3 1 
 
 924 054 511 351 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924054511351 
 
APPRENTICESHIP IN AMERICAN TRADE UNIONS 
 
SERIES XXV NOS. 11-12 
 
 JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES 
 
 IN 
 
 Historical and Political Science 
 
 (Edited by H. B. Adams, 1882-1901) 
 
 J. M. VINCENT 
 
 J. H. HOLLANDER W. W. WILLOUGHBY 
 
 Editors 
 
 APPRENTICESHIP IN AMERICAN 
 TRADE UNIONS 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES M. MOTLEY, Ph.D. 
 
 ••1 
 
 Assistant Professor of Economics in Leland Stanford Jr. University. 
 
 PROP ERTY OF LIBPARY 
 
 NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL 
 INDUSTRIAL ADO LACOR BE! ATIOMS 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
 BALTIMORE 
 THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS 
 
 PUBLISHED MONTHLY 
 
 November-December, 1907 
 
Copyright 1907 by 
 THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS 
 
 Press op 
 
 The New Era printing company 
 Lancaster, Pa. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This monograph is one of a series of investigations into 
 various phases of American trade unionism undertaken by 
 the Economic Seminary of the Johns Hopkins University. 
 In addition to the large collection of trade-union publications 
 now in the Johns Hopkins University, the author had access 
 to materials at the national headquarters of many of the 
 more important American trade unions. The documentary 
 information thus secured has been supplemented and cor- 
 rected by personal observation and by interviews with labor 
 leaders and employers in the chief centers of industry in 
 the United States. 
 
 The author desires to acknowledge the assistance received 
 in every part of the work from Professor Jacob H. Hollander 
 and Associate Professor George E. Barnett. 
 
 J. M. M. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction 9 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Historical. 
 
 Chapter I. Governmental Regulation of Apprenticeship.. 12 
 
 Chapter II. Customary Apprenticeship Rules. . ., 18 
 
 Chapter III. Trade-Union Regulation of Apprenticeship. . 31 
 Chapter IV. Apprenticeship Determined by Trade Agree- 
 ment 4 2 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Descriptive. 
 Chapter I. Extent of Present Union Apprenticeship 
 
 Regulations S3 
 
 Chapter II. Apprenticeship Regulation and its Purpose.. 66 
 
 Chapter III. Character of Apprenticeship Regulations 75 
 
 Chapter IV. Estimate of Union Apprenticeship Rules 100 
 
APPRENTICESHIP IN AMERICAN TRADE 
 UNIONS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 From the beginning of industrial development in the 
 United States to the present time apprenticeship regulations 
 have been successively determined by four different methods : 
 / (a) In the colonial and early state period, apprenticeship 
 was regulated by statute law or indenture. Every master, 
 journeyman or other person receiving an apprentice was 
 to conform to the requirements of the law of indenture 
 of the state in which he resided. The apprentice boy was 
 likewise bound under oath to fulfill his part of the contract. 
 This contract was agreed to and signed in the presence of 
 a magistrate. Although effective during certain periods of 
 its existence, the legal indenture became offensive to the 
 apprentice and unsuited to the changed conditions of indus- 
 trial life, and was finally abandoned. 
 
 (b) Coexistent with the law of indenture, and doubtless 
 in some of the older industries preceding it, each trade 
 developed certain customary rules governing apprentice- 
 ship. These practices were effective in many communities, 
 and in fact were observed throughout entire trades. Still, 
 at a later date, when the means of communication and 
 travel fostered a more severe competition, employers did 
 not hesitate to break any customary or unwritten regulations 
 observed by the journeymen and to substitute their own 
 rules governing apprenticeship. 
 
 (c) Before the rapid development of the different indus- 
 tries and the growth of trade unionism, while individual 
 bargaining was still the method used by the employees 
 in dealing with their employers, the journeymen realized the 
 weakness of the indenture and of customary rules as ade- 
 
 9 
 
io Introduction [49 2 
 
 quate methods for regulating apprenticeship. Moreover, 
 the large number of boys received by some employers 
 tended to reduce the wages of the journeymen. To elim- 
 inate this and other evils, the employee undertook, through 
 his trade union, to determine all regulations governing 
 apprenticeship. 
 
 During the early stage of unionism, each local union ad- 
 justed its apprenticeship rules according to its immediate 
 environment. This practically precluded complete unifor- 
 mity among the locals throughout each trade. When pos- 
 sible, the union limited the number of apprentices received. 
 Later, the international unions in some well-organized in- 
 dustries assumed control of apprenticeship regulations 
 throughout the entire trade, and made them uniform. The 
 union was impelled to take this step, in the first place, be- 
 cause, as competition developed between employers in dif- 
 ferent parts of the country, the advantage obtained by an 
 employer who secured extra apprentices at a reduced wage 
 was keenly felt by such of his competitors as were unable 
 to secure this privilege. In the second place, since the 
 market for labor had become national, the journeymen of a 
 trade in all parts of the country were interested in limiting 
 the large number of apprentices received in certain shops. 
 
 The employers never conceded the claims of the unions to 
 determine all apprenticeship regulations, especially the right 
 to place a restriction upon the number permitted, and op- 
 posed attempts to enforce such limitation. A bitter strug- 
 gle followed. When the union was strongly organized, its 
 regulations prevailed; when weakly organized, the employ- 
 ers put to work in their non-union shops as many boys as 
 they desired. Moreover, neither party felt especially con- 
 cerned to demand thorough training for the apprentice. 
 
 (d) Finally, as the growth of trade unions and the devel- 
 opment of employers' associations has continued, in some 
 trades practically all disputed questions, including those re- 
 lating to apprenticeship, have come to be submitted to a joint 
 board for settlement. With the more general recognition 
 
493] Introduction 1 1 
 
 and acceptance of the principles of conciliation, apprentice- 
 ship regulations are in many cases mutually determined in 
 this manner and heartier cooperation is secured in enforcing 
 them. 
 
 In the following study, the four methods of securing 
 apprenticeship regulations, above mentioned, will be consid- 
 ered; the causes leading to the failure of one and the sub- 
 stitution of another and the conditions of the apprentice 
 under each will be pointed out ; the extent of apprenticeship 
 rules in trade unions of the present day will be noted; and 
 the purpose and scope of such rules will be discussed. Since 
 this study is primarily concerned with apprenticeship and 
 trade unions, only a brief statement of the law of indenture 
 seems necessary. The previous training of foreign jour- 
 neymen engaged in this country and the customary rules 
 gradually ■ developed to meet the peculiar native environ- 
 ment influenced materially the apprenticeship regulations of 
 the early trade unions. A brief study of these influences 
 enables us the better to follow and appreciate later union 
 apprenticeship regulations. 
 
 It should be noted, however, that, while different methodi 
 for determining apprenticeship regulations were used, no 
 precise period other than the general historical sequence fol- 
 lowing the change of industry can be assigned for each. 
 For example, the old indenture laws have not been entirely 
 removed from the statute books. Again, in many small or 
 unorganized shops, customary apprenticeship rules are ob- 
 served at the present time ; and, even though conciliation has 
 proved to be the'most satisfactory method for enacting and 
 enforcing these regulations, as a matter of fact they are 
 determined in many cases exclusively by the local or inter- 
 national union. 
 
PART I. 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Governmental Regulation of Apprenticeship. 
 
 r 
 
 The underlying purpose of early apprenticeship laws in 
 the United States was twofold, (<z) industrial and (b) 
 philanthropic. 
 
 (a) The general custom prevailed — inherited from Euro- 
 pean industrial conditions — for every boy of the artisan class 
 to learn a trade. The ordinary mechanic desired to have his 
 own son thus equipped. For, without such training, he was 
 handicapped in carrying on his life work. Under the law, 
 it was possible for any master to receive an apprentice with 
 the assurance that the boy would remain in his charge until 
 he became of age, and the boy was likewise certain that he 
 would be taught a useful trade. 
 
 (b) Secondly, the law guaranteed to poor, unfortunate or 
 neglected children the opportunity to learn a trade, so that 
 they might, in time, become useful citizens and not public 
 charges. This intention is clearly set forth in the preamble 
 to " An Act for the Better Regulations of Apprentices," 
 passed by the State of Maryland in 1793. " Whereas it has 
 been found by experience that poor children, orphans and 
 illegitimate children for want of sufficient system have been 
 left destitute of support, and have become useless or de- 
 praved members of society; and whereas it would greatly 
 conduce to the good of the public in general and of such 
 children in particular, that necessary instruction in trades 
 and useful arts should be afforded them; therefore be it 
 enacted," 1 etc. 
 
 'Laws of Maryland, 1793, Chapter 14. 
 12 
 
49 5 ] Governmental Regulation of Apprenticeship. 13 
 
 The apprenticeship laws varied from state to state, but the 
 main features were essentially the same: 
 
 Those permitted to bind out children were parents, who 
 might indenture their own children; justices of the peace, 
 who were empowered to bind out orphans, children suffering 
 through negligence or poverty of parents, children of beg- 
 gars, illegitimate or destitute children ; trustees or guardians, 
 to whose care orphans or other poor children had been in- 
 trusted; institutions or benevolent societies, under whose 
 jurisdiction dependents had been placed. 
 
 Any manufacturer, mechanic, mariner, handicraftsman or 
 any other person acceptable to the one having the child in 
 charge and to the court officials was permitted to receive an 
 apprentice provided satisfactory terms could be arranged. 
 The mode of procedure or ceremony followed when inden- 
 turing an apprentice was simple. The father, trustees, or 
 other person having control of the boy, together with the 
 one receiving the apprentice, appeared in court with the writ- 
 ten indenture, wherein were embodied the terms previously 
 agreed upon. Each party took an oath to abide by the con- 
 ditions of the indenture, and a copy of the instrument was 
 placed on file in the records of the magistrate, for which 
 service the latter received a small fee paid by the master. 
 In case the child of a beggar or other non-supporting parent 
 was about to be bound out, the latter was consulted in a 
 general way as to the person to whom the child should be 
 bound. Moreover, if any relative or other person desired 
 to provide for the child and furnished an acceptable bond 
 for faithful performance of such duty until the apprentice 
 became of age, the child could not be bound out. 
 
 The conditions under which the apprentice served were in 
 the main uniform. As a rule, no definite period of appren- 
 ticeship was stated in the contract other than that the ap- 
 prentice was required to serve until of age — twenty-one 
 years in case of males and sixteen in case of females, thus 
 making the term of service entirely dependent upon the age 
 at the time of indenture. No apprentice could be bound for 
 
14 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [496 
 
 a period extending beyond this limit. When a father bound 
 out his own son, he was free to make any reasonable terms 
 with the master mechanic ; but justices of the peace, binding 
 out upon their own authority orphans or other children com- 
 mitted to their charge, were directed by the law to insert in 
 the contract the provision that when possible the master of 
 an apprentice should, in addition to the instruction given 
 in some useful art or trade, provide opportunities whereby 
 the apprentice could obtain a reasonable education in the 
 primary branches — reading, writing and arithmetic. Except 
 in rare or special cases, no attempt was made to specify the 
 particular kind of work in which the apprentice should en- 
 gage during each year of his term, this being left to the 
 discretion of the employer. 
 
 Both the apprentice and the employer were bound by law 
 to observe certain stipulated conditions ; and, in case the con- 
 tract was broken, the guilty party might be summoned be- 
 fore the c'ourt and punished. For offences committed dur- 
 ing the term of service the apprentice was subject to the 
 same penalty imposed upon any other citizen for a similar 
 offense, and, in case the master paid the fine and costs of the 
 trial, the court, to compensate his employer, could adjudge 
 the extra time the boy should serve after the completion of 
 his regular term. In some states the master was prohibited, 
 under penalty of discharging his apprentices, from taking 
 them into another state or beyond the boundary of his own 
 state. 
 
 In case the master died during the term of apprentice- 
 ship, the widow was given power to transfer all rights and 
 interests in the apprentice to another master of the same 
 trade, for a sum agreed upon by them. This amount was 
 considered as belonging directly to the widow and not as a 
 part of the estate of her deceased husband. Moreover, 
 after the death of the master, until some disposition was 
 made of the apprentice, he was to remain at home and 
 continue his usual work under direction of the widow. 
 
 As a rule, the employer was not forced to take an appren- 
 
497] Governmental Regulation of Apprenticeship. 15 
 
 tice, and, on the other hand, if he did desire to use appren- 
 tices, was not limited as to the number he might put to work. 
 In some states, however, every master pilot was compelled 
 to take at least one apprentice and to give him the neces- 
 sary instruction. The complete control given to the em- 
 ployer over apprentices caused the latter in some cases to 
 be grouped with servants and slaves, and the same laws 
 were sometimes made applicable to both. 
 
 The contents of the indenture were largely matters of 
 contract between the master mechanic and the apprentice 
 or parent, and the terms thereof varied according to the 
 conditions and desires of the parties concerned. Some em- 
 ployers were exacting and demanded pledges of the boy. 
 The state, also having in mind the general welfare of the 
 apprentices — for one object of the law was to provide poor, 
 neglected and orphan children with homes and opportuni- 
 ties to learn trades — not only protected him by restrictions 
 placed on the employer, but also exacted promises of good 
 behavior from the boy himself. Thus, an indenture entered 
 into by a master boot and shoe maker and a boy who en- 
 gaged himself to learn that trade, provided that " During 
 all which term, the said Apprentice, his said Master well 
 and faithfully shall serve, his secrets keep, and his lawful 
 commands everywhere at all times readily obey. He shall 
 do no damage to his said Master nor wilfully suffer any to 
 be done by others, and if any to his knowledge be intended, 
 he shall give his Master seasonable notice thereof. He shall 
 not waste the goods of his said Master nor lend them 
 unlawfully to any. At card, dice, or any other unlawful 
 game, he shall not play. Fornication he shall not commit, 
 nor matrimony contract, during the said term. Taverns, 
 alehouses or places of gaming he shall not haunt or fre- 
 quent. From the service of his said Master he shall not 
 absent himself, but in all things and at all times, he shall 
 carry and behave himself as a good and faithful Appren- 
 tice ought, during the whole term aforesaid. And the 
 said Master on his part doth hereby promise, covenant and 
 
1 6 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [49^ 
 
 agree to teach and instruct the said Apprentice, or cause 
 him to be taught and instructed in the art, trade or calling 
 of a Boot and Shoe Maker by the best way or means he can, 
 and the said Master agrees to give the said Apprentice 
 three months schooling to wit, Reading, Writing and 
 Cyphering as far as the Rule of Three Inclusive and shall 
 well and faithfully find and provide for the said Apprentice, 
 good and sufficient meat, drink, clothing, lodging, and other 
 necessities fit and convenient for such an Apprentice, dur- 
 ing the term aforesaid and at the expiration of the said 
 term to have the Customary freedom due." 
 
 Under such conditions, the early manufacturer, often a 
 hard worker, having in view the future welfare of his 
 business, and in many cases, desiring to equip his own son, 
 or a boy in whom he was interested, for his life work, 
 gathered one or more lads about him and gave them, often 
 in person, the instruction needed to make of them com- 
 petent workmen. Except in so far as the indenture pre- 
 scribed the manner in which apprentices were to be received 
 and compelled each party to abide by the terms of the con- 
 tract, the employer and the parent or guardian of the 
 apprentice were practically free to arrange all details of the 
 agreement. 
 
 'The failure and final abandonment of the indenture sys- 
 tem is to be attributed to several causes. It was peculiarly 
 suited to domestic or small-scale manufacture in which 
 personal contact between the master- and apprentice was 
 emphasized, and it became correspondingly an ineffective 
 system, with the emergence and final establishment of the 
 modern factory or large-scale production. In fact, appren- 
 ticeship regulations, like other trade rules, depend largely 
 upon the methods under which the industry is operated, 
 and must be adjusted from time to time according to the 
 new conditions arising. 
 
 / Again, the artisan class insisted that their children be 
 taught a trade, and the master was likewise anxious for 
 a legal contract in order that he might be assured of con- 
 
499] Governmental Regulation of Apprenticeship. 17 
 
 stant service until the end of the stated term. The in- 
 denture afforded the beginner such an opportunity to learn 
 the trade, but at a distinct sacrifice of personal liberty. 
 This was specially true in the case of poor, neglected and 
 orphan children, who were often bound to masters whom 
 they did not select and upon terms not of their own choos- 
 ing. Theoretically, the master and the boy assumed equal 
 positions before the law — each being bound to perform 
 certain clearly defined duties — and the relations between 
 them were often mutually pleasant and profitable. Never- 
 theless, the master naturally exercised the larger influence, 
 and the apprentice was at a corresponding disadvantage. 
 In practically every industry, the boy was compelled to 
 perform odd jobs entirely distinct from trade activities. 
 Accordingly, his term of apprenticeship was unduly ex- 
 tended. Thus, entirely apart from the industrial changes 
 in the methods of production which rendered the indenture 
 system less desirable, it tended of itself to become more 
 and more objectionable to the apprentice boys. They be- 
 came restless under the heavy restraint imposed upon them, 
 often ran away from their masters, and sought employment 
 elsewhere as journeymen. They refused to be grouped 
 before the law with servants and slaves ; and their con- 
 tinued opposition to the system contributed in no small 
 degree to its final abandonment. 
 
 Finally, it is perhaps not entirely fanciful to suggest 
 that the gradual growth of feeling against the law by which 
 the slave was bound to his master operated to bring into 
 disfavor the statute under which the apprentice was held 
 by his employer. Journeymen who have been long at their 
 trade, especially those whose term antedates the Civil War, 
 assert that such was undoubtedly the case, even though the 
 influence was not always visible nor tangible. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Customary Apprenticeship Rules. 
 
 Indenture laws gradually became ineffective in the 
 various trades. Yet, even after employers and journeymen 
 experienced difficulty in enforcing them, in the absence of 
 more efficient methods such laws were retained on the 
 statute books. 
 
 Even, however, during the existence of the indenture 
 itself, and previous to the organization of trade unions, 
 artisans engaged at the various trades developed certain 
 customs in connection with apprenticeship which, while 
 not rigidly observed at all times, nevertheless were more 
 or less binding, and were the rules most generally practiced. 
 / These early customs adopted by the journeymen themselves 
 in dealing with the apprentice were in a great measure in- 
 fluenced (a) by foreign trade customs introduced by artisans 
 coming from other countries and (b) by the conditions 
 existing in the new country. 
 
 (a) The words " berkshire " and " two-thirder," desig- 
 nating beginners in the iron molding and printing industries 
 respectively, were brought from England, where the same 
 terms were widely used, and suggest the direct influence 
 of English customs upon apprenticeship regulations in this 
 country. This is readily understood when the large number 
 of foreigners engaged in American industry is considered. 
 It frequently happened that employers, even though per- 
 mitted to receive a large number of apprentices, found the 
 supply of artisans inadequate to meet the legitimate de- 
 mands of the trade, and sent representatives abroad to 
 urge skilled workmen to take up residence in this country. 
 In some instances, state legislatures, acting upon the urgent 
 appeal of prominent employers, who claimed that more 
 trained mechanics were needed, sent agents abroad to urge 
 18 
 
501] Customary Apprenticeship Rules. 19 
 
 immigration to that state. In 1863 the Legislature of Mis- 
 souri, urged by prominent employers of the commonwealth, 
 sent an agent to Europe for the express purpose of in- 
 ducing skilled mechanics to seek employment in that state. 
 Mr. Giles Filley, a prominent stove manufacturer of St. 
 Louis, claimed that the supply of well-trained iron molders 
 was entirely inadequate to meet his legitimate business de- 
 mands, and urged the agent to send him a large number of 
 Prussian iron molders. This request was speedily complied 
 with, and twenty-five molders, having accepted the offer 
 of the American agent by contract, dated Berlin, March 
 8, 1864, started for St. Louis. Upon their arrival, they 
 were approached by members of the local union of iron 
 molders, who explained that the supposed deficiency in the 
 supply of workmen was not caused by any unfair and 
 rigid apprenticeship rules of the union nor by any un- 
 willingness upon the part of the journeymen to work, but, 
 as they stated, by the very low wages offered. Upon this 
 information, the Prussian molders disregarded their con- 
 tract signed in Berlin, became members of the union, and 
 through the influence of that body succeeded in obtaining 
 employment in other cities. 
 
 The methods used by employers in the printing industry 
 to secure foreign workmen are made clear in a statement 
 prefacing the printed constitution of the New York Typo- 
 graphical Association, issued in 1833. After reciting the 
 depressed condition of the trade, it adds that " among 
 the means made use of to depress the business by those who 
 withhold from the workmen their just demands, has been 
 advertising in several of the newspapers in Scotland, and 
 elsewhere in Great Britain, that a great opening for printers 
 existed. in New York, thereby inducing many to leave the 
 comforts of home in the old country for a precarious sub- 
 sistence on this side of the Atlantic. Many to their regret 
 can testify to the truth of this assertion; and the feelings 
 of the man, by whose unprincipled conduct this breaking 
 up of kindred and subsequent disappointment in obtaining 
 
20 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [5° 2 
 
 the means of support have happened, are not to be envied. 
 Perhaps the day may come, when remorse, like a subtle 
 poison, may lurk about his heart, and cause him to do an 
 act of justice to those who have been swindled by his 
 deception. When the Association was informed of the 
 means taken by unprincipled men to injure the business, a 
 circular was immediately addressed to the Printers of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and dis- 
 patched by one of its members. The Association has since 
 learned, by letters from Europe, that the appeal has had 
 an extensive circulation, and has tended in a great measure 
 to counteract the evil contemplated by the original adver- 
 tisements." 
 
 In response to these and other inducements, foreign me- 
 chanics came in large numbers to the United States. They 
 prided themselves upon their skill, which, as a rule, was 
 superior to that of native Americans who had received little 
 training, and that of inferior quality. In order to make 
 competent workmen of his own sons or of the apprentice 
 boys placed under his charge, it was natural for the newly 
 arrived journeyman to adopt the same methods under which 
 he had learned his trade at home. European example thus 
 influenced, if it did not entirely determine, American ap- 
 prenticeship customs. 
 
 (b) The dominance of simple rather than complex in- 
 dustry during the early period of our national history, and 
 even after the formation of the first labor unions, directly 
 influenced trade conditions generally, including rules gov- 
 erning apprenticeship. The industrial unit was compara- 
 tively small, ordinarily the small shop, sometimes even 
 the family group. 
 
 The period was also marked by the absence of a widely 
 extended market, rapid communication and easy means of 
 transportation. These conditions made it necessary for each 
 household or community to produce for itself, without any 
 special knowledge of the means and resources of other dis- 
 tricts, and without even the stimulus of competition. 
 
503] Customary Apprenticeship Rules. 21 
 
 The cigar making industry, for example, was largely car- 
 ried on in small local establishments. The following pass- 
 age from the first annual report of the Ohio Bureau of Labor 
 Statistics summarizes the early condition of the cigar indus- 
 try. " Previous to 1861, no class of employes was more 
 independent of employers than cigar makers. Few large 
 manufacturing establishments existed, and as a rule, the 
 manufacturer was the retailer. Whenever the journeyman 
 became dissatisfied with his condition, he withdrew from the 
 employer and set up a shop of his own." 2 Every large city 
 was well supplied with many such shops, where the journey- 
 man, aided by members of his family or by apprentice boys, 
 made all his goods by hand. Even the small cities had their 
 own cigar manufacturers, who made and retailed to the gen- 
 eral public the larger portion of the local supply. 
 
 Similar early conditions affecting the machinists' and 
 blacksmiths' trade are clearly set forth by one long identi- 
 fied with the trade in organizing unions and in managing 
 their affairs. " Young men whose majority dates since 
 1 86 1 can form a very imperfect idea of what the craft was 
 twenty or twenty-five years ago. It is still within the recol- 
 lection of gray-headed machinists and blacksmiths, the days 
 when a machinist was a compound of handiwork, a kind of 
 cross between a millwright and whitesmith, a fitter, fur- 
 nisher, locksmith, etc. ... In the early days of mechanism 
 in the country but few shops employed many men. Gener- 
 ally the employer was head man, he knew his men person- 
 ally, he instructed his apprentices and kept a general super- 
 vision of his business. By that means every workman knew 
 his employer, and if aught went astray there was no circum- 
 locution office to go through to have an understanding about 
 it. But as the business came to be more fully developed, it 
 was found that more capital must be employed and the 
 authority and supervision of the owner or owners must be 
 delegated to superintendent or foreman." 3 
 
 Moreover, the precise relations existing between the ap- 
 
 2 Cigar Makers' Journal, May, 1878, p. 12. 
 
 a Machinists and Blacksmiths' Journal, February, 1872, p. 521. 
 
22 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [5°4 
 
 prentice and his master were affected by the nature of the 
 trade itself and the manner in which it was conducted. The 
 building trades, for example, were easily " picked up ; " or 
 at least the opportunities for acquiring them were abundant. 
 In these trades the beginner was apprenticed to his employer. 
 On the other hand, the conditions existing in such an in- 
 dustry as stove molding were quite different. 4 Considerable 
 capital was required to establish the industry, which was con- 
 ducted in fewer localities and afforded opportunities for a 
 much smaller number of apprentices. The boy was often 
 apprenticed to neither the proprietor of the furnace nor the 
 real stove manufacturers, that is, the employer who fur- 
 nished the patterns and had his stove molded, but to the 
 journeyman, who paid him by the piece for what he made. 
 Every journeyman engaged at least one " berkshire," as the 
 apprentice boy was called, and oftentimes four or five. 
 " These berkshires were a peculiar institution. They were 
 boys employed by molders to assist them at their work, 
 nominally as helpers, but in reality they were apprentices, 
 and every molder had to use at least one of them." 5 Finally, 
 when the casting of the stove plate came under the control 
 of the employer who furnished the designs and molded the 
 stoves, boys were generally apprenticed to the employer, 
 though the journeymen continued the practice of taking 
 apprentices until the custom was forbidden by the union. 
 A Many trades early became overcrowded because of the 
 large number of apprentices who were allowed to learn the 
 r trade. The right of the employer to engage as many ap- 
 prentices as he desired was a custom of long standing, and 
 was regarded as an undoubted right, not to be surrendered 
 without a struggle. Indeed, trouble began with the first 
 attempt of the locals to restrict the number going to the 
 trade, so that the unions found it necessary to act slowly and 
 to make the change gradually. 
 
 * The first foundry designed exclusively for the manufacture of 
 stoves and hollow ware in this country was erected in 1829. Pre- 
 vious to this date all stoves were cast at block furnaces. See 
 Iron Molders' Journal, January, 1904, p. 7. 
 
 * Iron Molders' Journal, August, 1896, p. 1. 
 
SO 5] Customary Apprenticeship Rules. 23 
 
 In an industry such as that of cigar making, where the 
 producers were small, each manufacturer engaged appren- 
 tices according to the needs of his own individual shop, re- 
 gardless of the general welfare of the trade. In conse- 
 quence, the trade was always becoming overcrowded, and, 
 after the formation of unions, 6 one of the most difficult 
 problems was how to control the supply of apprentices. 
 After the movement towards concentration of the industry 
 had begun, 7 the larger factories were fairly well organized 
 by the union, and a regular course of training could be 
 required of all beginners. 
 
 In certain cities, however, the trade came to be carried on 
 in a large measure by tenement-house workers, with the 
 familiar attendant evils. This system of production has 
 continued even to the present time, though state laws have 
 been enacted against sweat-shop work, and, in many in- 
 stances, the evil has been eradicated. But in the tenement 
 houses, which were generally owned by the manufacturer 
 and filled entirely with tenants who promised to engage in 
 cigar making, no accurate estimate of the number learning 
 the trade could be secured, for the material was taken to and 
 from the house by the employer, and the women and children 
 aided in the making. It was from this source that the trade 
 was recruited, and it was estimated that, at one time, about 
 four fifths of the cigars manufactured in New York City 
 were made in these tenement houses by workers who were 
 almost entirely non-union. 
 
 Those trades were especially overcrowded in which it was 
 
 * The first Cigar Makers' Union was organized at Baltimore, May 
 5, 1851. On May 10-14 0I the same year a meeting of representa- 
 tives from cities in the State of New York met at Syracuse for the 
 purpose of establishing a uniform bill of prices throughout the 
 state and regulating the apprenticeship system; see Journal and 
 Program of Cigar Makers' International Union, twentieth session, 
 held at Milwaukee, 1893. 
 
 1 In 1861 the United States Government placed a heavy tax on 
 cigars, thus to a certain extent driving the business into the hands of 
 large manufacturers and compelling the cigar maker to become an 
 employee working for wages. First Annual Report of the Ohio 
 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Columbus, 1878; see Cigar Makers' 
 Journal, May, 1878, p. 12. 
 
24 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [S°6 
 
 possible to do piecework, and hence in which both employers 
 and employing journeymen found it profitable to engage the 
 services of many apprentices. In the iron molding indus- 
 try " the ' Berkshire ' system, as it was called, was a standing 
 grievance, as it operated to create an overcrowded market 
 of stove molders with its logical and pernicious results." 8 
 Whether the journeyman was paid by the piece or so much 
 for each completed stove, for both methods were practiced at 
 different times and at different places, the greater the number 
 of apprentices directed by him, the greater the output, and 
 consequently the larger his wage. Later on, when the num- 
 ber of " berkshires " allowed each journeyman was limited 
 by union regulation because of the rapidity with which the 
 trade was being recruited, many of the older members com- 
 plained bitterly, and evaded the intent of the regulation by 
 adopting a boy, for the union recognized the right of the 
 journeyman to teach the trade to his own or adopted 
 son. 
 
 Somewhat similar economic conditions brought about 
 an oversupply of apprentices in the printing trade. During 
 the early years of the printing industry the editor or 
 proprietor of a newspaper or job printing office was also 
 a practical printer. It was the cherished ambition of the 
 journeyman printer to master the trade as soon as possible, 
 that he might become the proprietor of his own establish- 
 ment, from which he could edit and issue his own paper. 
 This important position enabled the occupant to wield con- 
 siderable influence and power in the community, but re- 
 quired a long period of training upon the part of the one 
 filling it. It also gave the journeyman master or proprietor 
 an excellent opportunity to use witty profit a number of 
 apprentices. The number of apprentices employed in certain 
 shops often exceeded the total number of journeymen en- 
 gaged therein. In fact, instances are recorded where the 
 proprietor was compelled to close his shop during a strike 
 of apprentices because the number of journeymen remaining 
 was insufficient to continue the business. 
 
 8 Iron Molders' Journal, August, 1896, p. 1. 
 
507] Customary Apprenticeship Rules. 25 
 
 At no time during the early period was the trade free from 
 " two-thirders," that is, those who had not served a full 
 apprentice term, or runaway apprentices. Moreover, the 
 typographical unions in combating the " two-thirder " sys- 
 tem were, like the iron molders' unions in opposing the 
 " berkshire " system, compelled to oppose not only the em- 
 ployers, but also many of their own members. 
 
 The evils arising from the employment of " two-thirders " 
 or " half-way journeymen " are suggested by a circular let- 
 ter sent to the trade in 1809 by the New York Typographical 
 Society. Among other grievances cited, the letter sets forth 
 that " the practice of employing what are termed ' half-way 
 journeymen ' in preference to those who have served their 
 time, while it holds out encouragement to boys to elope from 
 their masters, as soon as they acquire a sufficient knowledge 
 of the art to be enabled to earn their bread, is a great griev- 
 ance to journeymen, and almost certain ruin to the boys 
 themselves. Becoming masters of their own conduct at a 
 period of life when they are incapable of governing their 
 passions and propensities, they plunge headlong into every 
 species of dissipation, and are often debilitated by debauch- 
 ery and disease before they arrive at the state of manhood. 
 And it also tends to an unnecessary multiplication of ap- 
 prentices, inasmuch as the place of every boy who elopes 
 from his master is usually supplied by another ; while at the 
 same time the runaway supplies, after a manner, the place 
 of a regular journeyman, and one who probably has a family 
 dependent upon his labor for support. We would also beg 
 leave to call your attention to a practice as illiberal and un- 
 just as the former and attended, perhaps, with evils of a 
 more aggravating motive ; we mean that of taking grown 
 men (foreigners) as apprentices to some twelve or fifteen 
 months, when they are to be turned into the situations of men 
 who are masters of their business, which men are to be 
 turned out of their places by miserable botches because they 
 will work for what they can get. By these means numbers 
 of excellent workmen, who ought to be ornaments to the 
 
26 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [5°8 
 
 profession, are driven by necessity to some other means of 
 support." 9 
 
 Similarly, among the machinists and blacksmiths, the idea 
 of limiting the number of apprentices entering the trade did 
 not appear until late. The early employers of journeymen 
 were at liberty to engage as many boys as the demands of 
 the business would warrant, or, in case of the journeyman, 
 as many as he was personally able to direct. " The taking 
 on of as many apprentices as could be worked was consid- 
 ered the indubitable right of every employer, the peremptory 
 dismissal of workmen was another; hence, in dull times, 
 men with families to support would find themselves out of 
 work, while the shops, whose doors were closed on them, 
 were filled with apprentice boys. This inordinate rush of 
 apprentices was remonstrated against in vain. The writer 
 of this was one of some twenty young men kept at work 
 after the great financial crisis of 1857, while there were sixty 
 apprentices employed." 10 
 
 The wages of the apprentice, especially at the beginning 
 of his term, consisted in many cases of mere board and lodg- 
 ing, ordinarily obtained at the home of the employer. How- 
 ever, when the boy was bound out to the journeyman, who 
 had no desire to increase the number of workmen in his 
 trade, but received apprentices mainly in order to increase 
 his own wages, especially when engaged at piecework, the 
 boy frequently paid a stated amount to the journeyman, who 
 taught him the " art and mysteries " of the craft. Various 
 attempts were made by different unions to demand extra pay 
 for journeymen who spent a portion of their time in teach- 
 ing an apprentice. Thus, in the scale of prices drawn up 
 by the New York Typographical Society in 1815, an article 
 was inserted which provided that " a pressman shall receive 
 for teaching an apprentice presswork, for the first three 
 months, five cents per token, and for the three months fol- 
 lowing three cents per token." 
 
