and that all students should, on 
 entering the School, be directed to consult the 
 Adviser appointed to deal with the group of 
 subjects in which he is interested. It should 
 be the duty of the Adviser to ascertain, so far 
 as is possible without formal examination, the 
 object aimed at by the student ; also his 
 ability and knowledge. The forms of applica- 
 tion should be filled up in the presence of the 
 Adviser, and only accepted when they have 
 received his approval. These officers would 
 
INTRODUCTION XXI 
 
 have to be selected with care ; each should 
 receive a definite salary, and I believe full 
 value would be obtained for the money thus 
 expended. 
 
 4. One special difficulty remains to be 
 considered, viz. : the training of Technical 
 Teachers. 
 
 At present I am afraid that our Teachers in 
 the Evening Technical Schools may be divided, 
 roughly, into four classes : — 
 
 (a) Those who have knowledge of the 
 practical applications of what they teach, but 
 little knowledge of teaching. 
 
 (6) Practised and trained teachers who know 
 little as to the practical applications of their 
 subjects. 
 
 (c) Capable teachers with sufficient technical 
 knowledge. 
 
 (d) Those who know little of teaching or of 
 their subject. 
 
 I am glad to say that Class (d) is a small 
 and diminishing one. I am afraid, however, 
 that the great majority of our teachers fall in 
 Classes (a) and (d) rather than in Class (c), 
 and it is difficult to see any way of escape. If, 
 however, we are to receive full value for the 
 money spent on Technical Education, this 
 matter will have to be taken seriously. We 
 have spent enormous sums of public money on 
 
XXII INTRODUCTION 
 
 the preparation of our Primary Teachers, and a 
 large amount of private money in the case of 
 Secondary Teachers ; but, so far as I can see, 
 the Technical Teacher is supposed to fall, like 
 the dew, from heaven, without thought or 
 effort on our part. As a matter of fact, his is 
 the most difficult case of all ; he has to be at 
 once an engineer or chemist, a teacher and a 
 tradesman. He has in most cases no recognised 
 status in the teaching profession ; his emolu- 
 ment is small ; he has no authority over his 
 students except that which he obtains by his 
 own force of character, and it is to me a matter 
 of surprise that, considering the nature of the 
 rewards we can offer, we are able to secure 
 so many men capable of playing such varied 
 parts. 
 
 The training of the Technical Teacher is, I 
 suppose, one of those difficult problems which 
 must be left to a future generation ; in the 
 meantime, our best hope of progress is by 
 increasing the status and the rewards in such a 
 manner as to make the profession of Technical 
 Teacher at once attractive and lucrative. 
 
 In conclusion, I wish to say that this work of 
 Mr. Creasey's offers real assistance towards the 
 solution of many of the difficulties which now 
 present themselves. 
 
 Of one thing there can be no doubt, it 
 
INTRODUCTION XX111 
 
 appears at a singularly opportune time. The 
 control of our Technical Schools has passed 
 into the hands of new governors, who, as a 
 rule, are actively engaged in the affairs of civic 
 life, and upon whom many and very varied 
 additional responsibilities have been cast by 
 the Education Act of 1902. Granted that 
 such men have the desire, it is evident that 
 they can have had little opportunity for the 
 study of many of the difficult problems which 
 arise in connection with Technical Education. 
 To such men I with confidence recommend 
 this book. They will here find an admirable 
 summary of our present position, and they will 
 also be able to consider the nature of the 
 experiments performed by educational bodies 
 other than their own. 
 
 More especially do I hope that this book 
 may come under the notice of employers of 
 labour. It must be confessed that, with certain 
 honourable exceptions, the attitude of the 
 employers in this country compares unfavour- 
 ably with that of their competitors in the 
 United States. If we could but convince 
 the Captains of Industry that the education 
 of the employ^ benefits the employer, the 
 difficulties which we meet with would rapidly 
 decrease. 
 
 I am one who believes that in the brains of 
 
xxiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 our working-men we have a national asset 
 whose potential value it would be difficult, to 
 exaggerate ; a neglected coalfield into which 
 our Technical Schools are at present engaged 
 in sinking what we may term borings, rather 
 than shafts. 
 
 E. H. GRIFFITHS. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN 
 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 NOTHING is more striking in the history of the past 
 century than the extent to which scientific discovery 
 has revolutionised manufacture, and correspondingly 
 complicated the operations of commerce. Rule of 
 thumb and blind reliance on the faculty of guessing 
 have given place to processes conducted on a 
 scientific basis. Competition has rendered economy 
 of production a matter of paramount importance, 
 and there has arisen the necessity for those engaged 
 in industrial operations to have an intelligent know- 
 ledge of the principles underlying their trade, based 
 on as high a level of general education as can be 
 secured. 
 
 In this country the agencies for providing such 
 training consist of Evening Schools for those who 
 are engaged in bread-winning during the day, and 
 full-time day courses, at Technical and University 
 Colleges and the Technical Departments of Universi- 
 ties for those who can devote the daytime to study. 
 
 A 
 
2 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 The former comprise Continuation Schools, in which 
 the basis of instruction is the three " R's," but which 
 is not necessarily confined to these, and Science and 
 Technical Classes working on syllabuses (occasionally 
 modified) of the Board of Education and of the City 
 and Guilds of London Institute. The Continuation 
 Schools stand at the base of the evening educational 
 fabric, and their true function is to remove defects of 
 early education, and to act generally as a connecting 
 link between the Elementary Day School and Higher 
 Institutions which provide evening instruction. How 
 far this object is fulfilled will be considered in Chapter 
 1 1. The real purpose of this book is to discuss the 
 function of Evening Schools of all kinds in relation 
 to Technical Education, and it will be contended 
 that such schools should be, but are not, efficient 
 members of a well-articulated system. As it will 
 be necessary to deal with points which really affect 
 evening classes only indirectly, the educational 
 standpoint from which the subject is regarded 
 must be defined. 
 
 Professor Findlaydefines Education in the following 
 terms : — 
 
 " The adult portion of the community, organised 
 in the forms of the Family, the State, the Church, 
 and various miscellaneous associations, desires to 
 promote the welfare of the rising generation. 
 This it seeks to do by the employment of certain 
 deliberate modes of influence, as an addition. to the 
 inevitable influences of circumstance and environ- 
 ment that operate upon all human life. These 
 specific influences are called Education." 
 
 This definition is wide enough to include all forms 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 3 
 
 of educational effort, though it is restricted later by 
 the statement that : — 
 
 " When you have entered upon your duties as a 
 citizen, your education, in the proper sense of the 
 term, is ended." 
 
 What follows is " culture of the mind," and pre- 
 sumably starts when a man commences to earn his 
 own livelihood. This may be after apprenticeship, 
 or at the conclusion of a University career. The 
 Evening School, however, will be regarded as one of 
 the institutions in which "these specific influences" are 
 being brought to bear upon whoever comes within 
 its walls, and in it the canons of educational science, 
 so far as they have been established, must be obeyed. 
 
 Sir Philip Magnus 1 defines Technical Education as 
 
 " The special education, the object of which is to 
 train persons in the arts and sciences that underlie 
 the practice of some trade or profession." 
 
 It therefore not only involves the intellectual 
 training implied in the word Education, but 
 endeavours to obtain this through the study of 
 subjects bearing upon the occupations by which 
 members of an industrial community gain their 
 livelihood. In general education the material to 
 be instructed is nearly all of the same nature ; in 
 technical education that material varies widely in 
 different industries, and in the various grades of 
 men engaged in them. Classification in technical 
 education is determined not so much by age as by 
 present occupation and prospective career. And 
 as the tendency in general education is to smooth 
 the way for genius by the award of scholarships, so 
 1 " Encyclopedia Britannica." 
 
4 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 also the extent to which a man may proceed in 
 technical education, owing to the cheap and liberal 
 provision of it, depends more and more upon his 
 ability, and less and less upon the accidental 
 circumstances of his birth. This emphasises the 
 necessity of linking the Evening School with the 
 institutions from which a student may come, and 
 with those to which his natural aptitude may entitle 
 him to proceed. 
 
 Every well-organised school presents certain features. 
 In the first place, the curriculum is carefully drawn 
 up so as to be suited to the age and capacity of the 
 pupils at each particular stage. In the second, the 
 curriculum exhibits a " balance of studies," so that 
 a broad basis of training and knowledge, upon which 
 subsequent specialised instruction may be developed, 
 is secured. In the third, there is intelligent correla- 
 tion between cognate subjects. In the fourth, the 
 teaching recognises the psychological phenomena 
 which are of value in education. These factors 
 become perhaps of less importance — certainly are 
 less marked — in institutions which take students 
 " from the age and standard at which the scholar 
 becomes the student, acquires rather than receives, 
 and works with the fuller responsibility of adolescence 
 and the more specialised scope required as a pre- 
 paration for the occupations of mature life and the 
 exercise of active citizenship." J But the limitations 
 of time demand that instruction in the Evening 
 School should have all the assistance that the Art of 
 Teaching or the Science of Education can give. 
 
 x Prefatory Memorandum, Board of Education Regulations 
 for Evening Schools, 1904-5. 
 
Technical education jj 
 
 Technical Education in Evening Schools has at 
 least one great educational merit. It satisfies, in a 
 marked degree, the doctrine that good teaching 
 utilises the pupil's experience to the fullest extent. 
 This doctrine furnishes a basis of attack upon a 
 fallacy which is, unfortunately, too prevalent : the 
 introduction of so-called technical subjects into Ele- 
 mentary and Secondary Schools. Many of these 
 subjects are, of course, not " technical " ; if they are, 
 they have no right to be introduced. Manual 
 Instruction, for example, has a strictly educational 
 function, but Machine Drawing has not. The Ele- 
 mentary and Secondary Schools are concerned with 
 giving the most complete general education possible 
 in the time the child can devote to it ; and the time 
 is all too short for this purpose. Technical Schools 
 seek to manufacture efficient members of the industrial 
 army out of those who have already in them the 
 making of intelligent citizens. And any intrusion of 
 technical subjects into the Elementary or Secondary 
 Day School curriculum is disastrous to both general 
 and technical education. The increased demands 
 which the conditions of modern life make upon 
 leaders of the community render it extremely undesir- 
 able that the basis of special knowledge should suffer 
 reduction. 
 
 But there are educational objections quite apart 
 from those of expediency. The teacher must develop 
 his subject by reference to the actual experiences of 
 his pupils, and these experiences are so narrow that 
 it is frequently difficult to secure clear notions of 
 subjects falling within the scope of general education. 
 How much greater, then, must be the difficulty of 
 
6 f fiCHNICAL EDUCATION f.N JiVENiNG- SCIIOOLg 
 
 dealing with industrial processes which are altogether 
 outside the pupil's ken ! Such information can find 
 no proper place in the mind-content of the pupil, 
 though, like the propositions of Euclid, it can be 
 '' got up " in a manner calculated to deceive the very 
 elect. And its introduction into the school curri- 
 culum not only disregards the first essentials of 
 education, but involves the assumption that the brain 
 is a mere lump of putty, upon which impressions 
 can be stamped at will. Effective teaching must 
 have regard to the environment of the pupil if the 
 various sense impressions are to be welded into a 
 rational and permanent mental equipment. 
 
 As against this view, it may be urged that such 
 schools are provided with school workshops, and 
 that every effort is made to show the bearing of 
 the theoretical instruction upon practical problems. 
 Mimic warfare is all very well in its way, but it is 
 not the real thing. The question of cost, of time, 
 of economy of production cannot present itself 
 so vividly in the school as in the factory ; the 
 conditions are wholly unnatural. 1 
 
 Another objection may be raised on the score of 
 age, and this may perhaps go home to many who 
 may not so fully appreciate an argument based on 
 the doctrine of apperception. The breadth of out- 
 look necessary is not to be found in fifteen-year-old 
 
 1 Visits to Works, Factories, and Mines are only really 
 profitable to those who have had experience. They tend 
 to bewilder the beginner. For a strong condemnation of 
 the ambitious aim of the school workshop, see an article by 
 Professor John Goodman in Page's Magazine for December, 
 1902. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 7 
 
 school-boys. There may be much inequality in this 
 respect, but it is certain that mental development in 
 some of its forms is far more rapid after obtaining 
 the measure of independence which leaving school 
 implies. The seriousness of life only becomes 
 apparent to a lad when he is actually launched 
 upon his career. 
 
 It is not intended to maintain that Elementary 
 and Secondary Schools should have no regard to 
 the subsequent occupations of their pupils. The 
 curriculum may indeed have a strong bias, and 
 should be scientific, but should not include applied 
 science. All that is asserted is that while Technical 
 Education must have regard to the condition of 
 Elementary and Secondary Education in any par- 
 ticular district, it stands separately, and is altogether 
 outside the scope of either. 
 
 If this special training is outside the scope of the 
 ordinary Day Schools, the questions at once arise : 
 How, when, and where is it to be given ? And the 
 answers involve a much closer inquiry into the nature 
 of the training than has yet been undertaken. 
 
 The changed condition of industry has been said 
 to have created the need for trained men : this point 
 requires further explanation. In the early days of 
 Technical Education, many people seemed to think 
 that their object was to make better workmen, and 
 it was no small disappointment to them to find that 
 the workmen did not particularly want to be trained 
 — unless they obtained more money thereby. The 
 comparatively small proportion of men who show a 
 desire for training is responsible for the opposite view 
 that the main object was to produce " Captains of 
 
8 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Industry," and leads to the cry that we must follow 
 Germany and America in attending to Higher 
 Technical Education. 
 
 The former idea is closely associated with, the one 
 that Technical Education is rendered necessary by 
 the breakdown of the apprenticeship system. This 
 is not so. The apprenticeship system has broken 
 down in most cases because of the introduction of 
 machinery, and the consequent division of labour. 
 The need for skilled hands is now rapidly dis- 
 appearing, except in the artistic crafts, and in minor 
 branches of the constructive trades. On the other 
 hand, the operations of the workshop and the factory 
 have become more complicated, more exact, and in 
 a number of cases more dangerous. They require 
 supervision by men who understand them, men who 
 know how to conduct them safely and economically. 
 Theoretical and practical training are complementary, 
 and it is men who have received both forms of 
 training that are needed in industry. 
 
 It is unfortunate that the value of theoretical 
 training should have been overrated : from it far too 
 much has been expected. No one imagines that the 
 Law Schools can turn every man who goes through 
 them into an accomplished advocate, nor are the 
 Medical Schools exclusively engaged in producing 
 medical geniuse?. Yet judging from letters that 
 have appeared from time to time in the technical 
 press, it would seem that the introduction of a 
 trained man into the works was expected to 
 revolutionise the methods, and bring the dividend 
 up to a percentage never before attained. 
 
 It cannot be seriously maintained that the 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 9 
 
 accumulated experience of even an untrained man 
 in (say) an engineering works goes for nothing, any 
 more than that the theoretical training is of no value 
 whatever. It must, however, be admitted that the 
 trained man has a better knowledge of general 
 principles, exercises a more critical attitude towards 
 problems that arise in practice, and possesses a wider 
 horizon. He has the advantage of his untrained 
 confrere in that he will more readily grasp the 
 bearing and value of improved methods in associated 
 industries, and exhibit greater facility in applying 
 them to his own. It is in this direction that the 
 value of theoretical training undoubtedly lies, as well 
 as in the better control of the exact processes that 
 have superseded the rule of thumb methods of former 
 times. At the second annual meeting of Messrs. 
 Clayton & Shuttleworth, Ltd., Lincoln, on April i6, 
 1903, the Chairman said : 
 
 " Keen competition necessitated their having every 
 year machines of greater efficiency without obtaining 
 a corresponding increase in sale price. That was an 
 evil from which all manufacturers were suffering, and 
 the remedy was to be found in the cheapening of the 
 cost of production by taking advantage of every new 
 invention and discovery." 
 
 One of the reasons why Technical Education has 
 so often received less favour than its importance 
 demands is the failure carefully to adapt the means 
 to the end. Students in all stages of preparation, of 
 all capacities, and with diverse objects in view, have 
 been herded together in evening classes which owed 
 their inception rather to the fortunate presence of a 
 particular teacher with particular qualifications than 
 
id technical education in evening schools 
 
 to any clear-sighted interpretation of, and provision 
 to meet, requirements. And in all the writing and 
 speaking on this subject in the country for a number 
 of years there has been much confusion between the 
 different types of students and their several needs. 
 Advocates of training of some sort there have been 
 in plenty ; though in but few cases has there been 
 any attempt to define the particular needs of particular 
 students. 
 
 An examination of the organisation of any 
 industrial concern reveals the fact that, apart 
 from the ordinary workman, there are several 
 grades of officials who require training of more 
 than one sort, and a true estimate of the kind 
 required for each is necessary before the question 
 as to how it is to be acquired can be approached. 
 A rough division into minor and major officials 
 will probably be found sufficient in discussing 
 requirements. Thus, in Mechanical and Electrical 
 Engineering there will be foremen, under-foremen, 
 draughtsmen, etc., in the former group ; heads of 
 departments, works' managers, chief draughtsmen, 
 etc., in the latter. It will be understood that as 
 a rule in small works men of the minor status 
 occupy positions corresponding to those of the 
 major group in larger works. 
 
 The minor group in the Building trades includes 
 under-foremen, foremen, clerks -of- works, etc.; the 
 major group Master Builders, Civil Engineers and 
 Architects. 
 
 In Coal Mining, firemen and overmen will fall into 
 the minor group; under - managers, managers, and 
 colliery engineers generally into the major group. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION It 
 
 The Metallurgical and Chemical industries similarly 
 contain two groups ; the major positions are those 
 of chemist and works' manager. 
 
 The minor group should be composed of men 
 whose extensive practical experience is combined 
 with such theoretical knowledge as will render the 
 processes and operations they control intelligible to 
 them, and as will enable them to follow and apply 
 current invention and discovery so far as it concerns 
 their own branch of the trade. This latter con- 
 sideration assumes that the organisation of the 
 works affords free scope to the inventive faculties 
 of all employes, whatever their status — a point that 
 seems to be more fully appreciated in America than 
 in this country. 1 
 
 The major group will be composed of men of 
 considerable practical experience, coupled with deep 
 scientific knowledge, and a wide outlook upon human 
 affairs. The general education of the lower grade 
 must be as high as can be attained ; for success in 
 
 1 See Reports of the Mosely Educational Commission : 
 " In the Baldwin Locomotive Works the piece-price has not 
 been changed for some years, and the man gets the advantage 
 of constantly improved plant and process," p. 189. 
 
 " At the National Cash Register Works I saw machines in 
 operation which take 103 separate cutting and boring tools, 
 and I was assured that these machines were all evolved by 
 their own employes. I believe that the American employers, 
 by the adoption of the wise policy of giving encouragement 
 to men of inventive minds, by rewarding those who suggest 
 improvements in machinery, and by giving increased remuner- 
 ation to those who operate such machines, have done, and 
 are doing, much to increase their trade and to menace that of 
 British producers who are in any way brought into competition 
 with them,'' p. 392. 
 
12 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 the higher grade a liberal education is indispensable 
 for all but the exceptional man. 
 
 It is obvious that as things at present stand, only 
 the latter class can have the training afforded by- 
 several years' attendance at a Technical School or 
 University ; but for them it is essential. 
 
 Members of the former group are generally drawn 
 from a class whose parents have been unable to keep 
 them at school longer than fourteen or fifteen years 
 of age, and for whom two or three years at a 
 Technical School would have been out of the 
 question. The only course before them is to 
 attend evening classes, and with this patent fact 
 in view, it is astonishing to read the wholesale 
 condemnation with which such classes occasionally 
 meet. 
 
 Criticism of evening classes often arises from 
 failure to appreciate the conditions under which they 
 operate, and it will be pertinent to the subject to 
 consider some of the objections at this stage. 
 
 That which has the most validity emphasises the 
 fact that the latter end of the day, after nine or ten 
 hours in the workshop or factory, is not the best time 
 for study. This is perfectly true, but it is a case of 
 " Hobson's choice." If the employers are prepared 
 to follow the course adopted by the L. & S.-W. 
 Railway Company (see p. 128), a more suitable time 
 could be arranged. And until they are, it would not 
 surely be contended that evening work should be 
 abolished. Moreover, it is an indisputable fact that 
 excellent work can be, and is, accomplished by 
 evening students— too good to be sacrificed for the 
 sake of a counsel of perfection. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 1 3 
 
 The second objection is on the score of health. 
 Thus, Mr. Dugald Drummond " is satisfied that the 
 strain, both physical and mental, to which a growing 
 youth is subjected, is likely to be dangerous to his 
 health, if he is taxed by evening classes after a day's 
 work in the shops "; 1 but he makes an exception in 
 favour of drawing classes. With all respect to Mr. 
 Drummond, is this criticism capable of general 
 application ? The writer has spent twelve years 
 in various capacities in all sorts of evening classes, 
 and he cannot call to mind half-a-dozen cases of 
 breakdown. At the same time, he can cite quite 
 as many examples which have resulted from 
 cramming for Civil Service and other examinations. 
 Certainly there is danger in excessive devotion to 
 study everywhere, and at all times. But it is a 
 preventable evil, and one which is practically 
 abolished when the studies are carefully regulated. 
 
 Moreover, there is a point to which due weight is 
 not always given. The classes are only held during 
 the winter months, when the nights are often cold, 
 wet, and cheerless, and when the temptation to seek 
 shelter and companionship may lead to far more 
 harm — mental, moral, and physical — than is likely 
 to result from attendance on two or three evenings 
 a week at the Technical School. The fact that harm 
 in the latter case is possible should be a greater 
 incentive to the careful organisation of evening 
 work, so that time and effort may be alike 
 economised. 
 
 This leads to another objection that is often raised : 
 the unsuitability of the instruction to the needs and 
 ' Technics, Feb., 1904, p. 152. 
 
14 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 capacity of the students. Discussion on this matter 
 must be deferred to a later chapter, but it may be 
 observed here that it is merely a question of local 
 organisation. What has been brought to a high 
 pitch of organisation in this country is the distribu- 
 tion of financial aid ; the equally important problem 
 of the best use of it, except in a few instances, still 
 awaits solution. 
 
 In Technics for January, 1904, Professor Wertheirner 
 refers to the good work — though of an elementary 
 character — which can be done in evening classes. 
 Surely its elementary nature is no reproach ; is it 
 not rather an acknowledgment that evening classes 
 can accomplish the work that falls within their scope ? 
 If evening classes would only confine themselves to 
 good work "of an elementary character," many 
 criticisms would fall to the ground. It is the 
 attempt to combine instruction for the average 
 man with that for the genius that leads to half 
 the reproaches which are levelled against the 
 classes, and hides their real function beneath a 
 mantle of showy make-believe. Evening classes 
 are here, and here they will be for many years to 
 come, and it is a matter of much more importance 
 to enable them to fulfil their function in Technical 
 Education than to waste time in raising trivial 
 objections. 
 
 From what has been said, it will be gathered that 
 the first requirement of evening classes is to provide 
 instruction in the principles, scientific or artistic, 
 underlying their various occupations for those who 
 will be unable to complete their studies at the Day 
 Technical College. The course should be complete, 
 
TECHNICAL- EDUCATION 1 5 
 
 adapted to the needs of the industry and the capacity 
 of the students, and so arranged as to secure the most 
 rapid progress with the greatest economy of time and 
 effort. 
 
 It is not the business of the Evening Technical 
 School to remedy defects of early education. This 
 has been defined as falling within the scope of the 
 Continuation School, and the organisation of such 
 schools will be shown to be one of the most pressing 
 educational problems now awaiting solution. 
 
 There is another function of the Evening School in 
 Technical Education. Large numbers of students 
 attend evening classes who ultimately complete their 
 education at the Day Technical College or University. 
 In order to obtain some idea of the relation of the 
 Evening School to this type of student, the methods 
 of entering the various industries must be discussed. 
 
 There are three ways in which a lad whose parents 
 can afford it can be put through a course of theo- 
 retical and practical training in Engineering. The 
 first is for him to go straight from school into the 
 workshops to serve an apprenticeship of four or five 
 years. During this period he may or may not attend 
 evening classes according to his inclination, oppor- 
 tunity, or the influence of his employers or guardians. 
 The second method is to send him to a Technical 
 School or University for two or three years, and then 
 into the workshops for a shortened apprenticeship of 
 three years. The third or " Sandwich " system is a 
 combination of the two. The lad alternates between 
 the workshops and College, either in half-years or in 
 any way that the ingenuity of man can devise. 1 
 3 See p. 20. 
 
16 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 In the first system, evening classes are of the 
 utmost importance ; in the second they are not 
 required ; in the third they are of use only where 
 the alternations are other than half-yearly.* 
 
 As opinion is at present sharply divided on 
 the merits of each scheme, it may not be out of 
 place to discuss the pros and cons as they present 
 themselves to the writer. 
 
 To begin with, there are one or two general 
 principles that appeal to the educationist more 
 than to the Engineer. The first is that all teaching 
 must keep in view the mind-content of the pupil ; 
 new ideas can only be assimilated in so far as they 
 associate themselves with ideas already in the pupil's 
 mind. How the engineering lecturer is to make him- 
 self intelligible to those whose knowledge of actual 
 workshop conditions is largely visionary is a problem 
 whose solution is best left to the advocates of the 
 second method : School- College- Works. 
 
 The futility of the school workshop to supply this 
 deficiency has already been noted (p. 7). Striking 
 testimony to the same effect is furnished by E. 
 Vanclain, Superintendent of the Baldwin Locomotive 
 Works, U.S.A. He says: 1 " No one but those who 
 employ labour or operate large machine shops are 
 aware of the deplorable failures of those who enter 
 their works from the Mechanical Training Schools." 
 
 The second principle emphasises the importance 
 of deferring instruction until the maturity of mind 
 which comes with years will enable the pupil to take 
 
 1 Cassier's Magazine, April, 1902, p. 510. The argument is 
 in favour of indentured apprentices and proper supervision in 
 the works. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 17 
 
 full advantage of it. Everyone knows that grasp, 
 breadth of view, earnestness of purpose, and all those 
 mental attributes which make for success in life, are 
 associated with a development of the brain not 
 often found during boyhood. The immensity of the 
 problems which the engineer has to face must fail to 
 appeal to the half-developed school-boy in their due 
 significance. On this matter the evidence of Professor 
 J. A. Fleming is emphatic. Speaking from eighteen 
 years' experience at University College, London, he 
 says : 1 
 
 " My experience has been that a considerable 
 proportion of those who enter a college straight 
 from school for the purpose of passing through an 
 engineering course, not only come very inadequately 
 prepared to benefit by professorial teaching, but bring 
 with them a school-boy habit of mind. . . . More- 
 over, until a young student has developed sufficient 
 character and power of study apart from the control 
 existing in schools, he may, and often does, waste 
 much time, and is not awakened to the necessity of 
 taking the utmost advantage of his opportunities. I 
 have found that young men who have been placed 
 on leaving school in an engineering works as pupils, 
 and who, after two years or so, return to college to 
 take up the theoretical part of their subject, work 
 much better, and are more eager to make the best 
 use of their college time than a school-boy of sixteen 
 or seventeen coming straight from school to college." 
 
 He advocates one year College for pure science, two 
 years in works, two years in College, and then back 
 to works. 
 
 1 Letter to the Times, April 15, 1903. 
 
1 8 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 This principle, again, is in opposition to the 
 School-Coljege-Works system'; and both, while not 
 unfavourable to the Sandwich system, indicate 
 clearly defined advantages offered by the first, or 
 School- Works-College plan. 
 
 Setting aside for a moment the two general 
 principles enunciated above, certain points connected 
 with the first and second systems may be discussed, 
 as it is disagreement upon these that has given rise 
 to the third system. 
 
 On behalf of the first system, it may be urged that 
 the lad is more pliable, more amenable to the* 
 stringent discipline of the workshop at sixteen or 
 seventeen than he will be at nineteen or twenty. 
 There is a growing tendency among employers to 
 insist upon their pupils keeping the usual workshop 
 hours, and the first system enables parents or 
 guardians to decide early whether or not their lads 
 are capable of standing the strain of industrial life. 1 
 Meanwhile, the lad will not only be accumulating 
 practical knowledge that will make his subsequent 
 theoretical instruction intelligible, but he will be 
 deferring that instruction until his mind is able to 
 grasp the broader scientific and economic principles 
 involved. 
 
 An objection that must be treated with respect 
 on account of the standing of those from whom it 
 emanates, is based on the apparent danger of a break 
 in study between school and College. Thus in the 
 discussion on a paper by Dr. J. T. Nicholson read 
 
 1 If you wish to make a boy an Engineer, inquire into his 
 physique and stamina. If these are lacking, put him in a place 
 where h^ will be out of a draught. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 19 
 
 before the Manchester section of the Institution of 
 Electrical Engineers, Dr. E. Hopkinson pointed out 
 that for a boy to leave school at about the age of 
 sixteen, and to enter a workshop with the idea of 
 returning to school or College after an interval of 
 two or three years, involves a break in the scholastic 
 course, and in habits of learning, which often has 
 disastrous results. But it may fairly be claimed that 
 if "habits of learning" are so easily lost, then the 
 application which is a necessary factor of success in 
 any walk of life is absent. 1 And the " break in the 
 scholastic course " is a bogey which only appears to 
 those who persistently refuse to accord due recognition 
 to the value of evening classes. 2 
 
 The difficulties which this or that individual raises 
 against one or the other of the first two systems, 
 appears to be driving Engineers over to the Sandwich 
 system as embodying most of the advantages, and 
 fewer of the disadvantages of either. At the 
 Engineering Conference held in London in June, 
 1903, many speakers expressed their approval of 
 this method, which has many advantages to offer 
 to those lads who are born in such happy circum- 
 stances that they can plan their training irrespective 
 of its cost. If the " Sandwiches " are half-yearly, 
 the necessity for evening classes for this type of 
 student would be entirely abolished. But upon this 
 matter there is at present much diversity of opinion. 
 The North-East Coast Institution of Engineers and 
 
 1 Nature, Sept. 5, 1901, p. 463. 
 
 2 If evening classes are objected to, a couple of after- 
 noons a week would serve the same purpose in preserving 
 continuity. 
 
20 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Shipbuilders, for example, recognises the following 
 four alternatives * : — 
 
 Works - 
 
 12 months. 
 
 Works - 
 
 12 months. 
 
 College - 
 
 9 .. 
 
 College - 
 
 9 », 
 
 Works - 
 
 IS ,. 
 
 Works - 
 
 IS .. 
 
 College - 
 
 9 .. 
 
 College - 
 
 21 „ 
 
 Works - 
 
 IS » 
 
 Works - 
 
 IS ., 
 
 College - 
 
 9 ., 
 
 
 
 Works - 
 
 3 .. 
 
 
 
 
 72 months. 
 
 72 months. 
 
 College - 
 
 9 months 
 
 College - 
 
 9 months. 
 
 Works - 
 
 IS .. 
 
 Works - 
 
 15 .. 
 
 College - 
 
 9 ., 
 
 College - 
 
 21 „ 
 
 Works - 
 
 IS ». 
 
 Works - 
 
 27 „ 
 
 College - 
 
 9 ., 
 
 
 
 Works - 
 
 IS .. 
 
 
 
 
 72 months. 
 
 72 months. 
 
 The representatives of the University Colleges 
 and Technical Schools who attended the Engineering 
 Conference (with the exception of Professor Burstall, 
 of Birmingham) expressed their willingness to fall 
 in with any scheme upon which the employers 
 could agree. It is possible that they were so 
 delighted to see some evidence of interest in 
 Technical Education, that they were ready to 
 clutch at the proverbial straw. And so long as 
 the periods in Works and College are some multiple 
 of half years, the College can probably adapt its 
 
 1 Technics, Feb., 1904, p. 195. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 21 
 
 courses without much difficulty ; but there must be 
 uniformity of plan. 
 
 Even if the Sandwich system does become general, 
 it will not altogether obviate the necessity for evening 
 instruction which is to culminate in a full-time day 
 course. Several members of the Conference — notably 
 Mr. Yarrow and Mr. Dugald Drummond — emphasised 
 the needs of the artisan's son, and the North-East 
 Coast Institution's scheme recognises promotion from 
 the status of apprentice to that of pupil. Years ago 
 Huxley said : " Human life is such a sum that your 
 opportunity multiplied by your capacity and divided 
 by your circumstances, gives you the fourth term in 
 the proportion* — which is your deserts — with great 
 accuracy" ; and it is a healthy sign of the times that the 
 necessity for eliminating all accidental elevation of the 
 denominator should be so generously acknowledged. 
 Everyone can demand the higher training if he can 
 afford to pay for it, but the inalienable right of special 
 aptitude must not be denied. And every year the 
 spread of educational facilities is breaking down the 
 barriers that once enclosed the privileged professions. 
 
 It does not follow that the Sandwich system must 
 start immediately on leaving school. A period in 
 the works may precede it ; and at the Conference 
 Professor Barr read several letters from Scotch 
 Engineers in which, while it was generally conceded 
 that the Sandwich system had much to recommend 
 it, one or two years in the shops were preferred 
 before going to College. The proposals of the L. 
 and S.-W. Railway Company (p. 174), of Mr. Yarrow 
 (p. 174), and of the North-East Coast Institution 
 of Engineers and Shipbuilders (p. 167), contemplate 
 
22 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 the admission of apprentices direct from school, with 
 a Sandwich course in the last two years of apprentice- 
 ship. It may also be noted in passing that the 
 Mechanical Engineering and Higher Mechanical 
 Engineering Schools of Prussia require their students 
 to have spent at least one year in the works before 
 admission. 1 
 
 The men engaged in the ordinary operations of 
 Building will probably not require full-day courses of 
 instruction. There has been, at any rate, no great 
 demand for them in this country, though the Building 
 Trades Schools of Germany have large numbers of 
 day students, especially in the winter months. The 
 usual method of starting a lad in one of the branches 
 of the trade in this country is as an indentured 
 apprentice, with or without a premium. Thus in 
 London it is customary to charge from £25 to £100, 
 while in South Wales it costs about £30 to article a 
 boy to plumbing. The practice is not uniform, and in 
 many cases no articles are signed. Under such cir- 
 cumstances the employer can easily get rid of an 
 unsatisfactory apprentice, while the latter can, after 
 a few years, go to another place as an improver. 
 Apprenticeship seems to be on the wane in some 
 districts. The special Sub-committee of the Techni- 
 cal Education Board of the London County Council, 
 appointed in 1897 to inquire into the Building Trades, 
 found only 80 apprentices and 143 learners, where 
 the normal proportion would have been 1,600 ! The 
 deficiency is stated to be so great among plasterers 
 that many architects are looking about for substitutes 
 
 1 Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Miscellaneous Series, 
 -No. 601. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION ?3 
 
 for plaster. There are also difficulties in the brick- 
 laying trade, because it is not customary for boys 
 to work on the scaffold. 
 
 "The only alternative, therefore, apart from the 
 present system of introducing provincial trade labour 
 at the expense of the prospects of the London boy, is 
 to train youths in the schools until they are sufficiently 
 skilled to induce employers to take them on at a 
 reasonable weekly wage, and without a premium. 
 The recommendations contained in the report are as 
 follows: — (i) That every effort be made to lengthen, 
 with Parliamentary sanction, the present term of 
 school life, including a raising of the legal age for 
 leaving school, and that between thirteen and fifteen 
 opportunity should be afforded for special instruction 
 in manual training and drawing. (2) That no 
 restriction . whatever should be placed upon the 
 persons attending theoretical classes in technical 
 subjects, apart from the general requirements that 
 the members of the class should be capable of 
 profiting by the instruction afforded. (3) That with 
 a view to enabling artisans to become qualified as 
 general foremen, mechanics belonging to any branch 
 of the building trades be permitted to attend both 
 theoretical and practical classes in other branches of 
 the building trades. (4) That learners under nineteen 
 years of age and improvers should be permitted to 
 attend practical classes, provided that they show 
 sufficient familiarity with the trade to render their 
 efficient training possible without undue interference 
 with the progress of the class. (5) That in the 
 teaching of the purely trade classes (evening), and in 
 the examinations connected with them, stress should 
 
24 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 be laid on methods which secure mechanical skill and 
 quickness of workmanship, as well as on theoretical 
 knowledge, and students should not be encouraged to 
 expend an undue amount of time and labour upon 
 elaborate models of no practical use. (6) That as far 
 as possible the teachers should be actually engaged 
 in the trade in which instruction is given by them. 
 In order to secure this, special classes should be 
 instituted to qualify competent mechanics to become 
 teachers, and for this purpose the polytechnics should 
 be used as centres of normal training." 1 
 
 The only comment that need be passed upon the 
 recommendations is, if the first is so important, why 
 does the second exist ? 2 It can only be accounted 
 for by a desire to check at once the growing dearth 
 of journeymen which must result from shortage of 
 apprentices. At the same time, if the foremen are 
 to be chosen from this class, no surrender on the 
 question of a sound general education can be 
 countenanced. 
 
 For the higher grades — Architects and Civil 
 Engineers — College training is almost indispensable ; 
 but as in a large number of cases lads are articled 
 direct from schooVevening classes, or their equivalent 
 in partial day courses of instruction, are of great 
 value as affording suitable preparation. These two 
 professions are highly exclusive, and heavy premiums 
 are the rule. 
 
 In Coal Mining again, the usual practice is to 
 admit lads direct from school, but there is no such 
 
 1 Building World, March, 1899, Supplement, p* 4. 
 2 " Capable of profiting by the instruction " is a vague 
 phrase. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 2$ 
 
 thing as an ordinary apprentice. The lads are, as a 
 rule, mere labourers, and their treatment differs in no 
 way from that of the colliers. Pupils are articled for 
 a term of years, and pay a premium. Only a small 
 proportion at present proceed to Technical Colleges, 
 but the number should increase. The introduction 
 of machinery, and the difficulties which will have to 
 be faced ultimately in working the poorer seams, 
 will call for men of wider scientific knowledge than 
 obtains at present. Evening classes as a preparation 
 for more advanced training have here again a wide 
 field. It is noteworthy that students who propose to 
 enter the Mining Department of the University of 
 Birmingham are recommended to spend one year in 
 actual practice before entering. 
 
 The Metallurgical and Chemical industries offer 
 a sharp contrast between the two grades of men 
 engaged. The division between the unskilled 
 labourer and the chemist or manager is wide and 
 deep. There are, at any rate in the districts with 
 which the writer is acquainted, but few pupils, and 
 lads are taken into the laboratory or works direct 
 from school. 
 
 It will be evident, then, that in the industries which 
 have been considered, a second function of the 
 Evening School in relation to Technical Education 
 must be acknowledged. There must be provision 
 for instruction which, while preserving the general 
 continuity of study, lays a broad and solid foundation 
 upon which the higher studies of the Technical 
 College or University can rest. And this must be 
 given without imposing an insupportable burden 
 upon young men who will be engaged for nine or 
 
26 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 ten hours a day in the workshop, factory, or mine. 
 The success with which this can be accomplished 
 depends upon the care taken in arranging the 
 curriculum. A necessary precursor is ihe due 
 recognition of the Evening School as an essential 
 element in the educational machinery of the country. 
 
 An additional function may be looked for in the 
 case of larger institutions in the form of special 
 instruction for men who are engaged in practice, and 
 who have already had suitable preliminary training. 
 While advanced instruction in evening classes is not 
 to be generally recommended, the rapid progress of 
 industry renders it desirable in many cases that it 
 should be given. Such teaching would be of a highly 
 specialised character, and would deal chiefly with 
 recent progress in particular departments. It need 
 not be given by a member of the regular staff of 
 the school. 
 
 The Evening School, then, may provide instruction 
 for three classes of students : 
 
 (i.) Those who obtain the whole of their training 
 during the time they are engaged in earning a 
 livelihood. 
 
 (2.) Those who will ultimately complete their 
 training by attendance full or part time at a 
 Technical College. 
 
 (3.) Those who have already been trained under 
 (1) or (2), and who require special instruction of an 
 advanced type. 
 
 Subsequent criticisms of and suggestions as to the 
 character of the instruction will be based mainly 
 upon three assumptions : 
 
 (1.) That in the four great industries considered, 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 27 
 
 the need for skilled craftsmen has decreased and is 
 decreasing. 
 
 (2.) That, on the other hand, the need for intel- 
 ligent supervision is becoming of more and more 
 importance. 
 
 (3.) That in general the number of men under- 
 going instruction who possess the personal qualities 
 necessary in those who are to exercise responsibility, 
 is, as a rule, barely sufficient to fill vacancies in the 
 ranks of officials. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 
 
 In the previous chapter it has been remarked that 
 Continuation Schools form the basis of the evening 
 educational fabric. They have existed, with many 
 vicissitudes, throughout the greater part of the last 
 century, but apparently were not regularly in receipt 
 of Government grants until 1855. By that year 
 recognition was accorded to such schools as were 
 held in connection with a day school, and aid was 
 given in the form of capitation grants and payments 
 to teachers. The amount paid in grants between 
 1859 and i860 was only £2,ig6, so that the schools 
 could have been neither large nor numerous. It is 
 interesting to note, moreover, that until 1861 teachers 
 in day schools were forbidden to teach in night 
 schools also. 
 
 As a result of the reorganisation which followed 
 the Education Act of 1870, persons between the 
 ages of twelve and eighteen only were eligible for 
 grant, but in 1876 the upper limit was raised to 
 twenty-one. The average attendance fell from 
 73,375 in l8 7° to 26,009 in 1886. The abolition 
 of the strictly elementary character of the instruction 
 given in these schools in 1890, and the publication 
 of a suggestive code which greatly extended the 
 scope of their operations in 1893, na ve led to an 
 
 28 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 29 
 
 enormous increase in the number and size of the 
 schools; and in 1897 there were 358,268 students 
 in 4,226 schools. 
 
 The number decreased a little some two or three 
 years ago, but is now showing signs of considerable 
 increase. 
 
 The object of such schools was at first to remedy 
 the defects of elementary education, due either to 
 the early age at which regular attendance at the 
 elementary school ceased, or to the years of stagna- 
 tion which frequently elapsed between leaving the 
 day and joining the evening school. The growth of 
 Evening Technical Classes has added the duty of 
 preparing students for subsequent technical studies. 
 The powers to extend their curricula, and to admit 
 students over twenty-one years of age, which were 
 given to these schools in 1890, have seldom been 
 taken advantage of in the best possible way. 
 Numerous instances arose in which overlapping 
 occurred, and while cases of this sort are rapidly 
 disappearing — and in many districts have almost 
 entirely disappeared — the equally important func- 
 tion of providing a ground - work for technical 
 education is only just beginning to be the subject 
 of educational effort. 
 
 That the Continuation Schools have not fulfilled 
 the expectations of those who promoted them is due 
 to a combination of circumstances. The growth of 
 large towns, increased facilities for locomotion, and 
 better wages, have brought with them overcrowded 
 dwellings, less comfort, and a more morbid craving 
 for excitement, which tend to induce those anxious 
 for a new experience to try what an Evening School 
 
30 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 can do for them, without giving any inclination for 
 serious study. So that, notwithstanding the enor- 
 mous increase in numbers, it is doubtful whether 
 the increase in efficiency is at all comparable with 
 the development of the system. While recognising 
 that there are many cases of individual effort which 
 lead to good work, it cannot be seriously admitted 
 that, looked at as a whole, the Continuation School 
 is performing its part in the educational machine. 
 And without prejudice to such efforts, it may be 
 useful to state some of its difficulties and shortcomings. 
 
 The fundamental problem is that of irregular 
 attendance. The average attendance in Continu- 
 ation Schools during the last few years has varied 
 very little. The percentage of those who had been 
 under instruction during year 1902-3, who had made 
 a sufficient number of attendances to secure the grant, 
 was 60*5 in regard to boys and men, and 63 in 
 regard to girls and women, giving an average of 
 6i - 5. The condition for earning this grant was that 
 the student should have received fourteen hours' 
 instruction during the session in each subject for 
 which grant was claimed. In a large number of 
 cases reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught 
 in combination, and a very short period of instruc- 
 tion would then be necessary to qualify. The actual 
 proportion in average attendance was therefore in all 
 probability well below 60. Even if this reached 50 
 per cent, the case is bad enough, and this estimate is 
 probably too high. For how can any school carry 
 on its work efficiently when half of its students are 
 constantly absent ? 
 
 The matter is still worse when looked at more 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 3 1 
 
 closely. In those districts in which the schools are 
 conducted in a somewhat casual manner — and such 
 districts do exist — students are admitted at any 
 time during the session, and the average there- 
 fore represents, not a constant quantity, but a 
 shifting body of pupils. Moreover, this entails a 
 change of teachers. The number on the staff is 
 usually at the rate of one for every twenty -five 
 students in average attendance. A teacher may 
 start the session with a class of fairly even attain- 
 ment ; after a few weeks the numbers in the school 
 fall, and the services of one of his colleagues is 
 dispensed with ; he then finds himself in charge of 
 a class of mixed standard, half of whom have to get 
 used to him and he to them. The wonder is that 
 under these circumstances educational work can be 
 done at all. 
 
 Various methods which have been tried to secure 
 more regular attendance have met with little or no 
 success. Returning the whole or part of the fee ; 
 annual outings, or social evenings during the session ; 
 lantern entertainments and concerts ; making the 
 schools absolutely free — are experiments which have 
 only been successful in isolated instances. The lack 
 of any real liking for study, of any real desire to learn 
 on the part of some students, and counter attractions, 
 have proved too strong. And only in schools where 
 the personality of the teacher is able to make itself 
 felt does the attendance represent a reasonable 
 proportion of those on the register. 
 
