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 OLIN 
 
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 1909a 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
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 the Cornell University Library. 
 
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 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924096989292 
 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY .LIBRARY 
 
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In compliance with current 
 
 copyright law, Cornell University 
 
 Library produced this 
 
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 THE GIFT OF 
 
 A.fcg2A5S - - - yjnc/g. 
 
Noah Webster's Place 
 
 among 
 
 English Lexicographers 
 
 ++ by ♦+ 
 
 F. Sturges Allen 
 
 An ADDRESS delivered before the Modern 
 Language Club of Yale University, at the 
 COMMEMORATION of the one hundred 
 and fiftieth ANNIVERSARY of the birth of 
 NOAH WEBSTER, October 16th, 1758 
 
 Published by 
 
 G. & C MERRIAM CO. 
 
 Springfield, Mass. 
 I/. 
 
Copyright 1909 
 by F. Sturges Allen 
 
Webster as a Lexicographer 
 
 THOUGH few men's names are so widely known as Web- 
 ster's, and though much has been said and written about 
 him, a just appreciation of his work is yet to be written. 
 Such an appreciation will necessarily be the work not of a 
 mere biographer, but of one versed in the history and technic of 
 lexicography; and even such a man must preface his pleasanter labors 
 by months of preparation and research. What I have to say here is 
 not an appreciation, but a brief sketch of his life and a general con- 
 sideration of his lexicographic work. Webster's fame arising out of 
 the use of his name in the series of dictionaries that have perpetuated 
 his original work is not necessarily any measure of the actual value of 
 his work in developing the modem art and science of lexicography. 
 It might have been that his work was of little importance relatively 
 to that of his successors; but such is not the case. His book has been 
 much bettered; but most of the general principles laid down by him 
 for his own observance, still govern the making of our best and largest 
 dictionaries. 
 
 In considering the life work of such a man it is natural that we 
 should wish to have in mind the chief facts in his history, especially 
 such as tended either to fit or to disqualify him for the execution of that 
 work. Of the early period of Webster's life we know but little. His 
 father, Noah Webster, was a poor farmer of West Hartford, Conn., 
 where Noah Junior was bom on October 1 6, 1 758. Though Web- 
 ster's father and mother were poor, they undoubtedly inherited the 
 sentiments and traditions and, to a certain extent, the social standing 
 of their more substantial ancestors, both being descended from early 
 Colonial governors. Webster received his early education in the 
 village school and fitted for college under Rev. Nathan Perkins, the 
 minister of the parish, and in the Hopkins' Grammar School of Hart- 
 ford. He entered Yale in 1 774 and graduated, without any special 
 distinction, in 1 778. In the meantime he served for a period, in 1 777, 
 probably in the summer, in a body of militia under the command of 
 his father. 
 
 [1] 
 
While in college he had determined to follow the profession of law, 
 but upon his graduation he was without means, and his father unable 
 to assist him. He therefore resorted to teaching for immediate sup- 
 port, his first work being in Glastonbury in the winter of 1 778. In the 
 summer of 1 779 he taught at Hartford, living in the family of Oliver 
 Ellsworth, who later became Chief Justice of Connecticut; in the 
 winter of 1 780 he taught in his native village. During this period he 
 studied law privately; in the summer of 1781 he lived with and 
 assisted the Registrar of Deeds in Litchfield, at the same time reading 
 law; and he was finally admitted to the bar in Hartford in that year. 
 Still he was unable to wait for a practice, and resumed his teaching, 
 taking a classical school at Goshen, Orange County, N. Y., in 1 782. 
 Here it was that he compiled his " Spelling Book " and his " Gram- 
 mar"; these formed two of the three parts of a projected " Gram- 
 matical Institute of the English Language," of which the third part was 
 a reader, made in later years. In both of these books he displayed 
 much of the sound sense that afterwards characterized his work in the 
 dictionary. The speller was arranged after a more logical and ser- 
 viceable method than that of the books then in use, of which fact the 
 sale of over fifty millions of copies is sufficient evidence. The gram- 
 mar was not a commercial success, but yet embodied opinions that 
 to-day stand unquestioned. For instance, he says that the authors 
 of the then modem grammars " labored to prove what is obviously 
 absurd, namely, that our language is not made right: and in pursuance 
 of this idea have tried to make it over again, and persuade the English 
 to speak by Latin rules or by arbitrary rules of their own." " Hence," 
 he continues, " They have rejected many phrases of pure English and 
 substituted those which are neither English nor sense"; and, farther on, 
 "A practical investigation of the subject warrants me in saying that 
 common practice, even among the unlearned, is generally defensible 
 on the principles of analogy and the structure of the language, and that 
 very few of the alterations recommended by Lowth and his followers 
 can be vindicated on any better principle than some Latin rule or his 
 own private opinion. 
 
 [21 
 
From the day of the publication of these books Webster set ear- 
 nestly about procuring a copyright law which should secure the profit 
 of his books to himself, and a great share of his time and energy was 
 devoted to soliciting the aid of men of influence, preparing petitions to 
 legislatures, and urging his claims and the claims of authors generally 
 upon both Federal and State legislatures. 
 
 The next twenty odd years were spent by Mr. Webster in varying 
 occupations. He wrote political pamphlets on questions of public 
 policy, always in support of the administration, which was then 
 Federalist. He prepared and delivered at Philadelphia, in 1 785 and 
 1 786, a series of " Dissertations on the English Language." In 1 788 
 he attempted to establish a periodical in New York; in 1 789 upon a 
 return of business prosperity, he setded at Hartford in the practice of the 
 law, bringing with him a wife, the daughter of William Greenleaf of 
 Boston. John Trumbull, one of the now well-nigh forgotten " Hart- 
 ford wits," wrote to his friend Wolcott: " Webster has returned and 
 brought with him a pretty wife. I wish him success, but I doubt, in 
 the present decay of business in our profession [the law], whether his 
 profits will enable him to keep up the style he sets out with." The 
 attitude of these men towards Webster is well told by Hazard's letter 
 to Belknap, in which he says of Webster," He certainly does not want 
 understanding, and yet there is a mixture of self-sufficiency, all-suffi- 
 ciency, and at the same time a degree of insufficiency about him, which 
 is (to me) intolerable." Webster in after years said of himself at this 
 period that he was "vain and inexperienced;" but we may add to this 
 that his vanity had a good bottom of purposefulness; and that he later 
 acquired abundant experience, including a good store from Hazard, 
 Belknap, and that ilk, and made good use of it. Here he continued 
 his practice of the law until 1 793, when he relinquished it to establish 
 in New York a daily paper, " The Minerva," and afterwards a semi- 
 weekly paper, " The Herald," which were subsequendy called, 
 respectively, " The Commercial Advertiser," and " New York 
 Spectator." Of these papers Mr. Webster was the sole editor. In 
 this same year he delivered an address " On the effects of slavery on 
 Morals and Industry," recommending a gradual emancipation. In 
 
 [3] 
 
1 794 he published a pamphlet entitled " The Revolution in France;" 
 in 1 795 and 1 796 he contributed, with Mr. (afterwards Chancellor) 
 Kent, under the signature of " Curtius," an important series of papers 
 supporting Jay's Treaty with Great Britain. The outbreak of the 
 yellow fever along the Atlantic coast led him to make an extended 
 investigation of the history of pestilential diseases, which was pub- 
 lished in two volumes in 1799. Later, in 1802, he published a 
 treatise on the subject of " The rights of neutrals in the time of war," 
 and also a " Historical treatise of the origin and state of banking 
 institutions and insurance offices." 
 
 Meantime Webster had removed, in 1 798, from New York City 
 to New Haven, placing the editorship of the newspapers in the hands 
 of another, and soon afterwards disposing of his interest in them. 
 From this time on he devoted his life entirely to literary work, publish- 
 ing in 1 806 an octavo English dictionary, and in 1 807 a " Philo- 
 sophical and Practical Grammar of the English Language." 
 
 These were the last steps of preparation for undertaking the task 
 of making his " American Dictionary of the English Language," or 
 what is now briefly called " Webster's Dictionary," and that task was 
 to absorb the rest of his life. To this work he devoted himself from 
 1808 to 1828, when his quarto dictionary was published. His 
 original design did not contemplate an investigation of the origin and 
 progress of the language, but merely the supplying of the omissions and 
 correction of the errors to be found in the best dictionaries of that time, 
 and with this purpose he spent a number of years in collecting words. 
 He then made the copy for two letters of the alphabet, but being em- 
 barrassed by lack of knowledge as to the origin of words, determined to 
 change his plan. For some ten years, therefore, he made a com- 
 parative study of words having the same cognate radical letters in 
 different languages, and wrote a " Synopsis of the principal words in 
 twenty languages, arranged in classes under their primary elements 
 or letters." - This, he said, opened to him new views of language, 
 and unfolded what appeared to be the general principles on which 
 these languages were constructed. He then corrected what he had 
 previously written of the dictionary, and completed the remainder of 
 
 [4] 
 
the work. But prior to its completion he spent a year in Europe in 
 order to ascertain "the real state of the pronunciation of the language in 
 England as well as the general state of philosophy [that is natural 
 philosophy] in that country; and to attempt to bring about some agree- 
 ment or coincidence of opinions in regard to unsettled points in pro- 
 nunciation and grammatical construction." The dictionary was 
 completed and published in 1828, in the seventieth year of his life, 
 in two octavo volumes. It was revised and enlarged by Webster 
 himself, with the addition of several thousand words, in 1 840; and a 
 second revision was in progress in 1 843 when Webster died. 
 
 Webster's entire career was marked by simplicity, but not without 
 ambition. He had a childlike hopefulness, a manful sturdiness of 
 character, a noble insistence upon what he considered to be right as 
 determined by an honest search after the truth, and an unconquerable 
 perseverance. During the twenty years spent in the preparation of 
 the dictionary his income was practically derived from the royalty on 
 his speller. He began his work in the face of opposition and ridicule, 
 and its prosecution seldom met with encouragement or approbation 
 from others. His later years, after the publication of the dictionary, 
 were clothed with honor, but not untroubled. The dictionary had 
 proved a disappointment financially. The first edition was too expen- 
 sive for popular sale, being typographically ill-suited for publication 
 in a condensed and economical form; and it was not until the right to 
 publish the work was acquired by George and Charles Merriam that 
 Webster's family received any income from it at all commensurate with 
 the reputation that the book had made for its author. Webster died 
 May 28, 1843, in the 85th year of his age, honored at home and 
 abroad, with the consciousness that the work for which he had sacri- 
 ficed so long had been accepted in the United States as the final author- 
 ity upon words, and was favorably received even in England. 
 
 Webster's life work was essentially finished with the publication 
 of the Dictionary in 1828. Nearly thirty years of teaching, school- 
 book writing, pamphleteering, lawyering, lobbying, research, news- 
 paper editing, and dictionary making, all marked by earnest strife in 
 support of his own convictions, had developed in him a purpose and 
 
 [5] 
 
ambition that dominated the remainder of his life, and a belief that he 
 was competent to achieve his purpose, — the making of a dictionary 
 of the English language that should make him the benefactor of his 
 countrymen. To the work of fulfilling this ambition he had devoted 
 himself for twenty years with a singular constancy and self-denial, and 
 finally received a larger reward than falls to most of those who labor 
 single handed in so large a cause. 
 
 What is the real value of his work? That question, as I have 
 already said, is not answered by pointing to the series of dictionaries 
 that originated with his, and which now keep his name actively before 
 the public. These have perpetuated Webster's devotion to truth and 
 accuracy, but have also served to attribute to him in the mind of the 
 unthinking public an unfailing omniscience, which any scholar knows 
 he could not have had, however great and epoch-making his own work 
 may have been. 
 
 Conclusions based on mere smatterings of knowledge about the 
 literary usage of Webster's time and of the periods before and since his 
 time, or on a general knowledge of the changes in American literary 
 usage that have taken place since his day, — such conclusions are 
 essentially worthless. Certain facts, however, are available from 
 which we may make an estimate that will in the main be true. Such 
 an estimate will be broadly based upon a consideration of the general 
 development of dictionary making prior to 1 828; of Webster's quali- 
 fication for his work; of the main improvements in plan and execution 
 introduced by him; of the reputation acquired by Webster's dictionary 
 before it was essentially changed; and of the use that has been made of 
 his work by subsequent lexicographers. Let us consider these six 
 topics in the order of their mention. 
 
 The modern dictionary had its origin in the various word lists or 
 vocabularies of the 1 4th and 1 5th and 1 6th centuries, — at first without 
 any special order, later with alphabetical arrangement. The early 
 ones, as the well known Catholicon Anglicum, were mainly lists of 
 words in foreign languages with their English equivalents. The first 
 list of English words with English definitions was published in 1 604 by 
 one Robert Cawdrey, entitled " A Table Alphabetical of Hard 
 
 [6] 
 
Words." The first work to assume the title of " English Dictionary ' 
 was that which is commonly called Cockeram's Dictionary, pub' 
 lished in 1623. In 1656 appeared Blount's famous " Glossary," and 
 in 1 658 Phillips' dictionary entitled " The New World of Words,' 
 largely based upon Blount. 
 
 Bailey's " Universal Etymological English Dictionary," pub* 
 lished in 1 72 1 , was chiefly devoted to technical terms of the arts 
 trades, and sciences, and was the first to give etymologies. It was on 
 the whole a scholarly piece of work for its day. In his folio edition of 
 1 730 he introduced the stress accent to indicate pronunciation, and this 
 edition is said to have been the general working basis of Johnson's 
 Dictionary. 
 
 The inception of Johnson's Dictionary was due to a general feeling 
 among the authors of his day that unless some record were made of 
 the proper use of words and the idioms of the language, it would 
 become debased and decay, as had the languages of classical antiquity. 
 Johnson was induced, therefore, to undertake the task of making such 
 a record, or standard dictionary, and of laying down the proper uses of 
 ■words and phrases for the benefit of those who wished to write good 
 English. He contracted with three London publishers to do so in three 
 years for the sum of 350 guineas, or about $1400; but the work occu- 
 pied nearly three times that length of time, and did not appear until 
 April, 1 755. It was printed in two large folio volumes entitled, "A 
 Dictionary of the English Language in which all words are deduced 
 from their originals, and are illustrated in their different classifications 
 by examples from the best writers. By Samuel Johnson." 
 
 The chief new features that Johnson's Dictionary introduced into 
 lexicography were the illustration of the title words by literary quota- 
 tions, and a more accurate and thorough analysis of the senses of both 
 words and phrases. The book represented a reaction from the tech- 
 nical bias of Bailey's book and time, and was as pronounced in its 
 literary character and purposes as was Bailey's in its technical char- 
 acter. For example, Bailey gives three lines to the entire treatment 
 of bid and one to get; to Brahmin, however, he gives 34 lines and to 
 epic 1 8. Johnson gives to bid an entire column and to get, roundly 
 
 [7] 
 
speaking, a page and a half; to epic he gives 12 lines (five to the 
 definition, seven to citations); Brahmin he does not enter at all. From 
 the day of its publication Johnson's Dictionary wielded an immense 
 authority, chiefly due to his personality as an author and the fact that 
 its admirable illustrative quotations, practically supplied by himself 
 alone, gave the book a literary value which no other previous book had 
 had. Its influence may be judged from the fact that solely on its 
 authority the word dispatch was generally changed in English usage 
 to the erroneous form despatch, which by some error had been printed 
 as the vocabulary title in the dictionary, notwithstanding that until its 
 publication the correct form had been in practically universal use and 
 was used by Johnson himself both before that time and afterwards. 
 
 From the time of Johnson's Dictionary down to that of Webster's 
 " American Dictionary of the English Language " no substantial 
 improvement was made in the method of lexicography except the 
 indication of the pronunciation by diacritical marks or respelling, — a 
 feature which first appeared in the " New Dictionary " by Dr. William 
 Kenrick, in 1 773, and later in the dictionaries of Perry, Sheridan, 
 and Walker, the last of whom became as supreme in the domain of 
 pronunciation as Dr. Johnson had been in that of orthography, defini- 
 tion, and illustrative quotation. 
 
 The dictionary of to-day is made by a corps of trained specialists 
 and editors; the dictionary of Johnson's day and of Webster's day was 
 made by one man, who had to collect single-handed, with the aid of 
 his copyists, the terms and illustrative citations in all fields of literature, 
 art, and science, furnish the etymologies, indicate the pronunciations, 
 analyze the senses, and make the definitions. What manner of man 
 was, therefore, best suited to make such a dictionary? A man who, 
 like Johnson, had devoted himself to a life of authorship, who was not- 
 a man of affairs, who was not a politician (I use " politician " in the 
 good sense), who was not specially trained in any science or technical 
 branch of learning, a man of narrow sympathies who gave the reins to 
 his prejudices, his ill-humor, and his personal, political, and national 
 dislikes, and embodied them in the definitions of his dictionary, — or a 
 man who, like Webster, was raised as a farmer's boy, lived the life of 
 
 [8] 
 
an ordinary New Englander, who, as Webster himself says: " is a 
 husbandman in summer and a mechanic in winter; travels about the 
 country; confers with a variety of professions; reads public papers; has 
 access to a parish library, and thus becomes acquainted with history 
 and politics; and is in every case a theologian"? 
 
 I have already outlined to you Webster's varied career, his mani- 
 fold experiences as teacher, researcher in medical lore and in meteor- 
 ology, as a writer on political affairs, the editor of a newspaper, and 
 most important of all a lawyer. Probably the lawyer's training, more 
 than any other, except that of the logician, tends to fit a man for appre- 
 ciating the value, and for the making, of exact definitions. It is a part 
 of his daily work to interpret words. The construction of contracts, 
 statutes, legal decisions, is the most important and subtle work that he 
 does. Let us suppose, for example, that the meaning of the word 
 "possess " becomes material in a legal discussion. The term, as 
 Maitland says, is "certainly a vague one, but the law must define it, 
 or if the law does not the lawyer must. Suppose we see a man in the 
 street carrying an umbrella. We cannot tell at once whether he pos- 
 sesses it. He miy be its owner, a thief, a borrower, or the owner's 
 servant. If he is the owner, he possesses it; if he is a thief he possesses 
 it; if he is the owner's servant we shall probably deny his possession. 
 If he is a borrower we may have our doubts; the language of every-day 
 life may hesitate about the matter; but law must make up its mind." 
 This is a single example of the questions that constantly recur in a law- 
 yer's practice, however humble. 
 
 I believe that Webster's broad education, the broad sympathies 
 that he acquired in his varied career, the general grasp of ideas which 
 his experience gave to him, his open-minded receptiveness, his sturdy 
 perseverance, the wish to be helpful, the wish to be right for the sake 
 of the right, all contributed to make him a fitter man for the work that 
 he undertook than Johnson could have hoped to be. There was an 
 earnestness of purpose, a determination to be fit, a'determination to be 
 just, a determination to be true, which Johnson in a large degree lacked. 
 Johnson pursued his work to get a living and denounced its drudgery. 
 Webster pursued his work because he looked upon it as a high calling, 
 
 [9] 
 
a privilege, and because he believed it was worth while. Johnson 
 was a literary genius: Webster was not, — but literary genius is not 
 essential to lexicography. The capacity to be honest, the capacity to 
 think right, a logical mind free from prejudice or bias, and a mind with 
 broad sympathies, is of the most vital importance to lexicography. 
 Johnson's genius gave him at times a grace of expression and an appre- 
 ciation of literary values that Webster lacked. As a whole, however, 
 there is little room for literary grace in making dictionaries, but there is 
 continual necessity for just the qualities that Webster had and Johnson 
 lacked. 
 
 Dr. Murray has said that " Webster was a great man, a born 
 definer of words;" but he was more than that; he was a great lexicog- 
 rapher because he was receptive, conscientious, level-headed, fair- 
 minded, and keen-witted. His was the genius of honest and infinite 
 pains. Dr. Murray also said, in the next sentence, that Webster 
 " unfortunately, like many other clever men, had the notion that 
 derivations can be elaborated from one's own consciousness as well as 
 definitions, and he included in his work so-called etymologies of this 
 sort." This is neither true, nor just, nor consistent. A born definer 
 of terms does not elaborate definitions out of his own consciousness; he 
 makes definitions that are exact and true because he is free from dis- 
 torting bias and has unusual natural powers of understanding and 
 analysis, with which he has coupled an unusual fund of knowledge. 
 In the light of modem philology, Webster's etymologies are, it is true, 
 largely ridiculous, but they were no more absurd in his day than was the 
 religious belief that fettered him to a biblical genealogy as the basis of 
 his linguistic researches. Had it been true that he believed etymologies 
 to be a matter to be elaborated from his own consciousness, he would 
 not have felt the necessity of spending ten years in making a compara- 
 tive study of twenty languages, but would rather have elaborated them 
 from consciousness as Kant did his philosophy. Webster was, indeed, 
 unfortunate in not having those broader philological associations that 
 would have made known to him the contemporary trend of philo- 
 logical research, and would have introduced him to the labors of Bopp 
 and other German workers, whose methods after all must have been 
 
 [10] 
 
not so different from Webster's, though more wisely directed. Had 
 he possessed such associations, it is quite possible that he might have 
 anticipated later discoveries. 
 