 ' Early Organizations of Printers, by Ethelbert Stewart, in Bulletin 
 of the Bureau of Labor, No. 61, November, 1905. 
 
 10 See " Early History of Our Organization," in Machinists and 
 Blacksmiths' Journal, February, 1872, p. 520. 
 
509] Customary Apprenticeship Rules. 27 
 
 In common with the journeyman, the apprentice worked 
 long hours each day. " The hours of labor were long, it 
 being not uncommon for molders to start to work at four 
 o'clock in the morning, and the spectacle of a molder trudg- 
 ing through the streets at that hour on his way to work, 
 with his ' berkshire ' at his side bearing a lantern, was not 
 an unusual one to the night watch of those days." 11 
 
 The feeling between the apprentice and his master was, in 
 some cases, more like that existing between father and son 
 than between employer and employee. If the apprentice 
 was not really adopted by the master, he often enjoyed the 
 pleasure and advantage of the latter's home, to which he 
 generally had free access, and in which he did many things 
 entirely separate and distinct from the duties connected with 
 learning the trade. Likewise, at the shop, he ran errands, 
 cleaned the premises, arranged the tools, and, in fact, became 
 a general factotum about the place. While it was conceded 
 that the boy was indispensable to the employer, still the idea 
 prevailed that, when the master agreed to teach his trade to 
 the beginner, he did so at a personal sacrifice, at least dur- 
 ing the first few years of the term, and, to compensate in a 
 manner for this loss, the apprentice agreed to perform these 
 various services apart from his regular trade. Doubtless 
 many employers did their utmost to make the boy a paying 
 investment from the very beginning, and, if we may judge 
 from the numerous runaways recorded, especially from the 
 emphasis given to this portion of the apprentice question in 
 the early laws on the subject, employers were sometimes hard 
 taskmasters. 
 
 The close personal relation, which often existed between 
 the old master and his apprentice during the early times, was 
 clearly described to the present writer by an old printer, who 
 spoke freely of the conditions under which he served his 
 apprenticeship term, more than forty years ago, as well as 
 of the interest taken in him and the opportunities afforded 
 him to obtain a thorough knowledge of the trade. He and 
 his employer labored together in a small printing office from 
 
 11 Iron Molders' Journal, August, 189,6, p. 1. 
 
28 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [510 
 
 which the weekly newspaper was issued to the people in the 
 immediate community. During press days he was employed 
 from early morning to late at night. But then an interval 
 of several days followed, during which time work was prac- 
 tically suspended, and the apprentice enjoyed leisure. The 
 house of the employer was the home of the apprentice, 
 though the latter frequently visited his own parents on Sat- 
 urday night, returning on the following Monday morning. 
 At the beginning of each day he performed his regular as- 
 signed tasks about the house, after which he set off with his 
 master, ready for the day's work at the office. The condi- 
 tions under which he labored as an apprentice were far more 
 pleasant than those enjoyed in after years, when he had 
 completed his term and went out as a journeyman upon his 
 own responsibility. 
 
 The length of the apprentice term, while to some extent 
 fixed for each trade by general custom, really depended 
 upon the will of the employer and the ability of the begin- 
 ner. A competent journeyman was an all-round workman, 
 and, when possible, the apprentice was retained at the trade 
 until he had mastered all parts of it and was able to turn 
 out a complete, finished product. However, no evidence is 
 found that he was compelled to make and exhibit a master- 
 piece before he was admitted into the ranks of the journey- 
 men, nor did he wander about during the last year of his 
 apprenticeship or the one immediately following it. He 
 was in all cases, except during emergencies, required to 
 serve what was known to be the customary term, sometimes 
 longer. 
 
 As the boy rendered the most profitable service during 
 the latter years of his apprenticeship, the master was anxious 
 to retain him as long as possible. It seems clear that the 
 term of apprenticeship, determined under such conditions, 
 was generally a long one, and, being fixed by custom for 
 each trade, was at a later date accepted by many unions and 
 embodied in their written constitutions. 
 
 The hatting industry, a trade requiring skilled workmen 
 
Sn] Customary Apprenticeship Rules. 29 
 
 and one in which the apprentice question has always been 
 of much importance, both before and since the formation of 
 unions, may serve as an illustration of the slow change in 
 the length of the term service. During the early years of 
 the industry in this country the work was performed entirely 
 by hand and each journeyman was required to perfect his 
 skill in all branches of the trade ; that is, at making, block- 
 ing and finishing. The well-trained apprentice was able at 
 the end of his term to take the raw material and work it up 
 into a finished product. The usual term of service for the 
 apprentice was four years. About 1840 machinery began to 
 be perfected whereby hats could be manufactured far more 
 rapidly. The hand-maker could make from two to three 
 dozen hats per day, but the same number of workmen, with 
 the aid of the machine, could turn out many times that 
 number. 
 
 Notwithstanding the extensive introduction of machinery 
 in this trade, subdivision of the work has not followed ac- 
 cordingly, so that at the present time the same parts of the 
 work as blocking, sizing and finishing are accomplished by 
 machinery, but the trade still requires highly skilled labor. 
 It maintains rigid but well-enforced apprenticeship rules, 
 though the term of service has been reduced from four to 
 three years. 
 
 Whatever uniformity existed in connection with appren- 
 ticeship among the various shops in the same trade was 
 largely that secured through force of custom. Moreover, 
 the lack of ready communication between different parts of 
 the country made it practically impossible for masters or 
 journeymen to secure anything like concerted action in regu- 
 lating apprenticeship or other trade rules, so that those car- 
 rying on these industries gradually developed certain cus- 
 toms and practices, which, of course, were local in applica- 
 tion and extent. 
 
 Finally, the growth of the industrial unit, in which the 
 large factory was substituted for the small manufacturing 
 plant or family ; the improvement in means of communication 
 
30 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [512 
 
 and transportation, which permitted a keener competition 
 among manufacturers ; the control of large amounts of capi- 
 tal by the employers and the acceptance of the principle of 
 individual bargaining, all tended to render less efficient the 
 former trade customs and to increase the power and influ- 
 ence of the employer to the disadvantage of the journeymen. 
 Accordingly the indenture fell into disfavor, and, whenever 
 possible, the employer brushed aside all trade customs, in- 
 cluding apprenticeship regulations. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Trade-Union Regulation of Apprenticeship. 
 
 The trade union was cautious, oftentimes secret in its 
 early efforts to regulate apprenticeship. The requirements 
 which it attempted to secure were largely a continuation 
 of established usage, and the provision that applicants for 
 membership must have previously served a term as a regular 
 apprentice was the chief method of enforcing them. 
 
 The experience of the printing trade in this respect is 
 typical of early trade-union activities. The first printers' 
 unions in this country were formed about 1800. By 1839, 
 they existed in practically all of the eastern cities, and as 
 far south and west as Louisville and St. Louis. Up to that 
 time, however, no attempt had been made by any local to 
 limit the number of apprentices, other than the mere require- 
 ment that applicants seeking membership must have com- 
 pleted their term of service. 
 
 No regulation of apprenticeship is found in the written 
 constitution adopted by any of the unions previous to the 
 above date. The first constitution of the Philadelphia Typo- 
 graphical Society, adopted in 1802, contains the require- 
 ment that " no person shall be eligible to become a member 
 of this society, who shall not have served an apprentice- 
 ship satisfactory to the board of directors, to whom he shall 
 make application in person, and they shall thereupon pro- 
 ceed to the election by ballot, and, if the candidate shall 
 obtain a majority of two thirds of the board present, he 
 shall then be declared a member of this society, and receive 
 a certificate thereof." 12 The Columbia Typographical So- 
 ciety of Washington, D. C, had practically the same re- 
 quirement, while the Baltimore Society, in its constitution 
 adopted in 1832, declared that " the indispensable qualifica- 
 
 12 Constitution of Philadelphia Typographical Society, Philadel- 
 phia, 1802, Art. XV. Printed in Stewart, op. cit. 
 
 31 
 
32 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [5 J 4 
 
 tions of all persons hereafter admitted as members of this 
 society are, a good moral character, industrious habits, and 
 a practical knowledge of the art and mystery of letterpress 
 printing, having acquired the same by an apprenticeship of 
 at least four years' minority." 13 At a meeting of the Co- 
 lumbia Typographical Society held on November i, 1834, a 
 committee was appointed to consider the apprenticeship 
 question. After seeking information from various em- 
 ployers and journeymen in different sections of the country, 
 the committee reported an elaborate set of laws, with the 
 following comment upon the limitation of apprentices : 
 
 "A rule directly limiting the number of apprentices in 
 our printing offices was thought to be, on examination, so 
 liable to injustice and abuse between the larger and smaller 
 offices, so {difficult in its maintenance, on account of antici- 
 pated objections on the part of the employers, so embarrass- 
 ing in its adjustment, on account of this constant fluctua- 
 tion of the business, that the committee unanimously deter- 
 mined to abandon it." 1 * / 
 
 The constitution of the Nashville Typographical Society, 
 adopted as late as 1837, contained only the statement that 
 " the qualifications for membership shall be a good char- 
 acter, industrious habits, and a good practical knowledge 
 of the art of letterpress printing. No person shall be ad- 
 mitted to membership in this society who is known to be 
 a runaway apprentice." 
 
 i The Typographical Society of New Orleans was the first 
 local printers' union to place a limit upon the number of 
 apprentices. The constitution adopted by that body in 
 1839 contains the following provision as to apprentices. 
 " No member of this association shall work on any English 
 daily morning paper, on which any apprentice may be 
 employed. (This article is not considered applicable to 
 any apprentice now in such office). No member of this 
 association shall work on any English paper or in any book 
 
 u Constitution of Baltimore Typographical Society, Baltimore, i8-i2, 
 Art. VI. 
 
 14 See Minutes of Columbia Typographical Society, February 7, 
 183S, quoted by Stewart, op. cit. 
 
5 J S] Union Regulation of Apprenticeship. 33 
 
 or job office, where any apprentice is employed, who may 
 not be bound for a term of not less than four years during 
 minority. (This clause is not to apply to existing con- 
 tracts.)" 15 This practice of limiting apprentices initiated 
 by the New Orleans union was in time imitated by all other 
 local unions, and was finally adopted as a fixed policy by the 
 International Typographical Union.J 
 
 /The experience of the printing trade thus illustrates the 
 general trend of development. At first, the local union 
 accepted the custom prevailing in regard to apprentices. 
 Beginners at the trade were merely required to satisfy the 
 union that they had served the ordinary time. The next 
 step taken, represented by the rules of the Baltimore So- 
 ciety, was an attempt by the union to determine exactly 
 how long this customary term should be. In most cases 
 the four year rule was adopted, though some unions ac- 
 cepted members after they had served three years, pro- 
 vided the individual desired to engage at but one of the 
 two divisions of the trade, namely, composition or press- 
 work. Either because the unions were weak and conse- 
 quently unable to enforce this qualification in the case of all 
 applicants for membership, or because they found it ex- 
 pedient at times to yield somewhat in the matter of its 
 application, " two-thirders " and runaway apprentices found 
 their way into the unions in such large numbers that the 
 craft as a whole suffered much from poor workmanship, 
 and the wages of the regular journeymen were seriously 
 threatened. To meet this emergency and to avoid the bad 
 effects of such a policy, the third step was taken, that is, 
 the locals, led by the New Orleans union, actually limited 
 the number of apprentices in proportion to the number of 
 journeymen employed. ' 
 
 ^With the local serving as the unit in forming apprentice- 
 ship rules, and with each union acting independently, it 
 followed both from the weakness of the union and from 
 the absence of ready communication between far distant 
 
 15 Constitution of New Orleans Typographical Association, 1839, 
 Art. XII, sees. 1-2. 
 
34 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [516 
 
 places that each local, as affected by its environment, de- 
 veloped its own peculiar apprentice rules. Some unions, 
 gaining control of the trade within the surrounding 
 country, made rigid requirements, and these tended to serve 
 as models for the smaller and weaker unions. 16 ■ 
 
 Experience, however, soon made it clear that a uniform 
 and effective set of apprenticeship regulations could not be 
 secured in many trades without the cooperation of all 
 locals, and the regulation and enforcement of apprentice- 
 ship regulations became one of the forces leading to the 
 formation of international unions. The principles enunci- 
 ated by the iron molders when forming the first local bodies, 
 namely, fraternity and protection against reduction of wages 
 and against the evils of the " berkshire " system, were enu- 
 merated as the objects in view in forming the larger 
 organization. 
 
 At the convention called in 1850 to form a National 
 Typographical Union, " the apprentice question caused a 
 prolonged discussion. It came up in the form of a recom- 
 mendation that the number be limited, and, after a general 
 concurrence in the idea that ' too many printers had been 
 manufactured of late years,' a recommendation to the so- 
 cieties, it was hoped would be organized, as well as to 
 those already in existence, to limit the number of appren- 
 tices was adopted, and the employing printers were urgently 
 requested to have apprentices indentured for a period of 
 not less than five years." 17 The same convention, meeting 
 in New York City, December 2, 1850, issued an address 
 to the journeymen printers of the United States, in which 
 it was urged that the local bodies should secure " the en- 
 
 " Several years previous to the formation of the Iron Molders' 
 International Union, some locals gained control of almost the entire 
 trade within their respective cities, and for some time were able to 
 enforce their demands against the " berkshire " system. At Albany, 
 New York, the ratio was one apprentice to every ten journeymen, 
 not including the sons of journeymen. This rule was rigidly en- 
 forced, but gave constant trouble, and finally the demands of the 
 union in this respect led to the great strike of 1859, in which 
 the local was badly beaten. 
 
 "McVicar, Origin and Progress of the Typographical Union, 
 1850-91 (Lansing, Michigan, 1891), pp. 6-7. 
 
5 1 7 J Union Regulation of Apprenticeship. 35 
 
 forcement of the principle of limiting the number of appren- 
 tices ; by which measure, a too rapid increase in the number 
 of workmen, too little care in the selection of boys for the 
 business, and the employment of herds of half men at half 
 wages, to the detriment of good workmen, will be effectively 
 prevented." 
 
 But of more significance still is the fact that perhaps 
 the chief motive which started the movement in 1834 to- 
 ward the formation of the National Typographical So- 
 ciety, was the desire to prevent proposed radical abuses of 
 the free and unlimited use of apprentices and to secure a 
 more uniform and better regulated rule governing them. 
 The " two-thirder " printers were to be found in most 
 localities, and had, from the very beginning, been the cause 
 of much dissatisfaction and of many difficulties. No at- 
 tempt had, however, been made by any local in the trade 
 to limit the number of apprentices, and the practice was 
 continued for many years later. In fact, it seems evident 
 that, while the union protested vigorously against admitting 
 members who were unable to prove that they had served 
 the required term, nevertheless, at this time, they did not 
 even claim the right to actually limit the number of appren- 
 tices entering the trade, and it is doubtful whether any strike 
 had been called by the journeymen in the trade solely to 
 uphold an apprentice rule. 
 
 About 1834 the apprenticeship question was raised to 
 importance by an announcement made by the proprietor 
 of an influential paper in Washington, who was also printer 
 to the United States Senate, that he proposed to estab- 
 lish an institute in that city, in which he would engage a 
 large number of boys at a rate much lower than that re- 
 ceived by regular journeymen. The Columbia Typograph- 
 ical Society of Washington was intensely excited by this new 
 proposal, and prepared a circular letter of protest to be sent 
 to other leading unions. The agitation continued, and, on 
 March 7, 1834, the Columbia Society passed a resolution 
 " that a committee of seven members be appointed by the 
 
2,6 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [518 
 
 chair, whose duty it shall be to confer with each other, and 
 report to this Society at their next meeting what, in their 
 opinion, would be the most proper and effectual course to 
 pursue to bring about the establishment of a national typo- 
 graphical society." Some of the most prominent unions re- 
 sponded to the letter and condemned, in strong terms, the 
 proposed institute. 18 
 /Finally, in 1836, delegates from Baltimore, New York 
 City, Washington, Harrisburg, Philadelphia and New Or- 
 leans met in Washington and organized the National Typo- 
 graphical Association, adopted a constitution, and issued 
 addresses to the societies and printers throughout the coun- 
 try. In the address to local societies these bodies were 
 urged to reject any applicant for membership who had not 
 served six years at the trade, also to make it unlawful for 
 any member of the union to work in a shop where boys were 
 taken to serve as apprentices for less than six years. While 
 it is true that the various locals had many other grievances 
 in common, such as the regulation of wages and treatment 
 of members who had " ratted," and while many printers 
 desired the formation of a national union for the discussion 
 and regulation of these grievances, still the agitation of the 
 apprentice question, coming in the precise manner that it 
 did, undoubtedly hastened the movement by causing the 
 unions to see more clearly (the necessity of concerted action, 
 if their objects were to be accomplished. In so far, it was 
 largely responsible for the formation of the National Society 
 in 1836. ' 
 
 In commenting upon the importance of the apprentice 
 question, the president of the International Union of Brick- 
 layers spoke to the delegates of the second annual convention 
 as follows : " The system of apprenticeship is the very cor- 
 ner stone of our institution, and it received the earnest atten- 
 tion of the previous convention, and, if the article in our 
 constitution is carried out, it will be a monument that we 
 will be proud of. But the question will be in your hands, 
 
 "For a fuller account of the controversy between General Duff 
 Green and the Columbia Society, see Stewart, op. cit. 
 
519] Union Regulation of Apprenticeship. 37 
 
 and whatever you in your wisdom think will be beneficial 
 to it, I hope will be adopted." 
 
 The cigar makers did not formally enumerate the control 
 of the apprenticeship system as one of the main purposes to 
 be obtained by the formation of an international union. 
 But, in accordance with the spirit of the period, the follow- 
 ing clause was inserted in the first constitution of the inter- 
 national union/ " No person shall be eligible to membership 
 in the union unless he be a white male of the age of eighteen 
 years, and has served an apprenticeship of not less than 
 three years." 19 / 
 
 We have seen that the apprentice question was an influ- 
 ence both in the formation of local unions and in the organi- 
 zation of international unions. In some cases, indeed, it 
 was a chief factor, and, in all the skilled trades, it played an 
 important part. As the locals accepted well-established ap- 
 prenticeship customs as rules of the union, so international 
 unions continued in the main the apprentice regulations in 
 force in the locals. Frequently, a few local unions embrace 
 a large percentage of the membership of the international 
 union, and the apprenticeship rules worked out by these large 
 and influential locals are usually accepted by the central asso- 
 ciation as indicating the needs of the craft as a whole. 
 
 After the international unions had been organized a suffi- 
 cient length of time for them to see clearly their needs and 
 define accurately their policy, two distinct methods of deal- 
 ing with the apprentice question developed. 
 / (a) In some crafts, such as the building trades and cigar 
 making, the local unions formulated apprenticeship rules and 
 adjusted them according to local environment ; and the inter- 
 national union exercised only a general supervisory power, 
 the rules adopted by the local union being submitted to it 
 for approval. 
 
 (b) In other trades, such as iron molding and glass blow- 
 ing, the international union early formulated detailed ap- 
 
 M Journal and Program of the Twentieth Convention of the Cigar 
 Makers' International Union of America, Milwaukee, September 25, 
 1893, p. 47- 
 
38 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [520 
 
 prenticeship regulations which every local union in any way 
 connected with the international organizations was bound to 
 accept and enforce. In some cases the transition was more 
 gradual; thus full power to determine apprenticeship regu- 
 lations was not granted the Iron Molders' International 
 Union until 1867, twelve years after it was organized. Dur- 
 ing that interval the locals made and enforced their own 
 regulations. 
 
 Unions regulate apprenticeship by either one of these two 
 methods, according to the nature of the trade, the degree 
 of competition between the employers and the efforts of the 
 employers to control wages. In some industries the differ- 
 ent shops were so located and the cost of operation so ad- 
 justed that the finished product could be placed in the mar- 
 ket at practically the same cost to each manufacturer. 
 Therefore, the right to receive an extra number of appren- 
 tices at a wage very much below the rate received by regular 
 journeymen gave a distinct advantage to the competitor pos- 
 sessing this privilege. When the firm was powerful or the 
 union weak, this was not difficult to accomplish. For, al- 
 though the locals insisted upon the apprenticeship rules as 
 laid down in the local constitution, it was and has always 
 been a matter about which the union hesitates to strike ex- 
 cept for continued flagrant abuse. The result was that many 
 employers found it easy, when dealing with the local alone, 
 to engage a far greater number of boys than was allowed 
 under the rules of the union. The consequences were the 
 admission of a large number of poorly-equipped workmen 
 into the trade, a decrease in current wages, and a movement 
 on the part of the leaders of the international union to 
 secure uniform apprentice laws. 
 
 In a different class of trades, represented by the cigar 
 makers and the building trades, the local was the unit in 
 regulating all matters j in connection with apprenticeship. 
 Because of the character of the industry and the widely dif- 
 fering environments in which it was carried on, a uniform 
 apprenticeship ratio was less desirable than in the trades of 
 
5 21 ] Union Regulation of Apprenticeship. 39 
 
 the preceding group. Little, if any, machinery was used; 
 only a small amount of capital was needed; the work was 
 carried on in practically every locality ; and the article manu- 
 factured by members of different locals never came into 
 direct competition. In addition, many unions of these 
 trades were small, and located in parts of the country 
 where the trade could be " picked up " in non-union shops. 
 
 Attempts have been made at different intervals in several 
 of the trades in this class to introduce a national apprentice- 
 ship rule, but without success. In at least one of the build- 
 ing trades such regulations were enacted by the international 
 union during the first years of its existence. This was the 
 Bricklayers' International Union, which immediately upon 
 its organization on October 16, 1865, assumed entire control 
 of the apprentice question, and made uniform provision for 
 all local unions. In his report to the convention, held at 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1867, the president recognized the im- 
 portance of the system and stated that apprenticeship was 
 " the very corner stone of our institution," and that, if the 
 article of the constitution could be carried out, the union 
 would have achieved a great success. That the law was not 
 successfully enforced was due, at least- in part, to the locals 
 themselves. For, in his report to the third convention of 
 the International Union, held in 1868, the president com- 
 plained that the apprentice question had caused much 
 trouble, because many unions, doubtless in keeping with the 
 old custom of " patrimony," permitted journeymen to re- 
 ceive their sons at the trade in addition to the two appren- 
 tices allowed each workman. Furthermore, he stated that, 
 for a long time, it had been the custom in Boston to allow 
 each employer three apprentices, and that, in attempting to 
 reduce the number so that it would conform to the union 
 rule, the local had been greatly weakened, in fact, almost 
 destroyed. At this and the following conference an effort 
 was made to transfer the power of regulating apprentice- 
 ship from the International Union to the local bodies, so that 
 it might be adjusted " to suit the contingencies existing in 
 
40 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [522 
 
 their different localities." However, it was not until some 
 time later, when it was seen that the International Union 
 could not successfully enforce the uniform apprentice rule, 
 that all efforts in this direction were abandoned, and the 
 locals assumed entire control, as is the case in all the other 
 unions in the building trades. 
 
 Those trades in which the local union has determined the 
 apprenticeship regulations have been recruited in only a 
 small degree by journeymen who have undergone the pre- 
 scribed course of preliminary training. On the other hand, 
 in the crafts in which the international union enacts these 
 rules, a much larger per cent, of the members have served 
 an apprenticeship under terms prescribed by the union. 
 Having once established a uniform apprenticeship for all 
 union shops of the same trade, the international union has 
 sought to have each local enforce the same within its own 
 jurisdiction. While these rules have been modified from 
 time to time, the international unions have striven to main- 
 tain a uniform law, fixing the number of apprentices, the 
 length of service and the method of instruction. The same 
 desire for uniformity has also manifested itself in those 
 trades in which the local formulated the laws ; but, under 
 this system of decentralized control, far less progress toward 
 securing it has been made. 
 
 / In general, we have noted that the unions in the skilled 
 trades early began the struggle for effective apprenticeship 
 regulations, and that two distinct methods in dealing with 
 the subject were developed. But the particular method by 
 which apprentice rules were passed, whether by the inter- 
 national or the local union, was less important than the de- 
 gree of enforcement. When the international union enacted 
 such laws, final authority as to interpretation, or specific 
 application thereof, was reserved to that body ; and the char- 
 ter of any local could be revoked in case it refused to comply 
 with this decision. Yet, in the last instance, the international 
 union depended upon the local alone to enforce them. This 
 was from the beginning a weakness in the old system of 
 
523] Union Regulation of Apprenticeship. 41 
 
 apprenticeship and was one cause of its ultimate failure. 
 Moreover, the mere fact that the union alone assumed the 
 right to control apprenticeship regulations, especially to 
 limit the number received, caused the employers to oppose 
 them and to prevent their enforcement whenever possible. 
 A long, bitter struggle ensued. Under such circumstances, 
 it was impossible for either side, acting independently, to 
 maintain an adequate apprenticeship system. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Apprenticeship Determined by Trade Agreement. 
 
 /The continued growth and development of trade unionism 
 and the gradual substitution of collective for individual bar- 
 gaining rendered less potent the advantage of the employer 
 over the employee. If, at any previous time, employers were 
 unwilling to unite with their journeymen in order to change 
 unsatisfactory conditions, or refused to grant the demands 
 of employees, they were at a later date compelled to do so 
 or to take issue with a strongly organized union. At this 
 stage employers formed associations, after which intelligent 
 representatives from both sides met in joint conference and 
 adjusted, as far as possible, all controversies./ 
 
 Among the questions thus considered was that of appren- 
 ticeship. The adoption of apprentice rules by conciliation, 
 while but fairly begun in many trades, marks the final method 
 of their enforcement, and again emphasizes the fact that, 
 in order to be effective, trade rules must be revised from 
 time to time to meet new conditions. 
 
 Collective bargaining has been successfully carried on in 
 the stove branch of the iron molding industry. In connec- 
 tion therewith, apprenticeship has been discussed to a greater 
 extent than in any other trade./ In order to clearly under- 
 stand the far-reaching effect of apprenticeship, the difficul- 
 ties encountered in regulating it, and the futility of either 
 side independently attempting such regulation, it seems de- 
 sirable to give in some detail the remarkable struggle over 
 the apprentice question waged by the Stove Founders' Na- 
 tional Defense Association, i. e., the employers' association, 
 and the Iron Molders' International Union. This example 
 of conciliation is perhaps a distinctive rather than a typical 
 experience. The struggle carried on by the two organiza- 
 tions in their attempts to reach a satisfactory apprentice 
 42 
 
525] Apprenticeship Determined by Trade Agreement. 43 
 
 ratio is, perhaps, without a parallel in the history of any 
 other union. But it indicates, possibly, the future method 
 of regulating apprenticeship. 
 
 At the nineteenth session of the Iron Molders' Union, held 
 in 1890, the following resolution was adopted : " Resolved, 
 That it is the sense of this convention that the incoming 
 executive board be empowered to confer with an executive 
 board of the National Defense Association for the purpose 
 of taking into consideration a discussion of the apprentice 
 question as requested by said association. Resolved, That 
 if after said conference it is the unanimous opinion of the 
 executive board that the ratio of apprentices should be in 
 the proportion of twenty per cent, to eighty per cent, an 
 amendment should be submitted to the local unions, said 
 local unions to vote ' aye ' and ' nay,' and it shall require 
 a two-thirds vote to carry said amendment." 20 
 
 The only feature of apprentice regulation considered at 
 the first joint conference, held in Chicago, March 25, 1891, 
 was the limitation of the number of boys ; and this question 
 remained the dominant issue in all subsequent discussions of 
 apprenticeship. At the first conference neither side pos- 
 sessed adequate data upon which to base a just ratio, and, 
 after passing the following resolutions, the subject was dis- 
 missed. " Whereas the average term of a molder's produc- 
 tive capacity is found by statistical information to be not 
 more than fourteen and a half years and that the law of the 
 Iron Molders' Union restricting the proportion of appren- 
 tices to one to eight, with one for each shop, compels manu- 
 facturers by necessity to disregard such proportion and oper- 
 ate open shops in order to supply the demand ; therefore, it 
 is requisite that the question receive an immediate investi- 
 gation and readjustment upon a reasonable basis." 
 
 At the second conference, in 1892, the first measure con- 
 sidered was one designed to change and liberalize the ap- 
 prenticeship rules of the union. The principles which the 
 members of the conference decided should be incorporated 
 
 20 Proceedings of the Nineteenth Convention of the Iron Molders' 
 Union, 1890, p. 83. 
 
44 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [526 
 
 in an agreement between the two organizations were set 
 forth in three different articles. The first of these had ref- 
 erence to the limitation of apprentices, and the second and 
 third related to the term of service and to the manner in 
 which instruction should be given those received. In com- 
 menting upon the proposed changes, the editor of the Iron 
 Molders' Journal said that "' the three above clauses were 
 unanimously agreed upon after the most careful considera- 
 tion as a measure that would tend to harmonize differences 
 between the two organizations on account of the restrictions 
 and exactions under our present system." 21 
 
 Although considerable pressure was brought to bear by 
 the leaders of the union when urging their members to grant 
 the proposed increase of apprentices, nevertheless, when a 
 circular calling for a vote thereon was submitted, the second 
 and third articles were accepted, but the first article, pro- 
 viding for additional apprentices, was rejected. 
 
 When addressing the twentieth convention of the Iron 
 Molders' Union, held in 1895, President Fox of that organi- 
 zation stated that, by special inquiry on his travels, he had 
 found that, in some places, fewer apprentices than allowed 
 by the union ratio, that is, one to every eight journeymen, 
 were at work; in other places there were as many appren- 
 tices as journeymen, and in still other localities apprentices 
 were largely in the majority. Furthermore, a general aver- 
 age of the number at bench and stove molding revealed a 
 ratio of one to four. The ratio of one to six could, he 
 thought, soon be allowed by the union. But the convention 
 did not meet again until March, 1899. All negotiations 
 were conducted at the conference, where both parties yielded 
 on the apprentice ratio only when other concessions were 
 granted in connection with wages. At one time, Mr. Castle 
 of the Defense Association offered a resolution to abolish 
 the " berkshire " system, provided an apprentice ratio of 
 one to four were allowed. President Fox replied : " The 
 ' berkshire ' system exists in very few of the stove shops 
 today, and I believe the day is near at hand when it will pass 
 
 21 Iron Molders' Journal, February, 1892, p. 5. 
 
527] Apprenticeship Determined by Trade Agreement. 45 
 
 away entirely. For the sole purpose of securing its aboli- 
 tion, I do not feel justified in advocating a change in our 
 ratio, but in order that our position might be strengthened 
 and to demonstrate that ours is not an arbitrary and unjusti- 
 fiable one, I would suggest that statistics be secured from all 
 local unions and on the line of those asked for in the editorial 
 . columns of the June Journal, and that they be submitted 
 to the executive board to take such action or make such 
 recommendations as in their judgment seems necessary. 
 Should they determine that a change of the ratio be advisa- 
 ble, a suitable amendment ought to be drawn up and sub- 
 mitted for the referendum vote." 22 
 
 In the spring of 1901, after the collection of much evi- 
 dence by both sides, it was agreed by those at the conference 
 that the legitimate needs of the trade demanded an appren- 
 tice ratio of one to five, and accordingly, after much favor- 
 able comment and persuasion through the columns of the 
 Journal, the proposition was submitted to members of the 
 union for action. Returns were not made by more than 
 two fifths of the membership. Still the one to five proposi- 
 tion was overwhelmingly defeated by a vote of 15,842 to 
 504. A proposition submitted at the same time to establish 
 a ratio greater than one to five and less than one to eight 
 met a similar fate by a vote of 12,314 to 3,978. 
 
 This vote manifested an extreme conservatism which was 
 hardly short of stubbornness on the part of the members of 
 the local unions, who thus refused for a second time to sanc- 
 tion a proposition based upon data collected by both sides ; 
 one, moreover, which every leader of the union advocated, 
 and the rejection of which threatened to cause a serious rup- 
 ture in the friendly relations existing between the Iron Mold- 
 ers' Union and the Defense Association. The ratio of one to 
 eight had been embodied in the laws of the union for about 
 forty years. Moreover, since the beginning of the confer- 
 ences in 1 89 1, the supply of workmen ordinarily received 
 during strikes had been largely cut off. In fact, there was 
 little doubt that, if the union ratio had been strictly adhered 
 
 22 Iron Molders' Journal, April, 1899, p. 162. 
 
46 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [528 
 
 to, the supply of journeymen would have been inadequate to 
 meet the legitimate demands of the trade. 
 