 A certain proportion of the students must always 
 be absent on account of their employment. Over- 
 time and night-shifts are inimical to all evening 
 
32 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 work, but not to such an extent as would make 
 the attendance harmfully unsatisfactory. The real 
 cause is the student who only comes for shelter, 
 or to pass time, and upon him must be laid the 
 blame for that lack of efficiency which can be 
 attributed to irregular attendance. 
 
 It is open to question whether such a student 
 should be permitted to interfere with the progress 
 of the 40 or 50 per cent, who join the school 
 with a serious purpose. If students who failed to 
 attend on two successive evenings were refused 
 admission the next time they, presented themselves, 
 unless they could furnish satisfactory explanations, 
 the difficulty would probably, at any rate in part, 
 be overcome. For though a student may not mind 
 paying 2s. or 2s. 66. for the privilege of obtaining 
 shelter and warmth when required, he would find 
 the new arrangement rather expensive. While this 
 would not affect the student who attends regularly 
 for six or eight weeks and then leaves, there is still 
 a way of dealing with him. He could be refused 
 admission in a subsequent session unless he deposited 
 double fees as a security for his good behaviour. 
 
 There is some tendency to regard Continuation 
 Schools as meeting a social want, and to lay less 
 stress on the more strictly educational value of 
 their work. Apart from the fact that the propriety 
 of applying public money to such a purpose is open 
 to question, this sentiment may lead to undesirable 
 results, and its prevalence in many cases not only 
 renders the schools unable to carry out one of their 
 important functions — that of supplying preparatory 
 training for technical students — but leads to much 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 33 
 
 misconception as to the value of the work which such 
 schools can accomplish when intelligently conducted. 
 
 The evil of irregular attendance, and the diffi- 
 culty of coping with it under a voluntary system, 
 is leading many people to look to compulsory 
 Continuation Schools as the only solution of the 
 problem. The idea, like many others which tend to 
 systematise instruction, was adopted, if not " Made in 
 Germany." For example, in Saxony Continuation 
 Schools are compulsory up to eighteen years of age. 
 These schools originated many years ago in the 
 Sunday Schools, because it was found that pupils 
 of the latter institution were so deficient in general 
 education as to be unable to follow the religious 
 instruction. The first step was the addition of 
 secular subjects to the Sunday School curriculum, 
 and these were afterwards increased, so that one or 
 more evenings were occupied, in addition to Sunday. 
 While the age to which compulsion extends is fixed 
 for the kingdom, the amount of instruction is controlled 
 by the locality, and varies from two to eight hours a 
 week. The first subject taken is the Mother Tongue, 
 and Arithmetic and Drawing are added so far as time 
 permits. In some of the towns the natural disadvan- 
 tages of evening work are avoided by the enlightened 
 attitude of employers of labour, who liberate their 
 apprentices on certain afternoons during the week for 
 the purpose of attending the school. This permits 
 of apprentices in the same or in similar trades 
 being taught together, and has an important effect 
 in enabling the instruction to assume a technical 
 character. 
 
 Differences of national temperament cause hesitation 
 
34 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 ■in transplanting any system, and while the system of 
 Saxony may be admirably adapted to Saxony, it 
 cannot be assumed that it would be equally successful 
 in this country. There is a rooted objection to all 
 legislation which circumscribes the action of an 
 individual, even though he be a child in his early 
 teens. But in spite of such objections, it appears 
 practically certain that the failure of all ordinary 
 methods to secure regular attendance will necessitate 
 State interference as the only remedy. 
 
 But the change, while revolutionary in effect, 
 would have to be evolutionary in method. Before 
 public opinion could be brought round to view the 
 innovation kindly, it would be necessary to demon- 
 strate the feasibility in particular cases. And this 
 would* have to be done by a body with statutory 
 powers to experiment in this direction. At present 
 the compulsory powers of local education authorities 
 apply only to the day school. If these could be ex- 
 tended at the option of the authority to Continuation 
 Schools, and that too at a time when interest in 
 educational problems is keen, some novel and far- 
 reaching experiments might be expected. An 
 authority that decided to enforce such powers might 
 be conceived to reason as follows : 
 
 "We provide instruction in the elementary day 
 "school for children up to fifteen years of age. But 
 in order that individual hardship may not be 
 imposed in cases where the earnings of the child are 
 essential to the support of the family, parents may 
 remove their children at (say) thirteen years of age, 
 provided that the attendance up to that time has 
 been satisfactory. Such children, however, will be 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 35 
 
 required to attend on three evenings a week in the 
 six winter months during two years, for each year 
 of absence from the day school below fifteen." 
 
 A Bill containing similar proposals, with modifica- 
 tions for agricultural districts, was introduced into 
 the House of Lords in August, 1904, by the Bishop 
 of Hereford ; and the idea of compulsion is strongly 
 advocated by Mr. Michael Sadler in his "Report 
 on Secondary Education in Liverpool." The plan 
 proposed would not be so prohibitive in cost as one 
 which made attendance compulsory up to seventeen 
 or eighteen years of age, irrespective of length of 
 time in the day school. It must be borne in mind 
 that existing schools could accommodate on the 
 average twice as many pupils as there are at 
 present attending them, without anything like a cor- 
 responding increase in cost. And with an average 
 attendance of even 75 per cent, the educational 
 possibilities would be enormously increased. The 
 scheme would provide another method of securing 
 satisfactory elementary education for those local 
 authorities who fear to raise the standard of 
 exemption on account of the individual hardships 
 that might result from such action. People who 
 contemplate education from the comfortable seclusion 
 of the study may not realise the existence of such 
 hardships, but it may be asserted after the manner 
 of Galileo that nevertheless they do exist, and that 
 in many districts cases of hardship are neither few 
 nor far between. It may be argued that to permit 
 the child to begin to earn wages does not guarantee 
 that he will be better clothed and fed, and possibly 
 in some cases he may not. At the same time, the 
 
36 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 greater number of ill-clad and ill-fed children come 
 from homes in which the poverty is due quite as 
 much to lack of money as to lack of wisdom in 
 spending it. And a well-fed child attending three 
 evenings a week during the winter months is better 
 educational material than a half- starved child 
 attending full time throughout the year. His 
 attendance at school at a time which does not 
 detract from his capacity for earning wages would 
 be more regular, and the prolongation of the mental 
 and moral discipline of the school over the period 
 of adolescence would be beneficial to the individual, 
 and in the aggregate a national gain. 
 
 While many of the criticisms levelled at Continua- 
 tion Schools are directed towards evils which, in the 
 present state of the attendance, are unavoidable, the 
 differences in the results attained in individual 
 schools show that other defects exist. 
 
 In no other educational institution does the 
 personality of the teacher stand for so much. In 
 many instances the happy selection of a teacher may 
 be assigned as the reason for the excellence of the 
 work done. There is no doubt that in a very large 
 number of cases the headmaster of the day school has 
 an influence over his old boys that an assistant cannot 
 possess, and some of the best work in the country 
 has been done in schools in which such a man has 
 been appointed principal teacher of the evening 
 school. But whilst it is all-important that the head 
 teacher of an evening school should be a man of 
 experience and commanding personality, whose 
 authority and influence shall permeate through 
 staff and students, various causes have led to the 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 37 
 
 appointment of men who have not yet attained these 
 qualifications. 
 
 In the first place, the headmaster of the day school, 
 if it is a large one, may already be fully employed, 
 or he may have other pursuits which prevent his 
 undertaking work in the evening. 
 
 Then, again, assistant teachers generally receive 
 salaries which are barely adequate for their existence, 
 and many authorities have considered themselves 
 justified in dividing the salaries for evening work 
 amongst their assistants to make their total emolu- 
 ments more nearly approach the " living wage." And 
 by degrees in some districts the evening school work 
 has come to be looked upon as the perquisite of the 
 assistant, regardless of his capacity for performing 
 such duties. 
 
 But a strong protest must be raised against any 
 such system, and in the interest of the education con- 
 fided to their care, authorities must be urged to appoint 
 a head teacher who is equal to the responsibilities that 
 he will have to bear, and to furnish him with assistants 
 qualified for the work they will have to do ; and in 
 neither one case nor the other should these be men 
 already jaded by a hard day's work, and undertaking 
 an ungrateful task to enable them to eke out a scanty 
 salary. 
 
 It has been noted on page 31 that educational 
 difficulties have arisen through the somewhat rigid 
 application of a " staffing " rule. A characteristic 
 feature of Continuation Schools is the range of attain- 
 ment exhibited by the students. In few cases are 
 less than three grades found, and if the students are 
 to be properly classified on admission, the ''rule" 
 
38 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 should allow a sufficient number of teachers to provide 
 one for each grade of student until three or four 
 stages of progress have been provided for. As other 
 students join, they can be drafted into one or other 
 of the classes already formed, and the only factor to 
 be considered then is the maximum number to be 
 allowed in a class. Thus, if one teacher were allowed 
 for the first fifteen students in average attendance, 
 two teachers for the first twenty-five, and three 
 teachers for the first thirty-five, the addition of a 
 teacher for every thirty-five or forty addional students 
 would obviate the danger of under-staffing. An 
 immediate increase in the efficiency of small schools, 
 with sixty or seventy in average attendance, would 
 result, while large schools would be unaffected by the 
 change. 
 
 In the old days, when Reading, Writing, and 
 Arithmetic were the only subjects in the curriculum 
 of Continuation Schools, each student joining the 
 schools followed the same course. Even now, the 
 more elementary students who require instruction 
 in the rudiments, follow a course of study which only 
 gives rise to one regret : that it should be so terribly 
 elementary. The great majority of children who 
 leave the day school annually never come to the 
 Continuation School at all, and those who do, allow 
 several years to elapse before doing so. 
 
 This break in study is disastrous, and is intensified 
 by the early age at which many still begin to earn a 
 livelihood. The result is most felt in the case of Arith- 
 metic. In the Elementary School simple fractions 
 are introduced in Standard V., decimals in Standard 
 VI., averages and percentages in Standard VII. 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 39 
 
 According to the Report of the Board of Education 
 for 1902-3, Appendix A., out of 318 cases in which 
 an alteration of the bye-laws was sanctioned, 227 
 authorities still recognised Standard V. as conferring, 
 total exemption. 
 
 , A few years of absence from school is quite, 
 sufficient to provide teachers with pupils to whom a 
 problem in proportion is a veritable Chinese puzzle ; 
 vulgar fractions have to be done all over again, and 
 decimals imply a standard of knowledge beyond the 
 wildest dreams of expectation ! 
 
 To many, writing is a matter of no small difficulty ; 
 moderate accuracy in spelling is hardly even looked 
 for; while poverty of vocabulary makes correct ex- 
 planation laborious, and clear notions well-nigh 
 impossible. Couple this with the difficulties due 
 to bad attendance, and to providing for the variable 
 capacity and attainments of the. students who present 
 themselves, and instead of criticising the want of 
 progress and low standard, we must admire the 
 patience and devotion of the teacher who effects 
 even so small a measure of useful educational work. 
 
 But while the instruction in rudimentary subjects 
 is of an elementary character, it must be admitted 
 that it is generally suited to the requirements and 
 capacity of the students, and that within the limits 
 imposed by various disadvantages, they follow a 
 sound and systematic course of study which cannot 
 fail to be of considerable use to them. This is a 
 favourable verdict which could not so generally be 
 passed upon those subjects which, during the past 
 twelve or fourteen years, have been gradually added 
 to the Continuation School curriculum. 
 
40 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 It is remarkable that with the introduction of 
 subjects falling under the heads of Science, 
 Technology, Commerce, and Languages, the idea 
 of a curriculum to a considerable extent dis- 
 appeared, and a system sprang up in which the 
 student had almost absolute freedom of choice of 
 subjects. 
 
 According to the Board of Education, General 
 Reports on Higher Education for 1902, 324,709 
 students qualified for the grant. Of these, 
 
 147,594 too k one subject. 
 82,089 „ two subjects. 
 59.909 » three „ 
 35,117 „ four „ 
 
 The first number probably comprises all those 
 who took Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic as a 
 combined subject. 
 
 The tendency, then, has been for the Continuation 
 School curriculum to lose some of the essential unity 
 which characterised it in the first instance in the 
 attempt to cater for those who had attended the 
 day school longer, or who had retained more of 
 what they had learnt. 
 
 This unfortunate result is due to some extent to 
 the failure of managers to understand and carry out 
 the responsibilities they have undertaken, and to the 
 many cases in which the head teacher neglected to 
 exercise his prerogative to advise students and 
 guide the course of study. The responsibility 
 for the selection of subjects has been left to the 
 students or the accidental presence of a teacher 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 41 
 
 with a knowledge of a certain subject. Sometimes, 
 indeed, managers have so far exercised their function 
 to select subjects which promised to be popular ; but 
 the net result has been an aggregation of classes 
 under independent teachers with independent aims, 
 and each making its appeal to individual students. 
 Unsuitable subjects have been introduced, and 
 students left to choose without sufficient guidance 
 have selected subjects not suited to their needs, and 
 have failed to reap the educational advantages they 
 might expect from the studies they have undertaken. 
 
 The introduction of unsuitable subjects, apart 
 from its effect upon the work of the schools 
 themselves, has prevented them from fulfilling 
 their important functions as preparatory centres 
 for the Technical School. One example which is 
 fairly typical may be quoted * — the name is 
 suppressed : " At the last competition for evening 
 
 scholarships in the Technical School, 186 of the 
 
 candidates (who must be over fifteen) had attended 
 evening schools ; of these only 2 1 had studied 
 Arithmetic, yet 38 had been attempting to learn 
 Machine Drawing." 
 
 While the defects in this particular example have 
 probably been now removed, the progress towards 
 a fuller recognition of the importance of sound 
 educational work goes on slowly. Most large towns 
 have issued regulations for Evening Continuation 
 Schools in which students are strongly advised to 
 undergo a " course " of instruction, and to consult 
 the headmaster as to what this should consist of. 
 
 1 Board of Education Reports on Science and Art Schools 
 and Classes and Evening Schools, etc., for the year 1901. 
 
42 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 At the same time, the tendency to prescribe "courses " 
 is only gradually increasing, and if a student is 
 willing to pay the full sessional fee, and to devote 
 himself to a single subject, there are few cases in 
 which he may not do so. In this connection, how- 
 ever, there is to be discerned considerable activity, 
 and the next few years will see a pruning and shaping 
 of the curriculum that will enable Continuation 
 Schools to fulfil their function in a complete and 
 satisfactory manner. 
 
 But after all, the extent to which such schools can 
 become efficient members of the educational system 
 of the country depends upon a solution of the problem 
 of regular attendance. If a compulsory scheme is 
 too far off to look for with confidence, there seems 
 nothing for it but to await a more enlightened state 
 of public opinion which shall result in parents 
 exercising more control over the educational welfare 
 of their children. Employers of labour can, and 
 sometimes do, bring pressure to bear. For example, 
 Messrs. Brunner, Mond & Company, at Northwich, 
 who have a monopoly of labour in that district, 
 refuse to employ any boy in their works under 
 fourteen years of age, so there is no incentive to 
 leave school earlier. They stipulate, moreover, that 
 when employed he shall attend an Evening School for 
 three nights a week until he is seventeen. 1 There 
 are other employers who would be glad to adopt such 
 a course if they could induce those in the same 
 
 x Board of Education Reports on Science and Art Schools 
 and Classes and Evening Schools for 1901. The age was 
 raised to nineteen in 1903 : see Article on " Evening 
 Continuation Schools'' in School, June, 1904. 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 43 
 
 district to co-operate with them. Meantime, there 
 appears to be no reason to hope that " popularising " 
 the curriculum would lead to any permanent improve- 
 ment, and it seems more desirable to recognise the 
 claims of the 40 per cent, or so of students who are 
 really anxious for instruction, and who possess the 
 necessary stamina to submit to an educational course, 
 than to do anything to help those who merely use 
 the school as a convenience. 
 
 Disregarding, therefore, the recreative element in 
 Continuation Schools, and concentrating attention on 
 their more strictly educational function, it may be 
 useful to inquire into the most suitable curriculum to 
 secure effective co-ordination with that of the Evening 
 Technical School. Before considering the subjects 
 in detail, however, one or two examples will be 
 given to illustrate the types of curricula now being 
 followed. 
 
 The Continuation Schools at Swindon have different 
 groups of subjects for men and boys. The former 
 study Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and Elementary 
 Science ; the latter Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, 
 and Drawing, with Citizenship apparently as an 
 optional subject. The separation of men and boys 
 does not appear to be so common as it was some 
 years ago. 
 
 Bristol provides three grades of schools : Primary, 
 which are confined to the work of the day school 
 standards ; Commercial, for admission to which 
 students must have reached Standard VI. ; and 
 Higher Grade and Elementary Science Schools, in 
 which the same standard of admission obtains. The 
 word "grade" is hardly applicable here; "type" 
 
44 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 would be more accurate. There are seventeen 
 schools of the first type, six of the second, and three 
 of the third. 
 
 A more elaborate scheme is in operation at 
 Bradford. This includes three grades, viz : 
 
 I. Evening Continuation Schools. 
 II. Schools for Artisan and Commercial 
 subjects. 
 III. Higher Evening Schools. 
 
 The first group are stated, in effect, to be 
 continuative and preparatory, though it would 
 conduce to clearness if a sharp distinction were made 
 between these terms. The subjects are, generally 
 speaking, those of the upper standards of the 
 Elementary School. Specialisation is commenced in 
 the second grade. The student is here strongly 
 advised to attend a " course " of study, and he is 
 informed that the selected subjects should bear 
 upon his probable future occupation. The group of 
 subjects suggested for artisans is as follows : — 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 English. 
 
 Practical Mathematics. 
 
 Technical Drawing. 
 
 Woodwork. 
 
 Freehand. 
 
 Practical Mathematics. 
 Technical Drawing. 
 Wood or Metal Work. 
 
 Higher Evening Schools are intended to lead up 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 
 
 45 
 
 to the work of the Technical College, and the table 
 below gives a proposed two-year course : 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Practical Mathematics. 
 
 Practical Mathematics. 
 
 Technical Drawing. 
 
 Practical, Plane, and 
 
 Physics. 
 
 Solid Geometry. 
 
 Machine Drawing, 
 
 Physics (Heat, or Mag- 
 
 or 
 
 netism & Electricity). 
 
 Building Construction, 
 
 Machine Drawing, 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 Freehand. 
 
 Building Construction, 
 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 Of the 46 schools, 36 are of Type I., 1 1 of Type 
 II., and 3 of Type III. It may be noted in passing 
 that the curriculum of the Type III. schools approxi- 
 mates to that of a Technical School in that definitely 
 technical subjects, such as Machine Drawing and 
 Building Construction, are introduced. There is 
 evidence, however, in the subjects of examination 
 for scholarships given below, that students who 
 have the capacity for proceeding to higher schools 
 are not encouraged to study technical subjects at 
 this stage. 
 
 For Admission to Type II. Schools. 
 
 English. Arithmetic. 
 
 Geography and History. Freehand. 
 
46 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 For Admission to Type III. Schools} 
 
 English. Practical Mathematics. 
 
 Technical Drawing. Freehand. 
 
 For Technical Scholarships. 
 
 English. Physics. 
 
 Practical Mathematics. Freehand (optional). 
 
 Technical Drawing. 
 
 The scholarships are awarded on the results of an 
 examination held in March, and students must have 
 made not less than 80 per cent, of the possible 
 number of attendances. The course selected by 
 a student must be determined by his present or 
 intended occupation, and Home Lessons are com- 
 pulsory. Half the travelling expenses are paid 
 to scholarship students residing beyond a penny 
 tram stage from the school at which a scholarship 
 is tenable, provided that the student make not less 
 than 80 per cent, of the possible attendances. 
 
 As a further stimulus to regular attendance, a 
 bronze medal is awarded to each student who makes 
 perfect attendance in the first session, a similar 
 medal for perfect attendance in the second session 
 and a silver medal under the same conditions in the 
 third session. Moreover, the full fee is returned to 
 those who make not less than 90 per cent, of the 
 possible number of attendances, and half the fee to 
 those who make not less than 80 per cent. As, 
 however, the fee is only 2s. 6d. per session, or 3d. 
 per week, in Types I. and II. Schools, and 5s. per 
 session in Type III. Schools, it is somewhat doubtful 
 1 Artisan course only. 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 47 
 
 whether the return of half or the whole of the amount 
 is a very powerful factor in encouraging regular 
 attendance. And in any case, the propriety of 
 returning this as money, rather than in the form 
 of prizes, may be a matter worthy of consideration. 
 
 The desirability of close connection between the 
 Elementary Day School and the Continuation School 
 is also being kept in view. Scholars who, leaving the 
 Day School during the session, join a Continuation 
 School at once, are eligible for medals and the return 
 of fees under the conditions stated above, the attend- 
 ance being calculated from the date of leaving the 
 Day School. 
 
 The Bristol and Bradford schemes are fairly 
 typical of the tendencies in large towns, and the 
 underlying idea of gradation, with the elements of 
 specialisation in schools of the higher type, may be 
 regarded as an arrangement which will spread in 
 time to smaller centres of population. In this 
 connection it may be noted that there are in the 
 country many thickly populated areas 1 which while 
 consisting of separate small towns or large villages, 
 bear some similarity in regard to population and 
 means of communication to large towns. The needs 
 of such districts could be most satisfactorily met by 
 an organisation of the kind that has been described. 
 For though each constituent town or village could 
 not always be expected to provide a sufficient 
 number of students to carry on a higher type 
 of school with economy and efficiency, students 
 could be drafted to such schools established in 
 the larger centres. 
 
 1 E.g., on the Coalfields. 
 
48 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 The Bradford system provides for three grades of 
 school below the Technical College, and the Bristol 
 scheme for two. 1 In order to simplify nomenclature, 
 it will be assumed in what follows that it is sufficient 
 to recognise two types only of Continuation Schools. 
 It will be convenient to call the lower grade " Con- 
 tinuation Schools," and the upper grade " Preparatory 
 Schools." 
 
 The curriculum of the Continuation Schools will 
 be mainly Reading, Writing and Composition, and 
 Arithmetic. As to the particular nature of the first 
 subject, one meets with considerable differences of 
 opinion. On the one hand, it is argued that in order 
 to interest students in their daily occupation, and 
 to encourage them to attend the school by giving 
 the instruction a practical bearing, the reading-book 
 should have direct reference to the industries of the 
 locality. 
 
 On the other hand, it is maintained that no 
 opportunity should be lost to give the student 
 information as to his civic duties and responsibilities. 
 As against the first view, it is urged that there are 
 many industries for which no suitable books have 
 been written — or, at any rate, such books have not 
 been published at such a low price as to render their 
 introduction into Evening Schools possible. This is 
 not so with Life and Duties of a Citizen. Really 
 good instruction in the latter subject, however, requires 
 a teacher of exceptional abilities and sound judgment, 
 and pupils who are old enough to appreciate the 
 
 i Schools having the same standard of admission may be 
 regarded as of the same grade. 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 49 
 
 problems considered. It is important to bear In 
 mind that a teacher will handle that subject best in 
 which he feels most interest, and as in no other 
 subject is the teacher's own individuality of such 
 paramount importance, this points to the necessity 
 not only of carefully choosing the teacher, but also 
 of giving him considerable latitude. Many useful 
 lessons directed towards both of the objects mentioned 
 above can be drawn from History, Geography, Bio- 
 graphy, and Travel ; and it should not be a difficult 
 matter to arrange a course of reading which shall more 
 or less satisfactorily combine the good points of each. 
 Fiction has not been mentioned here because most 
 people read seriously, and can be got to read seriously, 
 for information rather than for pleasure. There is 
 little to be gained by pressing the view that study 
 should be carried out for the love of study, and much 
 by recognising that in nearly all evening education 
 we are dealing with an incentive — sordid if you will 
 — which arises from necessity. If the student can 
 be shown that there is in books a great deal that is 
 of real service to him, and if he can be taught how to 
 use books to obtain information, he will have been 
 assisted to mount the first step in the ladder of self- 
 improvement. 1 He might be shown, for example, how 
 
 ] No one can teach in evening technical classes without 
 being impressed with the difficulty that the elementary school- 
 boy finds in private study. He has been accustomed to skilful 
 oral instruction, necessitated by the fact that all the study must 
 be done under the teacher's supervision ; he has rarely, if ever, 
 attempted home work ; and the transition to the methods of the 
 higher institution in which he will have to depend to a greater 
 extent on his own resources renders it most desirable that an 
 attempt should be made to reduce the abruptness of the change. 
 
50 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 to obtain statistics from one or other of the cheap year- 
 books that are now issued ; and these could be plotted 
 on squared paper during the lesson in Arithmetic. 
 An opportunity is thereby offered for correlation, 
 which is so important a factor in intelligent progress. 
 
 Reading also provides material for exercises in 
 Writing and Composition. Much of this should be 
 done at home. The presence of the teacher and the 
 limited time of the lesson are often hindrances rather 
 than aids. If, as happens in some districts, the 
 students come from homes which present few 
 facilities for study, one of the rooms in the school 
 might be thrown open on one evening in the week 
 for private study. The presence of a teacher might 
 be necessary, but the expense would be well repaid 
 by the greater rate of progress. 1 
 
 In Arithmetic there is room for a more widespread 
 use of the new methods. Of all students, those in 
 Continuation Schools have the least time to waste, 
 and in their case the exclusion of unnecessary detail, 
 and the inclusion of rapid and approximate methods 
 of calculation, are of the greatest importance. As 
 it will probably not be possible to group students 
 according to occupation, not much can be done in 
 regard to so-called workshop calculations. Concrete 
 examples will be used in preference to mere juggling 
 with numbers, but if the students are young, or at all 
 mixed, the introduction of trade examples at this 
 stage should be undertaken with caution. 
 
 1 A plan of this sort, worked in connection with the upper 
 classes in Elementary Schools, might be very useful in 
 encouraging habits of private study ; or one afternoon a week 
 might be utilised for the purpose. 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 51 
 
 So far nothing has been said about Drawing. The 
 ability to make freehand sketches and to perform 
 simple geometrical constructions is of such impor- 
 tance to those who will subsequently become technical 
 students, that it ought to be included. In a school 
 which meets three nights a week for two hours a 
 night, it should be possible to make fair progress 
 with two 40-minute periods a week in Reading, two 
 in Writing and Composition, three in Arithmetic, and 
 two in Drawing. 
 
 The leading idea in the foregoing observations is 
 that the function of the Continuation School is first to 
 remedy deficiencies in general education. It is not 
 technical, because the students are generally too 
 young, and in any case, are too ill-equipped to 
 commence specialised study. And for the same 
 reason it is not even preparatory. The aim should 
 be to raise the student to the level of the average 
 Seventh Standard boy in the essential subjects of 
 elementary education. Some exception may be 
 taken to the fact that Manual Training has been 
 ignored. But as Herbert Spencer says, it is the 
 relative and not the absolute value of subjects that 
 concerns us. The point of view has been that the 
 students are the minority who both wish to learn and 
 have the stamina necessary for success ; and it has 
 been assumed that a fair proportion will proceed to a 
 further course of study in schools of a more advanced 
 type. At the same time, there is no intention of 
 asserting that Manual Training would be out of 
 place, and it might be found desirable to introduce 
 it instead of three lessons — one in each subject — 
 when the level of the Sixth Standard had been reached. 
 
52 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 The curriculum of the preparatory section has 
 next to be considered. The standard of admission 
 has been indicated above, and the students would be 
 lads of fourteen or fifteen fresh from the Seventh 
 Standard of the Elementary School ; youths who had 
 passed through the Continuation School curriculum ; 
 or young men whose absence from school had not 
 resulted in a fall in attainment below that specified. 
 They will be prepared to take a first step in specialisa- 
 tion, but how far this step is to go is a matter which 
 cannot be subjected to any hard-and-fast rule. Much 
 depends on the extent to which a majority of the 
 students will be able to proceed to higher work, and 
 this will depend very largely on the proportion of 
 men actually engaged in the industry who desire 
 instruction, in comparison with the relation of the 
 number of officials (foremen, etc.) to workmen. 
 
 In order to illustrate the latter point, an example 
 will be worked out, and for this purpose Coal 
 Mining will be selected. In a certain well-defined 
 area there are 30,000 men engaged in the industry, 
 and about 250 undergoing instruction in the Principles 
 of Mining. Of these, there are not more than about 
 150 in average attendance. If it is assumed that 
 the average time spent in these classes is two 
 years, then J per cent, of the men engaged in 
 the industry are turned out of the classes annually. 
 
 The proportion of officials to men in Coal Mining 
 is about 1 to 80. The average life of an official may 
 be estimated roughly as 20 years. The number 
 of vacancies occurring annually among officials is 
 equal to y^ of the total number of men engaged. 
 The ratio, therefore, of the number of students turned 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 53 
 
 out annually to the number of vacancies among 
 officials is 4 to 1. Some of these students have 
 only had a year's training, and not all of them 
 possess the personal qualities which are required in 
 one who has to exercise authority. 
 
 The conclusion to be drawn from these figures is 
 that the number of students attending the Mining 
 Classes in this district is only just sufficient to supply 
 the demand for trained officials. Reasons will be 
 given later for the opinion that the colliery manager 
 requires the training of an Engineer, so that if the 
 way for advancement is to be left open, the provision 
 of a broad basis of general education and scientific 
 knowledge is a matter of some consequence. The 
 curriculum of the Preparatory Technical- School 
 should attempt to supply this. 
 
 There are other industries in which the proportion 
 of students undergoing instruction is much higher 
 than in the case of Mining. In some towns the 
 number of Engineering students in the classes is 
 4 per cent, and in the case of Machine Drawing 
 Classes in colliery districts it is not uncommon 
 to find 30 or 40 per cent, of the mechanics in 
 attendance. Again, in the Building trades a good 
 teacher of Building Construction may have a large 
 proportion in his class. 
 
 It is considerations of this kind that must 
 determine the character of the curriculum at this 
 stage of evening school education. If the number 
 under instruction is very much larger than will 
 serve to keep up the supply of trained men, then 
 a more elementary scheme of studies with a strong 
 technical element is required. And if the number 
 
54 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 under instruction is more nearly in agreement with 
 the demand for trained men, a more liberal and 
 scientific scheme should be provided. 
 
 It is difficult, however, to draw a sharp line, and 
 to say to one — " You are to remain a workman for 
 the rest of your life," and to another — "You are 
 destined to exercise power and dominion over your 
 fellows." So long as the student is under twenty, 
 it would be rash to predict, from a knowledge of his 
 abilities in the lower grade, his subsequent success 
 in more specifically technical work. If the number 
 of students warrants the establishment of two courses 
 of instruction, what then is to determine who is to 
 attend each ? The choice can hardly be left to the 
 student, who at this stage is rarely imbued with the 
 necessity for a sound basis of general and scientific 
 education. Experience has shown that the title 
 of the "Trade" subject exercises a fascination that 
 cannot be disregarded. 
 
 The solution of this problem appears so difficult 
 that it might be more advisable to adopt one 
 curriculum as a compromise. The privilege of 
 choosing could then be offered later on, and if 
 the excess of the annual technical school product 
 over the annual demand for officials was not very 
 large, this would probably be the most satisfactory 
 plan. But in the face of the number of indeterm- 
 inate factors which enter into the question, the 
 remarks on the curriculum which follow must be 
 regarded as going no further than suggestion. 
 
 The points to be kept in view in drawing up a 
 preparatory course of study for technical students 
 may be shortly stated : — 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 55 
 
 (1.) As the student is only at the commencement 
 of his employment in the workshop, the factory, or 
 the mine, he will not have a sufficient knowledge of 
 the trade to fully appreciate technical teaching. 
 
 (2.) Since he presumably possesses no knowledge 
 of Physical Science, which, from its numerous 
 applications in industry, is essential to a correct 
 understanding of industrial processes, a study of 
 those branches at least which find most frequent 
 application shpuld be included in the curriculum. 
 
 (3.) Since but little progress can be made in 
 technical subjects without some training in 
 Mathematics and Drawing, these subjects are 
 essential. The Drawing is understood to include 
 sketching and geometry. 
 
 The essential subjects, therefore, are Mathematics 
 and Drawing, Physics and Chemistry, and it will be 
 of interest to inquire into the standard. Boys who 
 enter industrial life come from three sources : 
 elementary schools; secondary schools, which lose 
 the majority of their pupils at sixteen ; and larger 
 secondary schools, with a more extended curriculum. 
 The first class is now under consideration, and it 
 seems reasonable to suggest that the preparatory 
 course should endeavour to attain the same level as 
 the average boy from the second type of school in 
 those subjects which are of most direct value in 
 subsequent technical studies. This view finds 
 support in the fact that large numbers of boys from 
 the second type of secondary school enter, e.g., the 
 engineering industry, and it is found that lads with 
 the amount of scientific and mathematical knowledge 
 which even two or three years' attendance at such a 
 
56 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 school enables them to obtain, make good progress 
 in science and technical classes. The Physical 
 Science will include the elements of Mechanics, 
 Heat, and Chemistry. As the students will in 
 general be older than those in secondary schools, 
 and will have the use of books, there should be no 
 difficulty in getting over the ground in two years. 
 Should a laboratory be available, one lesson a week 
 will be all that can be allowed ; but if practical work 
 is not possible, two lessons a week would be 
 appropriate. 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry would cover another 
 two-lesson periods, and this provides work for two 
 full evenings. The third evening could be devoted 
 to Sketching and Reading. This last is the only 
 subject in which it is possible to lift the student out 
 of the street and the epoch in which he lives ; it is 
 the only, or, at any rate, in the hands of a skilful and 
 sympathetic teacher, the best subject through which 
 his mental horizon may be widened and his imagina- 
 tion stimulated. All the others, useful in their way, 
 have yet the narrower object of explaining the events 
 and phenomena of daily life and work. As this is 
 the stage of transition between general and technical 
 education, between the period during which educa- 
 tional ideals may be mainly sought and that at 
 which practical ideals begin to exert influence, it 
 seems desirable to include at least one subject which 
 is neither technical nor, in the narrower sense, 
 scientific. And it is doubtful whether any other 
 could be found to play this part. What has been 
 said in regard to Reading in the Continuation School 
 applies with equal emphasis here. Through this 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL $J 
 
 subject, indefinite though it may be, the pupil may 
 obtain his first introduction to the Public Library, 
 and form habits of self- improvement that no 
 vicissitudes of fortune are able to eradicate. 
 
 So far nothing has been said of Composition. It 
 is assumed, however, that practice in this subject will 
 be obtained incidentally in the working of home 
 exercises ; and it is a matter for regret that such an 
 excellent opportunity is often allowed to pass by. 
 
 Certain objections to the above scheme which 
 present themselves may now be considered. While 
 a large number of Secondary School boys enter 
 engineering works, the number who select the 
 Building trades or Mining is comparatively small — 
 probably not more than a small fraction of i per 
 cent. It may therefore be questioned whether the 
 argument from the Secondary School standard is fair 
 in regard to those industries in which the men who 
 occupy the higher positions have received much more 
 thorough general education than that to which the 
 majority of evening students can lay claim. Against 
 this it may be urged that provision should be made 
 for the student of exceptional ability to advance 
 to any stage his powers may carry him ; and the 
 standard laid down represents the least upon which 
 successful work in a Major Course of Technical 
 Training (Chapter VIII.) could be assured. 1 More- 
 over, schools offering this course in any given area 
 
 1 It is not at all certain that a lavish provision of scholar- 
 ships from Elementary to Secondary Schools will effect a 
 complete separation of brighter children from those of less 
 ability. Natural aptitude may lie dormant for a time, until 
 roused into activity by stress of circumstances or a sympathetic 
 response to environment. 
 
58 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 would be comparatively few in number, and the 
 pupils would be the concentrated intelligence from 
 six, eight, or ten schools of the more elementary 
 type. If schools of the lower grade passed no more 
 than 15 per cent, of their number, it would probably 
 be sufficient if 5 per cent, followed the course under 
 consideration. The remaining 10 per cent, could be 
 dealt with in the following way : — 
 
 The plan would be to arrange a shorter or more 
 elementary course which, while less ambitious than 
 the one given, would still serve as an introduction 
 to the Minor Courses described in Chapter VIII. 
 This might include the subjects already mentioned, 
 treated in i-hour lessons in one year, or 40- 
 minute for two years. In the first case, the second 
 year work would be technical in character ; in the 
 second, technical subjects would be included in both 
 years. A third course for workmen engaged in 
 minor trades, or men whose prospective career 
 makes a smaller demand upon general and scientific 
 knowledge, could be arranged. Considered from 
 the point of view of industrial organisation, the 
 courses would belong to the training for managers, 
 foremen, and workmen respectively. The latter is 
 not strictly preparatory, but technical. It is only 
 possible in cases where a large number of students 
 engaged in one trade are in attendance. The 
 relations between the schemes may be more 
 clearly understood from the tabular forms given 
 below. 
 
 The "trade" subject may be Preliminary Mining, 
 Science of the Workshop (see p. 90), Carpentry, 
 Brickwork and Masonry, etc. 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 
 
 59 
 
 /. — Major Preparatory Course. 
 
 ■First Year. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Practical Mathematics 
 
 Practical Mathematics 
 
 and Geometry. 
 
 and Geometry. 
 
 Reading and Technical 
 
 Reading and Technical 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Experimental Mechan- 
 
 Heat (6 lessons) and 
 
 ics (20 lessons) and 
 
 Chemistry (20 lessons). 
 
 Heat (6 lessons). 
 
 
 Note. — This scheme involves three nights a week, and gives 
 time for Laboratory work in Physical Science. Technical 
 Drawing includes sketching and drawing familiar objects to 
 scale, and simple projection, while plane geometry is associated 
 with Mathematics. 
 
 II.— Minor Preparatory Course, A. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 ^ Technical Arithmetic 
 and Geometry. 
 Reading and Drawing. 
 Elementary Science. 
 
 Technical Drawing. 
 Manual Instruction. 
 "Trade" Subject. 
 
60 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 II — Minor Preparatory Course, B. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Technical Arithmetic 
 and Geometry. 
 
 Reading and Elemen- 
 tary Science. 
 
 Manual Instruction or 
 Trade Subject. 
 
 As in first year. 
 
 III. — Workmen's Course. 
 
 FfRST Year. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Workshop Calculations. 
 Technical Drawing. 
 Trade Subject. 
 
 As in first year. 
 
 In every case it is most essential for educational 
 progress that home-work should be done, and non- 
 compliance with the rule should be as much a reason 
 for exclusion from the benefits of the instruction as 
 avoidable irregularity of attendance. • Promotion from 
 year to year ought to be on a broad and fair basis, 
 and there is good ground for objection to the practice 
 of making an examination the predominant factor. 
 If any local examination is held, it should be 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL ,6l 
 
 set on the teachers' syllabuses by independent ex- 
 aminers, and the questions should have the teachers' 
 approval. The most satisfactory plan for deter- 
 mining promotion would take into account not only 
 the ability to pass a test, but also habits of industry 
 and punctuality which the student may have displayed 
 during the year. A scheme which presents several 
 advantages is as follows : 
 
 ioo marks for maximum attendance. 
 
 ioo „ „ home exercises. 
 
 ioo „ „ a first class at any examination 
 
 that may be prescribed. 
 60 „ „ a second class at that examina- 
 tion. 
 
 This gives a maximum of 300 marks if the exam- 
 ination is counted, or 200 if there is no examination. 
 It would be fair to fix the minimum for promotion 
 in any case at 150. 
 
 Before closing this chapter, it may be desirable 
 to state more clearly the conclusions which have 
 been instrumental in determining the suggestions. 
 They are : 
 
 (1.) That there is in Continuation Schools a 
 minority of 40 per cent, who have serious aims 
 and possess fair capacity. 
 
 (2.) That the interests of this 40 per cent are, 
 from the point of view of Technical Education, 
 paramount. 1 
 
 (3.) That since regularity of attendance is essential 
 
 1 " Recreative " evening schools are outside the scope of the 
 book. 
 
62 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 for educational efficiency, this regularity must be 
 secured at any cost. 
 
 (4.) That regularity of attendance may be attained 
 in three ways : (i.) By offering encouragement in the 
 form of scholarships, prizes, etc. ; (ii.) by the influ- 
 ence of parents and employers ; (iii.) by exercising 
 severe measures — even to exclusion — in cases of 
 irregularity. 1 
 
 (5.) That although repressive measures might 
 involve the closing of individual schools, the great 
 bulk of Evening Technical Education (at any rate 
 in the industries considered) is conducted in thickly 
 populated urban areas which are served by a con- 
 siderable number of schools, and it would be better 
 to have five schools with an average attendance of 
 80 per cent, than ten schools with one of 40 per cent. 
 
 1 To assume that this would kill evening work is to deny the 
 existence of the nucleus of students who are in earnest. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS OF 
 EVENING TECHNICAL CLASSES 
 
 A. Preliminary Training. 
 
 In the preceding chapter stress has been laid on 
 the necessity for providing preliminary training for 
 subsequent scientific and technical studies, and what 
 was said as to the effect of a few years' absence 
 from school upon those who have left at an early 
 age applies with equal force here. 
 
 The difficulty of dealing with students who have 
 only a limited vocabulary, who have forgotten how 
 to draw, whose ability to write legibly and quickly 
 has vanished, is best realised by those who have to 
 teach in classes mainly composed of such students. 
 As, moreover, explanations of processes require, even 
 at the outset, some knowledge of Physical Science, 
 as methods of solving problems require some know- 
 ledge of Mathematics or of Geometrical Construction, 
 this knowledge should have been gained beforehand. 
 So that if a fair standard of work is to be maintained 
 in the Technical School, the standard of the Ele- 
 mentary School, even when freshly gained, is for 
 many purposes insufficient. 
 
 Not only has the lack of preparation on the part 
 
 of evening technical students been reiterated year 
 
 after year by teachers, but the Reports of the 
 
 63 
 
64 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Examiners of the City and Guilds of London 
 Institute, and of the Board of Education, have 
 borne witness to the unpreparedness of candidates 
 for examination. The supply of students from the 
 Secondary Schools, established in great numbers 
 during the past few years, has had its effect in 
 diminishing the volume of complaint. So long as 
 teachers could get a fair proportion of students able 
 to follow the instruction, they have been more satis- 
 fied ; the institution of a preliminary grade in certain 
 City and Guilds subjects has deterred the weaker 
 students from attempting these examinations ; and 
 the abolition of the influence of success in examina- 
 tions in the elementary stage of subjects under the 
 Board of Education, in determining the grant, has 
 obviated the necessity of presenting students who 
 had little chance of passing. But even if public 
 attention has not been drawn so closely to the 
 matter in recent years, there seems to be little need 
 for congratulation. The standard of requirement 
 continues to rise with the spread of knowledge 
 and of facilities for obtaining it, and it is more 
 than ever desirable that students should not only 
 have had a better general education before joining 
 technical classes, but that this should have 
 included the elements of Physical Science. 
 
 However, there are considerable differences in. the 
 educational standard of the students in different 
 localities. In the larger towns — especially those 
 which are engineering centres — secondary education 
 has been more rapidly and extensively developed 
 than in smaller places, and in the neighbourhood of 
 other industries. The engineering classes in such 
 
DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS 65 
 
 places may have from 30 to 40 per cent, of their 
 students who have been at least two years at a 
 Secondary School. 1 Classes in Mining and Building 
 Construction, on the other hand, contain a very small 
 proportion of students of this type, and these are 
 generally pupils articled to a Colliery Engineer or 
 an Architect. In the case of Metallurgy, almost the 
 only evening students are those engaged in assay 
 offices and works' laboratories : these come, as a 
 rule, from Secondary Schools. 
 
 Sound educational work is obviously impossible 
 either where the standard of general education of 
 the students is low, or where it is mixed, and 
 indiscriminate admission to the classes is therefore 
 responsible for placing the Evening Technical School 
 at a considerable disadvantage as an educational 
 institution. Opposition to schemes for regulating 
 the admission of students arises from two causes: 
 In the first place, there is the opinion which is 
 unfortunately too prevalent, that if an institution can 
 be filled, it is bound to do good work. To put it 
 in other words, the popularity of an institution is 
 regarded as a measure of its educational value. In 
 the second place, there is a widespread unwillingness 
 to exclude any student who desires to join the classes. 
 So long as he pays the fee, he is not only admitted, 
 but made welcome. Far from excluding students, 
 all sorts of inducements have been held out to them, 
 
 1 At Lincoln Municipal Technical School the proportion of 
 students who have been at a Higher Elementary or Secondary 
 School for two years is 36 per cent., and in a letter to the writer 
 the headmaster expresses the opinion that in five years it 
 will be 50 per cent. 
 
66 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 whether this arose from the desire for numbers or in 
 order to keep a moribund class alive. It cannot be 
 too strongly emphasised that a full institution is 
 often filled with mediocrity, and a pressed student is 
 rarely a good student. 
 
 There is to be discerned, too, the underlying idea 
 that Technical Education is intended to benefit 
 individuals. It arises from the popular notion that 
 it exists for the purpose of making a man a better 
 workman. The view advanced in Chapter I., 
 however, is quite different, and regards the matter as 
 one of the essentials of industrial progress. The 
 benefit is for the community. If the individual is 
 suitably equipped for taking full advantage of the 
 instruction, he may benefit personally, but quite 
 incidentally. 
 