 Webster's improvements over the work of his predecessors were 
 such as might be expected of such a man. Johnson, a literary genius, 
 made an essentially literary dictionary, listing and defining the terms 
 and senses that occurred in the literature that he knew and cared to 
 read. Webster, the man of affairs, the man with an insatiable thirst 
 after knowledge for its own sake, the man of many and broad intel- 
 lectual sympathies, with a bent to research in history, science, and 
 linguistics, made the best dictionary that he could to meet the wants of 
 such a man as himself. Webster had the true historical instinct, and 
 his work represents a distinct advance in that respect over Johnson's. 
 He did not originate the historical method of lexicography, nor did 
 any of his successors in the same field of labor. That was a slow 
 growth, of which the first development was the attempt to trace the 
 senses of words from their originals, which Johnson refers to when he 
 says," in every word of extensive use, it was requisite to mark the prog- 
 ress of its meaning, and show by what gradations of intermediate sense 
 it has passed from its primitive to its remote and accidental significa- 
 tions; so that every foregoing explanation should tend to that which 
 follows, and the series be regularly concatenated from the first notion 
 to the last." If this is not historical I know not what to call it. In 
 pursuit of the same idea Webster spent a dozen years; and says: " There 
 is a primary sense of every word, from which all the others have pro- 
 ceeded; and whenever this can be discovered, this sense should stand 
 first in order." In fact the etymologically primary sense of a word is 
 usually its first sense in English, and in Webster's day knowledge of 
 the origin of words was the only means open to him of attempting 
 a historical development in his definitions. The modern historical 
 method is but a development of this, widened by the possibilities 
 of modem means and scholarship. 
 
 In general scope or ambit Webster's work is larger and more 
 scientific than Johnson's. He aims not merely to give the literary 
 words of the language and the names of common objects, as the more 
 
 [II] 
 
familiar plants, etc., but to cover the entire vocabulary of English, 
 literary, technical, commercial, and the better vernacular and col- 
 loquial terms. He had not the prejudices that would impel him to 
 declare with Johnson, that the technical terms used by " the laborious 
 and mercantile part of the people cannot be regarded as any part of the 
 durable materials of a language, and therefore must be suffered to 
 perish with other things unworthy of preservation." This is not 
 equivalent to saying that he was entirely without prejudice. His lack 
 of familiarity with the earlier authors read by Johnson and his strong 
 puritanism impaired his judgment with respect to such authors as the 
 early Elizabethan and pre-Elizabethan dramatists, whose slang and 
 cant Webster considered part and parcel of their vulgarities. 
 
 In the matter of representing the pronunciations he makes, among 
 others, two considerable improvements, upon his predecessors. One 
 was his departure from the previous rule that in indicating the accent 
 the word should be so separated that " a single consonant between two 
 vowels must be joined to the latter syllable," giving ha'bit, ba'ron, 
 ca'ster. Instead, he divided so as to indicate as nearly as might be the 
 pronunciation, — thus hab'it, bar'on, cast'er. The other related to the 
 notation of the sound of unaccented syllables, of which he says: 
 " there are mistakes without number in all the schemes which I have 
 seen," and he maintains that it is ridiculous, for example, to mark the 
 first vowel in even, evil, and event with the same diacritic. He cuts 
 the Gordian Knot by omitting the marking of unaccented syllables 
 entirely. His contention is confirmed by modem phonetics, which 
 has devised a way of indicating the difference between the syllables in 
 such cases. 
 
 It would be impossible on this occasion to attempt to state in any 
 detail Webster's position as to the matter of spelling reform. He was 
 in favor of such a reform, and went so far as to use a number of simpli- 
 fied spellings in some of his pamphlets published before the dictionary. 
 Franklin attempted to win him over to a scheme of radical change, but 
 Webster's better sense of the possibilities of such a step led him to 
 adopt only what then seemed to him, and still seem to scholars, the 
 simpler changes that might be possible, such as dropping the final e 
 
 [12] 
 
in many words where it has no phonetic value, as in receptive, pro- 
 bative, etc. In his dictionary, with equal good sense, he restricted 
 his changes, with a few exceptions, to those that he believed had 
 sufficient usage as well as analogy to make their general acceptance 
 probable or certain. His general principle was to follow the estab- 
 lished usages and analogies of the language, as he understood them, 
 and doing this to choose the spelling that most nearly represented the 
 pronunciation. No better principle than his has since been suggested. 
 In accordance with this he rejected the forms in -ick, -re, -our, -ise, in 
 favor of -ic, -ex, -or, -ize, — with what success we all know. 
 
 As we have already seen, Webster's literal and implicit orthodoxy 
 led him into a theory of the relation of languages that the discoveries 
 of philology have since shown to be untenable, and many of his ety- 
 mologies in light of modern scholarship appear ridiculous. Yet he is 
 getting a long step nearer than Johnson to the etymological demands of 
 the dictionary of to-day when he says, " Junius and Skinner, the 
 authorities for most of the etymologies of Bailey and Johnson, are 
 sufficiently correct in referring English words to the language from 
 which they are immediately derived, especially when the orthography 
 is too plain to be mistaken. They inform us, that father is from the 
 Saxon j 'aider, that drop is from the Saxon droppan, that picket is from 
 the French piquet, and the like. So Johnson informs us that accent is 
 from the Latin accentus, and accept from the French word accepter, 
 Latin accipio. All this is well, but it can hardly be called etymology, 
 or the deduction of words from their originals." And later he says: 
 " In exhibiting the origin and affinities of English words, I have usually 
 placed first in order the corresponding word in the language from or 
 through which we have received it; then the corresponding words in 
 the languages of the same family or race; then the corresponding word 
 in the languages of other families. . . . When there can be no rational 
 doubt respecting the radical identity of words, I have inserted them 
 without any expression of uncertainty. When there appears to be any 
 reason to question that identity, I have mentioned the probability only 
 of an affinity, or inserted a query, to invite further investigation. ' 
 
 [13] 
 
The most important part of the subject-matter of a general dic- 
 tionary, however, is its definitions. In these Webster was at his best. 
 He had a truly modern conception of the value of the information to be 
 conveyed by an exact statement of the meanings of words. In form 
 his definitions largely conform to the best models of to-day, excepting 
 that he often precedes the definition by a synonym or phrase of synony- 
 mous meaning. The conception of an equational or substitutional 
 definition, as I call it, seems a simple enough idea, and yet Webster 
 was, I believe, the first to adopt it with practical uniformity. Where 
 the definition could be given in the form of some simple statement, 
 such as " capable of being weighed " or " a small pool or lake of 
 water " — the early makers of dictionaries more or less readily adopted 
 that form. But any complexity of statement, or indefiniteness in mean- 
 ing, commonly led them to substitute for a definition a sentence. For 
 example, Johnson defines Polypus as follows, with illustrative citations 
 for both senses: " 1 . Polypus signifies any thing in general with many 
 roots or feet, as a swelling in the nostrils; but it is likewise applied to a 
 tough concretion of grumous blood in the heart and arteries . . . . 
 " 2. A sea animal with many feet." Webster's definitions are: " I. 
 Something that has many feet or roots. 2. In zoology, a species of 
 fresh water insects, belonging to the genus Hydra and order of zoo- 
 phytes. Of this animal it is remarkable, that if cut into pieces, each 
 part will shoot out a new head and tail and become a distinct animal. 
 The general character of this animal is, it fixes itself by its base, is 
 gelatinous, linear, naked, contractile, and capable of changing place. 
 3. A concretion of blood in the heart and blood vessels. 4. A 
 tumor with a narrow base, somewhat resembling a pear, found in the 
 nose, uterus, etc." 
 
 Webster's attitude in defining a term is uniformly that of an in- 
 different party. He had the only true conception of a dictionary, — 
 that its function is to tell what words mean, and not to pass upon the 
 merit of the ideas conveyed by the terms denned. He also had the 
 modern impersonal attitude that forbade giving expression to his likes 
 or dislikes. Johnson, to express his contempt for the men pensioned by 
 the government, denned a pensioner as: "A slave of state hired by a 
 
 [14] 
 
stipend to obey his master;" and he took occasion to flout Lord Chester- 
 field by denning a patron, as: " One who countenances, supports, or 
 protects. Commonly, a wretch who supports with insolence and is 
 paid with flattery." Webster, too, had his dislikes, but he was a 
 man rather of convictions than of prejudices, and I believe you will 
 look in vain in his work for a single definition that is not a fair statement 
 of what he conceived the meaning of the word denned to be with those 
 who used it. Thus neither Federalist, nor Tory, nor Whig, contains 
 any hint of Webster's own attitude to the parties referred to, and yet his 
 pamphlets show him a root-and-branch Federalist. 
 
 As a whole Webster's definitions show a juster appreciation of 
 values than those of any of his predecessors, and often in their extent 
 mark a medium between the extremes of fullness and brevity of others. 
 Thus, Webster, Bailey, and Johnson give respectively: to bid, two- 
 thirds of a column, three lines, and one column; to get, two and a half 
 columns, one line, and four columns and a half; to Brahmin five lines, 
 34 lines (or one-half a column), no entry; to epic 20 lines, 1 8 lines, 1 2 
 lines (seven being citations). 
 
 In the use of illustrative citations Webster points out the principle 
 that should govern their use in such a book, namely: to illustrate those 
 definitions that are not entirely evident in sense without the citations. 
 Johnson had erred in illustrating with citations many words such as 
 bencher, bellfounder, boneseiter, where such illustration was without 
 point; Webster, lacking Johnson's literary appreciation, perhaps erred 
 in practice in the opposite direction. 
 
 The publication of the dictionary was the occasion of criticism 
 as well as approval; the criticism was, however, mostly occasioned by 
 the few erratic spellings recommended, such as fether for feather. 
 Otherwise the work was extremely well received both by scholars and 
 laymen. Although well received in England, it was not there accepted 
 as the authority in lieu of Johnson, except as to the matter not included 
 in Johnson's book. The courts of England often cited it as a high 
 authority, and in the United States it had become the standard and 
 practically the final authority in the courts before the revision of 1 847, 
 although the high price of the first edition had prevented a large 
 
popular sale of the work. The edition of 1 847, which was the first 
 revision after Webster's own of 1 840, had a large general sale, and the 
 book at once became for this country practically the sole authority for 
 the meanings and pronunciation of words, and kept this position 
 essentially without a rival until the publication of the other modern 
 dictionaries about 1 890. As an authority on pronunciation Worces- 
 ter's dictionary disputed the field for a time, and still has its followers. 
 
 It is not alone the revisers of Webster's Dictionary who have made 
 use of the early editions. The supplements and revisions of the Web- 
 ster series of dictionaries have, of course, followed as far as possible the 
 general plan of his original work, and a considerable number of the 
 definitions of the International Dictionary are largely the same as they 
 stood in the first edition. About 1 850, however, there was published 
 in Edinburgh " The Imperial Dictionary of the English Language '* 
 edited and largely written by John Ogilvie, a Scottish schoolmaster, 
 who spent some twelve years upon it. This dictionary was Webster's 
 original Dictionary plus a large amount of new rnaterial. Later came 
 the Century Dictionary, which in turn is based upon Ogilvie's Imperial 
 Dictionary, and is therefore also based upon Webster's Dictionary. 
 The Standard Dictionary started with the plan of using the 1847 
 Webster as its basis, but later abandoned the features characteristic 
 of Webster's book. Thus, it ignores the historical treatment of words, 
 reduces the etymologies nearly to Johnson's brevity and places them 
 last, puts what is considered the important senses first irrespective of the 
 sense development, and replaces, to a considerable extent, citations 
 from classical authors with illustrations from more modem ones, who 
 of course are largely second-rate. It does show, however, in many 
 respects, especially in spelling and syllabication, the influence of 
 Webster. The only other large dictionaries published since Webster's 
 day are Worcester's Dictionary (written by Joseph Worcester, who had 
 been trained in lexicography by Webster), Hunter's " Encyclopaedic 
 Dictionary" (edited and largely written by Robert Hunter, a Scottish 
 author), and the unrivalled " New English Dictionary," or " Oxford 
 Dictionary," edited chiefly by Dr. James A. H. Murray. Of these I 
 need not characterize Worcester's Dictionary further than to say that 
 
 [16] 
 
it has been practically without influence on modern lexicography, 
 except in the matter of accepted pronunciations; nor Hunter's Diction- 
 ary, otherwise than to say that it made use of both Webster and the 
 Imperial Dictionary, but is an ill-digested mass of material which is 
 chiefly valuable for its suggestiveness. Both these books may be 
 ignored as formative factors in modem lexicography. The Oxford 
 Dictionary, needless to say, is an epoch-making work, for the most part 
 independently made from new materials. 
 
 We see, therefore, that the two chief works in modern lexicog- 
 raphy, prior to the Oxford Dictionary, — the Imperial Dictionary and 
 the Century Dictionary, — are founded upon the labors of Webster, and 
 preserve the identical words of Webster in a very large number of their 
 definitions. Even the Oxford English Dictionary bears here and there 
 in its definitions evidences of the influences of Webster, and Dr. Murray 
 himself says, as I have already noted, that " Webster was a great man, 
 a born definer of words." 
 
 Such a man was Webster and such was his work. In concluding, 
 I cannot forbear contrasting Webster's love of, and devotion to, his work 
 with the spirit that animated Johnson, who defined a lexicographer as: 
 " A writer of dictionaries; a harmless drudge that busies himself in 
 tracing the origin and detailing the significations of words." In 
 the making of dictionaries drudgery there is, to be sure; but is drudgery 
 separable from any real work? The life of the ordinarily successful 
 lawyer is filled with drudgery, and so is that of the artist, the musician, 
 the scientist, the artisan, and what not. I do not know that I am pre- 
 pared to say, with E. S. Gannett," Blessed be Drudgery;" but if good 
 work is to be done, drudgery must be endured. 
 
 Johnson begins the preface to his dictionary, by saving: " It is the 
 fate of those who toil at the lower employments of life to be rather 
 driven by the fear of evil than attracted by the prospect of good; to be 
 exposed to censure, without hope of praise; to be disgraced by mis- 
 carriage or punished for neglect, where success would have been with- 
 out applause, diligence without reward." 
 
 " Among these unhappy mortals is the writer of dictionaries, 
 whom mankind have considered, not as the pupil but the slave of 
 
 [17] 
 
science, the pioneer of literature, doomed only to remove rubbish and 
 clear obstruction from the paths through which learning and genius 
 press forward to conquest and glory, without bestowing a smile on the 
 humble drudge that facilitates their progress. Every other author may 
 aspire to praise; the lexicographer can only hope to escape reproach, 
 and even this negative recompense has yet been granted to very few." 
 With Johnson's estimate of the dignity of the work and the recogni- 
 tion that it receives I need not take issue. The story of his own work 
 and of Webster and Murray are a sufficient answer to that. Language 
 is the most important possession of man, and words are the medium or 
 instrument of its expression, upon the effectiveness and beauty of which 
 largely depends the progress of the human race. Of all books the 
 dictionary exercises the most potent influence upon the form, pronuncia- 
 tion, meaning, and use of words. It is the arbiter elegantiarum of all 
 except the few whose learning is such as to fit them to decide for them- 
 selves; it is the first resort of our courts of justice in administering law 
 that depends on the meaning of words; and, most of all, it is the helper 
 and instructor of our pupils from the grammar school up. If any man's 
 work be recognized as worthily fulfilling such a purpose, is his meed of 
 praise insufficient? I feel that Webster had a truer appreciation of the 
 importance and dignity of his work than Johnson, even allowing for 
 the added dignity given to the work by Johnson's own labor. Johnson 
 began his work with the expectation or promise of finishing it in three 
 years, and with the magnificent conception that he would, in that time, 
 limit " every idea by a definition strictly logical, and exhibit every pro- 
 duction of art or nature in an accurate description, that my book might 
 be in place of all other dictionaries, whether appellative or tech- 
 nical." " But," he says, " these were the dreams of a poet doomed 
 at last to wake a lexicographer. I soon found that it was too late to 
 look for instruments when the work calls for execution, and that what- 
 ever abilities I had brought to my task, with these I must finally per- 
 form it." He sacrificed his plans and his ideals to finish his work in 
 nine years, concluding his preface by saying: " I have protracted my 
 work till most of those whom I wished to please have sunk into the 
 grave, and success and miscarriage are empty sound; I therefore dismiss 
 
 [18] 
 
it with frigid tranquillity, having little to fear or hope from censure or 
 praise." 
 
 Webster began his work with the modest ambition, as he said, to 
 " supplement the work of his predecessors and correct some of their 
 mistakes." Finding himself embarrassed by lack of knowledge which 
 he considered essential to his work, he modified his plans so as to be 
 able to equip himself by years of self-sacrificing study. After twenty 
 years of unbroken labor he completed his " American Dictionary of the 
 English Language " the preface to which he concludes by saying: 
 " This dictionary, like all others of the kind, must be left, in some 
 degree, imperfect; for what individual is competent to trace to their 
 source, and define in all their various applications, popular, scientific, 
 and technical, seventy or eighty thousand words ! It satisfies my mind 
 that I have done all that my health, my talents, and my pecuniary 
 means would enable me to accomplish. I present it to my fellow- 
 citizens, not with frigid indifference, but with my ardent wishes for 
 their improvement and their happiness: and for the continued increase of 
 the wealth, the learning, the moral and religious elevation of character, 
 and the glory of my country." This sentiment seems to me to'imply a 
 truer conception than Johnson's of the worth of his labor, and to form 
 a more fitting conclusion to such a work. 
 
 [19] 
 
Apropos of 
 Spelling Reform 
 
 BY 
 
 F. STURGES ALLEN 
 
 New York 
 
 THE BRADLT-WHITE CO 
 
 1906 
 
Copyright, 1906 
 By F. STURGES ALLEN 
 
Apropos of Spelling Reform 
 
 The renewed activity in the discussion of spelling reform, and of 
 the best means of furthering its progress, has suggested to me the wisdom 
 of a rather exhaustive discussion of the subject from the standpoint of 
 what must be done to bring it about , and of what would be the advant- 
 ages, and the obstacles and disadvantages, involved in the reform. 
 The subject is rather hackneyed in its general aspects, to be sure; and 
 it is not easy to treat of it without being diverted either by the levity or 
 ridicule with which the matter is dismissed by some, or by the somewhat 
 hysterical advocacy of reform of others who are extreme in their pessi- 
 mism about our present system of spelling. 
 
 The first thing that has impressed me in the consideration of the 
 subject has been the need of some exact knowledge of what would be 
 the result of any particular measure of reform. HoW is this knowledge 
 to be obtained, and what method of exhibiting the proposed changes 
 will convey the clearest idea of the results which they will effect. It is 
 obvious that a complex such as the English language, having upwards 
 of one hundred thousand parts (ignoring the fact that there are several 
 times this number of words reckoned as part of the language), cannot be 
 grasped in all its parts by the mind without the aid of statistics; and no 
 scientist would attempt the simplification of so complex a system with- 
 out exact tables or statistics showing the parts affected, and the nature 
 of the effect caused by any proposed modification. Similarly, I believe 
 that any substantial improvement of our spelling which is to be accom- 
 plished by convention must be equally based upon an exact knowledge 
 of what the effect of any proposed improvement will be, not with refer- 
 ence to a few dozen or a few hundred words, but with reference to our 
 written language as a whole. There is no way of obtaining this knowl- 
 edge other than by the systematic making of lists and tables of words 
 by which the effects of proposed changes may be studied and analysed; 
 and this is a dreary and thankless task. Yet it must be done before any 
 definite- results of any system can be clearly or certainly stated. Lists of 
 such words have already been made by our philological societies, but 
 they are far from exhaustive so far as I know them ; indeed they are but 
 the beginning of the task. 
 
 I began to make the accompanying table of words involving spel- 
 lings in ae or e, oe or e, and ei or i, in the hope that it might lead to some 
 
results or conclusions that would be of value, the selection of these classes 
 of terms for such treatment being made for various reasons. The number 
 of such terms in the dictionaries is large, but was, I thought, not large 
 enough to preclude my making the table; also, more or less had already- 
 been attempted in the way of changing the spellings of these terms from 
 the double-vowel form (in ae, oe, or ei) to the single-vowel form (in e or 
 i) both in groups and in many isolated instances; and they thus afford 
 a means of studying the effects of such attempts. The changing in 
 groups has primarily been chiefly or entirely in reference books in ad- 
 vance of actual usage, either to promote what seemed a desirable change, 
 or to conform to what seemed a tendency of the time. 
 
 The making of the table has involved far more labor than I antici- 
 pated, and the results which flow from it are discouragingly indefinite. 
 Of course, the table as it stands is not really based upon any phonetic 
 principle, but rather illustrates the various effects and the state of usage 
 (so far as shown by the dictionaries in question) in respect to the spelling 
 of the words in one form or the other. The principle of simplifying our 
 spelling, and remotely of phonetic spelling, is, however, involved in it, 
 but I should like to have presented the words grouped according to a 
 phonetic analysis, which lack of time prevents me from doing. It is to 
 be hoped that should such a table prove suggestive and helpful others 
 of similar and fuller detail, better conceived and better executed, on 
 phonetic principles, will be at hand for the use of those who shall be 
 instrumental in the solution of our spelling problem. There is one im- 
 provement, however, that scholars might accomplish without the aid of 
 such tables. By the exercise of an amount of "sweet reasonableness" 
 and mutual concession a common and uniform system of transliteration 
 might be established; and this ought to be done. 
 
