»l?j^''H«rWV-tf*WW«''N««V ' ' '^^^*?*^i^!•l**l?*sK>'■"*P pe TnjRNELL UNIVERSnV LIBRARY 924 076 024 755 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924076024755 B. A. D. (3. PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION English Rhetoric prbokpts and exeroisbs. REV. CHARLES COPPENS, S.J., A uthtr of "The A rt of Oratorical Composition.'^ NEW YORK SGHWAETZ, KIEWTN" & T'AtJSS 48 BABCiiAY Stbeei Copyright, iSScs by THE CATHOLIC PUBLICATION SOCIETY Ca ■TranBrerred to CATHOUO SCHOOL BOOK OO. ALL MOHTS RSSKKVSD. CONTENTS. PAGE Introductory 9 BOOK I.— THE ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITION. Chapter I. Object-Lessons : ii Article I. Names of Objects ; 12 " II. Parts of Objects ; 14 " III. Qualities of Objects ; 14 " IV. Actions done by or to Objects ; . . .15 V. Uses of Objects ; .' 16 " VI. Composition 16 Chapter II. Wonje : 19 wopriety : 23 Article li^^xjiiy ; 21 IIARo § I. Suited to the idea expressed 33 § 2. Suited to polite usage, 24 § 3. Suited to special circumstances ; . . . .25 § 4. Suited to the subject treated ; . . . .26 Article III. 'Precision. 28 Chapter Ill.^entences : 31 Article I. Clearness ; 32 " II. "Trecision ; 34 III.*trnity; 36 " IV.-*Strength ; 37 " V.^Iarmony: ... ... 40 § I, Sources of harmony 40 § 2.^he periodic construction 41 § 3. Period-building, . .' 45 § 4. Model sentences. 47 Contents. rAGB Chapter IV. Combination and Punctuation of Sentences : SI Article I. Combination of Sentences — ^The Paragraph ; 51 " II. Punctuation: ...... 55 r^\. Tlie period, 56 J § 2. The colon 56 < § 3. The semicolon 58 1 § 4. The comma, 59 / § 5. Interrogation and exclamation, 61 1 § 6. The dash, 62 1 § 7. Curves, brackets, and quotation marks 63 BOOK II.— THE ORNAMENTS OF COMPOSITION. Chapter I. Traf>es : 69 Article I.*Metaphor; 73 " II. 'Allegory ; 77 " III."Bynecdoche and Metonymy ; . . . .79 " IV.Wrony, Hyperbole, and Personification. . . 82 Chapter II. Figures of Words 89 Chapter III. Figures of Thought 92 BOOK III.— STYLE IN LITERARY COMPOSITION. Chapter I. Beauty. 98 Chapter II.*Sublimity, Wit, and Humor : 102 Article L ''Sublimity ; t02 n.l%it; 107 IILl^umor. . Chapter Ill.'^ste. Chapter IV.^arieties of Style : 108 III 116 Article I. Sources of Variety ; 116 " II. Ornament of Style. 119 Chapter V. Improvement of Style : 122 Article I. Precepts ; . . 122 " II. Practice of composition ; 124 " III. Reading. laa Contents. BOOK IV.— SPECIES OF PROSE COMPOSITION. Chapter Article (< Chapter Article Chapter I. Imitation : , . . . Article I. Imitation on the same Subject ; " II. Imitation on a different Subject ;' " III. Selection of Models. Chapter II. Epistolary Composition : Article I. Official and Business Letters " II. Unofficial Letters, Chapter III. Narration : Article I. Narration in General " II. Simple Narration ; " III. Complex Narration " IV. Style of Narration. IV. Description : I. Description of Things ; . II. Description of Characters, V. Essays : . . . . I. Collecting Appropriate Thoughts : § I. Nature and name of the subject, § 2. Causes and effects, § 3. Circumstances and antecedents, § 4. Resemblance and contrast, . § 5. Authorities and examples ; . - Article II. Various Kinds of Essays : § X. School essays, § 2. Magazine articles, § 3. Critical essays, § 4. Scientific, historical, and political essays. Chapter VI. Dialogues. Chapter VII. Novels. Chapter VIII. History : . Article I. Nature and General Laws of History ; " II. Sources of Historical Knowledge ; " III. Qualities Required in the Historian ; " IV. History Generally Reliable ; . " V. Special Sources of Error : § I. False statements, .... Contents. PAGE § 2. Suppression of facts 228 § 3. Partiality 229 § 4. Hostility or prejudice, 230 § 5. False theories ; 231 Article VI. The Plan of a History ; 234 " VII. Development of the Facts : . • . . 236 § I. The artistic beauty of the narrative, . . . 236 § 2. Proper instruction for the reader ; . . . 239 Article VIII. The Style of History ; 242 " IX. Various Species of Historical Writings : . 244 § I. History proper 244 § 2. Annals, memoirs, and travels, .... 245 § 3. Philosophical histories, 246 § 4. Biography 247 BOOK v.— VERSIFICATION. Chapter Article Chapter Article I. History and Nature of Versification I. Its Rise and Importance ; II. Its Influence at the Present Day ; III. The Nature of the Art. . II. Structure of Verse : . I. The Syllable : . . . § I. Accentuation, .... § 2. Quantity § 3. Influence of quantity and accent ; Article II. The Foot : . . . . § I. Combination of syllables into feet, § 2. Principal and secondary feet ; Article III. The Verse : . . . . § I. Species and length of the verse ; . § 2. Acatalectic, catalectic, and hypermeter, § 3. Combining and dividing verses, . § 4. Blending of difTerent feet ; . Article IV. Structure of the Stanza ; . V. Rhyme : § I. Alliteration and repetition, . § 2. Nature and laws of rhyme, . 252 252 254 255 260 260 261 261 26 s 26S 269 270 274 274 275 276 278 2S2 287 288 289 Contents. PAGE § 3. Single, double, and triple rhymes, . . .291 § 4. Position of the rhyme in verse, . .... 294 § 5. Position of rhyming verses ; .... 295 Article VI. Systems of Rhyming Verses : . . . . 296 § I. The short, common, and long metre, . . 296 § 2. Triplet, elegiac, rhythm-royal, ottava rima, terza rima 2gg § 3. The Spenserian stanza and the sonnet, . . jgi § 4. The ode ; 303 Article'VlI. Blank Verse ; 304 " VIII. Pauses in Verse : 306 § I. The final pause, 307 § 2. The caesural pause 308 § 3. The semi-csBsural pause 310 BOOK VI.— NATURE AND VARIETIES OF POETRY. Chapter I. The Nature of Poetry. 31J Chapter II. Poetic Diction ,20 Chapter III. Varieties of Poetry : ,2-j Article I. Narrative and Descriptive Poetry : . . -j, § I. Narrative and descriptive poetry in general, . ,25 § 2. Epic poetry ; 32;; Article II. Didactic Poetry : ,,2 § I. Poetical epistles, ,,, § 2. Satire ; 338 Article III. Lyric Poetry : -,„ § I. The ode 340 § 2. The psalms 3^8 § 3. Elegies ; 3^^ Article IV. Dramatic Poetry : ,51 § I. Tragedy • • • 3Si § 2. Comedy ; 360 Article V. AccidentaL Variations of Poetry : . . . 362 § I. Pastoral poetry. 36a § 2. The poetry of the Holy Scriptures. . . , 364 PREFACE. After devoting nearly thirty years of his life to the sacred cause of education, the author of this volume has been requested by many of his friends to arrange for publication the notes on Rhetoric and Poetry which he had gradually accumulated. These consisted partly of precepts carefully selected from the works of the best critics, ancient and modern, partly of choice models gathered from the works of the most distinguished writers, to which were added the results of his own observation and experience. He began his task by publishing, last year, The Art of Oratorical Composition, for the benefit of those who aim at success in public speaking. Encouraged by the readiness with which that treatise has already been adopt- ed in many leading colleges, and urged by his superiors and others to undertake a work of still wider usefulness, he has now written this Practical Introduction to English Rhetoric as a general text-book on Composition for the use of Colleges and Academies. He rests his claims to the patronage of such astitu- tions on the following points : I. The work is so comprehensive as to embrace all the precepts of Rhetoric usually explained to the pupils of academies. In conjunction with The Art of Oratori' 8 Preface. cat Composition it contains the entire course of Rhetoric a& studied in colleges and universities. 2. It is very practical, as will appear from even a cur- sory glance at the numerous exercises suggested in its pages. In the first part of the work many matters are explained and exercises suggested, which the teacher may utilize for the improvement of even young children in the lowest classes. 3. It contains a copious collection of choice quota- tions in prose and verse, to serve as models for the imitation of pupils. But it does not contain long lists of faulty sentences, etc., because the author thinks that students, in their daily exercises, supply the professor with a sufficient amount of such matter for criticism. 4. Lastly, the work pretends to do what many text- books on Rhetoric neglect, and what is really the most important task of all — namely, to educate the heart as well as the head of the student ; or, as Southey expresses it, " to throw his affections aright " : to guide the steps of the young through the pleasant paths of literature, without exposing them to the danger of losing what is far more precious than all the literature of the world — the purity of their Faith and the innocence of their hearts. The treatise on " Versification " which forms part of this work is from the able pen of Rev. Eugene H. Brady, S.J., of St. Xavier College, Cincinnati, O. It is highly appreciated by the author of this volume ; and he does not doubt that it will prove most acceptable to those for whose benefit it is now published. St. Louis University, April 13, 1886. INTRODUCTORY. 1. The foundation of all literary excellence is common sense. " Scribendi recte sapere est et principium et fons," says Horace. His translator, Francis, applies this rule to Poetry, "Good sense, the fountain of the Muse's art", but it holds for all kinds of composition. Now, one of the first dictates of common sense is that an exercise be not above the power of the writer. The same critic^emarks : " Examine well, ye writers, weigh with care What suits your genius, what your strength will bear. To him who shall his task with judgment choose Nor words nor method shall their aid refuse." School-exercises should therefore be carefully adapted to the capacity of the pupils. A boy may be taught to com- pose a natural and interesting narration of an excursion, a favorite game, a festive celebration, a distressing accident, etc. ; but he is as yet incapable of handling intricate or ab- stract subjects. He will only write nonsense and acquire a faulty taste and style, if his -first theme is the descriptire of an ancient or modem battle, an essay on * The spirit of progress,' or even on ' The Declaration of Independence.' 2. The first requisite for success in any composition is that the writer have clear and correct ideas on the matter lo Introductory. to be treated. Therefore, before speaking of ^style or the expression of thought,»we shall premise a few exercises on the acquisition of thought. Children acquire knowledge readily and naturally by observing what is presented to their senses. We shall follow nature's guidance, and begin with such exercises as will'promote or direct this habit of observation, as a preparation for original composition. BOOK I. THE ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITION. CHAPTER I. OBJECT-LESSONS. 3. Object-Lessons are exercises on objects that fall undel the senses. In these lessons children are trained to notice such objects with care, to observe their parts, their quali- ties, their actions ; the sources whence they come, the means by which they may be obtained, the uses to which they may be applied, and so forth. 4. The chief advantag^es derived from object-lessons are ; I. They cultivate habits of attention ; 2.. They lead to greater distinctness of perception ; 3. They store the mind with useful knowledge ; 4. They cultivate a taste for what is real ; 5. They develop the habit of tracing effects to their causes, and following out causes to their effects j 6. They make the child acquainted with numerous words, not learned at random and vaguely under- stood, but exactly suited to the clear* ideas thus acquired ; 7. The spelling of those same words can easily bq learned in connection with the objects studied. 12 The Elements of 'Composition. 8. The exercises may be so conducted as to introduce various portions of grammar ; for instance, the dis- tinctions between nouns, adjectives, verbs ; proper and common nouns ; gender, nuftiber, and case ; etc. 9. They afford the teacher opportunities to introduce, in a natural and interesting way, information con- cerning plants, animals, countries, nations, historical facts ; above all, moral and religious maxims and principles, and to point out the evident marks in all things of the wisdom and love of the Creator. 