 It would seem that such a decisive expression of opinion 
 as the recorded vote indicated would have settled the matter 
 for at least a few years; but President Fox, undaunted by 
 the result, presented a most vigorous report on the subject 
 to the convention of the iron molders, which convened in 
 1902. He not only expressed his disappointment at the 
 defeat of the proposition, but, in a measure, attacked the 
 system of referendum voting, and ventured the opinion that 
 the matter should be placed in the hands of the leaders of 
 the union, who are always most active in bringing about the 
 needed reforms. He declared that " while the referendum 
 vote is undoubtedly founded upon correct principles, the 
 result of its use in labor organizations has not always been 
 in harmony with progressive thought. It is an unfortunate 
 fact, but truth compels me to say it, that our members do 
 not give important questions submitted to their decision the 
 careful study and intelligent thought they should, but allow 
 themselves to be swayed by their prejudices or their fears, 
 or display by their indifference and their failure to record 
 their opinion their lack of interest in propositions submitted. 
 In my experience with the Iron Molders' Union — and it is 
 the experience of nearly every labor organization — it has 
 devolved upon the higher intelligence of the leaders of our 
 membership in convention assembled to initiate important 
 reforms or take advanced ground in our movement. It 
 seems to me our laws should be such as would permit us to 
 adapt them readily to extraordinary emergencies. In this 
 connection I was deeply and favorably impressed by a state- 
 ment of Brother D. A. Hays, president of the Glass Bottle 
 Blowers' Association, in a recent article. Referring to the 
 agreement of his organization with the Manufacturers' Asso- 
 ciation on the regulation of apprentices, he says that, ' in 
 1893, owing to the general depression in business, many of 
 our men were idle, and the Manufacturers' Association, 
 realizing that to increase the number of blowers would be 
 
529] Apprenticeship Determined by Trade Agreement. 47 
 
 to put an additional burden upon us, voluntarily agreed to 
 take no new apprentices for that year. In like manner, we 
 last year, finding that under the prosperous condition of 
 the glass industry, the number of apprentices to which the 
 manufacturers were entitled under the former agreement 
 between the two associations would not be sufficient to 
 meet their requirements, voluntarily increased the number 
 of apprentices.' This to my view is a very equitable ar- 
 rangement." 
 
 These strong words of the president were addressed to 
 the convention of iron molders held in 1902, at which meet- 
 ing special efforts were made to increase the ratio of 
 apprentices. A committee from the Defense Association 
 attended the session, and stated, upon the floor of the con- 
 vention the conditions of the trade and their imperative 
 need for additional apprentices. The remarks of the em- 
 ployers were supplemented, enforced and recommended by 
 the officers of the Iron Molders' Union. The committee 
 appointed to consider the apprentice question reported that, 
 after hearing the representatives of the Defense Associa- 
 tion and believing that trade conditions warranted such a 
 change, they recommended the adoption of an apprentice 
 ratio of one to six. A minority report of the committee 
 recommended a ratio of one to seven. An additional reso- 
 lution was introduced granting power to the national officers 
 to negotiate an agreement with the employers, but, on the 
 final vote, the three propositions were voted down, and the 
 ratio of one to eight continued in force. Two reasons may 
 be given for this action. In the first place, the employers 
 had asked for the radical change of ratio from one to eight 
 to one to four. At no time was there any hope that the 
 convention would grant such an increase, while the mere 
 asking aroused the suspicions of the delegates as to the 
 good intentions of the employers. Again, the impracti- 
 cability of administering a law of limited application, for 
 the ratio voted upon was to apply only to members of the 
 National Defense Association, was recognized, and it was 
 
48 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [530 
 
 urged that the application of such a law would lead to 
 serious difficulties. 
 
 When the proposition to allow the ratio of one to five 
 met an overwhelming defeat in the vote of 1901, the friendly 
 relations between the Iron Molders' Union and the Defense 
 Association were seriously threatened, as the employers 
 frankly stated that the legitimate business demands neces- 
 sitated additional apprentices. However, the crisis was 
 happily though illegally averted, for, in March, 1902, tem- 
 porary arrangements were made whereby employers who 
 under the existing ratio could not secure enough molders 
 were given the privilege of taking on additional boys, 
 provided a careful investigation had been made and the 
 claims of the employer confirmed. In making such an 
 agreement, the officers of the union exceeded their legal 
 authority. But since the members had been obstinate in 
 refusing a more liberal ratio, it was in their opinion a case 
 of the end justifying the means, so that instead of sever- 
 ing relations with the Defense Association, they arranged 
 to evade the law and grant the much needed apprentices. 
 In reporting this agreement to the convention, the presi- 
 dent urged that body to approve the action taken, but with- 
 out success. 
 
 At the conference held March 19, 1903, the employers 
 presented a resolution which provided that the limitation 
 of apprentices should be discontinued for one year, that 
 the president of each association or their representatives 
 should be given the power to determine the number of 
 apprentices to be received by an employer, and that all 
 apprentices should serve four years. The molders intro- 
 duced a resolution to the effect that, when an employer 
 suffered from an insufficient number of journeymen, he 
 should report to the president of the Defense Association. 
 If he found the condition as represented, he should call 
 the attention of the president of the Iron Molders' Union, 
 whose duty it would be to take up the matter with the local 
 concerned and urge them to give relief. Both propositions 
 were finally withdrawn. 
 
53 i] Apprenticeship Determined by Trade Agreement. 49 
 
 At the Chicago conference held in March, 1904, a reso- 
 lution was unanimously adopted, which stated " that in 
 view of the fact that no agreement has been reached by 
 and between the Defense Association and the Iron Molders' 
 Union on the apprentice question and because of the fact 
 that there is a possibility of more or less friction, it is 
 agreed that, whenever a member of the Defense Association 
 finds he cannot secure the molders he may require for the 
 needs of his business, the question shall be referred to the 
 presidents of the two associations or their representatives 
 for investigation and relief. If it be found that the 
 foundryman is entitled to relief, he shall be allowed to 
 employ such additional number of apprentices as shall 
 be mutually agreed upon." 
 
 The conference in March, 1904, was called by the employ- 
 ers to consider a reduction of fifteen per cent, in wages. No 
 reduction was granted, but the concession on the appren- 
 tice ratio was agreed to. Statistics given by the employers 
 at this conference demonstrated that the ratio in foundries 
 operated by their members was slightly above one to five, 
 and in independent shops a fraction above one to four. 
 These data had been verified by officers of the Iron Molders' 
 Union, and were regarded as correct by both parties. At 
 a meeting of the executive board of the Iron Molders' 
 Union, June 18, 1904, the conference agreement of one to 
 five was approved, but it was to apply only to Association 
 foundries. In September, 1904, a circular was issued from 
 the headquarters of the Iron Molders' Union calling for 
 a vote on the question of empowering the conference com- 
 mittee of the Iron Molders' Union to enter into an agree- 
 ment with the Stove Founders' Defense Association in 
 order to establish an apprentice ratio of one to five in 
 foundries controlled by members of that Association. The 
 leaders of the union exerted all possible influence within 
 their power to carry this proposition. It was approved by 
 the executive board, by a meeting of business agents, by 
 prominent ex-officials. The September and October num- 
 4 
 
So Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [532 
 
 bers of the journal were also devoted to its discussion with 
 the result that, in December, 1904, it was carried by a 
 small majority. Thus ended a long weary struggle of 
 thirteen years, carried on by the Defense Association and 
 by officials of the Iron Molders' Union to increase the 
 number of apprentices in shops devoted to stove molding. 
 
 The policy of the Iron Molders in submitting the appren- 
 ticeship rules to arbitration is typical of the present treat- 
 ment of such rules in many leading trades, especially in 
 those crafts in which the employers have formed organiza- 
 tions. Perhaps the most striking feature of the plan in the 
 Glass Blowers is the businesslike manner in which the ratio 
 may be adjusted to the actual needs of the trade. 
 
 Another important development, doubtless brought for- 
 ward by submitting the apprenticeship rules to conciliation, 
 was the collection of data concerning apprenticeship from 
 the shops in active operation. This practice undoubtedly 
 arose out of the need of the board of conciliation for exact 
 information on which to base the apprentice ratio. As 
 there is no evidence that any systematic collection of in- 
 formation was attempted by the early unions, it seems clear 
 that the early unions did nothing more than make a guess 
 at the number of apprentices needed in each trade. In 
 commenting upon the subject, a prominent member of the 
 union remarked that " the apprentice ratio was of our own 
 creation, of arbitrary construction, and could not even 
 plead scientific exactness as an excuse for its existence. 
 Those who were responsible for the one to eight ratio 
 could not defend it save as an arbitrary limitation. It was 
 a mere guess at what would be a fair thing." 23 
 
 The same can be said of practically every trade, for 
 the union leaders admit that no adequate collection of data 
 nor scientific study as to what should be the real ratio 
 has been made. As a result, the ratio established was often 
 unfair, and in many cases was disregarded by the employers. 
 In fact, it was argued by those desiring a rigidly enforced 
 
 23 Iron Molders' Journal, September, 1904, p. 663. 
 
533] Apprenticeship Determined by Trade Agreement. 51 
 
 uniform ratio that such a law, even though the ratio were 
 low, would produce no more journeymen than would be al- 
 lowed where the ratio was high but not enforced. In com- 
 menting upon the desirability of establishing a uniform ratio 
 of apprentices, the editor of the Iron Molders' Journal gave 
 as his opinion that " a careful reading of the various 
 articles bearing upon the apprentice question, in the Sep- 
 tember and October Journals, will remove the opinion held 
 by some that changing the ratio from one to eight to one 
 to five would increase the number of apprentices employed 
 in the stove foundries. The change, if made, would only 
 be a change of figures and not a change in reality, as the 
 average ratio in existence to-day is practically one to five. 
 It has been at this ratio for the past forty years, and, before 
 that time, it was even larger. It would mean, however, that 
 the stove manufacturers, who to-day employ one boy to 
 every two or three journeymen, would be reduced to one to 
 five, while the manufacturer, who employed one to eight, 
 would be given the opportunity of increasing the number 
 of apprentices in his employ. The total number of appren- 
 tices employed in the country would not be increased, but, 
 instead of the present unsatisfactory condition that exists 
 where one employer has a ratio of one to two while the 
 other is limited to one to eight, all stove manufacturers 
 would be placed upon an equality." 24 
 
 The general purpose of the apprenticeship system, namely, 
 to provide an adequate supply of competent workmen, has 
 been practically the same from the beginning of the trades 
 in this country to the present time, but special phases of 
 it have been emphasized at different periods. During the 
 early period, the master was not restricted in employing 
 apprentices, and often engaged a large number in order 
 to receive the benefit of their low wages. The opposite 
 tendency was emphasized by the union; for the interest of 
 the journeyman was largely considered, and a rigid limi- 
 
 24 Iron Molders' Journal, October, 1904, p. 750. 
 
52 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [534 
 
 tation made of the number received. The feature, greatly 
 emphasized at the present time especially in those trades 
 in which the finished product enters into keen competition, 
 is the uniform ratio for all competing shops. In securing 
 this object, conciliation has been the method most generally 
 adopted. 
 
PART II. 
 DESCRIPTIVE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Extent of Present Union Apprenticeship Regulations. 
 
 Of the one hundred and twenty national and international 
 trade unions with a total of 1,676,200 members, affiliated in 
 1904 with the American Federation of Labor, fifty unions, 
 with a membership of 766,417, do not attempt to maintain 
 apprenticeship systems. These fifty unions may be divided 
 into four classes. 
 
 (a) Thirty-five unions of unskilled workmen form the 
 first group. 25 The workmen in these unions, by serving 
 
 25 Agents Association, American. 
 
 Bill Posters and Billers of America, The National Alliance of. 
 
 Blast Furnace Workers and Smelters of America, International 
 Association of. 
 
 Brick, Tile and Terra Cotta Workers' Alliance, International. 
 
 Bridge and Structural Iron Workers, International Association of. 
 
 Car Workers, International Association of. 
 
 Clothing Makers, Special Order of. 
 
 Flour and Cereal Mill Employes, International Union of. 
 
 Garment Workers of America, The United. 
 
 Glass House Employees, International Association of. 
 
 Heat, Frost, General Insulators and Asbestos Workers of America, 
 National Association of. 
 
 Hod Carriers and Building Laborers' Union of America, Inter- 
 national. 
 
 Hotel and Restaurant Employees, International Alliance, and Bar- 
 tenders' International League of America. 
 
 Interior Freight Handlers' and Warehousemen's International 
 Union. 
 
 Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, International. 
 
 Letter Carriers of the United States of America, National Asso- 
 ciation of. 
 
 Longshoremen, Marine and Transport Workers' Association, In- 
 ternational. 
 
 Maintenance-of-Way Employees, International Brotherhood of. 
 
 Mattress, Spring and Bedding Workers' International Union. 
 
 Mine Workers of America, United. 
 
 ■S3 
 
54 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [536 
 
 a short time with their fellow workmen as instructors, 
 obtain a knowledge of the work which enables them 
 to perform it in a satisfactory manner. Many work- 
 men engaged in these industries were formerly employed 
 in one of the more skilled trades, but through inability or 
 misfortune, have been forced into places where less skill 
 is demanded. For example, the membership of the Bridge 
 and Structural Iron Workers' Union includes many work- 
 men who were previously employed as sailors, ship builders, 
 or in one of the building trades. The short period of 
 training required of the structural iron worker and the 
 high wage usually paid to him, due to the risk involved and 
 the effective organization maintained, induce those who 
 have not thoroughly mastered their own craft or have 
 lost their former position to enter the trade. Apprentice 
 requirements are not demanded of applicants seeking ad- 
 mission to these unions for the obvious reason that men of 
 ordinary ability and physical endurance are, after a very 
 short period of training, sufficiently competent to perform 
 the required work. 
 
 (b) The second group numbers eleven unions, including 
 four not affiliated with the Federation of Labor. 26 Seven 
 
 Oil and Gas Well Workers, International Brotherhood of. 
 
 Paper Box Workers' International Union of America. 
 
 Paper Makers of America, United Brotherhood of. 
 
 Quarry Workers' International Union of North America. 
 
 Rubber Workers' Union of America, Amalgamated. 
 
 Seamen's Union of America, International. 
 
 Shirt, Waist and Laundry Workers' International Union. 
 
 Spinners Association of America, National. 
 
 Street and Electric Railway Employees of America, Amalgamated 
 Association of. 
 
 Switchmen's Union of North America. 
 
 Teamsters, International Brotherhood of. 
 
 Textile Workers of America, United. 
 
 Theatrical Stage Employees of the United States and Canada, In- 
 ternational Alliance of. 
 
 Tin Plate Workers' International Protective Association of 
 America. 
 
 Tobacco Workers' International Union. 
 
 26 Coal Hoisting Engineers, National Brotherhood of. 
 
 Commercial Telegraphers' Union of America. 
 
 Locomotive Engineers, Grand International Brotherhood of. 
 
 Locomotive Firemen, Brotherhood of. 
 
537] Extent of Union Apprenticeship Regulations. 55 
 
 out of the eleven are railway unions. In these trades, 
 highly skilled and well trained service is required; but the 
 unions have never maintained apprenticeship regulations. 
 Those engaged in any of the trades contained in this other 
 class do receive a rigid and often a long training. The 
 terms demanded of beginners, as well as any future pro- 
 motion of employees, are, however, matters not under the 
 direction of the union but entirely within the control of the 
 employers. This is made imperative from the nature and 
 importance of the work to be performed. The trades of 
 this group represent activities that must, in order to prop- 
 erly protect human life and valuable property, be per- 
 formed with great promptness and care. For example, 
 the telegrapher must be so accurate in transmitting his 
 messages and so prompt in reporting or dispatching his 
 trains that all those desiring to learn the trade must not 
 simply engage themselves for a stated term of years, as is 
 required of regular apprentices in most other trades, but 
 must serve until they have acquired sufficient skill to assure 
 the employer that they are competent and may be safely 
 trusted in responsible positions. Moreover, some of the 
 trades in this group are recruited by promotion from a less 
 skilled, but intimately associated craft. Thus the heavy 
 physical labor performed by members of the International 
 Brotherhood of Stationary Firemen requires the strength 
 and endurance of men rather than of boys, and, therefore, 
 this union maintains no regular system of apprenticeship. 
 But the constant intimate relations of the fireman and the 
 engineer enable the former to gain gradually a practical 
 knowledge of the duties of the latter, and it is in this 
 manner that most engineers are trained. There is not the 
 slightest opportunity for a boy to learn this trade as an 
 
 Railroad Telegraphers, The Order of. 
 Railroad Trainmen, Brotherhood of. 
 Railway Clerks, International Association of. 
 Railway Conductors of America, Order of. 
 Railway Expressmen of America, Brotherhood of. 
 Stationary Firemen, International Brotherhood of. 
 Steam Engineers, International Union of. 
 
56 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [53^ 
 
 ordinary apprentice. A majority of the members in these 
 unions began in a humble way with a railway company, 
 and have gradually worked their way up to their present 
 positions. 
 
 (c) In trades of the third class, a minute subdivision 
 of the processes of production has been made, accompanied 
 in most cases by the introduction of machinery. The opera- 
 tion performed by each particular individual, instead of 
 being complex or multiple as formerly, when one person 
 completed the entire product, has become very simple. In 
 the large plants, therefore, where the division of labor has 
 taken place, all apprentice requirements have been abolished. 
 About seven trades may be placed in this class. 26a How- 
 ever, it must not be inferred that in such trades no skilled 
 workmen are employed. On the contrary, a part of the 
 workmen develop remarkable skill, and are reckoned as 
 high-priced men, although possessing slight, if any, ability 
 ,in making other parts of the same article. If, however, 
 the artisan possesses sufficient ability and is adept in the 
 use of his tools, he is able to perform the work in a satis- 
 factory manner after, at the greatest, one year's time. 
 
 While machinery is greatly used in these trades the old 
 processes have not been entirely dispensed with. Thus, 
 at the present time, in some places shoes are made exclu- 
 sively by hand; in others, almost entirely by machinery; 
 while, in still other factories, both methods are used. A 
 beginner who wishes to learn the trade in a shop where 
 only hand workers are employed is required to serve a 
 long term as an apprentice that he may become an all- 
 round, highly skilled workman. But the boy who enters 
 a large factory for the purpose of learning the trade finds 
 
 M *Boot and Shoe Workers' Union. 
 
 Carriage and Wagon Workers' International Union of North 
 America. 
 
 Garment Workers of America, The United. 
 
 Glove Workers' Union of America, International. 
 
 Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America, Amalga- 
 mated. 
 
 Tack Makers' Protective Union of the United States and Canada. 
 
 Textile Workers of America, United. 
 
539] Extent of Union Apprenticeship Regulations. 57 
 
 an opportunity to acquaint himself with only one or two 
 parts of it, and is not compelled to serve an apprenticeship. 
 Certainly, it is true in the boot and shoe industry, and 
 doubtless in all other trades of this group, that a very 
 large percentage of the articles produced are manufactured 
 in large factories, where the most important machinery is 
 used. These plants disclose the real tendencies and condi- 
 tions of these trades, and in such establishments the appren- 
 tice is no longer found. 
 
 In the wagon and carriage making industry, this tendency 
 has been marked. So extensively has machinery been in- 
 troduced in a certain wagon factory that, to quote the 
 exact language of the informant of the present writer, " the 
 chief duty of the wagonmaker in that factory is to carry 
 material to and from the machine. Furthermore, the wages 
 of practically every employee is scarcely above that of the 
 ordinary laborer, for in reality subdivision has been carried 
 so far that those engaged therein perform a grade of work 
 hardly above that of the average laborer." Only a small 
 number of carriage and wagon factories are operated on 
 such an extensive scale as the plant mentioned; and the 
 conditions in that factory are not typical of the trade in 
 general. In smaller factories or in shops where the latest 
 improved machinery has not been installed those engaged 
 therein are required to perform not one but many different 
 operations, and many skilled workmen are found in such 
 places. But the Carriage and Wagon Workers' Union 
 does not demand any special qualifications for its members 
 other than that the applicant must be engaged at the trade 
 and be of good moral character. Extensive use of machin- 
 ery and minute subdivision of labor in the same way have 
 greatly simplified the work of the textile worker, so that 
 the labor used in this industry at the present time is sup- 
 plied in the main by women and children, who are not 
 required to serve an apprenticeship. 
 
 The general effect of the subdivision of labor and the 
 introduction of machinery on all the trades of this group 
 
58 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [540 
 
 has been to lower their members almost to the rank of 
 unskilled workers. Certainly, the number of highly skilled 
 workmen engaged in these industries is far smaller than 
 f ormerly ; and in consequence these trades have been re- 
 duced from their former position as highly skilled crafts. 
 
 (d) Finally, a few unions, affiliated with the American 
 Federation of Labor, represent professions rather than 
 trades. This group includes the Actors' National Protec- 
 tive Union and the American Federation of Musicians. 
 These unions maintain no apprenticeship rules. 
 
 It is evident, from the foregoing, that a majority of the 
 unions in which apprenticeship is not a prerequisite to 
 membership are composed of members who perform un- 
 skilled labor. Ordinary intelligence and physical strength 
 are the qualities chiefly required from these workers. Ap- 
 prenticeship rules have, therefore, never been enforced in 
 these crafts. 
 
 As has been said, about fifty unions do not maintain a 
 system of apprenticeship. The remaining national unions, 
 that is, about seventy of the one hundred and twenty 
 affiliated in 1904 with the American Federation of Labor, 
 with a membership of 900,000, together with some half- 
 dozen unaffiliated national unions, attempt, more or less suc- 
 ' cessfully, to enforce apprenticeship regulations. 27 
 
 27 Bakery and Confectionery Workers' International Union. 
 
 Barbers' International Union of America, Journeymen. 
 
 Blacksmiths and Helpers, International Brotherhood of. 
 
 Boiler Makers and Iron Shipbuilders of America, Brotherhood of. 
 
 Bookbinders, International Brotherhood of. 
 
 Bricklayers and Masons' International Union of America. 
 
 Broom and Whisk Makers' Union, International. 
 
 Brushmakers' International Union. 
 
 Carpenters and Joiners, Amalgamated Society of. 
 
 Carpenters and Joiners, United Brotherhood of. 
 
 Cement Workers, American Brotherhood of. 
 
 Ceramic, Mosaic and Encaustic Tile Layers and Helpers' Inter- 
 national Union. 
 
 Chainmakers' National Union of the United States of America. 
 
 Cigar Makers' International Union of America. 
 
 Cloth Hat and Cap-Makers of North America, United. 
 
 Coopers' International Union of North America. 
 
 Elastic Goring Weavers' Amalgamated Association of the United 
 States of America. 
 
 Electrical Workers, International Brotherhood of. 
 
54-I j Extent of Union Apprenticeship Regulations. 59 
 
 Of these seventy trades, only nineteen actually succeed in 
 
 Elevator Constructors, International Union of. 
 
 Flint Glass Workers' Union, American. 
 
 Fur Workers of the United States and Canada, International 
 Association of. 
 
 Glass Bottle Blowers' Association of the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 Glass Workers' International Association of America, Amalga- 
 mated. 
 
 Gold Beaters' National Union of America, United. 
 
 Granite Cutters' International Association of America. 
 
 Hatters of North America, United. 
 
 Horseshoers' International Union of the United States and Canada, 
 Journeymen. 
 
 Iron Molders' Union of North America. 
 
 Iron, Steel and Tin Workers of the United States, National Amal- 
 gamated Association of. 
 
 Lace Operatives of America, Chartered Society of the Amal- 
 gamated. 
 
 Machine Printers' Beneficial Association of the United States. 
 
 Machinists, International Association of. 
 
 Marble Workers, International Association of. 
 
 Metal Mechanics, International Association of Allied. 
 
 Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers, Brass Molders, Brass and 
 Silver Workers' International Union of North America. 
 
 Metal Workers' International Union, United. 
 
 Painters, Decorators and Paper Hangers of America, Brother- 
 hood of. 
 
 Pattern Makers' League of North America. 
 
 Paving Cutters' Union of the United States of America. 
 
 Photo-Engravers' Union of North America, International. 
 
 Piano and Organ Workers' International Union of America. 
 
 Pilots' Association, International. 
 
 Plumbers, Gas Fitters, Steam Fitters and Steam Fitters' Helpers 
 of the United States and Canada, United Association of Journeymen. 
 
 Potters, National Brotherhood of Operative. 
 
 Print Cutters' Association of America. 
 
 Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union of North America, 
 International. 
 
 Saw Smiths' Union of North America. 
 
 Sheet Metal Workers' International Alliance, Amalgamated. 
 
 Shipwrights, Joiners and Caulkers' Union of America, Inter- 
 national. 
 
 Slate and Tile Roofers' Union of America, The International. 
 
 Steam, Hot Water, and Power Pipe Fitters and Helpers, Inter- 
 national Association of. 
 
 Steel and Copper Plate Printers' Union of North America, The 
 International. 
 
 Stereotypers' and Electrotypers' Union of North America, Inter- 
 national. 
 
 Stone Cutters' Association of North America, Journeymen. 
 
 Table Knife Grinders' National Union of the United States. 
 
 Tailors' Union of America, The Journeymen. 
 
 Tip Printers, International Brotherhood of. 
 
60 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [S4 2 
 
 enforcing apprenticeship as a prerequisite to membership. 28 
 Certain striking trade characteristics enable these unions 
 to enforce their apprenticeship rules, (a) In the first place, 
 there is a demand in these trades for highly trained work- 
 men. Except in the hat and lace curtain industries, no 
 inventions have revolutionized the methods of production 
 in these trades, nor has the work been subdivided to any 
 large extent. 
 
 (b) Secondly, many of these industries are highly local- 
 ized, and the localization intensifies and perpetuates the cus- 
 toms and traditions of the trade. It has long been a custom 
 for the apprentice boys in these trades to serve a long term ; 
 
 Travelers' Goods and Leather Novelty Workers' International 
 Union of America. 
 
 Typographia, Deutsch-Amerikanischen. 
 
 Typographical Union, International. 
 
 Upholsterers' International Union of North America. 
 
 Watch Case Engravers' International Association of America. 
 
 Window Glass Cutters' League of North America. 
 
 Window Glass Cutters' and Flatteners' Association of America. 
 
 Window Glass Snappers. 
 
 Wire Drawers, American Association of. 
 
 Wire Weavers' Benevolent and Protective Association, American. 
 
 Wood Carvers' Association of North America, International. 
 
 Wood, Wire and Metal Lathers' International Union. 
 
 Wood-Workers' International Union of America, Amalgamated. 
 
 2S Bricklayers' and Masons' International Union of America. 
 
 Elastic Goring Weavers' Amalgamated Association of fhe United 
 States of America. 
 
 Flint Glass Workers' Union, American. 
 
 Glass Bottle Blowers' Association of the United States and Canada. 
 
 Gold Beaters' National Union of America, United. 
 
 Granite Cutters' International Association of America. 
 
 Hatters of North America, United. 
 
 Iron Molders' Union of North America. 
 
 Lace Operatives of America, Chartered Society of the Amal- 
 gamated. 
 
 Marble Workers, International Association of. 
 
 Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers, Brass Molders, Brass and 
 Silver Workers' International Union of North America. 
 
 Pattern Makers' League of North America. 
 
 Print Cutters' Association of America. 
 
 Saw Smiths' Union of North America. 
 
 Stereotypers' and Electrotypers' Union of North America, In- 
 ternational. 
 
 Typographia, Deutsch-Amerikanischen . 
 
 Window Glass Cutters' League of North America. 
 
 Window Glass Cutters' and Flatteners' Association of America. 
 
 Window Glass Snappers. 
 
543] Extent of Union Apprenticeship Regulations. 61 
 
 and the unions will not dispense with this practice, unless 
 they are forced to yield by trade and economic conditions. 
 
 (c) In the third place, these unions are exceedingly well 
 organized. They maintain strong locals in practically every 
 community in which the industry is carried on, and have 
 enrolled as members a large majority of those employed at 
 the craft. 
 
 The small number of artisans employed in some of these 
 trades undoubtedly makes possible the more rigorous and 
 effective enforcement of the apprenticeship rules. The sec- 
 retary-treasurer of the pattern makers states : " Now and 
 then a man may work from another trade into ours ; but 
 the number is so small that it is practically nil and does not 
 throughout the entire country and Canada average ten per 
 year. Graduates from the trade schools also, as far as we 
 can learn, go into the shops and serve a regular apprentice- 
 ship. This, in a great measure, is due to the fact that of 
 all the trades, pattern making combines a greater amount 
 of intelligence and skill than is required in any other, and, 
 to follow it successfully, a workman must have a thorough 
 knowledge of all kinds of molding and drafting. The num- 
 ber of apprentices working at the business is also satisfac- 
 tory to the organization, as, during the last year, but one 
 complaint was entered by a local as to any shops working 
 more than our rules called for. There are, though, through- 
 out the country some few shops in which the limit of appren- 
 ticeship as laid down in the rules is exceeded, but this is by 
 tacit arrangement with the local organizations, as the num- 
 ber of journeymen employed in these instances is so out of 
 proportion to the average shop that to enforce this rule 
 would be an injustice. These shops (five in number) are, 
 with no exception, in localities organized to such an extent 
 that, were it found advisable to limit the number of appren- 
 tices, it could no doubt be done. I can state for our organi- 
 zation that so far as the apprenticeship system is concerned, 
 both as relates to the serving of same and number con- 
 cerned, it is satisfactory." 
 
62 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [544 
 
 The print cutters, the elastic goring weavers and the Ger- 
 man printers are established in only a very small number of 
 cities. In all these trades the union controls practically the 
 entire membership of each craft, so that a large majority 
 of those beginning any one of these trades at the present 
 time really serve the regular union apprenticeship term. 28 
 
 The elastic goring weavers and the German printers rep- 
 resent trades in which there has been a steady decline in the 
 demand for artisans, resulting in a gradual decrease in the 
 membership. The elastic goring weavers have, from the 
 beginning of the industry in this country, succeeded in 
 organizing practically all the skilled workmen employed at 
 the trade. The membership has never been large; for, in 
 1895, when the trade enjoyed its maximum prosperity, the 
 secretary of the union reported a total of only three hundred 
 and fifty members; and he stated furthermore that only a 
 few men were employed in the industry outside of the union 
 shops. Members of this trade are employed in the manu- 
 facture of the elastic web used in congress shoes. With the 
 passing of that style of footwear, this industry experienced 
 a serious and steady decline, with the result that several 
 factories were closed. No member of the union has been 
 permitted for some years to receive an apprentice without 
 the consent of the local union. This rule has excluded prac- 
 tically all apprentices from the trade. 
 
 However, the mere fact that only a small number are 
 employed at a trade does not necessarily insure its control 
 
 •'"The Lace Curtain Operatives, organized in 1892, show the 
 power of a small, well-organized union. In 1893 it included eight 
 locals with a total of five hundred and sixty members. But two 
 non-union shops were operated at that date, and they furnished em- 
 ployment for about one hundred lace makers. Upon the passage of 
 the McKinley tariff, this industry was greatly stimulated and the 
 demand for workers was very much increased, but, as there were no 
 unemployed and the regular term of apprenticeship required of all 
 beginners at the trade was three years, it was impossible to supply 
 them at once from this source, and employers were compelled to 
 seek skilled workmen elsewhere. The secretary stated that in 1903 
 perhaps two thirds of the total membership were foreigners. At one 
 time, when the union was unable to supply enough workmen to 
 satisfy the legitimate demands of a large manufacturing company 
 of Philadelphia, the firm was permitted to receive twenty additional 
 apprentices. Three special journeymen were detailed to instruct 
 them. 
 
545] Extent of Union Apprenticeship Regulations. 63 
 
 to the union. For example, watch case engraving, a highly 
 skilled trade at which beginners are required to serve a long 
 apprenticeship and one at which comparatively few can find 
 employment, is also one in which it is very difficult for the 
 union to exercise a rigid supervision over the entire indus- 
 try. Any one wishing to learn the trade is often able to 
 find an opportunity in special schools or in the small non- 
 union jewelry shop, over which the union cannot exercise 
 any control. The secretary-treasurer states that " some of 
 the manufacturers have been in the habit of hiring a large 
 number of boys and teaching them one small part of the 
 engraving trade. The consequence is that there are a large 
 number of so-called engravers traveling around the country 
 who, if rated according to their ability, are nothing more or 
 less than apprentices. As one of the objects of this associa- 
 tion is the elevation of our craft, we have restricted the em- 
 ployment of apprentices, and, at the same time, have made 
 it the duty of the shop committee to see that the members 
 of the association do all in their power to teach the appren- 
 tices that are now employed in their respective factories the 
 engraving trade in full, and try to turn out full-fledged 
 artists at the expiration of the five years which they have to 
 serve.'' 
 
 The inability of these unions to control completely the 
 number of apprentices learning the trade is due (a) to the 
 presence of non-union shops, (b) to the weakness of some 
 local unions. 
 