 The preparation of the table was in brief this : I ran hastily through 
 Webster's International Dictionary and listed the terms belonging to 
 any of the three classes. Those words, such as equal, sphere, economics, 
 etc., that are settled in their spelling in the e form or the i form, so that 
 there is now ordinarily no consciousness of the existence of two forms, 
 were intentionally omitted from the list ; a few others were doubtless 
 overlooked that otherwise would have been included; a few have been 
 listed that are practically settled in the e or i spelling for the sake of an 
 example or two. However, neither the omission of the one nor the 
 inclusion of the other is considerable enough to take away from the 
 utility of the table as presenting the variations and tendencies of spell- 
 ings in the classes of words involved. 
 
 My list, when made, was compared with the "Oxford English 
 Dictionary" (edited by Dr. James A. H. Murray), the "Century Dic- 
 tionary," the "Standard Dictionary," "Dunglison's Medical Dictionary" 
 
(ed. of 1903), and "Gould's Medical Dictionary" (edition of 1898); and 
 the Webster and other dictionaries are respectively designated in the 
 table by W, M, C, S, D, and G. The results of the comparison (which I 
 have made myself to ensure reasonable accuracy) are given in two 
 groups of columns, the symbol for each dictionary being stamped for 
 each word on the side that represents the spelling preferred by that 
 dictionary. When a word is not included in the vocabulary of any of 
 the books the corresponding space is left blank on both sides. 
 
 During the year or more over which the preparation of the table has 
 dawdled along I have checked in my reading any of the words that caught 
 my attention; and I have also looked up especially a few words of ex- 
 ceptional interest or importance in the list, such as haemorrhage, haemor- 
 rhoid, oedema, etc. The citations made I have totaled, and give them in 
 columns showing the number of citations made for either or both 
 spellings, counting as far as possible only a single citation from any one 
 book or pamphlet for any one word. The citations are mostly from 
 publications of the last fifteen years, and have been made with entire 
 indifference as to the spelling found — that is, I have not watched for 
 words spelt in one way rather than another, since any reasoning based 
 on such information would be worthless. Although the citations re- 
 corded are but a few, they afford an index of the facts as to actual 
 usage; but it needs more of them with dates of usage to show with 
 certainty any existing tendency towards one spelling or another; and 
 I should welcome comment, information, or citations bearing upon the 
 question. 
 
 The results to be obtained from the table are not important or 
 surprising. A few undisputed facts are made more emphatic, and 
 some pertinent questions are suggested. It seemed worth while to state 
 a few of these, prefacing them by a short resume' of the table; and this 
 I have done below, with any explanation that I felt to be necessary, 
 as my only comment. The further interpretation of the facts and the 
 answer to the questions I leave until future added knowledge or light 
 shall make them clearer than they now are. 
 
 The table consists of three parts, the first and largest containing the ae 
 or e terms ; the second the oe or e terms ; and the third and smallest part 
 the ei or i terms. Some words of the ae and oe classes have in English 
 either as their only or as secondary spellings the forms at and oi respec- 
 tively. These ai and oi forms I have intentionally omitted, as aitiological, 
 daimon, hetaira, paideutic, phainopepla, homoiousian, homoioptoton, etc. 
 These spellings are used or affected by some scholars, especially those 
 who feel most strongly the influence of the classicizing of spellings in 
 writing on Classical subjects; but the number of such forms is small; and 
 they have no apparent tendency to influence our conventional spellings. 
 
The words given are written in their alphabetic order, with the double - 
 vowel form in each case, although this involves giving under that form 
 numbers of words, such as aenigma, oeconomy, which are now seldom or 
 never so printed except as a use due to personal idiosyncrasy, an affecta- 
 tion of the archaic, or some reason for the nonce. Besides these words 
 included only for the sake of a few examples, there are others where the 
 certainty of preference for the e form is not so great, and which may be 
 used in the double-vowel form regularly by certain classes of writers or 
 in certain connections, but not generally so. From these to those in 
 which the ae or oe is preferred by usage and all the dictionaries there are 
 examples marking every intermediate stage of uncertainty. No ques- 
 tion arises as to the spelling of such words as are a part of the general 
 vernacular and popular literature, such as enigma, economy, so far as 
 concerns the choice between ae or oe on the one hand and e on the other. 
 Should a general phonetic spelling be discussed they would then 
 come under consideration; but their present spelling is fixed as e, and 
 there is no general consciousness of the existence of any other form. 
 Yet the other forms are used occasionally for one or the other reasons 
 above noted, and this fact attests the extreme vitality of the ae and oe 
 forms. I remember having seen aenigma, oeconomical, Europaean, and 
 some others within about a year; and at the time of this writing have 
 come upon maeander in Walter's "History of Ancient Pottery," Scrib- 
 ners, 1905, p. 280. The word demon (given as daemon in the list) is 
 peculiar. The popular spelling in the vernacular sense of an evil spirit 
 is fixed as "demon;" but the Classical sense does not involve, neces- 
 sarily, the evil import ; and the word in the spelling daemon or daimon 
 is often used by writers in the Classical sense to differentiate it from its 
 ordinary English sense. Indeed, I believe the ae spelling is much the 
 more common in cases where the word is so used. The word Aetna is 
 also peculiar in that it seems to be fixed in the spelling Etna as used of a 
 portable stove (which is the only sense giving it place), although as the 
 name of the mountain no classical writer, I suppose, would now spell it 
 otherwise than Aetna. The form Etna is here reminiscent of an earlier 
 period when it was to some extent the fashion or usage to spell these 
 classical terms with the e instead of ae or oe. Later views have done 
 away with this fashion or tendency completely ; and there is now hardly 
 any field in which the ae and oe spellings are as uniformly adhered to as 
 they are in literature on Classical and archaeological subjects. 
 
 The ae and oe sections have certain features in common that make 
 it wise to take them together; treating the ei table alone. In the first 
 two it is apparent at a glance that there is "confusion worse confounded " 
 and that no one could remember the shiftings back and forth in spellings 
 indicated by the table; nor would any sane person attempt to do so. 
 
Life is too short Usage itself does not do it ; and most words in the 
 table a writer would feel free to write in either way he might choose. 
 
 On the whole it is noticeable that M. gives as the preferred forms 
 the spellings in ae and oe for most of the words except such as are now 
 vernacular or purely literary; that Webster, on the whole, prefers the 
 ae and oe forms for the same classes of words, except in the case of the 
 palaeo- words and some other classes or cases more or less scattered ; 
 that Century and Standard have preferred the e spellings nearly uni- 
 formly for many classes of terms such as haemo- words, palaeo- words, 
 words in -rhoea, etc., but have not attempted to change other classes. 
 Of the medical dictionaries D. prefers the ae and oe forms, and G. the 
 e forms. It is noticeable that the American dictionaries often all agree 
 on the e spelling where M. prefers the ae or oe, so that M. appears on one 
 side and W., C, and S. on the other; in other cases M. and W. run along 
 on one side and C. and S., on the other. 
 
 Throughout the table cases of unaccountable inconsistencies occur; 
 thus the classical names Achaean, Aegean, Aeneid, Aeolian, Aeolus, are 
 treated in as many different ways as there are words. 
 
 The citations total 1263 for the ae forms and 712 for the e forms. 
 Of course one citation, or half a dozen, for any one word would not in 
 itself be indicative of anything as to the general preference in the spelling 
 of the term; but as great a difference as this in a matter of about 2000 
 citations, which count no book more than once for any one word, is 
 significant, and shows prima facie a general preference in the classes of 
 words concerned for the spelling having the majority, of SSI. 
 
 In the case of the ei or i terms there is less diversity of usage. There 
 has been no apparent effort on the part of any of the dictionaries to 
 change the spelling from one form to the other; they seem rather to 
 have attempted to follow usage. Usage has given the preference to the 
 ei form for certain classes and to the i form for others; and as a result 
 we have a comparatively simple state of affairs, with the dictionaries 
 grouped in long lists first on one side, and then on the other, with here 
 and there an exception. 
 
 Although the table makes very clear the urgent need of regulariz- 
 ing the spellings of the words involved, it does not afford a basis for 
 the suggestion of any satisfactory system for so doing that is also practical 
 at the present time. The main conclusions and questions suggested by 
 it are given below in separate numbered paragraphs. I have chosen this 
 form of presenting them for the sake of the added clearness and distinct- 
 ness obtainable, although it gives a disconnected and somewhat incon- 
 sequent appearance to what would have a reasonable unity and consec- 
 utiveness if the threads of connection were supplied. The facts which 
 seem evident from the table or from our common knowledge are : 
 
1 . The changes of spelling shown in the table are not uniform even 
 for the same classes of terms. 
 
 2. The Oxford English Dictionary has chosen as its preferred form 
 the one preferred in contemporary (British) usage, and has in general 
 noted any material divergence from this in American usage — e. g., 
 foetus, palaeo- (s. v. in M.). 
 
 3 . The other general dictionaries have given what they considered 
 to be the spelling in the best usage, except where they have confessedly 
 regularized the spelling by adopting the e form in one or more classes. 
 
 4. British usage prefers the ae and oe forms to the e forms, as 
 indicated by M., with practical uniformity. 
 
 5. American usage prefers the ae and oe forms as a whole (excepting 
 of course vernacular and purely literary words) , but in the cases of cer- 
 tain terms the situation, so far as shown by the tabled preferences of the 
 dictionaries, is in doubt. These are mostly the medical terms, the terms 
 in palaeo- or paleo-, and the words aesthetic, etc. As to the words aesthetic, 
 etc., there is nothing in M. to suggest that the ae forms are not still far 
 the more common in American usage. As to the ae and oe in terms in 
 use in chemical, medical, anatomical, biological, and classical literature 
 ae and oe are still far the more common in American usage. I am in- 
 formed by anatomists, biologists, and chemists that the ae and oe are 
 almost uniformly used by them. In medical terms the e form is more 
 in use; but the facts disclosed by my investigations, where carried to some 
 extreme, in the case of a few words, is of considerable interest. For 
 example, the citations for the spellings of faeces, haemorrhage, foetus, 
 oesophagus were as follows (counting only one citation from a single 
 book or pamphlet in any case) . 
 
 Total ae or oe preferred 
 
 e preferred 
 
 faeces 55 
 
 foetus 177 
 
 haemorrhage ..611 
 
 oesophagus . . .497 
 
 35 = 15 Eng., 12 Am., 8 misc. 
 158 = 73 Eng., 63 Am., 22 misc. 
 313 = 113 Eng., 184 Am., 16 misc. 
 
 484 = 288 Eng., 182 Am., 14 misc. 
 
 20=15 Am., 5 misc. 
 19 = 15 Am., 4 misc. 
 298 = 143 Eng., 140 Am. 
 15 misc. 
 13 = 8 Am., 5 misc. 
 
 6. This shows some tendency to shift over to the e form in the 
 more recent American books, active in the case of some words, limited 
 or hardly perceptible in the case of others. 
 
 7. There is less evidence of change of spelling in British usage 
 than there is in American. (The most notable recent evidence of 
 change in British usage known to me is the adoption in some publications 
 of the Cambridge University press of medieval and encyclopedia, although 
 this appears to be in advance of British usage, as shown by M.) 
 
8. In the case of learned words, especially those of classical learning 
 or reference, such as Caesar, Aegean, anapaest, archaeology, etc., the 
 ae and oe forms show little or no tendency to shift to the e spelling; 
 indeed a nearly rigid adherence to the ae and oe forms in such cases is 
 evident in actual usage. 
 
 9. The confusion in the ae and oe words in present usage, and the 
 greater confusion in the forms given the preference in the dictionaries, 
 is more or less due to the preference of the e forms in some cases by the 
 dictionaries and not in others ; and there is less confusion in the case of 
 the ei or i words where no attempt to change the prevalent spelling has 
 been made. 
 
 10. A change of spelling which would simplify the spellings of the 
 words given in the table is most desirable. 
 
 11. Simplification would be accomplished by spelling all these 
 words in the double-vowel form, or all in the single-vowel form. 
 
 12. In either case, the same letter or letters would have different 
 values in different words, and therefore if such a change should be made, 
 the spelling would not be phonetic. 
 
 13. It would be useless as well as pernicious to attempt to conform 
 the words of common language, such as sphere, equal, economic, to the 
 double-letter form. 
 
 14. Most of the words in the list are technical, literary, or learned 
 words which present no difficulty in spelling to those who use them, 
 provided they are uniformly spelt, either as a body or in large classes, 
 in the double-letter or the single-letter form, with exceptions where 
 any particular form offends the taste. 
 
 15. There is no likelihood of any general agreement or even of 
 a majority agreement in the use of e, at any time in the near future. 
 
 16. The use of ae cannot be got rid of in English until the scientists 
 are willing to modify their scientific terminology ; and there is no evidence 
 whatever of this being done in the binomial nomenclature of botany or 
 zoology, nor any elsewhere for the sake of simplicity of spelling, except 
 as above noted. The ae plurals in botanical families, the great number 
 of words in literary use having the plural in ae, and the conservatism of 
 botanists, zoologists, biologists, chemists, classicists, and archaeologists 
 is still too strong for any change on their part. 
 
 17. Publishing houses that publish for the British as well as the 
 American market find that adopting the e (which is considered an 
 Americanism) tends to injure the sale of their books to the British trade. 
 
 18. Considerable changes in our spellings still take place from one 
 cause or another, — witness the greatly increased use of the British 
 
spellings in -our, -re, and doubled consonants (as in traveller) that has 
 taken place within the last fifteen years, doubtless due to the desire to 
 remove the hindrance to British sales arising from the use of the Ameri- 
 can spellings. A still more noticeable modification of the form of our 
 written language which has come about without apparent advocacy is 
 that which prints the ae and oe separate instead of together (m, ce). 
 (From the mere point of legibility this change seems clearly unfortunate ; 
 it seems partly to be due to a feeling that we should Latinize the spelling 
 of our words of Latin origin. I suspect, however, that this merely fur- 
 nishes a color or raison d'6tre for that form, and that the actual change 
 is largely if not mostly due to the fact that ce and a are impractical for 
 typewritten copy, and not as easy to make on the type-setting machines 
 as the ae and oe involving two finger motions but less arm motion, where 
 the character is included in the machine at all. Be the facts as they 
 may, there is no doubt as to the change in a widely extended number of 
 books ; and it is a question of interest as to whether ae and oe are to be- 
 come the accepted style. The use of ce in Anglo-Saxon terms, such as 
 JEiheling, and of ae in Gaelic terms, as in the word Gaelic itself, are to be 
 considered also in this connection, although the number of instances of 
 their use is very small in English itself.) 
 
 19. Any movement for the regularizing of the spelling of these 
 words in the ae and oe forms would have in its support the almost 
 uniform preference of British usage for the ae form, the general preference 
 in usage for this form in the United States, the decided or nearly uniform 
 use of ae and oe by writers on classical, archaeological, anatomical, 
 chemical, etc., subjects, and any advantage there is in the differentiation 
 of the words from other forms, as the haemo- (meaning blood) terms, from 
 the hcmi- (meaning half) terms, etc. 
 
 20. If the weight of the dictionaries had been cast in favor of the 
 ae and oe forms (excepting in the case of the words of common usage, 
 such as sphere, enigma, equal, etc.) generally, the spelling in ae and oe 
 would have probably been nearly uniform. 
 
 The following questions are suggested. 
 
 1. Is the advantage to be derived from a change from the ae and 
 oe forms to the e form sufficient to make it advisable for Americans to 
 spell with e when the British forms are in ae and oe? 
 
 2. Is there any reason for shifting to the e form in some classes of 
 these words and not in other classes (to spell, for example: Achean, 
 edile, edility, Egean, Egis, Eolian, Esopian, pretor, esthetic, ameba, 
 homeopath, paleo-, etc.; but to spell : Achaemenian, Aegerian, Aeneid, 
 
 10 
 
Aerarian, Aesopic, Aesthesia, Archaeo-, coelo, homoeomerous, 
 monoecious, maenad, paean, taenia, etc.) 
 
 3. What steps is it practical to take now towards simplification of 
 these spellings? 
 
 4. From the practical, common-sense point of view which spelling 
 ought American writers and educators to favor? 
 
 5. Should the dictionaries give the preference to e forms when us- 
 age does not, without indicating that usage prefers the oe or ae forms in 
 those cases? 
 
 11 
 
Table 
 
 of_ Preferred 
 
 Spellings 
 
 
 
 
 ae spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling 
 
 preferred 
 
 
 D M W C 
 
 s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 D M W 
 
 2 S G Cit 
 
 Acetonaemia 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 C S < 
 
 J 1 
 
 Achaean 
 
 
 .. w .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 c s . 
 
 
 Achaemenian 
 
 
 .. w c 
 
 "s 
 
 .... 2 
 
 
 
 
 Achaetous 
 
 
 .. w c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Achaene 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c "s ( 
 
 -1 
 
 Achaenial 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c s . 
 
 
 Achaenium 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 C S ( 
 
 -1 
 
 Acroaesthesia 
 
 D '. 
 
 '.'. w .'..'. 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 -1 
 
 Aecidiomycetes 
 Aecidiospore 
 Aecidiostage 
 Aecidium 
 
 W C 
 
 w c 
 
 w c 
 
 D M W C 
 
 "s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 G Z 
 G .... 
 G .... 
 G .... 
 
 
 
 
 Aedile 
 
 .... M W .... 
 
 
 .... 8 
 
 
 
 c s ".. 
 
 
 Aedility 
 
 Aegagropila 
 
 Aegagropile 
 
 Aegean 
 
 Aegerian 
 
 .... M W .... 
 D .... W C 
 
 w c 
 
 w c 
 
 w c 
 
 "s 
 s 
 
 .... 1 
 G .... 
 
 .... 9 
 
 
 s . 
 
 "s ".. 
 
 
 Aegicrania 
 
 w c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aegilops 
 Aegirine 
 Aegirite 
 Aegis 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 w c 
 
 .... M W C 
 W C 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 .... 2 
 .... 1 
 .... 1 
 
 
 "s ".. 
 
 
 Aegithognathism? 
 
 Aegithognathous 
 
 Aegle 
 
 w c 
 
 w c 
 
 w c 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 
 
 
 Aegophony 
 Aegopodium 
 Aegrotat 
 Aeneid 
 
 .... M .... C 
 D .... W .... 
 D M W C 
 .... M W C 
 
 "s 
 
 s 
 
 .... 4 
 
 i) Z. w '. 
 
 "s ".. 
 
 
 Aenigma 
 
 Aenigmatite 
 
 Aeolian 
 
 '.'.'' M W '''' 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 .... 2 
 .... 7 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c "s ". 
 s "., 
 
 2 
 
 Aeolic 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 
 .... 4 
 
 
 s .. 
 
 1 
 
 Aeolina 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 
 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 Aeoline 
 
 .... M W .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aeolipile 
 Aeolis 
 
 .... M W C 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 .... w '. 
 
 "s ".. 
 
 
 Aeolotropic 
 Aeolotropy 
 Aeolus 
 
 .... M W C 
 ... M W C 
 W C 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aeon 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 .... 21 
 
 Z. w 
 
 2 "s ".. 
 
 
 Aeonian 
 
 .... M W .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 S .. 
 
 
 Aepyornis 
 Aequorial 
 
 W C 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 

 ae spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 Cit 
 
 Aera 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 10 
 
 Aerarian 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aeniginous 
 
 Aerugo 
 
 Aeschynomene 
 
 Aeschynomenous 
 
 Aesculapian 
 
 Aesculapius 
 
 Aesculic 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 M 
 M 
 
 M 
 M 
 M 
 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 
 c .. 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 s .... 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 ".'.'.. W 
 
 
 s 
 
 "s 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 G 
 G 
 
 
 Aesculin 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Aesopian 
 
 Aesopic 
 
 Aesthacyte 
 
 Aesthematology 
 
 Aesthesia 
 
 D 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 
 Aesthesiogen 
 Aesthesiography 
 Aesthesiology 
 Aesthesiomania 
 
 D 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 
 Aesthesiometer 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Aesthesis 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c ".. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Aesthesodic 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Aesthete 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Aesthetic 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Aesthetical 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Aesthetically 
 Aesthetician 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 
 
 Aestheticism 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Aesthetics 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Aesthophysiology 
 Aestiferous 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 ".'.'.. w 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Aestival 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Aestivate 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Aestivation 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Aestuary 
 Aestuation 
 
 
 M 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c ". 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 ".'.'.. w 
 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Aestuous 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 s ".'.'.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aethalium 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aether 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 5 
 
 Aethiops 
 Aethogen 
 Aethrioscope 
 Aethusa 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 M 
 M 
 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 
 c '. 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 " G 
 s .... 
 s .... 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 .... W 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 Aetiological 
 Aetiologically 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 M 
 
 w 
 w 
 
 c . 
 c . 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 

 ae 
 
 spell 
 
 ing 
 
 preferred 
 
 e 
 
 spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 S G Ci 
 
 t D M 
 
 W 
 
 c s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 Aetiology 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 5 
 
 Aetna 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Aetnean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Aeval 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. M 
 
 W 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Aeviternal 
 
 Z. M 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Aeviternally 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Aeviternity 
 
 ".'.'.. M 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Album Graecum 
 
 D 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 "s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Althaea 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Amoebaean 
 
 .... M 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Amphigaean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. M 
 
 W 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Amphisbaena 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 "s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Amphisbaenoid 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anaemia 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 c "s 
 
 G 10 
 
 Anaemic 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 c s 
 
 G 1 
 
 Anaesthesia 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 7 
 
 Anaesthesis 
 
 .... M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Anaesthetic 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 .... 
 
 c s 
 
 G *7 
 
 Anaesthetization 
 
 D M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 c s 
 
 G ... 
 