10. They may easily be directed to the cultivation of good taste. Article I. Names of Objects. 5. The name of anything which exists or of which we have any notion is a noun or substantive. 6. 1st Exercise. — Write the names of all the objects you notice in this class-room, in the school-yard, in a dining- room, in a garden, in the church, at a picnic, at a funeral, in a sick-room, at a college exhibition, etc., etc. 7. 2d Exercise. — Point out the agreeable objects collect- ed by Goldsmith to describe a happy village : " Sweet Auburn, loveliest village of the plain. Where health and plenty cheered the laboring swain. Where smiling spring its earliest visit paid, And parting summer's lingering blooms delayed : Dear lovely bowers of innocence and ease, Seats of my youth where every sport could please. How, often have I loitered o'er thy green. Where humble happiness endeared each scene I How often have I paused on every charm, The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm, The never-failing brook, the busy mill, The decent church that topped the neighboring hill | * Object-Lessons. 13 8. 3d Exercise. — Point out separately the gloomy and the pleasing objects in the following lines of the same poem, " The Deserted Village " : " Amid thy bowers the tyrant's hand is seen, And desolation saddens all thy green ; One only master grasps the whole domain, And half a village stints the smiling plain. No more the glassy brook reflects the day, But choked with sedges works its weary way ; Along the glades, a solitary guest, The hollow-sounding bittern guards its nest ; Amidst thy desert walks the lapwing flies, And tires their echoes with unvaried cries. Sunk are thy bowers in shapeless ruin all, And the long grass o'ertops the mouldering wall ; And trembling, shrinking from the spoiler's hand. Far, far away thy children leave the land." ^ 9. 4th Exercise. — Mention the objects peculiar to morn- ing, to noon, to evening, to night, to winter, to sumnier, to spring, to autumn, a graveyard, a Sunday, a solemn feast, etc. Example of an evening scene. " Or when the plowman leaves the task of day. And trudging homeward whistles on the way ; When the big-uddered cows with patience stand, Waiting the strokings of the damsel's hand. No warbling cheers the wood : the feathered choir, To court kind slumbers, to the sprays retire. Where no rude gale disturbs the sleeping trees. No aspen leaves confess the gentlest breeze. Engaged in thought, to Neptune's bounds I stray. To take my farewell of the parting day ; Far in the deep the sun his glory hides, A streak of gold the sea and sky divides ; The purple clouds their amber linings show. And edged with flame rolls every wave below ; Here pensive I behold the fading light. And o'er the distant billows lose my sight."— Caj". 14 The Elements of Composition. It must be remembered that object-lessons properly ap- ply to such objects only as are actually presented to the senses of the learners. The exercises here set down en- large this field, so as to include other oBjects not actual- ly observed, but' known to exist under given circumstances. Great fidelity in describing things as they really are is ear- nestly recommended : exactness is one of the chief quali- ties of good writing. Article II. Parts of Objects. 10. Exercise. — Examine with care and mention the dif- ferent parts of the following objects : A pear, a rose, a cherry-tree, a desk, a stove, a furnace, a carriage, a book, a newspaper, a bookcase, a map, an engine, etc. This ex- ercise is treated in detail and with great variety of illustra- tion in many books on Object-Lessons ; its main purpose is the promotion of close observation in the learner. It will be sufficient to add here a few ezampleB, An apple has stem, peel, pulp, juice, veins, eye, dim- ples, core, seeds, seed-case. A pocket-knife has handle, pivot, blade. The handle has rivets, frame, heel, sides, back, spring, grooves, plate. The blade has edge, point, back, notch, sides, maker's name. Article III. Qualities of Objects. A quality of an object is expressed by an adjective ; as 'new,' 'old,' 'gentle,' etc. 11. Ist Exercise. — Write the names of the objects in this room, and add to each name a suitable adjective ; as, 'a new chair,' 'a square table,' 'a hot stove,' 'a gentle voice," ' a harsh tone,' etc. Object-Lessons, 1 5 12. 2d Exercise. — Point out the adjectives occurring in the verses quoted in Nos. 7, 8, 9, distinguishing those that make the objects more pleasing from those that produce the opposite effect. 13. 3d Exercise. — Mention all the adjectives you know which denote color, figure, size, place, time. Example of size : Large, big, great, voluminous, bulky, ample, capacious, huge, immense, enormous, vast, mon- strous, gigantic, giant-like, colossal, Cyclopean, infinite, boundless ; middling, mediocre, moderate, ordinary, ave- rage ; little, small, minute, diminutive, inconsiderable, tiny, puny, petty, dwarfed, dwarfish, stunted, Lilipu- tian. Article IV. Actions Don.e by or to Objects. An action done by a person or thing is expressed by an active verb ; as, ' to run,' ' to read,' ' to honor,' * to love,'' etc. An action suffered by a person or object is expressed by a passive verb ; as, ' to be seen,' ' to be loved,' * to be re- buked,' etc. 14. Exercise. — Mention various actions which can be done, by or to flame, rain, air, steam ; the eyes, hands, feet, tongue ; by or to birds, fishes, paper, pen, ink, etc. 15. Example of actions done by and to water ("The Cataract of Lodore ") : " The Cataract strong Showering and springing. Then plunges along, Flying and flinging, Striking and raging Writhing and ringing, As if a war waging Eddying and whisking. Its caverns and rocks among ; Spouting and frisking, Rising and leaping, Turning and twisting Sinking and creeping, Around and around Swelling and sweeping. With endless rebound; 1 6 The Elements of Composition. And pouring and roaring, And working and jerking, And waving and raving, And guggling and struggling. And tossing and crossing, And curling and whirling, And flowing and going, And purling and twirling. And running and stunning. And thumping and plumping, And foaming and roaming. And bumping and jumping, And dinning and spinning, And dashing and flashing. And dropping and hopping, And splashing and clashing," Etc. Article V. Uses of Objects. 1 6. 1st Exercise. — Mention the uses of every article to be seen in a school-room, a parlor, a kitchen, a cloak- room, a dining-room, a church, a street-car, a sitting- loom. 17. 2d Exercise. — Mention the purposes served by the various parts of a tree, a" stove, an umbrella, a bridge, a wagon, a trunk, a door, an apple. Example: The parts of a hat. Body : To cover the sides of the head and give shape to the hat. Brim : To protect the neck and the face from sun and rain. Crown : To protect the top of the head. Band : To keep the hat in shape. Binding: To keep the edge of the brim from wear- ing out. Lining: To keep the sweat from soiling the material of the hat. Trimming : To give the hat an attractive appearance. Article VI. Composition. 18. 1st Exercise. — Write a connected description of a fruit, a plaything, a plant, or an article of furniture which you have carefully examined, noting: (a) What kind of a Object-Lessons. 1 7 thing it is, what it resembles, , how it differs from other things ; (3) What qualities it has ; [c) What uses it serves ; {i) Whence it comes and how it is obtained ; (f Composiiion. terms stand for ideas, an enlarged familiarity with words and their meanings extends the limits of our knowledge, and is thus an important part of education. It would not, however, be correct tp say that a man's knowledge is valu- able in proportion to the multitude of words which he has learned to understand ; for some matters are far more worthy of knowledge than others. 25. From all this it follows that the exercises selected for the young should — ' I. Make them familiar with a large number of words ; 2. Aid them to understand those words clearly in their various meanings ; 3. Fix their attention by preference on those words which represent the most valuable ideas. It must also be remarked that words found in print or heard in conversation are not all equally fit for use ; pre- cepts and exercises will train the pupil to make a proper choice. 26. To acquire a copious supply of proper words — 1. Children should converse frequently with persons whose knowledge is sound and whose language is correct and elegant. 2. Their reading should be confined to the choicest productions of the best writers, suited, however, to their age and their circumstances. The text-books which they use for reading and for models of com- position should be selected with the greatest care. Such selection being made, the following exercises are recommended : 27. Ist Exercise. — Write in one column all the nouns oc- curring in the First Lesson of your Reader, all the adjec- tives in a second column, the verbs in a third, and the ad- verbs in a fourth! Of Words. 21 28. 2d Exercise. — Write, in the same manner, all such words of the Second Lesson as did not occur in the first, or occur in a different meaning. 29. 3d Exercise. — Point out the new words of the Third Lesson, of the Fourth, of the Fifth, etc. Similar exercises may be written on passages in text- books' of History, Geography, etc., to familiarize pupils with numerous good English words, and with the diffe- rent meanings which each may bear. In selecting words for actual use pupils must attend to" the rules of Purity, Propriety, and Precision. Article I. Purity. 30. Purity requires that all our expressions belong to the idiom of our language. It forbids the use of words and phrases which are (a) foreign, (5) obsolete or no longer in use, (c) newly coined or not yet adopted into the lan- guage. A violation of purity is called a barbarism. 31. The standard of purity is the practice of the best writers and speakers. This standard is thus explained by Campbell in his Rhetoric: To judge whether a word is pure he bids us consult : \: Reputable use — that is, the usage of the best writers and speakers, as opposed to that of the uneducated ; 2. National use, as opposed to provincial and foreign ; 3. Present use, as opposed to obsolete. 32. We may add this special rule regarding foreign words : When our own language has a good word to ex- press a certain idea it is pedantry to borrow a word from another tongue, as those persons are fond of doing who wish to shoiy that they know a little French, Italian, etc. We need not, for instance, talk of a ' coup d'oeil,' a ' chef- d'oeuvre,' or a 'faux pas,' etc., when we have such words as a 'glance,' a 'masterpiece,' a 'false step,' etc. 22 The Elements of Composition. 33. Pope, in his "Essay on Criticism," lays down this rule regarding obsolete and newly-coined words: " In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold. Alike fantastic if too new or old : Be not the first by whom the new are tried. Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." In conformity with this rule we should avoid in prose com- position words which were at one time in general use, but which are now confined by our best writers to the language of poetry. Such are : ' Sheen,' ' swain,' ' ween,' ' wist,' 'wot,' 'quoth,' etc. 34. Even among such words as are conformable to the standard of purity a further selection may often be ad- visable, for which Campbell lays down these rules : 1. Choose the word or phrase which has but one mean- ing in preference to that which has more than one ; e.g., say ' The weapons droj^ed from the hands of his soldiers,' not ' The arms dropped from the hands of his soldiers.' 2. Prefer the word that conforms to the analogy of the language ; hence use ' contemporary ' rather than ' cotemporary,' since the ' n ' in ' con"" is usually re- tained before a consonant and dropped before a vowel. 3. Prefer the word more agreeable to the ear ; hence rather say ' kindness ' than ' graciousness,' if either will suit the sense. 4. Prefer the simpler expression : ' to approve ' is bet. ter than 'to approve of,' to 'subtract' than to 'sub- stract.' • 5. Prefer what savors less of innovation, unless there be a special reason to the contrary. 