 (a) Although the unions in these trades embrace a very 
 large per cent, of the men engaged in each craft, still, in 
 all of them, some non-union shops may be found. In such 
 shops the number of apprentices is usually large. 30 
 
 (b) Some local unions in practically every trade are weak 
 and unable to enforce apprenticeship regulations. These 
 weaker unions always vigorously oppose any movement on 
 
 80 The Bricklayers and Masons, the Granite Cutters, the Saw 
 Smiths and the Hatters are strongly organized, but much work is 
 carried on in each trade entirely apart from union influence. The 
 Saw Smiths' Union, which is composed of a very small number of 
 locals, has not succeeded in organizing one of the largest shops in 
 the trade. 
 
64 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [546 
 
 the part of the employer that would in any way directly 
 decrease the rate of wages or increase the length of the 
 working day, but they are not always equally watchful 
 and energetic to enforce the rule limiting the number of 
 apprentices. 
 
 While fifty or more of the trades attempting to maintain 
 apprentice rules are only partially successful in their design, 
 many strongly organized local unions in each of these indus- 
 tries are able rigidly to enforce apprenticeship regulations 
 within their own jurisdiction. This is well illustrated by 
 locals in the building trades, the metal polishers, the machin- 
 ists and the cigar makers. In each of these trades, as of 
 all others in the same class, perhaps less than one half of 
 those working as journeymen have served the prescribed 
 apprenticeship term in union shops ; but, in many strong 
 locals, none are permitted to learn except under the rules 
 of the union. 
 
 As previously noted, a few industries have been subdivided 
 to such an extent that apprenticeship regulations have been 
 dispensed with ; and other trades, because of new inventions 
 and minute subdivision of labor, are rapidly approaching 
 this condition. In tracing the development in the methods 
 of production and noting the reflex influence of these 
 changes upon the apprenticeship rules, three distinct stages 
 are revealed. 
 
 (or) During the early period, one or at the most a few 
 journeymen, who had undergone a long apprenticeship and 
 possessed detailed knowledge of the trade, worked by hand 
 with a few simple tools and completed the entire article. 
 The process of production necessarily proceeded slowly, and 
 the output was comparatively small and could not be in- 
 creased to any great extent until more journeymen were 
 trained and equipped with tools. 
 
 (b) With the improvement of the instruments of produc- 
 tion, so that steam or electrical power could be utilized in 
 operating them, the employer found it more profitable to 
 apportion the work among several journeymen rather than 
 to have each artisan make the completed product. The old 
 
547] Extent of Union Apprenticeship Regulations. 65 
 
 apprenticeship rules were continued as long as possible ; but, 
 since many refused to spend several years in learning the 
 entire trade, when in actual service they would be required 
 to perform only a portion of it, the union soon experienced 
 great difficulty in maintaining its rules. The term of ser- 
 vice was rarely if ever shortened by the union. The result 
 has been that neither party greatly respected the rules gov- 
 erning apprentices ; and, as they could not be strictly en- 
 forced, many poorly trained journeymen gained entrance 
 into the trade. 
 
 (c) The third stage, attained as yet by only a few trades, 
 is reached when the subdivision of labor has been carried so 
 far that skilled labor is largely supplanted by unskilled labor, 
 in some cases by women and children. 
 
 Great difficulty is encountered in regulating apprenticeship 
 for trades in which both the old and the newer methods of 
 production are employed. For example, in carpentry the 
 work performed ranges from that done by " hatchet and 
 saw " workmen to the service rendered by the highly skilled 
 artisan engaged upon the finest and most difficult work. 
 Many years of training, together with more than ordinary 
 native ability, are requisites for those who succeed at the 
 latter branch of the work. The " hatchet and saw " car- 
 penter picks up his trade in a short while. 
 
 At the present time a large majority of the trades which 
 attempt with difficulty the enforcement of apprenticeship 
 rules are passing through the second stage, some beginning 
 it, others nearing the end, according to the extent and per- 
 fection of the machinery used. In still others, notably in 
 the boot and shoe industry, shops may be found in which the 
 old hand-methods are used side by side with large factories 
 in which the latest improved machinery has been installed. 
 
 This study of the present condition of the apprenticeship 
 regulations is not based simply upon the trades in which a 
 very large percentage of the journeymen have completed 
 their apprenticeship term in the prescribed manner, but also 
 upon the seventy different trades in which the union at- 
 tempts, whether successfully or not, to enforce rigid rules 
 governing apprenticeship. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Apprenticeship Regulation and its Purpose. 
 
 Uniformity of Apprentice Regulation. — Trade-union ap- 
 prenticeship regulations are formulated in some cases by the 
 local branches; in others, by the national unions. In the 
 building trades and among the jewelry workers and the cigar 
 makers, for example, apprenticeship regulation is a local 
 matter. Several reasons for this policy, especially in con- 
 nection with the building trades, may be noted. 
 
 (a) In the first place, the principal crafts represented have 
 retained much of the traditional idea of a trade. Each 
 workman carries his tools with him as he journeys from 
 place to place. In the older trades, such as carpentry, brick- 
 laying, stone-cutting and lathing, many customs in vogue 
 before the formation of unions have been preserved, and are 
 still practiced. 31 Again, although machinery or improved 
 tools have been introduced in practically all these trades and 
 subdivision of work has made rapid progress in some of 
 them, notably carpentry, subdivision of labor has not reached 
 the stage wherein the all-round workman is not needed. 
 Both employer and union prefer the fully trained mechanic 
 to the specialist. Neither the introduction of machinery nor 
 subdivision of labor has caused any reduction in the nom- 
 inal term of apprenticeship. Moreover, the uniform con- 
 ditions found in other crafts, due largely to competition in 
 the sale of the article produced, do not exist throughout 
 
 81 A peculiar practice of this character still survives among the 
 paper hangers in the city of Cleveland. Each journeyman is re- 
 quired to provide himself with a small hand-cart, in which he 
 pushes his tools and material from place to place over the city. 
 In some cases this becomes a heavy burden, since the workmen may 
 be compelled to walk ten or twelve miles in a single day. Old 
 members are frequently allowed a helper, who pushes the cart from 
 one job to another. The entire outfit for each journeyman costs 
 about twenty-five dollars. 
 
 66 
 
549] Apprenticeship Regulation and its Purpose. 6j 
 
 these trades; and, consequently, conditions in one commu- 
 nity do not materially affect those in another. A distinction 
 is, however, to be noted in these trades between the inside 
 workman or shopman and the outside workman. The for- 
 mer has a fixed place of labor. The material comes to him 
 in the rough, and is taken away as a finished product, ready 
 for the market. In this branch of the industry competition 
 in the article manufactured may to some extent regulate and 
 make uniform the conditions under which it is produced ; 
 although, even here, competition is often prevented or seri- 
 ously hampered by the rules of the international union. 32 
 On the other hand, the outside workman goes wherever em- 
 ployment is to be found, but the product of his labor is not 
 shipped. In some cases both classes exist in the same trade, 
 notably in carpentry, stone-cutting and structural iron work. 
 Mechanics pass easily from one class to the other, and have 
 the same apprenticeship rules. 
 
 (b) Again, many of these trades are characterized by 
 great irregularity of employment, resulting from the nature 
 of the work done, variations in weather and changes of 
 season. The journeyman is certain of a job only until the 
 one upon which he is engaged is completed. At least a day 
 or two must intervene between jobs, during which time no 
 wages are received. Employment for seven or eight months 
 of the year is a conservative estimate of the actual working 
 time of the average journeyman in such industries. To this 
 should be added the fact that, in these trades, there is a great 
 need for quick, effective execution of a new policy or for 
 the immediate enforcement of a shop rule. A short delay, 
 and the particular job may be completed. 33 
 
 32 The Journeymen Stone Cutters' Association will not permit the 
 transportation of cut stone from one place to another unless the 
 wages and hours are equal, except in cases where the exchange 
 between different branches is mutually agreed upon. More than 
 this, provision is made that planer work is not to be shipped to 
 the cities where the unions have succeeded in preventing the intro- 
 duction of machinery. See Constitution (Washington, igoo), 
 Article XII. 
 
 33 So urgent has been the need in this regard that some unions 
 have given the business agent power to call a strike. This policy 
 in turn has led to flagrant abuses, and the authority has in some 
 cases been transferred to a grievance committee. 
 
68 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [55° 
 
 The two conditions last noted are responsible for the ab- 
 sence of uniformity in this group of trades. Each local 
 union has its own difficulties to be adjusted according to 
 local circumstances. Shop rules under such conditions can, 
 therefore, best meet actual needs where determined by the 
 local unions; and the apprenticeship regulations are so 
 framed. The international unions make provision for ap- 
 prenticeship and submit general recommendations in regard 
 thereto, but all details are adjusted by the local unions with 
 reference to local conditions. 34 
 
 The characteristics of the trades in which the apprentice- 
 ship rules are formulated by the international union are well 
 illustrated by the window glass workers, iron molders, glass 
 bottle blowers, stove mounters and steel range workers. 
 
 (a) In the first place, the factories in these trades are 
 usually large and localized. The number of unions is com- 
 paratively small, and, apart from these trade centers, it is 
 practically impossible for a beginner to learn the trade, as 
 little if any opportunity is afforded one to " pick it up." 
 Moreover, the article produced is placed upon the general 
 market, and thus the manufacturers are in direct competi- 
 tion. This makes it necessary to allow each employer the 
 same number of apprentices, and uniformity can be best 
 secured only when the international union assumes control 
 of apprenticeship regulations. 
 
 31 An exception to this statement is found in the apprentice rules of 
 the Journeymen Stone Cutters' Association. While the locals are 
 permitted to regulate the number of stone cutter apprentices, they 
 may not go beyond certain limits prescribed by the Association. 
 Explanation of this practice is found in the fact that most stone 
 cutters are shopmen, and the product of their labor is to some extent 
 in competition with that of other shops. This competition makes 
 necessary uniform conditions of production if all contractors are to 
 have a fair chance. 
 
 An apparent instance of national regulation is found in the con- 
 stitution of the United Association of Journeymen Plumbers, which 
 provides that "where there is no agreement relative to apprentices, 
 and a new agreement is being framed, the employment of helpers 
 and apprentices shall be entirely prohibited." As a matter of fact, 
 locals in this trade maintain whatever ratio they see fit or are able 
 to secure. An excessive use of helpers in the past has resulted in a 
 disproportionate number of journeymen finding their way into the 
 trade, and the law of the international union abolishing apprentices 
 and helpers was an effort to reduce the trade to normal conditions. 
 
551] Apprenticeship Regulation and its Purpose. 69 
 
 (b) Again, those national unions whose members are all 
 of the same trade have less difficulty in formulating national 
 apprenticeship rules. It is the plan of the United Brewery 
 Workmen to organize locals, including engineers, firemen, 
 brewers, maltsters, bottlers, coopers and team drivers, into 
 one international union, but uniform apprenticeship rules 
 could not be enforced by this national organization. At least 
 one of the trades included in the United Brewery Workmen, 
 namely, the coopers, represents highly skilled labor, main- 
 tains a strong international union, to which most workmen 
 at the trade belong, and controls its own apprenticeship rules. 
 The International Association of Car Workers, which in- 
 cludes persons employed as car builders, truck builders, car 
 repairers, car painters, car inspectors, car oilers, air-brake 
 inspectors, air-brakemen, car cleaners, roundhouse employ- 
 ees, some of which are skilled workmen, cannot because of 
 the diversity of employment maintain uniform rules for 
 beginners. 36 
 
 The apprenticeship regulations of four trades represented 
 in the International Typographical Union, namely, the Eng- 
 lish compositors, the German compositors, the stereotypers 
 and electrotypers, and the photo-engravers have their ap- 
 prenticeship rules at least in part determined by the Inter- 
 national Typographical Union, but these regulations do not 
 apply to the three remaining unions, that is, the typefounders, 
 the mailers and the newspaper writers. 
 
 The International Association of Machinists attempts to 
 maintain uniform international apprenticeship regulations. 
 " One apprentice is allowed to each shop, irrespective of the 
 number of machinists employed, and one to every five ma- 
 chinists thereafter ; and no boy shall begin to learn the trade 
 of machinist until he is sixteen years old, nor after he is 
 
 36 Certain kindred or allied trades, for example, the printing trades, 
 the glass trades, the textile, clothing and allied trades, the building 
 trades, the metal and machinery trades, the wood working and allied 
 trades work together for purposes of more efficient organization 
 and greater effectiveness of administration, but the differences within 
 each group preclude any attempt on the part of these bodies to 
 establish a uniform apprenticeship regulation. 
 
jo Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [552 
 
 twenty-one years of age." Furthermore, he must serve four 
 years at the trade ; but it is a well-known fact to all mem- 
 bers of the craft that the rule is hardly more than the re- 
 corded expression of opinion of what should be the rule. 
 Great diversity of practice exists among the local unions. 
 The conditions under which this industry must be carried 
 on are, in some respects, pot unlike those in the building 
 trades. In the first place, local unions are scattered through- 
 out the entire country in highly different environments. 
 Again, the different grades of work which a machinist is 
 called upon to perform range from repair work, which does 
 not usually require a high grade of skill, to the work per- 
 formed by those engaged in the construction of the most 
 complicated machines and delicate instruments. 
 
 The difficulties encountered in requiring a uniform term 
 of apprenticeship for all those desiring to enter a trade are 
 plainly manifest in the iron molding trade. The skill of the 
 employees varies greatly, ranging from that required in 
 molding plain pieces to the skill necessary for the construc- 
 tion of elaborate and complicated machinery. The employ- 
 ers in the National Founders' Association use unskilled labor 
 on many kinds of work. But the union has opposed this on 
 the ground that if unskilled laborers are allowed to perform 
 even a few of the minor processes the tendency will be for 
 an ever-increasing portion of the work of the trade to gravi- 
 tate to these poorly equipped workmen. 
 
 Attempts have been made with success in some trades to 
 classify different parts of the process of manufacture accord- 
 ing to the degree of skill required. The use of much un- 
 skilled labor is thus permitted. In most cases, the unions 
 seek to enforce their apprenticeship regulations upon all 
 prospective journeymen. 
 
 Apart from the economic characteristics of the trades and 
 the governmental peculiarities of the unions, custom has 
 been a factor in determining whether the national or the 
 local union shall regulate apprenticeship. When certain 
 policies have been followed for years, they are not readily 
 changed, even when conditions change. 
 
553] Apprenticeship Regulation and its Purpose. yi 
 
 Purposes of Apprenticeship Rules. — Whether apprentice- 
 ship rules are formulated by the locals or by the inter- 
 national unions, their purposes are identical. Unionism 
 stands primarily for a shorter work day, an increased wage, 
 and more favorable conditions of employment. Apprentice- 
 ship regulation constitutes a part of the machinery used to 
 attain these ends. It has been asserted that " the chief 
 motive which influences the unions in shaping their appren- 
 ticeship rules is the desire to maintain their wages by dimin- 
 ishing competition within the trades. The only other 
 motive, which is not included within this formula, is the 
 desire, for reasons which may be classed as artistic, to 
 prevent a lowering of the standard of skill. This feeling 
 cannot be supposed to exert more than a minor influence 
 upon actual policies." 37 This statement is true in part only. 
 While the individual member, busy at his daily labors and 
 with little, if any time for considering the larger union 
 policies, may consider only the restrictive side of appren- 
 ticeship, the more intelligent and broad minded leaders lay 
 .stress on the fact that the maintenance of high wages is 
 assured not only by diminishing competition, but rather by 
 maintaining a high standard of skill among the members. 
 It is claimed that, were the unions able to compel every 
 workman going to the trade to conform strictly to the 
 apprenticeship rules as to training, it would be unnecessary 
 to limit the number of apprentices. 38 
 
 The position of many of the union leaders is expressed 
 by the secretary of the Bricklayers and Masons' Interna- 
 tional Union, who states that " our only aim and object is 
 to establish, not only by our own laws, but by enactments 
 of the legislatures of the different states, a proper regula- 
 
 37 Report of the Industrial Commission, Washington, 1901, Vol. 
 17, P- 53- 
 
 M It frequently happens that, in shops where all parties observe 
 strictly the law regarding beginners, the full quota of apprentices 
 allowed is not always desired. The ratio of apprentices to journey- 
 men permitted by the United Hatters of North America (Consti- 
 tution, 1903, Art. XVI) is one to ten, but the published list (Journal 
 of the United Hatters of North America, July 1, 1899, p. n) of 
 apprentices and journeymen actually in service among the different 
 unions reveals a ratio varying from one to eight to one to thirty-five. 
 
72 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [554 
 
 tion governing the employment of apprentices, so that their 
 proficiency, when they have rendered the required years 
 of service, provided in their bond of indenture, will be of 
 the best, and thus they will be a credit to their vocations. 
 Organized labor seeks to turn out the highly skilled me- 
 chanics. We want the boy to be taught not only the 
 common rudiments of the trade but also the higher orders. 
 . . . We do not seek, however, to prohibit the taking on of 
 apprentices, . . . What we do seek, however, is to provide 
 regulations governing their employment, and, as to restric- 
 tion in number, we only intended it in the sense that will 
 permit and provide for proper care being exercised in their 
 welfare and advancement, and to the end that the boy 
 may be taken care of more than seven months in the year." 39 
 
 A high general standard of workmanship is desirable in 
 any trade union (a) to the members as individuals, (b) to 
 the union as a whole on account of the relation of such a 
 standard to collective bargaining. 
 
 (a) The original and primary purpose of the apprenticeship 
 system, whether maintained under the indenture, established 
 by custom, or enforced by the early trade unions, was to 
 provide opportunities for boys to learn a trade, thereby 
 ensuring an adequate supply of well trained mechanics for 
 each trade. The journeyman was, during the early period, 
 an exceedingly important person in his immediate vicinity. 
 Oftentimes, the community depended upon his labor for the 
 particular article of his craft, while his ability as a skilled 
 mechanic was highly respected. He manifested great pride 
 in the excellence of his workmanship. On the other hand, 
 he detested the unskilled workman of his craft, whose activi- 
 ties tended to lower the trade standards of efficiency. 
 
 Pride in high-class workmanship still characterizes the 
 skilled journeyman. Mechanics take a deep interest in the 
 general standard of skill for the entire trade as well as 
 pride in their own individual ability. The feeling against 
 
 "Thirty-ninth Annual Report of the President and Secretary of 
 the Bricklayers and Masons' International Union, Indianapolis, 1904, 
 pp. 4I4-4IS- 
 
555] Apprenticeship Regulation and its Purpose. 73 
 
 the incompetent workman goes to the extent of seeking to 
 exclude him from the organization. 
 
 (6) A prime difficult)' in collective bargaining lies in the 
 necessity, inherent in all bargaining, of agreeing upon a 
 measure. If the workers in a trade possessed approxi- 
 mately equal ability, a common wage scale for that trade 
 could more easily be agreed upon. But the presence of a 
 large number of comparatively unskilled workmen osiers 
 serious complications. The better workmen are inclined to 
 maintain a high standard, while the incompetence of the 
 inferior workman tends to lower the scale. Since the union 
 rate is a minimum, it is easy for the rapid, well-trained 
 workman to secure the union rate; but the less competent 
 journeyman can often secure that rate only with difficulty. 
 Even the stronger unions hesitate to raise the union rate 
 unduly, lest those unable to command it become, as non- 
 union workmen, a powerful opposing force. 
 
 One way of solving the problem is to reduce these in- 
 equalities between individual workmen. Raising or lower- 
 ing the rate does not lessen the difficulty as long as work- 
 men of marked difference in skill and dexterity are found 
 among members of the same trade. To secure a force of 
 workmen of fairly uniform ability is one purpose of the 
 apprenticeship regulations. The ideal conditions for a per- 
 fectly just standard rate, that is, exactly equal ability on the 
 part of each workman, cannot be realized; but wide differ- 
 ences as to skill among men of the same trade may be 
 greatly reduced. Well-devised and rigidly enforced ap- 
 prenticeship rules thus become in many trades the pre- 
 requisite of a just standard rate. 
 
 The restrictive side of apprenticeship rules is prominent 
 in certain unions. The secretary of the St. Louis local 
 of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers 
 had no hesitation in declaring to the writer that it was the 
 policy of his union to exclude all but the best grade of 
 workmen. This was accomplished by maintaining rigid 
 apprenticeship rules, high initiation fees and thorough en- 
 
74 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [556 
 
 trance examinations. A similar policy of restriction has 
 been followed in recent years by the plumbers. Highly 
 skilled labor is necessary to perform successfully the highest 
 grades of work in this trade. But many plumbers are 
 engaged entirely on repair work, which does not require 
 much training. Plumbers working on repair work were 
 taken into the union. If a long apprenticeship had been 
 required, these workmen for the most part could not have 
 been members. 40 Moreover, each journeyman was per- 
 mitted to engage a helper at a wage much smaller than 
 his own. The helpers, after being trained a year or so, 
 frequently became journeymen. The presence of such a 
 large number of half-trained workmen in the union threat- 
 ened to cause a great reduction in wages. The Interna- 
 tional Union, under these circumstances, took vigorous 
 steps to reduce the number of journeymen by restricting 
 the number of apprentices and helpers. The constitution 
 requires that " where there is no established agreement rela- 
 tive to apprentices, or where the agreement has expired, and 
 a new agreement is being framed, helpers and apprentices 
 shall be entirely abolished." 41 
 
 40 Inasmuch as a very small amount of capital was required to 
 open a shop, a journeyman plumber could easily set up in business 
 for himself. Not only the workmen but their employers also suffered 
 from the lax system of apprentice regulation. 
 
 41 Constitution and Rules of Order of the United Association of 
 Journeymen Plumbers, etc. [n. p.] 1902, Article XIX, sec. 5. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 
 
 Entrance upon Apprenticeship. — Several influences operate 
 together to keep each trade supplied with apprentices. The 
 natural tastes and desires of the boy and the influence of 
 parents and friends are more or less indefinite and intangible, 
 but other influences may be noted with a greater degree 
 of exactness : 
 
 (a) As between the employer and the union, it is the 
 former who takes the initiative and induces boys to enter 
 the trade. 
 
 (b) In the constitutions of some of the older organiza- 
 tions the right of the journeyman to teach the trade to his 
 son or to some member of his family is explicitly recog- 
 nized. Thus, in the constitution of the Stone Cutters' 
 Union, provision is made that, while any local union may 
 regulate the number of apprentices in each yard within its 
 jurisdiction, stone cutters' sons in every case must have the 
 preference. Similarly, in the apprenticeship rules adopted 
 by the carpenters' union of Tacoma, Washington, it is 
 specifically stated that " nothing in this article shall be con- 
 strued to prevent any minor son working with his father, 
 and under his instructions, said father being a member of 
 this union." 42 The lathers of Cleveland, Ohio, go as far' as 
 to provide that " no apprentice shall be admitted to work 
 in any shop unless he is the son of a member of this union, 
 in good standing and above sixteen years of age."* 3 The 
 Window Glass Workers, restricting the number of appren- 
 tices for the blast of 1902, still permitted " a father to take 
 
 " Section 13 of apprenticeship rules, adopted by Tacoma unions ; 
 see The Carpenter, September, 1902, p. 4. 
 
 "By-laws and Working Rules of the Wood, Wire and Metal 
 Lathers' International Union, Local No. 2 of Cleveland, Ohio, re- 
 vised 1903. (Cleveland, 1903.) Art. XIII, sec. I. 
 
 75 
 
j6 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [55^ 
 
 his son or a brother to take his brother, or a member to take 
 the son or brother of some other member of the Window 
 Glass Workers' Association." 44 
 
 The right of the father to train his son in his own trade 
 is a custom of long standing, and has been strong in piece 
 work trades; but, at the present time, few unions permit 
 journeymen to take their sons as apprentices. The Window 
 Glass Workers limit the right by a regulation that " no 
 apprentice shall be granted to any one who has not been 
 a member of the Association for three years." 46 
 
 The formal application for apprenticeship, where re- 
 quired, is much the same in all trades. Usually, the boy 
 and, in some cases, the employer or journeyman to whom 
 he is apprenticed must appear before the local union. 
 Typical regulations in this regard are those of the Journey- 
 men Stone Cutters' Association, which provide that " each 
 apprentice, upon going to the trade, shall go before the 
 branch under which he is to serve his time, at the first 
 regular meeting, giving his name, age and place of resi- 
 dence, the name of the firm he is apprenticed to; and, if 
 same is considered satisfactory, he shall be taken under the 
 protection of said branch, and the recording secretary shall 
 keep a record of the name in the book kept for that purpose, 
 and a copy of the record shall be sent to the general office 
 to-be kept on file." 46 The International Broom and Whisk 
 Makers' Union requires that " any organized shop desir- 
 
 " By-laws of the Window Glass Workers' Association of America, 
 Pittsburg, 1902, Art. 3, sec. 2. 
 
 "The requirement of American citizenship, so rigidly enforced in 
 the glass industries, is doubtless due to the strong competition of 
 American goods with those made in foreign countries, and also to 
 the immigration of foreign workmen. However, the high protective 
 tariff on window glass, except for small sizes, and the large initiation 
 fee levied upon foreigners, prevent effective competition from that 
 source. Thus, they provide that "no blower, gatherer, nattener or 
 cutter shall be eligible to become a member of the Window Glass 
 Workers' Association of America who has not been in this country 
 for a period of five years, beginning July 9, 1902, and a full-fledged 
 citizen of the United States. That the initiation fee shall be fixed 
 at the sum of five hundred dollars." By-laws, p. 4, sec. 14. 
 
 *" Constitution of Journeymen Stone Cutters' Association (Wash- 
 ington, 1900), Art. V, sec. 2. 
 
559] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. Jj 
 
 ing an apprentice shall make application to the interna- 
 tional executive board through the local union on blanks 
 furnished by the international secretary for the purpose. 
 The general executive board shall grant the permission in 
 accordance with the trade rules of the district in which 
 the factory is located." 47 The Bookbinders' Union requires 
 that " a certificate of apprenticeship shall be furnished by 
 the central secretary to be issued by locals to apprentices 
 in the beginning of their term, and presented by them to the 
 union when application is made for admission as a journey- 
 man." 48 The requirement of the Hat Finishers is very 
 stringent : " All boys, before being allowed to go to work, 
 must appear in person at a meeting of the board of officers 
 consisting of the president, vice-president, secretary, treas- 
 urer and finance committee and have their names registered 
 on the books of the Association." Furthermore, " when 
 a boy applies to be registered, he must present to the 
 board of officers his name and age, also the written con- 
 sent of his guardian, and of the proprietor of the factory 
 in which he intends to work." 49 
 
 The Window Glass Workers' Association requires that 
 all applications for apprenticeship must come from journey- 
 men. A special blank, containing information as to the age, 
 citizenship, relatives, etc., of the apprentices is made out 
 by the chief preceptor, and transmitted to the board of ex- 
 aminers. This body makes an investigation, and submits 
 the result with recommendations to the preceptory. The 
 application is finally passed upon by the executive board 
 of the International Association. The executive board thus 
 has definite knowledge concerning the character of the 
 apprentices recommended, and retains entire control of the 
 number received. The unions in the glass industry, by 
 
 " Constitution, Laws and Due Book of the International Broom 
 and Whisk Makers' Union, Amsterdam, New York, 1904, Art. Ill, 
 sec. 4 of the constitution governing local unions. 
 
 m Constitution, By-laws, Standing Rules and General Laws of the 
 International Brotherhood of Bookbinders, New York, 1905, p. 32. 
 
 "Constitution and By-laws of the Hat Finishers of the City of 
 Newark, New Jersey, 1881. 
 
78 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [560 
 
 placing control of apprentices in one central body, are able 
 to regulate the number received in the trade as a whole. 
 They have succeeded in enforcing the most rigid appren- 
 tice rules. The plan followed by the Pen and Pocketknife 
 Grinders' and Finishers' Union is similar to that of the 
 glass workers. " Any member of the union who desires to 
 take on a boy, applies to the grievance committee. After 
 obtaining their consent, the application goes to the executive 
 board. Each member is allowed one boy, preferably his 
 own son for whom he must pay twenty-five cents per month 
 dues, until he attains the age of eighteen years." 60 
 
 The secretary of the local is in most unions required to 
 keep a complete list of all apprentices beginning or ending 
 their term within the jurisdiction of his local, and to report 
 to the international union at stated intervals. In cases 
 where a joint agreement with large firms exists, it is com- 
 mon for a permanent joint arbitration board to have charge 
 of all questions concerning apprentices, and to keep a record 
 of their progress. The name, place and time of those 
 entering upon and completing apprenticeship terms are 
 printed in many of the trade journals. 
 
 In most unions, boys are apprenticed to the employer, 
 to whom they are responsible and with whom contracts are 
 made. The apprenticing of boys to individual journeymen 
 occurs in only a few industries, and in most of the trades 
 is positively forbidden, except that occasionally, as has been 
 noted, fathers are permitted to teach the trade to their 
 sons. The unions must maintain a close supervision over 
 apprentices lest they run away, and become members of 
 another local before they have served the full term. 51 This 
 is especially difficult in the building trades, and among the 
 machinists and cigar makers. The journeyman often re- 
 
 00 Constitution and By-laws of the Pen and Pocketknife Grinders' 
 and Finishers' Union of America, Bridgeport, Conn., p. 6, sees. 15-16. 
 
 61 Section 9 of the agreement for 1902 between local unions and 
 the Builders' Association of Chicago provides that all apprentices 
 indentured to members of the Carpenters and Builders' Association 
 shall report to the joint arbitration board at its meeting on the first 
 Thursday in January, April and October of each year. 
 
561] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 79 
 
 moves to another locality before the apprentice has com- 
 pleted his term. The employer is more permanently 
 situated. For this reason, the policy of apprenticing to 
 employers is favored. 
 
 The terms upon which the applicant agrees to become 
 an apprentice are embodied in a verbal or written contract 
 or an indenture, the last form being generally recommended, 
 but little used. Thus, the convention of the United Brother- 
 hood of Carpenters and Joiners, held at Detroit in 1888, 
 recommended to the local unions that " all boys entering the 
 carpenter trade with the intention of learning the business, 
 shall be held by agreement, indenture or written contract 
 for a term of four years." 52 
 
 In order that the boy may be tested as to ability, fitness 
 and willingness to work, the employer is ordinarily permitted 
 to take him on probation, the probationary period varying in 
 different trades and places from two weeks to six months. 
 An agreement between the Master Plumbers' Association of 
 Lynn, Mass., and the plumbers' local union provides that 
 the first three months shall be on probation. 53 The Connec- 
 ticut masters' convention in 1895 made elaborate provision 
 for a probationary period. " Any boy wishing to learn the 
 plumbing trade, a certificate shall be issued to him by the 
 local union if there be one ; if not, then by the state organiza- 
 tion that he is a regular apprentice, stating time and amount 
 of pay he shall receive each year during his apprenticeship. 
 The six months, during which he is on probation, shall 
 count as part of his term." 5 * 
 
 Having been duly apprenticed under conditions acceptable 
 to the union and to the employer, the boy goes to his work 
 under their joint care and protection. He is ordinarily re- 
 quired to carry a card, for which a small fee is usually, 
 
 " For apprenticeship rules approved by the Detroit convention, see 
 The Carpenter, August, 1893, p. II. 
 
 "" Agreement between Master Plumbers' Association of Lynn, 
 Mass., and Vicinity, and the Journeymen Plumbers' Association, No. 
 77, sec. 3 ; see Plumbers' Journal, September, 1895, p. 2. 
 
 54 Report adopted by Connecticut Master Plumbers' Convention, 
 Plumbers' Journal, September, 1895, p. 2. 
 
8o Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [562 
 
 though not always, charged. In some unions this card is 
 renewed quarterly, and any apprentice not carrying the 
 proper quarterly card is not permitted to work. 56 The ap- 
 prentice, in a few unions, is charged an admittance fee, pay- 
 able in full or in part upon his entrance to the trade. The 
 Brotherhood of Boiler Makers and Iron Shipbuilders de- 
 mands half fees of the boy; and, if a beneficiary member, 
 he receives half the benefits. Moreover, when the boy be- 
 comes of age or is able to command the wages, he must pay 
 the remaining half fee. In the Upholsterers' International 
 Union the boy, after six months' service, is required to take 
 an apprentice card, for which he must pay one dollar. 
 
 Age of Apprenticeship. — The minimum age at which an 
 apprentice may enter upon or complete his trade is deter- 
 mined in a large measure by the characteristics of each trade. 
 Where much physical strength is required in order to per- 
 form the work properly, or where great danger is encoun- 
 tered by those engaged in a trade, it is uncommon to find 
 apprentices received under sixteen or eighteen years of age. 
 In crafts where less strength is needed, and where the begin- 
 ner is less liable to accidents, apprentices are received at a 
 much earlier age. The Travelers' Goods and Leather Nov- 
 elty Workers' International Union receives boys at fourteen. 
 The Chartered Society of the Amalgamated Lace Operatives 
 of America will accept beginners at the trade at any age 
 under twenty-five. The minimum age is influenced in some 
 trades by factory legislation. Thus the International Broth- 
 erhood of Bookbinders maintains the rule that " no person 
 shall be permitted to enter the trade as an apprentice under 
 the age of sixteen nor over the age of eighteen years at the 
 recognized branch of the book binding industry, provided 
 that in states and provinces where factory age limit is less 
 
 55 " Apprentices must receive apprentices' working card at the com- 
 mencement of each quarter, namely, January, April, July and Oc- 
 tober, and shall pay fee, five cents per month for the same;" Con- 
 stitution and By-laws of the Operative Plasterers' International As- 
 sociation, No. 46, of the City of Indianapolis and Marion County, 
 Indiana, 1900, Art. VII, sec. 6. 
 
563] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 81 
 
 than sixteen years, fifteen years shall be the minimum age 
 for apprentices." 66 
 
 Most unions regulating apprenticeship prohibit the en- 
 trance upon apprenticeship of persons over a certain age. 
 In a few unions old men are granted the privilege of begin- 
 ning an apprenticeship. Other unions are rigid in this re- 
 spect, permitting apprentices to enter only during a stated 
 period covering a very few years. The Journeymen Stone 
 Cutters' Association thus provides that " no applicant under 
 the age of fifteen or over eighteen shall be allowed to go to 
 the trade." 67 Section 2 of an agreement, dated May, 1902, 
 between local unions of carpenters and the Chicago Builders' 
 Association provides that " the applicant for apprenticeship 
 shall not be more than seventeen years of age at the time 
 for making application." 68 The International Steel and 
 Copper Plate Printers' Union of North America requires 
 that apprenticeship must begin between the ages of seven- 
 teen and eighteen, but the membership qualifications usually 
 demanded of apprentices may be waived by consent of the 
 international union. 
 
 The maximum age restriction is often criticised as working 
 a hardship upon those who have been unable to begin at the 
 required time, but are afterwards desirous of taking up the 
 trade. It is argued, however, by the union that a workman 
 who has not begun to learn his trade until late in life is gen- 
 erally unwilling to submit to ordinary apprenticeship regu- 
 lations. He will not work with boys for a long term at 
 small wages. In fact, he cannot usually afford it, if he must 
 provide for a family. As a result, the man apprentice soon 
 severs his relation with the employer, and in order to secure 
 higher wages seeks work as a journeyman. The man, there- 
 fore, who begins his trade at twenty-five or thirty years of 
 age seldom becomes a capable workman. The position of 
 
 58 Constitution, By-laws, Standing Rules and General Laws of the 
 International Brotherhood of Bookbinders, New York, 1905, p. 
 32, sec. 2. 
 
 51 By-laws of the Journeymen Stone Cutters' Association of North 
 America (Washington, n. d.), Art. V, sec. 2. 
 
 58 See The Carpenter, May, 1902, p. 7. 
 
 6 
 
82 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [564 
 
 the union and the employers is concisely expressed in the 
 declaration of policy adopted by the Mason Builders' Asso- 
 ciation and the Bricklayers' Unions of Boston and vicinity. 
 " To prevent the taking of apprentices at an immature age, 
 when they may be considered on the average as physically 
 unfit for such laborious work, and not sufficiently educated 
 to warrant leaving school, and to discourage the beginning 
 of apprenticeship, at a time when the individual may be 
 considered, on the average, as having passed that period 
 when the faculties of mind and body are in the condition 
 which is most receptive of instruction, and most readily adap- 
 tive to the requirements of the trade, the following time and 
 term are fixed." 
 
 Term of Service. — The term of apprenticeship varies in 
 the different trades from two to seven years, three and four 
 years being the ordinary term. The bakers and confection- 
 ers and the broom makers require that applicants for mem- 
 bership shall have had two years' experience. The watch 
 case engravers require apprentices to serve five years. Some 
 locals in the plumbing trade keep the boy at the trade six 
 years. The machine printers require that each apprentice at 
 the trade shall serve seven years. 69 
 
 In theory the time of service required is supposed to rep- 
 resent the time necessary for a boy of average ability, under 
 fair circumstances, to learn the trade well enough to demand 
 a journeyman's wages. In the same trade, however, the 
 term varies in different localities. Thus the term of appren- 
 ticeship in carpentry in Tacoma, Washington, is three years, 
 while in many eastern cities four years are required. In 
 the plumbing trade the term varies from two to six years, 
 This variation arises partly from differences in the class of 
 work done, but more especially because the local bodies are 
 stronger in some places than in others. A long apprentice- 
 ship term is the rule where the union is strongly organized, 
 
 83 The apprenticeship system recently put in operation by the Knabe 
 Piano Company in their large factory in Baltimore provides for a 
 course of training extending over a period of eight years. The 
 system has been evolved by the company entirely apart from the 
 influences of the union. 
 
565] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 83 
 
 or the finer grades of work are to be learned ; but where the 
 union is weak or the work desired is in the main of an ordi- 
 nary type, the tendency is toward a shorter term. 
 
 The requirement of a long apprenticeship term in any 
 trade that may be picked up tends to defeat the very 
 purpose for which the system is established. Instead of 
 inducing the boy to learn his trade in the prescribed manner, 
 a long term of service is likely to cause him to take up his 
 trade as a non-unionist. Not infrequently in communities 
 where unions are weak or poorly organized the apprentice 
 wearies of his long service as a beginner at small wages, and 
 leaves his employer to seek work on his own responsibility 
 with non-union men. Ordinarily the union fixes only the 
 minimum term of apprenticeship, and leaves to the individual 
 initiative of the apprentice the termination of the period of 
 apprenticeship, but some unions find it necessary to set a 
 maximum term. Thus the piano and organ workers will not 
 permit apprentices to serve longer than three years without 
 permission of the local union. The cigar makers follow the 
 same policy. In 1897, E. Presnail, a cigar manufacturer, 
 appealed to the president of the Cigar Makers' International 
 Union against union No. 55 of Hamilton, Ont., for compel- 
 ling an apprentice who had served three years at the trade 
 to join the union. The appellant claimed that the firm was 
 working under a four-year agreement and was not subject to 
 the apprentice rule of the union. The president decided that 
 unless the firm could produce the written agreement or con- 
 tract the apprentice must become a member of the union. 60 
 
 Perhaps no trade illustrates better than cigar making the 
 prime difficulty encountered in any attempt to fix by national 
 law a uniform term of apprenticeship for all branches of the 
 craft. Cigar making consists in the main of two parts, 
 bunch making and rolling. Each may be learned by begin- 
 ners within three or four weeks, and within as many months 
 the new apprentice has learned both branches sufficiently 
 well to make the cheaper grade of cigars. Beginners are 
 
 00 Cigar Makers' Journal, April, 1897. 
 
84 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [566 
 
 permitted to handle only inferior material. Those who oper- 
 ate machines require even less time to learn the trade than 
 those who work by hand, but their product is also of an 
 inferior quality. 61 However, the total amount of cheap 
 cigars consumed is quite large, creating a constant demand 
 for workmen who possess just sufficient ability and skill to 
 enable them to make such a grade of goods. The three-year 
 term of service, demanded of apprentices in strictly union 
 shops, is perhaps not too long for those engaged in manu- 
 facturing the best brands of cigars, since this class of work- 
 ers must make bunches, roll the wrappers and make cigars 
 of many sizes. 
 
 The length of the apprenticeship term is supposed to be 
 of sufficient duration and the training of such a nature that 
 the learner will be enabled to perform not only the cheaper 
 grades of work, but to render the highest class of service 
 demanded in the industry. Where both classes of workmen 
 are employed in the same trade as in cigar making, it be- 
 comes a serious question with the union how far to press the 
 rule which requires all apprentices to serve a stated number 
 of years before being admitted to the union. If made too 
 rigid, the number excluded from the union would be large, 
 and the influence of the organization would be seriously 
 endangered. If too liberal in its apprenticeship require- 
 ments, the trade would be filled with incompetent workmen, 
 and a high standard of workmanship and a high rate of 
 wages would be difficult to maintain. 
 
 On the whole, the result of enforcing a long apprentice- 
 ship in skilled trades is to secure the better class of workmen 
 as members of the union, but to exclude those who possess 
 less skill. The conflict of interest between these classes of 
 workers makes it impossible for all the local unions in 
 the trade to enforce the same membership requirements. 
 The difficulty is generally minimized by receiving as mem- 
 bers not only those who are known to have served the full 
 time, but also any others who can command the scale of 
 wages regardless of the time spent in learning the trade. 
 
 61 Cigar Makers' Journal, March, 1883, p. 4. 
 
567] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 85 
 
 Disputes over the length of time the apprentices must 
 serve have occasionally arisen between employers and the 
 unions ; but, in most cases, the terms have been fixed by cus- 
 tom of long standing, and, with perhaps a few exceptions, 
 have not been reduced because of any modern changes in 
 the trade. 
 
 The length of a service year varies in different unions. 
 The fires in glass furnaces are drawn during July and Au- 
 gust, and the work of all apprentices and journeymen is dis- 
 continued during this time. Some unions require that the 
 apprentice be kept at work during a certain number of 
 months each year. Thus the apprentice provisions in the 
 agreement between the Chicago Builders' Association and 
 the local unions specify : " The contractor taking an appren- 
 tice shall engage to keep him at work for nine consecutive 
 months in each year and see that during the remaining three 
 months of the year the apprentice attends school. The ap- 
 prentice shall, during the months of January, February and 
 March of each year, attend a technical school acceptable to 
 the joint board, and a certificate that he has done so will be 
 required before he is allowed to work during the year." 62 
 
 Journeymen in the building trades rarely have more than 
 nine months' steady work in a year. The average term of 
 employment for apprentices cannot be more, and is often 
 much less. If the employer has contracts to justify continu- 
 ous work, the apprentice may be engaged during the entire 
 year, assuming no agreement to the contrary. In the event 
 of business depression or during periods of inactivity, it may 
 be impossible for the employer to fulfill his contract, and 
 the apprentice may be unable to secure work from any other 
 source for more than a few months of the year. Occasion- 
 ally the apprentice finds some other form of employment 
 when thus temporarily released, or the employer may pay 
 him as though he were actually at work. During periods 
 
 K " Joint Arbitration Agreement between the Chicago Masons and 
 Builders' Association and the United Order of American Bricklayers 
 and Stone Masons' Union, No. 21, of the Bricklayers and Masons' 
 International Union. April 1, 1903, to May 1, 1905." (n. p. n. d.) 
 
86 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [568 
 
 of business inactivity journeymen are usually discharged, 
 and, up to a certain limit, apprentices retained. The oppo- 
 site arrangement is, however, sometimes made. 
 
 In order to prevent boys from leaving their employers 
 before finishing the stated term of service, the unions have 
 enacted rigid rules with reference to runaway apprentices. 
 The apprentice must begin and end his term in the same 
 shop unless he is prevented from doing so by the death or 
 removal of his employer, or is granted a clearance card by 
 the union. Should the apprentice leave without just cause, 
 he cannot be received by any local union, nor even be per- 
 mitted to work with union men. 63 The following regulation 
 of the Painters', Decorators' and Paperhangers' Union is 
 typical of the building trades in this respect : " When a boy 
 shall have contracted with an employer to serve a certain 
 number of years, he shall on no pretense whatever leave 
 said employer and contract with another without the free 
 and full consent of said employer, unless there is just cause 
 or such change is made in consequence of death or relin- 
 quishing of business by the first employer ; any apprentice 
 so leaving shall not be permitted to work under the jurisdic- 
 tion of any local union in our Brotherhood, but shall be re- 
 quired to return to his employer and serve out his appren- 
 ticeship." 64 
 
 The " runaway column " is a prominent feature of the 
 trade journals in the stone cutters', carpenters' and brick- 
 layers' unions. The published list contains the name, age 
 and residence of the delinquent boy, the residence of the 
 employer, a statement of the term that the boy has served, 
 
 03 Exceptions to the rule are sometimes made when the apprentice 
 is the son of a journeyman. A Baltimore employer of stone cutters 
 told the present writer of the following experiences : The son of a 
 journeyman was apprenticed to the employer. The father of the 
 boy moved to another city taking his son with him. The employer 
 appealed to the union to reinstate the apprentice and compel him to 
 comply with the terms of the contract. This the union refused to 
 do, claiming that it was an unwritten law that a journeyman could 
 take his son with him wherever he might go. 
 
 M Constitution of the Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators and 
 Paperhangers of America (Lafayette, 1901), Art. XLV, sec. 6. 
 
569] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 87 
 
 any clue to his possible whereabouts and a warning to all 
 members of the union to be on the alert to locate him. 
 
 The apprentice cannot be summarily discharged except for 
 incompetency or constant neglect, or, at least, if discharged 
 without an explanation satisfactory to the union, his place 
 cannot be filled until the expiration of the time for which he 
 agreed to serve. 65 The employer has the final word as to 
 the fitness of the boy to continue at work, and can discharge 
 him at any time. But, in general, the particular journeyman 
 under whose instruction the apprentice has been placed is 
 regarded as best qualified to speak as to the boy's ability and 
 conduct, and the discharge of an apprentice is ordinarily 
 upon his recommendation or that of the foreman of the shop. 
 
 Should the employer suspend business during the time 
 the apprentice is serving his term, some unions endeavor to 
 find new positions for beginners thus displaced. 66 Ordi- 
 narily the apprentice is required to finish his term within the 
 jurisdiction of the union where he was first engaged. The 
 stone cutters provide : " If any employer should cease to 
 carry on the stone cutting business, the apprentices in his 
 employ shall be compelled to finish their time under the 
 jurisdiction of the branch with which they started, provided 
 they can obtain employment." 67 Should the apprentice be 
 unable to obtain employment within the jurisdiction of his 
 union, he is given a " clearance card " to be presented in 
 
 "A typical rule in this regard is that adopted by the bricklayers 
 of Baltimore. "Any employer who shall from the want of employ- 
 ment or any other cause than the incompetency of the apprentice to 
 learn the business, transfer or discharge his apprentice, shall be 
 debarred from taking any other apprentice, until the time for which 
 the said apprentice was registered to serve has expired." Constitu- 
 tion and By-laws of the Bricklayers' Protective and Beneficiary 
 Union (Baltimore, 1901), Art. XXX, sec. 2. 
 
 66 " Should any employer suspend or give up business, it is the 
 duty of a subordinate union to provide a place for any apprentices 
 that may be thrown out of employment, and desire to finish their 
 time, and, at the expiration of their apprenticeship, they shall, if 
 found competent, be entitled to journeymen's wages upon joining 
 the union." Constitution and Rules of Order, of the Bricklayers' 
 and Masons' International Union of America (North Adams, Massa- 
 chusetts, 1902), Art. XIII, sec. 3. 
 
 "By-laws of the Journeymen Stone Cutters' Association of North 
 America (Washington, 1900), Art. V, sec. 4. 
 
88 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [57° 
 
 making application to the union in another place. Such an 
 applicant must give proof of his former connection, and if 
 accepted, must serve such length of time as may be fixed 
 by the union receiving him. 68 
 
 When a shop becomes non-union, any apprentice refusing 
 to leave his work, when ordered away by the officers of his 
 local union, is usually liable to any penalty which that body 
 may see fit to impose. The United Hatters and a majority 
 of other unions permit the local bodies to adjust such mat- 
 ters. In cases of long-continued strikes or lockouts the 
 instruction of the apprentice may be seriously interrupted, 
 so that it is impossible in the remaining time of his term 
 for him to acquire sufficient skill to entitle him to be classed 
 as a journeyman. Under such circumstances, it is custo- 
 mary for the union to grant a permit to the apprentice, that 
 he may have an opportunity to continue his apprenticeship 
 elsewhere. In the majority of strikes, whether the ap- 
 prentice remained at work or not would not materially 
 affect the position of either party to the controversy, while, 
 on the contrary, to interrupt apprenticeship for any great 
 length of time seriously handicaps the apprentice in learning 
 the trade. Some unions, therefore, will not permit the ap- 
 prentice to be penalized for remaining at work in a struck 
 shop. 
 
 Any apprentice who has served a portion of his term of 
 service in a foreign country and desires to continue the same 
 
 68 " Any applicant for time to finish his trade should he find a place 
 as an apprentice in some shop where they have not the full comple- 
 ment of apprentices prescribed by the branch to which he applies, 
 shall be required to give proof by his work that he has already served 
 part of his time before he shall be entitled to the protection of this 
 association, and a majority of the members working in the shop 
 where he is employed shall determine- how long he shall be required 
 to serve, and shall personally testify before the meeting of the 
 branch their opinion of the time he shall serve, and in case a 
 majority cannot be present they shall delegate one or more of their 
 members to appear before said branch meeting with their decision 
 in writing. No applicant of this character shall be more than twenty 
 years of age, and all apprentices or improvers must present them- 
 selves before said branch meeting within two weeks after they are 
 engaged." Constitution and By-laws of the Journeymen Stone Cut- 
 ters' Association ( . 1892), Art. VI, sec. 6. 
 
57 1] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 89 
 
 in the United States is ordinarily required to furnish proof 
 of the work done as an apprentice in his native land. The 
 wire weavers are more rigid in this respect than most other 
 unions. They maintain that, since the " weavers " in for- 
 eign countries do not restrict apprentices in the proper ratio 
 for the benefit of the trade, " any persons starting their ap- 
 prenticeship in any foreign country and not serving their 
 legal or full apprenticeship, will not be recognized or allowed 
 to finish their apprenticeship in this country." 69 
 
 Number of Apprentices. — Perhaps the most prominent 
 feature of apprenticeship regulation is a limitation on the 
 number of apprentices. This limitation is expressed in 
 terms of the ratio of the number of apprentices to the 
 number of journeymen, or to the shop or the contractor. 
 The limitation on the number of apprentices, more than 
 any other regulation of apprenticeship, is determined by 
 local conditions. Thus, the common rule for the granite 
 cutters is one apprentice to every gang or fraction thereof, 
 a gang consisting of thirteen men. But, in Oregon, the 
 ratio as fixed by state agreement is one to twelve. 70 In 
 the Milford, N. H., agreement, the ratio is one to four- 
 teen, 71 and at Westerly, R. I., it is not more than one to 
 five journeymen. 72 The regulations of the Maryland branch 
 provide that " firms employing five journeymen five months 
 in the year are allowed one apprentice, two for first gang 
 (thirteen), and one for each additional gang." At Rich- 
 mond, Va., employers using five journeymen or less are 
 allowed not more than two apprentices, and one additional 
 apprentice for every five additional journeymen regularly 
 employed, 73 and at Jacksonville, Fla., one apprentice is 
 
 " Constitution and By-laws and Schedule of Prices of the Na- 
 tional Executive Board of the American Wire Weavers' Protective 
 Association, Newark, 1902, Art. V. 
 
 " See Bill of Prices for Cutting Granite in the State of Oregon, 
 July 1, 1898, to May I, 1900. 
 
 " See Bill of Prices for Milford, N. H., March 1, 1902, to March 
 1, 1903, p. 4, par. 4. 
 
 72 See Bill of Prices for Westerly, R. I., to March 1, 1900, p. 6, 
 sec. VI. 
 
 78 See Bill of Prices for cutting granite in Richmond, Va., May, 
 1900, p. 12. 
 
90 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [572 
 
 allowed in each shop where fifty men may be employed. 7 * 
 In some industries, notably in the building and printing 
 trades, the chief unions are largely recruited from artisans 
 who have learned their trade in the smaller places. Under 
 these conditions, the unions in the larger places frequently 
 limit severely the number of apprentices, counting upon the 
 influx of workmen. 
 
 Similarly, in those unions in which the number of mem- 
 bers fluctuates greatly a local union frequently raises the 
 apprentice ratio in order to prevent an increase of appren- 
 tices from the temporary presence of journeymen within 
 its jurisdiction. In the stone cutting industry, it frequently 
 happens that twenty-five or more journeymen are sent tem- 
 porarily to one locality. Were the ordinary ratio adhered 
 to under such circumstances, the number of apprentices 
 received would be greatly increased, and, as the journey- 
 men thus employed remain only until the job on which they 
 are employed is completed, the apprentices would be much 
 in excess of the number allowed under normal conditions, 
 and more than the needs of the locality would justify. 
 Furthermore, the same journeymen are often transferred 
 to the jurisdiction of another local during the period covered 
 by the term of the apprenticeship, thereby augmenting the 
 basis upon which apprentices may be taken. The follow- 
 ing communication to the Hatters' Journal describes the 
 practice of some employers in that industry : " At the time 
 our laws gave manufacturers the privilege of employing 
 an apprentice for every six or seven journeymen employed, 
 advantage was taken of the law to employ six, twelve or 
 eighteen men for a few weeks, so that the additional number 
 of apprentices could be registered for the shop, and then 
 the journeymen were discharged. This was unfair to the 
 journeymen put on the road, but the injustice did not stop 
 there. When dull times came, work was found for the 
 apprentices, and the journeymen were sent home." 75 
 
 The Glass Bottle Blowers' Association maintains the rule 
 
 "See Agreement Governing Granite Cutting in Jacksonville, Fla., 
 March, 1903, to March 1, 1904. 
 "Hatters' Journal, October, 1898, p. n. 
 
573] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 91 
 
 that " firms, who from any cause reduce their number of 
 journeymen must also reduce their number of apprentices 
 so that at all times they shall be within the provisions of 
 the law." 78 The practice of discharging apprentices and 
 retaining journeymen during periods of business inactivity 
 or in times of emergency is, however, not an accepted trade- 
 union policy. In the first place, to discharge an apprentice 
 during the period of training means a serious interruption 
 in his course of instruction, and lessens his opportunities 
 of becoming a skilled workman. If compelled to serve 
 the term at different places under different instructors, the 
 apprentice will in all probability acquire less skill than if 
 his training had been continuous and in the same shop. 
 Again, the discharged apprentice usually wanders from 
 place to place, is employed in union and non-union shops, 
 and is often received in some local union before he has 
 served the specified term. The net result is a shortened 
 term with a corresponding increase in the ratio of appren- 
 tices to journeymen. 
 
 Two chief forms of ratio are used in restricting the 
 number of apprentices. The first is a fixed ratio, which re- 
 mains the same however great the number of journeymen 
 employed. 77 The second is a declining ratio, in which the 
 proportion of apprentices is reduced as the number of 
 journeymen increases. Some unions limit the number of 
 apprentices which may be employed in any one shop, be- 
 yond which no additions are allowed. 78 Thus, the stone 
 
 76 Constitution, By-laws and Appendix of the Glass Bottle Blowers' 
 Association of the United States and Canada, Camden, New Jersey, 
 1903, p. 29, sec. 10. 
 
 77 " It is agreed by parties hereto, that no master plumber shall 
 have more than one apprentice to every three men or fraction thereof, 
 and no boy under sixteen years of age shall enter the trade." See 
 Agreement between the Masters and Plumbers of Spokane, Washing- 
 ton, Art. 13, Plumbers' Journal, June, 1899, p. 13. 
 
 78 " Each joint shop shall be entitled to one apprentice on an aver- 
 age of ten to fifteen men, based on men employed between March 
 to November 1, and one additional apprentice for every additional 
 fifteen men employed based upon the above average. But, in no 
 case, shall any shop be allowed to have more than four apprentices." 
 See By-laws and Trade Rules of the District Council of Brother- 
 hood of Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America, St. 
 Louis and Vicinity, 1903, p. 20, sec. 1. 
 
92 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [574 
 
 cutters provide : " Any branch of the Association shall have 
 the privilege of regulating the number of apprentices in 
 each yard; one where less than fifteen men are employed, 
 two where less than one hundred, and in no case to exceed 
 four in any yard." 79 
 
 Ordinarily, apprenticeship rules are favorable to 'the 
 smaller shops, in that they are allowed a greater number of 
 apprentices than are permitted to the larger shops. Thus 
 apprentices are not allowed at all in the newspaper offices 
 of New York, Philadelphia and other large cities. This 
 rule was passed by the local typographical unions, but is 
 not actively opposed by the publishers since it does not 
 pay to train apprentices. The same is true in the cigar 
 making industry and in the building trades. The large 
 employers are ordinarily less desirous of having apprentices. 
 At present, a large majority of those learning the above 
 mentioned trades do so in small shops, often in small towns, 
 where it is less expensive to all concerned. However, since 
 the city employer is able to pay a higher wage than the 
 employer in the small town or office, he has no difficulty in 
 obtaining skilled workmen. 
 
 In certain trades where many incompetents have formerly 
 been admitted, and an effort is being made to raise the 
 standard of wages, apprentices are prohibited altogether 
 for a given period. The case of the Plumbers has already 
 been cited. 80 When the Watch Case Engravers' Interna- 
 tional Association of America was organized, that body at- 
 tempted to enforce a rule that " no person, male or female, 
 should be admitted into the engraving trade for a term of 
 four years." This was defended on the ground that some 
 manufacturers had employed a large number of boys, but had 
 taught them only part of the engraving trade, with the result 
 that a large number of poorly trained engravers had been 
 admitted into the union, so that the high standard of work- 
 manship, formerly maintained by the craft in general, was 
 
 "Constitution of Journeymen Stone Cutters' Association, adopted 
 1900 (Washington, n. d.), Art. V, sec. 7. 
 80 See supra, p. 74. 
 
575] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 93 
 
 being lowered, and few fully equipped artists were being 
 trained. 
 
 In many cases, the ratio is fixed by agreement with the 
 individual employers or employers' associations, and may 
 be changed yearly if desired. With perhaps a few excep- 
 tions, such as the iron molding and glass industries, the 
 ratio has become fixed by custom, and is seldom changed. 
 The wide difference in existing ratios is due largely to 
 variations in the local labor supply. If sufficient workmen 
 be present to carry on the work, no one is anxious to take 
 on new apprentices and those applying are easily dis- 
 couraged. At other places, employers will not be bothered 
 with apprentices, preferring to employ an extra number 
 of journeymen at a higher rate, if there be a sudden de- 
 mand, and to discharge them when business resumes its 
 normal condition. In the matter of apprentices as well as 
 in other features of unionism the rigidity of the rule and 
 the degree of strictness with which it is enforced depend 
 in a large measure upon the strength of the local union, 
 and upon the power of the employers. 
 
 The Wage of the Apprentice. — The wage received by 
 the apprentice is usually a matter of agreement between 
 the boy and his employer, although some unions insist upon 
 making certain provisions in this particular. Thus the 
 Broom and Whisk Makers, working by the piece, provide 
 that " apprentices shall receive the same amount of pay 
 as the journeymen receive for their work." 81 Such a regu- 
 lation, when rigidly enforced, removes the temptation to 
 substitute the cheap labor of the boy for the more expensive 
 services of the skilled journeymen. However, any local 
 union that possesses power sufficient to enforce such a rule 
 is also in a position to limit efficiently the number of appren- 
 tices by direct law. The Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers, 
 Brass Molders, Brass and Silver Workers' International 
 Union provides that the wages of the apprentice must be 
 
 81 International Broom and Whisk Makers' Union, Due Book and 
 Constitution, Amsterdam, New York, 1904, p. 47, sec. 2. 
 
94 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [57^ 
 
 regulated by the local union in whose jurisdiction the ap- 
 prentice is employed. 82 The Toledo screw workers' union 
 provides that " all apprentices working day work shall 
 receive not less than $1.25 per day of ten hours, and $2.00 
 shall be allowed for piece work for ten hours." 83 The 
 Amalgamated Lace Operatives vary the amount received 
 by the apprentice during each year of his service accord- 
 ing to the work actually done. They also provide that the 
 journeyman shall charge for his services as instructor of 
 the apprentice. This is thought to be a just compensa- 
 tion to the journeyman, who must lose time from his own 
 machine while instructing the beginner. The rule covering 
 this point provides that the apprentice " shall serve three 
 years, and be paid as follows : sixty per cent [of the journey- 
 man's rate] the first year, seventy-five per cent the second 
 year, and ninety per cent the third year on one half of the 
 racks made on the machine, the difference to be equally 
 divided between teacher and employer. In any case where 
 the employer does not claim his share of the percentage, 
 the same goes to the apprentice ; and, where there is no 
 teacher, the apprentice shall be paid on all racks made on 
 the machine, and shall receive the teacher's percentage." 84 
 Where apprenticeship is regulated in great detail by con- 
 ferences between employers and employees, the wages of 
 the apprentice are usually provided for in the agreement. 
 This is in most cases an advantage to the apprentice, since 
 the union is able to obtain better terms for him than he 
 could secure for himself. The joint arbitration agreement 
 made by the Chicago Masons' and Builders' Association 
 and the local bricklayers' union contains the provision that 
 "the minimum wages of an apprentice shall not be less 
 than two hundred and sixty dollars for the first year, three 
 hundred for the second year, three hundred and fifty for 
 
 82 Constitution and By-laws, 1903, Art. XXXIV, sec. 2. 
 
 "Constitution and By-laws of Screw Workers' Union No. 11. 
 Toledo, 1889, Art. VII, sec. 3. 
 
 "By-laws of the Chartered Society of the Amalgamated Lace 
 Curtain Operatives of America, Philadelphia, 1902, Art. IV, sec. I. 
 
577] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 95 
 
 the third year and four hundred for the fourth year, pay- 
 able semi-monthly." 85 Some employers pay the apprentice 
 a certain wage while he is serving his term with the promise 
 of an additional sum to be paid upon the completion of 
 the apprenticeship, the purpose being to hold the boy 
 throughout the entire term and to encourage him to take 
 advantage of the opportunities offered. This plan is not 
 possible in some trades because of the irregularity of em- 
 ployment and, therefore, the frequent necessity of changing 
 employers. 
 
 Training of the Apprentice. — During the early part of the 
 apprenticeship period the boy's labor is worth little, and he 
 is usually given the odd jobs about the shop or placed on 
 coarse work under the care and instruction of a journey- 
 man or foreman. In the glass industries, he is permitted 
 to begin with the small sizes; the cigar makers allow him 
 to make the cheaper grades, for which a poor quality of 
 tobacco is used, while the iron molders require the beginners 
 to make the simplest pieces. In some unions, frequently 
 among the plumbers, the apprentice is assigned to a par- 
 ticular workman to whom he must go for all instruction; 
 in others, very often among the stone cutters, he is per- 
 mitted to ask questions of any journeyman engaged on the 
 work, and the workman so questioned must devote a reason- 
 able amount of time to giving him the desired information. 
 The opportunities of the apprentice to learn the trade de- 
 pend largely upon the character of the boy, the attitude 
 of the employer, and the interest of the journeyman. In 
 some cases, the apprentices are neglected; in others, the 
 employers, in order to make the boy pay his way as soon 
 as possible and in the end become an efficient workman, 
 take personal interest in him and give him the best advan- 
 
 st Joint Arbitration Agreement between the Chicago Masons and 
 Builders' Association and the United Order of American Bricklayers' 
 and Stone Masons' Union No. 31, of the Bricklayers' and Masons' 
 International Union, April 1, 1903, to May 1, 1905, p. 18. 
 
96 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [57^ 
 
 tages. 86 It has long been the practice of the employers 
 of stone cutters in Baltimore to pay the tuition of their 
 apprentices at the Maryland Institute so that they may 
 acquire the principles of drawing and sketching. The prog- 
 ress of the apprentice during his term of service thus 
 depends upon his ability, upon the opportunities given him 
 by the employer and upon the interest taken in him by the 
 journeymen. Unless a detailed agreement be formulated, 
 the union makes only general rules in these particulars. 
 Usually they are expressed in the form of a charge to the 
 journeymen, the foreman or the members of the union to 
 see that the boy has competent instruction and opportuni- 
 ties for advancement. The following paragraph from the 
 rules of the Stone Cutters is typical : " It shall be the im- 
 perative duty of the shop stewards and members to see that 
 all apprentices in their respecive shops are given as good 
 work as they are able to do, in order that they may become 
 skilled workmen, fitted to take their places as journeymen 
 in our midst." 87 
 
 The specific work to be performed by the apprentice 
 during each year of his term is, in many cases, denned by 
 the constitution of the union, or specified in the general 
 agreement. Where the trade is best learned through a 
 series of operations rather than in one difficult process, 
 it is customary for the union to determine how long the 
 apprentice shall serve at each portion, and to insist that he 
 be advanced at stated intervals from one part to the other. 
 A typical requirement is that of the Saw Smiths' Union, 
 
 M Very satisfactory results have been obtained by the Atkins Com- 
 pany, saw manufacturers, of Indianapolis, by requiring one ex- 
 perienced and highly skilled journeyman to devote his entire time 
 to the apprentices. They are grouped together apart from the 
 journeymen and placed at work under his immediate supervision 
 and care. When sufficient progress has been made and the boy 
 possesses a fair knowledge of the trade, he is placed on the work 
 with the journeymen. Where the industry permits, this seems to 
 be an admirable arrangement, for such a plan does not allow the 
 apprentice to interfere with the work of the journeyman. Moreover, 
 the apprentice is sure of thorough instruction. 
 