 Anaesthetize 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 c s 
 
 G 
 
 Anapaest 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 .... 2 
 
 Anapaestic 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Antaean 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aphaeresis 
 
 D M 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 g i 
 
 Aquaeduct 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. D M 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Araeometer 
 
 Z. M 
 
 
 
 
 . D .... 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Araeometric 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Araeometrical 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Araeometry 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 '.'. D Z. 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Araeopagite 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Araeopagitic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 
 Araeostyle 
 
 Z. M 
 
 w 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 .... 
 
 c .... 
 
 
 Araeosystole 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 .... 
 
 c .... 
 
 
 Araeotic 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Aramaean 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 .... 
 
 c s 
 
 .... 1 
 
 Archaean 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 "s Z. 
 
 i .... 
 
 
 
 
 Archaeography 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 "s 
 
 
 Archaeolithic 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. s 
 
 
 Archaeologian 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Archaeologic 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Archaeological 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Archaeologically 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Archaeologist 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Archaeology 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Archaeopteryx 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 

 
 ie spelling preferred 
 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D 
 
 M W C 
 
 S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D M W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 Archaeostoma 
 
 
 .... W C 
 
 .... G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Archaeostomatous 
 
 
 .... W C 
 
 S .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Archaeostome 
 
 
 .... W C 
 
 .... G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Archaeozoic 
 
 
 .... W .... 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arctogaea 
 
 
 .... w c 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Arisaema 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 S "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 G ".'.'.. 
 
 Asmonaean 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 '"' W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 .... 4 
 
 Astraean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Athenaeum 
 
 
 M '. 
 
 c 
 
 
 4 
 
 W 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Autotoxaemia 
 
 D 
 
 ... w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G Z 
 
 Baenomere 
 
 
 .. w .... 
 
 S ".'.'.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Baenopod 
 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Baenosome 
 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Baetulus 
 
 
 .. w c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Balaenoidea 
 
 
 ... w c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Baraesthesiometer 
 
 D 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G Z 
 
 Baraesthesiometric 
 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Bougainvillaea 
 
 
 M W .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Brodiaea 
 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cacaemia 
 
 D 
 
 ... w .... 
 
 s ."." 
 
 
 
 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Cachaemia 
 
 
 .. . w .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Caeca 
 
 
 .... w c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 G ... 
 
 Caecal 
 
 D 
 
 M W C 
 
 s .... 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Caecias 
 
 
 M W .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caecilian 
 
 
 M W C 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caecum 
 
 D 
 
 M W C 
 
 s .... 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 G 2 
 
 Caelometer 
 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caenogaea 
 
 
 .... W C 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caenogaean 
 
 
 .... w c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caenogenesis 
 
 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 D ".'.'.. W 
 
 
 
 
 Caenogenetic 
 
 
 
 
 .... G 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 Caenosity 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 Caenozoic 
 
 
 
 ".. c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 Caenozoology 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 Caerule 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Caerulean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Caerulein 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Caeruleous 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Caerulescent 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Caerulific 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Caesalpinaceae 
 
 
 ".'.'.. V 
 
 / .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caesalpinaceous 
 
 
 .... V 
 
 I .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caesalpinia 
 
 D 
 
 .... V 
 
 J c 
 
 "s ".'.'.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caesar 
 
 
 M V 
 
 J c 
 
 s .... 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 .... 1 
 
 Caesarean 
 
 D 
 
 M V 
 
 T C 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 15 
 

 D 
 
 le spelling preferred 
 M W C S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 Caesarian 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 1 
 
 Caesarism 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caesar weed 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caesious 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caesium 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 G ..'.'. 
 
 Caespitose 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ".'.'.. M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Caespitulose 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Caesura 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Caesural 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Chaeta 
 
 
 M ' 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaetetes 
 
 
 " 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaetiferous 
 
 
 ' 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaetochloa 
 
 
 " 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaetodont 
 
 
 M " 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaetognath 
 
 
 .... " 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaetognatha 
 
 
 ■* 
 
 \V 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaetophorous 
 
 
 .... ' 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaeotopod 
 
 
 i 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 .... - .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaetopoda 
 
 
 i 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaetotaxy 
 
 
 .... " 
 
 \¥ 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chaldaean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 .... 1 
 
 Chamaecyparis 
 
 
 ".'.' W 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chamaerops 
 
 D 
 
 M 1 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chimaera 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Chimaeric 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Chimaerical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Chimaeroid 
 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cholaemia 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G Z 
 
 Cholophaein 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Cholohaematin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Coaetanean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Coaetaneous 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Coaetaneously 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Coaeternal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Coaeternally 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Coaeternity 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Coaeval 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Coaevous 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Codiaeum 
 
 D 
 
 1 
 
 N 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coryphaenoid 
 
 
 1 
 
 vV 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coryphaeus 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Copraemia 
 
 D 
 
 M 1 
 
 N 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G "" 
 
 Crataegus 
 
 D 
 
 1 
 
 N 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cyanhaematin 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G Z 
 
 Cyanohaemoglobin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G ... 
 
 16 
 

 ae 
 
 spelli 
 
 ng preferrec 
 
 [ 
 
 
 e spelling preferr 
 M W C S 
 
 ed 
 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 C S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D 
 
 G Cit 
 
 Cyclopaedia 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 .... 11 
 
 Cyclopaedic 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 .... 1 
 
 Cyclopaedist 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Cypraea 
 
 Z. M 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 ~\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cypraeid 
 
 .... M 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 3 .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cypraeoid 
 
 ... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 3 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Daedal 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 Daedalian 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Daedalous 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 Daemon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Daemonic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Dasypaedal 
 
 
 w 
 
 .... 
 
 5 Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dasypaedes 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dasypaedic 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dermohaemal 
 
 '.'. M 
 
 w 
 
 .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Diaeresis 
 
 D M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G ... 
 
 Diaeretic 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 Dionaea 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dircaean 
 
 Z. M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dodonaean 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dracaena 
 
 D M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dromaeognathous 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dysaesthesia 
 
 D M 
 
 w 
 
 c . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 1 
 
 Echinopaedium 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s '... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Elaeagnaceae 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elaeagnaceous 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elaeagnus 
 
 D .... 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elaeis 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elaeoblast 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elaeocarpaceae 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elaeocarpaceous 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elaeocarpus 
 
 D 
 
 w 
 
 c . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elaeolite 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 1 
 
 Elaeometer 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elaeoptene 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Encyclopaedia 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 .... 18 
 
 Encyclopaediacal 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Encyclopaedian 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Encyclopaedic 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 .... 2 
 
 Encyclopaedical 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Encyclopaedism 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Encyclopaedist 
 
 .... M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Enterohaematin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G ... 
 
 Eogaea 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G ... 
 
 Epigaea 
 
 D .... 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 

 
 ae 
 
 spelling preferred 
 
 
 
 e spellin 
 
 g preferred 
 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 Epigaean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Epigaeous 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Epiphaenomenon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Erythraea 
 
 D 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Erythraean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Et caetera 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Eudaemon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Eudaemonic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Eudaemonical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Eudaemonics 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Eudaemonism 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Eudaemonist 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Eudaemonistic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Eudaemonistical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 Europaean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Europaeanize 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Exaeresis 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Exaestuate 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Exaestuation 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Excaecate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Excaecation 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Faecal 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 3 
 
 Faeces 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 35l ... 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 20 
 
 Faecula 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Faeculence 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Faeculency 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Faeculent 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Galilaean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Gastraea 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 "S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gastraeum 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Geoffraea 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Glutaeus 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Glycaemia 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Glycohaemia 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Graecism 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Graecize 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Graeco-Roman 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Gymnolaema 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gymnolaemata 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gymnopaedic 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gynaeceum 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Gynaecian 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .'...' 
 
 Gynaecic 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Gynaecium 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Gynaecocracy 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 

 ae spelling preferred 
 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 M W C 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 Cit 
 
 Gynaecological 
 
 
 M 
 
 4 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 4 
 
 Gynaecologist 
 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 4 
 
 Gynaecology 
 
 
 M 
 
 95 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 95 
 
 Gynaecomania 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Gynaecomasty 
 
 
 M '.'.'.'. Z. 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Gynaeconitis 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Gynaecopathic 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gynaecopathy 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Gynaecophore 
 
 
 M W .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haecceity 
 
 
 M W C 
 
 S Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haemachate 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haemacite 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haemachrome 
 
 D 
 
 ..'. w Z. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemacyanin 
 
 D 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemacyte 
 
 D 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haema cytometer 
 
 D 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemad 
 
 D 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemadrometer 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemadrometry 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemadromograph 
 
 
 .... w Z. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemadromometer 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 ".' w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemadromometry 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemadynameter 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haemadynamic 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haemadynamics 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 ... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haemadynamom-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 eter 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemal 
 
 D 
 
 M '"' 
 
 2 
 
 
 .. . w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemaphaein 
 
 D 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemapod 
 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haemapodous 
 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haemapoiesis 
 
 D 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemapoietic 
 
 D 
 
 .... w .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemapophysial 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haemapophysis 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemastatic 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haemastatical 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haemastatics 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematachometer 
 
 D 
 
 .... W .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haema tachometry 
 
 
 .... W .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haematein 
 
 D 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 Haematemesis 
 
 
 M Z. 
 
 30 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 Haematherm 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haemathermal 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haematic 
 
 
 M W .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 19 
 

 ae spelling preferred 
 
 e spellin 
 
 g preferred 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 C 
 
 S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D M W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 Cit 
 
 Haematid 
 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haematidrosis 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematimeter 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematin 
 
 D 
 
 M '. 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 2 
 
 Haematinic 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematinometer 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematinometric 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haematinon 
 
 
 M '. 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 1 
 
 Haematitic 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haematite 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 8 
 
 Haematobic 
 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Haematobious 
 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematoblast 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 Haematocele 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 Z. w 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 19 
 
 Haematocrit 
 
 D 
 
 ... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematocrya 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haematocryal 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematocrystallin 
 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematocyte 
 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematodyna- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mometer 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematogen 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Haematogenesis 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematogenic 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematogenous 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematoglobulin 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematoid 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematoidin 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 Haematoin 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematokrit 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematolin 
 
 D 
 
 '...'. W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematology 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 3 
 
 Haematolysis 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematolytic 
 
 D 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematoma 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 Haematometer 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematophagous 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematophilia 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 
 G 
 
 14 
 
 Haematophilic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematophilina 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematophobia 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematophyte 
 
 D 
 
 M . 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematoplast 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematoplastic 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Haematopoiesis 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 20 
 
ae spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 Haematopoietic 
 
 Haematoporphyrin 
 
 Haematorrhoea 
 
 Haematosac 
 
 Haematoscope 
 
 Haematose 
 
 Haematosin 
 
 Haemotosis 
 
 Haematotherma 
 
 Haematothermal 
 
 Haematothorax 
 
 Haematoxic 
 
 Haematoxylin 
 
 Haematoxylon 
 
 Haematozoic 
 
 Haematozoon 
 
 Haematozymotic 
 
 Haematuria 
 
 Haematuresis 
 
 Haemautogram 
 
 Haemautograph 
 
 Haemautographic 
 
 Haemautography 
 
 Haemic 
 
 Haemin 
 
 Haemochrome 
 
 Haemochromogen 
 
 Haemochromo- 
 
 meter 
 Haemocrystallin 
 Haeniocyanin 
 Haemocytolysis 
 Haemocytometer 
 Haemocytotrypsis 
 Haemodoraceae 
 Haemodoraceous 
 Haemodromograph 
 Haemodromo- 
 
 meter 
 Haemodynameter 
 Haemodynamics 
 Haemoerythrin 
 Haemogallol 
 Haemogastric 
 Haemoglobin 
 
 D 
 D 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 .... W 
 
 "" W 
 
 M W 
 
 M 
 
 M .. 
 
 M ... 
 
 M "" 
 
 M W 
 
 M W 
 
 ... W 
 
 M W 
 
 M W 
 
 .... W 
 
 D M 
 
 M 
 M 
 M 
 M W 
 M ... 
 M W 
 
 ... W 
 
 M W 
 
 M W 
 
 ... W 
 
 M W 
 
 . W 
 
 .... W 
 
 ... W 
 
 M W 
 
 M W 
 
 .... W 
 
 .... W 
 
 .... W 
 
 .... W 
 
 M .... 
 
 M .... 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 41 
 
 4 
 32 
 
 W 
 
 W 
 
 w 
 w 
 
 w 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 G 
 G 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 S 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 S G 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 G 
 G 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 G 1 
 G .... 
 G 12 
 
 21 
 

 ae spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M W 
 
 C 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 D M W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 Haemoglobinom- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 eter 
 
 D M .... 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Haemoglobinuria 
 
 D M .... 
 
 
 
 . 28 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 2 
 
 Haemoid 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Haemol 
 
 D .... W 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 ... 1 
 
 Haemolutein 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z' w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 Haemolymph 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G ... 
 
 Haemolysis 
 
 D .... W 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 G 2 
 
 Haemolytic 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G ... 
 
 Haemomanometer 
 
 D . W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haemometer 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .'.'.. 
 
 Haemony 
 
 .... M W 
 
 C 
 
 S ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haemopericardium 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 
 G ".'.'.. 
 
 Haemophilia 
 
 D M ... 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Haemophilic 
 
 .... M .... 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Haemophobia 
 
 D M 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 Haemoplastic 
 
 D ... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Haemoplasmodium 
 
 D .... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Haemopoiesis 
 
 D W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G . . 
 
 Haemopoietic 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haemoptysis 
 
 D M .... 
 
 
 
 " 59 
 
 ".'.'.. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 9 
 
 Haemorrhage 
 
 .... M ... 
 
 
 
 . 313 
 
 D ... W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G298 
 
 Haemorrhagic 
 
 .... M .... 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 D .... W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 2 
 
 Haemorrhoid 
 
 .. M .... 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 D .... W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 6 
 
 Haemorrhoidal 
 
 ... M 
 
 
 
 
 D ... W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Haemoscope 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G ... 
 
 Haemostatic 
 
 D M -.. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ".'.'.. W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 2 
 
 Haemotachometer 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Haemotachometry 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haemothorax 
 
 D M .... 
 
 
 
 
 ".'.'.. .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 1 
 
 Hemianaesthesia 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G ... 
 
 Hephaestian 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 "s " 
 
 
 "1 M ".'.'.. 
 
 
 
 
 Hephaestic 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 Hetaera 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 S ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hetaeric 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hetaerio 
 
 .. M W 
 
 c 
 
 "s ".. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hetaerism 
 
 ... M W 
 
 c 
 
 S . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Histohaematin 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G ".'.'.. 
 
 Hydraemia 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G ... 
 
 Hylaeosaur 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 S '.'. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hylaeosaurus 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 S .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hypaesthesia 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G '.".' 
 
 Hypaethral 
 
 ... M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Hyperaemia 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 2 
 
 Hyperaemic 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 22 
 

 ae spelling preferred e 
 
 spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M W 
 
 C 
 
 S G Cit D 1 
 
 1 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 Hyperaesthesia 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Hyperaesthetic 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Hyp eruri caemia 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 . G .... 
 
 Hypnaesthesis 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hypogaeic 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 "s ".'.'.. .... 
 
 
 
 
 Ichorhaemia 
 
 D .... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Idaean 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... ".'... ".'.'.. 
 
 
 
 
 Idumaean 
 
 
 
 
 ".. W 
 
 c 
 
 S . .... .... 
 
 Ileocaecal 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 "s .... .... 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Iliocaecal 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 Interhaemal 
 
 .... M .... 
 
 
 
 ".. W 
 
 c 
 
 S ... 
 
 Ischaemia 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 S G ... 
 
 Jacobaean 
 
 W 
 
 
 .... .'.'.. .... ".". I 
 
 IL .... 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Kinaesiesthesiom- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 eter 
 
 D .... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kinaesodic 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 c '. 
 
 '. G '.'.'. 
 
 Kinaesthesia 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 S G . 
 
 Kinaesthesis 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S G .. . 
 
 Kinaesthetic 
 
 D M W 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S G . 
 
 Laelaps 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 S .... 2 Z ".. 
 
 
 
 
 Laemodipod 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Laemodipoda 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Laemodipodous 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Laemoparalysis 
 
 D ... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 ".. G .... 
 
 Laemostenosis 
 
 D .. W 
 
 
 "s ".'.'.. ".'.'.. ".. 
 
 
 
 
 Laetare Sunday 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Laeotropic 
 
 . M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Laeotropous 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Laetia 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Laetificant 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 ".. G ".'.'.. 
 
 Laevoglucose 
 
 . . M ... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Laevogyrate 
 
 .... M .... 
 
 
 
 '.'. W 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Laerotation 
 
 .... M .... 
 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 
 Laerotatory 
 
 .. M .... 
 
 
 1 
 
 . w 
 
 
 SGI 
 
 Laevulin 
 
 D M .... 
 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 1 
 
 Laevulinic 
 
 .... M .... 
 
 
 2 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Laevulosan 
 
 .... M .... 
 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Laevulose 
 
 .... M .... 
 
 
 3 D .. 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 8 
 
 Lenaea 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lernaea 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 S ... ".. 
 
 
 
 
 Lernaeacea 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lernaean 
 
 .... M 
 
 c 
 
 S ".'.'.. 
 
 ' w 
 
 
 
 Lernaeoid 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Leuchaemia 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 c '.'. 
 
 " G '''' 
 
 Leuchaemic 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 23 
 

 ae spelling 
 
 preferred 
 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 2 S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D M W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 Leucoaethiopic 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Leucoaethiops 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Leucocythaemia 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w ' 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Leukaemia 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w . 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Leukaemic 
 
 
 M 
 
 w . 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 Linnaea 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 2 "s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Limnaemic 
 
 
 
 w . 
 
 S .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Linnaea 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 2 S .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Linnaean 
 
 
 M 
 
 w . 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 Linnaeite 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 2 "s ".'.'.. 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lipaemia 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 <"t 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Lithaemia 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w . 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Lithopaedion 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w . 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Logodaedaly 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 2 S ".'.'.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lymphocythaemia 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 ".'.'.. w 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maccabaean 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Machaerodus 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 2 S "1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Macrocythaemia 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maeandrina 
 
 
 
 W ( 
 
 2 S Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maeandrian 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Maeandrinoid 
 
 
 
 w .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Maenad 
 
 
 M 
 
 w < 
 
 2 "s .... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mandaean 
 
 
 M 
 
 W ! 
 
 2 S ... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Mandaeism 
 
 
 
 W ( 
 
 : s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Manichaean 
 
 
 M 
 
 w .. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Manichaeism 
 
 
 M 
 
 w .. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Manichaeist 
 
 
 M 
 
 w .. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Mediaeval 
 
 
 
 w .. 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 '". 25 
 
 Mediaevalism 
 
 
 
 w .. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Mediaevalist 
 
 
 
 w .. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Mediaevally 
 
 
 
 w .. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Megalaesthete 
 
 
 
 w .. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Meiocaene 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .'.'..' w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Melaena 
 
 D 
 
 
 W ( 
 
 2 s '.'.'.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Melanaemia 
 
 D 
 
 
 W I 
 
 -i 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Melanaemesis 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Melitaemia 
 
 D 
 
 
 W I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Mendaean 
 
 
 
 W i 
 
 2 S .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mesocaecal 
 
 
 
 W I 
 
 : s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mesocaecum 
 
 i> 
 
 
 W I 
 
 : s ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Microcythaemia 
 
 D 
 
 
 w .. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Misopaedic 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Misopaedism 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 Moraea 
 
 
 
 W < 
 
 : s ".'.'.. 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 Morphaea 
 
 D 
 
 
 w .. 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 24 
 
ae spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 Muraena 
 
 Muraenoid 
 
 Myohaematin 
 
 Naenia 
 
 Naeve 
 
 Naevoid 
 
 Naevose 
 
 Naevus 
 
 Neocaene 
 
 Neogaean 
 
 Nicaean 
 
 Notaeum 
 
 Notelaea 
 
 Nothochlaena 
 
 Notholaena 
 
 Nymphaea 
 
 Nymphaeaceae 
 
 Nymphaeaceous 
 
 Nymphaean 
 
 Oligaemia 
 
 Oligochaeta 
 
 Oligochaete 
 
 Oligocythaemia 
 
 Oxyaesthesia 
 
 Oxyhaemacyanin 
 
 Oxyhaematin 
 
 Oxyhaemocyanin 
 
 Oxyhaemoglobin 
 
 Ozaena 
 
 Paean 
 
 Paederast 
 
 Paederastic 
 
 Paederasty 
 
 Paediatria 
 
 Paediatrics 
 
 Paediatry 
 
 Paedobaptism 
 
 Paedobaptist 
 
 Paedogenesis 
 
 Paedogenetic 
 
 Paedology 
 
 Paedotrophy 
 
 Paeon 
 
 Paeonia 
 
 Paeonine 
 
 D 
 
 W C S .... 
 
 W C S .... 
 
 W 
 
 w c "s "" 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 w c s Z 
 
 w . . s .... 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 W C S G 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 w .... s .... 
 
 D M W 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 ... M 
 
 D M W 
 D M W C 
 W .... 
 
 w 
 
 .... M W 
 
 D M W 
 
 D M 
 
 ... M 
 
 D M 
 
 D M 
 
 D M 
 D 
 
 D M 
 
 Z. M 
 
 .. M 
 
 D M W 
 
 .... M W 
 
 D 
 
 D M .... 
 