 The fact that Continuation Schools have in a 
 number of cases hitherto been organised in complete 
 independence of the Evening Technical School has 
 probably had some effect in delaying the establish- 
 ment of a standard of admission. The infirmities of 
 the former institution were fully discussed in the 
 preceding chapter, and there is little doubt that they 
 gave rise to a certain amount of distrust — in many 
 cases undeserved — which was felt both by those who 
 controlled technical education, and by the students 
 themselves. It has often been useless, as the writer 
 knows from experience, to advise students to preface 
 their technical studies by a period in the Continuation 
 School. They would join the technical classes or 
 nothing. The rapid and vigorous reorganisation of 
 these schools which is now taking place, however, will 
 enable them to win the respect of managers, technical 
 
DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS 67 
 
 teachers, and students. The institution of a standard 
 of admission to evening technical schools, examples 
 of which will be noted in Chapter IV., will result in a 
 distribution of the students over the two institutions 
 in such a way as will enable both to carry out their 
 true functions in the educational machinery of the 
 country. 
 
 B. Variations in Age. 
 
 One of the most serious obstacles to the soundness 
 of Evening Technical Education is the extreme 
 variability in age. It is not at all uncommon to 
 find students ranging from fourteen years or less to 
 forty years or more in the same class. Such students 
 differ much in their power of assimilating various 
 subjects. The man who has spent years at his trade 
 readily grasps practical details, but in his ability to 
 sketch, in dexterity with mathematical instruments, 
 and in his power of working numerical examples, he 
 may be far inferior to his younger classmate. On 
 the other hand, the immature mind and limited 
 experience of the younger student render him quite 
 unable to grasp the practical bearing of the teaching, 
 the greater part of which fails to go home. The 
 weaker members of both classes of students soon 
 meet with difficulties that are too great for them, 
 and the attendance falls in consequence. 
 
 Of those who remain, the man is generally the 
 more serious, but makes slower progress owing to 
 the long years during which his faculties have lain 
 dormant. He is working with a purpose. Either he 
 feels a higher position than that of a mere workman 
 
68 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 to be within his grasp, or he may be already 
 occupying a position of minor responsibility, and 
 sees that one factor necessary for promotion is 
 theoretical training. Against all his zeal he may 
 have to pit the distracting cares of a family, the 
 necessity of working overtime, and a hundred and 
 one adverse circumstances from which the youth is 
 free. 
 
 The difficulty of teaching a class composed of very 
 young lads and much older men is very great. As a 
 consequence of the different characteristics noted, the 
 trade teacher often talks over the heads of the young 
 ones ; and the professional teacher, used to younger 
 students, fails to get into touch with the older ones. 
 This difficulty becomes more pronounced when a 
 course of instruction (Chapter VIII.) is prescribed. 
 
 Extreme variation is met with in some classes to a 
 much greater extent than in others. Mining classes 
 contain a large proportion of older men ; Building 
 classes may or may not do so. Classes in Engineering 
 subjects probably exhibit the greatest uniformity, 
 but Machine Drawing in colliery districts is sometimes 
 attended by students whose ages cover a wide range. 
 It is interesting to note that the number of men over 
 thirty who are attending the Municipal School of 
 Technology, Manchester, is about 10 per cent, of the 
 whole. At theLincoln Municipal Technical School the 
 percentage of students over twenty-one is 20. The 
 percentage of students of both sexes over twenty-one 
 in all evening classes throughout the country is 25. 
 
 There seems to be little doubt that the proper place 
 for lads up to sixteen or seventeen years of age is the 
 Continuation or Preparatory School. The nature of 
 
DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS 69 
 
 the subjects and methods of teaching are alike more 
 suitable to their age and experience. The loss in 
 numbers to the technical classes proper could not be 
 very considerable, as the proportion of students under 
 fifteen is only 22 per cent, in all evening schools in 
 the country, and it is probable that most of these are 
 already attending the school of lower grade. 1 
 
 Taking all things into consideration, it may be 
 asserted, without much fear of contradiction, that the 
 best work in Technical Education can only be done 
 by those between the ages of sixteen and twenty- 
 four. The older men are seriously handicapped 
 by long years in which but little intellectual 
 exercise has been indulged in, and their presence 
 in considerable numbers in some districts adds 
 to the difficulties which would meet any attempt 
 to organise systematic curricula. They cannot be 
 so easily persuaded that their standard of attain- 
 ment is met by the continuation or preparatory 
 course, and they would not be so ready to strive 
 after that scientific knowledge which the increasing 
 applications of science to industry render every year 
 of more importance. The adoption of methods which 
 led to the exclusion of a certain proportion of them 
 from the classes would not reduce the demand for 
 trained men, while the reorganisation of the system 
 which seems likely to take place in the next few years 
 would lead to a greater number of well-prepared 
 younger men in their stead. No one desires to place 
 difficulties in the way of those who desire to learn, 
 but cases are bound to arise from time to time in 
 which the interests of an individual or a group of 
 ;r * Some individual classes would be very hard hit. 
 
?6 TECHNICAL EDUCATION *N EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 individuals have to be sacrificed in the interests of the 
 community. This is one of the penalties of progress, 
 and one which requires organising skill, foresight, and 
 tact, if hardship is to be prevented. 
 
 C. Irregularity of Attendance. 
 
 While the average attendance in science and 
 technical classes is not so low as in continuation 
 schools, it is still a matter for serious consideration. 
 In spite of the fact that the majority of the subjects 
 taught have a bearing more or less direct upon the 
 occupation of the students, anything over 70 per 
 cent, must be considered good, and it is often much 
 lower than this. A discussion of the question must 
 distinguish between students who attend from time 
 to time throughout the session, and those who 
 attend regularly at first, and fall away completely 
 from the end of the third or fourth week up to 
 Christmas. 
 
 The first type of student may be one who has 
 excellent capacity, but suffers from sheer laziness, 
 and the best way to treat him is by excluding 
 him from the classes if he can give no satisfactory 
 explanation of his absence on two successive 
 occasions. This course either drives him away 
 from the class altogether, or stimulates him into 
 activity. On the other hand — and this is more 
 likely — the student is unable to attend regularly 
 on account of his employment. Overtime and the 
 night-shift are serious difficulties which present 
 themselves in many districts, but they affect the 
 older men to a greater extent than the younger 
 ones. Examples of the attitude of the employers 
 
DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS 7 1 
 
 described in Chapter VI. show that they are not 
 unwilling, as a rule, to afford facilities for their 
 workmen — especially for their apprentices — to attend 
 evening classes ; and this is the only way of dealing 
 with this particular aspect of the problem. 
 
 The constant fall in attendance that takes place 
 after the first few weeks may be attributed to any 
 of the causes that tend to decrease the efficiency 
 of the instruction. First and foremost must be 
 put the personality of the teacher. The man who 
 can keep a class of evening students together 
 under existing conditions must be an exceptional 
 man. He must know his subject, know his students, 
 be familiar with the work upon which they are 
 engaged. He must have some idea of the ultimate 
 careers of the majority of his students, and a just 
 appreciation of the function of his class in the 
 school, and of the school in the industrial and 
 educational machinery of the neighbourhood. 
 
 The second cause is the indiscriminate admission 
 of students. Those who are inadequately prepared, 
 or who are too young to follow the instruction, 
 gradually fall off as fresh difficulties in the subject 
 present themselves. In his efforts to keep such 
 students in the class, the teacher sometimes neglects 
 the more capable members, and this may lead to 
 further loss. 
 
 A third cause, which is not dissimilar in its 
 operation, is the lack of rational order and 
 grouping of the subjects of instruction. If the 
 logical arrangements which are possible are departed 
 from, difficulties are introduced of , exactly the 
 same character as in the case of students whose 
 
72 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 general education is deficient. This matter will 
 be illustrated later. 
 
 The fourth cause is the want of direct relation 
 between the instruction and the needs and capacity 
 of the students, which forms the subject-matter of 
 the next section. 
 
 The solution of the attendance problem is a 
 joint matter. The education authorities must 
 exercise care in the selection of teachers, institute 
 a standard of admission, organise their curricula ; 
 and they must look to the employers not only to 
 remove disabilities, but also to give encourage- 
 ment to theoretical knowledge, and to the habits 
 of punctuality and diligence which the school 
 regulations will be framed to secure. 
 
 D. Connection between Classes and the Special 
 Requirements of Students. 
 
 An objection is sometimes urged against evening 
 technical instruction on the ground that it has not a 
 sufficiently direct bearing on the occupations of the 
 students. The latter naturally desire to learn what 
 is of immediate benefit to them, and if the first few 
 lessons do not seem to have any relation to their 
 daily work, they are discouraged. Moreover, as some 
 of the students may be engaged in a particular 
 department of the works, or in a work devoted to 
 the production of a speciality, the teacher may find a 
 difficulty in selecting illustrations which appeal with 
 equal force to all members of the class. Thus, in 
 classes in engineering subjects the students may be 
 employed in two or more works, manufacturing 
 stationary, locomotive, or marine engines ; mining, 
 
DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS 73 
 
 chemical, textile or agricultural machinery ; or 
 machine tools. And while the general principles 
 underlying all these are the same, there is much to 
 be said for the view that the instruction should 
 commence with the consideration of familiar 
 examples, and that its scope should be widened as 
 the students' knowledge of the principles becomes 
 greater. 
 
 The difficulty is perhaps more apparent when it is 
 called to mind that the students may be drawn from 
 the pattern shop, foundry, smith's shop, fitting shop, 
 turnery, boiler shop, and drawing office. And it is 
 still greater when the class comprises in addition 
 students who, while not engaged in the manufacture 
 of machinery, desire to obtain some knowledge of its 
 theory and construction, on account of its extensive 
 application in their own industry. 
 
 In the teaching of applied subjects, like applied 
 mechanics, machine construction, and steam, there is 
 undoubtedly much to be gained by intelligently 
 grouping students who have similar practical 
 experience upon which to draw for illustrations. 
 The advantage is greater in the earlier stages, and 
 there are probably many cases in which the adoption 
 of the method would not only be accompanied by 
 increased efficiency, but also by more regular attend- 
 ance. When once the initial difficulties have been 
 overcome, the students should be encouraged, as a 
 rule, to take a wider view of the subject, and those 
 whose occupations differ considerably might be 
 taught together. At the same time, some exceptions 
 may be desirable, if the number of students permits 
 such an arrangement to be economically carried out 
 
?4 tECHNICAL EDtCATtON IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 An example may be given in the case of boiler- 
 makers, for whom a special course of drawing seems 
 to be required. It is noteworthy that while the City 
 and Guilds of London Institute has drawh up a 
 syllabus for this class of student, there are only 
 three registered teachers of the subject in the 
 country. 
 
 In the case of Building, the only subject 
 generally taught is that on the lines of the Board 
 of Education syllabus. While this is suitable, and 
 indeed essential for all engaged in the industry, 
 some specific instruction in the separate branches 
 is very important. Yet classes in " Carpentry and 
 Joinery," " Brickwork and Masonry," are compara- 
 tively scarce. On the other hand, Plumbers almost 
 invariably receive specific instruction in their craft, 
 and only in rare cases attend the class in which 
 the industry is considered as a whole. The same 
 differences of prospective career exist here as in 
 Engineering. 
 
 The Metallurgical industry presents similar pro- 
 blems. There are, broadly, two classes of men for 
 whom training is required, viz. : Metallurgical 
 Chemists and Metallurgical Engineers. The only 
 suitable subjects taught in evening technical classes 
 are Metallurgy, according to the syllabus of the 
 Board of Education, and Iron and Steel according 
 to the syllabus of the City and Guilds of London 
 Institute. The former not only encourages a study 
 of the general principles which underlie Metallurgical 
 operations, but also, in its arrangement in sections, 
 recognises to some extent the highly specialised 
 character of the industry. The syllabus in Iron 
 
bii'ificuLTiEs ANb shortcomings yi 
 
 and Steel is admirably adapted for those engaged 
 in that branch of the industry, but classes in the 
 subject are rare. Notwithstanding the importance 
 of furnace construction to the Metallurgist, only 
 one or two schools provide special instruction for 
 this, and it cannot be said that either Machine 
 Drawing or Building Construction, as usually taught, 
 contain what is necessary. 
 
 The consideration of Mining Education raises 
 the general question, whether the machinery user 
 requires the same kind of instruction as those 
 who are engaged in its manufacture. In the 
 latter case, it is usual to confine attention to 
 principles of design and construction. The man 
 who uses machinery, however, seems to require 
 a less minute treatment of these matters and 
 more general treatment of a greater number of 
 appliances. The colliery manager, for example, 
 is more closely concerned with the efficiency 
 of various types of pumps, and their suitability 
 under certain conditions, and with the various 
 methods of haulage and transmission of power, 
 than with the statics of structures and mechanism. 
 Is, then, the instruction in applied mechanics given 
 to students engaged in engineering works equally 
 suitable for him ? The writer ventures to think 
 not; but the subject is one which might give rise 
 to a considerable difference of opinion. It may 
 be pointed out, for instance, that these questions 
 fall under the heading of Mining, and are dealt 
 with in the class in that subject. While this is 
 acknowledged, it may be doubted whether the 
 treatment is adequate for the purpose in view, 
 
?6 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 which is to enable the colliery manager to under- 
 stand the results of experimental work so thoroughly 
 as to help him to make a choice when laying 
 down new plant, and from time to time to assure 
 himself by tests that such machinery is working 
 with economy. For though this need may not 
 be so apparent now, there are not wanting signs 
 that in the future Coal Mining will have to be 
 carried out under increased severity of competition 
 and less favourable conditions than obtain at the 
 present time. And it may be confidently predicted 
 that the greatest advances in colliery working 
 during the next twenty years will be due to 
 developments in the application of machinery, and 
 a greater regard to its economical employment. 
 
 While the difficulties considered in this section 
 are often unavoidable, owing either to the com- 
 paratively small number of students in attendance, 
 or to the extraordinary division of labour, their 
 existence has been the means of discouraging 
 students, and alienating the sympathy of employers. 
 Cases are not wanting in which more careful 
 attention to the points indicated would react 
 favourably upon the growth and utility of evening 
 technical schools. 
 
 E. Choice of Subjects. 
 
 One of the most remarkable features of Evening 
 Technical Education in this country is the perfect 
 freedom allowed to students as to choice of study. 
 For years, beyond an injunction here and there to 
 those who proposed to join a class in (say) Machine 
 Drawing, to join also the class in Geometry, no 
 
DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS 77 
 
 attempt has been made by technical teachers 
 to exercise that discretion and influence over 
 the pupils' studies which is the schoolmaster's 
 prerogative. 
 
 The purely elective character of the University 
 course in England and elsewhere 1 does not discount 
 this criticism of Evening Schools, because in the 
 former the students' studies are prescribed to a 
 certain extent by the examinations in the faculty 
 he has chosen, while in our Evening Schools the 
 examinations are quite individual. 
 
 The result has been that students who cannot be 
 supposed to know what they want have joined the 
 class whose title seems to imply the most direct 
 bearing on their trade, and have resolutely refused 
 to join classes in subjects which are indispensable 
 in explaining the "trade" subject. Students in 
 Machine Drawing and Building Construction have 
 declined to join classes in Geometry, students in 
 Applied Mathematics and Steam have resolutely 
 turned their faces from the attractions of Mathe- 
 matics, with disastrous results to their progress in 
 the selected subject. Teachers of Chemistry have 
 been obliged to devote half the first session to 
 Arithmetic and Elementary Heat, only to find when 
 they had got over the mere rudiments that their 
 students could never reach the higher stages without 
 the help — direct and indirect — that a knowledge of 
 Physics gives. Students present themselves for 
 instruction in Metallurgy in absolute ignorance of 
 
 1 See Technics for Feb., 1904. Professor Dalby quotes with 
 approval the freedom which the German University student 
 enjoys. 
 
78 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 the Chemistry even of air and water, and without 
 any knowledge of Drawing or Furnace Construction. 
 The following table gives the number of students 
 who sat for examination in certain science subjects 
 in 1902 : 
 
 Subject. Number. 
 
 I. Practical, Plane, and Solid Geometry, 2,997 
 
 II. Machine Construction and Drawing, 8,345 
 
 III. Building Construction, - - - 6,366 
 
 IV. Naval Architecture, ... 922 
 V. Mathematics, 12,564 
 
 V.p Practical Mathematics, - - - 606 
 
 Vl.tf Theoretical Mechanics (Solids), - 1,660 
 
 Yl.b Theoretical Mechanics (Fluids), - 766 
 
 VII. Applied Mechanics, ... 2,169 
 
 VIII. Sound, Light, and Heat (Elementary), 678 
 
 VIII.* Heat (Advd. and Hons.), - - 882 
 
 IX. Magnetism and Electricity, - - 4,573 
 
 X. Inorganic Chemistry (Theoretical), - 7,279 
 
 X./> Inorganic Chemistry (Practical), - 4,664 
 
 XVIII. Principles of Mining, - - 1,994 
 
 XIX. Metallurgy (Theoretical), - - 288 
 
 XlX.p Metallurgy (Practical), - - 245 
 
 XXII. Steam, 2,136 
 
 These figures, though they include day as well as 
 evening students, but well repay analysis. Consider 
 first Machine Construction and Drawing, Building 
 Construction, Naval Architecture, and Principles of 
 Mining, and assume that all students in Applied 
 Mechanics and Steam are taking one or other of 
 these. Let it be granted that such students require 
 
DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS 79 
 
 instruction in Mathematics and Geometry. In round 
 numbers we have : 
 
 Number of students taking Machine Con- 
 struction and Drawing, Building Con- 
 struction, Naval Architecture, and 
 Principles of Mining, ... 17,000 
 
 Number of students taking Mathematics, - 1 3,000 
 Number of students taking Geometry, - 3,000 
 
 Allowing for the fact that students in Machine 
 Construction and Drawing, Building Construction, 
 Naval Architecture, and Principles of Mining, are 
 almost entirely engaged in the respective industries, 
 while students in Mathematics are not necessarily 
 so engaged, the disparity is considerable. The case 
 of Geometry is serious. This subject has for 
 over thirty years been compulsory for Whitworth 
 scholarships and exhibitions, and the prospectus of 
 every technical school of note insists on a knowledge 
 of Geometry as a basis of successful work in the 
 subjects compared. If this regulation is not honoured 
 more in the breach than in the observance, the state 
 of affairs in the rest of the country must be bad 
 indeed. In fact, the writer's own observations lead 
 to the belief that teachers of this subject are 
 becoming scarce, and the following figures showing 
 the number of papers worked during three years fully 
 
 account for it : 
 
 1900. 1901. 1902.1 
 Number of papers in Subject I. 
 
 worked, - - - 11,628 4,691 2,997 
 
 1 Examinations in the elementary stage of science subjects 
 became optional in 1901. The percentage drop in papers 
 worked in all subjects was 38, in Geometry, 60 per cent. 
 
80 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Examine next the case of Steam. Notwith- 
 standing the fact that the syllabus includes a 
 considerable amount of Heat, few will deny that a 
 previous acquaintance with that subject is desirable 
 for rapid progress. The total number of students 
 examined in Elementary Sound, Light, and Heat, 
 or in the Advanced or Honours stages of Heat, was 
 roughly 1,500. Probably not more than half these 
 were engineering students. Yet the number sitting 
 for examination in Steam was more than 2,000. 
 Allow here for the students who have obtained some 
 knowledge of the fundamental subject by attendance 
 at a secondary school, and that still leaves at least 
 half the examinees with an unsatisfactory foundation.' 
 
 Again, by far the most popular subject in 
 Physics is Electricity and Magnetism. No real pro- 
 gress can be made in this subject without some 
 knowledge of Mathematics, Theoretical Mechanics, 
 and Chemistry ; no other subject requires such clear 
 conceptions of energy in order that accurate notions 
 may be developed. Thus : 2 
 
 " One of the most serious mistakes in the Science 
 teaching that is generally made is the choice of 
 subject. That most commonly taken is Electricity 
 and Magnetism, which is naturally very unsuitable 
 for students with no previous knowledge of Science; 
 The teacher, finding himself hampered by the fact 
 that his students know nothing of the fundamental 
 principles of Elementary Physics and Chemistry, 
 tends to fall back on generalities ; his teaching 
 
 1 This is, of course, wholly apart from the fact that both 
 types of student are found in the same class. 
 
 2 Board of Education General Reports on Higher Education 
 for 1902, p. 33. 
 
DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS 8 1 
 
 becomes inexact, and the giving of information of 
 a more or less scientific character does duty for 
 Science teaching." 
 
 Twenty years ago there might have been some 
 justification for an elementary descriptive treatment 
 of Magnetism and Electricity. Little or nothing was 
 then known of the electro-magnetic field, which 
 concerned comparatively elementary students. But 
 progress has been enormous, and dynamical concep- 
 tions have permeated the whole subject. The standard 
 of the examinations has increased with the spread of 
 facilities for instruction and the multiplication of 
 text-books ; and to-day no student who aims at 
 exact knowledge can afford to regard it as an 
 independent subject. The figures on page 78 are 
 not without significance. 
 
 The unsuitability of choice is not only a common 
 result of taking up too few subjects, but occurs also 
 when the student has filled up his time pretty fully. 
 The student with too narrow a training has his 
 labours considerably increased, and is bound to 
 suffer from want of exactness and definition in his. 
 ideas. On the other hand, too wide a curriculum 
 leads to superficiality, and, occasionally, to mental 
 and physical breakdown. How much an evening 
 student can accomplish in any session depends upon 
 previous education, ability, and strength of purpose. 
 How much he can do with impunity — without serious 
 injury to health — is another matter, and one not 
 easily estimated before it is too late. In the pro- 
 gramme of. the Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, 
 (p. 55) it is stated that : " It has been assumed that 
 an earnest student will be willing to devote three, 
 
 F 
 
82 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 or in some instances, four nights a week to study 
 during the winter months." 
 
 For the general run of students three nights a 
 week may be regarded as a maximum, and if satis- 
 factory progress is to be made, the greatest care is 
 needed in organising the curriculum. There must 
 be rational grouping and order of arrangement of 
 subjects ; the preliminary training of the students 
 should be known exactly, in order to prevent the 
 teacher groping in the dark ; the actual work on 
 which the student is engaged in the daytime should 
 be kept in view, and account should be taken of his 
 prospective career. 
 
 It is not intended to imply that these abuses exist 
 everywhere — that there is no active control of the 
 curriculum. There are indeed numerous instances 
 in which heads of technical schools exercise a 
 beneficent influence, and map out each student's 
 work with admirable care. But there are hundreds 
 of places in the country where there are no head- 
 masters, and many others where the headship is 
 nominal. In these cases each teacher is a "law 
 unto himself." There is no co-operation between 
 teachers, still less is there correlation of subjects. 
 Every subject stands on its own basis. There is 
 no guarantee of adequate preparation, no rational 
 order and grouping, and nothing but an attenuated, 
 ghostly caricature of a curriculum. For example: 
 "Even in the same town and under the same 
 Committee, one finds odd classes taken by inde- 
 pendent teachers, who are only responsible individu- 
 ally to the Committee. There is no one to advise 
 students what course to take, and indeed, the subjects 
 
DIFFICULTIES AND SHORTCOMINGS 83 
 
 in which instruction is given depend on the teachers 
 locally available. To this absence of direct control 
 is due rivalry between classes in subjects which should 
 appeal to similar types of students, and even the 
 instinct of self-preservation does not prevent two or 
 three classes in different subjects, each of which 
 should be attended by the same students, being 
 held at the same hour on the same evening. The 
 distribution of classes amongst several schools in the 
 same town is frequently due to want of adequate 
 control and rival interests. 
 
 " Such distribution of classes leads to duplication 
 of apparatus and waste of money ; e.g., a piece of 
 apparatus is procured for illustration of Physiography; 
 it is equally useful for Mechanics, or Building Con- 
 struction, or Applied Mechanics, but these classes are 
 in different buildings, under independent teachers, 
 so each must have a similar piece of apparatus. 
 
 "As an example of lack of organisation, it may 
 be mentioned that in one town there are eighteen 
 classes in various subjects held at six different 
 schools, and though in the centre of the iron 
 industry, Metallurgy is not one- of the subjects. 
 The extreme distance between any two of the 
 schools is half- an -hour's walk. Classes in Practi- 
 cal Mathematics, Building Construction, Applied 
 Mechanics, and Steam are held at approximately 
 the same hour on the same evening; the most 
 central and comfortable school is only used for 
 three subjects ; though there is a good chemical 
 laboratory there, and suitable rooms for Art instruc- 
 tion, the former subject is taught elsewhere in a 
 laboratory cut out of half a chapel, and the latter 
 
84 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 in a basement room, used in the daytime for Manual 
 Instruction." 1 
 
 This is a picture more or less true for scores of 
 places. They are not schools, but mere segrega- 
 tions of classes, lacking in unity of aim and design, 
 in economy of money, time, and effort, bringing 
 technical education into disrepute, permitting the 
 growth of vested interests, and constituting a serious 
 stumbling-block in the path of progress. 
 
 1 Board of Education Report, 1901, pp. 28, 29. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 TENDENCIES IN EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 If any justification is required in support of the 
 criticisms in the last chapter, it is to be found in 
 tendencies to their removal which are exhibited to 
 a greater or less extent by all the more important 
 Technical Schools. It will be convenient to describe 
 these under the titles : Admission Standard and 
 Age ; Adaptation of the Instruction to the Special 
 Requirements of Industry ; and Organised Courses 
 of Instruction. 
 
 A. Admission Standard and Age. 
 
 The evil which results from inadequate prepara- 
 tion is being grappled with in one of two ways. 
 Either the student is referred definitely to the 
 Continuation School, unless he can show that he 
 possesses the necessary qualifications, or preliminary 
 courses are held in the Technical School itself. The 
 following examples show how in one or another of 
 these ways an effort is being made to secure more 
 satisfactory material. 
 
 At St. Helens, a compulsory preliminary course 
 has been in operation for some years, and though 
 the innovation was accompanied by a reduction in 
 the number of new students enrolled, it has been 
 
 85 
 
86 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 amply justified by increased efficiency. The subjects 
 are Mathematics, Geometry, Elementary Science, 
 and English. 
 
 Rochdale has introduced a similar obligatory 
 course in Mathematics, English, Drawing, Physics, 
 and Chemistry. 
 
 The Blackburn Technical School held an entrance 
 examination in September, 1904, which is com- 
 pulsory for all those who do not hold scholarships 
 from the higher division of the Continuation Schools. 
 Candidates for admission are examined in English, 
 Arithmetic, Mensuration, Algebra, and Geometrical 
 Drawing. 
 
 Stockport provides a preliminary course in Arith- 
 metic, Freehand and Geometrical Drawing, and 
 Elementary Science, and students are only excused 
 if they can pass an entrance examination in these 
 subjects. 
 
 At Liverpool, students are recommended to join 
 the branch preparatory classes or the Continuation 
 Schools before proceeding to the Technical School. 
 
 Students at Huddersfield are advised to take a 
 course comprising Freehand and Model Drawing, 
 Arithmetic and Mensuration, and Practical Geometry; 
 at Derby the subjects are Mathematics, Machine 
 Drawing, and Geometry. 
 
 Swindon suggests a preliminary course in Practical 
 Mathematics, Practical Geometry, and Practical 
 Mechanics. 
 
 Bradford has arranged a preliminary course for 
 Engineering students in Mathematics, Geometry, 
 and Drawing (with workshop practice if desired). 
 
 West Ham provides several courses. Thus 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 87 
 
 students engaged in Mechanical and Civil Engineer- 
 ing, Naval Architecture, Foundry Work, and 
 Building, are recommended to do Preliminary 
 Practical Mathematics and Technical Drawing; 
 for those engaged in Electrical Engineering and 
 Applied Chemistry, a class in Preliminary Physics 
 is suggested in addition. 
 
 The standard of admission to the Manchester 
 Municipal School of Technology is the Seventh 
 of the Elementary School. In some cases where 
 special preparatory knowledge is required, students 
 must show that they are able to follow the 
 instruction. 
 
 At Preston, students are recommended to attend 
 the Continuation School unless they have a sound 
 knowledge of the three R's. 
 
 In certain subjects at West Hartlepool, students 
 are required to show that they possess the special 
 knowledge which is necessary to enable them to 
 follow the work, while Rutherford College, New- 
 castle-on-Tyne, follows the old plan of specifying 
 certain requirements in connection with each subject 
 of instruction. 
 
 No definite standard appears to be set up at 
 Bristol. The Continuation School Scheme was 
 described in Chapter II. 
 
 It may be noted that while there is considerable 
 diversity of opinion as to what constitutes a complete 
 preliminary course for technical students, there is 
 agreement on certain essentials. Thus the nine 
 cases given above, in which the subjects are specified, 
 include Arithmetic, Mensuration, Mathematics, and 
 some form of Drawing. Physics, Chemistry, or 
 
88 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Elementary Science only occur in four schemes. 
 English would probably be an invariable constituent 
 of courses in Continuation Schools, and appears in 
 three of the courses mentioned above, which are 
 held in Technical Schools. A general discussion 
 of essentials has been given in Chapter II. 
 
 Comment has already been made upon the 
 variability of age in evening technical classes. The 
 lower limit imposed by the Board of Education, 
 provided the student has left school, is twelve. 
 While at present there is no uniformity in the 
 regulations of the schools on this point, there is 
 an indication of unwillingness to conform to the 
 minimum. At Birmingham, students must be 
 thirteen ; at Brighton, fifteen ; at Sheffield, Bristol, 
 and Bradford, sixteen. In the latter place, an 
 exception is made in favour of students who have 
 passed through the preparatory district textile 
 classes. There can be no doubt that but little 
 serious technical instruction can be given to students 
 under sixteen years of age. 
 
 B. Tendencies towards Adaptation to Industrial 
 Requirements. 
 
 Until quite recently classes throughout the 
 country have been conducted in accordance with 
 the syllabuses of the central examining bodies. 
 The growing specialisation of industry and the 
 development of new manufactures have rendered 
 new subjects necessary, and where these have not 
 been introduced, the gap between the classes and 
 the needs of neighbouring industries has .become 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 89 
 
 Avider. In other cases the additions to syllabuses 
 issued by central bodies (e.g., Building Construction) 
 have been met by special classes in which instruction 
 has been given to meet new requirements. Some of 
 the innovations may be briefly noticed. 
 
 At University College, Sheffield, there is a course 
 on Machine Tool Work, which deals with those 
 matters which a man may spend years in the shops 
 without learning. Students are not admitted unless 
 they have (a) been in the works for at least three 
 years, and have been engaged in working machine 
 tools during a portion of that time, or can pass 
 an examination in vice - work and the simple 
 manipulations of machine tools; (b) have attended 
 science classes for at least one year previously and 
 obtained a certificate in Machine Drawing, or can 
 show that they possess equivalent knowledge. 
 
 The syllabus is as follows : 
 
 The cutting of spur, bevel, worm, and other kinds 
 of wheels in the milling or planing machine. 
 
 The making of formed cutters for wheels and twist 
 drills. Making of forming tools for lathe work, or 
 work of an irregular shape. 
 
 The making of universal and independent 
 chucks, drill chucks, Morse taper drill sockets, 
 lathe arbors. 
 
 The making of spiral, angular, and T-slot cutters, 
 end mills, counterbores, twist drill cutters, twist drills, 
 parallel and taper reamers. 
 
 Grinding twist drills, spiral, angular, and T-slot 
 cutters, reamers, hard steel mandrels, arbors, 
 spindles, etc. 
 
go TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 The making of jigs for drilling, milling, and 
 grinding machines for repetition work. 
 
 Practice in the use of the hexagon turret lathe. 
 Making, grinding, and setting tools for turret lathe. 
 Turning repetition formed work up to 2 in. in 
 diameter and 27 in. in length. 
 
 Practice in the use of limit and other gauges. 
 
 Testing accuracy of work in the lathe, planing, 
 drilling, and grinding machines. 
 
 Testing truth of lathe arbors and centres, drilling 
 machines, and planing machines. 
 
 The following syllabus of work is being carried 
 out at the Leicester Municipal Technical School : 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 COMMON WORKSHOP MATERIALS. 
 
 Cast and malleable cast iron, wrought iron and 
 steel, copper and brasses, zinc, lead, and wo6d. 
 Brief study of the sources and methods of production 
 of metals in the form of plates and bars. 
 
 Specimens of ore, pig, cast, and rolled metals. 
 
 The character of the Bessemer, open hearth, and 
 crucible processes of steel making. Case-hardening 
 iron. 
 
 Fractures of different metals. The corresponding 
 crystalline structure of polished specimens exhibited 
 in the microscope. 
 
 Malleability, ductility, hardness. The hardening 
 effect of pressure. The superficial effect of 
 hammering. 
 
 The various effects of thermal treatment upon 
 different metals, 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 9 1 
 
 SPECIAL STUDY OF TOOL STEEL. 
 
 Appearance of fractures of steels containing various 
 percentages of carbon, and of air hardening steels. 
 
 Corresponding appearances in the microscope of 
 etched and polished specimens. 
 
 The plastic, granular, and molten states of steel. 
 
 Cooling curves. Visible recalescence. The pyro- 
 meter. 
 
 Effect of different heat treatments on fracture and 
 crystalline structure. 
 
 Examination with the microscope of polished and 
 etched specimens of the same steel with various 
 thermal treatments. 
 
 Measurement of hardness of hardened tool steel. 
 How its hardness varies with temperature. Modern 
 high speed steel. 
 
 Internal strains set up when a mass of steel is 
 heated or cooled. Analogy to the cooling of the 
 earth and earthquakes. Cracking and warping, and 
 their causes. Permanent expansion or contraction. 
 
 Heating steel for hardening. Objections to open 
 fires and blow pipes. The lead bath. The muffle. 
 Surface protection. 
 
 Practical use of the pyrometer, and other heat 
 gauges. 
 
 Cooling steel for hardening. Representative 
 cooling media: Air, oil, water, salt water, and 
 mercury. Their modes of action and applications 
 to different uses. 
 
 Importance of equal and simultaneous cooling of 
 the mass. 
 
 Quenching symmetrical and unsymmetrical pieces, 
 and means for reducing local shrinkage strains. 
 
92 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Subsequent tempering, and the practical measure- 
 ment of temperature for this purpose. 
 
 Colours of oxidation. Use of lead and oil baths, 
 and the flaring of oil. 
 
 Cooling after tempering. Repeated tempering. 
 Seasoning steel. 
 
 Annealing tool steel. Water annealing. 
 
 WORKSHOP PROCESSES FOR SHAPING 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 PROCESSES FOR SHAPING BY PRESSURE OR 
 DRAWING, WITHOUT HEAT. 
 
 The plasticity of metals at ordinary temperatures. 
 Malleability and ductility. 
 
 Microscopic study of the structural changes and 
 flow of metal which occur when a bar is bent. 
 
 Examples of coined work, collapsible tubes, gold 
 leaf, sheet lead bossing, pressed steel cycle parts, 
 cartridge shells, and drawn tubes and rods. 
 
 Limitations of the process. Hardening of metals 
 under treatment. Cause and avoidance of rupture. 
 Permanent internal strains produced by pressure. 
 
 Effect of time on the plasticity of metals. 
 Likeness to the behaviour of pitch. 
 
 Exercises. — Rolling metal strips. Coining soft 
 metals. Riveting. Knurling. Centre and figure 
 punching. Burnishing. Sizing holes with plain 
 drifts. Planishing metal sheets to remove buckles. 
 Drawing wire. Drawing cups in a press. Spinning. 
 Bossing sheet lead. Bending and straightening wire. 
 
 Visits to works where operations of shaping metals 
 cold by pressure may be seen. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 93 
 
 PROCESSES FOR SHAPING BY PRESSURE AIDED 
 BY HEAT. 
 
 How the plastic properties of metals vary with 
 temperature. Tests under heat in the testing 
 machine. 
 
 Distinction between metals and alloys. Reducing 
 brass to powder. 
 
 Hot rolling of metals into rods and sheets. The 
 influence of time. The steam hammer and hydraulic 
 forging press. 
 
 Visits to smithies to see various forgings. 
 
 Exercises. — Hot rolling of metal strips. Upsetting 
 and making rivets. Hot riveting. Drawing out 
 and bending smith's work. 
 
 The plastic state of alloys. Squirting "compo" 
 pipes and bullet rod. 
 
 " Extrusion of metals." Specimens of pipes, cable 
 sheathing, and extruded metals. 
 
 PROCESSES OF SHAPING BY FUSION AND CASTING. 
 
 Visit to a foundry, and explanation of foundry 
 methods. 
 
 Exercises. — Preparation of sand moulds from : 
 
 (a) A semi-cylindrical pattern. 
 
 (J?) A second side added to pattern by dowels. 
 
 (c) The alternative use of match plate. 
 
 {d) A solid pattern with irregular parting. 
 
 (e) Moulding in three part box. 
 
 (/) Cylindrical core. 
 
 {g) Irregular core for hollow casting. 
 Core supports. Gates and vents. Porosity of 
 moulds and cores. 
 
94 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Casting by students in their own moulds with 
 white metal. 
 
 Shrinkage in cooling. Feeding. Draw and blow- 
 holes. 
 
 Inevitable shrinkage strains. Specimens of cast- 
 ings fractured in cooling. 
 
 Second visit to foundry. 
 
 Force in casting, supplementary to force of gravity. 
 
 Specimens of cast types and " finished castings." 
 
 PROCESSES OF SHAPING BY ADDITION AND 
 SURFACE FUSION. 
 
 General principles. Importance of cleanliness. 
 The use and action of fluxes, as : Tallow, resin, 
 zinc chloride, borax, sand. 
 
 Exercises. — Soft soldering sheet metal with copper 
 bit. Soft soldering heavier masses with the blow- 
 pipe. Making plumbers' wiped joints. Soft solder- 
 ing cast iron. Silver soldering wire, brazing a cycle 
 joint, a brass tube, and a copper ball. Brazing 
 cast iron. 
 
 Welding iron and mild steel and higher carbon 
 steel. 
 
 PROCESSES OF SHAPING MATERIALS BY CUTTING. 
 
 The essential nature of cutting action. 
 
 Difference between cutting and splitting illustrated 
 in cutting wood along the grain. Difference between 
 cutting and shearing illustrated by the wood saw or 
 parting tool. 
 
 Study of the strains produced by a cutting tool 
 in a homogeneous material, as in paring the edge 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 95 
 
 of sheet lead with a chisel, or on a large scale with 
 tempered clay and a wooden chisel. 
 
 The effect of lubrication. 
 
 Complete penetration and severance of the material 
 by the cutting edge, essential to perfect cutting action 
 and the production of a smooth surface. Impossi- 
 bility of producing smooth surfaces by shearing. 
 Effect of bluntness of the tool. 
 
 Study in the lathe, and with the microscope, of the 
 mode of separation of chips of various thickness 
 from cast iron, tool steel, mild steel, and copper, and 
 of the effect thereon of varying cutting angles. Top 
 and bottom rake. Effective bottom rake dependent 
 on rate of feed. Bending chips of straight and of 
 curved section. 
 
 Characteristics of roughing and finishing tools, 
 and the avoidance of shearing action in the latter. 
 
 The blunting of tools by abrasion, and by heating. 
 High speed steels. Cutting speeds and feeds. 
 Chattering and its causes. Accuracy of cutting action. 
 
 Characteristic features of machines for operating 
 cutting tools, as the lathe, shaper, milling and 
 drilling machines. 
 
 Study of the characteristics and action of turning 
 and planing tools for various purposes, of milling 
 cutters and files, drills, reamers, taps, and dies. 
 
 Exercises. — Sharpening Tools. 
 
 Lathe Work. — Chucks and chucking. Holding 
 without distortion. Centres and centring. Carriers. 
 Live and dead centres. Steadies. Adjusting the 
 lathe. Turning cylindrical pieces. Cones. Facing. 
 Boring. Reaming. Screw-cutting. Hand-turning. 
 Turning irregular forms. 
 
S>6 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Shaper Work. — Holding the work. Holding 
 without distortion. Three point bearings. Shaping 
 a true plane. Two parallel planes. Planes at 
 various angles. Cylindrical and irregular forms. 
 
 Milling. — Milling plane surfaces with spiral mills 
 and end mills. Milling with gang mills. Milling 
 irregular forms. Milling slots. Milling with hand 
 and power feeds. 
 
 Drilling. — Use of common flat drills, twist, and 
 straight fluted drills. Hand and power feeds. Drill- 
 ing jigs. Counterbores and facing cutters. Machine 
 and hand reamers. 
 
 Tapping. — Tapping by hand and machine. 
 Sharpening taps. 
 
 ABRASIVE PROCESSES. 
 
 Study under the microscope of an abrasive particle 
 scratching the surface of various materials at low 
 speeds. Effects of plasticity and hardness. The 
 effect of high velocities and heating of the work. 
 
 Common abrasives — Gritstone, oilstone, sand, 
 powdered glass, emery, carborundum, diamond. 
 
 Methods of supporting abrasives in glass and 
 emery paper, in polishing wheels, in vitrified emery 
 and carborundum wheels. 
 
 Shellac wheels and the use of metal laps. 
 
 Study of the breaking down action of emery 
 wheels, and the relation of grades and grains to 
 velocity, and to the material ground. 
 
 Grinding to remove material. Grinding for a 
 finish. Accuracy of grinding. 
 
 The nature of polishing action studied microscopi- 
 cally. Polishing steel and brass, etc. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 97 
 
 Exercises.— Rough grinding a soft steel shaft. 
 Finishing. Grinding hardened steel and cast iron. 
 Surface grinding. Sharpening cutters. Polishing 
 steel and brass. 
 
 THE HAMMER. 
 
 Uses and abuses of the hammer. Effects of 
 hard steel hammers. Relation of size of hammer 
 to purpose. The plastic lead hammer. The elastic 
 mallet. 
 
 MEASURING AND GAUGING. 
 
 Accuracy of form and finish. Economic value of 
 accuracy. Interchangeability. Degrees of accuracy. 
 Standards of length. Sub-division of standards. 
 Conveniences of binary and decimal divisions. 
 Workshop standards. Principles to be observed in 
 using calipers. Personal equation. Micrometers. 
 Verniers. Systematic gauging. - Limit gauges. 
 Shrink fits, driving fits, running fits. 
 
 Objection may be taken to these syllabuses on the 
 ground that they aim at teaching a trade, and that 
 therefore they are outside the scope of what the 
 Legislature has defined as legitimate subjects for 
 public expenditure. It has, however, already been 
 observed that it is extremely difficult to separate 
 the teaching of principles from the teaching of 
 practice, and in the eyes of some people, extremely 
 undesirable also. And it is, moreover, quite im- 
 possible in many cases to judge whether the 
 limitations are exceeded from a study of the syllabus. 
 
 G 
 
98 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 The question is determined entirely by the method 
 of treatment in class, and the syllabuses permit of a 
 thoroughly scientific method of presentation, while 
 they deal with subjects of the highest importance. 
 No one can read current engineering literature with- 
 out being impressed by the superiority of American 
 methods. American machine tools have had an 
 enormous effect in reducing the cost of production, 
 and have practically revolutionised some branches 
 of industry, of which watch- and clock-making may 
 be cited as an example. 
 
 The information contained in the above syllabuses 
 should be part and parcel of a shop foreman's equip- 
 ment. At the same time, the number of really 
 qualified men of this type available is small. Thus, 
 in a paper read at a conference of science teachers at 
 University College, Sheffield, on i ith January, 1900, 
 Professor Ripper said : 1 
 
 "It is clear from what has already been said that 
 we need the means of securing a steady supply of 
 skilled machinists and toolmakers with a competent 
 knowledge of up-to-date methods of turning work 
 out, and of the best types of machine tools — men, in 
 fact, who are competent to become, in course of time, 
 leading men and works' foremen. 
 
 " There are, of course, works' foremen in England 
 second to none in the world, but everyone knows, 
 who has any knowledge of works, that such men are 
 singularly scarce, and when a vacancy occurs, ex- 
 tremely difficult to replace. These men are the 
 brain of the workshop, and upon their skill depends 
 1 Nature, 8th February, 1900. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 99 
 
 very much of the true success of any manufacturing 
 concern. Almost any man in the works could be 
 more easily replaced than the skilled works' 
 foreman." 
 
 A reasonable conclusion would be that there is 
 also a dearth of teachers capable of giving the 
 requisite instruction. 
 
 Another interesting course is that on Foundry 
 Practice at the West Ham Technical School. The 
 following subjects are treated of in the Lectures : 
 
 Properties and mixtures of pig iron ; fuel, furnaces, 
 refractory materials ; methods of blast production ; 
 crucibles, ladles, and foundry tools ; green sand, dry 
 sand, and loam, their preparation and moulding in 
 them ; drying stoves ; malleable cast iron ; chill 
 castings ; case hardening ; casting on to other 
 metals ; special methods of casting ; machine 
 moulding; cleaning and dressing castings. 
 
 Brass, gun-metal, and other common alloys, their 
 compositions and methods of melting and casting 
 in them. 
 
 Methods of costing work. 
 