 87 By-laws of Jpurneymen Stone Cutters' Association, 1892, Art. 
 V, sec. 8. 
 
579] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 97 
 
 which states that " it shall be the right of every apprentice, 
 and he shall also be required to learn all branches of anvil 
 work done in the shop in which he is employed." 88 The 
 United Hatters are more specific for they demand that " all 
 apprentices registered for finishing, can be used by the 
 employers for the first twelve months at any of the minor 
 branches, such as soft hat curling or ironing machines or 
 plating, and the second year, at flanging; but, in all cases, 
 they must serve their last year at the bench. ... If regis- 
 tered for the making department, after being instructed, 
 they shall continue for the space of nine months at sizing, 
 then six months at blocking, then six months at stiffening* 
 After this space of time, employers can put them at any 
 branch of the business in which they may require their 
 services." 89 The Window Glass Workers' Association 
 represents a trade of four distinct processes, namely, 
 gathering, blowing, cutting, flattening; and the time an 
 apprentice is required to serve at each trade is three years ; 
 but usually he is permitted to blow after having served three 
 years as gatherer. However, from lack of experience in 
 the work, he must begin upon small sizes; and, although 
 he receives the regular rate, his income is smaller than 
 that paid to the journeyman. A New York corporation 
 held certain patents, and, making a specialty of building 
 chimneys, applied to a local of the bricklayers' union for 
 permission to take on an apprentice. The local refused, 
 and referred the matter to the national executive board. 
 This body also refused the company an apprentice on the 
 ground that the boy would not have a fair opportunity to 
 gain an adequate knowledge of bricklaying. 
 
 No uniform rule prevails in regard to testing the appren- 
 tice's proficiency. A prominent employer complained to the 
 present writer that boys, who had served the four years of 
 apprenticeship required by the local stone cutters' union, 
 
 88 Official Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Convention, Saw 
 Smiths' Union of North America, Indianapolis, 1902, p. 12, sec. 4. 
 
 "United Hatters of North America, New York, 1903, Art. XI, 
 sees. S and 6. 
 
98 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [58° 
 
 were permitted to join the union and to receive the same 
 rate of wages as other journeymen, although they might 
 have spent but a few months in each year in learning the 
 trade. Other unions are more strict in this regard, requir- 
 ing the apprentice to serve an additional year if found in 
 any way deficient. The agreement between the Chicago 
 builders and the Chicago building trades union thus pro- 
 vides : " In case an apprentice at the end of his term of four 
 years for want of proper instruction in his trade is not a 
 proficient workman, and if, after a thorough investigation, 
 the joint arbitration board finds that the contractor to whom 
 he had been apprenticed did not give the proper instruction 
 and opportunity to learn the trade, he may be required to 
 serve another year with whomsoever he and the joint arbi- 
 tration board may determine, and at such a rate of wages, 
 less than the minimum in his trade, as they may determine ; 
 and the difference between said rate and minimum scale in 
 his trade shall be paid through the joint arbitration boards 
 by the contractor to whom he was apprenticed." 90 In some 
 cases the apprentice is required to present a diploma or a 
 statement of proficiency from his employer. The Baltimore 
 bricklayers provide : " An employer wishing to have an ap- 
 prentice shall make application in writing or in person to 
 the union, said application to be presented by the boy who 
 wishes to be taken as an apprentice, said apprentice to serve 
 the term of four years, to learn the art of bricklaying or 
 stone masonry, and his name and length of time he is re- 
 quired to serve shall be registered in the book provided for 
 that purpose, and his employer furnished with a certificate 
 of registration, said certificate to be returned to the union 
 endorsed by the employer at the expiration of the time of 
 apprenticeship." 81 
 
 Admission of Apprentice to the Union. — Admission to the 
 union may be regarded as the final step in apprenticeship. 
 
 "Agreement between Chicago Builders' Association and Local 
 Union, sec. 5. 
 
 "■ See Working Code between the Bricklayers' and Masons' Inter- 
 national Unions, Nos. 1, 4, and 5, of Baltimore, Maryland, for the 
 Years 1903 and 1904, p. 8, sec. 23. 
 
581] Character of Apprenticeship Regulations. 99 
 
 Indeed, apprentices are taught unionism along with the 
 trade, and special inducements are offered to secure their 
 entrance into the union. The painters provide : " Appren- 
 tices in the last year of their service shall be admitted free 
 of charge and entitled to a seat in the union without a vote 
 and be free from all dues and assessments. On completion 
 of their apprenticeship, they shall be entitled to full benefits 
 and all rights to full membership by conforming to Section 
 1 of this article. No capitation is required of apprentices, 
 but in cities where business agents are employed, local unions 
 may charge one dollar initiation and ten cents per month 
 dues." 92 
 
 When the apprentice is received into the union as an 
 apprentice member, his rights are less than those of jour- 
 neymen members, he pays less in dues and receives smaller 
 benefits. For example, the jewelry workers will receive as 
 members all apprentices over sixteen years of age upon pay- 
 ment of one dollar and a half, which is one half of the mini- 
 mum initiation fee for journeymen. The dues of appren- 
 tices are one half the regular dues, but such members may 
 not vote nor speak except to bring complaint or to ask for 
 information. Also they are entitled to one half of the bene- 
 fits received by regular members. At the conclusion of 
 their apprentice term, they are received as full members 
 without any additional initiation fee. 
 
 " Constitution of the Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators, and 
 Paperhangers of America (Lafayette, Ind.), Art. VII, sec. 8. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Estimate of Union Apprenticeship Rules. 
 
 The apprenticeship system in nearly all the unions is un- 
 satisfactory. Side by side with the capable mechanic, a 
 great number of incompetents are found in the trades. This 
 condition may be attributed to three general causes: (a) 
 the large influence of local unions in determining appren- 
 ticeship rules; (b) the effect of changes in business organi- 
 zation and industrial technique; (c) the disregard of ap- 
 prenticeship rules both by employers and by the unions. 
 Each of these influences will be briefly considered. 
 
 (a) The character of some trades, notably cigar making 
 and the building trades, as has been noted, makes it neces- 
 sary to leave apprenticeship rules to local determination. 
 This policy has resulted in a wide range of treatment, in 
 many cases unwise and inadequate. A nicer adjustment of 
 rules to local conditions has been secured, but many local 
 unions have been unable to enforce effective apprenticeship 
 regulations. Some unions make no pretense of maintaining 
 an apprenticeship system, and others make rules of the loos- 
 est imaginable description. In consequence, the large, 
 strongly-organized unions observe elaborate apprenticeship 
 codes ; in the smaller and weaker unions in the same trade 
 a brief statement of a few lines contains all that is said in 
 regard to apprentices, and even these provisions are often 
 openly neglected. 
 
 (b) The provision made for training the modern appren- 
 tice is, in most cases, inadequate on account of the change 
 in industrial and business methods. Although all the trades 
 have not been affected by the introduction of machinery and 
 the consequent subdivision of the trade, yet important and, 
 in most cases, radical changes have thus been introduced. 
 
 The effect of machinery upon the apprenticeship systems 
 ioo 
 
583] Estimate of Union Apprenticeship Rules. 101 
 
 formerly maintained by labor unions has been twofold. ( 1 ) 
 In some trades, notably those of the boot and shoe makers 
 and the garment workers, the machines have been simplified 
 and the trade subdivided to such an extent that unskilled 
 labor has largely supplanted skilled workmen. In such trades 
 the apprenticeship system has almost entirely disappeared. 
 
 (2) The same effect has not resulted from such inventions 
 as the linotype, the planer, and some of the machines used 
 in mill work and in the large machine shops. These ma- 
 chines require, for their successful operation, the skill of the 
 trained craftsman. The physical strength formerly exerted 
 by the workman is largely supplied by steam power. In 
 these trades only trained craftsmen or journeymen in the 
 last months of their apprenticeship are permitted to take 
 charge of the machines. The care that must be given the 
 machine, the difficulties in learning how to operate it, the 
 cost in case of damage, together with the element of per- 
 sonal danger to the operator, must be considered when de- 
 termining the effect of the introduction of a new machine 
 upon the craftsmen. Many of the finer grades of work 
 formerly done by hand are now done almost entirely by 
 machinery, propelled by steam. Yet so carefully must the 
 machine be handled, so accurately must the measurements 
 be taken, and so nicely must the machines be adjusted that 
 only fully experienced men are intrusted with their care. 
 The operator or tender of these machines has a task to per- 
 form fully as difficult as that of his predecessor who per- 
 formed the same work by hand. In some cases the ma- 
 chine operator has even a more difficult and responsible task 
 than was required of the hand worker, so that he is required 
 by the union to spend the same number of years in learning 
 the trade as the former, but, having mastered it, he is able 
 to produce far more rapidly than before. The pace set in 
 the modern shop, which contains much costly machinery, is 
 not conducive to thorough training, since the chief object, 
 necessarily so because of keen competition, is to produce the 
 maximum amount in the shortest time at the minimum cost ; 
 
102 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [584 
 
 and, as long as the employer can secure competent work- 
 men, he will not take the time nor expend the money to 
 train apprentices. The result has been that in many in- 
 stances the apprentice must learn the trade as best he can. 
 
 The building trades may serve as an illustration of the in- 
 fluence on apprenticeship of typical changes in technique 
 and in business organization. Machinery has been exten- 
 sively introduced only in stone cutting. 03 But subdivision 
 is present in all the trades, and, in all of them, the problem 
 of specialization has consequently arisen. The workmen 
 who can do but one part of the work of the trade is rapidly 
 increasing, though his increase is constantly deplored. The 
 specialized workman is less dependent upon the instruction 
 of others. In case of business depression the workman who 
 has picked up his trade changes to another more readily than 
 the all-round workman who has spent years learning his craft. 
 Moreover, he does not share the feeling of respect for skilled 
 work that inspires the true mechanic. In none of the build- 
 ing trades, however, has the term of service for apprentices 
 been reduced because of the subdivision of the trade. On 
 the contrary, it has resulted in an urgent demand for higher 
 standards of workmanship. 8 * 
 
 93 The " planer " is used extensively in large, permanently located 
 shops. It is not confined to smoothing the stone, but is capable of 
 cutting different designs in hard or soft stone by simply changing 
 the " bit," which can be easily made by the blacksmith. The machine 
 is of great weight, run by steam power and somewhat expensive. 
 It can be operated by one or two mechanics and will do the work of 
 eight or ten men. The pneumatic tool operated by compressed air 
 is another labor-saving device of recent date in this trade. Each 
 cutter supplied with one is able to make much more rapid progress 
 in rougher work with less expenditure of energy than with the 
 ordinary mallet and chisel. However, it is not to be supposed that 
 these important inventions have in any wise revolutionized the trade. 
 The machines render the best results in the hands of the regular 
 stone cutters, and have occasioned no change in the apprenticeship 
 rules of the trade. If the apprentice desires to become a machine 
 operator and his employer has no opening for him, he is placed on 
 the machine during the last year or six months of his term. 
 
 M The recent change of material used in the structure of the frame- 
 work of many large office buildings and apartment houses has 
 wrought remarkable changes in methods of construction, and has 
 substituted comparatively unskilled labor for highly skilled service. 
 The structural iron worker, possessing more physical strength and 
 
585] Estimate of Union Apprenticeship Rules. 103 
 
 A further explanation of the inadequate training of the 
 apprentice in the building trades is found in the organization 
 of modern building operations. The erection of large struc- 
 tures is done in the main by large construction companies. 
 A typical building company of this character maintains of- 
 fices in the principal cities of the United States, with head- 
 quarters in New York City, and competes for business in 
 every section of the country. Superintendents are sent from 
 place to place to take charge of the work secured. Each 
 local arranges its apprenticeship rules with the agents of the 
 company in its own jurisdiction. Should business not jus- 
 tify the continuance of an office in any particular field, it is 
 closed or transferred to another city. One of the chief ele- 
 ments in the award of every contract of size is the time in 
 which it can be executed, and the keenest rivalry exists 
 among the several offices. Every condition is thus unfavor- 
 able to the maintenance of apprenticeship regulations. The 
 manager of the office is constantly seeking new business for 
 his company, and has little concern for the work in progress. 
 The superintendent, sent out by the company to take charge 
 of the work, goes from place to place as orders are received 
 from headquarters, and is only concerned with the problem 
 of getting the building completed in the shortest time at the 
 least cost. The foreman occupies much the same relation to 
 the superintendent as the latter does to the company. He 
 must keep his men moving or lose his position. The individ- 
 ual journeyman must satisfy his foreman or be discharged, 
 and has little if any time to instruct boys. In fact, there is 
 no personal tie or intimate relation between the beginner and 
 those who have charge of the work. The boy is simply not 
 wanted, for no large contractor desires apprentice labor 
 merely because it can be secured at a low wage. The time 
 consumed in teaching the trade to beginners would cause a 
 
 daring than real technical ability and skill, has supplanted to a cer- 
 tain extent the trained bricklayer, stone mason and carpenter. With 
 the introduction of ferro-concrete as a building material, the super- 
 intendent and foremen, aided by hatchet and saw carpenters and 
 ordinary laborers, are able to construct the entire frame-work of 
 the building. 
 
104 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [586 
 
 delay in work, more expensive than the sum saved on wages. 
 Indeed, the apprentice is physically in the way on a large 
 building, where all work must be done in order and on time. 
 Under the indenture system, the contractor was supposed to 
 make a sacrifice during the first part of the apprentice term, 
 as the boy was unable to pay his way. This sacrifice is 
 required to a far greater extent under the present system ; 
 and the contractor, hard pressed by competition, is unwilling 
 to make it. 
 
 Much work in the building trades is still done by small 
 contractors. Every city of size has many of them. Often 
 conducting non-union establishments, they receive more ap- 
 prentices than are allowed in union shops. The work per- 
 formed by this class of contractors is less hurried in time 
 and less precise in quality, and will usually permit of boy 
 labor under the direction of a skilled foreman. Many learn 
 the trade in these small shops. In fact, it is from the num- 
 ber who thus " pick up " the trade, and from those who learn 
 it in small cities and in rural districts, as well as from that 
 smaller number who have served a formal term of appren- 
 ticeship, that the demands of the larger employers, who re- 
 quire a better class of workmen and pay the highest wages, 
 are met. 
 
 (c) The apprenticeship rules nominally in force are often 
 wholly disregarded by both union and employer. In fact, 
 because the employer cannot control his apprentices as un- 
 der the indenture system, many apprentices leave the shop 
 where they have learned the trade and seek employment 
 elsewhere. The apprenticeship system, as we have seen, is 
 esteemed by the union not only as a thing desirable in itself, 
 but also as a device for carrying out larger policies. The 
 old requirement for union membership was the completion 
 of a term of apprenticeship, but, in most cases, this is no 
 longer a requisite. If the applicant is able to command the 
 standard rate of wages, he will experience little difficulty in 
 gaining admittance to the union, regardless of the way in 
 which he has acquired his skill. In fact, many crude work- 
 
587] Estimate of Union Apprenticeship Rules. 105 
 
 men first join the union and gain the greater part of knowl- 
 edge of the trade afterwards. The present policy of the 
 unions in trades where it is impossible to secure effective 
 enforcement of apprenticeship rules is to get every work- 
 man at the trade into the union. When an applicant of 
 doubtful ability applies for membership, the question con- 
 sidered is not when and where did he serve his apprentice- 
 ship, but will he do less harm to the cause inside or outside 
 of the union ; and upon the answer to this question largely 
 depends his acceptance or rejection. During the time of 
 strike the union has no hesitation in sacrificing any of its 
 requirements for admission and even in offering special in- 
 ducements to workmen to join the union in order to gain 
 accessions and to win the strike. 95 
 
 For several years the Glass Bottle Blowers' International 
 Union waged a continuous and bitter warfare against cer- 
 tain non-union firms in New Jersey. During this time the 
 regular apprenticeship rules were constantly sacrificed that 
 they might induce the workmen to withdraw from these 
 unfair shops. Urged by representatives of the union, many 
 men and boys were induced to leave the non-union shops, 
 were received as members of the union, and sent elsewhere 
 to work at the regular standard wage ; or, in case employ- 
 ment could not be found, they were supported temporarily 
 by the union. An ex-member of the executive committee 
 of the Glass Bottle Blowers' Union showed the present 
 writer a list containing the names of one hundred and fifteen 
 
 ,s A business agent of the wood workers' union of Indianapolis 
 stated that not only would such possible " strike breakers " be 
 received into his union free of cost, but that transportation would 
 be provided, in order that they might go elsewhere to work. It is a 
 well-known fact that the non-union men gotten together by an 
 employer during a strike may gradually find their way into the 
 uuion after difficulties are adjusted. During recent conferences 
 between representatives of the Iron Molders' Union and National 
 Defense Association in regard to the apprentice question, it was 
 admitted by both parties that previous to the formation of agree- 
 ments the frequency of strikes supplied a large number of workmen. 
 After the agreement went into effect, the number of strikes was 
 greatly reduced, and the supply of workmen from this source was so 
 seriously diminished that the legitimate needs of the trade necessi- 
 tated an increase in the number of apprentices. 
 
106 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [588 
 
 men and two hundred and thirty-one boys whom he had 
 persuaded to leave the non-union shops. These blowers, 
 many of whom had been at the trade but a few months, were 
 made full-fledged members of the unions and supported by 
 that body until employment could be secured elsewhere for 
 them. However, as these men and boys were often sent far 
 away from the New Jersey shops for employment, and since 
 they did not possess ability and skill sufficient to command 
 the union rate in first-class shops, it is probably true that the 
 incompetent ones were soon discharged by their employers 
 and doubtless finally dropped their membership in the union. 
 Such flagrant abuses of the apprenticeship regulations are 
 justified by the union as " emergency measures," but the 
 " strike and emergency workmen " often prove to be unde- 
 sirable members. 
 
 The most promising tendency in the direction of bettering 
 the conditions of apprenticeship is found in the fact that 
 apprenticeship regulations are in an increasing number of 
 cases formed by joint agreement between the employer and 
 the union, and not, as formerly, by the union or the employer 
 alone. With perhaps a few exceptions, this change in the 
 method of framing laws has brought about no radical change 
 in the character of the rules themselves. The old apprentice- 
 ship regulations of the union have ordinarily become the 
 basis for new ones in the agreement, or they have been ac- 
 cepted in their entirety by employers. The acceptance of 
 the agreement by employers and unions tends to concentrate 
 the best thought of both parties upon the subject, with the 
 result that in many instances elaborate and efficient rules 
 have been jointly enacted and enforced. A typical agree- 
 ment between employers' associations and unions, such as 
 exists in many large cities, covers the following points : 
 
 1. Time of Beginning, the Length of Term, and Quali- 
 fications of the Apprentice : The qualifications here referred 
 to are in the main moral and educational, and as a rule are 
 of slight importance. 
 
589] Estimate of Union Apprenticeship Rules. 107 
 
 2. Obligations of the Apprentice: Every regular appren- 
 tice must agree to render continuous service as provided by 
 the rules, and furthermore to accept all other conditions 
 specified throughout the agreement. 
 
 3. Agreements of Employers : Every person permitted to 
 receive apprentices binds himself to furnish competent in- 
 struction and to give the boy ample opportunity for learning 
 the trade during the latter's term of service. 
 
 4. Registering Apprentices : Each organization keeps a 
 complete record of all apprentices. A beginner registered 
 under such circumstances is generally given a card by the 
 joint committee, which attests the fact that he is a properly 
 registered apprentice. 
 
 5. Limitation of Apprentices : Practically all apprentice- 
 ship agreements provide for a uniform ratio of beginners to 
 journeymen. In some industries extensive investigations 
 have been made ; and, as far as possible, a fair and adequate 
 ratio has been adopted. 
 
 6. Supervision of Apprentice : Perhaps the chief advan- 
 tage secured for the apprentice through the agreement is the 
 provision usually made for his supervision and control dur- 
 ing, his term. Where both sides are strongly organized, 
 they mutually watch each other and compel a strict enforce- 
 ment of the agreement. This control of apprentices is given 
 to the joint committee, who consider all questions arising 
 and exercise judicial functions in hearing appeals or settling 
 disputes. In some cases this committee is given power to 
 cancel the apprenticeship, to transfer apprentices in case of 
 death or removal of employer, or to discharge them for any 
 other reason. 
 
 7. Rights of the Employer : In case the employer becomes 
 dissatisfied with the apprentice because of inability, laziness 
 or unwillingness upon the part of the boy to render faithful 
 services or for other just cause, he may appeal to the joint 
 committee, which has the power to discharge the apprentice 
 if the charges are proved. 
 
 8. Rights of Apprentice : The apprentice, on his part, has 
 
108 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [590 
 
 the privilege of carrying any grievance against his employer 
 to the joint committee. 
 
 9. Pay of Apprentice : Previous to the formation of agree- 
 ments the apprenticeship regulations were, in the main, 
 formed entirely by the union; but, in a great majority of 
 cases, the employers and apprentices were unrestricted in 
 adjusting the rate of wages. In fact, the fixing of wages 
 for the apprentice by the union is comparatively a recent 
 development, which has been accelerated by the growth of 
 the agreement. 
 
 10. End of Apprenticeship Term: At the conclusion of 
 the prescribed term the employer must notify the joint com- 
 mittee. The employers' organization and the union are noti- 
 fied. If the agreement has been fairly observed, the appren- 
 tice is given a certificate, and is recognized as a journeyman. 
 
 Agreements relative to apprenticeship, up to the present 
 time, have been almost entirely local. The most notable 
 exceptions are the agreements of the Iron Molders' Union, 
 the Glass Bottle Blowers' Union and the Window Glass 
 Workers' Union. In these trades the apprenticeship rules 
 are formed by an agreement between the international unions 
 and the employers' associations. 
 
 In the machinists' trade, where employers of labor, such 
 as railway and electric road companies, operate over a large 
 territory, it not infrequently occurs that apprenticeship is 
 regulated by agreements between the railroad officials on 
 the one side and the representatives of the international 
 union on the other. In these agreements uniform condi- 
 tions are provided for all shops of the company, or, as is 
 sometimes the case, for all shops within certain clearly 
 defined portions of the road. 
 
 The nature and scope of such formal apprenticeship agree- 
 ments, even in the same trade, vary greatly with different 
 localities. Wherever the union has been strong and has 
 maintained a well-developed system while acting alone, de- 
 tailed apprenticeship rules covering every phase of the ques- 
 tion are usually inserted. In other localities only that 
 
59 1 J Estimate of Union Apprenticeship Rules. 109 
 
 particular phase of the apprenticeship question which has 
 been a source of trouble is provided for in the agreement. 
 For example, the agreement between the bricklayers' union 
 no. 4, of Missouri, and the Contractors' Association con- 
 tains the single provision that all apprentices shall be gov- 
 erned by the laws of the union. 00 An agreement at Colum- 
 bus, Ohio, between the local stone masons' union and the 
 Master Stone Masons' Association has but one short article 
 concerning the apprentice, fixing the ratio of one apprentice 
 to six journeymen and the term of service at three years. 07 
 In fact, the typical form of apprenticeship agreement among 
 the smaller unions is either concerned with regulating the 
 number of apprentices that may be taken or with providing 
 some form of training for beginners. In agreements of this 
 nature little, if any, provision is made for enforcing the 
 apprenticeship rules, and, as a rule, they are rarely more 
 effective than the apprenticeship regulations formerly main- 
 tained by the union. Even in more formal agreements no 
 uniformity as to terms exists among the locals. In the gran- 
 ite cutting industry the joint agreement of 1900 at Rocklin, 
 Cal., provided for a ratio of one apprentice to eight journey- 
 men. 08 At Waldboro, Me., for the same year, one appren- 
 tice was allowed for every ten journeymen cutters. " At 
 Vinal Haven, Me., one apprentice to twelve journeymen was 
 permitted, 100 while the agreement for 1902 at Milford, N. H., 
 allowed only one apprentice to each fourteen cutters. 101 
 Such variations occur to a much greater extent in the limi- 
 tation of apprentices, but, even as regards age, qualifications 
 or methods of training beginners, there is often no unifor- 
 mity among the local unions. 
 
 In the more elaborate apprenticeship agreements found in 
 
 *° See Thirty-seventh Annual Report of the President and Secre- 
 tary of the Bricklayers' and Masons' International Union, for the 
 Term Ending December 1, 1902, p. 92. 
 
 "Ibid., p. 23. 
 
 "See Bill of Prices for Cutting Granite in Rocklin, Cal. (n. p., 
 1900). 
 
 ™ See Bill of Prices for Waldboro, Me. (1900). 
 
 ""Bill of Prices for Vinal Haven, Me., dated June 9 (n. p., 1900). 
 
 1M Bill of Prices for Milford, N. H., 1902-03, p. 11, sec. 4. 
 
1 10 Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. [59 2 
 
 some large cities, all regulations for beginners at the trade 
 are prepared by joint arbitration boards. The apprentice- 
 ship rules formed by agreement in many trades in New York 
 City and Chicago cover every phase of the apprentice ques- 
 tion, even to the smallest detail. The agreement between the 
 Masons' and Builders' Association of Chicago and the local 
 bricklayers' and stone masons' union represents one of the 
 best systems of apprenticeship now in force among the build- 
 ing trades. 102 It provides that apprentices shall not be pro- 
 hibited by any union, and that they shall not be amenable to 
 union rules, but shall at all times be under the control of the 
 employers, subject to the rules of the joint arbitration board. 
 In addition to the usual features of apprenticeship agree- 
 ments as to ratio, age, wages and probation term, an impor- 
 tant provision is the requirement that all apprentices shall 
 attend school during certain months of the year. 103 An im- 
 portant feature of the agreement is the provision for enforc- 
 ing the regulations adopted. When a grievance arises be- 
 tween an apprentice and an employer or a journeyman, the 
 point at issue is submitted in writing to the presidents of 
 both organizations. Should they be unable to agree, the 
 
 102 See apprenticeship rules in the " Joint Arbitration Agreement 
 between the Chicago Masons' and Builders' Association and the 
 United Order of American Bricklayers' and Stone Masons' Union, 
 No. 21, of the Builders' and Masons' International Unions, April 
 i, 1903, to May 1, 1905." 
 
 1M A11 contractors taking on apprentices are obliged to keep them 
 at work for nine consecutive months in each year. During the 
 months of January, February and March, the apprentice must attend 
 a technical school acceptable to the joint board. As evidence that 
 he has fulfilled this requirement, the apprentice is required to present 
 a certificate from the school before he is permitted to begin his 
 work. For every day the apprentice is tardy or guilty of disorderly 
 conduct at school he must serve an additional day of apprentice- 
 ship without pay. For each case of failure to attend school, except 
 for good excuse, two days' service without pay is added to his term 
 of apprenticeship. Any contractor who prevents his apprentice from 
 attending school during the months mentioned is fined five dollars 
 per day for each day. Likewise, any member working on any build- 
 ing during said months with an apprentice is also fined five dollars 
 for each day he works. Furthermore, any contractor who fails to 
 provide employment for his apprentice or does not keep him at 
 school shall pay him the same as though he were at work or at 
 school. 
 
593] Estimate of Union Apprenticeship Rules. 1 1 1 
 
 question is submitted to the joint arbitration board. In 
 case this body is unable to reach a decision, an umpire is 
 called in to sit with the board and cast the deciding vote. 
 Both organizations have agreed to compel members to com- 
 ply with the apprenticeship rules as jointly agreed upon 
 and adopted. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Actors' National Protective 
 Union, no apprentice sys- 
 tem in, 54c 
 
 Adams, John, on Monroe's 
 View, 144. 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, quoted, 
 75 ; on Monroe mission and 
 View, 144-145- 
 
 Administered state, definition of, 
 348. 
 
 Alcohol in Philippines, Spanish 
 government control of 
 (1787-1862), 9, 12; Ameri- 
 can tax on, 25 ; revenue 
 from, 42. 
 
 Algiers, treaty of U. S. with 
 ( I 79S), Monroe's part in, 
 87-88, 111-114. 
 
 Allegiance, nature of, 344-345. 
 
 Annapolis and Elkridge Rail- 
 road, Maryland's aid to, 
 
 444- 
 
 Annapolis and Potomac Canal 
 Company, Maryland's aid 
 to, 437, 443- 
 
 Apprentices in American trade 
 unions, under governmental 
 regulation, 494-499; those 
 eligible to be, 494-495; 
 length of training of, 495 ; 
 schooling for, 496; punish- 
 ment for offenses com- 
 mitted by, 496; status of, 
 after death of master, 496; 
 limitation of number of, 
 496-497 ; pledges between 
 masters and, 497-498; aban- 
 donment of indenture for, 
 498-499 ; customary rules 
 for, 500-512; rules influ- 
 enced by large numbers of 
 foreign workmen, 500-502 ; 
 and by simple industrial 
 conditions, 502-504; limita- 
 tion of number of appren- 
 tices, 504-508; wages of, 
 508; hours of labor of, 509; 
 -relations between masters 
 and, 500-510; length of 
 
 training of, 510-511; trade- 
 union regulation of, 513- 
 523; by local unions, 513- 
 516, 520-521 ; by interna- 
 tional unions, 516-520, 521- 
 523; regulation of, by trade 
 agreement, 524-534; limita- 
 tion by trade agreement of 
 number of, in iron-mold- 
 ing industry, 525-532, 533; 
 extent of present union 
 regulation of, 535-547; 
 unions having no system of 
 training for, 535-540; unions 
 having a system, 540-545; 
 partial control of apprentices 
 by unions, 545-547; regula- 
 tion of, 548-552; by local 
 unions, 548-550; by inter- 
 national unions, 550-552 ; 
 purposes of regulation of 
 apprentices, 553-556; to pro- 
 vide workmen, 554; to 
 secure fairly equal ability in 
 workmen, 555 ; character of 
 regulations of apprentices, 
 557-58 1 » entrance upon 
 training, 557-562; age of 
 apprentices, 562-564 ; term 
 of service of, 564-571 ; num- 
 ber of, 571-575; wage of, 
 575-577; training of, 577- 
 580; admission of, to union, 
 580-581 ; estimate of union 
 rules for, 582-593; unsatis- 
 factory conditions, 582-588; 
 promising conditions, 588- 
 593- 
 Apprenticeship in American 
 Trade Unions (Motley), 
 49 I_ 593; governmental regu- 
 lation of, 494-499; custom- 
 ary rules of, 500-512; trade- 
 union regulation of, 513- 
 523; determined by trade 
 agreement, 524-534 ; extent 
 of present union regulation 
 of, 535-547; regulation of, 
 and its purpose, 548-556; 
 
U4 
 
 Index. 
 
 [596 
 
 character of regulations of, 
 
 5S7-S8i ; estimate of union 
 
 rules of, 582-593. 
 Assemblies of Maryland (1642- 
 
 49), 197, 213, 214, 215-216, 
 
 231-240, 256-268. 
 Attorneys at law in Md., tax on 
 
 (1822), 402. 
 Auctioneers in Baltimore and in 
 
 Md., tax on (1798-1907), 
 
 400-401. 
 
 Bakery and Confectionery Work- 
 ers' International Union, 
 character of apprentice 
 regulations in, 564. 
 
 Baltimore, Lord, see Calvert, 
 Cecilius. 
 
 Baltimore and Frederick Turn- 
 pike Company, Maryland's 
 aid to, 428 (note). 
 
 Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 
 Maryland's aid in the build- 
 ing of, 430-431, 432, 437, 
 439, 440 (and note), 446, 
 472-473. 
 
 Baltimore and Susquehanna 
 Railroad, Maryland's aid to, 
 432-436, 441, 472-473. 
 
 Baltimore and Washington Rail- 
 road, taxation of by Md. 
 (1832), 404-405; Maryland's 
 aid in building of, 432, 434. 
 
 Baltimore and Yorktown Turn- 
 pike Company, Maryland's 
 aid to, 428 (note). 
 
 Bank of England stock in Md. 
 (i733-i8o6), 382-383. 
 
 Banks in Philippines, tax on, 26, 
 32, 42; . in Md., tax on 
 (1813-1848), 384-386, 404, 
 405-406, 470-47I- 
 
 Barlow, Joel, and treaty of U. 
 S. with Algiers (1795), 111- 
 113- 
 
 Bayard, Samuel, on Jay treaty, 
 122. 
 
 Belligerent community, definition 
 of, 348. 
 
 " Berkshire," in iron-molding in- 
 dustry, 500, 504, 506, 516 
 (note). 
 
 Billiard-tables, tax on, in Md. 
 ( 1 798-1825), 401-402. 
 
 Bills of credit in Md. (1733- 
 
 1789), 361, 366-368, 371, 373, 
 382-383. 
 
 Bodin, on the state, 292, 295- 
 300. 
 
 Boghitchevitch, quoted, 284. 
 
 Boiler Makers and Iron Ship- 
 builders, International Bro- 
 therhood of, apprentices in, 
 562. 
 
 Bond, Beverly W., jr., "The 
 Monroe Mission to France," 
 55-150. 
 
 Bonds, tax on, in Md. (1841- 
 1847), 459-460. 
 
 Bonfils, H., quoted, 285, 315, 
 320. 
 
 Bookbinders, International Bro- 
 therhood of, character of 
 apprentice regulations in, 
 559, 562. 
 
 Boot and shoe industry, no ap- 
 prentice system in, 538-539. 
 
 Borel, quoted, 290. 
 
 Bozman, J. L., quoted, 157 
 (notes), 229, 233, 253 
 (notes), 256. 
 
 Brainthwait, Wm, 170, 174-176, 
 177 (note), 194, 196. 
 
 Brent, Giles, 157, 158, 166-167, 
 169, 170, 172, 173, 174-176, 
 177, 192, 196-197, 204-205, 
 253- 
 
 Brent, Mrs. Margaret, 188, 204- 
 205, 210, 212, 219, 221-224, 
 233, 239, 241, 250, 257. 
 
 Brewery Workmen, United, no 
 uniform apprentice rules, 
 
 . 551- . 
 