 .... M W 
 
 D ... W 
 
 D M W 
 
 C 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 25 
 
 .... C S G 
 W C S .... 
 
 W C 
 
 G ... 
 G ... 
 G 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 G 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 4 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 

 ae spelling pi 
 
 eferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M W C 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 Paeony 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Palaea.rctic 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 2 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeechinoidea 
 
 .... M . 
 
 .!. c 
 
 S 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 Palaeichthyes 
 
 .... M . 
 
 .. c 
 
 S 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 Palaeoanthropic 
 
 ... M . 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. Z. 
 
 Palaeobotanist 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Paleobotany 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Palaeocarida 
 
 
 '.'. c 
 
 S Z. Z. 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 Palaeoclimatic 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 s "..'.. 
 
 Palaeoconcha 
 
 
 
 s Z. Z 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Palaeocrinoidea 
 
 Z. M '. 
 
 .' c 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Palaeocrystic 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeogaean 
 
 ... M . 
 
 ".. c 
 
 s "' 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 Palaeograph 
 
 . M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .".'. Z. 
 
 Palaeographer 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 2 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s . 
 
 Paiaeographic 
 
 ... M . 
 
 
 
 .... .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeographical 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 ...-. .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeographist 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeography 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 4 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeolith 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeolithic 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 3 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S ... 1 
 
 Palaeologist 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeology 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Palaeontographical 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeontography 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Palaeontology 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 6 
 
 D .. . W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 3 
 
 Palaeontological 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 2 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeontologically 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeontologist 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Palaeophytic 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeophytoiogy 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeophytologist 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeornithology 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Palaeosaurus 
 
 .... M . 
 
 ".. c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Palaeotechnic 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. Z. 
 
 Palaeothere 
 
 ... M . 
 
 '. c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Palaeotherian 
 
 .... M . 
 
 .. c 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Palaeotherium 
 
 .... M . 
 
 .. c 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Palaeotheroid 
 
 .... M . 
 
 .. c 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Palaeotropical 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 c .' 
 
 
 Palaeotype 
 
 .... M "V 
 
 7 C 
 
 S .... 3 
 
 
 
 
 Palaeotypical 
 
 "V 
 
 / .... 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Palaeotypically 
 
 1 
 
 7 .... 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Palaeovolcanic 
 
 .... M . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s "'.'. 
 
 Palaeosoic 
 
 ... M . 
 
 
 :... "7 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 1 
 
 26 
 

 ae spellin 
 
 g preferred 
 
 
 
 e spellin 
 
 g preferred 
 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 3 G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 Palaeozoblogy 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Palaestra 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Palaestrian 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Palaestric 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Palaestrical 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Palaetiological 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Palaetiologist 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Palaetiology 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Panaesthesia 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c '. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 G '.'" 
 
 Panaesthetic 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Panathenaea 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Panathenaean 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pandaean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 .... 2 
 
 Panomphaean 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Para-anaesthesia 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Paraesthesia 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Paraesthesis 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Paraesthetic 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Paranaesthesia 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 S Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pellaea 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Penaea 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Penaeaceae 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Penaeaceous 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 S ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Peptonaemia 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G "" 
 
 Pericaecal 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Perichaete 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perichaeth 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perichaetial 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perichaetium 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perichaetous 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perinaeal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 1 
 
 Perinaeorrhaphy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Perinaeum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 1 
 
 Peritonaeal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Peritonaeum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Petraean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Phaeacian 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s Z. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phaedranassa 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phaenogam 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z.. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Phaenogamia 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phaneogamous 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Phaenologic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Phaenology 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Phaenomenon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 Phaeochrous 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c. 
 
 S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 

 at 
 
 spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 Phaeophyceae 
 
 
 . W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phaeosporales 
 
 
 . W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phaeospore 
 
 
 . W 
 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phaeosporic 
 
 
 . W 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phalaena 
 
 D . 
 
 . W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phalaenian 
 
 
 . W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phalaenid 
 
 
 . W 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phaenopsis 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phaenocryst 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 
 G '. 
 
 
 Phaenogamic 
 
 
 '. w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phycophaeine 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phylactolaema 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Phylactolaemata 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phylactolaematous 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pleiocaene 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Pleistocaene 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 Polychaeta 
 
 
 '. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Polycythaemia 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 ..ZZ. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G '. 
 
 
 Postpliocaene 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Praecava 
 
 D '.'. 
 
 '. w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G ' 
 
 
 Praecaval 
 
 
 . w 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G . 
 
 
 Praesipe 
 
 
 . w 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Praecoces 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 "s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Praecocial 
 
 
 . w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 Praecognita 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Praecommissure 
 
 
 . w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G '. 
 
 
 Praecoracoid 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G . 
 
 
 Praecordia 
 
 D ' 
 
 '. w 
 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Praecordial 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Praecornu 
 
 D .. 
 
 '. w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Praedial 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Praefect 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Praefloration 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Praefoliation 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Praemaxilla 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Praemolar 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Praemorse 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Praemunire 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Praemunitory 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 Praenares 
 
 D . 
 
 '.'. w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Praenasal 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Praenomen 
 
 
 '' w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Praenominal 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 Praenominate 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Praenomination 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 28 
 

 
 ae 
 
 spelling preferred 
 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 Praenominical 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 Praeopercular 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s '. Z. 
 
 Praeoperculum 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 c '. 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Praeoral 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Praepubis 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Praescapula 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Praescutum 
 
 
 
 
 c . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 Praesternal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Praesternum 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 c '. 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Praeterist 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Praeterit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Praetermit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Praetexta 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Praetor 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s "'. Z. 
 
 Praetores 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Praetorial 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .. . Z, 
 
 Praetorian 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Praetorium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Praetorship 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Praezygapohysis 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D .... W 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Primaeval 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "5 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S .... 2 
 
 Primaevous 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Proctodaeum 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 .. G .... 
 
 Propaedeutic 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Propaedeutical 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Propaedeutics 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Propylaeum 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 Prytanaeum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .' . Z. 
 
 Pseudaesthesia 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 c . 
 
 
 
 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Pseudhaemal 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 
 .. G .... 
 
 Psilopaedes 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Psilopaedic 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 '.'. G Z. 
 
 Ptaeroxylon 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pteropaedes 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pteropaedic 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ptilopaedes 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 5 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ptilopaedic 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 3 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pyaemia 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 c 
 
 S G Z. 
 
 Pyaemic 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Pygmaean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Pyrrenaen 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Quaere 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 3 Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quaesta 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 3 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quaestor 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Quaestorship 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 29 
 

 ae spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 Quaestus 
 
 
 .. W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Rhaetian 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s ".'.'.. 
 
 
 .... ''.. w 
 
 
 
 Rhaetic 
 
 
 " w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Rhaetizite 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Sabaean 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 S .. 4 
 
 Sabaeanism 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 "s Z 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Saebaeism 
 
 
 " w 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S ... . 
 
 Saeculum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. Z. w 
 
 
 s .. .. 
 
 Scarabaeid 
 
 
 ".. w 
 
 c 
 
 s '.'.'.'. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scarabaeoid 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scarabaeus 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Schaefferia 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Schizaea 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Schizaeaceae 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Schizaeaceous 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sciaenid 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sciaenoid 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scorpaenoid 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s.... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scyllaea 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Semaeostomata 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Septaemia 
 
 D . 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 Septicaemia 
 
 D .. 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 2 
 
 Spanaemia 
 
 D . 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 Spanaemic 
 
 D . 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 Spelaean 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 S .... 
 
 
 Spelaeology 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z. Z. w 
 
 
 
 
 Sphaerella 
 
 
 ".. w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sphaerenchyma 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 "s Z 
 
 
 
 
 "' G 
 
 
 Sphaeriales 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sphaeridium 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 "s G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sphaeropsidales 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sphaerospore 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 Sphaerotheca 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sphaerula 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s Z. 
 
 
 Sphaerulite 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... ".'... w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 Sphyraenid 
 
 
 ".. w 
 
 c 
 
 "s "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spiraea 
 
 D " 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spiraeic 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spirochaeta 
 
 D ".. 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 ".'.. G 
 
 
 Spirochaete 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stenopaeic 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 ".'.. G 
 
 
 Stomatodaeum 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stomodaeal 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stomodaeum 
 
 D 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Suaeda 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 

 ae spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 D M W C 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 Cit 
 
 Symbolaeography 
 
 
 .... W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Synaeresis 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 .... 1 
 
 Z. c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 
 Synaesthesia 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Taedium 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 G Z. 
 
 Z. Z. w Z. 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Taenia 
 
 D 
 
 ."." w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 .... 2 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Taeniacide 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Taeniada 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taeniafuge 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Taeniata 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taeniate 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Taenicide 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Taenidium 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taeniform 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taenifuge 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Taeniid 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taeniiform 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taeniobranchiate 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taenioglossa 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taenioglossate 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taenioid 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Taenioidea 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taeniola 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Taeniopteris 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taeniosomi 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thermoanaes- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 thesia 
 
 D 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Thomaean 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thymelaea 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thymelaeaceae 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thymelaeceous 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Toxaemia 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 
 Z. Z. Z. c 
 
 "s 
 
 G 
 
 2 
 
 Toxaemic 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 Toxiahaemi 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 w .... 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Triaene 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tropaeolaceae 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tropaeolaceous 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tropaeolin 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tropaeolum 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tyrtaean 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Uraemia 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 .... 2 
 
 Z. Z. Z. c 
 
 "s 
 
 G 
 
 2 
 
 Uraemic 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 Uraeum 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Uraeus 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Urohaematin 
 
 i> 
 
 .... w 
 
 
 
 
 
 "s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Urophaein 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
oe spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 Acoela 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Acoelomata 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Acoelomatous 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Acoelomous 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 3 
 
 Acoelous 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Acoemeti 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Amenorrhoea 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Amenorrhoeal 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Amoeba 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c .. 
 
 9 
 
 Amoebaeum 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c . 
 
 
 Amoebean 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c . 
 
 
 Amoebian 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Amoebiform 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c '.'. 
 
 
 Amoebocyte 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 1 
 
 Amoeboid 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c ".. 
 
 7 
 
 Amoebous 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 Amoebula 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c . 
 
 
 Amoenomania 
 
 DJ.... 
 
 
 c . 
 
 
 Amphicoelian 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s ".'... ... 
 
 Amphicoelous 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Anacoenosis 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Androecium 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Androdioecious 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S .... 2 
 
 Andromonoecious 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Antoeci 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Antoecians 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Apnoea 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s ".'.'.. ".'.. 
 
 Asafoetida 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Assafoetida 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 Autoecious 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s '.'.'.. ".'.. 
 
 Blastocoele 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S .... 2 
 
 Blenorrhoea 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Boehmeria 
 
 D 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Boeotian 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S .... 1 
 
 Circumoesophagal 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 Circumoesophageal 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 Coelacanth 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s ".'.'.. 
 
 Coelarium 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Coelelminth 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Coelelmintha 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Coelelmintb.es 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Coelentera 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s ".'.'.. 
 
 Coelenterata 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Coelenterate 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S .... 1 
 
 Coelenteric 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 G 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 G 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 32 
 

 oe spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 C 
 
 S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D M 
 
 W 1 
 
 : s 
 
 G Cit 
 
 Coelenteron 
 
 D 
 
 ... W 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coelestine 
 
 
 ... W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 2 
 
 "." M 
 
 
 
 .... 2 
 
 Coelia 
 
 D 
 
 ... W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Coeliac 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 "s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Coeliotomy 
 
 D 
 
 ... W 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Coeloblastula 
 
 
 ... W 
 
 
 s ".'.'.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coelodont 
 
 b 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coelogastrula 
 
 
 ... W 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coelogyne 
 
 
 ... W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coelom 
 
 b 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Coelomate 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coelometer 
 
 
 ... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coelomic 
 
 .... 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s ".'.'.. 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coeloplunula 
 
 
 ... w 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coelospermous 
 
 .... 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coelum 
 
 •D 
 
 ... W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coenanthium 
 
 .... 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coenenchym 
 
 .... 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coenenchyma 
 
 .... 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coenesthesis 
 
 D 
 
 ... w 
 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 c ".'.. 
 
 G 
 
 
 Coenobite 
 
 .... 
 
 m .... 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 w 
 
 C £ 
 
 
 1 
 
 Coenobium 
 
 .... 
 
 M w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 Coenoby 
 
 .... 
 
 M .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 C £ 
 
 
 
 Coenoecium 
 
 .... 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 "S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coenogamy 
 
 .... 
 
 M W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C £ 
 
 
 
 Coenosarc 
 
 .... 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 "s G 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coenosite 
 
 
 ... W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Coenozoology 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w '. 
 
 
 
 
 Coenurus 
 
 D 
 
 "... w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coerule 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ".'.'.. M 
 
 w 
 
 C £ 
 
 
 
 Coerulean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 C £ 
 
 i G 
 
 
 Coerulein 
 
 
 ".'.. w 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 .... M 
 
 .... 
 
 C £ 
 
 i G 
 
 
 Coeruleous 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 C £ 
 
 . 
 
 
 Coerulescent 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 C £ 
 
 
 
 Coerulific 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 C £ 
 
 
 
 Coerulignone 
 
 
 "... w 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 .. £ 
 
 
 
 Croesus 
 
 
 ... w 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Defoedation 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... M. 
 
 w 
 
 C S 
 
 
 Dendrocoela 
 
 . 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 "s "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Diarrhoea 
 
 D 
 
 M .... 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 w 
 
 c "s 
 
 2 
 
 Diarrhoeal 
 
 D 
 
 M .... 
 
 
 
 
 Z M 
 
 w . 
 
 S 
 
 ; g 
 
 
 Diarrhoetic 
 
 .... 
 
 M .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 C £ 
 
 . 
 
 
 Dioecia 
 
 .... 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dioecian 
 
 .... 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dioecious 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 33 
 

 oe spellinj 
 
 ; preferred e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D 
 
 M W < 
 
 2 S G Cit D M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 Dioeciously 
 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 
 Dioeciousness 
 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 
 Dioecism 
 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 
 Doeglic 
 
 
 .... W . 
 
 .. S 
 
 
 
 Doegling 
 
 
 .... W . 
 
 .. S 
 
 
 
 Dysmenorrhoea 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 1 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 2 
 
 Dyspnoea 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S .... 21 
 
 
 . G 2 
 
 Ectocoelic 
 
 
 .... W 
 
 c s 
 
 
 . G .... 
 
 Encephalocoele 
 
 D 
 
 .... W 
 
 C S G 
 
 
 
 Endocoele 
 
 
 .... W . 
 
 
 
 
 Endophloeum 
 
 
 .... W 
 
 2 S ".'.'.. 
 
 
 '.'. G ''" 
 
 Entocoele 
 
 
 .... W 
 
 
 
 
 Epicoele 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 
 Epicoelia 
 
 D 
 
 .... w 
 
 C S 
 
 
 
 Epicoelous 
 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 '.'. 6 Z. 
 
 Epicoene 
 
 
 
 1 -W 
 
 c 
 
 S .... 1 
 
 Epiphloeodal 
 
 
 .... W 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 
 Epiphloeodic 
 
 
 .... W 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 
 Epopopoeia 
 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 
 Eupnoea 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S .... 1 
 
 
 '.'. G ''" 
 
 Exfoetation 
 
 D 
 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Exocoetus 
 
 
 
 
 2 S W 
 
 
 
 Foeniculum 
 
 
 .... w 
 
 "i r\ 
 
 
 
 Foetal 
 
 
 M 
 
 ".. ".'.'.. .... 2 D Z W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 4 
 
 Foetation , 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Foeticide 
 
 D 
 
 M ... . 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Foetor 
 
 D 
 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Foetus 
 
 D 
 
 M ...'. 
 
 158 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 19 
 
 Galactorrhoea 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 1 
 
 Gastrocoel 
 
 
 .... W . 
 
 
 
 
 Gastrocoele 
 
 
 .... W . 
 
 
 
 
 Gloeosporium 
 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 
 
 Gonorrhoea 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 3 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 2 
 
 Gonorrhoea! 
 
 D 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 S G 2 
 
 Gynoecium 
 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 . G .... 
 
 Gynomonoecious 
 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 .. G ... 
 
 Hematorrhoea 
 
 D 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 .. G .... 
 
 Heteroecious 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 2 S .... 2 
 
 
 .. G .... 
 
 Heteroecism 
 
 
 M W 
 
 C S .... 2 
 
 
 
 Homoeochromous 
 
 D 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 ".. G "" 
 
 Homoeogenous 
 
 
 M W ' 
 
 
 
 
 Homoeogenesis 
 
 
 M W . 
 
 
 
 
 Homoeokinesis 
 
 
 
 Z. W 
 
 
 " G Z. 
 
 Homoeomeria 
 
 
 Z. w 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 Homoeomeric 
 
 
 M W 
 
 c s 
 
 
 
 34 
 
oe spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 Homoeomerical 
 
 Homoeomerous 
 
 Homoeomery 
 
 Homoeomorph 
 
 Homoeomorphism 
 
 Homoeomorphous 
 
 Homoeopath 
 
 Homoeopathic 
 
 Homoeopathically 
 
 Homoeopathist 
 
 Homoeopathy 
 
 Homoeophony 
 
 Homoeoplasia 
 
 Homoeoplasy 
 
 Homoeoteleuton 
 
 Homoeothermal 
 
 Homoeozoic , 
 
 Hydrorrhoea 
 
 Hypophloeodal 
 
 Hypophloeodic 
 
 Hypophloeodous 
 
 Ichorrhoea 
 
 Koeberlinia 
 
 Koeberliniaceae 
 
 Koeberliniaceous 
 
 Lagerstroemia 
 
 Leucorrhoea 
 
 Logaoedic 
 
 Logorrhoea 
 
 Lymphorrhoea 
 
 Melanorrhoea 
 
 Meliboean 
 
 Melopoeia 
 
 Menorrhoea 
 
 Mesamoeboid 
 
 Mesocoele 
 
 Mesocoelia 
 
 Mesophloeum 
 
 Metoecious 
 
 Metoecism 
 
 Michrochoemeter 
 
 Moesogothic 
 
 Moesogoths 
 
 Monocoelian 
 
 Monocoelic 
 
 .... M W C S .... 
 
 .... M W C S .... 
 
 .... M W C S .... 
 
 .... M W C S .... 
 
 .... M W C S .... 
 
 D M W C S .... 
 
 D M 
 
 D M 
 
 .... M 
 
 D M 
 
 D M 
 
 .... M W 
 
 D S .... 
 
 .... M W 
 
 D M W 
 
 .... M W 
 
 D M W 
 
 .... M W 
 
 .... M W 
 
 W 
 
 D 
 
 W 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 D M W 
 
 .... M W 
 
 D W 
 
 D 
 
 D .... W 
 
 C 
 C 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 D 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 W 
 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 w c s 
 w c s 
 w c s 
 
 w 
 
 35 
 
 G 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 2 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 W C S G 
 
 W 
 
 C S G 1 
 
 w 
 
 w c "s 
 
 w ".. 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 S G ... 
 S G ... 
 ... G ... 
 
 G 
 G 
 
 G 
 

 oe 
 
 spelling preferred 
 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 Cil 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 Cit 
 
 Monoecia 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monoecian 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monoecious 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Monoeciously 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monoecism 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monogynoecial 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Morphoea 
 
 D .... 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Myocoel 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Myocoele 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Myocoelom 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mythopoeic 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Myxamoeba 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 "s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Myxoedema 
 
 D ".'.'.. 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Myxoedematous 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Myxoedemic 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Neurocoele 
 
 D ".'.'.. 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oeciomania 
 
 D .... 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oecist 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oecoid 
 
 D M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Oecium 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Oecology 
 
 ".'.'.. M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 Oeconomical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 
 Oeconomics 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 3 
 
 Oeconomy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 M W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 Oecumenical 
 
 ".'.'.. M 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 .... W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 3 
 
 Oedagus 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oedeagus 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oedema 
 
 D M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 6 
 
 Oedematose 
 
 D M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ".'.'.. W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Oedematous 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 Oekist 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oeleoblast 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenanthate 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenanthic 
 
 D M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenanthol 
 
 D M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenanthone 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenanthyl 
 
 ".'.'.. M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenanthylate 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenanthylic 
 
 .... M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 Oenanthylidene 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenanthylon 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenochoe 
 
 Z M 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenocyan 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenocyte 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenolin 
 
 D M 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 

 oe spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M W 
 
 C 
 
 S G Cit ] 
 
 D M W C 
 
 3 G Cit 
 
 Oenology 
 
 .... M W 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Oenomancy 
 
 .... M W 
 
 C 
 
 s " 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenomania 
 
 D M W 
 
 C 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 '. G ".'.'.. 
 
 Oenomel 
 
 .... M W 
 
 C 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenometer 
 
 .... M W 
 
 C 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenophilist 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oenothera 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 4 . 
 
 
 
 
 Oenothionic 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 s . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oesophagal 
 
 .... M .... 
 
 
 
 1 . 
 
 
 ".. W ".'.'.. 
 
 S ".'.'.. ".'.'.. 
 
 Oesophageal 
 
 D M .... 
 
 
 
 2 . 
 
 
 .. w c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Oesophagean 
 
 .... M .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. w c 
 
 S 
 
 Oesophagotomy 
 
 D M .... 
 
 c 
 
 
 3 . 
 
 
 .. w .... 
 
 s 
 
 Oesophagus 
 
 D M .... 
 