35. Exercise. — Substitute English words and phrases foi Of Words. 23 the following barbarisms : k la, mode, incertain, resurrect- ed, docible, preventative, sang-froid, enthused, rampage, ' amour propre, parverlu',' soi-disant, sk^addle, vamose, patois, instanter, fete, absquatulate, fixings, walking-pa- ■ ipers, sine qua non, comme il f aut ; to get into a scrape, to acknowledge the corn, to pitch into, to cut shines, to clear out. ^^^^ Articlk II. Propriety. 36. Propriety means suitableness. Words should be suited : i. To the expression of a given idea ; 2. To the usage of polite society ; 3. To the understanding of the reader or hearer ; 4. To the subject treated. § I. Proper to express a given idea. 37. Propriety should make us choose those words of our language which most exactly express our Ideas. This choice of the right wordrfor every idea is in itself a source of pleasure to the intelligent reader ;- it is one of the chief beauties of style, and it is necessary in all species of com- positions. There are many words in English which ex- press the same idea; such words are called synonyms. If they present the same idea somewhat differently they are imperfect synonyms. There are few perfect syno- nyms ; and negligence in discriminating between imper- fect ones leads to many violations of propriety. 38. Exercise. — Point out the meanings which the follow- ing synonyms have in common, and the differences be- tween them. Write brief sentences in which these diffe- rences appear. Austerity, severity, rigor. Custom, habit. Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded. Desist, renounce, quit, leave off. Pride, vanity. Haughtiness, disdain. To dis- tinguish, to separate. To veary, to fatigue. To abhor, 24 The Btements of Composition. , ; ; ^ to detest. To invent, to discover. Only, alone. Entire, complete. Tranquillity, peace, calm. A difficulty, an obstacle. Wisdom, prudence. Enough, sufficient. To avow, to acknowledge, to confess. To remark, to observe. Equivocal, ambiguous. With, by. (See Blair's Rhetoric, Lect. X.) 39. Even ordinary conversation cannot dispense with this propriety in the choice of words. A foolish habit of exaggeration leads ,some people to' commit gross mistakes in this matter. To signify that an object is very pleasing they will say that it is ' awfully nice ' or ' perfectly splen- did'; they express themselves to be 'delighted,' when th^y mean 'pleased'; they 'love' poetry, flowers, and fine clothes, instead of 'liking' them. 40. To select the proper synonjnn the following hints may help : I. Some words are more comprehensive than others : every * river ' is a ' stream,' but every '-stream ' is not a ' river.' 2. Some relate more to action, others to a state : ' force ' effects, while ' strength ' sustains ; * reasonable ' men use reason, ' rational ' men have reason. 3. Some are positive, others negative : a * fault ' is positively bad, a ' defect ' is a want of something needed. 4. Some differ in degree: ' damp,' ' moist,' ' wet ' ; ' angry,' ' furious.' 5. Some relate more to nature, others to art : a ' gentle,' a ' tame ' animal. 6. Some regard more what is inward, others what is out- ward : 'dignity,' 'decorum,' 'form,' 'feature'; 'detract,' 'disparage.' (See Kerl's Treatise on the English Lan- guage, p. 460.) § 2. Proper to be used in polite society. 41. The Latins called every object by the name which most directly recalled it to the mind. Shakspeare and most of his contemporaries often made their charactwfs Of Words. 25 discourse in similar language. But in our. days there are many words and phrases that are universally banished from polite conversation, and others that are often used familiar- ly, but are considered out of place in dignified composi- tion. The former are called vulgar; they should always be avoided : the latter are familiar or colloquial, and may be used on proper occasions. , " Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar." — Shaksfeare. Some young people contract the habit of using vulgar words and slang phrases to such an extent that they are ignorant of the proper terms. Others go to the opposite extreme, and, through a false notion of propriety, fastidi- ously avoid excellent English words used by the best writ- ers. They would think it vulgar to name 'arms,' 'legs,' and ' knees,' calling all these ' limbs.' This is not propri- ety, but prudery. 42. Some writers on Rhetoric give the name of "low ex- pressions " to such terms as hurly-burly, topsy-turvy, curry- ing favor, dancing attendance, left to shift for one's self, had as lief, not a whit better, half an eye, self-same, it irks me, etc. All these, however, are good old English idioms, which it would be a pity to lose from our language, as they are mare expressive than any substitutes yet proposed for them. (See Every-Day English, by Richard Grant White, c. XXX.) Some would even discard our good Sax- on 'women' and 'mothers,' and give us 'ladies' and 'mam- mas ' instead. § 3. Proper or suited to the intelligence of readers and hearers. 43. Many terms are appropriate before a learned audi- ence and in books written for educated men and women which would be unintelligible to children and to the unedu- 26 The Elements of Composition. cated. Words of Saxon origin are the simplest and the most likely to be generally understood. Scientific terms should be confined to scientific audiences. 44. In addressing persons of slow mind, or in addressing any person on abstruse matters, it is well to express the same idea, whenever it recurs, by the same word, so as not to confuse ; but with more intelligent readers, and on easier topics, such repetitions would convey the impression of poverty of language in the writer, except when special beauty results from the repetition, as will be explained further on. It is never proper to use the same word in different meanings in the same sentence. Do not write, " It soon appeared that these diplomatic courtesies meant more than appeared on the surface"; nor, "Wellington was anxious to be relieved from anxiety in that quarter." 4. Proper to the subject. 45. Language is the dress of thought. As different dress becomes different persons and different occasions, so the language will vary with the subject. We shall here con- sider how this will affect the choice of words. When the thoughts are remarkably beautiful, smoothness and beauty are desired in the expression. Now, as Blair correctly remarks, words are most agreeable to the ear which are composed of smooth and liquid sounds, in which there is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants, without too many harsh consonants rubbing against each other. Too many open vowels in succes- sion cause a hiatus or a disagreeable aperture of the mouth. Sounds hard to pronounce are harsh and pain-- ful to the ear. Vowels give softness, consonants strength, to the sound of words. The music of language requires a just proportion of both. Of long words those are the most Of Words. 27 musical in which long and short syllables are properly in- termixed, as 'independent,' 'impetuosity,' 'adoration.' 46. Long words bestow dignity upon style ; this is the chief reason why those of Latin and Greek origin are pre- ferred by many writers to the more expressive and forcible, but less harmonious, Saxon. Still, for sweetness of sound we need not have recourse to the learned languages. Notice the beauty of these Saxon lines : " There is sweet music here that softer falls Than petals from blown roses on the grass, Or night dews on still waters between walls Of shadowy granite, in a gleaming pass ; Music that gentler on the spirit lies- Than tir'd eyelids upon tir'd eyes^ Music that brings sweet sleep down from the blissful skies. Here are cooi mosses deep. And through the moss the ivies creep, And in the stream the long-leaved flowers weep, And from the craggy ledge the poppy hangs in sleep." — Tennyson, ! 1 1 wun-i^ How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank I Here will we sit and let the sounds of music Creep in our ears ; soft stillness and the night Become the touches of sweet harmony. Sit, Jessica. Look how the floor of heaven Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold : There's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st But in his motion like^an angel sings, Still choiring to the young-eyed cherubins. Such harmony is in immortal souls ; But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it." — Shakspeare. See also Shenstone's Pastoral, II. " Hope " : " My banks they are furnished with bees," etc. tS The Elements of Coviposition. See also the well-known songs of Tom Moore, " Sweet Vale of Avoca" and "'Tis the Last Rose of Summer." Exercise, — Write in soft and pleasing words a description of a quiet scene, such as ' a boat-ride,' ' an evening scene in autumn,' 'a morning of spring,' 'midnight in summer,' ' the stillness of a city on Sunday,' etc. ,/ Article III. Precision. 47. Precision here means the selection of such words as mean nothing vague, or too much, or too little, but just what we desire to express. For example, we should not say, unless we mean to use a figure, ' The boy broke a window^ when he broke a pane only ; nor, ' The room is full of water,' when it is only the floor that is covered with water ; nor speak of ' courage and fortitude,' when we mean only one of these virtues. Vagueness, as opposed to precision, is exemplified by the use of general instead of particular terms. There are persons whose stock of words appears to be very scanty ; every object with them is great or small, beautiful or ugly, good or bad. They should distinguish various degrees of such qualities. We have elsewhere pointed out several terms expressive of size (No. 13) ; we shall here add some varieties of beauty and ugliness : Beautiful, handsome, fine, pretty, lovely, graceful, ele- gant, delicate, refined, fair, comely, seemly, bonny, shape- ly, well-formed, well-proportioned, symmetrical, becoming, neat, spruce, brilliant, splendid, gorgeous, superb, mag- nificent, sublime, grand ; Ugly, gross, homely, unsightly, unseemly, unprepossessing, etc. 48.. The use of the general term for a particular one, as ' ugly ' for ' clumsy ' or ' squalid," would be a violation of precision ; the use of one particular term for another, as of 'gross' instead of 'homely,' offends against propriety. Of Words. 29 (See Roget's Thesaurus of English Words, a work of great utility in its way to the students of our language.) 49. Not every subject requires the same attention to precision ; but all those compositions should excel in it which are intended to instruct the reader. Such are all philosophical and critical works, histories, essays, text- books, etc. 50. That an author may write with precision, he must have a clear and exact knowledge of his subject; such knowledge is not as common as many imagine. Besides, he must have a distinct conception of the exact meaning of all his words. But even these two conditions are not sufficient. He must, besides, be so devoted to truth as to select his words with great care and strive to say ex- actly what he means. 5 1. Some writers are so given to habits of exaggeration as hardly to be able to state the sober truth, even in mat- ters of importance. Such, for instance, is Lord Macaulay, whose style is unusually brilliant, but who is fond of say- ing more than he means.-' He deliberately studied a style of exaggeration, on the theory that men will not be im- pressed except by what is uncommonly striking. For in- stance, he says of Livy : " No historian with *hom we are acquainted has shown so com- plete an indifference to truth. He seems to have cared only about the picturesque effect of his book and the honor of his country. On the other hand, we do not know, in the whole range of literature, an instance of a bad thing so well done. The painting of the narra- tive is beyond description vivid and graceful. The abundance of interesting narratives and splendid imagery is almost miraculous," etc., etc. (" Essay on History"). Such use of superlatives is injurious to precision ; it does for the understanding what sensational literature does for the imagination and the heart ; it corrupts men's relish fQr 30 The Elements of Composition. the real and makes them sensible to nothing but what is striking. Macaulay's style is oratorical, and beautiful as such ; but it has not the precision expected in the critic and the historian : it is therefore ill-suited'to impart correct knowledge to the young. 