 The freedom to draw up schemes and time-tables 
 conferred on local authorities by the Board of 
 Education, 1 together with the readiness of the City 
 and Guilds of London Institute to modify their 
 syllabuses as occasion may require, 2 will probably 
 lead to an increase in the amount of such instruction, 
 
 1 Regulations for Evening Schools, 1904, p. 3 et seq. 
 
 2 Report of City and Guilds of London Institute, 1902. 
 
100 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 but the provision of competent teachers who have 
 sufficient scientific knowledge to treat the subjects 
 from a proper standpoint will be a serious obstacle. 1 
 
 Of considerable interest, too, is the syllabus in 
 Sanitary. Engineering at the Manchester School of 
 Technology, which includes matter generally taught 
 under the separate heads of Building Construction 
 and Hygiene. The enormous growth of large in- 
 dustrial centres has created the need for numbers 
 of Sanitary and Building Inspectors, etc., in order 
 that the health of the community may not suffer 
 through carelessness or wilful negligence. 
 . One of the most serious defects in the instruction 
 of engineering and building students is the lack of 
 attention to the nature and properties of materials. 
 At the Birmingham Municipal Technical School 
 there is* an advanced course suited to the needs of 
 Civil and Mechanical Engineers and Architects 
 which to some extent supplies this deficiency. A 
 good deal of it might be described as descriptive 
 engineering. The syllabus is as follows : 
 
 Part i. Ironwork — The manufacture of cast iron, 
 wrought iron, and steel ; description of the plant .used 
 in modern iron and steel works ; the different kinds 
 and qualities of cast iron, wrought iron, and steel; 
 the commercial forms of iron and steel ; pattern- 
 making and moulding; iron and steel casting; the 
 mechanical properties of cast iron, wrought iron, and 
 steel, and the methods of testing ; the practical value 
 
 1 See also syllabuses of special trade classes held at the 
 Birmingham Municipal Technical School, the Northampton 
 Institute, Clerkenwell, and other institutions. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IOI 
 
 of various metalloids in cast iron and steel ; the use 
 of iron and steel in engineering structures and 
 machinery ; the manufacture and erection of struc- 
 tural ironwork. Other Metals and Alloys — Their 
 strength and principal uses in engineering. Modern 
 Machine Tools — Description of modern machine tools 
 and labour-saving appliances ; general arrangement 
 of engineering works. 
 
 PART 2. Earthwork — Stability of earth ; effect of 
 water on stability ; cuttings, embankments, and dams ; 
 clay puddle, its preparation and use ; foundations for 
 buildings, bridges, and machinery ; methods of laying 
 submerged foundations ; sinking shafts ; tunnelling ; 
 dredging ; description of the plant used for earthwork 
 operations. Masonry — Strength and properties of 
 various stones ; different classes of masonry ; the 
 selection and preparation of stone for different kinds 
 of engineering work. Brick, Cement, and Concrete — 
 Their manufacture, properties, strength, methods of 
 testing, and use in engineering work. Timberwork — 
 The principal kinds of timber and their use in 
 engineering; strength of timber; preservation of 
 timber. 
 
 The strength and properties of the materials will 
 be demonstrated in the Engineering Laboratory. 
 
 The introduction of Mechanics into the Board of 
 Education Syllabuses in Building Construction has 
 been met in a number of instances by special 
 courses of instruction in graphic statics. An 
 arrangement of this sort has been made at Derby, 
 Birmingham, Manchester, Brighton, Darlington, etc. 
 At Salford there is a special course in Builders' 
 
102 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Mechanics. In regard to the arrangement of classes 
 in Chemistry and Physics with reference to their 
 applications to particular trades, the most notable 
 examples are in connection with Plumbing. A 
 considerable number of Technical Schools now 
 provide special classes for this trade, in which an 
 elementary knowledge of Physical Science is of the 
 greatest importance. Examples of special classes 
 for Engineering and other industries are seldom 
 met with. At the same time large schools, such as 
 those at Manchester and Bradford, hold classes in 
 Physics — covering the whole ground of the subject 
 — which are specially recommended as forming a 
 necessary basis for advanced technical studies. 
 
 An attempt has been made in the larger institutions 
 to meet the particular needs of students by treating 
 highly specialised branches separately, and often in 
 short courses. Thus, Applied Mechanics may be 
 treated in sections, each dealing with a particular 
 part of the subject. The most remarkable example 
 of this method is probably to be found at the 
 Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, where a limited 
 number of teachers give instruction in short " unit " 
 courses, which apparently can be grouped to suit 
 any need that has arisen, or is likely to arise. 
 
 Finally, the following list 1 of subjects, bearing 
 upon the industries considered, in which grants 
 were claimed from the Board of Education in 
 1902-3, will indicate the activity which is being 
 displayed throughout the country in meeting 
 the need which has been created by industrial 
 specialisation. 
 
 1 Report of the Board of Education for the year 1903-4. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 103 
 
 Plumbing. 
 
 Bricklaying and Masonry. 
 
 Staircasing and Handrailing. 
 
 Surveyors' Quantities. 
 
 Builders' Quantities. 
 
 Painters' and Decorators' Work. 
 
 Chemistry for Builders. 
 
 Fitters' and Turners' Work. 
 
 Pattern Making. 
 
 Cycle Construction. 
 
 Marine Engineering. 
 
 Mine Surveying. 
 
 Metal Plate Work. 
 
 Sanitary Engineering. 
 
 Carpentry and Joinery. 
 
 Carriage Building. 
 
 Iron and Steel Manufacture. 
 
 Assaying and Ore Dressing. 
 
 Boiler Making. 
 
 Boiler Testing. 
 
 Some of these are from the Programme of the 
 City and Guilds of London Institute, but many 
 are special local syllabuses drawn up to meet local 
 needs. The list does not include the usual science 
 subjects of the Board of Education. 
 
 C. Organised Courses of Instruction. 
 
 Though for a number of years the larger Technical 
 Schools have done much in their Prospectuses, or 
 through the teachers, to encourage students to 
 attend such classes as will secure a more or less 
 
104 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 rational order and grouping of subjects, the tendency 
 has been more marked and widespread in recent 
 years. Most Technical Schools of any note, have 
 drawn up tables showing the order and grouping 
 of subjects for particular trades, but while in all 
 cases students are strongly advised to follow the 
 systematic courses of instruction, only three have, 
 so far as the writer is aware, made such courses 
 compulsory. As a general rule, the plan has been 
 to take subjects from the Board of Education 
 Directory and the Programme of the City and 
 Guilds of London Institute, and to weld these into 
 trade groups ; but in a few cases special courses of 
 Lectures and Practical Work have been instituted 
 in subjects which none of the Central Examining 
 Bodies have as yet recognised by the provision 
 of an annual test. In discussing the courses of 
 instruction, it will be convenient to consider them 
 under the titles of the trades, rather than of the 
 schools. This will be consistent with the attitude 
 adopted throughout this work, in which it is regarded 
 as essential that the instruction and organisation 
 should be based upon the industrial considerations. 
 
 I. — General Mechanical Engineering Courses. 
 
 The suggested duration of the courses is from 
 three to five years. In only three cases are 
 compulsory preliminary courses provided, viz. : at 
 Stockport, St. Helens, and Rochdale. So far as 
 the courses themselves are concerned, there is 
 considerable difference of standard, and no small 
 want of unanimity as to subsidiary subjects. 
 
 The following table is an analysis of the courses 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 105 
 
 given on pp. 1 10-120; the figures represent the 
 number of courses in which one, two, or more years 
 are devoted to each subject : 
 
 Subject. 
 
 One 
 
 Year 
 
 Two 
 Years 
 
 Three 
 Years 
 
 Four 
 Years 
 
 Five 
 Years 
 
 Six 
 Years 
 
 Mathematics, - 
 
 2 
 
 n 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Machine Drawing, - 
 Applied Mechanics, - 
 Steam, - 
 
 7 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 7 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 Theoretical Mechanics 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 Sound, Light, & Heat, 
 Heat, 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chemistry, 
 Metallurgy, 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 The general aim is to give the students a pro- 
 gressive course of instruction which shall culminate 
 in the second or third stages of Machine Drawing, 
 Applied Mechanics, and Steam. In order to attain 
 this, various views appear to be held as to the 
 amount of Mathematics and Geometry required to 
 render the more technical subjects intelligible. 
 So far as the first-named subject is concerned, it 
 is extraordinary that any teacher should regard 
 one year as sufficient, unless the standard on 
 entrance is exceptionally high. Even two years, 
 which the majority of courses entail, is little enough. 
 A particularly interesting feature is the number 
 of cases in which Practical Mathematics is taken, 
 no less than nineteen out of twenty-six courses 
 including that subject. In regard to Geometry, the 
 difficulty seems to be to decide whether anything 
 
106 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 beyond the elementary stage is essential. Of the 
 eleven courses in which two years are devoted to 
 the subject, about half are aiming at Stage I., and 
 the rest at Stage II. For most classes of work in 
 Machine Drawing, Stage I. of Geometry is ample, 
 while for higher work in Applied Mechanics, the 
 necessary graphics would fall on Stage II. 
 
 No one can read intelligently an engineering 
 text-book or journal without some knowledge of 
 Physical Science. This statement is truer every 
 day, and it is of interest to inquire what notice 
 has been taken of this point in arranging the 
 curricula under consideration. Only six courses 
 provide instruction in Sound, Light, and Heat, and 
 two in Advanced Heat. The introduction of Heat 
 has doubtless been delayed to a considerable extent 
 by its association in the elementary stage with 
 Sound and Light — subjects which have but a small 
 bearing upon the work of an engineer, however 
 important they may be as part of a liberal education. 
 Physics cover . a wide area, and the division into 
 Sound, Light, and Heat, and Electricity and 
 Magnetism, is almost universal. At the same 
 time, there is no inherent reason why Heat should 
 not be taught separately. One of the consequences, 
 however, is that out of twenty-four courses in which 
 Steam is taught, twelve 1 make no provision for 
 instruction in Heat. Of course, in most cases, the 
 teacher of Steam includes a certain amount of 
 Heat in his lectures. How far this may be sufficient 
 
 1 Elementary Science or Physics is part of Preliminary 
 Courses at Rochdale, St. Helens, and Stockport. Also 
 Practical Class in Steam at Salford is really Practical Heat. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION to; 
 
 depends largely upon the individual, and in any 
 case he would probably prefer students with a 
 satisfactory preliminary training. 
 
 The applications of Chemistry to Engineering 
 are now increasing, and the desirability of 
 students having some knowledge of Metallurgy 
 has occasionally been emphasised. Three schools 
 insist on Elementary Science (Physics and Chemistry) 
 in the preliminary course, but beyond that only 
 three courses contain Chemistry, and two of these 
 add Metallurgy. Birmingham has a course on the 
 Materials of Engineering and Processes of Con- 
 struction, which includes the essentials of Metallurgy, 
 Nature of Building Materials, and some Applied 
 Mechanics. To those whose duty it is to follow 
 closely improvements in Materials, this lack of 
 instruction in Chemistry cannot fail to be a serious 
 loss. 
 
 The fact that many classes, especially in large 
 towns, contain a fair proportion of students who 
 have passed through secondary schools is not here 
 lost sight of. But in the absence of a definite 
 standard of admission in these subjects, too much 
 should not be taken for granted. Most of the 
 courses give evidence of having been carefully 
 thought out ; a few are not only educationally 
 unsound, but have the misfortune of being at 
 variance with the time-table. The latter are inserted 
 as a warning. 
 
 The majority occupy three nights a week ; a few 
 only two nights; while several require every night 
 in the week. Thus out of twenty-three courses, for 
 which data have been collected, fourteen devote three 
 
IOS TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 nights a week in the first year, thirteen three 
 nights a week in the second year, and thirteen 
 three nights a week in the third. There is thus 
 fair agreement as to the number of nights' work 
 a week which can be expected from the average 
 student. A greater number of nights per week 
 than three cannot be considered satisfactory unless 
 due to the inclusion of Laboratory or Workshop 
 instruction. Practical work is less fatiguing than 
 the close mental attention required to follow lectures, 
 and it does not as a rule increase the amount of 
 reading required from the student. To what extent 
 it should be introduced into Evening Technical 
 Education will be considered in Chapter VII. 
 
 Some of the courses deserve special mention. It 
 has been said that the general aim is to lead the 
 student through a progressive course -of instruction 
 in the specifically engineering subjects until he 
 reaches a standard of knowledge represented by 
 the second stage in a three or four years' course, 
 or the third stage, or higher, in a six years' course. 
 This is in the main true ; but there are some 
 points of difference. Thus the courses at Bolton 
 appear to aim at giving the student a general 
 grounding in the subjects which underlie Engineer- 
 ing, rather than to aim at a higher standard in 
 Mechanics, Steam, or Machine Drawing, as in 
 other five year courses (cf. Newcastle). The 
 extent of difference in providing instruction in the 
 fundamental subjects has been already noted. 
 West Ham follows the courses for the degree in 
 Engineering at the University of London. In 
 these syllabuses, subjects are grouped below the 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 109 
 
 senior stages : thus Mechanical Engineering includes 
 both Applied Mechanics and Steam, and Engineer- 
 ing Drawing, Geometry and Projection. This 
 simplifies the time-table. The senior stages are 
 broken up, and the special courses, B D and E, are 
 similar to those in the fifth year at Birmingham, 
 and the fourth and fifth years at Manchester. 
 
110 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
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EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 121 
 
 II. — Minor Mechanical Engineering Courses. 
 
 In a number of schools it has been recognised 
 that the standard of theoretical instruction aimed 
 at in the general courses is too high for those from 
 whom will be chosen the minor officials. Courses 
 of instruction have therefore been drawn up in which 
 Mechanics and Steam, for example, are not carried 
 beyond the elementary stage, and the standard of 
 mathematical knowledge has been similarly restricted 
 so as to bring it within the needs and capacity of 
 the average shop foreman. The theoretical training 
 required by these men must of necessity be closely 
 associated with the ordinary operations and processes 
 of the workshop ; practical instruction is therefore 
 highly essential, and probably explains why the 
 courses have so far been arranged only in connection 
 with the larger institutions. 
 
 Engineering work, after the necessary drawings 
 have been completed, passes in order through the 
 pattern shop, foundry, or smiths' shop, fitting and 
 turning, or boiler shop, in the order given. These 
 represent, broadly, the divisions for which instruction 
 may conveniently be arranged. 
 
 All courses, it will be noted, provide for the 
 teaching of simple Mathematics and a fair amount 
 of Geometrical Drawing, with Machine or other 
 Drawing peculiar to the special branch of the trade. 
 Some Applied Mechanics is also generally included. 
 A point of interest is the essentially practical char- 
 acter of the instruction at Birmingham, which, 
 however, does not appear to be progressive. 
 
 In connection with the instruction for special 
 branches of the trade, it may be noted that the 
 
122 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 courses at Bolton grouped in the major division 
 really belong here. They are worthy of close atten- 
 tion because of the manifest attempt to give a broad 
 basis of scientific knowledge without too much 
 specialisation. At the same time, they do not include 
 practical teaching in the workshop, and exception 
 might be taken to the order of treatment on 
 educational grounds. 
 
 In smaller towns a course of instruction of this 
 type is really what is required. Only the larger 
 towns, as a rule, can supply a sufficient number of 
 men capable of following the general courses. It 
 is somewhat unfortunate, therefore, that the more 
 ambitious schemes are universal in smaller places, 
 where, but for the absence of workshops — and 
 probably workshop instructors also — the more modest 
 scheme would be desirable. This question will be 
 further discussed in Chapter IX. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 1 23 
 
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124 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
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EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 125 
 
 
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EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 1 27 
 
 III. — General Courses in Electrical Engineering. 
 
 The following table shows the number of courses 
 in which the principal subjects are prescribed, and 
 their duration : 
 
 Subject 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Five 
 
 Year 
 
 Years 
 
 Years 
 
 Years 
 
 Years 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 Geometry, - 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 Machine Drawing, - 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Applied Mechanics, 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Steam, - 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Electricity & Magnetism, 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Electric Light & Power, - 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
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 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Heat, - 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chemistry, - 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 This table is an analysis of fifteen courses, as 
 against twenty-six in Mechanical Engineering. It 
 will be noted that there is rather more uniformity 
 as to the number of years of study to be given to 
 Mathematics. The conclusion to be drawn is that 
 Mathematics is considered of more importance in 
 Electrical than in Mechanical Engineering. It is 
 interesting to note that ten of the fifteen courses 
 prescribe Practical rather than Pure Mathematics. 
 Geometry does not appear to be regarded as an 
 essential subject, and it is somewhat surprising to 
 find that only four courses include this subject, while 
 eleven propose Machine Drawing. 
 
 Electrical Engineering is commonly said to consist 
 of two-thirds Mechanical Engineering and one-third 
 
128 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Applied Physics, and that this view is general is borne 
 out by the attention given to Machine Drawing, 
 Applied Mechanics, and Steam. 
 
 Electricity and Magnetism is recommended for 
 one or two years in all but three of the courses ; 
 those three — Bradford, West Ham, and Salford — 
 start right away with the more practical subject. 
 The educational value of this branch of Physics, 
 considered alone, is doubtful ; its connection with 
 Dynamics, Heat, and Light is so close, that some 
 general knowledge of Physics is essential. Yet only 
 four courses provide for this. 
 
 One other matter deserves notice. While in the 
 Mechanical Engineering courses only three out of 
 twenty-six include Chemistry, in the younger in- 
 dustry four out of fifteen contain it. In which 
 industry is a knowledge of Chemistry in its relation 
 to the property of materials of greater importance, 
 and in any case would the above figures express the 
 relative importance? Electro-metallurgy is not taken 
 into account, as for it special courses are provided. 
 
 IV. — Minor Electrical Engineering Courses. 
 The only Minor Electrical Industry that need be 
 mentioned is Electrical Wiring and Fitting. Three 
 courses are given, and there is a general similarity as 
 to grouping and order of subjects. Some knowledge 
 of Elementary Physics and Chemistry, similar to 
 that usually given to plumbers, might be thought 
 desirable. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 
 
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EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 
 
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EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 135 
 
 V. — Major Courses in Building. 
 
 The following table gives, as in previous cases, the 
 number of courses which devote 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years 
 to the chief subjects : 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 One 
 Year 
 
 Two 
 Years 
 
 Three 
 Years 
 
 Four 
 Years 
 
 Five 
 Years 
 
 I 
 
 Mathematics, - 
 Geometry, 
 
 Building Construction, - . 
 Applied Mechanics, 
 Graphic Statics, 
 Theoretical Mechanics, - 
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 General Elem. Science, 
 
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 There is a general agreement here that Mathe- 
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 essential. Eight courses out of the thirteen con- 
 sidered give preference to Practical over Pure 
 Mathematics. In regard to Geometry, it may be 
 noted that this subject is included in the preliminary, 
 but not the general, course at St. Helens. The only 
 two which ignore it are West Ham and Liverpool ; 
 but apart from the courses, students who propose 
 to attend the class in Building Construction at these 
 places must show that they possess a knowledge 
 of Drawing, and suitable preliminary courses are 
 provided either at the Technical or the Continuation 
 Schools. 
 
 The introduction of the Mechanics of Structures 
 into the Building Construction syllabus a few years 
 ago has necessitated provision for instruction in this 
 
136 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 part of the subject. Of the seven courses which 
 involve Applied Mechanics, two also include Graphic 
 Statics. Thus nine of the thirteen courses contain 
 one or other of these subjects, and two others 
 make a similar provision by prescribing Theoretical 
 Mechanics. 
 
 One course — Preston — includes Hygiene, and in a 
 number of places the student is advised to join the 
 City and Guilds of London Institute Class in his 
 own branch of the trade, e.g., Carpentry and Joinery, 
 Brickwork, Masonry, Plumbing, etc. In the larger 
 centres, instruction in Builders' Quantities and 
 Architectural Design find places. 
 
 There is less tendency in this than in either of 
 the groups of general courses already considered, 
 to regard instruction in Chemistry and Physics as 
 essential. To the two which are noted in the table 
 may be added St. Helens, which provides instruction 
 in General Elementary Science in the Compulsory 
 Preliminary Course. Some effort in this direction 
 is also made at Liverpool, where the class in that 
 subject is free to those attending other classes. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 
 
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140 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 
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EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 141 
 
 VI. — Minor Courses in Building. 
 
 The recommendation in some of the General 
 Courses to attend the City and Guilds subject 
 bearing on the student's own branch of the trade is 
 in most cases considered a sufficient concession to 
 specialisation. A few schools have, however, drawn 
 up special courses, in which, while a general know- 
 ledge of the principles underlying the whole trade 
 are kept in view, the curriculum aims at giving the 
 student the highest possible knowledge of his own 
 particular division. 
 
 The two courses in Carpentry and Joinery call for 
 little comment. They are very similar, the extra 
 year required for the Salford course being balanced 
 by the Compulsory Preliminary Course at St. Helens. 
 
 The courses in Sanitary Science contain no par- 
 ticular point to which attention need be drawn, 
 unless it is the tendency to over-weight them in the 
 first year. 
 
 The courses in Plumbing possess some points of 
 interest. It is not quite clear, for example, why 
 Theoretical Mechanics is necessary for this trade, 
 especially as Solids is chosen. The Fluids Section 
 would be quite appropriate. However, in all these 
 cases, as will be clear later, regard must be had to 
 the organisation of the school, and if the exact 
 subject required to fit any particular trade cannot 
 be arranged for, the nearest one must be substituted. 
 At St Helens, Practical Mathematics and Theoretical 
 Mechanics are taken together, and are common to all 
 the courses. 
 
 In most places it is customary to leave instruction 
 
143 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 in Elementary Physics and Chemistry to the teacher 
 of Plumbing. The small amount of instruction that 
 can be given in these subjects under the circum- 
 stances is supplemented by additional classes in the 
 courses at Preston, Manchester, and Bristol. The 
 second year's course at Manchester is rather heavy ; 
 if Mechanics and Physics replaced workshop in- 
 struction, a better balance would be obtained. The 
 Bristol course is remarkable as including Physiology 
 and excluding Physics. 
 
 There is a greater desire manifested in these 
 Plumbing courses to include the Physical Science 
 underlying the practice, than in the courses for any 
 handicraft that have yet been considered. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION H3 
 
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144 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
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EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 145 
 
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 Chemistry, 
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146 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 VII. — Courses in Mining. 
 
 The Miner calls so many natural forces into, play 
 in the exercise of his calling that breadth of basis 
 must be looked for in any course of instruction 
 adapted to his requirements. These courses are 
 not as numerous as one might expect even in 
 districts situated over the large coalfields. Five are 
 given on pages 148-9. 
 
 The Sheffield courses are held at Derby on 
 Saturday afternoons. Machine Drawing and Mine 
 Surveying are taught in alternate years. The 
 omission of Mathematics is remarkable. The 
 courses are, with one exception, in agreement 
 in requiring the student to devote considerable 
 attention to the Engineering subjects, as well as 
 to Mining proper, and the question whether the 
 steam engine user requires the same kind of 
 instruction as the steam engine maker may be 
 passed over here. Three of the five include 
 Chemistry — obviously with a view to enabling the 
 student to understand what he reads as to the 
 composition of rocks, explosions, and the gases of 
 the mine. Is the Physics usually included in a 
 course on Chemistry sufficient for him to understand 
 those parts of Mining which find their explanation 
 in that science ? Apparently it is generally thought 
 to be so, for the subject is not definitely included 
 except in one course, and then by a sudden jump 
 from nowhere into the advanced stage of Heat. 
 The omission of Physics is general in most of the 
 courses examined, and the importance of the subject 
 1 will be discussed in Chapter VI I. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 147 
 
 In the Nottingham scheme the science of Mining 
 includes General Physics, Mechanics, Heat, the Steam 
 Engine, Electricity and Electrical Engineering. The 
 Durham scheme is not at all unlike this, but partakes 
 more of the University Extension type of instruction. 
 Each lecture is of fifty minutes' duration, and is 
 carried on for a term. The curriculum in each of 
 these schemes is fairly well balanced, but it looks 
 as though the knowledge gained might be a 
 little superficial. The absence of Mathematics at 
 Nottingham and Drawing at Durham are defects. 
 
 Mining is one of the few industries in which the 
 Manager must possess a certificate. The Coal Mines 
 Regulation Act requires that Colliery Managers and 
 Under Managers should possess the 1st or 2nd Class 
 Certificates respectively, and Boards of Examiners 
 have been established by statute to hold periodical 
 examinations upon the results of which certificates 
 of competency are awarded. The object is not, of 
 course, to supply capable Mining Engineers with a 
 Diploma, but to ensure the least possible danger to 
 life and limb by requiring that those in charge shall 
 have a knowledge of colliery working in accordance 
 with the Act. The standard varies a good deal 
 between district and district, and so far but little 
 success has attended efforts at securing uniformity 
 of standard. Any scheme of Technical Education 
 for coal miners must include instruction for the 
 Home Office Certificate, as it is called, within the 
 scope of its operations. 
 
148 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
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150 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 VIII. — Courses in Metallurgy. 
 
 Of the four courses given on page 151, those of St. 
 Helens and Longton deal with the subject purely 
 from the chemical side. They provide a fairly 
 satisfactory course of study for those engaged in 
 Metallurgical Laboratories. The Longton course 
 insists on a fairly extensive knowledge of Inorganic 
 Chemistry, but ignores any lack of Mathematical 
 knowledge. On the other hand, the St. Helens 
 course does not pursue Chemistry further than the 
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 instruction in it. The amount of knowledge of this 
 subject required for the daily operations of the 
 Metallurgical Chemist is probably not great, but 
 modern progress cannot be followed without a good 
 grasp of the fundamental principles of Heat and 
 Electricity. 
 
 The Manchester course treats the whole subject 
 more from the point of view of the Works Manager 
 than from that of the Chemist. The only points 
 which invite comment are the single year devoted to 
 Physics and the three years' course in Mineralogy. 
 
 The Swansea course recognises the importance of 
 both Chemistry and Engineering, cuts down the 
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 Magnetism, and apparently regards Mathematics as 
 unnecessary. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 
 
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 Some interesting courses have been drawn up .by 
 the County Council of the West Riding of Yorkshire, 
 to be followed by holders of Technical Exhibitipns 
 (see p. 203). They require that on not less than two 
 nor more than three evenings per week, not less than 
 two nor more than four subjects be taken in any one 
 year. The Junior Courses are intended for students 
 between fourteen and sixteen years of age ; the Senior 
 for those over sixteen. The scheme is intended to 
 be suggestive rather than definite, and as will be 
 indicated later, in some cases the elasticity destroys 
 the benefit which it is hoped to reap from prescribed 
 curricula. 
 
 One of the most satisfactory features is the 
 insistence upon an adequate preliminary training ; in 
 no case is an applied subject compulsory in the 
 Junior Course. The sentiment that permits a student 
 to waste his time at a subject for which, though 
 bearing closely upon his occupation, he has had no 
 suitable preparation, is evidently less prevalent in 
 Yorkshire than in most other counties. There are 
 districts where the return on public expenditure is 
 less closely safeguarded. 
 
 The Junior Schemes involve thorough preparatory 
 training in Mathematics and Drawing. The elements 
 of Physical Science is always an optional subject, 
 and is probably frequently taken. 
 
 The introduction of Woodwork and Metal Work 
 is worth attention. There are always students who, 
 while capable of a certain amount of theoretical 
 study, have their limitations in this respect, and yet 
 possess more than ordinary manual dexterity. Such 
 students will probably do well to follow the workshop 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION I S3 
 
 courses offered, for though the need of skilled labour 
 is rapidly dying out in most industries in which 
 machinery has been introduced, the necessity for 
 clever craftsmen here and there still exists. 
 
 The elasticity of curricula, as has already been 
 remarked, is a disadvantage. The view that it may 
 be due to the desire to cater for special branches of 
 the main trade is not borne out on closer inspection. 
 A more reasonable explanation would be that the 
 limitations due to the staff, etc., of recognised schools 
 makes alternatives imperative, the exhibitions being 
 tenable at one or other of some forty centres of 
 instruction. But whatever the cause, the alternatives 
 provide ample scope for irrational order and 
 discontinuity to creep in. 
 
154 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
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160 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 All these courses manifest a desire on the part of 
 those who direct Technical Education to systematise 
 their instruction, and to direct the student's course of 
 study so as to obtain the maximum result with the 
 minimum of effort. The most carefully planned 
 courses involve only three nights a week; those 
 which ask for more may be regarded as counsels of 
 perfection, or as containing alternative subjects. In 
 the latter case, most of the advantages of systematic 
 courses are immediately lost. There are serious 
 objections to alternative subjects in any case, and it 
 may be fairly asked, for example, whether the five 
 alternative first year courses in Mechanical Engi- 
 neering at Woolwich (p. 113) are equal in value as 
 a preparation for the single second year course 
 suggested. 
 
 Many of the schemes exist only on paper, but 
 that does not obscure the trend of opinion, and their 
 general introduction may be looked for when the 
 obstacles inseparable from a period of transition have 
 been overcome. The difficulties find expression in 
 the want of agreement upon essentials, in the 
 difference of standard at any particular stage, and in 
 the palpable divergence of aim (cf. Mechanical 
 Engineering at Manchester and Bolton). 
 
 The chaotic condition of secondary education, and 
 the fact that the Continuation Schools have been 
 hitherto under independent managers, have stood in 
 the way of a definite standard of admission, even in 
 towns with similar educational organisations. Both 
 these drawbacks are being rapidly removed under 
 the Act of 1902. 
 
 The comparatively short time that evening students 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION l6l 
 
 can devote to the classes limits the number of subjects 
 which can be taken in one year, while the enormous 
 progress in the applications of Science to Industry 
 imposes in each decade a wider and wider curriculum. 
 The limitation is most serious in those courses which 
 contain merely the subjects in which the Board of 
 Education hold examinations ; and the freedom, 
 conferred upon local authorities by the Regulations, 
 of drawing up schemes of study adapted to local 
 circumstances seems to have been exercised only in 
 a particular direction. Many schemes of study based 
 upon the syllabuses of the City and Guilds of London 
 Institute have been recognised for Parliamentary 
 Grant, but the number of cases in which special 
 courses in, e.g., one or more branches of Physics 
 and Chemistry, have been drawn up, is compara- 
 tively small. Year by year the standard of the 
 Examinations goes up, and in order to keep up 
 the record of examination results, it is found neces- 
 sary to increase the time devoted to each subject. 
 Moreover, the larger Institutions throw their well- 
 equipped laboratories open to evening students, and 
 this increases the time required in subjects in which 
 practical instruction can be given. Mathematics is 
 frequently taught in two - hour lessons ; Machine 
 Drawing and Building Construction often require 
 two hours a night on two nights a week ; while 
 Applied Mechanics and Steam, formerly (and still in 
 small towns) taught in one-hour lessons, now occupy 
 two and a half or three hours. The two opposing 
 principles of Catholicity and Specialisation here 
 assert themselves, and not a few of the defects of 
 curricula arise from the difficulty of drawing a line 
 
162 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 between them. The position of this line is condi- 
 tioned entirely by our estimate of the function of 
 the Evening School in Technical Education, and in a 
 voluntary system, impregnated with sentiment, that 
 estimate is too often controlled by personal interests. 
 
 A word on the influence of examinations, by a 
 Central Authority, may not be out of place here. 
 It is sometimes stated that they are incompatible 
 with locally organised courses of instruction ; but 
 this arises from a misconception. It is unfortunate 
 that in this country examinations have been allowed 
 to dominate curricula. Inspection has not been so 
 long instituted on an adequate scale as to secure the 
 universal respect of local authorities ; and teachers, 
 not without reason, have regarded maintenance of 
 the examination record as the best means of 
 demonstrating their efficiency. All the same, there 
 is no reason why the examination should prove an 
 insuperable barrier to skilful organisation. If the 
 curriculum is adapted to the needs and capacity of 
 the students, and the examinations are fitted to the 
 curriculum, the complaint of incompatibility would 
 largely disappear. 
 
 Finally, it may be said that while many of the 
 courses show evidence of careful preparation, and 
 nearly all are intended seriously, most suffer from 
 certain defects. The causes which have been indi- 
 cated earlier in the book may be summarised here. 
 They are : 
 
 i. Failure to insist on an adequate standard of 
 
 admission. 
 2. Failure to agree on essentials. 
 
EVENING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 163 
 
 3. Failure to recognise that there is a rational 
 
 order in which subjects should be taken. 
 
 4. Confusion of functions in regard to different 
 
 classes of students. 
 
 5. Early specialisation with a view to examination 
 
 results. 
 
 6. Neglect of liberality of basis necessitated by 
 
 progress in the industrial applications of 
 Science. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 
 
 Nothing is more essential to the success of Technical 
 Schools than the goodwill of employers of labour, 
 and no discussion of Technical Education is complete 
 unless this matter is considered. JNo one doubts 
 that the British manufacturer has in the past 
 exhibited an extraordinary apathy towards scientific 
 progress, even when it affected his own industry; 
 and has refused to employ, or, at any rate, to offer 
 special encouragement to, the trained men that the 
 Technical Schools have produced. At the same time, 
 it is too often forgotten in the excitement of whole- 
 sale denunciation that there have been a number 
 of instances in which individual employers have 
 encouraged their hands by every means in their 
 power to undergo instruction. 
 
 Some of the earliest and best examples of technical 
 instruction in this country were carried out by the 
 employers themselves. For many years Messrs. 
 Mather & Piatt, of Manchester, amongst others, 
 held classes in Machine Drawing, etc., for their 
 own employes. 
 
 It is equally true that many other firms remained 
 
 quite indifferent to the question ; and classes in their 
 
 neighbourhood have indirectly suffered from this 
 
 attitude. Foremen of the old school were not 
 
 164 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 1 6$ 
 
 always anxious to see young fellows obtaining 
 information and training which had been denied 
 to them in their youth, and in such cases number- 
 less petty tyrannies made the earnest student's life 
 anything but a happy one. In the minor trades 
 the jealousy of the journeyman is an important factor, 
 and one not easy to control. Lack of direct utility 
 of the instruction in the industry itself has no doubt 
 been instrumental in preventing recognition of the 
 benefits of the classes. A certain form of instruction 
 may be admirably adapted to those who are destined 
 to occupy the higher positions ; when this is given to 
 those who in other respects are unfitted to advance 
 so far, the result is sure to be disappointing. Clear- 
 ness of aim in the classes is essential before any 
 general and effective co-operation can be looked 
 for. 
 
 So far as evening classes are concerned, the 
 encouragement to attend them has taken various 
 forms, of which some examples may be considered. 
 The plan in some cases followed is to express 
 approval of the classes, and to recommend em- 
 ployes to take advantage of the opportunities held 
 out to them. But this is hardly sufficient, and more 
 material encouragement in one way or another 
 is to be observed. Thus the success of a student 
 may entitle him to certain privileges in the works : 
 it may be counted a factor in making promotions ; it 
 may carry with it an increase of salary ; or it may be 
 regarded as an essential condition of apprenticeship. 
 
 Messrs. Clayton & Shuttleworth, and Messrs. 
 Rushton, Procter & Co., of Lincoln, undertake to 
 fill certain vacancies in their drawing office each year 
 
166 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 from among their own apprentices. In conferring 
 this privilege, regard is had to a good time-sheet, a 
 good-conduct report from the foreman, and success 
 in evening classes during the previous two years. 
 The early hour at which the works open in the 
 morning, and the necessity of keeping good time, 
 bears heavily upon those students who attend evening 
 classes several times a week. The Bootle Education 
 Committee have appealed to employers to permit 
 their apprentices to start at a later hour on the 
 morning following attendance at classes. As a 
 consequence, the Leyland Line, Messrs. Fawcett, 
 Preston & Co., and the Dublin Steam Packet 
 Company, allow such apprentices to start at 7 a.m. 
 instead of 6 a.m. Mr. T. M'Hugh's firm, under 
 which the hours for commencement are later, makes 
 a similar concession. At Derby, Messrs. Andrew 
 Handyside & Co. have made arrangements for 
 their apprentices to attend classes in prescribed 
 subjects at the Technical College. The firm pays 
 half the fees, and for all books and instruments during 
 a period of three years. Those who pass the pre- 
 scribed examinations receive increased wages, and 
 are allowed to retain the instruments purchased for 
 their use. 1 
 
 Messrs. Vickers, Sons, & Maxim, of Sheffield, 
 have for some years past awarded prizes to successful 
 students in the neighbouring evening classes. They 
 have recently adopted a scheme by which all 
 apprentices in Section III. of their works who 
 attend evening science and technical classes, and 
 pass the examination laid down, receive for one year 
 1 The Engineer, November 8, 1902. 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 167 
 
 following the examination one shilling per week 
 extra wages for each of not more than three examina- 
 tions passed in approved subjects. The allowance is 
 subject to good conduct and proficiency in the work- 
 shops, and the scheme is to remain in operation for 
 five years. 1 An elaborate scheme on similar lines to 
 the foregoing has been drawn up by a Committee of 
 the North-East Coast Institution of Engineers and 
 Shipbuilders. So far as the proposals have reference 
 to evening classes, they are here given in full : 
 
 " In starting apprentices, preference will be given 
 to those who bring the best certificates of conduct 
 and character, and the highest school - leaving 
 certificates. The age of starting should be from 
 fifteen to sixteen years. 
 
 "At the end of September in each year each 
 apprentice will be awarded marks as follows : — For 
 each approved examination passed during the year, 
 20 marks ; for time-keeping, a maximum of 40 marks ; 
 for good conduct, perseverance, and progress in the 
 workshops, a maximum of 40 marks. 
 
 " Marks for time-keeping will be deducted at the 
 rate of one mark for every three hours lost; but no 
 deduction will be made for special leave, or for 
 sickness if certified by a doctor. 
 
 " Conduct marks will be awarded quarterly by the 
 chief foremen of departments on the following scale : 
 Very Good, 40 marks ; Good, 30 marks ; Fair, 20 
 marks ; Moderate, 10 marks. 
 
 " An apprentice obtaining 60 marks will have the 
 sum of sixpence added to his weekly rate of pay for 
 the ensuing year, and for marks in excess of 60 his 
 1 The Schoolmaster, August 15, 1903. 
 
1 68 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 rate will be proportionately increased. For example, 
 an apprentice who in any one year passed in two 
 science subjects at an evening science school, will be 
 entitled to 40 marks, for very good time-keeping 40 
 marks, and for general good conduct, perseverance, 
 and progress in the workshops, a maximum of 40 
 marks — total for the year, 120 marks. This will 
 entitle him to an increase of one shilling per week 
 on his rate of pay, say, from 1st October for one year ; 
 but payments under this scheme will cease on the 
 termination of apprenticeship or on dismissal. 
 
 " Should an apprentice obtain, say, 30 marks for 
 time-keeping, and 40 marks for good conduct, 
 perseverance, and progress, or a total of 70 marks, 
 his rate of pay would be increased sevenpence per 
 week, and so on. 
 
 " No payment under this scheme will be made 
 to apprentices obtaining less than 60 marks, and 
 apprentices who fail to obtain any marks for time- 
 keeping, good conduct, perseverance, and progress, 
 will be subject to dismissal. 
 
 "Apprentices commencing their apprenticeship 
 between 1st October and 31st March will be entitled 
 to half rates for their first year. 
 
 "Promotion in the workshops will depend upon 
 marks obtained. Should an apprentice during the 
 first three years of his time have shown marked 
 ability at the evening classes, and obtained maximum 
 marks for time-keeping, perseverance, and progress 
 in the workshops, he may, at the discretion of his 
 employer, be allowed to spend his fourth or fifth year 
 at college day classes, the fees for which will be paid 
 by his employer. 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 169 
 
 " At least one vacancy per annum in the drawing 
 office will be filled by an apprentice obtaining the 
 highest marks under the above scheme." 
 
 Under the Regulations for Pupils there are three 
 schemes : (1) Scheme A has regard to youths who 
 possess an engineering certificate or degree, and 
 provides for a three years' engagement ; (2) Scheme 
 B provides for a six years' training on the Sandwich 
 system, and is open to those who, having received 
 a good general education, have also passed the 
 matriculation examination required for graduation 
 in Engineering at a college of university rank, or 
 an equivalent examination. Pupils under both the 
 above schemes receive higher rates of pay than the 
 ordinary apprentice. (3) Scheme C states that 
 "youths who, having entered the works as 
 apprentices, succeed during their apprenticeship in 
 passing the matriculation or equivalent examination 
 prescribed under Scheme B, will for the remainder 
 of their time be treated as pupils under Scheme B, 
 in respect of leave to attend college day classes, 
 promotion, and rates of pay." x 
 
 An equally interesting, but less elaborate, system 
 has recently been adopted by the Great Western 
 Railway Company at Swindon. In a notice issued 
 from the Engineer's Office, all apprentices are told 
 that they are expected to acquire a knowledge of 
 Science and Drawing, and the subjects to which 
 attention is specially drawn are : Practical Mathe- 
 matics ; Practical Mechanics ; Geometrical and 
 Machine Drawing ; Heat, Electricity, and Chem- 
 istry. Those who have had no previous scientific 
 3 Technics, Feb., 1904. 
 
170 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 training are recommended to attend the preliminary 
 group, which is provided for students between four- 
 teen and sixteen years of age. They are advised to 
 follow this up by attending the Engineering Course, 
 which is intended for those between sixteen and 
 twenty-one years of age. The work of the first 
 two years of the latter course covers the ground 
 upon which scholarships are awarded to appren- 
 tices between seventeen and eighteen years of age. 
 The holders of these scholarships will pursue their 
 studies in the subjects mentioned above at the day 
 Technical School, on two afternoons a week. They 
 receive their wages as if they were at the works, 
 and the Company pays the fees. The number of 
 scholarships is limited to thirty at any one time, 
 and this number is distributed over fifteen first 
 year, nine second year, and six third year students. 
 Students who distinguish themselves will be allowed 
 to spend part of their last year in the Drawing Office 
 and Chemical Laboratory. 
 
 The Great Western is not the only Railway 
 Company in the country which recognises the value 
 of theoretical instruction. The London and South 
 Western have introduced an original method in 
 connection with their Nine Elms Works, the special 
 feature of which may in part be attributed to the 
 objection which the head of the Locomotive 
 Department has to evening classes. 1 A notice was 
 issued in September, 1903, to the effect that all 
 apprentices would be allowed to attend classes 
 during working hours. An entrance examination 
 was held in Mensuration, Mathematics, and 
 1 Technics, Feb., 1904. 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 171 
 
 Mechanics, at which 136 apprentices presented 
 themselves. Seventy-four of these were considered 
 to have passed, and the remainder were told that 
 they would be required to reach the required 
 standard by the next session. 
 
 The seventy-four students are divided into two 
 groups, and each group attends classes at the 
 Battersea Polytechnic on two mornings a week — 
 pnce from eight to nine, and the other morning 
 from eight to half - past nine. The subjects of 
 instruction are Practical Mathematics and Mechanics, 
 and the students are permitted to attend a class in 
 Machine Drawing on one evening a week. 
 
 In the second year the subjects will be Practical 
 Mathematics, with lectures and laboratory work on 
 Steam and Heat Engines. Those who pass the 
 annual examinations with sufficient credit will pro- 
 ceed to the following year's course ; those who fail 
 to do so will repeat the work for a second year, and 
 if they are again unsuccessful, will not be afforded 
 further facilities during working hours. 
 
 At the end of the third year the most promising 
 students will be allowed to spend six months in each 
 of the last two years of their apprenticeship at day 
 classes in an approved Technical College. 
 
 Throughout the course all class fees are paid by 
 the Company, and wages are paid as though full 
 time was being kept in the shops. 
 
 The Directors of the London, Brighton, and South 
 Coast Railway offer prizes to those of their employes 
 who are taking systematic courses in Mechanical and 
 Electrical Engineering at the Brighton Technical 
 School. 
 
172 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Messrs. Howard & Bullough of Accrington credit 
 each of their apprentices who attends two evenings a 
 week at the Technical School with one shilling per 
 week. At the end of apprenticeship the accumulated 
 money is handed over to him, with 5 per cent, 
 interest. 
 
 Some of the big ironmasters in Middlesborough 
 and the Cleveland district * allow their apprentices 
 to attend day classes on one day a week without 
 deduction of pay for the time so spent. The 
 subjects of instruction are Machine Construction 
 and Drawing, Applied Mechanics, Theoretical 
 Chemistry, and Electricity ; the fee is six guineas 
 per annum, half of which is paid by the employer, 
 and the other half by the County Borough of 
 Middlesborough or the County Council of the North 
 Riding of Yorkshire. The firms which have so far 
 granted this privilege are : 
 
 The Tees Side Bridge & Engineering Company, 
 Middlesborough ; Richardson Westgarth & Co., 
 Middlesborough; 2 Bolckow, Vaughan '& Co., 
 Middlesborough ; Head, Wright & Co., Stockton. 3 
 
 Again, at Bolton there are three or four hundred 
 apprentices attending evening classes at the expense 
 of their employers. Some firms give ten, others 
 twenty, and so on, of these scholarships, and their 
 
 1 A similar scheme is in operation at the Municipal School of 
 Technology, Manchester. 
 
 2 This firm has issued a circular similar to that of the North- 
 East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, at their 
 Hartlepool Works. See the Engineer, 2nd October, 1903. 
 
 3 For the above information the writer is indebted to Douglas 
 Smith, Esq., Secretary to the Education Committee of the North 
 Riding County Council. 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 1 73 
 
 value is about twenty-five shillings each, covering 
 fees, books, instruments, etc. 
 