 
 
 .. 484 . 
 
 
 .. w c 
 
 S G 13 
 
 Oestrian 
 
 W 
 
 
 "s " 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oestriasis 
 
 D .... W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oestroid 
 
 W 
 
 
 "s ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oestromania 
 
 D .... W 
 
 
 s . 
 
 
 
 
 ".. G ".'.'.. 
 
 Oestrual 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 s . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oestruation 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oestrus 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 ".. G ".'.'.. 
 
 Onomatopoeia 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 1 . 
 
 
 
 
 Onomatopoeic 
 
 ... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oogloea 
 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 ".. w .... 
 
 ".. G ".'.'.. 
 
 Opisthocoelian 
 
 "" M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 .. , 
 
 Opisthocoelous 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 .. G ... 
 
 Optocoele 
 
 W 
 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 . G .... 
 
 Optocoelia 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Orthopnoea 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 ".. G ".'.'.. 
 
 Paranoea 
 
 D .... W 
 
 c 
 
 s < 
 
 
 
 
 
 Paranoeic 
 
 D .... W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Paroecious 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s . 
 
 
 
 
 ".. G "1 
 
 Paroecism 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 .. G .... 
 
 Paroemiac 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pathopoeia 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perioeci 
 
 .... M W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perioecians 
 
 W 
 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perioesophageal 
 
 D M 
 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 ".. w, c ".. 
 
 '.'. G "" 
 
 Pharmacopoeia 
 
 D .... W 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 .. G 1 
 
 Phloeoterma 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phoebe 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 "s ".. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phoebean 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phoebus 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s .. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Phoenician 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 ".','.. c 
 
 3 Z .... 
 
 Phoenicine 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 .. w c 
 
 3 G .... 
 
 Phoenicious 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. w c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 37 
 

 oe spelling preferred e 
 
 spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M W 
 
 c 
 
 S G Cit D 1 
 
 I W 
 
 c 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 Phoenicopter 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Phoenicopterous 
 
 
 .. W 
 
 c 
 
 s "... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phoenix 
 
 
 .. W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Platycoelian 
 
 D " 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ".. G '. 
 
 
 Platycoelous 
 
 D .. 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 .. G . 
 
 
 Poecile 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poecilitic 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poecilocyte 
 
 D '.'. 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poecilopod 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poecilopoda 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poenological 
 
 
 
 
 
 ".. w 
 
 c 
 
 s ".'.'.. 
 
 
 Poenologist 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 
 Poenology 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Procoele 
 
 
 '.'. w 
 
 
 s "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 Procoelia 
 
 D ".. 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ".. G ".. 
 
 
 Procoelian 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Procoelous 
 
 D ".. 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ".. G ".. 
 
 
 Prooemiac 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prooemion 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prooemium 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pseudocoele 
 
 D ".. 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ".. G ".. 
 
 
 Pseudocoelia 
 
 D . 
 
 . w 
 
 
 S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pseudocoelom 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pyorrhoea 
 
 D _'.'. 
 
 . w 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 Rhabdocoela 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s ".'.'.. ".'.'.. '.'.'.. ".. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rhabdocoelous 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ".. G ".. 
 
 
 Rhoeadales 
 
 
 . w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rhoeadine 
 
 D . 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 S G ".'.'.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rhyncocoela 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rhyncocoelous 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Schizocoele 
 
 D '.'. 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ".. G " 
 
 
 Schizocoelous 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seborrhoea 
 
 D " 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 " w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 1 
 
 Sialorrhoea 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 S G 2 
 
 Spermatarrhoea 
 
 D . 
 
 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .. 
 
 
 Stearrhoea 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .. 
 
 
 Stoechiometric 
 
 D .. 
 
 ".. w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stoechiometrical 
 
 D . 
 
 .. w 
 
 "c '. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stoechiometry 
 
 D .. 
 
 .. w 
 
 c . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Suboesophageal 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ".. w 
 
 c 
 
 S G ".. 
 
 
 Subpoena 
 
 
 ".. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Subpoenal 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Superfoetation 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' w 
 
 c 
 
 S G " 
 
 
 Supraoesophagal 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 
 Supraoesophageal 
 
 
 
 
 
 . w 
 
 c .. 
 
 . G . 
 
 
 38 
 

 oe spelling preferred 
 
 e spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M W C S G 
 
 Cit 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 Synaloepha 
 
 
 1 
 
 w c s 
 
 Synoecious 
 
 W C S G 
 
 
 
 
 Ternstroemia 
 
 W C S .... 
 
 
 
 
 Ternstroemiaceae 
 
 W C S .... 
 
 
 
 
 Thalamocoele 
 
 D .... W C S .... 
 
 
 
 
 Trioecia 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 
 
 
 Trioecious 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Xantharrhoea 
 
 D .... W 
 
 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Zooecial 
 
 W C S .... 
 
 1 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Zooecium 
 
 w c s .... 
 
 1 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Zoogloea 
 
 D .... W C S .... 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Zoogloeic 
 
 D .... W C S .... 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Zoogloeoid 
 
 D .... W C S .... 
 
 
 
 G .... 
 
 Acheilary 
 
 Acheirous 
 
 Anapeiratic 
 
 Anaseismic 
 
 Angeioblast 
 
 Angeioblastic 
 
 Angeiocarpous 
 
 Angiography 
 
 Angeiology 
 
 Angeioma 
 
 Angeiomonosper- 
 
 mous 
 Angeioneoplasm 
 Angeioneurosis 
 Angeiosperm 
 Angeiospermatous 
 Angeiospermous 
 Angeiosporous 
 Angeiostomous 
 Angeiotomy 
 Apodeictic 
 Apodeictical 
 Apodeixis 
 Cheilanthes 
 
 ei spelling preferred 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 .... M 
 
 D M w c !.!. 
 .... M W C S 
 
 w .... 
 w .... 
 
 w c 
 
 i spelling preferred 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 D .... W C S 
 W C S 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 M W 
 
 .... W 
 
 .... W 
 
 .... W 
 
 M W 
 
 .... W 
 
 .... w 
 
 .... w 
 
 .... w 
 
 .... w 
 
 .... w 
 
 .... w 
 
 .... w 
 
 ... w 
 
 M W 
 
 M .... 
 
 M .... 
 
 M W 
 
 C S G 
 
 C .... G 
 
 C .... G 
 
 C S G 
 
 C 
 C 
 C 
 C 
 C 
 C 
 C 
 C 
 C 
 C 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 39 
 

 ei spelling preferred 
 
 i spelling preferred 
 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 D M W C 
 
 S G Cit 
 
 Cheiloplasty 
 
 D .... W 
 
 
 C 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Cheilopoda 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 S 
 
 Cheimaphila 
 
 
 
 
 D .... W C 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Cheimopelagic 
 
 
 
 
 w .... 
 
 
 Cheiragra 
 
 i> Z. 
 
 
 
 W C 
 
 "S G Z. 
 
 Cheiragrical 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 S 
 
 Cheirognomy 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 S .... 1 
 
 Cheirograph 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 S 
 
 Cheirographer 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 S 
 
 Cheirographic 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheirographical 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheirogymnast 
 
 
 
 
 W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheirology 
 
 
 
 
 W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheirological 
 
 
 
 
 W C 
 
 s 
 
 Gheirologist 
 
 
 
 
 W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheiromancer 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheiromancy 
 
 
 
 
 D M W C 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Cheiromanist 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W .... 
 
 
 Cheiromantic 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 "s Z. 
 
 Cheiromantical 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheiromantist 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheironomic 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheironomy 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheiroplast 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheiropodist 
 
 
 
 
 D M W C 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Cheiropodous 
 
 
 
 
 W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheiropody 
 
 
 
 
 D M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheiropter 
 
 Z. M w 
 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheiroptera 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheiropterous 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Cheiropterygium 
 
 D .... W 
 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Cheirosophist 
 
 W 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheirosophy 
 
 W 
 
 
 .... M .... C 
 
 s 
 
 Cheirotherium 
 
 .... M W 
 
 
 
 
 Cheirotony 
 
 
 
 Z. M W C 
 
 s Z. 
 
 Coseismal 
 
 Z. w c "s 
 
 
 
 
 Eicon 
 
 
 
 
 Z. M W C 
 
 S G Z. 
 
 Eiconical 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Eiconism 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Eiconize 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Eiconoclasm 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Eiconoclast 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Eiconoclastic 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W C 
 
 s 
 
 Eiconodule 
 
 
 
 
 w .... 
 
 s 
 
 Eiconodulist 
 
 
 
 
 .... M W .... 
 
 s 
 
 40 
 
e 
 
 i spelling preferred i 
 
 spelling preferred 
 
 d : 
 
 M W C 
 
 S 
 
 G Cit D » 
 
 [ W 
 
 C ! 
 
 3 G Cit 
 
 Eiconographer 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 I W 
 
 c , 
 
 5 
 
 Eiconographic 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 I W 
 
 c 
 
 5 
 
 Eiconography 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 I W 
 
 c 
 
 3 G .... 
 
 Eiconolater 
 
 
 
 
 ]V 
 
 I W 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Eiconolatry 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 1 W 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Eiconology 
 
 
 
 
 IV 
 
 1 W 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Eicon omachy 
 
 
 
 
 ik 
 
 I W 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Eicononomical 
 
 
 
 
 
 . W 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Eiconophilist 
 
 
 
 
 Z. .... B 
 
 I W 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Eicosahedral 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 I W 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Eicosahedron 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 I W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Eicosandria 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 1 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Eicosandrian 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 1 W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Eicosandrous 
 
 
 
 
 
 . W 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Eicositetrahedron .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Eidoclast 
 
 M "V 
 
 / .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eidograph 
 
 . "V 
 
 / c 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eidolon 
 
 ... V 
 
 / c 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eidoscope 
 
 ... V 
 
 / c 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eidotrope 
 
 ... V 
 
 / .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eikon 
 
 ... \ 
 
 / c 
 
 "s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eikonogen 
 
 ... V 
 
 / .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eikosane D 
 
 V 
 
 / .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eikosylene 
 
 ... V 
 
 / .... 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eirenarch 
 
 ... "9 
 
 7 .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. Z. 
 
 Eirenic 
 
 
 
 
 
 .'. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Eirenical 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Eirenicon 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 Eisegesis 
 
 "... "V 
 
 / Z 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eisodic 
 
 ... 1 
 
 7 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eisodicon 
 
 .. \ 
 
 7 .... 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s Z. Z. 
 
 Endeictic 
 
 M "9 
 
 7 C 
 
 s 
 
 G Z. 
 
 
 
 
 Endeixis 
 
 ... "V 
 
 7 C 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 Epeirogenetic 
 
 ... "V 
 
 7 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Epeirogenic 
 
 ... "V 
 
 7 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 Epeirogeny 
 
 ... \ 
 
 7 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 Epicheilium 
 
 
 
 
 
 " w 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Epicheirema 
 
 M '. 
 
 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 Epicleidium 
 
 . \ 
 
 7 Z. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 S G .... 
 
 Epideictic 
 
 M "V 
 
 7 .... 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 c . 
 
 
 Epideictical 
 
 M . 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 .. w 
 
 c . 
 
 
 Geissorpermine 
 
 M \ 
 
 7 Z. 
 
 
 G '.". 
 
 
 
 
 Geissospermum D 
 
 M \ 
 
 V C 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 Geitonogamy 
 
 .... ^ 
 
 V C 
 
 "s 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 Hydrodeik 
 
 m t; 
 
 V C 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
ei spelling preferred 
 
 i spelling preferred 
 
 D M W C S G Cit D M W C S G Cit 
 
 Hypocleidium 
 
 Isocheim 
 
 Isocheimal 
 
 Isocheimenal 
 
 Isocheimonal 
 
 Isoseismal 
 
 Isoseismic 
 
 Leiodermatous 
 
 Leiomyoma 
 
 Leiophyllum 
 
 Leiotrichan 
 
 Leiotrichous 
 
 Leipocephala 
 
 Leipogram 
 
 Leipogrammatic 
 
 Leipogrammatist 
 
 Leipothymic 
 
 Leipothymous 
 
 Leipothymy 
 
 Leipotype 
 
 Leitneria 
 
 Leitneriaceae 
 
 Leitneriaceous 
 
 Leiriodendron 
 
 Macrocheires 
 
 Meibomian 
 
 Meiocene 
 
 Meiohippus 
 
 Meionite 
 
 Meiophylly 
 
 Meiosis 
 
 Meiostemonous 
 
 Meiotaxy 
 
 Meizoseismal 
 
 Microseism 
 
 Microseismic 
 
 Microseismograph 
 
 Microseismometer 
 
 Oneirocritic 
 
 Oneirocritical 
 
 Oneirocriticism 
 
 Oneirocritics 
 
 Oneiromancy 
 
 Oneiroscopist 
 
 Oneiroscopy 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 W 
 W 
 
 D .... W C S G 
 
 W 
 
 w 
 
 D .... W 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w .... s 
 
 w c s 
 
 w c s 
 
 w c s 
 
 w .... s 
 
 .... M W C S 
 
 .... M W C S 
 
 .... M W C S 
 
 .... M W C S 
 
 .... M W C S 
 
 .... M W C S 
 
 .... M W C S 
 
 W 
 W 
 W 
 W 
 W 
 W 
 W 
 W 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 S G 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s ... 
 
 S G 
 
 W C S G .... 
 
 w c s 
 
 W C "s Z 6 
 
 w c s 
 
 s 
 
 .... C S G .... 
 
 .... C S G .... 
 
 .... C S G .... 
 
 .... C S G .... 
 
 42 
 
ei spelling preferred 
 
 D MW C S G Cit 
 
 i spelling preferred 
 
 D M W C S G Cit 
 
 Opeidoscope 
 
 Ophicleide 
 
 Paraleipomenon 
 
 Paraleipsis 
 
 Peirameter 
 
 Peirastic 
 
 Pereion 
 
 Pereiopod 
 
 Pereira 
 
 Pleiad 
 
 Pleiades 
 
 Pleiocene 
 
 Pleiochasium 
 
 Pleiomorphic 
 
 Pleiomorphism 
 
 Pleiomorphy 
 
 Pleiophyllous 
 
 Pleiosaurus 
 
 Pleiotaxy 
 
 Pleistocene 
 
 Polyeidic 
 
 Polyeidism 
 
 Postpleiocene 
 
 Seirospore 
 
 Seismal 
 
 Seismic 
 
 Seismism 
 
 Seismograph 
 
 Seismographic 
 
 Seismography 
 
 Seismological 
 
 Seismologically 
 
 Seismology 
 
 Seismometer 
 
 Seismometric 
 
 Seismometry 
 
 Seismoscope 
 
 Semeiography 
 
 Semeiological 
 
 Semeiology 
 
 Semeiotic 
 
 Semeiotics 
 
 M W C 
 M W C 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 W 
 W 
 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 w 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 c 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 G 
 G 
 G 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 S G 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s Z 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 s .... 
 
 S G 
 
 S .... 
 
 S G 
 
 S G 
 
 S G 
 
 M W C S 
 
 M .... C .... 
 
 w c s 
 
 w c s 
 
 .... w c s 
 
 c .... 
 
 c .... 
 
 c .... 
 
 c .... 
 
 43 
 
Principles of 
 Spelling Reform 
 
 BY 
 
 F. STURGES ALLEN 
 
 New York 
 
 THE BRADLEY-WHITE CO. 
 
 1907 
 
Copyright 1907, 
 
 BY 
 
 F. Stvrgks Allen 
 
NOTE 
 
 The following consideration of the principles 
 of spelling reform consists of two independent 
 papers that somewhat overlap; but in general 
 the second one supplements the first. They are 
 issued in this form because it is believed that 
 there is enough that is new in the views ex- 
 pressed to give them some value in the present 
 discussion of the subject. 
 
 F. S. A. 
 December 1st, 1906 
 
The Main Principles of 
 Spelling Reform 
 
 That the spelling of English words needs, and 
 admits of, simplification is the general view of com- 
 petent persons. As to how this simplification shall 
 be accomplished, however, no such consensus exists. 
 The measures advocated vary from those involving 
 but little change to those that would Italianize our 
 vowel system and by this and other fundamental 
 changes revolutionize our spelling, sever the conti- 
 nuity of the development of our written language, 
 and render useless except to the scholar the entire 
 body of English books now in print. When opinions 
 are so divergent it is evident that there are no gener- 
 ally accepted principles upon which they are based. 
 
 We at all times take a kind of Platonic interest 
 in the written form of our language, which is deter- 
 mined by our spelling; but proposed changes in it 
 ordinarily excite only a passing curiosity and perhaps 
 an expression of disapproval or commendation, which 
 at best is indifferent because we feel that any actual 
 change is unlikely to take place, or that it must be 
 accomplished by the slow natural processes which 
 guarantee conservatism and, usually, wisdom. But 
 the present movement for what is called a " simplified 
 spelling" is not a mere proposal; it is an active "cam- 
 paign," a propaganda. As such it aims to carry into 
 
 5 
 
effect by artificial means the changes deemed wise 
 by those who have proposed or advocated them 
 without waiting for the slow expression of public 
 opinion or that general public discussion which 
 matters affecting all men customarily and properly 
 receive. 
 
 The movement has already received such support 
 as to put forcibly before us the question as to whether 
 the proposed changes are wise or unwise. This query 
 cannot be answered by an appeal to mere conserva- 
 tism or radicalism, nor to prejudices for or against 
 the particular changes recommended. We must 
 rather determine whether the general principle upon 
 which the recommendations are based is correct or 
 incorrect; and, having done this, we must examine the 
 effects of the proposed changes in detail. It is only 
 from such a consideration that we can arrive at any 
 conclusions that will be of any moment, or intrinsic- 
 ally worthy of serious attention. It is proposed to 
 consider here only the general principle on which the 
 recommendations of change are based. 
 
 An examination of the circulars distributed by 
 the "Simplified Spelling Board" readily discloses that 
 the governing principle on which the simplifications 
 are based is that the "only proper office" of spelling 
 is to serve as "a guide to pronunciation" — as Pro- 
 fessor Lounsbury has expressed it. If this principle 
 is true it is plain that it would be in the end profitable 
 to make the proposed changes. If the principle is 
 not true it is equally plain that such changes as 
 counter the true principle are unwise, and that to give 
 them a forced currency by propagandism or incon- 
 siderate action is pernicious, because the older and 
 
 6 
 
better forms would necessarily be restored by the 
 slow processes that produced them. The question 
 that we must answer, then, is: What is the true 
 function of the written word ? 
 
 The spelling, or written form, of English is as 
 truly a result of its organic development as its pro- 
 nunciation. For our knowledge of the facts that have 
 determined and preserved it we are no longer depend- 
 ent upon myth or tradition; nor need we seek an 
 explanation for the past nor a guide to the future 
 in superstition or prejudice. Its history begins with 
 and includes the history of our alphabet. That is 
 known to us in all essentials, and the facts that pre- 
 scribe what shall be its character and function in 
 the near future are before us or obtainable. 
 
 The first step towards the formation of alphabets 
 was the representation of simple ideas or events by 
 pictures inscribed upon wood or bone, such as the 
 rude American Indian drawings. Here the represen- 
 tation is individualistic and not conventional. A long 
 step from this is the system of pictographs or hiero- 
 glyphs — the expression of thought by the use of 
 pictures more or less conventionalized, and directly 
 symbolizing some object or idea. But as yet the 
 picture has no primary association with a fixed sound ; 
 it stands rather for a thing, an idea. 
 
 Repeated use, however, and perhaps a greater 
 degree of conventionalization of form, lessens the 
 pictorial function, and the inscription becomes an 
 ideograph, a symbol for an idea, for a word, a phrase, 
 or perhaps for several homophonous words. There 
 now remains but a modicum of individualism. Gradu- 
 ally by attrition or association the ideograph loses 
 
 7 
 
its word value and acquires a syllabic value. Words 
 are then made up by the conventional combination of 
 mere symbols, fragments only of their original forms. 
 At this stage we have the syllabary, from which 
 development continues until at last some race achieves 
 an alphabet, the picture is lost forever, and the sound 
 values alone remain. 
 
 The alphabet represents phonetic combination; 
 the function of the word symbols has shifted from 
 that of directly symbolizing the idea to that of sym- 
 bolizing a sound that is the name of an idea. Eventu- 
 ally many alphabets with varying forms and values 
 are created by the art of the scribe or the influence of 
 conquest, migration, or missionary. From these 
 alphabets, by a process of selection, have been devel- 
 oped the English and other modern alphabets. 
 
 When the Anglo-Saxons were conquered by the 
 Normans, the two races employed Roman alphabets 
 differing in form and in sound values. The Conquest 
 grafted the Romance language of the invaders upon 
 the Teutonic language of the conquered. The native 
 language remained as the basis and backbone of a new 
 composite language, but the old alphabet was practi- 
 cally ousted by the new one. Norman scribes were 
 called upon to transcribe in Norman characters, with 
 Norman values, a language with strange sounds, 
 shifting in their values, and with no standard or guide 
 to which reference could be made for uniformity. 
 Three hundred years later, when the English language 
 was taking literary shape it was written in different 
 ways by different men and by the same men at differ- 
 ent times. 
 
Such was still the condition of affairs when 
 foreign printers began the printing of English books. 
 Drawn by the new possibilities of printing and pub- 
 lishing, priest and layman, scholar and scientist, 
 raconteur and voyageur, turned author, each with 
 his own peculiarities of pronunciation and his own 
 spelling. English was spelled phonetically by each, 
 but after his own varying fashion. 
 