52. Precision is of great importance in the transaction of business ; in fact, for mercantile transactions it is, per- haps, the most necessary quality of style. It will be use- ful, therefore, to practise pupils for some time on such familiar exercises as the following : 53. Exercise 1. — Write an advertisement for insertion in a newspaper, offering a reward for the return of a lost ar- ticle. 54. Exercise 2. — Write an advertisement of a house to let ; one for a bookkeeper, a gardener, a private tutor. CHAPTER III. SENTENCES. 55. A sentence is a collection of words making complete sense ; as, ' In all climes spring is beautiful.' ' Wisely im- prove the present hour.' ' Where are the great conquer- ors now ? ' ' Hurrah for the Red, White, and Blue ! ' The first example contains an assertion ; the second, a command ; the third is a question ; the fourth, an excla- mation : each makes complete sense, and is therefore a sentence. But the following words, 'As if the death angel in passing had touched them and made them holy,' do not EQake complete sense, and therefore they do not form a sentence. 56. Exercise 1. — Write a short sentence about every article in the room, every State in the Union, every hour of the day, etc. 57. Exercise 2. — Write a sentence of more than twenty words about each of the four seasons, about the soul, about angels, flowers, birds, fishes, a river, a mountain, the ocean, eternity, time, England, Ireland, France, Italy. 58. Both Grammar and Rhetoric lay down laws for sen- tences : Grammar considers the form and the position of the words with a view to the correct expression of the thought ; Ehetoric, the choice • and the position of the words with a view to clearness, beauty, and power of expression. The rhetorical arrangement may be quite different from the grammatical. ' The order of the 3» 32 The Elements of Composition. world around, us is indeed glorious,' is a sentence gram- matically arranged. Irving puts it thus, rhetorically : " Glorious indeed is the order of the world around us." 59. We are here concerned with the rhetorical laws of a sentence. Of the choice of words we have already treated. It remains for us to explain the proper arrange- ment of a sentence with a view to clearness, beauty, and power of expression. This arrangement requires attention to five points : Clearness, Precision, Unity, Strength, and Harmony. !- Article I. Clearness. 60. Clearness in a sentence enables the reader to seize at once, without effort or hesitation, the meaning intended to be conveyed. It excludes two faults : (a) Ambiguity, which leaves a doubt between two possible meanings ; and ((5) Obscurity, which fails to exhibit the true meaning at the first glance. Both faults are exemplified in the following sentence of J. R. Lowell : " The relation of Dante to literature is mronumental [what does this mean ? — Obscure], and marks the era at which the modern begins." [The modern what ? relation ? literature ? era ? Dante ? — Am- biguous.] 61. General rules to' secure clearness : Rule I. — As a man cannot express clearly what he does not clearly understand, let every writer begin by studying his subject thorougUy, and let him not attempt to write till he knows well what he wishes to say. This is the most important rule of all. Rule 2. — Let him express his thoughts with care, striving to make everything he says so clear to his readers that they cannot help understanding him. In particular, let Sentences, 33 the words and phrases related in sense be so disposed that this relation may at once appear. 62. Special Rules: 1. Let adverbs obviously qualify the right words. The adverb ' only ' is often misplaced, as in this very defective sentence of Addison {Tatler, 133): "When one considers this subject only in its sublimity, this great instance could not but occur to me ; and since I only make use of it to show the highest example of it, I hope I do not offend in it." Does the first 'only' qualify ' subject ' or ' sublimity ' ? and the second, ' I ' or ' make use ' ? 63. Blair judiciously remarks : " In regard to such adverbs as 'only,' ' wholly,' 'at least,' the fact' is that in common discourse the tone, and emphasis we use in pro- nouncing them generally serve to show their reference and to make the meaning clear ; and hence we acquire a habit of throwing them in loosely in the course of a period. But in writing, where a man speaks to the eye and not to the ear, he ought to be more accurate, and so to connect those adverbs with the words which they qualify as to put his meaning out of doubt upon the first inspection." 64. 2. Circumstances, and all kinds of clauses and ad- juncts, should be so placed that the reader cannot fail to see at first sight where they belong. The following sen- tence violates this rule : " Say to him, if he is in the wrong, he should retrace his steps." Does the clause, ' If he is in the wrong,' qualify what precedes or what follows it ? "Meanwhile the children in the house had been making themselves happy also in their manner." — Ruskin. Does 'also' refer to children, or to happy, or to manner? Rus- kin means it for children. 65. 3. Pronouns should at once present to the mind the nouns for which they stand. The relative pronoun is mis- placed in this sentence of Dean Swift : " Many, from a habit of saving time and paper, which they acquire at the 34 The Elements of Composition. university, write in so diminutive a manner that they can hardly read what they have written." 66. 4. Participles should be obviously connected with the words to which they refer. Edward Everett violates this rule when he writes : " By this [the aristocratic] system we mean the aggregate of all the institutions which a people, supposing them to be virtuous and well informed, and meeting together free from all prejudices, to or- ganize themselves into a political community, and capable of fore- seeing consequences, would reject as not tending to the greatest happiness of the greatest number." Who is 'supposing'? 'meeting'? 'tending'? who is 'capa- ,ble'? Article II. Precision. 67. Precisioa in sentences requires that we strike out all words and phrases which do not contribute to the clear- ness, the strength, or the beauty of the sentence. It is, as Blair remarks, the proper opposite to a loose style, which, he says, generally arises from using a superfluity of words. 68. Avoid in particular: i. Useless relative pronouns: " The queen, who by this time had entered the hall, pro- ceeded to seat herself upon a throne, which had been pre- pared for'the occasion," may be shortened to " The queen now entered the hall, and seated herself on a throne pre- pared for the occasion." 69. 2. Lengthy verbal forms: " The soldiers of Hannibal, having been enervated by their luxurious winter-quarters in Capua, were no longer able to cope with the Romans." ' Having been ' is superfluous. 70. 3. Tautology, or the useless repetition of an idea in different terms. A common form of this fault is the coup- ling of synonyms ; as, ' They mutually disliked one an- other.' ' The Romans sustained a terrible and fearful de- Sentences. 35 feat at Cannae.' ' The consul Paulus ^milius had fought bravely and courageously.' ' Plain and evident,' ' clear and obvious,' ' joy and satisfaction,' etc. Anoth^ form of tautology consists in repeating a thought in different words for the mere sake of sound ; as, " It is impossible for us to behold the divine works with coldness or indifference, or to survey so many beauties without a secret satisfaction and complacency." — Addison. 71. Precision is necessary in all kinds of composition; the opposite quality of style, prolixity, is always a fault, whether it results from the use of superfluous words or the statement of superfluous details. But precision should not . be confounded with conciseness, or great brevity of detail and expression. Conciseness is appropriate in certain spe- cies of writing, but not in others ; its opposite is diffuseness or copiousness of style, which is often a source of great beauty. 7 2 . Example. — Concise : " Great actions and striking occurrences, having excited a tempo- rary admiration, often pass away and are forgotten, because they leave no lasting results affecting the prosperity of communities." — Webster. Copious : " Of the ten thousand battles which have been fought ; of all the fields fertilized with carnage ; of the banners which have been bathed in blood ; of the warriors who had hoped that they had risen - from the field of conquest to a glory as bright and as durable as the stars, how few that continue long to interest mankind ! The victory of yesterday is reversed by the defeat of to-day ; the star of military glory, rising like a meteor, like a meteor has fallen ; disgrace and disaster hang on the heels of conquest and renown ; victor and van- quished presently pass away to oblivion, and the world holds on its course with the loss only of so many lives and so much trea- sure."— /o can look on that possible fate without concern "; etc. 108. 5. By comparison or contrast. Tha thought, " Every form of life bears an impress of God's love," is thus de- veloped by Longfellow : "As the ice upon the mountain, when the warm breath of the summer's sun breathes upon it, melts and divides into drops, each of which reflects an image of the sun ; so life in the smile of God's love divides itself into separate forms, each bearing in it and re- flecting an image of God's love." 109. Caution. — Great care, of course, should be taken that every phrase introduced for the sake of development be really significant and appropriate, that the words be noble and well chosen, without redundancy ; else an exer- cise, in itself most beneficial, might become by abuse a source of empty declamation. no. Exercise, — Develop the following simple thoughts into elegant periods of at least three members each : Mur- der will out. There is no peace for the wicked. Every^ season has its blessings. Life passes away. God is every- where. Imitate the best writers. Evil associations corrupt good manners. Youth is like spring. Manhood is like summer. Autumn is like old age. Winter is like the grave. § 4. Model Sentences to be learned by heart. Periods. III. I. "I am dissatisfied with all the metaphors and similes that have been used by poets and philosophers to illustrate the futile and miserable state of man upon the earth. The fly upon the wheel; 48 The Elements of Composition. the insect of a day (perhaps a sunny day for the insect); the genera- tions of swiftly crumpling, withering, lotting leaves; the flower that buds, and grows, and falls away, petal by petal, delicately in the breeze; the smoke that rises, seen for a moment, and that, dissipat- ing, goes no man knows whither; the noxious vapor that soon vanishes away — are all of them too favorable emblems of the state of erring, short-lived, misguided, miserable man." — Sir Arthur Helps. 2. "Ye who listen with credulity to the whispers of fancy, and pursue with eagerness the phantoms of hope ; who expect that age will fulfil the promises of youth, and that the deficiencies of the pre- sent day will be supplied by the morrow — attend to the history of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia." — Dr. Johnson. 3. " If ever there was a power on earth who had an eye for the times, who has confined himself to the practicable and has been happy in his anticipations, whose wonds have been facts and whose commands prophecies, such is he, in the history of ages, who sits 1 from generation to generation in the chair of the Apostles as the vicar of Christ and the Doctor of his Church." — Cardinal Neviman. 4. " I held it truth with him who sings To one clear harp in divers tones. That men may rise on stepping-stones Of their dead selves to higher things." — Tennyson. -5. " The older I grow — and I now stand upon the brink of eter- '/lity— the more comes back to me the sentence in the catechism which I learned when a child, and the fuller and deeper becomes its meaning : ' What is the chief end of man ? To glorify God and to <.