 Messrs. Palmer's Shipbuilding Company of Jarrow- 
 on-Tyne issued a circular to their apprentices in 1902, 
 the principal provisions of which are as follows : 
 
 («) Any apprentice who passes in certain subjects 
 before the end of his third year (nineteenth birth- 
 day) shall receive one shilling a week extra pay 
 during his fourth and fifth years. The subjects are : 
 
 Practical Geometry. 
 
 Mathematics (Algebra, Euclid, Arithmetic, and 
 
 Mensuration). 
 Applied Mechanics. 
 Steam — all in the Elementary Stage. 
 
 {b) To any apprentice who passes in certain 
 subjects before the end of his fourth year, two 
 shillings a week shall be allowed during his fifth 
 year. The subjects are: 
 
 Practical Geometry. 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Machine Construction and Drawing — all in the 
 Advanced Stage. 
 
 (c) To the apprentice who obtains the best results 
 in all the above subjects before reaching his twentieth 
 birthday, and whose record for conduct and time- 
 keeping in the shops is good, the privilege of 
 spending the last year of his time in the drawing 
 office is accorded. The selection of the apprentice 
 shall be made by the manager. 
 
174 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Every facility will be given to apprentices attending 
 classes, by not requiring them to work overtime on 
 class evenings. 1 
 
 No Engineer has been more prominent in 
 advocating facilities for theoretical and practical 
 training for Engineering students than Mr. A. F. 
 Yarrow. 
 
 The regulations 2 for the admission of pupils and 
 apprentices to his works at Poplar, as set forth below, 
 are of considerable interest. 
 
 Regulations for the Admission of Pupils, Scheme 
 A. — Candidates who have obtained first-class 
 certificates after a complete course of instruction 
 extending over three years, at an approved technical 
 engineering college, or who have obtained a first- 
 class honours degree, or its equivalent, in an 
 approved engineering course at a University, may be 
 admitted. 
 
 They will receive pay at the rate of twenty 
 shilling a week on entry, with an annual increase of 
 five shillings per week. 
 
 Candidates who have received a similar training, 
 but have obtained lower class certificates, may submit 
 their names to the firm for admittance if they can be 
 strongly recommended by their professors ; but, in 
 any case, those who obtain the highest honours will 
 have the preference. 
 
 The time to be served will be three years, the 
 third year being spent in the drawing office if the 
 workshop record has been satisfactory. 
 
 Scheme B. — Candidates who have not obtained 
 
 1 Engineering, 2nd October, 1903, p. 464. 
 
 2 The Engineer, 26th June, 1903. 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 1 75 
 
 University or Technical College Certificates must be 
 between the ages of sixteen and nineteen. They 
 must be examined before entry by a competent 
 examiner, chosen by the firm, in the following 
 subjects : 
 
 Arithmetic and Mensuration. 
 
 Algebra to Quadratic Equations. 
 
 Geometry up to the standard of Euclid I., II., 
 
 III., IV. and VI. 
 Theory and Use of Logarithms. 
 Trigonometry up to Solution of Triangles. 
 Elementary Theoretical Mechanics, Heat, and 
 
 Electricity. 
 Freehand and Mechanical Drawing. 
 
 The matriculation examination of an approved 
 University, or the " School Leaving Certificate " of 
 the University of London, will be accepted so far as 
 the subjects have been covered. 
 
 Any candidate who has a more advanced know- 
 ledge of Mathematics or Science above the standard 
 indicated by the foregoing list, will be at liberty 
 to submit a statement of the additional subjects in 
 which he might desire to be examined. 
 
 The rate of pay will be ten shillings a week on 
 entry, with an annual increase of five shillings a 
 week. 
 
 Recognising that a scientific education is an 
 essential factor in a young engineer's training, every 
 facility will be given to pupils entering under Scheme 
 B for attending evening classes, and it is required 
 that at least two evenings a week shall be devoted to 
 study. 
 
176 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 The time to be served will be four years, the fourth 
 year, if the workshop record has been satisfactory, 
 being spent in the drawing office. 
 
 Scheme C. — It being the firm's strong conviction 
 that the best course of training for engineer pupils 
 consists in spending the winter months at a 
 University or Technical College, and the summer 
 months in practical work in the shops, they are 
 in consequence desirous of giving every facility for 
 carrying this system into effect in the case of pupils 
 entering under the conditions of Scheme B, if a 
 complete and satisfactory course, occupying six to 
 seven months during the winter in each year, can 
 be arranged at an approved technical engineering 
 college. 
 
 Under this scheme, work in the shops may be 
 combined with a University or Technical College 
 course. 
 
 The rate of pay while in the shops will commence 
 at ten shillings per week, rising gradually to thirty 
 shillings a week. This scheme may be extended to 
 pupils who are doing post-graduate work, having 
 entered the workshops under Scheme A. 
 
 General. — No premium is required under any of 
 the above schemes. Candidates under Schemes A, 
 B, and C must give proof that their school and 
 college career has been satisfactory as regards 
 diligence, punctuality, and general conduct, and they 
 should give an account of any prizes or other 
 distinctions they may have obtained. 
 
 Pupils will be requested to serve three months on 
 probation. All pupils will be required to start work 
 at 6 a.m., and to conform to the regulations of the 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 1 77 
 
 establishment. They may be dismissed at any time 
 if their conduct is not deemed satisfactory. 
 
 It is desirable that pupils should reside within a 
 two-mile radius of the works. 
 
 All pupils must enter into an undertaking jointly 
 with their parents and guardians to remain for the 
 full term specified in the event of the firm desiring 
 to retain them, and their admission depends upon 
 there being vacancies. 
 
 The firm reserve to themselves the right to ask 
 any pupil to retire from the works should he not be 
 considered by them suitable for the profession of an 
 engineer, or should he be irregular in his attendance, 
 or have indifferent health. 
 
 It being very desirable that pupils should visit 
 manufactories, works in progress, etc., every facility 
 will be given to take an afternoon off — not, however, 
 more frequently than once a month — with this 
 object in view. 
 
 The firm reserve to themselves the power to modify 
 these schemes in exceptional cases at their discretion, 
 but no personal influence will in any case be allowed 
 to affect their decision. 
 
 Regulations for the Admission of Apprentices. 
 
 Apprentices enter at sixteen years of age or under. 
 Admittance is only given after satisfactory proof has 
 been given that during their school life they have 
 been diligent and regular in their attendance, and 
 are especially apt in those subjects which it is 
 necessary for an engineer to be well acquainted with. 
 
 At the time of their application detailed particulars 
 of their school career is to be given, with a statement 
 
 M 
 
178 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 of prizes and certificates, or other distinctions which 
 may have been gained during that period. 
 
 No personal influence is to interfere with, the 
 carrying out of this system. 
 
 The rates of pay is to be six shillings, eight shillings, 
 etc., a week, advancing by two shillings a week 
 annually. 
 
 The apprenticeship period is to expire at twenty- 
 one. 
 
 Every facility will be given to apprentices for 
 attending evening classes, and it is expected that at 
 least two evenings a week will be devoted to study, 
 on which evenings they will not be required to work 
 overtime. 
 
 All apprentices will be required to conform to the 
 regulations of the establishment, and they may be 
 discharged at any time if their conduct is not deemed 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Apprentices should reside within a two-mile radius 
 of the works. 
 
 Those who at any time can pass the examination 
 required by Scheme B for the admission of pupils, 
 will come under the regulations which apply to 
 pupils. 
 
 Examples of encouragement by employers in 
 industries other than Engineering are less often met 
 with, and are generally less definite than in the 
 Engineering Industry. At the same time, there are 
 many cases of individual effort which, with a little 
 trouble, might be crystallised into a definite system. 
 The members of the Lincoln Builders' Association 
 not only give prizes to successful students in the 
 local classes, but also insert a clause in the indentures 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 1 79 
 
 of their apprentices requiring them to attend evening 
 classes at the Technical School during the first two 
 winters. Another example is that of the Master 
 Painters' Association of Bradford, whose apprentices 
 attend classes at the School of Art on five afternoons 
 a week for one year. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to maintain the 
 standard of work in Plumbing by requiring that 
 none but duly qualified and registered men shall be 
 employed. In October, 1901, a circular was addressed 
 to local bodies acting in conjunction with the 
 Worshipful Company of Plumbers, and also to the 
 associations engaged in the Building industry, in 
 the chief centres of the kingdom. The document 
 commenced : 
 
 " The Committee of Representatives of District 
 Councils for the following places — Belfast, Birming- 
 ham, Bradford, Cardiff, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
 Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Nottingham, Plymouth, 
 and Sheffield, acting in conjunction with the Plumbers' 
 Company, deem it highly desirable that a prescribed 
 apprenticeship .or course of training should be recog- 
 nised in connection with the National Registration 
 of Plumbers. A special form of indenture has been 
 prepared for the purpose by a conjoint board com- 
 posed of representatives of the 'London Society of 
 Associated Master Plumbers,' the ' United Operative 
 Plumbers' Association of Great Britain and Ireland,' 
 and the ' Plumbers' Company.' " 
 
 In the form of indenture suggested : 
 
 " Covenants are expressly provided for (1) the 
 attendance of the apprentice at approved classes of 
 technical instruction ; (2) the apprentice presenting 
 
180 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 himself for annual examinations in technical know- 
 ledge and workmanship in conformity with such 
 rules and regulations as may from time to time be 
 prescribed in connection with the National Registra- 
 tion of Plumbers ; (3) the cancelling of the indenture 
 after due notice to the parties in the event of the 
 apprentice failing to pass a satisfactory examination 
 in the third year of his apprenticeship, provided 
 such cancelment be recommended by the examining 
 body." 
 
 Town, County, and Urban District Councils could 
 exercise considerable influence in matters of this 
 sort, and now that they are more closely concerned 
 with the control of Technical Education, they will no 
 doubt show greater interest in the proper training of 
 Plumbers. In a •courteous letter to the writer, the 
 Secretary of the Worshipful Company of Plumbers 
 states : 
 
 " There are at present in London, as well as in 
 various parts of the country, several apprentices 
 taken on the form of Indenture. The Company 
 also keep a Register of Apprentices, upon which 
 some twenty to thirty apprentices have been 
 entered." 
 
 Mining is in the same condition as Building in 
 regard to lack of definite schemes of encouragement. 
 A number of colliery owners have agreed to pay the 
 fees and (or) train fares of some of their employes 
 whom they propose to send to the Course of Lectures 
 on Saturdays at the Durham College of Science, 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne. The pupils of Mr. J. P. Gibbon, 
 Agent to North's Navigation Company, Maesteg, 
 Glamorgan, are required by their agreements to 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR l8l 
 
 attend evening classes. Moreover, the support 
 (something like ^25,cx)0) given by colliery owners 
 to the Wigan Mining School is evidence that the 
 value of Technical Education is fully recognised in 
 this industry. 
 
 In Metallurgy the conditions are altogether dif- 
 ferent. One or more skilled chemists, and in iron 
 and steel works a trained engineering staff are 
 employed, but the former have often received their 
 training before entering the works. In a number of 
 cases the ordinary operations of analysis are carried 
 out by superior artisans, who are capable of following 
 instructions without knowing anything of the pro- 
 cesses involved. Where boys are engaged, there are 
 some cases in which the term of apprenticeship is 
 shortened if the lad proposes to go to a Technical 
 School at its conclusion. There is a good deal of 
 scope for experiment in connection with this industry. 
 Lads who, while engaged in the works, had shown 
 ability in evening classes, might be offered a period 
 in the Laboratory, and vice versd. 
 
 Attention may be drawn to two points. In the 
 first place, there is evidently a feeling that while all 
 employes should undergo theoretical training, the 
 apprentice — or his modern equivalent — is the one 
 upon whom pressure can and must be brought to 
 bear. Secondly, there is a manifest tendency to 
 systematise the instruction, and to grant privileges 
 as rewards for success in an approved course of 
 study. Once these two points are generally 
 recognised, the extension of the co-operation 
 between Technical School and Workshop is assured. 
 The capacity and prospects of the apprentice have 
 
1 82 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 too often been limited and hidden by the pre- 
 ponderating claims of the journeyman, with his 
 inadequate preliminary training, and in spite of his 
 earnestness of purpose, his narrower view. The fear 
 of driving students away has frequently prevented 
 the Technical Schools from demonstrating their aim 
 with sufficient clearness, from prescribing and insist- 
 ing on courses of study, from adapting themselves 
 to the changed conditions of industry, and becoming 
 at once a part of the industrial and educational 
 machinery of the country. With the wise support 
 of employers, they can look forward with confidence 
 to a constant influx of students with a common level 
 of attainment and a common aim, to give them that 
 stability of numbers and regularity of attendance 
 which is so necessary for the organisation of really 
 efficient and suitable courses. 
 
 The value of the experiments which are in progress 
 in connection with both the arrangement of courses 
 of instruction and the closer association of the interests 
 of the industry and the schools can hardly be over- 
 rated. Still, in these examples of individual enterprise 
 lies a danger as inseparable from infinite diversity as 
 it is from conformity to a rigid plan. Experiment is 
 desirable, and indeed at the present time essential ; 
 unless, however, it is carried out on a rational rather 
 than a purely empirical basis, it may not only lead 
 to waste of effort, but may retard in some cases the 
 progress of Technical Education by producing dis- 
 appointing results where a more careful consideration 
 of educational principles would have secured success. 
 
 There is no doubt a prevailing horror of uniformity, 
 as tending to reduce freedom of initiative and to 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 1 83 
 
 cramp development. All professional education, 
 however, e.g., Law and Medicine, is stereotyped as 
 to standard of admission, subjects, but not method, 
 which, within certain limits, is always determined 
 by the personal equation of the teacher. The 
 possession of University degrees in Engineering, no 
 matter how different the methods of the schools may 
 be, imply similar standards of knowledge. Surely 
 an intelligible standard should be aimed at in what 
 Sir William White calls " lower technical education." 
 Some diversity there must always be in any action 
 taken by employers, because what the organisation 
 of one works will permit, that of another will not. 
 But an approach to uniformity, or, at any rate, some 
 standardisation of curricula, is possible, and this is 
 essential if the instruction is to have a value more 
 than local. 
 
 In view of the probability that definite action by 
 the employers in favour of theoretical training is 
 likely to increase, some features of the various 
 methods in operation may be discussed. It should 
 be noted that in Engineering there are, as a rule, no 
 articles of apprenticeship. A lad is not bound to his 
 employers for any particular length of time, nor are 
 they bound in any way to provide instruction for 
 him. He is simply taken on, set to work, and paid 
 a wage which depends entirely upon his age ; and 
 whenever he joins, his apprenticeship — such as it is — 
 lasts until he is twenty-one years of age. His work 
 is confined, in nearly all cases, to one department, 
 and there is really little to distinguish it from that of 
 the journeyman. 
 
 It will have been observed that several of the 
 
184 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 schemes contemplate shifting the apprentice who has 
 distinguished himself from one department to 
 another, and this is perhaps the most valuable 
 stimulus that can be given. The youth not only 
 derives an added interest from the variety of work 
 he has to execute, but the all-round experience will 
 be of the greatest use to him in enabling him to 
 take advantage of theoretical instruction in after 
 life. The drawing office, in particular, is a goal of 
 ambition for many young men, and possesses charms 
 over and above the fact that it is a nine o'clock in 
 the morning job. The North-East Coast scheme 
 and that of Mr. Yarrow rightly insist on a high 
 standard of general education on admission — a matter 
 which should have serious attention in all future 
 arrangements. There is no greater stumbling-block 
 to progress beyond a certain point than defective 
 early training. The reports of the Mosely Educa- 
 tional Commission show that this point is not being 
 lost sight of in America. 
 
 The schemes of the two Railway Companies 
 provide in different ways for weeding out the unfit. 
 The London and South- Western exclude those who 
 show that they possess no natural aptitude for study, 
 or lack of perseverance, and the Great Western 
 encourage those who show that they do possess the 
 right qualities. It has been said that the London 
 and South-Western scheme could not be carried out 
 by every engineering firm ; and this is probably true, 
 in spite of the comparatively small amount of time 
 given from the working hours. Difficulties would 
 doubtless be experienced by marine repair shops, for 
 example, in which the work comes in with a rush. 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 1 85 
 
 For most works, however, the Great Western scheme 
 is well within the bounds of possibility, and the cost 
 is not prohibitive. Thus, assuming the thirty students 
 in attendance at the Technical School receive on the 
 average ten shillings for a fifty-four hour week, the 
 net loss in wages for a session of thirty weeks would 
 be £50, and the fees would amount to £60, making 
 £1 10 a year in all. There is the additional advantage 
 both to employer and employed in the feeling that 
 the privilege has been well earned. Some people 
 may have an objection to a method which seems to 
 bribe apprentices to attend classes, and if real induce- 
 ments in the way of promotion are held out, it does 
 not seem necessary to adopt other methods. The 
 object is to seek out and develop innate ability and 
 perseverance ; not to create a somewhat artificial 
 enthusiasm amongst a large number, many of whom 
 may fail to benefit by the instruction. Whether a 
 desire for self-improvement and advancement under 
 favourable conditions is sufficient, time alone can 
 show, and in any case different trades may call for 
 differences of method. 
 
 The writer believes that the following plan would 
 in general be the easiest of adoption, most economical 
 in working, and productive of the best results. 
 
 1. Apprentices to be encouraged to attend 
 systematic courses of instruction in evening classes, 
 so arranged as to provide a suitable basis for future 
 work, and to involve as little strain as can be 
 secured. 
 
 2. A proportion of apprentices who have distin- 
 guished themselves by diligence and progress, to be 
 sent on two afternoons or one day, with one or 
 
1 86 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 two evenings a week for Drawing, to the Technical 
 School. 
 
 3. The best students to pass, with the aid, of 
 scholarships if necessary, to the full day course at 
 the Technical College, for two or three years. 
 
 The pupils would in each case pay their own 
 fees, unless they held scholarships awarded by local 
 education authorities or by their employers. There 
 should be a sufficient number of such scholarships to 
 ensure that no deserving student shall be excluded 
 for lack of means. 
 
 Such a scheme would be eminently suitable for 
 the Building trades. During the winter months 
 work is slack, and in most cases the apprentices 
 could be well spared. Even in Plumbing the 
 journeymen could probably cope with the repairs 
 occasioned by frost. The plan would also be suitable 
 for Mining and Metallurgy. 
 
 The above suggestions are by no means so 
 revolutionary as those proposed in a thoughtful 
 article on " The Nation, the Apprentice, and the 
 Polytechnic," 1 by Dr. S. G. Rawson. He considers 
 the case of the boy or girl who completes the Sixth 
 Standard at the end of his or her twelfth year, and 
 would make attendance at a Higher Elementary 
 School for the next two years (say to fourteen and a 
 half) compulsory. The greater number who leave 
 at fourteen and a half would enter business or 
 workshops. " There they should remain for two 
 years, attending by compulsion on two afternoons 
 and three evenings per week at the nearest Technical 
 Institute." At the end of that time he considers 
 1 Contemporary Review, 1901, p. tfi^etseq. 
 
ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR 187 
 
 that the employer should send selected apprentices 
 for at least two years to the day Polytechnic, paying 
 wages all the time, and receiving the apprentice 
 back into the works during vacations. 
 
 The argument is supported by quotations from 
 the report of Mr. James Baker on " Technical and 
 Commercial Education in East Prussia, Poland, Silesia, 
 and Bohemia," where similar arrangements are en- 
 forced by law. There is, however, an innate dislike of 
 compulsion in this country, and there is reason to 
 believe that some such scheme as that outlined on 
 pages 185 and 186 is within measure of attainment. 
 The period of prosperity which the nation has enjoyed 
 for a number of years is doubtless responsible for 
 much of the conservatism to be met with, but there 
 are not wanting signs that public opinion will sooner 
 or slater stimulate the vigorous reorganisation of 
 educational and industrial methods that is so 
 completely the need of the hour. 
 
 If such a scheme comes into general operation, it 
 will be more than ever necessary to secure more 
 definiteness in the evening instruction. About fifty 
 apprentices were admitted to the Monday classes at 
 Manchester 1 during the first session, while at 
 Middlesborough 2 the numbers have varied from 
 thirty to six. Unless they are of fairly equal standard, 
 and there is some rational connection between the 
 evening and day curricula, by which the backward 
 can attain this standard, even the simplest classification 
 into first, second, and third year students will be 
 impossible. 
 
 Finally, it may be noted that the suggestions bear 
 1 Page 127, footnote. z Page 127. 
 
1 88 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 considerable resemblance to the system of training 
 apprentices in the Royal Dockyards. Lads are 
 admitted between fourteen and sixteen years of age 
 on the results of a competitive examination, and 
 receive instruction on two afternoons and three 
 evenings per week during the first four years of 
 service. Examinations are held half-yearly, and 
 there is a continual weeding-out of those who show 
 themselves unable to profit by the instruction. 1 The 
 scheme outlined differs from the Admiralty scheme 
 in that the Evening School alone is employed for 
 the weeding process before the day courses begin. 
 It has been stated 2 that questions of cost would 
 render the dockyard plan impossible in the case of 
 smaller firms. But a reference to the financial aspect 
 of the Great Western scheme (p. 185) shows that the 
 expenditure is comparatively small. And in towns 
 where there are several small firms this would 
 become still less significant by distribution. 
 
 1 The matter is again discussed on page 253. For a full 
 description see Cassier's Magazine, November, 1902, p. 205 
 et seq. 
 
 * "What the Admiralty has done large employers can also 
 do, though not perhaps to so great an extent." — Sir William 
 H. White, Technics, January, 1904. 
 
 Note. — It should be stated here that no reference has been 
 made to the benevolent gifts of wealthy men who have built and 
 aided Technical Schools. These gifts have in many cases 
 provided the means of Technical Education, but they hardly 
 come within the province of this chapter. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE RELATION BETWEEN EVENING AND DAY 
 TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 When considering the function of Evening Schools 
 in a general scheme of Technical Education, stress 
 was laid upon the necessity of providing for those 
 who by inclination and opportunity would elect to 
 continue their studies at a Day Technical College. 
 Two matters are thereby opened for discussion. 
 The first is how far the Evening Curricula which 
 have been described form a suitable preparation for 
 the first or later year's course at the Day College. 
 The second is how far various systems of awarding 
 scholarships offer sufficient facilities for advancing 
 deserving students. 
 
 As to the former, no wisely organised system can 
 avoid recognising the necessity of co-ordinating the 
 different agencies. In the present state of divided 
 opinion the colleges are, as a rule, glad to take 
 students either direct from school, or after a period 
 has been spent in the works. The minimum age of 
 admission is sixteen, or in a few cases fifteen, and 
 evidence is generally required that the candidate 
 
 189 
 
190 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 has received a good general education. Entrance 
 examinations are not universally insisted upon, but 
 the University Colleges and London Polytechnics 
 naturally bring pressure to bear upon students to 
 matriculate, with a view to graduation, though they 
 have also established in a number of cases Certifi- 
 cate or Diploma Courses, for which matriculation is 
 not necessary. 
 
 For a student who does not wish to graduate, 
 a test in English Composition and Elementary 
 Mathematics is all that is required as a rule. The 
 student who cannot satisfy the authorities on this 
 point has certainly no claim to be admitted, and it 
 is to be hoped that the attention which is now being 
 paid to secondary education, together with the more 
 general recognition of the value of technical training, 
 will result in a much higher standard of admission 
 being imposed. 
 
 The day courses of instruction rarely assume any 
 special knowledge on the part of the student on 
 admission ; at any rate, the entrance examinations 
 never contain science papers beyond matriculation 
 standard, except for the purpose of selecting 
 scholars ; and as has already been remarked, not 
 even this is looked for from students in diploma 
 courses. 
 
 All technological day courses involve more or less 
 instruction in the fundamental subjects, Physics and 
 Chemistry. The amount considered necessary varies, 
 even where similar standards are reached in the 
 applied subjects ; but some is always given. Now 
 the student who elects to go through a period of 
 workshop training before proceeding to college, and 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS IQI 
 
 attends evening classes during that interval, will find 
 himself face to face with certain difficulties due to 
 the complete independence of the curriculum of the 
 Evening Technical School. He will find that he 
 has already considerable knowledge of some of the 
 subjects of the first or second year's College course, 
 but not to the same standard in each. As evening 
 courses of instruction are at present constituted, he 
 will have obtained a knowledge of the applied 
 subjects which is greatly in excess of his knowledge 
 of fundamental subjects as measured by^comparison 
 with the student who, starting under exactly the 
 same conditions, has gone direct from school to 
 college. He will have specialised as much as the 
 first or second year day student, without having 
 attained his breadth of general and scientific 
 education. 
 
 How great this difference is, and its exact nature, 
 is best brought out by comparing the number of 
 hours which a student will have spent in studying 
 a given subject after certain periods under the two 
 conditions. The first comparison may be made 
 with the carefully organised day and evening 
 courses of the Municipal School of Technology, 
 Manchester. The figures represent the number of 
 hours which a student will have devoted to each 
 subject over a period given at the head of each 
 column. The courses chosen are those in Mechanical 
 Engineering. 
 
192 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 
 Two 
 
 One 
 
 Four 
 
 Two 
 
 Subjects,. 
 
 Years, 
 
 Year, 
 
 Years, 
 
 Years, 
 
 
 Evening. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Evening. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Mathematics, - 
 
 1 20 
 
 203 
 
 24O 
 
 340 
 
 Geometrical and Mechani- 
 
 
 
 
 
 cal Drawing, 
 
 l80 
 
 240 
 
 l80 
 
 474 
 
 Mechanics and Steam, 
 
 
 
 
 
 with Laboratory Work, 
 
 6O 
 
 IOO 
 
 420 
 
 410 
 
 Physics, 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 270 
 
 Chemistry, - 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 270 
 
 Electrical Engineering, - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 Workshop, 
 
 5000 
 
 {about) 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOOOO 
 {about) 
 
 340 
 
 English, ... 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 German, ... 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 In estimating these figures, it has been assumed 
 that the evening session lasts thirty weeks, and the 
 day session, when examinations are allowed for, 
 thirty-four weeks, approximately. The table brings 
 out the fact that in the years selected for comparison 
 the evening student has put in about two-thirds of 
 the time of his day confrere at Mathematics, but has 
 spent quite as much time — and presumably reached 
 the same standard — in Mechanics and Steam. Can 
 we assume that two - thirds of the Mathematical 
 knowledge which one man must have is sufficient 
 for another to reach the same standard in Applied 
 Science ? The difference in the case of Mechanical 
 Drawing is not great in the first case ; in the second 
 it is out of all reason, if the courses are intended for 
 the same types of men with similar capacities and 
 objects in life. - At the same time, there is another 
 .possibility to be kept in view. If the evening 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 193 
 
 student spends three months in the drawing office 
 during his apprenticeship, he will be able to add 
 five hundred hours on to the time given for this 
 subject, and this is a contingency likely enough to 
 arise. 
 
 The real contrast between the courses comes out 
 in the time spent upon Physics and Chemistry. The 
 importance of these is fully recognised in this, as in 
 nearly all other day courses, while in evening courses 
 it is as uniformly ignored. 
 
 Before proceeding further with the discussion, 
 another example may be examined. It is that 
 of the West Ham Municipal Technical School. 
 The courses are again those for Mechanical 
 Engineering, which, in this case, are based upon 
 the University of London syllabuses. 
 
 
 Two 
 
 One 
 
 Four 
 
 Two 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Years, 
 
 Year, 
 
 Years, 
 
 Years, 
 
 
 Evening. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Evening. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Mathematics, - 
 
 30 
 
 170 
 
 70 
 
 320 
 
 Mechanical Engineering 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Mechanics and Steam), 
 
 180 
 
 I70 
 
 S40 
 
 440 
 
 Geometrical and Mechani- 
 
 
 
 
 
 cal Drawing, 
 
 I20 
 
 6O 
 
 1 20 
 
 l60 
 
 Physics and Electrical 
 
 
 
 
 Engineering, - — 
 
 270 
 
 — 
 
 5IO 
 
 Chemistry and Metal- 
 
 
 
 
 lurgy, - — 
 
 170 
 
 — 
 
 270 
 
 Workshops, - - j 5000 
 
 I6O 
 
 1 0000 
 
 3IO 
 
 i {about) 
 
 
 {about) 
 
 
 The disparity between the amounts of time spent 
 upon Mathematics and Engineering subjects is here 
 
194 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 most marked, while the amount of time given to 
 Drawing is very nearly the same in each. Physics 
 and Chemistry are not taken in the evening courses, 
 and this in spite of the fact that in the other subjects 
 nearly identical syllabuses are followed. 
 
 That the main difference between day and evening 
 curricula is the neglect of the fundamental subjects 
 by the latter may be verified by comparing any of 
 the courses in Chapter IV. with the following day 
 courses. 
 
 The figures given there are the number of hours 
 per week devoted to each subject or group of subjects. 
 In order to effect the same comparison as above, 
 the figures must be multiplied by 34 and 30 
 respectively, which is approximately the number of 
 weeks in the year the instruction covers. 
 
 All this comparison points to one conclusion : that 
 if the day courses are sound, the evening courses 
 are correspondingly unsound. And it is quite 
 certain that if the Evening Technical School is to 
 pass a proportion of its students on to the Day 
 College, a radical alteration in its methods is necessary. 
 
 Engineering at Birmingham University. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Third 
 Year 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 
 Physics, .... 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 Chemistry, - 
 
 6* 
 
 — 
 
 
 Metallurgy, 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Engineering, 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 19S 
 Engineering at Manchester Technical School. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Third 
 Year 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 Physics, 
 
 Chemistry, - - - 
 
 Metallurgy, ... 
 
 Engineering, 
 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 Metallurgy at Manchester Technical School. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Third 
 Year 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 Physics, .... 
 Chemistry, - 
 
 Engineering, ... 
 Metallurgy, ... 
 Geology and Mineralogy, - 
 Chem. Engineering and Plant, 
 Surveying, - - - - 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 12 
 
 6 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 11 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Metallurgy at Birmingham University. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Third 
 Year 
 
 Mathematics, ... 
 Physics, . . - - 
 Chemistry, - - - - 
 Engineering, - 
 Metallurgy,, 
 Geology, - 
 
 4 
 5 
 7 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 ■- ' ctf 
 
196 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 Mining at Birmingham University. 
 
 
 First 
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Year 
 
 Year 
 
 Year 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Physics, 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 Geology, - 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 By Arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 Engineering, 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 Metallurgy, 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 11 
 
 Mining, 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Mining at University College, Sheffield. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Third 
 Year 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Electricity, 
 Chemistry, - 
 Engineering, 
 Fuel, - 
 
 ii 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 Mining, 
 Geology, - 
 
 _4 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 What proportion of students in Technical Schools 
 and the Technical Departments of Universities have 
 previously worked in evening classes is not easy to 
 ascertain in any way short of a direct canvass. There 
 must be a fair number holding County Council and 
 other Scholarships, and if any conclusions can be 
 drawn from the recent action of employers (Chapter V.), 
 that number is likely to be increased. In both these 
 cases they will be picked men, and on their behalf it 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL^SCHOOLS 197 
 
 is assuredly desirable that the system of training 
 shall be as sound and as effective as foresight can 
 make it. 
 
 Leaving out for the time being the educational 
 soundness of courses of instruction that ignore the 
 fundamental subjects, leaving out the question of the 
 mischief which results from specialisation on too 
 narrow a basis, continuity of curricula in the case of 
 institutions that must always be closely associated is 
 surely worthy of consideration. Is it necessary that 
 the student who wants to specialise in Technology, 
 and does not care to go through the necessary ground- 
 work, should be the first care ? Are the difficulties 
 of organising a progressive, well-balanced curriculum 
 for Evening Schools that shall have a real connection 
 with curricula below and above it, and form an efficient 
 and solid link in our educational system, insuperable ? 
 Can there not be a definite and fairly uniform standard 
 that shall make certain periods of study in evening 
 classes equivalent to other (and shorter) periods in Day 
 Technical Colleges ? The fulfilment of one function 
 of the Evening Technical School at least depends 
 upon the answers to these questions, and if we agree 
 to answer the first two in the negative, an attempt 
 will be made in Chapter VIII. to answer the third. 
 
 In discussing the provision of scholarships for 
 enabling evening students to proceed to the Day 
 Technical Schools, it will be convenient to consider 
 first the arrangements made by County Councils. 
 Under this head systems of financial aid, to enable 
 students to pursue more advanced work at certain 
 centres outside the county area than can be followed 
 in their own locality, will be described, mainly 
 
I98 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 because of their importance in rendering available 
 a progressive system of instruction in thinly- 
 populated districts. Probably the most elaborate 
 scholarship system established by any Administrative 
 County is that of the West Riding of Yorkshire. 
 It will be sufficient to note here the Major 
 Scholarships, Technological Scholarships, Coal 
 Mining Exhibitions, and Technical Exhibitions. 
 
 The current arrangements provide for not more 
 than fourteen Major Scholarships of an annual value 
 equal to the College fees, if these are not more than 
 £30, plus travelling expenses for distances over two 
 miles, and a maintenance allowance of £2$, which 
 may in exceptional cases be increased to £35. 
 Candidates must be between sixteen and twenty- 
 five years of age, and must enter an approved Uni- 
 versity or University College. They must not as a 
 rule have attended a College for more than two terms ; 
 in that case a higher standard of attainment will 
 be expected. Scholarships are awarded in the first 
 instance for two years, are renewable for a third, 
 and in exceptional cases for a further period. They 
 will be cancelled unless the Matriculation Examina- 
 tion is passed within one year, and the Intermediate 
 within two years. The examination is held in April. 
 
 Subjects. 
 English, including Composition and\ 
 
 Grammar. j ^ 
 
 Outlines of English History and General [ ° 
 
 Geography. V. "3 
 
 Mathematics, including Arithmetic, Algebra 1 6 
 
 to Quadratics, and Geometry (thel U 
 
 subject-matter of Euclid I.-IV.) / 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 1 99 
 
 With three of the following : 
 
 Mathematics (a higher paper). 
 
 Mechanics. 
 
 Mechanical Drawing and Practical Plane and 
 
 Solid Geometry. 
 Descriptive Physics (Sound, Light, Heat, Elec- 
 tricity and Magnetism). 
 Elementary Inorganic Chemistry (chiefly non- 
 metals). 
 French. 
 German. 
 Latin. 
 Greek. 
 
 English Literature. 
 English History. 
 Six free studentships, four tenable at the York- 
 shire College, and two at University College, Sheffield, 
 are awarded in the same way. 
 
 The basis of the competition is the curriculum of 
 the secondary school, but the limits of age permit of 
 a student who has started on his career, but kept up 
 his general education, entering for them. There is, 
 moreover, a proviso in the Regulations which con- 
 templates shop practice for Engineering students 
 before they take up the College course. 
 
 The Technological Scholarships are four in number, 
 and are of the value of £60 a year. They may be 
 utilised for courses in connection with 
 
 (a) Textile Work ; 
 
 (jb) Dyeing; 
 
 (c) Mechanical or Electrical Engineering ; 
 
 \d) Metallurgy; 
 
200 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 0?) Any other industry sanctioned by the County 
 Education Committee. 
 
 The scholarships are awarded in the first instance 
 for one year ; they are renewable for a second, and 
 exceptionally for a third year. The holders will not, 
 as a rule, be required to prepare for a University 
 degree, but must take the certificate course of the 
 institution attended. They must be between eighteen 
 and thirty years of age. 
 
 Candidates must have studied for at least two 
 sessions in local Technical Schools, and must produce 
 a recommendation from the managers of the school 
 which is endorsed by their employers. They must 
 have had, moreover, at least three years' experience 
 in workshops or their equivalent. Any period in 
 the Design Room, Drawing Office, or Chemical 
 Laboratory can only count in lieu of one of these 
 years. Particulars must be furnished of the whole of 
 a candidate's work in fundamental or allied subjects, 
 and preference will be given to any who have 
 followed a group course of instruction similar to 
 those recommended by the County Council for 
 Technical Exhibitioners (Chapter IV.). 
 
 The selection is based mainly upon the results 
 obtained at the Examinations of the Board of 
 Education and the City and Guilds of London 
 Institute in specified subjects, but the Committee 
 reserve the right to impose any other test they 
 think fit. 
 
 The list of subjects for Engineering and Metal- 
 lurgical scholarships is given below : 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 201 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 The candidate must select subjects (not exceeding 
 five in all) from the following list as those in which 
 he elects to compete. He may submit for con- 
 sideration successes obtained at any time since 
 March, 1902. 
 
 But notwithstanding the restriction to five subjects, 
 provision is made on the application form for 
 information to be given by candidates as to their 
 successes in any other subjects, or as to any work 
 they may have done bearing upon their proposed 
 course of study, but which may not have been tested 
 by the examinations of the Board of Education or 
 the City and Guilds of London Institute. 
 
 Mathematics, Stage 2 or higher. (Compulsory 
 subject.) 
 
 And any four of the following : 
 
 Practical Plane and Solid Geometry. 
 
 Machine Construction and Drawing. 
 
 Building Construction. 
 
 Naval Architecture. 
 
 Theoretical or Applied Mechanics. 
 
 Sound, or Light, or Heat. 
 
 Magnetism and Electricity. 
 
 Inorganic Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical. 
 
 Metallurgy, Theoretical and Practical. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Electric Lighting and Power Distribution. 
 Iron and Steel Manufacture. 
 Metal Plate Work. 
 Mechanical Engineering. 
 
202 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 The candidate must select subjects (not exceeding 
 five in all) from the following list as those in which he 
 elects to compete. He may submit for consideration 
 successes obtained any time since March, 1902. 
 
 But notwithstanding the restriction to five subjects, 
 provision is made on the application form for infor- 
 mation to be given by candidates as to their successes 
 in any other subjects, or as to any work they may 
 have done bearing upon their proposed course of 
 study, but which may not have been tested by 
 the examinations of the Board of Education or the 
 City and Guilds of London Institute. 
 
 Inorganic Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical, 
 • Stage 2 or higher. (Compulsory subject.) 
 And any four of the following : 
 
 Practical Plane and Solid Geometry. 
 
 Machine Construction and Drawing. 
 
 Building Construction. 
 
 Naval Architecture. 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Theoretical or Applied Mechanics. 
 
 Sound, or Light, or Heat. 
 
 Magnetism and Electricity. 
 
 Metallurgy, Theoretical and Practical. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Electric Lighting and Power Distribution. 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy. 
 
 Iron and Steel Manufacture. 
 
 Metal Plate Work. 
 
 Mechanical Engineering. 
 
 Photography. 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 203 
 
 The actual subjects suggested and the alternatives 
 might be criticised in some instances, but the list 
 gives every chance to the student who has followed a 
 systematic course in groups of allied subjects, while 
 the method of selection of the students seems to 
 leave nothing to mere chance. 
 
 Coal Mining Exhibitions are also awarded, tenable 
 at the Yorkshire College, Leeds, University College, 
 Sheffield, or similar institutions. They cover fees, 
 travelling expenses over three miles, an allowance of 
 thirty shillings for books, instruments, etc. ; and are 
 awarded for two years. Candidates must be over 
 sixteen, and the selection may be made in three 
 ways : 
 
 («) On the result of a special examination in 
 English Composition. 
 Arithmetic and Mensuration. 
 Practical" Coal Mining. 
 
 (b) On the results of examination after a series 
 
 of University Extension Lectures in Mining. 
 
 (c) From among practical miners over twenty-five 
 
 years of age who have passed Stage I. under the 
 Board of Education, and are unable to obtain 
 advanced instruction locally. They must be 
 specially recommended by a District Sub- 
 Committee. 
 
 Fewer precautions to secure soundness of pre- 
 liminary training seem to be taken in the award of 
 these Exhibitions than in, other cases in this county. 
 
 The Technical Exhibitions are intended to enable 
 students who have attended Continuation Schools to 
 
204 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 take up suitable evening group courses. They 
 consist of three kinds : 
 
 (a) Junior Exhibitions, tenable for three years, for 
 
 persons between fourteen and sixteen years of 
 age. 
 
 (b) Senior Exhibitions, tenable for three years, and 
 
 renewable for a fourth, for persons over sixteen 
 years of age. 
 {c) Occasional Exhibitions, for Advanced Work, ten- 
 able for one year, but renewable, for persons 
 over sixteen years of age. 
 
 Exhibitioners (a) and (c) receive a grant in respect 
 of fees, and the whole or part of travelling expenses 
 over two miles. Exhibitioners (b) receive in addition 
 a grant not exceeding thirty shillings for books. 
 Junior and Senior Exhibitioners are required to 
 attend on not less than two nor more than three 
 evenings a week, and to take up not less "than 
 two nor more than four subjects according to 
 the groups which have been arranged (Chapter IV.). 
 Recommendations are made by the District 
 Sub-Committees. 
 
 The Lancashire County Council offers Major 
 Scholarships on the same lines as the West Riding, 
 except that the. award is made on the Joint 
 Preliminary Examination of the Universities of 
 Liverpool and Manchester. This involves a second 
 language, and additional papers are set in 
 Mathematics, Modern Languages, Mechanics, 
 Physics, Chemistry, and Mechanical Drawing. 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 205 
 
 None of their other scholarships fall within the 
 scope of this book, but there are a number of 
 evening studentships of the value of £2, with 
 travelling expense for distances over two miles. 
 The holders must pursue a systematic course of 
 instruction. The awards are made on the results of 
 an examination in Arithmetic, with not less than 
 two nor more than three subjects from the following 
 list: 
 
 English. Chemistry. Arithmetic. 
 
 French. Physics. Algebra and Geometry, 
 
 German. Mechanics. Commercial Geography. 
 
 One half of the studentship is paid in November 
 on the receipt of a certificate from the Authorities of 
 the school stating that the holder has made satisfactory 
 attendance and progress, and the other at the end of 
 the session, provided that the student has made 
 80 per cent, of the possible number of 
 attendances. 
 
 The Derbyshire County Council only awards 
 Evening Technical Exhibitions, equal in value to 
 railway fare, and the whole or part of the fees. 
 The selection is made from documentary evidence of 
 merit, and only one return journey per week is 
 permitted. 
 
 Five Technological Scholarships, tenable at the 
 Municipal School of Technology, Manchester, or 
 elsewhere, are offered by the Cheshire County 
 
206 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Council. The value covers fees and travelling 
 expenses, so long as these do not exceed £40. The 
 award is for one year, but the scholarship may be 
 renewed for a second or third. The subjects of 
 examination are the same as those for admission to 
 the Manchester School of Technology, viz : 
 
 English, including Geography and History. 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Freehand Drawing. 
 
 General Science (Mechanics, Physics, Chemistry). 
 
 Latin, French, or German. 
 
 Candidates must be over fifteen years of age, 
 and must make over 90 per cent, of the possible 
 attendances in each class per session. 
 
 In addition, there are thirty Evening Scholarships 
 for Science and Technology, covering fees and 
 travelling expenses up to £5. Students must be 
 over fifteen years of age, and the award is made on 
 past successes. 
 
 The County Council of Staffordshire offers six 
 Major Scholarships — two of the value of £20, two 
 of £30, and two of £40, tenable for one year, but 
 renewable for a second, and under special circum- 
 stances for a third year. Candidates must be 
 between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one. The 
 subjects of examination are : 
 
 1. Arithmetic and Algebra to the Binomial 
 
 Theorem. 
 
 2. Freehand Drawing or English Essay. 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 207 
 With three of the following : 
 
 3. Statics and Dynamics, or Trigonometry and 
 
 Geometrical Conies. 
 
 4. German, or Chemistry. 
 
 5. French, or Experimental Physics. 
 
 6. Geometry. 
 
 In addition to the above, occasional scholarships of 
 the value of £30 a year for not more than three 
 years are awarded in Mining and Metallurgy. These 
 are tenable at the University of Birmingham, and an 
 additional allowance for maintenance may be made 
 at the discretion of the Committee. 
 
 " They are awarded on the report of an Examiner 
 specially appointed by the Education Committee on 
 each occasion on which they are given. The 
 examination is both written and oral, and the 
 Examiner is entitled to make a report upon general 
 grounds." 
 
 Six Technical Scholarships have been established 
 by the Monmouthshire County Council. They are 
 of the annual value of ^40, together with free 
 admission to all classes, and though awarded for one 
 year in the first instance, may be renewed for two 
 more years. Candidates must be between sixteen 
 and twenty-two years of age, except in the case of 
 two of the scholarships, one of which is reserved for 
 those engaged in Mining, and the other for those 
 engaged in some Engineering or Metallurgical 
 Industry. The scholarships are awarded on the 
 results of an examination in Mathematics, and not 
 more than seven of the following subjects : 
 
2C/8 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Theoretical Mechanics. 
 Applied Mechanics. 
 Practical Geometry. 
 Freehand Drawing. 
 Sound, Light, and Heat. 
 Electricity and Magnetism. 
 Inorganic Chemistry. 
 Geology. 
 
 Principles of Mining. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Physiography. 
 
 Botany. 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 French. 
 
 German. 
 
 Machine 
 
 Drawing or 
 Building Construction. 
 
 An essay paper is set in addition to the above, 
 which is not counted in the eight subjects, but which 
 carries marks. For the Mining and Engineering 
 Scholarships, preference is given to candidates who 
 do well in Mathematics and Theoretical Mechanics. 
 In the case of those who desire to study for a 
 University degree, preference is given to those who 
 have passed the whole or part of the Matriculation 
 Examination. 
 