 As books grew more common it gradually became 
 evident that a relatively uniform spelling and a 
 practically uniform typography were essential to their 
 general utility. Word lists, vocabularies, and finally 
 dictionaries were made; before the end of the six- 
 teenth century orthography was so far settled, that 
 in 1589 Puttenham said, "Herein we are already 
 ruled by th' English dictionaries and other books 
 written by learned men." In 1755 Johnson's Dic- 
 tionary was published, and recorded the generally 
 accepted spellings of about seventy thousand words, of 
 which the greater part still remain unchanged. Yet 
 changes have not altogether ceased; they are only 
 relatively less, and are mostly effected by a slow and 
 unconscious process. The results, which are recorded in 
 the successive editions of the larger dictionaries, show 
 a gradual swinging towards a more phonetic spelling. 
 
 Our present orthography is thus the result of 
 centuries of gradual elimination and regularization. 
 But it is not alone a fixed and presentable form that 
 our words have acquired: they are rich with the mean- 
 ings of literary, scientific, social, and aesthetic achieve- 
 ment. Associations and differentiations of meaning 
 have become intimately wrapped in the symbols by 
 which they are denoted ; and it is not until some change 
 
 9 
 
in spelling is proposed that we are roused to an appre- 
 ciation of the full significance of our orthography, 
 and instinctively cling to that with which we are 
 familiar. 
 
 The main influences that have brought about 
 certain changes in spelling and prevented others are 
 not to be sought in fashion or vogue but in actual or 
 supposed utility; the spelling of our words is not 
 changed by the whim or ipse dixit of any one man or 
 group of men. Generations now come and go before 
 material changes become fixed and general; whereas 
 formerly mere convenience of spelling or pronuncia- 
 tion alone, uncontrolled by other influences, produced 
 radical changes out of hand. To what associations 
 and significance then, is the present stability of the 
 written form of our words due? 
 
 If this question had been asked prior to the in- 
 vention of the printing press, the answer would have 
 been not far to seek. The function of the written 
 form was then to indicate the sounds of words to the 
 ear and through these sounds the meanings of the 
 words to the mind. With rare exceptions, men were 
 exclusively ear-minded with respect to words; the 
 meanings of written words were understood immedi- 
 ately through the suggested sound, and not immedi- 
 ately from the visual impression. 
 
 Evidence of this is the chaotic spelling of words 
 during the formation of modern English; but this is 
 not the only nor the most conclusive evidence. The 
 use of the characters of the primitive alphabet to 
 express sounds was an artificial and laborious process, 
 emphasizing the element of sound by the very striving 
 to represent it. Our conception of a written word 
 
 10 
 
with its separate individuality is of late origin. With 
 the ancient Greeks the "word" was the "logos" 
 (Xdyos), "the saying," and in eleventh-century scho- 
 lastic discussions Roscelin taught that the universal 
 was merely flatus vocis, the "breath of the voice," 
 the spoken word. Even our "word" seems originally 
 to have meant "a saying; " and we find " speech" used 
 as a synonym of it long after the introduction of 
 printed books. Puttenham says, "We find in our 
 English writers many words and speaches amendable" 
 — indubitable identification, by him, (or those he 
 imitated) of the speech, the spoken sound, with the 
 word. If this were still the case with our written 
 language, if the only office of spelling were to indicate 
 sounds, there could be no question as to the wisdom 
 of adopting the proposed "simplified spellings," and 
 others of a similar nature — with due moderation. 
 But this is not the case. 
 
 The multiplication of books and the universaliz- 
 ing of education has worked a radical change, and 
 now a main function of the written word is to suggest 
 ideas directly through the visual impression made by 
 it. We have become mainly eye-minded in our reading. 
 The development of the language and of our social and 
 business institutions has made this a necessity. The 
 conditions of the days of a monkish monopoly of the 
 manuscripts and illiteracy of the general are reversed ; 
 education is now by books, by constant and repeated 
 reading. With maturity comes to each of us depend- 
 ence upon familiarity with the written word not 
 only for the principal intellectual enjoyments but 
 more or less for the means of livelihood. Our reading 
 vocabulary grows until it becomes several, perhaps 
 
 11 
 
many, times larger than our spoken vocabulary. 
 Most of us read to ourselves and understand with 
 ease passages that we should be able to read aloud 
 only with considerable stumbling ; persons of ordinary 
 education have no fixed association of sound for 
 many of the printed words that they frequently meet 
 and readily understand; there is no attempt to trans- 
 late the words into sounds to get their meaning, and 
 the effort to do this involves delay and annoyance. 
 
 Printed words have thus become the algebraic 
 symbols of implicit thinking. This demands that the 
 symbols should appear as integrals, and hence brings 
 about the separation of the words in the lines — a 
 style of writing not suddenly arrived at. Before that 
 was done a certain class of words, as the nouns, were 
 capitalized to break up the line into intelligible parts; 
 but rapid reading demands a complete individuality 
 of printed words, and gives an aesthetic value to the 
 appearance of the page. The eye demands the re- 
 moval of every obstacle to its equal progress. 
 
 Nor is it the word alone that now has an individu- 
 ality of its own and a proper significance as a symbol. 
 The conditions of modern English terminology have 
 created a class of prefixes and suffixes or combining 
 forms that are suggestive of the primitive ideographs 
 — forms treated as wholes with fixed meanings 
 regardless of differences of pronunciation. Thus we 
 have in chemistry whole groups of words ending in 
 -ine, -ide, -one, -ol, -ate, -ite, -yl, etc. So we have in 
 all the arts and sciences various terms beginning or 
 ending in -logy, -ism, -meter, haemo-, hemi-, -graphy, 
 philo-, phylo-, palaeo-, sub-, super-, etc., spelled in 
 general according to phonetic analogies of the lan- 
 
 12 
 
guage. Their form and significance is fixed, but their 
 pronunciation varies both with the same individual 
 and with different individuals; and the English pro- 
 nunciation of some classes of them is different from 
 the American pronunciation. The Oxford English 
 Dictionary in many cases prefers a pronunciation 
 different from that preferred by the American dic- 
 tionaries. Thus, the English dictionary prefers 
 hrp'o- (i as in hip) for words beginning with hypo-, 
 and the American dictionaries prefer for many of the 
 same words the pronunciation hi'po (i as in bite) ; 
 but the prefix means the same to both Englishman 
 and American. An analogous difference exists in 
 the cases of the chemical terms in -ide and medical 
 terms in -itis, which are differently pronounced by 
 different men and by the same men at different times. 
 In all these cases any attempt to conform the 
 spelling to the established pronunciation of these 
 words would not only be impractical, but would nul- 
 lify the effect for which the suffixes have been created. 
 Invariability of form and of the suggested meaning 
 teaches the mind to neglect the sound and depend 
 upon visual impression alone for the thought. This 
 has created a definite consciousness of the meanings of 
 visible word elements, and the mere general form of 
 the suffix is sufficient to indicate to the reader the 
 particular sense conveyed by the word. This is one 
 of the most extraordinary phases of the developments 
 of modern English. The classification, in lists, of 
 suffixes and prefixes in the schoolbooks for the teach- 
 ing of language has become nearly universal, and the- 
 child is taught that a certain group of letters occurring 
 in a word indicates a certain idea or group of ideas. 
 
 13 
 
The consciousness of this may become so definite that 
 we write of "isms," "doxies," "ologies," and "anas." 
 But it is not alone suffixes and prefixes that vary in 
 pronunciation while the form and sense remain the 
 same. Whole compound words so vary. Thus, in 
 the word "geography" the o in the accented syllable 
 is distinctly o as in not; but in the derivative "geog- 
 graphical," the o assumes a new value. Yet the 
 consciousness of this alteration is entirely absent in 
 reading; and any calling of the attention to it would 
 undoubtedly interfere with the intelligibility of the 
 word as a symbol of an idea. 
 
 If these facts have any meaning we are inevit- 
 ably led to the conclusion that with the majority of 
 educated people the meaning of the printed page is 
 mainly suggested directly through the stimulation of 
 the visual organs and not mediately through the 
 sense of hearing. Psychologists have shown that a 
 majority of literate people (and probably of all people) 
 are visualizers, that is, complement and aid their 
 thought processes by the formation of visual images, 
 facilitating clear conception and correct and rapid 
 inference. The visual image associated with the idea 
 is with many visualizers the printed or written word, 
 especially in the case of abstract conceptions; and 
 in general thought depends upon the direct association 
 of the visual recognition elements stored in the mind. 
 This does not mean that in ordinary thinking the 
 visual image is conspicuous nor even necessarily 
 present. With most people the auditory image, or 
 sense, materially assists the process of thinking, and 
 with some it is a primary source of understanding; 
 but for the great majority of us the visual sense is 
 
 14 
 
the primary basis of recognition and the means of 
 quick discrimination. Ease of reading is dependent 
 upon the immediate significance of the symbol, 
 enabling the mind to associate or distinguish directly 
 as by a sort of algebra of thought. 
 
 In reading, the symbol is the printed (or visual) 
 word, the utility of which depends upon its distinc- 
 tiveness to the eye, so that, but for the difficulty of 
 learning them, a separate symbol for each idea would 
 be an advantage. Distinction and association of 
 senses by differentiation and association of form marks 
 the entire course of the development of the language. 
 The mind works at a disadvantage when it is obliged 
 to distinguish the meanings of words by the context, 
 instead of directly, from varying symbols. Apropos 
 are Franklin's remarks, in a letter written to Noah 
 Webster, upon matters of typography and the use of 
 words: "In examining the English books, that were 
 printed between the Restoration and the accession of 
 George the Second, we may observe, that all sub- 
 stantives were begun with a capital, in which we imi- 
 tated our mother tongue, the German. * * * * 
 
 "This method has, by the fancy of printers, of 
 late years been laid aside, from an idea that sup- 
 pressing the capitals shows the character to greater 
 advantage ; those letters prominent above the line dis- 
 turbing its even, regular appearance. The effect of this 
 change is so considerable, that a learned man of 
 France, who used to read our books, though not per- 
 fectly acquainted with our language, in conversation 
 with me on the subject of our authors, attributed 
 the greater obscurity he found in our modern books, 
 compared with those of the period above mentioned, 
 
 IS 
 
to change of style for the worse in our writers; of 
 which mistake I convinced him by marking for him 
 each substantive with a capital in a paragraph, which 
 he then easily understood, though before he could not 
 comprehend it. This shows the inconvenience of 
 that pretended improvement. 
 
 "From the same fondness for even and uniform 
 appearance of characters in the line, the printers have 
 of late banished also the Italic types, in which words 
 of importance to be attended to in the sense of the 
 sentence, and words on which an emphasis should be 
 put in reading, used to be printed. And lately another 
 fancy has induced some printers to use the short, 
 round "s," instead of the long one, which formerly 
 served well to distinguish a word readily by its varied 
 appearance. Certainly the omitting this prominent 
 letter makes the line appear more even; but renders 
 it less immediately legible; as the paring all men's 
 noses might smooth and level their faces, but would 
 render their physiognomies less distinguishable." 
 
 Franklin's letter records the last of the rare 
 occasions when the change that attended the progress 
 from the visual form of the primitive pictograph to 
 our modern typography was conscious and deliberate. 
 For the most part the entire development of our 
 alphabet was so unconscious that it seemed rather to 
 have taken place than to have been accomplished. 
 But it has taken place in accordance with psycholog- 
 ical laws and because of certain facts germane to our 
 general physical and intellectual progress, among 
 which facts preeminent is the invention of the print- 
 ing press and cheap paper. So long as these facts and 
 laws remain unchanged we cannot permanently undo 
 
 16 
 
the general results towards which they tend. We 
 cannot in the execution of any scheme for simpli- 
 fying our spelling wisely ignore the ideographic, or 
 thought-representing, values of our written words and 
 assume that their sole function is phonographic, or 
 to serve as guides to the sounds of spoken words; nor 
 can we so arrive at results that can be depended upon 
 to prove beneficial rather than pernicious. Neither 
 can we afford to ignore the fact that pernicious changes 
 hastily forced into use by propagandism or by what- 
 ever inconsiderate means can be but slowly removed, 
 and must prove a lasting hindrance to the very prog- 
 ress that they purport to further. 
 
 We must, therefore, conclude that the principle 
 upon which the "simplified spellings" are recom- 
 mended for our adoption is false, or insufficient; and 
 we cannot afford to hastily adopt them indiscrimi- 
 nately without evidence that they are not in conflict 
 with the equally important principle that the written 
 word is a direct symbol for an idea rather than solely 
 a symbol for a sound. 
 
 17 
 
Some Proposed "Simplified 
 Spellings" 
 
 When we are asked to cooperate in a "reform" 
 or "simplification" of our spelling we involuntarily 
 meet the proposal with a feeling of complaisance. 
 "Reform" and "simplification" are terms that con- 
 ciliate our good will and carry with them a preposses- 
 sion in favor of that for which they stand. Won by 
 the mere appellation we may thoughtlessly lend our 
 aid to measures that a more careful consideration 
 would have led us to discountenance or oppose. 
 Such a proposal involves interests of grave concern 
 to us all ; and it is worth our while to inquire just what 
 this "reform" or "simplification" means, and what 
 are the conditions to which it must conform. We 
 may all agree that what is proposed should be done, 
 but differ antipodally as to the meaning of the 
 proposal. 
 
 How we shall simplify our spelling and what 
 constitutes simplification are practical rather than 
 academic questions. The intended simplification is 
 based upon the theory that "the only proper office" 
 of the written word is to serve as a guide to the pro- 
 nunciation, and that the only ideal to be striven for 
 is a "strictly phonetic spelling." Simplification must, 
 indeed, be chiefly accomplished by effecting greater 
 conformity of the written word to phonetic laws and 
 
 18 
 
rules; but the satisfaction of a phonetic theory is not 
 the only object to be aimed at, nor, perhaps, is it first 
 in importance. The primary aim is one of utility, 
 to make our written language a more efficient machine 
 for the expression of thought. 
 
 When English word-forms were slowly shaping 
 themselves out of the chaos created by the Norman 
 Conquest it was true that the "only proper office," or 
 the main office, of the written word was to symbolize 
 the spoken word, to serve as a guide to the pronun- 
 ciation — and if no other demands had been made upon 
 it that office would inevitably have been better ful- 
 filled than it is to-day. The tardy evolution that has 
 by elimination and change given us the complex 
 system now deemed wanting, had it been left untram- 
 .meled would have worked out a better system. But 
 the printing press introduced a new and determining 
 factor in this development; the phonetic growth of 
 orthography was halted by the demand of visual 
 uniformity and permanence. As a result of this our 
 written word has sound and thought values that are 
 not independent of each other, but have acted and 
 reacted so that the written form cannot be changed 
 to give better expression to the one without affecting 
 its subtle relations to the other. The long-continued 
 processes of association and differentiation have 
 established controlling analogies of sound, meaning, 
 and form, so that alteration in one requires adjust- 
 ment of the rest to the new conditions. 
 
 The analogies of sound and those of meaning 
 counter each other; the latter tending to establish 
 rigid uniformity of appearance in thought symbols, 
 the former to conform to phonetic laws and rules at 
 
 19 
 
the expense of visual variations in the thought symbol. 
 Absolute phonetic uniformity would demand the use 
 of a single letter for a single sound; but such a condi- 
 tion is purely ideal, and English spelling is far removed 
 from it. There are nevertheless analogies of spelling 
 to which our orthography conforms, one or another 
 of them influencing the spelling of practically all our 
 words. The number of words that are spelled after 
 a single analogy, however, vary from two or three 
 words to thousands, the smaller groups being chiefly 
 made up of the older and now commoner words of 
 Anglo-Saxon or Old French origin, the larger groups 
 of the words borrowed or coined from Latin or Greek, 
 and chiefly of literary or scientific use. These analo- 
 gies of spelling are the result of the tendency to estab- 
 lish phonetic uniformity, and the extent of their 
 application marks the effectiveness of the tendency. 
 Absolute conformity to the demands of thought 
 analogies would represent a single idea always by a 
 single and unvarying symbol; and the effectiveness 
 of any system of directly indicating ideas by visual 
 signs depends upon the extent to which this demand 
 for distinctiveness is satisfied. Hence arises the end- 
 less creation of new words for the representation of 
 new ideas or for the differentiation of old ones, and 
 the process of their multiplication is limited only by 
 the capacity of the mind to memorize them. To such 
 an extent has this multiplication already gone that 
 there are in our ordinary unabridged dictionaries 
 some 150,000 words differently spelled, and it is a 
 most impressive evidence of the capacity of the mind 
 that the ordinary person should remember the spell- 
 ings and meanings of several thousands of them and 
 
 20 
 
the linguist recognize a hundred thousand or more, 
 besides thousands or tens of thousands from other 
 languages. 
 
 The memory of each word involves three distinct 
 elements, sound, spelling and sense; so that unless 
 some process of classification be adopted a recog- 
 nizing memory of a vocabulary of fifteen thousand 
 words involves the remembrance of some forty-five 
 thousand elements, each of which must be recollected 
 by a pure feat of memory, unless fixed relations be- 
 tween them or between classes of them is established 
 so that from the knowledge of one the other may be 
 inferred. When words are spelled phonetically, as 
 they were in early English times, the sound is a key 
 to the form, and vice versa. When words are spelled 
 alike or similarly in groups based upon thought 
 analogies or correspondences, the thought furnishes 
 a key to the sound or to the spelling, or to both of 
 them, as in the case of the names of chemical salts, 
 which all terminate in -ate, or the names of the com- 
 pounds in -ol, -ide, etc. 
 
 To-day amain, and perhaps the chief, function of 
 the written word is the immediate symbolism of 
 ideas, and uniformity of the thought symbol becomes 
 equal or more than equal in importance to conformity 
 with a phonetic spelling. Phonetic laws and rules, 
 therefore, now find their importance largely or chiefly 
 in affording a key to these symbols, and in assisting 
 the mind to group and remember them, for we must 
 have some conventional analytical scheme by which 
 the printed word may in general be independently 
 interpreted into the same sounds by different men. 
 Otherwise the three elements of our written language 
 
 21 
 
would have to be carried by the unaided memory, 
 as is largely the case with the Chinese language. 
 Still, we cannot afford to sacrifice the instant legi- 
 bility of the written page for the sake of absolute con- 
 formity to such a scheme; this is to nullify the effect 
 for which it is created. Obviously, then, that system 
 of spelling is best in which the thought and phonetic 
 analogies best supplement each other in giving such 
 uniformity to the visual symbols as will group them 
 most advantageously along broad lines of either pho- 
 netic or thought analogies. 
 
 The effect of the printing press in fixing our 
 spellings was not instantaneous, nor equal in its 
 effects. The process of regularization went slowly on, 
 fixing in small groups or isolated forms many of the 
 words frequently recurring in speech or writing, but 
 leaving the more literary and scientific element of 
 classical origin to work out a fairly consistent and 
 serviceable phonetic scheme, practically based upon 
 the Latin. The words of the latter class, then, 
 represent the broad analogies, the standards, of our 
 spelling ; but they are not entirely free from irregulari- 
 ties, such as the anomalous silent e in words in -ive, or 
 many words in -ine, etc. The workaday words, how- 
 ever, present the main difficulties. They largely con- 
 form to the general scheme, asbone, band, bane, tub, etc.; 
 but such forms as tough and rough, cough and trough, 
 bough and plough, through, do, to, and who, receive and 
 conceive, believe and retrieve, are as difficult to learn 
 as they are to reform. They are contained in such 
 small groups that for many, perhaps most, of them 
 the three elements of sound, sense, and meaning have 
 to be committed to memory unaided by any logical 
 
 22 
 
scheme for inferring one element from the other. 
 The alphabetic key to their spelling is practically 
 taken away by the fact that but a small number of 
 words are spelled according to the same analogy; 
 the sense affords no aid because the groups having 
 the same phonetic values or visual forms are without 
 any common significance by which they can be 
 associated. 
 
 Although these words are most in need of being 
 conformed to the broader phonetic analogies of the 
 language, they are the last to submit to any change. 
 Their frequency of occurrence renders them so familiar 
 that the feeling of the need of their reform is blunted 
 in those who must make it; and the accomplishment 
 of it depends for its success upon an appeal to the 
 reason or to altruistic consideration for others or for 
 posterity. Moreover, the same familiarity draws 
 closer the bond of association between the symbol 
 and the idea symbolized, and proportionately in- 
 creases the sacrifice of symbolic value involved in 
 any essential change from their customary form. 
 Most of them, too, are words of such few letters and 
 of such peculiar form that simplification entirely 
 changes their look. The use of tuf instead of tough 
 would certainly arrest the attention and check the 
 continuity of the thought of one who would, perhaps, 
 pass such forms as ablativ almost unheeded. Changes 
 in these more irregular, but distinctive, forms will 
 then be accomplished only group by group or word 
 by word, and with a due attention to the value of 
 distinctiveness of the proposed new symbol. The 
 irregularities of the larger classes of words are rela- 
 tively of slight importance. It is doubtless true that 
 
 23 
 
the use of the superfluous letter in words in -ive, for 
 example, wastes space, type and time; but the 
 difficulty involved in learning their spelling is well 
 nigh negligible. There are hundreds of them, and 
 when one is learned all are learned ; from one all the 
 others are recalled or recognized by the community 
 of meaning associating them together. The same is 
 true of other classes of words, as those in -ous. These 
 larger classes should certainly be reduced to phonetic 
 regularity where it can be done without involving 
 other irregularities or disadvantages more serious 
 than the ones obviated; and it seems to be true that 
 the words ending -ive, -ous, and perhaps other groups, 
 admit of this being done. 
 