«njoy him forever.'" — Thomas Carlyle. 6. " The Sacred Humanity of A« Rttskin, Sentences. 49 Partial Periods. 112. I. " The spacious firmament on high, With all the blue, ethereal sky, And spangled heavens, a shining frame. Their great Original proclaim ; The unwearied sun, from day to day. Doth his Creator's power display, And publishes to every land The work of an Almighty hand."— y»j-i5>,4 Addison. 2. " If one should give me a dish of sand, and tell me there were particles of iron in it, I might look for them with my eyes and search for them with my clumsy fingers, and be unable to detect them ; but let me take a magnet and sweep through it, and how would it draw to itself the almost invisible particles by the mere power of attrac- tion ! The unthankful heart, like my finger in the sand, discovers no mercies ; but let the thankfjil heart sweep through the day, and; as the magnet finds the Iron, so it will find in every hour some heavenly blessings — only, the iron in God's sand is gold." — Olivet Wendell Holmes, 3. " Intelligent intercourse with the angelic choirs, and the inces- sant transmission of the divine splendors through them to our minds, cannot be thought of without our perceiving that the keen pleasures and deep sensibilities of the intellectual world on earth are but poor, thin, unsubstantial shadows of the exulting, immortal life of our glorified minds above." — Rev. F. W. Faber. Loose Sentences. 113. I. "Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested — that is, some books are to be read only in part ; others to be read, but not curiously ; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention." — Francis Bacon. 2. "Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing aii exact man ; and therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory ; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit ; and if he read little, he had need haVe much cunning, to seem to know what he doth not." — Id. 3, "Every individual has a place to fill in the world, and is im £0 The Elements of Composition. portant in some respect, whether he chooses to be so or not." — Haw- thorne. 4. "The talent of success is nothing more than doing what you can do well, and doing w&ll whatever you do, without a thought of fame. " — Longfellow. 5. " Life bears us on like the stream of a mighty river. Our boat, at first, glides down the narrow channel, through the playful murmur- ing of the little brook and the winding of its grassy border. The trees shed their blossoms over our young heads, the flowers on the brinks seem to offer themselves to our young hands ; we are happy in hope, and we grasp eagerly at the beauties around us, but the stream hurries on, and still our hands are empty." — Heber. 6. " Live for something. Do good and leave behind you a monu- ment of virtue that the storm of time can never destroy. Write your name in kindness, love, and mercy on the hearts of thousands you come in contact with, year by year : you wiH never be forgotten. Your name, your deeds, will be as legible on the hearts you leave behind as the stars on the brow of evening. Good deeds will shine as the stars of heaven." — Chalmers. 7. " Beneath us is that beautiful rolling plain, with its dark masses of summer foliage sleeping in the sun for miles and miles away, in the varying shades of blue and green, according to the dis- tance of the clouds." — Rev. F. W. Faber. CHAPTER IV. COMBINATION AND PUNCTUATION OF SENTENCES. Article I. Combination of Sentences — The Para- graph. 114. As words are combined into sentences to express thoughts, so sentences are combined into paragraphs to express fuller developments of thought. A paragraph, is defined to be such a portion of a composition as develops one thought or considei'ation. It is usually marked by a break in the composition, and the beginning of a new line. 115. The division of writings into paragraphs' is less im- portant than the division into sentences ; still, it has great advantages: it pleases the eye, it relieves the attention of the reader, it presents to him distinct groups bearing on the same thought, and it accustoms young writers to arrange their sentences in an orderly manner. From the explanation so far given the rules for para- graphs are obvious. 116. The \st Rule is that of unity. Separate into dis- tinct paragraphs sentences that develop distinct considera- tions. Thus, for instance, in an «ssay, one paragraph may be introductory, another may define the subject treated, a third may compare it with a similar subject, a fourth con- trast it with its opposite, a fifth assign its causes or origin, a sixth its effects or consequence, etc. (See Book IV. Ch. V. Art. II. § 1, School Essays.) If the paragraph thus formed appear rather long, subdivide it ; for instance, para- 52 The Elements of Composition. graph each of the causes, or each class of causes or ef- fects, etc. 117. The id Rule is that of completeness. Do not sepa- rate into distinct paragraphs sentences which must be read in connection to be properly understood, or which obvious- ly belong to the same consideration. 118. The 2,d Rule is that of clearness. Usually the be- ginning of the paragraph should clearly indicate what por- tion of thought it proposes to develop ; and throughout the whole paragraph the leading word, subject, or idea should be kept prominently before the reader. Thus Cardinal Newman, in developing the definition of a gentleman as " a man who never inflicts pain," opens the subject by lay- ing down this definition, and then, throughout a long para- graph, keeps the ' gentleman ' as the prominent word in every sentence {Characteristics, p. 93). In a preceding paragraph 'pride' is made the leading word throughout [Id. p. 92). 119. When a thought is sufficiently developed in one sen- tence, the sentence itself then constitutes a paragraph. We even find that one long period of a special kind is often divided into several portions printed separately after the manner of paragraphs. This occurs in solemn resolutions drawn up in the form of an elaborate period, as is the me- morable "Declaration of Rights" adopted by the First Continental Congress in 1774. In such documents it is usual to assign a distinct paragraph to every clause be- ginning with the conjunction 'whereas,' and to every one of the ' resolutions.' 120. Two points require special attention in the compo. sition of paragraphs — namely, the connection of the sen. tences with one another, and the transition from one para- graph to the next. The connection of sentences is usually indicated by con- Combination and Punctuation of Sentences. 53 junctive words and phrases. These are of the co-ordinate kind ; the subordinate ones unite dependent with principal clauses. The chief co-ordinate ones may be thus clas- sified : (a) The cumulative : and, also, yea, likewise, in like manner, so, iirst, secondly, etc., again, besides, then, too, further, moreover, furthermore, add to this, yet another, etc. ((5) The alternative : ' or ' and ' nor ' (when the latter stands for ' and not ' ) ; ' neither — nor ' are better embraced in one sentence. (f) The adversative : else, otherwise, but, still, yet, only, nevertheless, however, at the same time, for all that. {d) The illative: therefore, wherefore, hence, whence, consequently, accordingly, thus, so, then. {e) The causal, 'for.' But the causal 'because' is al- ways treated as a subordinate conjunction ; ' whereas ' should be similarly treated. The phrases used for returning are chiefly ' to return,' ' to proceed,' ' to resume ' ; those for summing up, ' in short,' 'in a word,' 'on the whole,' 'to conclude,' 'in con- clusion,' 'to sum up,' 'to recapitulate,' etc. Any of these conjunctional words or phrases may be used to connect paragraphs. 121. When the connection between the sentences is ob- vious the tendency in our language is to omit the connec- tive, on the correct principle that superfluous words are generally worse than useless. But when the connection is not obvious it is a great mistake to neglect such links of thought : many writings are obscure owing to such omis- sions, because the reader does not know whether a sen- tence contains an illustration of the preceding sentence, or an exception, or is the beginning of a new consideration. 122. There is one class of connectives which is of spc 54 The Elements of Composition. cial importance — namely, those which indicate a transi- tion from one portion of our subject to another. They are like the bolts and hinges that connect the larger portions of a machine. Sometimes the transition contains two parts, one referring to what precedes by such words as ' hitherto,' 'so far,' 'thus far,' 'we have seen,' 'it has been proved,' etc. ; and the other part introducing the new matter by such words as 'next,' 'besides,' 'in the second place,' 'we shall now,' etc. In reasoning, transitions should not be lightly dispensed with. In order that the reader may follow us with ease and profit he should at all times see what we are striving to prove, and what particular argument is proposed for his consideration. But in addresses to the passions transitions are better hidden. Now, sensational writers are always addressing the passions ; hence they habitually dis- pense with connectives. This is one of the ways in which sensational literature is causing style to deteriorate. 123. As a specimen of the careful use of connective words and phrases we quote this passage from the writ- ings *of Cardinal Newman : " This practice of asserting simply on authority, with the pre- tence and without the reality of assent, is what is meant by formal- ism. To say, ' I do not understand a proposition, but I accept it on authority,' is not formalism ; it is not a direct assent to the pro- position, still it is an assent to the authority which enunciates it ; but what I here speak of is professing to understand without under- standing. It is thus that political and religious watchwords are cre- ated ; first one man of name and then another adopts them, till their use becomes popular, and then every one professes them because every one else does. Such words are 'liberality,' ' progress,' ' light,' 'civilization'; such are 'justification by faith only,' 'vital religion,' 'private judgment,' ' the Bible, and nothing but the Bible.' £uch, again, are ' Rationalism,' ' Gallicanism,' ' Jesuitism,' ' Ultra- montanism ' — all of which, in the mouths of conscientious thinkers, have a definite meaning, but are used by the multitude as war-cries, nicknames, and shibboleths, with scarcely enough of the scantiest Combination and Punctuation of Sentences. 55 grammatical apprehension of them to allow of their being consid- ered really more than assertions." — Grammar of Assent. 124. The best kind of exercises on the combination of sentences consists in the constant application of these pre- cepts to the compositions of the students. If pupils are made to carry out in practice what they learn in theory, the object of teaching is fully attained. Article II. Punctuation. 1 25'. Punctuation is the use of artificial marks as aids in making the writer's meaning clear. It does not so much regard the length of the pauses as the grammatical relation of the words, clauses, and members of the sentence. The ancients knew little or nothing of punctuation. St. Jerome appears to have used some signs, which he called commas and colons ; but the marks now in use were not generally adopted till after the invention of printing. The present system of punctuation is ascribed to the Manutii, learned printers of Venice at the beginning of the sixteenth cen- tury. It has since undergone many minor changes, and even to-day, while its leading principles are generally ac- knowledged, the application of them by various writers and printers is extremely varied. We shall briefly explain and illustrate the rules most commpnly followed. 