 Bricklaying industry, apprentices 
 in, 521-522 ; non-union 
 workers in, 545 (note) ; 
 regulation of apprentices in, 
 by international union, 553- 
 554- 
 
 Bridge and Structural Iron 
 Workers' Union, no appren- 
 tice system in, 536. 
 
 British property in Md., revenue 
 from confiscation of (1780- 
 1790), 369, 381. 
 
 Brock, Father John, 206 (note). 
 
 Brokers, tax on in Md. (1842), 
 463-464. 
 
 Broom and Whisk Makers' 
 Union, International, char- 
 
597] 
 
 Index. 
 
 "5 
 
 acter of apprentice regula- 
 tions of, S58-SS9, 564, 575- 
 
 Brownson, quoted, 288. 
 
 Building trades, regulation of 
 apprentices by local unions 
 of, 519, 520-522, 548, 550, 
 582, 591, 592-593; character 
 of regulations, 563, 564, 567- 
 568, 569 (notes), 572, 574, 
 576, 579, 580; effect on ap- 
 prenticeship system of ma- 
 chinery and specialization 
 in, 584-586. See also Brick- 
 laying industry, etc. 
 
 Burgess, quoted, 290. 
 
 Burr, Aaron, on Jay treaty, 93. 
 
 Business tax in Philippines, 9- 
 11, 30-32, 42. 
 
 Calvert, Cecilius (Lord Balti- 
 more), 173-176, 207-210, 
 216, 257-268. 
 
 Calvert, Charles, quoted, 265- 
 266. 
 
 Calvert, Leonard, 157, 172-173, 
 174, 179-182, 192-194, 195, 
 196-197, 213, 215, 217-222. 
 
 Calvo, quoted, 314. 
 
 Car Workers, International As- 
 sociation of, no uniform ap- 
 prentice rules in, 551. 
 
 Carpentry, apprentice regula- 
 tions in, C/17, 557; character 
 of regulations, 564. 
 
 Certificates of debt in Md. 
 (1776-1785), 368, 371, 372. 
 
 Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 
 Maryland's aid in the build- 
 ing of, 427-432, 434-439, 441, 
 445-446, 472-473- 
 
 Chinese in Philippines, taxation 
 of, 9. 
 
 Churchman, John, quoted, 120. 
 
 Cigar-making industry, simple 
 industrial conditions in, 503; 
 number of apprentices in, 
 505 (and note) ; regulation 
 of apprenticeship by local 
 unions of, 519, 520-521, 582; 
 character of regulations, 
 565-566, 574, 577- 
 
 Claiborne, Wm., 195-196, 211- 
 212. 
 
 Collateral inheritance tax in 
 Md. (1845), 462. 
 
 Commercial regulations, U. S. 
 and France (1794), 66-69. 
 
 Commissions of executors, trus- 
 tees and receivers, tax on, 
 in Md. (1845), 462-463. 
 
 Conciliation, used in apprentice- 
 ship regulation, 524-534. 
 
 Confederation, definition of, 347. 
 
 Consular service of U. S. in 
 France, Monroe and, 73, 
 88-90. 
 
 Copley, Thomas, 206 (note). 
 
 Cornwallis, Thos., 156, 157, 166- 
 170, 173, 179-186, 202, 207- 
 209. 
 
 Corporation taxes in Philippines, 
 23; in Md. (1813-1840), 
 385-386, 404-406. 
 
 County assessments in Md. 
 (1821-1827), 396-398. 
 
 Crane, Robert T., " The State 
 in Constitutional and Inter- 
 national Law," 277-348. 
 
 Currency, change of basis of, in 
 Porto Rico, 17; in Philip- 
 pines, 17-18. 
 
 Debt of Md. (1777-1848), 361, 
 
 371-372, 374, 378-380, 419- 
 
 454, 455-475, 481. 
 Delaware and Chesapeake Canal, 
 
 Maryland's aid to, 426. 
 Dependent nation, definition of, 
 
 346. 
 Documentary stamp taxes in 
 
 Philippines, 10-11, 26-28, 
 
 32, 42. 
 
 Eastern Shore Railroad Com- 
 pany, Maryland's aid to,. 
 
 437, 443- 
 Edwards, Enoch, on Monroe 
 
 mission, 133-135- 
 Elastic goring weaving industry, 
 
 apprentice system in, 544. 
 England and Jay treaty, 63, 117; 
 
 and treaty of U. S. with 
 
 Algiers (1795), "3- 
 Executors, tax on commissions 
 
 of, in Md. (1845), 462-463. 
 Exemptions from taxation in 
 
 Philippines, 31-33- 
 Expenditures of Md. (1790- 
 
 1848), 375-376, 386-389, 392- 
 
 393, 412-419, 480. 
 Exports, from Philippines, 
 
n6 
 
 Index. 
 
 [598 
 
 Spanish restriction of, S, 12; 
 restriction of, to U. S., 12, 
 14-16; advantage of free 
 trade for, 43-45- 
 Extraterritoriality, fiction of, 
 330, 340. 
 
 Fauchet, M., and Monroe mis- 
 sion, 85, 97. 105, 106, 145. 
 
 Federal state, definitions of, 287- 
 290. 
 
 Fee-system in Md. (1824-1836), 
 375, 406-407, 413. 
 
 Fenwick, Cuthbert, 155, 260 
 (and note), 261. 
 
 Financial History of Maryland, 
 1789-1848 (Hanna), 357- 
 479 ; during Revolution, 359- 
 372 ; treasury confusion 
 after war, 370-372 ; period 
 of surplus financiering 
 (1789-1816), 373-393; of in- 
 direct taxation (1817-1841), 
 394-419 ; internal improve- 
 ments and the state debt, 
 420-454; suspension of in- 
 terest payments (1841-1848), 
 455-475; tables of receipts, 
 expenditures, etc., 478-481. 
 See also Table of Contents, 
 
 355- 
 
 Fisher, Father Philip, 205 (and 
 note), 251. 
 
 Fleet, Henry, 171-172. 
 
 Force, an essential element of 
 the state, 326-329. 
 
 Forest products in Philippines, 
 tax on, 9-1 1, 20-30, 42. 
 
 France, receives Monroe on his 
 mission, 61-62 ; commercial 
 regulations with U. S., 66- 
 69; and navigation of Mis- 
 sissippi and southern boun- 
 dary of U. S., 69-73, 82-86; 
 attitude of, toward Jay 
 treaty, 76-82, 92-101, 103- 
 110, 1 15-126; and Louisiana, 
 85, 119; U. S. consuls in, 
 88-90; alleges violation of 
 treaty of 1778 by U. S., 
 105-110; and treaty of U. S. 
 with Algiers (1795), 87-88, 
 111-113. Sec also Table of 
 contents, 53. 
 
 Freund, quoted, 284. 
 
 Funding law, of Md. (1784), 
 
 372; of Congress (1790), 
 378-380. 
 
 Gerard, Thos., 174-176, 192, 253. 
 
 Glass-blowing industry, regula- 
 tion of apprenticeship by 
 international union, 519, 550; 
 character of regulations, 
 572-573. 577J disregard of 
 regulations, 587-588. See 
 also Window glass workers, 
 etc. 
 
 Government, Rousseau on, 307; 
 location of sovereignty in, 
 325 ; de facto, definition of, 
 34& 
 
 Granite-cutting industry, non- 
 union workers in, 545 
 (note) ; apprentice regula- 
 tions in, 571, 591. 
 
 Greene, Thos., 165, 192, 219-253, 
 260, 261. 
 
 Grotius, on international law, 
 312-313, quoted, 315, 316, 
 320. 
 
 Ground-rents in Md., tax on 
 
 (1841-1847). 461. 
 Guaranteed state, definition of, 
 347- 
 
 Hall, C. C, quoted, 265. 
 Hall, W. E., quoted, 284-285. 
 Hamilton, Alexander, on Mon- 
 roe mission, 137. 
 Hammond, John, quoted, 214- 
 
 215. 
 
 Hanel, quoted, 289. 
 
 Hanna, Hugh S., " A Financial 
 History of Maryland, 1789- 
 1848," 357-479- 
 
 Harper, Robert Goodloe, on 
 Monroe mission, 132-133, 
 137- . 
 
 Hat-making industry, appren- 
 tices in, 510-511; non-union 
 workers in, 545 (note) ; 
 ratio of apprentices in, 553 
 (note) ; character of ap- 
 prentice regulations in, 559, 
 570, 572, 579- 
 
 Hawkers, tax on, in Md. (1777- 
 1840), 401. 
 
 Hichborn, Benj., on Monroe 
 mission, 80. 
 
 Hill, Edward, 213, 224-227. 
 
 Hobbes, on the state, 301-306. 
 
599] 
 
 Index. 
 
 "7 
 
 Hord, John S., " Internal Taxa- 
 tion in the Philippines," 
 7-45- 
 
 Humphreys, David, and treaty 
 of U. S. with Algiers (1795), 
 87-88, iu-114. 
 
 Ide, Henry C, and internal 
 taxation in Philippines, 14- 
 16, 18-24. 
 
 Income taxes in Md. (1841), 
 460-463. 
 
 Indenture in American appren- 
 ticeship, 49S7499- 
 
 Independence, its relation to 
 sovereignty, 316, 319-320; 
 nature of, 336-338. 
 
 Independent nation, definition 
 of, 346-347. 
 
 Indians, in Maryland (1642- 
 1649), 156-157, 167-172, 227, 
 244. 
 
 Ingle, Richard, 165, 182-188, 
 198-210, 214, 228-229, 253. 
 
 Inheritance tax in Philippines, 
 23- 
 
 Insurance companies, tax on for- 
 eign, in Md. (1840-1845), 
 405, 464. 
 
 Insurance companies in Philip- 
 pines, tax on, 29, 32, 42. 
 
 Insurance policies, tax on, in 
 Md. (1845), 465. 
 
 Internal improvements in Md. 
 (1826-1840), 395-396, 420- 
 446, 447-449. 
 
 Internal taxation in the Philip- 
 pines (Hord), 7-45. See 
 also Philippines. 
 
 International law, origin and 
 history of, 311-314; is it 
 law? 314; "persons" of, 
 
 3I4-3I5- 
 Iron-molding industry, appren- 
 tices in, before formation of 
 unions, 500, 504, 506; after 
 formation of unions, 516 
 (note), 510-520; agreement 
 with National Defense As- 
 sociation concerning appren- 
 tices in, 524-532, 533; regu- 
 lation of apprentices by in- 
 ternational union in, 550, 
 552 ; character of regula- 
 tions, 577. 
 
 Jay, John, minister to Great 
 
 Britain, 57; instructions, 59; 
 news of treaty received in 
 France, 76-82; opposition to 
 treaty in U. S., 93, 99; 
 Monroe's view of treaty, 
 146-147. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, on Jay treaty, 
 61, 122; on Monroe mission, 
 138 ; on Monroe's View, 142 ; 
 on " Scipio's " attack, 143. 
 
 Jellincek, quoted, 290. 
 
 Jesuits in Maryland (1642-49), 
 175-176, 205-206. 
 
 Jewelry workers, apprentices in, 
 regulated by local unions, 
 548; character of regula- 
 tions, 581. 
 
 Kelke, quoted, 286-287. 
 Kent Island (Md.), 195-196, 
 210-212. 
 
 Laband, quoted, 289. 
 
 Lace Curtain Operatives, ap- 
 prentices in, 544 (note), 562, 
 576. 
 
 Langdon, John, on Jay treaty, 
 93- 
 
 Law, definition and nature of, 
 322-327. 
 
 Lawrence, T. J., quoted, 315, 
 319, 320. 
 
 Leased territory, definition of, 
 347- 
 
 Lee, Charles, on Monroe mis- 
 sion, 131. 
 
 Le Fur, quoted, 283, 287-288. 
 
 Lewger, John, 171-172, 174-175, 
 176, 179-181, 184-188, 192, 
 253. 
 
 License taxes in Md. (1777- 
 1848), 361, 374-375. 398-403. 
 463-464. 
 
 Limited Partnership Law of Md. 
 (1826), 403. 
 
 Livingston, Robert, on Jay 
 treaty, 93-94, 121 ; on Mon- 
 roe mission, 137-138. 
 
 Locke, on the state, 306. 
 
 Lockouts, status of apprentice 
 during, 570. 
 
 Lotteries in Md., tax on dealers 
 in (1819), 402; tax on 
 (1817), 407-410; (1845), 
 465- 
 
 Lottery in Philippines, revenue 
 from, 9-10. 
 
u8 
 
 Index. 
 
 [600 
 
 McHenry, James, on Monroe's 
 View, 144. 
 
 Machine Printers' Beneficial 
 Association, character of 
 apprentice regulations in, 
 
 564- 
 
 Machinists and blacksmiths, 
 simple industrial conditions 
 among, 503; limitation of 
 apprentices among, 508. 
 
 Machinists, International Asso- 
 ciation of, regulation of ap- 
 prenticeship by, 55!-55 2 > 
 590. 
 
 Mclhvraith, quoted, 285. 
 
 McKinley, Wm., and Porto 
 Rican trade duties, 13. 
 
 Madison, James, on Jay treaty, 
 
 93- 
 
 Maine, Sir Henry, quoted, 320. 
 
 Malta, Knights of, ask land in 
 U. S., 88. 
 
 Maryland Canal Company, 
 Maryland's aid to, 437-439. 
 443- 
 
 Maryland during the English 
 Civil Wars. Pt. II. (Stein- 
 ex), 155-268; relations with 
 other colonies, 156, 169; 
 with Indians, 156-157, 167- 
 172, 227, 244; deeds, suits, 
 etc., 158-166, 177-182, 188- 
 192, 194, 196, 198, 210-21 1, 
 214, 215 (note), 217-219, 
 221-224, 229-231, 238-251 ; 
 Jesuits in, 175-176, 205- 
 206; Ingle's rebellion, 182- 
 188, 198-210, 2i/« ; regarding 
 laws, 192-193. 214, 228-229, 
 253; Assemblies, 197, 213, 
 214, 215-216, 231-240, 256- 
 268; Conditions of Planta- 
 tion, 254-255 ; religious tol- 
 eration, 255-256, 264-268. 
 
 Maryland, financial history of, 
 1789-1848 (Hanna) ; during 
 Revolution, 359-372 ; treas- 
 ury confusion after war, 
 370-372; period of surplus 
 financiering, 373-393 ; of in- 
 direct taxation, 394-419; in- 
 ternal improvements and the 
 state debt, 420-454; suspen- 
 sion of interest payments 
 (1841-1848), 455-475; tables 
 of receipts, expenditures, 
 
 etc., 478-481. See also 
 Table of Contents, 355. 
 
 Mason, S. T., on Jay treaty, 93. 
 
 Merchants in Md., tax on 
 (1820-1832), 398-400. 
 
 Merlin, M., 83. 
 
 Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers, 
 Brass Molders, Brass and 
 Silver Workers' Interna- 
 tional Union, apprentice 
 regulations in, 575-576. 
 
 Mining concessions in Philip- 
 pines, tax on, 30, 42. 
 
 Mint tax in Philippines, 9-10. 
 
 Mississippi, navigation of, and 
 Monroe's negotiation, 69-73, 
 82-86. 
 
 Von Mohl, quoted, 288. 
 
 Monarchomachen, regarding the 
 state, 300-301. 
 
 Monroe, Jas., appointed minister 
 to France, 56; instructions, 
 58-60; received in France 
 and exceeds instructions, 
 61-62, 66; negotiates com- 
 mercial regulations, 66-69 j 
 and navigation of Missis- 
 sippi and southern boundary 
 of U. S., 69-73, 82-86; rela- 
 tions with Paine, 73, 133, 
 !34, 135-136; and U. S. con- 
 sular service in France, 73; 
 and Gouverneur Morris, 74; 
 gives American flag to 
 French Convention, 74-75 ; 
 troubles with France over 
 Jay treaty, 76-82, 103-110, 
 1 15-126; treaty with Algiers 
 (i795), 87-88, 111-114; on 
 Jay treaty, 90-101, 146- 
 147 ; protects Americans in 
 France, 114; recalled, 121- 
 126; asks reason for recall, 
 127-128; unofficial explana- 
 tions, 128-133 ; accusations 
 of R. G. Harper and others, 
 132-133. 137; defense, 133- 
 137; his View, 137-139. 142- 
 146; Washington's criticism 
 of the View, 139-142; other 
 criticisms, 142-145. See 
 also Table of Contents, 53. 
 
 Monroe Mission to France, 
 1794-1796 (Bond), see Jas. 
 Monroe. 
 
6oiJ 
 
 Index. 
 
 119 
 
 Moore, J. B., quoted, 289-290, 
 319. 
 
 Morris, Gouverneur, recalled as 
 minister to France, 55; asks 
 passport from Monroe, 74. 
 
 Moser, quoted, 320. 
 
 Motley, James M., "Apprentice- 
 ship in American Trade 
 Unions," 491-593. 
 
 Musicians, American Federation 
 of, no apprentice system in, 
 540. 
 
 Nation, nature of a, 333-342. 
 Nations, classification of, 345- 
 
 348. 
 Neale, James, 15s, 158, 174-176, 
 
 192, 253. 
 Negro, free, colonization of by 
 
 Md. (1826-1852), 413-415. 
 Neutralized state, definition of, 
 
 347- 
 Note-brokers in Md., tax on 
 
 (1819), 402. 
 
 Occupation taxes in Philippines, 
 
 31, 33, 42. 
 Officers' commissions in Md., 
 
 tax on (1844), 465. 
 Officers' fees, in Md., tax on 
 
 (1824-1844), 406-407, 462. 
 Opium in Philippines, Spanish 
 
 government control of, 9; 
 
 revenue from, 10. 
 Oppenheim, quoted, 286. 
 
 Paine, Thomas, and Monroe, 73, 
 . 133, 134, 135-136. 
 
 Painters, Decorators and Paper- 
 hangers, Brotherhood of, 
 apprentice regulations in, 
 568, 573 (note), 581. 
 
 Pattern-making industry, ap- 
 prentice system in, 543. 
 
 Peddlers, in Md., tax on (1777- 
 1840), 401. 
 
 Pelet, M., 84, 86. 
 
 Pen and Pocketknife Grinders' 
 and Finishers' National 
 Union of America, character 
 of apprentice regulations in, 
 560. 
 
 Penitentiary in Md. (1805), 392- 
 
 393, 4i6. 
 People, nature of a, 318-319, 
 
 339-341- 
 
 Personal union, definition of, 
 347- 
 
 Philippine Commission, and in- 
 ternal taxation, 11-17. 19- 
 
 . ?4- . 
 Philippines, internal taxation in 
 (Hord), 7-45; Spanish sys- 
 tem, 7-10; American sys- 
 tem, 10-24; American tax 
 rates, 25-31 ; exemptions, 31- 
 33 ; use of revenues, 33, 42 ; 
 bureau of internal revenue, 
 33-36, 41 ; opposition to 
 taxation, 37-40; amount col- 
 lected, 42 ; cost of collec- 
 tion and refunds, 42-43; ad- 
 vantage of American free 
 trade, 43-45 ; bibliography, 
 
 45- 
 Phillimore, Sir Robert, quoted, 
 
 315- 
 
 Piano and Organ Workers' In- 
 ternational Union, apprentice 
 regulations of, 565. 
 
 Pickering, Timothy, and Monroe 
 mission, 100, 104, 109-110, 
 118-121, 127-129, 144. 
 
 Pinckney, Chas. C., 121, 124, 
 125. 
 
 Pinckney, Thos., 86, 98. 
 
 Plantagenet, Beauchamp, quoted, 
 168-169, 206 (note), 211 
 (note). 
 
 Plumbers' Associations, Master, 
 set probation period for ap- 
 prentices, 561. 
 
 Plumbers, United Association of 
 Journeymen, apprenticeship 
 regulation by, 550 (note) ; 
 restricts number of appren- 
 tices and helpers, 556; char- 
 acter of apprentice regula- 
 tions in, 564, 573 (note), 
 577- 
 
 Poll-tax, in Philippines, 7-1 1, 
 28, 42; in Md., prohibited 
 by Bill of Rights, 377. 
 
 Port duties in Md. (1776-1789), 
 361, 362, 371, 373. 
 
 Porto Rico, internal taxation in, 
 
 13-14. 
 
 Potomac Company, of Md. and 
 Va., history of, 427. 
 
 Print-cutting industry, appren- 
 tice system in, 544. 
 
 Printing trade, apprentices in, 
 
120 
 
 Index. 
 
 [602 
 
 before formation of unions, 
 500, 501-502, 506-508, 509- 
 510; after formation of 
 unions, 513-515. 551 ; char- 
 acter of apprentice regula- 
 tions in, 572, 574; effect on 
 apprenticeship of invention 
 of machinery, 583-584. See 
 also Typographical Associa- 
 tions, etc. 
 
 Probation in apprenticeship in 
 American trade unions, 561. 
 
 Property tax in Md. (1776- 
 1848), 362-366, 371, 377, 
 455-458; difficulty of col- 
 lection of (1841-1846), 466- 
 469. 
 
 Protected state, definition of, 
 347-348. 
 
 Protests in Md., tax on (1842), 
 
 465- 
 Public exhibitions in Md., tax 
 
 on (1841), 464. 
 Public schools in Md., state aid 
 
 to (1723-1839). 385, 391, 
 
 411, 417-419, 43S (note), 
 
 453-454- 
 
 Railway unions, no apprentice 
 
 system in, 536-538. 
 Randolph, Edmund J., and the 
 
 Monroe mission, 58-100, 
 
 103. 
 Real estate in Philippines, tax 
 
 on, 10. 
 Receivers, tax on commissions 
 
 of, in Md. (1845), 462-463. 
 Religious toleration in Maryland 
 
 ( 1642-49) , 255-256, 264- 
 
 268. 
 Resumption of interest payment 
 
 on state debt of Md. (1848), 
 
 474-475- 
 
 Revenue of Md. (1776-1848), 
 360-369, 372-375, 380-386, 
 389-390, 394-412, 451, 455- 
 465, 470-471, 478-479- 
 
 Rivier, A., quoted, 283, 315, 318, 
 319, 320, 321. 
 
 Rousseau, on the state, 307-308; 
 on government, 307. 
 
 Ruttiman, quoted, 289. 
 
 Salaries in Md. (1790, 1815, 
 
 1842), 375 (note) 
 Saw smiths, non-union workers 
 
 in, 545 (note) ; apprentice 
 regulations of, 578-579. 
 
 " Scipio," see Uriah Tracy. 
 
 Semi-sovereignty, nature of, 337. 
 
 Sidgwick, quoted, 289. 
 
 Sinking fund of Md. (1784- 
 1848), 372, 446-449, 481. 
 
 Sovereignty, historv and nature 
 of, 316-318, 319-321 ; indi- 
 visibility of, 322-332; divisi- 
 bility of, 333-342- 
 
 Spain and navigation of Missis- 
 sippi and southern boundary 
 of U. S., 69-73, 82-86. 
 
 Sphere of influence, definition 
 of, 348. 
 
 Stamp tax in Md. (1845), 464- 
 
 465- 
 
 State in Constitutional and In- 
 ternational Law (Crane), 
 277-348. 
 
 State in constitutional law, 292- 
 310, 322-332; early concept 
 of, 292-294; definition of by 
 Bodin, 295-300; by the 
 Monarchomachen, 300-301 ; 
 by Hobbes, 301-306; by 
 Locke, 306; by Rousseau, 
 307-308; by modern German 
 writers, 308-310; indivisi- 
 bility of sovereignty in, 322- 
 332; subjects of, 329-331, 
 344-345; location of sover- 
 eignty in, 322-323, 324-325; 
 government in, 325 ; law in, 
 324, 326-327; force in, 326- 
 329; territory of, 330; de- 
 finition of, 331-332. 
 
 State in international law, 311- 
 321, 333-342; discussion of 
 Grotius' views of, 312-313; 
 essential and occasional ele- 
 ments of, 315-321, 333-342; 
 divisibility of sovereignty in, 
 333-342; people of, 339-341, 
 345 ; government of, 336 ; in- 
 dependence in, 336-338 ; 
 rights in, 338-339, 34i ," 
 classification of nations, 
 345-348. 
 
 Stationary Firemen, Interna- 
 tional Brotherhood of, no 
 apprentice system in, 537. 
 
 Steel and Copper Plate Printers, 
 International Union of, ap- 
 prentice regulations in, 563. 
 
6o 3 ] 
 
 Index. 
 
 121 
 
 Steel range workers, regulation 
 of apprenticeship by inter- 
 national union of, 550. 
 
 Steiner, Bernard C, " Maryland 
 during the English Civil 
 Wars," Pt. II., 155-268. 
 
 Stock in Md., tax on (1841- 
 1848), 458-459- 
 
 Stone, Wm., 252, 253, 255-268. 
 
 Stone Cutters' Association, 
 Journeymen, regulation of 
 work by, 549 (note) ; ap- 
 prentice rules of, 550 (note) ; 
 character of regulations, 557, 
 5S8, 563, 569-570, 572, 574, 
 577, 578, 579-580 ; effect on 
 apprenticeship of invention 
 of machinery, 583-584. 
 
 Stove mounters, regulation of 
 apprenticeship by interna- 
 tional union of, 550. 
 
 Strikes, status of apprentice 
 during, 570. 
 
 Stubbs, quoted, 286. 
 
 Subjects (of the state), 329- 
 330, 344-345- 
 
 Susquehanna and Patapsco 
 Canal Company, see Tide- 
 water Canal Company. 
 
 Susquehanna Canal, Maryland's 
 aid to, 426. 
 
 Suzerainty, definitions of, 283- 
 287. 
 
 Taft, Wm. H., and internal tax- 
 ation in Philippines, 13. 
 
 Taxation in Md. (1776-1848), 
 forms of, 361-366, 374-375. 
 455-465; declaration of Bill 
 of Rights on, 377-378; ar- 
 rearages in, 381-382; of 
 banking capital, 384-386; in- 
 direct. 394-A19 ; difficulties 
 of collection, 466-469. 
 
 Taxes in Philippines, Spanish 
 and American, poll tax, 7- 
 11, 28, 42; on Chinese, 9; on 
 coinage of money, 9-10; on 
 urban property, 9-10; on 
 business houses, 9-1 1, 30-32, 
 42; on forest products, 9-1 1, 
 29-30, 42; on real estate, 
 10; on documents, 10-11, 
 26-28, 32, 42; on corpora- 
 tions, 23; on inheritances, 
 23 ; on alcohol, 25 ; on to- 
 
 bacco, 25-26; on banks, 26, 
 32, 42; on insurance com- 
 panies, 29, 32, 42; on min- 
 ing concessions, 30, 42 ; on. 
 occupations, 31, 33, 42. 
 
 Taylor, Hannis, quoted, 283, 319. 
 
 Taylor, John, on Monroe mis- 
 sion, 142-143. 
 
 Tazewell, Henry, on Jay treaty, 
 93 ; on Monroe mission, 123. 
 
 Territory, relation of, to sover- 
 eignty, 316-318, 329-330; to 
 a nation, 338-340. 
 
 Textile industry, no apprentice 
 system in, 539. 
 
 Tidewater Canal Company (Sus- 
 quehanna and Patapsco 
 Canal Company), Mary- 
 land's aid to, 442, 472-473. 
 
 Tobacco inspection in Md. 
 (1824), assumed by state, 
 
 Tobacco in Philippines, Spanish 
 government control of 
 ( 1 782-1 883), 9, 12; Ameri- 
 can tax on, 25-26; revenue 
 from, 42. 
 
 Tracy, Uriah ("Scipio"), and 
 Monroe mission, 143. 
 
 Trade agreement, regulation of 
 apprenticeship by, 524-534. 
 
 Trade unions, American, regula- 
 tion of apprentices by, 513- 
 523 ; no apprentice system in 
 certain, 535-540 ; apprentice 
 system maintained by other, 
 540-545 ; partial control of 
 apprentice system by, 545- 
 547; control of apprentice 
 system by local unions, 548- 
 550; by international unions, 
 550-552; purposes of con- 
 trol of apprentices by, 553- 
 556; admission of appren- 
 tices into, 580-581, 586-588. 
 
 Travelers' Goods and Leather 
 Novelty Workers' Interna- 
 tional Union, age of appren- 
 - ticeship in, 562. 
 
 Treasury of Md., administration 
 of (1790), 376-378; effect of 
 surplus in (1813), 38o-393- 
 
 Treaty of 1778, alleged viola- 
 tions of by U. S., 105-110. 
 
 Tributary state, definition of, 
 347- 
 
122 
 
 Index. 
 
 [604 
 
 Trustees, tax on commissions of, 
 in Md (1845), 462-463. 
 
 " Two-thirder," in the printing 
 industry, 500, 507-508. 
 
 Typographia, deutsch-amerikan- 
 ischen, apprentice system in, 
 
 544- 
 
 Typographical Association, Na- 
 tional, regulates term of ap- 
 prenticeship, 518. 
 
 Typographical Association of 
 New York, on employment 
 of foreign workmen, 501- 
 502 ; on " two-thirders," 507- 
 508; on pay for journeymen 
 teaching apprentices, 508. 
 
 Typographical Society, Balti- 
 more, on apprenticeship, 
 
 5I3-5I4. 
 Typographical Society, Colum- 
 bia, on apprenticeship, 513, 
 
 514. 
 
 Typographical Society, Nash- 
 ville, on apprenticeship, 514. 
 
 Typographical Society, New Or- 
 leans, on apprenticeship, 
 
 5I4-5I5- 
 
 Typographical Society, Philadel- 
 phia, on apprentices, 513. 
 
 Typographical Union, Inter- 
 national, limits number of 
 apprentices, 515; control of 
 apprentices in certain unions 
 of, 551- 
 
 Union Manufacturing Company, 
 Maryland's aid to, 428 
 (note). 
 
 United States, southern bound- 
 ary of, and Monroe's nego- 
 tiation, 69-73, 82-86; and 
 treaty with Algiers (1795), 
 87-88, m-114; and Jay 
 treaty, 93-101, 121-122; al- 
 leged violation of treaty of 
 1778 by, 105-110; surplus 
 revenue distribution (1837), 
 Maryland's share of, 411- 
 412. 
 
 Upholsterers' International 
 Union, apprentice cards in, 
 562. 
 
 Urban property in Philippines, 
 tax on, 9-10. 
 
 Van Stophorst loan to Md. 
 
 (1782), 369, 380. 
 Vassal territory, definition of, 
 
 347- 
 Vaughan, Robert, 184, 247, 253, 
 260, 261. 
 
 Wages of apprentices in Ameri- 
 can trade unions, 508, 575- 
 
 577- 
 Wagon and carriage industry, 
 no apprentice system in, 
 
 539- 
 
 Waitz, quoted, 289. 
 
 War of 1812, financiering of, in 
 Md., 386-389; payment by 
 U. S. of Maryland's claims 
 for, 410-41 1. 
 
 Washington, George, and Mon- 
 roe mission, 95, 127, 139-142, 
 
 J 45- . . 
 
 Watch case engraving industry, 
 apprentice system in, 545 ; 
 character of apprentice 
 regulations in, 564, 574-575- 
 
 Wheaton, Henry, quoted, 320. 
 
 White, Father Andrew, 205. 
 
 Window glass workers, regula- 
 tion of apprenticeshio by 
 international union of, 550; 
 character of regulations, 
 557, 558 (and note), 559- 
 560, 579- 
 
 Wire weaving industry, appren- 
 tice regulations in, 571. 
 
 Wolcott, Oliver, and Monroe 
 mission, 131, 144. 
 
 Woolsey, quoted, 288-289. 
 
 Working cards of apprentices in 
 American trade unions, 561- 
 562. 
 
 Wright, Luke E., and internal 
 taxation in Philippines, 15. 
 
JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES 
 
 IN 
 
 Historical and Political Science 
 
 (Edited by H. B. Adams, 1882-1901) 
 
 J. M. VINCENT 
 J. H. HOLLANDER W. W. WILLOUGHBY 
 
 Editors 
 
 VOLUME XXV 
 
 INTERNATIONAL AND 
 COLONIAL HISTORY 
 
 BALTIMORE 
 
 THEJJOHNS HOPKINS PRESS 
 
 ICP7 
 
Copyright 1907 by 
 THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS. 
 
 MEM OP 
 
 The Ntw Era printing company 
 Lancavteh, Pa. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 I. — Internal Taxation in the Philippines. By J. S. Hord. . . I 
 II— III. — The Monroe Mission to France, 1794-1796. By B. W. 
 
 Bond, Jr 47 
 
 IV- V. — Maryland During the English Civil Wars. Part II. 
 
 By B. C. Steiner 151 
 
 VI-VII. — The State in Constitutional and International 
 
 Law. By R. T. Crane 271 
 
 VIII-IX-X. — A Financial History of Maryland, 1789-1848. 
 
 By H. S. Hanna 349 
 
 XI-XII. — Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions. By 
 
 J. M. Motley 483 
 
JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES 
 
 IN 
 
 Historical and Political Science 
 
 Under the direction of the 
 
 Departments of History, Political Economy 
 
 and 
 Political Science 
 
 TWENTY-SIXTH SERIES, 1908. 
 