 The Glamorgan County Council maintains a 
 number of free studentships at University College, 
 Cardiff- Twenty of these carry a maintenance 
 allowance of ^30 a year, five of them of £20, and 
 five of £40, and are tenable for three years. 
 Candidates must be between sixteen and thirty 
 years of age. The examination is in the following 
 subjects : 
 
 1. Mathematics. 
 
 2. Theoretical Mechanics. 
 
 3. Inorganic Chemistry. 
 
 4. Sound, Light, and Heat. 
 
 5. Electricity and Mag- 
 
 netism 
 
 6. Applied Mechanics. 
 
 7. Steam. 
 
 8. Physiography or 
 
 Geology. 
 
 9. Principles of Mining. 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 20g 
 
 io. Practical Geometry. 14. Latin. 
 
 11. Building Construction 15. English Language. 
 
 or Machine Drawing. 16. History of England 
 
 1 2. Freehand Drawing. and Wales. 
 
 13. Modern Language, 17. Essay. 
 
 including Welsh. 
 
 Subjects 1 and 17 are compulsory. Three 
 hundred marks are awarded for Mathematics, two 
 hundred each for Theoretical Mechanics, Inorganic 
 Chemistry, Latin, and the Essay. In the award, 
 importance is attached to the success of the can- 
 didates in the Matriculation Examination of a 
 University. 
 
 In addition to the above, there will be awarded 
 on the results of an examination one studentship of 
 £30 a year, with free tuition, to a student who has 
 passed wholly, or in all but one subject, the 
 Matriculation Examination of the University of 
 Wales, and who intends to pursue the University 
 course for the B.Sc. Degree in Mining ; two 
 studentships of the value of £30 a year for two 
 years, with free tuition for students who intend to 
 pursue the College course for the Diploma in 
 Mining; and one studentship of £30 a year for 
 three years, with free tuition for a student who 
 intends to pursue the College course for a Diploma 
 in Engineering. 
 
 The tables on pp. 213-217 indicate the provision of 
 Entrance Scholarships and Exhibitions at a selection 
 of Technical Schools and Colleges of University 
 rank. Many of these are not intended specially for 
 technical students, but it is not possible to distinguish 
 
2IO TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 the object in some cases. The most striking feature 
 is the variability of standard and scope. Much of this 
 is probably due to the fact that they have been 
 endowed by benefactors of the Colleges to foster 
 certain branches of study, or to assist certain classes 
 of students. As compared with those offered by the 
 County Councils, the subjects exhibit a less clearly 
 defined relation to the curricula of the schools from 
 which students are drawn. There is, however, one 
 point of similarity. The County Councils have, in 
 a number of cases, based their requirements for 
 Major Scholarships on the curricula of Secondary 
 Schools, and in one or two cases on a University 
 Matriculation Examination, while the Colleges award 
 a large proportion of theirs on the latter test. 
 
 In regard to those scholarships which are awarded 
 chiefly or entirely on an examination in science, the 
 Colleges generally look for proficiency in a few 
 siibjects, and do not give so great a choice as the 
 County Councils. Moreover, the Colleges usually 
 give credit for a knowledge of literary subjects, 
 while the Councils estimate a student's general 
 education by an English essay. The absence of 
 a recognised curriculum in Evening Technical 
 Schools is probably responsible for the variety 
 that exists in the requirements from candidates 
 for Technical Scholarships, and it must be difficult 
 in many cases for scholarship holders to adapt 
 themselves to a definite stage in the College 
 course. 
 
 The upper limit of age in many of the College 
 scholarships will debar many candidates who have 
 chosen or been compelled to enter industrial life 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 211 
 
 direct from school. Out of 101 scholarships- for 
 which the limits of age are given, 58 are confined 
 to students under twenty years of age. When it is 
 recalled that industrial apprenticeship only ceases, 
 as a rule, at twenty-one years of age, it is obvious 
 that these scholarships are not available for the 
 majority of technical students. While the pro- 
 portion in which the limit is over twenty years 
 of age cannot be said to be unfair, it must be 
 noted that these are not distributed evenly over 
 the Colleges, and some offer none which are open 
 to students who have reached that age. In some 
 of these cases the deficiency is made up by County 
 or Borough Scholarships, for which the limit is higher. 
 In view of the possibility of the reorganisation of 
 Evening Technical Schools in such a way as to 
 provide systematic courses of instruction, and of the 
 manifest desire on the part of employers to encourage 
 such of their apprentices who possess marked ability 
 to proceed to Technical Colleges, it seems desirable 
 that Technical Scholarships should be awarded on 
 the subjects of the first year course at the College, in 
 the particular faculty which the student desired to 
 enter. The Colleges would then obtain students who 
 could commence with the second year course. Those 
 who, under ordinary circumstances, could only devote 
 two years to day study, would thus reach a higher 
 all-round standard than if their attainments on 
 admission were such as necessitated their taking a 
 hybrid course. Students who could give three years 
 to study would be able to undertake research in their 
 third year, and as they would have spent four or 
 more years in actual practice, their work might 
 
212 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 reasonably be expected to be of greater industrial 
 importance than if carried out by students without 
 this experience. The Colleges would reap an advan- 
 tage in receiving older and more serious students, 
 whose record would have demonstrated their aptitude 
 for the industry in which they were engaged. 
 
 It is not clear how it is to be secured that the 
 student shall have not only the special knowledge 
 which will enable him to prosecute his technical 
 studies with advantage, but also that general educa- 
 tion which is so necessary for those who are to 
 occupy the highest positions in the industrial world. 
 The authorities who award the scholarship might 
 undertake to give credit for the scholastic career of a 
 pupil, and to take into account any distinction in a 
 recognised school examination, and they could set 
 an essay. 
 
 If a scheme similar to the above were followed, it 
 need not be necessary to hold a special examination 
 in the subjects of the first year. The method of 
 determining promotion suggested on p. 61, applied 
 to the Evening Technical School, would provide a 
 means of selection which, recording steady progress 
 over four or more years, would be quite as searching 
 as a special test. 
 
EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 213 
 
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214 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
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 Essay compulsory. 
 On Whitworth Scholarship results. 
 Do. do. do. 
 
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 \ Mathematics and one of the following :— Geology, Heat, 
 
 1 Chemistry, Natural History. 
 
 ) All candidates must have passed the Matriculation or its 
 
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 Languages other than English.) 
 Begulations from Town Cierk. 
 
 Sulycets — English Composition, Arithmetic, Mathematics, 
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 Mathematics, English, History, Mechanics, Chemistry or 
 Botany, Welsh, French, German. All papers may be taken. 
 
 Advanced— Papers in : — Essay and 
 
 Group A. Latin, Greek, Philosophy, History, Literature, 
 Welsh, French, German. 
 
 Group B. Mathematics— two papers. 
 
 Group C. Physics, Chemistry, Zoology, Botany, Geology, 
 Philosophy. 
 
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EVENING AND DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 217 
 
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 is 
 
 Awarded in two ways. 
 j I. To students between 14 and IS years of age on Examination 
 ;• in Secondary School subjects. 
 
 ) II. To students between 17 and 21 who have attended 
 Evening Classes for three years, on previous record. 
 
 ExaminatAoii Subjects— Advanced Chemistry, Mathematics, 
 
 Physics and Elementary Mechanics. Credit given for 
 
 French and German. 
 Mathematics 4- Two Science or City and Guilds Subjects + Two 
 
 of following: — English, French, German, Latin, and Greek. 
 Results of May Examinations + French or German. 
 One Language + Mathematics -f Three Science or City and 
 
 Guilds Subjects. 
 
 Not more than two of following groups : — 
 
 A. Mathematics. 
 
 B. Physics, Chemistry. 
 
 C. Three of following :— English, French. German, Latin, 
 Welsh. 
 
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 TECHNICAL COLLEGE 
 HUDDERSFIELD 
 
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 MERCHANT 
 
 VENTURERS' 
 
 TECHNICAL COLLEGE, 
 
 BRISTOL 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 BEFORE an attempt is made to describe how curricula 
 may be drawn up to meet the needs of particular 
 classes of students in such a way that comprehensive- 
 ness is secured with the greatest economy of time and 
 effort, it will be desirable to deal briefly with the chief 
 subjects of instruction. 
 
 Since, moreover, methods of teaching are largely 
 determined by the teacher's conception of the objects 
 of his instruction, occasional references to matters 
 under this head can hardly be avoided. 
 
 The subjects will be considered in the following 
 order: Mathematics, Geometry, Physics, Chemistry, 
 Drawing, Applied Mechanics and Steam, Mining, 
 and Workshop Instruction. 
 
 For the courses to be considered the question 
 never arises as to the inclusion or exclusion of 
 Mathematics, but always as to the amount. In 
 deciding this question, there are three considerations 
 to be taken into account : 
 (i.) How much is required in order to enable a 
 
 man to perform the ordinary calculations he 
 
 meets with in his every-day work ? 
 (2.) How much is required to enable him to follow 
 
 the instruction in Applied Science that may be 
 
 essential ? 
 
 •7TS 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 219 
 
 (3.) How much is required to enable him to follow 
 current literature bearing on his own branch of 
 the trade ? 
 In seeking for answers to these questions, consider 
 the case of the Engineering student first. So far as 
 (1) is concerned, the amount is probably small, and 
 will depend entirely upon the character of the student's 
 employment. Occasionally men who have taken 
 trouble to perfect their knowledge of this subject are 
 disappointed at finding so little use for it in actual 
 practice. Thus " Mernok," writing to the Engineer? 
 states that he has only used the calculus 
 twice, and hyperbolic functions once in twenty-five 
 years; while "Junior Draughtsman," writing to the 
 same paper, 2 says he only knows one office where 
 Higher Mathematics are employed. There is no 
 doubt that the bulk of engineering work is carried on 
 according to rules, tables, and data accumulated 
 during years of trial, and that the amount of 
 calculation to be done by men in practice is small, 
 and is concentrated in a few offices. For the shop 
 foreman or the ordinary draughtsman the amount of 
 mathematical knowledge of immediate necessity is 
 represented by the first stage of the Board of 
 Education Syllabus in Practical Mathematics. This 
 involves quick and approximate methods of dealing 
 with vulgar fractions and decimals, logarithms, 
 extraction of square and cube roots, mensuration of 
 surfaces and solids, algebra as far as quadratic 
 equations, graphical representation of varying quan- 
 tities, with determination of the " law " in simple 
 cases. Under (2) the amount necessary will depend 
 
 1 8th May, 1903. 2 1st May, 1903. 
 
220 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 upon the stage of progress aimed at in Applied 
 Mechanics and Steam. An elementary knowledge 
 such as is indicated above will be sufficient if the 
 student desires only a practical working knowledge of 
 what is usually regarded as second year work in these 
 subjects. If, however, he is capable of proceeding to 
 more theoretical and deeper study of Applied Science, 
 a more advanced knowledge of Mathematics will 
 be not only desirable but necessary. 
 
 The third factor to be employed in assessing the 
 extent of Mathematical instruction is the most 
 important. If a man is to keep in touch with 
 engineering progress — and no educational institution 
 can ignore the paramount necessity of placing its 
 pupils in such a position that they can continue 
 their studies after leaving with advantage — he 
 must read current engineering literature. For this 
 purpose a fair knowledge of Algebra, Geometry, and 
 Trigonometry should at least be acquired. If the 
 student is destined to occupy one of the more 
 important positions in the industry, he will find 
 himself severely handicapped unless he is familiar 
 with the calculus and its simpler applications. 
 Exceptions may be made in favour of the distinctly 
 non-mathematical student, whose ability in other 
 directions may compensate to some extent for a 
 lower standard in this most important subject. 
 
 In regard to Mining, the requirements are not very 
 different from those just considered. The opinion 
 has already been expressed that the colliery manager, 
 and the under manager who acts as his deputy, is, or 
 should be, mainly an engineer. 
 
 The needs of Metallurgical Chemists might be 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 221 
 
 expected to be very modest, were it not for the 
 fact that Physics finds an ever-increasing application 
 in this industry. An estimate of the amount of 
 mathematical knowledge ought to have regard to 
 the extent of the student's physical studies. The 
 scope illustrated on page 219 will enable the student 
 to follow the instruction in the second stage of the 
 Board of Education Syllabus in Heat; it will be 
 deficient in Trigonometry for the second stage in 
 Electricity, and quite inadequate for the second stage 
 in Light. 
 
 In Building, the average student will find a sound 
 knowledge of mensuration sufficient for his purpose. 
 If, however, he proposes to prosecute his studies into 
 the higher branches of construction, as in the case of 
 an architect's pupil, his mathematical acquirements 
 ought to be on the scale of those of an engineer. 
 
 So much has been written on the teaching of 
 mathematics in recent years that a full discussion of 
 the subject here is unnecessary. The general trend 
 is to curtail the treatment of those portions which 
 have no practical bearing, to avoid examples which 
 are merely exercises in mental gymnastics, to con- 
 centrate attention on the value of the subject as a 
 weapon to overcome difficulties, and to secure more 
 exact notions in more concrete subjects. If this is 
 the tendency where the school-boy is being con- 
 sidered, how much more essential is the new method 
 in the case of technical students who have little 
 time at their disposal, are by no means uniform in 
 their mathematical faculty, and regard the subject 
 as entirely subsidiary to their main studies? The 
 new ideas have immensely widened the prospects of 
 
222 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOtS 
 
 technical students, and rendered it possible for 
 them to undertake much that was formerly beyond 
 their reach. 
 
 The method of regarding mathematics merely as 
 an aid to the study of other subjects necessitates the 
 introduction of mathematical truths at a stage when 
 they cannot be rigidly proved, and this practice is 
 liable to be abused. Good judgment is necessary in 
 deciding questions of this sort. For example, the 
 nature of logarithms may be explained to a student 
 very soon after he has completed his study of 
 decimals — when he understands- the meaning of a 
 " power often " — and their use illustrated by examples 
 in involution, square root, and cube root. But it 
 seems hardly fair to employ logarithms to solve 
 triangles by the usual formulae, until the universal 
 application of the latter have been demonstrated. 
 Again, a recent text-book introduces a chapter on the 
 mensuration of the circle by stating the value of -w, 
 and then showing how it can be measured in a 
 particular ease. Would it not be more correct to let 
 the class first grasp the fact that the ratio is constant 
 by actual measurements ? The mathematical value 
 could then be given for subsequent use. The first 
 method assumes that the pupil is already in possession 
 of the fundamental idea — an assumption by no means 
 justified in the case of evening students at this stage. 
 
 There seems to be very little reason for separating 
 students engaged in various trades in the early stages 
 of the work. A teacher can easily find examples to 
 suit Mining, Building, and Engineering students, and 
 should find but little difficulty in showing the practical 
 value of the subject. Instruction which does not 
 
Subjects and methods of instruction 223 
 
 permit of this can hardly be called Mathematics ; it 
 should be regarded as an extra class for working 
 examples in the trade subject. Much good would 
 result in this, as in other cases, if the mathematical 
 and technical teachers were in consultation from 
 time to time during the year. 
 
 The importance and the apparent neglect of 
 Practical Plane and Solid Geometry have been 
 noticed in Chapter III. An elementary knowledge 
 of the subject has always been regarded as an 
 essential preparation for good progress in Machine 
 Drawing and Building Construction. While at one 
 time the main objects were to secure accuracy in 
 the drawing of plane figures, and to inculcate the 
 principles of projection, the syllabus has been con- 
 siderably altered in recent years. If one can judge 
 from the interpretation of writers of text-books, it 
 would appear that it now exercises a dual function. 
 On the one hand, the importance of projection is 
 kept in view ; on the other, the subject may be 
 regarded as an adjunct to Mathematics. This latter 
 opinion receives support from the fact that in the 
 Board of Education Syllabus of Practical Mathe- 
 matics it is stated in effect that the student is 
 supposed to be studying Practical Mathematics and 
 Geometry together. It seems doubtful whether, in 
 the smaller places, where teachers have, as a rule, 
 narrower qualifications, both aspects of the subject 
 will receive adequate treatment from the hands of 
 one man. The more mathematical side would no 
 doubt be admirably dealt with by the teacher of 
 Practical Mathematics ; projection would be more 
 fully and usefully developed by the teacher of 
 
224 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Machine Drawing or Building Construction. With- 
 out laying any great stress on the point, the writer 
 ventures to suggest that this division of the subject 
 between two teachers may be worth consideration. 
 One of the effects of such "correlation" would be 
 that the student would learn three subjects where 
 there need be nothing to show him that he was 
 undertaking more than two. So long as the student 
 can use instruments and understand simple con- 
 structions, there seems to be no clear reason for 
 delaying Solid Geometry and Projection until after 
 Plane Geometry has been thoroughly mastered. 
 
 As to the needs of various types of students, it 
 may be said that those who do not aim at more 
 than an elementary knowledge of Machine Drawing, 
 Building Construction, etc., will find sufficient 
 material in the first stage of the syllabus of the 
 Board of Education. Students who wish to obtain 
 a more advanced knowledge of these subjects should 
 aim at securing a deeper knowledge of Practical 
 Geometry. A more extensive knowledge of the 
 development of surfaces and interpenetration of 
 solids is required for certain classes of joinery, 
 and for metal plate work. Such matters, however, 
 belong to the special drawing courses which are 
 arranged for men engaged in those trades. 
 
 Attention has already been called to the fact that 
 a knowledge of Physics and Chemistry is of very 
 great importance to the technical student. In the 
 absence of an elementary knowledge of Mechanics, 
 Heat, and Chemistry, very many points which 
 arise in the study of Applied Mechanics and 
 Steam, Mining and Building Construction, cannot be 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 225 
 
 understood. Teachers of these subjects must refcr 
 from time to time to " pure " science in dealing with 
 its applications, and many text-books contain a brief 
 account of the fundamental facts and principles. It 
 is sometimes asserted that the technical teacher can 
 be trusted to give all the instruction in these matters 
 that his pupils may require. But while recognising 
 that much will depend on the teacher, doubt may be 
 expressed as to whether this method is of any real 
 use. The idea that what is fundamental comes first 
 seems axiomatic. A technical subject is largely an 
 empirical subject ; it can rarely be developed in 
 logical order, and a single machine or process which 
 may be under consideration may involve two or 
 three fundamental principles. The preparation of 
 the gases of the mine, and subsequent demonstration 
 of their properties, would appeal to the student whose 
 mind contained some ideas as to chemical change, 
 and the nature of the substances, and who was 
 familiar with the terms and methods which would 
 have to be used during the lesson ; and the informa- 
 tion might be retained by a few students. But in 
 the latter case, would this information be part and 
 parcel of their mental equipment, connected with all 
 the other ideas on the chemistry and physics of 
 Coal Mining ? Even to the few students who under- 
 stood some of it at the time, would it not remain 
 more like a glimpse into an unknown world ? Does 
 the Engineering student who has no knowledge of 
 Heat or Chemistry ever really understand those parts 
 of the technical teaching which deal with the proper- 
 ties of steam, the chemistry of combustion and water 
 purification? And how many students of Building 
 
226 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Construction, similarly ill-prepared, understand the 
 nature of the materials as expounded by the teacher, 
 or read in the text-book ? 
 
 It seems that the view that the theoretical explana- 
 tion can be left to the technical teacher is absolutely 
 at variance with a most important doctrine — the 
 doctrine of Apperception. A new idea is assimilated 
 only so far as it is able to associate itself with ideas 
 which are already arranged in orderly manner in the 
 mind of the learner. For the Mining teacher to 
 assert that the ventilating fan depends upon Newton's 
 first law of motion, and then to state that law, 1 is 
 more likely to give rise to blank astonishment than 
 anything else in a pupil who never heard of Newton, 
 is not quite sure of what a " law " is, and has only a 
 vague idea of what the word motion means. Even if 
 the statement of the law is understood, the student 
 has to remember a pair of isolated ideas, instead of one. 
 
 While a certain amount of information can be 
 imparted in a didactic manner, the knowledge is not 
 of the kind that is of real value. If the knowledge 
 which the student acquires in the technical classes 
 is to be of any use to him, it must be clear, definite, 
 organised knowledge, and there appears to be no 
 other way of attaining this end than to insist on 
 systematic instruction in the elements of Physics 
 and Chemistry, even for those who do not aspire to 
 occupy more than a minor position of responsibility 
 in their employment. So far as the writer knows, 
 there is no royal road open to them. 2 
 
 1 This is an actual example. 
 
 2 At the Engineering Conference mentioned in the first 
 chapter, Professor A. B. Kennedy stated that evening classes 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 227 
 
 If it is conceded that this instruction is necessary, 
 a question of interest arises as to who is to undertake 
 it — the science teacher or the technical teacher ? 
 Leaving out the well-qualified staffs of the larger 
 Technical Schools, there are few technical teachers 
 who care to deal with the scientific principles, and as 
 a general rule these should not be encouraged. In 
 the majority of cases the technical teacher is a man 
 who works at his trade during the day, and teaches 
 on two or three evenings a week. His scientific 
 knowledge probably has rusted by disuse, and it is 
 unlikely that he will have had any training in 
 experimental demonstration. The science teacher, on 
 the other hand, is nearly always a professional teacher, 
 regularly employed in lecture-room and laboratory, 
 and constantly exercised in manipulation. 
 
 However, he is not without his defects, and the 
 most serious is that his want of acquaintance with 
 the applications of Science may lead to his failing to 
 show the bearing of the subject on the occupations of 
 the class. This is a difficulty that is responsible for 
 no little criticism of technical education, and its 
 removal is a matter of the greatest importance. A 
 good deal towards this end could be accomplished 
 by co-operation between teachers of Pure Science 
 and teachers of Applied Science and Technology. 
 Mutual discussion of syllabuses would be of con- 
 siderable value in rendering the teaching of Chemistry 
 
 were injurious because the student learnt nothing but Engineer 
 ing, and the man who confined his attention to Engineering 
 subjects never made a good Engineer. Professor Barr referred 
 to those who had made great advances in Engineering practice, 
 and pointed out that " every one of these men had studied the 
 sciences on which true practice must be founded." 
 
228 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 and Physics less academic, and in fostering references 
 to underlying principles in the applied subject. 
 Further consideration of the equipment and training 
 of teachers must be postponed until Chapter IX. 
 
 In deciding what portions of Physics are required, 
 it is important to bear in mind that the branches 
 should be taught in rational order. Mechanics 
 -precedes Heat, Heat precedes Electricity. 1 This is 
 universally acknowledged and practised in day 
 schools, and is, in fact, dictated by the logical 
 connection between the subjects. It is not to be 
 understood, of course, that the whole science of 
 Mechanics is to be mastered, before Heat is begun. 
 But if it is proposed to study Heat, a certain amount 
 of knowledge of Mechanics is essential. For the 
 preparatory course suggested in Chapter II., the 
 latter subject may include density and specific 
 gravity; the simpler phenomena of hydrostatics.; 
 the barometer ; some idea of force and motion ; 
 energy and work ; and simple machines. The 
 work in Heat will involve explanations of the 
 construction and use of thermometers ; the main 
 facts connected with the expansion of solids, liquids, 
 and gases ; specific and latent heat treated in a 
 simple manner ; conduction and convection ; and 
 the mutual convertibility of heat and work. The 
 treatment throughout should be experimental, but 
 calculations should be carried out whenever these 
 are within the mathematical capacity of the student. 
 Much of the want of effectiveness in teaching these 
 subjects arises from touching a subject too lightly. 
 There is nothing for the student to bite, and ideas 
 i Chemistry should follow Heat and precede Electricity. 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 229 
 
 require to be fixed by working plenty of numerical 
 examples. 
 
 Such instruction would enable students to make 
 sound progress in the technical subjects, so far as 
 these can be carried in a two or three years' 
 course ; but it can hardly be considered enough for 
 those who propose to devote four or five years to 
 study, and who may in all likelihood proceed to the 
 Technical College. These will require a more exten- 
 sive knowledge of the Mechanics of Solids and 
 Fluids, Heat, Electricity, and Magnetism. As in 
 the elementary course, the view is held that the 
 treatment should be on the lines of systematic in- 
 struction in pure science, with frequent illustrations 
 from the daily occupations of the students. 
 
 In regard to Chemistry, also, the more elementary 
 part of it is better taught before the serious study of 
 technical subjects begins. If the student is intro- 
 duced to the subject by the usual experiments on 
 the rusting and tarnishing of metals, he will be led 
 to the composition and properties of air ; the pro- 
 perties of oxygen and the common oxides ; the 
 composition and properties of water, and its suita- 
 bility for industrial purposes ; hydrogen and its 
 properties ; and the common materials and pheno- 
 mena of every-day life. He will get some notions 
 as to what is meant by chemical change, and obtain 
 some acquaintance with the chief classes of inorganic 
 substances. Incidentally opportunities will occur to 
 deal with the best conditions for combustion and the 
 nature of the products in an ordinary furnace ; with 
 the principles of metallurgical operations ; with 
 matters connected with founding and forging ; with 
 
230 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 the necessity and means of preserving metal work ; 
 and many other subjects of direct interest to the 
 students. While they were insensibly being trained 
 in observation and methods of inquiry, they would 
 develop a keener interest in the things around them. 
 
 The question as to whether formulae and equations 
 should be introduced at this stage is not easy to 
 decide. The alternative syllabus in Chemistry of the 
 Board of Education in which formulae and equations 
 did not appear has frequently been recommended for 
 technical students on that account. Such a view, 
 however, ignores the prospect of the student's having 
 any desire to proceed further privately, or to read 
 technical literature. Writers of text-books and in 
 technical journals have no qualms of conscience as to 
 the use of formulae and equations, and so long as the 
 " chemist's shorthand " is employed so freely in all 
 the sources of information to which the student may 
 turn, it seems difficult to avoid the conclusion that 
 even an elementary study of Chemistry — to be 
 complete — should include some explanation of the 
 symbolic representation of composition and reaction. 
 
 For students who desire to extend their studies 
 over four or five years, further study would be 
 desirable. The question will again arise as to 
 whether highly specialised instruction or a more 
 scientific treatment is to be followed. While there 
 may be differences of opinion on this matter, it is 
 probable that the latter course would be more 
 suitable, especially if emphasis were laid upon those 
 facts and principles which were of the greatest 
 importance to the majority of the students. The 
 instruction might include some of the important 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 231 
 
 facts of physical chemistry; a fuller discussion 
 of combustion, especially in gaseous mixtures; 
 explosives; and a general study of the common 
 elements according to the periodic classification in 
 which, while the general properties of the groups 
 would be demonstrated, special attention would be 
 paid to those substances of industrial importance. 
 The time usually devoted to purely chemical 
 manufacturing processes — sulphuric acid, alkalis, 
 iodine, etc. — might be considerably curtailed. This 
 plan seems to have an advantage over that in which 
 Engineering students are recommended to join a class 
 in Metallurgy, for two reasons. The more extensive 
 study of the principles of Chemistry will be of great 
 value to him in after life, and the details of smelting 
 operations are of little interest to him unless he 
 happens to be employed in a Metallurgical Works. 
 Before closing the discussion on Physics and 
 Chemistry, it may be noted that in most cases the 
 former subject can be taught to students in any of 
 the trades considered without much difficulty, and 
 that the same plan can be followed in Chemistry 
 in the early stages. If, however, the latter subject 
 is to be highly specialised, . the students ought to 
 be dealt with separately. The determining factor 
 is the number of students from each trade who 
 require ^instruction, and it is always difficult in 
 evening work to avoid classes of mixed experience 
 and aims. Where it can be effected with economy, 
 the teacher's task may be lightened, and the educa- 
 tional progress of the students rendered more rapid, 
 by grouping those engaged in the same or similar 
 occupations. 
 
232 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 In considering instruction in Machine Drawing 
 and Building Construction there are several points 
 of interest. No satisfactory progress can be made 
 unless the students have had previous practice in 
 the use of instruments and understand simple 
 geometrical constructions. Where such prepara- 
 tory training has not been received, very slow 
 progress is made, and all preparatory courses 
 involve the study of Geometry. Granted that the 
 student is fairly adept in the use of instruments, 
 it is important to have clear notions as to the 
 object. Primarily the student requires to be taught 
 to "read" drawings rather than to "make" them, 
 in order that he may understand the drawings to 
 which he has to work in the shops, or those which 
 occur in his text-books and in technical journals. 
 In other words, the first object appears to be the 
 acquisition of facility in visualising a solid object 
 from its flat representation. This end can be best 
 attained by constantly associating the model or 
 actual object with the drawing. A freehand 
 dimensioned sketch should be made from the 
 student's own measurements, and the scale drawing 
 made from the sketch. In this way the student 
 obtains some idea of the proportions, and a clear 
 conception of the construction of the examples 
 drawn. 
 
 Incidentally, the student who is taught according 
 to the above method learns how to sketch in fair 
 proportion, obtains practice in accurate drawing, 
 becomes familiar with the materials used in con- 
 struction, and the form which must be adopted to 
 give the necessary strength or stiffness. These 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 233 
 
 observations will be far more real and permanent 
 than can be secured by didactic instruction in 
 construction. 
 
 In later stages of the work the use of models is 
 of less importance, though they may be useful for 
 demonstration. This does not mean, however, that 
 the well-nigh universal practice of " copying " flat 
 examples is correct at any period. But it seems 
 desirable that the student should begin to use his 
 observation and experience to execute simple 
 designs. Close observation and inquiry will thus 
 be stimulated, and the student will gain confidence, 
 and develop resource and initiative. He will learn 
 that while the proportions of many parts of con- 
 structive work must be determined by accurate 
 calculation, those of other parts are largely de- 
 pendent upon the judgment of the designer, and 
 he will be introduced to questions of economy, 
 which are so important in the present stress of 
 industrial competition. 
 
 There is, in general, far too much time devoted to 
 this subject in Evening Technical Schools, and much 
 of the work done in class might equally well be done 
 at home. A certain amount of facility in draughts- 
 manship is no doubt very useful, but to the majority 
 of students drawing is a means rather than an end, 
 and while many have to work to drawings, few are 
 required to make them. Sketching, however, is of 
 importance to all, both in actual work and in facili- 
 tating their progress in other subjects of instruction. 
 The usual method of copying diagrams from a book, 
 in which all the difficulties of representing a three- 
 dimensional object on a flat surface have been 
 
234 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 overcome — in what manner the student rarely learns 
 — does not seem to be satisfactory. Little is gained 
 in this way beyond a certain freedom in the use of 
 the pencil, and some practice in copying outline. To 
 sketch solid objects with any degree of accuracy 
 requires a knowledge of the principles of Model 
 Drawing, and this is best attained in the preparatory 
 courses of instruction indicated in Chapter II. 
 
 The somewhat sharp distinction which has been 
 drawn between the objects of the earlier and later 
 stages of instruction in Machine Drawing and 
 Building Construction appears to be equally appli- 
 cable to Applied Mechanics and Steam. At first the 
 student may be considered to be gaining familiarity 
 with the applications of mechanical principles, with 
 the properties of materials, and with the construction 
 and mode of action of common machines. The 
 object is, not to enable him to answer certain 
 typical questions at the end of the session, but 
 to excite curiosity and interest in the tools, 
 machinery, and methods employed in the various 
 trades. Meanwhile, the student is accumulating 
 experience as to the why and wherefore of par- 
 ticular structural forms, mechanisms, methods, which 
 provide material for " designing," should he have the 
 capacity and the desire to proceed to the higher 
 branches of these subjects. Difficulties may occur 
 sometimes in selecting examples which appeal with 
 equal force to all the students, who may be drawn 
 from various industries; and slavish adherence to 
 certain text-books may lead in some cases to much 
 discouragement. A book which confined itself almost 
 entirely to a detailed consideration of Marine Engines 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 235 
 
 might be admirable for students employed in a 
 Marine Engineering Establishment, and quite un- 
 suitable for others whose experience lay in a totally 
 different class of work. To be effective, teaching 
 cannot rely entirely on the work done in the class- 
 room, but must stimulate reaction between the 
 student and his environment. 
 
 Students in some industries may be said to require 
 only certain portions of Applied Mechanics. Thus, 
 for Building students a knowledge of Statics is of 
 chief importance, while Mining students are more 
 directly concerned with Pumping, Haulage, and the 
 Transmission of Power. Neither class will be much 
 interested in the principles of mechanism — in the 
 theory of the various contrivances for communicating 
 motion. How far special desires of this character 
 should be humoured is probably an open question, and 
 steps in this direction, however desirable, will always 
 be limited by considerations of economy. It may be 
 noted, moreover, that while a syllabus may appear 
 much wider than a casual glance at immediate require- 
 ments may indicate to be necessary, it may be none too 
 wide to ensure satisfactory progress in another subject 
 which may have to be studied subsequently. This is 
 illustrated by the case of the student who desires to 
 obtain some knowledge of Steam, Gas, and Oil 
 Engines. Unless the teacher of the latter subject is 
 going out of his way to explain all sorts of mechanical 
 contrivances, such a student can omit very little of 
 the first stage of the Board of Education Syllabus in 
 Applied Mechanics. It would be well if every 
 student, no matter what industry he may be engaged 
 in, so long as it involves the use of machinery, were 
 
236 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING- SCHOOLS 
 
 to aim at securing an elementary knowledge of both 
 these subjects, before devoting his attention to a 
 special section. 
 
 Wherever laboratories are available, it is most 
 important that practical work should be done by the 
 students in these subjects. Such work takes up a 
 considerable amount of time, but this cannot be 
 weighed against the benefits that accrue from a well- 
 organised series of experiments. The closest possible 
 connection between the lecture and laboratory work 
 is desirable. It is in the laboratory that the student 
 obtains at first hand a knowledge of the properties of 
 materials, and the capability of machines ; where he 
 learns to adopt the habit of inquiry, and develops 
 resource and initiative. And in Applied Mechanics, 
 at any rate, the theoretical lesson is best devoted to a 
 discussion, consolidation, and extension of the results 
 obtained by the students in the laboratory. 
 
 The question as to whether the theoretical instruc- 
 tion should be based upon the student's work in the 
 laboratory, or vice versd, is not, in the early stages, a 
 mere matter of opinion. If the latter is adopted, 
 there is less value in the training, and a tendency to 
 concentrate attention on obtaining a numerical result. 
 For an elementary student to be told to " verify " an 
 important "law" seems likely to give rise to a mis- 
 apprehension as to the value of his own work, and to 
 discredit the work of the great investigators who have 
 preceded him. The whole attitude savours of down- 
 right impertinence. On the other hand, if the student 
 has the subject presented to him as a series of 
 problems, if he is encouraged to devise experiments 
 for their solution with the simplest apparatus, he is 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 237 
 
 developing habits which will be of the greatest value 
 to him in after life. As Sir Philip Magnus says : x 
 
 "No education is complete, however elementary 
 soever it may be, which does not show us the 
 methods by which knowledge has been created, and 
 give us some training on their use." 
 
 The most important point to note in connection 
 with Coal Mining is the number of subjects of both 
 pure and applied science which are involved in the 
 study. The Mining teacher has to refer from time to 
 time to matters which are usually only fully discussed 
 under the titles of Theoretical Mechanics of Solids 
 and Fluids, Heat, Chemistry, Electricity, Geology, 
 Applied Mechanics, and Steam. In addition, he 
 must deal with methods of working coal, and with 
 the precautions which must be observed in accordance 
 with the Coal Mines Regulation Act. The students 
 have only received, except in rare instances, an 
 elementary school education. The teachers are 
 practical men, who in very few cases have any 
 special training in Engineering, and still less in 
 fundamental scientific subjects. It is obvious that 
 one man cannot give satisfactory instruction in such 
 a composite subject. While admirably qualified, as a 
 rule, to discuss methods of working, they have neither 
 the time nor the training to give instruction in the 
 subsidiary subjects which are essential to an intelligent 
 understanding of the manifold operations involved in 
 the economical production of Coal. The teaching, 
 except in regard to the details of "getting coal," 
 must be didactic; the knowledge largely empirical. 
 Bearing in mind the nature of the subject, the 
 1 " Industrial Education," p. 121. 
 
238 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 qualifications of the teachers, and the general 
 state of preparation of the students, it may be 
 stated, with no little emphasis, that Technical Educa- 
 tion for men who are to occupy responsible positions 
 in this industry must provide for the widest possible 
 scientific basis. 
 
 The necessity for a colliery manager or undcr- 
 manager to possess a certificate of competency 
 provides a stimulus that cannot be found in any 
 other industry ; but it is to be feared that this has 
 not always been of a wholesome character. It is 
 almost unavoidable that where an examination is 
 regarded as an end rather than a means, there 
 should be developed a desire to find a "royal road," 
 and the educational value of study must suffer in 
 consequence. This must be more serious when, as 
 in the present case, the examiners are not necessarily 
 in close touch with educational institutions, and are 
 rarely acquainted with improvements in educational 
 methods. 
 
 While the Home Office Examinations have done 
 much to raise the standard of theoretical knowledge 
 of colliery managers, their function in regard to 
 Technical Education needs to be carefully defined. 
 The test is a minimum test. Its aim is to secure 
 that the men in charge of collieries shall be acquainted 
 with present methods of working, and with the 
 provisions of the Acts which have been passed to 
 secure the safety of the men. The aim of Technical 
 Education, on the other hand, is to secure that men 
 who may become colliery managers shall possess 
 such a knowledge of the principles underlying their 
 own and cognate industries that they may be able 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 239 
 
 not only to carry out their duties in a satisfactory 
 manner, but also to take advantage of new inventions 
 and discoveries, and meet the ever-varying needs for 
 new machines and new methods as they arise. The 
 Home Office Examination is an incident in the 
 Mining student's career — essential, it is true, but 
 imposing no upper limit. 
 
 The most satisfactory results will be obtained, 
 therefore, where the Mining teacher devotes himself 
 to that part of the subject of which he has special 
 knowledge, while the subsidiary but not less important 
 subjects are taught by those who are more highly 
 qualified to deal with them. The instruction may 
 include the elements of Geology, with special reference 
 to the carboniferous formation, and the consideration 
 in detail of the operations of sinking, laying out, and 
 working collieries. Detailed descriptions of plant 
 will naturally be deferred until the student has a 
 sufficient knowledge of Mechanics to appreciate the 
 principles involved. As most of the students are 
 engaged at the coal-face, and only indirectly con- 
 cerned with machinery, this arrangement possesses a 
 decided educational advantage. Moreover, problems 
 of economy will be more readily grasped by the 
 student who is older, and has a more extensive 
 mind-content. 
 
 The question as to whether workshop instruction 
 should be given in Evening Technical Schools is of 
 importance, if only on account of the popular notion 
 that the provision of a workshop makes any school 
 into a technical school. Dealing first with Engineer- 
 ing workshops, it may be noted that they were 
 originally introduced to enable Engineering subjects 
 
240 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 to be illustrated to boys fresh from school who had no 
 previous workshop experience. The students were 
 shown how to forge, chip, file, and how to make 
 patterns. In the time at their disposal, it is obvious 
 that only a general knowledge of tools, materials and 
 processes, and no great skill, could be obtained. 
 When these workshops are thrown open to evening 
 students, the avowed object in a number of cases is 
 to supplement the somewhat meagre experience 
 which falls to the lot of most apprentices owing to 
 the extensive division of labour that obtains in the 
 industry. The instruction varies from that indicated 
 above as being given to day students, to the 
 construction of a small engine or machine tool. 
 
 If the tendency in industry is to reduce the need 
 for workmen of all-round skill, it is doubtful whether 
 a mere repetition of the student's daily work falls 
 within the scope of technical instruction at all. So 
 far as skilled workmen are required, it seems reason- 
 able to suppose that the managers of works will 
 themselves see that the supply does not sink below 
 the demand. The nature of a man's work is generally 
 at their discretion, and they can, if they feel the 
 necessity, give him a far more satisfactory training of 
 this sort than any technical school workshop. 
 
 But if the need of skilled workmen has decreased, 
 the demand for more exact knowledge of materials, 
 processes, and tools on the part of foremen has 
 increased, and the special syllabuses in Chapter IV. 
 indicate a tendency on the part of technical schools 
 to supply instruction suitable for men of this type. 
 
 The Leicester Syllabus (p. 90), in particular, seems 
 to deal with knowledge that a man might spend 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 24! 
 
 years in the shops without acquiring ; and instruction 
 of this sort, combined with a moderate knowledge of 
 the scientific principles underlying the industry as a 
 whole, would probably be of great value to those on 
 whom the responsibility of controlling the workshop 
 will devolve. 
 
 The next question that arises is, Can such instruction 
 be adequately illustrated in school workshops, and if 
 so, is this essential? To these questions it is not 
 easy to give an answer. The writer, without laying 
 any great stress on his opinion, would say " Yes " to 
 the first and " No " to the second. The chief difficulty 
 would probably be met in the small amount of time 
 which the evening student can devote to the subject, 
 and the fact that the execution of work in metal 
 cannot be hurried. Where workshops exist it might 
 be possible to arrange a series of exercises to illustrate 
 the instruction, and in the absence of technical school 
 workshops, useful demonstrations in the works — with 
 the consent of the employers — might be given. The 
 object would not be the acquirement of skill, but that 
 wide knowledge which a man should have if he is to 
 exercise control over a number of men engaged on 
 different kinds of work. 
 
 It would be unwise to curtail the amount of time 
 which those who aim at more important positions in 
 the industry can spend upon theoretical subjects, for 
 the sake of the somewhat doubtful advantage of a 
 course in the Evening Technical School workshop, 
 and no provision will be made for this in the major 
 courses of instruction to be described later. 
 
 In regard to Building students, the same considera- 
 tions will apply, and specific instruction in the " trade" 
 
 Q 
 
242 TECHNICAL EDUCATION tN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 subject, with workshop practice where desirable, will 
 be included only in the minor courses. 
 
 An important point in regard to the subjects dis- 
 cussed is their dependence upon one another. For 
 satisfactory educational progress, it is necessary that 
 they should be arranged in a rational order. Thus, 
 in the case of steam and gas engines, the student will 
 find far fewer difficulties if he has some previous know- 
 ledge of Heat, Chemistry, and Applied Mechanics. 
 Chemistry itself is not an easy subject if the student 
 has no preliminary knowledge of Heat, and Applied 
 Mechanics is more readily appreciated by a student 
 who has acquired clear conceptions of mechanical 
 principles through a study of Experimental Mechanics. 
 Finally, little progress can be made in any subject 
 without an adequate knowledge of Mathematics and 
 Geometry. 
 
 Again, Applied Mechanics, Steam, and Mining 
 require that the student shall be able to understand 
 drawings of machinery, and Machine Drawing presup- 
 poses a knowledge of at least the simple geometrical 
 constructions and the elements of projection. 
 
 The various branches of Physics can be arranged in 
 rational order among themselves. Mechanics can be 
 taught successfully, up to a certain stage, to students 
 who have a sufficient knowledge of Mathematics and 
 Geometry, without the slightest reference to Heat or 
 Electricity. The same cannot be said of Heat, which 
 involves ideas of mass and density from the beginning ; 
 while Electricity and Magnetism is still more a 
 derived subject, requiring, if clear concepts are to 
 be obtained, a knowledge of Mechanics, Heat, and 
 Chemistry. 
 
SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 243 
 
 If the subjects which have been discussed in this 
 chapter are arranged in logical sequence, we get the 
 order : Mathematics and Geometry, Mechanics, Heat, 
 Chemistry, Electricity and Magnetism. Applied 
 Mechanics comes level with Heat, and Steam level 
 with Electricity and Magnetism. Machine Drawing 
 may follow Geometry and precede Applied Mechanics, 
 while Machine Design is really Applied Mechanics 
 and Steam in a higher stage of development. From 
 this point of view Mining is wider than any of the 
 others, being the application of Engineering to the 
 getting of minerals, and involving, therefore, a 
 knowledge of Geology. 
 
 Of course, all this is perfectly well known, and it 
 is an indisputable fact that progress is easier and 
 sounder when the logical order of studies is obeyed. 
 That the advantages of a proper arrangement of 
 studies has been so completely ignored in Evening 
 Technical Schools in the past is a matter of aston- 
 ishment. Some parts of a subject can be taught 
 as though it were completely independent ; but ideas 
 can never be so clear, the knowledge can never be 
 so precise, as when due regard is paid to logical 
 order. There can be no comparison between the 
 rate of progress and the knowledge acquired by a 
 first year student in Steam who has received 
 appropriate preliminary training, and by a student 
 who has not. Mathematics alone is of no avail ; 
 the mind-content of the pupil should be such as 
 will render the assimilation of new ideas rapid and 
 sure, and this mind-content can only be produced 
 by a previous study of Physics and Applied 
 Mechanics, accompanied by Machine Drawing. 
 
244 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 If in addition to the rational order of subjects 
 studied in successive years there could be judicious 
 . correlation between subjects studied concurrently, 
 the capacity of students would be greatly increased. 
 The best students naturally perform this correlation 
 for themselves; but if there were an intelligent 
 understanding between the teachers of different 
 subjects — for which a plea has already been 
 advanced — students of lesser calibre would find 
 many of their difficulties removed. This is not 
 providing a "lift" instead of a "ladder," but 
 making the most of the material at hand. Evening 
 students, as a whole, are little less capable than day 
 students ; they labour, however, under heavy dis- 
 advantages, and their attendance for study after 
 a hard day's work shows that they possess not a 
 few of the qualities that make for success in life. 
 Just as the capacity of the electric field increases with 
 the dielectric strength of the medium, so does the 
 capacity of the Evening Technical School increase 
 with the " educational atmosphere " that pervades the 
 instruction. The students acquire knowledge and 
 skill more rapidly at the same pressure. 
 