126. When the formation of the period and the analysis of the sentenx;e have been well understood, a few rules will suffice for training an intelligent pupil to a sensible mode of punctuation, without imposing on him laws which, no mat- ter how ingeniously devised, are not obeyed by the public. There is no more need of uniformity in punctuation than of uniformity in style.- The general principles of both should be clearly understood ; in the application some latitude must be allowed. Some writers introduce as many points or marks as the composition will admit ; others con- 56 The Elements of Composition. fine themselves to such as are absolutely necessary to avoid confusion of sense. One advantage in training pupils to follow the latter course is that they are apt to continue punctuating through life, while many who have been trained to the other system find it so troublesome as soon to abandon punctuation altogether. Besides, easy and elegant constructions, such as all should cultivate, require but little punctuation. § I. The Period. 127. Rules. — The period, or full-stop, is put: i. At the end of every sentence ; 2. After such headings, addresses, sig- natures, numbers, letters, etc., as do not belong to any sen- tence ; 3. After a word that is not written in full. 128. Note — The period used after abbreviations does not dispense with any other mark required by the sense, except the period ; as, " He is an LL.D., that is certain ; and he signs all his letters ' H. Smith, Jr., LL.D.' " Short forms of Christian names used in conversation, and such forms as ist, 2d, etc., do not take the mark of abbreviation; as, ' Ben Jonson,' ' Tom Moore.' § 2. The Colon. 129. Bules. — The colon is used : i. Before a formal quo- tation of some length ; but very short quotations take a comma, and those not formally introduced require no special points. Thus : " From the cold grave a hollow murnmr flowed : 'Time sowed the seed, we reap in this abode.' " — Marsden. "Away, then, with your expensive follies, and you will not then have so much cause to complain of hard times, heavy taxes, and chargeable families ; for Women and wine, game and deceit. Make the wealth small and the want great. Combination and Punctuation of Sentences. 5 7 And, further, What maintains one vice would bring up two children. You may think, perhaps, that a little tea, or a little punch now and then, diet a little more costly, clothes a little finer, and a little en- tertainment now and then, can be no great matter ; but remember. Many a little makes a mickle. Beware of little expenses ; a small leak will sink a great ship, as Poor Richard says ; and again, Who dainties love shall beggars prove; and moreover, Fools make feasts, and wise men eat them. " — Franklin. 130. 2. Before a detailed enumeration ; while a brief one takes a semicolon. Thus : "There are two questions that grow out of this subject: ist. How far is any sort of classical education useful ? 2dly. How far is that particular classical education adopted in this country useful ? " — Sydney Smith. " Grammar is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthography, Ety- mology, Syntax, and Prosody." — Gould Brown. 131. 3. Before the details of a description, narration, etc. Thus: " How beautiful is night : A dewy freshness fills the silent air ; No mist obscures, nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain Breaks the serene of heaven : c"'^''" In full-orbed glory yonder moon divine Rolls through the dark-blue depths ; beneath her steady ray The desert-circle spreads. Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky. How beautiful is night ! " — Southvy. 132. 4. Before a new member of a sentence, complete in itself and shedding some additional light on the thought so far expressed ; but if it begins with a conjunction, a semi- colon is used. Thus : " We have but faith : we cannot know ; For knowledge is of things we see ; And yet we trust it comes from Thee, A beam in darkness : let it grow," — Tennyson, 58 The Elements of Composition. 133- 5- To separate the main divisions of a sentence when minor divisions are marked by semicolons. Thus : " Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist : in the one we admire the man ; in the other the work." — Pope. § 3. The Semicolon. 134. The semicolon separates members having a closer connection than those requiring the colon. It occurs much more frequently than the colon, and less frequently than the comma. 135. General Rnle. — Use the semicolon for all conside- rable divisions of a sentence for which the colon is not re- quired by the preceding rules. 136. Special Rtiles. — The semicolon is used to separate : 1. Co-ordinate clauses, one or more of which contain a comma ; thus : "Such, O men of Athens! were your ancestors : so glorious in the eyes of the world ; so bountiful and munificent to their country ; so sparing, so modest, and so self- relying. " — Demosthenes. 2. To mark a somewhat more emphatic pause when com- mas precede or follow ; thus : " Books are needed, but not many books ; a few well read. An open, true, patient, and valiant soul is needed ; that is the one thing needed." — -Carlyle. 3. To sepai'ate the subdivisions of members that are marked with a colon ; thus : " Love thyself last ; cherish those that hate thee : Corruption wins not more than honesty." — Shakspeare. 4. Before an additional remark beginning with a con- junction or incomplete in itself ; thus ; " Among the oaks I observed many of the most diminutive size ; some not above a foot high, yet bearing small bunches of acorns." — Irving. Combination and Punctuation of Sentences. 59 137. Note. — Many writers use the semicolon, instead of the colon, even though the additional remark makes com- plete sense and has no conjunction ; thus : " Speak clearly, if you speak at all ; Carve every word before you let it fall." — Holmes. § 4. The Comma. 138. In the use of the comma considerable diversity ex- ists ; most writers, however, observe the following rules : Rules. — Use commas for any of, these three purposes : I. To indicate the omission of such words as are readily suggested to the mind ; as : " Conversation makes a ready man ; writing, an exact man." — Bacon. 139. Note. — If the place where the word is omitted re- quires a comma for another reason, a semicolon is usually substituted ; if it requires a semicolon, a colon is then used ; as, " My comrade, on the contrary, made himself quite one of the family ; laughed and chatted with them.' Here the insertion of 'and' before ' laughed 'would leave only a comma ; while the insertion of ' he ' without ' and ' would require a colon. 140. 2. To mark off the members of a series or enume- ration when all are brief ; while if any are long, all take the semicolon ; thus : " He tried each art, reproved each dull delay. Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way." — Goldsmith. When words are arranged in pairs, each pair takes a com- ma after it ; as : "Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote." — Webster, 6o The Elements of Composition. 141. 3. To mark a break in the grammatical construc- tion : {a) Before and after the vocative case ; as : " Pizarro, hear me ! — Hear me, chieftains ! And thou, All-pow- erful, whose thunder can shiver into fragments the adamantine rock," etc. — Sheridan. (b) After introductory and before appended words, phrases, or clauses ; and both before and after inciden- tal ones ; as : "Whilst almost the whole of Europe was desolated by war, peaceful Ireland, free from the invasion of exterrral foes, opened to the lovers of learning and piety a welcome asylum. . . . ' In crowds, numerous as bees, as Aldhelm writes, the English went to Ireland, or the Irish visited England, where the Archbishop Theo- dore was surrounded by Irish scholars." — Card. Newman. (c) After an inversion ; as : " Of the most celebrated Anglo-Saxon scholars and saints, many had studied in Ireland." — Card. Newman. (d) Before appositives, and (e) Before relative clauses when they do not restrict the meaning of the antecedents. Thus : " Among these were St. Egbert, the author of the first Anglo- Saxon mission to the pagan continent, and the blessed Willibrod, the Apostle of the Frieslanders, who had resided twelve years in Ireland." — Card. Newman. . No qualifying word or clause should be separated from the word with which it forms one integral meaning. Thus : " Though the people who own that language is Protestant, a race pre-eminently Catholic has adopted it, and has a share in its litera- ture ; and this Catholic race is, at this very time, of all tribes of the earth the most fertile in emigrants both to the West and to the South." — Card. Newman. (/) Wherever the insertion of a comma may prevent an Combination and Punctuation of Sentences. 6 1 ambiguity, in the use of such words as 'however,' 'besides,' 'hence,' 'then,' 'only,' 'chiefly,' etc.; as, "Those who seek for pleasure only, defeat their own object." 142. Note. — There is much variety in the practice of writers with regard to incidental words and phrases j some usually mark them by commas, others seldom mark them unless for emphasis or to avoid ambiguity. The same di- versity exists in regard to brief clauses united by 'and,' 'or,' and other conjunctions that produce close union. Thus : ' ' O what a tangled web we weave When first we practise to deceive ! " admits a comma after 'weave.' "Cicero and Seneca re- marked that in their time there was not a single people professing atheism," may be punctuated as follows : " Cicero and Seneca remarked, that, in their time, there was not a single people professing atheism." " The morning stars sang together ; and all the sons of God shouted for joy." Here the semicolon is by many changed into a comma. § 5. 'The Interrogation and Exclamation. 143. I. An exclamation or wonder mark is placed — («) After every interjection except ' O ' ; as, ' Fie ! ' ' Be- gone ! ' When words accompany the interjection the mark is placed after them ; as, ' Woe is me ! ' (J)) After words that are shouted ; as : " To arms ! they come !. the Greek ! the Greek! " — ffalUck. (c) After words, clauses, or sentences expressive of strong emotion j as, " We must fight ! — I repeat it, sir, we must fight ! " — Patrick Henry. II. The interrogation point marks a direct question, whether asked for information or used as a rhetorical 62 The Elements of Composition. figure ; as, " When shall we be stronger ? Will it be the next week ? or the next year ? " — Patrick Henry. 144. Note. — The marks of interrogation and exclamation supersede the points with which they may Cbincide. § 6. The Dash. 145. The dash is a comparatively recent invention, in- tended to express various modifications of thought not sufficiently expressed by any of the other points. (a) When a speech, a drama, a conversation is written or printed, the dash denotes an accidental or intentional pause in the discourse. (^) In a narration, it expresses a sudden pause or inter- ruption in the action related. (c) In a documeiit or didactic treatise, it marks an omis- sion of a word or phrase, such as ' namely,' ' that is,' ' for example,' etc. (rf) In any composition, it denotes the end of an enu- meration ; omitted names, dates, letters, etc. ; a sudden change in the course of the sentence, either parenthetically, to insert a brief remark, or definitively, without resuming the original construction. () Explanation : " I had given all my savings (five pen- nies) to the poor peddler." {c) Comment : " I had given all my savings [five pennies] to the poor peddler." Sometimes, to mark a total want of connection, the dash and the curves ate combined; as : " Thou idol of thy parents — (Hang the boy ! There goes my ink) — With pure heart newly stamped from nature's mint — (Where did he learn that squint ? ) " — Hood. As appears from this example, the portion between the curves takes such points as its own meaning requires. The main sentence is pnnctuated as it would be if the whole parenthesis were taken away. If the parenthesis affects more directly the words preceding it, the stop, if any occurs, is marked after the curves or brackets ; if it affects more directly what follows it, the point is placed before the brackets ; if it refers equally to both parts, the point is marked before the first curve and repeated before the second. .No parenthesis should occur at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. 