 The University Studies will continue to publish, as heretofore, the 
 results of recent investigations in History, Political Science, and Politi- 
 cal Economy. The new series will present topics of interest in the 
 early political, social and economic history of Europe and the United 
 States. The cost of subscription for the regular Annual Series, com- 
 prising about 600 pages, with index, is $3.00 (foreign postage, 50 cents). 
 Single numbers, or special monographs, at special prices. 
 
 For the year 1908, the titles given below are now announced; other 
 numbers will follow from time to time. 
 
 BRITISH COMMITTEES, COMMISSIONS, AND COUNCILS OF TRADE 
 AND PLANTATIONS, 1622-1675. By Charles M. Andrews. 
 
 QUESTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW INVOLVED IN THE BRITISH- 
 BOER WAR. By R. G. Campbell. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF CONSPIRACY IN ENGLISH LAW. By J. W. Bryan. 
 
 CONSTITUTIONAL AND POLITICAL CHANGES IN MARYLAND, 
 1864-1867. By W. S. Myers. 
 
 BENEFICIARY FEATURES OF AMERICAN TRADE UNIONS. By J. B. 
 Kennedy. 
 
THE JOHNS HOP KINS PRESS OF BALTIMORE. 
 
 American Journal of Mathematics. Frank Morley, Editor. Quarterly. 
 4to. Volume XXX in progress. $5 per volume. (Foreign post- 
 age fifty cents.) 
 
 American Chemical Journal. Iba Remsen, Editor. Monthly. 8vo. Vol- 
 ume XXXIX in progress. $5 per year. ( Foreign postage fifty cents. ) 
 
 American Journal of Philology. B. L. Gildersleeve, Editor. Quarterly. 
 8vo. Volume XXVIII in progress. $3 per volume. (Foreign post- 
 age fifty cents.) 
 
 Studies in Historical and Political Science. Monthly. 8vo. Volume XXVI 
 in progress. $3 per volume. (Foreign postage fifty cents.) 
 
 Johns Hopkins University Circular. Monthly. 8vo. $1 per year. 
 
 Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. Monthly. 4to. Volume XIX in pro- 
 gress. $2 per year. (Foreign postage fifty cents.) 
 
 Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports. 4to. Volume XV in progress. $5 per 
 volume. (Foreign postage fifty cents.) 
 
 Contributions to Assyriology and Semitic Philology. Paul Haupt and 
 Feiedrich Delitzsch, Editors. Volume VI in progiess. 
 
 Memoirs from the Biological Laboratory. W. K. Brooks, Editor. Volume 
 VI in progress. 
 
 Modern Language Notes. A. M. Elliott, Editor. Monthly. 4to. Vol- 
 ume XXIII in progress. $1.50 per volume. (Foreign postage twenty 
 five cents.) 
 
 American Journal of Insanity. Henry M. Hued, Editor. Quarterly. 
 8vo. Volume LXIV in progress. $5.00 per volume. 
 
 Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity. L. A. Bauee, Editor. 
 Quarterly. 8vo. Volume XII in progress. $2.50 per volume. (For- 
 eign postage twenty-five cents.) 
 
 Reprint of Economic Tracts. J. H. Hollander, Editor. First series, 
 $3.00. Second series, $2.00. Third series in progress, $2.00. 
 
 Report of the Maryland Geological Survey. 
 
 Report of the Johns Hopkins University. Presented by the President to 
 the Board of Trutsees. 
 
 Register of the Johns Hopkins University. Giving the list of officers and 
 students, and stating the regulations, etc. 
 
 Rowland's Photogeaph of the Nobmal Solab Spectrum. Ten plates. 
 
 $20. 
 Photographic Reproduction of the Kashmirian Atharva-Veda. M. 
 
 Bloomfield, Editor. 3 vols. Folio. $50. 
 Poema de Feenan G0N9ALEZ. Edited by C. Carroll Marden. 284 pp. 
 
 $2.50 net. 
 The Taill of Rauf Coilteae. Edited by William Hand Browne. 164 
 
 pp. $1 net. 
 A New Critical Edition of the Hebrew Text of the Old Testament. 
 
 Paul Haupt, Editor. Prospectus on application. 
 Studies in Honor of Peofessoe Gildersleeve. 527 pp. $6. 
 The Physical Papers of Henry A. Rowland. 716 pp. $7.50. 
 Baltimore Lectures on Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory 
 
 of Light. By Lord Kelvin. 716 pp. $4.50 net. 
 The Oyster. By William K. Brooks. 225 pp. $1 net. 
 Ecclesiastes : A New Metrical Translation. By Paul Haupt. 50 pp. 
 
 50 cents. 
 The Book of Nahum: A New Metrical Translation. By Paul Haupt. 53 
 
 pp. 50 cents. 
 Ancient Sinope. By David M. Robinson. 112 pp. $1 net. 
 
 Communications should be addressed to The Johns Hopkins Press. 
 
 11 
 
THE 
 
 Quarterly Journal of Economics 
 
 Published for Harvard University. 
 
 Is established for the advancement of knowledge by the full and free dis- 
 cussion of economic questions. The editors assume no responsibility for 
 the views of contributors, beyond a guarantee that they have » good claim 
 to the attention of well-informed readers. 
 
 Communications for the editors' should be addressed to the Quarterly 
 Journal of Economics, Cambridge, Mass.; business communications and 
 subscriptions ($3.00 a year), to Geo. H. Ellis Co., 272 Congress Street, 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 CONTENTS FOR AUGUST, 1907 
 
 I. THE TREASURY AND THE BANKS UNDER SEC- 
 RETARY SHAW A. P. Andrew 
 
 II. THE GROWTH OF THE UNION PACIFIC AND ITS 
 
 FINANCIAL OPERATIONS Thomas Warner Mitchell 
 
 III. MODES OF CONSTRUCTING INDEX-NUMBERS . A. W. Flux 
 
 IV. TAX DISCRIMINATION IN THE PAPER AND 
 
 PULP INDUSTRY Roswell C. McCrea 
 
 NOTES AND MEMORANDA: 
 
 Municipal Ownership of Telephones in Great 
 Britain A. N, Holocombe 
 
 Industrial Concentration as shown by the Census • William Z, Ripley 
 
 RECENT PUBLICATIONS UPON ECONOMICS. 
 
 CONTENTS FOR NOVEMBER, 1907 
 
 I. MORTGAGE TAXATION IN WISCONSIN ... T. S. Adams 
 
 II. THE NATURE OF CAPITAL: A REJOINDER . . E. Bohm-Bawerk. 
 
 III. THE RENT CONCEPT, NARROWED AND BROAD- 
 
 ENED Frank T. Carlton 
 
 IV. AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE CONTINUITY OF THE 
 
 OPEN FIELD SYSTEM P. Vinogradoff 
 
 Appendix: Court Roll of an Oxfordshire Manor. 
 V. THE TAXATION OF THE UNEARNED INCREMENT 
 
 IN GERMANY Robert Brunhuber 
 
 Appendix: The Cologne Ordinance levying an 
 Increment Tax, 
 VI. THE TEXAS STOCK AND BOND LAW AND ITS 
 
 ADMINISTRATION E. T. Miller 
 
 NOTES AND MEMORANDA: 
 
 Political Economy and Business Economy: Com- 
 ments on Fisher's Capital and Income ... J. R. Commons 
 The Meetings of British and of American 
 
 Economists F. W. Taussig 
 
 The Massachusetts Inheritance Tax of 1907 . . !• N. Carver 
 
 RECENT PUBLICATIONS UPON ECONOMICS. 
 
The American Economic Association 
 
 The publications of the Association were begun in 1886 and have continued to 
 appear in various forms and series. They number twenty-four complete volumes 
 to the close of 1906, and include many of the most important monographs on eco- 
 nomics that have appeared in America. A complete price list will be sent on 
 application to the addresses below. 
 Recent numbers are as follows : 
 
 THIRD SERIES. 
 Volume IV, 1903. 
 No. 1. Fifteenth Annual Meeting; Papers on Trades Unions (4) ; Railway Regula- 
 tion (2) ; Theory of Wages; Theory of Rent; Oriental Currency Prob- 
 lem; Economics and Social Progress. Pp. 298. Price, $1.25. 
 No. 2. Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston. By Frederick A. Busheb. 
 
 Pp. 171. Price, $1.00. 
 No. 3. History of Contract Labor in the Hawaiian Islands. By Katharine 
 
 Coman. Pp. 74. Price, 75 cents. 
 No. 4. The Income Tax in the Commonwealths of the United States, By Delos 
 O. Kinsman. Pp. 134. Price, $1.00. 
 
 Volume V, 1904. 
 No. 1, Sixteenth Annual Meeting. Part I. — Papers and Discussions on Southern 
 Agricultural and Industrial Problems (7) ; Social Aspects of Economic 
 Law; Relations between Rent and Interest, Pp. 240. Price, $1.00. 
 
 Southern Economic Problems. Reprinted from Part I. Price 50 
 cents. 
 
 Relations between Rent and Interest. By Prank A. Fetter and 
 others. Reprinted from Part I. Price, 50 cents. 
 No. 2. Sixteenth Annual Meeting. Part II, — Papers and Discussions on the Man- 
 agement of the Surplus Reserve; Theory of Loan Credit in Relation to 
 Corporation Economics; State Taxation of Interstate Commerce; Trusts; 
 Theory of Social Causation, Price, $1.00. 
 
 Theory of Social Causation. By Franklin II. Giddinps and others. 
 Reprinted from Part II. Price, 50 cents. 
 No. 3. Monopolistic Combinations in the German Coal Industry. By Francis 
 
 Walker. Price, $1.25. 
 No, 4. The Influence of Farm Machinery on Production and Labor, By Hadlx 
 W. Quaintance. Price, 75 cents. 
 
 Volume VI, 1905. 
 
 No. 1. Seventeenth Annual Meeting. Part I. — Presidential Address: Present 
 Position of the Doctrine of Free Trade, F. W. Taussig: The Theory 
 of Money; Papers by J. Laurence Laughlin, David Kinley, A. Piatt 
 Andrew. Discussion. Open Shop or Closed Shop? Papers by John R, 
 Commons, John Graham Brooks, John Hibbard, Thomas Kidd. Dis 
 cussion. Pp. 226. Price, $1.00. 
 
 No. 2. Seventeenth Annual Meeting, Fart II. — Governmental Interference witl 
 Industrial Combination, E. B. Whitney ; Regulation of Railway Rates, 
 M. A. Knapp ; Taxation of Railways, H. C. Adams and W. A. Baud- 
 win ; Preferential Tariffs and Reciprocity, A. Shortt, G. F. Foster, 
 and A. W. Flux ; Inclosure Movement, E. F. Gray ; Economic History 
 of the United States, C. D. Wright. Pp. 270. Price, $1.00. 
 
 No. 3. The History and Theory of Shipping Subsidies. By Royal Meeker. Price, 
 $1.00. 
 
 No. 4, The Factory Legislation in New York State. By Fred R. Fairchild. 
 Price, $1.00. 
 
 Volume VII, 1906. 
 
 No. I. Eighteenth Annual Meeting: Papers and Discussions on Theory of Distribu- 
 tion ; Government Regulation of Railway Rates (2) ; Municipal Owner- 
 ship (2); Labor Disputes (2); The Economic Future of the Negro (2). 
 Pp. 325. Price, $1.00. 
 No. 2. Railroad Rate Control. By H. S. Smalley. Pp. 147. Price, $1.00. 
 No. 3. On Collective Phenomena and the Scientific Value of Statistical Data. 
 By Dr. Gryzanovski. Pp. 48. Price, 75 cents. 
 Handbook of the Association, 1906. Pp. 48. Price, 25 cents. 
 No. 4. The Taxation of the Gross Receipts of Railways in Wisconsin. By G B. 
 Snider. Pp. 138. Pilce, $1.00. 
 Address subscriptions, applications for membership, and inquiries to the 
 Secretary of the American Economic Association, 
 
 Princeton, New Jersey. 
 Address all orders, except subPftpMcne, *o the publishers, 
 
 Th<- \Iacmillan Co., 
 
 66 Fifth Avenue, New York. 
 
 iv 
 
STUDIES IN HISTORY, ECONOMICS 
 AND PUBLIC LAW 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 THE FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE OF 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 B.ECENT NUMBEB.S. 
 
 VOLUME XXV, 1906-1907. 600 pp. Price, $4.00. 
 
 1. 'Municipal Control of Public Utilities. 
 
 By Oscar Lewis Pond, Ph.D. Price, $1.00. 
 
 2. The Budget in the American Commonwealths. 
 
 By Eugene B. Aggek, Ph.D. Price, $1.50. 
 
 3. The Finances of Cleveland. 
 
 By Charles C. Williamson, Ph.D. Price, $2.00. 
 VOLUME XXVI, 1907. 559 pp. Price, $3.50. 
 
 1. Trade and Currency in Early Oregon. 
 
 By James H. Gilbert, Ph.D. Price, $1.00. 
 
 2. Luther's Table Talk. By Preserved Smith, Ph.D. Price, $1.00. 
 
 3. The Tobacco Industry in the United States. 
 
 By Meter Jacobstein, Ph.D. Price, $1.50. 
 
 4. Social Democracy and Population. 
 
 By Alvan A. Tenney, Ph.D. Price, 75 cents. 
 VOLUME XXVII, 1907. 578 pp. Price, $3.50. 
 
 1. The Economic Policy of Robert Walpole. 
 
 By Norris A. Bbisco, Ph.D. Price, $1.50. 
 
 2. The United States Steel Corporation, 
 
 By Abraham Berglund, Ph.D. Price, $1.50. 
 
 3. The Taxation of Corporations in Massachusetts. 
 
 By Harry G. Friedman, A.B. Price, $1.50. 
 
 VOLUME XXVIII, 1907. 564 pp. Price, $3.50. 
 
 1. DeWitt Clinton and the Origin of the Spoils System in New York. 
 
 By Howard Lee McBain, Ph.D. Price, $1.50. 
 
 2. The Development of the Legislature of Colonial Virginia. 
 
 By E. I. Miller, Ph.D. Price, $1.50. 
 
 3. The Distribution of Ownership, 
 
 By Joseph Harding Underwood, Ph.D. Price, $1.50. 
 
 VOLUME XXIX, 1908. 
 
 1. Early New England Towns. By Anne Bush MacLear. (J» press.) 
 
 2. The Enforcement of the Statutes of Laborers. 
 
 By Bertha Haven Putnam, Ph.D. (In press.) 
 
 VOLUME IV, NO. 2. Second Edition, 1908. 
 •The Inheritance Tax. 
 
 By Max West, Ph.D. Completely revised and enlarged. Price, $2.00. 
 
 The price for each volume is for the set of monographs in paper. Each volume, as 
 well as the separate monographs marked *, can be supplied in cloth-bound copies 
 for fifty cents additional. 
 
 The set of twenty-eight volumes (except that Vol. II can be supplied only in un- 
 bound Nos. 2 and 3) is offered bound for $90. Volumes I, III and IV 
 can now be supplied only in connection with complete sets. 
 
 For further information apply to 
 
 Prof. EDWIN R. A, SELIGMAN, Columbia University, 
 
 or to THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, New York. 
 London: P. S. KING & SON, Orchard House, Westminster. 
 
BOOKS OF TIMELY INTEREST 
 
 Selections and Documents in Economics 
 
 Edited by Professor William Z. Riplky, of Harvard University. 
 
 Trusts, Pools and Corporations 
 
 Edited by WILLIAM Z. RIPLEY * 
 
 Professor of Economics in Harvard University 
 A collection of important documents by economic and legal specialists, dealing 
 with the greatest problem in domestic politics now before the country. It is 
 from such a book as this, rather than from newspaper comments or articles in 
 popular magazines, that one can get an intelligent and accurate explanation of 
 contemporary problems as well as a progressive history of the whole subject. 
 
 Trade Unionism and Labor Problems 
 
 Edited by JOHN R. COMMONS 
 
 Professor of Political Economy in the University of Wisconsin 
 
 This book does for the problems of labor what " Trusts, Pools, and Corpora- 
 tions " has done for the problems of capital. The entire field of labor is thus 
 covered by a series of cases with the attendant circumstances. 
 
 Sociology and Social Progress 
 
 A Handbook for Students of Sociology 
 
 By THOMAS NlXON T CARVER 
 
 Professor of Political Economy in Harvard University 
 
 Presenting in convenient form, the most significant of the observations made 
 by moralist, metaphysician, philosophic historian, and scientist upon the phe- 
 nomena of society in general, upon the laws of social growth and decay, and 
 upon the problems of social improvement. 
 
 Selected Readings in Public Finance 
 
 By CHARLES J. BULLOCK 
 Assistant Professor of Economics in Harvard University 
 These selections include readings from standard authors who have contributed 
 to the development of the science of finance, and other material — documentary, 
 descriptive, and historical — which will shed light upon the subject. 
 
 The Philippine Islands 
 
 By FRED W. ATKINSON 
 
 President of the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, and formerly 
 
 General Superintendent of Education for the Philippines 
 
 The following quotations from the author's Introduction indicate the scope 
 of the work. " To present the results of personal observation in such a way as 
 to give an accurate and comprehensive idea of just what our Philippine posses- 
 sions are ; to show the real conditions, geographical, economic, social, and 
 political ; to picture the people and their characteristics, the different phases of 
 this problem of tropical colonization, the possibilities and the prospects, — such is 
 the writer's endeavor." 
 
 GINN & CO., Publishers, 29 Beacon St., Boston, Mass, 
 
 vl 
 
THE YALE REVIEW 
 
 A QUARTERLY JOURNAL 
 
 FOR THE DISCUSSION OF ECONOMIC, POLITICAL, AND SOCIAL QUESTIONS 
 
 The Yale Eeview is the successor of the New Englander and 
 Yale Eeview, founded in 1843. In 1892 its title was modified 
 and its field specialized. It now confines itself to economics, 
 polities, and the social sciences, giving particular attention to 
 the scientific discussion of practical economic and social prob- 
 lems, and to the legislative and voluntary efforts made to solve 
 them. Among its contributors outside of the editorial board, 
 are Henry C. Adams, B. Benj. Andrews, Edward Atkinson, 
 Simeon E. Baldwin, John Bascom, John Graham Brooks, T. 1ST. 
 Carver, J. B. Clark, Eichard T. Ely, Worthington C. Eord, E. E. 
 L. Gould, J. H. Hollander, Brayton Ives, J. Laurence Laughlin, 
 Henry C. Lea, Emile Levasseur, Bernard Moses, H. T. Newcomb, 
 Simon N. Patten, William Z. Eipley, L. S. Eowe, E. E. A. Selig- 
 man, Werner Sombart, H. Morse Stephens, F. J. Stimson, William 
 Graham Sumner, F. W. Taussig, Hannis Taylor, F. A. Walker, 
 Edward B. Whitney, David Willcox, T. S. Woolsey, Carroll D. 
 Wright, Clinton Sogers Woodruff. It is edited by the following 
 professors in the Departments of Political Science and History, of 
 Yale University: Henry W. Farnam, E. G. Bourne, John C. 
 Schwab, Irving Fisher, G. S. Callender, Henry C. Emery, 
 Clive Day, and A. G. Keller. 
 
 PUBLISHED QUARTERLY 
 On the i;th of February, May, August and November, by 
 
 The Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor Company 
 
 NEW HAVEN, CONN. 
 SUBSCRIPTION PRICE, - - - $3.00 A YEAR 
 
 Til 
 
Annual Series of Studies in History and Politics, 1883-1907 
 
 SERIES I.— LOCAL INSTITUTIONS. 479 pp. $4.00. 
 
 SERIES II.— INSTITUTIONS AND ECONOMICS. 629 pp. $4.00. 
 
 SERIES III MARYLAND, VIRGINIA AND WASHINGTON. 595 pp. $4.00. 
 
 SERIES IV MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT, AND LAND TENURE. 600 pp. 
 
 $3.50. 
 
 SERIES V.— MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT, HISTORY AND POLITICS. 559 pp. 
 $3.50. 
 
 SERIES VI.— THE HISTORY OF CO-OPERATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 540 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES VII.— SOCIAL SCIENCE, MUNICIPAL AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. 
 (Not sold separately.) 
 
 SERIES VIII HISTORY, POLITICS, AND EDUCATION. (Not sold sepa- 
 rately.) 
 
 SERIES IX.— EDUCATION, POLITICS, AND SOCIAL SCIENCE. (Not sold 
 separately.) 
 
 SERIES X.— CHURCH AND STATE, COLUMBUS AND AMERICA. 630 pp. 
 $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XI LABOR, SLAVERY, AND SELF-GOVERNMENT. 574 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XII.— INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY. 626 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XIII.— SOUTH CAROLINA, MARYLAND AND VIRGINIA. 606 pp. 
 $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XIV.— BALTIMORE, SLAVERY, AND CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 
 588 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XV AMERICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY. 618 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XVI ANGLO-AMERICAN RELATIONS AND SOUTHERN HISTORY. 
 
 624 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XVII ECONOMIC HISTORY: MARYLAND AND THE SOUTH. 600 
 
 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XVIII.— TAXATION IN SOUTHERN STATES; CHURCH AND EDU- 
 CATION. 582 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XIX.— DIPLOMATIC AND CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 650 pp. 
 $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XX COLONIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY. 622 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XXI.— INDIANA, NORTH CAROLINA AND MARYLAND. 580 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XXII SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 651 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XXIII.— COLONIES, REVOLUTION, RECONSTRUCTION. 700 pp. 
 $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XXIV DIPLOMATIC HISTORY: TRADE UNIONS. 831 pp. $3.50. 
 
 SERIES XXV.— INTERNATIONAL AND COLONIAL HISTORY. $3.50. 
 
 The set of twenty-five series of Studies is now offered, uniformly bound in 
 cloth, for library use, for $82.00 net. 
 
 All business communications should be addressed to The Johns Hopkins Press, 
 Baltimore, Maryland. 
 
 American Agents. 
 New York. — G. I\ Putnam's Sons. Washington, — W. H. Lowdermilk & Co. 
 
 Boston — W. B. Clarke Co. Chicago A. C. McClurg & Co. 
 
 European Agents. 
 Paris — A. Hermann ; Em. Terquem. London. — Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. ; 
 Berlin. — Mayer & Mfiller. G. P. Putnam's Sons. 
 
 Leipzig. — F. A. Brockhaus. Turin, Florence and Rome. — E. Loescher & Co. 
 
 Notes Supplementary to the Studies in History and Politics 
 
 price op these notes, ten cents each. 
 
 MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN ENGLAND. By Dr. Albert Shaw. 
 
 SOCIAL WORK IN AUSTRALIA AND LONDON. By William Grey. 
 
 ENCOURAGEMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION. By Prof. H. B. Adams. 
 
 THE PROBLEM OF CITY GOVERNMENT. By Hon. Seth Low. 
 
 THE LIBRARIES OF BALTIMORE. By Dr. P. R. Uhleb. 
 
 WORK AMONG THE WORKINGWOMEN OF BALTIMORE. By Prof. H. B. 
 Adams. 
 
 CHARITIES: THE RELATION OF THE STATE, THE CITY, AND THE INDI- 
 VIDUAL TO MODERN PHILANTHROPIC WORK. By Dr. A. G. Warner. 
 
 LAW AND HISTORY. By Dr. Walter B. Scaifb. 
 
 THE NEEDS OF SELF-SUPPORTING WOMEN. By Miss Clare de Graffenreid. 
 
 EARLY PRESBYTERIANISM IN MARYLAND. By Rev. J. W. McIlvain 
 
 THE EDUCATIONAL ASPECT OF THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. By Pro- 
 fessor O. T. Masow. 
 
 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION AND THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTURE. By 
 Richard G. Moulton. 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. By Dr. William T. Harris. 
 
 POPULAR ELECTION OF U. S. SENATORS. By John Haynes. 
 
 A MEMORIAL OF LUCIUS S. MERRIAM, Bv J. H. Hollander and others. 
 
 IS HISTORY PAST POLITICS? By Professor Herbert B. Adams. 
 
 LAY SERMONS. By Amos G. Warner ; with a biographical sketch by George 
 E. Howard. Price twenty-flve cents. 
 
 viil 
 
Extra Volumes of Studies 
 
 IN 
 
 Historical and Political Science 
 
 Philadelphia, 1681-1887. By Edwakd P. Allison, A.M., and Boies Pen- 
 hose, A.B. 444 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $3.00. 
 local Constitutional History of the United States. By George E. Howard, 
 
 Ph.D. Volume I — Development of the Township, Hundred and Shire. 
 
 542 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $3.00. Volume II — In preparation. 
 The Negro in Maryland. By Jeffrey E. Brackett, Ph.D. 270 pages. 
 
 8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 
 The Supreme Court of the United States. By W. W. Willoughby, Ph.D. 
 
 124 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $1.25. 
 The Intercourse hetween the U. S. and Japan. By Inazo (Ota) Nitobe, 
 
 Ph.D. 198 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $1.25. 
 Spanish Institutions of the Southwest. By Frank W. Blackjiar, Ph.D. 
 
 380 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 
 An Introduction to the Study of the Constitution. By Morris M. Cohn. 
 
 250 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $1.50. 
 The Old English Manor. By C M. Andrews, Ph.D. 280 pages. 8vo. 
 
 Cloth. $1.50. 
 The Southern Quakers and Slavery. By Stephen B. Weeks, Ph.D. 414 
 
 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 
 Contemporary American Opinion of the French Revolution. By C. D. 
 
 Hazen, Ph.D. 325 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 
 Industrial Experiments in the British Colonies of North America. By 
 
 Eleanor L. Lord. 164 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $1.25. 
 State Aid to Higher Education: A Series of Addresses at the Johns 
 
 Hopkins University. 100 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $1.00. 
 
 Financial History of Baltimore. By J. H. Hollander, Ph.D. 400 pages. 
 
 8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 
 Cuba and International Relations. By J. M. Callahan. 503 pages. 8vo. 
 
 Cloth. $3.00. 
 The American Workman. By E. Levasseur (translation). 540 pages. 
 
 8vo. Cloth. $3.00. 
 Herbert B. Adams. A Memorial Volume. 232 pages. 8vo. Cloth. 
 A History of Slavery in Virginia. By J. C. Ballagh. 160 pages. 8vo. 
 
 Cloth. $1.50. 
 The Finances and Administration of Providence, 1636-1901. By Howar>> 
 
 K. Stokes. 474 pages. 8vo. Cloth. $3.50. 
 
 ix 
 
THE AMERICAN WORKMAN 
 
 By PROFESSOR E. LEVASSEUR 
 
 AN AMERICAN TRANSLATION BY THOMAS S. ADAMS 
 
 Edited by THEODORE MARBURG 
 
 540 pages, octavo. $3.00 
 
 Cuba and International Relations 
 
 By JAMES MORTON CALLAHAN, Ph.D. 
 503 pages, octavo. $3.00 
 
 The Neutrality of the American Lakes 
 and Anglo-American Relations 
 
 By JAMES MORTON CALLAHAN 
 200 pages, octavo. $1.50 
 
 American Relations in the Pacific 
 and the Far East 
 
 1784-1900 
 
 By JAMES MORTON CALLAHAN 
 
 180 pages, octavo. 75 cents. 
 
 THE ALBERT SHAW LECTURES ON DIPLOMATIC HISTORY 
 
 American Diplomacy under Tyler 
 and Polk 
 
 By JESSE S. REEVES, Ph.D. 
 335 pages. Cloth. Price, $1.50 
 This volume discusses the Northeastern Boundary Controversy; the 
 Ashburton Treaty; the Relations between Mexico and the United States. 
 1825-1843; the Annexation of Texas; the Northwestern Boundary Contro- 
 versy; the Oregon Treaty; Polk's attempted Negotiation for California; 
 the Outbreak of the Mexican War; the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
 
 International Law and Diplomacy of the 
 Spanish-American War 
 
 By E. J. BENTON (In press) 
 
 Orders should be addressed to 
 
 The Johns Hopkins Pbess, Baltimore, Maryland. 
 
THE AMERICAN POLITICAL 
 SCIENCE ASSOCIATION 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1903 
 
 Frederick n. judson, St. Louis, Mo., <Cpecutitie Council : 
 
 President 
 
 President, Vice-Presidents, 
 Albert Bushnell Hart, Harvard Univ., Secretary and Treasurer, ex-officio 
 
 F.RST VICE-PRESIDENT STEPHEN Leacock> McGill DIVERSITY 
 
 H. A. GARFIELD, PRINCETON "-VERSITY tl^l^^S^^K^ """■ 
 
 SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT THEOOOHE WooLSEY , Yale UmvEFS , TY 
 PAUL S. REINSCH, UNIV. OF WISCONSIN, JSIV,ES T. YO"NG. UNIVERSITY OF PENN. 
 
 Third Vice-President J. A. Fairlie, University of Michigan 
 J. H. Latane, Washington &. Lee Univ. 
 
 W. W. WlLLOUGHBY, JOHNS HOPKINS H. P. JUDSON, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 
 University, Baltimore, Md., F. J. Goodnow, Columbia University 
 
 SECRETARY AND TREASURER B. F. SHAMBAUGH, UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 
 
 AIM 
 
 The advancement of the scientific study .of Politics, Public Law, 
 Administration and Diplomacy in the United States. 
 
 MEMBERSHIP 
 
 Any person may become a member upon payment of $3.00 annual 
 dues. Life membership $50. Libraries eligible to annual member- 
 ship. Members entitled to all publications of the Association issued 
 during membership. 
 
 PUBLICATIONS 
 
 Proceedings 
 
 An annual cloth bound volume, containing papers read at the annual 
 December meetings of the Association. 
 
 The American Political Science Review 
 
 Published Quarterly. Each number containing: 
 
 1. Leading articles. 
 
 2. Notes on Current Legislation. 
 
 3. " Notes and News," National, State, Municipal, Colonial, Foreign, 
 
 Personal, and Miscellaneous. 
 
 4. Reviews. 
 
 5. Index to Political Publications, Books, Periodical Articles, and 
 
 Government Publications. 
 Each number contains approximately 176 pages. The first number 
 issued November, 1906. Annual subscription price to persons not mem- 
 bers of the Association, $3.00. New members paying dues for 1907 will 
 be sent the November number of the Review. Members desiring to com- 
 plete their sets of publications of the Association may obtain volumes I 
 and II of the Proceedings for one dollar each. Specimen copy of the 
 Review sent upon request. 
 
 ADDRESS ALL REMITTANCES AND COMMUNICATIONS TO 
 Secretary of the W. W. WlLLOUGHBY 
 
 American Political Science Association Johns Hopkins University 
 and Managing Editor of the Review Baltimore, MD. 
 
 xi 
 
A REPRINT OF 
 
 ECONOMIC TRACTS 
 
 (THIRD SERIES) 
 
 The reception which students of political economy in this country and 
 
 abroad have accorded the reprint of certain notable economic tracts of the 
 
 seventeenth and nineteenth centuries has been so favorable that The Johns 
 
 Hopkins Press now invites subscriptions to a somewhat more ambitious 
 
 reprint of four important economic essays of the eighteenth century, to be 
 
 issued consecutively under the editorial direction of Professor Hollander. 
 
 The Querist, containing several querieB, proposed to the consideration of 
 the public. Parts I, II, III. [By George Berkeley.] Dublin, 1735- 
 1737. 
 
 An Essay on the Governing Causes of the Natural Rate of Interest; 
 wherein the sentiments of Sir William Petty and Mr. Locke, on that 
 head, are considered. '[By Joseph Massie.] London, 1750. 
 
 Money answers all Things: or, an essay to make money sufficiently plenti- 
 ful amongst all ranks of people, and increase our foreign and domestick 
 trade. By Jacob Vanderlint. London, 1734. 
 
 An Essay on Ways and Means for raising Money for the support of the 
 present war, without increasing the public debts. [By Francis Fau- 
 quier.] London, 1756. 
 Each tract will be supplied by the editor with a brief introduction and 
 
 with text annotations where indispensable. The general appearance of 
 
 the title page will be preserved and the original pagination will be 
 
 indicated. 
 
 The edition will be limited to five hundred copies. With a view to 
 
 serving the largest student usefulness, the subscription for the entire 
 
 series of four tracts has been fixed at the net price of Two Dollars. 
 
 Of the tracts heretofore reprinted, a limited number can yet be obtained 
 
 as follows. As the editions approach exhaustion, the prices indicated are 
 
 likely to be increased without notice: 
 
 Asgill, "Several Assertions Proved" (London, 1696). Price, 50 cents. 
 
 Barbon, "A Discourse of Trade" (London, 1690). Price, 50 cents. 
 
 Fortrey, " Englands Interest Considered" (Cambridge, 1663). Price, 50 
 cents. 
 
 Longe, "A Refutation of the Wage-Fund Theory" (London, 1866). Price, 
 75 cents. 
 
 Malthus, "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Kent" (London, 
 1815). Price, 75 cents. 
 
 North, "Discourses upon Trade" (London, 1691). Price, 50 cents. 
 
 Ricardo, "Three Letters on 'The Price of Gold'" (London, 1809). 
 Price, 75 cents. 
 
 West, "Essay on the Application of Capital to Land" (London, 1815). 
 Price, 75 cents. 
 
 Subscriptions and orders should be sent to 
 
 The Johns Hopkins Pbess, 
 
 Baltimobe, Mabyland. 
 
 XI) 
 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 3 1924 054 511 351