CHAPTER VIIL 
 
 COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 If students are to reap the full advantages of 
 systematic courses of instruction, there must be 
 some definite standard of admission. In towns — 
 especially in Engineering classes — there is an increas- 
 ing number of students who have been for three or 
 four years at a Higher Elementary School, or for 
 two or three years at a Secondary School. If to 
 this fact is added the doubtful value of technical 
 instruction in the case of students under sixteen or 
 seventeen years of age, it does not seem extravagant 
 to demand from all students the standard of attain- 
 ment suggested in the preparatory course indicated 
 in Chapter II., and more fully described as regards 
 Physics and Chemistry in the last chapter. The 
 following courses therefore involve the assumption 
 that the students have such a knowledge of Mathe- 
 matics and Geometry, Physics and Chemistry, on 
 their admission to the Evening Technical School. 
 It must be understood that these courses are not 
 the only possible ones. Others could be arranged 
 without departing from the logical order of subjects, 
 
 2AA 
 
246 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 and experience alone can determine which is the 
 most suitable for any particular conditions. They 
 are to be regarded simply as illustrations of the way 
 in which educationally sound, systematic, and pro- 
 gressive courses can be drawn up so as to involve 
 no more time than the evening student can usually 
 devote to study. 
 
 (a) Mechanical Engineering. 
 
 We may consider first the lower grade, in which 
 the whole training has to be obtained in evening 
 classes. The student will have left school at 
 fourteen to fifteen years of age, and have spent 
 two years in evening continuation or preparatory 
 classes. The nature of the instruction required will 
 be as follows : 
 
 (i.) Mechanical Drawing, so far as it is 
 necessary to enable him to read working 
 drawings. 
 
 (ii.) Applied Mechanics and Steam, to enable 
 him to understand the machinery employed 
 in the shops. 
 
 (Hi.) Mathematics, to enable him to follow the 
 instruction under (ii.), perform the ordinary 
 calculations of the workshop, and read 
 the literature of his own of the branch 
 trade. 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 247 
 
 (iv.) Specific instruction in the principles more 
 directly underlying his own branch of the 
 trade, accompanied, where possible, by 
 workshop illustration. 
 
 These subjects should cover three or four years, 
 and should not require more than three or four 
 nights a week. The following arrangement is 
 suggested : 
 
 First Year 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Mathematics and 
 
 Geometry 
 Machine Drawing 
 Applied Mechan- 
 ics (Theo. and 
 Pract.) 
 
 Mathematics and 
 
 Geometry 
 Machine Drawing 
 Special 
 
 Applied Mechan- 
 ics (Theo. and 
 Pract.) 
 
 Steam (Theo. and 
 Pract.) 
 
 Special 
 
 If the work of the student involves the use of 
 electrical machinery, the fourth and later years 
 can be devoted to Electricity and Magnetism, and 
 Technical Electricity. The special subject will be 
 fitting and turning, forge work, pattern-making, 
 foundry work, or boiler work ; and the instruction 
 in Machine Drawing should have regard to the 
 nature of the industry in which the students are 
 engaged. At the end of the third year, or, if a 
 student is weak in one or two subjects, the fourth 
 year, he should be able to pass the examination 1 
 
 1 The reference to examinations on this and the following 
 pages is merely for the purpose of indicating the general 
 standard of work at various stages. 
 
248 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 in the ordinary grade of Mechanical Engineering 
 under the City and Guilds of London Institute, 
 and he should possess the Board of Education 
 Certificates in the first stage of Practical Mathe- 
 matics, Applied Mechanics, Steam, Geometry; and 
 in the second stage, of Machine Drawing. Any 
 further study should be accompanied by a corre- 
 sponding strengthening of the general foundation. 
 This course is probably most nearly followed at 
 Salford. It differs . mainly from that course in 
 substituting Steam for the second stage of 
 Geometry ; in the provision of the preparatory 
 course in which the student obtains sufficient 
 knowledge of Experimental Mechanics and Heat 
 to render his path easier in Applied Mechanics 
 and Steam ; and sufficient knowledge of Chemistry 
 to enable him to get clear notions of combustion 
 and the preservation of materials. 
 
 Dealing now with the higher grade, it may be 
 observed that the difficulties are more serious. The 
 instruction required covers a wide field, time is 
 limited, and the student is not anxious to devote 
 much of it to subjects which often do not appear 
 to him to have direct application to his work. 
 At the same time, it has been pointed out that 
 specialisation on too narrow a basis is unsound 
 educationally, and that continuity of the evening 
 and day curricula should be kept in view. What, 
 then, is the proportion of time that each subject 
 should receive in order to preserve a balance of 
 studies ? The following table may help to solve the 
 question. It indicates the number of hours which 
 a day student devotes in the year to each subject, 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 249 
 
 or group of subjects, at eight typical Technical 
 Colleges or Universities. 
 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 B 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 
 WE 
 
 T3 v 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 §3 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c a 
 
 >. a 
 
 
 (/) 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 V 
 
 
 1 
 
 eh 
 E3 
 
 'It 
 
 « i 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 >> 
 
 V 
 
 s 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 £ 
 
 .3 
 U 
 
 1* 
 
 n- 
 
 3 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 Manchester 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 240 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 IO40 
 
 West Ham 
 
 170 
 
 270 
 
 170 
 
 60 
 
 170 
 
 160 
 
 IOOO 
 
 Bristol 
 
 180 
 
 180 
 
 I40 
 
 320 
 
 70 
 
 180 
 
 I070 
 
 Bradford 
 
 160 
 
 8S 
 
 35 
 
 2 5S 
 
 
 660 
 
 1195 
 
 Swansea 
 
 IOO 
 
 240 
 
 270 
 
 IOO 
 
 70 
 
 IOO 
 
 880 
 
 East London 
 
 2IO 
 
 310 
 
 — 
 
 210 
 
 210 
 
 70 
 
 IOIO 
 
 Northampton In- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stitute 
 Birmingham 
 
 190 
 I20 
 
 190 
 
 15° 
 
 IOO 
 
 190 
 
 140 
 
 160 
 
 160 
 
 960 
 880 
 
 
 420 
 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that considerable differ- 
 ences are apparent, there is still much upon which 
 the different schools agree. Departures from the 
 mean are easily explained. Thus the Bradford 
 course is distinctly framed to shorten the period 
 of apprenticeship, and the course all through 
 contains a preponderance of workshop practice. 
 Parenthetically, the fact that strictly engineering 
 subjects are omitted until nearly 700 hours have 
 been spent in the workshops is not an unworthy 
 argument in favour of the school-works-college view. 
 The only school which does not include Chemistry 
 
250 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 is that at East London; If a mean is taken of all 
 the courses, a course will be obtained to which few 
 objections could be raised. 
 
 The problem, then, is to determine an arrange- 
 ment of subjects in a rational order which shall 
 occupy not more than three evenings a week, and 
 cover approximately the same ground as a day 
 student does in an average course of instruction 
 corresponding, to those which have been set out. 
 The following table is the result of many attempts 
 to attain this object without departing from the 
 syllabuses and hours of instruction that obtain in 
 the majority of schools : 
 
 First Year 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry - 
 Machine Drawing ... 
 General Physics (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 2 J hours. 
 
 4 » 
 2J i, 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Machine Drawing - ... 
 
 Heat (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 2 hours. 
 z£ » 
 2J „ 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Applied Mechanics (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 Chemistry (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 2 hours. 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 Metallurgy (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 Steam (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 Electricity and Magnetism (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 2J hours. 
 2J „ 
 2 i » 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 25 1 
 
 The number of hours spent on each subject by a 
 student following this course is compared below with 
 the average amount of time spent by a day student 
 in one year : 
 
 Four Years, One Year, 
 
 Evening. Day. 
 
 Mathematics, 150 170 
 
 Physics, - - - 225 200 
 
 Chemistry, - - 150 140 
 
 Drawing, - - 195 180 
 
 Mechanics and Steam, 150 no 
 
 The standard aimed at in each subject may be briefly 
 stated, and one or two other matters discussed. 
 
 The Mathematics in the first year would cover the 
 first stage of the " practical " syllabus, with additional 
 trigonometry. Geometry would have its dual 
 character recognised by treating Plane Geometry 
 and Graphics in the hour and a half following the 
 Mathematical lesson, from which it would frequently 
 be inseparable, and associating the projection of 
 solids with Machine Drawing. General Physics 
 includes dynamics and properties of matter. In this 
 way it is believed the well-prepared student would 
 be able, at the end of his first year, to take the second 
 stage examinations in Theoretical Mechanics, solids 
 and fluids, and in Practical Plane and Solid Geo- 
 metry, with the first stage examinations in Practical 
 Mathematics and Machine Drawing. 
 
 The second stage examination in most subjects is 
 usually considered to represent the test for at least 
 two years' work. This is true enough in the case of 
 an ill-prepared student taking a single subject ; but it 
 it does not apply to students who have a fair general 
 
252 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 preliminary training, and whose studies are arranged 
 in logical sequence, and with intelligent grouping. 
 
 The second year work leads to Stage* 2 of 
 Practical Mathematics, Machine Drawing, and 
 Heat ; the third to Stage 2 or 3 in Practical 
 Mathematics, Stage 2 in Applied Mechanics and 
 Chemistry ; and the fourth year to Stage 2 in 
 Electricity and Magnetism and Steam, and Stage 1 
 in Metallurgy. The latter subject might well be 
 replaced by a course in Engineering Chemistry. 
 
 Of course, it is easy to criticise this scheme. Thus, 
 in some courses which have been considered, two 
 years are spent in the study of the elementary stage 
 of Steam. For them, however, no preliminary 
 standard is exacted, nor do they include a year's 
 study of Heat, as the one above does. Again, none 
 of the day Colleges teach Steam in the first year ; it 
 may be asked : Why, therefore, do it in evening classes, 
 which are supposed to correspond ? The course is a 
 compromise. The student may not proceed to a day 
 College. The introduction of Steam at that point is 
 desirable in order to give a certain amount of com- 
 pleteness to the curriculum ; and the main defect 
 which required remedy was the lack of breadth of 
 studies in existing courses. The amount of time — 
 about seven and a half hours a week — may appear 
 excessive. On the other hand, the amount of time 
 devoted to drawing or laboratory work in successive 
 years is five and a half, four, three, and four and a 
 half. Drawing is not exacting, nor is laboratory 
 work, while it facilitates the attainment of clear 
 notions, and diminishes the number of numerical 
 examples that need to be worked. Still another 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 253 
 
 complaint — and probably a very general one — might 
 be that Chemistry has been too generously treated. 
 The subject is of much more importance than is usually 
 admitted, and this importance is on the increase. 1 
 Moreover, it takes longer to permeate the average 
 student than any other subject, and for this reason 
 alone demands all the time that can be given to it. 
 
 The course provides a basis for specialisation, and 
 the duration of four years has another significance. 
 While the usual duration of apprenticeship is from 
 the age of entry to twenty-one, the shortest period 
 for a school-works-college pupil is generally fixed at 
 four years. This coincides exactly with the course 
 proposed, while the scope of studies enables the 
 student to commence on the second year course on 
 entering College. 
 
 Lest the plea of too much pure and too little applied 
 science should be raised, the suggested curriculum 
 may be compared with that for apprentices in the 
 Royal Dockyards. The number of marks attached 
 to each subject is an indication of its importance. 
 
 First and Second Years. 
 
 Arithmetic and Mensuration - 400 marks. 
 
 Algebra 4°° >. 
 
 'Geometry (Euclid I. to VI., XI. 
 
 and XII.) - - SOO „ 
 
 Trigonometry - - 5°° » 
 
 Statics and Hydrostatics - 600 „ 
 
 Physics (Light, Heat, Electricity 
 
 and Magnetism) - - - 600 „ 
 
 Chemistry 3°° » 
 
 ' See an article on " Chemistry in Engineering," by Dr. Wm. 
 MacMurtrie, Cassiefs Magazine, June, 1902, p. 509 et seq. 
 
400 
 
 marks. 
 
 4-00 
 
 » 
 
 500 
 
 >> 
 
 500 
 
 ji 
 
 Soo 
 
 » 
 
 254 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 French (optional) 
 
 Geography and English History - 
 
 Third and Fourth Years, 
 
 Statics, Hydrostatics, and Hydrau- 
 lics - ... 
 
 Dynamics - - - 
 
 Applied Mechanics 
 
 Higher Algebra and Trigonometry 
 
 and Elementary Conic Sections 500 
 
 Differential and Integral Calculus 
 
 and Conic Sections - - 700 
 
 Descriptive Geometry (or Mechan- 
 ism) 400 „ 
 
 Physics (Light, Heat, Electricity 
 
 and Magnetism) - - 700 „ 
 
 Chemistry - - - - 400 „ 
 
 Naval Architecture (or Engineering) 2,400 „ 
 
 There is ample justification for the inclusion of 
 Physics and Chemistry. The standard of admission 
 is Arithmetic (except cube root), Algebra, including 
 simultaneous and quadratic equations, Euclid I. to 
 III., and the usual English subjects; the age is 
 fourteen to sixteen years. This is not very different 
 from that proposed for evening schools in this book : 
 in Mathematics it is more extensive, but neither 
 Physics nor Chemistry is required. It will be noted 
 that all apprentices attempt this course, and some 
 are weeded out at the half-yearly examinations. 
 There is no attempt to supply in the school the 
 specific instruction in the several branches. An 
 apprentice is attached to an instructor, who is a 
 skilled workman specially selected by the superior 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 255 
 
 officers of the dockyard for this purpose, and who 
 receives two shillings a week extra in consequence. 
 While this is an infinitely better arrangement than 
 any that exists in private shops, it is open to question 
 whether it is equal to specific instruction (say) on 
 the lines of the Leicester Syllabus (p. 90). Of course, 
 an apprentice can attend evening classes after he has 
 left the dockyard school. 
 
 The system has turned out numbers of men who 
 now hold the highest professional positions in the 
 country — such as the higher positions in the 
 Admiralty, the Marine Department of the Board 
 of Trade, Lloyd's Registration Society, and many 
 private shipbuilding and engineering firms. 1 
 
 (6) Electrical Engineering, 
 
 The only courses for the minor positions under this 
 head appear to have been drawn up for those engaged 
 in wiring. There must, however, be a considerable 
 number of men who aim at becoming shop foremen, 
 and for whom the major courses are too ambitious. 
 
 A suggested arrangement of subjects is given below : 
 
 First Year 
 
 Second Year 
 
 T"hird Year 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Applied Mechan- 
 ics (Theo. and 
 Pract.) 
 
 Mathematics 
 Electricity and 
 Magnetism 
 (Theo. and 
 Pract.) 
 Special 
 
 Applied Mechan- 
 ics (Theo. and 
 Pract.) 
 
 Technical Elec- 
 tricity (Theo. 
 and Pract.) 
 
 Special 
 
 1 Cassiefs Magazine, November, 1902, p. 205 et seq. Technics, 
 January, 1904, p. 58. 
 
256 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 The scope of each subject will be sufficiently 
 apparent from what has been already said. 
 
 The major course in Electrical Engineering need 
 differ in no important respect from that for Mechanical 
 Engineering. The electrical engineer is quite as 
 much concerned with the properties of materials, the 
 methods of mathematics and geometry, the funda- 
 mental principles of physics, the theory of mechanisms, 
 as the mechanical engineer, and the first year courses 
 of instruction at nearly all the day Colleges are 
 common to both. 
 
 (c) Building. 
 
 The main sub-divisions of the Building trade for 
 which minor courses are required are Carpentry and 
 Joinery, Bricklaying, Masonry, and Plumbing. As 
 plasterers' and painters' and decorators' work are in 
 part Art crafts, they are outside the scope of this 
 book. 
 
 For carpenters and joiners, the following three years' 
 course is suggested : 
 
 First Year 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry - 
 Building Construction 
 Applied Mechanics - 
 
 2.\ hours. 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry 
 
 Building Construction 
 
 Carpentry and Joinery (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 2 \ hours. 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Special Drawing - 
 
 Carpentry and Joinery (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 2\ hours. 
 
 2 i » 1 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 257 
 
 This differs from the course at St. Helens in the 
 substitution of Applied Mechanics for Theoretical 
 Mechanics, and in prescribing two years for Building 
 Construction. The principal reason for preferring the 
 applied subject is its bearing upon 'machinery which 
 is so largely used in the trade. The Special Drawing 
 in the third year would include projective geometry 
 and setting-out. If machinery were largely used in 
 the neighbourhood, a further course in Applied 
 Mechanics would be desirable in that year. 
 
 A minor course for bricklayers and masons is 
 given below : 
 
 First Year 
 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry 
 Building Construction 
 Chemistry of Materials 
 
 2\ hours. 
 - 2J „ 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry 
 Building Construction 
 Brickwork or Masonry 
 
 2 J hours. 
 2| „ 
 2I „ 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Brickwork or Masonry 
 
 - z\ hours. 
 
 No stress is laid on Chemistry in the first year, 
 
 because, except in the larger centres, it is unlikely 
 
 that the number of students would justify its 
 provision. 
 
258 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 For plumbers, a suitable course would be : 
 
 First Year 
 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry 
 Building Construction 
 Hydrostatics and Heat 
 
 z\ hours. 
 
 z 2 il 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Building Construction 
 Chemistry of Plumbing 
 Plumbing (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 2| hours. 
 
 2k „ 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Plumbing (Theo. and Pract.) 
 Hygiene 
 
 — 
 
 The special aim in each of these schemes is to 
 provide a progressive and educationally sound course 
 of instruction leading up to the Honours Examination 
 of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Those 
 portions of the syllabuses which deal more especially 
 with underlying principles are removed, and the 
 appropriate science subject substituted. This leaves 
 the trade teacher more time to devote to his own 
 special part of the subject. Where a suitable syllabus 
 does not exist, a special course has been indicated. 
 The City and Guilds have for many years required 
 students to possess certificates in certain subjects of 
 science before the full technological certificates were 
 granted. Unfortunately, students have often taken 
 the Honours Certificate in the trade subject first, and 
 then cast about for the easiest subjects which would 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 259 
 
 give them the full qualification. In this way not 
 only has the rational order of study been frequently 
 reversed, but owing to want of system in the organisa- 
 tion of schools, an unhappy choice has been made 
 in the science subject. The introduction of a pre- 
 liminary grade in certain subjects has obviated this 
 difficulty to some extent, and though exception 
 might be taken to the standard of the examination 
 in particular cases, the principle cannot be too highly 
 commended. 
 
 Major courses in Building are probably only 
 required in the larger towns. Those who require 
 them are Architects' pupils and others who aspire to 
 become master-builders on a fairly large scale. As 
 the courses given on pages 137-40 differ considerably 
 from one another, an attempt has been made to 
 combine the good features of all. In view of the 
 fact that so few Colleges arrange day courses for this 
 trade, no attempt has been made to fit it in with 
 any day course. 
 
 First Year 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry 
 Building Construction 
 Chemistry (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 - 2\ hours. 
 
 a* „ 
 
 2& „ 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry 
 Building Construction 
 Applied Mechanics - 
 
 z\ hours. 
 - 2| „ 
 
260 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Mathematics 
 Building Construction 
 Applied Mechanics - 
 
 2 hotfrs. 
 2J ,, 
 
 2^ „ 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 Mathematics - - 
 Building Construction 
 Builders' Quantities 
 Architecture 
 
 2 hours. 
 *\ » 
 
 Fifth Year 
 
 Building Construction 
 Builders' Quantities 
 Architecture 
 
 2\ hours. 
 
 (d) Coal Mining. 
 
 A glance at the courses on pages 148-9 will show 
 that considerable doubt exists as to what should or 
 should not be included in a curriculum adapted to this 
 industry. The present aim of all Mining classes is 
 to prepare the student for the first and second class 
 colliery manager's certificates. The raison d"itre of 
 such certificates is to secure that collieries shall not 
 be placed in charge of incompetent men — to secure 
 that they shall be managed by men whose knowledge 
 of the Coal Mines Regulation Act, and the usual 
 method of working in the district, shall ensure that 
 the danger to life and limb shall be the least possible. 
 These qualifications are so easily obtained by men 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 261 
 
 whose length of experience compensates for deficien- 
 cies of early education, that they do not command 
 the respect they should from colliery agents. 
 
 The courses given below are drawn up on a more 
 liberal interpretation of requirements. 
 
 Minor Course 
 
 First Year 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry 
 
 Mining and Drawing 
 
 Applied Mechanics (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 2J hours. 
 2J „ 
 2 \ or 2 hrs. 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Mathematics and Drawing 
 
 Mining and Steam - 
 
 Electricity and Magnetism (Theo. and Pract 
 
 2\ hours. 
 A „ 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Mining - 
 
 Applied Mechanics - 
 
 Technical Electricity (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 2 hours. 
 2\ or 2 hrs. 
 2\ hours. 
 
 Major Course 
 
 First Year 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry 
 Mining and Drawing 
 Heat 
 
 2 \ hours. 
 2! „ 
 2 I » 
 
 Second Year 
 
 
 Mathematics and Geometry 
 Mining and Drawing 
 Chemistry 
 
 z\ hours. 
 2I „ 
 2J „ 
 
262 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Mathematics - 
 Mining and Surveying 
 Applied Mechanics - 
 
 2 hours. 
 2^ ,. 
 
 2& ,. 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 Mining and Surveying 
 Electricity and Magnetism (Theo. 
 Steam 
 
 z\ hours, 
 and Pract.) z\ „ 
 - 2| „ 
 
 Fifth Year 
 
 Mining 
 
 Technical Electricity 
 
 Applied Mechanics - 
 
 2 J hours. 
 2I „ 
 
 The aim here is to give the student such a 
 grinding in scientific principles as will ensure his 
 ability to understand his own subject to the extent 
 that his position in the industry demands. The 
 minor courses would in all probability be held 
 in smaller places, where laboratory work could 
 not be undertaken. In such circumstances, more 
 time would be given to the working of numerical 
 exercises. The necessity of the instruction in 
 Mining being accompanied by instruction in 
 Drawing and Sketching is based upon the writer's 
 experience of Mining classes, and it receives strong 
 support from Professor le Neve Foster's Report on 
 the examination in the Principles of Mining for 
 1903. 1 The instruction in Mining would in all cases 
 include the Geology necessary. 
 
 3 " Board of Education : Reports of the Examiners on 
 Results of Science Examinations," 1903. 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 263 
 
 It is of interest to compare the major course with 
 that of the first year for the Diploma of University 
 College, Cardiff. The standard of admission for 
 the latter, it may be noted, is English Composition 
 and Algebra to simple equations. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 No. of Hours in 
 
 1 Year — Day. 
 
 4 Years— Evening. 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Physics 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Mining and Geology 
 
 Surveying 
 
 Engineering 
 
 no 
 
 260 
 
 IOO 
 
 60 
 
 I20 
 75 
 
 i5° 
 
 180 
 
 60 
 
 150 
 
 Without seeking to inquire why the Cardiff scheme 
 leaves out Mathematics and Physics, and includes a 
 considerable amount of Chemistry, it will be profit- 
 able to suggest a less ambitious course for evening 
 classes, which involves no previous knowledge beyond 
 that of the Seventh Standard of an elementary 
 school, and which, by involving attendance on only 
 two nights a week, will be more convenient for a 
 greater number of students. 
 
 First Year 
 
 Mathematics and Geology 
 Mining, Mechanics and Heat - 
 
 2\ hours. 
 4 » 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Mathematics and Machine Drawing 
 Mining, Heat and Chemistry 
 
 2\ hours. 
 4 ,, 
 
264 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Mathematics and Applied Mechanics 
 Mining, Electricity and Magnetism 
 
 2J hours. 
 z| V 
 
 ' Fourth Year 
 
 Mine Surveying and Steam 
 Mining and Technical Electricity 
 
 z\ hours. 
 z l <> 
 
 The discussion on Mining courses may be appro- 
 priately closed by the subjoined table, which manifests 
 in a striking manner the uncertainty that exists in 
 regard to the balance of studies for students engaged 
 in this industry ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 It) 
 
 
 1 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 us 
 Sis- 
 
 2 
 
 « 
 ■a 
 
 .s « 
 
 K bo 
 
 3 10 
 O « 
 
 its 
 
 !! 
 
 g » 
 
 .2, bo 
 
 I* 
 
 Od 
 
 <M 
 
 a) c 
 
 HI 
 
 
 £H 
 
 £ 
 
 Py 
 
 & 1 
 
 fcl 
 
 s# 
 
 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 ro 
 
 ■* 
 
 <W 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 
 180 
 
 120 
 
 60 
 
 120 
 
 60 
 
 Physics 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 150 
 
 1.S0 
 
 30 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 no 
 
 i.s° 
 
 270 
 
 4 
 
 75 
 
 30 
 
 Mining and Geology 
 
 260 
 
 120 
 
 I.SO 
 
 120 
 
 180 
 
 210 
 
 Engineering and Draw- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing 
 
 60 
 
 420 
 
 __8 
 
 250 
 
 300 
 
 IS** 
 
 Surveying 
 
 100 
 
 
 60 
 
 — 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 1 One hour a week in the second and eight hours a week 
 in the third year are devoted to Electricity and Electrical 
 Engineering. 
 
 2 Eleven hours a week devoted to Physics in second year. 
 
 3 Fourteen hours a week devoted to Engineering in second 
 year. 
 
 4 Preliminary knowledge assumed. 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 265 
 
 (e) Metallurgy. 
 
 This industry, in common with all other chemical 
 industries, differs in several important particulars 
 from those which have been just considered. In 
 no other is there such a sharp contrast in the 
 training required by the skilled and — relatively — 
 unskilled workers, and for the lower grades hardly 
 any attempt has been made to provide instruction. 
 Quite apart from this contrast, there is the point 
 already noted that such industries are the meeting- 
 ground of the chemist and the engineer. Lastly, 
 the tendency of each works to deal in a particular 
 group of products renders specialisation necessary, 
 and increases the difficulties of organisation. 
 
 For the minor course the following scheme seems 
 to be suitable : 
 
 First Year 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Mathematics and 
 
 Drawing 
 Chemistry (Theo. 
 
 and Pract.) 
 Metallurgy (Theo. 
 
 and Pract.) 
 
 Mathematics and 
 Drawing 
 
 Metallurgy (Theo. 
 and Pract.) 
 
 Applied Mechan- 
 ics (Theo. and 
 Pract.) 
 
 Metallurgy (Theo. 
 and Pract.) 
 
 Applied Mechan- 
 ics (Theo. and 
 Pract.) 
 
 Steam 
 
 The Drawing in the first and second years should 
 be a special course, and should include simple brick- 
 work and masonry, structural ironwork, cranes, etc., 
 and should lead up to the drawing of furnaces, and 
 the usual equipment of metallurgical works. Metal- 
 lurgy in the second and third years should deal 
 
266 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 mainly with the group of metals produced in the 
 neighbourhood of the school. For students engaged 
 in iron and steel works, the syllabus of the City 
 and Guilds for "Iron and Steel" would be 
 appropriate. 
 
 In the higher grade two classes of men have to be 
 dealt with : metallurgical chemists and metallurgical 
 engineers. In the day Colleges little or no distinction 
 is made between the two ; the course at the Man- 
 chester School of Technology, however, is admirably 
 balanced. As the great bulk of evening students 
 are definitely attached to one side or the other, two 
 courses are suggested below. 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 First Year 
 
 Mathematics and Drawing 
 Chemistry (Theo. and Pract.) 
 Heat (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 2\ hours. 
 2I „ 
 
 2^ „ 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Mathematics and Drawing 
 Chemistry (Theo. and Pract.) 
 Metallurgy (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 2\ hours. 
 
 4 ,. 
 2J „ 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Mathematics and Drawing 
 Chemistry (Theo. and Pract.) 
 Metallurgy (Theo. and Pract ) - 
 
 2\ hours. 
 2I „ 
 
 2J „ 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 267 
 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 
 Electricity (Theo. and Pract) 
 Chemistry (Theo. and Pract.) 
 Metallurgy (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 2 \ hours. 
 4 ., 
 2J „ 
 
 
 Fifth Year 
 
 
 Chemistry (Theo. and Pract.) 
 Metallurgy (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 2\ hours. 
 S ,. 
 
 Engineering 
 
 
 First Year 
 
 
 Mathematics and Drawing 
 Chemistry (Theo. and Pract.) 
 Heat (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 2\ hours. 
 2I ,, 
 
 2§ »• 
 
 
 Second Year 
 
 - 
 
 Mathematics and Drawing 
 
 Metallurgy (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 Applied Mechanics (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 
 z\ hours. 
 4 » 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Mathematics and Drawing 
 Metallurgy (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 Steam (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 t\ hours. 
 
 2I „ 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 Machine Drawing - 
 Metallurgy (Theo. and Pract.) - 
 Electricity (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 2 \ hours. 
 A 11 
 
 2^ „ 
 
 Fifth Year 
 
 Applied Mechanics (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 Steam (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 Technical Electricity (Theo. and Pract.) 
 
 2-} hours. 
 
268 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 It is assumed that electro-metallurgical methods 
 are not in use in the industries for which provision is 
 being made. The Drawing is on the same lines as in 
 the minor course for the first three years; in the 
 fourth year it would correspond to the second or 
 higher stage of the Board of Education Syllabus. 
 After the second year, the word Metallurgy is used 
 to indicate a specialised course in iron and steel, or 
 any other special course of instruction bearing upon 
 the local industries. 
 
 The examples of systematic courses of instruction 
 given in Chapter IV. were mostly drawn from those 
 carried out in large towns, where the organisation 
 has reached greater perfection than in the smaller 
 centres of population. There seems to be no 
 inherent reason — there may be difficulties in the 
 way — why such systematisation of work should not 
 become general in regard to the trades which have 
 been dealt with. In many of the smaller towns 
 classes in Machine Drawing, Building Construction, 
 Mining, etc., are held year after year with but slight 
 fluctuations in numbers, which might be organised 
 into really efficient evening technical courses. 
 
 The really important thing to secure is a guarantee 
 of stability in the numbers attending, and this, as 
 has been noted, seems likely to be achieved through 
 the enlightened attitude of employers of labour. An 
 increase in the thoroughness of the instruction will 
 react on the attitude of the employers, encouraging 
 those who are backward, and so increasing the 
 stability of attendance. The movement once com- 
 menced, the rate of progress would be rapid owing 
 to the double acceleration. 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 269 
 
 While special difficulties which present themselves 
 will be dealt with in the next chapter, two or three 
 may be fitly discussed here. The first is the lack of 
 agreement upon the essential components of a suit- 
 able educational course, and is well illustrated in 
 the different character of the courses mentioned in 
 Chapter IV. It is a serious difficulty, no doubt, but 
 not an insuperable one. Much of the diversity is 
 due to the accidents of equipment and staffing, 
 which were provided before the object was fully 
 considered ; much more to the fact that the most 
 effective curriculum, as a whole, has rarely been 
 thoroughly worked out. The single subject has 
 been the unit of organisation instead of the course. 
 If attention is concentrated on the evolution of 
 satisfactory courses, and if there is reasonable 
 co-operation between the various educational 
 agencies, most of the differences would disappear. 
 
 The second difficulty is the disinclination to con- 
 strain students to follow a course which has been 
 carefully adapted to their needs, but from which the 
 element of choice by theindividual has been eliminated. 
 Undoubtedly there are cases in which instruction in 
 one subject may be beneficial to an individual, and 
 no difficulty should be placed in his way ; but the 
 main object of the school should be carefully organised 
 courses of instruction, with a definite aim to the 
 improvement of the industries of the locality, and no 
 individual benefit should be allowed to interfere with 
 its successful operation. The curriculum should 
 be sound, well-balanced, of direct value, and pro- 
 gressive. Differences may occur, but not on 
 essentials ; and such a fair uniformity of standard 
 
270 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 at each period in courses bearing upon the same 
 industry should be maintained as shall facilitate 
 continuity of study by those who change their 
 situations, and secure more than local recognition 
 among employers. Some elasticity is essential in 
 order that the instruction may keep pace with the 
 ever-changing conditions of industry, but that 
 elasticity need not materially affect the standard. 
 The main point is that the school should be organised 
 for students who follow a course ; that so far as they 
 are concerned, the single subject should not exist. They 
 join the school, and not one or other of the classes. 
 
 There is no real difficulty in the fact that some 
 of the examinations of the Board of Education and 
 the City and Guilds of London Institute are in 
 specialised sub-divisions, and others demand a 
 knowledge of the whole industry. These sub- 
 divisions are the bricks of the course, and the 
 examinations allow of a ready means of testing 
 individual bricks, whereas an examination on the 
 industry tests the structure as a whole. Each 
 examination has a perfectly definite function in 
 testing the progress of the students in their study of 
 the general principles underlying the industry as a 
 whole, and in the principles which are applied to 
 special branches. There must be some means of 
 determining the promotion of a student from year to 
 year. This may be wholly or partially based on the 
 results of an examination either by a local or central 
 authority. The examination by a central authority 
 is necessary to secure uniformity of standard, and the 
 element of uncertainty which is almost inseparable 
 from a three hours' test of a session's work, coupled 
 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 27 1 
 
 with the likelihood that there can be no central 
 examination for highly specialised subjects, renders 
 it desirable that some other factors should have 
 weight in the selection. The plan proposed on 
 page 61, in which due regard is paid to habits of 
 punctuality and industry, as well as to ability to 
 satisfy a central examining body, seems to offer 
 the greatest security for sound progress. 
 
 The titles of component subjects correspond in 
 most cases to those of existing examination schedules. 
 While these sufficiently indicate the scope of each 
 component, they do not obviate the necessity of 
 teaching syllabuses. Objections to much of the 
 teaching at the present time are due not so much 
 to faults in examination schedules as to their use 
 in place of teaching syllabuses. The schedules issued 
 by central authorities are useful as guides, but the 
 exact order and method of instruction must be 
 determined by a careful estimate of the object of 
 the instruction to those who are to receive it. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 
 
 I. — Teachers. 
 
 One of the first problems of technical education 
 which should engage the attention of local authorities 
 is the provision of teachers. The scarcity of really 
 qualified men available to give instruction in certain 
 essential subjects would hardly be credited by those 
 who have not been under the necessity of looking 
 for them. A man was required some time ago to 
 teach engineering subjects, and though the county 
 was searched for twenty miles round, amongst a 
 population of nearly 200,000, only two were dis- 
 covered who could conduct classes in Machine 
 Drawing. Neither of these could undertake to give 
 instruction in Practical Plane and Solid Geometry, 
 Applied Mechanics, or Steam. 
 
 The majority of teachers of the above - named 
 subjects in evening classes depend for their qualifi- 
 cation upon the possession of a certificate in the 
 second or a higher stage obtained at the Examina- 
 tions of the Board of Education. It will be of 
 interest to see how the above statement as to the 
 
 scarcity of qualified men is borne out by the 
 
 272 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 273 
 
 numbers who pass the examinations. The figures 
 in the table given below refer to 1903. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Honours. 
 
 Advanced. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 
 
 First. 
 
 Second. 
 
 Pass. 
 
 
 
 Geometry 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 35 
 
 *53 
 
 197 
 
 Machine Drawing 
 
 I 
 
 S 
 
 64 
 
 S81 
 
 6*1 
 
 Building Construc- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion - 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 98 
 
 427 
 
 536 
 
 Applied Mechanics - 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 158 
 
 195 
 
 Steam 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 83 
 
 132 
 
 227 
 
 If we assume that the same proportion of successful 
 candidates will become teachers, it follows that for 
 every class in Geometry with a qualified teacher 
 there will be approximately three classes in Machine 
 Drawing, and the same number in Building Con- 
 struction, while for every class in Applied Mechanics 
 there will be two classes in each of those subjects. 
 
 As there are districts in which there have been no 
 classes in the advanced stages of Applied Mechanics, 
 Geometry, or Steam for some years, though there are 
 a hundred students annually in Machine Drawing, 
 the scarcity of teachers in the first-named subjects 
 must be serious. 
 
 The majority of the successes in the higher stages 
 of these subjects must be obtained in those dis- 
 tricts which are already supplied with well-qualified 
 teachers. This fact has a two-fold effect. Not only 
 are many students of Machine Drawing and Building 
 
274 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Construction deprived of instruction in subjects which 
 would be of the greatest value to them, but the 
 teachers of these subjects must lack an important part 
 of their equipment. The essential interdependence 
 of subjects renders it most desirable that a teacher 
 should not only have adequate knowledge of the 
 subject in which he gives instruction, but possess a 
 fair knowledge of cognate subjects. 
 
 Moreover, if it were possible to distinguish technical 
 students from others, the result of a similar investi- 
 gation in regard to Chemistry and Physics would 
 show that the general scientific grounding must be 
 lacking in a very large number of instances. The 
 teaching under such circumstances lacks breadth and 
 thoroughness, and unless an effort is made to develop 
 instruction in those subjects in which instruction is not 
 so widespread as its importance demands, the evil 
 will increase with the lapse of years. 
 
 In view of the opinion which has been expressed 
 that many students require instruction in the prin- 
 ciples of their craft, as well as instruction in the 
 general scientific principles underlying the industry, 
 it will be profitable to inquire into the number 
 of teachers of technology available in regard to 
 the trades considered. The figures given opposite 
 are taken from the programme of the City and 
 Guilds of London Institute for 1904-5. 
 
 Two points revealed by the above table call for 
 special comment. The first is the small number of 
 teachers and classes in Boilermakers' Work, which 
 seems out of all proportion to the requirements of 
 this branch of Engineering industry. The second 
 is the large proportion of teachers in Building Trades 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 
 
 27S 
 
 classes who live in London. This is particularly 
 noticeable in the case of Brickwork and Masonry. 
 
 Generally speaking, there are fewer classes in 
 technology than in the corresponding subjects of 
 science, and though this is to be expected, perhaps, in 
 that it is only within the last few years that grants 
 could be obtained from the Board of Education for 
 City and Guilds subjects, the disparity is of con- 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 ■st-g 
 
 13 
 
 A .2 
 "So 
 
 4) 
 
 
 S 
 
 «•§? 
 
 a 
 
 
 «S 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 a in 
 
 '11 
 
 d 
 
 hi 
 
 ►J 
 
 no 
 '> 
 3 
 
 •SO . 
 
 nag 
 
 .8J 
 
 
 . Yt 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 S5 
 
 Z 
 
 fc 
 
 Boilermakers' Work 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Carpentry and Joinery 
 
 187 
 
 89 
 
 42 
 
 19 
 
 Brickwork and Masonry 
 
 69 
 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 Plumbing 
 
 140 
 
 78 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 Builders' Quantities 
 
 35 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 s 
 
 Iron and Steel Manufac- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ture - 
 
 3 2 
 
 iS 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Mine Surveying - 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 _ 
 
 ~ 
 
 siderable importance. It is not possible to say what 
 proportion of Building Construction students receive 
 instruction in the appropriate trade subject, or vice 
 versd, but as a rule, classes in Building Construction 
 are composed chiefly of carpenters and joiners. The 
 number of schools in which Building Construction 
 was taught in 1902-3 was 447, and grant was paid on 
 11,470 students, which is probably not more than 
 60 per cent, or 70 per cent, of the number under 
 
276 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 instruction. In the same year the number of students 
 in registered classes in Carpentry and Joinery was 
 3,536, so that if, as has been suggested, most Building 
 students require special instruction, an increase in the 
 number of teachers of Technology is necessary before 
 systematic courses for this industry could be very 
 greatly extended. It may be useful to give the 
 corresponding figures for the other branches of the 
 trade : 
 
 Number of students under instruction 
 
 in Plumbing .... 3,253 
 
 Number of students under instruction 
 
 in Brickwork - 864 
 
 Number of students under instruction 
 
 in Masonry - 623 
 
 In regard to Builders' Quantities and Iron and 
 Steel Manufacture, the supply is probably more 
 nearly equal to the demand ; but there must be a 
 considerable number of classes in Mine Surveying 
 taught by men who are not registered under the 
 Institute. 
 
 Having shown the necessity for an increase in the 
 number of teachers of certain subjects of Science and 
 Technology, we may next proceed to consider methods 
 of obtaining them. The institution of systematic 
 courses of instruction would in time produce a large 
 number of men possessing the requisite general and 
 special knowledge. Much might be done immediately 
 if the local authorities were to establish central classes 
 in the more important subjects, and were to offer 
 special facilities to students to attend them. Those 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 2;7 
 
 who completed the course and passed the examination 
 might be reimbursed their fees and travelling expenses. 
 Such a scheme has greatly increased the supply of 
 manual instructors. If care were taken in selecting 
 students of good general education and some 
 aptitude for teaching, and if these classes were held 
 twice a week for a year or two, the whole complexion 
 of affairs would be altered. 
 
 In order that proper correlation may exist between 
 subjects, it is often desirable that one teacher should 
 be responsible for instruction in more than one 
 subject. In the case of subjects under separate 
 teachers, correlation may be effected if each teacher 
 has some knowledge of the other man's subject. To 
 secure this, teachers of Mathematics might be 
 encouraged to qualify in Geometry; teachers of 
 Building Construction in Carpentry and Joinery, or 
 Brickwork and Masonry, and Geometry ; teachers of 
 Machine Drawing in Applied Mechanics, Steam, 
 Practical Geometry, and Practical Mathematics ; 
 teachers of Mining in Practical Mathematics, Applied 
 Mechanics, Steam, and Geology. Some instruction 
 in Sketching on the blackboard would be useful for 
 all. In time there would be a well-qualified body of 
 local teachers, who are generally preferable to the 
 itinerant teachers. The latter are rarely in close 
 touch with the students, still less with local employers 
 and local industries. If the travelling teacher is to 
 be a success in anything beyond pioneer work, he 
 must be a man of exceptional ability; and it is 
 fortunate that such men are occasionally to be found. 
 The difficulties of securing the services of a teacher 
 of technology in smaller and somewhat isolated towns 
 
278 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 might be solved in another way. A local employer 
 might be willing to find suitable employment for 
 such a man who could undertake to give instruction 
 on two or three evenings a week. A case is known 
 to the writer in which an offer of this sort was made, 
 and an extension of the idea will be suggested later. 
 
 Before leaving the question of improvement in the 
 supply and qualification of teachers, reference may 
 be made to the academic character of much of 
 the instruction in Chemistry and Physics. These 
 subjects are generally in the hands of teachers who 
 are graduates, and who rely on their University 
 training as their qualification for giving instruction. 
 So far as the teaching of Chemistry and Physics as 
 Chemistry and Physics is concerned, the qualification 
 is admirable. But in the greater number of Evening 
 Technical Schools these subjects are only subsidiary 
 subjects in a course, and require to be largely 
 illustrated by reference to the industry in which the 
 student is engaged. It is intensely disappointing to 
 an evening student who has yielded to advice, and 
 joined a class in one of these subjects, to find that a 
 whole session's work leaves him no whit the wiser as 
 to why the advice was given to him. The series of 
 lessons may have afforded many opportunities for 
 explaining the theory of operations which would 
 otherwise be obscure to the Engineering, Mining, or 
 Building students attending. Yet such opportunities 
 may be neglected owing to the teacher's want of 
 familiarity with the applications of the sciences of 
 which he has mastered the theory. 
 
 The difficulty could be partly overcome by the 
 co-operation of the scientific and technical teachers. 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 279 
 
 The teacher of pure science can easily ascertain what 
 is required of him by consultation with the teachers 
 of Engineering, Mining, and Building. Much profit, 
 moreover, would result if teachers of Physics and 
 Chemistry were to read the books used by their 
 students in Applied Science. Many hints in regard 
 to the application of Physics could be obtained from 
 books on Applied Mechanics and Steam, and in 
 regard to the applications of Chemistry, 1 from books 
 on Mining, and the chapters on " Materials " in books 
 on Applied Mechanics and Building Construction. 
 
 The references to methods of teaching which have 
 occurred from time to time in previous chapters will 
 have paved the way in some measure for a discussion 
 of the next problem : The training of teachers for the 
 special work of the Evening Technical School. The 
 writer is fully prepared to be faced with the state- 
 ments that such training is neither necessary nor 
 practicable. An argument which might be raised is 
 that the students in evening classes have reached 
 " the age and standard at which the scholar becomes 
 a student," and " acquires rather than receives." 
 And from analogy with University Colleges and 
 similar institutions, it might be urged that under 
 these circumstances the artifices of the teacher are 
 of less importance, since the students are old enough 
 and sufficiently far advanced to rely on their own 
 resources. While denying most emphatically that 
 the " lecturing " of the University professor is 
 
 1 Further information can be obtained from Blount and 
 Bloxam's " Chemistry for Engineers and Manufacturers," 
 Phillips' " Engineering Chemistry," and Sexton's " Chemistry 
 of the Materials of Engineering." 
 
280 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 necessarily conducted according to educational 
 principles — though in individual instances th)s may 
 be the case — it will be profitable to consider now far 
 the assumptions as to age and standard are justified. 
 Out of 657,000 students under instruction itj all kinds 
 of evening schools during the session 1903-3, 22 per 
 cent, were between twelve and fifteen years of age, 
 S3 per cent, were between fifteen and twenty-one, 
 and 25 per cent, were over 21. 1 Thus about half the 
 students in evening schools are not al/ove the age of 
 the pupils at secondary schools, the l/mits of age in 
 which may be taken as eight to eighteen years. Now, 
 in the case of the Universities it is generally admitted 
 that the younger students, who are never less than 
 sixteen, find the greatest difficulties in following 
 lectures. In this connection the evidence of Professor 
 Fleming is important. 2 These difficulties must be 
 due in great measure to immaturity of mind; the 
 idea that it may be due to the sudden transition 
 from " teaching " to " lecturing " is hardly borne out 
 when it is recalled that in the higher forms of 
 secondary schools the student is left more and more 
 to his own resources. 
 