150. Examples ; " W. — This letter (which is unmarked) is a consonant." — Noah Webster. " The sound / (unmarked), as in pay, page, etc." — Id. Combination and Punctuation of Sentences^ 65 " I send you, my dear child, (and you will not doubt) very sincerely the wishes of the season." — Chesterfield. " Hear him with patience, (and at least with seeming attention,) if he is worth obliging." — Id. " By adding aiU or t'Me ; (sometimes with a change of the final letters:) as 'perish,' 'perishable.'" — G.Brown. 151. Quotation marks are double inverted commas put before and after whatever is presented as the identical words of others, or of the same writer on another occasion. A quotation occurring inside of another is included between single points. Either double or single marks enclose words, phrases, etc., mentioned as examples, or pointed out par- ticularly as if underscored. When a quotation runs con- tinuously through several paragraphs, each of these has the double commas at the beginning. " The Switzer gazed— the arrow hung; ' My only boy ! ' sobbed on his tongue j He could not shoot. ' Ha ! ' cried the tyrant, ' doth he quail ? Mark how his haughty brow grows pale ! ' But a clear voice rang on the gale — ' Shoot, in God's name !' " As Capital Letters, the Hyphen, the Apostrophe belong properly to the spelling of words, they are supposed to be fully known before the study of rhetorical precepts is un- dertaken. ^ BOOK II. ORNAMENTS OF COMPOSITION. 152. " When we have acquired that ease of diction and harmony of numbers which I have explained," says Cicero, " our whole style of oratory is to be adorned and frequently interspersed with brilliant lights, as it were, of thoughts and language " {^De Or., iii. 52). The principal of these orna- ments are figures. Quintilian thus defines them : " Figures are departures from the ordinary mode of expression for the purpose of adorning our style" {Imt.,bi. i). By 'adorn- ing' he means bestowing on style additional clearness, strength, or beauty. 153. Frequently all three effects at once are produced by figurative language. For instance, Pope wishes to say that vice is in reality loathsome, and that every one at first shrinks from committing sin ; yet that, by sinning often, a person may lose this horror and become fond of vice. He expresses this more strikingly, pleasingly, and clearly by means of figures : t ,.'-^ " Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, V" As to be hated needs but to be seen ; Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face. We first endure, then pity, then embrace." This imagery is beautiful, yet it is not perfect. There is in the whole conception a flaw which might have been avoided. We are said to embrace the monster through pity ; it would have been more correct to say that we are attracted by its deceptive charms, which become more se- £6 ' Ornaments of Composition. 67 ductive in proportion as familiarity with vice lessens our horror for its guilt. The figure would be far more beau- tiful without this inaccuracy. 154. Let us take an example in prose. Dr. Johnson writes : " If he who considers himself as suspended over the abyss of eternal perdition only by the thread of life, which must soon part by its own weakness, and which the wing of every minute may divide, can cast his eyes round him without shuddering with hor- ror, what can he judge of himself but that he is not yet awakened to sufficient conviction ? " Here are some striking and appropriate images : a man in danger of eternal loss is compared to a man suspended over an abyss ; his life to a thread ; this thread is so frail that it must soon part by its own weakness ; a minute is a winged creature, to denote its swiftness, etc. But these figures are not consistent : we cannot conceive a man as hanging by a mere thread, especially by one so weak that the wing of a little creature, as we necessarily conceive a minute to be, can divide it. Such flaws, and even more serious faults, are not uncommon in the works of brilliant writers, and are very numerous in extempore speeches. To learn how to use figures with as much correctness as bril- liancy requires very careful study. Figures are thus classified: 155. I. Those which turn or change words from their literal meaning ; these are called tropes {tponoi, a turn- ing). 2. Those which leave words in their original meanmg ; these are of two kinds : (a) Figures of words, also called figures of diction^ which consist in the mode of expression ; they depend on the words themselves or on their position. 68 Ornaments of Composition. {b) Figures of thonglit, which consist in some peculi- arity of the thoughts, independently of any special mode of expression. We shall treat: i. Of tropes; z. Of figures of words j 3. Of figures of thought. ' 156. It is well to remark, for the sake of avoiding con- fusion, that the ancients did not include tropes under the head of figures {figum, (5';|f7//tara), while we do, with mo- derns generally. Still, like the ancients (Quintilian, ix. i), we consider tropes as neither figures of words nor figures of thought, but as a distinct kind of figures, Subject to spe- cial laws, and therefore requiring special treatment. CHAPTER I. TROPES. 157. Tropes may be thus defined: "Figures in which words are turned or changed from their literal meaning " ; or, " Words used in meanings not their own, with a pecu- liarly happy effect.'' Thus when Thomson writes : " But yonder comes the powerful king of day, , Rejoicing in the East, . . ." he uses " king of day " for " sun "; and no one can fail to notice the happy effect produced. 158. The pleasure arising from the use of figures is due to two principal causes : I. One cause is the play of our imagination. For as children, by a wise dispensation of Providence, rejoice in running and jumping, and other bodily exercises conducive to their health and pjiysical development, so all men find delight in the play of their fancy or imagination ; the exer- cise of which faculty, if properly directed by reason, be- comes a source of great mental development. 159. 2. The second cause of pleasure is the introduc- tion into the composition of such new images as add spe- cial strength or beauty. Thus, in the example quoted, not only the sun is presented to our minds, but also the image of a powerful king. From the consideration of these two sources of pleasure we readily mfer that the following rules must direct the use of tropes. 160. Rule I. — The new images introduced must be really suited to add strength or beauty. Hence we should not 69 70 Ornaments of Composition. * refer to low or mean objects, as they are offensive to good taste ; but the images selected must be beautiful or dig- nified. Burlesque compositions form an exception to this rule : their aim is to render undignified what in itself is noble or grand. Notice the contrast between these two descrip- tions of morning : " The saffron mom, with early-blushes spread, Now rose refulgent from Tithonus' bed, With new-born day to gladden mortal sight, And gild the courts of heaven with sacred light." — Pope's Homer, " The sun had long since in the lap Of Thetis taken out his nap ; \nd, like a lobster boiled, the morn l''rom black to red began to turn." — Butlet's Hudibras. /6i. Rule Z-. —Figures should not be drawn from objects kjk^nfficiently known to the reader, for they would ■ thus present no distinct image to the imagination. This rule is violated by Dryden when he writes : " From haimony to harmony Through all the compass of the notes it ran. The diapason closing full in man." 162. Rule 3. — They should not be drawn from objects too remotely connected with the literal meaning ; else there is no play, but a painful straining of the imagination. Some one has called 'dewdrops' "the tears of the day for the loss of the sun " ; this is forced, far-fetched. 163. Rule 4. — Nor should the connection be too close, the analogy too great ; else the play of the fancy is too insignificant. Thus a poet may be said to paint a scene to the eye, comparing his uxi to thut of the painter ; but it would not do to compa«5 the art of the sculptor to that Tropes. 71 of the painter, the two being too much alike ; we should not say ' a sculptor paints to the eye.' 164. Rule 5. — The figures should not be trite — that is, too familiar on account of frequent use ; the imagination finds no more pleasure in these ; they are like faded flow- ers. Such expressions as ' the mantle of charity,' ' a storm of passion,' ' frantic rage,' ' a howling wilderness,' etc., may be used as plain language, but not as ornaments. 165. Rule 6. — Tropes should not be so crowded together as to confuse the mind : Mr. James Russell Lowell is often regardless of this rule. His style is brilliant, but very dif- ferent from what classic taste admires. He writes : " It cannot be denied that in Wordsworth the very highest powers of the poetic mind were associated with a certain tendency to the ^diffuse and commonplace. It is in the understanding (always pro- saic) that the great golden veins of his imagination are embedded. He wrote too much to write always well ; for it is not a great Xerxes- army of words, but a compact Greek ten thousand, that march safe- ly down to posterity. He set tasks to his divine faculty, which is much the same as trying to make Jove's eagle do the service of a clucking hen. Throughout 'The Prelude' and 'The Excursion' he seems striving to bind the wizard Imagination with the sand- ropes of dry disquisition, and to have forgotten the potent spell- word which would make the particles cohere. There is an arena- ceous quality in the style which makes progress wearisome. Yet with what splendors as of mountain-sunsets are we rewarded ! what golden rounds of verse do we not see stretching heavenward, with angels ascending and descending ! what haunting harmonies hover around us, deep and eternal like the undying baritone of the sea ! And if we are compelled to fare through sands and desert wilder- nesses, how often do we not hear airy shapes that syllable our names with a startling personal appeal to our highest consciousness and our noblest aspiration, such as we wait for in vain in any other poet ! " 166. Rule 7. — Tropes must be true to nature. To ex- press the thought that " wisdom is gathered from adver- sity rather than prosperity," some one has written : " We 72 Ornaments of Composition. gather the' honey of earthly wisdom not from flowers but from thorns." This would be correct if any kind of thorns yielded honey. 167. Hule 8. — Tropes should be suited tothe nature of the composition. Many figures appropriate in poetry are inappropriate in prose ; many admissible in oratory are ex- cluded from didactic writings. They should not unduly elevate the subject, nor sink it below its proper dignity. Some persons display very bad taste by frequently vio- lating this rule. They cannot tell a simple story or pro- pose a plain argument without rambling through " earth and sky and ocean's wide abyss " for images and figures. Some one said of a bill presented in Parliament : " At length it floated through both houses on the tide of a great majority, and steered into the safe harbor of royal approba- tion." 168. It is a violation of this same rule to clothe serious thoughts in figures taken from mythology and other unre- alities ; this practice was well enough among the ancients, who believed in such follies. 169. That one object expressed may recall another ob- ject not expressed, there must be some connection between those two objects, some relation so obvious that as soon as one object is conceived the other is sure to be suggested to the mind. Consider the words — " But yonder coitics the powerful king of day, Rejoicing in the East." As the king is the most conspicuous, most majestic, and most powerful person in a kingdom, so the sun is the most conspicmous, most majestic, and most powerful body in the heavens. In this case the relation of ' king ' with ' sun ' is one of resemblance : the figure is called a metaphor. TJius there is in every trope some relation between what is ex- Tropes. 