 These irregularities are less noxious, however, 
 than others that exist in certain classes of our words 
 of classical origin that might easily be remedied if 
 those who should be the first to aid in such a move- 
 ment would lend their assistance. To mention a 
 single instance, there are given in Webster's Inter- 
 national Dictionary upwards of two hundred words 
 ultimately derived from Greek words in a. Of these 
 about half are spelled with the Latin form, or with i, 
 the other half with ei. Most of them are purely 
 technical words; and it would involve neither diffi- 
 culty nor uncertainty for any one that uses them to 
 spell them all ei or all i. The dictionaries (The Oxford 
 English Dictionary, the Century Dictionary, Web- 
 ster's International Dictionary, and the Standard 
 Dictionary) are practically at one upon the forms 
 they give as preferred, shifting together from one to 
 the other in most cases. It cannot be questioned 
 that it would be a gain to spell these words, excepting 
 
 24 
 
possibly a few, with uniformity. A similar but worse 
 state of affairs obtains with the much larger number 
 of words spelled with ae, oe, or e derived from the 
 Latin ae or oe, or from the Greek at or 01, such as 
 aesthetic, anaemic, amoeba, homoeopathic , etc. Some 
 are thoroughly incorporated with the common Eng- 
 lish vocabulary; others, by far the larger part, are 
 purely technical. In their spellings, however, none 
 of the dictionaries agree with each other or with 
 themselves. Actual usage generally decidedly prefers 
 the ae for words of technical, classical, or aesthetic 
 use, such as aesthetic, archaeology, anapaest, haemo- 
 globin, praetor, amoeba, etc. The dictionaries have 
 for some words arbitrarily given the e form the prefer- 
 ence with little or no usage to support it; but for 
 others of precisely the same class, and where exactly 
 the same reasons apply, the ae form is retained. This 
 has, of course, made the confusion worse confounded; 
 and it now remains for scholars to agree to spell these 
 words, or at least particular classes of 'them either 
 all e or all ae. Which form should be adopted, is too 
 tedious and intricate a matter to be discussed here; 
 and it is a matter of relative indifference so long as 
 one or the other is used with practical uniformity. 
 The one that most clearly suggests the Greek or Latin 
 associations in many cases has evident advantages 
 that ought not lightly to be sacrificed; and these 
 advantages are greatest where the objections to those 
 forms are the least. Aedile, Aetna, Aegean, are cer- 
 tainly more suggestive of their proper Latin and Greek 
 associations than are Edile, Etna, Egean. Aeolian is 
 more naturally associated with Aeolus, than is Eolian, 
 and daemon or daimon is less likely to be ambiguous 
 
 25 
 
as the name of a common spirit than is demon with 
 its misleading or inapt suggestion. A similar dis- 
 tinctiveness is exampled by Herakles and Hercules, 
 Asklepios and Aesculapius , the one with distinctively 
 Greek associations, the other with Latin ones. The 
 regularizing of these forms has in its aid the fact 
 that in most cases it can be done by choosing either 
 one or the other of two already existent forms ; and 
 were scholars to do this they would be unquestion- 
 ingly followed by the general public. 
 
 Our task is less simple when we have to deal 
 with a considerable group of words already fairly 
 well regularized according to some definite phonetic 
 analogy. Here changes may appear plausibly bene- 
 ficial but upon a thorough examination be found to 
 result in such new difficulties as to bring in question 
 the utility of the change. Possibly these new diffi- 
 culties may be foreseen and provided for; but until 
 this is done we should pause. Such a plausible change 
 is that proposed for words ending in -gue, which 
 would give us catalog, demagog, dialog, etc. Final 
 -ue in English words, following the French analogy, 
 is regularly silent; and the last two letters are then 
 phonetically unnecessary in the simple word. If 
 these forms only were involved the -ue would likely 
 enough have been dropped long ago by natural 
 processes, in the same way that k was from politick, 
 frantick, etc.; but their derivatives disclose at once a 
 particular reason why the ue spelling has been re- 
 tained. In these forms the u is necessary to show 
 that the g is hard according to the only pronunciation 
 given for most of them, as in cataloguing, cataloguist, 
 demagoguery, dialoguing. If the ue be dropped only 
 
 26 
 
from the simple form of the word we are introducing 
 confusion where before was regularity both in the 
 phonetic and the thought S5^mbols. In their present 
 form these words constitute a class that are associated 
 and rendered relatively easy to remember by a 
 common and distinctive peculiarity, but cataloging, 
 demagogery, catalogist, violate the general rule that 
 (at least in classical terms) g is soft before e, i, and y. 
 The unwisdom of doing evil that good may come of 
 it is as great in a matter of spelling as in one of morals; 
 and it is at least doubtful whether the substitution 
 here of one set of contradictions for another is to make 
 it easier to get rid of the new ones. 
 
 The phonetic difficulty arising merely from a 
 single irregularity or pecularity of spelling is tem- 
 porary, and disappears upon our becoming familiar 
 with it. Where, however, the same symbol is used 
 with different values, as are gh, ie, ei, etc., with no 
 serviceable rule by which the values can be deter- 
 mined for any particular case, the distinctiveness of 
 the phonetic symbol is lost, and a permanent diffi- 
 culty is involved that cries aloud for remedy. The 
 mind equally demands distinctiveness in words as 
 the direct symbols of ideas; and when a change 
 forces additional labor upon the mind by giving 
 additional senses to old word-forms which must be 
 distinguished by the work of analysis, a permanent 
 difficulty is created that may well be more objection- 
 able than a temporary one removed by conforming a 
 spelling to broader analogies. Such a condition 
 arises when homonyms (words with different origins 
 and senses but having the same sound), as bough 
 and bow, rough and ruff, bight and bite, are changed 
 
 27 
 
so to become homographs (words spelled alike but 
 with different origins and senses). If such changes 
 be innocuous, if it be true, as is said, that "the sup- 
 posed importance of distinguishing homonyms" has 
 no existence, then our common-sense misleads us, 
 and we must admit that it is as easy for the mind to 
 do two things as to do one — to perform the analytical 
 process necessary to decide which is intended of two 
 more or less distinguishable senses, as it is for it to 
 receive the correct meaning by direct suggestion of 
 a distinctive symbol. There is no significance, in 
 that case, in the blunders and misunderstandings that 
 everlastingly arise from the similarity of the sounds 
 of spoken words, and that would be many times 
 multiplied were not the surrounding circumstances 
 fresh in the mind, and the progress of the thought, 
 slow. 
 
 If the existence of the homographs that we already 
 have proves their harmlessness, we need not seek for 
 a justification for our present spelling. We have in 
 fact many less homographs than formerly. The 
 course of the English language is strewn with words 
 that have been dropped in the effort to differentiate 
 those spelled alike but having different meanings; 
 and there is still a constant working and counter- 
 working between this tendency and the tendency to 
 level all homophonous words to the same form. Rime 
 became rhyme because it was associated with rhythm, 
 and the likeness of form gave an added symbolic 
 value to the word. On the other hand in spright, a 
 spirit, and sprite, an elf; aether, the physical aether 
 (Britannica Supplement), and ether, the chemical 
 substance; demon, a malignant spirit, and daemon, a 
 
 28 
 
companion spirit; flower and flour; spiraea, the genus, 
 and spirea, the plant of that genus (Bailey's Hort. 
 and other recent botanical books) , and in innumerable 
 other words, we see the patent differentiation of a 
 single word into two forms for the clear expression of 
 different ideas. 
 
 For the vivid suggestion of obsolete or local 
 environment, obsolete or local peculiarities of form 
 are freely employed by historian, novelist, and poet. 
 Dr. Murray notes that: "Modern poets and romantic 
 writers (led by Sir W. Scott) have recalled the six- 
 teenth-seventeenth-century damosel or damozel to 
 express a more stately notion than is now conveyed 
 by damsel;" and, again that: "In modern use fantasy 
 and phantasy, in spite of their identity in sound and 
 ultimate etymology, tend to be apprehended as 
 separate words, the predominant sense of the former 
 being 'caprice, whim, fanciful invention,' while that 
 of the latter is 'imagination, visionary notion.'" 
 And fancy is a third, abbreviated form, once indis- 
 tinguishable in meaning from phantasy, but now 
 emptied of the older meaning and set apart to the 
 humbler task of denoting a mere aptitude, a taste, 
 a liking. So the historian of early English institu- 
 tions writes thegn and not thain, for the sake of his- 
 toric associations suggested by the first form; the 
 novelist gives an English flavor to a passage by using 
 gaol and not jail; the archaeologist chooses the form 
 gryphon with its more dignified associations, instead 
 of griffon with its zoological flavor, or griffin with its 
 suggestiveness of the bogey tales of childhood's days. 
 
 Spellings that rob us of the aid afforded by such 
 distinctions in form are inherently vicious. The 
 
 29 
 
difference in sense between past lieutenant and past 
 master is not as clear as it is between "passed lieu- 
 tenant" and "past master." Had there been no 
 ambiguity in the use of the same form for the senses 
 of passed and past the two would not have differen- 
 tiated. Yet it is not at all necessary that senses should 
 be closely related in order that difficulties should arise 
 in determining which of them is meant. The passage 
 " He would damn all patents that damned the river" 
 (i. e., impaired it seriously for use), (T. Hale, "New 
 Invent. " lxxxiii.) would read quite as well, but with 
 a different sense, if printed, according to the Philo- 
 logical Society Spellings, "he would dam all patents 
 that damd the river." "While we are in no danger of 
 any such bewildering multiplicity of homographs 
 arising in English as that which now exists in the 
 Chinese language, our critical literature and the 
 difficulties of our courts sufficiently attest the perni- 
 ciousness of those that we already have. 
 
 Not only is distinctiveness alike advantageous 
 in both thought symbols and phonetic symbols, but 
 the uniform use of a single symbol for a single idea is 
 as essential to facility in reading as a similar uniform- 
 ity is to facility in correct spelling. We may even be 
 led by the seeking after this uniformity of symbols 
 of ideas to neglect the phonetic uniformity. So we 
 are naturally led to spell skillful, willful, instill, 
 enthrall, retaining unchanged to the eye the form of 
 the primitive word; and in the same way we are im- 
 pelled to write woolen instead of woollen, as naturally 
 as we write wooden instead of woodden. The same 
 demand for uniformity in thought symbols has leveled 
 most of our past participles to the -ed form, the 
 
 30 
 
forms in -t being now obsolete or poetic archaisms. 
 The restoration of the discarded spelling in -t has a 
 first place in the proposed measures for reform, and 
 nearly one-fourth of the preliminary list of three 
 hundred words recommended to be spelled in their 
 "simplified forms" are of this class. The past parti- 
 ciple in -t in words ending in a surd, as in "kist," 
 "drest," "dropt," can be found for a large part of 
 such words in works now wholly obsolete, and some 
 of them are the original forms and earlier than those 
 in -ed, by which they have been superseded. Many 
 of them occur in our modern poets, where their 
 preservation is due in part to the general influence 
 that specialization has in any case to preserve old 
 forms, in part to the general leaning of poetry to 
 archaisms, and in part to the fact that the rhyme 
 places a factitious value upon the immediate and 
 exact suggestion of the actual sound. 
 
 In such a case of elimination of an old form by 
 natural processes the first presumption should be 
 that there is some advantage to be derived from the 
 irregularity in form greater than that to be had by 
 regularity in spelling. There is no practical difficulty 
 involved in either the spelling or the pronunciation of 
 blessed, distressed, passed, cursed, etc. Many of these 
 words were formerly spelled with the -t instead of 
 the -ed, corresponding to the usual spoken form; and 
 these spellings remained long after the spellings of 
 the language had become practically fixed by the 
 influence of the printing press and the dictionaries. 
 Nevertheless, despite this influence, most of them 
 have been superseded by the form in -ed, giving a 
 regular spelling and a regular appearance to the eye, 
 
 31 
 
with only a slight anomaly in the pronunciation. 
 The sliding over the e, and the assimilation of the 
 final d to t after the surd, is according to the general 
 analogies not only of English but of other languages, 
 and any difficulty attending the spelling in such cases 
 seems rather to arise from a pathological sensitiveness 
 to phonetic irregularities in words than to any in- 
 herent difficulties in the spelling itself. This is a case 
 where our grammarians and teachers have ' ' school- 
 mastered" our English apparently for the benefit of 
 all concerned. It is a decided disadvantage in reading 
 to shift continually from one symbol to another for 
 the same idea, as we should have to do were we to 
 write, for example, notcht, noted, rubd. Besides this, 
 the difficulty is aggravated in many cases by a change 
 in the form of the primitive word itself, as in kist 
 from kiss, mist from miss, bost from boss, etc. 
 
 If only the past participles in ed or t were in- 
 volved, the reasons for the change would have more 
 weight than they do in fact. If we change confessed, 
 blessed, distressed, etc., to confest, blest, distrest, etc., 
 shall we continue to use the spelling in ed for the 
 derivatives? Shall we say confessedly, blessedness, 
 distressedly , using two visual signs for the same idea 
 and practically the same word? And what shall we do 
 for glance, prance, price, etc. ? — Glanct, pranct, prict, are 
 clearly impossible. Also shall we subject our noun 
 plurals and our present indicative third person singu- 
 lar verbs to the same process of simplification and 
 write horsez, prize z, pricez, fadz, waiter z, tubz, (he) 
 ridz, jogz, rubz, reasonz, etc.; but rates, pricks, wraps, 
 faults, (he) steps, bites, walks, stops, etc.? There 
 certainly is a radical simplicity in such general rules 
 
 32 
 
as the ones that past participles are to be formed by 
 adding -ed to the verb, and plurals and present indica- 
 tives third person singular by adding -s (or -es). 
 A teacher may best realize the difficulties involved in 
 such a system of declining nouns and conjugating 
 verbs by formulating and testing in his teaching the 
 rules necessary to be observed in case of its adoption. 
 
 Similar evidences of the influence of thought 
 analogy are apparent in many of the suffixes and 
 prefixes used in classes of words, such as philo-, 
 phylo-, pyro-, hypo-, -graphy, -trophic, xylo-, hydro-, 
 etc., where each visually suggests to the mind a 
 certain idea common to all the words of its own group, 
 and definite sense associations with the Latin or 
 Greek languages. It is evident that these word ele- 
 ments involve spellings that are not in conformity 
 with a strictly phonetic method, but it is quite as 
 evident that they could not be reduced to exact con- 
 formity to phonetic rules without robbing them of 
 their distinctiveness in form and of their right associa- 
 tion with the sources from which they are derived. 
 
 These are but a few of the classes of facts in the 
 history of English word-forms for the last three 
 centuries showing a persistent tendency to unify the 
 spelling along definite lines of thought analogy, and 
 any proposition to change our spellings so as to 
 counter and undo this unconscious development 
 should at least be deferred until other less question- 
 able changes have been accomplished. Futhermore 
 it is not necessarily any recommendation for a pro- 
 posed spelling that it was once in common use and 
 still survives in some special classes of writing. The 
 mere fact that the spelling has been largely eliminated 
 
 33 
 
is prima facie evidence that it has been found less 
 serviceable and convenient than the one by which it 
 has been replaced. 
 
 In view of the difficulties of reforming our spell- 
 ing, the question is naturally suggested whether there 
 be not some other more feasible method that could 
 partly or largely be adopted to accomplish the same 
 results. Professor Lounsbury said, not long since, 
 that the pronunciation of our words has constantly 
 grown nearer to that indicated by their written form, 
 and an examination of the successive editions of the 
 large dictionaries discovers this to be true. We may 
 well consider whether we should not divert at least 
 a good part of the energy that is now devoted to 
 conforming our spelling to the pronunciation to an 
 effort to conform the pronunciation to the spelling. 
 There are hundreds of millions of dollars of capital 
 locked up in our present form of spelling. Great 
 libraries exist in it; our education is based upon it; 
 the associations of ideas common to the entire Anglo- 
 Saxon race are involved in it and with it. Our speech, 
 however, is shifting; there is a constant flux and 
 change, not only locally, but over wide territories. 
 For certain classes of terms the accepted pronuncia- 
 tion in England to-day is different from that obtaining 
 in the United States; and still another pronunciation 
 is given to some classes in Australia. If only our 
 spelling is changed, or, if it is changed to meet our 
 pronunciation, we shall have a written form of our 
 language as local as its spoken form, and in time a 
 written and spoken language different from that of 
 England and her colonies. Moreover, when educated 
 to reformed spellings peculiar to ourselves we shall 
 
 34 
 
find the same difficulty in reading British-printed 
 books that we should now find with books printed 
 according to any proposed reformed spelling of our 
 own. But if we change our pronunciations to meet 
 the spellings, although the spoken language may 
 vary, the written language will remain the same in 
 its word forms and undoubtedly mainly the same 
 in its meanings. English has no hope of becoming a 
 "world language" if we destroy the necessary condi- 
 tion of universality by the introduction of provinci- 
 alities. It seems practical, therefore, to suggest that 
 teachers as between several accepted pronunciations 
 should choose the one most nearly in conformity 
 with the written word; and that for certain classes of 
 words they should instruct their pupils that the pro- 
 nunciation should agree with the spelling. Here, 
 as in making changes in spelling, action should be 
 restrained by moderation and common-sense, and 
 should wait upon investigation for the determination 
 of the cases when such instruction could be wisely 
 given. 
 
 Words ending in -ese and -ose are now variously 
 pronounced; but probably a teacher might legiti- 
 mately teach her children to pronounce them all 
 according to the same analogy — either with final 5 
 or with final z in sound. If such a movement as this 
 could be fostered, it would result in material and 
 positive gain. We may well teach a child to say "the" 
 and "and" in pronouncing the words the and and, 
 for these are their proper pronunciations as words. 
 He will readily enough without teaching say th' and 
 an' or 'n in his ordinary conversation. So, if he be 
 taught to pronounce ashes with the short e of bet, he 
 
 35 
 
may naturally enough drop into the short i. But 
 why should the teacher recognize all of these modified 
 pronunciations arising from rapid discourse? Why 
 not in such cases teach the written form of the word, 
 allowing the colloquial modification to take care of 
 itself? 
 
 It is obvious that any effort for a reformed 
 spelling should take the direction of least resistance, 
 aiming to accomplish the greatest benefit at the least 
 cost, and that this direction is that in which the pro- 
 posed reforms will be aided by the natural processes 
 of elimination and regularization. If, however, as 
 appears to be the case, any change in spelling must 
 be considered in its remote bearings before it can 
 give any assurance of benefit, it is evident that we 
 are not yet in position to undertake seriously any- 
 considerable modification. In each case an examina- 
 tion of practically the entire English vocabulary is 
 necessary to cull out the words belonging to or affected 
 by the class proposed to be altered. This has been 
 done for a very few classes of words, and the results 
 published; but complete lists for this use are practi- 
 cally entirely wanting. The first step to be taken, 
 then, for the general improvement of English spelling 
 should be the compilation of such lists by competent 
 scholars, with analyses of the results to be obtained 
 by the desired changes. 
 
 Until this is done no one can judge of the results 
 or of the wisdom of changes recommended; when it 
 is done we shall doubtless have greater unanimity of 
 opinion concerning them. There are changes which 
 we already know will conform to the broad analogies 
 of the language; but the possible injury from unwise 
 
 36 
 
action is so serious, that the prudent course is not to 
 propose or fvirther any change which the fullest re- 
 search does not show to be clearly advantageous. 
 Yet it is unfortunate that our spelling should be 
 treated by some as a shibboleth or a fetich, which is 
 to be conserved merely for itself. The function of 
 language is to express thought, and any change in 
 it, whether in its written or its spoken form, that 
 will enable it to perform this function to better 
 advantage should be welcomed with the same readi- 
 ness that we would welcome a better system of 
 transportation. If such a stand were taken generally 
 by scholars it is fairly probable that within a genera- 
 tion or two a considerable portion of the radical 
 difficulties involved in the present spelling of English 
 could be removed. But if we Americans take this 
 step alone we forget that our language is a part of 
 the common heritage that binds us to all English- 
 speaking peoples, and gives us the benefit of commu- 
 nity with them. If the characteristic Anglo-Saxon 
 wisdom that sacrifices the individual for the common 
 weal forsake us, the hope of English becoming a 
 world language is an idle dream of egotism and 
 selfishness. 
 
 Nevertheless the reform of our spelling is both 
 necessary and inevitable ; but if certain progress and 
 not blind groping be our aim it is of supreme concern 
 that in accomplishing it we should be guided by right 
 principles. It is against reason and common-sense 
 that we should make a fetichistic panacea of the 
 phonetic element of our written language and ignore 
 the function that has dominated and given perma- 
 nence to it for nearly four centuries. Any proposed 
 
 37 
 
reform that does this necessarily meets with instinctive 
 suspicion, and must in the end largely fail or intro- 
 duce so many faults as to prove at best of doubtful 
 benefit. Let the proposed changes wait upon such a 
 general organized investigation of conditions and 
 results as will give us indisputable and generally 
 accepted principles upon which to base our action. 
 A movement that should aim to accomplish its results 
 by such a method would win the immediate approval 
 and confidence of all, whether British or American, 
 educated or uneducated; and should command their 
 instant and hearty support for the changes then 
 recommended. 
 
 38