 Consider next the standard of the work in Evening 
 Technical Schools. In the majority of cases the 
 student is introduced to the subject, and it is at the 
 initial stage where the greatest difficulties occur, 
 and where it is of the greatest importance that 
 accurate conceptions shall be formed. Once a 
 student has obtained preliminary notions, his 
 progress is more rapid ; he can rely more upon 
 
 1 Report of the Board of Education for 1903-4, p. 61. 
 
 2 See page 17. 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 28 1 
 
 himself, and requires the services of a teacher to a 
 smaller extent. 
 
 There is still another argument in favour of more 
 careful attention to method. The evening student 
 can only devote from one-fourth to one-fifth of 
 the time to study that can be afforded by those who 
 attend the day College; it is undesirable that he 
 should suffer the disadvantage which must ensue if 
 he follows a narrower curriculum ; and if good 
 progress is to be made, this demands all the skill 
 that a good teacher can bring to bear upon the 
 instruction. 
 
 If we agree, then, that training can improve 
 methods of teaching, and that the age, standard, 
 and circumstances of evening students render it 
 essential that no effort should be spared in 
 securing efficiency of instruction, it is important 
 to consider how this may be attained. It will 
 be convenient to consider those who are not 
 professional teachers and those who are pro- 
 fessional teachers separately. In the first class are 
 to be found men of every type, from the man with 
 a genius for teaching, a master of his subject and 
 the method of imparting it, whom no training could 
 improve, to the man who, having acquired a limited 
 knowledge of a subject, is diligently trying to impart 
 it to others, but failing from want of general culture, 
 and conception of what teaching really means. 
 
 If the student is to follow courses of instruction, 
 these differences will lead to his greater progress in 
 some subjects than in others, and, it is to be feared, 
 would seriously affect his regularity of attendance 
 and reduce the educational advantages to be derived 
 
282 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 from systematic instruction. To remove these differ- 
 ences, the teachers might be encouraged to attend a 
 course of lessons on the object, scope, and methods 
 of Technical Education in evening schools, and on 
 the method of presenting and illustrating a subject 
 to a class, with some elementary explanation of the 
 way in which a student acquires knowledge and skill. 
 If the instruction in these matters was treated prac- 
 tically, and adapted to the capacity of those for whom 
 it was intended, it would be of great value in raising 
 the efficiency of their teaching. As to the encour- 
 agement to be offered, the local authorities might 
 give preference in appointment and in salaries to 
 those who availed themselves of the opportunities 
 for professional study thus afforded. 
 
 As practical men are apt to doubt the efficacy of 
 method, and the necessity of such training, it may be 
 useful to give an example or two of what has been 
 done in this matter. A course of instruction for 
 teachers of Coal Mining has been arranged at 
 University College, Sheffield. It consists of two 
 classes on Saturdays, from 4.30 to 6 p.m., and 
 6.30 to 8 p.m., as follows : 
 
 (a) "Criticism Lessons," with practice in teaching, 
 conducted under the supervision of a "Master of 
 Method." 
 
 (b) Demonstration Work, with practice in making 
 and setting up apparatus, and exercise practical 
 illustration of simple Chemical and Physical 
 Phenomena. 
 
 The idea of the first portion is excellent, but the 
 utility of the second may be an open question. 
 Reasons have been given (Chapter VII.) for the belief 
 
Some special problems 283 
 
 that the scientific instruction should generally be 
 separated from and precede technical instruction. It 
 would be unfair, however, to condemn the scheme 
 in the absence of more detailed knowledge of the 
 general education and scientific knowledge of the 
 teachers in training, and the conclusion in any case 
 would be determined by the critic's conception of 
 teaching, and of the objects at which the instruction 
 should aim. The experiment is of interest and 
 importance. 
 
 Another example has occurred in Manchester, 
 where the manual instructors have requested the 
 Department of Education in the University to arrange 
 for them a course of lectures on Method. 1 
 
 Turning now to the question of special training for 
 those who are professional teachers, we are perhaps 
 on more debatable ground. There are thousands 
 of elementary and secondary schoolmasters engaged 
 in evening schools. All elementary school teachers 
 have undergone some sort of apprenticeship, and 
 have received instruction in the objects and methods 
 of teaching the subjects that find a place in the 
 curriculum ; and now that evidence of having passed 
 through a course of instruction in the theory and 
 practice of education is required from those who desire 
 
 1 A question may arise as to the provision of men to conduct 
 these central classes. Two methods seem to be open. The 
 first would be to encourage good technical teachers to go 
 through a systematic course of instruction in the theory 
 and practice of teaching. The other would involve the 
 acquisition of workshop knowledge by men who were trained 
 teachers. Which was the more suitable, experience alone 
 could tell, and much would depend on the type of individual 
 selected. 
 
2S4 TECHNICAL EDUCATION Ht EVENING- SCHOOLS 
 
 to have their names enrolled on the Register of 
 Teachers, there is an increasing number of secondary 
 teachers who possess some knowledge of the theory 
 and practice of their profession, so far as it concerns 
 the schools in which they are engaged. It is 
 pertinent to inquire whether this training is sufficient 
 to enable them to carry out in the most efficient 
 manner a most important part of their duties. 
 
 The training of the staffs of the Educational 
 Departments of the Universities is generally literary, 
 occasionally and in part scientific, never industrial or 
 technical. The specific instruction deals with the 
 subjects of typical day school curricula, and with the 
 manner of teaching them to boys between the limits 
 of age usually found in such schools. The subjects 
 of the Evening Technical School, and the aims to be 
 kept in view in dealing with technical students, are 
 disregarded. 
 
 It is a patent fact that such teachers find difficulties 
 in giving instruction to students whose aims and 
 needs are but vaguely known to them, and as the 
 number engaged in this work shows no likelihood of 
 decreasing, it seems reasonable to suggest that their 
 professional training should do something to fit them 
 for the work. The object might be accomplished in 
 part by attendance during the period of training of 
 a short course of lectures on the " Scope, Method, and 
 Aims of Technical Education in Evening Schools." 
 The instruction ought to be in the hands of a man 
 with industrial experience, as well as adequate 
 knowledge of the Theory and Practice of Education. 
 Such a provision, while useful to all teachers who 
 might ultimately teach in evening schools, would be 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 285 
 
 of special value to teachers of Mathematics, Physics, 
 and Chemistry. These men would be the more ready 
 to appreciate what was required of them, and be able 
 to take such steps as would make their subjects at 
 once attractive and of direct utility to those engaged 
 in industrial operations. 
 
 Meanwhile, much might be done to help both 
 classes of teachers by the issue of special circulars 
 containing clear statements as to the objects to be 
 attained, and suggestions as to methods of teaching. 
 For this purpose the local authorities can command 
 expert assistance. In the case of a new subject — 
 Practical Mathematics, for example — short courses 
 of instruction would be of considerable advantage in 
 smoothing the way and avoiding much ineffective 
 experiment. Finally, the whole movement towards 
 an improvement in methods of teaching would 
 stimulate professional zeal and provide an impetus 
 which would react vigorously upon reorganisation. 
 
 1 1. — Buildings. 
 
 Arguments for a more vigorous and systematic 
 development of Evening Technical Education are 
 often met by the complaint that suitable buildings are 
 not available, and this forms a frequent excuse for 
 inactivity. Notwithstanding the number of Technical 
 Schools that have sprung up during the last twelve 
 or fifteen years, there are still many places where 
 classes are held in Elementary Schools which are 
 not adapted for the older class of students, nor 
 conveniently arranged for the type of instruction. 
 In the absence of Technical Schools, Secondary 
 Schools, where centrally situated, are often made use 
 
286 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 of; but this plan, while possessing many advantages, 
 is not carried out without difficulties. The head- 
 master of such a school is a teacher who is not 
 primarily interested in problems of Technical 
 Education. Moreover, both he and his staff are 
 usually fully employed. The question of general 
 supervision is of considerable importance, and while 
 the headmaster is often unable, from want of time or 
 other cause, to exercise direct supervision himself, the 
 installation of an outsider is not a very satisfactory 
 solution. Yet supervision is absolutely essential. 
 In no other circumstances can the curriculum of the 
 Evening School attain the unity of design and clear- 
 ness of aim that is a necessary precursor of its 
 recognition as an efficient portion of the educational 
 machinery of the country. Nominal superintendence 
 is of no use ; real, active, vigorous control is a sine 
 qua non. 
 
 The difficulty would probably be best met by 
 strengthening the science staffs of secondary schools, 
 and appointing a well-qualified science master who 
 would act as the headmaster's deputy in regard to 
 evening classes. Work done in this way should 
 count as equivalent to a certain amount of day 
 duty — the evening work would be an essential, to be 
 treated seriously, and the connection between the 
 evening work and the day work would react 
 beneficially on each. Recent criticisms 1 of the 
 employment of Secondary Schoolmasters in evening 
 schools are based mainly on the work being regarded 
 as an extra, undertaken in order to eke out a meagre 
 salary. If an equivalent amount of time is allowed 
 
 1 Report of Central Welsh Board. Also Mr. Sadler's Report 
 on Secondary Education in Liverpool. 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 287 
 
 off duty during the day, it is not easy to see where 
 the harm comes in. The teacher would meet a fresh 
 class of students, many of them probably his old 
 pupils; he would deal with the larger minds and 
 wider views of those who were earning a living in the 
 great industrial and commercial world, on the out- 
 skirts of which he lives; and he would go back to 
 his day-boys with clearer knowledge, greater insight, 
 a more just appreciation of the aims of education, 
 than he could obtain in any other way. 
 
 Before leaving this question, it may be desirable to 
 indicate a special case which might be solved in a 
 particular way. Suppose there is a town of from 
 25,000 to 35,000 inhabitants, with a considerable 
 engineering or mining industry, and with a fair 
 amount of building going on. Let it be assumed 
 that from 120 to 200 students can be relied upon 
 to present themselves annually for instruction, and 
 that in the absence of a Technical or convenient 
 Secondary School, the classes are held in an 
 Elementary School. The absence of local teachers 
 of high qualifications, and the disadvantages of a 
 travelling teacher, even if one is available, stand in 
 the way of any extensive development, while there is 
 no one able or willing to undertake the post of 
 principal teacher. The latter post would involve a 
 considerable amount of time, but could be well filled 
 by a man appointed for the purpose, and himself 
 teaching on (say) four evenings a week. The 
 committee, however, feel that they could not under- 
 take to pay a well-qualified man (say) £200 to 
 £250 for six months' work. How is this problem 
 to be solved ? 
 
288 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 Let us suppose, now, that one of the engineering 
 firms would be willing to have the services of such a 
 man during the summer months, and to pay half his 
 salary, leaving him free to act as headmaster of the 
 Evening School during the winter. The firm would 
 gain by having a man with better theoretical 
 qualifications than the average draughtsman for 
 special work during a portion of the year, while the 
 school would gain by having a highly qualified teacher 
 who was in close touch with the local industry. 
 
 Lest this suggestion should appear a counsel of 
 perfection, it may be noted that Messrs. W. H. Allen 
 & Sons, Queen's Engineering Works, Bedford, regu- 
 larly employ a man to give instruction to their 
 apprentices ; and it is customary in American works 
 to employ a man to exercise general oversight over 
 the workshop progress of the apprentices. The plan 
 has some advantage over that in which one man is 
 required to give instruction in all the subjects 
 which may be necessary, and would be well worth 
 consideration. 
 
 Most Secondary Schools are now provided with 
 Physical Laboratories, which, with a small outlay, 
 would be suitable for practical work in Applied 
 Mechanics and Steam, where separate laboratories 
 are out of the question. The teaching of these 
 subjects, however, would be rarely in the hands of 
 one of the day school staff, and dual responsibility 
 in a laboratory is to be avoided as far as possible. 
 The effective oversight of the headmaster or head 
 teacher in the Evening School would minimise the 
 difficulties. 
 
 School woodwork shops require little modification 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 289 
 
 to render them suitable for practical exercises in 
 illustration of Carpentry and Joinery, and Plumbers' 
 Shops are springing up all over the country. In 
 neither case is the cost of maintenance high. The 
 difference between the price of the lead at the com- 
 mencement of the session and the amount obtained 
 for it at the end of the session, for a class of twenty 
 students in Plumbing, need not be more than £3. 
 Practical work in Bricklaying and Masonry might be 
 carried out in a builder's yard on Saturday afternoons 
 during the winter, or in the evening during the 
 summer months. Co-operation between the em- 
 ployers and the school authorities in this way seems 
 feasible, and would be of very great value. 
 
 School metal -work shops are scarce, and it is 
 doubtful whether they would be of much value for 
 technical students. There might be sufficient 
 apparatus of a suitable character to demonstrate 
 the simpler processes of forging and hardening 
 tools, the use of the surface - plate and scribing- 
 block, and other matters that can be treated in an 
 educational manner. But, as a rule, the machine 
 tools would be of such a different character to those 
 found in a modern machine-shop that the scope of 
 the work would be strictly limited. More difficult 
 and complicated processes would be more effectively 
 dealt with in the works, and here, again, the cordial 
 interest which the employers are displaying suggests 
 that they might afford facilities for occasional 
 demonstrations during working hours. Such a 
 course would help to develop that interest in his 
 labour which not only makes a man a better 
 workman, but also makes a workman a better man. 
 
290 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 The combination of a Secondary Day and Evening 
 Technical School is only to be recommended when 
 separate institutions are impossible. The chief 
 difficulty which militates against the establishment 
 of small Technical Schools is the relatively small 
 income upon which they must relie. They are only 
 used for three or four hours a day against seven or 
 eight in the case of Secondary Schools ; the Govern- 
 ment grant and fees are much less in proportion to 
 the time they are occupied ; and but few of them are 
 endowed. Where small Technical Schools have been 
 built by a loan on the security of the local rate, the 
 annual sum available for Technical Instruction has 
 been reduced by the repayment of loan and interest. 
 For thirty years or so the school must bear the 
 burden of bricks and mortar ; teachers must be paid 
 inadequate salaries, and their work seriously hampered 
 by want of apparatus. The value of the work done 
 depends less upon external appearance than it does 
 upon the internal facilities and the spirit that 
 animates the instruction. 
 
 The cost of evening technical instruction is a matter 
 of some importance, and it is unfortunate that there 
 appears to be no published figures in regard to it. 
 The writer has before him three balance sheets from 
 which the approximate figures given below are taken. 
 
 School. 
 
 County 
 Council 
 Grant. 
 
 Penny 
 Rate. 
 
 Govern- 
 ment 
 Grant. 
 
 Fees. 
 
 No. of 
 Students 
 under in- 
 struction. 
 
 Cost per 
 Student. 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 
 ^4IO 
 34° 
 250 
 
 ^220 
 
 ^650 
 220 
 170 
 
 IOO 
 
 5° 
 
 Sod 
 250 
 250 
 
 £2 12 
 
 3 10 
 
 I l8o 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 29 1 
 
 " A " is a well - equipped and well - organised 
 Technical School in an engineering town of nearly 
 50,000 inhabitants. The building is paid for. " B " 
 is a small Technical School in a town of under 
 20,000 inhabitants. The local industry does not 
 offer scope for development of Science and Art 
 instruction ; the building is fairly well equipped, and 
 the work well organised ; and ^120 a year is required 
 for repayment of loan and interest. "C" is a 
 " school " by courtesy only. The classes are held in 
 elementary school buildings, poorly equipped, and 
 without pretence to organisation. There is a con- 
 siderable amount of Engineering in the neighbour- 
 hood. The amount of Government grant per student 
 in the three cases is not a bad measure of the 
 efficiency. " A " and " C " are directly comparable, 
 while " B " labours under much more serious dis- 
 advantages than do the other two. On the whole, 
 it may be said, from a consideration of a number 
 of examples, that Evening Technical Schools can be 
 conducted efficiently on an expenditure of about £3 
 per head. In very small towns the cost may be higher, 
 because the staff is not working at its full capacity : 
 the same salary paid to the teacher who gives 
 instruction to ten students would suffice for twenty 
 students. 
 
 Introduction of Systematic Courses of Instruction. 
 
 The first step towards reorganisation is to secure 
 the co-operation of the employers. They must be 
 shown that the new arrangement is to their advantage. 
 In this connection it is a matter for regret that con- 
 ferences often come to no conclusion owing to the 
 
292 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 absence of definite proposals and lack of knowledge 
 of what is being done elsewhere. The ground might 
 be prepared by first issuing a circular containing 
 information similar to that in Chapter V. ; and the 
 MS. of this portion of the book has been used in one 
 case with excellent results. The employers might 
 be asked to indicate their preference for one or 
 other of the schemes : a subsequent conference 
 between them and the Education Authority would 
 probably lead to agreement upon some definite 
 scheme of co-operation. 
 
 The institution of a standard of admission would 
 necessitate a distribution of students between the 
 Continuation and Evening Technical Schools ; but 
 this could be effected gradually, and need not 
 concern those who have already attended the classes 
 for one or more years under the old regime. There 
 is no reason to believe that insistence on courses of 
 instruction would lead to any reduction in the 
 number of students ; indeed, in the example 
 mentioned above, in which the influence of the 
 employers was obtained, the number rose. If the 
 students are told that the change is for their benefit, 
 if the courses are advertised as a whole, meeting at 
 certain hours on certain days of the week, unpopular 
 subjects being hidden under the general title of the 
 trade, and a composition fee charged for the course, 
 there would not be much difficulty in getting them 
 to attend. Regularity would be encouraged by 
 confining privileges in the works and the school to 
 those who took the course and made the highest 
 average all-round attendance. 
 
 A matter of considerable importance is the number 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 293 
 
 of students necessary for systematic courses. Twenty 
 students from one industry will often be the lowest 
 where a single school is under consideration. With 
 a hundred students in three industries, a three years' 
 course could be carried on without difficulty. The 
 larger classes in subjects common to the first year — 
 such as Mathematics and Geometry — would com- 
 pensate for the smaller classes in certain third year 
 subjects. Moreover, in Drawing, second and third 
 year students can often be taught concurrently 
 when the numbers are not large. Again, if the 
 annual influx of new students was small, or 
 the teaching staff limited, a first year course 
 could be commenced in alternate years ; a case 
 of this sort has actually occurred. In fact, there 
 seems to be no reason for the existence at any 
 time of the single class in Machine Drawing, Building 
 Construction, or Mining, when the problem of the 
 supply of teachers has been satisfactorily solved. 
 If it is possible to teach one subject to ten students 
 on fees and grant from various sources, it must be 
 possible to teach four subjects to the same number ; 
 subscriptions to evening technical classes are rare, 
 and, when given, are usually devoted to prizes. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that many districts 
 consist of a number of small towns connected by 
 frequent trains or trams, and what might be impos- 
 sible when each school was considered alone becomes 
 easy when the district is organised as a whole. In 
 such cases there would be a considerable number of 
 schools providing instruction in the first or first and 
 second year's courses. Students who had passed 
 successfully through these would be concentrated 
 
294 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 in a smaller number of schools, in which they could 
 continue their systematic studies. The scheme for 
 Technical Exhibitions of the Yorkshire (W. ! R.) 
 County Council (p. 154-9) provides for an arrange- 
 ment of this sort within the area under their control, 
 and the South Wales Coalfield is another district 
 which presents many opportunities for a similar 
 organisation. 
 
 The effect of all special education is more or less 
 narrowing in character. When this has to be 
 acquired during leisure hours, it is particularly 
 important that the organisation and methods of 
 instruction should lead as directly as possible to 
 the goal. Still, it is quite possible to liberalise the 
 training without decreasing its special value. To 
 this end there should be a connection between the 
 Free Library and the Evening School, and it ought 
 to be the duty of the teachers to indicate the sources 
 to which an earnest student may look for freer 
 treatment and fuller information. 
 
 The smaller centres, in places where there is no 
 Free Library, should be supplied with a small 
 collection of books. Those bearing on the work 
 of the classes should be of two kinds : there might 
 be a few standard text-books for the use of the 
 teachers and advanced students, and there might 
 also be a few books in which the dry bones of fact, 
 formula, and theory are clothed with literary grace, 
 and vivified with the imaginative spirit. Thus 
 engineering classes should not only be provided 
 with a few standard works on Machine Design, 
 Applied Mechanics and Steam, but also with some 
 of the excellent popular works on engineering 
 
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 295 
 
 triumphs, and the biographies of famous engineers. 
 An outlay of £10 would provide from fifteen to 
 twenty volumes, and these ought to be considered 
 as essential as apparatus. 
 
 This special library should be supplemented by 
 weekly and monthly papers and magazines. The 
 cost could be met out of the composition fee, and 
 it would not be difficult to dispose of the magazines 
 at half-price. A room should be set apart for the 
 use of such students as have few facilities for study or 
 home work in their homes or lodgings. The school 
 would thus gradually acquire the character of an 
 institute, and exercise thereby a greater hold over 
 the students. 
 
 There is a considerable field for University exten- 
 sion and other lectures in connection with Evening 
 Schools, and it is unfortunate that they are frequently 
 under different management. Among the results of 
 this independence have been unsuitable choice of 
 subjects, and considerable interference with the work 
 of the schools. The educational value of University 
 Extension work might be much increased by its 
 closer association with the Evening School, and the 
 time-table of the latter should be framed so as to 
 allow of the students enjoying the benefits of the 
 lectures with the least possible disturbance of the 
 systematic instruction. However, to pursue the 
 various methods of rendering Evening Schools 
 more efficient in relation to those activities not 
 directly concerned in obtaining a livelihood would 
 be to step outside the province of this book, 
 the main object of which has been to discuss 
 the merits, defects, and improvement of such 
 
296 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 schools from the point of view of Systematic 
 Technical Education. 
 
 Of the ultimate success of well-devised schemes of 
 instruction, or of their value to industry, the writer 
 has little doubt. A long familiarity with evening 
 students, particularly with those engaged in the 
 trades considered, has convinced him that there is 
 no more hard-working set of men in the community. 
 Ill-assorted, and often ill -prepared they may be, 
 groping in the dark, and feeling their way by such 
 landmarks as are dimly visible ; but still earnest, 
 painstaking, willing to take advice, ready to " scorn 
 delights and live laborious days," prepared at any 
 sacrifice to grasp the opportunities held out to them, 
 and to play their part in the industrial conflict which 
 threatens every year to rage more furiously among 
 the nations. The possibilities of Technical Education 
 were never more clearly seen than when John Tyndall, 
 speaking in London in 1879, pointed to "the intel- 
 lectual Samsons toiling in the mills and at the forges 
 of Lancashire and Yorkshire," and said : " Give 
 those men the teachings of Science, and you will 
 multiply the chances of discovery, diminish the 
 causes of calamity, and materially enhance the 
 prospects of national advancement." 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 A. THE COST OF COMPULSORY CONTINUATION 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 B. NOTE ON MINING INSTRUCTION. 
 
 C. THE PROVISION OF APPARATUS. 
 
 A. The Cost, etc., of Compulsory Continuation Schools. 
 
 In view of the public interest which at the present time is 
 exhibited in a system of Compulsory Continuation Schools, it 
 may be useful to make a rough calculation of the cost of the 
 plan outlined in Chapter II. Taking the figures 1 for 1902-3, 
 we find that the number of scholars in Elementary Schools 
 between certain limits of age was as follows : — 
 
 Between 12 and 13, - - 557,868 
 
 ,, 13 » 14, - - - 351,288 
 
 >. 14 „ 15. " " 53,°i° 
 
 In round numbers, therefore, 206,000 children leave school 
 at 13 years of age and 300,000 at 14. According to the 
 scheme, the former would be required to attend the Continuation 
 School for 4 years, and the latter for 2 years. Assuming that 
 the scheme were put into operation generally, the following 
 numbers would have to be provided for during the first four 
 years : — 
 
 1 st Year, 500,000 
 
 2nd „ - ... 1,000,000 
 
 3rd „ - 1,200,000 
 
 4th „ ... 1,400,000 
 
 1 Board of Education: Statistics of Public Elementary Schools, etc., 
 Table 2. 
 
 207 
 
298 APPENDIX 
 
 The last number represents the number of children for which 
 accommodation would ultimately be required, subject to any 
 change due to raising the standard of exemption from attend- 
 ance at the day school, and an increase in the population. It 
 is interesting to note that the number of students under 15 
 years of age who attended an evening school during the session 
 1902-3 was 147,191. Ignoring the fact that not more than 40 
 per cent, or 50 per cent, were in regular attendance throughout 
 the year, it is evident that not more than about one-tenth of 
 the available material comes under the influence of the evening 
 school, and taking the average attendance into account, only 
 5 per cent, of the children who leave school under 15 continue 
 their education. 
 
 The next question is the cost of providing education for 
 these children. The average cost of maintenance in 
 Elementary Day Schools throughout the country is about 
 £2 14s. per child. 1 The elementary day school meets for 
 27$ hours a week, the evening school may be assumed to 
 meet for 6 hours a week. Assuming the cost for heating, 
 cleaning, and teaching to be proportionate (that for lighting 
 would be a little more), the cost in evening schools would be 
 roughly two-ninths of the cost in day schools for the same 
 length of time. As, however, the evening school session is 
 six months as compared with nine months in the case of the 
 day school, the cost would be $xf = jV of the cost in the day 
 school. This gives 8s. per head. In order to allow a margin, 
 and make the argument safer, the cost may be put at 10s. 
 
 Now, in any system of Compulsory Continuation Schools, 
 certain exceptions have to be made. Moreover, as the 
 difficulties of securing regular attendance will be greater, it 
 will not be advisable to calculate on a greater average than 70 
 per cent. The total cost to the nation, then, would be that of 
 1,000,000 children in average attendance at 10s. per head, or 
 ^500,000. 
 
 In making an approximate estimate of the effect on the rates, 
 it will be simpler to omit any amount due to capital charges, 
 
 'The amount for 1902-3 is not available owing to changes brought 
 about by the Act of 1902. The amount for 1901-2 was £2 13s. 2d. 
 
AffENDlX 299 
 
 which are necessary in any case. The figures below refer to 
 1901-2. 1 
 
 Cost of Elementary Education under School Boards in England 
 
 and Wales, omitting Capital Charges and Repayment of Loans. 
 
 Maintenance, - ... £8,194,789 
 
 Administration, . 530,380 
 
 Miscellaneous, - - - 250,773 
 
 Total, - £8,975,942 
 
 Of this amount, which may be taken as £9,000,000, 60 per 
 cent, comes from the rates and the rest from fees, grants, etc. 
 Assuming the same proportion to hold in evening schools, the 
 amount required from the rates would be £300,000, and from 
 the Board of Education, £200,000. Taking the average rate 
 throughout the country to be is., of which 16 per cent, is 
 expended in Capital and Loan Charges, the remaining 84 per 
 cent., or a iod. rate, produces £5,400,000. The £300,000 
 required from the rates therefore represents an increase of a 
 little more than a |d. in the £ over the School Board areas 
 as they existed in 1901-2. 
 
 The foregoing estimate has been based on the figures for 
 Elementary Education rather than on figures for the cost of 
 evening schools, because the work of such schools as are under 
 consideration would be essentially elementary, carried on in 
 elementary school buildings, by elementary school teachers. 
 The lack of efficiency and economy under the voluntary 
 evening school system renders the present cost unsuitable as 
 a basis for estimation. Two points, however, call for attention. 
 The staffs of elementary schools are in part pupil teachers who 
 could not be employed for evening work, and it would be 
 extremely undesirable to clog the machinery of evening schools 
 with the large classes that obtain in elementary schools. Since 
 the chief item of expenditure would be salaries, a universal 
 efficient compulsory system of evening schools would cost 
 nearly £1,000,000 per annum. This would correspond roughly 
 to a id. rate levied by the local authorities and an increase of 
 1 Report of the Board of Education for 1002-3, p. 41. 
 
300 APPENDIX 
 
 about 4 per cent, in the Exchequer grant, assuming that the 
 proportions given on a previous page hold for these schools. 
 It must be emphasised, however, that no one contemplates an 
 immediate and universal establishment of compulsory evening 
 schools, and a comparatively small outlay would permit of 
 much useful experiment, and help to form public opinion on 
 the subject. 
 
 Opponents of compulsory evening schools frequently put 
 forward the difficulty of enforcing the law as an argument 
 against the institution. Under the scheme suggested, per- 
 mission to leave school below fifteen would be granted as a 
 privilege, and on conditions which must be fulfilled. If 
 attendance at the evening school subsequently is unsatisfactory, 
 the child forfeits the privilege and becomes ipso facto a truant, 
 to be dealt with in the usual way. Instead of destroying 
 parental responsibility, which as a matter of fact is frequently 
 bartered for the few shillings a week which the child can 
 earn, the scheme would stimulate this virtue. To retain the 
 privilege, the parent must exercise control over the child. 
 
 Again, those who would oppose compulsion on the ground 
 that the child is too tired after the day's work to undertake 
 mental exercise must, if they are to be consistent, object quite 
 as strongly to gymnastics, football, cricket, and other pastimes. 
 For it may be asserted most emphatically that the change from 
 the workshop to the school is no more tiring than a prolongation 
 of bodily exertion. Finally, the moral effect of an extension of 
 school discipline at this period of life, and during the winter 
 months, outweighs in value nearly all other arguments from the 
 point of view of national welfare as opposed to individual interests. 
 
 B. Note on Mining Instruction. 
 
 In support of the view that the Mining student should 
 undergo instruction in a group of subjects, it will be useful to 
 give a typical Home Office Examination Paper for the Colliery 
 Manager's Certificate. The Paper selected was set by the 
 Stafford District Board in April, 1903, for First Class Certifi- 
 cates. 1 It may be left to any competent critic to say whether 
 1 Reprinted, with permission, from Mining Engineering, November and 
 December, 1904. 
 
APPENDIX 301 
 
 suitable preparation for an examination of this breadth can be 
 secured by one teacher giving one lesson a week, unless the 
 standard is so low as to render the whole proceeding a farce. 
 
 PAPER I. 
 
 Ventilation. 
 
 1. How would you ventilate a sinking shaft (a) during 
 sinking operations ; (6) during walling operations ? Illustrate 
 your answer by sketches. 
 
 2. What means would you adopt to ascertain if the ventilation 
 of a mine, working with naked lights, was adequate ? 
 
 3. Describe, with sketches, some suitable arrangements of 
 air-lock to enable winding operations to be conducted at the 
 surface of an upcast shaft so as not to interfere with the 
 ventilation of the mine. 
 
 4. Describe how you would remove an accumulation of 
 fire-damp from a pair of rise working places 100 yards long, 
 inclination 35 , with thurlings every 10 yards, containing 
 brick stopping with the exception of the one adjacent to the 
 face, stating what precautions you will adopt. 
 
 5. What observations and data are required to determine 
 the quantity of air circulating in a mine, and the efficiency of 
 the ventilating appliance ? 
 
 6. What is ankylostomiasis ? In what district has it recently 
 been prevalent, and what precautions are necessary to prevent 
 infection ? 
 
 7. Ventilate the accompanying plan. 
 
 Gases and Lighting. 
 
 1. What is the composition of Marsh Gas how does it 
 occur in mines, and what proportion is permissible in the 
 atmosphere of the mine, and how is that proportion determined ? 
 
 2. Sketch and describe the best Safety Lamp you know, 
 defining in detail its various points and the best mode of 
 testing before being issued to the men. 
 
 3. What do you consider the most reliable means of 
 locking a Safety Lamp ? Give your reasons. 
 
302 APPENDIX 
 
 Spontaneous Combustion. 
 
 i. If a sample of coal be finely powdered and hermetically 
 sealed up in a vessel fitted with a gauge, one or other of two 
 effects will be observed : either the gauge will indicate a 
 gradual increase of pressure or a gradual diminution. Account 
 for each of these effects and discuss their bearing upon coal 
 mining. 
 
 2. In building off a gob-fire, which stopping would you 
 complete first, the intake or return ? Give reasons for your 
 answer. 
 
 Geology. 
 
 i. In what formation does the Millstone Grit occur? Is 
 coal found below this horizon in Great Britain ; if so, where ? 
 
 2. What dislocations and interruptions are seams of coal 
 subjected to ? Illustrate your answer by sketches. 
 
 3. Discuss the formation of coal, and name some of the 
 principal fossils. 
 
 Ambulance. 
 
 1. A man receives a deep cut in the wrist caused by a fall 
 of roof, spurting of blood is observed. What kind of bleeding 
 is this, and how would you arrest it ? 
 
 2. A man injured about the chest by a fall of coal complains 
 of severe pain when breathing. What would you say was the 
 matter with him, and what steps would you take to relieve the 
 pain ? 
 
 3. A man receives a severe electric shock, rendering him 
 insensible. What means would you adopt to revive him ? 
 
 PAPER II. 
 
 Machinery. 
 
 1. What is meant by the term Boiler Efficiency, and state 
 the essentials of high efficiency ? 
 
 2. What would you consider a good result from a Lancashire 
 boiler 28' long x f diam. ; the' heat value of the fuel being 
 13120B.T.U. ? 
 
APPENDIX 303 
 
 3. What are the chief causes of priming in boilers, what are 
 the dangers of priming, and what steps would you take to 
 prevent priming ? 
 
 4. What are the advantages of using superheated steam ? 
 
 5. What are the respective advantages and disadvantages of 
 using compressed air and electricity for transmission of power 
 for colliery purposes. 
 
 6. What are the advantages of compound air compression 
 where a press of 100 lbs. per square inch is required? 
 
 7. What size and type of winding engines would you employ 
 for raising 125 tons of coal per hour from a depth of 800 yards 
 with a boiler press of 120 lbs. per square inch? 
 
 8. Describe, with sketches, any system of expansion gear 
 suitable for winding engines. 
 
 9. Describe any one mechanical coal cutter with which you 
 may be acquainted, and state what are its chief defects. 
 
 10. Describe the essential features of the most efficient fan 
 with which you are acquainted, and calculate the size of engine 
 required to drive a fan circulating 200,000 cubic feet of air 
 per minute with a W. G. of 5". 
 
 11. Describe, with sketches, a direct acting and a 3-throw 
 pump. Calculate the size of a pump to raise 224 gallons per 
 minute through a vertical height of 600 feet, and state 
 approximately power required. 
 
 12. What are the principal precautions ta be observed for 
 the preservation of winding ropes and the connections between 
 the ropes and the cages. Which system of capping a winding 
 rope do you prefer ? 
 
 13. Describe the best system of signalling in underground 
 haulage planes, and state what you consider a safe voltage for 
 working electric signals in a fiery mine. 
 
 Sinking. 
 
 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of simultaneous 
 shot firing in a sinking shaft ? 
 
 2. What precautions would you take to ensure the safety of 
 the men where shots are fired simultaneously ? 
 
 (a) By magnetic exploder. 
 
 (b) By current taken from lighting mains. 
 
304 APPENDIX 
 
 3. Describe and show by sketch the best system of coffering 
 you are acquainted with, and state how you would deal with the 
 feeders of water whilst the coffering was being put in. 
 
 4. What steps would you take to provide for a deep shaft being 
 sunk perpendicularly, and give a sketch of the best arrangement 
 for plumbing a shaft ? 
 
 5. Describe the best sinking pump you are acquainted with, 
 and give an account of the procedure of the work in a shaft 
 where there is a large quantity of water. 
 
 Electricity. 
 
 1. What are the respective advantages and disadvantages of 
 the following cables for underground use ? 
 
 (a) Concentric. 
 
 (b) Ordinary rubber insulated, taped, and braided. 
 
 (c) Ordinary rubber insulated, taped, and armoured. 
 
 2. What are the principal causes of sparking at the brushes 
 of a dynamo ? 
 
 3. What are the causes of loss of efficiency in motors and 
 dynamos? How would you calculate their electrical 
 efficiency ? 
 
 4. Describe the use of resistance coils in connection with 
 the starting switch of a haulage motor. 
 
 5. Describe a LeclancW cell, and state its voltage. 
 
 6. State briefly a few of the rules you would suggest for 
 the safe use of electricity underground. 
 
 PAPER III. 
 
 SURVEYING AND LAYING OUT A COLLIERY UNDER 
 VARIOUS CIRCUMSTANCES. 
 
 Surveying. 
 
 1. Describe the mode of making a section across the surface 
 and in the mine, with manner of keeping your field book. 
 
 2. What is the magnetic meridian ? How is it fixed? What 
 is its use ? 
 
APPENDIX 305 
 
 3. If you had to survey a mine in which there was magnetic 
 attraction, how would you proceed ? 
 
 4. How would you plot a fast needle underground survey ? 
 
 Laying out a Colliery under Various Conditions. 
 
 Candidates unacquainted with the South Staffordshire Thick 
 Coal Seam are not expected to answer questions 
 relating thereto. 
 
 1. If you had a Colliery of parallelogram shape 30 chains 
 north and south by 40 chains east and west, with a pair of 
 shafts near the centre, with a seam of coal 3 feet 6 inches thick, 
 having a fair roof and dry, and 4 feet above this coal a 
 measure of ironstone 3 feet thick, both coal and ironstone 
 rising to the north at an angle of 8 degrees, describe, with 
 sketches, the position of the roads, face of work, etc., and 
 describe how you would work the coal and ironstone. 
 
 2. Suppose the above question to refer to the South 
 Staffordshire Thick Coal Seam, say, 28 feet thick, describe, 
 with sketches, how you would lay out the pit, and name the 
 system upon which you would work the coal, and state why. 
 
 3. Suppose the last question to refer to the ordinary 
 Thick Coal Ribs and Pillars of the South Staffordshire 
 district, describe the mode of operations, with sketch. 
 
 4. If you had two coals -as in section below, with an 
 inclination of 30 degrees, describe how you would proceed to 
 open the work, and what system of working you would 
 adopt. 
 
 Roof — Bass. 
 
 Coal - 2 ft. o ins. 
 
 Spoil - 2 ,, o „ 
 
 Coal - 3 „ 6 „ 
 
 Hard Fireclay - 3 „ 5 „ 
 
 Coal 2 „ o „ 
 
 5. Name the system of working the South Staffordshire 
 Thick Coal, and describe the system or systems with which 
 you are acquainted. 
 
 6. Name the different methods of working coals with 
 which you are acquainted, and explain what circumstances 
 
306 APPENDIX 
 
 as to the nature of the floor and roof, and nature and 
 thickness of the coal, are most suitable to each method. 
 
 PAPER IV. 
 
 Underground Management, Practical Ventilation, Timbering, 
 Shot-firing, and General Knowledge of Explosives. 
 
 Candidates unacquainted with the South Staffordshire Thick 
 Coal Seam are not expected to answer questions relating 
 thereto, 
 i . What do you consider the duties of a Certificated Manager 
 
 under the Coal Mines Regulation Acts ? State the books, plans, 
 
 certificates, and documents which it is requisite to keep to 
 
 comply with the same Acts. 
 
 2. What number of stalls in a 3 feet 6 inches seam, worked 
 on the Longwall system, should you place under the charge of 
 one deputy ? 
 
 3. State shortly the requirements of the Coal Mines 
 Regulation Acts as to — 
 
 (a) The condition under which blasting can be carried on ; 
 (5) The supply of timber ; 
 (c) Ventilation. 
 
 4. Describe withdrawing timber from a road to be abandoned. 
 Are any tools used ? If so, describe them. 
 
 5. Are you in favour of systematic timbering ? Describe any 
 system with which you are acquainted. State in what way such 
 a system is advantageous. 
 
 6. How are spontaneous fires caused underground ? What 
 are the first indications? And how should you deal with 
 them? 
 
 7. In the South Staffordshire Thick Coal workings in one 
 division show, by sketch, how you would fix the settings to 
 prevent their reeling or being knocked out of place. 
 
 8. Make a sketch or sketches of the face timbering with which 
 you are acquainted, and name the length and size of the timbers 
 used. 
 
 9. On an Engine Plane with an accumulation of dust, where 
 there was a fairly strong current and tubs are moved rapidly, 
 
APPENDIX 307 
 
 under what conditions and with what explosive should you 
 allow blasting ? 
 
 10. Name any permitted high explosives with which you are 
 acquainted, and state their comparative power as compared 
 with gunpowder. 
 
 11. Give the constituents of such high explosives. 
 
 12. State shortly the requirements of the last " Explosives in 
 Coal Mines Order." 
 
 C. The Provision of Apparatus. 
 
 It has been remarked (p. 288) that a comparatively small 
 outlay on Apparatus would render a Physical Laboratory suit- 
 able for instruction in Applied Mechanics and Steam in those 
 places where separate laboratories are out of the question. As 
 there are probably about 300 Physical Laboratories as against 
 30 Laboratories for Applied Mechanics, and still fewer for 
 Steam, available for evening students, an estimate of the cost 
 may be useful. 
 
 Dealing first with Applied Mechanics, it may be assumed 
 that the Physical Laboratory is already equipped with micro- 
 meter gauges, pulleys, spring balances, weights, levers, and 
 inclined planes. In the list given below, the apparatus under 
 Part I. is essential, that under Part II. desirable. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Derrick Crane, ^215 o 
 
 Wall Crane, 1 17 6 
 
 Roof Truss, - 2 10 o 
 
 Sheer Legs, 2 15 o 
 
 App. for Expts. on Elasticity by Extension, o 12 6 
 
 Bending, 1 5 ° 
 
 „ „ „ Torsion, 2 10 o 
 
 Compression, 1 Q 
 
 „ „ and Extension of Springs J 
 
 Wheel and Axle, 1 15 ° 
 
 Weston Differential Pulley Block, o 16 6 
 
 Screw Jack, 1 5 ° 
 
 £18 16 6 
 
308 APPENDIX 
 
 Part II. 
 
 Ballistic Balance, - £6 10 o 
 
 Apparatus for Coil Friction, - - - I 1 5 o 
 
 „ „ Breaking Steel Wires, - 5 15 o 
 
 „ ,, Measuring Centrifugal Force, 10 10 o 
 
 „ ,, „ Efficiency of a Screw, 550 
 
 ,, ,, „ Energy of Rotation, 7 15 o 
 
 Model Crane with Gearing, - - - 9150 
 
 Apparatus for Experiments on Beams, - 4 10 o 
 
 £51 15 ° 
 
 It should be observed that the comparatively small demand 
 for apparatus of this sort considerably enhances the price, 
 which is distinctly high. A good deal might be saved by 
 having some of it constructed in the school workshop. 
 
 In regard to Steam, much will depend on the preliminary 
 training of the students. If they have previously done no 
 practical work in Heat, the resources of an ordinary Physical 
 Laboratory will be ample for their requirements, but a Marcet's 
 Boiler, costing about £3, should be obtained. Students at this 
 stage should aim at securing clear notions of the properties 
 of vapours, specific and latent heat, conduction and connection, 
 and the mechanical equivalent. Beyond that they may be 
 profitably employed in plotting curves of crank effort, and the 
 motion of valves with various gears, with simple models. The 
 cost of the latter is rather heavy : they are from £2 to ^10 
 each ; but the writer has seen many home-made models which 
 serve the purpose equally well. A good deal of work might 
 be done on the mechanism of the Steam Engine on an expen- 
 diture of ^20 to £25. There can be no upper limit for either 
 this subject or Applied Mechanics, and money spent in im- 
 proving the equipment for these classes would be returned in 
 the greater efficiency of the instruction. 
 
 In regard to the better provision of apparatus for all subjects 
 at smaller centres, a wide field of experiment is opened out. 
 Local authorities who have a number of classes under their 
 control would find it an advantage to establish a store-room 
 in which the more expensive apparatus would be kept, and 
 
APPENDIX 309 
 
 distributed to the classes according to a definite system. The 
 logical order of treatment is of less importance in the case of 
 applied than pure science, and if teachers knew at the com- 
 mencement of the session between what dates certain pieces 
 of apparatus would be in their possession, they could arrange 
 their work accordingly. The stores might have a workshop 
 attached in which the old apparatus might be repaired, and 
 new apparatus constructed according to the designs of teachers. 
 This would enable the equipment to be kept up to date, and 
 provide a stimulus to the teachers which could not fail to react 
 on the value of their instruction. If one of the local authorities 
 would institute such a store-room and workshop- for (say) a 
 period of three years, they would be carrying out an experiment 
 of no little importance. 
 
 A store-room of the kind described might perform another 
 function. It is well known that many manufacturers are willing 
 to supply samples of their work for a longer or shorter period 
 to the larger technical schools, and this is probably an excellent 
 form of advertisement. Smaller schools, with (say) 20 or 30 
 students per annum, cannot lay claim to the same consideration, 
 though cases are known in which applications from quite small 
 centres have met with a ready response. The store-room with 
 an adequate system of distribution would offer exceptional 
 advantages, and judging from an example which the writer has 
 in mind, the offers might be so liberal as to call for the exercise 
 of no little judgment in deciding what could be accepted. But, 
 carried out intelligently, the plan would have the best effect on 
 teachers and students, and would contribute in no small measure 
 to the closer union of Technical Education and Industry. 
 
 THE END 
 
 ■Printed by Cowan & Co., Limited Perth.