73 pressed and what is really meant ; and the figures receive different names from the different relations on which they are founded. All tropes then agree in this, that they turn {rpETtiio, to turn) a word from its proper meaning, so that a term expressing one idea is put for another idea, owing to some relation existing between those two ideas ; and they differ in kind from one another^ according to the various relations that underlie them. We shall next consider the different kinds. Article I. Metaphor. I 170. A Metaphor is a trope founded on the relation of re- semblance. Thus Shakspeare calls a good name " the jewel of the soul"; the sun, "the. beauteous eye of heaven." What a good name does for the soul resembles what a jewel does for the body : it adorns or honors it ; here the resemblance is between the two effects. Again, as the eyes are the brightest and noblest portion of the human coun- tenance, so the sun is the brightest and noblest object on the face of heaven ; here the resemblance is between the objects themselves. In each instance the word expressing re- semblance is omitted : every metaphor is thus an abridged comparison, in which the words, ' like,' ' as,' ' similar to,' etc., are omitted. Metaphors enable us to condense much beautiful thought into few words, as a jewel presents much beauty in a small compass : we may well call the metaphor a jewel of literature. No wonder, then, that Poetry loves to deck herself with such jewels. Prose is plainer in her attire ; still she, too, loves to adorn herself with the more modest species of metaphors, and even, at times, with the more brilliant kinds, when the occasion invites her to walk forth in all her splendor. 171. A marked effect of metaphors is that they spread life and light over all creation. In particular: 74 Ornaments of Composition. I. They clothe abstract conceptions and invisible beings in sensible and striking forms : anger is said to 'burn,' re- morse to 'gnaw the heart,' baseness to 'shrink from the light,' pride to 'swell,' and modesty to ' retire from notice '; good thoughts become the ' music of the soul,' chastity the ' pearl among the virtues,' the 'garb that angels wear"; etc. 172. 2. Sensible objects exchange qnalities, putting on more striking or more pleasing forms : the earth is said ' to pour forth its treasures,' the ocean ' roars,' the cataract 'thunders'; a brave man is a 'lion,' a gentle one a 'lamb,' a pure and simple heart a ' dove.' Attila is ' the Scourge of God,' the Scipios are called by Virgil ' duo fulmina belli ' — ' two thunderbolts of war '; etc. 173. Besides the five rules above given for all tropes, the following rules apply to metaphors in particular : Rule I. — The fignrative and the plain meanings must not be inconsistently mixed, as is done in these verses of Pope : " Now from my fond embrace by tempest torn Our other column of the state is borne, Nor took a kind adieu, ner sought consent." Telemachvrs is here figuratively called a 'column of the state,' and is said to have been borne off without ' taking leave ' of his mother, Penelope : he is at once a ' column ' and a 'man.' A late copy of a newspaper contained, printed in large capitals, "Three boys drowned in the Father of the Waters." 174. Rule 2. — Two inconsistent tropes should not be blended together, as is done by Shakspeare when he says, " To take up arms against a sea of trouble," meaning ' to resist adversity.' Aubrey de Vere says of Alexander: " He flung, Nighing the shore, his spear, that shook for gladness. Rooted in Asia's soil." Tropes. 75 It is a very poetic conception that makes the spear by which Alexander took possession of Asia 'exult for glad- ness,' like a person ; Ijut a person is not ' rooted in the soil,' like a plant. But there is no objection to different metaphors succeeding one another, each presenting a sepa- rate image. Thus the martyr-poet Robert Southwell, S.J., describes the martyr-Queen of Scots as saying : " Rue not my death, rejoice at my repast ; It was not death to me, but to my woe : The iud was opened to let out the rose ; The chains unloosed to let the captive go." The same pact writes : " Not always fall of lea/, nor ever spring, Not endless night, nor yet eternal day ; The saddest birds a season find to sing, The roughest storm a calm may soon allay. Thus, with succeeding turns, God tempereth all. That man may hope to rise, yet fear to fall." 175. Rule 3. — When the metaphors are of more than usual length, they should g^row in beauty and dignity as they proceed, not descend into lesser details! Young says beautifully : " Walk thoughtful on the solemn, silent shore Of that vast ocean it must Sail so soon." But he fails to keep up this elevation of thoughts when he adds : " And put good works on board, and wait the wind That shortly blows us into worlds unknown." 176. Exercise 1. — Point out the metaphors contained in the extracts from Goldsmith's " Deserted Village " quoted under Object-Lessons (Nos. 7 and 8), also in Southey's "Cataract of Lodore" (No. 15); and examine with care whether any of the rules just given are violated in any of those metaphors. 76 Ornaments of Composition. 177. Note. — The rules for metaphors most frequently violated, and often the most difficult to apply, are the first and second — namely, those regarding the mixing of literal and figurative language, and the blending of inconsistent metaphors. The difficulty arises from the fact that it is often not clear whether the meaning given to a word should be considered as literal or figurative. All discourse abounds in words that are not taken in their original or primitive meaning. Even in common conversation we constantly borrow the names of sensible objects or qualities to denote what is insensible. Thus we speak of a' piercing judgment,' 'a clear head,' 'a soft or hard heart,' 'a rough or smooth behavior.' In these expressions the adjectives 'piercing,' 'clear,' 'soft,' 'hard,' 'rough,' and 'smooth' primarily belong to sensible qualities ; and the substantive ' head ' stands for mind, 'heart' for moral affections. Still, we do not call such ex- pressions tropes ; for by constant use these meanings have become the literal meanings of the words. It may be laid down as a rule that a given meaning may be considered as literal if it is much used by good writers without any regard to the original meaning of the same word ; for the practice of good writers is the rule of language. Still, the practice is not always easy to ascertain. There is a multitude of words that are in a state of transition between the figure and the letter. " Literal and figurative expressions," says J. Q. Adams in his lectures on Rhetoric (Lect. xxxii.), " are so blended together in the practice of speech that the boundaries be- tween them are imperceptible : like the colors of the rainbow, of which the dullest eye can perceive the varieties, while the keenest cannot catch the precise point at which every separate tint is parted from its neighboring hue. " In such cases, and in many analogous difficulties, it is the task of a delicate and correct taste to discrimi- nate. Though it is impossible to lay down an exact rule by which lite- ral can always be distinguished from figurative language, practi- cally it is not so difficult in most instances to determine whether a given sentence is faulty or not. Take this sentence : " In- this error we see a capital violation of the most obvious rules of policy and prudence." ' Error ' originally means a wandering — it regards the feet ; ' capital ' regards the head ; ' violation ' suggests violence ; ' obvious ' refers to a meeting of two persons ; ' rules ' are lines, etc. Here is a strange medley of images, if these words really sug. gested the things which they primarily signified ; but they do noti Tropes. 77 and this sentence of Junius is correct. But it is diilerent with the following sentence of Dr. Johnson ; " Barbarous or impure words and expressions may be branded with some note of infamy, as they are carefully to be eradicated, whenever they occur ; and they occur too frequently even in the best writers." To ' eradicate,' not only primarily in Latin, but also as used in its English form, means to pull up by the roots, and we- cannot think of any object that can be ' branded with infamy ' and is at the same time capable of being rooted up. 178. Exercise 2.— Let the pupil criticise the following figures : "The colonies were not yet ripe to bid adieu to British connec- tion." "E'en wit's a burden when it talks too long." " There is not a single vein of human nature that is not sufficient to extin- guish the seeds of pride." " Up to the stars the sprawling mastilfs fly, and add new monsters to the frighted sky." " No human hap. piness is so serene as not to contain some alloy." " Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the thickest gloom." "These are the first-fruits of my unfledged eloquence, of which thou hast often complained that it was buried in the shade." "The wheels of the spiritual ocean have been exerting themselves with perpetual motion." " Her cheeks were blooming with roses and health." " Come, sealing night, and scarf up the tender eye of piti- ful day.'' " He is fairly launched upon the road of preferment." " And there, with eyes that goad me yet, The ghost of my Ideal stands." Article II. Allegory. 179. An Allegory (aWtfyopia) is the treatment or de- scription of one thing under the image of another. It is, therefore, an extended metaphor. When Moore ad- dresses the poetry of Ireland as " Dear Harp of my country!" he uses a metaphor ; when he continues to de- scribe that poetry under the same image of a harp, he writes a beautiful allegory ; 78 Ornaments of Composition. ■_^ < " Dear Harp of my country ! in darkness I found thee, The cold chain of silence had hung o'er thee long, V When proudly, my own Island Harp, I unbound thee. And gave all thy chords to life, freedom, and song. The warm lay of love and the light note of gladness Have wakened thy fondest, thy liveliest thrill ; But so oft hast thou echoed the deep sigh of sadness That even in thy mirth it will steal from thee still " ; etc. See also Moore's "I saw from the Beach." 1 80. Literature abounds in such gems of thought. Par- nell's " Hermit " is an allegorical story in verse, elegantly illustrating the secret dispensations of Providence. The ode of Horace, " O Navis, referent" is a touching appeal addressed to Rome, which is represented under the image of a weather-beaten vessel in danger of perishing. The Parables of Holy Scripture are so many allegories ; for instance, that of the Prodigal Son, exhibiting the tender mercy of our Heavenly Father, that of the Good Samari- tan, the Barren Fig-tree, etc. Pope's " House of Fame " is an elaborate allegory of the descriptive kind. Dryden's " Hind and Panther " is one of the most remarkable al- legories in any language. The poet wrote it soon after his conversion to the Catholic Church. The " milk-white Hind " is the Church of Rome ; the " spotted Panther " is the Church of England ; while the Independents, Quakers, Calvinists, and other sects are represented by " bears," "hares," " wolves," and other animals. The opening lines are justly styled by Johnson "lofty, elegant, and musical" ; " A milk-white Hind, immortal and unchanged, Fed on the lawns, and in the forest ranged ; Without unspotted, innocent within, She feared no danger, for she knew no sin. Yet had she oft been chased with horns and hounds, And Scythian shafts, and many winged wounds. Aimed at her heart ; was often forced to fly. And doomed to death, though fated not to die." Tropes. 79 " The wit in the ' Hind and Panther,' " says Hallam, " is sharp, ready, and pleasant; the reasoning is sometimes admirably close and strong ; it is the energy of Bossuet in verse." — yenkins' Litera- ture. Allegories are subject to the laws laid down for meta- phors, especially to that of .consistency, which requires that all the portions of the picture obviously apply to one object in a literal and to the other in a figurative meaning. The French poet Lemierre has elegantly said, " L'AlUgorie habite un palais diaphane " — " In crystal palace Allegory dwells," to signify that through every part of the literal sense the figurative must be